THE travelers BREVIAT, OR An historical description of the most famous kingdoms in the World: Relating their situations, manners, customs, civil government, and other memorable matters. Translated into English.  
Imprinted at London by Edm. Bollifant, for john jaggard. 1601   

TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EDWARD EARL of Worcester, LORD of Chepstoll, Ragland and Gower, Knight of the most noble order of the Garter, and Master of the Horse to the Queen's most excellent Majesty.  
RIGHT HONOURABLE,  
Having with an unskilful hand taught this book to speak English, I thought that I should be like an evil player marring the last act of the tragedic, or a careless pilot drowning the ship in the haven, if I ventured it to the divers censures of men, before it were entrusted to the patronage of some such authority, as might restrain and bind the overflowings of other men's more hard opinion. For although the worthiness of the subject might work in me an overweening hope of his kind entertainment; yet I cannot satisfy myself, unless it pass under the tutele & protection of some one, whose favour may (like the vertical sun) abate all shadows, either of envy or disgrace, which are in this (still worse & worse) age of the world ready to discountenance the fruits of any man's labour. Wherefore considering with myself, where to bestow it, I was emboldened by the inducement of divers reasons to presume on your Lordship, ascertaining myself, that the honourable virtues, which have wound you into the liking of all men, have settled so good an impression, as is forcible enough to make that seem commendable, which is graced by your honours name only. And for this respect amongst infinite others here for special reasons silenced, in hope of favourable acceptance, I most humbly present it to your Honour, challenging to myself nothing but the imperfections in the harsh composure, and conveyance of the style, retaining yet (as I trust) the former strength and substance. If your L. vouchsafe to receive it, it may be that (although in the perusal it cannot inform your Honour any thing, which you were ignorant of) yet it may confirm that, which otherwise your Honour doubted; or make it clearer by delivering the circumstances in more particular terms. Only thus much (under leave of a better judgement) I dare say, that there is no book extant touching the same argument, which can equalize it, either for soundness in judicially censuring; truth in sincerely relating; or compendiousness in briefing such variety of matter to so small a volume. And here although I could according to the usual form of epistles endeavour a draft of your most honourable praises; yet knowing, that it is but tediousness, where virtue is loved for the only inner contentment, I put a period to these lines, and most humbly craving pardon take leave.  
Your honours devoted in all humble serviceableness, I. R.   

A general description of the World.  
AS touching the description, division and inhabitation of the parts of the earth most commonly described in universal maps, you shall understand that the ancient Cosmographers, not knowing then the West Indies, nor many other places situated both northward and southward, and since discovered, divided the whole earth into three parts, Europe, Asia and Africa, and the world into five zones, two cold, two temperate, and one extreme hot, affirming three of those zones to be unhabitable, the one for extremity of heat, the other two for extremity of cold: but because a new and whole world hath been found out since those times, our modern Cosmographers have added a fourth part called America; so called from Americus Vespuccius a Florentine, which did first discover it; which again is subdivided by our later travelers into three parts, viz. Mexicana, Peruana, and Magellanica, having found by good experience (as in this discourse shall be fully manifested) that these three parts are well inhabited and wonderfully replemshed with people of sundry languages. Of all these six parts because Europe is far less than all the rest, and yet exceedeth all others in nobleness, magnificence, multitude of people, in might, puissance and renown, we will first begin with the description thereof. It is bounded on the North with the north Ocean sea, on the South with the Mediterranean, on the East with the flood Tanais, & on the West with the West Ocean. In measuring with a right line from the furthest part of Ireland on the West unto the flood Tanais on the East, both places having 52. deg. of latitude, hath in longitude 2166. miles, and in measuring with a right line from the furthest part of Morea on the South, whose latitude is 35. degrees unto the North side having 72. degrees of latitude, hath in latitude 2220. miles. It containeth more than 28. Christian kingdoms, at this day as far excelling the residue of the provinces in religion, arts, valour and civility, as in elder age it did surpass them in power and reputation. The principal provinces are Spain, France, Germany, Italic, Slavonia, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Litnania, Moscovia, and that toward the North called Scandia, wherein are Denmark, Norwey, Swethland, and Gutland. The islands are Britain, containing the kingdoms of England and Scotland, and Ireland, in the North Ocean: in the Mediterranean are Sicill, Can●ie, Corsica, Sardima, Maiorica, Minorica, Nigropont, Malta, Corfu, Stalamine, Mitilin, Sciro, & many other in the Archipelago. The air is passing good, wholesome, temperate, and the soil exceeding fertile. Therein are many goodly cities, famous mart towns, and learned universities. The people have in all ages excelled all other nations ●n courage, arts, sharpness of wit, and all other gifts of nature. In times past it commanded Asia and Africa by the arms of the greeks and Romans, and at this day it is of great force by the power of the Turks and Moscovites, and by the navigations of the Spaniards and Portugals: so as it seemeth that nature hath created this people fit to rule and govern others, as men far surpassing all other nations in wisdom, courage and industry.  
Next unto Europe succeed Asia, renowned by writers for the second part of the world, in regard of the monarchies of the Persians, Medes, Assyrians and Babylonians: but indeed most celebrated in holy writ for our creation, fall, and redemption, as the region wherein in a manner all the histories and acts mentioned in the old testament, and a great part of those in the new, were wrought and accomplished. It is bounded on the North with the North Ocean, on the South with the red sea, with divers other gulfs and seas appearing in our modern maps: on the East with the East Indian Ocean, and the straight of Anian. On the West it hath the flood Tanais, and the fen Meotis, with divers other seas, as Bosphorus Cimnereus, Mare Euxinum, the Bosphorus Thracius, Propontis, part of the Mediterranean, and part of the red sea or gulf of Arabia, which divideth Africa from Arabia foelix. In measuring with a right line from the flood Tanais to the promontory Tamos, both places having 50. degrees of latitude, hath in longitude 4284. miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 150. degree of the Equinoctial unto the promontory Tabin, it hath in North latitude 76. degrees, which being multiplied by 60. maketh 4560. miles. The Ancients divided it into divers parts, but at this present it is best divided into five, according to the chief and principal empires therein: the first whereof confining with Europe is governed by the great Duke of Moscovie, the second belongeth to the great Cham, the third is commanded by the Turk, the fourth is the kingdom of Persia, the fifth comprehendeth that which hath always been called India and governed by divers princes for the most part vassals, feodaries or tributaries to other kingdoms. The principal islands are japan, Luconia, Mindanao, Burneo, Sumatra, Zeilan and Cypress: Gilolo, the Moluccae, Banda and Celebes belong to Magelanica.  
Africa is bounded on the North with the straight of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean sea, on the south with a sea which divideth Africa from the South land not yet fully known, and on the East with the red sea: on the West with the great Atlantike Ocean. In measuring with a right line from Gambra on the West unto the Cape Guardafu on the East, both places having ten degrees of north latitude or thereabout, hath in longitude 4155. miles: and in measuring with a right line from the 50. degree of the equinoctial unto the Mediterranean sea; it hath in North latitude 32. degrees, which being multiplied by 60. maketh 1920. miles. In South latitude measuring with a right line from the 50. degree of the equinoctial to the Cape of Good Hope, it hath 35. degrees, which being multiplied by 60. maketh 2100. miles. By the Ancients it hath been divided into many parts, but at this day into eight, Egypt, Barbary, Biledulgarid, Sarra, Aethiopia, Nubia, the large provinces of the Abassines and Monomotapa. Of whose riches, laws, customs, natures and forces you shall read hereafter in their several places. The chief islands are Socotora, Madagascar, S. Thomas, Capo Verd, and the Isles of Canary and Madera.  
Mexicana is on all sides environed with the sea, saving that nigh unto Nombre de Dios it is joined by a neck of land to Peruana. The chief provinces are Nova Hispania, Florida, Norumbega, Nova Francia, Estotiland, and many others. The chiefest Isles lying on the North and north-east part are Groinland, Crokland, Island, Freesland, Bacalaos and Cuba.  
Peruana is also environed on all sides with the sea, save whereas the foresaid Land-streight doth join the same to Mexicana. The chief provinces are Brasil, Tisnada, Caribana, Carthagena, Peru, Charchas, Chili, Chicam, and the land of the Patagones'. The most renowned Isles are Hispaniola, Boriquen and Margarita.  
This sixth part of the world as yet is but little known, notwithstanding it is thought to contain many large provinces, amongst the which Beach is supposed to be very rich and abounding in gold. The chief Isles are java maior and java minor, Timor, Banda, the Moluccos, Romeros and the Isles of Solomon. Thus much in general, now of the particulars.  

The kingdom of France.  
THE kingdom of France hath for his bounds the Alps, which divide it from Italy, the Rhodanus which separates it from Savoy; Sagona, which parts it from the Sebusiani, and Burgundians: and the river mosel, which divides it from Lorraine and the Duchy of Lucemburge. It hath on the East the river Aa; on the South, the Mediterranean sea, and the Pyrenean mountains; on the. West, the great Ocean; and on the North, the English Ocean. It containeth from Lorraine on the South side to Caleis on the North side, two hundred French leagues, and little less from East to West from the river Varo to Paurus. The nearer the North the narrower it is, & narrowest between Caleis and the British promontory. The figure thereof is between round and square, and therefore bigger than a man would take it. It containeth most large Provinces, as Picardy, Normandy, Britain, the Isle of France, champaign, Burgundy, Avernus, Dalphenye, Province, Bry, Blois, Turin, the Duchy of Anjou, Zantoin, Bordeaux, and many others. The beginning thereof standeth in forty two degrees, and in●oyeth such diversity of air, that, that part which lieth toward the Mediterranean sea (where stands Languedoc and Province) bringeth forth all sorts of fruits like Italy; that which is towards the English Ocean (where stands Britain, Normandy, and part of Pieardie) bringeth forth no wine; the residue of the kingdom aboundeth above belief with all kinds of fruits which Europe affordeth, except Olives, figs, and such like. The gentleness of the air, with the fertility of the ground, and the situation of the rivers is so propitious and natural for the increase of fruit, and every other living creature, that France above all the other Regions of Europe may best boast of these prerogatives. Between the mountains of Avernus, Dalphenie, and the Mediterranean sea, the air is so temperate by reason of the coldness of the hills (always almost covered with snow) and the gentle blasts coming from the sea, that a man being in this place, would think he were under the climate wherein Genua is seated. And again, the Pyrenean hills standing as a bulwark to break and beat back the fierceness of cold and tempests, give the like moderation to another quarter of the country. These mountains are full of baths and veins of warm water; and the northern winds, which according to most opinions make the air cold, are not here so cold as in other places. For winds participate of the nature of the place by which they pass: if by snowy mountains, then bring they with them the cold of those mountains; if by marshes, contagion; if by woods, they are broken; if by sandy plains, they are warm; if by lakes or seas, they are sharp and cold. Hence cometh it that the winds Panormi in Sicill are extreme hot; for before they pierce thither, they scour thorough the plains of Sicill, and taking heat from the sands, carry it into the city. The south wind is cold at Genua because it passeth the sea, and taketh coldness thereof without touching the land before it arrive. But the north wind which bloweth through France, cometh from the sea, and taking some measure of heat of the saltness thereof, and finding no mountains covered with ye or snow in his passage, augmenteth his heat by passing over the fields of Normandy, champaign, the I'll of France, and other provinces, even to the hills of Awergne: which being moderately heated by the south wind on the one side, and the north wind on the other, bringeth forth every where excellent pastures, and feedings for cattle and sheep, besides divers sorts of medicinable plants and most perfect simples. Amongst many branches of those mountains, there is one which is called the Golden-hill for the nobleness of the simples and abundance thereof. Of these experiments England may be a sufficient proof, which although it lie more northerly than France, yet because it hath few mountains, and is environed on every side with the sea, the air is very mild and temperate even there, yea much more temperate than France, which is farther distant from the Pole: as you may perceive by the vines which never ripen in England, and yet yield most perfect wines in France. Likewise it happeneth very often that the northern or western wind rising from the sea, bringeth springtide in the winter season, decking the fields with flowers, and the gardens with herbs, that the inhabitants of Turon, Poictou, and the Isle of France, enjoy as forward a summer, as those of Province or Lago di Garda.  
The whole land of France is fertile and fruitful, and every where plentiful of all good things. And as the Apennine spreading almost over the fourth part of Italy, for the most part is barren, & yieldeth small store of fruit; so on the contrary in the mountains of Awergne (being but few) stand many good towns and rich places where clothing is exercised, and from whence a good part of the kingdom is served with flesh, butter, and excellent cheese: the rest of the kingdom almost is plain, here and there garnished with fruitful hills and green valleys: in every place plenty doth (as it were) contend with variety, fertility with delicacy, commodiousness of situation with beauteous cities. Herein without all controversy Italy giveth place to France: for although some one corner thereof affordeth exquisite pleasure and delightful situation, as Riviera di Salo, Campania, the territory of Croton, Tarentum, and some other cities of Calabria: yet these are singular and few in Italy, common and frequent in France, especially in Burgundy, Brie, the Isle of France, Turon, Anjou, Zantoin, and Languedo●: in each of which provinces it should seem that nature herself hath divided, and as it were dedicated by allotment some places to Ceres, some to Bacchus, some to Pomona, and some to Pallas.  
But there is nothing in France more worthy the noting then the number and pleasure of the navigable rivers, whereof some (as it were) gird in the whole realm, as Sagona, Rhodanus, mosel. Some others cut through the middle, as Sequano, Loire, Garonne. Into these three rivers fall so many other rivers; some from the uttermost bounds; some from the inmost parts of the realm, that it maketh the whole country commodious for traffic and exchange of each others wants: insomuch that by this facility of carriage & intercourse of merchandise, all things may be said to be in common to the inhabitants of this kingdom. In Anjou only are forty rivers, great and small; whereupon Katherine de Medicis was wont to say, that this kingdom contained more rivers than all Europe beside. Truly this was a Hyperbolical speech, yet not much more than truth: for the goodness of the soil, and easy transporting of commodities, is the cause that there are so many cities and so many towns, and those most commonly seated upon the banks of the rivers. And although it have many goodly havens, yet the upland towns are fairer and richer, than those that stand nearer the sea: which argueth that their wealth is their own, and not brought from foreign countries: for there the sea towns excel the land towns, where more benefit and provision is reaped by the sea, then by the land, as Genua, Venice, Ragusi: but where the state and prosperity of cities dependeth wholly upon the land, there the uplandish towns far surpass the sea towns, as Milan, and many other in Flanders, Germany, and Hungary. All this notwithstanding although like goodness of soil be proper to the whole realm of France, as likewise the situation of the rivers commodious, yet, Paris except, whose largeness proceedeth from the king's court, the parliaments, and the university, the towns there for the most part are but small and mean, beautiful, commodious, and very populous. john Bodin writing a description thereof in the time of Henry the second saith, that there were seven and twenty thousand villages having parish Churches, not comprehending Burgundy among them. In another description written in the reign of Charles the ninth, it is said, that the number of the inhabitants exceeded fifteen millions.  
And as the cities and towns of France may boast of their rivers, so the Castles and villages of the noblemen, are no less favoured with the pleasure and strength of lakes and marshes, which although they may not be compared to the lakes of Italy and Switzerland, yet are they so many, and so full of excellent fish, that the numbers of the one may equalize the largeness of the others. The same may be spoken of woods, that they are not so spacious as plentiful: out of these woods in times past the greatest part of the king's revenues did arise, and the noblemen do make great profit by selling great quantities thereof for firewood, but greater, by sales of timber trees: for, for want of stone, the greatest part of their buildings consist of timber.  
In regard of the commodious situation of these rivers serving so fitly for the transportation of victuals from one place to another, this kingdom is so abundantly furnished with all plenty of provision, that it is able to nourish any army in the field how populous soever. When Charles the fifth entered France, first by Province, and afterward by champaign, it maintained more than one hundred & fifty thousand soldiers, besides garrisons. In the reign of Charles the ninth, and in our times also, there were maintained in this kingdom 20000. horse, 30000. footmen strangers, and of French 15000. horse, and 100 thousand footmen, neither did the kingdom for this feel want or scarcity.  
There are in France (as a man may term them) four loadstones to draw riches from foreign nations; corn carried into Spain and Portugal; wines transported into England, Flanders, and the inhabitants of the Baltic sea; and salt wherewith the whole kingdom & the bordering nations are plentifully stored. This salt is made in Province of the salt water of the Mediterranean sea, and at Bayon in Zantoine, where the heat of the sun ceaseth his virtue of getting, making and boiling salt (of sea water) not daining to yield so great a favour any farther northward. I said of sea water, because further north there may be salt found also, but is made either of some special spring water, as in Lorraine, or compound of some minerals mixed with fresh waters, as in Poland, England, and Germany, or else it is taken forth of some salt mines: and such in times past were in Sweveland; but they are now decayed. The fourth loadstone is canvas and linen cloth, whereof what profit ariseth, a man will hardly believe, unless he hath seen what abundance thereof is carried into Spain and Portugal, to make sails and cordage for the furnishing of shipping. There grows also Woad, Saffron, and other merchandise of smaller value, which though they equalize not the abovesaid commodities, yet rise they to a round sum, yea such as may enrich a kingdom. By reason of these never-dying riches, Lewes the eleventh was wont to say, that France was a continual flourishing meadow, which he did mow as often as he list: And Maximilian the Emperor termed the French king to be Pastorem ovium, cum velleribus aureis, which he sheared at his pleasure. It is undoubtedly true, that if the kings of France were as wise and politic, as they are powerful in arms and riches, the affairs of Europe would much stand at their devotion. But force and wisdom seldom keep company: therefore the Poets feigned Hercules furious: Ariosto feigned Orlando sottish: Virgil describeth Dares to be insolent: and the Grecians termed all those people Barbari which wanted arts and learning: Homer bringeth in Achilles as one unable to bridle his own fury: and Mars so unadvised, that he suffered himself unawares to be caught in Vulcan's net. For what state can be more dreadful, or what power can seem more terrible, than the majesty of that kingdom, which is able of itself to feed fifteen thousand millions of people, and yet hath sufficient remaining for the nourishing and maintenance of any puissant army beside? For the abundance of people and plenty of victuals are the strongest sinews of all kingdoms, and therefore the romans highly prized the rustic division for their numbers and provision.  
As touching their revenues, Lewes the eleventh gathered a million & an half: Francis the first attained unto three millions: Henry the second to six: Charles the ninth to seven: Henry the third above ten: Lewes the twelfth left his kingdom full of gold and silver, and therefore was called Pater populi: Francis the first, though he managed great wars, and made infinite expenses, left notwithstanding eight hundred thousand crowns in his treasury: but Henry the second his son, envying the greatness of Charles the Emperor, and coveting to surpass him, took up money of every one at 16. per centum, left his sons indebted 30. millions of crowns, and without credit amongst the merchants to the value of a farthing: insomuch that Charles the ninth and Henry the third his sons (the last more than the first) were enforced to lay heavy impositions, not only on the people, but also on the clergy. Whereby the world may see, that the riches of a prince consist not in the abundance of revenues, but in the good government thereof; for Francis the first made greater wars with less revenues, left his credit sound with the merchants, and ready money to his son; where on the contrary Hemy made far less war, and yet left the kingdom deeply indebted, and the people poor and miserable.  
With the foresaid revenues the former kings maintained 1500. lancers, & 4500. crossbows (in report 4000 lancers and 6000. crossbows continually paid:) which troops of horse were accounted the strongest in all Christendom. Every Lancier brought with him one crossbow and an half, so that one company of lancers had another of crossbows, serving both under one ensign, commonly called a Guidon, and one captain governed both companies, consisting in the whole of 100 lancers, and 150. crossbows.  
One million and three hundred thousand crowns were yearly spent upon these companies. A Lance received 250. crowns, a crossbow eighty, the Guidon 300. the Lieutenant 380. the Captain 820. Charles the seventh reduced these ordinances to perfection, made the number certain, appointed their wages, trained them in exercise, and placed them upon the frontiers under captains, lieutenants, ensigns and Guidons. He likewise divided these ordinances into men at arms and archers, adjoined to them Targatiers, Harbingers, Muster-masters, Paymasters, and Commisaries, committing them to the charge and government of the Constable, Martial, and greatest Lords of his kingdom: they did not much enure their natural subjects to serve on foot, for fear of mutinies and rebellions: but Charles the eight considering how necessary footmen were, instituted a squadron of five thousand French foot: that number Francis the first augmented to fifty thousand: howbeit at this day they are cashiered for their evil carriage and behaviour. Lewes the eleventh that at his pleasure he might shear or rather fleece the people of France, and make them unapt for service, waged the Swissers: which example Francis and Henry his successors following, continually hired great number of Germans. But whosoever he be, that goeth about to make his people unwarlike, and entertaineth foreign soldiers, greatly overshooteth himself. For by the exercise of arms and the occurrences of wars, courage is increased, and the commons by practice and experience will become hardy, and upon occasions of necessity able like soldiers to maintain their actions: for as conversing with good men makes men good; so the company of soldiers makes others courageous. Besides, many occurrences may happen, which may not be committed to the experience of strangers, because they know not the situation of places, neither may many matters, for the weight of the business, be trusted to their fidelity. Wherefore it is very expedient, that that people be entertained under military discipline, in whose provinces war is like to continue, either by reason of situation, or other casual accidents: as it happened to France, where after peace was concluded with the Spaniard, and the Swiffers & Almains departed to their own homes, yet by remaining full of French soldiers all things were turned upside down.  
As concerning munitions, there is no kingdom wherein is greater plenty than there; whereof are many: one, for that whereas the kingdom is divided into many regalities and principalities, as Burgundy, Britain, Anjou and Normandy; every one of these strengtheneth his frontiers: beside, the plenty of their munitions hath been increased by the war of the English, which commanded a great part of France. Secondly, the situation and nature of the places fit for fortifications, as also the willingness and readiness of the people, hath even with ease overcome the labour of these affairs. For there is no nation more industrious in fortifying, and more prodigal in expense upon these works: neither are the bowels of the kingdom less fortified than the frontiers, Beavois, Trois, Orleans; Angiers, Bourdeaux, Lymosin, San Florum, Carcassona, Soissons, are not inferior to Calais, Perone, Narbone, or other the frontiers, in strength and fortification; so that every part thereof may stand in steed of a frontier to any border of the whole kingdom.   

The kingdom of England.  
AMongst all the islands of Europe, England (which the ancient called Britannia) without all controversy for circuit and power challengeth the chiefest prerogative. It containeth in circuit 1800. miles, divided into two kingdoms, England and Scotland. The natural strength of Scotland (being barren, full of mountains, lakes, and woods) is the chiefest cause of this division; in so much that the armies of the romans could never bring it wholly in subjection; the Emperor Severus lost there a great part of his army. The kings of England, though they far excel them in strength, and have overthrown them in many battles, could never bring them under their jurisdiction. The lakes, the woods, and the marrishes (which even in plains make great pools) being unto them a natural wall & trench against all incursions. On the tops of mountains are many fruitful plains, plentiful and fit for the feeding of ●at●le, and thick woods full of wild beasts: These rocky and mountainous places abounding notwithstanding with woods and pastures, do so strengthen the country, that they neither fear to be forced by invasion, nor to be constrained with hunger: for the dangerous access of the mountains, and the thickness of the woods, secureth them against the assaults of their enemies; and in beseegings they do sustain themselves by cattle and wild beasts, which can never fail them. To this helpeth the abundance of people, fierce of courage, & excellent in the use of their arms: for necessity's sake being able speedily to assemble 25. or 30. thousand men against the inroads of their enemies; and trusting to the strength of situations of places and practice of their arms, they endeavour not to fortify their ci●●e●, nor havens, which are so thick in this country, that by reason of the inlets of the sea, there is not almost one house distant above twenty miles from the Ocean. The king of Scotland governeth the Hebrides, being forty two, and the Orchades thirty two in number. But since, neither Scotland nor the said islands, are better stored with plenty of corn, more than sufficeth for their own provision, and the people are neither given to arts, or abounding in wealth, few merchants do resort thither. But England, whereof we now treat, is divided into three great provinces: England, Cornwall, and Wales. England stretcheth to the German sea▪ Cornwall is right against France: Wales against Ireland. This most flourishing kingdom containeth two Archbishoprics, Canterbury and Yo●ke, 24. bishoprics, & 136. walled towns. In the reign of king Henry and his son Edward, there were reckoned forty thousand parishes, but now there are only 9725. Cornwall & Wales in comparison of England are barren, & in the upland places the people live upon white meats and oaten bread; especially in Wales: yet hath nature placed an Island commonly called Anglesey so near unto it, abounding with corn and cattle, that it niay worthily be called the mother of Wales. Cornwall is exceeding rich in mines of Tin and Lead. England far surpasseth both these provinces in largeness, riches, and fertility: and though it stand somewhat more northerly, notwithstanding by the benefit of the sea, or some unknown influence of the stars, the air there is so gentle and temperate, rather thick and moist, then sharp and cold, that it token thereof, the bay tree and the rosemary are always green. And it is most certain, that Flanders and Brabant are more vexed with cold and ice then England: wherein for the most part the land is plain; yet now and then so garnished with fruitful and delightful hills, and those rising so pleasantly by little and little, that they which see them a far off, can scant discern them fro●● the plain. The chiefest provision of the kingdom is corn, cattle and fish, so stored therewith for plenty, goodness, and sweetness, that it needeth neither the help of France, no nor of any neighbour bordering country. Among other things the flesh especially of their swine, oxen, and veals have the best relish of any part of Christendom, and of fish their Pike and Oysters. It bringeth not forth Mules nor Asses, but of horse infinite store. The wealth thereof consisteth in never decaying mines of tin and lead: there are also found veins of copper and iron, and in Cornwall is digged tin of such excellent fineness, that it seemeth little inferior to silver in quality. here the wools are most fine, by reason of the hills, whereof the kingdom is full. On these hills groweth a final and tender kind of grass, neither dunged, nor watered with spring nor river, but in winter nourished with the moisture of the air, and in summer with the dew of heaven, which is so grateful and pleasing to the sheep, that it causeth them to bear fleeces of singular goodness and exceeding fineness. The Island breedeth no wolves nor any other ravening beasts, and therefore their flocks wander night and day by hills, dales, and fields, as well enclosed as common, without fear or danger. Most delicate clothes are wouch of this wool, which are transported in great abundance into Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweuqland, and other provinces, where they are in high request. There grow all sorts of pulse, great store of Saffron, and infinite quantity of beer transported from thence into Belgia, as also pelts and sea-coal. The Island is so commodiously seated for the sea, that it is never without resort of Portugal, Spanish, French, Flemish, and Easterling merchants. The traffic between the English and the Flemish ariseth to an inestimable value for Gui●ciardin writeth, that before the tumults of the Low-countries they bartered for twelve millions of crowns yearly.  
There are other islands subject to the crown of England, as Ireland, Wight, Man and Anglesey, the ancient dwelling of the Druids, Syllyes, Gernsey, jersey and Alderney.  
Ireland is not much less than England in bigness, for it is three hundred miles long, and ninety broad, mountainous, woody, full of bogs, apt for pasture then corn, and abounding with milk and butter. It sendeth forth great store of butter, skins and saffron. It is full of rivers and lakes abounding with fish. It hath two Archbishoprickes, Armach and Cassels: the chief seat is Dublin, and that part which lieth towards the East and the south is best peopled. The provinces of Ulster, Conaught and Monster situated to the west and north, are less fruitful, and more savage. The other three islands are about one bigness: of them Anglesey is the ●●st, and therefore called the mother of Wales: it is well replenished with cattle and plenty of corn. Man is five and twenty miles distant from England: it hath one Bishopric and two havens: the land is not very fertile.  
Wight is a hilly country: in it is Newport a town strongly fortified: it encloseth the whole channel of Southampton, which is over against it, and the fairest haven in that sea.  
In strength of situation no kingdom excelleth England: for it hath these two properties, which Aristotle wisheth in the building of a city: one is, that it be difficult to besiege: the other, that it be easy to convey in and out all things necessary: these two commodities hath England by the s●●, which to the inhabitants is as a deep trench against hostile invasions, and an easy passage to take in or send out all commodities whatsoever. On the west is the Irish Ocean, a sea so shallow and so full of rocks & flats, that it is very dangerous for great ships, and on the south the flowing and ebbing of the British Ocean is so violent, and the removing of sands and shelves so uncertain, that unless the mariners be skilful in taking the opportunities of wind and ●ydes, they can hardly bring in their ships in safety. The sea coast is on every side cliffy and inaccessible, except in some certain places which are strongly fortified, as Berwick, Dover, Dertmouth, Plymmouth, Falmouth, Bristol, Milford, etc. so that the whole Island may be taken for one impregnable castle or Bulwark.  
To this strength of situation may be joined their sea and land forces. As touching their sea-forces (besides the Navy Royal) the kingdom hath so many fair havens, and those so frequented with merchants, that two thousand ships are reported to traffic there. Be this as it may, it is undoubtedly true, that upon necessity they are able to put to sea above four hundred ships. Edward the third at the siege of Caleis, and Henry the eight at the siege of Bullen, wasted over with a thousand fail of all sorts: and therefore to invade that Island, whose havens are hard to approach, and worse to enter, by reason of the fortifications, and which have so many ships at command, I account a most difficult and dangerous enterprise. And to this dangerous difficulty may be added another, which is, that the English people are marvelous expert in maritime actions, than whom at sea there is not a valianter and bolder nation under heaven. For in most swift ships, excellent well furnished with ordinance (wherewith the kingdom aboundeth) they go to sea with as good courage in winter as in summer, all is one with them. They trade into Moscovie, Cathay, Alexandria of Egypt, Constantinople, Livonia, Barbary and Guinea. Anno 1585. with a fleet of five and twenty ships, whererein were 2500. soldiers, they sailed into the west Indies, and took Saint jago, Saint Domingo in Hispaniola and Cartagena on the continent, Saint Augustine's a city built of timber, and by them destroyed with fire. In the time of war they continually ve●e the Terceraz and the coast of Brasill. Two of their Captains have sailed round about the world, with no less courage than glory and good fortune. Their force at land is nothing inferior to that at sea; for the kingdom is divided into two and fifty shires, in one only whereof (commonly called Yorkshire) it is thought seventy thousand footmen may be levied. Every shire hath a lieutenant, who seeth to the election and training of soldiers when necessity requireth. In choosing of soldiers, they take the names of all the inhabitants of the country from above sixteen years of age to sixty, and out of these they choose the likeliest and ablest for service. The taller and stronger are chosen for footmen, and these divided into four kinds. The first are archers, by whose dexterity they conquered the greatest part of France, took king john captive, and held Paris sixteen years. The arrows of the Parthians were never more dreadful to the romans, than the bows of the English to the Frenchmen. The second sort used light staves well headed with iron, with which they would strike a man from his horse. The other two, use and experience of latter times hath taught them: the one is the harquebus, the other the pike, a fit weapon for their constitution, by reason of their tall, strong and manlike stature. For their service on horseback, they choose the men of small stature, but well set, active and nimble. These horsemen are of two sorts; some heavy armed, and those for the most part are gentlemen; other lighter armed, some riding after the manner of the Albannesses; some after the fashion of Italy, using a skull, a jack, a sword and long light spears. And although they are able to bring to the field two thousand lancers, and infinite troops of light horsemen; yet their horsemen never carried like reputation to their footmen: for Edward the third which made so many iorneys into France, and obtained so many famous victories, to show what confidence he reposed in his infantry, ever left his horse and put himself into the battle of his footmen: whereas the French kings not daring to enure their commons to warfare (lest leaving their manuel occupations and trades, they should grow insolent in the wars, to which humour they are greatly addicted) always put themselves and their hopes in the fortune of their cavalry, being all almost gentlemen. But for as much, as the French maintain no good races of horse, and to purchase them from other places is a matter of great charge, and good cannot always be gotten for money; for these reasons, and for that horsemen are nothing so serviceable in the field as footmen, I think the French have so often been overthrown by the English. To show what force the King of England is able to bring into the field, let this one example stand for many. Henry the eight passed to Bullen with an army divided into three battalions: in the vanguard passed twelve thousand footmen, and five hundred light horsemen, clothed in blue jackets with red guards. The middle ward (wherein the King was, and passed last over) consisted of twenty thousand footmen, & two thousand horse, clothed with red jackets and yellow guards. In the rearward was the Duke of Norfolk, and with him an army like in number and apparel to the first, saving that therein served one thousand Irishmen, all naked save their mantles and their thick gathered shirts: their arms were three darts, a sword and a skein. They drew after them one hundred great pieces, besides small. They carried upon carts an hundred mills, which one horse would turn and grind. Their carriages were so many, that therewith they entrenched their camp, as with a wall. And for the carriage of their ordinance and their baggage, and for drawing of their provision, they transported into the continent above five and twenty thousand horse: and besides all other kind of provision, they brought with them fifteen thousand oxen, and an infinite number of other cattle. The quantities of ladders, bridges, shot, powder, and other furnitures following so royal an army, what pen can number?  
In England the nobility possess few castles or strong places environed with walls and ditches, neither have they jurisdiction over the people. The dignities of Dukedoms, Marquesses, and Earldoms are no more but bare titles, which the king bestoweth on whom he pleaseth, and peradventure they possess never a penny of revenue in the place from whence they take their titles: where on the contrary the nobility in France possess some absolute, some mixed government with the hereditary titles of Lords, Barons, Earls, Marquesses, Dukes and Princes. They are Lords not of towns only, but of great and goodly cities; receiving homage and fealty of their tenants: but acknowledge the sovereignty of the king & the parliaments.   

netherlands.  
OF all the three parts of Gaul, Belgia, which we commonly call netherlands, is the noblest by the authority of Caesar, Strabo and other approved authors, not only for the nobility and excellency of the people of the country, but likewise for the greatness and worthiness of those things that have been invented there, and the accidents that there have happened. They invented the art of printing, restored music, framed the chariot, devised the laying of colours in oil, the working of colours in glass, the making of tapestry, says, searges, wosteds, russets, frisadoes, and divers sorts of linen cloth, with innumerable other small trifles: all sorts of clocks and dials, and the mariners compass. It is divided into 17. provinces, viz. the Dukedoms of Brabant, Limburg, Lutzemburg and gelders: the Earldoms of Flanders, Artois, Henault, Holland, Zealand, Namure and Zutphen, the Marquisat of the sacred Empire, the signiories of Friesland, Mechlin, Vtrecht, Ouerissel and Groningen, all territories rich, plentiful and exceeding populous. In them are 208. walled towns, stately and magnificent, besides 3230 towns having privilege of walled towns, and 6300. villages with parish churches. It hath many mines of lead, copresse, and coal, and quarries of excellent good stone. The Emperor Charles had an intention to erect it into a kingdom, but the difficulty consisted herein, that every of these provinces being governed by peculiar customs, prerogatives and privileges, would never have yielded unto one royal law common to all, especially those that had the largest privileges; for which cause he gave over his determination. It is seated commodiously for all the provinces of Europe, and containeth in circuit about 1000 Italian miles: The air of later times is become much more wholesome and tempelate then in times past, whether it be by reason of the increase of inhabitants, or the industry of the people, who spare no charge to amend whatsoever is amiss. The beeves of Holland & Friesland are very great, & weigh some of them 1600 pound, of 16 ounces to the pound: the ewes in these provinces and some part of Flanders bring forth three and four lambs at a time, and the kine often two calves at once. It bringeth forth great quantity of mather, very perfect woad, but no great store; but of flax and hemp great abundance. Whosoever shall consider what commodity they raise by their fishing and traffic only, may well say, that no nation through the whole world may compare with them for riches. For Guieciardine writeth, that of their he ring fishing they make yearly 441000 pound sterling; their fishing for cod 150000. pound sterling; and of their fishing for salmon more than 200000 crowns, which is of sterling money 60000. pound. The continual riches that groweth to the country of other sorts of fish taken all the year is infinite. The value of the principal merchandise yearly brought in and carried out is likewise infinite; the foresaid author esteemeth it to about 14. millions, one hundred and thirty five thousand crowns: whereof England only bringeth to the value of five millions, and two hundred and fifty thousand crowns. It is a wonder to see, how that the inhabitants of all these provinces (especially of Brabant and Flanders) understand & speak two or three languages, and some four or more, according to their intercourse with merchants and strangers, yea in Antwerp you shall hear the women speak Dutch, French, Italian, Spanish and English.   

The kingdom of Spain.  
SInce the first time that man began to acknowledge a superior authority, and submit himself to the behests of a ruler, there was never a more spacious signiory, then that which the Spanish enjoyeth at this day: especially having under a colourable and defensible title embezeled the crown of Portugal. For 〈◊〉 the large and fair provinces in Europe, the goodly regions of Asia, and rich countries in Africa, he enjoyeth in peaceable quietness & security, being not disturbed or contested by any rival or competitor, the new world, in circuit more spacious than either Europe or Africa.  
In Europe he is the sole sovereign of Spain, holding it whole and entire, a thing worthy observation; because for the space of these 800. years before this age, it never obeyed any one prince, but was dismembered, and piece-meal claimed by divers signors: He hath very much shaked Belgia, and lordeth it over the kingdom of Naples, containing in bigness 1400. miles: and retaineth Insubria otherwise called the Duchy of Milan, comprehending three hundred in circuit. Of the islands he holdeth Maiorique, Minorique, and Huisa: the first of three hundred miles space; the second of 150. the third of eight. Sicill is reported to be of 700. Sardinia 562.  
In Africa he holdeth the great haven called Masalquivir, the most secure and safe harbour in the whole Mediterranean sea. He hath also Oran, Melilla, and the rock commonly called the Penion of Velez: and without the straits he possesseth the Canary islands, twelve in number, and the least of seven containing 90. miles.  
In the right which he pretendeth to the crown of Portugal, he keepeth the worthy places of Septa and Tangier, which may rightly be surnamed the keys of the straits; yea of the Mediterranean, and Atlantic Ocean: without the straits he holdeth the city of Mazaga: and by the same title in the vast Ocean, he retaineth the Terceraz, Porto Santo, and Madera, the ladylike Island of the Atlantic sea, containing by estimation 160● miles in compass: then the islands of Cape Verd, seven in number. Under the equinoctial he holdeth the Island of Saint Thomas, somewhat more spacious than Madera, but most plentiful in sugar, and rangeth over that huge tract of land, which tendeth from Cape Aguer to Cape Guardafu. Lastly he is lord of all the traffic, merchandise, negociating, and navigation of the whole Ocean, and of all the islands which nature hath as it were enameled the Ocean withal, and scattered in the seas, especially between the Cape of good Hope and promontories of Guardafu.  
In Asia in the aforesaid right of the crown of Portugal, he ruleth the better part of the western coasts, viz. Ormus, Diu, Goa, and Malaca. Ornius for his commodious satuation, is grown so rich, that it is a common proverb among the Arabians; 
Simo terrarum orbis, quaqua patet, annulus ●sset,  
I●●ius Armusium ge●●●ia decusque foret.   
A great portion of Arabia Foelix belongeth to the principality of Ormus, as likewise Baharem, the Iland-queene within that gulf; both for the most plentiful circuit, abounding in all variety of fruits; as also for the rich fishing of pearl.  
In this sea the Portugals possess Damain, Bazam, Tavaan, and Goa; which city (to omit Ohial, Canora, Cochin, and Colan) is of so great esteem, that it is thought to yield the king as great revenue, as many provinces in Europe do their Lords: and finally the Portugal's hold all that sea coast which lieth between the city Damain, and Malepura: wherein no prince (except the king of Calecure) challengeth one foot of land. The Island of Zeilan, wherein they possess a strong haven and castle, commonly called Columbo, may rightly be called the delight of Nature; and they enjoy also Malaca, which in those places is the bound and limit of their empire, and also the key of the traffic, and navigation of the east Ocean, and of all those islands, which are so many and so spacious, that in circuit of land they may be well compared to all Europe.  
For trade with the Chinois, and islands of Tidore, and for their safe merchandizing with Molucca and Banda, they are so secure of their welfare, that they count it an unnecessary charge to erect any castles or fortifications of defence, but only inhabit dispersed in weak cottages.  
Certainly it would amaze and bewoonder a man to think, how many puissant kings and fierce nations are bridled and yoked by the arms of twelve thousand Portuguezes; (for in so huge atract of land and sea, there are, nor ever were a greater number inhabiting) and not only to have discovered and conquered the Atlantic, Indian, and east sea, but also to defend it against all foreign invasions or inroads upon their confines; for it is 90 years since they fortified those places with an overlasting memorial of their valiancy. Neither can any man to eclipse or detract from their just commendation, object unto them the facility of subduing a naked and unarmed people, altogether raw and unexperimented in the feats of arms; if he will recall to his remembrance, how by the virtue of their arms they took the kingdom of Ormus from the vassal and confederate of the king of Persia, as also that they drowned and defeated at Diu the navy of the Sultan of Egypt, fully furnished with Mammelukes, a kind of soldier no less famous for their arms and discipline, than the Praetorian Turkish soldiers, called janissaries: as also that they made good the said place against the leaguer of the Turks and Guzarits: and in the red sea they have often forced the Turkish galleys to retire, with a most dishonourable foil. In the year 1552. they defeated his whole fleet at Ormus: In Trapoban they affronted and contested with the kings of Decan, Cambaia, Calecute, and Achem; princes both favoured, and also aided with the forces of the Turkish Emperor: yea such have been their expeditions in Cambaia, India, the whole Ocean, and along the coasts of Asia, that in desert of glory and admiration, they are to be censured nothing inferior to the victorious praises of Alexander the great; yea so much the rather to be preferred, because neither in circuit of territory, nor numbers of people they were ever comparable to the Macedonians; for with nineteen ships they overthrew the Egyptian navy, far greater in number and furniture: with two thousand soldiers they forced Goa, and recovered it being lost with 1500. with 800. they won Malaca, and not with many more Ormus.  
Another member of the Spanish dominions lieth in the new World, wherein because be hath no corrival able to make head against him; he challengeth as his own, whatsoever either by discovery or conquest he attaineth unto. This new World's dominions is divided into the continent and islands.  
In the north sea are so many islands, most of them of forty miles' compass, that their number can hardly be ascertained or known; some of them so rich and spacious, that they might suffice to erect a magnificent and stately sovereignty. Of these Boriq●en is 300 ●iles long, and threescore broad: Cuba is 300 miles long, and twenty leagues broad: Hispaniola is 1600 miles in compass. As for the continent he is absolute lord of all that sea coast which watereth Florida, Nova Hispania, jucatan, and that spacious south early, promontory to the cape of California and Quivira. For even so far the discoveries and navigations of the Spaniard have proceeded.  
The coast of Nova Hispania counting his beginning at the town of Santa Helena, and cutting by Panama to Quivira, containeth about 5000. and 200 miles in length, to which if you please to add the upland regions coasting towards the north, you shall find no less than 9000. miles.  
Peru beginning at Panama, containeth by the maritimate coast 12000. and 600. miles, of which three thousand lying between the river Maragon, and Argenteum, and including Brasile, do acknowledge the supremacy of Portugal.  
In the continent are many kingdoms and signiories, amongst which these of Mexico and Peru (once most powerful and wealthy dominions) were counted chief, and as it were the two imperial seats. The kings of Mexico did not claim by inheritance from their ancestors, but were chosen by six electors; Him whom they judged young, valiant, and wise, of an able body, and fit for the war, they crowned: and one of their kings, because he proved a coward, slothful, and irresolute, they poisoned. There was a Senate of Sages continually resident about his person, which consisted of four degrees of Nobility and Magistracies; without whose authority and consent, no matters of consequence or weight could be determined or put in action. They regarded nothing so severely, as the good education of their youth, their ceremonious superstitions, & their orders of soldiarie. Amongst them there was a most worthy chieftain called Tlacaellell, so expert in military prowess, that he subdued the greatest part of the Mexican signiory: and of so great and admired spirit, that he obstinately refused and forsook the kingdom being offered him; saying, that it was available and commodious for the commonweal, that another should wear the crown, and he attend upon him as a minister and counsellor; and that his shoulders were too weak to sustain so weighty a burden: adding moreover, that he would no less endeavour with a careful and wary foresightfulnesse the safety of the commonweal, then if he himself were invested in the sovereignty.  
These kings lived in great majesty, inhabited sumptuous palaces, and maintained a mighty troop of their vassals for the guard of their persons.  
On one quarter they enlarged their bounds; and planted their religion and language to the skirts of Teguante-Pecum, two hundred leagues remote from Mexico: and on another quarter as far as Guatimall 300. leagues distant. In these places they made the north and south seas their bounds; but Mecoican, Tascalan, and Terpeacan, they could never bring under their yoke. Their differences and troubles with the city of Tascala, encouraged the Spaniards to invade their dominions: and being entered, made their victories easy without any difficult resisting or hindrance from the pursuit of their conquest, which happened in the year of our Lord 1518. The Mexicans (divided into seven tribes) came into those regions, from that part of the north; where of late years the Spaniards discovered a most wealthy and populous province, which at this day they call new Mexico.  
The most respected honour which doth ennoble their men, is purchased by alacrity & courageous forwardness to arms. Matezuma their last king instituted certain orders of horsemen, surnaming them Lions, Eagles, and Leopards. These he privileged to wear gold and silver, and a silken cassock after the Arabian fashion; to go shod, and occupy gilded and painted vessel; which things were prohibited to the vulgar, and forbidden all such, who had not inwoorthied himself by some noble service.  
The Empire of Peru, whose king was surnamed Inga, is found to be larger and more magnificent: when it was in the prime and highest, it reached from Pasto to Chile 1000 leagues in length, and 100 in breadth, even from the south Ocean to Andi in the east. The merciless fury of the waters in some places standing, and moorish, in other running, have gainsaid and put a period to their further progresses; when without any colourable or just cause they invade their confining neighbours. They most ridiculously pretend, that in the universal deluge, mankind was preserved in their country, and so by tradition have been nuzzeled in the true & ancient religion, which (as they say) they are bound in conscience to sow and disperse in the minds of all men, either by fair means or foul. Their chief gods are Viracoca, that is to say, the Creator of all things, and the Sun. Inga Pacacuti, who instructed them in their superstitions, when he had beautified the temples with offerings and sacrifice, assigned none to the temple of Viracoca, alleging that forasmuch as he is the maker of all things, he needeth not any thing. Amongst other memorable ordinances by him instituted in the winning of countries; one was, that the conquered land should be divided into three parts: the first dedicated to the gods, and maintenance of the charge of their ceremonies: the second and greatest portion was given to Inga, therewith to maintain his estate, the expenses of his court, parents, barons, and garrisons: the third was distributed amongst the soldiers: no man could claim property in any thing, to say this is mine; but by the favour and sufferance of Inga; neither might that descend by inheritance. The lands belonging to the people and commonalty were yearly limited, and so much allotted to every man as might be thought sufficient for the sustentation of his family; some years more, some less, without exaction of any rent: in lieu whereof, they conditioned to manure the lands of Inga, and the gods: the increase they stored in most ample garners thereunto appointed, from whence in time of scarcity it was shared amongst the people; the like they did with their cattle, dividing them by head: which point of government in mine opinion far exceedeth either the partitions of Lyeurgus, or the Agragrian laws of the romans.  
Besides merchandise, incredible treasures of gold and silver are transported out of Nova Hispania and Peru: of those treasures commonly Peru yieldeth two parts, and Nova Hispania the third; which is more rich in commodities than Mexico. Amongst the rest it giveth Cochinella, a merchandise of inestimable value; and infinite store of Hides. The islands afford plenty of hides, cotton, wool, sugar, cannafistula, hard wax and pearls.  
Amongst these riches and treasures of Peru two things are wonderful; one, that in the silver mines which were discovered in Potosie, in the year 1545. there is, and hath been found so huge a mass of Bullion, that the fifth part (which is the kings) in the space of forty years amounted to one hundred and eleven millions of Pezoes': neither yet did two third parts pay their due to his majesty. The other is the quicksilver mines in Guancavalcan, found in the year 1567. out of which the king hath received 40000. Pezoes', all charges defrayed.  
It is a strange thing to note, that whereas mother Nature hath interlaced so riotously her golden and silver veins in the bosom and womb of Peru, it hath bestowed no such blessing upon her nearest daughter Brasile; but in stead thereof hath enriched her with a most temperate and wholesome air, with many pleasant springs and large rivers, not without sufficiency of wood: she hath divided the land into fruitful plains and delightsome hills, clothed it with the beauty of continual greenness, abounding about belief with sugarcanes, which the Portugals there planted, and now transport in infinite numbers into foreign regions.  
The Philippinae may well be termed the appendances to this new world; and although in respect of their site by reason of their proximity, they may be thought a part of Asia; yet the discoverers thereof traveled through new Spain, before they could discover them; of which islands more than 40. are subject to this sovereignty, and by them have been reduced to a civil kind of life and policy.  
Now having generally run over the spations (I will not say boundless) members of this empire, let us divide the discourse thereof (as much as concerns the strength and policy) into four particulars: the first whereof shall entreat of his pieces in Europe; the second of his dominions in the new world; the third of his territories of the west and south coast of Africa; the fourth of his principalities in India and Asia.  
The provinces which he hath in Europe are of the most puissant & powerful sort, that are comprehended in this limitation. Spain itself hath been alway acknowledged for so wealthy, so puissant, and so spacious a kingdom: that not without good cause it may challenge the primacy of all the provinces, and of the continent, if not in any consideration else, yet in regard that the romans & Carthaginians continued so long and so cruel wars for the possession and royalty thereof. The Goths and Vandals when they had with the streams of their overflowing multitudes swarmed over the greatest part of the Roman empire, here sat them down, and made it the place of their inhabitation.  
Trebellius Pollio termeth it and France the joints and sinews of the Roman empire. Constantine, when he divided the empire, preferred it before Italy: And in the division when England, France, Spain and Italy fell to his lot, he little esteeming the last, and voluntarily leaving it to his competitor, contented himself with the three foremost. Who knoweth not that the kingdom of Naples is the flower of the Italian provinces? Who seeth not, that nature hath confined and heaped into this territory, as if it were into her closet, all those delightful happinesses, which with her own hands she hath here and there scattered and dispersed through the other of the European provinces? What can we say otherwise of the Duchy of Milan? And for Sicil, it may be compared to any, yea it surpasseth all the islands of the Mediterranean for fertileness, for the concourse of merchants, for artisans, singular for populous towns and for stately edifices.  
The government of Spain is absolute and kingly,: in their regiment we may see that they have attained to such perfection of advisedness, that all things are purposely discussed and questioned in several counsels, before they are put in execution. Where the grave and considerate counsels of Fabius are received, when the rash and heady precepts of Marcellus are rejected. Innovations and change of ancient customs are avoided, in regard whereof, Innocent the eight was wont to say, that the Spaniard was so complete in government, that in this respect he never erred or miscarried, and by this policy he governeth nations different in natures, and dissonant in laws and fashions, Castilians, Arragon's, Biskaines, Portuguezes, Italians, Dutchmen, Indians, Christians and Gentiles with such peaceable union, as if they were his own natural subjects.  
And whereas some object, that this empire cannot long remain in this flourishing estate, because it is disjointed and dismembered. To such men this may be answered: that spacious dominions are easily secured from any invasive attempts; but not so safely preserved from intestine and homebred dissensions, as the kingdoms of smaller compass are.  
But in a state thus divided, there is an union both of ampleness, and a measurable mediocrity; the first is apparent in the whole body compounded of several members; the second in the greatest parcel of the members. For seeing that the portions thereof, as Spain, Peru, Mexico are so great and goodly states of themselves, they cannot be but stored with all those good things which are necessary either in greatness or mediocrity, viz. both with a puissant powerablenes to frustrate foreign attempts, and sufficient inward forces to provide against all domestical discontentments. And it is as clear as day, that by means of sea-forces all these members may strengthen one another, and stand as it were united, even as Caesar Augustus, by maintaining one fleet at Ravenna, and another at Messana, awed the whole Roman empire, and kept it in assured concord: and also we have seen the Portugals, by reason of their sea-forces, which they maintained in Persia, Cambaia, Decan, and other parts of the Indies, not only to have given the law to those famous princes, but maugre the force of their enemies to keep it, and peaceably enjoy it.  
Some wise and experienced commanders in discoursing this point, oppose the jealousy and emulation of the Turk, and affirm, that, if the king should employ those treasures, which now he spendeth, in the erecting of fortresses upon the increase of his navy; (an expense sufficient for the furnishing of 150. galleys) it would be an occasion, that the Turk, whose navy now exceedeth not the number of 130. galleys, would augment it to the number of 200. to the intent, that he may be superior and master of the sea: and that so the king would be enforced to undergo an excessive charge, without gaining any reputation thereby. But this their subtlety is mere booke-wisedome: and it is very agreeable with reason, that there is nothing so dangerous in action, and so ready to embark a man in an irrecoverabe disadvantage, as an overweening conceit, which commonly draweth with it an headdie wilfulness flexible to nothing. But they ought to consider, not what the Turk will do, but whether it be in his power to surmount such a navy: And although the Turk be Lord of a larger sea coast then the king, yet he cannot compare, either in furniture or mariners. Along all the coast of Africa he hath not an harbour, where he can build, or keep a couple of galleys, except Algiers and Tripoli. In the Euxine sea what place of name is there besides Capha and Trapezond? What better report can we give of the coast of Asia?  
More implements than a spacious sea-coast are incident to this business: he must have plenty of timber and cordage; he must be furnished with a people practised in sea affairs, able to endure the labour and working of the waters; delighting in traffic and navigation; cheerful in tempests & rough weather, which dare dwell as it were amongst perils, and expose their lives to a thousand dangers: as for the Turkish subjects the better part never saw sea, and those that have used it, are not to be compared to the Biskains, Catalonians, Portugals, and Genowais. (I add this people for their many good services done at sea in the behalf of this crown.) To conclude, in two things the king excelleth the Turk; the first is, that although the Turk can command more men, yet the best and greater part of them being Christians, he dare hardly trust against us; the second is, that the sea coasts of the king are nearer conjoined, than those of the Turk, and in that regard are sooner assembled and provided. By this commodity experience hath proved that the Eastern navies have been often overthrown by the Western, the Southern by the Northern, the Carthaginian by the Roman, the Asian by the Grecian. Octavius Caesar with the navy of Italy defeated the fleet of Egypt; and in our times the Armada of the Christians, the fleet of the Turks. The Turks themselves confess, that in sea-fights the Christians excel, and are unwilling to deal with those forces. As often as Charles the fife rigged forth his navy, it was so puissant, that the Turk never durst leave the harbour. In his journey of Algiers he rigged five hundred vessels; in his Tunis voyage six hundred. Andrew Doria conducted so gallant an armada into Greece, that the Turk not daring to move out of his place, he took Patras and Corona in Morea.  
His land-forces consist in Cavallerie and Infantry: the best footman of all the German nations is the Wallon: to say nothing of the natural Spaniard, it is well known that in all ages it hath been accounted one of the most valorous nations of the world. The French in nine years were subdued to the Roman yoke; the Spaniards held out zoo. The power and person both of Augustus Caesar were requisite to the subduing of the Cantabrians. They not only delivered their country from the subjection of the Moors, but invaded Africa, and took therein many strong places. The Portugals invaded Barbary, tamed the coast of Guinea, Ethiopia and Cafraria, they conquered India, Malaca and the Moluccas. The Castilians sailing through the Atlantike sea subdued the New world, with all the kingdoms, provinces and people therein: they drove the French from Naples, Sicill and Milan.  
The fortune of this nation doth consist in discipline and dexterity: for no people can readier find the occasion, and sooner take it or refuse it when it comes: in celerity, for through slothfulness they let nothing slip; in love and concord, for they were never known out of their own borders to strike stroke amongst themselves: at a word, in suffering of hunger, thirst, heat, cold, labour and extremities, they will lay up any nation whatsoever. By these virtues they have achieved the glory of so many victories, and though sometime they have been overcome, notwithstanding they have vanquished their vanquishers, as it fell out at Ravenna. They never suffered any famous defeature, but in the journeys of Algiers and England; the one by the casualty of tempests; the other by the skilful prowess and seafaring dexterity of the English. Three or four thousand of them turned topsie tur●●e the better part of Germany, and made way every way with their swords through the thickest of their enemies. These were they that at the journey of carven in Barbary being four thousand foot soldiers of great valour, made a brave retreat the space of four or five miles, be set and charged with twenty thousand horse by the king of the Moors at least five or six times, with the loss only of 80. men, and the slaughter of 800. of the enemy.  
As concerning their Cavallerie, it cannot be gainsaid, but that the Spanish jennet is the noblest horse in Christendom, far excelling the courser of Naples, or the horse of Burgundy so much esteemed of the French; or the Frieslander in so great request with the Germans. It should seem that nature herself hath armed this people, in giving them the Iron mines of Biskay, Guipuscua and Medina, with the temperature of Bayon, Bilbo, Toledo and Calatajut, the Armouries of Milan, Naples and Boscoducis, the corn and provision of the inexhaustible garners of Apulia, Sicill, Sardinia, Artesia, Castille and Andeluzia, with the plentiful vintages of Soma, Calabria, San Martin, Aymont, and sundry other places. To conclude, this prince is so mighty in gold and silver, that therewith (to spare his own people, engaged in the defence of so many territories, provinces and frontiers, from undoubted destruction) he is able to wage what numbers of horsemen and footmen of the German and Italian nations it pleaseth him.  
The princes, whose dominions are bordering, and in regard of their forces are any way able to endanger his dominions, are the Venetians, the kings of France and England, and the Turk. The Venetians (long since the Duchy of Milan came to the possession of this crown) have sat them down in great quietness, rather looking to the strengthening and keeping of their own towns and pieces, then to the winning of others from their neighbours. And good reason it is, sithence peace is the surest ankor-hold of their common wealth, that they should eschew all occasions of war with their friends and allies. For we have seen the Spanish in favour of the Venetians when their state stood dangerously engaged with the wars of Bajazet, Soliman, and Selin the second, cheerfully and resolutely to have entered into the action at Cephalonia, Previsa and Lepanto, when at the same instant they had at their own doors, Algiers, Tunis and Aphrodisium their dangerous enemies, nearer affronting Spain, Sicill, Sardinia, the Baleres', and the kingdom of Naples, than Cyprus or the islands of the Ionian sea.  
Concerning France, they are not to be blamed if by wishes and jesuitical sedition they could annex it to their crown: but saith one of their own writers, they may long enough desire it, before they shall be able to effect it. And sithence the French have put an end to their civil discontents, what trophy, or what triumph can the Spaniard boast to have carried from them. Indeed it cannot be denied, but in elder days the wariness of the Spaniards hath turned the furious attempts of the French to matter of too-late repentance. For the great Captain surprising Barletta, and then encamping upon the banks of Gariglano, first took from them the possession of the kingdom of Naples, and afterwards all hope of regaining it again. By the same temporising Anthony Leva wearied king Francis at Ticinum, and Prosper Collonna cleared the Duchy of Milan. In assaulting of towns and fortresses, I confess fury to be of great moment; I confess likewise that by this virtue the French prevailed at joious, Momedium and Caleis, but in set battles, as at graveling, Saint Quintin's, and Sienna, most commonly they have had the foil: for in the field good order and skilful conduction doth more prevail than valour and furious resolution: in assaults, fury and resolution, more than counsel or temporising. Since their falling at variance with the English, at their hands they have received more dishonour, then in the wars of any other nation. As to detract from the fame and well deserving glory of any Christian nation, argued rather an envious humour, than an unpartial writer: so to pass the bounds of modesty in any action deserveth no less a reprehension. For who acknowledgeth not their discoveries of the Indies to be wonderful; their conquests therein marvelous; their treasures inestimable; their continuance in wars long, as being nouzeled therein since the infancy of Charles the fifth: the brave provinces of Italy and Flanders annexed to their crown to be matter of goodly consequence. But let us mark and consider their fortunes, sithence they unsheathed their swords against the Christian world, as we shall soon see, that their treasures, their Armadas, their long experienced Infantry, and their conquered provinces, have little or nothing augmented; nay have they not discountenanced their reputation in these parts? By the expense of infinite millions of gold, and effusion of so much Christian blood, what hath he gained in France? What in netherlands? The world seeth more clear than day light, that for all their great boasts, their large territories, and infinite treasures, sithence the English have dealt with them, held them at the staves end, and discovered their weakness; every bird hath pulled a feather; their credit is broken with the bankers of Germany; holds given over for want of pay; their sea forces foiled (if not as they say discomfited.) In the year 1586. Sir Francis Drake forced the town of Saint Domingo in Hispaniola, Saint Augustine's, and Carthagena on the continent. And when in revenge of like pretended injuries they entered the English channel with their invincible Armada of 150, sails, by the favour of God and valour of the English, they were driven home without doing any thing worth remembrance, through unknown seas, with the loss, taking and sinking of one hundred of their best and tallest vessels. To requite this bravado, and to teach this proud nation that the English (contrary to their opinion) were as well able to offend as defend: in the year 1589. they showed their victorious navy of 126. ships before the Groin in Galizia, assaulted the base town, won it, and with 6000. soldiers at the bridge of Berges discomfited sixteen thousand: thence weighing anchor, and sailing alongst the coast and sight of Spain, landed at length at Pincche in Portugal, won the castle, marched fifty miles into the land, kept their Courts of guard in the suburbs of Lisbon, and thence returning to Caskays without any great fight or skirmish took the castle, set sail for England, and in their return landing at Vigo, took the town and wasted the country. Now since their great and considerate care of future prevention both for Spain and the Indies; their ships burnt and taken; their galleys put to flight, Porto Rico won by assault, Cales sacked, and the Flemish by our travels encouraged to strip him of his trade of Spicery, may well put them in remembrance what they have received at the hands of the English, sithence their first ambitious apprehension of the western Empery. What the Turk is able to perform, you may read hereafter in the discourse of Turkey.  
Let us now entreat of those countries which the Spanish hath, as appertaining to the Portugal crown.  
This kingdom which is not above 320. miles long, and sixty broad, not very populous, and but meanly rich in essential revenues, yet by reason of the commodious situation for navigation and acquisition, it hath equalized these wants with surplusage with the most famous provinces of the whole world: yea, this good fortune hath so elated their minds, that they have undertaken divers famous expeditions into Barbary, Ethiopia, India and Brasile. Within these 90. years they have taken and fortified the principal places and harbours of those provinces, challenging unto themselves the peculiar traffic of the Atlantike and east Ocean. They seized upon the Terceraz, knowing that without touching at those islands no ship could safely pass into Ethiopia, India, Brasil, or the New-world. Returning from those countries towards Spain or Lisbon, they put in to relieve their wants, and sick passengers, and outward they touch to take in fresh water, and fetch the wind. In Africa they are Lords of those places which we spoke of before in the description of Spain. In Persia they have Ormus: in Cambaia, Diu, Damain and Bazain: in the hither India, Chaul, Goa, and the neighbour fortresses of Cochin, Colan, the Island Mavar, and the haven Columbo in the Island Zeilan. Amongst these Goa is the chiefest, as the place where the Viceroy keepeth his court. Ormus famous for the jurisdiction of the sea, and the traffic of the Persian and Cambaian gulfs. Cochin and Colan for their plenty of pepper. Mavar, for the pearle-fishing. Columbo, for the abundance of Cinnamon. Damain and Bazain, for fertile provision. In these quarters they have some princes their confederates, others their feodaries. The chief and wealthiest of Allies, is the king of Cochin, sometime tributary to the king of Calecute, but now by the intercourse and traffic with the Portugals, he is grown so rich and mighty, that the other princes do envy his prosperity. The king of Colan is likewise their confederate.  
Their chief force consisteth in situation and strength of their places, and in the number & goodness of their shipping. As concerning situation, this people wisely considering that in regard of their contemptible numbers, they were not of power to make any famous journey into the inland regions, neither to match the Persians, the Guzarits, the princes of Decan, the king of Narsinga, and other barbarous potentates in Campania, turned all their cogitations to immure themselves in such defensive places, that with small forces they might ever have hope to divert great attempts, and make themselves Lords and commanders of the sea and navigation: which when they had done, they entertained and maintained so strong a navy, that no prince in those parts was able to wrong them, yea, they furnished those vessels so thoroughly, that one single ship would not refuse to cope with three or four of the Barbarians. With this Armada of one and twenty ships, Francis Almeida defeated the Mamelucks near the town of Diu. Alfonse Alburquerck with thirty great ships won Calecute: with one and twenty he took Goa, and regained it with four and thirty: with three and twenty he took Malaca: with six and twenty he entered the red sea; and with two and twenty recovered Ormus. In process of time, as their mightiness increased, Lopes Zuarezius made a journey into the red sea with seven & thirty Galleons. Lopes Sequeira with twenty four ships, but with greater number of soldiers then ever before, laid siege to Gnidda in the red sea. Henry Menesius wasted Patane with fifty ships. Lopes Vazius Sampaius left in the Arsenal 136. ships of war, for the greater part all excellent well furnished. Nonius Acunia undertook a journey to Diu with 300. ships, wherein were three thousand Portugals, and five thousand Indians, besides a great number of his guard and servants, which ordinarily follow the Viceroys in those countries.  
Besides his confederates and feodaries, he is confined with most mighty princes, his enemies, as the Persian, who challengeth Ormus as holden of him in vassalage: the king of Cambaia, who maketh title to Diu and other places, which were once under his jurisdiction: Nizzamaluc & Idalcam (for so the Portugals call the two princes of Decan) & the kings of Calecute & Narsinga. As for the kings of Persia & Narsinga, they never waged war against the Portugals, because they have always had to do with more dangerous enemies: other princes though they have enterprised to their uttermost to regain Diu, Chial, Goa, and other places, and have left no means unattempted to bring their designs to effect, yet their ability could not work any prosperous success to their laborious endeavours, by reason of the places situate so commodiously for the transportation and receipt of continual succours from the sea. And though they have undertaken the like actions in the deep of winter, hoping by tempests and other casualties to bar the Portugals from their sea succours, yet they never prevailed, because the ships and courages of the Portugals, the one resolute to endure the siege, and by patience to overcome, the other determining (hap what may) never to forsake their distressed countrymen, have set all upon hazard, and exposed their fortunes to the mercy of the wind & waves of the sea. Their worst, greatest, and fiercest enemy is the Turk, who being backed with the like advantage of situation, which the city of Aden affordeth him, sometime pricked by his proper envy, emulation, and ambition, sometime egged on by the persuasions of the king of Cambaia, hath often endeavoured to despoil them of the sovereignty of the red sea, and finally to drive them out of the east India. The greatest navy that ever he sent against them was to recover Diu, consisting of sixty four ships, and by them defeated. Afterwards he sent a navy of greater ships to the conquest of Ormus, and that likewise was almost wholly beaten, bruised, and drowned.  
In the further Indieses they hold nothing but Malaca and the Moluccas. In times past Malaca was far greater than now it is: for it lay scattered three miles alongst the sea coast, but the Portugals, that they might the better defend it, have brought it into a round form, containing not above a mile in compass. here the king hath two puissant enemies, jor and Achem, the one mighty at land, the other far mightier at sea, by whom the town not without great danger hath more than once been besieged, but by the aid sent from India always relieved, with great slaughter of the enemy. At length Paulus Lima defeated king jor, and razed the castle built by him near Malaca, wherein besides other spoils he found 900. brazen cast pieces. This territory is subject to great danger, by reason of the puissance of this king of Achem, bending all his cogitations to the rooting and final destruction of the Portugals out of this province, and therefore the king of Spain of late years sent Mathias Alburquerk with a great power into India, with authority to secure the territory of Malaca, and to fight with the king of Achem. To secure their trade of spices and nutmegs in the Moluccas and Banda, they built a castle in the Island Ternate, of late years for want of succours delivered up to the mahometans, and the Portugals recoiled into the Island of Tidore, there establishing their trade and factory.   

The Great Turk.  
Under the Empire of the Turks is comprehended the better part of the ancient threefold division of the earth. He holdeth in Europe the whole sea coast, which from the borders of Epidaurus stretcheth itself to the mouth of Tanais: whatsoever lieth between Buda and Constantinople, and from the Euxine sea to the banks of Savus, is his. In that perambulation is contained Hungary, all Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, Macedon, Epire, Greece, Peloponnese, Thrace, and the Archipelago with the islands. He holdeth in Asia and Africa all that is between Velez de la Gomera and Alexandria in Egypt, between Bugia and Guargula, between Alexandria and the city Siene: and from the city Suez as far as Swachen. The hugeness of this territory may be imagined by the circuit of some of the parcels. Palus Meotis (which is wholly his) spreadeth itself one thousand miles into the land: two thousand and seven hundred miles do hardly encompass the Euxine sea. The coast of the Mediterranean sea, as much as is subject to him, containeth in circuit 8000. miles. Egypt, wholly his, is esteemed five hundred miles long. From Tauris to Buda is 3000. and 200. miles: so far it is from Derbent upon the Caspian sea, to Aden upon the red sea; and from Balsara upon the Persian gulf, to Tremissen in Barbary, is accounted little less than 4000; miles. In the sea he is Lord of the most noble islands of Cyprus, Euboea, Rhodes, Samos, Chio, Lesbos, and many other in the Archipelago.  
In this progress are contained many most puissant kingdoms, abounding with all sorts of sustenance for the use of man. What province is richer in corn than Egypt, Africko, Syria and Asia? What region more flowing with all good things than Hungary, Greece and Thrace? In these provinces hath the Turk four cities of inestimable wealth, Constantinople, Cair, Aleppo and Tauris. Constantinople exceedeth all the cities in Europe in populousness: for it is thought that there are therein more than 700. thousand persons; which if it be true, it is twice as much as may be said of Paris. Aleppo is a great city in Syria, and the staple of the whole traffic of Asia. Tauris was the seat of the kings of Persia, but taken from them in our days, and thought to contain more than 200. thousand persons. Amongst all the cities of Africa, Cair by many degrees may challenge the principality, though some men compare Canon to it for greatness. It may well be called the garner, not only of Egypt, but of the greater part of Africa and India, whose treasures being conveyed by the red sea, and from thence to Cair upon the backs of camels, are at length distributed through all the regions of the Mediterranean sea.  
This Empire from final beginnings hath risen to such greatness, partly by their own arms, partly by the discords of the Christians, that at this day it is the only terror of the Christian commonwealth. It hath been their hereditary practice, to stand upon their guard, and to prevent their enemies; in their journeys to use admirable celerity; to keep their forces ready, and to have them at hand; not to have many irons at one time in the fire; nor long to manage war with one nation, lest by practice they become better warriors than themselves; not to spend their time and treasure in voyages of base account; nor at one cast to set at all, but to proceed leisurely and advisedly; and, which is not the least policy amongst many, that their princes march in person in most of their actions. divers other lessons they observe, by which in the space of 300. years they attained unto a most mighty dominion, and that too, since the year 1500. to this day, they have almost doubled.  
Their government is merely tyrannical: for the great Turk is so absolute a Lord of all things contained within the bounds of his dominions, that the inhabitants do account themselves his slaves, not his subjects: no man is master of himself, much less of his house wherein he dwelleth, or of the field which he tilleth, excepting certain families in Constantinople, to whom for some good service, immunity was granted by Mahumet the second. Neither any man be he never so great, standeth secure of his life, his goods or estate, longer than durant beneplacito of the Grand-Seignior. By two policies he establisheth this tyrannical government; by disfurnishing the people of weapons, and by putting all commands into the hands of renegadoes, whom he taketh as tithe from their parents in their childhood. By this subtlety he gleaneth the provinces of the flower & sinews of their strength, (for the likeliest and ablest springals are chosen:) and secondly, with the same means he armeth himself and secureth his estate. For these janisars being taken from the laps of their parents, and delivered to the training of this or that schoolmaster, are made Mahometans before they perceive it, and so by reason of their young years forgetting their father and mother, depend wholly upon the pleasure of the Grand-Seignior, yielding him all dutiful and acceptable service, as their maintainer and advancer to honour and riches.  
His forces consist in horsemen, footmen, shipping, corn and treasure. As touching his treasure, it is generally received, that he enjoyeth little less than eight millions of ordinary revenue. And where some men think, that out of so large a dominion a greater revenue may be raised, therein they deceive themselves; for not calling to remembrance, that the Turks give their minds to nothing but war, nor take care of any thing else but provision of armour and weapons: courses fitter to destroy and waste, then to preserve and enrich provinces. Hereupon to maintain their armies, and to continue their expeditions, they do so pill and spoil the people, that they hardly leave them wherewith to hold life and soul together. And therefore the poor men not sure of so much as their household provisions; much less of their wealth (which by time and industry they may gather) take no more pains about their husbandry and traffic, than they needs must; yea no more than their own necessity, as near as they can, shall enforce them to make clear at the years end. For say they, why should we sow, and another reap? Or why should we reap, and another devour the reward of our labours? This is the cause, that in the Ottoman dominions, you shall see admirable huge woods, all things laid waste, few cities well peopled, & especially the better part of the fields lie unmanured. In our countries by the abundance of people ariseth the decrenes of victuals, and in Turkey through the scar sitie of inhabitants. The greatest number of the husbandmen perish with carrying provision and other necessaries to the remote places, through which their armies are to travel. In their galleys likewise falleth most commonly so great mortality, that of ten thousand rowers haled from their houses, scant the fourth part returneth again. This the rather happeneth, because the Turks in winter time moring their galleys, do not enure their mariners and galleyslaves to the change of air and discommodities of the tempestuous seas.  
The whole trade of merchandise for the most part is in the hands of jews, or Christians of Europe, Epidaurians, Venetians, Frenchmen and Englishmen. In so large a territory as the Turk hath in Europe, there is never a famous Mart-towne but Constantinople, Capha and Thessalonica: in Asia, but Aleppo and Damasko, Tripoli and Adena: in Africa, Cair, Alexandria and Algiers.  
Although the ordinary revenues are no greater than aforesaid, yet the extraordinary arise to a greater reckoning, and that by confiscations and presents. For the Bassas and great officers, as it were Harpies, suck the very blood of the people, and after they have heaped up inestimable riches, for the most part they escheat to the coffers of the grand Signior. It is reported that Imbrain Bassa carried from Cair six millions, and Mahomet Visier a far greater mass. Ochiali besides his other riches had three thousand slaves. The Sultana, sister to Selim the second, received daily two thousand five hundred Chechini; and for the ease of pilgrims & travelers journeying from Cair to Mecha, she began to trench a watercourse all alongst the way: an enterprise surely great and majestical.  
To raise his donatives to a high reckoning, it is a custom that no ambassador may appear before him empty handed: no man may look for any office or honourable preferment, if money be wanting: no general may return from his province or journey without his presents; and you must think that so magnificent a prince will not swallow small trifles.  
The Vaivods of Valachia, Moldavia and Transiluania hold their estates by virtue of this bribery, and yet they are often changed. For the estates are given to the best chapmen, who again to make good their days of payment, oppress the people, and bring the commons to extreme poverty. Notwithstanding all this, we have seen the Persian war to have drawn dry his coffers, and emptied his treasuries. Not long sithence, both at Constantinople and through the whole empire, the value of gold was raised above belief, insomuch that a Chechin of gold was double his value, the allay of gold and silver was so much abased, that the janisars finding themselves aggrieved thereat, brought great fear not only upon the inhabitants, but also to the grand Signior, in threatening that they would set fire on Constantinople. In Aleppo 60. thousand ducats were taken up of the merchants in the name of the grand Signior. Although his revenues are not so great, as the spacious firtil apprehension of so mighty an empire may seem to object; yet hath he an assistance of greater value than his surest revenues, and that is his Timars or stipends. For the Ottoman princes seize upon all the land which they take from their enemies, and assigning a small parcel, peradventure none at all, to their ancient lords, divide the residue into Timars, to every gallant servitor a portion; but upon condition, to find so and so many serviceable horse for the war. Therein consisteth the chiefest preservation of the Ottoman empire: for unless upon this consideration the care of manuring the land ●ere committed to the soldiers, and they again set it over to others for their use and lucre, all would lie waste through the whole empire: themselves affirming that wheresoever the grand Signior once treadeth with his horse hoof, if it were not for this course, there never after would grow grass again. With these Timars he mantaineth 150. thousand horsemen, excellent well armed, and always ready at their own charges to march whither their leaders will command them. So great a cavalry can no other prince maintain with the yearly expense of fowerteene millions of gold. Which maketh me wonder, that some writers comparing the Turkish receipts with the Christians, never speak word of so huge a member of the Turkish revenues. It is reported, that in the war of Persia, the Turk conquered so much land, that thereof he erected forty thousand Timars, & a new exchequer at Tauris, from whence he receiveth yearly a million of gold. The institution of these Timars, and the choosing of the Azamogli (for so they term the young lads whom they mean to make janisars) are as it were the very arches or pillars of the Ottoman Empire. And herein they seem to have imitated the Roman policy. For the Roman Emperors did always enure their citizens to the war, and of them consisted the Praetorian Cohorts, which never departed from the empire's person. Tacitus saith, that the election of the young men which was made in this manner, gave the occasion of the Eatanian revolt. In the Roman empire Timars' or stipends were given to the soldiers in use, as rewards of their good service, and they were called Beneficta, and the lessees, beneficiarij. Alexander Severus confirmed them to the heirs of his soldiers, but upon condition, that they should be always ready to serve, otherwise not. Constantine the great made them hereditary without exception or limitation.  
By these infinite troops of horse the emperor worketh two exceeding politic effects through the whole empire: by the first he so aweth his subjects, that they can no sooner stir, but as so many falcons these Timarots are presently on their necks; and this is the drift of dispersing them through the provinces: the second is, that one part of them are always ready at the sound of the trumpet upon all occasions to march, while the other stay at home to keep the inhabitants in duty and obedience.  
Besides this Cavalry, he entertaineth in pay a great number of horsemen divided into Spachi, Vlufagi, and Caripici: these are as it were the nursery from whence springeth the degrees of Bassas, Beglerbeiss and Sangiaks. Then hath he his Auxiliaries, the Alcanzi, the Tartars, the Walachians and Moldavians.  
The other pillar of his estate is his Infantry, consisting of janisars. In them two properties are to be noted; their birthplace and practice. As concerning their birthplace, they are not chosen out of Asia, but Europe: for they always accounted the Asians effeminate and cowardly, always more ready to fly then willing to fight; but the Europians, hardy, courageous and good men of war. The Asians they term after their own name, Turks, the Europians Rumi, that is, Romans.  
As concerning their practice, they are taught when they are young; and therefore no marvel if as they grow in age, so they increase in strength, activity and courage; for these three virtues make a perfect soldier. The tithing of springals is made every third year, unless occasion constrain a quicker election, as it happened in the Persian war, wherein they were forced not only to make more haste then ordinary in their elections, but also compelled to take up Turkish Azamoglani, that is, young men; which was never put in practice before. When these young lads are brought to Constantinople, they are suruiewed by the captain of the janisars, who registereth their names, their parents & country in tables. From thence some are sent into Anatolia and other provinces to learn their law and language, where being nouzeled in the superstitions and customs of them with whom they converse, they turn Mahometans, before they be of discretion to discern good from evil. Another sort is distributed in the offices of the Seraglio; the third sort of the fairest complexions and comeliest proportion are appointed to services in the port of the grand Signior. During the time that they are accounted Azamoglani, they have no certain governor, nor trained up in prescript orders, but some are set to keep gardens, some to manure the fields, others to learn manuel occupations, and dispatch household business. At riper and abler years they are called into the schools of the Azamoglani, (for so they are still termed till they are enrolled in the scroll of janisars) and then delivered over to prescribed schoolmasters, who train them up in exercises of labour and travel, allowing them spare diet and thin clothing: they sleep in spacious lodgings, not unlike the celles of religious persons, where likewise they have their overseers, without whose licence they dare not depart from their appointed places. Here they learn to shoot in the bow and harquebus, or to handle any weapon they have most mind unto, and when they have well profited in any profession, they are enrolled in the roll of the janisars, or Spachy. For their maintenance the one sort are allowed no less than five aspers, nor more than eight a day, the other, ten. Being enrolled for janisars, immediately they enter into action, to garrisons, or to wait in the Port. The latter sort have three most spacious houses like monasteries appointed them for their abiding place, and there every one liveth under the government of his superior of the same order, the younger serving the elder in buying and dressing his provision, and such like services with obedience, good will, and incredible silence. Those of one order eat at one table, and sleep together as it were in long cloisters. If any one upon occasion chance to be out of his lodging but one night, the evening following he is well bastinaded, and that with so great severity and patience, that after correction he holds it no disgrace to kiss the hand of his governor. In their journeys and expeditions, they account it religious service to spoil the cottages and houses of the Christians, who must not find fault with any outrage: whatsoever they bargain for they must carry it at their own prices. They are subject to no judge, but their Age, and he neither can give judgement of life and death upon any of them, but in cases of sedition and mutinies, and that seldom, and very secretly. They enjoy many immunities and pruileges, they are croched to, and feared of all men, some of them are appointed to converse with ambassadors, others to accompany travelers, especially those of honest reputation, for their security throughout the Turkish dominions. The election of the emperor is in their power; for unless they approve and proclaim the election, the installment and investure is of no force. Every emperor coming to the crown giveth them some donative, and augmenteth their pay. In any dangerous war, part of them go forth with their Aga, or his lieutenant, but these are the last men that come to blows. There is not amongst the Turkish honours, an office more subject to envy and jealousy than this captainship; for he and the Beglerbey of Greece may not choose their lieutenants, but the grand Signior only: the general favour of the janisars is his assured destruction. Their number commonly is four and twenty thousand, but in our times they carry not their wonted reputation, because both Turks and Asians are enrolled for janisars, whereas in former ages none were admitted but the Europian Christians: beside, contrary to their ancient custom, they marry wives, and that without restraint or limitation. By their long residence about Constantinople (than which there is not a more effeminate city in the whole world) they are grown vile, base, and men of small service, yea lazy, insolent, and proud above measure. It is a common saying, that in their prowess and discipline consisteth the flourishing estate of their empire, but the argument were easy to disprove that opinion. Besides his janisars he hath the Azapi, a base Besonio, fitter for the spade then the sword, entertained rather with numbers to tyre, then by prowess to defeat armies, opposing them to all dangerous services, yea to fill trenches with their carcases, and to make bridges of their slaughtered bodies for the janisars to pass over to the breaches.  
As the Romans had their Legions and Auxiliaries; the one the flower of their chivalry, the other as an aid or augmentation: even so the Turk accounteth his stipendary horsemen and Timarots the sinews of his armies; the Alcanzi (such as he presseth out of towns and villages) scarecrows, and for ostentation: the janisars as the Praetorian legions, and the Azapi as a rabble of pedants.  
Now a word or two of his sea forces: There is no prince furnished with better means for building of ships than this prince: for not only the woods of Epire and Cilicia, but also of Nichomedia and Trapezond are so huge, so thick, and full of tall trees, fit for all sorts of buildings, that a man would take the trunks falling by violence of storm from the banks of the woods of Nichomedia into the Euxin sea, to be triremes already built and framed. They want no workmen to fit and square their timber; for vile covetousness hath drawn whole flocks of Christian shipwrights into their Arsenals. The year after his defeature at Lepanto, he showed his navy whole and entire, yea itching to cope with the Christian Armada. Neither can he want a competent number of expert mariners: for out of the galleys which he maitaineth in Lesbo, Rhodes, Cyprus and Alexandria, and from the havens of Tunis, Bugia and Algiers, he is able to draw a sufficient proportion of seamen and galleyslaves, as often as occasion requireth to furnish his royal army.  
The experience hereof we have seen at Malta, at Lepanto, and Goletta. Of warlike furniture his store is infinite; his Ordinance innumerable: out of Hungary he carried five thousand: in Cyprus he won five hundred: at Goletta few less. The siege of Malta, wherein they discharged 60. thousand pellets, may well declare their abundance of powder and shot: at Fanagusta they discharged 118. thousand: at Goletta in 39 days they razed with their uncessant volleys of shot, a fortification which was forty years in building by our people: in the last Persian war Osman Bassa drew after him five hundred field pieces. Where ever they come, they never cease playing with their munition, till they have laid all level with the ground; if that prevail not, they fall to mining; if that fail, they go to work with spade and pickaxe; if that too, they will never give over till they have filled the ditches with the bodies of their slaughtered soldiers. They have three things wherewith they terrify the whole world: multitudes of men, unconquerable: military discipline, uncorrupted: corn and provisions, store infinite. Multitudes in times past have bred confusion, and commonly we have seen great armies overthrown by small numbers, but the Turkish multitudes are managed with so good order, that although it be far more easy to range a small army than a great, yet even in order have their great armies excelled our small; so that I must needs conclude, that they go far beyond us both in discipline and numbers; herein giving place no not to the ancient Romans; much less to any modern nation how warlike soever. And this their due commendation consisteth not only in arms, but in thirst, patience, & hard diet: as for wine, by their law they are utterly forbidden it. In the field every ten soldiers have their corporal, to whom without any grudging they dutifully obey. You shall never see woman in their armies; their silence is admirable, for with the beck of the hand and sign of the countenance they understand without words what they are to do: rather than they will make any noise in the night, they will suffer their slaves and prisoners to escape. They punish theft and quarreling extremely. They dare not for their lives step out of their ranks to spoil vineyard or orchard. They fear not death; believing their destinies to be written in their foreheads inevitable. The valiant are assured of preferment; the cowards of punishment. They are never billeted in towns, nor suffered to lodge one night within them. To keep them in breath and exercise, their princes are always in action with some neighbour or other, being very jealous of the corruption of their discipline.   

The Princes adjoining.  
Toward the east from Tauris to Balsara lie the Persians; toward the south and the Persian gulf the Portugals; toward the red sea Prester john; upon the west the Xeriffe and the kingdom of Naples; on the north border the Polonians and the Germans. Without all question the Turk excelleth the Persian in military discipline: for mohammed the second took Vssuncassan, Selim the first; and after him his son Soliman defeated Ishmael and Tamas. Amurath the third by his Lieutenants took from them all Media, the greater Armenia, and their chief city Tauris. Their batallions of footmen, and the use of great ordinance, which the Persians want and know not how to manage, have been the chiefest occasions of these good fortunes. And although they have sometime overthrown them in horse-fights, yet always with the loss of ground, not to themselves only, but to their confederates. Selim the first, took from the Mamelucks Syria and Egypt. Amurath the third almost wholly extinguished the nation of the Georgians their surest allies.  
To the Portugals he is far inferior; for in sea-fights and sea forces there is as great inequality between them, as between the Ocean and the Persian gulf. The Portugals have in India havens and castles, territories and dominions plentiful in timber, provision, and all sorts of warlike furniture for the sea, not without many great princes their allies and confederates; whereas the Turk hath no one place of strength in the Persian gulf, but Balsara. The tract of the sea coast of Arabia, which may seem to stand him instead, hath but four towns, and those weak and of small esteem: which are reasons sufficient to induce, that in this gulf, as likewise in the red sea, he hath small means to rig out any gallant Armada. Besides, the soil is utterly barren of timber fit for the building of galleys: for which scarcity whensoever he had occasion to set forth a navy in those seas, he was constrained to send down his stuff from the havens of Bithynia and Cilicia by Nilus to Cair, and from thence to convey it upon camels backs to his Arsenal at Suez. What success his fleets have had in those parts you may read in the discourse of Portugal: for the Portugals take great care to prevent him of setting foot in those seas, yea as soon as they do but smell that he is preparing any sea forces, they presently look out and spoil whatsoever they light upon.  
For captains, soldiers, arms and munition he is better provided than Prester john: for this prince hath a large territory without munition, and infinite soldiers without weapons. Bernangasso his lieutenant lost all the sea coast of the red sea, and brought the Abissine into such extremities, that to obtain peace, he promised the payment of a yearly tribute.  
In Africa he hath a greater jurisdiction than the Xeriffe: for he is Lord of all those provinces which he between the red sea and Velez de Gomera, but the Xeriffe hath the richer, the stronger and better united. Neither of them for the neighbourhood of the king of Spain dare molest one another. The residue of his neighbours are the Christians, and first the king of Poland: what either of these princes can effect the one against the other, hath been manifested by their forepast actions. In some sort it seemeth that the Turk feareth the Polaques: for upon sundry occasions being provoked (as in the reign of Henry the third) in the war which juonia Voyvod of Walachia made with the Turks, wherein great numbers of Polaques served. And (in the reign of Sigismond the third) notwithstanding the incursions of the Kosacks, and the inroads of john Zamoseus General of Polonia, he stirred not, neither with woontlike disdain once offered to revenge these indignities. Again since the infortunate journey of Ladislaus, they never enterprised journey against the Turks, no nor at any time aided the Walachians their neighbours, their friends and confederates, but suffered whatsoever they held upon the Euxin sea to be taken from them. This vile part I rather attribute to the base mind of the king, then to any want of good will in the gentlemen or nobility. Sigismond the first being by Leo the tenth moved to war upon the Turk, answered, Few words shall serve; make firm peace between the Christian princes, then will I be nothing behind the most forward. Sigis●und the second bore a mind so far abhorring from war, that he not only never made attempt against the Turk, but being injuried by the Moscovite, let him do what he would unrevenged. King Stephen a great politician, thought the war of Turkey full of danger, notwithstanding discoursing with his familiars, he would often say, that if he had but thirty thousand good footmen joined with his Polonian horsemen, he could have found in his heart to try his fortune with this enemy.  
The princes of Ostrich are borderers by a far larger circuit of land then any other prince, and being constrained to spend the greatest part of their revenues in the continual maintenance of twenty thousand footmen and horsemen in garrisons: they seem rather to stand content to defend their own, than any way minded to recover their losses or enlarge their bounds. Ferdinand's journey to Buda and Possovia was rather courageous then prosperous: the reason was, not because his soldiers wanted strength and courage, but skill and discipline. For numbers he was equal to the enemy, and reasonably well furnished with necessaries, but his troops consisted of Germans and Bohemians, nations by influence heavy, slow, and nothing fit to cope with the Turks skilful and ready in all warlike affairs.  
The Venetians likewise are borderers for many hundred miles' space by sea and land: but they maintain their estate by treaties of peace, by traffic and presents rather than by open war, providing very strongly for their places exposed to danger, and avoiding all charges and hazard of war, yea refusing no conditions, if not dishonourable, rather than willing to try their fortune in battle. The reason is not, because they want money and sufficiency of warlike furniture, but soldiers and provision incident to so great a warfare.  
His last neighbour is the king of Spain, between whom there is no great difference: the king's revenues (I mean those of Europe only) exceed the Turkish: for he receiveth more than four millions out of his provinces of Italy and Sicil: two and upward out of Portugal, and three from the Indies one year with another. In these only he aequalizeth the Turk, and in the ordinary revenues of Castille, Arragon and Belgia, he far exceeds him. But what can you find (say some men) to compare to his Timars? First I answer, that the king's revenues are far greater than the Turks, next his subsidies which he levieth extraordinarily (of late times for the most part ordinarily) as his Croisadoes, do amount to as much as the entire profits of some whole kingdom. His tenths of the spiritual livings are able to maintain one hundred strong galleys: his escheats in Spain and Naples bring more into his coffers then a man would think for. His benevolences and presents sent him from Naples, Sicil, Sardinia, Milan, and the New-world are infinite and magnificent. Not long since Castille granted a contribution of eight millions of gold to be paid in four years, which sum amounteth to the Turks whole revenue of one year. What should I speak of his Commendams of the orders of Montegia, Calatravia, Alcantara, and S. james, which were enough if he had nought else to suffice him: he is great master of the said orders, and thereby hath means to advance and enrich his servants, whomsoever he pleaseth, as freely as if he were king of France or Poland. In Spain he keepeth three thousand horsemen, as many in Flanders, in Milan four hundred men at arms, and 1000 light horse: in Naples 1500. men at arms, and a greater company of light armed Italians. The number of his soldierie in Sicill is one thousand five hundred. Neither are his feodaries lightly to be esteemed, who upon necessity are bound by their tenors at their own charges to serve personally in the field, especially if you consider their numbers, wherein are reckoned 23. Dukes, 32. Marquises, 49. viscounts, 7. Archbishops (for they likewise in this case are bound to contribute as the great Lords) 33. Bishops. And in Naples 14. Princes, 25. Dukes, 37. Marquises, 54. Earls, 448. Barons, to speak nothing of Portugal, Sicill, Sardinia, Milan. Lastly you must note, that these troops to whom the Turk granteth these Timars, are not so renowned for their valour as for their numbers: for the Timars and profits of the villages and possessions, together with the greedy desire of enriching themselves with the demains of their farms, hath bred such love of ease and peace in their minds, that they are grown cowards and base minded; by their good wills hating the travails of war and innovations. They are drawn from their houses with an ill will, and they march with a greater desire of returning home, & enjoying the pleasures of their gardens, and the plenty of their granges, than stomachs to cope with their adversaries, or enriching themselves with their enemies spoils. For if by a little pillage fierce and valiant soldiers have become cowards and men of small service, what will fair possessions, a pleasant seat, a rich dairy, and wife and children left behind, bring to pass? I may well say, & say truly, that these Timarots are fitter to bridle and keep under the subdued provinces, then to fight in field against armed nations: and to this use it is good policy to maintain them. For who knoweth not that the Turkish subjects do hate his government, his religion and tyranny? For religion only, the Moors and Arabians, who differ in opinion, and for religion and tyranny, the Christians who make more than two third parts of his subjects. For jealousy here of he is enforced to keep the greater part of those troops at home, unless he should lay naked his estates to infinite casualties. To speak in a word, his cavalry is so far and wide dispersed throughout the provinces, that they can not easily be drawn unto any famous journey in great numbers, without loss of long time, neither are they able to stay long from their houses, but they will fall into diseases and extremities; so that if the grand Signior had no other aids but these Timarots, he might happen to make many unfortunate journeys.  
The experience of forepast exploits, do well show the difference of these two provinces forces. The loss of the Spanish fleet at Zerby, may be put in the balance against the Turkish flight from Malta. The loss of Goletta against the taking of the rock of Velez. Tunis is always to be taken at his pleasure that hath a liking thereto. The Spanish king never enterprised any sole journey against the Turk, but he hath valiantly defended his own at Malta and Oranum. I will speak nothing of the defeature at Lepanto, for other princes had their shares therein. There was a treaty of truce motioned between both princes, not many years since, and equally accepted of both parties. For the one was invested in the war of Persia, the other in the commotions of the Low countries. These wars by reason of their remote distances were extreme chargeable to both princes, but worser to the king than the Turk: for though Persia be far from Constantinople (from whence the principal sinews of the war were to be drawn) yet it bordereth upon Mesopotamia, and other subdued provinces, from whence his armies are supplied with provisions and treasure: but Belgia is far distant from any part of the Spanish dominions. The Turk had to do but with the Persian (a state without any mighty confederate worth speaking of) but the king was engaged in a war of greater difficulty, favoured by the English, the French and the Germans, nations equal in all points to the Persians.   

The Roman Empire.  
THe Roman Empire in his greatest glory, even in the time of trajan, stretched from the Irish Ocean, beyond Tigris: from the Atlantike Ocean, to the Persian gulf, and from catness at the Caledonian wood to the river Albis and beyond the Danubie. It began first to decline by the civil wars of Galba, Otho and Vitellius. For in those times the legions of Britanny were transported into the continent: Holland and the bordering countries revoked, and immediately after the Sarracens finding the frontiers of the Empire without garrisons, passed over Danubius. The Alani won the straits of the Caspian hills; the Persians endeavoured to get them a name and reputation; the Goths wandered throughout Moesia and Macedonia; the Frenchmen entered Gallia. But Constantine the Emperor restored it to the former glory, made an end of civil war, and tamed the barbarous and cruel nations: and had he not committed two faults, the Roman Empire might long have flourished. The first was, the translating of the Imperial seat, from Rome to Constantinople, which action weakened the West, and overthrew the Empire. For it is more clear than day, that as plants removed out of their natural soil and transported into regions contrary in temperature and air, retain small vigour of their natural virtue: So human actions, but especially cities and kingdoms, lose their glory and splendour by these great alterations. And for this cause the Roman Senate would never consent, that the people should leave Rome and dwell at Veij, a city far more pleasant and commodious than Rome, especially after the sacking thereof by the Frenchmen.  
The seat of Constantinople is so pleasant, so commodious, and so fertile, that it is hard to judge whether human wisdom or nature showed most industry in the situation thereof. There is no city upon the face of the earth better served by land and sea: on one side lie the most beautiful meadows; on the other side the pleasant valleys: here rise the fruitful hillocks; there floweth and refloweth the plentiful sea, yielding all sorts of needful and delicate provision to the inhabitants thereof. He that did see it would say, that here strove Bacchus with Ceres, Pomana with Flora, magnificence with plenty, who should be most bountiful to this city. After the sea hath made many gallant bays and safe roads, whereof Bospherus only in the space of five and twenty miles yieldeth thirty, it runneth by the city and country, with so quiet and gentle a stream, that the great ships bringing corn from Syria and Egypt, and the riches of Trapezond from Capha do seldom miscarry. Here is evermore harvest, which now and then faileth in Thrace and Asia. Here shoals of fish frisking and playing hard under the walls of the city, swim in such wonderful abundance, that he which hath not seen it, will hardly believe it: but he may easily be persuaded hereof, that considereth how in the winter time the fish flying the cold places, ascend by Pontus Euxinus, even in the view of Constantinople, towards Propontus: then shunning the heat of summer, return again by the same way, which they went before. At these two seasons of the year, the inhabitants as well for their profit as delight, store themselves with great quantities thereof. At this day on the North-east part of the city on the other side of the water is the town of Pera; on the North part is the Arsenal, where the galleys are built and do remain; and on the South side is all the ordinance, artillery and houses of munition. To speak in a word, there is no place fitter seated for plenty of all things for weakening men's valours, for corrupting virtue with vice, than this great and most stately city of Constantinople: proved by the sloth and delicacy of the greatest number of the Greek Emperors and their armies. For if the pleasures of Tarent, and the soil of the Siberites were enchantments sufficient to make men effeminate, and quite alter the nature of the inhabitants: if the delights of Capua could soften and quench the fierce courages of Hannibal and his soldiers: if Plato deemed the Cyrenians incapable of discipline, by reason of their long prosperity, what may we think of Constantinople, for situation proud, for buildings sumptuous, especially of their temples, & for beautiful and commodious havens pleasant and delightsome above any other city through the whole world? To conclude, when nothing can be more dangerous to a state than innovations, what could be more hurtful (I may say desperate) to the Roman Empire then that great, so deign, and unlooked for mutation? That good well meaning Emperor, in this did neither more nor less, then as a man endeavouring to add a greater grace to his body, should place his face on his knees, and his heart on his heels.  
The second fault of Constantine was the division of the Empire to his children, ann. Dom. 341. By this division of one Empre he made three, and withal a memorable diminution of his authority and force. For when his sons fell to civil dissension, they consumed one another so cruelly, that the Empire resembled a bloodless yea lifeless body. And though sometime under some one prince it stood on foot again, yet it remained always subject to division, and departed into two Empires, the east and the west, till the coming of Odoacer king of the Herules and Turingi, into Italy with a mighty host: by which invasion Augustulus was brought to such a narrow pinch, that for despair he cast himself into the protection of the east Empire. This happened in the year of our Lord, 476. And about this time the Huns passed Danubius: Alaricus king of the Goths took Rome: the Vandals first spoilt Andoluzia, afterwards Africa: the Alans won Portugal: the Goths conquered the greater part of Spain: the Saxons, Britain: the Burgundians, Province. justinian restored it somewhat to a better stay, driving the Vandals out of Africa, and the Goths out of Italy by his captains, anno 556. But this fair weather lasted not long. For in the year 713. the arms and heresies of the mahometans began to vex the east Empire, and shortly after 〈◊〉 the Sarracens wasted Syria, Egypt, the Archipelago, Africa, Sicill, & Spain. In the year 735. they vanquished Narbon, Avignon, Tolouse, Burde●●, and the bordering regions. Thus by little and little went the western Empire to ruin. As for the eastern, it stood so weak and tottering, that with all the force it had, it was scarce able to defend Constantinople against the arms of the Sarracens, much less to minister aid to the western provinces. But in the year of our Lord 800. Charles the great, king of France, obtained the title of the western Empire, which Ado bishop of Vienna remembreth in these words; Upon the holy feast day of the nativitle of our Lord, assoon as the mighty king Charles had made an end of his prayers, Leo the Pope set the Imperial crown upon his head, whereat all the people with one voice cried: C●●ol● Augusto, 〈◊〉 Deo coronate, magno, pacifico. Imperatori Romanorum, vita ● victoria.  
The western Empire was divided from the eastern in this sort: that Naples and Sipont eastward with Sicill should belong to the Greek Empire: Bonon●a should remain to the Lombard's; the Venetians were neuters; the popedom free: the rest Charles should possess. Bloudus saith, that the Empress Iren gave the first counsel to this division, which afterwards was confirmed by Nicephorus. Thus the beginning of the imperial division began at the translation of the seat from Rome to Constantinople, increased by renting it into many principalities, and took perfection at the coronation of Charles. For before him there was one form of government, laws, magistracies and ordinances tending to the good and honour of both Empires, ●●to members of one body; and if one Emperor died without issue, the whole Empire remained to the suruivor. But when Charles the great was chosen Emperor of the west, there was no more regard taken of the east Empire, neither the Emperor of the east had to do with the west, nor the west with the east. The Empire of the west continued in this line above 100 years, and failed in Arnolpho the last of that house. In the year 1453. Mahumet prince of the Turks took Constantinople, and utterly extinguished the succession of the eastern Empire.  
In the year of Christ 1002. all claim of inheritance rejected, the creation of the Emperor was granted to the free election of seven princes, termed Electors. The reason why the Empire became elective, which had so long continued hereditary in the house of Charles, was, because Otho the third left no issue male. After whom the western Empire was marvelously curtailed and diminished: for nothing was left but Germany and a part of Italy. The Pope held Romagna; the Venetians lived free, possessing great dominions joined to their state: the Normans taking Naples and Sicil from the greeks, held them in fee of the Church, first under Clement the Antipope, then under Nicholas the second and his successors, who for their private gain ratified the former grant of the Antipope.  
In Tuscan and Lombardy partly by the quarrels between Henry the fourth, Henry the fifth, Fredrick the first, and Fredrick the second with the Roman bishops: partly by reason of the valour of the inhabitants, the Emperor reaped more labour than honour, more loss than profit. And therefore Rodulphus terrified with the misfortunes and crosses of his predecessors, had no great mind to travel into Italy, but sold them their liberty for a small matter. They of Luques paid ten thousand crowns, the Florentines but six thousand. And so every state by little and little forsaking the Emperor, no part of Italy remained but the bare title. The Dukes of Milan, and so every other state, usurped what they could catch, without leave ask, only they desired their investiture of the Empire. But Frances after the conquest of Milan, did little regard this investiture, saying, that he was able to keep it by the same means that he had got it. The princes beyond the mounts also withdrew their obedience; so that now the Empire is enclosed in Germany: and why the Provinces of Germany are not all under one government, I will now describe.  
Some provinces are as it were members of the Empire, yet separated; for they neither do, nor will acknowledge that they belong to the Empire; as the kings of Denmark and Sweathland, the Duke of Prussia, the Swissers, the netherlands. Others confess the Emperor for their sovereign Prince; but they come not to the diets of the Empire, nor will bear the tax and tallages of the Empire; as the Dukes of Savoy, Lorraine, and the Princes of Italy. Other come to the diets, and pay all impositions; those are the Princes and cities of Germany. But the king of Bohemia by the grant of Charles the fourth is exempted from all contributions. Other places do not only pay contribution, but likewise a peculiar tribute to the Emperor: those are the cities, termed Imperial. Some of the Princes of Germany have to do both in the diets, and at the election of a new Emperor: those are the six Electors; three churchmen, and three lay-men, to whom upon equality of voices the king of Bohemia is joined: and though he come not to the diets, yet hath his voice in the elections. To speak in a word, those are properly termed the cities and princes of the Empire, who have to do in the diets, and as members of one body, participate of good and evil, advantage and disadvantage throughout the empire. These living after the manner of a commonwealth united together, have the Emperor for their head for their common safety, who ruleth not absolutely, but by the diets, and cannot call them without the consent of the greatest number of the Electors. The Ordinances of these diets cannot be frustrated, but by another diet: but of putting the decrees in execution, the Emperor hath full and sole authority. And therefore as touching pre-eminence and dignity, he is chief of the Christian Princes, as he upon whom the majesty of the Roman Empire resteth, and aught to defend the Church of God, the catholic faith, and procure the peace and welfare of the whole Christian common wealth.  
Now seeing it is manifest that the glory of the western Empire consisteth in Germany, it is good reason to say somewhat of this most ample and flourishing province. It lieth between Odera and Mosa; between Vistula and Aa; and between the German and Baltic Ocean and the Alps. The form thereof is four square, equal in length and breadth, stretching 650. miles every way. It aboundeth with corn, cattle and fish, which experience showeth. For Charles the fifth had under his ensigns at Vienna 90. thousand footmen, and 35. thousand horse; Maximilian the second at javerin almost 100 thousand footmen, and 35. thousand horse, and yet no man complained of dearness or scarcity. In the war between Charles the fifth and the Protestants, for certain months 150. thousand men sustained themselves abundantly in the field. It is rich in mines of gold, silver, and all sorts of metal, and therein surpasseth the residue of the provinces of Europe. Nature also hath bestowed upon the upland countries many springs and pits of salt water, of which hard salt is boiled. Neither is it less stored with merchandise; for the inhabitants more than any other nation do excel in curious workmanship and admirable inventions: and it is so watered with navigable rivers, that all sorts of merchandise and wares are with ease conveyed from one place to another. The greatest of them is Danow, next the Rhine, which runneth clean through the country from the South to the North, as the Danow from West to East. Albis riseth in Bohemia, passeth by Misnia, Saxony, Marchia, the ancient Marquisat. Odera springeth in Moravia, watereth Silesia, the two Marquisates, and Pomeran. Then follow Wesara, Neccarus, Mosa, Mosella, Isara, Oenus, Varta, Moenus. This divideth Germany into two parts, the high and the low. The high stretcheth from the Maze to the Alps: the low from the Maze to the Ocean. It is divided into many provinces, the chiefest whereof (I mean the true members of the Empire) are Alsatia, Swevia, Bavaria, Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, the two Marquisates, Saxonic, Misnia, Thuringia, Franconia, Hassia, Westphalia, Cleveland, Magunce, Pomeran. In these Provinces besides Belgia and Helvetia are esteemed to be ten millions of men. The people is divided into four sorts: husbandmen, and they bear no office, citizens, noblemen, and prelate's. The last three sorts make the assemblies and states of the Empire. Of Prelates, the Archbishop's Electors have the chiefest place. The Archbishop of Ments is Chancellor of the Empire; the Bishop of Coloin is Chancellor of Italy, and the Bishop of Trevers is Chancellor of France. The Archbishop of Saltzburg is of greatest jurisdiction and revenue. The Bishop of Maidburg writeth himself primate of Germany. Breme and Hamburg had great jurisdictions: next follow above 40● other Bishops, the great master of the Dutch order, and the Prior of the knights of jerusalem: then 7. Abbots, and they likewise are states of the Empire. Of secular Princes the king of Bohemia is chief, who is chief taster: the Duke of Saxonic, Martial: the Marquis of Brandeburg, high Chamberlain: the Earl Palatine, Sewer. Besides these princes there are thirty other Dukes, amongst whom the Archduke of Austria holdeth the highest place, and of these Dukes the king of Denmark by reason of his dukedom of Holsatia, is reckoned to be one. Then the Marquises, Lantgraucs, Earls and Barons innumerable.  
The free cities (which in times past have been 96. and are now but 60. governing themselves by their peculiar laws) are bound no further then to pay two five parts of whatsoever contribution is granted in the assemblies. The cities Imperial, because (as we said before) they pay tribute to the Emperor, pay 15. thousand Florins. The cities have suffiçient revenue of their own, for the most part amounting above the value of the contributions. It is thought that the Empire receiveth every way above 7. millions, which is a great matter: yet besides this ordinary, the people not overpressed as in Italy, do pay other great subsidies to their princes in times of danger. The Empire is bound (at leastwise accustomed) to furnish the Emperor when he goeth to Rome to be crowned, 20. thousand footmen, and four thousand horse, and to maintain them for eight months, and therefore it is called Romanum subsidium. The revenues of the cities and lay princes have been greatly augmented since the suppressing of popery, and bringing in of new impositions, which taking their beginning from Italy, (for evil examples spread far) quickly passed over to France and Germany. In times of necessity great taxes are laid upon the whole Empire, and levied extraordinarily, and that they may be gathered with the greater case, Germany is parted into ten divisions, which have their particular assemblies for the execution of the edicts made in the general diets of the Empire.  
As concerning the multitude of people, it is thought that the Empire is able to raise two hundred thousand horse and foot, which the wars before spoken of may prove to be true, as likewise the wars of France and Belgia: for since the year of our Lord 1566. the war hath been continued in those two provinces for the most part with German soldiers; and yet to this day great and continual inrolements are taken aswell of horsemen and footmen through the whole Empire. At one time Wolfang Duke of Bipontled into France an army of twelve thousand footmen and eight thousand horsemen in the behalf of the Protestants, and at the same time the Count Mansfield was leader of five thousand horsemen of the same nation in behalf of the Catholics. William of Nassow had in his army eight thousand German horsemen, and ten thousand footmen: the Duke of Alva had at the same instant three thousand. What should I speak of the numbers that entered Flanders with Duke Casimere? Or those that entered France under the same leader in the year of our Lord, 1578? Or to what end should I make mention of that army, where of part served Henry the fourth, part the league, but to prove that this nation must be very populous, seeing that wars are continually open in some one or other part of Christendom, and no action undertaken therein, wherein great numbers of Germans are not waged and entertained. To speak nothing of the Netherlands, who in times past have resisted the whole powers of France with an army of four score thousand men, or of the Swissers who in their own defence are thought able to raise an army of 100 and twenty thousand men: I will only put you in mind of that expedition which they made out of their own territories into Lombary, in defence of that state against Francis the French king, with an army of fifty thousand footmen. The best footmen of Germany are those of tirol, Swevia, and Westphalia: the best horsemen those of Brunswick, Cleveland, and Franconia. Of weapons they handle the sword and the pike, better than the gun. In the field they are very strong, as well to charge as to bear the shot; for order is of great effect, which is as it were natural to them, with a stately pace and firm standing. They are not accounted for the defence of fortresses, and for their corpulent bodies I hold them not fit for the assault of a breach. And therefore they are to be accounted rather resolute and constant, then fierce or couragions; for they will never come to the service, wherein courage and magnanimity is to be showed. After the victory they kill all whom they meet, without difference of age, sex or calling: if the war be drawn out at length, or if they be besieged, they faint with cowardness. In camp they can endure no delays, neither know they how to overcome by protracting. If their first attempts fall not out to their minds, they are at their wit's end and lose courage; if they once begin to run, they will never turn again. But in delaying and temporizing, the Spanish pass all other nations. He that retains them must be at extraordinary charges & great trouble, by reason of their wives consuming so much provision, that it is a hard thing to provide it, almost unpossible to preserve, and without this provision they stand in no steed. Their horses are rather strong then courageous: and because of ten which go to the war, eight are priest from the plough, they are of small service, and when they see their blood their heart quaileth: But the Spanish genits in this case wax more fierce. In sea forces they are not much inferior to their land forces, although they use not the sea fights; yet the cities of Hamburg, Lubeck, Rostoch and some others are able to make a hundred ships; some one hundred and fifty, equal to the forces of the king of Denmark and Sweathland. When these strong and ●nu●cible forces are united together, they fear no enemy; and in imminent peril they are sure of the aid of the Princes of Italy, Savoy, and Lorraine: for these Princes never forsook the Empire in necessity. To the Zigethan-warre Emanuel Duke of Savoy sent six hundred Argoliteers. Cosmo Duke of Florence three thousand footmen paid by the State. Alphonsus the second Duke of Ferara was there is person with 1500. horsemen: better horsemen were not in the whole camp. William Duke of Mantua was there also with a gallant troop offootmen: and Henry of Lorraine Duke of Guise had there three hundred gentlemen, with the aid of these Princes. Pitu the fifth, Maximilian the second, had in the field one hundred thousand footmen, and five and thirty thousand horse. The Emperor forty thousand footmen, and eight thousand horsemen for eight months; and twenty thousand footmen and four thousand horsemen for three years next following.   

The Bishop of Rome.  
THE state of the Pope consisteth in two things: the one is his temporal dominion, the other his spiritual authority, His temporal dominion is either immediate and of himself, without relation to another; or else mediate, and by substitution, as representing another's person. As touching his temporal dominion immediate, he is Lord of a great part of Italy, of all that lieth between the river Flore and Caietta: between Preneste and the Truentian straits (except the Duchy of Urbin.) In that compass are contained the provinces of Bonnonia and Romandiolia, Marchia, Vmbria, the Duchy of Spolet, Saint Peter's patrimony, and Tuscan. For situation it is seated in the very heart of Italy, stretching from the Adriatic to the Tirrhene sea. And in regard of this situation it is comparable to any state of Italy, as also in abundance of provision, especially of corn, wine and oil: for Romandiola imparteth great store thereof to their neighbours, the Venetians and Slavonians. In some years Marchia hath supplied the wants of the Venetians, with many thousand measures of corn, and great quantity of oil. And although Spoletum is not so plentiful of grain, as to spare for their neighbours, yet is it able to maintain itself without buying of others, and in steed thereof it is abundantly stored with wines, cattle, and some saffron. Tuscan hath often relieved Genes, and at some seasons Naples. This territory bringeth forth fierce and warlike soldiers: and herein it is reported to excel all the residue of the Italian Provinces. Bonnonia, Romania & Marchia, are able to levy twenty thousand footmen, and the other provinces as many. In the time of Pope Clement, Marchia alone aided him with one thousand soldiers. The chief seat is Rome, once the Lady of the world, and at this day inhabited with one hundred thousand people. The defensible places are the castle & borough of Rome, Ouietta, Terracine, etc.  
It is a great credit and commendation to this state, to have many noble men therein so excellent in negotiation of peace and war, that the residue of the states and princes do most commonly choose their leaders and lieutenants out of these provinces. If the prince thereof were secular; for people and power it might well be compared with any state of Italy. Besides these dominions, the Pope hath the territory of avignon in France, wherein are four cities and fourscore walled towns. In Naples he hath Beneuent.  
As touching his temporal sovereignty, 〈…〉 mediate Lord of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicill, and of the Duchies of Urbin, Ferrata, Parma, Placentia, and many others.  
Where his authority is maintained, he hath supreme government of all religious orders, and bestoweth the ecclesiastical benefices at his dispose. Having thus many strings to his bow, he hath so many means to raise money, that Xistus the fourth was wont to say, that the Popes should never want money, as long as their hands were able to hold a pen. Paul the third in the league between him, the Emperor and the Venetians, against the Turk, bore the sixth part of the charges of the war. Against the Protestants, and in aid of Charles the fifth he sent twelve thousand footmen and five hundred horsemen, bearing their charges during the war: this was he that advanced his house to that honour, wherein it continueth to this day. Pius the fifth aided Charles the ninth king of France with four thousand footmen, and one thousand horse. Xistus the fifth in five years and an half of his Pontificie, raked together five millions of crowns, and spent bountifully notwithstanding in bringing conduits and water-pipes into the city, and in building pyramids, palaces and churches.   

The Dukedom of Ostrich.  
BEcause the western Empire hath long continued in the most noble family of the house of Ostrich, and seven Emperors have successively succeeded one another of that line; for the delight of the reader we will speak somewhat thereof. This house grew famous almost about the same time that the Ottoman Prince began his Empire, and (as it may seem) raised up of God to stand as a wall or bulwark against the Turks and infidels. Philip the first, king of Spain, Archduke of Ostrich, etc. had two sons, Charles the fifth, afterward Emperor, and Ferdinand the first, king of Romans. To Charles' as to the eldest fell Belgia and Spain, with the dependencies; Ferdinand succeeded him in his Lordships of Germany, as Ostrich, Boheme, Tirol and other provinces, whereunto by the marriage of his wife Anne, Hungary was adjoined. This Ferdinand left three sons behind him, who although they divided their inheritance into three parts, yet their successors even to this day, did and do govern them as one entire government; their counsels are one; their minds one, their deseign●●●nts one, most lively representing the ancient Geryon, where for the common safety, if any part be afflicted every member runneth to the succour of the other, as if it were to their proper tranquillity. Their dominion stretcheth so large, and is of such force, that if by reason of the great tract of land lying between the Carpathy mountains and Segonia, they did not border upon the great Turk (who always constraineth them to look to their safety, and to be at excessive charges) no province throughout the Christian world could go beyond them, for numbers of people, for wealth and treasure, or for magnificent cities. Any man may perceive this to be true, that considereth the distance from Tergiste, to the borders of Lusatia: from Tissa, to Nabus: from Canisia, to Constantia upon the lake Podame. In this progress is contained Lusatia, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, and a great part of Hungary, territories large and ample, abounding with people, corn and riches. Then follow Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Counties of Carinthia, Tirol, Cilia, the Princedoms of Swevia, Alsatia, Brisgovia, and Constantia. Amongst these provinces Bohemia is the largest, stretching in length 140. miles, and reported to contain 780. castles and walled towns, and 32. thousand villages. Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, are as large as Bohemia, but in strength and numbers of people far inferior. These three provinces are four hundred miles long, and 120. broad: they abound with excellent good horsemen and footmen. The inhabitants of Lusatia (where twenty thousand men fit for the war may be gathered) are accounted as good footmen, as any other: Stiria rich in mines of silver and iron is 60. miles broad, and 110. long: Carinthia, a hilly and woody country, is 75. miles long, and 55. broad: Carniola with the bordering countries up to Tergiste is 150. miles long, and 45. broad. They are plentiful of corn, wine, flesh and wood. The county of Tirol is full of mines of silver and salt pits, and is eighteen Germane miles long and broad. The territories of Swevia, Alsatia, and Rhetia do pay little less than two myriades and an half of ordinary revenue, & so much extraordinary: besides the 18. cantons of Rethia, are under the same jurisdiction. They are so well peopled, that upon occasion, they are able to levy 100 thousand footmen, and 30. thousand horse. I know no other province in Europe able to say the like. And therefore the Emperor is not so weak a Prince, as those who are ignorant of the state of kingdoms do suppose him, reporting his territories to be small, unprovided of necessaries, poor in money, and barren of people. But this is certain, that as he is a Lord of a large dominion, fertile, rich, and infinite people; so let every man think that by the neighbourhood of the Turk bordering upon him, from the Carpathie mountains to the Adriatic sea, the forces of a mightier prince may seem small and overlayed. For what prince bordering upon so puissant an enemy, but either by building of fortresses, or by entertaining of garrisons, is not almost beggared, I will not say, in time of war, but even during the securest peace? Considering that the forces of the Turk are always ready, strong and cheerful, yea better furnished in the time of peace, than any other nation in the hottest fury of war. Wherefore it stands him upon, that is a borderer upon so powerful an enemy, either for fear or jealousy to be ever watchful, and to spare no charges as doth the Emperor; retaining in wages continually twenty thousand soldiers, keeping watch and ward upon the borders of Hungary. These ask great expenses, and yet less than these, are not to be defrayed for the strengthening of other places; besides other expenses not meet here to be spoken of. Wherefore, seeing the Turk like an unsatiable dragon, hath overwhelmed so many noble provinces, and so many flourishing kingdoms, yea hath brought under his yoke those cities which were thought impregnable; and those bulwarks which the world deemed could never be forced, let us not shut both our ears, and say, lie is far from us, when he stands at our doors, yea close by our sides.   

Denmark.  
ALthough it may seem needless to make any mention of Sweueland, because it is as it were situated in another world; and with whom there is no great intercourse of trading, yet for the spacious largeness thereof, it may well deserve a place amongst other kingdoms spoken of in these relations. It is situate in that part of Europe which some term Scandia, others Scandania, or Balthia; from whence issued the Goths and Vandals, the very treaders down of the Roman Empire. It is subject both to the Danish and Swevian crown. The king of Denmark besides the Cimbrian Chersonese (where Helsatia, Theutomarsia, the Dukedom of Slesia, Flensburge, Friesland, and juthland, regions fruitful, replenished with store of cattle and wild beasts, do lie) retaineth other spacious islands, the best whereof stand in the entrance of the Baltic sea, being 15. in number, all comprehended under the name Denmark. The chiefest of them is Sclandunia, containing 60. miles in length, and little less in breadth. It excelleth the rest in worth, both for the number of villages, the mildness of the air, and because it hath been and is the seat of their kings. He hath also Gothland in his jurisdiction, which is placed right over against Gothia. One of his kinsmen hath the government of Osilia, a pretty Island in the greater gulf of Livonia; and ruleth those fat and plenteous countries which lie in the continent of Livonia. Scania likewise acknowledged his sovereignty; and he holdeth the kingdom of Norway; which from the confines of Scania extendeth and stretcheth northward 1300. miles to the castle of Wardhouse, upon whom border the Lappians. The Isles adjoining thereto, Sania, Setland, and Faria (lying in the main sea) are in his tenure. In times past the people of Norwey have been of great puissance: they afflicted England, scourged France, and therein obtained a province called to this day Normandy. In Italy they conquered the kingdom of Sicill and Appulia. And in the holy war, Boemand leader of the Normans, won the principality of Antioch. In the north Ocean (besides that of Friesland, and the sea coast of Island, and Gromland) he holdeth the dominions of the foresaid islands of Shetland and Faria. The Orchades acknowledge the kings of Norwey for their lords, although they are subject to the Scottish crown. Since the kingdom of Norwey became elective, & turmoiled with civil wars and intestine discords, it came to the possession of the Danish kings, who, that he may hold it surely, entreateth the inhabitants cruelly, spoiling them of their substance, and to leave no hope of better fortune to this miserable people, he holdeth fortified all the creeks and havens of the sea coast.  
The wealth of the kingdom consisteth in the abundance of cattle and sea fish, whereof there is such store, that of the herring fishing only, a mighty mass of money is yearly gathered; so huge is the number of all sort of fish, that at sometimes of the year a ship can make but slow way in this sea; and the marshes & meadows adjoining thereunto are very pleasant and savoury to the feeding cattle. Scania is rich in corn, and pasture, and well replenished with people: Norwey hath no riches of any moment, except timber fit for the erecting of houses, and framing of ships (from thence transported into Holland and Flanders) and cattle, and great store of cheese and milk. Some profit also ariseth of a kind of fish dried in the wind, which the Dutchmen call Stockfish. It is taken in januarie, and laid in the wind and cold, until it be indurate and hardened like wood, and then carried into divers regions as a kind of sustenance. The greatest matter of gain to the king of Denmark is that narrow sea or straight between Cronburg & Eltzenburg, commonly called the Sound, which is a passage so narrow, that no shipping can pass that way, without the licence and favour of the watchmen, keeping garrison there to receive the impostes, and customs of the arriving vessels: it is easily gathered to what some of money that impost amounteth, by the infinite number of shipping of Holland, Zealand, France, England, Scotland, Norwey, and the Baltike sea, that sail in those seas, and of necessity must pass the jaws of that narrow straight. The inhabitants are as needy of Rhenish, French, Spanish wines, the spices of Portugal, or the fruits of Andoluzia, as they again are greedy of the wax, honey, skins, and corn, which are brought thither from Prussia, Livonia, Moscovia, and the bordering nations. Touching his powerablenes in land service, it was never seen that he enterprised any journey of reputation, but that against the Theutomarsi, upon whom king Valdemar laid the yoke of subjection: but falling again into rebellion, after many chances of war, beginning in the year 1500. they were utterly vanquished by Frederick the second, in the year of our Lord 1558. Before that time they discomfited john the son of king Christian the first.  
What this king of Denmark is able to perform at sea, may be gathered by the names, which upon occasions he hath rigged to sea at the entreaty of Henry the second king of France. Christian the second sent a navy of 100 ships into Scotland against the English, and in them ten thousand land soldiers. But for as much as it is apparent that he is lord of so ample a sea coast, & possesseth so many havens in Denmark, Sca●●a, Norwey, and so many islands without the Baltike sea, it is most likely that he is able to assemble a mighty fleet of ships if money were not wanting: which as I take it, cannot but often fail him, considering that in his whole kingdom there is growing no merchandise of value (excepting seafish) neither is there any famous Mart town, which is able to draw, or long to maintain traffic with other nations. The greatest matter is his customs of the sea towns, the profit of certain mines in Scania, the horses & cattle of the Danish chersonese, the timber and fish of Norwey, and the islands. It hath been observed, that fifty thousand oxen hath been driven out of these provinces into Germany; for which, toll hath been paid at Gutthorpe. He reapeth some profit likewise of Wardhouse, whither the English of late years have sailed between Norwey and Groenlant; some to Colmogro, others to Stockholme, not far from S. Nicholas, where they traffic with the Russies for wax, honey, and flax: thither resort likewise Hollanders, Scots, and Frenchmen. Almost in the middle of this bay is an Island and town called Wardhuis, which Frederick the second caused to be strongly fortified, and here the merchants pay their custom.   

Sweveland.  
THE king of Sweveland reigneth in Scandia, which is larger than Denmark, for it is accounted a journey of five and forty days from the borders of Scandia to Lapland, and the coast of the Baltic sea is little less than 400. miles long, and his tract of land is esteemed larger than France, and Italy. In Livonia this king possesseth Rivalia, the narve, Danovia, and other pieces of good esteem, the Island Vlander, Alandes, and many other places (not worthy speaking of) situated in the Swevian and Finland sea. These regions besides Livonia are divided into three kingdoms, Gotland, Sweveland, and Vandalia, which again are subdivided into eleven provinces, and twelve Counties; among the which the Lappians are not accounted, because this people (though inhabiting a larger country than Sweveland) cannot be termed to live under any certain dominion, because of their misery, poverty, and wandering from place to place through woods and mountains; but they, who have any manner of certain abode, or settled habitation, are under the Swevish dominion, and pay rich skins for their tribute.  
Of the three kingdoms whereof we spoke, Gotland bordereth upon Scandia, and is divided into east and west, both bounded with the lake Weret: in the midst whereof the king (delighting in the pleasantness of the place) keepeth his court. Twenty four rivers do run into this lake, yet it emptieth itself but by one mouth. The inhabitants for the excessive noise of the waters, call it in their tongue, the Devils Head. The word Gothia signifieth a heavenly country, which doth well agree thereto for the abundance of sustenance: no region being comparable unto it in fertility of flesh, fish, and corn.  
Next followeth Sweveland, larger than Norwey and Gotland both together. In Sweveland is Vpsalia their chief city, and Stockholme (the king's seat.) Stringa, Enuecopia, Orogundia, Arboia, Arosia.  
Then comes Finland situate between the Baltic and Finland bay, where stand Abo the chief city, Raugina and Augo both famous mart towns: Vames, Viburge, and Castlehome in the Alandian islands. The husbandmen inhabit without the towns; and by reason of the plenty of timber, the woods, valleys, and other places defended from the fury of the northern wind, they live here in very good sort, keep in their houses flocks of cattle, and instruments to dig, to build, or to make any thing necessary for the life of man: and this is the reason, that towns here are neither so fair nor so frequent, as in Germany or England. Over and above cities and villages, there are accounted 1433. parishes; in some of which a thousand people, or (as they term it) a thousand households or fires do inhabit: but there are few of these parishes, in which at the least there are not an hundred families. By this a man may judge the number of this people, especially if he consider the fruitfulness of their generation: for the women of Finland by a secret operation of their beer (as some think) become exceeding fruitful. The men live here very long, chiefly in the most northerly parts; neither is it miraculous amongst them to see a man live above an hundred and thirty or forty years. This long living is the true cause of their propagation: for where men live shortest lives, there the virtue of generation must needs soon decay: and therefore our Lord God in the beginning of the world did permit mankind to live seven hundred years and more, that the world might the sooner be peopled, and the act of generation (which now for the shortness of our lives is determined within forty years) was then more vigorous at one hundred and upward, then in this our age, at ten.  
The riches of this kingdom consisteth in the plenty of victuals, which this word, Gothia (signifying an heavenly region, as we said before) and Finland (signifying a good country) do well witness. Their provision is flesh, fresh fish, salt fish, fish dried in the smoke and sun, corn and beer: whereof there is so great abundance, that it is a hard thing to see a beggar amongst them, and travelers are there freely entertained. It is so rich in mines of lead, copper, silver, and some gold, that no province in Europe may compare therewith. And these mines are to be found in every place, if the country people (bound to carry wood to the mines, and to other servile works) did not hide and hinder the discovery thereof as much as in them lieth. Most fine silver is found in the province of Vestros; and more would be, were it not for the envy of the inhabitants, who though they know not the use of trying of metals, do notwithstanding murmur that any strangers should employ their labours therein. And this their frowardness toward strangers ariseth not of hatred, but upon a jealousy that they should be overreached, or otherwise abused by them: for by nature they are simple and well meaning, not given to ambition, nor infected with avarice. The king's revenue consisteth in four things; the tenths of Ecclesiastical livings, in mines, tributes & customs. The profits of the Church livings amount to a good sum of money: for in this kingdom there were seven cathedral Churches, threescore Monasteries of men and women endowed with most rich revenues. First Gustan, and after his son Eric seized the greatest part thereof into their possessions. Some of the foresaid mines are wrought at the king's charges; some at the charge of private persons, allowing only the tenth part.  
Of three copper-workes I have known the tenth part (which is the kings) to amount to the value of three thousand dollars yearly: hereby estimation may be made of the silver and lead. But his taxes do far surpass all other things: for he levieth the tenth of rye, wheat, barley, fish, oxen, skins and such like. Of the tenth of oxen at some times he hath gathered 18. thousand, and with them maintaineth his court, his officers, his navy, and his armies: for in the time of war, either with the Dane or Moscovite, he alloweth his soldiers victuals, and by this means provideth it at very easy rates, as well offending as defending. The marriage of the king's daughters is at the disposition of the people, & they allow them besides silver, plate and other gifts one hundred thousand dollars for a dowry. Of the uplandish people and others which pay not the imposition of victuals, the king is accustomed to exact of every poll according to his ability, five dollars or more yearly. The customs are paid in the haven towns; the chief where of are Calma●e, Lod●●is, and Stockholme (where a● some times three hundred ships of burden are to be seen) Abo, Auge, Revalia, Parnovia, Narue. It is thought, that the king doth lay up in his treasuries six or seven hundred thousand dollars, besides the expenses upon the fortresses of Revalia and Viburgh.  
There are maintained in Sweveland and Gothland about thirty two troops, every one consisting of five hundred or six hundred soldiers, all arquebusiers, always ready to march, whither occasion calleth. Because of the thickness of the woods, the horsemen serve with petronels, and seldom use pikes or lances. The footmen are most excellent; for every soldier is able to make and furnish himself with any furniture whatsoever, even to the making of his own flask and tuchboxe; as likewise the common people in Per●●ia, and the neighbouring provinces, being contented with a little, have always accustomed to make all implements for their houses and bodies; to build, to weave, to play the tailors, to sow, to reap, and to forge tools fit for their business. And as for those trades, which are neither common nor necessary, as to paint, to work in silver, and such like, there are notwithstanding found among them very good workmen, wanting rather matter than art to work upon. The Swevian horsemen are divided into thirteen companies: Sweveland and Gothland maintain eleven, and Finland two; and upon necessity they can raise a greater force: for the Dukedom of Vermeland (as report goeth) is able to furnish better than ten thousand men with horse. In Marchland there is such plentiful breed of horse, that there they are sold at a very low rate: both these provinces are in Gothland. Their horse is not so big bodied as the Frieslander, but exceeding strong, hardy, active, able to endure travel, and fed with a little. I will not omit to speak of two noble usages of the king of Sweveland towards his soldiers: one is, that if a soldier be taken prisoner, he is ransomed at the king's charges: the other, that if his horse be slain, the king bestoweth an other upon him. He giveth yearly to his captains, and those which serve on horseback, in part of payment of their wages, a garment, which the Romans termed Idolis, and may be taken for a cassock. As touching their sea affairs by reason of their huge sea coast, and infinite havens, the kingdom swarmeth with mariners and shipping, which the king may arrest in his dominions, as other princes are accustomed to do: he maintaineth commonly fifty ships of war, whereof every one carrieth forty pieces of ordinance, more or less. King Gustan brought in the use of galleys. In the war which king john waged with the Danes (before the peace treated on at Stetin was agreed) he put to sea seventy great ships, besides others of smaller burden, in which were 22000. fight men. In the summer time they war at sea; in the winter at land: for then the rivers are frozen, as likewise the sea near the shore for a great space. Seeing I have spoken of guns, I will add this much, that the king is thought to have about eight thousand great pieces, the most part of brass, and that he could cast many more if he had more store of tin. In the castle of Stockholme only are numbered four hundred.  
Upon the west side of Sweveland is Denmark; on the east Moscovie, with both which he hath had long war. The Swevians have suffered much loss by the Denmark's: for king Christian the second besieged Stockholme, and forced it, committing all kind of cruelty against the inhabitants, filling the city with blood and dead carcases. The title which the Dane pretendeth to the crown of Sweveland, is the cause of their enmities. The havens, the situation of the country, and especially Gotland (which is a member of Gothia, and therefore the Swevian claimeth it as his right) affordeth the Dane this facility of invading it at his pleasure. After Gustan recovered the kingdom, he and his son Henry and john reigned successively: and although blood enough hath been shed in the wars between Gustan and the Danes, yet the kingdom hath retained her honour: and the city of Lubeck (the mightiest state in that sea) sometimes by confederating with the one, sometime with the other, doth in so even a balance pease the differences of these two nations; as it suffereth not the one to practise against the other, upon the peril that may ensue to the offender. In warring with the Moscovite the Swevian hath the most advantage, because Finland (which bordereth upon Russia) by reason of the great lakes & marshes, whereof it is full, yieldeth hard & perilous passage to the enemy, oftentimes swallowing up whole armies in those congealed waters: there he keeps the castles of Viburge, Narue, Revalia & other piles and pieces upon the borders of the great Duke of Moscovia, excellent well fortified, as bridles to stop his violent courses. In which, he doth very wisely; for those pieces which lie in the territories of our enemies are to be regarded most carefully, because they bring forth two notable effects: first, they defend what is ours, and offend what is the enemies. The further they are distant from our borders, the better they stand us in steed: for while the enemy is occupied in besieging thereof, our own state standeth in quiet, and time affordeth means for rescue, or delivery thereof at leisure, and that without spoil to our own people, or loss of our proper revenues. They grieve the enemy with so much the more damage, by how much the nearer they are situated unto them. Of this effect was Cale is in the possession of the English, & the places which the Spaniards & Portugals hold in Africa. But the fortresses built in our own borders, serve to no other end then to defend what is already ours, & that to our great disadvantage: for as often as they are invaded, all things are done at a sudden, and it cannot be avoided, but somewhat will fall to the spoil of the enemy. To end with the king of Sweveland, he is so much better able than the Moscovite to defend his territories, by how much sea-forces joined to land-forces are able to prevail against a state furnished with land-forces only.   

Poland.  
THE kingdom of Polonia was never so great as at this day; the great Dukedoms of Lituania and Livonia being joined thereto. It stretcheth from the flood Notes, and Obra (which divideth it from Marchia, and Odera which separateth it from Silesia) to Ber●say and Boristhenes, which two parteth it from Moscovia. It reacheth from the Baltic sea, to the river Niester, which parts it from Moldavia; and to the mountains Carpathie, which divide it from Hungary. By this limitation (from the borders of Silesia to the frontiers of Moscovia, between the west part and the east) it containeth 120. german miles; and from the utmost bounds of Livonia, to the borders of Hungary, not much less. So allowing the form thereof to be round, it is far larger than a man would take it to be. It containeth many and goodly large provinces, as Polonia the great and the less, Massovia, Prussia, Russia, Volinia, Livonia, and Lituania. Among these provinces Poland was found inhabited of the Polonians; but Pr●se, part of Pomeran, Podalia, Volinia, Masovia and Livonia have been obtained and gained by arms. Lithuania and Sa●otgathia (provinces of Russia) were the inheritance of the house of jagello. For in the year 1380. jagello then Duke of Lithuania, took to wife the Princess Hedinge the last of the blood royal of Polonia, and was installed king on three conditions: the first, that he should become a Christian; the second, that he should cause his people to do the like; the third, that he should unite his principalities to Poland. These covenants were accomplished in our age, when the race of jagello ended. For when the people were unwilling by depriving the heirs (which had right to the empire of their just inheritance) to subject it to election, they always called upon the performance of the conditions, hoping that the nobility and people of Lituania would not lose their honour and dignity by this mixture: yet at last on the one side, when they considered the issue of their Princes to fail (for Sigismond Augustus was the last heir male,) and on the other side, fearing the force of the Moscovite, they agreed to union and election. In times past Livonia was the seat of the Dutch Knights, and they had therein their chief governor, whom they termed the Great Master: But in the year 1558. being spoiled of the greatest part of their territory by the great Duke of Moscovie, they fled to Sigismond king of Poland, who took them into his protection, and until the reign of king Stephen 1582 the province was never regained.  
For the most part, Poland is a plain country, and (but for certain mountains (rather hills than mountains) situated in the lesser Poland, and dividing it from Prusland) all the residue of the country stretcheth itself into most ample plains, wherein are very many woods, especially in Lithuania. The greater and the lesser Poland are better inhabited then any other province of the kingdom. The like may almost be spoken of Russia, for the nearness of the sea, concourse to the havens, and situation of the rivers. Prussia and Livonia have fairer cities, goodlier buildings, and by traffic and concourse of merchants greater plenty of riches. For, when the Dutch Knights were Lords of the country, they builded cities like those of Germany, and all alongst the sea coast for the space of fourscore miles many castles and places of good esteem. They have many fair havens of good worth, and are Lords of all the traffic between Poland and the Baltic sea: which is a thing of great value and consequence. For the river Vistula arising in the extremest bounds of Silesia, watereth all Poland the less, and part of the greater, and Mazovia and Prussia, and falleth into the Baltike sea below Dansk, whither it transporteth the greatest quantity of Rye, corn, honey and wax of the whole kingdom, a journey of four hundred miles. From another coast the most famous river Duina arising out of the lake Ruthenigo, & parting Livonia into even portions, falleth into the sea about Riga, a city of great concourse. There are in Prussia and Livonia many lakes, amongst which one is called the new sea, one hundred miles long: in Livonia is a lake called Berhas, more than 400. miles long: from thence spring the rivers, which running by Pernovia and narve, make two notable havens for traffic. Between these two cities stands Rivalia, giving place to neither in beauty. Samogithia is more rude and barbarous than the other provinces, and Podalia more barren: which is not to be attributed to the nature of the soil (for it is most plentiful of those commodities which the climate under which it lieth can afford) but to the cruelty of the Tartars, which so vex it with continual inroads, that the inhabitants are driven either to fly for fear, or to be led away captives of the barbarous Tartars.  
The riches of Poland are the abundance of corn, and all sorts of grain, which grow there in so plentiful sort, that in the year 1590. and 1591. it relieved not only the bordering nations, oppressed with famine and scarcity, but also yielded some portion of relief to the wants of the Genoese, Tuscan, & Rome. It floweth with honey & wax, & whereas in all these northerly nations of Poland, Lithuania, Russia, Muscovia, there are no wines growing, instead thereof, nature hath bestowed upon them incredible quantities of honey, whereof these people do brew an excellent kind of Beverage. The Bees make honey either in the woods where they find the trees made hollow by rottenness or man's industry, or in hives set in the open field by the country people, or in holes of the earth, or in any place where they can find never so small a liking.  
It aboundeth with flax and hemp, with sheep, cattle, and horses. Amongst the beasts of the wood are found wild oxen, and wild horses, and the bufle, which cannot live out of the wood of Nazovia. The riches of the land consist in the salt-pits of Bozena and Velisca, in the territory of Cracovia. The revenues of the kingdom for the most part are equally divided between the noblemen and gentlemen; for no man is left so rich by inheritance, that he may excel others above measure; and the greatest revenue exceedeth not 25. thousand ducats. Only the dukes of Curland and Regimount exceed this mean. For although they are feodaries of the kingdom, & acknowledge the king as their superior, yet are they not as living members of the state; they come not to the diets of the kingdom, they have not their voices in the election of the prince, neither are they accounted as natural Lords of the kingdom; but for strangers, (as in truth they are:) the duke of Curlan being of the house of Ketleri, and the duke of Regimount of the family of Brandenburge. All Prussia did belong to the Dutch Knights, who had their Great Master resident there, who when he was not able to withstand the forces of the Polonians, yielded himself feodary to king Cassimere: afterwards when Albert of Brandenburge their Great Master became a Protestant, he was created Duke of Prussia; and the country divided into two parts; the one regal, immediately holden of the crown, the other Ducall, allotted to Albert, and his successors to hold by fealty. In the king's partition stand Marieburge, Torovia, Gulma, Varnia and Dansk: in the Duchy (which yieldeth 120. thousand ducats yearly) the chief town is Regimont: the Germans call it Conningsburgh, and there the Duke keepeth his court.  
The government of Polonia representeth rather an Aristocracy than a kingdom, because the nobility (who have great authority in the diets of the kingdom) choose the king, and at their pleasure limit him his authority. They have neither law nor statute, nor form of government written, but (by custom from the death of one prince to the election of an other) the supreme authority resteth in the Archbishop of Gesne, who is precedent of the counsels, appointeth the diets, ruleth the Senate, and proclaimeth the new elected king. Before king Stephen erected new Bishops, Palatines, and Castellanes in Livonia, few other besides the Archbishop of Leopolis, and his 13. Suffragans, 28. Palatines, and thirty of the chiefest Castellanes, were present at the election of the new king. In the time of their diets, these men assemble in a place near unto the Senate house, where they choose two marshals, by whom (but with a tribunelike authority) they signify unto the council what their requests are. Not long since their authority and reputation grew so mighty, that they now carry themselves as heads & governors, rather than officers & ministers of the public decrees of the estates. There was one of the council, that after the manner of Clodius, refused his Senator's place to become one of these officers. When a new king is to be chosen, these men do more and more limit his authority, not suffering it to stretch one jot farther than accustomed. But although the crown of Poland be at the disposition of the nobility, yet was it never heard that they rejected or overslipped the king's successor, or transferred the kingdom into any other line more than once, when deposing Ladislaus (whom notwithstanding they afterward restored) they elected Weneslaus the Bohemian. Likewise, they have always a regard to the king's daughters, as of Hedinge, married by them to jagello; and in our times of Anne given in marriage to king Stephen. It was no small cause of the advancement of Sigismond the third, to the crown of Polonia, that he was the son of Katherine sister to Sigismond the emperor, and of the foresaid Anne: And although the kingly authority be elective, yet after he is chosen, his power is absolute in many things, as to call the diets, to appoint the times and place at his pleasure, to choose lay councillors, and nominate the bishops, and whom he will have to be of the privy council; he is absolute disposer of the revenue of the crown, and Lord of those which hold of him immediate; but over the tenants of the nobility he hath no jurisdiction: he is absolute establisher of the decrees of the diets, and sovereign judge of the nobles in criminal causes; it is in his power to reward and advance whom pleaseth him: to speak in a word, such as is his valour, dexterity, and wisdom, such is his power, authority, and government. As the Polanders say, the decrees of the king endure but three days, & they converse with him not as cousins, as in France, but as brethren. And as the king hath absolute authority over them, which immediately hold of him, so the nobility dispose absolutely of their vassals, upon every of whom they exercise more than kingly authority, in manner as upon slaves. In establishing their kingdom, they have done one thing worthy the noting, which is, that as the Romans increased their names and dominion, by communicating the laws and honours of Italy, and the city of Rome to other cities, yea whole provinces: so the kings of Polonia have enlarged, united and strengthened their estate, by participating the privileges of the Polish nobility to those provinces, which either they have conquered by arms or otherways purchased, gracing the nobles thereof with favours equal to any bestowed on the Polish nobility. By this equallyzing, king Ladislaus strongly united Russia and Podalia to Poland: Sigismond Augustus, Lithuania: Stephen, Livonia: for equality in offices & promotions knitteth affections in peace and war.  
The force of this kingdom (as of others) consisteth in grain, coin, footmen, horsemen, armour and munition. Of grain we have spoken already. In coin it is not very rich: for excepting Dansk they have never a mart town worthy estimation; and the wares that are brought from Prussia & Livonia, do not enrich the kingdom with ready money; yea they do hardly suffice to barter with the English & Flemish for cloth, silks & wools: or with the Spanish and Portugals for sugars, spices, fruits & Malues●ies. For when the country is not given to traffic, nor the cities to buy & sell, nor the people to labour, and the nobility is very gallant, prodigal in expenses, spending more than their revenues in diet and apparel, and the seasoning of their meats (for the Polanders use more spices than any other nation:) and their wine, their silk, and the greatest part of their woollen cloth is brought from foreign nations, how can the kingdom be rich in silver? For in transporting of rich ware, and returning of little, consisteth the wealth of every kingdom; gathering together (by venting homebred commodities) the coin of foreign countries, and keeping it once brought in, from passing abroad again. In this practice consisteth the wealth of Naples and Milan: for Naples sendeth to sea great store of corn, wine, oil, silk, woad, horses, fruits, and such like, which bring in huge masses of foreign coin: Milan supplieth the want of other provinces with corn, rice, clothes, iron works, and wares of all sorts; and returneth little again. If the kingdom of Naples and Sicill were as well stored with artificial workmanship, as they are provided with corn and wealth, no other kingdom could compare with them.  
To return to Poland: notwithstanding, their riches are not so small as some think they are; for the revenues of the crown raised of the mines of salt and silver amount yearly to six hundred thousand ducats. True it is that Sigismond Augustus pawned part of his revenues, and king Henry a month before his flight (to bind some part of the nobility fast unto him) sold unto them more than three hundred thousand ducats of yearly rent. It is lawful for the king by sales of escheats falling to the crown, to purchase livings for himself, and of the said revenues to retain great portions to his proper use, and spare his own expenses: for when the king with his court abideth in Lithuania, the Lithuanians defray the charges: the like is done in most places of Poland. He that weigheth with himself that the revenues of Scotland, Navarre, and Sardinia exceed not yearly one hundred thousand ducats, nor the kingdom of Arragon to yield above one hundred thousand crowns every three years; cannot lightly esteem of the revenues of this kingdom: yet the king might raise his revenues to a higher reckoning, if he were less bountiful to his Palatines and Castellanes: for most commonly he bestoweth on them two parts, and three parts, yea now and then the whole profits arising in their governments; but in the time of war and dangerous occurrences (yet by the decree of the assemblies of the kingdom) the king doth lay grievous impositions and taxes on the people, which are either levied of the provinces, or of the assize of bread: and these tallages have amounted to such a reckoning, that therewith king Stephen sustained the burden of a most heavy three-year's war against the great Duke of Moscovie; yea the gentlemen for the defence of the kingdom, are bound to serve at their own charges. These serve on horseback, some armed as our men at arms, some lightlier armed, some like the Tartars, and those they term Cossaches or adventurers, trained up to steal, to depopulate, to waste, to turn all things upside down. These gent. serve in the field gallantly furnished, attired in cassocks and hose shining with gold & silver, & thousand other colours: they adorn themselves with plumes and feathers of eagles, with the skins of leopards and bears, and with many banners and particoloured ensigns. These and such like furnitures do cause them to be discerned of their fellows, make them seem terrible to their enemies, and encourage their minds to fierceness and prowess: Their horse are small, but nimble, and far more courageous than the Dutch. It is thought that upon necessity, Poland is able to raisean hundred thousand horse, and Lithuania 70. thousand, but far inferior in goodness to the Polish. They have so great confidence in the great number of their horse, that nothing fearing the power of any enemies, they regard not the building of fortresses, but resolve that they are able to defend their country, their wives and children, their liberty and goods, in the open field against any prince whatsoever; boasting that in either chance of war, they never turned their backs to their enemies. Sigismond Augustus laboured, that in the diets of the kingdom order might be taken for the fortifying of Cracovia, because of the neighbourhood of the Emperor: but he could never effect it, partly because it should not give their king's opportunity of absolute authority, and tyrannical empery, partly because they think themselves by noble courage sufficiently able to defend the kingdom. They have no infantry; for all the people of the kingdom is divided either into merchants and artificers (which inhabit the cities) or labourers and husbandmen which live in the country, in such subjection as we spoke off before: and this is the reason that the gentlemen only go to the war, and will not in any case serve on foot; but when occasion serveth, they wage German and Hungary footmen: and of these, king Stephen in his journey into Livonia, entertained under his colours little less than sixteen thousand, to convey their great ordinance: For pioneers they use the Tartars, and their own uplandish people. The kingdom is sufficiently stored with great ordinance and all furniture belonging thereto, of which it can suffer no manner of scarcity: first, because the noblemen keep many in their castles; next, for the neighbourhood of Germany, which is rich in metal to cast great ordinance; and plentiful of artificers to forge any thing belonging to the use of war. And though it is not usual to se● many castles in Polonia, yet the fortresses of Leopolis and Camentzie in Russia, the castle of Cracovia in the less Poland, Polocensis in the frontiers of Moscovia, Marienbourge and some other towns in Livonia, are pieces of no small strength. These forces of Polonia (which we have spoken of) are such in quantity and quality, that few nations in Europe can equal them, none surpass them: one thing they want, and that is celerity: for to the sure strengthening of every kingdom, four things are required: that is to say, that their force be of their own subjects, that it be populous, valiant, & quick: their own, because it is dangerous trusting a stranger; populous, because of reenforcements after checks or overthrows; valiant, because number without courage little availeth; yea it bringeth forth tumult and confusion: quick, that they may lightly move, and speedily be drawn whither necessity enforceth. The last of these four virtues the Polands want, that is, celerity: which cometh two ways, one by the authority of the prince, the other by ready money. The king hath not power to determine any thing; to denounce war, to impose taxes, or to gather treasure without the consent of the parliament, and this parliament (where it is necessary that many be present) is like an engine made of many pieces, which without long delays and loss of time can never readily be joined together, or moved forward. For in warlike affairs those princes make best speed, which are best able to command, and have most money in readiness; otherwise in appointing and ordering the diets, and devising that the actions may answer the counsels; then in executing, and lastly in providing of money there happeneth such loss of time, that little is left for the beginning of the journey, much less for the accomplishment. Besides the Barons and nobles are at such charges in travailing to the diets, and make such long tarriance when they are there, that at their departure they have little left wherewith to maintain the war. It may be that for the defence of the state, quicker and readier resolution would be taken, because of the imminent danger fatal in general. But for the conquest of any place, I believe they would proceed with like slowness and irresolution, for the hope of good doth not so much move us, as the fear of evil: yet hath our age seen (in the reign of Sigismond Augustus) the Moscovite to have conquered the provinces of Moloch & Smolock, and that without resistance or revenge; a cowardice ill beseeming so high a king, & so mighty a state: as likewise he invaded Livonia without impeachment, which had shadowed itself under the wing & protection of the said Sigismond. In the days of Henry of Anjou, john prince of Moldavia (even he that with an undaunted spirit and famous victory) held war against the Turk, was shamefully forsaken of them, contrary to the covenants of confederacy between him and Sigismond Augustus concluded. Yet must we needs confess, that such as is the courage, valour, and reputation of the prince; such is the resolution, alacrity, and forces of the Polands: of themselves populous, valiant, and courageous. Stephen Bathor gave good testimony hereof, in whose time Polonia not only maintained the honour and glory of a kingdom, sufficient to defend itself from foreign arms, but also to make conquests of great matters, from most potent enemies. And seeing we have spoken of celerity, a virtue most necessary for every state, it shall not be amiss to speak of the causes of this celerity, which (as is aforesaid) are two: viz. the reputation of the prince, which giveth it life; and store of coin, which preserves it in action: for we have seen in most mighty armies, the body by the slowness of the head, to have spent the time most idly, and very famous victories for want of money, to give continual motion to the army, to have brought forth small or no effects. Besides, the disposition of the soldier is a great help hereunto: for no man can truly praise the German and Bohemian footmen for celerity; but this commendation without doubt is proper to the Italian, Spaniard, and Frenchmen, not only for that they are of better constitution of body, but for that (which in war is all in all) they are better contented to live with a little: though they want coin they are not discouraged, neither wax sick with fruits, if flesh be wanting; and happen what may, they longer and better can endure hardness and scarcity. Their riding light armed is of more execution then armed at all pieces, and their argoletiers more serviceable than lancers: for which cause the French also in their late broils have given over their lances, wherein of old did consist the glory of their arms, and betaken themselves to the pistol. But to what advantage they have thus done, let another dispute, for I say not, that a light armed man is absolutely to be preferred before a man at arms in chances of war, but only affirm, that he is more active and more ready: yea the goodness of the horse is of great consequence. For the Flanders horse far excelleth the Frieslander and German; the Hungary horse, the Polonian; the Turkey horse, the Jennet: the Barbary horse is more speedy than any of the rest: Between both is the courser of Naples, who though he be not so swift as the Spanish jennet, yet he is better able to endure travel, and to bear the weight of armour, not becoming ouer●low therewith. To speak truth, experience manifesteth the German horse, by reason of their slow pace to work small effect, either to pursue the fleeing enemy, or swiftly to fly from their executing adversary: for if the Wallachian, Hungarian, Polish, Turkish, Moorish, or Barbary horsemen should break the Germans, they are not able to fly; and if it happen the German to overthrow them, they are as unable speedily to pursue: for they charge slowly, & retire heavily. So in fights at sea, ships of burden are of small service, because if wind want, they can neither be moved nor turned: the great Galleons are somewhat better, yet perform little more, but the best of all is the galley for his swiftness. And for proof hereof, we have seen the navy of the Christians consisting of great ships to have spent the better part of summer and warlike season in preparations only, and on the contrary, the Turkish fleet soon furnished, and speedily put to sea; of such advantage is spare diet, and needful provision to the Turkish affairs, and so discommodious is gluttony to the proceedings of the Christians: for wine and other delicates only are as troublesome to the Christians, as the whole provision for a camp, to the Turkish army. Therefore let no man marvel if they march in all their iorneys excellently well furnished with ordinance, shot, gunpowder, and all necessaries: for at land they have their carriages laden only with provision, at sea their ships, and not with wine, pullets, and such needless vanities. At a word, they go to the war to fight, and not to fill their bellies.   

The great Duke of Moscovia.  
THE great Duke of Moscovia is Lord of a most large territory, and within the limits of his jurisdiction are contained many regions. Northward his sceptre stretcheth to the north Ocean from the Bay of Granico to the river of Ob: on the south all alongst the river Volga to the Caspian sea: westward it reacheth to the borders of Livonia, and almost to the river Boristhenes, and eastward to Volga. Some write, that it containeth in length three thousand miles, in breadth 1500. wherein are contained fifteen Dukedoms, sixteen provinces, and two kingdoms. They were once subject to the Tartars, whose Prince Roydo in the year 1140. conquered all Moscovie; but john the first great Duke (encouraged by their civil dissensions) denied them tribute. In process of time, when Ammetes the last successor of Roydo, (who died at Vilua) had overcome the Tartars Precopenses, the great Duke adjoined to his Empire, Permia, Veatia, and jugria, provinces subject to Ammetes. From this time the forces of the great Duke increasing, Basilius Casan, and john the second conquered the provinces of Citrahan, which are called kingdoms. To confess truth, the great Dukes have mightily enlarged their bounds, and have taken the great Duchies of Severin and Smoloncke, Bielchese, Prescovia, Novogrod, jaroslave, Roscovia, some from the Polands, & some from other provinces: they possessed part of Livonia, and made their arms fearful to their neighbours. The chief city of the kingdom is Moscow, where the Patriarch resideth, Roscovia and Novogrode are the seats of the Archbishops: Cortisa, Resania, Columna, Susdelia, Casan, Vologda, Tueria, and Smolonck, are Bishoprics: Plescovia, Porcovia, Staritia, Sloboda, jeroslave, Volodomer (from whence the king's seat was translated to the city Moscow, by john the second) Mosayco, Saint Nicholas, Sugana, Vstiud, Cargapolia. The Emperor abideth in the city Moscow, which taketh his name of the river Moscow, rising fourscore & ten miles higher into the country. The city hath been greater than now it is, & was nine miles compass: but since that in the year 1570. it was sacked and burnt by the Tartars precopy; it containeth not above five miles. According to Posse●inus a writer of good judgement and industry, there are housed in this city thirty thousand people, besides oxen and other cattle.  
Novograde hath the name of Great, and yet the same author alloweth it not above twenty thousand inhabitants; as likewise Smolonck and Plescovia. This seemeth most incredible to me, if it be true as some write, that Plescovia when king Stephen of Poland besieged it, had within it fifty thousand footmen, and seven thousand horse. Truly this is a great number, and though they were not all Moscovites, yet this reckoning asketh a great proportion of inhabitants: for if the king thrust in 57 thousand fight men, it must needs be that the inhabitants were very many more. Some will have it, that in times past the country was better replenished with people, and that afterwards it became desolate for three causes: the first, the plague (a new disease in Moscovie) which gleaned away many thousand people: the second, the tyranny of their Emperors, who have put infinite numbers to death, especially of the nobility: the third, the incursions and robberies of the Tartars precopy, and Negaians', which never cease vexing their bordering neighbours. These Tartars harry not only the country, but lead away captive whole cities, selling them to the Turks and other nations. These inroads have laid waste many and far removed provinces.  
The wisdom of a prince is not livelier discerned then in his good foresight, whether his enterprises are likely to prove hurtful or profitable to his estate; and when he suffereth not himself to be carried away with the vain hope of achieving some conquest, which can neither continue to him sure nor certain, but rather draweth after it a continual disquiet to his own safety. For that prince that is led with such an ambitious humour to enlarge his estate, doth but weaken himself in people and riches, and in mine opinion is like the man that minding to raise the walls and roof of his house higher, taketh away the foundation of the building. It is the greatest glory well to keep what we have got; but those gettings which are made with future loss and diminution of our proper strength, are contrary to that Maxim. And seeing these acquisitions are as it were incisions or graffings, they ought to better, not to impair the estate of our affairs: for as these incisions are used to make sour trees sweet, or unfruitful plants fruitful: So the enterprises of princes ought to be such, as bring forth assured honour and profit, otherwise they are labours unprofitable, pulling down more than they build, and heaping to themselves more harm than honour, more trouble than safety. Of this kind are those wars, which are waged to conquer kingdoms far distant, having nothing near unto us, but are so disjoined, that they ask greater garrisons than reason, or our abilities are able to afford, to defend them. Therefore let the resolution of every expedition be laid on three grounds: first, that the quarrel be just; secondly, what hope and facility of conquest; thirdly, what gain will arise of victory. For war undertaken without hope of assured fruit, is mere madness: and many great captains have enlarged the bounds of their empires, but not increased their own quiet and safeties. No prince made longer journeys and greater expenses than the Great Duke john: he vanquished the kingdom of Casan to Volga, and Astrachan upon the Caspian sea: he subdued a great part of Livonia. But what honour, what profit, or what continuance of security gained he by these victories? What was the end of this war? In these expeditions perished infinite numbers of men, in journeying, in assaults, with the sword, with sickness, with hunger and other extremities. When he had overcome them, he was forced to maintain great garrisons, yea to bring thither whole colonies: and beside, when men were so far from their homes, either busied in getting other men's goods, or in keeping what they had got, their wives stayed at home like widows without issue, and the inward parts of the realm remained empty, as a heart void of blood, wanting his necessary nutriment, whilst the inhabitants were wasted on the skirts of the kingdom. And therefore when it was invaded by king Stephen of Poland, these far and remote forces were wanting to make resistance, and through this oversight ●e lost again Pozovia, and other pieces of good reckoning, yea and enforced to leave the whole possession of Livonia to the Polander.  
To return to our purpose; Moscovie for the most part is covered with woods & lakes: these woods are the branches of Hercinia, spreading itself through all the North, and perhaps more in this province then in any other. Here grow the goodliest and tallest trees of the world, through which for their thickness the brightness of the sun beams can hardly pierce. An unspeakable quantity of rosin & pitch distilleth out of these trees, and here is the never-wasting fountain of wax and honey. For without any industry of man the bees themselves build their hives in the barks and hollowness of trees. Here is all plenty of cattle and wild beasts, bears, martin's, beasts called in Latin Zibellini, and wolves: whose skins be are high prices. Of the timber of these trees are squared all necessaries, as well for buildings as all other uses: the walls of their cities are framed of beams cut foursquare, fastened together, filling the chinks and vacant places with earth. Of these beams likewise they build platforms of such height and thickness, that they be are the weight of great Ordinance how massy soever: they are subject to fire, but not easily shaken with the fury of battery. Some men maintain great disputation, whether fortresses built of stone, chalk or earth be of greatest validity. For the last these be their reasons: they are sooner built, with less charge, and make best resistance: when a breach is made, they are easiest repaired, and any part thereof (if chance, occasion or necessity require) lightlier changed. But all these reasons notwithstanding, in my mind fortresses built of stone carry the credit: for, seeing there are four means to ruinate a fortress, Ordinance, mining, fire and digging, peradventure the stone wall may avail as much in resisting, as the earthen in receiving and deadding the bullet; but against mining, fire, the spade and pickaxe, without comparison the stone work excelleth: and to raise platforms on the inside of the wall is all you can invent either defensive or praise worthy to a fortress built of timber and earth.  
For waters, Moscovie is the mother of rivers and lakes, witness Dunie, Boristhenes, Volga, Desna, Onega, Moscua, Volisca, and the famous Tanais, the lakes of Ina, upon which standeth the great Novograde, Voloppo, and many others. The abundance of these waters do make the air colder than is requisite for the increase of cattle, or growth of plants, and although cold is thought more wholesome than heat, yet are their cattle of small growth thereby, and many times their fruits come not to ripening: the earth drowned with the waters for the most part becometh light and sandy, and then either with too great drought, or too much moisture, it destroyeth the fruit. Winter lasteth nine months, little more or less, & yet the soil bringeth forth plenty of grain & feeding for cattle, and by consequence abundance of cattle ●ame and wild. It bringeth forth apples, nuts, and filberts: other kinds of fruits they scarcely know. Of fish they raise their greatest gain, as having greatest abundance of that commodity; they dry them in the frost and wind, as in Norwey and other northerly nations, and they lay it up for store as well in their towns of war, as for their private families. The kingdom is not full of merchants, because by nature th● inhabitants are idle, and that province cannot abound with merchandise, where arts and artificers are not established. They have not the use of the sea, because it is not lawful for a Moscovite to travel out of his prince's dominions: such, and such store of wares as they have, as skins, rosin and wax they barter for cloth and other commodities, which the Armenians bring to Astrachan by the Caspian sea, and the English to Saint Nicholas in the bay of Graduic●or.  
The government of the great Duke is more tyrannical then of any other prince in the world; for he is absolute lord and disposer of the bodies and goods of his subjects. Therefore Mahumet the Visier was wont to say, that the Moscovite and the great Turk amongst all princes of the earth were only lords of their own dominions, and in that regard thought the journey of king Stephen of Poland would prove full of danger and difficulty. To preserve his majesty and reputation he useth incredible policy and severity: first, it is not lawful for any of his subjects to depart the realm upon pain of death; and therefore no man there dare go to sea, no not speak to an ambassador, or use the counsel of a forteine physician without licence. He weareth apparel of inestimable value, joining the ornaments of a bishop to the majesty of a king, by wearing a mitre on his head, shining with diamonds and most rich stones: when he weareth it not on his head, he placeth it before his chair of estate, and oftentimes changeth it, in boast of his riches: in his left hand he beareth a most rich crosier, appareled in a long garment, not much unlike to that which the pope we ar when he goeth to ●●ss●: his fingers are full of gold rings: and the image of Christ and his blessed mother the virgin, are over the chair wherein he sitteth. The privy chamber and great chamber are full of men clothed in cloth of gold down to the foot. In ceremonies of religion he useth great devotion & reverence: at the table as often as a dish is changed, or he hath a desire to drink, he maketh many signs of the cross: he beareth singular regard to fasts, & in the church he kisseth the ground with his forehead, even as others do: That no man should prove a better scholar than himself, he suffereth no school but of writing and reading to be kept; they read nothing but the Evangelists, some history, the lives of saints, a Homily of john chrysostom, or some such like, yea they would hold him for an heretic, that should go about to profess himself better learned, and assure himself, he shall not escape punishment. Which is the reason that their Notaries, nay the Secretaries themselves commonly can neither write, nor answer ambassadors of foreign princes no farther than they are taught of the great Duke: when they negotiate, they no sooner name the great Duke, but all of them rise up with great reverence: the like is done at his table, when he drinketh or carveth to any man, and so in a thousand like casualties: they are taught even from their cradles to believe and talk of their great Duke as of God: using these phrases in their ordinary talking, God only and our great Signior knoweth this: Our great. Lord knoweth all things. All●●e enjoy health and riches; all proceedeth from our great Duke. For his subjects seeing such state and magnificence in their prince, and knowing no more than they are taught at home, reverence and obey him as slaves, not as subjects, accounting him rather a god than a king. He hath not under him Lords graced with titles as we have, dukes, earls, barons, etc. but he bestoweth upon one a hamlet, upon another a farm, and these not hereditary, unless he confirm it: and when he hath confirmed it, the farmers notwithstanding pay him a portion of their fruits, and owe him villaine-seruice: which is the cause that every man dependeth on the will of the prince, and look by how much the richer, by so much the deeper is he indebted unto him. To prevent rebellion, he transferreth whole families and towneships from one province to another, and sendeth the one and the other into garrisons, as into exile: so far away are the miserable people carried from their own homes.  
By this a man may guess of his wealth and riches: for seeing he is absolute Lord of all, he useth the service of their bodies at his pleasure, and what portion of their goods him listeth. Of the skins of wild beasts he challengeth what portion he liketh; and of every sort of fish, even what he will. The skins are sold or given, as pleaseth him: the fish dried in the wind is kept for vittailing the garrisons. In the market no man may sell his wares before the king hath sold. He hath not any mines of gold or silver. The best mart towns from whence he gathereth the greatest part of his revenues, are Astrachan at the Caspian sea, whither the wares of the Persians and Armenians are brought; and Saint Nicholas, whither the ships of the English and Hollanders do arrive laden with cloth and other merchandise, which from thence are transported to Vologda. When his ambassadors return, he taketh from them the presents given them by foreign princes, and instead thereof bestoweth upon them some other reward, and many times nothing at all. To speak in a word: he gleaneth whatsoever is good or aught worth through his whole kingdom: it is thought that he hath great store of treasure in his castles of Moscow, jeroslane, and the marshes of Albi, which may be true: for the great Duke john wasted in a manner all Livonia, sparing neither relic, chalice, crucifix, nor any ornament of silver: and of thatwhich is once brought in, he suffereth no part thereof to be transported out of his dominions, unless it be for the ransom of soldiers taken in the war, or of other poor people carried into captivity. This is most true, that when he lost Livonia, which king Stephen of Poland reconquered in the year of our Lord 1582. he lost the richest province of his dominions for the traffic of the Baltike sea, and the best, for the strength of 34. castles standing therein.  
The strength of the kingdom consisteth in the manifold numbers of rivers and marshes, and in the thickness of woods. Besides, they use to lay waste the parts nearest their enemies; that there the woods may grow thicker, which for the moisture of the soil quickly cometh to pass, & are as available as a wall or trench to the defence of the next towns. This policy brought great travel to the Polanders, for they were constrianed to lose much time in cutting down the woods before they could come to the inhabited places of their enemies. They have a few fortresses, some built of stone, some of brick after the Italian fashion, but without strength of modern diuises or cunning workmanship. Such are the castles of Moscow, Novograd, Plescovia, Porcovia, Sloboda: some are wrought with twigs & earth well trodden down, as Smolonck. But commonly the walls of strong places are built of great beams stuffed with turf or moss, leaving loopholes for their shot. This fortifying is very available against great ordinance, but exceeding subject to ●●ri●g. They serve in the field (as we told you before treating of his government) rather bearing themselves valiantly for fear of punishment, then of their own natures showing alacrity or willingness to the service. He hath his captains at a beck; his soldiers suffer all extremities patiently; they care not ●or●●ost or rain; they endure hunger & scarcity with incredible contentment; they live with a little; better able to defend a fortress, then fight in field: for here courage and agility; there constancy and resolution are most serviceable, whereas the Polanders are better to fight in the field, then to keep a castle. And therefore the Great Duke john finding by experience the unaptness of his soldiers, & the readiness of the Polonians in skirmishes and assaults, was wont to say, that his men had need of a spur to drive them forward, & the Polonians wanted a bridle to hold them back. His chiefest force is in his horse, but what number he can raise, who can show? For I do not believe that he is able (as some say) to arm three hundred thousand, because though his Empire be large, yet for the greatest part it lieth unmanured, as the many-days journey between Cazan and Astrachan, and scarce meeting with one village in the way, may well witness. In the war which king Stephen waged against him (being not above 60. thousand foot and horse strong) he was not able to raise so great a force, I will not say, to meet him in the open field, yea, not to hinder him from the forcing of Pozovia, Vilocoluc, and other pieces, no, nor to divert him from the siege of Plescovia. In the year 1570. the prince of the Tartars with fourscore thousand soldiers pierced even to the bowels of his kingdom, and set fire on his imperial seat Moscow. Therefore I think that they that report, that the Great Duke can levy three hundred thousand men, and the king of Polonia two hundred, do rather mean heads of horses than riders: for there may be so many thousand horse, and yet every one is not to be accounted a horse of service, no more than every horseman a rider, or able to find himself armour. One hath his heart in his hose; another wants ability; a third wants strength of body; a fourth both courage and strength: yea admit he could raise so many horse and men, as these men speak of, yet would it be a hard matter, perchance impossible, for him to assemble them in one place; or if he could, where would wages, or victuals be found sufficient to sustain them. For 200. horsemen in Moscovie, require 300. packhorses, and so many tenders, who must all befed; as likewise the victuallers, the merchants, the artificers, and such servants as can hardly be spared in warlike enterprises: To perform this, whole Moscovie must of necessity be gathered into one place, and then it were to be feared, least in so great a journey from one part of the kingdom, the other part opposite would run to ruin & decay. Likewise although such a proportion of horse, as hath been spoken of, might be raised: it were not wisdom for the state to strip the borders of their garrisons; the provinces of their sinews; the cities of their magistrates; & the country of husbandmen. Therefore I conclude, that prince whose kingdom is able to afford him 150. thousand horse, to be bravely furnished, if he can bring into the field but the third part: I speak of war and not of incursions. Some more modest in writing affirm, that the Moscovite could levy 150. thousand horse, if necessity to defend himself, should constrain him thereto, and that john the third in the voyage of Astracan entertained 120. thousand horse, and twenty thousand foot. The same king invading Livonia in the time of king Alexander, levied a mighty army, and kept another upon the borders of the kingdom. The Great Duke john adjoined to his troops of horse certain thousand of shot, most strangers, which yielded him notable service in the defence of his cities. Every second or third year he reneweth his soldierie throughout the provinces, and keepeth a register of the sons of noblemen, and the number of his servants and horses. The wealthier horsemen use a cuirass of brass, a helmet light and thin; bucklers brought out of Persia, and lances: others are armed with jacks quilted with bombast to resist arrows. These handle the bow, and many of them the harquebus, all the sword and dagger. The Germans serve them in the field, and the Italians in their fortifications.  
To the Duke of Moscovie are adjoining the Tartars Precopenses, the Taurici, the Chersonesi, the Circassis, and the Tartars Negayans. These people inhabit a country seven days journey distant, and are governed by Dukes after the manner of the Heluetians. He hath received great injury of the Precopenses without hope of amends, because they are confederate with the great Turk: and by him furnished with arquebusiers & ordinance; and have in their kingdom many strong places fortified with Turkish garrisons; & therefore he thinketh it hard and dangerous to invade them, being backed by the Turk, whose power he should stir up likewise against him. It is the custom of the Precopi often used, to make inroads into the provinces of the great Duke, as likewise of the Polonian: and to carry away whatsoever comes to hand. If the great Duke have vanquished the Tartars of Cassan and Astracan, let him attribute the conquest to his great ordinance, which they wanted. This Duke led against the Cassani, an engine devised on this fashion: he fastened to the sides of chariots a broad and large plank, bored full of holes, and fitted for the shooting of arquebusiers and musketers; with the which they did grievously wound their enemies, and could not be hurt again by the arrows of their adversaries. By these helps it was no mastery to vanquish and subdue them. But the Precopi have the use of guns, and (worth all the rest) the favour and protection of the Turkish Emperor, who thirsting to open a way into Moscovie, or the Caspian sea, assayed not many years since to dig a trench from Tanais to Volga: but his forces were put to flight by the Moscovites with the aid of the Tartars, who feared their utter destruction if the Turk had brought that designment to pass. This was a devise of greater courage than wisdom: for the Moscovites not only defeated his navy, taking part thereof, but put his land-forces to the sword, consisting of fourscore thousand Tartars, five and twenty thousand Turks, and amongst them three thousand janisars. As we said before, the Circassis live after the manner of the Swissers, they endeavour not to enlarge their own bounds, but serve for wages, sometime the Turk, sometime the Persian, & sometime the Moscovite, from whose dominion they are so far disjoined, that they stand in no fear of their several mightiness. The Tartars Negayans are more to be dreaded for their sudden inroads, & furious incursions, then for jealousy of their forces, or that they are able to raise, or undertake any voyage royal. Of late times they threatened the Moscovite, but their fury was appeased by sending them presents. It is the best course to hazard our money, rather than our forces against the thefts & spoils of these barbarous nations: for when they have neither city nor strong place to subdue, to keep them in subjection: what can you term the war made against them, but a labour with loss, a charge without profit? The great Duke is constrained to keep great troops of horse in Citrachan, Casan, and Viatca, against these Nagaij: as likewise a great garrison in Culagan upon Danais against the Precopi. The next bordering neighbour by Finland side is the king of Sweveland. Of late times this king holding a long war against him, took from him by force the castles of Sorenesco, & Pernavia the great & the less in Livonia on the one side, whilst king Stephen cruelly vexed him with war on the other. In the uttermost bounds of the Fioland Bay, the Swevian to his great charges possesseth the fortress of Viburge, maintaining therein a great garrison to resist the attempts of the Russies, and the great Duke. Likewise in that sea and the coast adjoining, he maintaineth ships of war, as well to be ready at all assays against the approaches of this great Duke; as likewise to forbid the Easterling the bringing of any munition or warlike furniture into any part of his dominions: neither doth he suffer other ships to sail in those seas, without a special placard signed with his own hand. By the benefit of this navy and sea force, the king of Sweveland wheresoever he findeth means to use it, becometh master of the field, & by virtue thereof ceaseth upon many places on the coast of Livonia, and the bordering territories: but where the Duke's horse and his great numbers of footmen may stand him in steed, as in the open field or places removed from the sea, there he maketh his part good enough, and most commonly putteth the Swevian to the worst. The best is, nature bath placed between them such rough mountains, such cold, such ice, and such snows, that they cannot greatly endamage one another.  
The last neighbour is the king of Poland, between whom and the great Duke this is the difference: the Moscovite hath more territories; the Polonian better inhabited and more civil: the Moscovite more subjects, and more subject; the Polonian better soldiers and more courageous: the Moscovites are apt to bear the shaken then to give a charge; the Polonians to charge: the Moscovite is fitter to keep a fortress; the Polonian to fight in the open field: the Moscovites forces are better united; the Polonian more considerate and better advised: the Moscovite less careth for want and extremities; the Polonian death and the sword: yea either nation is of the greater worth, when either of their princes is of greatest valour and magnanimity; as it happened when Basilius conquered the great Duchy of Smoloncke and Poloncke, and the large circuit of Livonia; And again, when Stephen king of Poland in his last war against john (Basilius' son) reconquered Polonck, with divers other places of good reckoning, besieged the city of Plesko, and forced the Moscovite to leave all Livonia: whereby I conclude: such as is the valour and wisdom of the prince, such is the force and courage of his people.   

The Great Cham.  
AS our Ancestors were ignorant of the regions situated upon the east side of the Caspian sea, which they imagined to be a branch of the Ocean: Even so as yet little or nothing knoweth this Age, what regions lie, or what people inhabit beyond that sea, & the mountains, commonly called Dalanguer and Vssont. Mark Paul Venetus was the first that broke the ice in describing of those countries, and of him have we received what we know of the Tartars. For the great distance of countries, the difficulty of the journey, and the inaccessible situation of places, hath hindered the discovery of those provinces: for the great Duke of Moscovie (by whose dominions we may easiest travel thither) will suffer no stranger to pass through his kingdom: the Caspian sea, a passage no less fitting for the journey, is not frequented: and by the way of Persia infinite mountains and vast deserts, dividing both provinces, oppose themselves against us. And to the further hindrance of this discovery, neither the great Cham, neither the king of China, nor the Duke of Moscovie will suffer any of their subjects to travel out of their dominions, nor any stanger to enter in, unless he come as an ambassador, neither (in this case) is it lawful for him to converse freely or range at his pleasure.  
They live under divers princes, the principal whereof are those that wear green on their turbans. These inhabit Shamarcand, and are at continual enmity with the Persians. Next are those of Bochan, Mahometans: then those of Mogor, of whom you shall hear hereafter; and lastly those of Cathay, whereof we now entreat.  
Never was there any nation upon the face of the earth, that enjoyed a larger empery than they do, or have undertaken haughtier exploits: and I would that they had had some, who might have recommended by writing their doings to the world.  
M. Paul Venetus writeth, that this people once inhabited Ciurga and Barge, provinces situated upon the Scythick Ocean, without city, castle or house, wandering like the Arabians from place to place, according to the season of the year. They acknowledged Vncham (whom some interpret Prester john) for their sovereign Lord, to whom they gave the tenth of their cattle. In process of time they multiplied to such numbers, that Vncham being jealous of their neighbourhood, began to lessen their number & forces, by sending them, now hither, now thither, upon most long and desperate voyages, as occasion offered. Which when they perceived, they assembled themselves, resolving to leave their natural soil, and to remove so far from the borders of Vncham, that never after he should have cause to suspect their numbers: this they performed. After certain years they elected amongst them a king, called Changis, to whom for the greatness of his glory and victories, they added the surname of Great. This Changis, departing from his own territories in the year of our Lord 1162. with a most fearful army, subdued partly by force, partly by the terror of his name, nine provinces. At last, being denied the daughter of Vnchan in marriage, he made war upon him, and overcoming him in battle, cast him out of his kingdom. After the death of Changis, his successors afflicted Europe: In the year 1212. they drove the Polosochi from the banks of the Euxine sea. In the year 1228. they invaded and spoiled Russia. In the year 1241. they razed Kiovia the chief city of the Rutheni, and Battu their captain wasted Polonia, Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary. Innocentius the fourth amazed with the tempest of these invasions, in the year 1242. sent certain friars of the orders of Dominicke and Francis, to the court of the great Cham, to entreat a peace for Christendom.  
The circuit of this Empire in the times above spoken of, stretched from the utmost bounds of Asia to Armenia, and from Bengala to Volga, yea their incursions pierced even to Nilus and Danubius. The Macedonian and Roman Empires were never so large. But because they were rather runagates than men of war, wanting politic government and military discipline, sometime ruling one province, sometime another, they rather wrought spoil and terror to the conquered nations, then fear of bondage or subjection, and at last seated themselves beyond the mountain Caucasus. After it became divided into many principalities, yet so that the title and majesty of the Empire, remained always to the great Cham, who (as we said before) took the original of his name from the great Changis. At this day, this Empire reacheth from the desert Lop on the one side, and the lake Kicavia on the other, to that famous wall of China situate between 43. and 45. degrees, which leadeth from mountain to mountain, till it end at the Ocean, and divideth the Tartars from the Chinois: and from the Scythian Ocean, to the confines of Tipura and the bordering regions.  
In the foresaid compass are contained many and mighty kingdoms, and many puissant provinces, as Tangut, wherein are the cities Succuir and Campian, built after the manner of Italy, Ergimul, Carazan, Tebet and Caindu, the chief cities of provinces. In the midst of the Empire is Tenduch, which in the time of Paul Venetus was in the jurisdiction of Prester john, but now subdued by the great Cham. The greater part of the people were Christians but Nestorians, the rest Mahometans. Here is the city Cambalu the imperial seat, containing in compass 28. miles, and near unto it Taiduc situated upon a lake, & containing in compass 24. miles. Then Xaindu the palace of the great Cham, being four square; every square containing eight miles, and four gates. Within that square, is another palace, six miles square; in the midst whereof are three gates towards the south, and as many towards the north; from whence, as likewise from every corner you may behold the imperial palace. And within this circuit is yet an other square of one mile, having six gates like the former. Between every wall you may see meadows and woods, and within this square is the Imperial palace, of whose pleasures, riches and magnificence, neither of his chases, fowling and fishing am I able to write. This whole region for the most part is very populous, full of towns, rich and civil, which you may the rather believe; first, for that the Tartars choosing this for their seat and country, beautified it with the spoils of Asia, China, and that part of Europe which they harried, and were never won or taken from thence again to this day: next, for that the provinces are most commodiously situated for traffic and negotiation, partly by reason of their admirable plains and huge lakes, amongst which are Cazaia (whose waters are salt) Guian, Dangu, Xandu, & Catacora: partly by reason of their large rivers, which with a long course do run by the provinces of Curato, Polisango, Zaiton, and Mccon. Paul Venetus calleth it Quion. A great help hereunto likewise is the variety of fruits, and the abundance of grain, rice, wool, silk, hemp, rhubarb, musk, and excellent fine chamblets woven of camels hair. Paul writeth, that it affordeth ginger, cinnomom, & cloves, which for my part I hardly believe. In many rivers are found grains of gold. Their coin is not all of one value. In Cathaia a coin is currant made of the black rind of a certain tree, growing between the body and the bark. This rind being smoothed, rounded & tempered with a gummy substance, is stamped with the image of the great Cham. In the kingdoms of Caiacan & Carazan, certain sea shells are currant, which some men term porcelain. This kind of money is frequent in many places of India and Aethiopia. By this means the princes get unto themselves all the gold and silver of the provinces, which they cause to be molten and laid up in most safe places, without ever taking any thing from thence again. In like sort Prester john is thought to be Lord of an inestimable treasure, while he maketh grains of salt and pepper to pass for currant coin amongst his subjects. They brew an excellent beverage of rice and spices, which sooner procureth drunkenness then wine. As the Arabians, so they delight in sour milk, or Cosimus, a kind of charmed sour mares milk very forcible to turn the brain.  
His force consisteth first (as we told you) in situation, in spacious territory, in magnificent cities, in plenty of provision, & in rich revenues: for amongst many other things, he taketh the tenths of wool, silk, hemp, grain, cattle, and is absolute Lord of all: but the chiefest sinews of his state consisteth in his armed troops which he keepeth in continual pay and action. These live alway in the field, four or five miles remote from the cities. Over and above their salary, they are allowed to make profit of their cattle, milk & wool. When he goeth to warfare, according to the custom of the Romans, he mustereth part of that soldiery which lieth dispersed through the provinces. For the most part all the nations of the Tartars except the Varcheni, who are not subject to the Great Cham, fight on horseback. Their weapons are the bow and arrow, which they use as desperately in their flight, as in the charge. They are very swift; their tents are made of woven wool, with which they shelter themselves from foul weather. Their chiefest sustenance is milk dried in the sun after the butter is queased out, yea the blood of their horses, if famine enforce. They fight not pell-mell with their enemies, but sometime on the front, sometime on the flank, after the Parthian manner they overwhelm them, as it were with a shower of arrows. Whosoever carrieth himself valiantly, stands assured of reward, and are graced with honour, immunities & gifts. Twelve thousand horsemen are appointed for the guard of the Prince, and it is said that of this kind of force, he is able to levy a greater power than any other potentate. Howsoever it be, two things in his kingdom are worthy consideration: the one is, numbers which may be imagined by the spaciousness of his dominions: the other, their discipline, because he keepeth them in continual pay. For as discipline rather than fury is to be wished in a soldier; so in armies, a few trained and experienced soldiers, are more worth than many strong, huge of stature and raw. The one may well be compared to eagles, lions and tigers, which obtain principality amongst other beasts; not because they exceed them in hugeness of bodies, for than should they be a pray to the Elephant, horse, and bufall; but because they excel them in swiftness and nimbleness joined to the strength of their bodies.  
Beside these things which Mark Paul writeth, certain Englishmen sailing by the Moscovite sea, and the bordering regions have pierced even to Cathaia, and have set down many memorable matters of this Prince, whom the Moscovite termeth the Caesar of Cathay, and the Turk Vlucham, that is, the Great Prince. And not without reason, for in magnificence of courts, ampleness of dominion, abundance of treasure, & number of soldiers, he goeth far beyond all the kings and potentates of Asia, and reigneth in such majesty, that his subjects foolishly call him the shadow of spirits, and the son of the immortal God. His word only is a law, wherein consisteth life & death. He maintaineth justice with admirable severity, except for the first fault: for which the offender is grievously whipped: for every other fault, he is cut in pieces by the middle: herein it should seem they imitate the opinion of the stoics, concerning the equality of offences. A thief is likewise slain, if he be not able to repay ninefold, as well for a farthing as a pound. The first begotten son is heir to the crown, and installed with these ceremonies. The chief of their seven tribes clothed in white (which is their mourning colour, as likewise of the japans) cause the prince to sit upon a black woollen cloth spread upon the ground, willing him to behold the son, and to fear the immortal God; which if he doth perform, he shall find a more plentiful reward in heaven then in earth; if not, that piece of black cloth shall scarcely be left him, whereupon to rest his wearied body in the field, besides a thousand other miseries that shall continually attend him. Then set they the crown upon his head, and the great Lords kiss his feet, swear fealty, and honour him with most rich gifts. Then is his name written in golden letters, and laid up in the temples of the metropolitan city. He hath two counsels, the one for war, wherein twelve wise men consult: the other of state matters, consisting likewise of as many counsellors. These manage all things belonging to civil government, rewarding the good, and punishing the evil, taking especial care to see those preferred, who have done any good service, either in war or peace, to his country and Emperor, and others severely punished, who have borne themselves carelessly and cowardly in the charges committed to their discretion. In these two points, (that is, in rewarding & punishing) consisteth so high a policy of good government, that it may well be said, the greatest part of the barbarous princes by these two virtues only, imprint so majestical a reverence in the hearts of their barbarous subjects.  
For what other face of good government see you in the Turk, Persian, Mogor or jariff? whom reward they but captains and soldiers? where use they liberality, but in the field amongst weapons? Surely they built the foundation of their state upon no other groundwork, nor hope for peace and qutetnes, but by victory and strong hand: yea they have no mean, in disgracing base minds and cowards, and in honouring high spirits and valiant soldiers. Never was there common wealth or kingdom, that more devised to honour and enrich the soldier, than these Barbarians, and the Turk more than all the rest. The Tartars, Arabians, and Persians, honour nobility in some good measure; but the Turk rooteth out the families of Noble men, and esteemeth of no man, unless he be a soldier, committing the fortunes of the whole Empire to the direction of slaves and base borne, but with an especial consideration of their fitness and sufficiency. Let us return to the Tartar, and his form of government. Astrologians are in great request in those provinces; for M. Paul writeth, that in the city of Cambula are fifty thousand: and when Cublay I'm understood by them that that city would rebel against him, he caused another to be built near unto it, called Taindu, containing four and twenty miles besides the suburbs. There are also great store of fortune-tellers and nigromancers in the king's palace of Xandu, as also in China they are in high esteem. Ismal king of Persia enterprised few matters without their council, and it is no wonder that it carrieth such reputation in those places: for between the Chaldeans and Assyrians it took the first original in those countries. The Turks cannot abide it. The Roman Emperors did more than once banish it, and the professors thereof, out of their governments. I would to God the like might be done amongst us Christians, for it is nothing else but a branch of Paganism. To end with the nature of this people, in outward shape they are unlike to all other people; for they are broader between the eyes, & balls of their cheeks then men of other nations be: they are of mean stature, having flat & small noses, little eyes, broad faces, and eyelids standing straight upright, swarthy of complexion, strong of constitution, patient of extremities, excellent horsemen, and very good archers. And as part of the Arabians inhabit cities, and are called Moors, part live in the fields and mountains, and are termed Baduini: so some of these Tartars dwell in cities, as the Cathaians', Bochars, and those of Shamarcand: others wander through the plains, and are divided into hordes, and they are five in number, Zauolen●ses, Cossanenses, Praecopits, Nagaians' and Kossacks.   

The Great Mogor.  
IT hath been always believed, that the territory lying between Ganges and the river Indus, hath been evermore subject to great and mighty Monarches. For (to be silent in matters of more ancient memory) about the year of our Lord 1300. there reigned in the kingdom of Delos an Arabian Prince of the sect of mohammed, named Sanosaradin (as john Barros reporteth) of so great power and strength, that he enterprised the conquest of Asia. Upon which resolution forsaking those regions, in which Indus and Ganges take their beginnings, with a huge and mighty army, by little and little he subdued those Princes and people which did oppose against him, until he pierced to the bounds of Canora, where it beginneth at the river Bate above Chaul, and stretcheth between Bate and the gulf of Bengala to Cape Comorine. When he had won so large and famous a territory, resolving to return into Delos, he left Abdessa his lieutenant in Canora. This man encouraged by the victories of his master, and presuming upon his own good fortune, bereaved the Gentiles of the greater part of Canora: and having gathered a most mighty and populous army compacted of Gentiles, Mahometans and Christians, after he had reigned twenty years, he died in the height of his prosperity, leaving his son Mamudza behind him; whom the king graced with his father's regency, upon condition to pay him a yearly tribute: which payment the young man neither regarded, nor showed himself loyal to his sovereign in many things beside. It happened that Sanosaradin dying in the war which he made against Persia, left behind him a son of such pusillanimity and so base a spirit, that Mamusda hereupon took courage to entitle himself king of Canora, calling the country Decan, and the people Decaini, that is, illegitimate. After this, he erected eighteen captainships, and divided his dominion amongst them, assigning to every one his limits, only with this penalty, to find always in readiness a certain number of footmen and horsemen.  
To prevent future rebellion he did choose these Captains, not out of the orders of his nobility, but from the number of his slaves. Nay more than this (to be assured of their loyalty) he commanded that every one of them, should build him a house in his royal city Bider, in which their children should remain: and that once every year at least, they should make their appearance in his court.  
But because all authority, which is not as well underpropped with his proper virtues, as grounded upon the affections of the people, is of small continuance; so happened it to this Prince: for his slaves and vassals having sovereign authority put into their hands, made no more account of him then of a cipher, stripping him poor Prince without respect or reverence of all his dominions, saving his chief city Bider, with the territory adjoining. For every one of a Lieutenant, became an usurper of those states which were committed to his trust; the mightier always oppressing the weaker: so that all in the end became a prey to a few. Two of them are famous at this day: the one of them stretching his dominion to the borders of Cambaia; the other to the skirts of Narsinga: the first called by the portugals Nissamalucco, the other Idalcan▪ Either of them is so puissant, that in the year 1571. Idalcan belegred Goa with an army of thirty five thousand horse, threescore thousand elephants & two hundred and fifty pieces of ordinance. Nissamalucco besieged Chaul with less forces, but better fortune: for though he did not force it, yet he brought it to an hard pinch, with the slaughter of twelve thousand Moors.  
In those countries in which Sanosaradin began his empire, not above 70 years agone, a great prince (whom the east people call the great Mogor (in the same sense as we call the great Turk) laid the foundation of a mighty empire; for as the king of Biarma in our times greatly hazarded the states of Pegu and Siam, and the bordering regions; even so the Mogor turned topsy-turvy the kingdoms lying on this side the river Ganges. The received opinion is, that they took their original from Tartary, and that they came from that coast, where the ancient Mossagetae, a people accounted invincible in arms, did once inhabit, and living as it were lawless, and under no government, by invasion of their neighbours, procured unto themselves the sovereignty of most spacious kingdoms. By the river Oxus they border upon the Persians, and are at continual enmity with them, sometimes for religion, sometime for enlargement of the bounds of their empire. Their chief city is Shamarcand, from whence came Tamarlan, and of whose blood these Mogor princes do boast that they are descended. The predecessor of him (who is now prince of the Mogors) was very famous in the east; for in the year 1536. being solicited by king Mandao of the north (from whom Badurius king of Cambaia had taken his kingdom) to aid him against the Cambaian, he is reported to have brought with him an infinite number of soldiers, which we may conjecture out of that which Maffeus' writeth of the army of king Badurius: to wit, that this king had under his standard one hundred and fifty thousand horse, whereof five and thirty thousand were barbed: the number of footmen was 500 thousand. Amongst these were fifteen thousand foreign soldiers, and fower-score Christians, French & Portugals: at which, by what means or by what way they should come thither, I do mightily wonder. Their Galleon (which they called Dobriga) suffered shipwreck in the channel of Cambaia. I know, that if these preparations and provisions for war, be compared with our forces of Christendom, they will hardly be taken for true: but we have already declared the causes, why the princes of the east and south may gather greater armies than we can, & consequently that those things which are spoken of their incredible store, and wonderful provision of furniture, may be answerable to their levies and proportions of soldiery. And as they are able to levy millions of men (for arming and feeding them they take no great care;) so likewise do the provinces afford great plenty of provision, and an inestimable multitude of warlike engines: for they carry nothing with them save that which is necessary and needful for the wars: Wines, cates & such like, which cannot but with great expense, labour and trouble be carried along with armies, are by these men wholly omitted and utterly rejected. All their thoughts tend to warlike provisions, as to get brass, iron, steel, and tin, to forge pieces, and cast great ordinance; iron and lead to make bullets; iron and steel to temper scimitars; oxen and elephants to draw their artillery; grain to nourish their bodies; metals to arm them, and treasure to conserve them.  
They are all tyrants, and to preserve their estates, and induce submissive awednes, they hold hard hands over the commonalty, committing all government into the hands of soldiers. And to make these men faithful and loyal, they ordain them lords of all things, committing unto their trust, towns, castles, & expeditions of great weight: but the expectation of the prince is often deceived by the rebellion of these vassals, for sometimes they usurp whole provinces, and impose upon the people all kind of miuries. But let good princes think it as necessary to build their safety upon the love of their subjects, as upon the force of the soldier. Fear admitteth no security, much less perpetuity: and therefore these tyrants expecting no surety at the hands of their subjects, trust wholly upon their men of war, flattering them with promise of liberty, and bestowing upon them the goods of their subjects, as rewards of their service. So with us the Turk strengtheneth his estate with janisars, and as he coveteth to be beloved and favoured of them (to that end bestowing upon them the riches and honours of the empire) so they again acknowledge no other lord and master, I may very well say, father and protector. And so many of the Malaber princes using and accounting the people but as beasts, lay all their hopes and fortunes on the Nairs: the kings of Ormus, Cambaia, Decan and Achan lay all upon the shoulders of these slaves. In a word, as a lawful and just prince hath a great regard and singular care to have the liking and love of the people, by which being guarded and environed (as with a strong rampire) he is able to withstand all attempts: so chose tyrants knowing themselves hateful to the people, employ their whole study how to win the favour of their soldiers and slaves, thereby to repress innovations at home, and invasions from abroad. Seeing therefore the safety and foundation of their greatness is built upon the entertainment of their soldiers, as their Nairs, their janisars, free or bond, strangers or subjects, yea whatso-soever they be, it must needs follow that only actions of war be the end and scope of all their cogitations, as likewise that they be very prodigal to keep their estates very well furnished and appointed with soldiers and provisions. And this reason I take to be a sufficient inducement to believe these reports of the king of Cambaia, and these other barbarous Indian princes. For (besides that I spoke of before) it is reported, that with this army did march a thousand pieces of ordinance, amongst which were four basilisks, every one drawn with an hundred yoke of oxen: five hundred wagons laden with gunpowder and bullets, two hundred armed elephants; five hundred vessels full of gold and silver to pay soldiers wages; many princes and petty lords with their courtiers and followers, merchants, vittailers, artificers, and their servants numberless. Notwithstanding this incredible preparation, he was twice overthrown by Marhumedio: once in the territory of the city of Doce, another time at Mandao, from whence disguising his apparel to save his life, he fled to Diu. Being out of danger and fear, he sent ambassadors to Soliman, with a present esteemed worth six hundred thousand crowns, desiring his aid and assistance in these wars. But afterward weighing in his mind, that his affairs required speedier succours, he contracted a league with those Portugals, which were nearest adjoining: to make them his friends and partners of the war, the composition was, that he should permit them to build a castle in the Island of Diu. Now to speak of Marhumedius. His fortunes were not much unlike to those of Tamerlane: for as this prince brought terror and fear upon the inhabitants of Persia and Asia; so did that, no less innovation and trouble upon India and the Orient: this defeated in battle Bajazet emperor of Turks, that overthrew Badurius king of Cambaia, and his army far greater than his own: both of them had the surname of Great. When the Mogors understood of the riches of India, and the fertility thereof, they never ceased by a continued course of victory their arms and invasions, until they had made themselves Lords of all the provinces lying between Caucasus and the sea, Ganges and the river Indus: in this tract are contained 47. kingdoms. For Adabar the successor of Marhumedius won Madabar, with the better part of Cambaia. Of what goodly consequence this province is, may be magined by the famous cities of Madabar Campana (so called for the situation upon the top of an high hill rising in the midst of a spacious plain) and Cambaia (a city consisting of one hundred and thirty thousand houses) as likewise by the populous host of king Badurius, his warlike provision for such an army, and plenty of grain to sustain such a multitude. I assure you the world affords not a soil for all necessaries for the life of man (as rice, corn, pulse, sugar, oxen, sheep, pullen of all sorts, and silk) more richer or plentiful than this province, wherein also there are reported to be sixty thousand borroughes: which number certainly is very great and admirable. Guicciardine writeth, that in netherlands within the territory of the 17. provinces are contained 208. walled towns, and 150. borroughes, enjoying the rights and privileges of cities, and 6300. villages having parish churches. In Naples are 1800. of these some are towns, some but castles. In Bohemia are 780. towns, and 32. thousand villages. In France (as john Bodine writeth) there are 27. thousand borroughes having churches and bells, besides those in Burgundy, which in those times were not numbered amongst the towns of France. I write not this to induce a true and absolute judgement of the power of any province by the number of parishes, for I know that aught to be made according to their greatness, but yet their number maketh much to the purpose, as in both which, Cambaia may carry the credit and esteem of a most spacious, populous and puissant kingdom.  
Acabar also conquered the rich kingdom of Bengala; so that a man may truly say, that in this part of the orient there are three Emperors: one in Cambaia, the other in Narsinga, the third in Bengala: whereof Cambaia and Bengala far exceed all the other provinces in fertility of soil, & concourse of merchants: both riotously abounding in sugar, cotton wool, cattle, elephants and horses: in Bengala also groweth long pepper and ginger. The first, is watered and cut as it were into two halves by the river Indus, the other by Ganges, having two famous mart towns, Satagan and Catagan.  
The great Mogor doth likewise possess the kingdoms of Citor, Mandao and Delly, wherein he keepeth his court. He hath infinite store of horses, elephants and camels, as also all sorts of artillery and warlike furniture, by means whereof, he is grown fearful to the whole inhabitants of the East. It is written of him, that he is able to bring into the field 300. thousand horse, and that there are within his dominions fifty thousand elephants.  
Some man perhaps will ask, how it cometh to pass that this Prince (being so mighty, and his neighbours so naked, unarmed and poor) doth not get into his possession the dominion of the rest of India and the Orient? In this as in the former unlikelihoods, the wisest man is soon answered. There are many obstacles: one is, that as the spirit and body of man cannot endure in continual travel and motion (for that only is proper to God and Nature:) so a continued and open passage is not evermore given to the ambitious reaches of kings and Princes. Great Empires seldom fear foreign invasion, yet oftentimes faint they under their own weight. It is not destined unto great things to stand always at the highest, much less to increase: they have their flood, but upon a condition, that there follow an ebb. They are lifted on high, but by the irrevocable decree of nature, that a fall succeed: yea & that themselves by themselves decline. The greater they are, the more subject to mutability: the larger the harder to hold and manage: they move but slowly, and of what effect celerity is in war, who knoweth not? The greatest conquest carrieth the greatest envy with it, and greatest care to conserve what is got, and yet not care but long continuance perfecteth these actions: and while time passeth, the neighbouring nations provide (if not infest) for their own safety, yea most commonly by loss of time proceedeth the loss of victorious opportunity. He that hath overcome his enemy, standeth oftentimes in fear of his friend, yea of such as have been fellows & partners with him in all his fortunes: so that to secure himself of these, & such like infinite casualties, he is constrained even in the course of victory to sound the retreat, & surcease his designments. Again, continual victory make leaders insolent, soldiers mutinous, refusing to pass forward at the command of their general, as it happened to Alexander & Lucullus. Great enterprises even brought to their wished end, every the purses of certain private men, but leave the Prince's coffers empty, who nevertheless must be at the charge to maintain continual companies, and keep them in continual pay; without which course, the cashed soldier is ever ready to follow any faction whensoever it shall be offered. Moreover, this numberless army, which Marhumedius led against the king of Cambaia, did not only waste the regions where through it passed and encamped, but likewise by devouring all things that the face of the earth yielded, bereaved itself of the means, which nature in measure afforded to every one to maintain his life: and so it often happeneth, that those armies which in apprehension seem invincible for their hugeness, are most commonly overthrown by famine, the forerunner of pestilence. For proof hereof we have seen the inundations of Attila, Tamerlan, and those barbarous nations stand on foot but a little space, whereas the Grecians, Macedonians, Carthaginians, Romans, Spaniards and English, have done great matters with mean armies. For things that are moderate last and endure, as small rivers, which what they cannot do in one year, in two or more they finally accomplish; whereas immoderate and violent, are like unto Torrents, making more noise and fury then hurt or hindrance, violently coming, and violently carrying themselves away. Therefore against such mighty impressions, the surest safety is, to draw the war out in length, and only to stand upon the defensive: for let such armies rest assured, that they cannot so long hold out, but they will waver, either for want of provision, scarcity of coin, infection of the air, or infirmities of their own bodies. The other thing is, that prosperity blindeth the winner, making him careless; adversity ripeneth the loser, and maketh him wary and industrious: so fortune changing her copy, the affairs of the winner decline, and the good success of the loser groweth every day better than other. Besides, conquests are not perfected but by process of time, and in process of time old age creepeth upon the persons of Princes, and how fit a crazy body, and a vigorous spirit numbed with old age, is for the consummation of a conquered estate, the lives of julius Caesar and Charles the fifth, may stand for examples.  
Lastly to answer those, who unless they be ere witnesses, will never be answered, let them know that nothing so much hindereth the invasive ambition of this prince, as the nature of places. For Caucasus stretching itself into a thousand branches in those parts, encompasseth whole kingdoms with some parcels thereof: by some it runneth by the sides; to others, it is more defensive than any artificial rampire: sometime it wholly shutteth up passages, sometime it meaketh them inaccessible. These difficulties are more injurious to the Mogor then to any other Prince, because the strength and sinews of his forces consist in horse; which as they are of great consequence in Campania, so amongst hills and rocks they are of no service. Of this quality are the frontiers of Persia, and the kingdom of Sablestan, on every side he●d in with that part of Caucasus, which the Grecians call Paropanise. Segestan is likewise so environed, that the river Il-mento (were it not for searching out infinite windings and turnings through natural valleys) could hardly find passage to pay his tribute to the famous Ganges. In Cambaia itself, where the Mogors are of such fearful puissance, live the Resbuti, not dreading them one whit, by reason of the strength of the mountains. These Resbuti are the remainder of the Gentiles, that betook themselves to the mountains between Cambaia and Diu, when the mahometans first entered these countries; and since that day by strong hand they have preserved their liberty, infesting very often the plain country with their incursions. Other provinces there are utterly barren, not only wanting water, but all necessaries else: of this kind is Dolcinda, upon the skirts of Cambaia, through which it is impossible to lead an army. To these discommodities you may add the loss of time, which Princes (being lords of ample and spacious dominions) are constrained to make in their voyages. For the better part of summer is spent before they can arrive at their rendezvous with their horses half dead through travel, and the army half in half in number and courage diminished, yea winter overtaketh them, commodious for their enemies, and disaduantagious for them. For they must lie in the field and open air amongst mire & frosts, their enemies under a warm roof, & wholesome harbour. Whereupon wise princes, which have been to make long land-iourneies through divers provinces of divers natures, for fear of such like discommodities, have thought it best to provide shipping, and to use the opportunity of rivers or sea, as did Caesar Germanicus in the war of Germany, after he perceived that in the protracting of time (which was requisite for the marching of his army) the greater part of his men and horses were idly consumed by infirmities, labour, and the length of journeys. But the Mogor is utterly destitute of this advantage: upon one side he hath no haven, on an other the Portugals are his jealous neighbours, who with two castles of great strength, at Din and Damain, have shut up the whole gulf of the Cambaia● sea. Finally, the puissance of their neighbours hath been as great a control to their furious invasions, as any other natural cause: viz. the king of Barma, who is nothing inferior in power and riches: for he is lord of so many kingdoms, and so fierce and warlike a people, and can bring such swarms into the field, that he is fearless of any his Tartarian neighbours. And as the Mogor ruleth fare and wide between Ganges and Indus, so doth this king between Ganges and Siam. As the one deviseth to offend; so by little and little the other waxeth wise to defend.  
For by nature man is more prone to procure his own safety, then ready by wrong to oppress others, being always more careful to conserve, then forward to destroy. It cannot be expressed how full of subtlety, shifts, devices, & industry man is to defend him and his: for he useth for his own safeguard, not that only which is properly defensive, but even that also which may be any way offensive. Neither ever was there any instrument invented for offence, but that the same might be turned to defence; of which kind are castles built of later times, and the devices of modern fortification. And therefore the closest castles are never accounted the best, because they which are forced to guard such places, are deprived of the facility of offending the enemy by sallies, shot, wildfire, and such like: all which, and many other stratagems were easily performed in an open hold. But of all inventions, there is none more admirable than that of fortification: for even the terms thereof (as Curtains, counterscarps, parapets, trenches, vamures, mines, and countermines, casemats, and such like phrases) are very ingenious and mystical: for by this art few soldiers have resisted great armies; and a small place made tenable, hath wasted the forces and treasures of a mighty Emperor: As well witnessed the fortunes of 800. Portugal's at Damain upon the coast of Cambaia, who by this art scorned and deluded the whole forces and attempts of this mighty Mogor.   

The kingdom of China.  
IN times past the kingdom of China hath been far larger than now it is. For it appeareth by their histories (containing the Annals of 2000 years and upwards) and by other of their manuscript Chronicles written in their own language, (whose fragments are yet to be seen) that their kings were Lords almost of all the sea coast of Asia from the straight of Anian, to the kingdom of Pegu: the provinces of Meletai, Bacam, Calan, Boraga, and other territories, situated upon the north side of Pegu: where their monuments with their epitaphs & devices are to be seen at this day. For in all the foresaid regions, the relics of their ancient ceremonies, (whereby the knowledge of the Mathematics, as the division of the year into months, the Zodiac into twelve signs, true testimonies of their empery) are observed and taught by tradition. Neither is the time long, sithence all those kingdoms accounted the king of China their sovereign, sending their ambassadors with presents to his court every third year. These ambassadors ought to be four at least, for before they could arrive at their journeys end, some of them either by remoteness of place, difficult access of audience, or delay in dispatch, could not but surely die; those whose chance it was to scape, the Chinois in some set banquet would poison, & erect unto them stately tombs, with the inscription of their names, the place from whence they came, & with the title of ambassadors: thereby (say they) to commit to eternity the remembrance of the bounds of their empire. They enlarged their dominions no less upon the Ocean, then upon the continent. For they first of all invaded the Isles of the Orient; next them followed the Giau●; then the Malaccans and Moors, and lastly the Portugals and Castilians, who hold them at this day. But none of these nations were of equal power and magnificence to the Chinois: for besides the conquest of the bordering Isles (which in regard of their numbers, their spaciousness and fertility, were of great reckoning) they became Lords of the greatest part of all the inhabitable places in that vast Archipelago, even to Zeilan, where they left their speech & characters, as also they did the like upon the opposite continent. We read also in the papers of certain jesuits, that in one quarter of the Island of S. Laurence, they found white people, which said that they descended of the Chinois. They first discovered the Moluccas, gave names to the spices, & planted colonies in many of them, which to this present keep their old names, as Batta China a Muar, Batta China, Mauri: Batta signifieth a town, Batta China, a town of the Chinois. It is likewise thought that the inhabitants of java descended of them, & to speak truth, there is no great difference between their manner of living, clothing, building, industry, traffik, & manual occupations. But after the shipwreck of 80. vessels, and the loss of their people in the sea of Zeilan, comparing their profit with their loss, they resolved to try no more such hazards, but to contain themselves within their own bounds. And to cause this edict to be inviolably observed, they enacted, that none thereafter upon pain of the loss of his head should offer to sail into those parts: the kings themselves did ever after abstain from future invasions. For sithence they enjoy a very earthly paradise, where nature and art are at strife to content the inhabitants, where no good thing is wanting, but much superfluous and to spare; what mad men would consume their bodies and treasures in getting those things, which are more chargeable to get, then profitable to keep? Polybius writeth, that upon the same reasons the old Carthaginians forsook part of those things, which before they had conquered. The Romans after they had suffered a grievous loss of their best vessels in the second Punic war, in mere despair bid navigation adieu; but afterwards perceiving that they who were commanders of the sea, were likely to prove Lords of the land, built a new navy, and at length saw the success answer their latest opinions. Therefore can we not but ascribe this resolution of the Chinois rather to good conscience and advisedness, then to wisdom or good policy. For seeing there can be no greater folly then to hazard our own goods, upon hope to gain another's, to waste the borders of our own dominions to invade our neighbours, to shed our own blood upon desire to spill a strangers: it is more honourable and worthy the office of a king, to content himself with his own right, rather than by wrong to possess another's. Content breeds stability, conquest brings care to see to the conquered: therefore why should any prince wear out himself to enlarge his dominion, if enlargement do not only do no good, but even spoileth that which was good before, making that uncertain which before was certain, and weakening that which before was strong. Let a wise prince utterly refrain such journeys; if they bring not assured security, and more than common profit. For security is one scale wherein a state hangeth, which, if the beam stand true, must only aim at that which is likely to breed greater security, and that is, the seizing upon straits, sconces, passages, and fit places to remove the enemy far away: In the other scale should hang profit, & that is, by conquering those provinces which are rich or able to yield all kind of provision for living creatures and furniture for war and shipping.  
But to return to the Chinois. When this surrender was resolved in full counsel, they set the people whom they had vanquished, free; yet some of their good wills remained feodaries, shadowing their estates under the wings of their puissance, as the kings of Corea, Lequi, Canchinchina and Siam. And notwithstanding their retreat within their own bounds, yet possess they a dominion little less than all Europe: for from the North towards the South, it reacheth from 17. to 52. degrees, from the East to the West are 22. degrees. Pacquin, wherein the king keepeth his court is situated in 48. degrees. The Empire is divided into fifteen provinces, six maritime, Cantan, Foquem, Chiquevan, Pantora, Nanquij, the rest inland, Quichiu, juana, Quancij, Suivam, Fuquam, Cansij, Xianxij, Nonam, Sancij. The provinces of Quinci, Cantan, and Foquem are divided from the uplandish, with mountains like the Alps, but not above two days journey asunder. Thomas Perez the king of Portugals ambassador made four months journey from Cantan to Nanquij, always bearing northerly.  
It is not so spacious, but it is as fertile: for it yieldeth not only what is fitting for human life, but whatsoever the delicate and effeminate appetite of man may lust after. Many plants yield fruit twice or thrice a year, and that not only by the temperature of the air, but by the number of rivers and plenty of waters, which do both cause traffic through every corner of the region, and so water it on all sides, that it resembleth a most pleasant and delectable garden plot. Of this plenty there are two causes: one, the prodigal expenses of the king in digging of trenches through the whole land; sometime cutting through rocky mountains, sometime damning up deep valleys to make them level with high mountains, & to drain the waters of lakes and marshes: the other, for that the whole region is situated under the temperatre Zone, and in no place, either by nature or man's industry, wanteth moisture; so that all creatures taking nourishment of heat and moisture must needs here wondrously prosper: In no place plants may take larger scope to spread their branches, nor cattle larger walks to wander in, then in this country. The last reason is, for that the idle are neither severely punished, nor altogether tolerated, every one is forced to do somewhat, no foot of land is left unhusbanded, nor dram of stuff cast away unwrought. Amongst all admirables, one thing is worthy consideration, that in Cantan they keep four thousand whales to grind corn and rice. In China every one is set about somewhat, according to his years and strength, one laboureth with his hand, one with his foot, one with his eye, another must be doing with his tongue, those only who are impotent in their limbs, & have no friends living to succour them, are provided for in hospitals. That none may excuse themselves, in saying he can do nothing, every one is bound to learn his father's occupation, which is the reason that the children (borne as it were tradesmen) learn their father's occupations before they perceive it, becoming in time most artificial mechaniques. He that can not live at land, seeketh his maintenance at sea, (for that is no less inhabited than the land,) yea infinite households live upon the rivers in boats without coming to land for a long season. Some of these live by ferrying over people, some by transporting passengers and their merchandise: others keep shops, other vessels of lodgings for merchants and travelers. Whatsoever is needful for clothing, for food or nourishment, delight or case of a civil life, is to be found in the midst of great rivers. Many nourish all sorts of poultry, especially ducks in their vessels. To hatch the eggs and nourish the young ones, they use not the dams, as we do, but an artificial heat, in a manner as they do in Egypt, especially at Cair. All night he keepeth them in his boat, & at morning sendeth them to feed in the fields sowed with rice, whence all day long having fed upon the weeds, to the great good of the husbandman, they return towards evening to their cages, at the sound of a little bell or cymbal. Many live by carrying fish, both salt and fresh, into the high countries: for in the spring, when the rivers rise through thaws and land-flouds, so incomparable quantities of sea fish do abound in the havens or creeks, that the fishermen depart rather wearied then wanting. This fish the skippers buy for a small matter of the fishermen, and keeking them alive in certain vessels made for the purpose, they transport them into provinces far remote from the sea. There they are sold and preserved in pools and stews near cities and great towns to serve the markets and tables of the Chinois all the year long.  
Because it is forbidden any inhabitant to pass out of the land without leave, and therewith neither but for a time limited, it must needs be that by the daily increase of people, the country be even pestered with inhabitation. It hath been observed amongst themselves, that for every five that have died, seven have been borne. The climate is so temperate, and the air so wholesome, that in man's memory any universal pestilence hath not been known to infest the country. Notwithstanding lest any man should think this people to enjoy all sweets without some mixture of sour, you must note, that their earthquakes are more dreadful to them then any pestilence to us: for whole cities have been swallowed, and provinces made desert by this punishment. They choke up the course of ancient channels, and make new, where were never any before, they lay mountains level with the ground, making havoc of the people. In the year 1555. a deluge breaking out of the bowels of the earth, devoured 180. miles of firm land, with the towns and villages standing thereupon: those which scaped the flood, lightning and fire from heaven destroyed.  
There are said to be in China 150. cities, 235. great towns, 1154. castles, and 420. boroughs without walls, wherein soldiers are quartered: of villages and hamlets (some of them containing a thousand households) the number is infinite; for the country is so covered with habitation, that all China seemeth but as one town. They have two metrapolitan cities, Nanquin and Panquin. In Nanquin towards the north the king keepeth his court; Under the jurisdiction of the one are seven provinces, under the other eight. Both of them are so spacious, that it is a days journey for a horseman to ride from one end to the other. Of the number of inhabitants no certainty can be produced, but according to manuscript relations, and report of travelers, it is said, that the kingdom containeth 70. millions of living souls. This is an admirable report, and not to be believed, if it be compared with the provinces of Christendom, but surely something above conceit is to be credited to these spacious, populous, and barbarous nations. Let us set the largeness of their provinces, the circuit of their cities, their plenty and abundance of all things, and in all places, either prospering by nature or man's industry, with their numbers and inhabitation, and we shall find a country like enough to afford such a reckoning, cities and dwellings able to contain them, and nourishment sufficient to maintain them. Italy exceedeth not nine millions: Germany (excluding the Swissers and Netherlands) not ten, and with the foresaid provinces not above fifteen, which number peradventure France may reach unto. Spain is far inferior to Italy: Sicily hath but one million, and three hundred thousand: England three millions, and Belgia as many, if by the continuance of the war in those countries that number be not much decayed. The Italians conceiting marvelous highly of themselves, think no province upon the face of the earth for wealth and people comparable to Italy, but they forget, that as it is long, so it is narrow, and nothing wide or spacious, neither that two third parts have not one navigable river (a want of great consequence) neither that the Apennine, a mountain rocky and barren, doth spread itself over a fourth part. Let them not deceive themselves, nor condemn others plenty, by their own wants, nor measure others excess by their handfuls. For fertility, doth France in plenty of grain or cattle give place to Italy? Or England, for cattle, wool, fish, or metal? Or Belgia, for number or goodliness of cities, excellency of artificers, wealth or merchandise? Or Greece for delectable or commodious situation, havens of the sea, or pleasant provinces? Or Hungary for cattle, wine, corn, fish, mines, and all good things else. But I will not stand upon these discourses, only let me tell you, that Lombardy containeth the third part of Italy, a province delightsome for battle plains, and pleasant rivers, without barren mountains, or sandy fields, and to be as full of people as the whole half of Italy beside. Yea, what may be said of Italy for profit or pleasure, that may not be spoken particularly of France, England, netherlands & both the Pannonies? Wherefore since the country is not only large, mighty, and spacious, but united, populous, plentiful and rich, at least let it be believed and accounted for one of the greatest empires that ever was.  
The government is tyrannical: for throughout the kingdom there is no other Lord but the king. They know not what an Earl, a marquess or a Duke meaneth. No fealty, no tribute or toll is paid to any man but to the king. He giveth all magistracies and honours. He alloweth them stipends wherewith to maintain their estates, and they dispatch no matter of weight without his privity. His vassals obey him, not as a king, but rather as a God. In every province standeth his portraiture in gold, which is never to be seen but in the new moons, then is it showed and visited of the magistrates, and reverenced as the kings own person. In like manner the governors and judges are honoured, no man may speak unto them but upon their knees. Herein the people show their base minds, making themselves the slaves (not the subjects) of the prince. Strangers are not admitted to enter into the kingdom, lest their customs and conversation should breed alteration in manners, or innovation in the state. They are only permitted to traffic upon the sea coasts, to buy and sell victual, and to vent their wares. They that do traffic upon the land, assemble many together, and elect a governor amongst them, whom they term, Consul. In this good manner strangers enter the kingdom, but always awaited on by the customers and kings officers. The inhabitants cannot travel but with licence, and with that neither, but for a prefixed season: and to be sure of their return, they grant no leave, but for traficks sake, and that in ships of 150. tun and not above: for they are jealous, that if they should go to sea in bigger vessels, they would make longer journeys. To conclude, it is a religious law of the kingdom, that every man's endeavours tend wholly to the good and quiet of the common wealth. By which proceedings, justice the mother of quietness, policy the mistress of good laws, and industry the daughter of peace, do flourish in this kingdom. There is no country modern or ancient governed by a better form of policy, than this Empire: by this government have they ruled their Empire two thousand years: And so hath the state of Venice flourished 1100. years, the kingdom of France 1200. It is two hundred years since they cast off the yoke of the Tartars, after their ninety years government.  
For their arts, learning and policy, they conceive so well of themselves, that they are accustomed to say, that they have two eyes; the people of Europe, one; the residue of the nations, none. They give this good report of the Europeans, because of their acquaintance with the Portugals, with whom they traffic in Macao and other places, and the renown of the Castilians, who are their neighbours in the Philippinae.  
By the multitudes of people (before spoken of) you may imagine the state of his forces, for herein all other provisions take their perfection. But to speak somewhat in particular. The power of this Prince (remembering his contentment, and nature detesting all invasion) is more ready and fit to defend then offend, to preserve rather than increase. His cities for the most part are builded upon the banks of navigable rivers, environed with deep and broad ditches, the walls built of stone and brick, strong above belief, and fortified with cavaliers, and artificial bulwarks. Upon the borders toward Tartary (to make sure work against such an enemy) they have built a wall beginning at Chioi a city situate between two most high mountains, and stretching itself towards the east six hundred miles between mountain and mountain, until it touch the cliffs of the Ocean. Upon the other frontiers you may behold many, but small holds, so built to stay the course of the enemy, until the country forces be able to make head, and the royal army have time to come leisurely forward: for in 400. great towns he keepeth in continual pay forces sufficient upon the least warning, to march to that quarter whither occasion calleth. Every city hath a garrison and guard at the gates, which at nights are not only fast locked but sealed, and may not be opened before the seal at morning be thoroughly viewed. To speak truth, their soldiers, horsemen and footmen, by land or sea, are more famous for their numbers, their gallant furniture, and plenty of provision, then for strength and courage. For the inhabitants partly by their effeminate and wanton kind of life, partly by their form of government, whereby they are made vile, base and umbragious, have little valour or manhood left them. They use noforren soldiers, except those whom they take in war: these they send into the inland countries, where being marked (to distinguish them from other) they serve more like slaves than soldiers, yet have they pay, with rewards for their good service, and punishment for their cowardice: true motives to make men valorous. The rest, which are not enrolled, are not suffered to keep weapons in their houses.  
Their sea forces are nothing inferior to their land forces: for besides their ordinary fleets lying upon the coasts for the safety of the sea towns, by reason of the abundance of navigable rivers, and so huge a sea-tract full of havens, crecks and islands, it is thought that with ease they are able to assemble from five hundred to a thousand great ships, which they term Giunchi.  
To think that treasure can be wanting to levy so great a number of ships, soldiers, and mariners, many men affirm, that the king's revenues amount to 120. millions of gold, which value although it may seem impossible to him that shall make an estimate of the states of Europe with the kingdom of China; yet may it find place of belief, if he do but call to mind, first the nature and circuit of the Empire, being little less than all Europe; next the populousness of the inhabitants, accompanied with inestimable riches, then though diversity and plenty of mines of gold, silver, iron, and other sorts of metal, the unspeakable quantity of merchandise, passing from hand to hand by so many navigable rivers, so many arms and inlets of the sea, their upland cities and maritime towns, their tolls, customs, and subsidies. For he taketh the tenth of all things which the earth yieldeth, as barley, rice, olives, wine, cotton wool, flax, silk, all kinds of metal, fruits, cattle, sugar, honey, rhubarb, campher, ginger, woad, musk, and all sorts of perfumes. The custom only of salt in the city Canto (which is not of the greatest nor the best traffic) yieldeth 180. thousand crowns yearly: the tenth of rice of one small town and the adjacent territory yieldeth more than 100 thousand crowns. By these you may conjecture of the rest. He leaveth his subjects nothing, save food and clothing. He hath under him no Earls, Lords, or Nobles of any degree, no nor private persons endowed with great wealth. Wherefore since this empire is so huge, and all the profits thereof are in his hands, and at his disposition, how can the former assertion of so great a yearly revenue, to men of reason seem any thing admirable? There are two things moreover which add great credit to this reckoning, one is, that all his impositions are not paid in coin, but some in hay, some in rice, corn, provender, silk, cotton wool, and such like necessaries: the other is, that the king of 120. millions which he receiveth, disburseth again three parts thereof. And so sithence it goeth round from the king to the people, it ought to seem no wonder, if the people be able to spare it again for the princes use at the years end. For as waters do cbbe as deep as they flow, so impositions easily levied suffice for the expenses of the state, and the people receive again by those expenses as much as they laid out in the beginning of the year.  
The king of China feareth no neighbour, but the great Cham of Tartary: all the rest acknowledge vassalage. Against this enemy the ancient kings built that admirable wall, so much renowned amongst the wonders of the Orient. Towards the sea he bordereth upon the japonians and Castilians. The distance between japan and China is divers. From Goto one of the islands of japan to the city Liampo is threescore leagues: from Cantan 297. The Islanders of japan do often spoil the sea coasts of China by their incursions, descending on land and harrying the country, more like pirates than men of war. For in regard that japan is divided into many islands, and into divers signiories (ill agreeing amongst themselves) though they excel the Chinois in arms and courage, yet are they not of sufficient power to perform any action of moment against them. Upon another frontier lie the Spaniards, of whom the Chinois not without good cause are very jealous, because of the situation of the Philippinae (commodiously seated for the invasion of China) and the fame of their riches well known to the Spanish. But the king of Spain wisheth rather to plant Christianity peaceably amongst them, whereof there was once good hope that God had opened a passage thereunto. For though the Chinois will suffer no stranger to enter within their dominions: yet certain jesuits (zealous in the increasing of the Christian religion) in a territory, so spacious as that is, entered with great secrecy and danger, and obtaining the favour of certain governors, obtained a privilege of naturalisation, especially friar Michael Rogerius, who in the year 1590. returned into Europe to advise what course were best to take in this business. About the same time intelligence was brought from two friars remaining there, that after divers persecutions they were constrained to forsake the city wherein they sojourned and had converted many, and to make haste to seaward. The Portugals are likewise eie-sores unto them, but by the report of the justice and moderation of Ferdinand Andrada, which he showed in the government of the Island of Tamo, & by the traffic which they exercise in those seas, they can better digest their neighbourhood, then that of the Spanish. This was the first Portugal that arrived in the city of Cantan, and set a land Thomas Perez jegier for Emanuel king of Portugal. But other captains being there afterwards disimbarked, behaved themselves so lewdly, that they occasioned the said Ambassador to be taken for a spy, and cast in prison, where he died most miserably: the residue were entreated as enemies. At last it was permitted the Portugals for traffic sake to settle a factory in Macao, where again before they had strongly fortified their colony, they were constrained to submit to the limitations of the Chinois, to whom in short time for their strength, wisdom, friendship and allians with the Castilians, they became suspicious: & therefore they do daily more & more bridle their liberty of traffic, carrying so heavy a hand towards them, that they would fain give them occasion to leave Macao of their own wills, and retire back again into India, from whence they came.   

The kingdom of Siam.  
Upon the borders of China, (to speak nothing of Cauchinchina because we know nothing worth relation of that territory) joineth the country of Siam, accounted amongst the great kingdoms of Asia. It took his name of the city Siam, situated upon the entrance of the river Menan: It is also called Gorneo. It stretcheth by east and west from the city Campaa, to the city Tavai, in which tract by the sea coast are contained 500 leagues. Of which the Arabians once usurped 200. with the cities Patan, Paam, jor, Perca, and Malaca, now in the possession of the Portugals. From the south towards the north it reacheth from Sinca-Pura situate in degree, to the people called Gueo●● in 29. degrees. The lake Chiamai is distant from the sea six hundred miles: the upland circuit stretcheth from the borders of Canchinchina beyond the river Auan, where lieth the kingdom of Chencra. Besides the lake of Chiamai, the rivers Menon, Menam, Caipumo, & Ana (which cause greater fertility of grain through the whole region, than a man would believe) are all his. The better part of his kingdoms are muironed with the mountains Ana, Brema, and jangoma: the residue is plain like Egypt, abounding with elephants, horses, pepper, gold and tin. In the west part are huge woods, tigers, lions, tinces and serpents. It containeth these provinces, Cambaia, Siam, Muantai, Bremea, Caipumo, and Chencra. The inhabitants of Lai which border upon the north of the provinces of Muantai and Caipumo, and are divided into three principalities, are under his obeisance. The first is that of jangoma, the second of Cucrai, the third Lanca near Chachinchina. They inhabit a plain and wealthy country, into which the Gueoni (Mark Paul calleth their country Cangigu) descending from the mountains to hunt for men, make oftentimes cruel butcheries amongst them. The people of Lai for fear of these anthropophagis acknowledge the sovereignty of Siam, but they often rebel, and obey as they list.  
The wealth of the country may be conjectured by the firtilitie: for being situated in a plain, and watered with most noble and famous rivers (like an other Egypt) it cannot but abound with plenty of all things. It bringeth forth rice, grain of all sorts, horses, elephants, infinite store of cattle, gold and tin: silver is brought thither by the people of Lai. By reason of this plenty, the people are drowned in pleasure and wantonness. They follow husbandry, but take no great delight in manuel occupations, which causeth the kingdom to be poor in merchandise. Amongst many other cities three are famous, Cambaia, seated upon the river Menon: which rising in China, is so hugely augmented by the falling in of many rivers, that his own channel not sufficing for receipt thereof, it renteth the earth to disgorge itself, into a thousand islands, making a second Meotis more than 60. miles long. Meicon signifieth the captain, Menon the mother of waters. The second city is Siam, whose stateliness giveth the name to the whole country. It is a most goodly city, and of admirable trasfike, which may the better be imagined by the writing of a certain jesuit, who reporteth that besides the natural inhabitants, there are more than thirty thousand Arabian households. The third city is called Vdia, greater than Siam, consisting of four hundred thousand families. It is said that two hundred thousand boats belong to this city, and the river Caipumo, whereupon it is seated. This king to show his majesty and magnificence keepeth a guard of six thousand soldiers and two hundred elephants: of these beasts he hath thirty thousand, whereof he traineth three thousand for the war. This is a great matter, if you weigh their worth and their charges in keeping.  
His government is rather tyrannical then kinglike: for he is absolute Lord of all the demeans of the kingdom, and either setteth them out to husbandmen, or giveth them to his nobles for their maintenance, during life and pleasure, but never passeth the right of inheritance. He bestoweth upon them likewise towns and villages with their territories, but upon condition to maintain a certain number of horsemen, footmen and elephants. By this policy without any penny pay or burden to the country, he is able to levy twenty thousand horsemen, & 250. thousand footmen. Upon occasion he can wage a greater number, by reason of the largeness of his kingdoms, and the populousness of his towns. For Vdia only (the chief seat of his kingdom) mustered 50. thousand men. And although he be Lord of nine kingdoms, yet useth he no other nation in the war but the Siamits, and the inhabitants of the two kingdoms of Vdia and Muantai. All honours and preferments are bestowed upon men of service in this kingdom.  
In times of peace they have their warlike exercises, and in certain pastimes which the king once a year exhibiteth at Vdia, are showed all military feats of arms upon the river Menon, where more than 3000. vessels (which they term Paraos) divided into two squadrons, skirmish one against the other. Upon the land run the horses and elephants, and the footmen try it out at sword and buckler with point and edge rebated: the remainder of their days they spend in riot and wantonness.  
Their borders towards the East reach to Canchinchina, between whom are such huge woods, lions, tigers, leopards, serpents and elephants, that they cannot infest one another by arms. Towards the lake Chiamai they border upon the Chinois. Towards the sea they affront the Arabians and Portugals. The one took from them Patan, Paam, jor, and Peam, the other Malaca, and the territory adjoining; so that between them they bereaved him of two hundred miles of land: and contenting themselves with the sea coasts, and the customs arising upon the carrying out and bringing in of merchandise, they abstain from further invasion of the inland provinces, and hold it good policy to keep firm peace with the king and his countries. Toward the west lieth the kingdom of Pegu like an half moon, between the mountains of Brama and jangoma. Towards the north lie the Gudoni, inhabiting the barren and sharp mountains, between whom and Siam dwell the people of Lay. This people is subject to the crown of Siam for fear of these Cannibals, of whom (if it had not been for his protection) they had long agone been utterly devoured. Not forty years since the king made a journey against them with twenty thousand horse (their horse are small, but excellent good in travel) 250. thousand footmen, and ten thousand elephants; part employed for service, part for carriage. No kingdom hath greater store of these beasts, or doth more use them. An innumerable number of oxen, buffals, and beasts of carriage followed this army, whom they slew when they wanted other provision.  
Hitherto have we devised of Siam and Pegu (as they stood) before the coming of the Portugals into India, but how in process of time the state was altered, you shall now hear. In times past divers kingdoms of Barma situated along the river towards the lake Chiamai obeyed the king of Pegu under the government of certain Lieutenants. Sixty years since one of these captains ruler of the kingdom of Tengu, by the aid of his faction and reputation of his virtues, entered into rebellion, and slaying the Nobles of the land, usurped the kingdom. Afterward he forced the cities, and conquered the kingdom of Prom, Melintai, Calam, Mirandu, and Ana, all inhabited by the Bramians, for the space of one hundred and fifty leagues towards the north. He assayed likewise the conquest of Siam; but coming before Vdia the chief city of the kingdom, he was forced to raise his siege and depart. He undertook this journey with 300. thousand footmen, consuming more than three months in making way for his army through stony mountains, huge woods & maccessible places; and in am for the loss of 120. thousand of his soldiers, he took two hundred thousand Siamits prisoners. At his return home he invaded the kingdom of Pegu, and won it. Afterward in the year 1507. he renewed his journey against Siam, and overcame the king thereof, who slew himself with poison, but he took his sons and with them the better part of the kingdom. He belegerd Vdia with a million of men and upward. Our late writers call this man and his successors (because their fame arose by the conquest of the kingdoms of Brama) kings of Brama or Barmia, but the Portugals of a more sound judgement grounded upon nearer neighbourhood, call them kings of Pegu.  
And for that it may not seem that what we write as concerning their infinite numbers, is either fabulous or reported altogether upon hearsay, because that now, heerebefore and hereafter we shall have occasion to discourse of this point, we think it not amiss, to spend some time in showing how & by what likelihoods, both in this and the other barbarous dominions such huge and numberless companies are levied and nourished. First therefore it is a ground infallible that populous armies, at home or abroad, cannot long endure without great revenues, and a continual sea of ready money: for as the members of our body cannot move without sinews, nor motion avail us, if joints were wanting; so without money an army can never be gathered, nor being gathered kept together, nor resolutely lead forth to any piece of service, if coin be wanting, which preventeth infinite mischances, and draweth after it armour, provision, victuals, and whatsoever is necessary for life or arms. And sithence the wealth of Princes, even as of private persons (from whose purses they supply their occasion) hath limits and measure: Let them not think to begin any long war, much less to continue it, unless they thoroughly provide aforehand, or are Lords of mines rich and inexhaustible: for great treasures are soon spent; and that which hath thriftily been gathered in peace, must prodigally be disbursed in war: even one year of war wasteth the reprisals of many years peace. Which moved a certain Portugal captain to tell king Sebastian, providing for his journey into Barbary, that wars should be performed with three streams; the first of men, the second of victual, the third of silver. For all wars are exceeding chargeable, but those most excessive and beyond opinion which are managed far from home. The great Turk in his Persian journeys felt the smart hereof, who though he were so potent a prince, was notwithstanding constrained to raise the value of his coin, and abase the allay, so far forth, that the janisars finding themselves aggrieved thereat, raised commotions, set fire on the city of Constantinople, and rifled a great part thereof. Neither could the king of Spain sustain the burden of so many wars, and in so remote provinces, if he trusted to no other supplies then those of Spain, but Fortune hath given him a country prodigal in mines of gold and silver, assuredly paying the expense of one year with the income of another. This clotheth and feedeth the soldier, bringeth them to a head, and maketh them to march cheerfully upon all services. john laque Triwlce being demanded how many things were necessary in war, answered three, Money, money, money. But these grounds only hold when the burden of the war lieth upon the purse of the prince and his people: for sometime it happeneth, that the soldier liveth upon the enemy's country, as did the Huns, Vandals, Goths, Arabians, and in our days Tamerlane. They entered the provinces without control or resistance, being unprovided of forces, and made pray and spoil of whatsoever came into their reaches; they ransacked the cities, and fed upon the villages. The like good luck had the Portugals in the East Indies, and the Castilians in the West, but the one far better then the other: for never any nation conquered with less cost so much as the Spaniards have done in New Spain and Peru. But let not any people think to do so in these days, no not in Asia or Africa, much less in Europe, where the use of great ordinance is in perfection, and the art of fortification so ingenious, that one castle shall be able to sustain, yea well provided, to weary the forces of the greatest potentate. The Turks at Zigeth (a sinal castle in Hungary) approved this, which in the year 1566. Soliman belegered with three hundred thousand men of war, and at last forced, but with so great a slaughter of his people, that scant the third part of this huge army returned to their houses. In like manner the Portugals in the beginnings of their Indian acquisitions, with a few soldiers and in little time won admirable victories; but when the Barbarians began to grow acquainted with artillery, to allure Carpenters and Masons to build them castles, and to arm vessels to sea, their courages became calm, and there set an end to their plus ultra. The like did the Spanish in the new world, to their Non sufficit orbis. For after their first good fortunes they found in Nova Hispania, the Chichimechi, and in Peru the Pilcosonij, the Ciriguani and the Luchij, people so well provided to stop the furious course of their former victories, that sithence, in twenty seven years space they have not been able to add one feet breadth to their new empery. In the vale of Aranco, Tecapel, and the kingdom of Chile, when the inhabitants saw them to be wounded and slain with the strokes of their arrows and swords, they never afterward vouchsafed them their former reverence, nor carried the wonted conceit of their immortality: and now being beaten by experience, they fear not the career of the horse, nor the terror of the harquebus.  
If the war be at or within our own doors, then is it easy to levy strong and populous forces, as we read of the Crotons, Sibarites and Gauntois, who made head against the power of France with fourscore thousand fight men. For when the war was made in these populous countries and near at hand; every man made one in the meddle, gallantly armed, and well provided with furniture and victual to hold out certain days: but when the war continued longer than expectation, for want of money and food every man retired, one to the plough, another to his shop, the rest to those trades, whereby they sustained themselves and their families. The Scots for want of wealth never made famous journey out of the Island, but at home they have lead mighty armies for a short time, either to revenge wrongs or defend their frontiers: even as did the Romans for certain ages, warring with their neighbours at their private charges. They took the field every man provided with victual for two or three days, and in one battle and few hours finished that war. But in the journey against the Veijs, the war continuing beyond opinion, the State was enforced to procure pay for the army. That armies may far casier be gathered in the east and in Africa, then in Europe: the reasons are many. Those regions for the most part are more plentiful and copious of all necessaries for human life: the people of the south are better contented with little than we: their diet is spare and simple, only to maintain life and not excess: but the Europeans must eat and drink, not to sustain nature, but to comfort the stomach and expel colds. Wine which with us is dearer than bread, is not to be found amongst them; their waters are better than our drinks. Cookery is in no such request with them, as with us, nor their tables accustomed to such cates: their banquets are only furnished with rice and mutton. Neither do the people of the east spend a quarter of that clothing which we do: they go to the war half naked, hiding nothing but their privities: they stand not in need of that number of workmen which we do, amongst whom the greatest part of our life is spent in weaving and devising stuffs and fashions to clothe the carcase and adorn the body, with cloth, silk, colours and embroideries. All their expenses are only upon clothing of cotton wool, and that but from the navel to the knee. These are the reasons which I meant to lay, why they may gather forty thousand men with more ease, than we ten; and to these may be added this as the last, that upon ordinance and their furnitures; upon provisions and their carriages; upon horses, pioneers, and a thousand like necessaries, infinite sums are expended; of which the people of the east are utterly ignorant, especially those which have not to deal with the Portugals or Arabians. They go to the war without armour, without curases, helmets, lances, or targets, which with us cannot be conveyed from place to place without great expense. Virgil calleth this, luggage, iniustum fascem, because it seemeth a needle's trouble: and therein we degenerate much from the ancient Romans, who for ten days journey and more, carried every mans his proper weapons both offensive and defensive, yea and sometimes his victuals. What should we speak of the armies of the Assyrians, and Ethiopians, of Belus, Ninus, Simiramis, Cambyses, Cirus, Darius, Sesostris & Sesacus, were they not as huge and populous by the report of all histories, as these whereof we entreat? Or in times less ancient have not we and our ancestors seen the Arabians, Tartarians and Turks invading provinces with armies of three hundred thousand people and upward. By modern examples and memory of later accidents to give credit to the ancient, I will set down what happened in Angola (a noble & rich province of the west Ethiop adjoining to Congo) reported by the letters of certain jesuits and Portugal captains. In the year 1584. Paulus Diazius by the favour of God and valour of his people, upon the second day of February put to flight the king of Angola, and defeated his army, consisting of one million and two hundred thousand Moors: which may well prove that these populous armies are of little service and small continuance, rather like violent storms, than dripping showers; and though with ease they are gathered, yet without greater provision than any province is able to afford them, they are not easily held together. When their provision is spent, they begin to break, and bid adieu to the action; and that most commonly not in the midst of their course, but even in their first removes: for merchants, victuallers, tailors, shoemakers, smiths, and such like follow not their wars: and if they should, than this inconvenience would follow; that for one million of soldiers, it were necessary to provide another million of wagons, packehorses, carters, carpenters, victuallers, merchants and their servants, and then, neither rivers would serve them for drink, nor the fields with bread, nor the earth for lodgings: so must they needs sink under their own weight, which the eastern Princes (leading these unaccustomed numbers upon long journeys) in some sort forecasting, did always provide incredible masses of money, victual, and such like warlike provisions, long before they entered into action: as was well seen in Xerxes, who to maintain that great army, as well at sea as at land, which he led for the conquest of Greece, spent seven years in preparation for the journey.  
To return to the king of Barma: of late years he took the havens of Martela and Pernasor; and turning his armies sometime towards the north, sometime toward the west, he vexed the Princes of Caor and Tipura, took the kingdoms of Aracan and Macin, leading upon this journey 300. thousand men, and forty thousand elephants.  
Aracan is a kingdom round environed with mountains and woods as with a wall or trench: the chief city which giveth the name to the country is situated upon a river fifteen leagues from the sea, and 35. from Catagan.  
Macin is a kingdom abounding in Aloës: this wood which the Arabians call Calambuco, and others Lignum vitae, for the sweet savour is valued by the people of the east at the weight in silver. In India and Cambeia they use it at the burial of great Lords, in baths and in other wantonness. It groweth most frequent in the rough mountains of Campa, Cambaia and Macin. That which is brought to us is in no esteem with them: the right is found (say they) in Congo and Angola and the bordering country, and used by them in all their grievous and dangerous maladies; which if it be true, I marvel that the Portugals will let slip so precious a commodity.   

Narsinga.  
IN the row of these potent princes inhabiting between Indus and Ganges dwelleth the king of Narsinga. Whatsoever lieth between the mountains Gate & the gulf of Bengala, between the promontories Guadaverne and Comorin for the space of 200. leagues, abounding as prodigally (as any other province in the Indies) with all good things, is under his dominion. The waters sometime falling from the mountains, sometime from the rivers, and received into trenches, meres and lakes do wonderfully cool, moisten, and enrich this land, causing the grain and cattle to prosper above imagination. It is no less plentiful of rice, birds, beasts wild and tame, buffals, elephants, and mines of precious stones and metals. It breedeth no races of horse for the war, but they buy them of the Arabian and Persian merchants in great numbers: the like do all the princes of Decan. Within the bounds of Narsinga dwell five nations different in language; he hath many strong places upon the Indian Ocean. Canora is at his command, wherein are the haven towns of Mangolar, Melind, Batticala, and Onor: but the Portugals receive the custom of Batticala, and in times passed of Onor. In Narsinga are two imperial cities; Narsinga and Bisnagar: by reason whereof he is termed sometime king of Narsinga, sometime king of Bisnagar.  
It is undoubtedly believed, that this king receiveth yearly twelve millions of ducats, of which he layeth up but two or three, the residue he expendeth upon the troops of his soldierie, that is to say, forty thousand Nairs, and twenty thousand horsemen kept in continual pay. Upon necessity he is able to levy a far greater number: for besides these allowances he setteth out certain lands to 200. captains, upon condition to keep in readiness a proportion of horsemen, footmen, and elephants. The wages of these captains (to some of whom he giveth a million of ducats yearly) may be an argument of his great revenues; for to these projects, this prince and all the potentates of the East, keep in their possession all the profits of the lands, woods, mines, yea and the waters of pools and rivers through their whole dominions. No man may wash himself in Ganges (which runneth by Bengala) nor in Ganga (which watereth the land of Orissa) before he hath paid toll to the king. The king himself is now enforced to buy this water, causing it to be brought unto him by long journeys, upon a superstitious custom, either to bathe or purge himself therein. He is absolute Lord of the bodies and goods of his subjects, which he shareth to himself and his captains, leaving the people nothing but their hands and labour: of lands the king hath three parts, and his captains the residue. Whereupon since all these barbarous princes maintain not peace and justice, as arches whereupon to lay the groundwork of their estates, but arms, conquest and the nursery of a continual soldierie, it must needs follow that they are able to levy greater troops of horse and foot then otherwise we were bound to believe. But to induce some measure of credit, let us compare the abilities of some Christian princes, with theirs. If the king of France were absolute Lord of all the lands and profits of his whole dominion (as these men are) it is thought that his yearly revenues would amount to 15. millions, and yet therein are neither mines of gold nor silver; The elergie receiveth six millions, the king's demesnes amount to one and an half, the residue is theirs who have the inheritance, and yet the peasant's live well here, in comparison of the villagois of India, Polonia and Lithuania. Besides this the king hath eight millions of ordinary revenue, arising of customs and escheats. How mighty a prince would he be, if he were landlord of the demesnes and rents of the whole kingdom, and should employ them upon the maintenance of soldiers, as doth the king of Narsinga? Surely whereas now the king's revenues do hardly suffice for the maintenance of four thousand men at arms, and six thousand crossbows; if this allowance were added to the former, he might as easily maintain 150. thousand.  
To return to Narsinga: the king to see that his captains perform their duties, once a year proclaimeth a muster, whereat they dare not but be present. At the muster day those who have presented their companies defective either in number or furniture, are sure to be cassed: but those who bring their companies complete and well armed, he honoureth and advanceth.  
What forces may be gathered out of so ample a dominion (armed after their manner, as aforesaid) you shall gather by that which john Barros writeth of the army which king Chrismarao led against Idalcan in the journey of Raciel. These are his words verbatim. Under sundry captains the army was divided into many battailions: In the vanguard marched Camaraique with one thousand horse, 17. elephants and 30. thousand footmen. Tiarabicar, with two thousand horse, twenty elephants, and fifty thousand footmen. Timaipanaique, with three thousand horsemen, and 56. thousand footmen. After them followed Hadainaique with five thousand horsemen, fifty elephants, and one hundred thousand footmen. Condomara, with six thousand horse, sixty elephants, 120. thousand footmen. Comora, with 250. horse, forty elephants, and 80. thousand footmen. Gendua, with one thousand horse, ten elephants, and thirty thousand footmen. In the rearward were two eunuchs with 1000 horse, 15. elephants, and forty thousand footmen. Betel one of the king's pages led 200. horse, twenty elephants, and eight thousand foot. After all these followed the king with his guard of six thousand horsemen, three hundred elephants, and forty thousand footmen. Upon the flanks of this battle went the governor of the city of Bengapor with divers captains, under whose colours were 4200. horse, 25. elephants, and sixty thousand footmen serving for wages. Upon the head of the battle ranged 200. thousand horsemen in small troops, like our vantcurrers, in such sort and order scouring the country, before, behind, and on all sides, that no novelty could so suddenly happen, but notice thereof was given at the Imperial tent in a moment. Twelve thousand carriers of water, and twenty thousand light housewives followed this army. The number of lackeys, merchants, artificers, scullions (they call them Maniati) oxen, buffals, and carriage beasts, was infinite. When the army was to pass any river knee-deep before the foremost were passed, there was scant remaining sufficient for the latter whereof to drink. Before this journey the king sacrificed in nine days 20736. head of living creatures, as well of birds as beasts, the flesh whereof in honour of his idols, was given to the poor. The soldiers were clothed in garments of cotton wool so close and hard quilted, that they would bear out the thrust of a lance or sword. Every elephant was trimmed in a covering of cotton wool, with a frame on his back bearing four men. To their tusks were fastened long and broad swords, to cut in sunder whatsoever stood in their way. The footmen were armed with bows, javelins, swords and bucklers. These last the better to cover their whole bodies, and to manage their heavy bucklers carried no offensive weapons. In the fight when the king perceived Idalcan by the fury of his great ordinance to make havoc of his men, and dismay the residue, leaping into the head of the battle, is reported to use this prince-beseeming encouragement: Believe me, my companions, Idalcan shall rather boast that he hath slain, then overcome a king of Narsinga. With which words and ensample his soldiers all inflamed, and ashamed of their cowardice, with a furious charge broke the enemy's array, and put Idalcan to flight. Amongst other spoils they took four thousand Arabian horses, one hundred elephants, four hundred great pieces, besides small. The number of oxen, buffals, tents and prisoners was inestimable. With Idalcan were forty Portugals, with the king of Narsinga twenty. In his reign two of his captains rebelled; Virapanai usurped Negapatan, and Veneapatir the territory adjoining to Matipura.   

Calecute.  
THE most noble part of India is that which lieth between the mountain Gate and the Indian Ocean. It stretcheth from Cape Comerin to the river Cangierecor, three hundred miles long. In this province reigneth the king of calicut, who though he may not be compared to the princes above spoken of, for number and power, yet for pleasant and plentiful situation, he may be said far to surpass them. For the region is so cut (as it were) into many parcels, sometime by creeks of the sea, sometime by rivers, and sometime by lakes, that nature (as it should seem) would have it divided into several provinces, as Travancor, Colan, Cochin, Crangonor, Calecute, Tano & Canonor. Seven years agone Pereimal king of all Malabar ruled these provinces, who after he became a Mahometan, and resolved to travel to Mecca, there to spend the remnant of his days, divided the land into many principalities, but with this proviso, that all sovereign authority should rest in the king of Calecute, with the title of Samori, which signifieth Emperor, or as some write, God on earth. Although the reputation of this king be much eclipsed by the Portugals, partly by diversion of traffic from his countries, and partly by astisting his rebels and vassals (the kings of Tavor and Cochin) and though his title of Samori be little regarded, yet maintaineth he his wonted majesty in very good sort amongst the Barbarians. Calecute is 25. leagues long: Malabar in the broadest place exceedeth not ten.  
The city of Calecute (from whence the province taketh his name) is three miles long, situated upon the sea side. It containeth but few houses, and those of little worth, not above ten, fifteen, or twenty nobles rend by year, which is the common rent of all the housing of the East Indies, if the Arabians or Portugals be not dealers therein. The inhabitants live upon rice, palmito, cattle and fish. Their riches consist in ginger and pepper, which draweth yearly a great mass of treasure into the havens of this kingdom. The Arabians were Lords of this traffic for many ages, till the Portugals setting light by the incredible dangers of a long navigation, arrived there not above 100 years since, and bartered their wares for pepper and other commodities of the land. And as the Portugals enriched the towns of Cochin, so did the Arabians Calecute and that kingdom. For this commodity is of such consequence, that it not only enricheth the prince with presents and customs, but in such sort so augmenteth the state of the merchants, that some of them are comparable to many dukes in Europe and kings in Africa.  
In their wars in Malabar they use not the service of horse, not only for that the climate breedeth none, (for those that they have are brought out of Persia and Arabia) but for that the nature of the country is not fit for horsemanship. For as in Swevia the footmen use no pikes, and the horsemen no lances for the thickness of the woods, which maketh them unserviceable, so in Malabar because of the straits, rivers of the sea, and marshes, they seldom use horses, so that all their forces consist in shipping and footmen. It is strange to see how ready the soldier of this country is at his weapon; they are all gentlemen, and termed Naires. At seven years of age they are put to school to learn the use of their weapons, where to make them nimble and active, their sinews and joints are stretched by skilful fellows, and anointed with the oil of Sesamus: by this anointing they become so light and nimble, that they will wind and turn their bodies, as if they had no bones, casting them forward, backward, heigh and low, even to the astonishment of the beholders. Their continual delight is in their weapon, persuading themselves that no nation goeth beyond them in skill and dexterity. Every one inureth himself to that weapon, whereto he findeth his body most agreeable. Their ancient weapons were the javelin, the bow, and the sword; but after the coming of the Portugals, they learned so exactly the mixing of metals, the casting of great ordinance, and the practice thereof, that (some say) their artillery and powder surpasseth ours. They go to the war all naked save their privities, neither use they head pieces, which is the reason that in fights and skirmishes they show exceeding agility, charging & retiring more like falcons than soldiers. When a man would take them to be far off, he shall see them hovering round about him in a trice, so that it is as dangerous to follow them flying, as to deal with them fight. They are swift as leopards, and their flight as much to be feared, as their charge. If they come to handstrokes (which they will not do but upon necessity or advantage) they use altogether to strike with the point. They bind copper or silver shingles to the hilts of their swords, the sound whereof in steed of drums and trumpets encourageth them to the encounter. They will lie so close under their bucklers, that you shall not see any part of their bodies lie open to danger. There are one kind of Nairs (called Amochi) which accurse themselves, their kindred and posterity with most bitter execrations; if they leave injuries done to their society unrevenged. If their king happen to be slain, so much the more furious run they through fire, water, and assured destruction to revenge his death. And therefore the kings of India suppose their estates weak or strong, as they perceive the numbers of those Amochi to be few or many. By the law of the country they may not marry, but they are all allowed women in common. They maintain those women very well according to their birth and degrees. They must be all gentlewomen, for the Nairs may not take any countriewomen, yea so great is their disdain and pride, that without ill usage they will not endure any of the common people to come near them. In their journeys they send their servants before to the Inns and villages to declare their master's approach: then must all travelers depart and give room. If it be thought in Turkey, that by licentious liberty in time of peace, the janisars become more hardy and courageous in war: what may we deem of these Nairs, who will not indune a man of mean calling to look them in the face? They inhabit no towns, but dwell in houses made of earth environed with hedges and woods, and their ways as intricate as into a labyrinth.  
Of what force this kingdom is, may be gathered by the army of sixty thousand soldiers, and two hundred vessels of war, which he levied 1503. against Edward Pacheco the king of Portugals captain, taking part at that time with the king of Cochin: this war lasted almost five months. In the year 1529. with an army of one hundred thousand he belegered the fortress which the Portugals built in Calecute, under the keeping of john Lima. In this siege he spent a whole winter, wherein although the Portugals behaved themselves very valiantly; yet weighing the king's forces and their own possibilities, they thought it best to destroy it with their own hands. In the year 1561. he besieged Ciale with 90. thousand men, and took it by composition. He hath more than once given an instance of his power at sea. He is Lord of many havens, whereunto great numbers of shipping do resort, and in that regard, cannot choose but be well furnished with a great navy. But in goodness of shipping and martial discipline we must needs confess the sea-forces of all the Indian princes to be far inferior to those of the Portugals; whose dominion (both at sea and land) nothing hath so much augmented, as their defensive warfare. To speak truth, it seldom falleth out, but the naked man feareth the sword, and the armed more encouraged thereby, bearing himself bolder upon his skill then his strength, and prevailing more by temporising, then in joining foot to foot by rash fight, whereas the Barbarians putting more confidence in their numbers then goodness, have always wanted that virtue, which should make armies dreadful and fortunate, and that is good order and warlike discipline.   

The kingdom of Persia.  
PErsia, and the Persian glory, hath been often obscured, first by the Arabians (who to bury in oblivion the memory of their former reputation, enacted by law that they should no more be called Persians, but Saracens:) then by the Tartarians lead by Chingis, and lastly by Tamerlan and his followers. But not long before our times by the virtue of Ishmael Sophy (of whose original and fortunes for the better understanding of the state and history of Persia, it shall not be amiss to devil) the kingdom regained his ancient splendour. When Mahumet, after the decease of his first wife (who adopted him her heir) by her riches and his new superstition had gotten him a name amongst the vulgar, he married for his second wife Aissa the daughter of one Abubacer, a great rich man, and of high authority in those quarters. By this man's countenance, and the friendship of Omar and Ottomar his kinsmen, he gathered together a great rabble of Arabians, and partly by fair means, & partly by colour of religion, he became master of many of the bordering towns: and about the same time gave Fatime his daughter by his first wife to Haly his cousin; and to him after his death, all his earthly substance, making him the head of his superstition, with the title of Caliph. Abubacer, by whose countenance Mahumet became gracious, taking in ill part the preferment of the young man, by the aid of Omar and Ottomar (whose desires were in hope of succession by reason of the old man's years, and for kindreds sake, rather to see Abubacer then Haly Caliph) began openly to resist Haly, and to spoil him and his wife Fatime of all the substance which was left him by his uncle. Abubacer died: Omar and Ottomar succeeded. Omar was slain by a slave; Ottomar in a private quarrel: after whose decease Haly succeeded. Against him rose Mavie, who accusing him as accessary to the death of Ottomar his Lord, caused him to be slain near Cafe, a city within two days journey of Babylon, where likewise he lieth buried. The place is called to this day Massadall, that is, the house of Haly. After his decease the inhabitants of Cafe proclaimed Ossan the son of Fatima Caliph, but him likewise Mavie resisted, and slew by poison. Then was he absolute Caliph, and after him his son jazit. Ossan left behind him twelve sons, one whereof was called Mahumet Mahadin. The Moors say he never died, but that he shall return again to convert the world, and therefore they keep always ready in the mosque of Massadella, a horse gallantly furnished, where in their foppery they affirm that this world's conversion shall there first begin. Upon these differences of Haly, Abubacer, Omar, Ottoma●, & Mavie, have mighty factions of arms and opinions arisen amongst the sectaries of this new superstition. The Persians labour to prove Haly true Caliph by the last will of mohammed; the Arabians stand as stiffly to the three first. When from the year of our Lord God 1258. to the year 1363. the Moors had no Caliph (Mustapha Mumbala the last Caliph being slain by Allacu king of the Tartarians) a certain noble man in Persia named Sophi, Lord of Ardevell, deriving his pedigree from Haly by Musa Ceresin his nephew, and one of the twelve sons of Ossan, in memory of whom he altered the form of the Turban, by his virtue and valour won great credit and estimation to his new faction.  
To him succeeded Adar the son of Guine, to whom Assembeg a powerful Prince in Syria and Persia gave his daughter in marriage. But his son jacobbeg fearing the power and estimation of Adar, caused him to be slain, and delivered his two sons Ishmael and Soliman to his captain Amanzar, willing him to cast them in prison in Zaliga a castle in the mountains: but Amanzar detesting the tyranny of his Lord, conveyed the children to his own house, and brought them up like gentlemen amongst his own sons; and falling sick of a deadly disease, forecasting what might happen after his disease, gave them horses and money, willing them to fly, and to betake themselves to their mother's house and tuition. Ishmael the eldest was no sooner returned to his mother's place, but he vowed revenge for his father's death, and after some fortunate expeditions, took upon him the cause and protection of the followers of Haly, from whom he derived his pedigree. He made the turban higher, and sent Ambassadors to all the oriental Mahometans, to exhort them to unity in religion and cognisances. By these means and fortune of his arms, he became a terror to the east, and slew Ossan then usurper of the Persian estate with his ten brethren, except Marabeg, who saved himself and fled to Soliman the first, Emperor of Turks, imploring his aid. This Ishmael at the lake Vay overthrew with a great slaughter the Prince of the Tartars Zagatai, and in heat of this victory had passed the river Abbian, if his Astrologian in whom he greatly trusted, had not foretold him, that his passage should be prosperous, but his return infortunate. He left to his sons a most spacious Empire, bounded with the Caspian sea, the Persian gulf, the lake Sioc, the rivers Tigris and Oxus, and the kingdom of Cambaia; which provinces contain more than twenty degrees from east to west, & 18. from north to south. And although these kingdoms lying within these bounds held not immediately of the crown of Persia, yet all acknowledged the Persian for their sovereign Prince, that is, the kings of Macran, Patam, Guadel and Ormus. The Georgians did follow their fortunes; so did Media, now called Siruan, Dierbechia, once Mesopotamia, Cusistan the habitation of the Susiani, Farsistan the country of the Persians, Strava once Hyrcania, ●athia at this day called Arac, Caramania now Chermain, Sigestan, Carassa, Sablestan, and Istigiu, whose ancient names were Drangia, Bactria, Parapamisus, Margiana. Of these regions, those which lie nearest to the Persian sea are most plentiful, by reason of the rivers every where dispersed through the whole land. Amongst these rivers the most famous is Bindimir, to whose waters the inhabitants are much beholding, conveying it by trenches and other inventions into their grounds, to their great ease and commodity. The provinces lying upon the Caspian sea, for their rivers and temperature do likewise participate of the said fertility, especially all those quarters which are watered with the river Puly-Malon, falling into the lake Burgian: the residue of the province is dry, by reason whereof towns & villages are seldom seen in those places, unless it be by some spring or water's side. The most ample and magnificent cities of Persia are Istigias the chief seat of Bactria, thought to be one of the pleasantest cities of the east. Indion, the chief seat of Margiana, situated in so fat and fertile a territory, that therefore Antiochus Soter caused it to be walled about. Candahar, the chief seat of Paramisus, famous for the traffic of India and Cathaio, whither the merchants of those countries do resort. Eri the chief city of Aria, so abounding with roses, that thereof it should seem to take the name. Barbarus saith, it is of thirteen miles' compass. Ispaa the chief seat of Parthia, so spacious that for the circuit thereof, the Persians hiperbolically term it, the half world. Chirmain is the chief seat of Caramania, renowned for the excellent cloth of gold and silver wrought therein. Eor is a noble city, and so is Custra of Susiana. But all these for beauty and magnificence may bow and bend the knee to Sirrah seated upon the river Bindimire. It was once the chief seat of Persia, and as some think called Persepolis. Alexander the great burnt it to the ground at the entreaty of his Concubine; but afterward being ashamed of so vile an action, caused it to be reedefied again. It is not at this time so great as in times past; yet it is thought to be one of the greatest cities of all the Orient, with his suburbs containing twenty miles in compass. It is a proverb amongst the Persians, quando Suars erat Sirrah, tunc Cairus erat eius Pagus: yet they account it not very ancient, neither are they of their opinions who will have it the head of Persia. Tauris and Casbin are most famous cities; and besides their magnificence may glory that in them the kings of Persia keep their courts.  
The form of government amongst this nation is not like the government of any other Mahometan people; neither is there to be seen the like policy in any place through the whole east, as amongst the Persians. All the rest hate nobility, & depending upon the faith and service of slaves do either murder their brethren, or put out their eyes. But amongst these people, nobility is honoured: the king entreateth his brethren kindly and magnificently, and they allow in their dominions many noble, rich, and mighty Barons, of which sort there is not one to be found through the whole Ottoman dominions. They likewise grace gentility, and highly esteem their service on horseback: they delight in music and learning, they study poesy, and therein become excellent. They give their minds to Astrology: all which good parts the Turks do utterly reject and despise. Merchandise and Mechanical trades are favoured in Persia, and in all kind of civility and courtesy excel the Turkish.  
The security of this state consisteth rather in prowess than numbers; they maintain three sorts of soldiers: one sort the king keepeth in continual pay, and always about his own person. The second is the Timarotes', (for this kingdom likewise as doth the Turk, in am of wages alotteth certain quantities of land to great numbers of horsemen.) The third are Auxiliaries, which serve for pay, and those are only Georgians and Tartarians. To speak of the two first (the essential sinews of this king and kingdom) they are all horsemen. For where princes rely only upon the valour of the gentry, there is little regard had of the footemen service; the like reason may be given for their want of shipping. For although on the one side lieth the Caspian, and on another the Persian gulfs, yet to this day were they never owners of any warlike shipping. If they chance to sail upon the Caspian (a sea eight hundred miles long, and six hundred broad) they dare not venture into the main, but hovering by the shore, timorously sail from one place to another. Of the Persian sea the Portugals are lords. It aboundeth in metal of excellent fine temper, especially in the province of Cazan. They have not the use of artillery, neither the Art of defending, besieging, assaulting, mining, or entrenching of fortresses, and all because they want the use of footmen, to whom these pieces of service do properly belong, as it doth to horsemen to fight in plain and open field. Besides these wants, they are infested with two other more grievous mischiefs: and those are civil dissensions arising of the greatness and disloyalty of their Sultan's, with the length of journeys, and the scarcity of navigable rivers. Those rivers which they have are not frequented at all, or at leastwise so little, that small ease ariseth thereby. They fall all into the Caspian or Persian seas. The Inland regions are sandy, and utterly destitute of water. How can then the forces of that land make any commodious or speedy rendezvous when half the land is dry and barren? in so waste a tract not one river serving for navigable transportation, as doth the Loir in France, Poo in Italy, Vistula in Poland, shield in Flanders, and such like in other kingdoms.  
There are also many deserts and many mountains disjoining the provinces far in sunder: here in it resembleth Spain, where for want of navigable rivers (except towards the sea coast) traffic is little used, and mountains and provinces lie unmanured for scarcity of moisture. But nature unwilling that human life should want any easement, hath so provided for mutual commerce in these sandy and barren places, that through the labour of Camels the want of navigation is richly recompensed throughout Persia, and the bordering countries. These beasts carry wondrous burdens, and will longer continue then either horse or mule. They will travel laden with one thousand pound weight, and will so continue forty days and upward. In sterile and deep sandy countries (such as are Lybia, Arabia, and Persia) they drink but once every fifth day, and if extremity enforce, they will endure the want of water ten or twelve. When their burdens are off, a little grass, thorns, or leaves of trees will suffice them. There is no living thing less changeable and more laborious, certainly ordained of nature a fit creature for those sandy and deep places of Asia and Africa, wherein even man himself feeleth the want of food and water. Of these, there are three sorts: upon the lesser men travel; the middle sort have bunches on their backs fit for carrying of merchandise: the greater and stronger are those which carry burdens of one thousand pound weight.  
What numbers of horsemen this king is able to levy, was manifested in the wars between Selim the first and Ishmael: between Ishmael and Soleman, and between Codabanda and Amurath. Not one of them brought above thirty thousand horse into the field, but so thoroughly furnished, that they had little cause to fear greater numbers. The richer and abler sort arm themselves after the manner of our men at arms, the residue, being better than the third part of their Cavalry content themselves with a skull, a jack and cemiter. They use the lance and the bow indifferently. Touching their riches, the common opinion is, that in the days of king Tamas, the yearly revenues amounted to four or five millions of gold, who by a sudden doubling of the value of his coin raised it to eight, and accordingly made payment to his soldan's and soldier's. But in these days by the conquest of the great Turk they are much diminished, and it is thought that they amount to little more than two millions: but the feodary lands, towns and villages (which are very many) supply a great part of the pay due to the companies of the horsemen above mentioned.  
Towards the East bordereth the Mogor, upon the North the Zagatai. Towards the West the Turk possesseth a large frontier: upon the South lieth Ormus, and therein the Portugals. With the Mogors he is little troubled: For as Spain & France by reason of the narrow straits & difficult passages over the mountains, cannot easily convey necessaries (the life of an army) to infest one another: so towards the frontiers of India and Cambaia, provinces belonging to the Mogors, high mountains & vast deserts keep good peace between these two princes, Yet infested they one another on the borders of Cabul & Sablestan, of which certain Lords of the Mogors have gotten the dominion. He cometh not near the borders of the great Cham, between whom certain petty princes and impassable deserts do oppose themselves. It seemeth that towards the Zagatai he standeth content with those bounds which the river Oxus hath laid out: for he never durst pass it; & when Zaba king of the Zagatai had passed it, he was overthrown with a great slaughter by Ishmael: So again was Cyrus by Tomiris, who slew him and all his host. The Turk is a borderer all alongst the western coast of this whole empire, even from the Caspian sea to the gulf of Saura, a tract almost of 15. degrees. He hath no enemy like dangerous to this prince, more to be feared, or of greater power, at whose hands in all conflicts (for the most part) he hath reaped nothing but loss and dishonour. Mahumet the second overthrew Vssanchan, and took from David (his vassal and confederate) the empire of Trapezond. Selim the first overthrew Ishmael in Campania, and took from him Caramit, Orfa, Merdis and all the territory which they call Alech. Soliman put Tamas to flight, and took from him Babylon and all Mesopotamia. In our days Amarath won whatsoever lieth between Derbent and Tauris, wherein is comprehended Georgia and Siruan, and by building of fortresses in Testis, Sumachia, and Eres, assured the passages of Chars, Tomanis and Lori. He is Lord of all that lieth between Erzirum and Orontes, a river three days journey beyond Tauris. In this city he caused a citadel to be built, not minding to leave it, as did Selim and Soleman, but thereby as with a curb to bridle and keep it for ever. In this war which lasted from the year 1591. to 1597. the Turks altered their form of warfare. For whereas they were wont to lay their whole hopes upon their numbers, the valour of their horsemen and footmen, their store of artillery, and warlike furniture, scorning to be cooped up in castles and fortresses, for the most part burning whatsoever they became Lords of, and little caring to keep what they had conquered (supposing it no good policy to strengthen towns by weakening their companies) in these wars, to avoid the inconveniences whereinto Selim and Soliman were plunged, were glad to build strong places upon commodious passages, and citadels in the chiefest towns, furnishing them with good garrisons and great store of artillery. This war cost them very dear: for by surprises, by famine, and extremities of weather, infinite thousands perished, yet always to the loss of the Persian or his confederates. In the field the Persian is far inferior to the Turk in numbers and goodness of footmen, in ordinance, in all sorts of warlike furniture, and (the chiefest stay of a state) in obedience of subjects. Notwithstanding if Selim, Soliman or Amarath had not been alured either by rebellion or intestine discords, they durst not have meddled with this war. Selim was called in to the aid of Marabeg the son of Ossan, a most mighty prince in Persia. Soliman came in aid of Elcaso the brother of Tamas, hateful to his sovereign for his ambition and aspiring humour, and in the end abused the credit and good will of the people towards Elcaso, to the furtherance of his own designs. Amurath never took weapon in hand against this people, before he understood by the letters of Mustafa Bassa of Van, that all Persia was in uproar about the election of a new prince, thereby certifying him that some had chosen Ishmael, some Ayner (both sons of Tamas) and that Periacocona slaying her own brother Ishmael, and betraying Ayner, had procured the kingdom to mohammed Codobanda. After this mischief fell those fatalliars between Codabanda and his son, and between the Turcoman nation (a mighty family in Persia) and the king: a faction no less disastrous to the state of Persia then the war of Turkey.  
Against the Portugals of Ormus, for want of sea forces he stirreth not, and again for want of land forces the Portugals are not able to molest his upland countries. Tamas being counseled to make a voyage against Ormus, asked what commodities the Island brought forth, whether corn, cattle, fruit, or what other good thing? When it was answered that the soil was utterly barren and destitute of all provision, but excellent well seated for traffic and navigation: scoffing at the motion, replied, that of this kind of revenue he had released unto his people above ninety thousand Tomana.   

The kingdom of japan.  
IApan may well be called a politic body compacted of many & sundry islands of divers different forms & circuits, which as they are divided from the rest of the continent, so are they inhabited by a people much differing in manners & customs from the residue of the Orient. They stand round and close together like the Maldinae in the Indian sea, and the Hebrides and Orchades in the north Ocean. They are in number 66. divided into three partialities. The first containeth nine, the second four, the third fifty three. Amongst these, five are renowned, but especially one for the famous city of Macao. And it is most commonly seen that they who have the sovereignty of those five, are Lords of all the rest. It is distant from new Spain 150. leagues; from China 60. The soil is to be accounted rather barren then fertile. The inhabitants are of a very ready wit, and marvelous patient in adversity. Their new born children they immediately wash in the rivers, and assoon as they are weaned they take them from their mothers, and bring them up in labours of hunting and such like exercises. They go bare headed men and women, as well in foul weather as fair. They are very ambitious and desirous of honour. poverty is no disgrace to the Gentry of their blood. They will not suffer the least wrong to pass unrevenged: they salute one another with many courtesies: they are very stayed and of a settled resolution. They are very jealous to show themselves fearful or base minded in word or deed: they will make no man privy of their losses or misfortunes: they have the like beasts both tame and wild as we have, but they will scarcely eat any thing save herbs, fish, barley or rice, and if they do, it is the flesh of wild beasts taken by hunting. Of these grains they make their wines, and water mixed with a certain precious powder which they use, they account a dainty beverage: they call it Chia. Their buildings for the most part are of timber, partly because the upland places are destitute of quarries, but abounding with cedars of admirable height and thickness fit for building, and partly because the country is very subject to earthquakes. In times past all japan obeyed one prince, showing him great obedience and subjection, and this government endured with no less state and majesty, at the least 1600. years, until about 50. years sithence by the rebellion of two of his chiefest lieutenants, the whole kingdom was distracted, each of them holding by arms whatsoever he achieved by usurpation. By their example others becoming as ambitious, seized upon the rest of the kingdom, some on one part, some on an other; leaving nothing but the bare name of Dairi, which signifieth the Lord of all japan, with the title of jucata, viz. king, to their rightful sovereign. Yea those princes which were Lords of the territories about Meaco, would hardly allow him whereof to find him victual & apparel, so that now he resembleth the shadow rather than the king of the ancient & magnificent Monarchy of japan. Since those times whosoever layeth holdfast on the dominion of the Coquinai (those are the five kingdoms bordering upon Meaco) in steed of Dairi, calleth himself Emperor and king of japan, and Lord of Tenza. Nabunanga was one of them in our days, and after him Fassia in power and majesty excelling all his predecessors. Nabunanga was Lord of 36. provinces, Fassih at the least of fifty.  
Their form of government is nothing like the policy of Europe. The strength of the Prince consisteth not in ordinary revenues and love of the people, but in rigour and the prince's pleasure. Assoon as the prince hath conquered one or more kingdoms, he shareth them wholly amongst his friends and followers, who bind themselves by oath faithfully to serve him with a limited company of men as well in peace as war. They again to make their followers trusty and ready for all services, reserving some small matter for the sustentation of themselves and their families, divide to every man a portion of the former division; so that all the wealth of japan private and public is in the hand of a few men, and those few depending upon the pleasure of one, that is, the Lord of Tenza. He as him listeth, giveth, taketh, disgraceth, honoureth, enricheth, and impoverisheth. When he casleth any governor of his province, all the leaders and soldiers of the said province are changed, and none left there but artificers and husbandmen. This government draweth with it continual dislike and innovations. For Dairy (though he hath neither power nor government) yet being in favour & estimation of the people, ceaseth not to insinuate into their heads, that this Lord of Tenza and the other tyrants, are usurpers of other men's right, destroyers of the monarchy, and enemies to the state and liberty of japan. Which persuasions take so deep root in the hearts of the people, and so extenuate the reputation of these usurpers, that under colour of suppression of others, they often take arms upon hope to raise their own greatness: so that by this daily change of governors, the people not knowing who are their right and natural Lords, know not whom to love and obey: and again, their Lords being as uncertain of their continuance, care not for the people, nor for the welfare of their own vassals, no more than if they were mere strangers: but always aspiring by the same facility whereby they gained one, to conquer a better, after the manner of ga●●esters, continually hazard one, upon hope of winning another: in this sort sometime one alone, sometime many together vexing the islands with perpetual warfare. Fassiha to assure his estate, and disable the great ones from enterprising against him, doth often transport them from one province to another, causing them to forego their ancient inheritances, and to lead their lives amongst unknown neighbours: neither in those places will he suffer them to enjoy livings united, but far divided in pieces and parcels. For all this, they are never at peace amongst themselves, by reason that the frontiers of their petty jurisdictions neighbour so near one upon another. In these alterations Fassiha constrained as well the losers as the winners to do him homage and obeisance, and once a year to pay him a rich tribute, drawing to his own coffers the greatest part of the wealth of japan by these tyrannies. He keepeth his own people busied in building of admirable palaces, sumptuous temples, towns & fortresses, the like whereof are nowhere to be seen. In these works he hath more than an hundred thousand workmen labouring in their several occupations at their own charges. Amongst the rest he is now in building a temple, for whose iron works all the stuff in japan will hardly suffice, and therefore he hath given commandment to all his people and merchants to bring all their iron and armour into one place.  
Besides the oath of fealty whereby the residue of the kings and princes are bound to aid and assist him in peace and war, he receiveth yearly two millions arising of the profits of rice reserved upon his own possessions. He was determined after the finishing of these fabriks, to attempt a journey into China, and for that enterprise caused timber sufficient for the building of two thousand vessels for transportation to be felled. By these magnificent fabriks, this haughty resolution, this large dominion and conquest of foreign kingdoms, he hopeth to attain the reputation of immortality amongst his subjects, as divers of his predecessors have done before him. For Amida, Xaca, Canis, and Fotoque, were no other than Lords of japan, which either for their glory in war, or invention of some good arts in peace, were accounted as gods amongst the japonians, as in the old world Hercules and B●cchus were amongst the Grecians, and Saturn and Ianu● amongst the Italians. Of these demi-gods they report as many strange and fabulous inventions, as the Grecians and Italians did of theirs. But Fassiha understanding by the preaching of the jesuits, that there can be no God but one, who created the heaven and earth of nothing, and all other deities to be foolish and detestable, determined to banish them all, and to weed up that good vine which began to take deep root in those provinces. Surely this may stand for a memorable example of the pride and blindness of man's heart. The Roman Emperors opposed their forces against Christian religion, only to maintain and uphold the worship of their idols, condemned for vain and devilish by the law of Christianity: but this man raiseth persecution against true religion, to arrogate to himself the name of God, an imagination (as I said before) full of extreme ambition and madness. But in the midst of these proud and unreasonable cogitations, God raised up against him a new enemy from the eastern parts of japan, who as we understand by advisoes of the last year, is likely to give him his hands and head full of business. 
1597.    

The Xeriffe.  
AMongst all the potentates of Africa, I do not think that there can any one be found to excel this prince, either in wealth or power. His dominion containeth all that tract of Mauritania, which the Romans called Tingitana, and stretcheth from the promontory Bayador to Tanger, and from the Atlantike Ocean to the river Muluia. In which progress is contained the best portion of all Africa, the best inhabited, the pleasantest, the fruitfullest and most civil. Herein amongst others are the famous kingdoms of Fez and Marocho, the one divided into seven provinces, the other into eight. The country is divided into plains and mountains. The mountains are inhabited with a strong and fierce people, rich in pastures & cattle, & possessing a great part of the less and bigger Atlas. Between the greater Atlas and the Ocean lieth the plain country, and therein the royal city of Marocho distant fowreteene miles from Atlas, watered with many springs, brooks and rivers. In times past this city contained one hundred thousand households, and was the chiefest of Africa, but by little and little is decayed, and now lieth more waste then inhabited. In the kingdom of Marocho besides others is Tedsi, a town of five thousand households, and Tagaost of eight thousand. Taradant giveth place to none for nobleness and traffic, though for largeness and circuit. It is situated between Atlas and the Ocean in a plain sixteen miles long, and little less broad, abounding with sugar and all kind of provision. The good regard and continual abode which mohammed Xeriffe made in this place, did greatly augment and innoblish this town. Being past Atlas you enter into most battle plains, wherein how fruitful the soil is of sugar, olives, cattle and all good things, can hardly be spoken.  
The kingdom of Fez likewise containeth divers provinces, excellent well peopled. Amongst them is Alga, a territory of fowrescore miles long, and sixty broad: Elabut is 100 miles long, and 60. broad. Eriff is a province wholly mountainous: therein are said to be 23. branches of the mount Atlas, inhabited for the most part with savage and barbarous people: Caret is dry and rocky, more like Lybia then Barbary. Now because the glory and majesty of this kingdom consisteth especially in the city of Fez, I think it not amiss to describe the situation thereof. It is divided into two parts, a little distant one from the other, the one called the old town, the other the new. A little river likewise divideth the old into two parts. The east part is called Beleyda, containing four thousand households, the west part is commonly called old Fez, and hath fourscore thousand and upward, standing not far from the new Fez, which likewise hath eight thousand. Old Fez standeth partly upon hills, partly on plains, and hath in it 50. Mahometan temples of admirable largeness. All of them have their fountains, and pillars of Alabaster and jasper: besides these, there are six hundred of a less sort: amongst the which that which is commonly called Carucen is most beautiful, built in the heart of the city, and containing half a mile in compass: in breadth it containeth seventeen arches, in length 120. borne up by 2500. white marble pillars: under the chiefest arch where the tribunal is kept, hangeth a most huge lamp, encompassed with 110. less. Under the other arches hang very great lamps, in each whereof burn 1500. lights. They say in Fes that all these lamps were made of the bells which the Arabians brought out of Spain, who not only made pray of bells, but of columns, pillars, brass, marble, and whatsoever was rich and curious, first erected by the Romans, and afterwards by the Goths. There are in Fez above 200. schools of learning, 200. Inns, and 400. water mills, every one driven with four or five wheels. There are also divers Colleges, amongst the which, that which is called Madarac is accounted for one of the most finest pieces of workmanship throughout all Barbary. There are likewise 600. conduits, from whence almost every house is served with water. It were a long labour to describe their Burse (they call it Alcacer,) it is a place walled about, having twelve gates, and divided into fifteen walks, where the merchants meet and dispatch their business under tents. Their delightsome gardens, and pleasant parks with the rillets and waters running through them, I can hardly describe.  
For the most part the king keepeth his court at Fes, wherein he hath a castle, palaces & houses adorned with rare workmanship, rich and beautiful even to his heart's desire. He hath a way under ground from the old town to the new. For the greatness and stateliness thereof by the grant of former kings it enjoyeth this strange privilege: not endure any siege, unless the citizens shall think their prince for strength and forces able and equal to cope with his enemy: if not, without reproach of treason or ignominy, they may yield their city before their enemy approach within half a mile of the walls. This have they done, that so goodly and so flourishing a city should not suffer spoil under pretext of unprofitable temporising.  
It is of no less moment for situation, store of corn, oil, flax, and cattle, then for pleasantness of territory, and plenty of water. The walls are very strong, and defended with many bulwarks. The inhabitants are very thrifty, given to traffic, and especially to the making of clothes of wool, silk and cotton. The king's eldest son is called the prince of Mequivez. Though the kingdom have no good havens upon the Mediterranean sea, yet great store of Englishmen and Frenchmen resort to Alarach, Aguer, and other ports in the Ocean, whereof some belong to the kingdom of Fes, and other to the kingdom of Marocho. They carry thither armour and otherwares of Europe, which they bartre for sugar and other commodities.  
Now how the kingdoms of Fes and Marocho (two several principalities) with their dependences became subject to one crown, I think it worthy relation, because a more strange and memorable accident hath not happened in our age. About the year of our Lord 1508. a certain Alfaique borne in Tigumedet in the province of Dara, began to grow in reputation, a man of a reaching wit, and no less ambitious than learned in the Mathematics. His name was Mahumet Be●-Amet, otherwise called Xerif by his own commandment. This man deriving his peregree from mohammed, and emboldened by the civil wars of Africa, and the differents of the states and common weals thereof (wherein in those days the Portugals were of no small puissance) began to dream upon the conquest of Mauritania Tingitan. Which the better to effect, he first sent his three sons Abdel, Abuet & Mahumet on pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, to visit and worship the fepulchre of their great prophet Mahumet. The young men returned from this pilgrimage with such opinion and estimation of holiness and religion (if it be lawful to use these terms to so great impiety and foppery) that the inhabitants as they traveled could not be kept from kissing their garments, and adoring them as saints. They again as men rapt in deep contemplation, journeyed through the provinces sighing and sobbing, and crying with a high voice, Ala, Ala. They had no other sustenance but the alms of the people. Their father received them with great joy and contentment, and perceiving the favour and opinion of the people not to be like a wonder of nine days, but to continue fresh and the same as at first, resolved to make use thereof, and thereupon sent two of them Abnet and Mahumet to Fes to the court. The king received them kindly, and made one of them precedent of the most famous college of Amodorac, and the younger tutor of his children. In process of time when they perceived the king to grace them, and the people to favour them, by the counsel of their father (taking occasion of the greenances which the Arabians and Moors serving under the Portugal ensigns had done to the professors of their superstition) they desired leave of the king to display a banner against the Christians, making him believe that they would easily draw the Portugal-Moors to their party, and so secure the provinces of Sus, Hea, Ducala, and Maroch. Muley Nazer the king's brother resisted this petition, alleging that if once under the show of holiness and colour of religion, they grew to a head, it would not afterwards lie in his power to suppress or range them under his obedience again. For war makes men awlesse, victories insolent, popularity ambitious and studious of innovation. But the king in whose heart their hypocritical sanctimony had taken a deep impression, little regarding his brother's counsel, gave them a banner, a drum, and twenty horsemen to accompany them, with letters of credence to the princes of Arabia and cities of Barbary. In these beginnings many things falling out to their honour and good liking, they began to make incursions into Dencala and the county of Safi, ranging as far as the promontory Aguer, then under the government of the Portugals: and perceiving themselves to be favoured, strong and well followed, urged the people, (who for the most part in those days lived in liberty) to aid those which fought for their law and religion against the Christians, as likewise with willing minds to give God his tithes, which they obtained of the people of Dara. Then by little and little they encroached upon the territory of Taradant (of which they made their father governor) and invaded Sus, Hia, Dencala, and the neighbouring places. They first seated themselves in Tednest, and afterward in Tesarot. In their next journey but with the loss of their elder brother, they defeated Lopes Barriga, a famous warrior, and captain general of the Portugal army. By fair and flattering speeches they entered Marocho, poisoned the king, and proclaimed Amet Xerif king of the country. After this happened the war of the Arabians of Dencala and Xarquia with the Arabians of Garbi, where while each party weakened other, and either promised to himself the favour and assistance of the Xerifs: they turning their arms upon both factions, carried rich preys from both the nations. Before this war they sent unto the king the fifth part of all their spoils: but after this victory little regarding their sovereign and advancer, they sent him only six horses & six camels, & those very lean and ill shapen. Which the king disdaining, sent to demand his fifths, as also the tribute which the kings of Marocho were accustomed to pay him: which if they denied, he vowed revenge with fire & sword. In the mean time the king died, and Amet his son, once the pupil of the younger Xerif, not only allowed, but also confirmed Amet in the kingdom of Marocho, upon condition that in some things he should acknowledge the king of Fes to be his Lord paramount. To this the Xerifs (whose power & estimation did daily increase) when the day of payment of the tribute came, willed the messenger to say unto his master, that they were the lawful successors of mohammed, and therefore that they were bound to pay tribute to no man, yea that they had more right to afric than he had: but if he would reckon them in the number of his friends, no doubt but it would turn to his good and honour; but if he diverted them from the war of the Christians, they would not leave him so much as a heart to defend himself against them.  
The king taking this in ill part proclaimed war against them, and besieged Marocho, but for that time was constrained to dislodge. Afterwards returning with 18. thousand horsemen and two thousand harquebushers to renew the siege; as soon as he had passed the river, he was overcome of the Xeriffes, who led an army of seven thousand horse, and one thousand two hundred shot. In the pride of this victory they exacted tribute of this province, & passing Atlas they took the famous city Tafilet, and partly by love, and partly by force compelled divers people of Numidia and the mountains to bear the yoke of their subjection. In the year 1536. the younger Xeriffe which called himself king of Sus, gathering together a mighty army with great store of artillery, part whereof he took from the king of Fes, and part whereof were cast by certain renegado Frenchmen, made a journey to Cape Aguer. This place is of great consequence, & possessed by the Portugals, who built it and fortified it, first at the expenses of Lope● Sequiera, and then at the charges of king Emanuel, after he understood of the commodious situation thereof. It was fiercely assaulted, and as valiantly defended, until the fire began to take hold upon the bulwark wherein their provision of gunpowder was stowed, with which misfortune the companies appointed for the defence of that quarter, growing fearful and faint-hearted, gave way for the Xeriffe to enter the place, who made slaves of the greatest part of the defendants. After which victory they subdued almost all Atlas, the kingdom of Marocho, and the Arabians which were vassals to the crown of Portugal: the residue, as Safi, Azamor, Arzil, and Alcazar (places situated upon the sea coast of Mauritania) king john the third perceiving the profit not to equalize the charge, voluntarily resigned. These prosperous beginnings brought forth sour end: for the brethren falling at discord and dissension, twice put their fortunes upon the hazard of a battle, and twice the younger overcame the elder, took him, and cast him in prison in the city Tafilet. Then turned he his arms against the king of Fes, took him prisoner, and restored him to his liberty: but taking him again, for breach of covenants, he deprived him and his son of life and kingdom. By the valour of his sons he took the city of Tremissen. But Sal-Aries viceroy of Algiers being jealous of these good fortunes, gathered a puissant host, recovered Tremissen, put the Xeriffe to flight, took Fes, and bestowed it with the territory upon the Lord of Velez, who afterward in a battle against the Xeriffe lost both life and kingdom. At last in his journey to Taradant by the subornation of the viceroy of Algiers he was murdered in his tent by certain Turks, who with their captain Assen coming to Taradant, rifled the king's treasures, but were all slain (except five) by the inhabitants in their journey homewards. This came to pass 1557. when Muley Abdala the Xeriffes' son was proclaimed king. Let this suffice for the original of the Xeriffe: now let us see how these risings were like the fortunes of Ishmael king of Persia. Both of them in small time conquered many provinces: both grew great by the ruin of their neighbours: both suffered great crosses by the arms of the Turks, and to them lost part of their dominions. Selim took from Ishmael Caramit, and divers other cities of Mesopotamia, the viceroy of Algiers drove the Xeriffe from Tremissen and the adjacent territory. Selim won Tauris the chief seat of Persia, and then gave it over: Sal-Aries took Fes the head city of Mauritania, and left it when he had done.  
This potentate is absolute Lord of the bodies and goods of his subjects: whatsoever impositions he layeth upon them, they dare not repine at. For tribute he taketh the tenth, and the first fruits of their fruits and cattle: yet is it most true that for first fruits he taketh not above one in twenty, and though it exceed that number, even to one hundred, yet he never taketh above two. Of every acre of land he taketh a ducat and the fifth part, and so much of every household and of every pole male and female above 15 years of age, yearly. If he want, he taketh a greater sum. To make the people more willing to pay what is imposed, he always demandeth more by half then is to be paid, that so, by paying their due, they may think they are well dealt withal, in seeming to be forgiven somewhat of his full demand. The inhabitants of the mountains, a people savage and uncivil, for the difficult access unto them, he cannot enforce to pay tribute, but those that manure the plains he constraineth to give the tenth of their harvest. Besides these revenues, he taketh toll and custom of all kinds of merchandise in cities: inward, of a citizen two in the hundred; of a stranger, ten. His rent of mills is a great matter: for upon every asse-load of grain grineded in Fes, he taketh half a rial: in this town there are above 400. mills. The church of Carruven was endowed with four score thousand ducats of yearly revenue, the colleges and monasteries of Fes with much more; all which now are escheated into the king's coffers. Moreover he is heir to all the judges (which they call Alcaids) and hath the bestowing of all their offices. When they die he seizeth upon all their horses, armour, apparel, and all their other chattels. If the intestate leave children behind him fit for the war, he bestoweth their father's annuity upon them; if they be sons & young, he nurseth them till they come to full years; if daughters, he maintaineth them, till they find husbands. To be fingering the wealth of the richer sort, he hath always some office or lieutenantship with an annuity to sell them: but commonly to prevent those sales, they will not be acknown of their abilities, removing their abodes far from the court and the king's sight, which is the cause that the city of Fes is much fallen from the ancient splendour.  
He hath no castles or pieces well fortified, but only Aguer, Labace, and Tetuan upon the sea side. His chiefest confidence is in the valour of his soldiers, especially his horsemen, like the Turk and Persian. In this regard he taketh no great care to furnish himself with ordinance, yet hath he great store thereof in Fes, Marocho, Taradant, & in the foresaid haven towns taken from the Portugals and others. As he seeth occasion he causeth new to be cast, for which service he can want no workmen out of Europe. In Marocho he hath an Arsenal, wherein he layeth up monthly at least 46. quintals of gunpowder. Here he causeth his harquebusses and bows to be likewise made. In the year 1569. by fire which happened amongst the gunpowder-houses the greatest part of the city was very much defaced.  
His soldierie is of divers sorts: The first consisteth of 2700. horsemen, and 2000 harquebushers, part lying in garrison in Fes, and part in Morocho, where lieth the court. The second consisteth (as a man may say) of a royal troop of six thousand horse, all Gentlemen pensioners and of great reputation. These ride upon brave horses with rich comparisons; their arms and furniture shining with gold, silver, stones and all things else, which for variety of colours or rich devices may delight the eye with gallant show, or feed the humour of the curious beholder. To these servitors besides their allowance of corn, provender, butter and flesh for themselves, their wives, children and servants, they receive yearly from seventy to one hundred ounces of silver. The third ●ort are a kind of Timarots: for the Xeriffe doth allot a certain portion of land and tenants to his sons, brethren, and men of quality amongst the people of Africa and Arabia, for the maintenance of their degrees. Those whom they term Alcaids, look to the manuring of the fields, gather the rents of corn, rice, oats, oil, butter, flesh, poultry, and money, & distribute it monthly amongst the soldiers, to every man according to his place. They likewise give them woollen, linen, & silk for their garments: armour, and horses for service. If their horses chance to be slain, they give them new: so did the Romans to those which served upon the horses of the state. The commanders of these troops are very careful to see their soldiers in heart and full of life, excellent well armed, and competently attired. They receive between four and twenty and thirty ounces of silver yearly. The fourth sort make the Arabians, who commonly live in tents, divided by 120. under their several leaders, to be always ready upon all occasions. They serve on horseback, but more like thieves and outlaws than soldiers. The fifth sort is like the press of the Christian commonweals. These companies consist of citizens, villagois, and mountain people. Of these men the king maketh no great reckoning, neither doth he willingly arm them for fear of sedition and innovations, unless it be to war upon the Christians, wherein he cannot forbid them to serve. For upon remembrance of the slaughter of the Moors by the Christians spoken of in their mahometical legend, the more Christians they slay, the easier they think shall be their passage to heaven. Hereupon you shall see herds of men and women running to this war, desiring there to die upon hope of meriting salvation by the slaughter of our people. The same fury (be it spoken to our shame) inrageth the Turks: especially for the propagation of their heresies you shall see them more liker people running to the celebration of a marriage feast, then to a warre-iourney, hardly enduring to stay the limited time of the rendevou. They account them Saints which die with their weapons in their hands; and those most unhappy which depart this world amongst the tears of their children, and the mournings of their wives.  
By this it may sufficiently appear what forces the Xeriffe is able to bring to the field, but examples will make it more clear. Muley Abdala belegred Magazan with two hundred thousand men. He filled the ditch with a mount made of earth, and with his ordinance beat the wall level with the ground. But by the prowess of the Portugal, and fury of their mines, he was enforced to raise his siege and depart. It is certain, he is not able to hold out any war above three months, because the soldier liveth upon his daily allowance of diet and apparel: and when such like provisions cannot be conveyed to the place of necessity, without great labour and hazard, it cometh oftentimes to pass, that for want of provision the army is constrained to break and retire. Molucco king of Fes, who defeated Sebastian, had under his standard forty thousand horsemen, and eight thousand hired footmen; and with the Arabians and other common soldiers it is thought that he is able to levy seventy thousand horse, and a far greater number of foot.   

Prester john.  
ALthough the sovereignty of this prince be very magnificent, powerful and spacious; yet in truth doth it nothing answer the fame and report of the vulgar. Horatius Malaguccius in his discourse De amplitudine dominiorum huius temporis, maintaineth it to be larger than the empire of any other potentate, excepting that of the king of Spain. Truly I must needs say, that in elder age, by the number of his titles, it may be conjectured, that his dominions did stretch far and wide: for he did entitle himself king of Goiam (which is beyond Nilus) Vangue and Damur, places situated beyond the river Zair, whereas at this day he hardly cometh near the banks of either river: yea john Baroz writeth, that the Abessines by reason of the mountains between them & Nilus, have little or no knowledge of that river. In the centre of his kingdom is Barcena; eastward it stretcheth from Suaquen to the entrance of the red sea, a tract of 122 leagues, and yet between him and that sea lie infinite mountains inhabited by Moors, doing what outrages they list upon that coast. Westward upon the banks of Nilus lie a ridge of mountains, inhabited by Gentiles, who pay him tribute. Towards the north his bounds are to be limited by an imaginary line to be drawn from Suaquen to the head of the Island Meroe, containing the space of 125. leagues; then making a semicircle like a bow, not too much bended towards the south, as far as the kingdom of Adea (in whose mountains the river which Ptolomey calleth Ratto, ariseth and falleth into the sea about Melind) for the space of 250. leagues, it stretcheth even to the frontiers of the Gentiles: and from thence turning your imaginary line, and abutting the end in the principality of Adel (whose chief city is Acar in the altitude of 9 degrees) you shall find this Empire to contain in compass 672. leagues. It is divided into vast plains, fertile hillocks, and mountains though wondrous high, yet fit for tillage, and full of habitation. It is not very well stored with wheat, but it bringeth forth barley, millet, a certain other grain wholesome & endurable, Indian wheat, and all other kind of pulse (as well known as unknown to us) in very plentiful manner. They have vines, but make no wines, unless it be in the king's court, or the patriarches palace, in steed whereof they brew a kind of sharp beverage made of the fruit of Tamerind. The orange, lemon and, cedar tree grow wild. They make oil of a certain fruit which they call Zava, it is of a good colour, but unsavoury. The Bees build their hives even in their houses, whereupon ariseth great quantity of wax & honey. Their garments are woven of cotton wool. The richer sort are clothed in sheep skins, the gentlemen in cases of Lions, Tigers, & Lynx's. Their riches consist in herds of oxen, goats, sheep, mules, asses, and camels. Of horses their breed is small, but they have great store of goodly coursers brought them from Arabia and Egypt. They leave the fools with the mares not above three days, but put them unto kine to suck and rear up. They have hens, geese, wild swine, hearts, goats, and hares, but no coneys, yea and such beasts, of which we have not the like, as panthers, lions, elephants, and lynx's. To speak in a word: there is no country under heaven fitter for increase of plants and all living creatures, but none less helped by art or industry; for the inhabitants are idle and unthrifty. They have flax, but make no cloth, they have sugarcanes and iron-mines, but know not the use of either: and as for smiths, they fear them as fiend's. They have rivers and streams, yet will they not take the pains in drouths to cut the banks to water their tillage or hearten their grounds. Few give themselves to hunting or fishing, which causeth their fields to swarm with foul and venison, and their rivers with fish. But it seemeth that the true ground of their idleness ariseth from their evil usage: for the poor people perceiving their landlords to pole and pill them, never sow more than they needs must. They keep no method in their speeches, and to write a letter, many men (& that many days) must lay their wits together. At meals, they use neither cloth, napkin, nor tables. They are utterly ignorant in physic. The Gentlemen, Burghers, and Plebeians dwell apart, yet may any man rise to honour by virtue and prowess. The first borne is heir to all, even to the utmost farthing. Through the whole land there is not a town containing above 1600. households, and but few of that quantity: for, for the most part they dwell dispersed in small villages. They have no castle or fortification, in imitation of the Spartans', maintaining that a country ought to be defended by the sword, and not by strength of earth or stone. They barter one thing for another, and to make reckonings even, they supply the want with corn and salt. For pepper, frankincense, myrrh and salt they give gold, and that by weight: as for silver it is in little request. The greatest concourse of people is about the king's court, which never stayeth long in one place, but is ever in progress, sometime in one place, sometime in another, and ever in the open fields under tents and pavilions. It is said to contain ten miles in circuit.  
His government is tyrannical: for he entreateth his vassals, rich and poor more liker slaves than subjects; which to do with the greater safety, he carrieth himself amongst them with a certain holy and Saintlike adoration: for at his bare name they bow their bodies, and touch the earth with their hands. They reverence his pavilion, yea though he be absent. In old time they were accustomed to show themselves unto the people but once in three years, but sithence they are grown less majestical, showing themselves thrice in one year, to wit, on Christmas day, on Easter day, & Holy Rood day, yea and in these times Panufius which now reigneth is become more gracious. When any matter of weight is committed in the prince's name to any man be he never so great, he is to attend his commission stark naked to the middle, neither may be put on his garment without licence. Being called to witness a matter in controversy, they hardly speak truth, unless they swear by the life of the king. He giveth and taketh to whom and from whom he pleaseth, neither dare he from whom he taketh, for his life show a discontented countenance. He presenteth to holy orders, and disposeth at his good pleasure of the goods of the spirituality as well as of the laity. In traveling he rideth shadowed with red curtains, high and deep incopassing him round about. He weareth on his head a crown, the one half wrought of gold, the other of silver, & in his hand he beareth a silver crucifix. He covereth his face with a piece of watchet taffeta, which more or less he lifteth up & putteth down, according as he is minded to grace him with whom he talketh. Sometime he showeth his whole leg, lifting it without the hangings, then may no man approach but by degrees, and after many courtesies and divers messages passing to and fro. No man hath vassals but the king, to whom once a year they do homage, and protest obedience as subjects to their liege sovereigns. He deriveth his pedigree from Mileich the son of Solomon and Saba. In the reign of Candaces they received the Christian faith: and about that time one Gasparis became famous in Aethiopia; from whom after thirteen generations descended that john, who first took upon him the ●●rname of Sanctus, and left it an hereditary title to his house and successors. This man having no issue of his body, about the time of Constantine gave the kingdom to the eldest son of his brother Caius, and invested the younger (Balihasar and Melchior) the one with the kingdom of Fatigar, the other with the kingdom of Goiam, and so divided the blood-royal into three families, the Gaspar's, Balthasars', and Melchi●rs. To avoid sedition and innovation, he made a law that the sons, brethren, & nearest kindred of the Emperor should be kept and shut up in the castle of mount Amara, and that they should neither succeed in the Empire, nor enjoy any honourable estate: for which cause the Emperors ever since have seldom married.  
He manureth his own fields with his own slaves and cattle: who, by reason they are suffered to marry, and their issues remain in the same estate of villeinage, as do their fathers; they daily increase to infinite multitudes. Every man that hath any inheritance, doth likewise pay tribute, some horses, some oxen, others gold, cotton wool, or such like commodities. It is thought that he is Lord of infinite treasures, and to have storehouses full of cloth, jewels, and gold. In his letters to the king of Portugal, upon condition that he would wage war against the Infidels, he offered him a million of gold, and a million of men, with provision according. He his reported to lay up yearly in the castle of Amara three millions of gold. And true it is, that before the days of king Alexander he did hoard up great store of gold in rude and unwrought masses; but no such quantity, because they knew not how to refine it. His revenues are of three sorts; the first ariseth of his crown land: the second of the taxes of his people, who pay every man by house somewhat, besides the tenth of all that is digged out of their mines: the third, he levieth of the great Lords, and they give him the revenue of any one of their towns (which he will choose) so he choose not that wherein themselves inhabit. And albeit the Prince be very rich, yet the people are idle and beggarly; partly because they are entreated as slaves, which usage taketh from any people that courage and alacririe of spirit, which should be in men professing arms and undergoing dangers: and partly because in respect of that base bond of servile fidelity, wherewith they are overawed to his Majesty, they perceive their hands are fast bound; through fear whereof they have no other weapon fit for service, than a rusty headpiece, a skull or cuirass which the Portugals have brought thither: so that having neither fortress to fly unto, nor weapons to repulse wrongs, their villages and substance lie always open to the pray and spoil of whosoever will invade them. Their offensive weapons are certain darts and arrows without feathers. They observe a Lent of fifty days, which by reason of their true (or rather superstitious) abstinence doth bring their bodies so weak and low, that for many days after they are not able to gather strength to move themselves from one place to another. At which time the Moors watching the opportunity, invade their dominions, and carry away men, women and wealth. Francis Aluarez writeth, that he is able to bring into the field an hundred thousand men: but experience hath manifested, that even in his extremities his numbers were far inferior to that reckoning. He hath knights of the Order dedicated to the protection of Saint Anthony. Every gentleman father of three sons (excepting the eldest) is bound to give one to the service of the king: out of these are chosen twelve thousand horsemen for the guard of his person. Their vow and oath is to defend the bounds of the Empire, and to fight against the enemies of the Christian faith.  
He is affronted with three puissant neighbours: the king of Borno, the great Turk, and the king of Adel. The king of Borno is Lord of that country, which from Guangula eastward stretcheth about five hundred miles between the deserts of Seth and Barca. In situation it is very uneven, sometime mountainous, and sometime plain, the people indifferent civil, the country reasonably well inhabited, and in regard of plenty of victual, somewhat resorted unto by merchants. Upon the mountains dwell neatherds and shepherds, living for the most part upon millet, leading a bestial life, without religion, and accompanying with one an others wife in common. They know no other names, than such as are given them for some note or mark of their body, as blind, lame, tall, bold, etc. This king is very puissant in people, of whom he exacteth no other tribute than the tenths of the increase of their lively hoods. For exercise and instead of occupations they give themselves to steal, to slay their neighbours, and to take them prisoners, and then to barter them for horses with the merchants of Barbary. He hath under him many kingdoms and nations, some white some black. He is an heavy enemy to the Abessines, taking away their cattle, rifling their mines, and leading away the people in captivity. His horsemen ride after the Spanish manner, armed with lances (steeled at both ends) darts and arrows: but their inroads resemble rather robberies and garboils, than wars managed by valiant soldiers.  
The Turk likewise on the east, and the king of Adel on the southeast, do cruelly vex him: for they have curtailed his large dominion and brought his provinces into great misery. In the year 1558. the Turk harried the whole territory of Bernagasso (but since expulsed) and took from Prester john whatsoever he was Lord of upon that sea coast, especially the haven and city of Suaquen and Erococo, in which place the mountains between Abex and the red sea, make a gate as it were for the traffic and carriages of the Abessines and Arabians. And sithence that, Bernangasso was enforced to submit himself to the Turkish commands, to buy his peace, and in name of a tribute to pay one thousand ounces of gold yearly.  
The king of Adel is his no less infestious enemy: he bordereth upon the kingdom of Fatigar: and his signory stretcheth alongst the red sea as far as Assum, Salir, Meth, Barbora, Pidar and Zeila. Many ships come from Aden and Cambaia to Barbora with merchandise, which they truck for flesh, honey, wax and vittail: these commodities are carried to Aden; gold, ivory, and such wares are sent to Cambaia: the greatest part of vittail, honey, wax, corn and fruits brought from Zeila, are carried into Aden and Arabia, as likewise much cattle, especially sheep having tails of 25. pound weight, with heads and necks all black, the rest of their bodies all white. Of these cattle there are some altogether white, with turning crooked tails as long as a man's arm, and dewlaps like oxen. Some of their kine have horns with many branches like our dear: othersome have one horn in their forehead growing backward a span and half long. The chief city of this kingdom is Arar 38. leagues distant from Zeila towards the southeast. He professeth Mahumetism, and since his conversion he hath entitled himself with the surname of Holy, avowing continual war against the Abessine Christians: and therefore he watcheth the time of the foresaid fast of fifty days, when he entereth their territories, burneth their villages, taketh prisoners, and then committeth a thousand other mischiefs.  
The Abessine slaves do often leave their country, and take upon them great journeys, putting themselves in the service of great Lords, where many times by their industry and good carriage they become high commanders in Arabia, Cambaia, Bengala and Sumatra. For the Mahometan princes being all tyrants & Lords of those countries, which they have forced from the Gentiles, to secure their estates do never trust their homebred subjects, but wage strangers and slaves, unto whose fidelity they commit their persons and the managing of all the affairs of their kingdoms. And amongst all sorts of slaves, the Abessine is in greatest esteem for his faithfulness and towardly disposition. The king of Adel overlaieth Egypt and Arabia with these slaves, which he changeth with the Turks and princes of Arabia, for armour, provision of war and soldiers. In the year of our Lord 1500. Claud king of Abex perceiving himself inferior to Grad-Ameda king of Adel (for he had vexed his land with 14. years incursions) forsaking the frontiers, retired himself into the inward parts of his kingdom, entreating for aid of Stephen Gama viceroy of India under john the third king of Portugal, who was then in the red sea with a warlike navy. In compassion of his miseries and religion, he sent him four hundred Portugall-shot very well furnished under the conduct of Christopher his brother. By their aid and use of their artillery he overthrew his enemies in two battles: but the king of Adel obtaining of the governor of the city of Zebit one thousand harquebushers, and ten pieces of ordinance, in the third fight put the Portugals to flight, and slew their captain. Afterwards when Adel had sent away these Turks, king Claudius set upon him at unawares by the river Zeila and the mountain Sana with eight thousand footmen, five hundred Abessine horsemen, and the remainder of the living Portugals, one of whom gave Grada-Amada his death's wound. But in March 1509. Claudius' fight with the Moors of Malaca, gaining the victory, was slain in the battle. Adam his brother succeeded, against whom being a demi-Mahumetan, the greatest part of the Abessine nobility rebelled, and was overthrown in the year 1562. by Bernagasso. By this casualty did the Aethiopian affairs ebb & flow, until in the reign of Alexander things began in some sort to return to their ancient estate by the aid of the Portugals, who furnished them with weapons both offensive and defensive, and by their examples encouraged them to be stout and courageous against their enemies. All that were living after the defeature of Christopher Gama, and all that ever went thither since that day to this, do still remain there, marrying wives and begetting children. King Alexander gave them leave to elect a justicer, and to end all matters of controversy amongst themselves, which maketh them so willing to stay and to teach them the use of their weapons, the manner of our warfare, and how to fortify passages and places of importance. Since those times (Francis Medici's contracting friendship with the Abessine) divers Florentines, some for pleasure and some for profit, have traveled into those provinces, wherein when they are once entered, the king entreateth them so fair, and giveth them so largely whereupon to live, that they can hardly obtain licence to return again into their own countries.  
Besides these, he hath other enemies, as the king of Dancali, whose city and haven is Vela upon the red sea, and the Moors of Doba, a province divided into fourteen Lieutenantships. These people though they are accounted within the limits of the Abessine Empire, yet do they often rebel, having a law amongst themselves, that no young man may contract matrimony, unless he can bring good proof that he hath slain twelve Christians.   

Monomotapa.  
IN the residue of Aethiop reign divers powerful princes, as the kings of Adel, Monomugi, Monomotapa, Angola, and Congo, of which as yet we understand very little. But that the Reader by the description of one, may conjecture of the rest, I will speak somewhat of the state & policy of Monomotapa, because it is mightier and more famous than the rest. This kingdom containeth all that Island which lieth between the rivers of Cuama and Spirito Santo (a territory of 150. leagues in compass) and from Spirito Santo it stretcheth even to the Cape of Good Hope: for the Vizeroys of that huge tract do acknowledge him for their sovereign and supreme governor: of towns & villages they have few, those cottages which they have consist of timber and t●ach. One of their chief cities is called Zimbas, and other Benema taxa, the one fifteen miles, the other 21. distant from Cefala towards the west. The soil aboundeth with corn & with cattle great and small, wandering by herds through the fields and woods. By the store of teeth from thence transported, we may conjecture that less than 5000. elephants cannot but die yearly in this country. These beasts are here very great. There is no climate like it for plenty of gold: for by report there are 3000. mines, whereout gold is digged: gold is likewise found in the earth, in rocks and rivers. The mines of Manica, Boro, Quiticui, and Toroe (which some men call Butua) are the richest. The people are mean of stature, black, & well set. They converse with the king kneeling on their knees, and to sit in his presence, is the use with them, as with us to stand, and that is granted but to great lords. The assay of meat and drink is not made before, but after the prince hath eat and drunk. here are no prisons, because law passeth upon the offendor in the very moment wherein the offence was committed. The offences most severely punished are witchcraft, theft, and adultery. They pay no other tribute but certain days work, and presents, without the which no man may appear in the prince's presence. The king beareth in his coat of arms a certain little spade, with an ivory handle, and two small darts. He keepeth for his faithfullest guard two hundred dogs. He keepeth the heirs of his vassal princes to be secured of their parent's loyalty. One of the kings not long sithence was converted and baptized by Gonsalua Silva a jesuit, with the greater part of his courtiers, but afterwards (by the persuasion of certain Moors in great credit about him) he caused him to be slain. Sebastian king of Portugal offended hereat, proclaimed war against him under the leading of Francisco Barre●●o. This army consisted of sixteen hundred, the greatest part gentlemen, to whom the Monomotapa fearing their arms and valour, offered honourable conditions, but the captain (whom no offer or indiffeferencie could satisfy) was overcome, and his army utterly consumed, yet not by the enemy, but by sickness and the infectious air of the country.   
FINIS.   

Faults escaped.  
Page 17. lin. 30. for lancers, read men at arms.  
Page 20. lin. 38. for defensible, r. defeasible.  
Page 24. lin. 22. for supremacy, r. sovereignty.  
Page 28. lin. penult. these words, without relation to the kingly authority, are superfluous.  
Page 65. lin. 30. for it might, r. he might.  
Page 65. lin. 34. for he is immediate, r. mediate, he is  
Page. 127. lin. 24. for can be wanting, r. cannot be wanting.