ΜΙΚΡΟΣΜΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ: A DESCRIPTION of the Body of Man.  
TOGETHER VVITH THE CONTROVERSIES THERETO BELONGING.  
Collected and Translated out of all the Best Authors of Anatomy, Especially out of Gasper Bauhinus and Andreas Laurentius. By HELKIAH CROOKE Doctor of Physicke, Physitian to His Maiestie, and his Highnesse PROFESSOR in Anatomy and Chyrurgerie.  
Published by the Kings Maiesties especiall Direction and Warrant according to the first integrity, as it was originally written by the AVTHOR.  
— Etiam Parnassia Laurus Parua, subingentimatris se subijcit vmbra.  
 
 
Printed by William Iaggard dwelling in Barbican, and are there to be sold, 1615.   

SERENISSIMO POTENTISSIMO, LITER Atissimo{que} Principi ac Domino Nostro Iacobo, Dei Gratia Magnae Britanniae, Franciae, & Hiberniae Regi, Fidei Defensori, &c.  
_VT suscepti moles operis, cui vix cuiusuis nostrorum hominum vires respondent, & inassueta scriptioni manus, merito me dum rem pararem deteruêre quo minus Augusto tuo nomini inscriptam vellem;( Rex serenissime & tui seculi longe literatissime) ita demum conscientia animi integri, sed quorundam, quos minime decuit, obtrectatione tentati, ad eam me impulit rectê factorum fiduciam, vt primum libenter ad tuam Maiestatem prouocauerim, quem faelicitas publica cum primis Literaria, non Orbis modo nostri sed & 〈◇〉 Imperio admouit. Enimuero vt taceam eam quam exterae Gentes in Tuis egregiè scriptis amant & admirantur 〈◇〉; interior illa 〈◇〉 quam ante annos aliquot in altera, nouissimè in Cantabrigiensi Academia publicis{que} Comitijs sub tuis Auspicijs habitis, signatam exhibuit Maiestas tua; non finit me dubitare litem hanc de re literaria Tuo Tribunali ordinariè competituram. Duo igitur sunt quae huic operi affigunt si non affingunt crimina, mihi ipsi tertium. Primum id{que} maximum nefas esse ducunt Artis Mysteria ignobili vulgo prostituisse. Secundum velamen Naturae reuelare, & Pudititiam quasi in propatulo ponere. Tertium illiberalis esse ingenij arguunt in aliena quercu lignari. Quae singula quidē amoliri, vt mea plurimum interesse sentio, ita supplex obtestor Maiestatem tuam, pro eo, quo coronatae incedunt virtutes tuae, Candore vt tantisper tua tempora demorer dum totidē momentis molumenta isthaec diruam. At{que} primum me mouit non modo scriptorum veterum Graecorum, Latinorum, Arabum recepta consuetudo, qui ad vnum omnes, Artes quif{que} suas cuiusuis generis indigitarunt; fed & Neotericorum schola Medicorum, qui Patrio Idiomate vel primum donarunt inventa Anatomica vel postea traduxerunt; cuius reilocuples mihi testis est pars quae{que} Europae maxime literata, Hispaniam dico, Gallias, Italiam & vtram{que} Germaniam. Ne{que} vero in nostra Anglia siluit haec Musa, aut postliminio tantum recepta est; sed superiori seculo nata, sub Patre, Filio, Filia potentissimis & literatissimis Principibus ter quidem instaurata, sed destituta fomentis in Cunis adhuc vagire deprehenditur: siquidem vt vrbium Imperiorum{que} ita literarum sua sunt & lenta tempora quibus oriuntur, florent, senescunt & tandem intereunt. Taceo illa, maxima quidem, sed commemorata nobis libro primo rationum momenta, quibus ab vtilitate, a voluptate, a necessitate ipsa, quotquot mortalium sumus, cogimur, trahimur, allicimur in Communionem Naturalis Sacramenti summae Magni Opificis sapientiae & bonitatis. Quis ora erecta dedit & oculos versi-colores? quis narium perforationes & sinuosas aurium tornauit Cochleas? quis venarum arteriarum{que} riuos & aquae-ductus distribuit, neruorum tetendit rigiditates, ossium 〈◇〉 posuit, cutis efflorescentiam & membranarum expansa dilatauit? quis artus artuum{que} digitos divisit, firmauit pedes, poros & spiracula terebrauit? quis excavavit pulmonum Bronchos spiritus{que} reciprocationes instituit? quis motus cordis geminos, intermediam quietem, & conclusae vitae subsultationes pulsus{que} limitavit? quis viscerum coagulavit conglomerata Parenchymata? quis Sensuum 〈◇〉 Animae Regiam stipavit, Cerebrum Falce divisit, arcuatam Concamerationem medullae, speculum{que} lucidum disposuit? quis spirituum Animalium disterminauit conceptacula, reticulum mirable plexum{que} Choroidem innexvit. Dies me deficeret si ventriculi Chylosin, intestinorum volumina, mesaraicarum suctus, hepatis sanguificationem & Anastomoses mirabiles; si lienis defaecationem, renum emulctus, vesicarum collectiones, testium irradiationes, vteri sensus, & mille artes Naturae minimis particulis ingenitas praedicem: quae si non singula, at praecipua tamen nouisse, cuius Deus bone! non intererit? Circumgerimus ignota miracula & sectamur quisquilias, extra nos querentes dum domi perigrinamur.  
At obsignata inquiunt Mysteria Arti reverentiam, Artifici dignitatem pariunt. Scilicet is semper mos fuit hominum vel illiteratorum, vel questui inhiantium, Religiones Artes{que} tanquam scrinio conclusas gerere, nevel foedae argui possint inscitiae, vel emolumenti tantillum sibi detrahi sinant: quanquam silegitima virtutis praemia spectent, non aliunde cumulatius nostri ordinis hominibus subministrari sentiant; quam ab ijs, qui vel leuiter initiati vanos etiam metus expauescunt, vel altius instituti fidam Artem vt agnoscunt, ita cum opus est exposcunt & amplectuntur. Sed si ne{que} veterum calcare viam, nec recentium laudabili instituto insistere velint, vt illorum obse qui possint voluntati, quos vel diuersa studia vel occupationes a literis alienae minus idoneos rediderunt qui rigidam Anatomicorum orationem percipiant; at certe juventuti Chyrurgicae ne invideant; qui cum de nostra Repub. Colonia sint, equum est eas leges, ea jura teneant quibus & sibi decori & nobis, dum res est, vsui esse possint. Qui idcirco non ingenio Stromatico instituendi, aut Cothurnatis Cissionijs{que} crepidis induendi; sed per genuina Artis praecepta facili methodo deducendi, vt quae domi vel suo marte, tēporum injuria, vix consequi possunt, nostra opera sibi abundè suppeditata cognoscant, ea{que} ita mitigata vt possint concoqui. Ne{que} enim vbiuis terrarum Doctores Medici adsunt, aut Cuiusvis fortunae est stipendium medicum numerare; an igitur necessum habeant perire eos omnes quorum, vel res angusta vel habitatio a Medicorum frequentia seclusa est.  
At saltem secreta Naturae reuelanda non sunt, ne{que} auribus oculisue obijcienda quae male feriatorum mentes & pascant & incendant. Veniunt hic mihi primo loco repetenda quae dudum adduxi de consilio omnium Seculorum, Nationum, Hominum, quorum nemo harum partium Historiam detrectauerit; de admiranda Diuini Creatoris in his ijsdem partibus sapientia; de Administration circa easdem necessitate; quae eo magis vrgere soleat quo symptomata plerum{que} inducunt vt grauiora & tristiora ita maxime frequentia. Quid quod Scriptura Sacra Rachaelis Menses, puerpearum profluvia, Carnis saliuationem in Gonorrhoea, semen Concubitus. Sarae 〈◇〉 quam admodum violenter, inquit Stephanus, seminis Conceptionem pro emissione interpretantur, describere non erubuit? Quid quod ipsi publicis Dissectionibus non delineatas imagines, sed ipsum Corpus humanum vtrius{que} sexus spectandum palpandum{que} exhibent, partes{que} obscoenas secant resecant{que} in Corona populi, & patrio idiomate singula explicant: quo minus alteri vitio vertant quae sibi laudi ducunt. At tribuendum est aliquid pudicitiae. Certe quidem & nos non parum tribuimus, & quoad fieri potuit, re non neglecta quae sub manibus erat, honestis Circumlocutionibus argumentum molle exasperatum reddimus; vbi proposito insistendum erat, Philosophica disputatione Lectoris mentem in diuersum trahimus Ne vatinoceat mala lingua futuro. At Icones sunt plusquam Aretinae; ita in Theatro Anatomico publicè ad invidiam conciliandam nuperrime nominibantur; quae non aliae quam quae nostro hoc seculo Centies impressae vbi{que} terrarum circumferuntur, pijs Principibus & Rebuspub. approbatae; non aliae quam quae virgini castissimae Elizabethae sacro-sanctae memoriae principi Dedicatae & in manus traditae sunt. Crimine ab vno disce omnes & frontem tristi censura striatam.  
Dein{que} dignitatem mihi exprobant Academicam quod aliorum vestigijs insistens de alieno prodigus de proprio parcus fuerim. Ne{que} sane diffitebor me sanguinem succum{que} hausisse ex alijs; at Methodum, Limina, Limam{que} nostra voco; in super quae saepenumero in Disquisitionibus occurrunt partes meas. Addidi etiam plurimorum Anatomicorum 〈◇〉, suffragia, retractationes, demonstrationes, 〈◇〉; quae omnia vel colligere, vel collecta repetere vnde desumpta sunt & suis quae{que} locis disponere non nudi est Tralatoris; quanquam fuerunt & inter nos sunt viri valde docti quorum diuina ingenia longesequor & vestigia semper adoro quibus transferendi munus fastidio non fuit.  
— Etiam Parnassia Laurus  
Parua, sub ingenti matris se subijcit vmbra.  
Ne{que} hoc mihi jure quis audaciae loco imputauerit si remigem prius esse me velim quam ad gubernacula manus admouerim, ne{que} socordiae si proprio vtar remigio. At{que} nisi ego fallor, si quis in hoc curriculo mecum desudauerit & pedem pedi contulerit; sentiet profecto se 〈◇〉 ita praecipitijs & praeruptis anfractibus totus hic ager scatet. Mitto viscerum viam perplexam & spinis obsitam, quae tot artis proceres collisit: quas vasorum Conjugationes, quae diuortia, quam implicitas divaricationes, rimari sequi, & in suos alueos deducere oportet? Musculorum nomina, origines, progressus, implantationes; Substructorum ossium appendices, processus, perforationes, suturae, harmoniae, gomphoses, diarthroses, synarthroses, enarthroses, arthroidae, ginglymoi; eorundem synchondrosis, synsarcosis, syndesmosis, & mille tedia superanda sunt; immensū aequor arandum, antequam fugientem oram prehenderis. Neigitur mihi fraudi sit easdem horas his studijs insumere & publicae vtilitati consecrare, quas alij, qui magnae potius quam bonae famae sunt, inter globulos & fumum prolixe disperdunt. Artem tracto tentatam quidem ante me, sed subsultim & leui pede, ab ijs quorum voluntates probaveris potius quam facultates, qui tamen cum primum ad vexillum fuerunt, merito suo Primipili a me audient. In nostro opere fidem invenies & indefessam diligentiam; orationem, non illam quidem ornatam, qui poteram in abruptare? sed evidentem & dilucidam; verborum etiam delectum, sed non tam quae delectent quam quae instruant, quamquam & ipsa Artis vocabula adiunximus, sed reddita, vt apud me lector seipsum apud alios istos ipsos intelligat.  
At{que} hactenus consilij mei rationem ita vt teneor exposui, quod vt Majestatis tuae bona cum venia sit humillimè & obnixè contendo. Faueas primitijs crescentis indolis; quae si sub tuo Sole adoleverit & iustam tandem maturitatem consequuta fuerit, non indignos fructus retributuram confido. Interim a Te pro meo opere 〈◇〉, pro Te a Deo Opt. Max. 〈◇〉 supplex efflagitabo.  
Serenissimae Majestati tuae Subditus Deuotissimus, HELKIAH CROCVS.   

TO THE VVORSHIPFVLL Company of the Barber-Chyrurgeons, the Maister, Wardens, Assistants, and Comminalty of the same; HELKIAH CROOKE, Physitian and Professor in Anatomy and Chirurgery to His MAIESTIE, wisheth Happie and prosperous Successe in Your PROFESSION.  
_MY Maisters and Worshipfull Friends. As from the first I intended this Labor vnto your behoofe; so now hauing by Gods assistance brought it to an end, I offer it vnto you as a token of my Loue: Not that I doubt but there are some among you who as themselues stand in no neede of my helpe, so they are also able to haue set out this Banquet with greater variety and to haue Cooked it fitter for you as being better acquainted with your diet and appetites. But because it is now a long time since your Banister( that good old man) first presented you with a seruice of this kinde, and no man hath seconded him; I haue aduentured to commit vnto you these first fruites of my vntainted fame: which if you shall kindly entertaine and make such vse thereof as I may not think my labour misbestowed, you shall encourage me cheerefully to run on that course which I haue propounded to myself to further your profiting in that Noble Art which you haue taken vpon you to professe. For when I first began, I intended the Anatomy to be but an entrance into a worke of Chyrurgerie, which I had digested into a forme fit, as I thinke, first to ground and establish you in the Principles and Theory or Contemplatiue part of your profession, and after to builde you vp vnto the practise of the same. And because the Body of Man is the Subiect of your Art, without the knowledge whereof it is impossible for a Chirurgeon to work with any confidence or certainty of successe, I began with Anatomy.  
In the next place shall follow a Discourse of the constitution of mans body, as he enioyeth a perfect or apportionated health by a due Mixture of the principles whereof he consisteth; of the Temperament of each part arising from that mixture; of the Offices or Functions proceeding from that temperament, and such other things as will fall in with the same. For as it is a rule in Geometry, that Rectum est index sui & obliqus, That which is Right measureth both itself and that which is crooked; so in our Art, he that knowes what should bee the naturall disposition of euerie part will be best able to iudge when Nature declineth from that integrity, and how far the declination is from the true and genuine constitution. This part indeede is Philosophicall, but I shall make it so plaine, if God will, that a very reasonable capacity shall be able to apprehend it. After you haue knowledge of the healthfull and sound constitution which is the rule of the rest, I teach the Natures, Differences, Signes and Prognosticks of diseases, so farre as it necessarie a Chyrurgeon should know, that is to say, of Tumours or Apostemations, of Woundes, Vlcers, Fractures, and the like. Then followeth the Method of Curing by Indications, which are many and intricate, but I haue referred them( not without great labour) to outward diseases and illustrated all by examples to make the better impression in your minds. In the next place I handle the Operations of Chyrurgery in generall, where you haue all the Instruments of your Art; Engines, Swathes, Ties, Bands and Ligatures, described by Hippocrates, Galen, Oribasius, and those also of the new Chyrurgeons inuentions, with their Figures, interpretations, and manner of application. Afterward I descend to the operations in particular, as to Diuision, Simple & Compound; Simple in Section & Vstion; Compound with Extraction and Extirpation. To Iunction also, Simple and Compound, Simple in Adduction, Adaptation, and the way how to Conteine them so fitted together. Compound with Addition of such decayed Naturall parts as may bee restored or imitated by Art. Then I come to the cure of Tumors of all kindes both Simple and Compound: of Wounds whether they bee made Caesim or punctim, by Contusion, by Arrowes, Engines or Bullets, with Laceration or with out: of the bytings or stinging of venomous Creatures, with their seuerall Antidotes: of burnings, scaldings, and such like.  
Next I proceed to Vlcers, putride, sordide, sistulated, cancerous, gangrenated, sphacelated and such as are virulent, with the Accidents that vse to accompany them: to Luxations also and Fractures with their kinds and accidents. Afterward I handle those generall diseases which belong to the whole body, as the Gowt, the Leprosie, the Meazels, the Pox of both kindes, the Plague and such like: and then proceede to the particular diseases from the Head to the Foote, wherein the Chirurgeons helpe is required. Finally, I intreat of the Matter of Chyrurgery, that is, of the Nature of those Drugs, Hearbs and Minerals which he hath neede to vse; of their correction and preparation, of the manner of compounding his Medicines both for outward applications and such inward as may conduce thereuuto. And so I thinke I shall haue finished the Art of Chyrurgery throughout.  
I acknowledge that which I haue promised to be a great labor, and more then any man whom I haue yet seene hath accomplished: but the ground being long a goe laide in my priuate studies and reserences continually now for these sixteene yeares accommodated vnto those groundes, haue brought it to such forwardnesse as I can be content to finish it with as much hast as my occasions will giue leaue, if I see that this Anatomicall labour is acceptable and of vse vnto you. I know well there are some who thinke and do not stitke to affirme, euen before your publique Assemblies, that you haue meanes enow already, & haply more then they would you had. Their reason can be no other, but because they would holde you alwayes abnoxious to themselues. For my part I conceiue of the Art of Chyrurgery as of a part of Physick; and therefore of Chyrurgeons as Citizens of the Physitians Commonwealth: the difference is, that wee hauing mostwhat better meanes by education to aduantage our wittes, apply them vnto the more abstruse part of the Art separated from the sense and consisting in contemplation and collection; the Chyrurgeon worketh by his eye and with his hand, and dwelleth as it were in the Confines of that Countrey whose inner part we inhabit. If therefore they warrant the frontiers and keepe their Stations well and duly therein, may not we better attend to improoue the portion that is allotted vnto vs? But wee are both like couetous Farmers, who incroach vppon and get more grounds into their hands then they can well manage, for getting that wholesome counsel of the wise Poet: 
Laudato ingentia rura— Exiguum colito.  
Praise a great Farme but occupy a small.   
For surely if we aduise well with ourselves, Physitians shall find work enough( though they meddle not with the labour of the hand) to minde the subiect of their Art, I mean Anatomy, wherein too many of vs are wanting to ourselves and others; the causes of diseases; the signes of the part affected; the skill of praediction; the method of curing and the choise of Medicines, with a world of intricate worke beside in apprehending occasions, expecting and imitating the motions and endeauors of Nature, remoouing her obstacles, strengthning her operations & the like. And if we want imployment in these, it seemeth to me more fit to fit ourselves thereunto, then casting behinde our backes the care of such needfull studies to take vp our precious time in dressing or attending broken heads, strained or luxed ioynts, new wounds or old Vlcers, or in playing the Apothe caries as some do, who vnder the name of Cordials of x. li. an ounce, Potable Golde, precious Quintessences and preparations of Minerals, do obtrude vpon the worlde either notable impostures or dangerous poysons, ayming indeede at nothing so much( if at any thing else) as at their priuate gaine and the concealing of their ignorance which would necessarily be detected if they should communicate their practise to Apothecaries as other ingenuous Physitians doe. But of these I haue spoken more largely in an Animaduersion vpon Crolius his Admonitory preface in Latine, and shall haue fitter occasion to speake more elswhere, when I shall be very plaine against those that come in my way.  
To returne whence I haue digressed. Hippocrates the Father and Author of Physicke, the true paterne of ingenuity, put that for one clause in the Oath which himselfe solemnly tooke, and which he would haue all Physitians take, that they should not cut any man for the Stone, but leaue that worke for them that accustome themselues to performe it; by that one instance according to his custome, interdicting a Physitian all manuary labour as knowing he should finde worke enough to fit his minde for greater difficulties. On the other side the Chyrurgean should content himselfe with the limits of his profession and not vsurpe vppon the possession of the Physitian, which he doth( somtimes indeede for his profit) but seldome without the detriment of the patient, especially if there be any difficulty in the businesse. I do not deny, but that a Chyrurgeon, yea a Diuine, or Gentleman, if he lay good foundations and build therafter vpon them may be a Physitian as well and as good as the best of vs: but it is not ordinary for men of Manuary Trades or other professions to be so qualified: the more honour it is for them that bee. But certainly if euery man would containe himselfe within his own tether, and presse no further then he is guided by right reason and his reason warranted by experience, we should not heare of so many soloecismes and notable in congruities which are daily committed, nor some( otherwise worthy men) be marked with the blacke coale of filthy auarice, the basest and most preiudiciall vice that is incident to learned men.  
Neither yet do I thinke it fit, that the Physitian should be ignorant in the Chyrurgical part, but able to guide the Chyrurgeon that is not able to guide himselfe, to assist and confirme him that is, and to amend a fault when it is committed: but for the work of the hand, I take it to be more lawfull for him then expedient, more honourable to be able and not to do it, then profitable to do it though he be neuer so well able. Albeit to say the truth, the fault is more common on the Chyrurgeans part then on the Physitians; and by so much the greater, by how much the danger of not doing well is more in very many, then the disreputation or disaduantage can be to a few( and very few they be indeede of the better sort) who do all they can.  
Notwithstanding, because some men are importunately bolde aboue their skill, shall it not be thought fit that all may learne that they ought to haue skill in and is an essentiall part of their profession? Let them then learne it( saith the Physitian) as we do. As much as if he should say to his patient that is not able to helpe himselfe: There is an excellent Medicine for your malady in Galen I pray you seeke it out. It is indeede a disease in our common-wealth, that Chyrurgeons haue no better meanes to instruct themselues; but such a disease as( among the rest) i, verie behoouefull for the Physitian. For sure I am, if they had those meanes that wee haue, they would easily( as it is in the prouerbe) wipe the fat from our beards; not only because of their nūbers, but especially because they are interessed alwaies in a part of our profession: so that if they were as wel able as willing to take vpon thē the whole, we should be faine either to conuert our studyes some other way, or feed vpon their leauings which would be but short Commons. If therefore you will say they meddle so much now, what will they not vndertake when they are better prouided? Surely not so much: for who are those that busy themselues most in the matter of physicke, but such as are least able. The able and discreet Chyrurgeon when hee hath learned anie thing hath also learned the difficulty of physicke, and will bee readier to pray in aide of the learned Physitian, then he that runs boldly headlong without foresight of danger.  
Seeing therefore it is necessary Chyrurgeons should be instructed for the behoofe of the Commonwealth, whose generall good is to be preferred before all particulars; why should we not be rather willing to instruct them ourselves when we may holde them within the compasse of their owne Art, then driue them to seeke other helpes to our preiudice? Now then, among all the parts of our Art there is none that the Chyrurgeon hath more need of, or that is of more vse for himself then Anatomy, none that doth lesse inable him to practise physick, it being a mere Natural study, teaching him where to seek the Veine hee must open; how the ioynt should bee reposed which he findeth luxed; what parts are nere the wound which he searcheth and therefore may be offended with it; which way the Fibres, Vessels and Tendous run that in his incisions he may not violate them; how to cast on his Bands to conteine a Fracture or Luxation; how to auoide the most sensible & vsefull parts in Trepaning, Cauterizing, dismembring and such like: but of medicine and the cure of in ward diseases in Anatomy not a word. The inward parts are alio indeed Historified, whose position at least( you will grant vnasked) it is fit the Chyrurgeon should know; else when we appoint a plaister to the Liuer he may lay it to the left side, when for the Spleen on the right. But he may be directed. That is not perpetual; Physitians are not in all places, nor al men fit to entertaine them when they are to be had. Beside, a Chyrurgeon should not alwaies bee an apprentice, but at length a Maister of his Art, fit to instruct others not alwaies standing in ●eede of instruction himselfe, vnlesse it be in difficulties, when I know no Physitian but will be glad of assistance. Add hereto, that al Physitians in all ages, kingdoms and free states, haue written their Anatomy and Art of Chirurgery in their mother-tongues, or afterward translated them for the vse of Chyrurgeons; which is so wel knowne that it were in vaine to make repetition of particulars. To come to ourselves; we finde many examples of learned men and good Patriots, who haue bene willing to take great paines and to be at great Charge for this purpose.  
Amongst the rest D. Caw●wel sometimes President of the Colledge of Physitians in London, first translated Moores Tables, and( a learned man though he were) was not ashamed to do that seruice to his country as to make himselfe, as some vnworthily and scornfully terme it, A bridge for asses to passe ouer by. He also promised Oribasius de Laqutis, which his labor seemeth to haue bene interrupted by his death or otherwise lost, to the great detriment of Chyrurgery. But for Anatomy he did not onely take paines in it, but was also at great cost tò cut the Figures in Brasse, which he left remaining in your hands( my Maisters of Chyrurgery) as a testimony of his great desire to further your profiting in that part. Moreouer that honorable person the Lord Lumley erected▪ Chyrurgery Lector in the Colledge of Physitians allowing liberall maintenance to a Doct. of Physick to read the same twice a weeke, partly in Latine, and pattly also in English for the vse of the Chyrurgeans, and to go ouer the whol body of Anatomy euery year a part which Lecture is not so duly followed and frequented, as it is performed at this time by D. Dauies, of whom I cannot but make worthy mention hauing receiued not onely great contentment but profit also by his learned readings. You haue also among you a laudable custome to procure a Doctor of Physick to read vnto you, and to prouide that his Lectures be duly attended by those of your society: and the Physitians. I doubt not, thinke they haue done wel in singling out a learned man to instruct you. Onely your care must be, to feed vpon that rather which is 〈◇〉 then vpon that which is 〈◇〉, vpon that which is good for nourishment rather then vppon that which will delight and fill but not feed your minds: to attend the plaine-song rather then the diuision or descant, which doth oftentimes corrupt the Musick if the auditors care be not careful to distinguish them. Finally, you haue Anatomies both priuate for your profiting & publick for the honor & reputation of your Company read in your Mothertoong. And truly me thoght it did me good to see so graue a company of gowned Chyrurgeons attending vpon it, so good order, so great a Crowne of worthy Auditors, so liberal entertainment a● it: which I do not mention to flatter you, for flattery is to attribute more then desert, but partly to commend your praise-worthy care; partly if it were possible to stir vp ourselves to a lawfull emulation.  
To returne. These many paternes, these worthy presidents first warranted me, after perswaded me to spend those houres which I might spare from my employments in these & the like labors. For which as I esteeme my owne profiting to be a sufficient & answerable reward, so I did & do hope that my paines being communicated to others would returne vpon me with aduantage; that aduantage I meane, which is most welcom to honest minds, that is, a conscience of hauing improued though but a single talent. It were in vaine to Apologize for myself that I haue not had that time, those opportunities, those meanes which are required to an exquisit Anatomist, because( it may be answered) I might then haue held my hand and giuen way vnto such as had them. There is indeed a time when a man should stand much vpon the consideration of his strength. There is also a time wherin it is lesse dishonor to want power then will, ability then good endeuour. He that first scales the battlements of a Casile or Citadel though his body bee not sufficient to oppose against a whole squadron, yet if hee win the wall and make way for the victor, deserues a Murall Crown. Whilst other men( put case) more able, haue looked on & pittied themselues, I haue giuen the onset, with courage enough if not too much, & viui peruenimus; but with what dextery is in you to iudge. Many obiections are made against me. First, that being a professed Scholler I should haue written in Latine. That indeed had bene easier for me by far, hauing the words made to my hands, the passages chalked out, and plenty of Authors to haue gleaned from and a litle latine, such as it is to haue varied my discourse: but it had bin most ydle, my purpose being to better them who do not so wel vnderstand that language. I shold, said another, haue made an Anatomy of my owne. Such Guls little know what it is to write an Anatomy; thittie yea forty yeares practise( which are more then the daies of my life) in dissection, and a hundred bodies more or lesse, small and great euery yeare, hath bin thought little enough to make an Anatomist fit to teach this learned age; for which I dare boldly say, no man amongst vs that knowes himselfe can esteeme himselfe sufficient, because we want those meanes which other Countries affoord their professors. Another closeth more cunningly with me, Surely it is well done if it were well to do it. Such limited and reserued commendations I disavow: my reason is, because whilst they commend the beautie of the wall they vndermine and demolish the foundation. My counsell and end that by my right I require should be approued, my performance not so: what reater tort or wrong can there be, then to take a man by the beard with the one hand to kisse him, and to smite him vnder the fift rib with the other & spil his bowels vpon the earth. The Figures are obscoene as Aretines. A shamelesse accusation; for they are no other then those of Vessalius, Plantinus, Platerus, Laurentius, Valuerdus, Bauhinus, and the rest; no other then those which were among ourselves dedicated to three famous Princes, the last a Mayden. Queene. For my adding the History of the partes of Generation, I haue already giuen account, partly to his Maiesty, partly in my Prefaces to the fourth and fift bookes. To leaue these men to their contradictory and detracting spirits, I returne vnto myself. My present worke is for the most part out of Bauhine for the History, Figures, and the seuerall Authors quoted in his Margents. The Controuersies are mostwhatout of Laurentius, with some additions, substractions and alterations as I thought fit and my wit would serue. The Method I haue altered throughout, transported the Tables as seemed best vnto me, reuised and made choise of the quotations in Bauhine, and interposed them in their owne places. I also added Praefaces to euery booke conteining the argument and purport thereof: & in the subsequent discourse many passages partly out of my owne obseruations, partly as I met with them in approued authors. The streame and current of Bauhines discourse because it is very hard, intricate, and full of long continued sentences, I haue broken off and parted as it might best be vnderstoode, which was one thing that made the volume to swell. The words of Art mostwhat I haue kept that you might not be vnacquainted with them, yet haue I also rendred them as well as I could into our language.  
The first booke is almost wholy out of Laurentius sauing for some passages, so is the fift, and had not the bulke of the volume growne too great, and so too chargeable to the Printer, I intended beside these thirteene Bookes; one of the Dissecting of Liuing Creatures; another of those things which happen rarely in Anatomy: a third of the method of Anatomy, the grounds whereof I had from that excellent and oculate Anatomist Petrus Pauius of Leyden my Maister and moderator in Anatomy, intreating of the choise and preparation of the bodye to be Dissected, of the Complements and endowments required in an Anatomist, of the place fit to make Dissection in, the manuarie Instruments named onelie in the first booke; the manner and order of dissection; how the parts do arise, where to finde them, and againe to repose them in their owne places before they be offered to the spectators and Auditors, and finally howe to prepare and compose the Scheleton; all which you may haply light vpon hereafter. Heere you haue the worke perfected, not onely as Bauhine hath it in three Venters & the Ioynts, but also after those, the kinds of Flesh, Simple, musculous, with the exact story of the Muscles thoroughout the whole bodie, the flesh of the Bowels and the Glandules. In the next place, the Vessels, Veines, Artcries and Sinnewes, with their diuarications and divisions from their originals euen to the extreme parts. Then the Membranes Ligaments, Gristles and Fibres. And lastly, that cragged and rockie treatise of the Bones. In all which I haue added the Natures and Definitions of euery particular and the explications of them: their differences and divisions with their Vses and Actions; all which are omitted by Bauhine in his Theater, but supplyed by me, partly out of Laurentus, partly out of those Dictates I gathered from Petrus Pauius before named. Finally, betwixt the 7 booke which contained the history of the vpper Venter that is the Head, and the ninth of the loyntes, I haue interposed a Booke of the Senses, collected out of Bauhine, Laurentius, and Iulius Casserius Placentinus, who wrote very accurately of that subiect, many of whose disputations I haue also added. One thing I craue pardon for aboue all the rest and that is Placentinus his Praeface before the Controversies of the eight booke, which indeede was not done by me, & the matter itself, to say truth, I do not so well like. Again, although I revised the Presse, or rather the sheets & proofes, as they call them, myself; yet being sometimes out of Towne about my practise, & oftner though in towne yet necessarily called away from attending the correction, many literall faults haue escaped, especially in the Greeke, and some more then literall, yet few such as will stumble the Reader, and fewer, it may be, then could be imagined should escape a worke of such vncouth argument to the Compositors, and written besides in a Schollers running hand. Thus much I thought good to advertise you of, my kinde and VVorshipful Friends, and so to commend my labor to your good acceptance and your honest endeavors and studyes in this and other parts of your Art to Gods blessing.  
From my house in S. Annes Lane, this last of May, 1615. By your Louing Friend HELKIAH CROOKE.   

The Contents of the seuerall Bookes contained in this Uolume.  

I. Booke. _OF the Excellency of Man, together with the Profite, Necessitie, Antiquity and Method of Anatomy.  
II. Booke. Of the partes Inuesting and Conteyning the whole Bodie, & also the Lower Belly in particular.  
III. Booke. Of the partes belonging vnto Nutrition and nourishment.  
IIII. Booke. Of the naturall parts belonging to Generation.  
V. Booke. Of the History of the Infant, most accurately described, according to the opinion of Hippocrates.  
VI. Booke. Of the Middle Region, called the Chest, contayning the vitall parts.  
VII. Booke. Of the third & vppermost Venter, called the Head wherein are described the Animall organs.  
VIII. Booke. Of the Senses and their Instruments, and also of the voyce.  
IX. Booke. A briefe description of all the Joynts.  
X. Booke. Of Flesh, that is, of the Muscles, the Bowelles, and the Glandules.  
XI. Booke. Of the vesselles containing three parts, namely, Veines, Arteries, and Sinewes.  
XII. Booke. Containing foure parts, viz: Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes, and Fibres.  
XIII. Booke. Of the Bones.    

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INtactus{que} lutum immundum speculatur 
* Sol.  Aquieus,  
Foemineam{que} notant scrinia 
* Sancta.  cera 
* Leuit. 15. 24. & 20. 18.  luem.  
Nudus Adam, nudus{que} puer non or a rubescit,  
Nuda nec impubi cernere mente nefas.  
Morbida non patitur, non lex 
* Mosis.  vada rubra Secantis.  
Naturae vt lateat 
* Leuit. 15, 2. & 24. 13.  nequiteae{que} via.  

* Math. 16. 19. Iob. 20. 3.  Clauibus instructo pandas delicta lubenter,  
Et bona causidico, membra{que} Celse, tibi.  
Arbor notitiae Magicas en extudit artes,  
Haeresium{que} plicas, imperij{que} plagas.  
Haec quo{que} nosse iuuat, vitae{que} excerpere fructus,  
Pestibus armatis pharmaca siue fugam.  
Non primus genitor secuit; iam cuspide primum  
Hinc animo dirimas deni{que} membra doce.  
Plaude parens, Argiua cluis, molimine Croci,  
Omniparos flores vnicus hortus habet.  
Vocem aptam, methodum accliuem, sexenta{que} paucis  
Dogmata conspicies stricta{que} tela virum.  
Pimpliadum soboles hinc ad potiora mouere,  
Hippolyto parcant flagra 
* Inuidua. Subsannatio. Detractio.  trisulca Iouis.   

TH'vntainted Sun on 
* Iudg. 3. 22.  EGLONS dung can stare,  
And Sacred writ doth 
* Gene. 32. 35.  RACHELS Months declare  
The Babe though nak'd, and 
* Gene. 2. 23.  ADAM dreads no shame,  
To gaze with Babe-like minde, can breed no blame.  
Nor Leches lore, nor MOSES Law can bide,  
Or sinnes, or Natures hidden parts to hide.  
To him that holds the keyes thou'lt shew thy sin.  
BRACTAN thy Case, HIPPOCRATES thy skin.  
The Tree of Knowledge Magicke did deuise,  
And errors gin, and Florentizing guize  
Yet fruit of Life they bring, which these reueale,  
That armed poysons we may shun or heale.  
Nought needed ADAM, but we first must cut,  
Next know, last teach, how euery member's put.  
Ioy England, rich as Greece by CROOKES long toyle,  
All Flowers budding in thy blessed soyle.  
Fit words, smooth order, many mindes in short  
Be here compris'd, and what their proofes import.  
Mount hence O Muses child to higher wonders,  
Nor feare HIPPOLITVS 
* Enuy. Scorne. Detraction.  three forked thunders.   
Ambrose Fisher.   

The Table of the seuerall Chapters and Questions contayned in this whole Uolume.  

The first Booke.  
CHAP. 1. THE Excellency of Man is declared by his parts, namely the Minde and the Body, and first what is the dignity of the Soule. Folio 3.  
Chap. 2. Of the wonderfull frame of Mans body. Folio 4.  
Chapter 3. Epicurus, Momus, Pliny and other, the malicious and false detracters from nature are censured, &c. 8.  
Chap. 4. Wherein the body of Man differeth from other creatures, &c. 10.  
Chap. 5. How profitable Anatomy is vnto euery mans selfe. 12.  
Chap. 6. How profitable Anatomy is to the knowledge of God. 14.  
Chap. 7. Howe profitable Anatomy is to Philosophers, Artificers, and Handy-crafts-men. 15  
Chap. 8. The necessitie of Anatomy for Physitians and Chyrurgions. 15  
Chap. 9. With what method Anatomy may be best demonstrated. 17  
Chap. 10. Who haue writ of Anatomy. 20  
Chap. 11. What Galen hath written of Anatomy, and how he was vniustly accused by Vesalius. 22  
Chap. 12. How far Aristotles skill streatched in Anatomy. 24  
Chap. 13. What other Greeke authours haue written of Anatomy. Ibid.  
Chap. 14. Who haue bin the chiefe authours of anatomy in our times. 25  
Chapter 15. The instruments necessary to anatomy. 26  
Chap. 16. What is the subiect or immediate obiect of anatomy. 27  
Chap. 17. What an Antomist must consider in euery part. 28  
Chap. 18. The differences of parts, &c. 30  
Chap. 19. A diuision of parts, &c. 31  
Chap. 20. An elegant diuision of parts into similar & dissimilar, &c. 32  
Chap. 21. The other differences of the parts vnfolded. 34   

The Controuersies of the first Booke.  
QVEST. 1. THe definition of a part. Folio 38  
Quest. 2. The principality of the parts against the Peripateticks. 39  
Qu. 3. How many principall parts there are. 43  
Qu. 4. Of the noblest principall part. 45  
Qu. 5. Of Similar and Disimilar parts. 47  
Qu. 6. Whether a Similar part may be called Organicall. 48  
Qu. 7. Whether the Spermaticall parts be generated of Seede. 50  
Quest. 8. Whether the Spermaticall parts can reioyne againe after they be violated & souered. 54  
Qu. 9. Whether the spermaticall parts be hotter then the flesh. 57  
Quest. 10. Whether the solid parts become dryed can be made moyst againe. 59   

The second Booke.  
CHAP. 1 THE diuision of the body of man. Folio 62  
Chap. 2. The diuision of the lower belly. 64  
Chap. 3. Of the composition or frame of the lower belly. 65  
Chap. 4. Of the haires of the whole body. 66  
Chap. 5. Of the cuticle or scarfe-skin. 70  
Chap. 6. Of the Skinne. 71  
Chap. 7. Of the Fat. 73  
Chap. 8. Of the fleshy membrane. 74  
Chap. 9. Of the inuesting or containing parts proper to the lower belly. 76  
Chap. 10. Of the Peritoneum or rim of the belly. 77  
Chap. 11. Of the vmbilicall or Nauell vessels. 78   

The Controuersies of the second Booke.  
QVEST. 1. HOw the hayres are nourished. Folio 82  
Quest. 2. Whether the skinne bee the organ of touching. 84  
3. Of the temper of the Skin. 85  
4. Whether the skin performe any common and officiall action. Ib.  
5. Whether it be heat or cold wherby fat is congealed. 87  
6. Whether fat be a liuing and animated part of the body. 90  
7. Of the membranes, vse and production of the Peritoneum. 91  
8. A new kinde of compunction of dropsie bodies through the Nauell. Ibid   

The third Booke.  
CHAP. I. Of the Naturall partes contayned in the lower belly. 95  
2. Of the Omentum or kall. 96  
3. A bilefe description of the gate veine and his branches. 99  
4. The arteries of the stomacke and the mesentery, which accompany the braunches of the Gateveine. 101  
5. Of the Guts. 103  
6. Of the mesentery. 111  
7. Of the Pancreas or sweet-bread. 113  
8. The branches of the hollow veine and great artery. 114  
9. Of the stomacke. 116  
10. Of the oesophagus or guilet. 122  
11. Of the spleene or milt. 124  
12. Of the Liuer. 129  
13. Of the bladder of gall. 135  
14. Of the Kidneyes. 139  
15. Of the vreters or passages of vrine. 149  
16. Of the bladder. 150  
17. Of the Fundament. 154  
18. The muscles and nerues situated in the lower belly. Ib.  
19. The bones of the lower belly. 155  
20. Of the breast or paps. 156   

The Controuersies of the third Booke.  
QVEST. I. VVHether the Guts haue any common attractiue faculty. 161  
2. Whether the guttes haue any common intractiue faculty. 163  
3. Whether the guts haue any concocting faculty. 164  
4. Of the expulsiue vertue of the guts. 165  
5. Whether Clisters can passe vpward vnto the Stomack. Folio. 166  
6. Of the euill sauour of the excrements. 167  
7. Of the substance and scite of the Guts. 168  
8. Whether the vpper mouth of the stomacke be the seate of appetite. 169  
9. The situation of the vppermost mouth of the stomack. Fol. 170  
10. Whether the Chilus be made by heat or by the form of the stomacke. Ibid  
11. Whether the stomacke bee nourished by the Chylus or by bloud. 171  
12. What is the nature of a spirit, & c. 173  
13. Whether the bladder doe drawe the Choller vnto it for nourishment. 176  
14. The passages by which the Choller is purged, against Falopius. 170  
15. The vse of the Spleene against the slaunderous calumniations of Galens aduersaries. 181  
16. How the melancholy inyce passeth from the spleene to the bottom of the stomacke. 185  
17. How those that are spleenitick are purged by vrine, & c. 186  
18. Vse of the Kidneyes, and matter of the vrine. 187  
19. That the reasons of diuers Symptones which followe such as are afflicted with the stone are to bee required for Anatomy. 189  
20. Whether the bladder do draw the vrine. 191  
21. Of the Retention and Excretion of the vrine, &c. Fol. 192  
22. Of the action and vse of the Paps. Ibid.  
23. Whether milke can bee generated before conception. Fol. 193  
24. Certaine Problemes vnfolded concerning the generation of milke. 194   

The fourth Booke.  
CHAP. I OF the necessity of the parts of Generation. Folio. 199  
2. Of the preparing spermaticke or seed vessels. 200  
3. Of the Parastatae. 202  
4. Of the Testicles. 204  
5. Of the vesselles called vasa deferentia, or leading vessels. 207  
6. Of the bladders of seed. 208  
7. Of the Prostatae. 209  
8. Of the virise member. 210  
9. Of the proportion of these parts both in men & women. 216  
10. Of the preparing spermaticall vessels. 217  
11. Of the Testicles. 218  
12. Of the vasa deferentia or leading vessels. 220  
13. Of the wombe or matrix. 221  
14. Of the simple or similar parts of the wombe, & particularly of the bottom and orifice. 230  
15. Of the necke of the wombe and of the Hymen. Fol. 234  
16. Of the Priuities. 237  
17. Of the wombe of a sheepe and a dog. 239   

The Controuersies of the fourth Booke.  
QVEST. I. VVHether the Testicles be principall partes or no. 241  
2. Of the vse of the Testicles. 243  
3. The opinion of Physitians concerning the true vse of the Testicles. 245  
4. Of the substance and coates of the Testicles. 246  
5. The consent betweene the chest and the Testicles. Ib.  
6. The situation of the Prostatae. 247  
8. How the parts of generation in men and women doe differ. 249  
9. The motions of the wombe. 250  
10. How the wombe is affected with smels and with sauours. 251  
11. The wonderfull consent between the wombe, and almost all the parts of womens bodies. 252  
12. Concerning the Acetabula, the hornes and coates of the wombe. 255  
13. The membrane called Hymen and the markes of virginity. Ib.   

The fifth Booke.  
CHAP. I VVHat thinges are necessary toward a perfect generation. 259  
2. The principles of generation, seede, & the mothers bloud. Ibid.  
3. The mothers bloud the other principle of generation. 261  
4. Of Conception. 262  
5. The conformation of the parts. 263  
6. The nourishment of the Infant, and how it exerciseth the naturall faculties. 266  
7. How the Infant exerciseth his vitall faculties. folio. 267  
8. The motion and scituation of the Infant in the wombe which are animall faculties. 268  
9. The exclusion or birth of the child. ibid   

The Controuersies of the fifth Booke.  
QVEST. I. OF the differences of the sexes. 270  
2 Of the temperament of women, whether they are colder or hotter then men. 272  
3. What Seed is. 277  
4. Whether Seed fall from all the parts of the body. 279  
6. The excretion of the seed, by what power or faculty it is accomplished. 286  
8. Whether the Menstruall bloud haue any noxius or hurtfull quality therein. 288  
9. Whether the menstruall bloud because of the meazels and small pox, which are wont once in a mans life to trouble him. 290  
10. The causes of the periodicall euacuation of the menstrua. 293  
13. The vicious or faulty Conceptions, and especially of the Mola. 297  
14. Of Monsters and Hermophradites. 299  
15. Whether all the parts are framed together. 300  
16 Whether the membranes which encompasse the Infant bee first formed, and whether they bee made by the forming faculty and seed of the woman. 304  
17. The number of the vmbilicall vessels. 305  
18. The originall of the vmbilicall vessels. 306  
19. The times of the conformation of a man & of a woman childe. 307.  
20. Whence it commeth that children are like their Parents. 308  
21. How Twinnes or more Infants are generated. 312  
22. How superfaetation is made, why only a woman whē she hath conceiued, desireth the company of the male. Folio. 313  
23 Whether the Infant draweth his nourishment at his mouth. 316  
24. Whether the Infant bee nourished onely with bloud, and whether he accomplish onely one concoction. Folio. 317  
25 Of the communion of the foure vesselles of the heart in the Infant. Ib  
26. Whether the Infant in the wombe doe respire, and stand in need of the labour of his Lungs. 326  
27. Whether the vitall faculty which procreateth the spirits is idle in the Infant, and whether his heart is moued by his owne proper power. 327  
A Paradox.  
28. Whether there be in the Infant any generation of animall spirites, and what position the Infant hath in the wombe. 337  
29. Of the nature and differences of the birth. 332  
30. How many times there be of a mans birth, & what they are. 334  
31. What are the vniuersall and particular causes of the birth. 338  
32. Whether in a desperate birth the Caesarian Section be to be attempted. 343  
33. Whether in the birth the share and the haunch bones depart asunder. 344   

The sixt Booke.  
CHAP. I. OF the Thorax or Chest, and the diuision of it. Fol. 347  
2. The Skinne and Fatte of the Chest and the necke. 348  
3. The muscles of the middle belly, and parts of the necke. 349  
4. Of the muscle between the ribbes, called Intercostale. 350  
5. Of the midriffe called diaphragma. 352  
6. Of the membrane called pleura. 355  
7. Of the Mediastinum. 356  
8. Of the Sweet-bread and purse of the heart. 358  
9. The ascending trunke of the hollow veine. 361  
10. Of the nerues in the Chest and neck. 365  
11. Of the Heart. 367  
12. Of the substance, ventricles and eares of the heart. 371  
13. Of the vessels of the heart and their values. 374  
14. Of the great artery and his values. 379  
15. Of the vnion of the vessels of the heart in the Infant vnborne. Ibid  
16. Of the great artery in the Chest and in the necke. 382  
17. Of the Lungs. 384  
18. Of the weazon or winde-pipe. 388  
19. The muscles and nerues in the cauity of the Chest. 391  
20. Of the clauicles, brest bone and Ribs. 392  
21. The bones of the chest. 394  
22. Of the shoulder blade & racks of the neck. 396   

The Controuersies of the sixt Booke.  
QVEST. I. AN Anatomicall demonstration concerning the phrensie of the Midriffe. 399  
2. Of the motion of the heart and Arteries. 400  
3. Of the manner of the motion of the heart. 403  
4. By what power the arteries are moued. 405  
5. Whether the arteries be dilated with the heart. 407  
6. Of the generation of the vitall spirits. 410  
7. How the matter of the Empyici is purged. 414  
8. The Temperament, Nourishment and Flesh of the heart. 417  
9. Whether the hart wil beare any grieuous disease. 419  
10. Of the nature of Respiration and the causes thereof. 420  
11. Of the temperament and motion of the Lungs. 423  
12. Of the Cough & the drink falling into the lūgs. 426   

The seuenth Booke.  
CHAP. I. OF the names, situation, forme and partes of the head. 432  
2. Of the common contayning partes of the head. 434  
3. Of the muscles about the head. 436  
4. Of the figure and sutures of the head. 437  
5. Of the bones proper to the scull. 441  
6. Of the bones common to the scull and the vpper Iaw. 442  
7. Of the Meninges or membranes of the head. 443  
8. The vessels disseminated through the brain. 450  
9. The excellency, situation, figure substance, and temperament of the braine. 452  
10. Of the substance and parts of the braine. 455  
11. The ventricles of the braine, the Arch, and the Plexus Choroides. 460  
12. Of the resemblances in the brain, & the fourth ventricle. 466  
13. Of the vse of the braine. 469  
14. Of the Cerebellum or After briane. 475  
15. Of the spinall marrow or pith of the back. 479  
16. Of the organs of smelling. 483  
17. Of the opticke nerues. 485  
18. Of the third and fourth Coniugations of the braine. 486  
19. Of the nerue of hearing, &c. 487  
20. The 6. seuen and eight coniugations of the sinewes. Ibid.  
21. Of the nerues of the spinall marrow. 488  
22. Varolius his maner of dissecting the head. 493   

The Controuersies of the seauenth Booke.  
QVEST. I. VVHether the Braine be the seate of the principall faculties. 502  
2. Of the marrow of the backe. 504  
3. Whereupon the principall faculties depend. 506  
4. The vse of the Braine against Aristotle. 507  
5. Why the contrary side of the wounded head suffers convulsion. 509  
6. Why the part opposite to the wounded is resolued. 512  
7. The nature, generation, and place of the animall spirit. 514  
8. Argenterius his conceyte of the animall spirit disproued. 516  
9. How the braine is moued. 519  
10. Whether the braine hath any sense. 522  
11. The temperament of the braine. 524  
12. The manner and wayes of the braines excrements. Fol. 525  
13. The number and vse of the ventricles. 528  
14. Which of the ventricles are most excelent. Ib.   

The Eight Booke.  
CHAP. I. OF the Face his vessels and muscles. 532  
2. Of the Eye and parts thereof. 535  
3. Of the Eie browes and eye lids. 540  
4. Of the fat and muscles of the eies. 547  
5. Of the vessels of the eies. 551  
6. Of the membranes of the eies. 553  
7. Of the grapy membrane. 559  
8. Of the Cobweb, &c. 564  
9. The humors of the eies. 565  
10. The vse of the humors of the eye. 568  
11. Of the outward eares. 573  
12. The parts of the outward eare. 578  
13. The muscles of the outward eares 580  
14. The gristle of the eare. 581  
15. Of the inward eare. 582  
16. The canale out of the eare into the mouth. 586  
17. The membrane of the Tympane or drum. 588  
18. The small bones of the chord. 593  
19. The muscles of the inward eare. 597  
20. The cauities of the stony bone. 601  
21. Of the windowes and watercourse in the first cauity. 602  
22. Of the Labyrinth and Cochlea. 603  
23. The nerue which ariueth at the eares. 605  
24. Of the implanted or inbred ayre. 608  
25. The maner of hearing & nature of sounds. 609  
26. Of the Nose. 613  
27. Of the coate and vse of the nose. 614  
28. Of the inner nose and maner of smelling. 616  
29. The lower parts of the Face. 620  
30. Of the mouth, palat and vuula. 621  
31. Of the Fauces, or Chops and Almonds. 624  
32. Of the tongue and his muscles. 626  
33. Of the sense of tasting. 631  
34. The Larynx or throttle. 633  
35. Of the Glottis and cleft of the Larynx. 644  
36. Of the Epiglottis and his muscles. Ibid.  
37. Of the membrane of the Larynx. Ibid.  
38. Of the sound and the voyce. 645   

The Controuersies of the eight Booke.  
CHAP. I. VVHat Sense is. 646  
2. What Action is. 653  
3. The end of action. 654  
4. How manifold Action is. 655  
5. That Sense is not a pure passion. 656  
6. That Sense is not a simple action. 657  
7. Placentinus his opinion. Ibid.  
8. How the faculty is wrought in the Sense. 658  
9. Where Sensation is perfectest. 659  
10. That by our outward Senses we do not know that we haue sense. Ibid  
11. Whēce it is that we perceiue that we haue sense. 660  
12. Of the number of the Senses. Ibid  
13. Of the order of Senses. 661  
14. A confirmation of the order of Sences. 662  
15. The arguments of the Philosophers. Ibid.  
16. The arguments of the Physitians. 663  
17. The authors owne opinion. Ib.  
18. Whether the Senses doe need a medium ar meane. Ib  
19. What the medium ought to be. 664  
20. What an obiect is. 665  
21. Of the organs of the Senses. 666  
22. Of the maner of seeing. Ibid  
23. Whether we see that which is within the eie. 670  
24. Whether the organ of fight be fiery or watery. 672  
25. Wherefore the eies be diuersly coloured. 673  
26. Of the muscles of the eies and their motion. 675  
27. Two obscure and intricate questions concerning the motion of the eies are resolued. 676  
28. Of the humours of the eies, whether they be animated parts. 677  
29. Of the originall of the opttcks, their meeting and insertion. 679  
30. Whether the light be the obiect of the sight. 681  
31. Of the nature of light and what it is. 682  
31. Of the differences betwixt Lux or light itself, and Lumen or illumination. 684  
32. That colour is the colour of sight. 685  
33. Whether colour be light .. Ibid.  
34. That the pure elements are not coloured of themselues. 687  
35. Of the generation of colours and of their forme. Ib.  
36. Of the Medium or meane of the sight. 689  
37. Whether light bee the forme of that which is perspicuus. 690  
38. Of the production of a sound. 691  
39. The definition of a sound. 693  
40. Of the differences of sounds. 694  
41. Of the maner of hearing. 696  
42. What is the principall organ of Hearing. 697  
43. An explication of certaine hard Problemes about the eares. 698  
44. Of the wonderfull sympathy & consent of the eares, the palat, the tongue, and the throttle. 700  
45. What smelling is. 702  
46. Why man doth not smell so well as many other creatures. 703  
47. Of the essence of an odour. 704  
48. The definition of an odour. 706  
49. Of the causes of odours. 707  
50. Concluding that Fishes do not smell .. 708  
51. Of the differences of odours. 710  
52. Of the Medium or meane of smelling. Ib.  
53. After what maner an odour affecteth or changeth the medium. 711  
54. What is the true organ of smelling. 712  
55. Whether taste be the chiefe action of the toung. 715  
56. Whether the taste differ from the touch. Ib.  
57. Of the obiect of tasting. 718  
58. Of the matter of sapours. Ibid.  
59. Of the efficient cause of sapors. 719  
60. Of the number of sapors. Ibid.  
61. Of the medium or meane of tasting. 722  
62. Of the organ of tasting. 723  
63. Whether the tongue alone do taste. 724  
64. In what part of the tongue the taste is most exact. Folio 725   

The ninth Booke.  
CHAP. I. A Briefe description of the Ioynts. 728  
2. Of the parts of the Ioynts in generall. Ibid.  
3. Of the excellency of the hands. 729  
4. Of the vse, figure, and structure of the hand, properly so called. 730  
5. Wherein is declared the reasons of the framing of all the similar partes, whereof the hand is compounded. 731  
6. Of the distincter parts of the hand, of the wrest, and of the afterwrest. 732  
7. Of the fingers of the hand. Ibid.  
8. Of the Foote in generall, his excelency, figure, structure and vse. 733  
9. The similar parts of the Foot in the large acception. 734  
10. An explication of the disimilar partes of the whole foote. 735   

The 10. Booke.  
CHAP. 1. VVHat flesh is, and how many sorts of flesh there be. 737  
2. Of the flesh of the muscles, and what a muscle is. 738  
3. How many and what bee the partes of a muscle. Fol. 739  
4. What is the action of a muscle, and the differences of the motion thereof. 741  
5. Wherein all the differences of muscles are shown. 742  
6. Of the number of the muscles. 743  
7. Of the muscles which mooue the skinne of the head. 745  
8. Of the muscles of the eye lids. 746  
9. Of the muscles of the eyes. 747  
10. Of the muscles of the outward care. 750  
11. Of the muscles within the cares. 752  
12. Of the muscles of the nose. 753  
13. Of the common muscles of the Cheekes and Lips. 754  
14. Of the proper muscles of the Lips. 755  
15. Of the muscles of the lower law. 757  
16. Of the muscles of the choppes which serue for diglutition or swallowing. 760  
17. Of the muscles of the bone called Hyois. Ib  
18. Of the muscles of the tongue. 761  
19. Of the muscles of the Larynx. 763  
20. Of the muscles of the Epiglottis or of the ouertongue. 766  
21. Of the muscles which moue the head. 767  
22. The muscles of the necke. 771  
23. The muscles of the shoulder-blade called Omoplata or Scapula. 772  
24. Of the muscles of the arme. 775  
25. Of the muscles of the Cubit. 780  
26. The muscles of the Radius or wand. 782  
27 Of the muscles of the hand in general. 785  
28 The muscles of the palme, and 2 or three other yssuing from the fleshy membrane. 786  
29 The substance which commeth betweene the skin of the palme, and of the fingers & their tendons. Ibid.  
30 The muscles which bend and extend the sorefingers. 787  
31 Of the muscles that bend & extend the thumb. Fol. 789  
32 Of the muscles of the afterwrest and the wrest. Fol. 791  
33 The muscles of Respiration. 793  
34. Of the muscles of the Abdomen or panch. 796  
35 The muscles of the back. 801  
36 The muscles of the fundament, the bladder, the testicles, and the yarde. 803  
37. The muscles of the Leg. 804  
38. The muscles of the thigh. 807  
39. The muscles of the foote. 813  
40. The muscles of the Toes. 817  
41. The flesh of the entrals or bowels. 820  
42. What a glandule is, and how many kinds there be of them. 821  
43 A briefe enumeration of the Glandules in the whole body. 823   

The eleuenth Booke.  
CHAP. 1. VVHat a veine is. 825  
2. Of the vse and action of the veines. 827  
3. The differences of veines. 828  
4 The description of the gate veine and his braunches. 831  
5. Of the descending Trunke of the hollow veine Fol. 835  
6 Of the ascending Trunke of the hollowe veine. Fol. 839  
7 The veines of the Face, the eyes, the nose, the teeth, and the throttle. 843  
8 Of the veines disseminated thorough the brayne. Fol. 844  
9 Of the veines of the whole hand in the large acceptation. 845  
10 Of the veines of the whole foot in the large acceptation. 849  
11 The values and floudgates of the veines. 852  
12 Of the arteries in generall. 856  
13 Of the vse of the arteries. 859  
14 Of the ascending trunk of the great artery. 860  
15 The descending trunke of the great artery, accompanying the hollow veine. 862  
16 The arteries accompanying the braunches of the gate veine, through the lower belly. 864  
17 Of the arteries of the veine. 865  
18 The arteries of the Face, the eyes, the nose, the teeth, and the Larynx. 867  
19 Of the arteries of the hand in the large acceptation. Ib.  
20 Of the arteries of the foote in the large acceptation. 869  
21 Of nerues in generall. 871  
22 The nerues of the eyes, or of the first & second coniugation. 876  
23 Of the third and the fourth coniugations of the braine. 889  
24 Of the Auditory nerue of the fist Coniugation. 891  
25. Of the sixt seuenth & eight Coniugations. 892  
26 Of the nerues which yssue from the spinall marrow in the necke. 894  
27 Of the nerues of the Chest. 897  
28 Of the nerues of the Loynes. 898  
29 Of the nerues of the Holy-bone. 899  
30 Of the nerues of the hand in the large acception. 900  
31 Of the nerues of the foote in the large acception. 904   

The twelfth Booke.  
CHAP. 1. OF the definition, vse, and difference of gristles. Folio. 907  
2. Of the gristles of the Face. 909  
3. Of the Epiglottis, the Gristles of the Larynx, and of the weazon. 910  
4. Of the gristles in the trunke or bulke of the body. 612  
5. Of the gristles of the Ioynts. 913  
6. Of the nature, vse, and differences of Ligaments. Fol. Ibid.  
7. Of the ligaments of the head. 915  
8. Of the ligaments of the spine and the chest. Ibid  
9. Of the ligaments of the shoulder blade, the arme the cubit, and the wand. 916  
10. Of the ligaments of the wrest, afterwrest & the fingers. 917  
11. Of the ligaments of the Holy-bone, the haunches, and the whole leg and foot. 918  
12. What a membrane is, their vses and differences. 920  
13. A briefe enumeration of all the mēbranes. 922  
14. The nature of fibres. 923  
15. Of the differences of fibres. Ibid.   

The 13. Booke.  
CHAP. 1. OF the definition and difference of bones. 926  
2. Of the partes of bones and their appellations. 928  
3. Of the structure and connexion of bones in generall. 930  
4. A briefe definition and enumeration of all the bones in the body. 935  
5. Of the sutures or seames of the scull, and of the substance thereof. 936  
6. Of the proper bones of the scull. 940  
7. Of the bones that are common to the head & the vpper Iaw, that is to say, of the wedge & spongy bones. 946  
8. Of the bones of the nose, & of the yoke bone 950  
9. Of the sutures and seames of the vpper Iaw. 951  
10. Of the bones of the vpper Iaw, 953  
11. Of the lower Iaw. 956  
12. Of the sockets of the teeth. 958  
13. Of the name, definition, figure, magnitude, nūber, site, and articulation of the teeth. 959  
14. Of the shearers and Dog-teeth. 961  
15. Of the grinding teeth. 962  
16. Of the vessels and sence of the teeth. 964  
17. Of the inward cauity and membrane of the teeth. 967  
18. Of the generation and vse of the teeth. 968  
19. Of the bone Hyois called os gutturis. 971  
20. Of the spine in generall. 973  
21. Of the rackebones of the necke. 975  
22. Of the rackes of the backe, the loynes and the holy-bone. 976  
23. Of the bones of the chest in generall. 980  
24. Of the clauicles or coller-bones. Ib.  
25. Of the breast bone. 982  
26. Of the Ribbes. 983.  
27. Of the shoulder blade. 984  
28. The hip, hanch and sharebones. 985  
29. The bones of the arme and the cubit. 987  
30. Of the bones of the hand properly so called, that is, of the wrest and afterwrest. 991  
31. Of the bones of the fingers. 994  
32. Of the Seed-bones. 995  
33. The bones of the thigh. 996  
34. The two bones of the leg. 999  
35. The whirlebone of the knee. 1003  
36. The bones of the Foote properly so called, and particularly of the wrest of the foot. 1004  
37. The bones of the afterwrest, & the Toes of the feet. 1008  
38. Of the Seede bones and the nayles. 1009    

OF THE EXCELLENCIE OF MAN. Together with the Profite, Necessitie, Antiquitie, & Method of ANATOMY. As also, of the Authors, Subiect, and generall Precepts of the same.  

THE FIRST BOOKE.  

The Praeface.  
_THE worth and Excellencie of an Art, is greater or lesse, according to the dignity or basenesse of the Obiect, whereabout it is conuersant. So in the 〈◇〉, that is, the Orbe or Circle of the Arts, Logicke is worthily esteemed the first in order, because the obiect thereof is Reason; whereby( as by Ariadnes clew) wee are directed through all the intricate Labyrinths and Mazes of Nature; and Diuinity the last and most excellent, as beeing the end and consummation of all the rest, teaching vs how to liue blessedly both heere and for euer: and therefore though all Arts are indeed originally from God, yet this is saide more properly to be 〈◇〉, because it is immediately deliuered, and that by inspiration from heauen. Betwixt these two, there are manie Arts full of secret and abstruse notions, deepe mysteries, and high contemplations, yet none me thinkes, that can stand in competition with this we haue in hand concerning the frame of Man. For to let passe the rest; if it shall be obiected; That the infinite extent, the absolute & circular figure, the perpetuall and rapid motions of the Heauens, the glorious bodies wherewith they are spangled, the sweete harmony of their Spheares, the powerfull influences of euery Starre, the least of which is saide to be eighteen times as big as the earth; as they are in heighth and magnitude, so they are in dignity farre aboue the nature of man. If for the earth it shall bee saide, that it is the rich matter and Matrixe, the great Mother and Nurse of all creatures, the spouse of heauen, in whose onely bosome( as in their proper center) all the influences of the heauenly bodies, doe concurre and vnite themselues, lesse subiect to alteration then heauen itself if we beleeue Astronomers, immooueable, and yet in perpetuall motion, by the continuall corruption and generation of things, alwayes consuming, yet neuer diminished. If a Commonwealths man shall preferre the Art of Policy, whereby not onely particular men, but Cities, kingdomes, Empires, yea and the whole world is kept in order which otherwise would run head-long to confusion, which is an image of Gods gouernment, and the very Character of his administration in punishing vice, & rewarding vertue: if I say, any man shal prefer the know ledge of any of these to the mystery of the humane Nature, I would haue him know; that there is nothing either in heauen or on earth, or in the administratiō of them both, not only on mans part, but which is more, on Gods also, that is not equalled, yea the diuine history giueth vs warrant to say, exceeded in the frame of man. For, whereas in the creation of the Heauens and the Earth, and the furnitures and armies of them both, the great Architect wrought them all by his thought, worde, and deede, all falling into one instant of time: when he was to make Man, he holds a Councell, Come let vs make Man according vnto our owne Image; summoning thereunto, not only himselfe and all his atributes, as his power, his wisedome, his iustice, his loue and mercy, if not to cast in some part, yet to lend some influence 
Genes. 1, 23.  of their diuine Natures toward his creation, but also his Son and the blessed Spirit: as if Man were a kinde of production of the whole Deity, or as the Poet saith, Magnum Iouis incrementum; which I am the rather bolde to say, because the learned Apostle vsurpeth 
Virg. Eclog. 4.  the very words of another Poet to the selfe-same purpose, 〈◇〉, wee are also of his off-spring; not that I conceiue( as some blasphemously haue done) that hee 
Actes 17, 27. Rhembam.  was made out of the very essence of God, but because the image of the diuine nature, is most liuely imprinted in his soule and in his body, and in the substance & qualities of them both. For the Soule, it carrieth a deepe stampe of diuinity in the simplicity, inuisibility, & immortality thereof: That it is incorporeall and diffusiue, quickning, sustaining, gouerning and moouing the whole body, and euery part thereof, euen as God supporteth and ruleth the whole world, being by a diffusiue nature, or rather infinite omni-presence, at all times, in euery place: That as the Deity is but one in essence, yet distinct in persons, according to the Relatiue qualities therein, which yet hath neither different matters, nor formes( as we say) but are all one and the same essence; so the soule of man is but one, yet that one, consisting of three essentiall and distinct Faculties or powers, intellectual, sensitiue, and vegetatiue; which yet make no difference in the substance thereof, that it should not bee one and an entire soule. Againe, in the intellectuall part or power, there are two essentiall attributes resembling their prototype or originall in God, to wit, Knowledge and Will. As for the qualities of the soule, they are either internall, or externall. The internall, carry the image of the Creator, as S. Paul interpreteth it, in heauenly wisedome, iustice, and sanctity; the externall, in maiesty, dominion, and soueraignty ouer the creatures; both which, 
Colos. 3, 10.  the Poet hath excellently put together, where he speaketh of mans creation, after the rest of the creatures.  
Sanctius his Animal, mentisque capacius altae  
Deerat adhuc, & quod dominari in cetera posset,  
Natus homo est.  
A creature holyer then the rest, and better fram'd to holde 
Ouids Metam.   
A soule infused from aboue was wanting yet; So borne  
At length was Man, the rest in bands of awefull power to folde.  
The body also, as far as it was possible, carieth the image of God, not in figure as Audius & his followers the Anthropomorphites haue sottishly dream't, hee being an infinite Ocean of 
Audius.  essence, transcendent, and aboue all comprehension of nature or time: which himselfe expresseth to Moses in the future tense of the substantiue verbe, Ero; signifying thereby, the present and eternall subsistence of a subiect, without any praedicate as we say in Schooles; but because the admirable structure, and accomplished perfection of the body, carrieth in it a representation of all the most glorious and perfect workes of God, as being an Epitome or compend of the whole creation, by which he is rather signified then expressed. And hence it is, that man is called a Microcosme or little worlde, as in the following discourse will more at large appeare; to which with this short preamble as a Preface of Honour, wee referre the Reader.   

The first Chapter. The Excellency of Man is declared by his parts, Namely, the minde and the bodie, and first what is the dignity of the Soule.  
_IN the inauguration or Coronation of a Prince, there is nothing more stately or magnificent, then to haue his stile rehearsed by men of greatest Nobility, euery one adding somewhat thereto, till the whole number of his Seigniories and Honors are heaped vpon him: if therefore, wee list to search what and how magnificent haue been the acclamations of all ages, we shall finde in the Records of Antiquity, that man in whom the sparkes of heauenly fire, & seeds of the diuine Nature are,( as appeareth both by the Maiestie imprinted 
Mans stile or titles. Mercurius Trismeg. Pithagoras. Plato. Theophrast. Aristotle. Synesius. Tully. Pliny. 〈◇〉. Why hee is called, The little world. Zoroaster. Abdolas.  in his face, and by the frame of his body, which was made vpright and looking toward heauen) was of the wise and prudent Priests of the Egyptians, styled a reuerend & admirable creature. That thrice-worthy Mercury cals him a great Myracle, a Creature like the Creator, the Ambassador of the Gods. Pythagoras, 〈◇〉, the Measure of all things. Plato 〈◇〉, the wonder of Wonders. Theophrastus, the patterne of the whole vniuerse. 〈◇〉. Aristotle, A politicke creature framed for society. Synesius, the Horizon of Corporeal and Incorporeall things. Tully, a Diuine creature, full of reason and iudgement. Pliny the worlds Epitome, and Natures Darling. Finally, all men with one consent, call him 〈◇〉, or, The little world. For his body is, at it were, a Magazine or Store-house of all the vertues and efficacies of all bodies, and in his soule is the power and force of all liuing and sensible things. That ancient Zoroaster, hauing long admired the singular workemanshippe shining in the frame of man, at length cried out, 〈◇〉. O Man, the glory of Nature, euen in her cheefest ruffe and pride, and her Maister peece, when she durst contend with heauen itself. Abdolas the Barbarian, beeing asked what hee thought was the most admirable thing in Nature, is reported to haue answered not Barbarously, but wisely; That it is onely Man who far surpasseth all admiration, for that beeing the Image and resemblance of the whole world, he can suddenly ( Proteus- like) transform himselfe into any particular thing. Fauorinus did acknowledge nothing great vpon earth, but 
Fauorinus.  Man.  
The Diuines call him Omnem Creaturam, euery Creature, because he is in power( in a 
How man is all Creatures. Empedoclas  manner) All things; not for matter and substance, as Empedocles would haue it, but Analogically by participation or reception of the seuerall species or kinds of thinges. Others, call him, the Royall Temple and Image of God. For as in Coin the picture of Caesar, so in Man the image of God is apparantly discerned. Others cal him, the End of all things( which in Nature is the first cause,) to whom all sublunarie created Bodies and Spirites are obedient, yet he himselfe subiect vnto none, vnlesse peraduenture one man come vnder the lee and subiection of another. The Kingly Prophet Dauid, ful of heauenly inspiration, desciphereth the dignity of man on this manner; Thou hast made him little lower then the Angels, thou hast 
Psal. 8.  crowned him with glory and honor, and giuen him dominion ouer the workes of thy hands.  
These are excellent, that I may not say diuine commendations, which man hath, partly 

The signes of Mans honour referred partly to his soule, partly to his body.  
The excellency of the soule   from his soule, the most excellent of all formes, partly from his body, which is as it were the measure and exemplary patterne of all corporeall things. The soule indeede is so diuine, that raising and mounting itself sometimes aboue all naturall formes, it comprehendeth by an admirable, absolutely-free, and imcompulsiue power, all incorporeall things seuered and diuided from all matter and substance. This Soule, if it could bee discerned with the eye, or but conceyued by the minde, how would it rauish vs and leade vs into an 
The soule alone is continually created  excessiue loue of itself? Onely this is created, not generated; and albeit( as the Philosophers speake) there be a subiect supponed in her production, yet it is not produced out of the power of that supponed matter, but rather absolueth and perfecteth the same.  
This onely is indiuisible, for all other Naturall formes receiue augmentation, diminution and diuision, together with their subiects; but the Soule of man Is wholly in the whole, 
It alone is indiuisible. Immateriall.  and wholly in euery particular part. This onely is immateriall, heerein alone participating with the Matter, that it is capeable of all species or kindes, euen as the first Matter admitteth all impressions and formes; and yet the manner of reception is not alike in them both. For that first matter receiueth but particular and indiuiduall formes, and that without vnderstanding: in the Soule are imprinted the vniuersall formes of things, and it hath also vnderstanding to iudge of them.  
The matter admitteth those particular formes materially, and withall obli erateth or 
How the reception of formes differs in the first matter, and in the soule.  blotteth out the contrary forme whereof it was before possessed: the soule of man receiues and entertaines the generall and vniuersall notions of things, free from all contagion or touch of Matter, not abolishing the contrary, or diuers formes whereof before it was possessed. This alone is incorporeall, immortall, 〈◇〉 or immutable. This may be called the receptacle, promptuary, or store-house of all the species or kinds of things. 
The soule is the place of the species or formes. Aristotle. Plato. The soule is in the middle degree of all things. The Nature of the soule is Angellicall.   
Aristotle in his third Booke De Anima, calleth it After a manner all things, Because( saith he) In an Organe of sence, the sensible species or Images of things are blotted out, and as it vvere drowned, but the Soule retaineth them. The Platonists do range it in the midst, as hauing God aboue it, & the Intelligences or Angels: below it, all bodies and all qualities that so it might be partaker of them both. According to Diuines, it approacheth very neere to the Nature of Angels, by reason of her vnderstanding or intellectuall power, of her originall, eternity, image, apprehension and beatitude.  
To conclude, there is in the soule of Man something Metaphysicall, transcendent aboue Nature, vnknowne to the ancient Philosophers, who groaped but in the darke, and were inwrapped in a mystie or clowdy veile of ignorance; and is reuealed onely to Christians, to whom the light of the Gospell hath shined. For in it is a liuely resemblance of the ineffable Trinity, represented by the three principall faculties, Memorie, Vnderstanding, and 

In the soule appeareth the Image of the Trinity.  
Symonides.   Will. But stay: Why should I presume to describe the essence of the Soule, seeing it partaketh of so much Diuinity? for of diuine things Symonides hath sayde well, We can onely say what they are not, not what they are. Why should I paine myself to open that shrine which Nature herselfe hath veyled and sealed vp from our sences, least it should bee prophaned therewith?  
Hence it is, that Hipocrates calleth it 〈◇〉, The inaspectible or inuisible Nature, which can no more be described by vs, then our eye is able to see itself. These thinges 
Hipocrates.  therefore belong to a higher contemplation, and require a more skilfull Workman to draw but the lines, or euen to shadow them out. Let vs content ourselves to handle that that may be handled, or at least is subiect vnto some of our sences, and so proceede to the other part of Man, namely, the Bodie, which more truely and properlie is the subiect of our Discourse.   

Of the Dignity and wonderfull frame of Mans Body. CHAP. II.  
_AS the soule of man is of all sublunary formes the most noble, so his Body, the house of the soule, doth so farre excell, as it may well be called 〈◇〉, the measure and rule of all other bodies. There be many things which set foorth the excellency of it, but these especially 
The excellēcy of mans body is sette forth by foure things.  among others. The frame and composition which is vpright and mounting toward heauen, the moderate temper, the equal and iust proportion of the parts; and lastly, their wonderfull consent & mutuall concord as long as they are in subiection to the Law & rule of Nature: for so long in them we may behold the liuely Image of all this whole Vniuerse, which wee see with our eyes( as it were) shadowed in a Glasse, or desciphered in a Table. And first for the Figure. Man onely is of an vpright frame and proportion, whereupon hee 
1. An vpright frame.  is called of some 〈◇〉, vsually 〈◇〉, as it were 〈◇〉 looking vpwards; althogh Plato in Cratylo is of opinion, that man is called 〈◇〉, as it were 〈◇〉, that 
Plato in Cratylo  is, contemplating those things which hee seeth. The reason of this forme or Figure, is meerely Philosophicall, as depending vpon the efficient, materiall, and finall causes. The efficient is two-folde, Primary and Secondary: The primary, is the soule, which comming from without, and being infused into the body from heauen, whilst she is building of 
Of this vpright frame the efficient cause is two-fold. Primary. Secondary.  herself a mansion fit for such functions and offices as shee hath to performe, as mindfull of her owne Originall, lifteth her building vp on high. The Secondary efficient of mans bodie is heate, wherewith man aboue other creatures aboundeth, especially the parts about his heart.  
The Nature therefore of heate preuailing, forceth the increment or growth, vp from the middle part, according to his impetuous strength and nimble agility, that is, it striueth and driueth toward that part of the world, toward which heate is naturally mooued, that is to say, vpwards. For the matter of mans body, it is soft, pliable and temperate, readie to 
The material cause.  follow the Workeman in euery thing, and to euery purpose; for man is the moystest and most sanguine of all Creatures. The finall cause of the frame of mans body is manifolde. 
The finall cause three-fold. First. Anaxagoras. Second.  First, man had an vpright frame & proportion, that he might behold and meditate on heauenly things. And for this cause, Anaxagoras being asked wherefore he was born, he made answere, to behold the heauens and the Starres. Secondly, that the functions and offices of the outward sences, which are all placed as it were a guard in pension, in the pallace of the head, and in the view and presence Chamber of Reason, which is their soueraigne, might in a more excellent manner be exercised and put in practise: for they were not ordained onely to auoide that which is hurtfull, and to followe and prosecute that which is profitable; but moreouer also for contemplation: and therefore they were to be placed in the highest contabulation or Story of the body. And by this meanes, speech, which is the messenger of the minde, is the better heard from on high; the Smell doth more commodiously receyue and entertaine the vapor that ascendeth: the Eyes being as it were spies or Centinels, day and night to keepe warch for vs, & being beside giuen vs, that we should take view of those infinite Distances and glorious bodies in them, which are ouer our heads, did therefore require an vpright frame and composition of the body.  
Finally, to conclude this point, man onely had an vpright frame of bodie, because hee 
Third.  alone amongst all Creatures had the Hand giuen him by God, an Organ or Instrument before all organs, and indeede in stead of all. Now, if the figure of man had been made with his face downward, that Diuine Creature should haue gone groueling vpon his handes, as well as vpon his feete, and those worthy and noble actions of his Hand, had been forfeited, or at least disparaged. For, who can write, ride, liue in a ciuill and sociable life, erect Altars vnto God, builde shippes for warre or trafficke, throwe all manner of Darts, and practise other infinite sorts of excellent Artes; eyther groueling with his face downward, or sprawling on his backe with his face vpward? Wherefore, onely man had the frame of his body erected vpward towards heauen.  
For this cause also, onely man amongst all other creatures, was framed according to the 
Man alone framed according to the fashion of the whole world.  fashion of the whole vniuerse, because he hath his parts distinct, the vpper, the neather, the fore, the backe parts, those on the right hand, and those on the left hand; the rest of the Creatures either haue them not at al, or very confused. The right parts and the left, are altogether alike, sauing that the left are the weaker, but the fore parts are very vnlike the back parts: the lower in some sort carrie a resemblance of the vpper. And so much of the figure.  
Man hath likewise a moderate temper, and is indeed the most temperate of all bodies, as being the 〈◇〉, measure, and rule of all others. The bodies of other Creatures, are either 
The excellency of the body, is likewise set forth in the temperature. It is the middle of the whole kinde. Man alone hath in himselfe the temperature of al liuing things.  too Earthy, or too Watery: but to Mans, the temperature of all things liuing, both plants and Creatures is referred, as to the Medium generis, as we vse to say, that is, to the middle of the vvhole kind, so that they are sayde to bee hot, colde, moyst, and drie 〈◇〉, that is, according to reference, their temperature being compared with Mans. Againe, Man alone hath encluded in himselfe the temperature of all liuing things; all other creatures are in their seuerall kindes for the most part, of one and the same temper. But if you looke vnto mankinde, you shall finde manie that haue the stomacke of an Estrich; Others, that haue the heart of a Lyon; Some are of the temper of a Dogge, many of a Hog, and an infinite number of as dull and blockish a temper as an Asse.  
Moreouer, this also declareth the 〈◇〉 or absolute temper of mans bodie, that it is subiect to many diseases, and is equally endamaged, as well by one extreme, as by another; because it is equally distant from both extreames. There might indeede of the heauenly 
Why the body of Man was not made of an heauenly matter, but of an elementary.  matter, being the most noble, haue beene made, a body most noble also; but it was of necessity it should be made of sublunarie and elementary matter, that it might bee capeable and apprehensiue of the seuerall species and formes of things which mooue the sences, because from them all our knowledge is deriued. For man being borne to vnderstand, & hee that vnderstandeth, must apprehend those visions and fantasies which are obiected eyther to the inward or outward sence; and that there is no perception of any such vision or immagination, but by the ministry of the outwarde sences, which are the intelligencers betweene the body and the soule; it was necessary that the body of man should be composed of such a matter as might bee capeable of these sences; but of all sences the foundation is Touching, which hath his essence and being in the temper and moderation of the four first qualities! whence it is, that the foure first substances wherein those qualities do reside, were necessarily to be the matter of the body, and those are the foure Elements. And so much of the temperature of mans bodie.  
Now the 〈◇〉 or due proportion, composition, or correspondency of the parts of mans body, with respect each to other, and of them all to the whole, is admirable. This 
3. the admirable proportiō of the parts.  alone for a patterne do all workemen and Arts-maisters set before them: to this, as to Polycletus rule, do the Surueighers, Maister Carpenters and Masons, referre all their plottes and proiects; they builde Temples, Houses, Engines, shipping, forts, yea and the Arke of Noah, as it is recorded, was framed after the measure and proportion of mans body; for, as the body of a man is in length three hundred minutes, in bredth fifty, in heighth thirtie; so the length of the Arke was three hundred cubites, the bredth fifty, and the heighth thirtie. Moreouer, in this proportion of his parts, you shall finde both a circular figure, which is of all other the most perfect; and also a square, which in the rest of the creatures you shall 
The circular and square figure appearing in Mans body.  not obserue. For the Nauell being placed in the middle of the whole bodye, and as it were in the centre; if you lay a man vpon his back, and as much as may be labour to spred both his hands and feete, and keeping one end of the Compasse vnmooued and set vppon his nauill, doe turne about the other end, you shall come vnto both the thumbes, toes of the feete, and the middle finger of the handes: and if in any part this proportion fayle, you may immagine there is a defect in that part. Also, if you conceiue a measure betweene the feete spread abroad, and likewise betweene the hande and the foote on either side, you shal haue a perfect quadrate drawne and portrayed within a circle. And this is the true quadrature of the circle, not those immaginary lines whereof Archimedes wrote, and which 
Archimedes quadrature of the circle found in mans body.  haue troubled the heades of all our Mathematicians for many ages, when as euerie one might haue found it in himselfe. These be excellent things which we haue obserued, touching the figure and frame of mans body, the temperature thereof, and the proportion of the parts; but this last exceedeth all admiration, that in itself alone, it should containe all whatsoeuer this whole world in his large and spacious bosome doth comprehend; so as it 
4. Man containeth in himselfe althings in the whole world.  may worthily be called a Litle world, and the patterne and Epitome of the whole vniuerse. The ancient Magitians( for so naturall Philosophers were of olde tearmed,) as also the great wise Priests of the Egyptians, did make of this whole vniuerse, three parts: the one, vppermost or superiour, which they tearmed the intellectuall and Angelical part, the seate 
Three partes of the world.  of the Intelligentiae,( so they called the Spirits, which by tradition from the Hebrues, they vnderstood were in the heauen) by whose direction and command, the inferiour or lower world is guided and gouerned: another middle, which they tearmed the heauenly part, in the middest whereof, the Sun ruleth, as the leader and moderater of the rest of the Stars: the 3. sublunary or Elementary, which is admirable & abundantly fertile, in procreating, increasing and nourishing of creatures and plants. The Images and resemblances of which three partes, who seeth not plainly expressed, and as it were portrayed out with a curious 
The Collatiō of man with the world.  pensill in the body of man? The head, the Castle and tower of the soule, the seate of reason, the mansion house of wisedome, the treasury of memory, iudgement, and discourse, wherein mankinde is most like to the Angels or intelligencies, obtaining the loftiest and most eminent place in the body; doth it not elegantly resemble that supreame and Angelicall part of the worlde? The middle and celestiall part, is in the breast or middle venter, most exactly, and euen to the life expressed. For as in that celestiall part, the Sun is predominant, 
The elegant Analogie betweene the Sun and mans heart.  by whose motion, beames, and light, all things haue their brightnesse, luster, and beauty; so in the middest of the chest, the heart resideth, whose likenesse and proportion with the Sun, is such and so great, as the ancient writers haue beene bolde to call the Sun, The hart of the world, and the heart the Sunne of mans bodie. For euen as by the perpetuall and continuall motion of the Sun, and by the quickning and liuely heat thereof, al things are cheered and made to flourish; the earth is decked and adorned, yea crowned with flowers, brings foorth great varietie of fruites, and yeelds out of her bosome innumerable kinds of Hearbes, the shrubs thrust forth their buds or Iems, and are cloathed with greene leaues in token of iollity, all creatures are pricked forward with the goades and prouocations of luste, and so rushing into venereall embracements, do store and replenish with a large and abundant encrease, both Citties, Land, and Seas;( for which cause, Aristotle calleth this 
Aristotle.  prosperous, refreshing, and comfortable Starre 〈◇〉, as beeing the procreator of all things,) and on the contrary, the same Starre of the Sunne, being departed farre from our Coasts, the earth begins to be horrid and looke deformed, the shrubs are robbed and dispoyled of their leaues, berries and verdure, and a great part of those things, which the fertility of Nature had brought foorth, is weakened and wasted: so in like manner, by the perpetuall motion of the heart, and by the vitall heate thereof, this litle world is refreshed, preserued, and kept in vigor and good life: neither can any thing therein be either fruitfull, or fit and disposed to bring foorth, vnlesse that mighty and puissant power of the heart, do affoord and yeelde an effectuall power offoecundity. The Vital faculty floweth from the heart as from the fountaine, the Celestiall faculty from heauen. This latter, is saide to be the preseruer of all inferiour things: the former kindleth, nourisheth, and refresheth the Naturall 
The excellēt similitude of the vitall and celestial faculties.  heate of euery part. The Heauen workes vpon the inferiour world by his motion and light; the Heart by his continual motion and aethereall spirit, as it were a bright light, cleareth and beautifieth all the parts of the body. The motion and light are in the superiour bodies, the instruments of the intelligencies and of the heauens; of the intelligencies, as of the first mouers vnmooued, of the heauens, as of the first moouer mooued. The vital spirits and pulsation or beating of the heart, are instruments of the soule, and of the heart: Of the soule, as of a moouer not mooued; of the heart, as of a moouer mooued by the soule.  
Now further, who seeth not the sublunary part of the world expressed in the inferiour venter or lower belly? for in it are contained the parts that are ordained for nourishment & procreation; so as we neede not make any doubt to professe and affirme, that all things are found in the body of man, which this vniuersall world doth embrace & comprehend. Wilt thou see in this Microcosme or little world, the wandering Planets? The moyst and watrie 
The wandering Planets in the little world.  power of the Moone, is resembled by the streaming marrow and pith of the back & braine. The power of Venus is proportioned in the generatiue parts: To Mercurie so variable, and withall so ingenuous, the instruments of eloquence and sweet deliuery are answereable. Of the Sun and the heart, the admirable proportion and agreement, we haue already declared. To the beneuolent and beneficiall Starre Iupiter, the Liuer of man, the well-spring of most sweete and gratefull humors is fitly compared. The fire and fury of Mars, the little bladder of the gaul gathers into itself. The cold and harmfull Starre Saturne, that loose and slaggy flesh of the Spleene, being the receptacle of melancholike humors, dooth liuely resemble. And thus in like numbers, and equall proportion, both Arithmeticall and Geometricall, do these Celestiall particles( as they are tearmed) of either worlde, the greater of heauen, and the lesser of man, answere one another. The xii. signes of the Zodiake, by the Astrologers elegantly depictured in the body of a man, I passe ouer with silence: for these are thinges ancient and commonly knowne, as being sung in the corners of our streets: wee choose rather to meditate of more sublime and profound matters, and to bend the eye of our minde 
The comparison of both worlds according vnto the doctrin of the Peripatetikes.  at a higher marke. The Peripatetikes do diuide the world into bodies simple & mixt; simple, they make fiue, the heauen, and the foure Elements; of the mixt bodies, they will haue some to be imperfect, which they call Meteors, and those Fiery, Aiery, Watry, Earthy: other some perfect, as those things that haue life. All which, how and after what manner they be in man, because it is an excellent and beautifull speculation, I pray you marke and obserue with me diligently. Of this little world, the simple bodies are fiue, the spirits and the foure humors. The Spirit is the quintessence or sift essence, aethereal, in proportion( as sayth the 
The simple bodies of Mā.  Philosopher) answering to the element of the starres; the foure humors are called the foure sensible elements of the bodie. Choler in temper the most hot and raging, resembles fire. Blood hot and moyst, resembles the ayre. Flegme cold & moyst, resembles the water. Melancholy, cold and dry, is fitly compared vnto earth. Behold also, the wonderfull Analogie of the Meteors of this little world. The terrible Lightning and fiery flashes and impressions, 
The Meteorologie of the litle world.  are shewed in the ruddie suffusions of our eyes when we are in a heate and furie, as also by those 〈◇〉 or darting beames which we throw from the same. The rumbling of the guts, their croaking murmurs, their rapping escapes, and the hudled and redoubled belchings of the stomacke, do represent the fashion and manner of all kindes of thunders. The violent and gathering rage of blustering windes, tempestuous stormes and gustes, are not onely exhibited, but also foreshewed by exhaled crudities, and by the hissing, singing, and ringing noises of the eares. The humor and moistnesse that fals like a Current or streame into the empty spaces of the throate, the throtle and the chest, resembleth raine and showers. Thicke and concocted Flegme, that comes vp round and roundly when we Cough, carries the likenesse of Hailestones; teares do represent the Dew: shaking, shrinking, trembling, & throbbing motions, resemble the Earth-quakes. There are also found in our bodies, Mines and quarries, out of which, Mettals and stones are digged, not to builde, but to pull downe the house; so the stones of the Kidneyes and bladder do carry a resemblance of Mines and Mineralles.  
This is the Meteorology of this Little worlde, this is the demonstration of those things therein that are imperfectly mixed. And if you require in man an example of a bodye perfectly mixed, behold and consider the whole body; in which, there is that concord and agreement of the foure disagreeing qualities, and so iust & equal a mixture of the elements, as that it is the very middle and meane amongst all liuing and animated things. This Little World therefore, which we call Man, is a great miracle, and his frame and composition is more to be admired and wondered at, then the workemanship of the whole Vniuerse. For, it is a farre easier thing to depaint out many things in a large and spacious Table, such as is the world; then to comprehend all things in one so little and narrow, as is the compasse of mans body.   

Epicurus, Momus, Pliny, and other the malicious and false detractors from Nature are censured, and the Excellency of Man is demonstrated by his Nakednesse. Cap. III.  
_LEt that beastly Epicure now lay his hand vpon his mouth, & keepe silence, who was not ashamed to affirme, that the bodies of men were made by chance and fortune, out of a turbulent concourse( forsooth) of a number of Atomies or Motes, such as we see in the Sunne. Let Momus be hissed and exploded, but first mark't with a blacke brand of ignorance and infamy, who presumptuously blamed in the frame of mans body many things, as lame, maimed, and vnperfect. Let Plinie and all the whole rabble of false and counterfet Philosophers, be banished out of the Schoole of Nature, who cease not to wrong and traduce her, for casting foorth man naked and vnarmed on the bare ground vpon his Birth day, to begin the world with crying and lamentation. For to begin with the Epicure: Those things which come by chance( O Epicure) happen but sildome, and of such thinges neither any certaine, nor any prosperous euent, 
The error of the Epicures conuinced.  can constantly be expected or hoped for: but if thou doest heedfully obserue ten thousand men, thou shalt finde all their bodies made and framed with equall skill and vnmatcheable Art, the same structure of bones, cartelages, ligaments, sinewes, veines, arteries, and enterals, the same context and composition, figure or fashion, number and scituation: the right side like vnto the left, and all the body within one and the same circle and compasse equally poysed; so that nothing in the frame of mans body, doth thrust itself in by chance, nothing there is, that doth not exhibite and represent vnto vs the maiesty of the highest & most heauenly wisedome.  
Galen, to conuince the error of this beastly Epicure saide, Hee would giue him a hundred yeare to alter or change the scituation, figure, or composition of any one part, and hee did not doubt, but it would come to passe in the end, that he would be forced to confesse, that 
Galen.  the same could by no meanes haue bin made after any other or more perfect manner. I will speake somewhat more boldly; If all the Angels should haue spent a thousand yeares in the framing & making of man, they could not haue cast him in so curious a mold; or made him like to that he is, much lesse could they haue set him forth in any better maner. Let the Epicure therfore be packing with this false fiction & feigned inuention of his own addle brain. As for Momus, he is to be scorned for his dotage & simplicity, who wished mens bodies had 
The slander of Momus cōdemned.  bin made ful of windowes, that the affections of the mind might haue appeared. Why Momus? Do not all the passions of the minde appeare plainly characterized in the face, in the countenance, & in the eyes, so that he which runnes may reade them? The eyes are the discouerers of the mind, as the countenance is the Image of the same; by the eyes as by a window, you may looke euen into the secret corners of the Soule: so that it was well sayde of Alexander, 〈◇〉, that the eyes are the mirror or Looking-glasse 
Alexander.  of the Soule. The Eyes wonder at a thing, they loue it, they desire it; they are the bewrayers of loue, anger, rage, mercie, reuenge: in a worde; The eyes are fitted and composed to all the affections of the minde; expressing the very Image thereof in such a manner, as they may seeme to be euen another Soule; & therefore when we kisse the eyes; we seem to reach and diue euen to the verie soule. And for the face, how many signes are there in it, and those very manifest and apparant, of a sorrowing, fearing, couetous, wrathfull and pleasant minde? In the countenance, audaciousnesse, shamefastnesse, and Maiesty are euident and conspicuous. For in the eyebrowes dwelleth pride, in the cheekes shamefastnesse, in the chinne maiesty: all these are bred in the Heart, but heere they haue their seate and residence, hither they betake themselues, heereupon they depend.  
Their vnbrideled insolencie is also to bee restrained, that call Nature a cruell Steppemother, because shee casts foorth Man into the world altogether naked and vnarmed both 
How vniustly Nature is called a sowre step-dame to Man. The soule of Man naked.  in soule and bodie; and therefore holde him to bee of all Creatures the most imperfect. And of the Nakednesse of the Soule, thus they discourse. Other Creatures( say they,) do perceyue and vnderstand their owne Nature; some betake themselues to the swiftnesse of their feete, some trust to the loftinesse of their flight, some to swimme in the Waters; Man knoweth nothing, neyther how to speake, nor how to goe, nor how to feede: and in a word, that Creature which is borne to rule and gouerne all the rest, is enclined by Nature to nothing else but mourning and lamentation; beginning his life with punishment, and that onely for one fault, to wit, because he is borne.  
Moreouer, many go beyond him( say they) in perfection of the sences. For, in the piercing sight of the eyes, the Eagle; in the quicknesse of smelling and sent the Dogge; in hearing, the Foxe and Mole are quicker then wee; in tasting, the Henne is sharper; in touching, the Spider is more exquisite then wee: and so the Soule of man is more imperfect then that of other creatures.  
Let vs heare also the complaints they make of his body. Nature hath giuen other creatures diuers couerings, shelles, rindes, haire, bristles, feathers, scales, fleeces, hornes, teeth 
The bodye of Man naked.  and nailes, whereby they are able both to defend themselues, and offend others; onely Man she hath prostituted in his very natiuitie, altogether vnarmed, naked, and vnable to helpe himselfe. They complaine also, that in bignesse of body we are not equall vnto the Elephants, in swiftnesse to the Harts, in lightnesse to the Birds, in strength and might vnto Bulles, in length of life to the Crowes: that the beasts of prey, haue a skinne more solide; the Doe more slicke and comely, the Beares a skinne thighter then ours; and to shut vp all, they say no creature hath a life more fraile and brittle then Man. But how ill they reason, & how vniust and vnequall valuers they be of the diuine blessings, let all men heare and vnderstand. Surely God euen for this purpose created Man naked, that hee might be the Prince and ruler of all those things, that are comprehended within, or subiected to the Law and 
An elegant demonstratiō why the body is naked.  dominion of Nature. For as the organes or instruments of the sences, are void of all strange and externall qualities, that they may receiue and entertaine the seuerall species and shapes of all otherthings; no particular colour in the Cristalline humour of the eyes, no naturall and inbred sound in the eare, the tongue not falsified with any taste or sauor, the nosethrils haue no proper or particular smell, touching is not possessed of any one extreame; right so it was not meet, that the minde or soule of man, which as the Philosopher teacheth, Was in 
Aristotle.  power in a manner all things, should be adorned and taken vp with any particular Art and industrie.  
The body also behooued to be naked and vnarmed, that such a creature as was to gouern all the rest, should not be tied onely to one kinde of armor or weapon: and how incommodious 
Why the body is naked.  and vnseemely had it bin for man, being made for contemplation, alwaies to haue borne armes? Now, he can at his owne will and pleasure, both girt himselfe in all manner of armour, and againe presently lay it aside: and therefore, man is naked, and so it beehooued him to be. But yet God hath not left him destitute euen in this kinde, hauing armed 
God hath armed man with three defences.  him with three seuerall muniments, which hee hath denyed to other liuing Creatures; Reason to inuent, Speech to call for assistance, and Hands to bring his will to acte and perfection. Reason, is the hand of the vnderstanding, Speech the hand of Reason, and the Hand itself, is the hand of Speech.  
The hand executeth those things which are commanded, our commandements are subiect and obedient to reason, and reason itself, is the power, force, and efficacie of the vnderstanding. So that in recompence of the nakednesse of the soule, he hath two helpes giuen him, Reason, which is an Art before all Arts; and Speech, the Ambassador or interpreter of the minde. For the nakednesse of the bodie, he hath the Hand, the great Organ before all Organes, the instrument of all instruments. By the power of Reason and of the Hand, albeit man be borne weake and naked, yet is he secured from all dumbe creatures; whereas 
How behoue full Reason & the Hand is to man, & what he performes by them.  all creatures whatsoeuer they be, that are borne and brought forth more firme, yea & more fierce too; howsoeuer they are able stoutly to endure the force and violence of the heauens, yet they cannot be secure and free from Man. See now and behold thou, whatsoeuer thou art, that art a traducer and slanderous detractor of Nature, how bounteous and liberall bequests and Legacies this Mother of ours hath bestowed vpon vs; how farre more puissant creatures, by the aide of Reason and of our Hands, wee haue subdued and brought vnder the yoake; how farre swifter we haue ouertaken; neither is there any mortall thing that is not subiected vnder our will and obedience. So then we see, that Reason dooth more auaile man, then any naturall gift doth the dumbe creature; the volubility and readinesse of the tongue and speech, more then the lightnesse and nimble vse of the winges and Feathers; the industry of the hands, more then the impetuous force and violence of Bulles, or the teeth or hooues of wilde and rauenous beastes, because they cannot redeeme or free themselues from being oppressed by vs, or acquit themselues from the soueraigntie of our authoritie.   

What the Body of Man differeth from other Creatures, and what it hath proper and peculiar in the composition and frame thereof. Chap. IIII.  
_ANd now, least those that are skilfull and learned, should want any thing in our discourse that belongeth to the dignity of Man, and his admirable and wonderfull frame and composition; let vs proceede vnto such other things, as the diuine wisedome, the Mother and Gouernor of all things hath vouchsafed only to man, and see in what and how much the body of man differeth from the rest of the creatures. As in man & other creatures there is the same manner of life and nourishment, so the frame and structure of the vitall & naturall organes or instruments is not vnlike in them both; but as for the sences and power of motion, wherein the Nature of the Animality( you must giue leaue to a Philosopher to vse his owne tearmes) or liuelyhood consisteth, forasmuch as in man they do attend vpon, and serue a more noble Forme, and are prepared to more diuine vses, then for the auoiding of euill, and such other obiects of the appetite; it was therefore requisite, that they should haue Organs framed and made with more curious and exquisite workemanship. There are therefore in man, ouer and besides those things that are already handled, namely, his vpright figure, and his Hands, which no other creatures haue; there are I say, many things in 
What there is in mans body, proper & peculiar to Man.  the structure and composition of the animall organes, proper and peculiar to man, which do yet more demonstratiuely prooue, yea and expresse also the dignity of his bodie. For to run through all, from the head to the feet. First, of al liuing creatures, only man hath a head made into a round and circular forme, as it were turned on a wheele, both that it might be 
1. A round head  the more capeable to receiue a greater quantity of braynes, and lesse apt to be ouer-taken with danger either from without or within; as also, for the more ease in moouing and turning about; and lastly, because it was to be the mansion house of Reason, that is, the soule. Now we know, that the Soule was infused into vs from Heauen, which euen to our sence is round and circular: seeing then her heauenly habitation is round before shee be infused, it was likewise requisite, that her mansion heere below should bee orbicular also; yet is the head of man not exquisitely round as a Bowle is, but after a sort somewhat long also, rising vp in the two crownes, and on the sides it becommeth depressed and flatted. Onely Man of all liuing creatures, hath for his bignesse, a braine very large and spacious, and also very 
2. A large brain  moyst and watery, the better to performe the varietie of the Animal functions and offices; for the Soule doth not execute hir offices without the helpe of the Spirits: the matter and the substance of the Spirits is blood, now plenty of blood is not conteyned, nor cannot be concluded within a little and small body.  
The face is saide also to bee proper vnto man alone, whereupon the Greekes call it 
3. Man onely hath a face.  〈◇〉, by a name deriued from the thing itself, because 〈◇〉, it seeth and is seene a farre off; to other creatures Nature hath giuen onely a mouth or a beake: but in the face of man, courage, shamefastnesse, and maiesty, haue their abode, and therefore man alone is bashfull & shamefast. At the beholding of this face, all creatures are affrighted, because in it there shine foorth more beames of the diuine Nature, then in all the body besides.  
Furthermore, this one thing is admirable therein, that whereas in our face and countenance there are ten particles, or not many moe, yet you shall not finde any two among many thousands of men, that haue their countenance in all parts alike, but there is some diuersity, both in the lines, and in the proportion. 
4. Eyes of diuers colours.   
Man alone hath his eyes enamelled with diuers colours, & that in great variety; whereas other Creatures( the horse excepted) are in their kinds alwayes alike; so shall you finde oxen to haue all blacke eyes, Sheepe watry, other creatures red.  
The eyes of Man are distant one from the other but a very little space, in respect of 
5. The distance of the eyes.  our proportion of magnitude with other creatures, that so the spirits might bee the more nimble, and more speedily transmitted from one eye to another.  
Man alone of all creatures( saith Pliny) hath his eyes vitiated and corrupted, yea and 
6. The deprauation of the eyes. Plin. lib. 11. ca. 37.  sometimes one or both wanting; whereupon came the names or nick-names of Strabo, one that is squint-eyed or goggle-eyed, and Paetus for one that hath rouling eyes, or squinted vpward.  
The haires of the eye-lids are in four-footed Beasts only on the vpper lid, in Birds on 
7. Hairs on both sides the eies.  the neather; Man onely( the Estrich excepted) hath haires on both sides, both on the vpper and neather lid. 
8. A nose standing out.   
The nose of a man is higher, and standeth further out then the rest of his face for decency and comelinesse; in other creatures it is not so, but is flatted with the scull.  
Onely in man the eares are fixed and immooueable, and placed on either side in a 
9. Eares imoueable. Cānell bones.  right line with the eyes: only in Man( except it be Apes, which are neerest to the proportion of mans body) are those bones we call Clauiculae or Cannell bones, which serue to establish the arme, that in the diuers and sudden motions thereof, it might not be dislocated.  
There is no creature but Man hath Dugges in the forepart of his body, the Elephants 
10. Dugges.  haue indeed two dugs or paps, but not in their breast.  
Those parts which in Man are foremost, that is, on the forepart, as the breast, the belly, 
11 The diuersity of scituation of the parts.  the wezon, &c. foure-footed Beasts haue them below next vnto the ground, and those that man hath on the hinder part, as the backe, the loynes, and the buttockes, Beasts haue them in their vpper part.  
Man of all creatures is couered with the fewest haires, vnlesse it be in his head, which 
12 Fewes haires.  as it is the moystest part of his body, so also it is the most replenished with haires.  
Againe, in creatures that are couered with haires, those parts are most hairy that bend downward toward the ground, the rest are either smooth without haire, or not so full of 
13 A difference in those parts that are couered with hairs  them. On the contrary, Man is most hairy on the forepart, because haires were made for a couering; the prone or bending parts of Beasts, stand in need to be couered, yet the foreparts are indeede more noble, but they are cherished and in some sort couered by the bowing and bending of the body: But in Man by reason of his lofty and vpright frame & composition of bodye, the forepart is alike exposed to outward iniury as the hinder part, and therefore it was meete the more noble part should bee couered, and( as it were) defended 
14 Haire vnder the arm holes  with haires.  
Onely Man hath haires growing vnder the arme-holes, and about the priuie members.  
Man alone growes hoarie haired, and bald-headed. 
15 Man alone hoary hayred.   
The legs or haunches of all foure-footed Beastes, are abundantly full of bones and sinnewes, but very scantie of flesh; on the contrary, Man hath almost no part of his bodie, 
16 Hips, legs, & thighes full of flesh.  more fleshy then his hips, legs, and thighes.  
Four-footed beasts do bow both their fore-legs and their hinder legs contrary to man, for he bowes his armes backward, and his legs forward. 
17 The maner of bowing of the parts vnlike to other creatures.   
Man, when he is come to his full growth hath his vpper part lesser then his nether part; but before hee bee growne, his vpper part is the greater; so is it not with the rest of the creatures; and therefore his manner of going is not at all times alike, but at first in his infancy he creepes on all foure, afterwards by little and little hee raiseth vp himselfe, and at length goes vpon his two feete.  
In other creatures there is no difference of the bones, but they doe all appeare perfect, 
19 The difference of the bones.  euen from their beginning; but in Children the fore-part of the head is soft and tender, & long before it be hardned. And whereas all other creatures come toothed into the world, Man begins not to haue teeth till the seauenth month after his birth.  
Furthermore, of all creatures( excepting birds) that liue vpon the land, Man alone is 
20 Man alone two sooted. Plato derided by Diogenes.  two-footed, which mooued Plato to define him, Animal bipes implume; which definition Diogenes worthily derided, when hee flung a Cocke whose feathers he had pluckt off, into the Schoole, and cried out, Behold Platoes Man. 
21 Man alone go eth vpright.   
Onely Man by the straitnesse of his legges goes exactly vpright.  
Onely Man vseth to sit, both because he cannot stand long, as the brute beastes may, 
22 Man alone sitteth.  which haue foure feete, and besides do lye vsually to rest themselues, prostrate vppon the ground; for that two feet cannot long beare the weight of the whole body: as also because it is necessary for more noble and excellent vses, to wit, for the practising and exercising of Arts, and for contemplation.  
Onely Man hath a skin polished, smooth, cleare, and very temperate; other creatures 
23 Man alone hath a smooth and slick skin  haue either a shelly or scaly skin, or altogether hairy, or els too soft, because Touching is the ground and foundation of all the sences; and therefore the more simple and pure the touching is, the clearer also and the purer is the sence, and the phantasmes or imaginations the more subtle: by meanes whereof, the operation of the soule, is so much the more lofty and profound. And for this cause, Aristotle in his second Booke De Anima, is of opinion, that the strength and vigor of the wit and vnderstanding, are to bee iudged of by the 
Aristotle.  coursenesse or finenesse of the touch.   

How profitable and behoouefull Anatomy is to the knowledge of Mans selfe. CHAP. V.  
_SEeing then that Man is a Litle world, and containes in himselfe the seeds of all those things which are contained in the most spacious and ample bosom of this whole Vniuerse, Starres, Meteors, Mettals, Minerals, Vegetables, Animals, and Spirits; whosoeuer dooth well know himselfe, knoweth allthings, 
He that knowes himselfe, knowes all things.  seeing in himselfe he hath the resemblances and representations of all things. First, he shall know God, because hee is fashioned and framed according to his Image, by reason whereof, hee is called among the Diuines, The Royall and Imperiall Temple of God; he shall know also the Angels, because hee hath vnderstanding as they haue; he shall know the brute Beasts, because he hath the faculties of sence and appetite common with them; he groweth as the plants do, hee hath being and existence as stones haue, and in a word, he is the rule and square of all bodies.  
Wisely therefore did the Oracle of Apollo, incite and stirre vp euery man to the knowledge of himselfe, as Plato hath it in his Alcibiade. This by the iudgement and consent of 
Plato in Alcibiade.  all men, is true and sound Philosophy. For Demonax being asked, When he beganne to professe Philosophy, made answere, When I began to know myself. Socrates held it the next 
How profitable it is to knowe ourselves. Demonax. Socrates. Thales.  point to fury and madnesse, to enquire into high matters, and to search into strange and vncouth businesses, and bee ignorant in the meane while of those things that bee in ourselves. This preposterous skill was once very merrily and wittily by an old wife cast in the teeth of Thales the Philosopher of Miletum; who as he inconsiderately cast vp his eyes to behold the Heauens, fell into a pit; the old wife cried out, Thou Foole, thou priest into matters that are aboue thee, & art ignorant of those things that are below thee, nay euen within thee. Surely it was a worthy speech, and not beseeming an olde Beldame but a Philosopher. But this same knowledge of a mans selfe, as it is a very glorious thing, so it is also very hard and 
Anatomy the most sure guide to the knowledge of ourselves.  difficult. And yet by the dissection of the body, and by Anatomy, wee shall easily attaine vnto this knowledge. For seeing the soule of man being cast into this prison of the body, cannot discharge her offices and functions without a corporeall Organ or instrument of the body; whosoeuer will attaine vnto the knowledge of the soule, it is necessarie that hee know the frame and composition of the body.  
After this manner, Democritus of Abdera, that he might finde out the seate of anger and melancholy, cut in peeces the bodies of beasts, and when he was taxed of the Citizens for 
Democritus  madnesse in so doing, he was by the censure and determination of Hippocrates, adiudged to be very wise and prudent. Go too then, Is not he saide to know himselfe, who can tell how to temper and order the state and condition of his minde, howe to appease those ciuill tumults within himselfe, by the stormes and waues whereof he is pittifully tossed, and how to suppresse and appease those varieties of passions wherewith as it were with so manie furies he is vexed and tormented? But all this Anatomy doth verie plainly teach vs. For he that seeth and obserueth the whole body, which by the structure and putting together of 
Anatomy tracheth how to order the state of the minde.  sundry parts of diuers sorts and kinds, is( as it were) manifold & full of variety, to be made one by the continuation and ioyning of those parts; he that considereth the admirable simpathy of the parts, their mutuall consent and agreement, their common offices, or officiall administrations one for the helpe of another, how they make not any couetous reseruation to themselues, but do freely communicate each with other; such a man no doubt will so moderate and order the conditions and affections of his minde, as all things shal accord and ioyne in a mutuall agreement, and the inferiors shall obey the superiors, the passions obey the rule of right reason. He that shall diligently weigh and consider the vse of euery part, the fashion, scituation, and admirable workemanship of them all, as also, the 
How to vse our sences.  Organs and Instruments of the outward sences, he shall easily perceiue how and after what manner he is to make vse of euery part; then which thing, what can be more excellent, what more profitable?  
Thou hast an vpright frame and posture of body, that remembring thy beginning, thou shouldst not like the brute beasts grouell vpon the ground, or dote vpon earthly things, but 
Why the eies are set in the top of the body,  lift vp thyself towards heauen, and say with the Diuines, Our conuersation is in Heauen. Thy eyes are set in a high place, that thou mightst take notice, they are giuen thee to be aduanced to the contemplation of Heauenly things.  
Two eares, and those wide open, hath Nature ordained for thee; to teach thee that 
Why two eares. Why but one tongne.  thou must heare, and by hearing, learne twice as much as thou must speake. Nature hath giuen thee but one tongue, tied with ten Muscles, and reyned with a very strong ligament, besides, as it were with a bridle, shut vp and enclosed within the mouth and teeth, as it were within a grate or Lattice, that the minde might first discerne and iudge of a thing before it vtter it, and that our words might first passe by the file, before they passe by the tongue. If you looke into the seats and residence of the faculties of the minde, you shall finde the rational faculty in the highest place, namely in the brain, compassed in on euery side with a scull; the faculty of anger, in the Heart; the faculty of lust or desire in the Liuer: & therefore we may gather these lower and inferiour faculties, must bee seruiceable and obedient to the higher, as to the Queene and Prince of them all. And if both Princes and Peasants would weigh and consider the mutuall offices betweene the principall and the ignoble parts, Princes might vnderstand how to rule, and Peasants how to obey. Princes may learne of the braine how to make Lawes, to gouerne their people; of the heart, how to 
How much the knowledg of Anatomy auaileth kings and Princes.  preserue the life, health, and safety of their Citizens; of the Liuer, they may learn bounty and liberality. For the braine sitting in the highest place, as it were in a Tribunall, distributeth to euery Organ or Instrument of the sences, offices of dignity: the Heart like a King maintaineth and cherrisheth with his liuely and quickning heate, the life of all the partes: the Liuer the fountaine and well-spring of most beneficall humidity or iuice, nourisheth and feedeth the whole family of the bodie, and that at her owne proper costs and charges, like most a bountifull Prince. As for the meaner sorr of people, they may easilie vnderstand by the ministering and seruile organs, what bee the limits of seruice and subiection. For the parts that are in the lower bellie do all serue the Liuer; the Stomacke dooth concoct the meate, the Guts distribute and diuide it, the veines of the Mesentarie prepare it; the bladder of Gall, the Milt and the Reines, do purge and clense the princely Pallace, & thrust as it were out of the Kitchin, downe the sinke, all the filth and garbage. The parts that are included within the Chest, do serue the Heart; those that are in the head, do attend the Braine, and so each to others, doe affoord their mutuall seruices. And if any one of them do at any time faile of their duty, presently the whole Houshold gouernment goes to ruine and decay.  
The euidence of which truth, being by way of Apologe or Parable, seasonably represented to the people of Rome, Menenius Agrippa reuoked them, and laide as it were a Lawe vpon their furie, when they had gathered themselues into the Mount,( which afterwardes was thereupon called Sacer) hardly brooking the gouernment of the Senate. So that anatomy is as it were a most certaine and sure guide to the admirable and most excellent knowledge of ourselues, that is, of our owne proper nature. And therefore we reade, that valiant and couragious Princes, worthy and renowned Nobles, yea, and inuincible Emperors, being mooued and incited with this desire of the knowledge of themselues, did most studiously practise this worke of Anatomy, euen in the noyse and clattering of weapons and armour, and in the verie medly and tumult of warre.  
Alexander the Great, among all the maine and great triumphes of his so excellent atchieuments, gloried that hee had diligently obserued vnder his Maister Aristotle, the Nature 
What Kinges and Princes haue practised Anatomy.  and seuerall parts of liuing creatures. And it is found in the Records and Monuments of ancient Histories, that the Kings of the Egyptians, did make dissection of bodies with their owne hands. Marcus Antonius that great Commander, affirmed that he had learned his owne constitution by the dissection of other bodies. We haue also read, that Boetius 
Antonius. Boetius. Paul. Serg.  and Paulus Sergius, two Romane Consuls, were Auditors of Galen, when he publikely practised this dissection in the City of Rome. And so much shall suffice for the first profit and commodity that wee may reape by Anatomy.   

How profitable and helpefull Anatomy is to the knowledge of God. CHAP. VI.  
_IT is no doubt an excellent thing for a man to attaine to the knowledge of 
How profitable Anatomy is to the knowledge of God.  himselfe, which thing Anatomy and dissection of bodies doth teach vs, and as it were point out vnto vs with the finger; but there is another farre more Diuine and vsefull profit of Anatomy then the former, proper and peculiar to vs to whom the light of the Gospell hath shined, namely the knowledge of the immortall God. That high Father and creator of all things, who onely by himselfe hath immortality, dwelling in that light that is clearer then all lights, vnto which there is no accesse, whom no man can either see with his eyes, or comprehend with his minde, that eternall Father( I say) cannot be knowne but by his effects; and all the knowledge of God that can be had, must be deriued not à priori, but à posteriori, not from any cause or matter preceding, but from the effects and thinges subsequent.  
So we reade in the sacred Scriptures, that Moses could not endure the bright shyning face of God, his eyes were so dazled therewith. The inuisible things of God( saith the Apostle) 
Moyses. Paul ad Rom.  are knowne by those things that are visible. Who is it therefore, that will not honor, reuerence, and admire the author and workeman of so great a worke, if he do attentiuely aduise with himselfe, how wonderfull the fabricke and structure of mans body is? I will praise thee, O Lord,( saith that Kingly Prophet) because I am wonderfully made. Phidias his Minerua, Apelles his Venus, Polycletus his Rule, are admired by antiquity; and therefore great and high honours haue beene decreed vnto them. Ctesicles is commended for making a marble Image with such excellent art and cunning, that the Samian young men in desire to obtaine the same, were contented to lodge night by night in the Temple. And wilt not thou admire the arch-type and patterne of all these, I meane the body of Man? They did imitate in the workes of Nature that which is of least respect and regard, namely, the outward face and feature: for their workes are but dumbe, without motion or life. But by the view of Anatomicall dissection, we see and are able to distinguish the variable and diuers motions of mans body, and those also very strange, and sometime vncouth.  
Some of the ancient Writers, haue dignified the frame of mans body with the name & 
The frame of man is Gods Booke. Heraclitus.  title of The Booke of God. For indeede, in all men there appeareth certaine sparkes of a Naturall diuinity, or diuine nature; as Heraclitus witnesseth, who sitting in a Bakers shop, and perceiuing some of his Auditors which desired to speake with him, would not come vnto him into so homely a place, Come in( saith he) for euen heere there be Gods also. Iouis omnia plena, All things( saith the Poet) are full of Iupiter. For euen in the smallest and most contemptible creature, there is matter enough of admiration; but yet in the frame of 
Gods admirable power shineth in the frame of man.  mans body, there is( I know not what) something more diuine, as wherein appeareth not onely the admirable power of God, but his wisedome euen past all beleefe, and his infinite and particular goodnesse and bounty to Man.  
For his power, it is not onely visible but palpable also, in that of so small a quantitie of seede, the parts whereof seeme to be all homogenie or of one kinde; and of a few droppes of blood, he hath framed so many and so diuers particles, aboue two hundred Bones, Cartilages yet more, many more Ligaments, a number of Membranes numberlesse, the Pipes or trunkes of the Arteries, millions of veines, sinnewes more then thirty paire, Muscles almost foure hundred; and to conclude, all the bowels and inward parts. His incredible wisedome appeareth in the admirable contabulation or composition of the whole, 
The wisedom of God in the workmanship of the parts.  made of so many parts, so vnlike one to another. Enter thou whosoeuer thou art( though thou be an Atheist, and acknowledgest no God at all,) enter I beseech thee, into the Sacred Tower of Pallas, I meane the braine of Man, and behold and admire the pillars and arched Cloysters of that princely pallace, the huge greatnesse of that stately building, the 
The elegant workmanship of the whole frame.  Pedistals or Bases, the Porches & goodly frontispice, the 4. arched Chambers, the bright and cleare Mirrour, the Labyrinthaean Mazes and web of the small arteries, the admirable trainings of the Veines, the draining furrowes and watercourses, the liuing ebullitions and springings vp of the sinnewes, and the wonderfull foecundity of that white marrow of the back, which the wiseman in the Book of the Preacher or Ecclesiastes calleth the Siluer cord. From the braine, turne the eye of thy minde to the gates of the Sun, and Windowes of the soule, I meane the eyes, and there behold the brightnesse of the glittering Cristall, the purity and neate cleannesse of the watery and glassy humors, the delicate and fine texture of the Tunicles, and the wonderfull and admirable volubility of the Muscles, in turning and rowling of the eyes. Marke and obserue also, the art and curious workmanship appearing in the inward part of the eare, how exquisitely it is made and trimmed with Labyrinths, windings, little windowes, a sounding Timpane or timbrill; three small bones, a stirrop, an anuile, and a hammer; the small Muscles, the Nerue or sinnew of hearing, and the Carteleginious or gristle passage, prepared for conueying all sounds vnto the sense. Looke vpon the vnweariable and agile motions, the conquering power, the frame and composition, the Muscles, the proper and peculiar kinde of flesh, the Membranes, the Veynes and sinnewes, and the bridle as it were, all easily distinguished within the compasse of that little body, or rather little member of the bodie, the Tongue, wherewith we blesse God, and wherewith we curse men.  
Consider and obserue the Heart, his two ventricles, eares as many, foure notable Vessels, which as Hippocrates sayth, are as it were 〈◇〉, the fountaines 
Hippocrates in his Booke of the Heart.  and well-springes of the humane Nature, and the riuers and sourses whereby the whole body is watered and refreshed: besides eleauen gates or entrances; the admyrable and intricate Textures of the vessels of the Liuer, the separation and diuision of the currents of the Arteries and the Veynes; and in a word, consider the admirable structure of all the parts, Animall, Vitall, and Naturall; wilt thou not cry out, though it bee against thy will, O admirable Architect! O vnimitable workeman! And wilt thou not with the inspired Prophet sing vnto the Creator this Hymne, I praise thee( O Lord) because thou hast shewed the greatnesse of thy wisedome in fashioning of my body?  
Lastly, the infinite goodnesse and bounty of God shineth in this excellent workemanship, inasmuch as he hath so well prouided for all the parts, that euery one hath her proper 
Gods infinite goodnesse in the structure of the body.  and peculiar vse, and yet all are so fitted and knit together in such an harmonie and agreement, that euery one is ready to helpe another; and any one of them being ill affected, the rest are immediatly drawne to a simpathy and participation with it. Which society and fellowship of the parts, Hippocrates in his Booke de Alimento hath thus breefelie, but excellently expressed, 〈◇〉: One agreement, one confluence, all consenting. To conclude then, these wonderfull and euer-worthy to bee admired workes of God in the composition and frame of mans bodie, are as it were dumbe Schoolemaisters, the Bookes of vulgar Diuinity, and the Doctors and teachers of Diuine wisedome.   

How profitable Anatomy is to Philosophers, and in a manner to all Artificers and Handy-crafts men. CHAP. VII.  
_THese two fruites of Anatomy, as they are abundantly beneficiall and profitable, so they seeme to be common to all in general; first the knowledge of our owne Nature, and then of the inuisible God. There are also other benefites and commodities of Anatomy proper and peculiar to Poets, Painters, yea, and to the most part of handy-crafts men and Artificers, to teach them the better to bring their Arts to perfection. And first, Galen dooth account Anatomy verie 
Anatomy verie profitable for a naturall Philosopher.  proper to a naturall Philosopher, though it were but onely for speculation sake, or otherwise to teach him the singular workemanship of Nature in euery particular part. For inasmuch as the proper and proportionable subiect of his art is a body Naturall, and the body of Man is as it were the square and rule of all other bodies, he ought not, nor cannot be truly accounted a Naturall Philosopher, who is ignorant of the historie of Mans body; and for this cause, that most excellent Genius, and interpreter of Nature Aristotle, wrote those elegant and eloquent Books of the History of the parts, and of the generation of liuing 
Aristotle.  creatures. Anatomy is also very profitable for a morall Philosopher: for hee shall 
Anatomie is profitable for a morall Philosopher.  easily learne by the mutuall offices and duties of euery part, and by the constitution of the Naturall houshold gouernment appearing in our bodies, how to temper and order the manners and conditions of the minde, how to rule and gouern a Commonwealth or Citie, and how to direct a priuate house or family.  
I spare to speake how profitable it is for Poets and Painters, for the perfection of their Art and Science; for euen Homer himselfe hath written many things, and those verie excellent 
Profitable for Poets & painters. Homer.  concerning Anatomy. But my purpose is onely to shew, that for a Physition, a naturall Philosopher, a Chirurgion, and an Apothecary, it is not onely profitable, but euen also absolutely necessary.   

Wherein is demonstrated that Anatomy is not onely profitable, but of absolute necessitie for Physitions and Chirurgions. CHAP. VIII.  
_AS Geographie is worthily accounted a great euidence for the credite of an History, so to them that any way appertaine to the art of Physicke, the knowledge of mans body seemeth to be very necessary, 〈◇〉. For the Nature of the body is the first thing to be spoken of in the Art of Physicke. Againe, Hippocrates in his Booke de Flatibus, maketh but one Idea of all diseases, It is onely the variety & 
Hip. de locis in homine. Hip. de flatibus.  difference of places, that maketh the difference of diseases. Hee therefore that will be ignorant of the Historie of the parts of Mans bodie, he shall ill distinguish and discerne the affections of the same, worse cure them, and worst of all foretell who are likely to recouer and escape, and who not.  
The discerning and iudging of a disease, consisteth in two things, namely, the knowledge 
How necessary the knowledge of the parts is to the discerning of diseases.  of the euil affect, & the knowledge of the part so affected. The signs of the part affected, are drawne and deriued from many Fountaines( as it were;) but especially from the scituation, and from the action empaired. For hee that knoweth the action of the stomacke to be concoction, if the concoction be empaired, he may easily discerne that the stomacke is ill affected. He that knoweth the Liuer to bee placed on the right side of the paunch, if the right hypochondrium or side before, or do swell, hee will presentlie affirme, that the Liuer and not the spleene is ill affected. Now this scituation, as also the actions of all the parts are taught and demonstrated vnto vs by anatomy onely.  
For Prognosis or prediction of the euent of diseases, Hippocrates maketh three chiefe and maine heads of it: Those things that are auoyded, the action impaired, and the habite of the body 
Anatomy necessarie for Prognosis or praediction. Galen.  in the colour, figure, and magnitude or quantity; all which are discerned onely by Anatomy. Now how much the knowledge of the seuerall parts of the bodie auayleth towardes the curing of diseases, Galen hath verie well expressed in the beginning of his Booke de Ossibus: 〈◇〉( saith hee) 〈◇〉, that is, All things that concerne the action of healing, haue that for their scope or direction which is naturally disposed, or in a 
Necessary for curation. Hippocrates  good and lawdable constitution. Hippocrates in his Booke de officina Medici giueth this rule, That the Physition should first looke into those thinges that are alike one to another, and then to those things that are vnlike: insinuating thereby, that he that knowes the perfect Sanitie or health of euery part, shall easily discerne if it fall from that perfection, by the perfection which remaineth in other like parts not tainted. Aristotle in his first Booke de Anima, vsurpeth a rule of Geometry, That which is straite and right( saith he) doth not onely measure itself, but bewrayeth that which is oblique or crooked. In like manner, how shal a Physition restore or set right bones that are broken or out of ioynt, if hee be ignorant of their naturall place, figure, and articulation? The exquisite method of healing cannot bee performed but by indications, and indications are not onely deriued from the disease, but also from the part affected, and the remedies must bee changed and altered, according to the diuers and seuerall nature, temperature, scituation, connexion and sence of the part.  
Neither is Anatomy needefull onely for the Physition, but euen also for the Chirurgion and Apothecary. The knowledge of the outward parts, as the Muscles, the nerues, the 
Anatomy necessarie for a Chirurgion.  veines and arteries, is most necessary for a Chirurgion, for feare least in his dissections & launcings, he should mistake a broad Ligament for a Membrane, and around Ligament for a Nerue or sinnew, least he should diuide an arterie in stead of a veine; for he that is ignorant of these things, shall euermore be in doubt; in things safe and secure still fearefull; and in things that are to be feared, he will be most secure and audacious. 
Anatomy profitable for an Apothecarie.   
An Apothecarie also shall finde it very needful for him to vnderstand the scite and figure of the parts, for the better applying of such remedies as shall bee requisite. For hee must apply his Topicall and locall medicines, fomentations, oyntments or Liniments and Emplaisters, in their apt and proper places; as if the Liuer be ill affected, on the right side; if the Spleene be ill, on the left side; if the wombe or bladder be diseased, then vpon the hypograstium or water-course, betweene the nauell and the priuie parts; if the heart be ill affected, then on the left brest must the remedies bee applied. Hee must also make his plaister or other remedy of the same figure that the part affected is of, least the parts adioining be couered therewithall. 
Profitable for the vnderstanding of the writings of the Ancients.   
I forbeare to speake how profitable and necessary it is for the explaining of the writings of Hippocrates, Galen, and all the ancient Physitions. For in them there are many passages darke and obscure, whereunto the knowledge of Anatomy will giue a great light and splendor: and therefore in old time, Physitions were woont to propound vnto their young Schollers the precepts of Anatomy, as the first rudiments and principles of the art of Physicke and Chirurgery.   

With what Method Anatomy may be best taught and demonstrated. CHAP. IX.  
_SEeing then, the profite and necessity of Anatomy is such and so great, I would perswade all Students, in our art especially, and in Chirurgerie, that they woulde very heedefully and diligently employ themselues in the studie of the same; neither shall they neede to be deterred or affrighted with the difficulty, for it is very easie and feasible, if it be laide downe in a good order and Method, otherwise the most easie and obuious art prooues harde and obscure. The Method therefore of learning and teaching Anatomy is on this manner.  
The Art of Anatomy( as I suppose) may bee attained two wayes; by Inspection, which 
Anatomy to be attained two wayes by Inspection & by Instructiō.  we call 〈◇〉, and by Instruction: and both these wayes are very necessary, if the perfection of the art be desired: but the first is the more certaine, the latter carrieth with it greater grace and state; the former may be called the way of Historie, or the historicall way; the latter, the way of Science, or the artificiall way. The first, which is Inspection, is either of figures depainted or carued, and printed on Tables onely, or of the bodies themselues of Men or Beastes; of Men, onely when they are dead; of beastes both dead and liuing, for the better obseruing of the diuers and obscure motions of the inward parts.  
In like manner, the way of Doctrine or Science is double; One, by the writinges of most famous and renowned men; another, by the liuing voyce of a Teacher or Instructer.  
The Inspection of Figures some haue disallowed, because they are bare shadowes, 
Galen disallowed pictures of Plants and Anatomy.  which in their opinion doe rather hinder then further young Students. For, if Galen would not haue Plants and Hearbes painted or desciphered, no nor so much as described, but taught and deliuered by hand onely: how would hee haue endured the delineation of the parts of our body?  
But I am not altogether of that opinion, to thinke these pictures vaine and ydle, because I see euerie day represented vnto mine eyes by these Pictures manie things, and those oftentimes of great consequence, which were vnknowne to the skilfullest artists 
The benefites of pictures. Geometricians are Anatomistes of the Great World.  of former ages. Neyther do the Geometricians and Geographers, who are but the Anatomists of the Great world, as we are of the little; despise those demonstrations which in Cards & Maps they receiue one from another Again, it is not alwaies, or in each place easie to find & obtain such store of humane carkasses, and therfore that want is well supplied by a curious draught or delineation of such obseruations, as are made in true dissections by cunning artists; that so both the memory of those that were present may be refricated and refreshed, and such as were absent, made also partakers of their labors; yet for all 
A Caution.  this, I do not thinke it fit to trust too much to these silent shadowes. For as it is not possible to make a good Commander, or a skilfull Pilot by any typicall or representatiue army, fortification, or water carde, but onely by practise and experience: so it is a very vaine 
Comparison.  thing to take in hand to learne Anatomy by the bare inspection of figures, without practise vpon the body itself: and because our art concerneth the cure not of Beastes but of Men, we must therefore exercise ourselves chiefly in the anatomy of the bodie of Man, and that not aliue but dead.  
I am not ignorant that some of the ancient Physitians, as Herophilus and Erasistratus, by the License of Princes whom they had possessed with the profit thereof, did anatomize 
Who vsed to butcher men aliue.  the bodies of condemned wretches euen whilst they were aliue, which also in our age hath beene done by Carpus and Vesalius. But for mine owne part, I hold it a very friuolous and vaine thing, beside the horror and inhumanity of the fact, which almost no necessitie 
The cutting vp of man aliue is not only inhumane, but also of no profit or vse. Obiection. Answere.  can sufficiently warrant. For liuing dissections( as wee call them) are then put in vse, when we would finde out some action or vse of a part which by the dead carkas cannot bee discerned; now all those we may find aswel in Beasts as in Men. If it be obiected, that there is some difference betweene the actions of men and of beasts, especially the animall; and that the organ of voluntarie motion, to wit, the Muscles, are not alike in both kindes: I answer, that for the discerning of actions that belong to motion and sence, ther is no need of dissection, for they are almost all of them apparent to the sences; onely the motions of the hidden and secret parts, as not being subiected to sence, must be sought out by dissection. Now of those hidden motions, that of the heart and arteries, the midriffe, the brain, and the guts, which are of greatest consequence, are all one in men and in beasts; wherefore it is not anatomy but butchery, to mangle the trembling members of mans body, and vnder I know not what slender and idle pretence of profit, or behoofe, to violate the sacred Law of nature, and of religion.  
The ancient Physitians were not allowd to cut vp dead carkasses of men, as we now vse disection, but it was held a verie impious & prophane thing: how abhominable then is it, & sauoring of Caniball barbarisme, because we would make a nearer cut to our vnderstanding by our eyes then by the discourse and labor of our minds, to gather knowledge by the dissection or rather butchery of liuing men, if there were any vse of it, as we haue shewed that there is none. Let vs therfore content ourselves, and giue due thanks vnto our State, by whose Lawes we are allowed dead bodies for dissection, euery yeare a competent number: and if there be any where want of such, wee may haue resort to the bodies of Beastes and make dissection of them both aliue and dead; aliue more sparingly, albeit by anatomy of liuing bodies, we may better discerne the actions of the parts, & by what Muscle euery part is mooued; in the dissection of dead bodies, the scituation, figure, magnitude, connexion, and originall of the parts, are well enough perceyued.  
Now, because there are many kinds of Beasts, those are to be made choise of for dissection, 
Those Beastes which come neerest to the frame of mans body, are fittest to bee dissected. Fiue sortes of beasts according to Galen.  which come neerest to mans body. Galen reduceth them to fiue sortes. The first sort is of such as chew the cud, that is, which after they haue eaten their meate, doe bring it againe from the dew-lap, as from a kinde of stomacke backe vnto the mouth, as Sheepe and Oxen. The second sort, is of those which diuide not the hoofe, as Asses, Horses, and Mules. The third sort, are such as haue teeth in manner of a Saw, as Lyons, Dogges, and Wolues. To the fourth sort, he referreth Hogges. To the fift, Apes. Now the dissection of all, or any of these, whether Man or Beast, is not to be taken in hand confusedly & disorderly, but methodically and with a due course of proceeding, and therefore it shall not be amisse, to prescribe some Lawes and Rules of Anatomy, for the better and more 
The method of Anatomy.  orderly practise and exercise of the same.  
This therefore, to begin withall, shall be the most generall and common rule, that wee 
Lawes and rules of Anatomie.  begin with that which is best knowne, and that the dissection of dead bodies go before that which is of liuing creatures, because it is more easie and better knowne.  
Againe, whereas some parts are externall and outward, others internal and inward: let young beginners first exercise their hands in the externall, forasmuch as the knowledge of them is most easie and necessary for a Chirurgion.  
Thirdly, whereas of the parts some are spermaticall and solid, as bones, gristles, and ligaments; others fleshy as the Muscles: we must beginne with those that are the proppes and supporters or vpholders of the rest, as the bones; to which the Muscles do cleaue, from which they spring and arise, and into which they are engrafted or inserted. And indeede, 
The Schoole of Alexandria.  before Galens time, the ancient Physitions in the Schoole of Alexandria did vse to quarter bodies for their Schollers first, and afterward allow them whole carkasses. Againe, wee must know, that for the exquisite discerning of the solid parts, the bodies of old and leane men are the fittest, because they are not so fleshy or so ouergrowne with fat; to which are answerable the bodies of such as die of consumptions.  
Fourthly, whereas there is a two-fold dissection, either of a part taken from the whole, or of a part ioyning to the whole: the dissection is first to be made of a part taken from the whole, because it is more easie then to dissect a part ioyning to the whole.  
Fiftly, whereas in euery particular part Galen enioyneth three things to be obserued & respected; the structure, the action, and the vse: the Anatomist must first search out the structure or composition, then the action, and lastly the vse.  
Lastly, in making dissection, there is a two-fold order to be obserued, the one where there is store of dead bodies, the other where there is want and scarcity. If there be store of bodies, you shall in one looke onely to the vessels, in another to the Muscles, in a third onely to the bowels or entrailes: but if you haue but one body and no more, and yet would see all in that, choose a bodie that is sound and vntainted, and either hanged, smothered, or drowned; and in this body great skill must be vsed, that euery part may be shewed in his order and place. Now this order of anatomy is three-fold; of Dignity, of Scituation or dissection, and of Preseruation or continuance. The order of Dignity requireth, that we 
The order of Anatomy three folde.  shold begin with the brain, as with the most noble part. The order of Scituatiō or dissection, requires that we should first demonstrate those parts which first appeare in view to the beholders; and for Diuturnity, if we would keepe a body long, the dissection must be begun at those parts which are most subiect to corruption; & therfore, first cut vp the lower belly, then the Chest, after the Head, and lastly the ioynts. This order all Anatomists do obserue in Schooles, and in all publique dissections, when as they desire to shew all, or the most part, in one and the same body: and this is the first method or order of learning anatomy, namely, by inspection, which is gained by dissection.  
Anatomy may also be taught without dissection, and that either viua voce, by the liuing voice of the Teacher, or by writing. For there are many things which cannot be knowne 
How we may attain the skill of Anatomy by instruction  by inspection alone, which may notwithstanding in good and apt words be taught, and so compassed; as namely, why the Muscles are such and so many, why of such figure, magnitude, and the like: and for this cause, the Monuments and labours of olde and new Writers in this kinde, must be diligently trauailed in; whose names I intend to declare in the next Chapter. Now Anatomy may be described and so taught after a two-fold method. The one is called the way of 〈◇〉 or resolution, which resolueth the whole into his 
A two-folde Method of teaching Anatomy. Analysis. Genesis.  parts; as when we diuide the body of Man into foure principall parts, the head, the chest, the belly, and the ioynts; and these againe we subdiuide and mince smaller and smaller, till we come to the most simple, vnmixt, and incompounded parts. The other is called 〈◇〉, or the way of composition, which of similar parts maketh dissimilar, and of these compoundeth the whole frame and structure. But we esteeme this last not to be the way of Art, but of Nature; and therefore leaue it to her who is onely able to performe it. The former belongeth vnto vs, as being the way of art, for we intend not to make a new man, but to preserue and keepe a man already framed and made: and therefore as he that commeth 
Comparison.  to an olde yet stately pallace which he is not able to imitate, to repaire and amende the same, doth first take off the couerings, that so he may looke into euery corner, and see the defects of it, that he may apply himselfe better to the reparation; so wee will first remoue the couer and shrine of this Sacred Pallace, and after looke as narrowly as wee can, into the secret corners of the same, that when we are called, we may bee better able to set our hands to the worke: and yet after we haue ended our whole Discourse, we wil also giue you a view( as well as we may) of the worke of Nature, iterating the figures and their explications which are dispersed through the whole worke, but much more largely, according to the order of 〈◇〉 or composition, that nothing may be wanting vnto you, which either our industry or charge may accomplish for your behoofe; but first we will insist in the order of dissection.   

Who haue written of Anatomy; and first what Hippocrates hath written thereof. CHAP. X.  
_HIppocrates of Coos was reuerenced by antiquity as the Oracle of Greece, or a kinde of Deity, rather to be adored then admired, much lesse imitated. This Man, when the art of Physicke was yet rude and vnpolisht, so laboured vpon 
The praise of Hippocrates.  it, that he left it smooth and terce: the knotted budde, by the strength of his wit and vigorous rayes thereof, he made to spread into a glorious flower. He like a good Husbande, hath reduced the seedes of Physicke, dispersed before in the large field of the world, into certain seed plots, whence we may fetch them one by one 
Hippocrates writings like to seed.  at our pleasure: and truth to say, his writings resemble seede most of all, for they are not great, but full of power and efficacie: for as a small A corne hath in it the power of a mighty Oake, so in him one short Aphorisme consisting of a few wordes, hath growne to fill whole volumes of Commentaries; and so all other his writings are very enigmaticall, hauing in them as many sentences as wordes. Before Hippocrates time, the knowledge of Anatomy was very geason and scarse: no writings of the ancients were extant of that subiect. He was the first Man, that being inspired( as I verily thinke) with a diuine Spirit, & trusting( as well he might) to the strength of the pinions of his owne wit, cut the first way through this abysse; not onely leauing encouragement vnto others, but also monuments of many things which pertained to anatomy. For I verily thinke, that that happie spirit of Hippocrates, was ignorant almost of nothing that doth necessarily appertaine to the vse & practise of the art of Physick. For whereas Galen in his second Booke de Anatomicis Administrationibus, maketh two sorts of Anatomy; the one profitable, because it is necessary for the practise of Physicke; the other, beyond the vse of art, and more for ornament 
Galen.  and pleasure, then profit which hee calleth Superabundant: I presume I can demonstrate 
Hippocrates not ignorant of that Anatomy which is vsefull and profitable.  vnto you, that Hippocrates hath most exquisitely and elegantly described that former profitable, and vsefull kinde of anatomy.  
Of parts some are Similar, some Dissimilar; Similar, are the Bones, Cartilages, Ligaments, Membranes, Veines, Arteries, Nerues; and of all these Hippocrates hath written many things, and those excellently well. Concerning the Bones first in generall, what is their Nature, their manner of generation, their materiall cause, their efficient, and finally their vse, he hath excellently demonstrated in his bookes De Natura Ossium, de Carnibus, and de Natura Pueri. The matter he describeth in these words; When the fat exceedeth the glue, then are the bones framed. The efficient cause hath he thus set downe, 〈◇〉, that is, The bones being thickned by heate, are exiccated or dryed. The common vse of the bones, who did euer so accurately expresse in so fewe Wordes, 〈◇〉, that is, The bones doe giue vnto the Body stability, vprightnesse, and forme or fashion. Hee hath 
How Hippo. described the Nature of bones.  also described the particular history of the bones, their seuerall differences, their fashions and their parts. Of the bones of the head, he writeth in his booke de vulneribus Capitis: of the rest, in his Bookes de Articulis, and de Ossium Natura. For before hee do deliuer the diseases or affects incident to the bones, he inquireth into the nature and fashion of euery Bone: a tast of which his elegant order, I wil giue you in the description of the backbone, whereby you may imagine how he hath done all the rest.  
The Nature of the Backe-bone( saith he) is first to be knowne. The figure of it is 〈◇〉 
Hip. description of the backe bone.  that is, In some sort right and straight, but yet so, that sometimes it bendeth outwarde, sometimes inward. From the first racke-bone or vertebra of the necke to the seauenth, it hath Figuram 〈◇〉, that is, Inclining inward, that it might bee substrated or couched vnder the Gullet, and the Rough Arterie. From the first Spondill of the backe vnto the twelfth, it hath Figuram 〈◇〉, that is, A forme bunching outward, that the Organes of respiration might haue the better roome, and a more spacious cauity to extend themselues in, to wit, the Heart and the Lungs.  
The Loyns bend inward, & the Os Sacrum or Holy-bone, protuberateth or swelleth outward, yet with a straitnes too, that so the cauity of the hypogastriū or watercourse might be the larger, which was to containe the bladder, the right gut, and the wombe. The rest of the bones he pursueth after the same manner.  
Concerning the Cartilages, Ligaments, and Membranes, some things he hath deliuered heere and there, but scatteringly. Of the veynes he hath written many things, but all of them very obscure, in his Booke De locis in homine, De Morbo Sacro, De ossium Natura, and in the second Epidemiωr. And first, he doth very elegantly describe the ascendent and descendent trunke of the Hollow veyne, which he calleth 〈◇〉, that is, the Liuer veine; 
The description of the hollow veine, after Hippoc.  in the fourth section of the second Booke Epidem. The Liuer veine( saith hee) passeth downward through the loynes, to the great or Holy bone. Againe, arising vpwards out of the Liuer, it ascendeth through the Midriffe, and so runneth to the throate. As for the peculiar history of the veines, that is to say, the diuarication of their branches; albeit hee 
Hippocrates knew all the veynes which are vsually opened.  hath not precisely set them downe, yet it seemeth he was not ignorant of them, so far as was needefull for the practise of Physicke: for hee mentioneth all those branches which Physitians vse to diuide in Phlebotomy; as for example, the veynes of the forehead, the nowle or backe part of the head called Vena puppis and we may call it the Sterne veine, the 
Instances in them all.  veines of the tongue, the eares, the iugular or throate veynes, the shoulder veyne called humeraria, the Liuer veine called Basilica, that of the ham called vena poplitis, and the ankle veines called Maleoli. In the 68. Aphorisme of the first Section, When the backe part of the head is pained, the right veine of the forehead being opened, giueth ease.  
In his third Book De Morbis in the Angina or squinancy, he striketh the veynes vnder the tongue. In his Booke de Aere, locis & aquis, he mentioneth the veynes behind the eares, 
The Scythiās cure of the Scyatica.  which the Scythians did vse to open, to helpe the Scyatica or hip-gowr. The Iugular veynes, he describeth in the fourth Booke de Morbis. In his Booke de Natura ossium, hee commandeth to open the veynes of the hams and ankles, in pains of the Loynes and Testicles. In the first Section of the 6. Book Epidemiωn in fits of the stone, or inflāmations of the Kidneyes, hee openeth the Ham veynes. The shoulder veyne he describeth in his Booke de ossium Natura, calling it sanguiflua or the blood-flowing veine. In his Booke de victus ratione in morbis acutis, in the Plurisie he openeth the Basilica or Liuer veine, which he calleth 〈◇〉, that is the inner or internall veine. Now the common Originall and vse of the veines, he declareth in his Booke de Alimento, as also of the arteries, 〈◇〉, that is, the radication or roote of the veynes is the Liuer, of the Arteries the Heart: out of these, blood, spirits, and heate are distributed into the whole body. Of the Nerues you shall reade many things, yet dispersedly: but for their cōmon Originall( which all men were ignorant of) he pointed it out manifestlie. All 
Hippo. discouered the Original of the Nerues.  men almost do hold, that the softest nerues or nerues of sense doe arise from the brain, the hard & such as serue for motion from the Cerebellum or little braine: but now it is resolued especially since Varolius his curious search by a new manner of anatomizing the head, that all the Nerues euen the Opticks themselues, doe arise from this Cerebellum or backeward 
Varolius commendation.  braine, which me thinkes Hippocrates insinuateth in his Booke, De ossium Natura. 〈◇〉( saith he) 〈◇〉, The originall of the Nerues, is from the Occipitium or hinder part of the head, euen to the racke bones, the hippes, the priuities, the thighes, the armes, the legges, and the feete. Of Glandules or Kernels hee wrote an entire Booke: and so much of the similar parts.  
Of the Organicall parts also he wrote much, and that excellently. Of the Heart a Golden booke, wherein he so excelleth, that I thinke neither Galen nor Vesalius haue gone beyond 
Hippocrates Golden book of the Heart  him for exact description; but in it there are many things obscure, which needes an Interpreter, if the world were so happy. The history of the infant, the Principles of generation, the conceyuing, forming, norishment, life, motion and birth, hath he most excellentlie described in his bookes De Natura pueri, De septimestri, and De octimestri partu. We conclude therefore, that Hippocrates wrote very diuinely of Anatomy, but withall so obscurely, as his workes euen to this age, seeme to be sealed from the greatest wits. I think therefore 
An exhortation to take paines in Hippocrates.  that he shall merit most of Physicke, who hauing all his furniture about him, shall labour to make manifest to the world, those diuine Oracles, which hitherto we haue rather admired then vnderstoode.   

What Galen hath written of Anatomie, and how vniustly he is accused by the later writers especially by Vesalius. CHAP. XI.  
_ALmost all the Grecians, Arabians, and Latines, do very much extoll Galen, as after Hippocrates, the second Father of Physicke; forasmuch as he hath 
The prayse of Galen.  in such sort amplified and adorned the whole Art by his deep and diuine writings, that vnder him it may seeme to be as it were, borne anew. For indeede howbeit there were extant before many excellent Monuments & Records, yet were they so confused and shuffled out of order, that it seemed a new worke to gather together those thinges that were dispersed, to illustrate that which was hard and difficile, rude and vnpolisht; to distinguish and order that which was confused, beside many things which he obserued in his owne particular experience. For other parts of Physick I will say nothing, but for Anatomy I will confidently auouch, that Galen hath so beautified and accomplished it, that he hath not onely dispersed the blacke clowds of ignorance which hung ouer the former ages, but also giuen great light & splendor to the insuing posterity. For whereas there are three meanes, which leade vs as it were by the hand to the perfect and exact knowledge of Anatomy, namely, Dissection of the 
Three things acomplishing an Anatomist  parts, their actions, and their vses: he hath so accurately described them all, as he hath gotten the prize from all men, not onely before him, but euen after him also. The manner of Dissection, he hath manifested in his Bookes, de Anatomicis administrationibus, de Dissectione musculorum & neruorum.  
The actions of the seuerall parts, he hath elegantly described to the life in his Booke de naturalibus facultatibus & de placitis Hippocratis & Platonis. But aboue all, are those seuenteene golden bookes of the Vse of parts, which are truly called Diuine labours, and hymnes sung in praise of the Creator. So that the benefites we all, and those before vs haue receyued by Galen, are indeede very great: and yet( the more the pitty) almost all the new Writers, do continually carpe and barke at him, yea teare and rend him, whether it be by right or wrong, wounding and lancing his credite vpon euery slight occasion: one by way of cauill, another ambitiously seeking to make himselfe esteemed by Galens disgrace, and few with any desire that truth should take place. But as flouds beating against the rockes, by how much they rush with greater violence, by so much they are more broken and driuen backe into the maine; so, & such are their bootlesse and ridiculous endeauors, who enterprize by the disgrace of another, especially of their Maisters and Teachers, to gaine reputation vnto themselues.  
But let vs see wherein these Nouices do blame Galen. First they say, hee hath giuen vs onely the Anatomy of bruite beasts, and not of Man, hauing neuer dissected a mans body. 
The slanderof the new Writers against Galen.  Againe they vrge, that he was ignorant of many things, which at this day are generally & commonly knowne. Thirdly they say, he deliuers many things repugnant and contrary to himself. Lastly, that he hath written all things confusedly, & without Method or order. For( say they) what Method can ther be obserued in his books of the vse of Parts, which you cal diuine? First he treats of the hand, then of the legges and feete, and last of all of the lower belly, and the naturall parts. How sillie these calumniations are, and how miserably these 
The confutation of the first slander.  men are by their owne ignorance deceiued, let all men heare and iudge. For to begin with the first, I say and affirme, that Galen did not onely cut vp the bodies of Apes, but manie times also the carkasses of men. My witnesse shall be the author himselfe. In his thirteenth booke de vsu partium, I am determined( saith he) to set foorth the structure and composition of Man alone. In his first booke, de Anatomicis administrationibus, It is meete to obserue and looke into euery particle, especially in men. In the second Booke, Now( saith hee) the foote of an Ape differeth from the foote of a Man, in that the structure of the fingers is not alike in them both. In his fourth book de Anat. administ. and in the third de vsu partium, he sheweth the difference of the tendons which go to the legs and feete: and in his first booke de Anat. Administ. he saith, that The head of the Thigh is more crooked in men then in Apes, and the Muscles also vnlike, which are inserted into the legge. He sheweth also the dissimilitude between the Loynes of a Man and an ape. In his second booke de ratione victus, hee saith, that A Man differeth from some creatures in the Originall of the Veyne called Azugos, that is, the solitary veine, or without a peere. In the 13. booke de vsu partium, he saith, That the wombe of a woman, differeth much from that of other Creatures.  
So then, if Galen did so well vnderstand wherein the bodies of Men and Apes did agree, & wherin they did disagree, it is very likely that he had made dissection of mens bodies: for in things which are so like, it is the part onely of an artist and expert practitioner, to know and discerne what is differing and vnlike. And so much for satisfaction to the first imputation which is iniuriously cast vpon Galen by his slanderous detractors. They say farther, that Galen was ignorant of many things which appertaine to the structure and composition 
The confutation of the second slander.  of mans body; as if it were not proper to Man to be ignorant. Was not Vesalius ignorant of a number of things which were afterward obserued and seene into by Fallopius? & do not we daily finde out many things whereof the former ages were vtterly ignorant? I appeale to that of the ancient Poet, 〈◇〉 One man seeth not all things.  
And whereas they obiect, that Galen doth not agree with himselfe, but writeth manie 
A Custome of the Ancients.  things repugnant and quite contrary, let them learne and bee aduertised, that it was the manner of the ancients, to deliuer many things diuers times according to the opinion of other men: and the interpreters beare record, that Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Plato, did many times speake after the manner of the common people. So Galen speaking according to the opinion of others, may haply write some things that doe not so well agree together: 
Galen himself euer agreeth with himselfe  but when he disputeth precisely of the point of Anatomy, then he alwayes agreeeth and accordeth with himselfe.  
Lastly, they clamor that his Books De vsu partium, are written confusedly, and vvithout Method: but their heate and furie of gainsaying, transports them I know not whither: for the Method of these Bookes is admirable, which being to many heeretofore vnknowne, I will now make plaine and bring to light.  
I am determined( saith Galen) to declare the structure and composition of Man, and the vse of all his particular parts; and therefore what he hath proper and peculiar therein, & wherein 
The wonderfull Method of the Books of Galen de vsu partium.  he differeth from other Creatures, must first be opened.  
First therefore, for the nakednesse of his soule, he hath Reason, which is an art before all arts, and in recompence of the nakednesse of his body, hee hath the Hand, an organe before all organes. Of the Hand therefore which Man alone hath, and no other Creature beside, he disputeth in his first and second Bookes, so accurately and elegantly, that he hath preuented all men for getting any honour by treating of that subiect. And, because the legges haue a great affinity with the hands, and that there is something proper and peculiar in the frame and structure of the same,( for onely Man by the benefit of his Legges, goes directly vpright) therefore in his third Booke he intreateth of the Legges; for so the order of teaching seemeth to require, that those things which are alike, should be deliuered together.  
Hauing declared what things they are which are proper to Man onely, hee commeth then to such as are common vnto Man with other creatures. And whereas of those parts whereof the bodies as well of men as of other perfect creatures are composed, some doe preserue and maintaine either a particular and indiuiduall creature, or the generall species or kind; others do seruice, & administer vnto the former, as the veyns, arteries, and nerues: in the first place, he disputeth of those that conserue the indiuidium or partciular creature: and these are either naturall, or vitall, or animall; by reason whereof, the body is diuided into three Regions. Of the Naturall parts, hee disputeth in the fourth and fift Bookes; of the Vitall in the sixt and seauenth: of the Animall, to wit, the Brain, in the eight & ninth: of those things which depend vpon the braine, that is, of the Instruments or organs of the sences, in the tenth, eleuenth, twelfth, and thirteenth bookes; which may bee called the order of Nature. The organes ordained for generation or propagation of the species or kindes, aswel in men as women, are described in the fourteenth and fifteenth books. Those parts that are seruiceable to all these, as the veines, arteries, and the nerues, are delineated in the sixteenth. The seauenteenth which is the last, serueth as an Epilogue or conclusion to all the rest: and therefore, these slanderous accusers of so worthy a Writer, are no better worth, then to be sent packing from all society of ingenuous learned men.   

How farre Aristotles skill stretched in Anatomy. CHAP. XII.  
_ARistotle is intituled by all Philosophers, the true interpreter of Nature, the light, the Genius, the only spirit of truth, who is able not 
The praise of Aristotle.  only to stir vp & awaken mens minds, but to fulfil & satisfie them. In a word, he is another nature, furnished with eloquence. For he hath very curiously determined of all natural things, and their causes; but that so darkely and obscurely, that he is vnderstood but by few; for he was vnwilling to blab abroad, and prophane the Mysteries of Philosophie amongst the rude multitude; and therefore he hid them, not vnder a veyle of Fables, as the ancient Poets; nor vnder a superstitious proportion of numbers, as the Pythagoreans, but wrapped them vp in obscure breuitie; so sending them abroad, as if he had kept them at home. So the Cuttle-fish to deceyue the Fishermen, powreth forth a blacke humor, and in that clowd she escapeth. And whereas there are two parts of naturall Philosophy; the first concerning the generall and vniuersall nature of things, the latter which searcheth out the particular nature of man, and all liuing creatures. In the first, Aristotle was so absolutely excellent, as no man, no, nor anie 
Aristotle was ignorant in the particular History of the creature, and in Dissection.  age of men may stand in competition with him; but in the second, how many things hee knew not, how absurdly he vnderstood diuers things hee knew, Galen and all the whole Schoole of Physitians haue prooued by demonstrations, but especially by 〈◇〉, or the sight of the eye, which is of all arguments the most demonstratiue. He writ Bookes of the Generation, of the parts, and of the History of the creatures, but he bequeathed vs many things out of the testaments of other men: neither is it likely, that hee did euer cutvp the body of a man; for if he had, hee would not haue so fowly erred in that which is obuious to the sence. For both in the History of the similar parts, and in the description of the dissimilar, he hath set downe many things very grosse and absurd: as in that, where he writeth, that the Veines do originally proceede from the Heart, which also hee maketh the wel-spring of the Nerues; where he saith there are three ventricles in the Heart, that the Braine was made onely to refrigerate or coole the heart, and such like many more, which we shall meete withall in our Treatings of the bones, the veynes, the arteries, the nerues, the heart, the braine, and other particular parts; and therefore in those places, the diligent and studious Reader may looke for, and finde them.   

What the other Greeke Authors haue written of Anatomy. CHAP. XIII.  
_THere were after Hippocrates time, certaine famous men, that did diligentlie practise the art of Anatomy, and deliuered many things in writing, which haue all perished, I know not by what mishap, or destiny, whether I should call it. Alcmaeus Crotoniata( as Calchidius reporteth,) did vse to anatomize 
Alcmaeus. Diocles.  mens bodies. Diocles Carystius in his Epistle to King Antigonus, diuideth the bodie of Man into the head, the chest, the belly, and the bladder. Lycus Macedo was accounted cunning in the Dissection of the Muscles; and his bookes( as saith Galen in his 4. 
Lycus. Galen. Quintus. Marinus.  booke de Anat. Administ.) were with great commendation dispersed all abroad. Quintus, Lycus his Schoolemaister wrote some things of Anatomy; Marinus published 20. bookes of those thinges which Lycus was ignorant of in Anatomy. Erasistratus did much in this kinde also. Herophilus( as Tertullian saith) cut vppe aboue seuenty bodies, and oftentimes 
Erasistratus. Herophilus.  the bodies of liuing men: of him Galen writeth thus. Herophilus aswell in all other things that appertaine to out art, as also in Anatomy, did attaine to a most exacte and exquisite skill and knowledge, and for the most part made his experiments not in bruite beastes, as most men vse to do, but euen in the bodies of men. 
Pelops, Galens Schoolmaster Diog. Apollon. Asclepiades. Eudemus. Praxagoras. Philotimus. Elianus. Polybius. Colistus.   
Pelops did publickly teach Anatomy, and was the Schoolemaister of Galen, he affirmed, that all the vessels of the body, did originally arise from the Braine. Diogenes Apollonata, wrote a Booke of Veynes. Asclepiades, Eudemus, Praxagoras, Philotimus, Elianus, Polybius, Calistus, in their seuerall times, did all of them excell in this art. Yet none of their writings remaine with vs; but if we beleeue Aristotle and Galen, they had many foolish, and ridiculous conceites. There haue beene also Greekes of later times, who haue done somewhat in Anatomy, as Aretaeus, Theophilus, Oribasius; but Galen hath wonne the Girlond from 
Aretaeus. Theophilus. Oribasius.  them all, as we haue already prooued.   

Who haue beene the chiefe Authors of Anatomy in our owne times. CHAP. XIIII.  
_MAny things also haue the Arabians written of the matter of Anatomy, of whom Auicenna is worthily accounted, especially for the speculatiue part, the Prince and Chieftaine; but amongst all, the Latines haue taken most 
Auicen. Latine writers  pains in this argument, and amongst them, those of our owne age; so that now the Art is so beautified, that it seemeth the last hand is put vnto it, and the art of Anatomy may now be accounted to haue attained the very height of her glorie. Among the ancientest of them, we haue Mundinus, who wrote very perspicuously by way of 〈◇〉, or resolution, following the order of dissection. Carpus wrote large Commentaries vpon him; but we must needes taxe them both with many ydle and absurd passages, 
Mundinus. Carpus.  besides the lamenesse and imperfection of their workes. Thomas de Zerbis set forth a large worke, but we imagine that he tooke much from other men, and had little of his owne, neither 
Tho. de Zerbis.  had he as we suppose, any great practise himselfe in dissection. After these came Vasseus, Carolus Stephanus, Andernacus. At length appeared Andreas Vesalius, who wrote very 
Vasseus. Caro. Stephanus Andernacus. Vesalius an acurate writer.  accurately; and some thinke, he balked nothing that may appertaine either to Dissection, or to the actions or vse of the parts; but he is condemned of many, and haply not vnworthily; for that hauing transcribed almost all his worke out of Galen, yet hee cannot affoord him scarse a good word, but either pricked by ambition, or with an itching desire to contradict so great an Author, he neuer leaues goading and wounding his reputation, and that very often vndeseruedly.  
Iacobus Syluius heerein hath carried away the reputation, that he hath digested in a most exquisite order, the vast and wilde Forrest as it were, and confusion of all the Muscles and Vessels, and giuen them particular and proper names, but hee was little beholding to his 
Syluius his cōmendation.  Printer, who hath let slip many escapes, and by your leaue added( as we thinke) somthings to him very superfluous. These two, Vesalius and Syluius flourished both in one time; but Vesalius was too tart and sharpe in his calumniations, Syluius too obstinate a desender of Galen. Vesalius hath rashly and vnaduisedly written many things against Galen. Syluius in defending his Maister Galen, is enforced to maintaine many vncouth Paradoxes. Gabriell Fallopius the most subtile and acute Anatomist of this age, hath deserued exceeding much of vs all; for in his obseruations he hath opened many things altogether vnknowne to the 
Fallopius his commendation.  former ages: he wrote also an excellent Commentary vpon Galens Booke de Ossibus. Columbus couched the whole Art very succinctly in xv. Bookes, and penned them very neatly. Valuerda the Spaniard hath done also exceeding well, and with great commendations. 
Columbus.  Eustachius hath published some small workes of Anatomy concerning the bones, and the frame and composition of the Kidneyes. Bauhinus first exceeded all men, and since in a later 
Eustachius. Bauhinus.  worke, hath exceeded himselfe, both in his descriptions, and in his Tables. Archangelus Picholominaeus a Cittizen of Rome, hath set forth very learned readings of Anatomy, interlaced 
Archangelus Picholomineus. Var. Arantius P●g●feta. Volcherus Coeiter. Platerus. Guillemaeus.  with many disputations concerning things controuerted. Varolius Arantius and Pigafeta haue added also their tribute vnto this treasury. Volcherus Coeiter, and Pelix Platerus haue beautified it with their Tables, Volcherus is more easie and facile. Platerus is acurate, but not fit Lettuce for euery mans lips, hee must picke nicely that will gather a Sallet out of him, hee is so intricate and full of his Dicotomies. Manie Frenchmen haue written well in their owne Language. Iacobus Guillimaeus the Kings Chirurgion hath adorned the whole art with Tables and Figures, by which he hath made an easie entrance 
Paraeus. Columbus. Pinaeus.  for all men to vnderstand the grauest authors. The like may be saide of that industrious Paraeus, and Cabrolius the kings Anatomist in Mompelier. Seuerinus Pineus hath taken great paines: he wrote a Booke of the notes of virginity, wherein he hath very curiously described the parts belonging to generation.  
Andreas Laurentius hath taken worthy paines, and sweate much in this sande, to his great 
Laurentius his cōmendation.  honour and the generall good of the whole Schoole of Anatomists; for beside his descriptions, he hath handled learnedly the controuersies of euery part, with great euidence of argument, wherein I beleeue he hath satisfied himselfe and all the world beside. These his Controuersies we haue taken into our worke, yet not alwayes tying ourselves to sweare what he sayes, but for the most part we finde him in the right. His descriptions wee take vnder correction, not to be so perfect, and his Figures most imperfect. In those two Bauhine 
Bauhines diligence.  hath farre exceeded him and all men else; to whom therefore we sticke the closer, although we could haue wished that Bauhine had had the care of his owne worke himselfe, & had not betrusted others with his credit, who haue in no few things fayled his expectation and ours. Pauius of Leiden is a great Anatomist, but writes for his inscription, Posse & nolle 
Pauius.  nobile. Surely he can do much, and I would to God he could be ouercome, to communicate himselfe; some things we haue gathered from his owne mouth, whereof it shal neuer repent vs. Finally, within these three or foure years, Iulius Casserius the Anatomist 
Iulius Casserius  of Padua in Italy, set forth an elegant Booke of the fiue sences, wherein he hath laboured sufficiently, if not too much; for there is a kinde of sobriety to be vsed also in humane studies, beyond which to be wise, is not farre from folly. Casserius hath done manie thinges excellently well, and of good vse, but his extraordinary diligence about the organs of the senses in so many creatures, I see no cause to imitate; for sure I am by that litle experience I haue, that many of these nice and fine points, though they make a faire shewe, and tickle the eares of a man when he reades them, and delight his eye when hee sees the resemblances of them printed before him; yet when he shall come to search for them in the bodye of man, they will not be so obuious, if they be at all, or if they be found, yet serue rather for a speculatiue pleasure & admiration, then be of any vse in the art of physick or Chirurgery.  
Among ourselves Gemini was the first: in his descriptions too breefe, in his Tables too confused, rather contenting himselfe with Vesalius, then giuing contentment vnto others: yet for those times he is worthily to be commended.  
That good and ingenuous old man Banister, was a true patriot, he loued his Country & Learning, and spent himselfe in dooing good, and his memory is worthy to bee registred euen for his Anatomy among the rest of his Labours. At this day we haue also some worthy to be named, who if they listed, could turne the gaze of the worlde Westwarde, and time I hope will bring their monuments to light. In the meane time, we haue aduentured to hold vp this taper, at which if they please they may light their Torches.   

Of the definition of Anatomy, and what Instruments are thereto necessary. CHAP. XV.  
_TOMH is a Greeke word, and signifieth Section or cutting. Hence comes 〈◇〉, a diligent and curious Section, vndertaken to get knowledge or skil 
The notation of Anatomy.  by. For 〈◇〉, is to cut with great diligence. Now there is amongest Physitians, a double acceptation of Anatomy; either it signifieth the action which is done with the hande; or the habite of the minde, that is, the most perfect action of the intellect. The first is called practicall Anatomy, the latter Theorical or contemplatiue: the first is gained by experience, the second by reason and discourse: the first wee attaine onely by Section and Inspection, the second by the liuing voice of a Teacher, or by their learned writings: the first wee call Historicall Anatomy, the second Scientificall: the first is altogether necessary for the practise of anatomy, the second is only 
Anatomy two fold. Historicall. Scientificall.  profitable; but yet this profit is oftentimes more beneficiall then the vse itselfe of Anatomy: the first looketh into the structure of the partes, the second into the causes of the structure, and the actions and vses therefrom proceeding. According to the first signification we may define anatomy thus: An Artificiall Section of the outward and inward partes. I call it Artificiall, to distinguish it from that which is rash and at aduenture, which Galen 
A definition of Anatomy. Galen.  calleth Vulnerary Dissection. For oftentimes in great wounds we obserue the figure, scituation, magnitude, and structure of the outward and inward parts; but that obseruation is but confused, for we cannot distinctly perceiue the branchings of the Nerues, the Serpentine and writhen Meanders of the Veynes, nor the infinite diuarications of the Arteries. Now that a Dissection may be made artificially, it is first requisite that the parts bee so separated 
What thinges are required in artificiall Dissection.  one from another, that they may all be preserued whole, not rent and torne asunder. Next, that those which grow not togither, bee gently diuided. Thirdly, that those which do grow together, be carefully separated. Fourthly, that we mistake not many parts ioyned together for one, nor yet make many parts of one.  
Now this Section cannot artificially bee accomplished, vnlesse the Ministers haue conuenient Instruments, as are these; Razors of all sortes, great, small, meane, sharpe, 
The Instrument of the Anatomy.  blunt, straight, crooked, and edged on both sides; Sheares or Sizers; round and large long Probes of Brasse, Siluer, Lead; a Knife of Box or of Iuory, Pincers of all sorts; hooks, Needels bent rather then straite, Reeds, Quils, Glasse-trunkes or hollow Bugles to blowe vp the parts, Threds and strings, Sawes, Bodkins, Augers, Mallets, Wimbles or Trepans, Basons and Sponges; the Figures of all which wee haue heereunder delineated, together with a Table whereon to lay the dead, or binde the liuing Anatomy, with the rings, chains, cords, & perforations fit for that purpose.  
 
If Anatomy be taken in the latter signification, it is defined a Science or Art, which scarcheth out the Nature of euery part, and the causes of the same Nature. I call it a Science, because it hath vniuersall or generall. Theoremes or Maximes, and common Notions, out 
Another definition of Anatomy.  of which, being the First, true, immediate, and best knowne, all demonstrations are framed. Vnder the name of Nature, I comprehend many things. The substance which is the habitation of the particular Faculty; the Temper which is called the forme of the similar part; those things which follow the Temper, as the qualities, such as may be felt, hardnes, softnesse, thightnesse or fastnesse, and rarity; thickenesse, thinnesse, sauours or tastes, and colours. Appurtinances also or accidents, as the composition of the part, to which I referre the magnitude, number, position, figure, continuity, and scituation; and finally the actions of the parts, and their vses.   

What is the subiect or immediate obiect of Anatomy, to wit, a Part, where the definition of a Part is vnfolded. CHAP. XVI.  
_THE subiect of both kinds of Anatomy as well Historicall as Scientificall is a Part. For the Anatomist doth not handle a whole body, but a body diuided 
The Names of a Part.  into members and parts; and therefore we must find out what is the nature of a Part, & the differēces of the same. A Particle, a mēber, a Place, 〈◇〉, signifie one & the same thing. Aristotle thought that the apellation of a Part did best agree to the similar particles, & of a Member to the Organicall and especially 
Aristotle.  to those which were most cōpounded. Theodorus sayth that the name of a Part or 
Theoderus.  place hath a larger extent then that of a Member, because that onely is a Member which is organicall, but all compound and simple particles are truely called parts. Wee with 
The definition of a Part.  Hippocrates and Galen make no difference betweene a part, a particle, or a place. Galen in the first booke of his method, defineth a Part to be whatsoeuer doeth integrate or accomplish the whole: and in his first book de Elementis, whatsoeuer maketh to the constitution or frame of mans body. For a Part is one of those thinges which the Logicians doe call 〈◇〉, that is, haue reference or respect vnto another: so a part is said to bee a part of the integrum and whole. In his first booke de vsuparttum, he defineth a Part more accurately thus: It is a body which neither is incompassed with a proper circumscription, nor yet is on euery side ioyned vnto other bodies: for that which is incompassed on euery side cannot be called a Part but a whole. Now whereas the part must helpe to compound the whole, it is necessary it should adheare or cleaue vnto it by a connexion of quantity; wherefore in the whole body, a Part hath a true existence, and is indeed ioyned thereto, but in reason deuided therefrom. But both these definitions seeme to me to be too large, comprehending not onely the liuing particles of the body( which are onely true parts because they alone performe actions, and are affected with diseases) but also those that are without life, as haires, nailes, fat, and the marrow of the bones. Fernelius hath left vs a most perfect and absolute definition of a Part in these wordes: Pars est corpus toti cohaerens, communique vita coniunctum, 
Fernelius his perfect definition of a Part.  ad illius functiones vsumque comparatum. A Part is a body cohearing or cleauing to the whole, and ioyned to it in common life, framed for his vse and function. From hence we may gather, that two things are required to accomplish the nature of a Part: First, that it should cleaue vnto the whole, and next, that it should haue some end or vse. The coherence of the part to the whole is by a double connexion, one Mathematicall, another Physicall: the first is 
Connexion is double, Mathematical & Physical.  a coherence of quantities; for a part of the creature being separated from the whole creature, cannot bee called a part of that whole, vnlesse it bee equiuocally. The latter connexion is called specificall, and is a vnion of life: for a dead or mortified part, although it haue a coherence with the whole, yet may not be called a part but equiuocally, because it hath not an vniuocall forme with the whole. But because Fernelius in the second booke of his Physiology, hath canuased this definition, and all the minutes thereof very exactly; I will not at this time insist vpon the explication of it, it may be we shall haue fitter oportunity for it hereafter.   

What an Anatomist must consider in euery part. CHAP. XVII.  
_ANatomists doe obserue many things in euery part, which Galen in his bookes de vsu partium referreth to nine heads. We, the better to auoide confusion, least the wits of those that are ignorant should be too much 
Three things are to be considered in a Part. Structure what it is.  racked, will consider onely three things, to which all the rest may bee referred, the Structure, the Action, and the Vse. The word Structure, I take here in a large signification, as Aristotle and Galen haue often taken it; not only for the conformation, but for whatsoeuer addeth or helpeth any thing to the constitution or composition of the part. Now these three things go to that constitution, the Substance, the Temper, and the Conformation. The substance( as wee said before) is 
The substance of a Part what it is.  the mansion of the particular and determinate faculty, and it is peculiar to euery part; and in that respect, the substance of a part is sayd to bee bony, membranous, neruous, fleshy, medullous or marrowy. This substance it hath partly from the forme, partly from the matter, and it is knowne by sensible qualities, such as are hardnesse, softnes, thicknes, thinnesse, raritie, density or thightnes, colour, and sauour or taste. The Temper accompanieth this substance and hangeth vppon it, following the materiall qualities; for it is not a 
The Temper what it is.  thing abstracted or separated, but hath a firme coherence with the matter of substance, as with her subiect; and therefore the Physitians call the Temper, the forme of the similar parts, although indeede it bee not so much; but onely 〈◇〉, that is, the immediate receiuer of the soule. This temper the Physitian especially standeth vpon; for euery part worketh thus or thus, according to and by his temper; and he that will maintain the actions or functions of the parts, must haue especiall care to preserue their true and genuine temper. In respect of this temper, the parts are sayd to be hot, cold, moyst, and dry; alwayes hauing a respect to a medium, that is, to a thing of a meane & middle temper, that is the skin. A hot and a cold temper wee distinguish rather by reason and discourse then by sence, because in a liuing creature there is nothing actually colde. But the moyst and dry temper sence onely discouereth, that is, the hardnesse or softnesse of the part; for whatsoeuer appeareth hard to him that toucheth it, that we resolue is dry, because in a liuing creature there is nothing hard by concretion or curdling; whatsoeuer feeleth soft, is moyst. The cōformation of a part consisteth in the Symmetrie, that is, the natural proportion 
The conformation what it is. The figure. The seite.  or constitution of many things, to wit, of the figure, magnitude, number, & scituation. To the figure we referre the superficies or surface, the pores and the cauities. To the scituation wee referre the seate and position of the part, as also his connexion with others; for the parts doe not hang loose in the body, or separated one from another, but they haue a coherence, being tyed together by ligaments and membranes. And therefore it behoueth a Physitian and Chirurgion to know which parts are tyed to which, that when one part is affected, he may know what parts may be drawne into simpathy and consent with it. To this conformation Galen referreth the beauty of the part, which hee conceiueth to 
The beauty of a part. Galen.  reside in 〈◇〉, that is, in the equality of the particles; but wee place the beauty of the whole body, in the inequality of the parts; that is, in their vnlike and different quality and magnitude; but yet such a difference as whereby the parts doe answere one another in an apt and neate correspondencie of proportion, euen as musique is made of different sounds, but yet all agreeing in a harmonious concent; and thus much of the Structure of a part.  
Next followeth the action, which Aristotle calleth the end of the Structure; because for the 
The action of a part. Arist.  actions sake, the part hath his substance, temper, & conformation. So the heart, because it was to be the mansion and habitation of the vitall faculty, and the store-house of arteriall bloud, had giuen vnto it a fleshy and solid substance, a temper hot & moyst, a figure somewhat long, but comming neere to the Spherical, hollowed also with two ventricles or bosomes, and many obscure cauities, in which the houshold Goods and fire-harth of the body were to remaine, from whence there should issue and spring a continuall supply of Natiue heat & spirits. I define an Action with Galen, a motion of the working Parts, or a motion 
What an action is. Galen.  of the Actor, to distinguish it from an affection; for an affection is a passiue motion, or a motion of a passiue or suffering body; but an action is motus effectiuus, an effectuating or working motion; so pulsation is an action of the heart; palpitation is an affection or a passion; the first proceedeth from a faculty, the second from a sickly or vnhealthfull cause, which we commonly call causa morbifica.  
Of actions some are common, some are proper; the common actions are found euery 
The differences of actions  where; the proper are performed by one particular part. Nutrition is a common action, for all liuing and animated parts are nourished, because life is defined and limited by Nutrition. Proper actions are performed by a particular Organ, and they are either principall, or such as minister to the principall: againe; of actions some are Similar some Organicall. A Similar action is begun onely by the Temper, and by the same is perfected, and is performed by euery sound and perfect particle of euery part. The Organical is not commenced by the temper onely, neither is it accomplished by the particles, but by the whole Organ or instrument.  
Finally and in the last place, the vse of the part must be considered by the Anatomist; 
The Vse of a part. Arist.  For the Philosopher sayth, that wee are led vnto the knowledge of the Organ, not by his structure but by his vse. The Vse which the Graecians call 〈◇〉 is two fold according 
The vse is double. Galen.  to Galen. One followeth the Action; that is, ariseth from the Action itself, and is the end of it; as by the Action of Seeing, the Creature hath this vse, that hee can auoyde that which is hurtfull, and pursue that which is behoofefull. This Vse, if you respect the generation and constitution of the part is after the Action; but in dignity and worth it is before it, because it is the end of all actions: nowe the end is more excellent then those things that appertaine or leade vnto that end. The other Vse goeth before the Action, and is defined to bee a certaine aptitude or fitnes to doe or worke. So in the Eye the Christalline humor doth primarily make the sight; the other humors, the coates, the optick nerues afford a vse, and are ordained to perfect the action of Seeing. This Vse is in dignity behinde the Action, but in generation before it: by which it is manifest that the Action differeth, and 
How the vse differeth frō the action.  is another thing from the Vse, although many men vse to confound them: for the Action is an actiue motion of the Part, but the Vse an aptitude for Action. The Action is onely in operation, the Vse remayneth also in the rest or peace of the Member: the Action in euery Organ is onely the worke of the principall Similar part in that Organ, the Vse is likewise of all the rest: to conclude, there are many parts which haue vse without any action, as the haires and the nailes.   

The differences of Parts: and first Hippocrates his diuision of Parts. CHAP. XVIII.  
_THE diuision of the diuine Senior, in his sixt Booke Epide. is of all other the most ancient, into 〈◇〉, that is, Containers, contained, & those that are impetuous: To vse the Martialists word, doe make impression. Alexander more plainely diuideth the body into 〈◇〉. 
What are cōtaining parts.  that is, into solid, humid, and spirituous partes. Wee diuide them into parts Nourishing, to be nourished, and impulsiue parts. The containing parts are solid, & such as are to be nourished. The name of solide I do not take as the common people do, for that which is hard and tight, or dense; nor for that which is contrary to rare & hollow, but with the best Philosophers, by solid I vnderstand that which is 〈◇〉 tale, that is, which is wholly full of itself, not of any other thing, or which hath a Nature, euery way like vnto itself. For solum and solidum in Latine, do come of the Greeke worde 〈◇〉, by changing the aspiration into a hifsing, and so s. is set before 〈◇〉: and thus the fleshy parts also may be called solid & containing parts. So the Heart, a fleshy entraile containeth in his right ventricle venal, in his left arterial blood. So the marowy substance of the brain, which hath in it many dens and cauities, containeth both humours and spirits. We call also all solid parts to be nourished, because whatsoeuer is solid, the same is similar, and the action of a similar part is Nutrition.  
Contayned parts are the humors concluded or shut vp in their proper vessels and conceptacles, as it were in Store-houses. Galen calleth 〈◇〉, that is, humours, 〈◇〉, 
What are contained parts.  that is, such as are contained in the vessels, and dispersed through the whol body. Some had rather cal them 〈◇〉, Things deteyned, the better to signifie those things which are conteined within vs, as also which do preserue the substance of the part: and therefore we haue called them Nourishers, to restraine the word Humors to the Alimentarie, and not to include the Excrementitious. 〈◇〉, that is, impulsiue or impetuous thinges, Fernelius referreth to the faculties of the soule, not to the spirits; but in my opinion he is in this out of the way. For 
Impetuous or impulsiue things as the Spirits.  though the spirits be conteyned, and haue proper conceptacles, to wit, the veynes, arteries and nerues, yet they are truly called impulsiue substances; and Hippocrates spake of the body & bodily things, & therefore not of the Faculties, which are but abstracted Notions. 
Hippocrates  Now by the word Spirit, I do not vnderstand a wind, for these are 〈◇〉, Bastard, or as Auicen termeth them Fraudulent spirits, whose violence is sometimes so great & furious, 
Auicen.  that they are the cause of many tumults in the houshold gouernement, or naturall constitution of the body, which is oftentimes miserably distressed with their furious gusts: read what Hippo. in his Book de Flatibus hath written of the power of winds. But by spirits we vnderstand the primary and immediate instrument of the soule, which the Stoicks calleth 
Hippocrates  the Band which tyeth the soule and the body. The force of these spirits is such, & so great the subtilty and thinnesse of their Nature, that they can passe suddenly through all parts, & do insinuate themselues through the fastest and thickest substances, as wee may perceyue in the passions of the minde, in sleepe and in long watchinges. By the ministerie of these spirits, all the motions of liuing creatures are accomplished, both naturall, vitall, and animall, and by these, life, nourishment, motion and sence, do flow into all the parts. Finally, 
The continuall motion of the spirits. Their motion double. Per se & aliud  the motion of the spirits is perpetuall, both of themselues, and by another. By themselues, that is, they are mooued continually from an inbred principle both wayes, vpward and downward; vpward because they are light, downward toward their norishment. They are mooued by another when they are driuen, and when they are drawne. The vitall spirits are driuen, when the heart is contracted, the animall when the braine is compressed. The spirits therefore are 〈◇〉 impetuous substances. They are fiery and ayery, and therefore very fine, subtle, and swift: so the seede although it be thicke and viscid, yet in a moment it passeth through the vessels of generation, which haue no conspicuous cauities, and that because it is spirituous, or full of spirits.  
There are also other differences of parts, according to Hippocrates in his Booke Deveteri 
Differences of parts acording to Hip.  medicina, which are drawne from their substance, figure, and scituation. From the substance some are dense, others rare and succulent or iuicy, others spongie & soft. From the figure, some are hollow, and from a largenesse gathered into a narrownesse or constraint, others are stretched wide, others solid and round, others broad & hanging, others extended, others long. From the scituation some are Anterior, some Posteriour, some deepe, others middle, vpper-most, lower-most, on the right hand, and on the left.   

A diuision of Parts into Principall, and not principall. CHAP. XIX.  
_THE diuision of parts into principall, and lesse principall, is verie famous, and hath helde the Stage now a long time. We define, that to be a Principall 
What is a principal part  part, which is absolutely necessary for the preseruation of the Indiuiduum or particular creature. Or, which affoordeth to the whole bodie, a faculty, or at least a common matter. In both senses, there are only three principall parts, the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer; the Braine sitteth aloft in the highest 
Three principall parts.  place, as in the Tribunall or Iudgement seate, distributing to euery one of the Instruments of the sences, their offices of dignity. The Heart( like a King) is placed in the midst of the Chest, and with his vitall heate, doth cherish, maintaine, and conserue the life and safety of all the parts. The Liuer, the fountaine of beneficall humor, like a bountifull and liberall Prince at his proper charges, nourisheth the whole family of the bodie. From the Braine, the Animall Faculty by the Nerues as it were, along certaine Chords, glideth into the whole frame of Nature. From the Heart, the Vitall spirits are conneyed through the Arteries, as through Pipes and Watercourses into euery part. From the Liuer, if not a Faculty, yet a Spirit; if not a Spirit, yet at least a common matter, to wit; the blood is diffused by the veynes into euery corner. So that onely three are absolutely necessary for the conseruation of the whole Indiuiduum, the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer, all which are fitted and tyed together in so straite a conspiracy, that each needeth the helpe of the other; and if one of them faile, the rest perish together with it. Not that I thinke these 
The Braine more excellent then the Heart.  parts are of equall dignity; for the Heart is more noble then the Liuer, & the Braine more excellent then the Heart, aswell because his actions are more diuine, beeing the seate and Pallace of Reason, which is the Soule; as also, because all other parts are but handmaides vnto it: and besides, Hippocrates saith, it giueth the forme to the whole body, For( saith he) 
Hippocrates  the figure of the rest of the Bones, dependeth vpon the magnitude of the Braine, and the Scull.  
Galen addeth to the Principall parts the Testicles, because they are the chiefe Organs of procreation, by which alone, the species or kinde is preserued. But we thinke that they 
Galen. How the Testicles may bee called principall parts. What parts are called ignoble & why.  confer nothing to the conseruation of the Indiuiduum or particular creature, because they neuer affoord any matter to the whole body, neyther faculty or spirit, but onely a qualitie, with a subtile and thin breath, from whence the flesh hath a seedy rammishnesse, a harsh taste, and strong sauour, and the actions of strength and validity. All the rest of the parts may be called ignoble compared to these, aswell because from them proceedeth no faculty, spirit, or common matter, as also because euery one of them, do minister to some one or other of the principall parts. So the Organes of the senses serue the Braine, and were created for his vse & behoofe: so the Lungs, the Midriffe, & the Arteries as swel smooth as rough, were ordained only for the tempering and repurgation of the hart. so the Stomack, the Guts, the Spleen, both the bladders of Vrine and of Gall, were made for the Liuer: and in a word, none of these ignoble parts are of necessity for the conseruation of the creature, or if they be necessary, it is not 〈◇〉, that is, simply and absolutely, but secundum quid, that is, as they are necessary to serue the turne of the Principall. For I pray you what vse hath the arme, the legge, or the stomacke of the Lungs, the Spleene, and the Kidneys? Again, what necessary vse haue the Lungs, the Spleene, and the Kidneyes of the Legs or Armes? But to all these the heart giueth life, the Liuer nourishment, and the Braine sense and motion, so that the Braine, the heart, and the Liuer, are in all the parts of the bodye, by the mediation of their vessels.  
Now, as there is not an equality of dignity among the principall parts, so the ignoble parts are not all of one and the same degree. For some of them serue the principall, by preparing somwhat for them, others by carrying or leading somewhat vnto them. There are 
The differencles of the ignoble parts.  also some sorts ordained onely for the expurgation or cleansing of the principall, which are the most ignoble of all the rest, and are commonly called Emunctories or Drayners. So for the Liuer the Stomacke boyleth the Meate, the Veynes of the Mesentary giue the 
Emunctories.  blood a kinde of rudiment or initiation; the Caue or hollow veyne disperseth the bloode already perfected. For the heart, the Lunges prepare the ayre, the pipes of the great arterie carry about the vitall spirits. For the Brain, the wonderful texture or plighted web of vessels prepareth the animall spirit, and the nerues distribute it into the whole body. Behinde the eares are the Emunctories or draynes of the Braine; vnder the arme holes so many glandules or kernels which receiue the superfluities of the Heart, and in the leske or groyne are the Emunctories of the Liuer.   

An Elegant diuision of Parts into Similar and Dissimilar, and an exquisite interpretation of the same. CHAP. XX.  
_THE most frequent diuision of the parts among Philosophers and Physitions both, is into Similar and Dissimilar, which is also the most necessary for the exquisite disquisition and distinction of diseases. The Similar parts, Plato first called 〈◇〉 that is, first borne, because according to the order of generation, they are after a sort before the compound parts; and because they 
Al the names of the similar parts. Plato. Aristotle.  are the first Stamina, threds, or warp of the body. Aristotle calleth them 〈◇〉 that is, simple and vncompounded parts, because they are not compounded of other parts, or else 〈◇〉, that is, in respect of the compounded: for they are not indeede and truely simple, for the body of the Creature being not simple; neither can the parts of it be truely simple.  
First Anaxagoras, and after him Aristotle, brought in the name 〈◇〉 
Anaxagoras. Aristotle.  of similitude, whence they are called Similar, because they haue one and a like substance. Some call them 〈◇〉, that is, continuall Partes, because they are continually the same both in matter and forme. Others call them Informes, without forme, but wee thinke it better to call them vniforme parts. Aristotle called them sensorias, because that 
Aristotle.  which is Similar is capable of sensible obiects, and all sence originally proceedeth from the similar parts. Galen calleth them sometimes sensible Elements, because they appeare 
Galen.  to the sences most simple and vncompounded; sometimes 〈◇〉, that is, the least particles. Sometimes the first, sometimes the last bodies; First, in respect of their composition; last, because into these, the body is dissolued as into the least parts that may bee perceiued by the perceiuing sences. Some call them Solid, not because they are constant, euer consisting and neuer diffluent( for then the flesh should be no Similar part) but because they are euery way full and compleate. The common people call that Solid, which is hard, dense, or compacted; for water or a spunge, they will neuer acknowledge to bee 
What is a solid part.  solid: but the Philosoper calleth that solid, which is wholly full of itself, and of no other thing, which is of a like or of the same nature; so the fire in his owne globe, and the Heauen( although they bee most rare and subtile bodies) yet true Philosophers will call them solid bodies. Hippocrates calleth them 〈◇〉, that is, contayning Parts: but enough of the 
Hippocrates  name, now let vs come to the essence of the similar parts.  
A Similar part may haue a double consideration, one in respect of the matter, an other in respect of the forme: if you regard the matter, which is altogether one and the same, in 
A similar part hath a double consideration. A definition of a similar part. Aristotle. Galen.  all partes likevnto itself; then shall similar partes bee defined according to Aristotle, 〈◇〉 which are deuided into parts like vnto themselues, according to Galen. All whose particles are like to themselues and to the whole: Or which are deuided into parts not differing specie, or in kinde. If you respect the forme of the similar parts, then they shall be defined, Such as haue a vniforme figure. For, because the forme giueth the proper denomination to euery thing, that shall be called similar, which hath a similitude or likenesse of forme and figure. In the first consideration or respect, euery particle of the similar part retayneth the name of the whole, but not in the latter: so the bone of the Leg because of the similitude of the matter is vniforme, but if you respect his figure, then are not all his parts of the same nature, for euery little particle of that bone is not hollow, though the whole bone be hollow. Hence we may gather that euery similar part may bee sayd to be 
Euery similar part may be said to be organical. Membra diuidentia.  organicall, and that they do not well who oppose similar and organicall parts for deuiding members, as we say in Schooles: for among Philosophers, the nature of the part and of the whole is the same. The whole body is organicall, because the soule is an act of an organicall body.  
The essence of the similar parts seemeth to consist of an vncertaine medley of the Elements, 
The essence  and a temper of the foure first qualities, heate, cold, moysture, and drought. And therefore the Physitians say, the Temper is the forme of the similar parts, because it is 〈◇〉, The first receiuer and the first power with which, and by which, the forme worketh; and the similar part, as it is similar, suffereth whatsoeuer the forme worketh. So Nutrition, which is the common action of the similar parts, is inchoated or begun by the temper alone, by it perfected, and plenarily and perfectly accomplished by euery particle of the part.  
The differences of the similar parts, are some of them belonging to the Philosopher, 
The differences of similar parts.  some to the Physitian. The Philosopher raiseth his differences from the first qualities, and those which follow the temper. The Physitian from the sensible and materiall principles of generation. The first qualities are indeed foure, but because heat and cold are certain acts, 
A Philosophicall diuision of them into moyst & drie. Aristotle.  and an acte is according to itself indiuisible, therefore the Philosopher raiseth his differences only from the diuersity of drowth and moisture. Wherefore Aristotle maketh similar parts, some dry, some moist. The moyst are either properly so called, that is, such as of their owne nature cannot containe themselues within their owne termini or limits, and therefore do stand in neede of conceptacles or receptacles, as the bloud; or else are softe, which do better contain themselues within their bounds, as flesh. The dry are those whose Superficies or Surface is pressed, and yeeldeth either not at all, or very hardly: and such he calleth 〈◇〉, or 〈◇〉, that is, solid parts; of which he maketh two kinds. Some are fragile or brittle, which cannot be bent without the dissolution of the part, as Bones; others, are tough or stretching, which may bee bent and extended without dissolution, as Ligaments and Membranes.  
The Physitians do gather the differences of similar parts, from the sensible and materiall Principles of generation. There are two materiall principles, the Crassament or substance 
The Physitiās diuision of them into spermaticall and fleshy.  of the seede( for onely the spirits or the workemen) and Bloud: and therfore some parts are spermaticall, and some fleshy. The first are immediately generated out of the Crassament of the seede, the latter of bloud: the first in growne and olde men, do hardlie revnite 〈◇〉, according to the first intention, as we vse to speake, because of the weaknesse of the efficient;( for they are colde) because of the vnapt disposition of the matter, whose affluence is no confluence, that is, it floweth not together-ward and 〈◇〉, at once; & because it must passe through many and diuerse alterations; ad heereto the siccity and hardnesse of the parts; for dry things do not easily admit a vnion or consolidation, and the Philosopher in all mixtion requireth a watery moisture, that by it as by Glue all partes may be vnited. On the contrary, fleshie parts, because they are hotter, softer, and nourished with bloud little or nothing at all altered, do presently revnite and close together, sometimes without any meane immediately; sometimes per medium homogeneum, that is, by a thing of the same kinde.  
There are diuers differences of spermaticall and fleshy parts. For the seede, though it seeme to be similar, vniforme, and euery where like itself, yet hath it parts of a different 
The differences of spermatical parts.  Nature, some thicker, some thinner, some fat, some slimie, some fit for stretching, others for concretion, or to be gathered together. Whilst therefore the procreating vertue worketh vpon that part of the seede which can extend itself, it maketh Membranes, Veines, Arteries and Nerues; when vpon that which is fitter for concretion, it formeth bones and gristles; when the fat is more then the glutinous matter, then are bones & gristles formed.  
Againe, Galen obserueth in the spermaticall parts, a double substance, that which is truly 
Galen. In spermaticall parts ther is a double substance. Three sorts of flesh. Hippocrates  solid, and that which is fleshy; the first may be moistned, but not restored; the other is as it were a concreted or congealed liquor, cleauing to the solid Fibres. There are three kinds of fleshy parts, three sorts of flesh. One Flesh properly so called, to wit, that of the Muscles, which therefore Hippocrates calleth absolutely 〈◇〉, that is, Flesh. There is another flesh of the Bowels or inward parts, which we call enteralles and 〈◇〉, as it were an affusion or confluence of blood. There is also another flesh of the particular parts.  
We will adde a third diuision of similar parts, into Common and Proper. I call those 
A third diuision of the similar parts.  Common, which make and constitute many parts compounded of an vnlike and different Nature, as the Bones, Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes, Flesh, Nerues, Veines and Arteries. Of which, the first fiue are truly similar, the others only according to sence; for the inner substance of a nerue is medullous, the outward membranous. I call those Proper, which do make the substance onely of one part, and such as is not found elsewhere; such are the marrowy substance of the Braine, the cristalline and glassy humors of the eye. Of all similar parts there is a double necessity: one, that of them dissimilar parts may be compounded; 
The necessity & vse of similar parts. Auerrhoes. What is a dissimilar part.  the other I find in Auerrhoes, that they may be the seat of the Sensatiue vertues, for all sence commeth by the similar parts.  
To the similar part, we oppose the dissimilar; for as the similar part is, or may bee diuided into particles of a like, so dissimilar into particles of an vnlike or different kinde: as the particles of the similar part retaine the name of the whole, so the particles of dissimilar parts haue no names at all. Wherefore we define dissimilar parts to be; such as are deuided into parts of a different nature and diuerse kinde. These the Physitians 〈◇〉 by way of exellence doe call Organicall, because their action is more perfect and euident, as also because the neatnes of the figure, the magnitude, number and scituation( which foure accomplish the Nature of an organ) do more plainly appeare in compounded parts then in simple; so that both in respect of the forme and of the actions; they are more properly called the Organs of the Soule; for the forme of the similar parts is the Temper; of dissimilar 
The dissimilar parts are rather the instruments of the soule then the similar.  a laudable conformation: now conformation doth better answere the functions of the soule, then doth the Temper, because the soule is defined to be an act of an organicall body. The action of the similar is Naturall, to wit, Nutrition, as beeing manifest euen in plants; the action of the dissimilar part is Animall, and therefore that is sayde to bee the action of Nature, this of the Soule. Furthermore, I define an organ( with the ancients) to be a part of the Creature which can performe a perfect action; by perfect I vnderstand proper: 
What an Organ is.  for the action of the similar parts is common, not proper. Galen maketh foure orders of organs or instruments; the first is such as are most simple, which consist onely of similars, as 
Foure orders of Organs.  the muscles. The second are those that are composed of the first, as fingers. The third are such as are made of the second, as the hand. The fourth are such as are made of the third, 
In a perfect Organ there are 4. kinds of parts.  as the arme. Againe, in euery perfect organ we may obserue foure kindes of parts; The first is of those by which the action is originally performed; where these are, there is also the faculty; and therefore they are said to bee the principall parts of the organ; such is the Christalline humor in the eye, for it onely is altered by colours, and receiueth the images of visible things. The second kind is of those without which the action is not performed, and these doe not respect the action primarily and of themselues, but the necessity of the 
Perse.  action; such are in the eye, the opticke nerue, the glassie humour, and the albuginious, which is like the white of an egge. The third kinde is of those by which the action is better performed; and these respect the perfection of the action, and therefore are called Helpers, such are in the eye, the coates and the muskles, which moue and turne the eyes with a wonderfull volubility. The last kinde is of those parts which doe conserue or preserue the action; these are the causes that all the rest do worke safely; & they respect the action, not as it is an action simply, but as it is to continue and indure; such in the eyes, are the browes, lids and orbe of the eye; and this is the nature of dissimilar and organicall parts. But that we might not passe ouer anything, wee will adde this one for a complement; that 
Another diulsion of dissimilar parts.  of dissimilar parts, some are such by the first institution of nature, as the hands and the feet, from which if you take all the similar parts, you shall reduce them into nothing; others are dissimilar secondarily, because of the implications and textures of veines, arteries, and sinewes in them, as the Heart, the Braine, and the Liuer; for if you take from the Braine the common similar parts, yet there will remaine the proper substance of the Braine.   

The other differencies of the parts are vnfoulded. CHAP. XXI.  
_THere are also other differences of parts not so necessary for a Chirurgion to know, which notwithstanding because we would leaue nothing behinde vs, we will briefly declare. Galen in his Booke de arteparua, maketh foure differences 
Galen maketh 4. differences of parts.  of parts: some parts are principall, as the Brayne, the Heart, the Liuer, and the Testicles. Some doe arise from these principal and minister vnto them, as nerues, veines, arteries, and seede vessels; some neither gouerne others, nor are gouerned of others, but haue only in-bred faculties, as bones, gristles, ligaments, membranes. Finally, some parts haue vertues both in-bred, and influent, as the organs of sence and motion. The Arabians gather the diuisions of parts, from the substance, the Temper, 
How the Arabians distinguish: he parts.  those things which follow the temper, and those things which are accidentarie or happen to the part: whence some parts are fleshy, some spermaticall; some hot, others cold; some moyst, others dry; some soft, others hard; some mooueable, others immooueable; finally, some sensible, others insensible. Those which haue sence, haue it either sharpe and quicke, or stupid and dull. A part is saide to haue exquisite sence three wayes, either because of the perfection of the sense, so the skin which couereth the palme of the hand, and especially the fingers endes, hath an exact perception of the tractable or touchable qualities; or because it is more easily and sooner violated and offended by the internal and externall qualities which strike the sence; so the eye is saide to be of very acute and quicke sence: or because it hath a determinate or particular sence, which no where else is to bee found; so the mouth of the stomacke is of most exquisite sence, that it might apprehend and feele the exhaustion or emptines, and the suction or appetite of the other parts: so also the parts of generation in both sexes, haue in them a strange and strong desire and longing after their proper satisfaction.  
The Anatomists commonly do diuide the whole body into the Head, the Chest, the lower belly, and the ioynts. The Egyptians into the head, the necke, the chest, the hands, & 
The Egyptians diuision of the bodie. Diocles. Fernelius his excellent diuision of the bodie.  the feet. Diocles into the head, the chest, the belly, and the bladder. Fernelius in the second Book of his Method, diuideth the body into publicke and priuate Regions: and truely as I thinke very commodiously, for a practising Physitian or Chirurgion. The publick Region is threefold: One, and properly the first, reacheth from the Gullet into the middle part of the Liuer; in which, are the stomacke, the Meseraicke veynes, the hollow part of the Liuer, the Spleene, and the Pancreas or sweete bread between them. The second runneth from the midst of the Liuer, into the small and hairy veines of the particular partes, comprehending the gibbous or bounding part of the Liuer, all the hollow veine, the great arterie that accompanieth it, and whatsoeuer portion of them is betweene the armeholes & the Groine. The third Region comprehendeth the Muscles, Membranes, Bones, and in a word, all the Moles or mountenance of the body. There are also many priuate Regions, which haue their proper superfluities, and peculiar passages for their expurgation.  
And thus me thinkes, I haue run through the nature of Man, the Excellency, Profite, Necessitie, and Method of Anatomy, who haue written therof as well in olde times, as of later yeares, and among ourselves; the definitions & diuisions of Anatomy, the Subiect or proper Obiect of the same, the nature of a Part, with the differences and distributions of the same: it remaineth now, that we vntie such knots as might in this entrance intangle vs, and so hinder our progresse to that wished end which we set before vs.    

A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies concerning the Subiect of ANATOMY.  

The Praeface.  
_AS in the knowledge of Diuine Mysteries, Implicit Fayth is the highway to perdition, so in humane learning, nothing giues a greater checke to the progresse of an Art, then to beleeue it is already perfected and consummated by those which went before vs; and therfore to rest ourselves in their determinations. For if the ancient Philosophers and Artists had contented thēselues to walke onely in the Tracke of their predecessours, and had limited their Noble wits within other mens bounds, the Father had neuer brought foorth the Daughter, neuer had Time broght Truth to light, which vpon the fall of Adam was chained in the deepe Abysse. There is, as of the World and gouernement thereof, so of arts a frame, the matter whereof comes downe from heauen, but is gathered heere by discourse of reason and experience. The beauty and glory of whose Columns wer not perfected in one age, but the ground worke was first laid in the times which were neerest to the Originall of Nature; afterward addition was continually made by the vigour of the soule of Man, and shall be vnto the end of the world. It were not hard to giue instances heereof in all arts, nor happely would it be very tedious; but it shal bee sufficient( to auoyd prolixity) to insist a little vpon generals, and so descend vnto our owne art we haue in hand. The first man( saith the Diuine story) saw all the Creatures, and gaue them names according to their Natures, but that Sun-shine was soone clouded, that Image defaced, that stampe battered by his fall. Afterwards, as a Marchant that had lost all his inheritance in one bottome, he was to begin the world anew, and to gather an estate or stocke of knowledge, by the trauell and industry of his soule and body; yet was not his soule Abrasa Tabula, a playned Table, there remained some Lineaments which the Scripture calleth The Lawe of Nature; not such as could exhibite any sufficient originall knowledge, but such as whereby, 
Rom. 2.  hauing gotten knowledge from without himselfe, might make him again acknowledge the darke and defaced foot-steppes that remained in himselfe, and to polish and refresh them somewhat, though it was impossible to reduce them to the former perfection. Thus the soule by discourse of reason, that is, by her owne acte, knewe her naturall immortality, and by induction of particulars, came to informe herself of the Natures of other things: not as she knew before, from the vniuersall to particulars, but by gathering particulars together to frame generall and vniuersall notions.  
And surely in the first age, by reason of their long life, and consequently of their infinite obseruations, haply also because they were neerer to integrity of nature, the Defection not being so suddenly confirmed, men laide the grounds of arts, which were deliuered by tradition from the first Fathers simply and faithfully; but afterward by enuy or corruption were wrapped vp in Mysticall Hierogliphickes, or poysoned with superstition, or forfeited by negligence, many of them also were worne out by length of time, for want of Letters and meanes to preserue them. Those which remained, ran in Families, and from Families were deuolued vnto Nations as the world encreased; First as is supposed to the Chaldeans, then to the Phoenitians, after to the Egyptians; all which as the Nature of man is prone to worke vpon that, it can least attaine vnto; or else, because the Diuinity of the soule findeth no contentment, in that she conceiueth to be lesse then herself, did therefore neglect all sublunarie things, & applyed itself to speculations of heauen and heauenly bodies, wherein they were farthered by that olde and cunning Serpent, who put to his helping hande to seduce them from the acknowledgement of their owne imperfection, by goading them forward in an addle and veine disquisition of friuolous and impious secrets. So the tradition of God, as being of too high a pitch for their imped wings, was peruerted vnto an vnknowne Numen; the Tradition of the Angels into feigned spirits, gouerning the motions of the Heauens. That of the true vse of the Startes into iudiciall and Genethliacal Astrologie. That of the fall of Adam and Eue into the Fable of Isis and Osyris. The Deluge into Deucalions flood. The Diuinity of the minde and soule, into the tale of Mitris and Ariminis, and a world of such superstitious toyes. And verily almost all such was the learning of the former ages, till the Graecians fell vpon the grounds of Demonstrations: and then men first began to fall from those abstruse and transcendent contemplations, and to bring home Philosophy vnto themselues. Their Metaphysickes were Logicall, their Physicks Elementary; the Diuinity of the soule was tyed to the Principles of generation, and supposed to result out of the power of the matter of the body: and in a word, Philosophy fell from heauen into the Elements, wherein they so accumbred themselues, and those that followed them, that to this day we are scarse vninthralled from them. Yet there wanted not some, who laboured in all kindes, to bring Learning to better thrift. Homer, Hippocrates, Plato, all of them in their kindes, the very Oracles of Philosophy, so as we may truelie say, that whatsoeuer we haue solide and substantiall, it is but deriued from theyr Fountaines.  
Neyther were these men onely happy in their owne sublime and diuine wits and apprehensions, but also in their Interpreters, Virgil to Homer, Aristotle to Plato, and Galen to Hippocrates. The former two we let passe, as belonging to another Forum. Hippocrates as the first head of our Tribe, the Father and founder of the Family of Physitians, lefte a goodly inheritance to his posterity, which Galen( to passe by the rest) hath not mispent, but much improoued, and wee who are Artis Filij may worthily be accounted decoctors and prodigals, if we keepe not our Patrimony together; nay, in this kinde of Thrift, not to go forward, it is to go backeward. Yet I must confesse, that after Galens time, and his Epitomizer Oribasius, who liued but in the next age, Anatomy( for that is the ende wee driue at,) lay raked vp Patrio in puluere, till within some of our Memories, Vesalius albeit somewhat importunately, yet verie Learnedly, blew vp the almost deade sparkes into a most Luculent Flame, at whose Beacon, all since his time haue teened theyr Torches, though happelie beeing put together, they may seeme to dimme his light by their multitude.  
There is, and will alwayes be left Locus Philosophandi, scope enough, euen in this Little World for such as list to exercise themselues; and many haue with no small commendations made proofe of their agility, yet we must needes acknowledge, that the Groundworke of the building, and not onely so, but the whole frame was by the ancients reared vp; and therefore now if any Ornaments be added, they must be fitted thereunto. Wherefore, we haue laboured to bring all the subtilties and nouell inuentions of the later Writers, to the Touch-stone of the ancients Monuments; that as no man should be defrauded of his due Commendation; so the Crowne may remaine, where with so much dust and sweate it was gloriously merited; whereby we do not desire to be accounted amongst the number of the Antagonists, but as a Herald of Honor, do indeauor to marshall the fielde, and sometimes where the case is cleere, to ioyne in vmpeirment with the Spectators; or where it is difficult to assist them.   

Of the definition of a Part. QVEST. I.  
_HIppocrates, whose happy workes are the very Oracles of our Arts, and Galen 
Hippocrates the oracle of Physicke. Galen his interpreter. Words synonymal.  his interpreter, doe promiscuously vse the names of a Part, a Member, and a Place, for the same thing. The Eye( sayth Galen in the first Book of his Method) we call a Member; neyther is there any oddes which you call it, a Member, or a Part: if any man shall say the Eye is a Part and not a Member, or a Member, and not a Part; I will not in either contend with him. In his first Book de locis affectis; Not onely the latter Physitians( sayth he) but many also of the antients doe vse to call the particles of the body, Places. Hippocrates in his Book de locis in homine, and de victus ratione in morbis acutis, calleth also Parts, Places: yet there are some who distinguish a Member from a Part, 
Hippocrates.  and a Particle from a Place. Aristotle calleth those only Members which are compounded 
Aristotle.  of parts of diuers natures, as the Head, the Feete, and the Hands; and those that are similar he calleth properly Parts. Theodorus in Aristotle, thinketh that the name of a Part or Place, is of larger extent then the name of a Member. So also Galen in the sixt of his Method, 
Theodorus.  sayth that the Eye may be called a Part or a Member; and the horny tunicle a Part, 
Galen.  but not a Member: but because in these Philosophicall disquisitions, it becommeth vs better, to stand vpon substances, then vpon wordes; wee take no care whether you vse the name of a Part, a Member, a Particle, or a Place; it concernes vs more to find out an essentiall definition of a Part.  
Auicen defineth a Part to be a body ingendered of the first permixtion of the humours, as the humors doe consist of the first mixtion of the meate, and the meate of the Elements. But this definition 
Auicens definition of a part imperfect. Fen prima primi. Doct. 5. ca. 1  of the Arabian, is too presse, straight & narrow, because it agreeth only to homogenie parts, & not to heterogenie: for euery man may easily perceiue that heterogenie or dissimilar parts are compounded immediately of similar, not of the first mixture of the humors. And this Galen teacheth in plaine and expresse words, in his first Book de Elementis, 
Galen.  where hee sayth; that compounded partes are immediately made of the simple or similar, the simple of humors, humors of Aliments, Aliments of the Elements. They which would salue the Arabians credite, say that his definition is materiall, nor formall; for both similar and 
An excuse of Auicen but which wil not hold water.  dissimilar do communicate in the matter, though their forme or difference be diuers; but they forget that an essentiall definition must expresse the forme especially, because it is the chiefe part of the essence, as that which giueth Being to the thing. Aponensis defineth a 
Aponensis definition of a part.  part to be a solid and thick body, begotten of humidities or moystures, and adorned with the powers of Nature; which definition laboureth of the same disease with the former, comprehending onely simple not compounded parts.  
Galen hath two definitions of parts. The first, in the first Booke of his Method and the 
Galens two definitions.  fift Chapter, and in the first booke de Elementis, cap. 6. The second is in his first Booke de vsupartium. The first is this; A Part is that which accomplisheth or integrateth the whole: Or whatsoeuer addeth any thing to the frame of a humane body. The second is this, A Part is a body which neither hath a proper circumscription of his owne, nor yet is on euery hand ioyned with others. Both these definitions seeme to bee too large, comprehending not onely liuing 
Both too large.  particles( which are onely, truely and properly partes) but those also which haue no life, as the haires, the nailes, the fat. Hippocrates also vseth this large and ample signification of a part, in Lib. 6. Epidemi●n, where 〈◇〉, that is, humors & spirits he calleth parts. So Aristotle calleth seede, bloud, milke, marrow, phlegme, and fatte, or grease, Parts. Fernelius the french Galen, giueth vs a perfect definition of a Part, in the first 
Fernelius the french Galen.  Chapter of the second Booke of his Physiologia, and disputeth and scanneth the particular branches of his definition learnedly and at large. Argenterius( a common Calumniator 
Argenterius his cauil at Fernelius.  sayeth Laurentius) taxeth Fernelius definition, assuming a diuerse consideration of mans body; first as it is a substance, and so hee sayeth the parts of it are the Matter and the Forme; next as it is a body, and so the parts of it are all the Corporeall substances therein contained. Finally, as a liuing and animated Creature, and in that respect( sayth he) whatsoeuer liueth, may be called a part of the liuing Creature, not a part of the body. Wherefore Fernelius did ill define a Part of mans body to bee a body cohearing or cleaning to the whole, and ioyned to it in common life, framed for his vse and function.  
But these are but nice and friuolous cauils, and indeede extrauagant from a Physitians consideration: for a Phisitian doth not consider the body of man as it is a naturall body, consisting of matter and forme, but as it is obnoxious or liable to sicknesse or health. And therefore Fernelius doeth well determine that those bodies onely are to bee called partes, which may be the Subiects of sicknes and health. Now those parts only are afflicted with 
Fernelius defended.  diseases, which performe some actions in the body, and actions belong to liuing parts, not to those which haue no life. For sicknes is an indisposition which at the first hand and immediately hurteth or hindereth the action. And therefore Fernelius his definition is exquisite and perfect, beseeming a true Physitian.   

Of the principalitie of the Parts against the Peripateticks, proouing that there is not one onely Principall; to wit, the Heart. QVEST. II.  
_COncerning the principalitie of the partes, there is a famous difference betweene the Physitians and the Philosophers. The great Genius and interpreter of Nature Aristotle, in the seauenth and the tenth Chapters of his second booke de partibus Animalium; in 
Aristotle wold haue but one principal part and that the heart.  the fourth Chapter of his third book de partibus Animalium; in his second booke de generatione Animalium; in his booke de vita & morte; in his bookes de somno, and de causa motus Animalium, determineth that there is but one Soueraigne in mans body, and one Principle, which in his bosome and imbracement conteyneth and comprehendeth all the faculties. And this he resolueth is the Heart, the fountaine( sayth he) of the veines, arteries, and the sinewes; the source of heate, spirits, and quickning Nectar, the first and onely storehouse of bloud, or worke-house of sanguification; and finally, the seate and mansion house of the vegetatiue, sensatiue and reasonable Soule. In Artstotles foot steps haue walked Auerrhoes in the second of his Collectanies; Aphrodiseus in his first booke de Anima, and many other both Greeks and Arabians: but they bring for confirmation of their opinion no necessary arguments, but such onely as are probable, shadowed ouer with a veile of truth.  
It is more honourable( say they) and monarchical, that there should be one principle 
The arguments of the Peripateticks. The first.  then many; and that the very name of a principle doeth necessarily import so much. For if the soule of the Creature be but one in number, and that indiuisible, then must the bodye likewise of it bee, either one whole, or at least haue some one principall part; for essences must not be multiplied without necessity. And as in the great vniuerse which we behold, there is one Principle, which Aristotle in his eighth booke of his Physicks, calleth Primum mouens, and Primus motor, that is, the First mouer:  
〈◇〉.  
Ti's naught to haue moe Kings then one,  
Let him that raygnes, raygne King alone.  
So in the Microcosme or Little world, there must be but one principle, one prince, which 
The dignity of the heart.  is the Heart, whose excellencie and dignity aboue the rest of the partes, these things doe cleerely demonstrate. First, because it first liueth, and dyeth the last; and therefore is the originall of life, and the seat of the soule. Next, because it endureth no notable disease, but yeildeth presently to Nature if it be afflicted. Againe, because it obtaineth the most honourable place, that is, the middle of the body. Fourthly, for that by his perpetuall motion, all thinges are exhilerated and doe flourish: and nothing in the whole Creature is fruitfull, vnlesse the powerfull vigour of the Heart do giue foecundity vnto it. There( say they) is the mansion and Tribunall of the soule where heate is to be found, the first instrument of all the functions; but the Heart is the springing fountaine of Natiue heate, which by the arteries as it were by small riuerers, is deriued into the whole bodie. Moreouer, 
The second.  the seate of the faculties is there, where the Organs of the same faculties doe appeare; but all the veines, arteries, & sinewes, doe arise out of the Heart. For the arteries no man euer made doubt. The veines doe surely arise thence, where their end and termination doeth 
The third. The heart the original of the veines.  appeare: but that is about the Heart; for the implantation of the great arterie and the hollow veine are alike. Beside, all the veines are continuated with the heart, to it are they fixed, where they also haue membranes set like dores vnto them, which seeme to bee the beginnings and heads of the veines; but through the Liuer they are onely disseminated, and 
The heart the original of the sinewes. Aristotle.  the rest of the entralles they make a passage through, and so end into haire strings. Aristotle also is of opinion, that the hart is the originall of the nerues; for his flesh is hard, thight, and somewhat membranous; but the ventricles thereof haue in them infinite textures of manifest sinewes.  
Finally, the Heart is the first 〈◇〉, the first 〈◇〉 and the first 〈◇〉 
The 4. argument. The heart the first storehouse of bloud.  that is, Sanguifier, Liuer, Mouer, & Sensator. That it is the first Sanguifier or the workhouse wherein the bloud is made, the Philosopher demonstrateth; because in it the bloud is contained as in a vessell or conceptacle and receptacle; whereas in the Liuer it remayneth but as in a pipe or conuayance; and beside, no where in the whole body is the bloud contained out of his vessels, saue only in the Heart, which therefore is the Treasurie thereof; and therefore in all sudden passions of the minde, it returneth and flyeth to the heart as to his fountaine, not to the Liuer or to the Braine.  
That it is primum sensorium, the first sensator( that is,) that the faculties offence, motion 
The heart the first sensator. The first reason.  and appetite, are deriued from the heart, the Peripateticks proue by these arguments. Because in a Syncope, that is, a swounding where the vital spirits faile, there appeareth a sodaine and head-strong ruine and decay of all the faculties. Because in all sodaine motions of noysome and hurtfull things, as also when we would auoide them, the heat of the heart 
The second.  being drawne inward, there appeareth a pale wannesse in the face; and on the contrary, when we conceiue ioy for any thing that is profitable, or when wee pursue such things, the heate of the heart being called outward, there appeareth in the countenance a ruddinesse and alacritie. Because if the arteries called Carotides be tyed or obstructed, then followeth 
The third.  presently a sencelesse dulnes, and a priuation of the Animality, if I may so speake, the patient lying like a senceles stocke. Because Ioy, Sorrow and Hope, are motions of the 
The fourth.  Heart, in which consisteth all the Appetite wee haue to pursue that which we like, or to flye and auoyde that we dislike and abhorre. Finally, because in sleepe the Animall faculties 
The fift.  doe rest and cease from their labours: now sleep is nothing else but a retraction or calling backe of the heate to the heart from the other partes wherein it was in continuall expence; and that is the reason why a man after sleepe is so much refreshed, and riseth strong againe to the labour either of minde or body, albeit in both he were well wearied, yea tyred out before. As for the Braine( they say) it cannot be the authour of sence, because it is of a cold temper, vnapt for motion and made only to refrigerate and coole the exceeding heat of the Heart, being of itself without all sence. These and such like are the arguments of the Peripateticks, by which they perswade themselues, that there is but one Principle of mans body, which is the Heart.  
But these conceits of Aristotle and the Philosophers, are long since hissed out of the 
A consutati▪ of the Peripateticks.  Schooles of the Physitians, and banished from amongst them; because they assume those things for true which are vtterly false, and obtrude things probable as if they were necessary. And what I pray you is more absurd, then to preferre the probability of a Logicall argumentation, before the euidence of sence, reason, and experience, ioyned togither? Nowe that the veines doe arise from the Liuer, that the nerues or sinewes which are soft and medullous or marrowy within, and without cloathed with membranes, are deriued 
Demonstratiue argumēts to proue that the heart is neither the original of the veines, nor of the sinewes.  from the substance of the Braine, he that hath but one eye may clearely discerne. That great Philosopher obserued in the heart many Fibrous strings in both his ventricles, wouen out of the extremities of the smal membranes, and mistooke them for threddy nerues; whereas indeede it hath but one smal nerue arising from the sixt coniugation of the brain, which looseth itself in his substance. Hee saw the hollow veine in the heart very large and ample; but he did not obserue, that it onely openeth into the heart;( gaping at it with a spacious orifice or mouth, to poure into the right ventricle, as it were into a Cisterne, sufficient bloud for the generation of vital spirits to supply the expence of the whole body) but goeth not out of the heart; as doeth manifestly appeare, by those three forked membranes, or values and floud-gates, yawning outward, but close inward. But because wee shall haue fitter occasion hereafter to dispute this question with them, of the originall of the veines and the sinewes, it shall bee sufficient that we haue sayd thus much of it at this time.  
As for the seate of the faculties of sence and motion, is it not against all reason and experience 
That the hart is not the beginning of animal motion  to place them in the heart? The heart indeede is moued, and that perpetually; but that motion is not Voluntarie but Naturall; it is moued, yet not at our pleasure, but according to it owne instinct. Dayly practise and experience teacheth vs, that when the ventricles of the Braine, are either compressed, or filled and stuffed vp, as in the Apoplexy, Epilepsie, and drowsie Caros, then all the faculties are respited and cease from their functions; but when the heart is offended, the life indeede is endangered, but neither motion nor sence intercepted.  
Againe, if the heart were the seate of all the faculties, as the Peripatetikes would faine haue it, then vpon any affection of the same, or notable deprauation of his temperament, 
An elegant argument against the Peripatetickes.  all the functions should be impeached; because all actions come from the Temper. But we see that in a Hectique ague or Consumption, wherein there is an vtter alienation of the temper( as being an equall distemper, of all distempers the most dangerous) yet the voluntary and principall faculties, do remaine inviolate. In the violent motions, and throbbing 
Strange motions of the Heart.  palpitations of the heart which( some say) haue beene seene so extreame that a rib hath beene broken therewith, yet neither the voluntary motions of the parts are depraued, nor the minde at all alienated or troubled. Who will deny, but that by pestilent and contagious vapors and breaths, comming from the byting of venomous beasts, or the taking of poyson, the vitall faculty is oppugned, and as it were besieged in his own fortresse? But yet those that are so affected, do enioy both sence and reason, euen to the last breath most times.  
When the Braine is refrigerated, sleep presently stealeth vpon vs: now Aristotle himselfe 
Aristotle.  defineth sleepe to be 〈◇〉, The rest of the first sensator. If any of the principal Faculties, either Motiue or Sensatiue be affected, where do the remedies applyed auaile? Surely at the Head, not at the Heart. The Braine therefore, not the Heart is the first Moouer, and first Sensator. But the Peripatetiks obiect that the Braine hath no 
The sensation of the Braine not passiue but operatiue. Why the braine is cold that is, lesse hot. Answeres to the arguments of the Peripatetiks.  sence, and therefore cannot be the author of it. We will giue them a learned answere out of Galen, The Braines sensation is not 〈◇〉, but 〈◇〉, that is, not passiuely, but operatiuely. It receiueth not the species or Images of sensible things; but like a Iudge it taketh knowledge of their impressions, and accordingly determineth of them. They say, the Braine is vnapt for motion, because it is cold: we answere, it was necessary it should bee cold, that is, lesse hot, for the better performance of the functions. For if the Braine had exceeded in heate, then would his motions haue beene rash and vnruly, and his sensations giddie and fond as in a phrensie. In a Syncope the Animall faculties do faile. It is true, but why? Because there is an exolusion, and so a defect of vitall spirits, by which the animall are cherished. The Ligation or interception in like manner of the arteries of the necke, called Carotides, induceth a priuation of motion and sense, onely because the vitall Spirits are intercepted, which minister matter to the Animall.  
But one Principle is better then many. That we confesse is very true; but yet we know there are many reasons why it is not possible it should be so in this Little world. We 
Why in the Little worlde there cannot be one onely principle. The first demonstration.  will instance but in a few. It is granted by all men, that the substance of the arteries is diuerse from that of the veynes; and the substance of the sinnewes differing from them both; and as their substance, so is their structure very different, and their temper not one and the same: how then could it be, that Organs of so distinct kinds, should yssue all from one and the same part? Againe, it was necessary that these organes should in their originall be very 
The second.  large and ample to transfuse sufficient spirites, and a common matter suddenly and togetherward into the whole bodye. Now the magnitude or proportion of any one part,( much lesse of the heart) could not be sufficient for this purpose, either to affoord a foundation for so large vessels, or to supply a competent allowance of matter for them all. Addeheereto, 
The third.  that the faculties of the soule, follow the temper of the body, and therefore so diuers faculties might not issue from one part, which hath but one single temperament. How can we imagine reasonably, that three distinct & different faculties, yea oftentimes quite contrary, Reason, Anger and Concupiscence shoulde reside altogether, as if they were sworne friends in one Organ? Or how when the heart is on fire with anger, should reason make resistance, which delighteth in a middle and equall temper? Do not the vital and animall faculties require a different temper? Their Organs therefore must also necessarily 
The fourth.  be different and distinct. For the heart is by nature fitted to contain and propagate the vital faculty; but for the preseruation of the animall, it is vtterly incompetent. The reason is at hand. The vitall spirit is very hot, impetuous, raging, and in continuall motion, and therefore stood in neede of a strong organ wherein it should be wrought and contained, that the spirit might not because of his tenuity, be exhaled, nor the vessell by which it is conueyed, breake in perpetuall pulsing and palpitation; which both wold easily haue hapned, if the heart and arteries had bin thin, and of a slender texture. The animall faculty required another temper in her organ, otherwise the motions would haue beene furious, the sences giddy and rash; Reason would continually haue erred, because the property of heate, is to confound and make a medley of all things, shuffling in one thing hudlingly vpon another, through his continuall and indesinent motion. And these are the arguments whereby the opinion of the Peripateticks is expulsed out of the Schoole of the Physitians.  
Auicen, Fen prima primi, doctrina quinta, cap. primo, interpreteth Aristotles opinion, playing 
How Auicen interpreteth Aristotle.  the stickler in this manner. All the faculties( sayth he) do reside in the heart as in their first Root, but yet they Shine in the other members; that is, the Heart is the originall of diuers faculties, but vseth the Braine as the instrument of sence, so that Radically( that is his word) the Animall faculty is in the heart, but by manifestation in the braine.  
Some againe intercede for the Peripateticks; and say, that the principal faculties motiue 
The opinion of some later writers and their diuers distinctions.  and sensatiue are in the heart, as in their originall and fountaine. That the rootes of the nerues are in the heart, but because it is too narrow to yeelde out of itself all their propagations, they think the braine was framed as a second principle, wherin the animall functions might, not obscurely as in the heart, but euidently manifest and exhibite themselues. And this power or faculty when the braine hath once receiued it from the heart, standeth in no neede of continuall and immediate assistance therefrom, but onely of a supply after some time: Euen as the Commander of an Army, who hauing receiued his authority and his company from the Prince, standeth in no farther neede of the Princes protection, vnlesse 
Comparison.  it be now and then vpon especiall seruices. They conclude therefore that the Braine and the Liuer are truely called principall parts; but this principality is but delegatory from the heart, no otherwayes then the Lieutenants of Princes, by them chosen for such and such imployments, doe receiue from them an order and power of dispensation and disposition, whereby they are authorized, and so taken, as if they were immediate commaunders themselues. Some others vse another distinction, and say that materially the nerues proceede from the Braine and the veines from the Liuer; but the first and the formall principle they say is in the heart.  
That Prince of humaine learning( at least he that affected that soueraignty) Iulius Caesar Scaliger, in the two hundred fourescore and ninth Exercise of his booke de subtilitate, 
Scaligers opinion.  maketh many principles in the Heart. The first or primarie is 〈◇〉 or the liuing, the secōdarie 〈◇〉 or the mouing principle; these do neuer cease, neither are they hindred or intercepted in our sleep or repose: yet are they not 〈◇〉 tametsi 〈◇〉 that is, they are not the first Sensators, though they be of or from the first Sensator. Thus learned men labor to reconcile the Peripateticks & the Physitians. But they seem not to hold themselues close to Aristotles meaning: for hee doeth not thinke that in any sence, 
The late writers did not vnderstand Aristotle well.  the Braine can be sayd to bee the author or original of Sensation, neither that the nerues doe arise from it. No where doth he attribute any delegatory power of Sensation vnto it; but thinketh it was onely made to refrigerate or coole the heat of the heart; whereas notwithstanding all he can produce, it is the first principle of sence and motion, neither receiueth any power for the performance of either of them from the Heart.  
And whereas the Arabians say, that the Animall facultie is Radicall in the heart, and but by Manifestation in the braine; we can no way admit of that distinction: for if that faculty 
The opinion of the Arabians consuted.  were in the heart as in the roote, then when the braine is obstructed, the body should not become senselesse and without motion, because there should be a remainder both of sense and motion in the roote, that is in the heart. But though the heart bee obstructed, or the passages intercepted between it and the braine, yet there followeth not any sodaine priuation of sence and motion. Instances hereof wee haue in Sacrifices, where the Beast sometimes 
Sacrifices run from the altar without their heart.  hath beene heard to cry, and sometimes also seene to runne a little way after his heart hath beene cut out: and we haue seene the same tryed in a Dogge, which ran crying a while after his heart was cut out, the vessels arising from it vpward, being before bound.  
Galen in his first booke de Placitis, illustrateth the whole matter, by an elegant demonstration. 
Galens elegāt demonstratiō.  If the Heart( sayth he) did giue vnto the Braine the Animall faculty, then should that power be deriued either by veines, arteries, or sinewes; for there are no other vessels which goe betweene them, and are common to them both. By veines or arteries, Aristotle himselfe doth not thinke it is conuayed; beside, these vessels do not directly passe vnto the Braine, but after diuers contorsions and aberrations from a right & direct progresse. That it is not deriued by or through the nerues is manifest; because, if the nerue which is disseminated through the substance of the Heart, be either diuided and cut asunder or intercepted, yet the Creature doth not presently fall, but onely groweth mute and dumbe.  
It is therefore more consonant to right reason, that seeing the soule is but one and a 
The conclusion of the whole disputation.  simple substance, and wholly in the whole, and wholy in euery particle of the body; and therefore must necessarily haue the helpe of Organs, for the accomplishing of her seuerall functions: to assigne the seate of the faculty there where the Organs of those faculties are especially to be discerned. Wherefore seeing the Peripateticks doe confesse, that the Organs of sence and motion are more conspicuous in the Braine then in the heart: why will they not yeeld to the Physitian, that the Animall faculty is in the braine, the Vitall in the Heart, and the Naturall in the Liuer; but make all the worlde witnesses of their refractarie mindes, then which in a true Philosopher nothing is more illiberall? Howsoeuer, to conclude, we subscribe to the opinion of the Physitians, who haue banished this Vnitie of Principles out of their Schooles.   

QVEST. III. How many principall parts there are.  
_BY those things which we haue thus at large discoursed, it is manifest to all men, that there is not one, but many principall parts of mans body; it remaineth that we shew you now how many there are. The number wee cannot better aportion, then from the nature and definition of a Principle. First therefore, we must make it appeare( because Physitians heerein doe not agree) what a principall part is.  
Galen in his Booke de vsu partium, defineth this principality by Necessity. That is a 
What a principall part is. Galen.  Principall part, which is of absolute necessity for the life of Man. I will shew you( saith he) by what markes you shall know a principall part, to wit, by the profit it bringes; now the profit of a part is threefold, either it is simply for life, or for better life, or else for the preseruation of them both; and all such parts without doubt, are truly principall. And in the first Chapter of the xiiii. Booke de vsu partium; Nature hath a three-folde scope in the structure of the parts of Mans body. The first is of those which are necessary for life; and such parts are called Principall, as the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer, &c. We wil therfore define a Principall part to be that which is absolutely necessary for the preseruation of the 
The first definition of principality. Argenterius his vaine opposition to Galen.  whole indiuiduum or particular Man.  
Argenterius, who in a humor of contradicting Galen, opposeth himselfe vnto him, reiecteth this definition; because if a principall part be defined by necessity, the Stomacke, the Loynes, the Spleene, the Bladder and the Kidneyes, will all fall into the reckoning of principall parts. For the action of the Stomacke, is necessarie also for life. The motion of the Lunges we cannot misse, no not for a moment of time; the interception of the Vrine is mortall; and therefore the excretion or auoyding thereof, which is accomplished by the Kidneyes and the Bladder is necessary. But he seemeth to me not to haue attained to the thorough vnderstanding of Galens mind: for there is a double necessity of the parts, one absolute for the preseruation of the indiuiduum, another not 〈◇〉, that is, simply and absolutely, but secundum quid, or hauing reference to the former. The first maketh a part principall, 
Argenterius answered. A double necessity of the parts.  as the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer: the second kinde of necessity is but relatiue or collaterall, by which some parts owe obseruance to the principall, as necessary seruitors vnto them. For example: What necessary and immediate offices do the Lungs, the Kidneyes, the Bladder, and the Spleene performe to the arme, the legge, or the stomacke? But the heart giueth them life, the Liuer affoordeth nourishment, and the Braine supplieth them with sence and motion.  
This may seeme somewhat obscure to those that are but Catechists in our Art, but by examples we shall make it sufficiently perspicuous. The Liuer is the onely Prince in the lower region or belly, being therein alone absolutely necessary, and at his owne cost, nourishing 
How the other partes serue the principall, & in that regard are necessary  the whole family of the body; all the other parts within his precinct are made for his vse. The stomack as a seruant ministreth meate vnto him, the bladder of Gaul purgeth away the Choller from that meate, the Spleene drayneth away the Melancholy iuice, and the Kidneyes the serous or whayie humor, all concurring to depure and cleanse it from excrements to his hand. If therefore they be necessary, it is not for the preseruation of the whole Man, but because they be necessary Ministers to assist the Liuer in his worke. Againe, the Heart sitteth in the middle Region as in his pallace, the Lungs, the Midriffe, and all the arteries attending him for his vse, whom he employeth in quickning the whole body; the same may be saide of the braine. Wherefore the braine, the heart, and the liuer, are onely principall parts, because they alone are immediately and absolutely necessary for the preseruation of euery particular creature. Galen also answereth this cauill another way, on this manner. The action of the stomacke is not absolutely necessary, but only for the continuance 
Galens answer to the former cauill.  and prorogation of life. Witnesse those Creatures which mew themselues vp all Winter, neuer eating, and so not vsing the action of the stomacke, albeit they liue nathelesse. Furthermore, nourishing Clisters do not ascend vnto the stomacke, yet they are sucked by the Meseraick Veynes, and transported vnto the Liuer, and so sustaine the body, as may be instanced in that malefactor, who after hee was taken from the Gallow, 
A Storie of a Malefactor.  was found to be aliue, and a good while sustained by such Clisters, when it was not possible to get any thing into his stomacke. A Creature therefore may for a time liue without Chilification, which is the action of the stomacke, but not without sanguification, sayth Galen, which is the proper function of the Liuer. 
Sexto de placitis.   
That which is obtruded concerning the Lunges, is of no moment; for they worke rather for the commodity of the heart, then for the immediate maintenance of life. The hart might satisfie itself with aire attracted through the rough and smooth Arteries; but least 
How the Lunges serue the Heart.  the outward impurity thereof suddenly rushing into the Ventricles shold offend it, Nature hath cautelously set the Lunges betweene them, as a shop wherein the aire is broken and dulcified before it come vnto the heart. And thus much may suffice to satisfie the former obiection, and to euince that onely those partes are principall, which are absolutely and immediately necessary for the preseruation of life.  
But there are others which oppose Galen to Galen, who in his first Chapter of his first Booke de Locis Affectis, affirmeth, that the heart onely is absolutely necessary for the life 
An obiection against Galen. Galen.  of the creature: his words are these, If the Creature bee neither nourished, nor haue sence or motion( which hapneth in such as lye within the earth) yet may it liue as long as the heart is not violated; but if the heart be defrauded of respiration, the Creature instantly perisheth. To this we answere: That in bloody and perfect creatures, the action of the braine and the Liuer, is absolutely necessary; but those creatures which liue so mewed vp in winter, are vnbloudy 
The answere to the obiection.  or without bloud, although it cannot be denied, that hystericall women, that is, such as haue violent fits of the Mother, do liue some good space without breathing, as we could instance in many, if it were not so ordinary, as that no man will deny it.  
There is also another very elegant definition of a Principle, in the tenth Chapter of Galens sixt booke de Placitis, in these words; That is called a Principal part, which alloweth or 
Another definition of a part.  affoordeth to the whole, either some faculty, or at least some matter. According to this definition also, there will be three principall parts. For that the Braine doth transmit the Animall faculty, and the Heart the Vitall, will be easily yeelded vnto vs. All the scruple is about the Liuer, because it seemeth not reasonable; that it should affoord to the particular parts, a naturall influent faculty, seeing euery part hath such an one bred, and seated in itself. For the time we let passe that Controuersie, it is sufficient for our present purpose, to prooue it a principall part, though it yeeld no faculty, if it yeeld a matter to the vvhole body, which no man in his right wits but will easily confesse, or let him but pricke his finger and he shall see it. Auicen Fen prima, doctrina 5. Cap. primo, defines that to be a principal part, which hath in itself the Originall or beginning of the first and chiefe faculties of the 
Auicens desition or a principall part.  body; or wherein the power or efficacy of those faculties, by which the body is dispersed or gouerned, doth as in his chiefe seate especially reside and manifest itself. Some of the late Writers haue defined a principall part to bee that, which out of itself exhibiteth and 
A definition of the late writers.  communicateth to other parts, some actiue Instrument; as for instance, a Spirit. So that which of all these definitions we accept of, it will still remaine that there are three principall parts, the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer. For if we respect Necessity, these only are absolutely necessary; if the originall of the faculties, in the Braine resideth and shineth the animall, the vitall in the heart, and the naturall in the Liuer; if the Instruments, then from the Braine floweth the animall spirits by the sinnewes, the vitall from the heart by the arteries, the naturall from the Liuer by the veins; and by those passages are all diffused from their fountaines in the whole body.  
Galen in his Booke de Arte parua, addeth to the principall partes a fourth, to wit, the Testicles: not in respect to the indiuiduum or particular creature, but because they are of absolute necessity for the conseruation of the kinde, and production of encrease. For the Testicles indeede do not make allowance to the whole body of any matter, or facultie, or spirit, but only of a quality, together with a subtile and thin breath or aire, from which the flesh hath a ranke taste of the seede, and the bodye a strength or farther ability in the performance of his actions.   

QVEST. IIII. Which of all the principall Parts is the most Noble.  
_HAuing praemised this disputation concerning the number of the principall parts, it remaineth( because wee would haue nothing wanting which may giue satisfaction to such as desire it) that we inquire which of all the principall parts is worthily to be preferred aboue the rest. Galen in his first Booke de semine, preferreth the testicles to the heart; where he saith, The Heart is indeede the author of liuing; but the Testicles 
Galen preferreth the Testicles before the Heart.  are they which adde a betternesse or farther degree of perfection to the life, because if they be taken away, the iollity and courage of the Creature is extinguished; the Male followeth not his Female, the Veynes loose their latitude, and become sunke & narrow; the Pulse abateth of his strength, and becomes weake, dull, and languishing; the skin is pilde and bare, whereupon such men are called Glabriones; and in a word, all virility 
Glabriones. Galen.  or manhoode vanisheth away. Galen addeth. The Testicles are another Fountaine or Well-spring of in-bred heate; the Feu-place or Fire-hearth, where the Lares or houshold-Gods of the body, do solace and disport themselues: from hence the whole body receyueth 
Wherein the Testicles do shew their power.  an encrease of heate, and by that meanes not onely foecundity, but also a great alteration of the temper, the habite, the proper substance, yea and of the manners themselues: so that to say true, their power is very great, and almost incredible, then especially knowne when it is wanting, as we may obserue in Eunuches.  
Wherefore as to be and liue well, is more excellent then simply to liue and haue an Idle and sluggish existence, so the Instrument of the former which is the Testicles, is more excellent then that of the latter, which is the heart. A probable but a sophisticall argument. 
Galens subtile argument answered.  True it is, that which giueth better life, if it giue life also, is more excellent then that which giueth life onely: but the testicles do not giue life at all, the creature can liue without them; they adde indeed a perfection, not to life, that is, to the concreate as we say, but to liuing, that is, to the abstract; so do the eyes, so do other parts, without which a Man should liue, but in liuing should be miserable: the heart therefore giueth the substance, the testicles exhibite but an additament, which may be away, albeit it bee with notable detriment; detriment I say, not of that which the heart giueth, which is the substance; but of that which themselues affoord, which is a complement. Now that a substance is of more excellence then a complement no Man will deny, the heart therefore is more noble then 
Whether the Braine be to be preferd before the hart.  the testicles. But the heart hath a greater concurrent in this plea of honour, which is the braine.  
The Peripatetikes and Aristotle their Prince, together with the whole family almost of 
The opinion of the Peripatetiks & Stoiks  the Stoickes, especially Chrysippus, do giue the preheminence to the heart, as well because it is seated in the middest, which is the place of honour; as also because it is a liuing and abundant Fountaine of Natiue heate; and finally, because it is the speciall habitation of the soule; for euen Hippocrates himselfe, the Oracle of Physicke, in his booke de Corde, placeth 
Hippocrates.  the soule in the left ventricle of the heart; and hence it is, that they call the heart 〈◇〉, quasi 〈◇〉: for 〈◇〉 signifieth Empire or rule comming from 〈◇〉 to Command.  
But all this notwithstanding, we are enforced to yeelde the superiority to the braine, 
We determin that the brain is the prime principal part  because his functions are more diuine and more noble then those of the heart. For example: All sence and voluntary motion proceede from it, the habitation it is of Wisedome, the Shrine of Memory, Iudgement and Discourse, which are the prerogatiues of Man aboue all other Creatures. This is the Prince of the Family, and the head is the head of the tribe, all other parts are but attendants( though some serue in more honourable place then others,) and owe homage vnto it, yea all were created onely for his vse and behoofe. 
An Elegant demonstratiō how all the body is seruiceable to the Braine.  For the braine being the seate of the intelligible or vnderstanding faculty, it was requisite first, that it should be supplied with phantasmes or representations; these representations could not be exhibited and represented to the vnderstanding, but by the ministerie of the outward sences. For it is a rule in Philosophy, Nihil est in intellectu quod nō prius fuit in sensu. There is nothing in the vnderstanding or intellect, which is not first in the sence. It was necessary therefore, that the sences should be created for the intellect. Furthermore, the sences could not haue beene perfect vnlesse the Creature could haue moued locally to gather his phantasmes out of diuers obiects, as the Bee flyeth from one flower to another to gather hony; and therefore Nature ordained the organs or instruments of motion, the muscles, the tendons, and the nerues. These( vnlesse wee should haue crawled vppon the earth like wormes) did necessarily require props and supporters to confirme and establish them, whereupon the bones and the gristles were ordained; and ligaments also to knit and swathe them together: now all of them stand in neede of perpetuall influence, of heate to quicken them, and of nourishment to sustaine them; both which are supplied, the former from the Heart by the arteries, the latter from the Liuer by the veines: so that truth to say, there was no other end of the Creation of all the parts and powers of the body, but onely for the vse and behoofe of the Braine.  
It will be obiected, that the braine cannot accomplish his functions without the spirits of the heart, and the influence of his heate; I answere, that that is an inuincible argument 
Obiection. Answere.  of the soueraignty of the Brain; for the end for which a thing is ordained, is more noble then the thing ordained for that end; the life therefore and the heart are but handmaids to the Braine. We will adde also this argument, which happely will seeme not incompetent: The Braine giueth figure vnto the whole body; for the head was made onely for the Brayne; how Hippocrates sayth that the nature of all the rest of the bones dependeth vpon 
Hippocrates.  the magnitude of the head: not that all the bones deriue their originall from the head; but because it behooued that they should bee all proportionably answerable to the bones to which they are articulated, as the legges to the thighes, the thighes to the haunches, the haunches to the holy bone, the holy bone to the spondles or racke bones, the racke bones to the marrow of the backe, and that to the braine.  
For satisfaction to the arguments before vrged by the Peripatetians and the Stoicks, we say. That the Etymon or deriuation of the name of the heart, is but friuolous & not worthy 
The former arguments of the Peripateticks & Stoicks answered.  the standing vpon. For the scite of the heart in the middest, it doeth weigh tantundem, as much as nothing; neither indeede is the ground of it true: for of the whole body the nauel is the Center; and for the trunke or bulke, who euer said( that was an Anatomist) the heart was in the middest of it? But if wee will draw an argument of dignity from the scituation, 
The argument retorted.  then will the true superiority fall to the Braine, because it is placed vppermost, as the fire aboue the inferiour elements; the highest heauen the seate of the blessed soules aboue the subiected orbes; for to be placed aboue, is high superiority and praeeminence; to be thrust downe below, betokeneth base subiection and inferiority. As for that place of Hippocrates, 
Exposition of Hippocrates.  where he placeth the soule in the left ventricle of the heart, either he speaketh to the capacity of the vulgar, or else by the soule he meaneth the heate, as happely wee shall haue more occasion to shew hereafter. We conclude therefore, that of the principall parts, the first place belongeth to the Braine, the next to the Heart, the last to the Liuer. Againe, in the Oeconomie or order of the parts, this rule is obserued; that those which are first in order 
A rule in the disposition of the parts.  of nature, are last in dignity and excellencie: so the Infant first liueth the life of a plant, then like a beast it mooueth and becommeth sensible; finally, it receiueth it's perfection when it is indued with the reasonable soule; as hauing then the last hand and consummation from the Creator, when he setteth his stampe or image vpon it.  
Galen in the last Chapter of the seauenth booke of his Method, compareth the dignity and necessity of the three principall parts one with another in these wordes. The dignity 
Galen.  of the Heart is very great, and in sicke patients his action and the strength of it, of absolute necessity; 
A conference of the dignity & necessity of the principal parts.  the Brayne is of equall moment for the preseruation of life, yet the strength of his actions is not so immediately necessary in those that are diseased for their recouery: the action of the Liuer is as necessary as eyther of them for the maintenance of the particular parts, but yet for present & immediate sustentation of life, it is not so instantly necessary as both the former. To conclude this question, there is a threefold principle; one of Beginning, another of Dignity, a third of Necessity. The parenchyma or flesh of the Liuer is the originall principle; the Braine is 
The decision of the whole question. A three fold principle. Comparison.  the most noble principle; and the Heart of most necessity; yet they all haue such a mutuall connexion and conspiration, that each needeth others assistance, and if one of them decay the rest doe forthwith perish. Euen as in a wel gouerned Citty or Common-wealth there is a wise Senate to guide it, a stout and valorous strength of souldiours to defend and redeeme it; and an infinite multiplicity of trades and occupations to maintaine and support it; all which though they be distinguished in offices and place, doe yet consent in one, and conspire together for their mutuall preseruation. And this conspiration Galen expresseth 
Galen.  to the life, in his booke deformatione foetus, and the fift chap. thus: When the Heart is depriued 
The mutual conspiration of the principal parts.  of respiration it ceaseth to moue, & immediately death ensueth; now it is depriued of respiration when the nerues( which come from the Brayne) are either cut, or obstructed, or intercepted. As therefore the Heart needeth the helpe of the Braine, and being forsaken by it, maketh a diuorce betweene the soule and the body; so it also maketh retribution to the Brain, supplying it with spirits of life, out of which the Animall spirits of the Braine are extracted; and the Liuer though it lye below, yet it yeeldeth matter to them both, wherof and whereby their spirits are made and sustained.  
But against this doctrine of the consent of these principall parts, there is a notable place of Galens, in the fourth chapter of his second booke de placitis, which needeth to bee cleared 
Obiection. Galen.  before we fall from this discourse; for hee sayeth: As Pulsation and voluntary motion belong to diuers kindes of motion; so neyther of those principles needeth the helpe one of another. Which place we interpret thus: that the hart doth not transmit the Animal faculty to the 
A hard place in Galen expounded.  braine, nor the braine the faculty of Pulsation to the heart, because the temper and formes of the faculties are diuers; and therefore the heart conferreth nothing to the Idea or forme of voluntarie motion, neither the braine to the power of pulsation; yet hence it must not be inferred, that the braine needeth not the help of the heart, or on the contrary the heart of the braine: and thus much of the definition, and number, and precedency of the principarts.   

QVEST. V. Of similar and dissimilar parts, and first of the number of them.  
_THE nature and number of the Similar parts because they are much controuerted, we will examine for their sakes, who are not so well exercised in these schoole poynts; that if they be not able to draw out of the fountaines themselues, they may dip their vessels in this shallow foord of ours, to satisfie their thirsty minds.  
Some there bee that contend, that there are no similar parts at all, because the most 
That there are no similar parts. Galen. Obiection. Answere. Why similar parts are so called.  simple are not voide of composition; and they alledge Galens authority for it; who in the eight chapter of his first booke de Elementis, sayth: That the simple parts are made of humors, humors of Aliments, Aliments of Elements. And in his first booke de semine. All parts are generated of seede and bloud. But the answere to this is easie and obuious; for parts are called similar, not because they are exquisitly simple and incompounded, but because they cannot bee diuided into Parts of diuers kindes, neither yet are compounded of any other Parts, though of diuers substances. So the Philosopher calleth the Elements simple bodies, because they are not compounded of other bodies, although they consist of matter and forme. Yea the very soule of man is not in this sence truely simple, nor yet the Angelicall 
The soule of man is not simple.  substance; for if they were, they should be impatible: and indeede nothing is truely simple but God himselfe; but we of purpose giue ouer this mysterie before wee enter into it, because euery one is not a fit auditor of this kinde of Philosophy. The number of the similar 
The number of the similar parts. Galen. A three-fold kinde of flesh.  particles concerneth vs at this time more, wherein there is great heate and contention of opinions. Galen in his commentaries vppon Hippocrates booke de natura hominis numbreth seauen: Bones, Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes, Fibres, Fat and Flesh. And whereas there is a threefold kind of flesh, one of the muskles, which is indeed true flesh; another of the entrals which is called 〈◇〉, and the last of the particular parts; he accounteth them all similar, for so he speaketh in the sixt chapter of his first booke de naturalibus facultatibus. Among the similar partes are to bee accounted the flesh of the Liuer, the Spleene, the 
Galen.  Kidneyes, the Lungs, and the Heart; as also the Coates of the Stomacke and the Guts, and the proper body of the Braine. For if from all of these you shall exempt or take away, either really or in your imagination, the veines, the arteries, and the nerues; the body which remayneth will be simple and elementary. In the sixt chapter of the first booke de Elementis, he addeth to the former seauen, Sinewes, Marrow, Nayles and Haire. In his booke de inaequali 
Galen.  intemperie, Tendons and Skin. In his booke de differentijs morborum: and in the second booke de Elementis, he addeth Veines and Arteries. So that according to Galen in the 
14. Similar parts after Galen.  places alleadged, if wee summe vp the similar parts, they will arise to foureteene: Bones, Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes, Fibres, Nerues, Arteries, Veines, Flesh, Skin, Fatte, Marrow, Nailes and Haires.  
Many accuse Galen of leuitie and forgetfulnesse, because in diuers places hee calleth veines, arteries, and nerues similar parts; & yet in his booke de inaequali intemperie, hee accounteth 
Galen accused  them dissimilar and organicall. Argenterius answeres for him; that in a similar part, he hath a double respect to their matter and their form; and wheras he calleth nerues, 
Argenterius answere for Galen in sufficient.  veines, and arteries, similar bodies, he doth it with respect to their matter, which is simple and vniforme; where he calleth them organicall, he hath respect to their forme and figure, which is round and more or lesse hollow: but Argenterius by this answere, rather betrayeth then redeemeth his maister: for the matter of the veines, nerues, and arteries, is not vniforme. Galen in his booke de placitis, and de vsupartium, teacheth that nerues are withinward, 
Galen.  soft and marrowy; outward, membranous; as also the bodyes of arteryes are wouen of membranes and fibres.  
The common and vulgar answere for Galen, we rather approue, which is after this sort. There are two kinds of similar parts, some are so in trueth as bones, gristles &c. others similar 
The common answere for Galen approoued. Obiection.  to the iudgement of the eye; such are veines, arteryes, and nerues; because at the first view when we cast our eye vpon them, we perceiue an vniformity in their substance. But some man will vrge farther, that euen in the iudgement of the eye those three vessels aboue named are not simple but compounded; for our eye bewrayeth the inside of the nerue to bee medullous, and the out-side membranous. And Galen in the sixt chapter of his first booke de naturalibus facultatibus, sayth: That similar particles are by no other meanes to bee discerned, 
Galen. Montanus answere to the Obiection.  but by dissection and autopsia; that is, by the eye of the Anatomist. This scruple Montanus thus remoueth: there is, sayth he, a double Anatomy, one most exquisite and artificiall, another more rude according to the times wherein Hippocrates, Diocles, and Erasistratus liued, when the Art was in her infancy: and to these times, the nerues, veines, and arteries, seemed at the first sight similar parts, albeit since, as the Art hath gathered strength, and men growne more occulate priers into the nature and frame of the body, there hath beene some difference discerned.  
It will be further obiected, that there are more similar parts then Galen and the Schoole of Physitians haue described. For the marrow or substance of the braine, the Cristalline 
Obiection.  humor of the eye, the pith of the backe, as also the other humors of the eye are truly, and in the nicest construction similar parts. We may answere, that all these are indeed truly similar, but yet they all concurre to the frame of one part; but Galen spake onelie of those 
Solution.  similars, of which as of sensible and common Elements, many dissimilars were compounded.   

Quest. 6. Whether a similar part may be called Organicall; and whether the actions belong to the similar Parts, or to the Organicall.  
_ACcording to the Doctrine of Aristotle and Galen, a dissimilar and an organicall part are not distinguished. But because according to the same 
A similar part may also be said to be Organicall.  Galen, the essence of an Organicall part consisteth onely in the conformation, that is, a conuenient figure, magnitude, number and scituation, all which are found also in similar partes; I am easily perswaded to be of the opinion of some of the late Writers, who thinke that similar 
Fernelius.  particles, may also be called organicall, and therefore that the dissimilar is better opposed to a similar, and to an organical a rude & vnformed part. Neither do I think that Galen was heereof ignorant; but because the variety of composition, and the neatnesse of the Figure was more conspicuous in those that are dissimilar( the similar being vniforme) hee pleased to call them absolutely and by an excellence, organicall. So the Philosopher in his first Booke de ortu & interitu, calleth the head, the chest, and the belly, principall-Organs, because 
Aristotle.  the most irresolute Scepticke, cannot but acknowledge their action and diuerse composition.  
Some vntie this knot on this manner. An organicall part is to be considered either as 
A twofolde consideration of an organicall part.  it is figurated, or as it performeth some organicall action. In the first respect, almost all similar parts are organicall; for euen the bones haue a proper figure, magnitude, number & scite. In the second onely dissimilar, because these alone do performe organicall actions. For who will affirme, that in a bone there is any action organicall? It is true, that their Figure, magnitude, and scite are of good vse, but they performe no action. Whereas the Veine and the Muscle, although of all Organs they are the most simple, do performe each of them a manifest organicall action; the one distributing and dispersing the blood, the other accomplishing voluntary motion. But that these things may be more manifest, and descend deeper into the capacity of those that are but initiated, it shall not be amis to recal them againe to the ballance, and weigh them ouer more precisely.  
Galen in the sixt Chapter of the first Booke of his Method, and in his Booke de inaequali 
Galens disi●ition of an organ. Another.  intemperie, defineth an Organ to be that part of the creature which can perform a perfect, that is, a proper action. More fully it may be defined thus. A Part which onely produceth an action proper and peculiar to itself; so a Muscle and an Eye may be called Organes, because only the Muscle mooueth, the Eye onely seeth. As for the similar parts, their action is perfect indeede, but common, not proper or peculiar to themselues, to wit, Nutrition; & therefore they cannot properly be called Organs. Now that nutrition is a similar, and not Organicall actiō, it appeareth by both their definitions. That action is said to be similar, which 
What is a similar action.  is commenced or begun onely by the temper of the part, and by the same perfected, and is beside wholly and perfectly wrought by the least portion of the part, as well as by the whol. That Nutrition is of that nature, it is so manifest, as it needeth no demonstration; for euery part or portion of a Bone, draweth, retaineth, boyleth the Aliment; and beside expelleth that which is superfluous; the reason is, because euery part of a bone is a bone, and hath the forme and nature of the whole bone: this forme is called temperies or the temper, wherfore onely from the temper proceedeth the original and perfection of nutrition. Againe, 
The forme of a similar part is his temper. Galen.  Flesh( as Galen saith in the 9. Chapter of the first booke de vsu partium) is flesh onely through his temper, and a Nerue is a Nerue by his temper. And in the first booke de Naturalibus facultatibus, He that endeuoureth to preserue the action of the similar parts, it is necessary that he preserue their temper. So that it is manifest, that Nutrition accordeth with the definition of a similar action. Now how repugnant it is to the definition of an organicall action, it remaineth 
What is an organical action.  that we shew. That is called an organicall action, which neither is begun, nor absolued or perfected by the temper alone, but requireth to his integrity and perfection the whole instrument. So vision which is the proper action of the eye, is not accomplished by the Christalline humour alone, nor alone by the opticke nerue, or the coates of the eye, but by all togither. Neyther is the forme of this organicall action the temper, but the laudable conformation of the whole instrument. The eye seeth not, the hand handleth not, the foote goeth not forwarde, the muskle mooueth not onely by the temper; but because the organs are thus or thus disposed or framed. 
Whether the action do proceed from the similar parts Authorities of Galen to proue that they do.   
Here some ouertaken with irresolution, because of the obscurity of the question, doe sweate and contend to proue, that all actions belong to the similar parts and proceed from them, none from the organicall. And they alledge the authority of Galen for their warrant; who in the second chapter of the seauenth booke of his Method, and the third chapter of the sixt booke de locis affectis, and in his booke de optimo corporis habitu; sayth, That in euery organ there is one particle similar, which is the principall cause of the organicall action, and that the rest are onely assistant, conferring some vse but no action. So vision proceedeth from the Christalline humour, sanguification from the parenchyma of the Liuer, voluntary motion from the flesh of the muskle; but the coates of the eye, the muskles, the nerues, the two humours, doe eyther make the sight more perfect, or onely conserue it. Moreouer, in the fift chapter of his booke de constitutione artis; hee writeth that the actions are primarily and perse, that is, of itself, from the similar part; and secondarily and by accident, from the organical. Adde hereto that the functions doe flowe from the faculties, the faculties from the temperament; now the temper is the forme of the similar part, not of the organicall: and in the fift booke de locis affectis, he sayth: That the very essence of al the faculties doeth consist in the temper. In the sixt booke de locis affectis: he sayth, that the actions doe flowe from the proper and peculiar essence of the parts not from the position: for if the Heart or the Lyuer should change their place, yet would they performe the actions they doe in the places wherin now they are. And in the tenth booke of his Method, speaking of a cold bath: Those that are Hectical, that is, in a consuming and lingring ague, are easily offended by the occursion or touch of cold water or ayer, because theyr solid and similar parts,( they being more neare the threds) are bare and naked, by which all the actions of lyuing creatures are performed. Aristotle also is of opinion that 
Aristotle.  all sence commeth from the similar parts.  
This their deuice I must needs say is probable, but yet they trouble the pure fountain 
The explication of the question, wherin Galen is interpreted  of Galens Philosophy. It is true that he acknowledgeth in euery perfect organ one similar particle, which is the principall cause of the action, but yet hee neuer meant to referre the cause of the perfect action onely to the temper of that particle: so hee acknowledgeth the temper of the Christalline humor, to be the efficient cause of vision or sight, together with his purity, smoothnesse, and scituation, which are all organicall. For if the position of the Christalline humor be changed, if it be drowned too deep in the glassy humour, although 
What we must resolue vpon according to Galen.  the temper of it remaine neuerso exquisite, yet the vision cannot bee perfect. In a word therefore I answere, that the originall of the action dependeth vpon the similar part and his temper, but the perfection of the action followeth the frame of the whole organ. And this Galen teacheth in the sixt chapter of his book de differentijs morborum, and in his book de optima corpor is constitutione, where he willeth and resolueth, that the actions doe first of all and originally, issue from the similar particles, but their accomplishment and perfection dependeth vpon the frame of the whole organ.   

Whether the Spermaticall parts be generated of seede. QVEST. VII.  
_MAuing thus handled the distinction of the parts, & the natures of them all; it remayneth that we entreat of those parts which are called Spermaticall. 
Three questions concerning spermatical parts.  concerning which, there are three questions among the rest most notable: Whether they be immediately made of the seede; whether they can grow together againe or bee restored; and whether they bee hotter then the sanguine or bloudy parts or no; all which we will dispute in order. The first question is hard 
The first question.  to be determined, and therefore we must be constrayned to take our rise a little higher, for that the nature of seede which is intangled in many folds of difficulties, must first be vnfolded: notwithstanding, because wee shall haue fitter oportunity in the booke of the generation of man, to search more narrowly into the mysteries of this secret, wee will content ourselves in this place briefly to run ouer those things which shal most concerne the matter we haue in hand.  
It is agreed vpon betweene the Physitians and the Peripatecians, that seede is a Principle of generation. But the Philosophers doe acknowledge it onely to be a formall and efficient Principle, the Physitians both a formall and a materiall; formall, by reason of his spirits; materiall by reason of his body. The Physitians therefore doe determine, that the 
The Peripateticks thinke that all the parts are generated of bloud. The first reason.  spermaticall parts are generated out of the crassament or thicke substance of the seede, the Peripateticks, onely out of the bloud. This latter opinion is not without his patrons and abettors, and beside, supporteth itself by these arguments. If the Spermaticall parts were made of the seede as of a materiall principle: then the actiue and the passiue, the act and the power; the mouer and that which is moued; the matter and the forme; the maker and the thing made should be the same; which true and solid Philosophy will not admit. Againe, according to Aristotle in the second booke of his Physickes; the Artizane is neuer a part of his owne workmanship; the seede is the artizane. Galen calleth it Phidias, who was 
The second. Aristotle. Phidias the Statuary.  an excellent Statuarie, and made among other peeces Mineruas statue of Iuory 26. cubits high &c. And in the 20. chapter of the first book de generatione Animalium; The seed is no part of the Infant that is made, sayth the Philosopher; no more then the Carpenter is a part of the woode which hee heweth: neyther is there any part of the art of the artificer in that which is effected; but onely by his labour through motion, there ariseth in the matter a forme and a shape. Moreouer, it is an axiome of Physicke, That wee are nourished by 
An axiome in Phisicke. The third.  those things whereof we are formed, framed, and do consist; but all the parts of man are nourished with blood, and therefore they are all generated of blood also.  
Furthermore, if the principall parts, the Heart and the Liuer bee made of blood( for their substance is fleshy, and Hippocrates calleth them both fleshy Entrals) why is it not so 
The fourth. Hippocrates.  with the other parts which al men admit and consent to be made and perfected after them? Adde heereto, that if the seede of the Male be both the efficient, and the matter of the Infant, 
The fift.  there is no reason but the male may alone beget an infant in himselfe: shall the Nature of the seede be idle and at rest, which all Philosophers with one consent doe agree, is alwayes actiue and operatiue? Finally, is it possible that so small a moment of seede, as ordinarily 
The sixt.  sufficeth for the generation of Man, should bee sufficient for the delineation of so many hundreds, nay thousands of Bones, Gristles, Ligaments, Arteries, Nerues, Veynes, Membranes, & c? Wherefore, the seede hath not the nature of a materiall, but onely of an efficient cause of mans generation.  
There are a●so two places in Galen, which seeme to fauour the opinion of the Peripatetikes. The first, is in the second Booke De Naturalibus Facultatibus, where hee sayth, The Seede is an ●ffectiue Principle of the Creature, for the materiall is the Menstruall Blood. The other in the third Chapter of the same Booke, where he speaketh verie plainly. There is great difference( saith he) betweene the workemanship of Phydias, and of Nature. For Phydias of waxe can neuer make Iuory and Gold, but Nature keepeth not the olde forme of any matter, generating of bloud bloudlesse parts. As for example, Bones, Gristles, Nerues, Veines, Arteries, all bloudlesse, yet made of bloud.  
But the trueth is, that Galen was of another minde, to wit, that all the Spermaticall parts were made of seede, as appeareth in his Bookes de Semine, where hee inueyeth purposely 
The contrarie opinion of the Physitians. Authorities of 〈◇〉.  against Aristotle concerning this matter, teaching that the seede is both the efficient and the materiall cause of their generation. The efficient, in respect of the Spirites; the matter in respect of the Crassament of it. And indeede, that admirable and vnimitable ingenie or discourse of Hippocrates, did first bring this light into the worlde, as appeareth in his Bookes De Natura pueri de Principijs, and the fourth De Morbis. And Aristotle himselfe is constrained to confesse as much in the first Booke of his Physickes, and in his 
Aristotle.  Bookes De gener: Animalium, where he sayth, that some parts are made onely of an Alimentarie excrement, some of an Alimentarie and a Seminall together. Besides, not to stand vpon authorities, wee haue waight of Reason to prooue it. The seede of Man, 
Reasons. The first.  is white, froathie, and thicke, and when it is cast into the Wombe, if Conception follow, it is retained; for out of hand the mouth of the Wombe is so exquisitelie closed, that a needle cannot finde entrance without offence.  
This all Women know full well; and the Musicall Huswife in Hippocrates, when shee 
Hip. Psaltria. lib. de nat. pueri  knew that the seede she had receyued came not away, on the seauenth day with a La vaito I trow, or some such violent friske, shee auoyded her Conception▪ For, if the substance of seede be retained in the Wombe, it must of necessitie bee resolued into nothing, or something must be made of it; or else( as the Peripatetikes dreame) it must bee dissolued into winde and vapours. The first, no Philosopher will assent vnto; for, as nothing is made of nothing, so that which is something, cannot vanish into nothing. The last, Galen disprooueth by this argument, Because when the seede is conceyued, the Wombe is contracted, and the seede narrowly embraced on euery side, so that there is no place lefte for any distending winde: adde heereto, that if the seede were dissolued into winde, the wombe beeing distended, would be afflicted with exquisite torments; for of one part of earth, are made ten of water, and of one of water, ten of aire.  
It remaineth therefore, that of the Crassament of the seede, some parts must necessarily be framed, and those are they which are called spermatical, Bones, Gristles, Nerues, Veynes, Arteries, Membranes, &c. And this is prooued by theyr whitenesse, and by the thicknesse, and the lentor or sliminesse of their substance.  
Moreouer, that the Spermaticall parts are made of seede, wee may thus demonstrate. 
The second.  Bones, Cartilages or Gristles, Membranes and Ligaments, are bloudlesse and white, and therefore they cannot be made of blood immediately, as flesh; but of bloud chaunged, whitened, and incrassated, and then what differeth it from seede? Nature therefore should bee very ydle, if shee should euacuate and expell a matter fyt for the generation of those parts, and( as if shee had forgot herself) should endeauor to bring blood into that forme of which she had at the fyrst hand seed enough.  
To these demonstrations of Galen( at which Argenterius like a Detractor scoffeth) we will adde other Reasons. VVhen the seede is iniected into the bosome of the wombe, 
The third.  the wombe is instantly contracted, and the plasticall or forming Facultie thereof, rayseth vppe the sleeping power of the seede; and then his spirites and natiue heate, commence theyr action. Now this action thus instantly begunne, woorketh vppon somewhat: not vppon bloude, because yet there is no confluence of it to the part. For who will say, That in Coition there is a double secretion, one of seede, another of bloud at one and the same time? The Peripatetike himselfe will not yeelde to such a Solecisme in nature; but we know, that that which is auoyded in the acte of generation, is seede, and not blood.  
It is therefore the Crassament of the seede vpon which the Spirits doe worke, in which they haue their aboade as in their proportionable subiect; this they turne and tosse on euery side; the dissimilar parts of it they separate, framing of the thicker bones & gristles, of the slimy Membranes and vessels; all which, being scored out as the rude and first draught of a picture, wherein are nothing but the maister lines; the seuenth day the blood floweth vnto it, to make the Parenchymata or flesh of the entrals, and to fill vp the vacant distances of the Fibres. If therefore in the very conception, no bloud doe flow from the Veynes of the wombe vnto the masse of seede conceiued, how can wee imagine, that the first delineation of the parts, is made of blood? Againe, the blood wherewith the infant is 
The fourth.  nourished, and of which the Parenchymata are made, must passe by veynes, veynes I say, not of the mother, for then it would encompasse the seede onely, not insinuate itself into the parts of it; but of the infant; and for this purpose is the vmbilicall veine formed, called therefore the Nurse or Foster veine, so that this Veine must of necessity bee made before the blood can come vnto the seede; and of blood it is not made, because there is yet no affluence of it. If you shall say, that blood is powred into the capacity of the womb by the small veines of the wombe: I aske why is the Infant not immediately nourished by the same veines? What neede was there that any vmbilicall veine should be formed? Finally, another demonstration that the parts are made of seede may be on this manner. The seede 
The fift.  of the male and female is of one nature, colour and manner of generation, they haue both the same vessels of preparation, concoction and eiaculation, onely they are distinguished in perfection, for that the seede of the male is hotter and better laboured. Now all men do acknowledge, that the seede of the Female is the materiall principle of the parts; why then do they deny it to the crassament or substance of the seede of the male? Wee therefore conclude and determine, that both seedes are not onely efficient but materiall Principles 
The determination.  of the spermaticall parts.  
But that we may leaue no enemies at our backes to interrupt our victory as wee gaine the field before vs, let vs make answere to such arguments as are brought against the truth 
Answere to the aduerse arguments. Galen expoūded.  of this assertion. And first for Galen: where hee writeth, that the spermaticall partes are made of blood, he doth not vnderstand an immediate generation, that is, that the Bones are made immediately of red blood, as is the flesh; but of blood passed through diuers alterations and mutations of dealbation and incrassation. And what I pray you is this, but to say they are made of seede?  
To the first argument I answere thus. There are two things to be considered in the seed, the Spirit and the Body. In respect of the Spirit, Aristotle in his first Booke de partibus Animalium 
Answere to the first Argument.  saith, the seede is the nature, the principle, and the efficient of the thing begotten; and Galen in his second Book de Semine, calleth it Formator faetus, the former of the Infant. In respect of the Crassament or body, it is called a material & passiue principle, so that the same part of the seed shal not be the Actiue & Passiue principle, the act and the power, the moouer and the mooued, the matter and the forme as the Peripatetiks would perswade vs it must be, if that opinion were true. And Auerrhoes giueth an instance how these respects 
Auerrhoes.  may be separated, so that the same thing may become the moouer and the mooued in diuers considerations. For example: In a stone, the grauity or weight mooueth downward, and the stone is mooued; so in the seede, the spirit is the moouer, and that which is moued is the Crassament or substance.  
In those things that are done by Art, wee confesse the Artizane is no part of his owne workemanship; but in naturall things there is not the like reason. And this Aristotle teacheth 
Answere to the second. Aristotle.  in the 5. Chapter of his Booke de Spiratione. There is a difference( saith hee) betwixt Art and Nature, for Art vseth heate onely as an Instrument; but Nature vseth it both as an Instrument, and as a matter. For the fire which is vsed by the Artist to his worke, is not a part of the worke itself; but the heate, which is in nature, is diffused thorough the substance of that she intendeth to accomplish. Some Learned men make a two-fold kinde of Instrument, Wherewith and Wherein. The Instrument Wherewith, remaineth not in the part that is formed: but that wherein remaineth, as being the subiect of the forming faculty, otherwise there should be a formall transition, or transition of the forme, out of one subiect into another. For the forming faculty should leaue his proper subiect, that is, the seede, & transport itself into the blood.  
To the third; we do not deny that Bones and Spermatical parts are norished by blood, 
Answer to the third.  but that blood hath gotten and acquired vnto itself the nature of seede, in thickenesse, sliminesse, and whitenesse. Or say thus. The blood is the remote aliment of the spermaticall parts, and the seede or something like seede the immediate. To the fourth, the Parenchymata 
Answer to the fourth.  or flesh of the principall parts, are indeede generated of bloode; but their first foundations had their originall from seede. The Warpe is seede, the Woose is blood. To the 
To the fift.  fift. The Male alone cannot generate in himself, although he haue both Principles in him, Efficient and Materiall, because he hath no fit place for conception, nourishment, and preseruation of the Infant, yet therefore his seede cannot well be saide to be idle; for that is idle, which when it may or can, yet doth not work; but in the male it neither may nor can, because he hath not a field to sow his seed in; & the seed that lyeth in the garner, cannot be saide to be doted, because it groweth not; but if it bee put into the ground, then we know it is doted if it do not sprout.  
The last reason Argenterius makes great account of, for he taketh it to bee beyond credance, 
To the last. Argenterius.  that all the spermaticall parts should bee made of so small a quantity of seede; and therefore that he might be absurd alone, against all consent of antiquity he sayth, that no parts are made of seede. But truth is, that in this there is nothing admirable, but as all the workes of God are iustly to be admired. Shall we see a Spider weaue out of her womb a web a hundred times as long as herself, herself not at all lessened, and shall we thinke 
An example of the Spider  that Nature cannot draw as fine a thred, and after by addition of competent matter, enlarge the dimensions thereof? But let vs returne to Argenterius, and see how Clark-like he disputeth against Galen in this point. It is not possible( saith hee) that so many Bones, Gristles, Membranes, Vessels, &c. should be all formed of so little seede, and therefore 
Argenterius confuted.  none of them are made of seed. A light and vaine argument, drawne from the weaknesse of his owne vnderstanding. Doth he imagine thinke we, that the geniture conceyued & delineated the seuenth day, is by that time grown into farther dimensions then the seed which issued from both the Parents was of? Out of doubt he was not diligent in viewing abortments. 
The small quantitie of the Infant after it is tormed.  For we dare confidently and religiously auouch, that the first moneth the Embryo although articulated, is no bigger then halfe the thumbe, yea we haue seene it at xi. weeks not aboue an inch and a halfe long, and of the thickenesse of a good quill, though all the parts( euen of generation) were manifestly to be seene and distinguished. If any man shal call the credit of our asseueration into question, let him heare Aristotle Probl. 36. sect. 1. & 
Aristotle.  7. de Historia Animalium, where he auoucheth, If a Male Infant of forty dayes growth, be put into any other thing, it will fall asunder: but if it be cast into cold water, it gathereth together, and abideth compassed as it were with a Membrane, which being broken, the Infant appeareth in the magnitude of a great Ant or Pismire, and the Members of his Body may be discerned. What will Argenterius say to this? Is not the seede of greater quantity then a great Pismire? Let him remember Aristotles Philosophy, That in principles there is great perfection, litle 
Axiome.  quantity but abundant vertue. A small Acorne into how vast an Oake will it grow? The nourishment onely is from the earth: the extent of the parts from the vertue of the seede. 
Example.  But if hee will not beleeue Aristotle; as scarsely authenticall in Anatomy, wee will cite him before the Tribunall of truth itself, that is, of Hippocrates, who in his Booke de Principijs affirmeth the very same. The Geniture in seauen dayes hath whatsoeuer it ought to haue. For common and prostituted Strumpets, when they finde they haue conceiued, they vndo it within their owne bodyes by wicked meanes, and so there falleth from them as it were a flesh. Which flesh if it be cast into cold water, and diligently obserued, you shal in it perceyue all the members, the place of the eyes, eares, hands, fingers, thighes, feete, toes, and the secret parts. If therefore in the first seuen daies the infant be so small, why seemeth this vnreasonable, that of the seede at once cast into the wombe, the first threds and foundations of the spermatical parts should be formed, which afterward by the continuall apposition and assimulation of Aliment, receiue their increment and perfection?  
We conclude therefore, that all the spermaticall partes are generated of the Crassament or body of the seede, as of a materiall Principle. And this Crassament, although it 
The conclusion of the question.  seeme at the first view homogeniall, that is, hauing al parts of it alike, yet notwithstanding containeth in it parts of vnlike natures; thinner, thicker, fatter, flimier, some fyt for concretion or gathering together; others for tension and diffusion, all which are separated by the spirits and heate of the same seede, stirred vp by the Plasticall or formatiue power of the wombe: and so much concerning the fyrst question.   

Whether the Spermaticall parts can reioyne againe after they be violated and seuered. QVEST. VIII.  
_COncerning the coalition or reioyning of Spermaticall partes there is great contention; I know that many, as well of the ancient as later writers haue, and do maintain; that they may all reioyn 〈◇〉; that is, according 
Proofes that the spermaticall parts may reunite. The first argument.  to the first intention, as Chirurgians vse to speake, and this they establish by these arguments. Where the Efficient, Materiall, and Finall causes of coalition are, there is nothing to hinder a reiunction; but in young, growne and aged men, this threefold cause is present, therefore in all such there may be coalition: the Maior proposition of itself is cleere enough; the Minor is thus confirmed. The Efficient cause of coalition is the forming faculty, which vseth heate as her instrument; this faculty is seated naturally in euery part, but more manifestly in the solid parts then in the fleshy. The Matter of the spermaticall parts is seede, of which there is sufficient plenty, as for nutrition and accretion or growth, so also for a newe generation. Hippocrates also, Galen and Aristotle, 
Hippocrates. Galen. Aristotle.  doe agree, that the seede is an excrement, or rather surplusage of the last concoction; now the last and most absolute aliment is plentifull enough, neuer fayling vnlesse it be in the vtmost limit of decrepit age, and therefore the excrement or surplusage of it is not wanting. Moreouer according to Hippocrates, veines, arteries, nerues, and all spermaticall parts haue the power of procreating seed. Neither is the Finall cause wanting, for a broken bone and a diuided veine, doe after a sort desire and striue to be reunited; because the solace and comfort of Nature consisteth in vnion, as her sorrow and desolation in solution. They haue also another argument not inelegant; Hollow vlcers are filled vp with new flesh, intertexed 
The second argument.  and wouen with small and capillarie veines, arteries and sinewes; for that flesh is sensible, it liueth and is nourished, therefore of necessity by veines, arteries and sinewes.  
Who is so mad that he dare exclude the teeth out of the number of spermaticall parts? but they grow againe after they be extracted. Hippocrates in his book de Carnibus, maketh 
The third argument. Hippocrates.  a threefould generation of the teeth. The first from the seede in the wombe; the second from milke; the third from more solid aliments. Now if by the transmutation of the aliment the spermaticall parts doe encrease, why shall they not be reunited, seeing that accreation 
The fourth. The fifth. Galen.  is one of the kinds of generation? Galen in the seauenth chapter of the fift booke of his Method, and in the fourteenth of his Method writeth, That he hath seene many sculdered & reunited arteries. He telleth a story of a young man who had an artery diuided in his arme, which afterward did perfectly reunite againe. Also in his 91. chapter of his booke de arte parda, and in the fift chapter of the sixt booke of his Method, hee affirmeth that the bones of Children may reunite. These are the reasons which they vrge, and wherewith they goade vs to subscribe, that spermaticall partes euen according to the first intention, may reunite themselues.  
Those which haue giuen vp their names against this opinion, doe labour to prooue the contrary by authorities and by reasons. And first they oppose the sixtieth Aphorisme of 
The contrary opinion Authorities for it.  the sixt section; If a bone, a gristle, a nerue, or the fore-skin bee cut, they neuer reunite againe. Galen in the 8. and 10. chapters of his first booke de semine, as also in the 87. chapter de arte parua, writeth that the fleshy parts doe easily conglutinate, spermatical neuer. And in the 91. 
Hippocrates.  chapter Artis paruae, he esteemeth a fracture in a bone to bee incurable, because bones doe not reunite according to the first intention. These authorities are seconded by Reason; first, both 
Reasons.  the Efficient and Material causes of reunition are wanting. The Efficient is the formatiue facultie, which is onely in the seede, whose drowsie & lusking faculty is onely brought into act by the heate of the wombe. True it is, that there remaineth in the solid parts, a faculty conseruing the figure of the part; but to make any thing anew is proper onely to the seede, the Efficient therefore is wanting.  
Neither is there any Matter at hand, as the seede; which being generated onely in the testicles, how can it be transferred to the head, the arme or any other part? 
What is to be thought. Three conclusions, and 3. foundatiōs. The first foundation. A double reunition.   
Out of these waues and stormes of opinions, that wee may redeeme and establish their minds that are yet incertainely tossed to and fro, and set them safe aland in a quiet harbor, wee will determine the whole question by three conclusions, and these conclusions shall haue three foundations. The first is taken out of the determinations of Galen, in the 90. and 91. chapters de arte parua, and is on this manner. There is a double reunition of dissolued parts; One after the first scope, another after the second scope or intention. The first intention is 〈◇〉; that is, in Agglutination which we call 〈◇〉. The second 〈◇〉; that is, in Colligation which wee cal 〈◇〉. The first is sometimes accomplished without any medium, that is, ought comming betweene; as in flesh which being cut or diuided, is 
What are the first and second intentions in Coalition.  presently glued together; sometime with a medium of the same kinde, which we call medium homogeneum. The second intention is accomplished with a medium of another kind, which wee call medium heterogeneum, as with a Callus, Cicatrice or scarre, and such like which are not of the same kinde with the part dissected or separated. Now that parts may reioyne according to the first intention and by a homogeny medium or meane, many things are required. First, the strength of the Efficient, to wit, of the formatiue faculty and of the natiue heate. Againe, a due disposition of the Matter, which must be plentiful, that it may 
What things are required to the first intention.  suffice nutrition, accretion, and a new generation. Moreouer it must bee ministred not by little and little, but togetherward, that is, it must bee sodainely and at once altered, that nothing of a diuers kinde may interpose itself betweene the disioyned parts in the time of that alteration.  
Another foundation is this; Of spermaticall parts some are soft, as veines; some harder, 
The second foundation. The third.  as arteries and nerues; some hardest of all, as bones. The third foundation, That in Infancy and Child-hood all the spermatical parts are exceeding soft, and the bones like curdled or gathered butter, and coagulated or sammed cheese; but in those that are growne to further yeares, they become dryer, and in old men very dry, because our life is nothing else but a drying of the spermaticall parts.  
These foundations being thus layd, we conclude thus triplewise. First, that fleshy parts 
The triple conclusion.  are easily regenerated, and doe reunite according to the first intention; but spermaticall parts very hardly. Secondly, in Children and moyst natures, all the spermaticall parts, euen 
First. Second.  the bones may reunite by a homogenie meane; in those that are growne some parts may, but not all; veines often, arteries more rarely; bones neuer. In old men there is no hope of coalition in a nerue, membrane, arterie, veine or skinne, which is called 〈◇〉; none in a gristle broken, eaten a sunder, torne or dissected, which is called 〈◇〉; none in a bone broken which is called 〈◇〉. Thirdly, in all ages and sexes euen to the vtmost 
Third.  extent of old age, all the spermaticall parts will reunite according to the second intention, that is, by a medium or meane heterogenie, or of a diuers kinde, which in a bone is called Callus, in the rest a Cicatrice, or a scarre. 
The confirmation of the first conclusion.   
The truth of the first conclusion is thus confirmed; the mutation or change of bloud into flesh, is easie and expedite, because it is accomplished by a light and almost single and simple alteration. For bloud is red, hot and moyst; so also is flesh, redde, hot and moyst; one thing only is required; that the bloud be incrassated; there is therfore a fit & apt disposition of the matter. The Efficient is likewise very strong, because fleshy parts are hotter then spermaticall: whereupon it commeth to passe that they sodainly reunite, sometimes without any meane at all; sometimes with a Meane, but alwayes of the same kind and homogenie; yea oftentimes the flesh groweth so importunately in woundes( which wee call hyposarchosis) that we are constrayned to inhibite and restrayne the increase with corraside 
A threefold cause why spermatical parts do not reunite. 1 The weaknes of the Efficient.  Liniments and poulders. But on the other side, the spermaticall parts doe very hardly reunite according to the first intention, because of the weaknes of the Efficient, the ineptitude or vnfitnesse of the Matter, and the siccitie or drynesse of the parts. The Efficient is heate, which being weake, hath enough to doe to intend conseruation and nutrition, and therefore cannot perfectly restore the decayed and vanished substance of the solid parts. It is enough( sayth Galen in the 59. chapter Artis paruae) if it hinder them from being exiccated or dryed vp. How shall it then laudably indeuour a new generation, when it cannot preserue them in that state in which Nature produced or brought them foorth? Haply there will 
2 The indisposition of the Matter.  be a sufficiency of Matter, but it cannot flow together ward and at once, because the mutation or change of bloud into a bone, cannot be accomplished but by long interpolation and many meane alterations: first into marrow, then into glew, and so into seede; of red it must become white, of moyste it must become drie, of liquid it must bee incrassated or thickned; in a worde, it must alter the temper and all the qualities. Wherefore, because the aliment doth not flow but by little and little to the nourishment of the bones and the spermaticall parts; it commeth to passe, that the excrement which resulteth or ariseth out of the nourishment, doth interpose itself betweene the disioyned parts before the bloud can passe thorough those diuers alterations, and so breedeth a Callus. There is also another impediment from the neighbouring parts; as if they bee fleshy they preuent the c̄oalition by filling vp the vacuitie or empty space.  
The last cause of the difficulty of coalition, is the siccity and hardnesse of the spermaticall 
3 The hardnes and siccity of the parts.  parts. For those things that are dry are very hardly vnited; and the Philosopher in all mixtions requireth some watery moysture, that by it as by a glew, all the rest may bee vnited.  
The second conclusion is thus strengthned: Children because they are not far off from 
The confirmation of the 2. conclusion.  the principles of generation, haue the Efficient cause very strong and forcible: they haue aboundance of naturall heate, plenty of spermaticall Matter and that very apt, which is sodainly and easily changed, because of the softnes and supplenesse of the spermaticall parts. In growne men the veines because they are soft and beside at rest from growing and extension, are easily glued together; but the arteries very hardly, as well by reason of their continuall motion which hindereth reunition, as also because of the hardnesse of their coates, for they are( as sayth Herophilus) fiue-fould thicker then the veines. Some haue 
Herophilus.  obserued that many parts, albeit they be soft doe neuerthelesse not reunite, because of the excellency and necessity of their action; for that the creature dyeth before they can be reunited; so the flesh of the heart being disseuered is neuer reunited, because the man dieth instantly, by reason of the interception of a duty or function of absolute necessity for the preseruation of life.  
The third conclusion is so euident of itself, that it needeth no probation at all; for at all times spermaticall parts doe reunite by a heterogenie meane. If the skin bee wounded 
The confirmation of the 3. conclusion.  there euermore groweth acicatrice or scarre vppon the separation. A broken bone is alwayes and at all times souldered with a knotty Callus; notwithstanding for further illustration two problemes or difficulties are to be cleered.  
The first, why if a bone be caued or hollowed by an vlcer so as there is any losse of the bone, the flesh can neuer be generated ouer it? For Hippocrates in the 45. Aphorisme of 
The first probleme.  the sixt section sayeth, All vlcers that are Annual must of necessity loose some part of the bone vnder them, and the scarres or Cicatrices become hollow. Why doth not the flesh insinuate itself into the hollow place of the perished bone? Or if there be a Callus generated, why is there not also flesh generated about it? I answere, that flesh cannot bee generated in the 
The answere to it.  cauitie of the bone, because flesh is not made but of flesh, a nerue but of a nerue; now the lippes or extreame verges of the cauitie are bony: what therefore shall they endeuour to generate? Surely either nothing at all, or else a bone or a Callus. If in the place of that which is lost there be no body substituted, then is there no foundation layde whereupon flesh may arise. The bone itself in dry and hard bodies cannot be regenerated; therfore Nature not being able to doe that she would, doth that shee can, so shee maketh a Callus. But what is the reason why no flesh can grow vpon this Callus? Because flesh is a liuing 
Obiection. Solution.  and animated thing, and a Callus without life altogether: now that which is animated, and that which is inanimated, that which liueth and that which is dead, do differ in the greatest difference, that is in the kinde and very forme; wherefore the Callus which is without life, cannot be a foundation to build flesh vppon which hath life. That a Callus is without life, may be demonstrated, because it is produced of the excrement of the bone and the neighbour parts. If it be obiected, that if it bee without life and not nourished, it could not endure and grow all the time of a mans life, which that it doeth is more then manifest: the 
Obiection. Solution.  answere is at hand; It encreaseth not by nutrition, but by apposition of the matter, as the haires, and the nailes; againe, it endureth as long as the bones receiue any nourishment, from which there alwayes redoundeth an excrement, whereby it is preserued.  
The second Probleme is; why if the Callus come from the excrement of the bone, is it not generated in a sound bone which also yeildeth an excrement? Because, when the bone 
The 2. probleme. Solution.  is weakned by a wound, the excrements are more plentifully driuen vnto it from the neighbour parts; euen as all the parts that border vpon a wounded part, doe thrust downe their superfluities vnto it. And thus I thinke I haue touched, I hope cleered, all difficulties which concerne the coalition of the spermaticall partes; it is therefore nowe high time to turne our discourse some other way.  
But before we leaue the field, it shall not be amisse to disparkle all the forces of our aduersaries, 
Answere to the former obiections. To the first.  that we may be sayd to haue gayned an intire and accomplished victory. The first argument of the first opinion is true onely in Children; for in old men euery man will confesse there is both a weakenesse of the Efficient, and a want of the Matter. The second is a captious Sophisme, made to intrap the ignorāt. For it is not necessary that whersoeuer 
To the secōd.  there is sence, there also should be a nerue, for then the whole body should bee a nerue; it is sufficient, if a nerue be deriued vnto the part, by whose illustration and irradiation, all the particles of that part haue sence; the same we may say of Veines and arteries. For Mathematicall or locall contaction is not required to euery action, but onely physicall and naturall.  
For their third argument, I answere, that there is not the like reason of the teeth, and of other bones; for the teeth after they be drawne doe growe againe, by reason of theyr 
To the third.  End, and by reason of their Matter. By reason of their End, because they are ordained to chew, mittigate, and prepare the meate for the stomacke: and therefore as they encrease euen till the end of our age for our necessity, because they are continually wasted by attrition or rubbing one against another; so for the same necessity they are regenerated when they faile. Beside, if you regard the matter of their generation, there is aboundance of it contained in the cauities of both the iawes; add heereto, that the teeth are not incompassed with any other part which should hinder their generation.  
Fourthly, they vrge, that Accretion and Nutrition are kinds of generation; but bones do grow and are nourished, why therefore may they not be revnited? Wee answere, that 
To the fourth  this is the order and dispensation of Nature; that first the part be nourished; then, if there be any ouerplus, that the part encrease into all dimensions; and after this expence, if there yet remaine any surplusage of aliment, that then it may go to the restoring of the want or defect in the part; but seede is neuer generated in that quantity, that it should be sufficient for nourishment, accretion, and beside for a new generation.  
In the wombe indeede the Spermaticall parts are easily generated, because both the matter is copious, and there is moreouer 〈◇〉, a double Workeman, one in the seede, another in the vessels, or as some thinke, in the substance of the wombe; but after wee are borne, they are hardly generated, because one of the workemen is absent, 
Answer to the authorities of Galen.  which formerly was in the seede, or assistant vnto it. As for the authorities of Galen, they do not conclude either that all spermatical parts do admit coalition, or som alwayes; and therefore we willingly subscribe vnto them, without any praeiudice vnto our cause.  
The argument of the other Opinion, which denieth the formatiue faculty to the spermaticall parts, yeelding it onely to the seede, is easily ouerthrowne; because the seede( according 
Answere to the argumēts of the second opinion.  to Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, and all Physitians) containeth in it the Idea or formes of all the parts, which it receiueth from the solid or spermaticall parts. True it is, that in the Bones there is, that I may so say, a power to bonify or make bones, in the veins to veinefy, so there be an apt disposition of the matter. But when wee say that Bones are nourished, encreased, and do revnite by seede, we do not vnderstand prolificall seede such as is apt for generation; that is onely in and about the Testicles, where it attaineth his forme and perfection, but we vnderstand something like vnto seede. Finally, the authorities of Hippocrates and Galen, doe conclude onely, that the hinder parts cannot revnite, which thing we haue already demonstrated in the second Conclusion. And thus much of 
To the authorities of Hippocrates & Galen.  the second question.   

QVEST. IX. Whether the Spermaticall parts be hotter then the Fleshie.  
_IT were either superstition or ostentation to quote all the places of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen, wherein they auouch, that vnbloudy parts are colder then bloudy; but no man that euer I read of, did euer deny that fleshy parts are bloudy, and spermaticall either without bloud, or at least but lightly moistned therewith. Vpon these premises any man may gather the conclusion; or if they will not inferre it, it will arise of itself. Yet there are some among the late writers, who would faine perswade themselues, that the Spermaticall parts are hotter then the sanguine or bloudy. Iobertus sometimes the learned Chancellor of the Vniuersity of Mompelier in France, set forth a Paradoxe concerning this matter, wherein the disputeth many things with great wit and subtility; some probabilitie, but lesse substance of truth, concerning the in-bred heate of the spermaticall partes. I haue alwayes much esteemed the learning and edge of the mans wit, yet because he is the Chieftaine 
Ioberts opinion of the heat of spermaticall parts.  of them who hath impeached the authority of the receiued opinion concerning this matter; I am constrayned to dissent from him, and will not thinke it presumption to examine his arguments one by one, that the truth may more euidently appeare.  
Those things( sayth he) that arise of others do sauor of the principles from whence they 
His first argument.  arise; but the seede from which the spermatical parts do proceed, is hotter then bloud; and therfore the spermatical parts are hotter then the sanguine or bloudy. Now that the seed is hotter then the bloud, may thus bee demonstrated. Hippocrates calleth seede fiery & ayrie; bloud cold and waterish. Beside, bloud is contayned in a trough or channell, but the seed passeth through vessels which haue no sensible cauities, which are certaine signes of the tenuity and heat thereof. But this reason seemeth to be more washy and loose, then may answere the strength and vigor of so great a Clarks wit. For there are two things to be considered 
The answere to the former argument. Two things to be considered in seede, the body and the spirits.  in seed( as sayth Galen in many places) the crassament, corpulencie as I may say, or body of it, and the spirites wherewith it is aboundantly stored: in reference to the former the seed is sayd to be watery and earthy; in reference to the spirits, fierie. The spirits are the instruments of the soule, by which that noble architect formeth her mansion or habitation out of the seede, working and forming it into parts conuenient. These are called forming spirits, and in respect of these, the seed is sayd to be artifex, a workman, and carrieth the nature of an Efficient cause. The watrish and cold body of the seede, is the matter of the spermaticall parts. I conclude therefore that the whole seede considered with all his parts is hotter then the bloud, because it is fuller of spirits; but if the seede be robbed of his spirits, then is it colder then the bloud; and therefore being auoyded, the heate of it presently vanisheth, and by the coldnesse of the ayre it becommeth libuid and black: and such did Galen acknowledge the matter of the spermaticall parts to be.  
This first argument Iobertus strengthneth with another, thus. The conformation or 
Iobertus his 2. argument.  structure, and scite or position of the spermaticall parts doe manifestly proue their heate: for the bones occupy the in-most place, and are couered on euery side with flesh, as are also the nerues, least their ingenit or in-bredde heate should vanish or bee offended by the coldnes of the ambient ayre; but the flesh is placed about the vtmost parts. By which argument 
Answere.  I cannot see what he wold conclude, for all these things do rather argue the coldnesse, then the heat of the spermaticall parts; for because cold was their greatest enemy, that their weake and languishing heate might not bee extinguished, Nature did on euery side cherish them with flesh, and inuest them with membranes for their defence. Moreouer, the bones are not feated so farre within for the preseruation of their heat, but because they should serue as a stay and prop to vphold all the rest of the frame. But if he will conclude that the externall parts are colder then the internal, it will follow that the skin( which all men acknowledge to be temperate) is colder then either nerues or bones.  
His third argument is yet more absurd. The spermaticall parts( sayth he) are easily offended 
Iobertus 3. argument.  with the cold, therefore they are hot, for alteration is made by contraries, conseruation by things that are alike. But this is vtterly opposite to Galens Philosophy, who in his booke de arte parita, giueth this as a generall rule, whereby we may distinguish the tempers 
Answered. Galen.  of the parts that those which are easily offended with cold, are cold, and the hot with heate. So sayth Hippocrates, cold is the greatest enemy to the bones, nerues, teeth & marrow 
Hippocrates.  of the backe, because these parts are cold. Galen hath these expresse words in the 59. chapter of his booke de arte parua. In all parts this is a common marke of the temperature, if the member doe easily grow cold, it is a signe of frigidity or rarity; if hardly, of heat or of density; if drying things offend it, then is it dry and rashy, if moyst things then it is moyst.  
Finally, Iobert addeth this last argument. For that many actions of the spermatical parts 
Iobertus 4. argument.  doe testifie that there is in them a vehement and high degree of heate; so the stomacke which is membranous, attenuateth and boyleth the meat though it be very hard; yea, the Estrich softneth yron in her maw. The bladder which is likewise membranous, baketh the stone harder then the kidneyes, which are fleshy parts. These obiections may at first sight seeme of some moment to those that are not sufficiently ground● in our Art, but we will labour to shew their weakenes and insufficiency. First therefore that obiection concerning 
Answered,  the stomacke is full of errour: for those creatures in whome the innermost coate or membrane of the stomacke is more fleshy, doe boyle their meat more strongly: and those creatures which haue no teeth, as birds, haue a solid flesh, and very full of warmth annexed to their crops, and as for men, the inward coat of their stomacks is lined ouer with a fleshy 
A good obseruation of Fallopius.  crust, which Fallopius first of all men obserued. But go too, let vs yeild this vnto him, that the membranous stomacke doth more perfectly boile, the membranous bladder bakes the stone harder, yet it will not thereupon follow that the spermaticall parts are the hotter, but that the heat when it is retained in a more solid and fast matter, burneth more powerfully. Who will say that a glowing yron is hotter then a flame of fire? No, it burneth more fiercely, 
Comparison.  but yet the degree of his heate is more remisse. So fire in his owne spheare, and in aquauitae doe not burne, because of the tenuity and thinnesse of the matter. For the stone, it is 
Aquauitae.  not generated so much by a sharpe and biting heate, as by long continuance in the part, & of the viscidity and sliminesse of the matter, as we see in old men. Hence therefore it appeareth that the spermaticall parts are not hotter then the fleshy. Neither must wee admit the distinction of ingenit and influent heat; because if there bee a collation or comparison made, it must be between equals; and thus much of the third question.   

QVEST. X. Whether the solid parts being once dryed, can be made moyst againe.  
_THere is also beside the former three, another by-question, concerning the moystning of solid parts after they bee dryed: for the opening whereof, wee must vnderstand that the name of a solid part is very ambiguous and equinocall. The common people call that a solid part which is firme, hard, dense 
Manifold acceptions of a solid part. Galen. Hippocrates.  or thight, and well compacted or knit together. So Galen calleth the flesh of the heart solid flesh. Hippocrates in the 7. section of his 6. booke Epidemi●n, calleth all the contayning parts solid, and thus fleshy parts also shall be esteemed solid. Some there are who by solid, vnderstand all animated parts, which haue a proper circumscription, and are bounded within their owne limits. Philosophers call that solid which is, 〈◇〉, tale, that is, wholly ful of itself: so the fire and the ayre in their owne spheares are sayd to be solid. So 
Cicero de diuinatione.  Cicero in the first booke of his Diuinations sayth, that when Alexander determined to weare a crowne of gold, he made doubt whether it should be of solid gold, or only laid ouer with gold on the outside: and according to this acceptation, all the similar particles( as we haue already shewed) are called solid, because all parts of them are equall and alike. But most properly the Physitians call those solid partes which are spermaticall, as Galen teacheth in 
Which are properly called solid parts Galen.  the first chapter of the eleuenth booke of his Method, and in the 7. chap. of his first booke de naturalibus facultatibus, as also in the 16. chap. of his first booke de semine, in all which places he calleth fleshy parts bloudy, and spermaticall parts solid. These solid parts in the 59. chap. of his booke de arte parua, he calleth primas or the First; either because they are 
Why they are called first parts.  the foundations of the rest, and as it were the first threds & lines which support the whole fabrique of the body; whereas the flesh doth but as rubbish fill vppe the empty spaces betweene them; or else because seede is the first principle of the body; or lastly, because the spermaticall parts are generated before the fleshy. Now the question is concerning these 
Whether the solid parts may be moystned. Galen.  true and properly so called solid parts; whether if they bee resiccated and dried, they may be by Art or Nature moistned again; that is to say, whether the Aliment that is substituted be of the same kinde with that which is wasted. Galen was the man who gaue the occasion to this question in the 59. chap. Artis paruae. Solid parts( sayeth hee) of the body can by no meanes be made moyster, it is all we can do if we can keep them from drying. And in the 1. cha. of the 11. booke of his Method. The quantity of the solid parts remayneth alwayes the same. And in the 11. chap. of the tenth booke of his Method. The siccity or drynes of the solid parts can by no meanes be cured.  
We imagine that this doubt may easily bee assoyled, if wee remember that in the solid parts there is a double substance; one exquisity solid & fibrous, altogither without bloud; another which filleth vp the distances of the fibres, which is called the proper and peculiar 
A double substance of the solid parts out of Galen.  flesh of euery part. The first can by no possible meanes be humected or moystned, that is to say, neither such nor somuch can be restored how much and of what kind is spent or consumed. The later may easily be restored. But least you should think this distinction to bee a 
Tantum et tale. Quantum & quale. Galen.  brat of my owne braine, you shall heare Galen making mention of the very same in his Medicinal Art, and in his booke of Method. In the 59. chap. artis paruae. The solid parts( sayth he) which are truely solid and first parts, can by no possible meanes bee moystned; it is as much as we can do if we can hinder them from being ouer soon exiceated or dried vp, but the inter-middle spaces may possibly be filled with this or that moysture. In the 11. chap. of the 10. booke of his Method. In the solid parts there is a fibrous substance and there is a fleshy; so a veine which hath but a thin coate, hath many fibres intertexed or wouen with it, to which the proper substance of the veine groweth. This hath yet gotten no common name; but by way of instruction I see no reason but you may call it the fleshy substance. This distinction therefore is Galens owne, and therefore the fitter for vs to rest in. And so we haue gon through all the controuersies or difficulties that concerne the nature of a part, which we esteeme to be the proper subiect of Anatomy. It remaineth now that we addresse ourselves to our buisinesse.    

THE SECOND BOOKE. Of the parts Investing and Containing the whole Body: And also the lower belly in particular.  

The Praeface.  
_BEeing now to dissolue this goodly frame of Nature, and to take in pieces this Maister-piece, it shall not bee amisse to take a light suruey of all the parts as they lye in order, beginning with that which first meeteth with the sence. This body therefore, which indeede is but the Sepulchre of that God at first created, although to the eye it is very specious and beautifull, yet is it but infirme and weakely defended, so that the soule is truly saide Inhabitare immunitam Ciuitatem; for to death and diseases we lie open on euery side. The world is a Sea, the accidents and diuers occurrents in it are waues, wherein this small Bark is tossed and beaten vp and downe, and there is betwixt vs and our dissolution, not an inch boord, but a tender skinne, which the slenderest violence euen the cold aire is able to slice through. How then, may some say, commeth it to passe, that so weake a vessell should liue in so tempestuous a Sea, should ride out so many stormes and dangers? Surely, it is put together with wonderfull Art, and framed according to Geometricall proportions, which the English Poet hath obscurely but excellently described vnder the type of the Castle of Alma, that is, of the soule.  
The Frame thereof seem'd partly Circulare,  
And partly Triangulare: ô worke Diuine!  
Those two, the first and last proportions are;  
The one, imperfect, mortall, foeminine:  
The other, immortall, perfect, Masculine:  
And twixt them two, a Quadrate was the base,  
Proportioned equally by seauen and nine;  
Nine, was the Circle set in Heauens place,  
All which compacted, made a goodly Diapase.  
So that truth to say, it is not the matter, whose commencements are dust, and consummation clay, but the excellent proportion and structure that maketh this Paper-sconce high perill-proofe.  
VVe list not againe to retriue the wonders we haue already sprung, least we should seem to mingle Yarne to lengthen out our web: our paine is as great in choise, as others is in want. For he that would sum vp all the rarities of Nature, which shee hath packed together in that goodly cabinet, had neede of the Sea for his Inke, and the sand for his Counters. It shall be sufficient in this place, to draw the Curtaine and to shew you the case, rather the Coffin or winding sheete wherein nature hath wrapped this liuing body of death. Those are foure besides the haires, wherewith as with Flowers the coffin is garnished that is, the Cuticle or Scarfe-skin, the skin itself, the fat and the fleshy Membrane.  
The Haires are a velature or couering for the more vncomely parts, a defence for the head, which we may encrease or diminish, keepe on or leaue off at our pleasure and for our necessity, an ornament for the face, and finally a conuenient outlet and way of expence for the thicke and smoaky vapors, which otherwise would smother and choake the Braine.  
The Scarfe-skin or Cuticle being voide of sense itself, is ordained as a muniment to defend the skinne from the violence of outward iniuries, to attemper his exquisite sense, and so become the medium or meane of sensation; to couer the Orifices or mouths of the Capillarie and hairy or small vessels, which determine in the skin that the blood issue not from them, to sucke vp the vaporous moysture which otherwise would indecently well out of the pores of the skin, and insensibly to euaporate the same, which we call transpiration; and finally, to turne the roughnesse and inequality of the skinne into a soft and slicke smoothnesse, and so becommeth one of the principall beauties of the body.  
The skin itself is the wall of the Castle, so quaintly framed, that the more fiercelie it is besieged by the cold, the more safely it doth defend, and the more strength it doth giue to the inward parts: and therefore Hippocrates saith, In Winter the belly, that is, the inward parts of the body are hotter; the reason is, because all the spirits are immured, and the Naturall heate restrained from vaporing forth. But when the outward enemies are departed, then it openeth itself on euery side, so cleansing the body of such superfluities, as in the time of constraint were contracted.  
Next vnder the skin lyeth the fat, a pillow to the vessels which run vnder it, a complement to fill vp the vacant distances of the Muscles, thereby making the body plumpe, soft, and better proportioned; a light and soft vesture to keepe the subiected parts warm in winter, and in summer to defend them from heate. Finally, a Stowage or Magazine of nourishment against a time of dearth: for being dissolued by the naturall heate, it melteth into a blood-like vapour, and returneth againe into the vessels, and so becommeth a subsidiary Aliment in times of Necessity, Nature being at her own finding, and teaching vs with how little she can content herself.  
Finally, the fleshy Membrane as an avant Mure or inward counter-scarfe, is ordained as a secret defence to hold out a second assault, if the outward should bee won by the enemy. It preserueth also the fat, that it is not molten with the perpetuall motion of the Muscles. It supporteth and sustaineth the passages of the vessels which run from within forth to the surface of the body. And to conclude, as a mound of earth within a Citie, serues to make vp the breaches of the wall, so doth this Membrane being fleshy, helpe to consolidate the skin being wounded, or otherwise violated, which without flesh was impossible to be accomplished. And these are the outward defences which are generall to the whole bodye. There are some also more particular to the lower belly, with which in our Anatomical administration, we must begin according to the order of Dissection: but first we wil giue you a generall view of all the regions & outward parts of the body, calling euery one by theyr names, and disciphering them in two Tables, to which wee haue added also their exposition, that the young Anatomist being in the beginning acbuainted with the appellations of the outward parts, may not be puzled in the future Discourse.   

CHAP. I. A Diuision of the body of Man.  
_DIocles Caristius in an Epistle to King Antigonus, diuides the body of Man into the head, the chest, the belly, and the bladder. The Egyptians 
Diuers diuisions of the body.  into the head, the necke, the chest, the handes, and the legges; we will part it into three regions, and the ioynts. The three regions are, the vpper which is the head, the middle which is the 
Our diuision.  chest, and the lower which is the belly. The vpper region or the 
The vpper region which is the head.  head, is circumscribed or limited by the crowne, and the first racke bone of the necke. The second Region the later writers do cail venter medius, or the middle belly and the chest. Hippocrates in his Aphorismes calleth it the vpper belly, but in reference to the lower: and the chest in his Booke De Arte, is taken for the whole trunke of the body, for he writeth; that the Liuer is scituated in the Chest. This 
The middle region which is the Chest.  second or middle Region is likewise limited by his bounds, the vpper part with the Clauicles, so called, because they do claudere, that is, shut vp the Chest: we call them patelbones: below, with the brest blade and midriffe, which like a partition wall distinguisheth this middle from the lower region. On both sides it is enclosed with twelue Ribs, before with the 
TABVLAI. The first Table, shewing the outward and fore-parts of the body.  

A The hairy Scalp, cald 〈◇〉.  
b The forhead cald Frons, 〈◇〉  
c The temples cald tēpora, 〈◇〉 From b. to d. The compasse of the face.  
e The greater or inward corner of the eie, cald Canthus internus.  
f The lesser or externall angle of the eye, cald Canthus externus.  
* The lower eyebrow which is immooueable, Palpebra.  
g The cheek-bal cald mala, 〈◇〉.  
h the cheek-puf cald bucca, 〈◇〉  
i The ridge of the nose cald Nasus externus, 〈◇〉.  
K The nosthrils cald nares, 〈◇〉  
L The outward eare, auris externa  
m The mouth made of the two lips, cald Os.  
n The chin called mentū, 〈◇〉.  
o The neck, collū 〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉.  
Frō o. to e. the piller of the neck, truncus, & 〈◇〉.  
pp. The hollow of the neck, called iugull, 〈◇〉.  
qq. The patel bones, claues 〈◇〉  
r. The chest pectus, 〈◇〉.  
s. The right breast.  
ss. The left brest: to this Region we apply cordiall Epithemations moist and dry.  
tt. The nipples of the brests, Papillae 〈◇〉.  
u. The trench of the heart which the Ancients called 〈◇〉. The Latines scrobiculus Cordis. This part is anointed for the mouth of the stomacke.  
Frō u to E. the lower belly, 〈◇〉  
x. The Epigastrium or vpper part of the lower belly.  
yy. The Hypochondria or Praecordiae  
* The outwarde Liuer-remedies are applyed to this place.  
z The region of the nauill, called vmbilicalis, or the middle part of the lower belly.  
A. The nauil vmbilicus. The root of the belly, 〈◇〉.  
BB. the sides, Latera, 〈◇〉.  
C. Hypogastr um. the watercourse Aqualiculus, the lower part of the lower belly, 〈◇〉.  
DD. The flankes called Ilia and 〈◇〉.  
E. The Groine called pubes or pecten, 〈◇〉.  
FF. The Leske cald inguen, wher those tumors are cald Bubones.  
G. The yard with the foreskinne, penis cum praeputio.  
H. The stones or Testicles, with the cod or scrotum.  
II. The shoulders humeri 〈◇〉.  
KK The armes Brach a, 〈◇〉.  
L. The bowt of the arme, called Gibber, 〈◇〉.  
M. The outside of the lower part of the arme cald cubitus 〈◇〉.  
N. The wrest cald Brachiale 〈◇〉  
O. The after-wrest postbrachiale, 〈◇〉.  
P. The Palme called Palma or vola manus, 〈◇〉.  
φ The backe of the hand Dorsum manus, 〈◇〉.  
QQ. The fore and middle part of the thigh where wee apply cupping glasses to bring down womens courses. 〈◇〉.  
RR. The knee, genu, 〈◇〉. SS. The Legg, Tibia 〈◇〉. TT. The calfe of the Leg sura, 〈◇〉. VV. The instep, tarsus. XX. The top of the foote Dorsum pedis, 〈◇〉. YY. The Inner Ankles, 〈◇〉. ZZ. The outwarde ankles. αα The toes of the feete. β The place vnder the inward ankle, where the veine called Saphena is opened.   
The Second Table, shewing the outward backe parts of a Man.  

A. The fore-part of the head, synciput, 〈◇〉.  
B. The top or crown of the head vertex, 〈◇〉.  
C. The hinder-part of the head, occiput, 〈◇〉.  
From D. to D. The face, Facies, 〈◇〉.  
E. The eyebrowes supercilia, 〈◇〉.  
F. The vpper eye-lid, 〈◇〉.  
* G. The tip of the nose cald Globulus nasi.  
H. The back part of the neck, cald ceruix, 〈◇〉 and the nuke or nape of the neck, there is a hollownes at the top of this ceruix, where we apply Seatons.  
I. The backe part of the shoulder top, called axilla, 〈◇〉.  
KK The shoulder blades scapulae, 〈◇〉.  
1, 2, 3. On this place we set cupping glasses.  
4, 5, 6, 7. The backe dorsum, 〈◇〉.  
8, 9. The ridge, spina dorsi, 〈◇〉.  
L. The armehole, ala, 〈◇〉.  
* The elbow, G bber brachij.  
MMMM. The sides, Latera.  
NN. The loines Lumbi, or the region of the kidneyes, 〈◇〉.  
OO. The place of the hips, coxendices, where wee apply remedies for the Sciatica.  
P. The place of the holy-bone, or Os sacrum, where we apply remedies in the diseases of the right gut.  
Q The place of the Rumpe or Coccyx.  
RR The Buttockes Nates, 〈◇〉.  
SS. The backe parts of the thigh, Femen.  
TT. The ham, Poples, 〈◇〉.  
VV. The Calfe of the Leg. sura.  
XX. The foote or paruus pes, 〈◇〉.  
YY. The vtter ankle, Malleolus externus.  
ZZ. The heele, calx or calcaneus, 〈◇〉.  
aa. The sole of the foote Plantapedis, 〈◇〉.  
b The inside of the lower part of the arme called Vlna, 〈◇〉.  
c The outside of the same, Cubitus 〈◇〉.  
dd The wrest, Carpus.  
ee The backe part of the hand, dorsum manus. g. The fore-finger index 〈◇〉. h, The thumb, pollex, 〈◇〉. i. The middle finger, medius, 〈◇〉. k. The ring-finger Annularis, medicus, 〈◇〉. l, The little finger, Auricularis, minimus, 〈◇〉.   brest bone, behind with the backe: round about, on the outside, with many Muscles, on the inside with a Membrane which compasseth the ribbes. The third Region is called the lower belly, circumscribed aboue by the breast blade and the Midriffe: below, by the hipbones, 
The third region which is the belly.  the Haunch bones and the share bones: behinde, by fiue racke bones of the loines, and the holy or great bone; and before, by the whole Abdomen or paunch. The rest of the body we call the loynts, in Latine artus, and those are the armes and the legges, which like 
The Ioynts.  boughes or branches, grow out of the trunke of the body. In the vpper region, are contained 
What is contained in each region.  the Animal organs, that is, the braine, which is the seate of the soule, and the original or fountaine of sence and motion. In the middle region, are contained the vitall parts, and parts seruing for respiration, as the Heart, the Lungs, and the arteries. In the lower region are contained all the naturall organs seruing for concoction of nourishment, expurgation, of excrements and procreation. And therefore the vpper Region is called Animall, the 
Why the vpper region is bonie.  middle Spirituall, and the lowest Naturall. The vpper is walled about on euery side with bones, as it were a strong bulwarke or peece for defence, because in it, the soule which is the Queene of this Little world, keepeth her residence or state. The middle is partly bony, 
Why the middle is partly bonie, and partly fleshie.  and partly fleshy: bony, for the strength of the heart, and to frame the cauity; and fleshye, for the more facile motion of the Systole and Diastole. The lower region is before altogether fleshy, that it might better bee contracted and distended, and swell into a greater 
Why the lower is altogether fleshie.  proportion for the concoction of the aliment, in the suppression of the excrements, & for the contayning and increase of the infant. In which position who can but admire the wonderfull prouidence of the Creator? The Animall Region hee hath set in the highest place, as well for the conueniency of the sences( for the voyce is better heard from aboue; 
Why the animal region is highest.  the smell receiueth best an ascending vapour, and the eyes which are as scout watches and spies, doe see furthest from aboue) as also because it was conuenient that the principall faculties of the soule should be as farre distant as they might frō the noysome vapors which doe exhale from the partes where the aliment is concocted and the excrements are retayned.  
The spirituall Region, which is the well-spring of heate and source of life, is placed in 
Why the spiritual region is in the midst. Why the natural is placed below.  the middest, that it might difuse his sweet influence as well into the lower as into the vpper parts. The naturall Region as it were the kitchin, is built neere the ground, that the excrements might better settle from the more noble parts, and bee also more cleanly conuayed away. And this shall suffice for a briefe diuision of the whole body, and description of the three regions, through all which we will walke at more leasure, to obserue the diuers parts therein contayned. But our perambulation shall not bee in an order answerable to the 
The order of dissection.  dignity of the parts, but rather Anatomicall. For they that dissect dead bodies, doe first open the lower region, which because it is the sinke of the body, will soonest bee corrupted vnlesse the parts therein contayned be taken away. We therefore from it will commence our discourse.   

The diuision of the inferior or lower belly. CHAP. II.  
_THE inferior or lower venter, which wee commonly call the Belly, in greeke 〈◇〉; is almost the middle part of the bulke or trunke of the body, distinguished from the chest by the diaphragme or midriffe; and is circumscribed or 
The scituatiō of the lower belly.  bounded aboue by the breast blade at the end of the breast bone, below, at the share bone: before, by that which is properly called the abdomen or paunch.( for some call all the lower belly by that name, whence those that are great gormandizers are sayd to be nati Abdomini, that is, borne for their bellies) behind, by the spondels or rack bones of the loynes, and the sacred or holy bone; on both sides, by the ribs the bones of the hippes and haunches. This Venter, because it was to containe the members of generation & nutrition both, hath allotted vnto it the most ample cauity or hollownes of the whole body. It is therefore placed below, that it might better receiue the recrements or excrements 
Why it is placed below. Why so fleshy  of both concoctions, and more easily and cleanly conuay them away. Before and on both sides it is fleshy, that it might bee dilated or stretched out, as well for the receiuing of nourishment as for the contayning the increase of the wombe, or else bee compressed and straightned when need shall bee for the exclusion or auoyding of excrements. 
How it is diuided.   
It is deuided into two partes, the fore-part and the hinder-part; The fore-parte which Galen calleth 〈◇〉, and the Arabians( though their part of Anatomy wee may 
The forepart.  without great detrement to our Art forget) Mirach, Galen deuideth into three parts: 
The vpper part or region of the Epigastrium.  The Hypochondria, the Region of the Nauill, and the Water-course or Hypogastrium: wherfore in imitation of him wee also wil deuide it into the Vpper, the Middle, and the Lower Regions. 
Hypochondria why so called. Praecordia why so called. Celsus.   
The Vpper, which is limited by the sword-like cartilage or the breast-blade and the ends of the ribs, hath three parts; two latterall or side-parts properly called Hypochondria, because they are vnder the gristles of the bastard ribs, for so much the greeke worde signifieth. Celsus by a like kinde of notation calleth them praecordia, because they bee vnder the 
What parts are in the Hypochondria.  mouth of the stomacke, which the ancient Greekes called by the same name with the hart. In the right Hypochondrium is placed the greater part of the Liuer; in the left, the spleene 
The 3. part of of the vpper Epigastrium.  and the greater part of the stomacke: the third part of the vpper Epigastrium, which also standeth in the front, hath deseruedly gotten the name of the whole, and is truely called Epigastrium, because the stomacke lyeth vnder it, which by an excellency is called Gaster or 
The spoon or hole of the heart.  the belly. In this place is that cauity which the latter writers call Scrobiculum cordis, the hole or spoone of the Heart, the ancients called it Cardia. The middle part of the Epigastrium 
The middle region of the Epigastrium called the region of the Nauil.  is the Region of the Nauill; it is circumscribed on both sides, with the endes of the ribs; & they right line of the haunch bone it hath likewise 3. parts: two laterall which Galen calleth 〈◇〉, i. void because the place is without bones: & Aristotle 〈◇〉, because the are laxe and loose; some call them Ilia, we call them the flankes. On the right side the blind 
The parts cōtained in it.  gut, and a part of the Collicke gut, and a part of the empty gut called ieiunum. The third part of this middle Region of the Epigastrium is the front, where the Nauill is seated called 〈◇〉, or Vmbilicus; this is the very center of the body, and vnder it lyeth almost all the empty gut. 
The lower region of the Epigastrium called the water course.   
Vnder this Region of the Nauill, is the lower Region and third part of the Epigastrium, and it reacheth as farre as the share-bone. It beginneth at the spine or swelling of the vpper circumference of the haunch bone, and if you draw a line crosse from either side vnto the middle space betwixt the nauil & the spines or protuberations of the share-bones, you haue the full extent of this watercourse. Of some in a large signification it is called the little belly, but more strictly they would haue it to be that part onely wherein the bladder is contayned, following as it should seeme Diocles Caristius, who deuided the body into the 
Diocles Caristus.  head, the breast, the belly, and the bladder. This small belly is distinguished from the greater by a certaine fence or mound, made of the production of the Peritoncum or the rim: which production stretcheth from the necke of the bladder by the backe part, and the bottome thereof euen vnto the nauill, and this production is vpheld and sustayned by three ligaments: two of which are called the Vmbilicall arteries, and the 3. is called Vrachus. This 

The Ligaments of it. The names. The parts cōtained in it. The diuision of it.  
The flanks.   little belly Hippoc. calleth 〈◇〉, and Galen Hypogastrium, the Latines Aqualiculus, because the excrements haue in it their Rendevous or place of assembly: for in the fore-part it hath the bladder and the gut called Ileon, in the hinder part the right gutte, and betwixt these in women is the seate of the wombe. This little belly is also subdiuided into three parts, two laterall and a middle; the laterall reacheth to the place where the haire buds, and are called by Celsus, Ilia; because they contayne the gut called Ileon, and the spermaticke vessels; we call them the flankes. The middle or forepart reaching to the very yard, is properly 
The forepart.  called Hypogastrium; whose right and left partes which in the bending of the thigh, side or leane to the share-bone, are called by Aristotle Boubones( which name those tumors that 
Aristotle. Boubones.  arise in these parts doe yet retaine) by the Latines Inguina, which is with vs properly called the leske. The third and forepart of this Hypogastrium, where the haires growe tufted and 
The leske. Hippocrates. Aristotle. The groyne. Ye●res of maturity. Hippocrates.  ranke, is called by Hippocrates and Aristotle 〈◇〉, in Latin Pecten or Pubes, with vs the groine; yet Pubes doeth more properly signifie the Downe or Cotton when it ariseth about those parts in men, neare vppon the fourteenth yeare; in women about the twelfth; and it is a signe of maturity or ripenesse. For( that I may vse Hippocrates wordes in his booke de Nat. pueri) assoone as the passages are open for the seede & monthly courses; the hayre or downe in a boy or girle starteth vp, the skinne being rarefied or made thin. Vnder these 
Priuities.  are the Priuities, called Pudenda; the very name carrying the remembrance of our shame and of our sinne.  
The backe part of the inferiour Venter or lower belly, is limited by the end of the ribs, 
The back part of the lower belly.  and the extemity of the rump-bone, this part some call 〈◇〉, that is, Cinctum, the girdlestead, giuing the name from the vpper part; or if you will subligaculum, the breeches, for the greeke word will beare both, and then it taketh his name from the whole.  
It is diuided into an vpper and an vnder part; the vpper is from the bending of 
How it is diuided.  the Backe vnto the Buttocks, which makes the Loynes, Aristotle calles them 〈◇〉; the fleshy parts on either side are called in greeke 〈◇〉, Pulpa à palpando, in imitation whereof wee call it the Fillet, as it were Feele-it. On the right side, lies the right kidney, and on the left side, the left. Below the loynes are fleshy and globous or round parts diuided by a fissure called by Herophilus 〈◇〉, by vs the cleft. Aristotle calleth them 〈◇〉, because they sustain a man when he sits, and we call it mannerly the seate: he calleth them also 〈◇〉, in Latin Nates, ab innitendo, because they serue in stead of quishions to sit vppon, wee call them the buttocks. Betwixt these is the Coccyx or rump-bone, and vnder them as in a low valley, lie the very end of the right gut and the place of siege, the port esquiline or the fundament.   

Of the composition or frame of the lower belly. CHAP. III,  
_THE inferior or lower belly consisteth of two sorts of parts; one called Continent or Contayning and investing parts, the other parts Contained. The 
Containing and contayned parts.  inuesting or Contayning parts which properly make the Abdomen,( for they hide and conceale the bowels or entralles and the guttes scituated in this lower belly, called therefore of the greekes 〈◇〉, that is, aboue the belly) are also of two sorts, Common or Proper. The common, are the Cuticle or the curtaine 
The common investing parts. The proper.  or scarfe-skin; the true skin; the fat and the fleshy membrane: for they encompasse all the whole body, excepting some particular parts, as we shall shew afterward. The proper inuesting parts are the Muscles of the paunch, or of Abdomen; and the peritoneum or the Rim of the belly; for these are proper to the lower belly, euery venter hauing his proper investure vnder the common containing parts. And of these we will intreate in order, sauing of the Muscles, which wee will referre into their proper place, in the Booke of the Muscles.   

CHAP. IIII. Of the Haires of the whole body.  
_THE haires in Greeke, are called 〈◇〉, because wee mowe or poule them. Persius cals them Cirri, from the Greeke verbe 〈◇〉, 
The names of haires. Arist. 5. gener. Animal. 3.  which signifieth to cut. In Latine they are called Pili. Almost euery liuing creature that ingendreth within itself is furnished with this couering, some more, some lesse: and yet there are, which in stead of haires, haue prickes, as Hedge-hogges and Porcupines; others haue Feathers, as Birds( & therefore 
Haires and Feathers of a like substance  the sauour of Feathers and haires when they are burnt are alike,) others Scales, as Fishes.  
Haires are bodyes engendred out of superfluous excrement of the third concoction, torrified by the naturall heate; and they grow especially where the skin is thinnest & most 
Wherof hairs are ingendered.  temperate, and where there is for theyr nourishment some proportionable quantitie of moysture. So that for their generation or production and their conseruation, foure things are required. The heate for an efficient cause, the Matter, out of which they are generated 
4. things required to the production of haires.  or produced, a conuenient place for their production, and fit and competent nourishment, or rather apponed matter to be continuallie ministred for theyr preseruation.  
The Matter of the haires is either remote, or more immediate. The remote matter is a 
The matter. Remote. Hip de nat. puert.  superfluous moysture, which the kernels or Glandules which are disposed in the sobby and waterish places of the body could not sucke vp; which moysture therefore is thrust out into the skin. Hence it is, that wheresoeuer there are any Kernels there are also haires: & verily Hippocrates in his Booke de Glandulis, assigneth the same profit vnto them both. The 
In principio, where are Glandules, ther are hairs  Glandules to receyue that matter which applyeth vnto them; the haires to gather it into their nourishment or for their production, being expelled by nature as a superfluitie. So we see there are Glandules behinde the eares where also are haires, vnder the arme-pittes haires and Glandules; in like manner in the flankes and the groyne. And if in anie part 
Exception, & the Reason.  there be Glandules and no hairs, Hippocrates in the place next aboue quoted, rendreth the reason, because there is too great plenty of moysture. For wee see that in sobby and sucken grounds seede will not take roote, nay the grasse itself will not grow where the water standeth continually.  
The next and immediate matter of the haires, according to Galen in the fifte chapter of his second Booke de Temperamen: is a sooty, thicke and earthy vapour, which in the time 
The immediare matter. Galen.  of the third concoction, when the aliment is turned into true nourishment of the parts, is eleuated by the strength of the action of naturall heate, and passeth thorough the pores of the skin. The efficient cause is as we saide, a moderate action of the naturall heate, which 
Their efficient.  exiccateth or drieth this moysture or these sootie and thicke vapours, and thrusteth them out by the transpirable passages of the skinne. For the vapour being thicke, in his passage leaueth some part of itself, to wit, the grossest, in the very outlet where it is impacted, & by a succeeding vapour arising whēce the former did, is protruded or thrust forward; and so 
The manner of their production. Comparison.  one vapour continually solliciting and vrging another, they are wrought together into one body: euen as in chimneyes we see by the continuall ascent of soote, long strings of it are gathered as it were into a chaine. The difference is, that the straitnesse of the passages of the skin, where through the matter of the haires is anoyded, formeth them into a small roundnesse, euen as a wyre receyueth that proportion whereof the hole is, where through it is drawne.  
The manner of the out-gate of this matter, is thus. When by the continuall appulsion or arriuall of such vapour to the skin, the pores are plenarily obstructed, then the next vapour 
A s●t Compa●●on.  that striueth to be at liberty, smiteth the former; which by reason of the straitnesse of the passage, is driuen out into the forme of a cord. He that would see an expresse image of this manner of production, let him resort to a Glasier, when he extendeth his mettall into the guttered lead wherein he fastneth his glasse, and he shall perceiue how the artist hath made an engine, whereby an inch of lead is driuen out into a foote of length. It was necessary therefore sayth Hippocrates in his booke de carnibus, that this sooty excrement should haue 
Hippocrates.  a clammy or glewy substance, yet without any fatnesse or greasinesse at all. Wherefore, wheresoeuer in the body, especially in the outward parts, there gathereth together any such glewy or clammy excrement, there the naturall heat bringeth forth haires; and this is the cause why in the arme-holes and about the priuy parts, yea and in all the rest of the body haires growe plentifully. Now that part of the haire that is impacted in the pores of the 
Comparison.  skinne, may fittely bee resembled to the roote of an hearbe sticking in the ground, and that which beareth out of the skin, to the hearbe itself.  
There is also required a conuenient place, as a foundation wherein the rootes of the 
The conueniency of the place for hayres.  haires may be established, and that is the skinne, which of all other parts is fittest for their breading, sayth Galen in his first chapter of the second booke de Temperamentis; because it is neither too dry nor too moyst; for as neither in Marrish and Fenny ground, nor in one that is ouer dry and worne out of heart can any thing bee brought forth: so in an ouer moyst or ouer dry skin no haire can grow. For though the skin be accounted dry, yet in a man it is not without some moysture, as it is in those creatures which are couered ouer with a stony or crusty shell; as Oysters, Lobsters, Crabs and such like; and in such as lurke 
A dry skin admitteth not hayres. Nor a sort.  in dennes, as Snakes; and those that haue scales, as Fishes; in all which haire cannot grow, because their skinnes are truely and altogether dry. Moreouer, the skin ought not to be too soft and moyst, like Cheese new curded; for then it would not holde the rootes of the hayre because of his thinnes; and beside, after the pores were as it were bored by the excrement, they would fall together again, the parts being so fluid that they would run into one another and bee exquisitely reunited: But moderately dry to hold the haire to his roote, 
But moderatly dry & thin.  and moderately hard, not vnlike a cheese already well gathered and somewhat pressed, for so it would bee better thrilled and perforated by the issuing humour; which perforations also would remaine, the dry body not suffering the parts to reunite, but to consist, and so by the continuall exiture of the matter, the pores would bee more fistulated. It must also be slack and thinne. Wherefore considering the whole skin is full of pores, whereout somthing is continually breathed by the naturall heate which disperseth, attenuateth, and carrieth away with itself no small part of the inward moysture, it followeth, that in all parts of the body the haires may issue forth, euery pore hauing a haire in it to keepe it open, for the better breathing or thrusting out of exhalations: yet we must except the skin of the palms and soales of the hands & feet, because, as some say, in thē there is a large Tendon immediatly vnder the skin, which being exceeding thicke and dry, makes it vncapable of haires; but I cannot admitte of that reason, seeing a Hare hath also that broad tendon, and yet 
Why there is no haue in the palmes & soales. Why haires grow not vppon scars. 2. kinds of haires. Arist. 3. hist. Animal. 11. Congeniti.  hath not those parts voyde of haire. Therefore wee say that nature hath made those partes hairelesse, both for vse that they might be the more sensible, as also for motion.  
Now that the thinnes of the skin is required for the production of haires, it appeareth by the example of scarres; for if you raise a blister by scortching the vpper skin or cuticle, after it is healed, and the vpper skin is growne thicke no haire will rise out of the scarre, because it hath no pores in it.  
The haires be of two kinds, some are 〈◇〉, that is, congeniti, bred with vs, as the haire of the head, of the eye-browes, of the eye-lids. These are bred in the child while it is yet in the wombe, and are resembled not vnto hearbes that grow by sowing, but vnto such plants as nature bringeth forth of her owne accord; and such do not necessarily follow the temperature of the body.  
Other haires are called 〈◇〉, that is, postgeniti, bred after the skin is growne thin, 
Postgeniti  which hapneth in Boyes when they beginne to breed seede, in Girles when their monthly courses begin to flow; these come out in three places, answerable to the three places where nature bringeth forth the former kinde; First about the priuities, secondly vnder the arme holes, thirdly in the chin and cheekes. Those that are gelded before the age of foureteen 
How the haires fall in such as are gelded.  yeares, haue no haires growing on their chinne: the reason is, because the wayes of the seede are not opened, and by castration are after intercepted; and therefore the skinne doth not rarifie: if after those haires be growne the Testicles be taken away, those haires also fall, excepting in the groyne. Againe, in women those hayres which wee called postgeniti doe arise later, neuer in the chinne, because there is not so great agitation of the humor in the act of generation in women as can rarifie the skin so farre from the place where the seed is engendred; and yet wee see, that in some women after their Courses are staide, 
Why women haue no berds  the haire begins to bud on their chins. It may also fall out, that both men and women may be without any of the postgeniti by some naturall desect, contracted in their generation.  
The forme of the haires is expressed by certaine accidents; for they do vary in thickenesse and thinnesse, hardnesse and softnesse, length and shortnesse, streightnesse and curlednesse, 
The formes of the haires, and the causes of them al. Their colours  multitude or scarsity, as also according to the quality of the skin, and the naturall propriety or condition of the parts in which they are fixed. Moreouer, they differ in colours, whitenesse and blacknesse, and middle colours betweene them; so also by reason of age, and growth of the body. The chiefe cause of their thicknesse and thinnesse is the skin saith Aristotle, 5. gener. Animal. j. which in some is thicke, and in others thin; in some rare, 
The causes of their crassitude.  and in others thight and compact. Another cause is the variety of the moisture lying vnder the skin, for in some it is clammy, in others waterish: so out of a thicke skin, thick & hard haire, and out of a thin skin, thin and slender haires are produced.  
And if the skin be rare and thicke, the haires are also thicke, by reason of the abundance of earthly substance, and the laxity of the passages. But if the skin be more thight and compact though it be thicke, they come out thin, by reason of the narrownesse of the passages. So if the vapour whereof they are bred be waterish, because it is quickly dryed vppe, they growe not much in length; but if it bee clammy and glutinous, because it is not easily dried vp, they spread themselues in length. So that the cause of the length and shortnesse of haires, is the abundance or scarsity of the humor wherewith they are fed. And hence it is, that the haires of the head are the longest of all the bodie, because the Braine 
Of their lēgth The haires of the head are the longest.  affoordeth a great deale of a clammy moysture, and because the braine is bigger then the other Glandules; they are also crasse or thicke, because the skin of the head is exceeding thicke, yet rare and containing much moisture. The haires of the head in Latine, are called Capilli, quisi capitis pili: in Greeke 〈◇〉, from 〈◇〉, which signifieth to cut. In men they 
The names of the haires of the head.  are called Caesaries à frequēti caesione, because they are often cut: and in Women Coma, because they bestow great paines in combing and curling them. They are also in Woemen diuided by a line, which in Greeke is called 〈◇〉, in Latine discrimen, in English the shed. Now the haire is either straight or curled, eyther by reason of the exhalation itself, or of the pores whereout they passe. Of the exhalation the vvhich of being smoaky, 
The causes of the strcitnesse or cuiling of the haire.  by the heate and drought maketh the haire curled. For it hath a double course, the earthy and dry part downeward, the hot part vpwarde: hence it boweth not downe right, but wrinkingly, because there is in it but little moisture, & much dry and earthy matter; and this we may perceiue, if we parch haires in the Sun, or neare the fire: for the crisping of the haire is as it were a kinde of convulsion because it wanteth moisture: or else we may say, the haire curleth by reason of the drinesse of the temper; and therefore all Black-Moores haue curled or crisped haire.  
By reason of the constitution of the pores wherein they are implanted. For when the exhalation is so weake, as that it cannot make a straight way for itself, it 
Of Curling.  giueth a forme to the pore answereable to it owne contortions. But if the exhalation bee strong enough, yet it cannot ascend directly vpwardes, by reason of the hardnesse of the 
Comparison.  skin, then it turneth side-long, like as we see the smoake and the flame when it is hindred, to mount streight vpwards, diuideth itself and turnes aslant. Wherefore both by reason of the imbecility of the exhalation, and of the hardnesse of the skin, the roots of the haires grow awry. Now it standeth with good reason that they should growe and continue still such as they were framed at the roote. For no hard or dry body can be extended streight forth, vnlesse it be first softned and mollified.  
Those that haue aboundance of moisture, and the pores streight, haue their haire also streight. Againe, long haires are soft, but the curled are hard. Moreouer, haires encrease 
Of streight haires.  & grow more or lesse according to the Nature of the skin, and the condition of the parts where they are implanted. In the head they grow in greatest length and abundance, next in the Beard, because that skin is moderately hot & dry, especially when the haires are fine and slender. But the haires of the eye-browes and of the eye-lids, are smal and grow not almost at all: but for the most part, keep alwayes an equall magnitude, and seldome fall, because they haue vnder them a hard body, like vnto a gristle. For those haires that spring from soft and moderately moyst parts, encrease very much, as those of the head and the beard; and Galen addeth those of the arme-pits, and about the priuities: but those that arise out of hard and dry places, are small and almost of no growth: yet in some the eyebrowes grow so hairy in olde age, as that they are constrained to cut them, or else they would offend their eyes. Haire buddeth in the chin, when the skin beginneth to rarifie or 
The Beard.  grow thin; the matter of it is a moysture sent thither from the head, as Hippocrates holdeth in his Booke de Natura pueri, and these haires make the Beard, which is not alike in euery man; for some about their chin and lips haue great store of haire, some haue no haire there, but very much on their cheekes.  
Aristotle in the third Booke de Histor. Animal. the 11. chapter saith, that the haires vse to grow extraordinarily in some diseases, especially in consumptions; hee addeth also, in old bodies and dead corpes they receiue augmentation both in length and thicknesse, but do not spring anew.  
They varie likewise in colour, and are answerable to the predominant humor, for such 

The causes of the colours of the haires.  
Hippocrates.  
De Nat pueri.  
The humour.  
Galen.  
When Black.  
Reddish.  
White.   as the humor is which the flesh draweth vnto it( saith Hippocrates,) such also is the colour of the haire.  
Galen in his second Booke de Temperamentis, and the fift Chapter, saith, that the haire becomes blacke, when the vaporous excrement scorched by the heate is changed into a perfect soote; and somewhat red, when the excrement impacted in the passage is not yet altogether growne black; but yellow, when the vapour is lesse scorched; for the excrement that is so impacted, proceedeth of yellow and not of blacke Choller. White haires are made of Flegme, and the colours betwixt these of a mixture of Flegme and choller.  
But a question may be asked, why in Beastes the colour of the haire followeth the colour of the skinne; and in men it is far otherwise; far the whitest men and women, haue often 
Why mens haires are not of the colour of their skin.  haire coale blacke. Aristotle maketh answere 5. de generatione Animal. 3. and 3. Histor. 11. Because, sayth hee, a mans skin is thinner then the skin of any other Creatures of his magnitude; and therefore the skinne cannot affoord any matter of haire of itself, or reteyne the excrement driuen to it so long as to giue it his owne colour.  
The haire varyeth also by reason of the region and the diuerse dispositions of the ambient ayre; so those that inhabite a hotte and dry country, haue hard, blacke, dry curled and 
The Region.  brittle haire, and of small growth, as the Egyptians, Arabians and Indians: contrariwise those that inhabit in a moyst and cold climate haue soft haires which grow moderatly, are small or fine, straight and reddish, as the Illirians, Germans, Sarmatians and all the coast of Scythia, as Galen sayth. But such as inhabit a temperate tract betweene these, haue hayre of greater growth, exceeding strong and somewhat blacke, moderately thicke, neither altogether curled, nor altogether straight.  
They vary also by reason of age; for little children haue little haire, because as yet their skin hath no pores, nor any sootie excrement applying vnto it: when they beginne to 
How haires alter acording to ages.  cotten, which is about xii. and xiiii. yeares of age, their haires are small and weake; but as their youth growes strong, and their flourishes grow vpon them, which is towards xv. & xviii. then their haires grow many, great and strong, as well because their skin is growne full of pores, as also for that they abound with sootie excrements.  
Those that are well in yeares haue hard haire, because their skin becomes hard & thicke in old age, by reason of their coldnesse and siccity. So we see some men when they grow in yeares, become bald eyther for want of hot and clammy moisture, or because naturally and originally their skin was somewhat too dry, or else as Hippocrates saith, because they abound 

Hippocrates  
De Nat. pueri.  
The reason of baldnesse.   with Flegme, which being stirred in their heads by carnall copulation, and so growing hot; when it arises into the skin, it scorcheth the rootes of the haire and so causeth them to fall off; and that is the reason, why neyther Eunuches nor children vse to growe balde. Now this baldnesse begins commonly in the forepart of the head, because( saieth Aristotle 5. generat. Animal. 3.) it is dryest, for there the skin lyeth vpon the bare bone, without any interposition of fat, as it is in the Nowle.  
In like manner, Men growing olde become gray-headed; not by reason of drought, for we see often that many haires become gray together, but nothing can vpon a suddaine 
Why old men grow gray.  become dry: the true cause is putrifaction for want of ventilation, and therefore those that haue their heads continually couered, grow sooner hoary then others, as Aristotle obserued. Galen in his second Booke de Temperam. and the 5. chapter, saith, that before the 
3. Hist▪ Animal.  skin of the head is growne to extreame drinesse, the haires become weak for want of conuenient foode, and white because the nourishment wherewith they are fed, is as it were the dregges of Flegme, which in processe of time remaining about the skin, do putrifie.  
Of all parts the Temples are first hairy, because they are very moyst by reason of the great Muscles which lye vnder them. Now euery Muscle is fleshy, and flesh is moyster then eyther bone or skin. Next vnto them, the forepart of the head growes white; last of all, the haire about the priuities and the eye-lids; but no body growes bald in the temples or in the hinder part or nowle of the head.  
The haires are fed by moysture, therefore Hippocrates saith, they grow most plentifully 
How haires are nourished  where they finde moderate moysture for their foode, which Aristotle saith, is disposed at their roote; for if you plucke them vp, that moysture is drawne vp with them: besides, the haire is thicker at the roote then in the rest of his length, because it hath some of that moisture newly applyed to it. From these humors are exhalations raised, and nature turnes the thickest and clammiest of the excrements, into the nourishment of the haires. Therefore when they are well fed, and with lawdable aliment, they encrease apace, and are moderately crasse or thicke. But when they are cut, they do not beginne to grow vp againe where the Sheeres diuided them, but at the root, from whence they issue, and so they encrease and are nourished by apposition, as the teeth are; not by the excrements of faultie and vicious humors, but by excrements of the third concoction: otherwise, they would not fall off, but rather encrease in those that haue the French disease and the Leprosy, considering that in such bodies the Excrements of vicious humours are exceeding aboundant.  
The vse of haires in generall is foure-fould. First for a couer; secondly for a defence; 
The vses of the haires.  thirdly for an ornament vnto the partes vnder them; fourthly to consume and waste away the thicke and fuliginous or sooty excrements. So the haires of the head which are in great aboundance,( for of all creatures a man hath most haire on his head) do couer the braine, and shelter it from ouer much cold or heate. For mans braine being in proportion greater 
Man more braine then any other creature.  and moyster then any other creatures, it requireth accordingly a more carefull guarde and preseruation; for that which is the moystest will most easily grow hot and cold againe. And because the brain is seated farre from the fountaine of heat, and neare vnto the bones, and vnder them is not couered with any fatnesse; the haires are prouided both to fence it, and to keepe it warm. They also waste and consume the thicker excrements; and because it is not behoofefull for vs that wee keepe our heades alike couered in all ages of our life, times of the yeare, countries and constitutions of bodies; therefore we may fit ourselves vnto the times, & weare them either longer or shorter; but if they be altogether shauen off, they proue the cause of defluxions. The haires of the head haue not onely this vse to couer the cheekes and chinne( which women doe with veiles and maskes) but also they serue for ornament. For it is a venerable sight to see a man when he is come to the yeares fit for it, to haue his face compassed about with thicke and comely haire. Nature therefore hath made the vpper part of the cheek and the nose without haire, least the whole face should be wilde and fearce, vnbeseeming a milde and sociable creature such as a man is. In women the smoothnesse of their face is their proper ornament; they needed no ensigne of maiesty because they were borne to subiection. And Nature hath giuen them such a form of body as is answerable to the disposition of their minde. To conclude, the vse of hayre is diuers, according to the seuerall places where they are: as for example, the haire of the eye-browes serue for to receiue the humour falling downe from the head, and those of the eye-lids to direct the sight, and so of the rest.   

Of the Cuticle or Skarfe-skin. CHAP. V.  
_THE first contayning or inuesting part, is the Cuticle, which the Greekes call Epidermis, because it runnes vppon the surface of the true skinne; whereof it is as it were a flowring or creamy production. For whilest Nature in the generation of the skin mingleth bloud with the seede, a moyst vapour of the 
How it is generated.  bloud foaming or frothing vp, and driuen forth by the strength of the heate, is condensed or thickned by the coldnesse of the ayre, and turned into the Cuticle or skarf-skin, for so I thinke wee may properly call it. And this is the reason why in Infants newborne, 
Why Infants looke red.  the whole skin looketh red, the Cuticle not being yet formed for want of cold ayre; or at least not sufficiently condensed, as it is after a short time; the aire thickning the cream or froth of the bloud, as wee see in gruell or boyling of paste or starch, a skin, filme or phlegme gathered together of the vapbrous froth that ariseth from the thicke moysture which is by the cold ayre condensed.  
This Skarfe-skinne is easily lost by attrition or scalding, and riseth apparantly from the skinne; it is likewise as easily recouered where the skin remayneth sound( for where there 
It wil not grow vpon a scarre.  is no skin, but onely a scarre or cicatrice, there it will not growe againe) and therefore it is no spermaticall part, because if they perish, they cannot or very hardly againe be restored.  
It is wondrous thin( vnlesse it growe Cailus or hard by continuall labour, as wee see it 
Why thin.  doth in Felt-makers) that it should not dull the sence of the skin vnder it: yet in the palmes of the hands, and the soales of the feete, where it is continually worne and renued againe, it is more crasse and thick. This is that which Serpents cast euery yeare, we call it the slough; 
The sough of a snake.  men neuer, but vpon long sicknesse or poysons, or the vse of slabbering complexions. It is thighter or more compact then the skin itself, whence it is, that those watery humours 
The thightnes of it manifested.  which are thrust out from the Center to the Circumference of the body, doe easily passe through the skin, but hang often in the Cuticle, and generate Ecthymata, Phlyctides, and those many waterish Pustles which are called hydrea. It is altogether without bloud, because 
The reason of pustles in the body.  it receiueth neither veine nor arterie, so that it encreaseth rather by a kind of addition of matter, then by Nutrition.  
Insensible it is, that it might defend the skinne vnder it from externall iniuries; as also 
The vses of the skarfe-skin. Medium tactus. Lib. ●. de Anim. Text. 114.  attemper the exquisite sense of the same, and so becommeth medium tactus, the meane of touching. For sayth Aristotle, all sensation is made by some Meane, none by the immediat touch of the obiect and the instrument. Hence it is that a man cannot see to reade vpon a booke that is layd vpon his eye; because there wanteth the meane betweene the obiect and the instrument of sense, that is, ayre enlightned. In like manner when the Cuticle is off, we cannot distinguish between one Temper and another; because the very gentlest touch of the bared skin breedeth paine, and the sensation is confused, which is distinct when the skarfe-skin is whole.  
There is also another vse of it, to couer the open ends of the Capillarie or hairy veines which doe determine in the skin: for if the Cuticle be taken off, the skin vnder doth bleed. Moreouer it is also a couering to the skinne, that the moisture might not indecently or vnprofitably well or issue out at all times; for in a gall or rub, which is called Intertrigo in which the Cuticle is separated, the skinne is euer moyst.  
Lastly, it smootheth and polisheth the roughnesse and inequality of the skin, making it soft, supple and slicke, and so becommeth one of the greatest beauties that nature hath giuen to the body of man. That I cannot but wonder at Columbus, who vtterly forgot the manifold vses of this Cuticle.   

Of the Skinne. CHAP. VI.  
_VNder this Curtain or Skarfe, lieth the true & genuine skin which the Greeks call 〈◇〉, because it may bee excoriated or flayed off, so Hippocrates in his 
The names of the skin.  booke de Arte: but in his book de insomnijs, 〈◇〉; and de victus ratione in acutis, 〈◇〉; and de ossiū Natura, 〈◇〉 quasi 〈◇〉 a band, because it compasseth and knitteth together the whole body; in Latine it is called Cutis. It hath a substance proper to itself, although it bee very like to a sinew and membrane, because it is white, will stretch, and is of exquisite sence; but it is thicker then any membrane. It is ingendred 
His substance.  of seede perfectly mixed with bloud, whence it commeth to passe that by it wee may iudge as well of the spermaticall as of the bloudy parts. It seemeth therefore to be of a middle nature betwixt flesh and a sinew, and so Vesalius conceiued it, not so abounding 
Whereof it is made. Vesalius. Galen.  with bloud as flesh, but as it were a bloudy sinew; so sayth Galen in his first booke de Temperam. Notwithstanding in the composition the spermatical part exceedeth the sanguine, which appeareth as by the colour, so by this, that being wounded it is only reunited or conioyned by a cicatrice or scarre. Columbus thought it was bred of the extremities or ends of 
Columbus. Varolius.  the vessels dilated; Varolius, onely of the softer sinewes, which attayning to the surface of the body, doe there growe together into a couering, receiuing addition from the affluence of bloud; as the broade leaues of water Lillies arising from a slender stemme, when they appeare aboue the water, are extended into a great bredth out of a small stalke. Galen in the third of his Method, sayeth it is bred of the dryed and constringed or writhen flesh vnder it; and that is the reason why no hayres will grow vppon scarres, because they haue no foundation for them as the true skinne hath: but it should seeme that heerein Galen, and not he only, but Plato and Aristotle were somewhat mistaken: for the skinne may be flayed 
Plato. Aristotle.  from the flesh vnder it, yea and betweene the skin and the flesh there are two partes( if at least they may be so called) the fat and the fleshy Membrane.  
The skin is naturally white, but according to the humours that abound, or the bodyes vnder it, saith Hippocrates in his Booke de succis, it varieth the colour. For example: where 
The colour followeth the humor.  blood aboundeth and the skin is thin as in the face, there a rosie rednesse mingleth itself with the white, or ouercommeth it, especially if eyther by heate or motion of the minde it flowe to the place more plentifully; and this blood when it is condensed or thickned by cold, maketh the skin looke liuid or blew. In Chollericke men the skin is pallid or yellowish: in Melancholy swarty and blackish or duskish, but if it bee defiled with vitiated Humors, it becommeth yellow and black in the Iaundise and Morphew.  
It altereth also his colour, by reason of bodies vnder it; so where it adhereth or cleaueth to the flesh, as in the bals of the Cheekes and Palmes of the handes, it sooner becommeth red; if to the fat, it is whiter and smoother, especially where the fat is more plentifull; but when that fat is consumed, the skin becommeth wrinkled and looketh like a duskish shadow; as also it is liuid or blewish where the greater Veines are branched vnder it. Furthermore, the skin that it might be a kinde of muniment or defence is thicke, though not so thicke as in other creatures. It cannot without extreame paine bee separated from the flesh, because the extreamities or ends of the vessels do determine in it; whence some haue thought, that it proceedeth from those extreamities of the vessels dilated or spread into a superficies or smooth plainnesse. It is soft and of exquisite sense, by which it forewarneth the inward parts of the approaching euill before it ouertake them.  
According to the diuers vse of the parts, it is either softer and thinner, as in the face, the yard, and the scrotum or cod; or harder, as in the necke, the backe, the legs, and the soles 
What parts of the skin are thin & thick.  of the feete; some of it is in a middle temper betweene hard and soft, as in the palme of the hand, and especially in the fingers ends, because they are ordained to apprehend with; and beside in the skin of the hand, the power or sense of feeling was to be perfect, and therefore it behooued that it should bee voide of all excesse, and most temperate of all others; because that which is the iudge of feeling as all other Instruments, must be free from any forreigne or externall quality whereby the iudgement might be preiudiced: So some part of the skin is exceeding thicke, as in the head; some part onely thicke, as in the necke; some part thin, as in the sides and soales of the feete, which is the reason that there men are ticklish, some part yet thinner, as in the palme of the hand; and some thinnest of all, as in the lippes.  
It hath also a diuers connexion to diuers parts: for somewhere it may bee easily separated, as in the vpper and middle venter, the armes and the legges; otherwhere very hardly, 
The connexion of the skin  because of the fleshy Membrane to which it is tied by the mediation of certaine Fibres & vessels, betweene which and the saide Membrane, the fat where it is, so interposeth itself, that the skin may more easily be flayed from it: but from some parts it can hardly or not at all be separated, as from the soales of the feete, and the palmes of the hand, to which it is 
Where the fat interposeth it maketh the skin more easie to flay.  immediately conioyned, that the apprehension of those parts may be more firme and stable. It is also very hardly separated from the flesh of the fore-head, & almost of the whole face, especially of the eares and lippes, because of Tendons and Muscles; especially that which they call the broad Muscle mingled therewith. Finally, in the forehead it is mooueable, in the rest of the body( of a man I meane) immooueable, or for the most part. for in 
Where the skin is moueable.  Beasts it is almost alwayes mooueable, and they say, an Elephant can by the corrugation or wrinkling of his skinne, kill the flies that molest him.  
It is an vnseamed garment couering the whole bodie, yet hath it certaine breaches made by Nature for her ease and reliefe, partly manifest, which are not many, and are called Foramina or outlets; partly insensible, which are infinite, called pori, & of vs pores. Al which 
The passages of the skinne.  serue either for receyuing in or letting out, or both as neede shall require.  
The Foramina or passages and outlets are these: about the eyes for the help of the sight, the thwart holes of the eye-brows; about the eares for the hearing, that as well the diuersities of sounds might be let in, as also the excrements or waxe of the eares be auoided out; 
The passages or outlets of the skin.  about the Nosethrils for a helpe to respiration and to smelling, and the conueying away of the mucous or slimy excrement of the Braine: the mouth is open to receyue meates and drinkes, and sometime againe to vomit. The nipples of the breast ought necessarily to be perforated, that by them the Infant might sucke milke from the Mother: the nut of the yard for the emission of seede and vrine; the port Esquiline or siege, that the noysome excrements may be conuayed out of the body. In women the lap of the wombe, as well for the admission of the part of generation, as for the bringing the Infant into the world, and to auoyde the vrine and the monthly courses. In the Infant the nauill that it might receiue bloud and spirits to supply it with nourishment and life. Finally, the fingers endes where the nayles are affixed it is also perforated, out of all which parts we haue knowne bloud to issue in a cruell disease.  
The pores are aboundant like to the pin-hoales of a syue or searce, as is manifest by the 
The pores.  sweate and hayre that breathes and breakes out( in which regard Plato compares it to a fish net:) and these parts are the way of transpiration, that the excrements of the third concoction which haue no other, might this way haue egresse or auoydance; whence of some it 
Transpiration  is called the vniuersall Emunctorie or draught, because it receiueth all the supersluities of the inward parts. These pores are small and almost insensible, least otherwise there should be too free a dissipation of the spirits, yet in some bodies they are narrower or streighter, in some wider, and such doe easily melt away in sweat, and are lesse affected with inward causes: the other sweat very difficultly, and because the excrements are retayned, doe easily incurre diseases thereby.  
That these pores may bee kept open, Nature hath assigned to euery one a haire( of 
Why the haires are set in the Cuticle. How the bāds or tyes in deligatories of parts become bloudy.  which we shall speake by and by) which is fastned in the pore with a slimy white roote, excepting those places where they are continually worne off, as in the palmes of the handes. These pores are the cause that the Bands in some deligations become bloudy, and sometime pure bloud hath auoided by them, as in the English sweate: by these also some thinke the spirits doe powre themselues forth in profuse ioy, and the more liberall vse of Saffron and other Diaphoreticke or sweating medicines, by both which they are exceedingly relaxed.  
That this Skinne may be nourished, that it may liue and haue sence, it receiueth all these three common Organs or instruments of nourishment, life and sence, veines, arteries, and sinewes; whose diuarications and diuers branchings, wee shall shew in fitter place in our discourse of the vessels.  
The vses of the skin, and first that it should bee the immediate instrument of outward touching, that we might be forewarned of outward iniuries before they come to hurt the inward partes; like as the Membranes are the Organs of inward touching or sensation. Moreouer, it is ordained to be the common and natiue Vestment or Mantle of the whole body; a muniment beside and a comely ornament compassing and couering it on all sides, that the vessels might more securely runne vnder it: the muscles and entrals be contayned in their proper places, and defended from heate and colde, and the naturall heate deteined from ouer free effluxion.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Fat.  
_THE Fat called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latin Pinguedo, in man is bedded betwixt 
The Fat, wher of ingendred.  the skinne and the fleshy membrane, but in beastes it is vnder the membrane also. It is ingendered of the more oylie, thinne, and ayrie portion of pure and absolutely laboured and concocted bloud, distilling like a dew out of the smal and capillarie veines of the habite of the body: which bloude is curdled by a moderate heate( for a burning heate would consume it, and a weake heat would not concoct it) and the density or fastnes of the membrane; which is the reason that beastes grow fattest in winter when their skins are more condensed with the cold.  
This membrane is neruous, thin, and very fast or thight, and vnder the skin incloseth all the body, that all that oylie matter rarified into vapors, which slippeth by the inward mēbranes, may light vpon and cleaue vnto this, and so be turned into fat, that nothing profitable might be lost. The manner of this worke of Nature wee haue in distillations, where though the Stil-head be very hot, yet because of his sadnesse or density, the vapours which were raysed vp by the heate of the fire are thickned into water.  
The Fat of a man is lesse white then of any other creature; yet the white membranes by which the bloud which is his matter passeth, do alter it somewhat, so that it becommeth often yellower then white.  
There be some parts, there be also some ages which want this Fat; for those parts whose 
What parts & what ages haue least Fat.  bending and extension it might annoy, are better without it, as the membranes of the Braine, the Eye-browes, the Yarde, the Cod and the Stones, or Testicles: whereuppon some haue excluded it out of the number of the Contayning or Inuesting parts. In those parts where it is, it differeth in hardnesse and softnesse; for in parts that are to be mooued 
Where it is hard & where soft.  more violently, it is harder and wouen with Fibres and small veines, as wee see in the tallow of beastes; as in the palme of the hand, the inside of the fingers endes( where there is more neede of it to moysten the manifold tendons and vessels that there are gathered, to fill vp the empty spaces and make the skin more euen and equall for better apprehension) the soale of the foot especially in the heele, that we might more steadily rest vpon it. Somtimes it is alone; sometimes together with a crassie and slimy humor, which stands in stead of tallow to fit the parts better for motion, and to hinder their exsiccation or drying.  
In other parts it is softer and yellowish; so it is very sparingly affixed to the outsides of the hands and feete; in the buttockes because there is more vse of it, it is more copious or plentifull. In cold and moyst bodies, as in Men and Hogges it is aboundant( whence Galen 
Lib 14. vsu partium.  sayth that a woman is fatter then a man) as also in them that leade an idle and sedentarie life. In hot and dry, as Apes and Hounds, it is either none at all or of no quantity. In new borne creatures none at all; in those that are consumed with famine, with disease, or with age very little.  
This Fat which in horned beastes is called Seame, in Swine Lard, differeth from the 

The differences of fats.  
3. Histo. Anim. 17. lib. 3. de facult aliment. 11   Grease which in Greeke is called 〈◇〉, in Latine Adeps, as Aristotle and Galen teach; because this Fat is softer and moyster, and is easily melted, and being melted doeth not easily clod together againe; but the adeps or grease is harder and dryer, not so easily melted, and suddenly congealed againe, and therefore is more plentifull in those creatures whose natures are altogether earthy and dry, and those that are more moyst haue aboundance of the fat we call pinguedo. Men haue much of this fat vnder their skin, because the matter of it is retayned by the solidity and thicknesse of the same, for so wee see that those creatures that haue the fastest skins are the fattest, as Swine and Dolphins. Now the adeps or grease in 
Where adeps is in men.  a Man is in his Kall, Kidneyes, Heart, Eyes, the ioyntes of the Bones, betwixt the broade Tendon and the Skin of the middle of the palm of the handes, in the inside of the Fingers and the Toes.  
The Vses of this Fatte are: First it is a defence to the parts to which it is allowed, so in 
The vses of the fat.  the Buttocks it serueth vs instead of a quishion; in other partes it auaileth much towardes their naturall position and free motion, and therefore in those that be fat indeede, it lyneth the in-side of the muscles as we see in fat Beefes. For the vessels which runne vnto the skin it is a soft pillow, so safe-guarding and moystning them, that they bee not dryed, and so distende or lying bare be broken in peeces; and therefore it is gathered plentifully in those parts where the larger vessels deuide themselues.  
Another Vse of it is to fill vp the empty distances betwixt the muscles, vessels, and the skin, that so the body might be plump, equall, soft, white and beautifull. Moreouer it serueth for a light couering to warme the body and to cherish the naturall heate, prohibiting the effluxion of it by his visciditie or sliminesse, and by his thicknes closing the pores, that neither in winter the cold should too freely enter, nor in summer the heat too frankly evaporate. Finally sayth Galen in his fourth Booke de vsu partium, and the 11. Chapter, in great famines and want of sustenance, it is conuerted into Aliment, and becommeth the Fother whereon the naturall heate relieueth itself. For being dissolued it acquireth the forme of a bloud-like vapor which returneth into the veines, and so becommeth for want of better, a subsidiarie nourishment of the partes. The vse of the grease is to moysten and supple the hotte and drie parts, as the Heart, to make the motion more glib and agile, 
The vses of Adeps.  and to keepe the ioynts of the greater bones and the out-side of some Ligaments from being exiccated, as also the ends of the gristles.   

Of the fleshy Membrane. CHAP. VIII.  
_THe fleshy Membrane( first so called by the Arabians) or Pannicle, called Panniculus Carnosus, in Greeke 〈◇〉; is onely fleshy among all the 
The fleshy membrane.  membranes, and that especially in Beastes. Galen calles it 〈◇〉, that is, a membrane; some call it the musculous Membrane, because in those creatures which mooue their whole skinne, it is so sprinkled with fleshy Fibres, that it seemes indeed to be a muscle.  

The Third and Fourths Table shew the Skin-Veines which are opened and scarified: the third those on the Fore-side, the fourth those on the Backe-side: which Veines are for the most parts alike in euery body, especially those that vse to be opened.  
TABVLA. 3.  
TABVLA 4.  

● 1. 2. The outward iugular veine ●liming vp the sides of the necke. this can hardly be opened without daunger, but his braunches may bee scarified in the necke.  
●. 1. The place where this veine is deuided into 2. branches.  
●. 1. The inner branch of the ex●e io● iugular, which going to the muscles of the mouth and the bone Hyois is couched vnder the toung, where it is opned in squinsies and other di eases of those parts.  
d. 1. 2. The vtter branch of the same externall iugular that goeth to the back-part of the he●d  
●. 1. Braunches going to the lucia or chick and the nose.  
●. 1. 2. The fore-head veine, which in the middle of the fore-head where it is wont to be opened. is ioyned with the braunch of the same veine on the other side.  
●. 2. The veine called vena puppis.  
●. 2. Veine, dispersed along the Temples, to which are adioyned a portion of the fore head vein.  
●. 1. 2. The veine which goeth to the eates, and watereth the back part of the head.  
●. 1. A branch comming from the vpper part of the axillary veine, and going to the more backeward muscles of the necke.  
● 1. 2. A branch from the Caephalica or head veine, going to the skin and the muscles which lift vp the arme.  
●m. 1. m. 2. The Cephalique head or vtter veine, which passing along the vtter part of the arm, accompanied with a nerue, and is o●ened commonly at the vpper bunch of the bought of the arme, but happely it might more safely bee opened a little lower wherit bendeth from the sinew.  
●. 1. Smal veines from the Cephalica disperse & through the skin of the arme.  
● 2. Branches from the head vein to the shoulder blode, carried be tween the skin and the flesh.  
●. 1. The Cephalica is here diuided into 3. branches.  
●. 1. The first of these branches which goeth to the muscles, arising frō the vtter bunch or knot of the vpper part of the arme called humorus.  
●. 1. 2. The second of them, which in the bought of the arme is ioyned with a branch of the liuer veine and their coniunetion is marked with the figure 3.  
● 1. 2. The third is carried side-long aboue the radius and the vpper part of the arme bestowing branches vppon the skin, the chiefest of which neere the bought of the arme runneth outward, but turnes ouer neere the wrest, and there meeteth with the Liuervein, marked there in the second figure with al and a little lower being diuersly deuided nourisheth almost the whole hand.  
t. 1. The Liuer veine called Hopatica, Bisilica or the internall veine it is called of some, & in the lefte arme Lienatis or the spleeneveine.  
● 1 A braunch from the Liuer-veine deuided into two, nourishing the skinne within and without.  
● 2. A branch going to the muscles of the vpper arme, and the skin on the vtter side.  
●. 1. The fore branch of the Liuer vein, which at the bought of the arme is ioyned with a braunch of the Cephalica marked with r, which two branches make the middle vein named Mediana, noted with 3.  
● 2. A braunch arising from the former, and passing to the wrest, and on the after wrest meeteth with a braunch of the Cephalica which are ioyned aboue the little finger, which coniunction we noted in s aboue.  
●. ● m Two fore veines of the Cubite or lower arme from a braunche of the Liuer veine, which being accompanied with nerues, run all alōg euen through the hand, these wher they are marked are sometimes opened instead of the Liuer veine.  
3. 1. The middle or common veines made of the braunches of the Cephalica or head-veine and Basilica or Liuer veine.  
4. 1. 2. The diuision of this common veine aboue the wrest, which from 3. to 4. is called the comon vein of the cubi●e or lower arme: but at ●● it is diuided, one part going to the outward side, another to the inside, and so mingleth itself with the neighbour veines, this veine is not opened.  
5. 2. The outward braunche of this partition which warereth the back of the hand.  
6 6. 2. A braunch of the common veine which vnder the thumbe is opened for the Cephalica or head veine.  
7. 2. The veine called saluatella a braunch of the Cephalica and Hepatica, which aboue the little finger is opned for the spleen and diseases thereof.  
8. 2. A veine between the middle and the ring fingers, which some take to bee that which Auicen calleth syele.  
9. 2. A branch toward the ring finger.  
AA. 2. Braunches comming from the veines which about the loynes are produced knottily, these in the loynes are sacrified.  
B. 1. Braunches proceeding from the Epigastricke veine distributed to the four paire of muscles of the Abdomen, a notable branch of which is wounded often, when men are cut for the rupture.  
CC. 2. Veines comming from the vtter branch of the trunke of the hollowe veine called vena ●aua. and are dispersed thorough the muscles and skin of the buttocks.  
DD. 1. Veines distributed through the pectorall muscles and the breast.  
E. 1. Veines reaching to the breastes from the veine called mammaria.  
FF. 1. Small veines comming out from the veines which are couebed vnderneath and go to the chest, the principall of these are scarified in the shoulder blades.  
**. 1. Certaine small veines reaching to the outside of the belly comming from the veines of the muscles vnderneath.  
G. 2. A branch that runs along by the side of the chest.  
H. 2 A veine which reacheth to the shoulder, the muscles of the shoulder blade, and the glandules in the arme holes.  
II. 1. The inner crurall veine springing out neare the leske, and goeth vnder the skin to the very foote, hauing a nerue running aboue him all the way.  
KK. 1, Branches of the foresaid veine which by the inside of the thigh, reach vnto the very leske.  
LLLL. 1. Veines passing vnder the skinne on the foreside of the thigh.  
MMMM. 1. 2. The Crurall veine carried on the inside and outside of the thigh.  
NN1. N 2. The inner leg veine called Tibica, which is diuersly carried vnder the skin, and here it may bee opened when we would let bloud in it.  
O 1. The same carried vnto the fore parte of the inward ankle, and then spreadeth itself in the vpper part of the foote called dorsum padis.  
P. 2. A Braunch from the vtter Crurall veine▪ sending small surcles to the hippes, the muscles of that place and the skin.  
Q. 1. A branch noted with 7, and 9, which bestoweth certaine sucrles vpon the muscles of the leg, and the skin of the thigh.  
R S 2, A veine from the ioyning of the branches of that other, which passeth to the back muscles and skin of the thigh somewhat vpward.  
TT 2. The Ham veine vena poplitis, which runneth most what where it is marked, and so passeth vnto the calfe of the leg marked with V 2. where it decideth itself into many braunches.  
XX 1. The inner braunch of the crurall veine going to the muscles and skin of the calfe.  
Y 1. The inner veine of the legge running to the inner side of the foot accompanied with a nerue, this they open vnder the knee instead of the saphena.  
ZZ 1. z ●. A part of the crural veine going to the backside of the inner ankle: this is called the saphena, and is opened vnder the inner ankle in woemen mostwhat to farther their naturall euacuations.  
αα 1. The outwarde braunch of the crurall veine or the vtter leg-veine called Tibiea, which is diuersly braunched againe along the outside of the leg & the top of the so●t.  
β. A part of the foresaid braunch climbing along the outward ankle.  
γγ 1. Among the veines of the foote, this is that that vnder the name of the Cephalica is opened at the great toe, but not without danger, because it hath a nerue ioyned with him.    
This Membranous part, as all other Membranes, is made of seede. In a Man it is vnder 
The connexion of it.  the fat, but in Apes, Dogges, Sheepe, and such like, it lyeth immediately vnder the skin. It compasseth the whole body, and closely cleaueth to the skin by the mediation of manie Veynes, but fewer Nerues and Arteries diuersly propagated, and through it climbing vp thither, whereto also helpe the addition of fleshy Fibres. It cleaueth also to the Membranes of the Muscles vnder it, but by more slender Fibres. It is saide by some to haue his Originall from the backe, because it cleaueth thereto most inseparably, and there resembleth the other Membranes; but where it toucheth the arme holes, it becommeth in dogs and Apes very fleshy, Galen saith musculous.  
In Infants it resembleth Flesh altogether, because of the aboundance of blood wherein it is steeped; in grown bodies by reason of continuall exiccation, it becommeth like a membrane, 
Gal. 1. Admin. & 5. eiusdem 7.  yet so, that in the fore-part of the necke and in the forehead, it cleaueth to it so fast with his fleshy Fibres, that it can ●neath be separated, and to the broad Muscle, that it is thought to giue him his body. It is in a man except the forehead immooueable; in beasts it is not onely mooueable itself, but also maketh the skinne mooueable especially in the necke, by shaking whereof they driue away the Flies, but a horse in shaking of his skin, will 
Where it is mooueable in Men.  sometime shake an vnskilfull rider out of his seate. In the inner part which is next to the membrane of the Muscles, this fleshy panicle by reason of a slimy moisture wherewith almost all Membranes are couered, it is slippery, that it may not hinder the motion of the 
In Beasts.  Muscles, and it hath an exquisite sense, so that if it be goaded by any sharpe humor, it causeth a rigor or shiuering. The vses of this Membrane are: To compasse the whole bodie, 
The vses of it.  to couer and defend it: To hinder the fat from being melted by the continuall motion of the Muscles. It supporteth also saith Galen, 3. Amintstrat. Anat. 2. the vessels which attaine vnto the skin, because there passe betweene it and this Membrane, not onely many Capillarie 
Galen.  and threddy Veines, but also those which wee vse to diuide in bloud-letting, together with many Arteries and Sinnewes. Finally, it helpeth to consolidate or heale vp the skin when it is wounded, or otherwise violated; for without flesh it cannot revnite, so saith Aristotle in his third Booke de Historia Animalium, 11. Wheresoeuer the skin is without Flesh, 
Aristotle.  there it cannot revnite being diuided. In brute Beasts, the thickenesse and fastnesse of this Membrane, reteyneth the bloody vapors, and turneth them into good blood, and besides it maketh their skins mooueable. And thus much of the Common Containing or Investing parts. But because we made mention euen now of the Veines which run betweene the skin & the fleshy Membrane which are vsually many of them opened in Phlebotomy; and for that young Chirurgions had neede be betimes acquainted with them, we haue on the former side of the leafe added two Tables and their expositions at large, by which hee that listeth may in one view see all the branches of the skin veines how they are seated, and beside learne to call them by their names, that when he is commanded, he may know how to buckle himselfe to his businesse.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Investing or Containing parts, proper to the lower Belly.  
_THe proper containing partes whereby the Lower Belly is invested, are the Muscles of the Abdomen or Paunch, and the Peritonaeum or 
8. Muscles of the paunch.  Rim of the belly. The Muscles are in all Bodies alwaies eight, foure on eyther side, matched equally in Figure, Magnitude, Strength, and Action. Of these there are foure Oblique, two Right, & two Transuerse, all of them haue these appellations from the scituation and the texture of their Fibres. In Dissection the Oblique external paire do first offer themselues, which are the broadest of all the rest. Next follow the Oblique internall; the Anatomists do vsually call the former oblique descendents, the latter oblique ascendents, but how properly or improperly wee shall shew heereafter. Next to these follow the two Right Muscles, in whose inward parts do appeare those veines ascending and descending, which conioyne about the Nauill. Vnder all these lye the two Tranuerse Muscles. 
Two other Muscles lately found out.   
There are also in some Bodies two other smal muscles called succenturiati assisters, or Piramidales, that is, the spiry Muscles. The History of all these Muscles, as also the Controuersies and diuerse opinions concerning them, we will at large prosecute in our Booke of Muscles, whither for satisfaction we referre the Reader.  
Next vnder these lyeth the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly, a thin Membrane like vnto 
Peritonaeum or rim of the belly.  a Spiders web, which enwrappeth all the inward parts in this venter conteined. Towardes the bladder especially it is euidently duplicated, betwixt which duplication those vessels which the ancients cal Vasa vmbilicalia, the Nauill vessels, are caried. Of al which if followeth 
The vmbilical vessels.  now that we snould intreat, beginning with the Peritonaeum.   

CHAP. X. Of the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly.  
_THE Muscles of the Abdomen and their Tendons being remooued, we meet 
The rim of the bellie or Peritonaeum.  with a Membrane ingirting the whole cauity of the lower belly, which they call the peritonaeum. Immitating heerein Hippocrates and Galen, who giue it that name, because it compasseth all those parts which lye between the Midriffe 
7. Epidem. 6 admin. An. 4.  and the Thighes. Or because it firmeth or strengthneth all the viscera or entrailes that it conteineth. The Arabians call it Ziphachi, as they call all other Membranes and particularly Charmel, others call it the Membrane or coate of the Abdomen, we 

The names.  
The Figure.   call it the Rim of the Belly. The figure of this Membrane is ouall, or like an Egge, [ Tab. 5. AABCD.] The greatest it is of all the Membranes of the belly, as incompassing the greatest 
The quantitie or dimensions of it.  cauity of the whole body. In Longitude and Latitude, it answereth the whole inferiour venter. It is made of Spermaticke threds and the Mothers blood powred between them, after the maner of a Parenchyma. It proceedeth from the Meninges or Membranes of the braine which inuest the marrow of the backe and the Nerues, but hath his beginning betwixt the first and the third Spondell or racke-bone of the Loines; and that is the reason why there it is so thicke that it cannot be separated without tearing in pieces.  
It is knit aboue, which part Galen 4. de vsu partium 10, calleth vertex peritonaei, to the Diaphragma or Midriffe, so strongly, that when it is enflamed, the Hypochondria are 
The connexion.  drawne vpward; below, to the Bones of the Haunch and Share; before, it obstinately cleaueth to the white Line, and to the Tendons of the transuerse Muscles,( of itself alone it consisteth without connexion, below the Region of the Nauill at the share bones;) for as it applyeth to the region of the Nauill, it is knit to the thin Tendon of the transuerse muscles: backeward, to the originals of the transuerse muscles, and to that membrane of the Nerues proceeding from the Spondles of the loynes( from whence some say it ariseth) & to all the viscera or entrals, to whom it affoordeth seuerall membranes.  
His substance is membranous and thin, Galen 4. vsu part. 9. addeth simple,( yet strong 
The substāce of it.  and compact) that when the belly is full of meate, or the wombe of the burthen, it might be without danger stretched and relaxed as wide and long as neede required. Thinne it is before, least it should be a burthen to the parts vnder it; yet so, that in men it is thicker from the Sword-like Cartilage or brest-blade as farre as the Nauill, then it is neerer to the 
Where thicker and where thinner.  Share; but in women it is stronger from the Share to the Nauill, that it might better endure distention as the burthen groweth. Toward the backe-bone about the Loynes it is thicker, because it is to be sliued or parted into many Cobweb-like membranes, which it affordeth to the Entrals, yet are these very strong that they might be able to containe or keepe downe windie distensions; and least in holding of breath, or when they are streatched they should be broken. On the inside it is smooth, and as it were lined with moisture, that it may not offend the smoothnesse of the entrals, and sometime hath grease adioyned to it( which most what accompanieth the veines) especially about the stomack and holybone. On the outside it is sharpe or harsh and fibrous( saith Fallopius) that it may the better cleaue to the muscles. It is euery where double, which yet is most conspicuous about 
The duplication of this Peritonaeum.  the Ridge; the lower part or membrane of this duplication, is couched vnder the hollow Veine, the great Arterie, and the Kidneyes; all which the vpper and more inward part couereth, that the Vessels being on euery side guarded and defended, might securely disperse their branches betweene those two membranes.  
So the Peritonaeum is doubled, where the Nauell vessels passe through it on this maner. The two Arteries[ Tab. 6. aa.] arise from below to the[ Tab. 6. C.] nauell; and the veine ascendeth also from the nauell[ Tab. 6. from D to the vpper B,] to the Liuer. It is also manifestly duplicated in the Hypogastrium or water-course, and maketh there a large cauitie, that betwixt his membranes the Bladder might bee inclosed. To which membrane it is also 
How & where it is perforated.  firmely connected,[ Tab. 2. lib. 3. at *]  
It is perforated as the vessels are necessarily to passe through it, but so as the orifices or verges of the membrane are closed about the vessels. Aboue, where it cleaueth to the midriffe, it hath three perforations, one on the right hand for the passage of the hollowe Veine, another on the left, that through it the Gullet might be ioyned to the stomack, together with the sinnewes that cleaue vnto it. A third, for the conueying through the great Arterie, the vnmated veine, and the sinew of the sixt paire. Belowe, it is perforated about the siedge, the neckes of the Bladder and the wombe, as also where the veines, arteries and sinnewes which are sent into the thighes, are distributed thorough the peritonaeum 

A. A. B. C. D. The vpper, lower, and laterall partes of the Peritonaeum.  
E E. The White Line from the Gristle of the breast bone, called the Breast blade, to the Cōmissure or meeting of the share bones.  
F. The Gristle of the brest-bone, Cartilago ensi-formis, or the breast blade.  
G. The Nauill which, al the Muscles being taken away, must bee kept for the demonstration of the vmbilicall vessels.  
H H. The productions of the Peritonaeum, which containe the seminary vessels on either side.  
** The hole which giueth way to the seminary vessels of men.  
I I. A Veine and an Arterie from the Epigastricke, which beeing carried vpward vnder the right Muscles, do heere hang downe, and are distributed into the lower part of the Abdomen.  
K K. A Veine and an Artery from the internal Mammary proceeding from vnder the bone of the breast, are carried downeward thorough the right Muscles, and are disseminated into the vpper part of the Abdomen.  
1, 2. The place wherein the right Muscles arise, which being here cut off, do hang down, that their vesselles may the better bee seene.  
3, 4. The Anastomosis or inocculation of the foresaid vessels, making the consent of the Abdomē and the nose, and of the wombe with the breasts, as some thinke.  
L L. Branches of Veines running into the sides of the Peritonaeum.  
N. The place of the hanch bone bared, to which the oblique & the transuerse Muscles do grow.  
The second Figure.  
● The descending vessels proceeding frō the trunk of the hollow veine, and the great Arterie vnder the brestbone. b The vessels ascending frō the Epigastrick vessels  
ccc. Anastomoses or the inocculations of the ascending vessels with the descending.   
¶ The first Figure sheweth the right Muscles of the Lower Belly, with the vessels, and the lower belly itself couered with the Peritonaeum or Rim, all the Muscles being taken away.  
The second Figure shewes the Veines and Arteries which descend from the Mammarie vessels, and those which ascend from the Epigastricke.  
TABVLA. V.  
FIG. I  
FIG. II.  itself, the muscles of the Abdomen and the skin. There are also two productions,[ Tab. 5. H H] on either side one, which passing from his external membrane seated vnder the kidneyes neere the Share-bone, like loose Canels or pipes, attaine through the Tendons of the oblique and tranuerse muscles without the cauity of the belly into the cod, and so to the Testicles, where spreading themselues, they compose or frame their proper coat. Through which productions the preparing spermaticke vesselles doe descend, and the deferentia or leading vesselles doe returne to the necke of the bladder together with the muscles of the Testicles in men. But in woemen two processes or productions passe from the wombe to the vpper part of the neck of the same. To these productions adhereth very closely the internall membrane; which yet is disioyned neere the share-bone; which inward membrane 

The reason of a rupture.  
Why a testicle is necessarily lost in cutting for a rupture.   if it be broken, and the externall dilated, according as the gut or the Kall shall fall downe either in men or women; so it causeth the one kinde of rupture or the other. This production( the skin being cut in the flanke) if it bee intercepted and taken it vp with a tie close to the Abdomen, hindreth indeed the fall of the gut or Kall, but because the spermatical vessels also in men are necessarily tied with the production, the Testicle of that side must needs be vitiated and loose his vse; but if the tie be not[ at * * in the 5. Table] very neere to the Abdomen, then some part of the gut falling down, brings great molestation, & although there be no outward tumifying or bearing downe to be seene nor scarcely any can be felt; yet it requireth a new incision and a new tie, as we haue learned at the price of other mens experience. Finally, in the forepart about the middle of the belly where the nauill is, it is perforated in the Infant for the passage of the nauill vesselles, that it may receiue nourishment from the mother, but afterward that perforation groweth vp, and if it breake out againe, it causeth the Nauill-rupture called 〈◇〉. 
The coates which the Peritonaeum giueth to al the viscer a or entrals.   
From this Peritonaeum also as from their originall doe proceede particular coates, wherwith euery instruement vnder the midriffe is couered, but some of the entralles haue thinner coates, some thicker, according to euery ones necessity: as the kidneyes coate is crasse and thicke, but those of the stomacke, guts, bladder, and matrix much thicker: this coate compasseth the proper coates of the entrals and is called the common-coat; the vpper entralles as the Liuer, the Stomacke, &c. borrow it from that part of the Rim which groweth to the midriffe: the nether, as the bladder and the guttes, from that part which cleaueth to the share-bone, as sayth Galen in his 4. booke de vsu partium, and chapter 20. There bee also two membranes which proceed from this which are double, the Kall and the Mesentery, and some ligaments, as the ligament of the Liuer. Veines and Arteries the Rim hath from the neighbor vessels aboue; from the vessels of the midriffe which are called Phrenica; behind, from the muscles which goe away by the loynes and so run through the sides[ Tab. 5. LL] of this Peritonaeum. Before and somewhat higher[ Table 5. K K] from the Mammarie or Pap vessels which trēd downward vnder the sword-like cartilage or brest-blade to the right muscles; lower frō the Epigastricall vessels[ Table 5. II] ascending vnder those right muscles it receiueth certain surcles or branches for his nourishment and preseruation of his natural heat; sometime also seueral tendrils are communicated vnto it from the spermatical veines.  
His Nerues are very threddy which it hath from them that are distributed into the muscles of the Abdomen by which it receiueth sence.  
The Vses of this Peritonaeum or Rim, are; First sayeth Galen in the 4. booke de vsu partium 
The vses of the Rim.  and the 1. chapter, to couer the parts contained in the lower belly; but this vse sayth he, is not the principall, because those partes are well couered beside with the muscles of the paunch, a great deale of fat and the skinne. The second vse is, that it should bee a medium or meane betweene the entrals and the muscles, and so hinder the Kall and the small guts from falling into the spaces betwixt the muscles or vnto the skin;( as it hapneth when this membrane is broken) where they would cause great paine, hinder the motions of the muscles, and the free deposition or auoydance of the excrements; all which inconueniences we finde when this Rim is wounded and not perfectly and rightly cured. Thirdly, it helpeth much to the speedy vnburdening of the belly; for, because the muscles of the paunch and the midriffe by reason of their different scituation, cannot in their contraction streyne the whole belly equally and alike in euery place: the continuated position of the Rim supplieth that want, as when a man casteth both his hands vpon a bag of hearbes and compasseth them about on euery side, hee may more equally straine the liquor out of all the parts of the bag. Fourthly sayth Galen in the booke next aboue named and the 17. chapter, it giueth 
Galen.  coats to all the entrals of the lower belly, and produceth diuers ligaments, as we haue partly touched before, and shall do more at large hereafter. Fifthly, it firmeth and strengthneth all those entrals, especially the stomacke and the guts, which otherwise being distended with wind would be violated yea torn as it were, and their coats sliuen asunder; beside, it tyeth them together and holdeth thē fixe in their proper places. Finally, it is a sauegard to the vessels, which hauing a long course to run, and being but slender of themselues, are secured betwixt the duplicated membranes of this Peritonaeum.   

CHAP. XI. Of the vmbilicall or Nauel vessels.  
_THey are called vasa vmbilicalia, because they passe through the Nauel which 
The names of the Nauell.  is called vmbilicus, for of their convolutions or souldings one with another, is the Nauell made; the Greekes call it 〈◇〉, which signifieth to breath, by reason of the Arteries in it by which the infant in the Wombe breatheth or receiueth breath. Aristotle in the first Booke Hist. Animal. and the 13. Chapter, calleth it 〈◇〉, the roote of the belly, because by these vesselles, as 
What it is.  by the strings of the roote, the Infant draweth nourishment from the cake or Liuer of the wombe, as it were out of the earth. The Latine name vmbilicus, is deriued ab vmbone, which signifieth the bosse of a Buckler, which is represented in the middle of the belly, yea in the very middle and center, saith Galen 15, vsu part. 4. of the whole body, if you stretch out your armes and legs, and draw a circle about them. 
The sixt Table, sheweth the lower belly, all the containing parts, aswell proper as common, being remooued, & the bowels lying in their natural position, couered with the kall or omentum, together with the vmbilicall vessels.  
TABVLA. VI.  
FIG. I  
FIG. II  

A. A. B. B. The inner face of the Peritonaeum cut into four parts, and so turned backward.  
B. The vpper B. sheweth the implantation of the vmbilical veine into the Liuer.  
C. The Nauell separated from the Peritonaeum.  
From D. to the vpper B. The vmbilicall veine.  
E E. The vtter part of the stomacke blowne vp, neither couered by the Liuer, nor by the Kall.  
F F. A part of the gibbous side of the liuer  
G. Vessels disseminated thorough the peritonaeum.  
* The brest blade.  
H. The bottome of the bladder of vrine  
I. The connexion of the Peritoneum to the bottome of the bladder.  
K K K K. The Kall couering the Guts.  
M N. Vessels and sinnewes embracing the bottome of the stomacke.  
O. The meeting of the vesselles of both sides, so that M. N. and O. shewe the seame which Aristotle makes mention of in the 4. booke of the parts of the creatures, and the 3. history.  
PP. Certain branches of vessels running along the bottom of the stomacke.  
Q Q Q Q. Certaine branches of vessels distributed to the vpper Membrane of the Omentum, and compassed with fat.  
aa. The two vmbilicall Arteries, going downe by the sides of the bladder to a branch of the great artery.    
b. The Ligament of the bladder which is shewed for the Vrachus. The second Figure sheweth the vmbilicallVeine. A. That part which ioyneth to the nauell. B. The other that is inserted into the Liuer.  
The nauell therefore is the stumpe of the vmbilicall vesselles, by which the Infant was nourished in the wombe,[ Tab. 6. C.] therefore implanted into the middest of the lower 
The vmbilicall vessels.  belly, because it was requisite, that as well the Alimentary as the Vitall blood should first apply to the parts contained in this belly. Now the vmbilical vessels are these: One veine, in bruite Beasts there are two: Two Arteries sometimes,( yet that rarely) but one: diuided at the inside of the nauell into two, and in Beasts the Vrachus.  
The vmbilicall veine[ Tab. 6. from D to D] is the first of all the veines, yea the Principle of Perfection of all the parts of the body, in respect of their fleshy substance, because it is 
The vmbilicall Veine.  the vehicle or conueigher of blood, as well for the matter whereof all the Parenchymata of all the parts; wherefore it is also the roote of the Gate-veine, and is formed together with the vmbilicall arteries immediately of the seede before any of the entrals. And this truth accordeth with the opinions of Hippocrates and Galen, and with right reason: for the Infant 
Hippocrates. Galen.  needeth both bloud and spirits for the generation of his parts: now because these must be conuayed by vessels, it followeth necessarily that those vessels should be generated before the parts themselues; and these are they. So we see the seede of Corne or such like, when 
Comparison.  it is cast into the earth, first of all, it shooteth out of itself the beginning of the stalke and of the roote together, that afterward the stalke may be nourished by the rootes. Semblably in the figuration of Man-kinde at the same instant that the substance of the body beginneth to be moulded, the vmbilicall vessel is produced whereby the creature might be nourished and augmented.  
This veine[ Table 6. from D to B] passeth through the double membranes of the Rimme, 
The passage of the vmbilicall veine.  and in the Infant hauing gotten through the place of the nauill, becommeth sometimes two, sometimes presently after his egresse is deuided, so that it seemeth to bee double, and together with the arteries is compassed with a membrane called the Gut-let, and so runneth out into a great length; Vesilius sayth of a foote and a halfe long, but oftentimes it is much longer, yea sometimes double and treble. The veine is full of knottes, by which 
The knots of the veine.  some supersticious Midwiues gather how many children the Mother shall haue, but their true vse is to stay and entertaine the bloud, that it might receiue a more exquisite elaboration for the nourishment of the tender Infant. The arteries because they are ordayned to conuay the spirites for the support of life are straight and euen without any bossed knottes at all.  
When these vessels come vnto the secundine or after-birth they disperse through it notable 
The manner how they nourish & sustain the Infant.  braunches, and lesser toward his outward part, which atteining vnto the Liuer or Cake of the wombe, doe forme a Net-like complication, till at length they loose themselues into small hairie strings, by which as by the tendrils of the rootes of plants, the mothers bloude both alimentary and vitall together with the spirit is drawne out of the mothers veines and arteries into these vmbilicall vesselles. From whence the veines conuey the bloud into the Gate-vein, & from thence by the Anastomoses or inocculations which are betwixt the roots of the Gate and the hollow-veines, it passeth into the trunk of the hollow vein, and so nourisheth the whole body of the Infant. The Vmbilical arteries by which the Infant hath transpiration do transport the vital bloud vnto the Aorta or great arterie, & from thence it passeth vnto the heart to maintain the natiue heate and life of the little creature. But after the Infant is borne, the Midwife after she haue stroaked down the bloud to nourish the Babe, 
A direction for Midwiues  casteth it into a knot close to the belly, and then cutteth it off, and the stumpe that is left is the nauill.  
And because the portions of them, which are left within the body should, not be altogether 
The vse of these vessels after the birth  vnprofitable, they are turned into ligaments. The veine because it proceedeth out of the Fissure or cleft[ Tab 6. B and tab. 4. lib. 3. F] which is in the hollow part of the Liuer, and thence attaineth betwixt the two Membranes of the Rim vnto the Nauill, becommeth the Ligament of the Liuer, which sometimes in dropsie bodies openeth( yea and euen in our dissections we haue sometimes followed it with a Probe and found it open into the Liuer) 
The way of the dropsie water.  and so auoydeth by the nauill the water which is gathered in the Liuer: but the chiefe vse of it is to tye downe the Liuer to the Nauil that it rise not vp and so stop the descent of the midriffe in our inspiration. And this vse of it the Egyptians know full well, for they vse to flay at this day their Theeues, and they liue in great torment til the Hang-man or Butcher cut the nauill, and then they dye instantly, the Liuer gathering vp vnto the midriffe and so 
A cruel custome of the Egyptians. The passage of the vmbilical arteries.  stopping their breath.  
The Vmbillicall arteries[ Table 6. AA tab. 2. lib. 3. kl] arise as most do agree( though Vesalius be of another mind) from the Iliacall arteries, or rather they are there implanted sayth Bauhine, and running along by the sides of the bladder[ Table 2. k l tab. 4. lib. 3. a a] they passe vpward through the Membranes of the Peritonaeum vnto the Nauill, and so become the laterall Ligaments of the bladder.  
Finally, the Vrachus[ Table 6. b tab. 2. lib. 3. i] or the vrinarie vessel in beasts, ariseth from 
The vrachus in beastes.  the bottom of the bladder[ Table 6. H tab. 2. lib. 3. g] and ascendeth betwixt the two arteries through the duplication of the Peritonaeum, and issuing out at the nauill-stead is lengthned into two guts as it were, and maketh that coate of the creature which is called Alantois, into which the vrine of the Calfe is poured, which is there retained till it be calued.  
But in Man there ariseth from the bottome of the bladder[ Tab. 6. H Tab. 2. li. 3, g] a Ligament 
In Men.  like to the Vrachus[ Tab. 6, b Tab. 2. li. 3, 1, i] but it is not al perforated. It passeth betwixt the vmbilicall[ Tab. 6. a a.] Arteries, and is firmely knit vnto the nauell[ Tab. 6. c.] to which it fastneth the bladder, and so holdeth it suspended, that it may not mooue this way or that way, or be otherwise in danger of breaking, because( saith Varolius) whatsoeuer is separated from the blood whilst the Infant is in the Mothers wombe, is gathereth together in the bladder. Hence it is that new borne Babes haue their bladders distended & full of Vrine, which they auoide in great quantity before they take any sustenance. But afterward as the childe groweth, this Ligament degenerateth into a very smal filament or twist 
The vse of it after the birth  with which the bladder is tied to the Peritonaeum, and so sustained, that when the bladder is distended, his necke might not be pressed. But of these vessels wee shall haue occasion to intreate heereafter more in our discourse concerning the Conformation of the Infant. In the meane time this shall be sufficient. And thus much of the common Inuesting parts of the whole body, & of those that are particular to the Lower Belly: now it remaineth that we decide such controuersies as are on foote concerning them, and so passe on to the nutritiue parts.    

A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies concerning the Common Inuesting parts of the Body, and those that properly belong to the Lower Belly.  

QVEST. I. How the Haires are nourished.  
_THe controuersies concerning the haires, how they are nourished or otherwise encreased, although it bee a matter of no great necessity, yet is it very difficult and full of Philosophical subtility. That they doe encrease from short to long, is not doubted: so also it is past question that nutrition goeth before accretion. Galen in his first Booke De Naturalibus facultatibus, and in the second De Temperamentis saith, that their generation is like the generation of plants; and yet in his Book de Arte Medicinali; in the ninth chapter, where hee treateth of the differences of the members, he saith, they haue onely a generation, no gouernment; that is to say, they are generated of recrements, but not nourished or gouerned by any Naturall faculty. And in his second Booke de Temperamentis he thus expresseth their production. But if the vapour be sooty, thicke, and earthy, it remaineth impacted in the straight breathing pores of the skin, neyther easily returning backeward, nor easilie euacuated; wherefore another vapour succeeding from within, striketh the former and thrusteth it outward, and so one vapour following another, they are in time complicated and conioyned, & make a roping body like the soote in a Chimney, but are not nourished at all by the assistance of any Facultie.  
Hence it appeareth, that they are onely excrements, and their auction is but an improper accretion, vtterly deuoide of life, and therefore they are not to be reckoned among the parts of the body; or if they be, it is not because they do participate of life, but because they haue other vses of couering, ornament, and such like, as before in their history is expressed. But there are some of Aristotles followers, who contend that they haue a life, but that of nourishment onely, not of sense. Which distinction seemeth to mee to bee very friuolous. For if you take from them any part of life, you must also take away all life. Beside the very substance of the haire so dry and without sence, is a manifest euidence that they cannot be truly nourished. For if they assume an Aliment into themselues, and alter it for their behoofe, what should hinder that they should not encrease according to al the dimensions, length, bredth, and thicknesse? but we see manifestly, that they only encrease in length, & not otherwise, receyuing their additament or aliment, whether you wil cal it, onely at their rootes, not as other parts equally on euery side. It will be obiected, that the nailes and the teeth do also receiue their aliment after the same manner, and yet they are 
Obiection.  liuing parts. We answere, there is great difference. For the Nailes and the Teeth haue all kinds of Vessels, Veines, Arteries, and Nerues, inserted into their roots, by which they 
Answere.  receyue nourishment and sence, so haue not the Haires; and the reason why they are onely nourished at their roots, is because Nature foresawe, that by continuall attrition and collision they would soone be worne away, vnlesse new matter were supplied vnto them at their roots; and truly we willingly confesse, that the extreme parts of the nailes & teeth which are farthest from their roots do not liue, neyther are nourished properly, but onely 
Obiection. That Haires and Nayles are both of one Nature. Answere.  are driuen forward by apposition and impulsion like as the Haires are. But it should seeme that the nature of the Haires and of the nailes is all one, because they both increase in dead carkasses. Wherefore if the nayles be nourished, why should it be denied that the haires also do grow by nourishment?  
Heereto we answer, that true it is, aswell the nailes as the haires do shoot out after death; but the maner is not alike, for the haires do, so and from the same causes grow in length after death, as they did before; he heat of corruption and putrifaction seruing as well, so long as the matter lasteth, to driue out the excrement after death, as the naturall heate did while the man was on liue; but the nailes do not grow as they did in the life time, but onely become more prominent, the adiacent parts sinking from them, as being consumed by putrifaction. But it may further bee vrged, That the nature of a putrified excrement when 
Obiection.  it is not ouer-ruled by the faculty, is not to breath outward to the Circumference, but to gather inward vnto the place where the most putrified matter is; and this is daily obserued euen in liuing bodies, that till the offending humour be brought into subiection vnto nature, and receiue a kinde of mitigation, it gathereth still to the center; afterwarde, nature hauing gotten the victory, she driueth it as farre from her as is possible, euen to the skin; as we see it falleth out in Criticall sweats, in the Meazels, small Pocks, and such like. Now if the putred excrement haue no disposition to the Circūference in liuing bodies when the secret passages of the body are open, the skin porous, & the faculties euery where at work; how shal it passe that way after those passages and pores are falne, the habit forsaken of the spirit, & the trāspirable wayes locked vp vnder the seale of death? It seemeth therfore more reasonable to thinke that the matter of the haires which is added after death, was a surplusage of the last concoction celebrated in the habit of the body, and remaining in the extremities of the vessels which determine in the skin, which being in that place intercepted by the extinction of naturall heate, and hauing no spirits to guide it backward; yet hauing before attained the perfection which the faculty could impart vnto it, worketh itself a way through the skin. But this knot will easily bee vntied, if we consider that after death the 
Answere.  haires do not grow or encrease in any place of the body, but onely in such, as wherein there were haires standing in the time of life, to the roots whereof, as I saide before, the heat proceeding from putrifaction, is sufficient to driue, though not any humor, yet a vapor which may passe where the way was before thrilled and bored, but cannot where the skinne was not notably perforated. Againe, there is a double limit, beyond which the excrescence of the Haire dooth not proceede. For if either the confluence of the vapour to those pores make a dampe, as in processe of time it will, or the putrifaction of the vapour grow to a Venom, then the Haires cease to encrease, but fall not so soon in dead carkasses as in liuing men, because the aire exiccateth and drieth the skin wherein the roots are fastned; but in those that are aliue whose skin is open, they fall not vpon a dampe, for there can be no such thing in a liuing body, but vpon a confluence of a venemous vapor, as we see in the French disease and the Leprosie. And so much of the Haires.   

Whether the Skin be the Organ or instrument of touching. QVEST. II.  
_THE Philosophers and Physitians striue about the instrument of 
The Peripatecians arguments.  touching. Aristotle and Alexander call flesh sometimes the medium or meane through which wee feele, sometimes the Organ or instrument of feeling itself, but neuer the Skinne. First, because the Skin is of itself insensible, and sensible only by reason of the flesh. For the skinne of the head which is without flesh say they, is insensible. Secondly, because flesh bared or exposed to the ayre, is more paynfull then the skin. Thirdly, because there is a more exquisite and discerning sence in the flesh then in the skin. For that Iewellers and Lapidaries doe more accurately discern the differences of roughnesse and smoothnes, and such touchable qualities by the toung then by the hand; and are able to distinguish betweene natural and fictitious precious Stones only by the touch of the tongue. Lastly, because it is a rule in 
An axiome.  Philosophy, that the sensible subiect beeing placed immediately vppon the instrument of sense is not sensible, but such sensible subiects placed immediatly vpon the skinne are felt, therefore the skin is not the instrument of touching.  
To these may be added the authority of Auicen, who writeth, that the skinne feeleth not 

Auicen.  
Fen. 1. cap.  
Doctr. 4. cap. 1.   equall bodies or obiects; if it feeleth not equall obiects, then is it not the proper organ or instrument of touching; because euery instrument of sence which the Greciās cal 〈◇〉 apprehendes both extreme & also middle obiects; so the eie seeth both the extreme colours which are blacke and white, and also al middle colours made of their mixture, whether they contain lesse or more of either of the extreames. On the other side, the Physitians affirm 
The Physitians opinion. Their arguments taken from the temper of the skin.  the skinne to bee the instrument of touching, which will appeare to be the probable and likely opinion whether we consider the temper, the structure, or the scituation of the skin. For the temper, the skinne is the most temperate of all the partes in the very midst of the extreames, and is as it were the canon or rule of them all; and therefore can giue a more perfect iudgement of the tactible qualities.  
Aristotle hath determined that euery 〈◇〉 or instrument of sence should be 〈◇〉, 

2. de Animal.  
Why Iaundy eyes think all things yellow.   that is, deuoyde of all qualities whereby that sence is affected. So the Christaline humour which receiueth the Images and spectres of visible thinges, is deuoide of all colours; the yellow eyes of those that are full of the Iaundise imagine all things to be yellow. If the tongue be moystned with choller, all things though sweet haue a bitter tange: in the nose there is no particular and peculiar sent; no sound naturally residing in the eare: right so the skin which hath no excesse of qualities is to bee esteemed the organ or instrument of touching.  
If we consider the structure of the skinne, there are moe nerues disseminated into it then into the flesh, but the nerues are the common conuayers of all sensible spirits, which they continually minister vnto the sences, whereby their operations are perpetuated. And for 

The structure of the skin  
The scituation of the skin.   the scituation of the skinne, it is much more commodious then that of the flesh, because it is nearer to the occursation or confluence of outward obiects; because it is the limit and border as it were of all the parts. The skin therefore is rather the instrument or organ of touching then the flesh. As for the forenamed obiections of the Peripatecians they are easily 
Answers to the Peripatecians arguments The first.  answered: for first we deny that the skin feeleth by helpe of the flesh. I instance thus: cut a nerue which endeth into the flesh, presently the motion will cease, but the sence of the skin will remaine; but if a nerue be cut which passeth vnto the skin, presently the sence itself will be abolished. Againe, true it is that flesh when it is bared is more sensible and 
The second.  painfull then the skinne; but the reason of that is because it is looser, and lesse accustomed to outward iniuries of the ayre or ought else; whereas the skinne is so accustomed to the ayre, that it feeleth it not. So the teeth being vsually opposed to the ayre are not affected therewith, but other bones if they be bared doe presently putrifie. To proceed, the tong hath a more exquisite apprehension of the coldnesse and inequality of precious stones; but 
The third.  that apprhension is not from his flesh but from his membrane; nowe membranes are also instruments of sence. And whereas it is sayd that the sensible subiect or obiect being placed immediately vpon the instrument of sence, is not sensible; that I say is vtterly false, for 
The fourth.  by that reason there should be no organ of touching saue only a bone, a gristle, or a vinculū or tye.  
That Axiome of Aristotle stands neede to be interpreted: Of the sences some are absolutely 
An interpretation of an axiome.  and simply necessary to our life, as touching and tasting; some are ad bene esle, that is, for the better being of the creature, but not simply necessary to his being, as sight, hearing, and smelling. The Medium or Meane of these last is externall and separated from the instrument; the medium of the first is internall, and so ioyned with the instrument that it cannot be separated. In the first this axiome is true; for if any colour be laid vppon our eye, wee see indeed, but very deprauedly, being not able without an outward meane to distinguish, so likewise it is in hearing and smelling: but in tasting and touching because the medium is internall, the obiect may be, yea is best distinguished when it toucheth the instrument. 
The conclusion.  We therefore conclude that the skin is the organ or instrument of touching, and the Cuticle or skarfe-skin is his medium or meane.  
Whereas Auicen sayth that the skinne doeth not feele equall or temperate things, he meaneth that it is not violated or all affected by them when it feeleth them, not that it feeleth 
Answere to Auicen.  them not at all: for that common experience would condemne. Lastly, you will say that the skinne feeleth by the helpe of nerues; the nerues therefore are the instruments of feeling not the skin. I answere, the flesh of the muscles are moued by the nerues, yet is not the nerue the immediate organ of voluntary motion but the muscle. In like manner 

Another argument answered.  
Answere to Galens authority.  
I eculiar touches in mens bodies.   the nerue giueth sense vnto the skin, because it bringeth downe vnto it the Animall faculty and spirit, yet nathe-more is it the immediate instrument of sense. But Galen sayeth that the stomacke is the organ of touching, because his sence is most exquisit: surely the mouth of the stomacke is wondrous sensible, because of the notable nerues it receiueth from the sixt coniugation, and by reason of the hunger and thirst of which it onely is apprehensiue: we acknowledge it the instrument or Organ of a peculiar and particular touch, as also the partes of generation haue their peculiar touch whereof they are instruements; but onely the skin is the Organ of externall touching, and sole iudge of all tactile qualities.   

Of the Temper of the Skin. QVEST. II.  
_GAlen is of opinion that the Skinne is absolutely temperate, because it is of a middle nature between bloudy and vnbloudy, whence it is called a neruous 
That the skin is temperate.  flesh and a fleshy Nerue; so in anotherplace, if the flesh bee adstringed and dryed, it becommeth like the skinne; for the skin is dryer and thighter then the flesh. Hippocrates also expresseth so much where he sayth, The outward Skin which is continual with itself and with the bloudy Nerue, because it is exposed to the aire, 

Hippocrater.  
That it is not.   sometimes colder, sometimes warmer, is often affected by both, and needes now and then the help of the one to temper the other. On the contrary it may be proued by the authorities of Galen and Auicen that it is not Temperate. Galen sayth that the Skin is nourished with phlegmaticke bloud; it is therefore of the Temper of Phlegme, for the nourishment of any part 
Galen.  is the same with that whereof it is compounded. Auicen sayeth that the flesh commeth neerer to exact equality of Temper then any other part. The flesh therefore and not the skinne is temperate. Moreouer, that cannot be temperate which is the weakest of all parts: now the skin receiueth the superfluities of all the inward partes, and is therefore called the 
Answere to the argumēts which proue it not to be temperate.  vniuersall Emunctory. But all these knots may easily be cleft with a soft wedge. The skin is nourished with phlegmatick bloud, that is, not ful boyled and labored, when wee know it is hot not cold. Auicen sayth not, that flesh is most temperate, but that it commeth nearest to that which is temperate; so the whole body of Man is sayd to bee temperate, although it be hot and moyst.  
The weaknesse of the Skinne proceedeth not from the Temper, for it is not weake of itself or of it owne nature, but by euent, by reason of the scituation and the vessels. For the greater vessels, because they are neerer to the fountaine are the stronger, and the expelling 
Why the skin is weake and becomes an Emunctory.  vertue of the inner-parts more powerfull: whence it is, that the inward partes expell their superfluities into the outward, and the greater vessels into the smaller vessels of the habit; so that the skinne becommeth weaker, because the expelling faculty is withinwarde and stronger, and layeth all the burthen vpon the skinne: and somuch for satisfaction of the aduersaries. 
Whether by the skin the temper of the whole body may be known Aristotle.   
There is another scruple arising out of this Doctrine of the Temper of the Skinne; and that is, whether a Physitian by the Skinne may iudge what is the Temper of the whole body. Aristotle gathereth from this instrument of touching, the vigour of the minde itself, because where the touch is fine, there the sence is lesse polluted, & the Phantasmes arising there from more subtile; and so the operation of the soule higher and more abstruse. Galen resolueth the doubt where he sayth; They are in an errour who doe determine alwaies of the Temper of the whole body by the skinne; for though the skinne be hard, yet is not the 
Galens resolution of the question.  Creature necessarily dry; neither if it be soft & without haire is the whole creature moist; yet if the whole body be in equall Temper, then it is reasonable that all the parts should be proportionably correspondent to the Temper of the Skinne, but if the body be vnequally tēpered as oftentimes it is, from the nature, by accident, or by disease, then is it not reasonable to iudge of the body by the skin. For we see that in Oysters the flesh is very moist, yet is their skin, which is their shell, beyond measure dry.   

Of the Originall and Generation of the Skin. QVETS. III.  
_THere are many opinions about the generation of the Skinne. The common opinion is, that it ariseth from the dilated endes of the Veines, Arteries and 
The common opinion.  Sinewes, because it euery where feeleth, liueth, and is nourished: now life is communicated by the Arteries, nourishment by the Veines, & Sence by the nerues òr sinewes. For my owne part I doe not deny but that many vessels are carried vnto and doe determine in the skin. From the Axillary, Iugular, and Crurall veines, many small Surcles, and as many Arteries bearing them company: interlaced also it is with manifold Nerues, but yet I am not resolued that the skinne is wouen together of their threds. Galen thought the skin was the first part of the Infant that was formed, the trueth of which assertion we shall discusse in another place. Some thinke the Skin is made 
Other opinions.  of the superficies of flesh dryed, because in woundes the flesh dryed degenerateth into a Cicatrice or Scarre, which is very like the nature of the skinne; this may bee confirmed by the authorities of Aristotle and Galen. Aristotle auoucheth that as the flesh groweth old, so it turneth into skinne. Galen, that the skinne is produced out of the flesh which is vnder it. But because between the flesh & the skin there are many bodies interposed, to wit, the Fat and the fleshy Membrane, which is truely neruous, vnlesse it be about the neck & the face, I cannot see how the skin should grow out of the flesh. And that skin or scar rather which resulteth vppon wounds, when the flesh is softned & dryed by Epulotical medicines as they call them; is not a true skin but illegitimate, ingendred of a substāce of another kind; for it is harder then the true skin & more thight, & therfore neuer hath any haire growing vpon, it 

The differēce between a scar and the true skin.  
Another opinion.  
But proued false.   and in tanning it will fal away, whence comes the holes in Sheep skins, when they are made into Parchment. Some thinke it is compounded of flesh and sinewes mingled together, because in many places of Galen, the skin is called a bloudy nerue; but this is prooued to bee false by this one argument, because where there is most store of nerues, there the skinne is not the harder for thē; as in the palme of the hand there are more nerues then in the crown of the head, and yet the skinne in the crown is much harder then that of the palme. I think, 
The determination.  and for this time determine, that the skin is ingendred together with the other parts, to wit, of seed and bloud mixed together; and may therefore be called a fleshy nerue, or a neruous flesh, because it hath a middle nature between flesh and a knew: for it is not vtterly without bloud as a nerue, nor so abounding with bloud as flesh. That there is bloud in it appeareth 
An argument that the skin is made of seede. and bloud.  euidently if it be neuer so little wounded; that it is of seed, this one argument may serue for all, that when it is perished it can neuer bee restored, for it is impossible to heale a wound where any part of the skinne is taken away without a scarre or Cicatrice more or lesse,   

Whether the Skin performe any common and officiall action. QVEST. IIII.  
_MAny Physitians haue the same opinion of the vse and action of the Skinne which they haue of the vse and action of Bones. The Bones haue a common 
The common opinion.  or official vse, so sayth Hippocrates, they giue the body stability, vprightnes and figure, but that they performe no common or officiall action. I account 
Hip. lib. de natu. ossium.  that a common action which is seruiceable either to more parts or to the whole creature. In like manner, the skinne hath indeed a common vse, because it couereth the whole body, cherisheth it & tyeth it together, but it is not thought to performe any officiall or common action. Galen speaketh very plainely, The skin( saith he) concocteth not, as the stomacke: it distributeth not as the Guts and the Veynes: it breedeth not bloud as the Liuer, it frameth not any pulsation as the Heart and the Artcries; it causeth not respiration, as the Lungs and the Chest, it mooueth not with voluntary motion, as the Muscles. Notwithstanding all this, one common action may bee attributed vnto it, to wit, an Animall action. 
The common action of the skin is animal  For although all sensation is passion, because to be sensatiue is to suffer, yet there is no sensation without an action. The better learned Philosophers in all sensation doe acknowledge a double motion, one Materiall, another Formall: the former motion is in 
How sensation is made.  the reception of the species( for we must craue liberty to vse our Schoole tearmes) the latter in an action; the first is in the Instrument by reason of the matter: the latter, by reason of the power is in the soule; the first is not the effectuating cause of sensation, but a disposition thereto: the latter is essentially sensation itselfe. Whereas therefore the skinne is apprehensiue of those qualities which strike or mooue the tactiue sense, and is thereupon esteemed the iudge and discerner of outward touching, it performeth vnto the whole creature not onely a common vse, but also a common or officiall action. Beside it hath another 
The priuate action of the skin.  priuate action, to wit, Nutrition, to which as handmaids do serue the Drawing, Reteining, Concocting and Expelling Faculties, & more then these hath no part in the body of man which serueth for the behoofe of the whole. Wee conclude therefore, that the skin besides his common vse and priuate action performeth to the body a common and officiall action, to wit, Sensation.   

QVEST. V. Whether it be heate or colde, whereby Fat is congealed.  
_THE diuers yea contrary gusts of opinions amongst ancient Physitians about the generation of fat, hath raised such a tempest in our Art, that the Waues are not to this day setled. There needeth therefore some Aeolus, mulcere hos fluct us to appease these waues, to call in the windes, or to abate them into a calme, which we will at this time intend to do in want of better helpe as well as we may. And because we would not bee accumbred with the variety of names which are vsually giuen to this substance, you shall vnderstand, that pingueào, adeps, auxungia, and 
The names of Fat. 2 de partib. Animal. 4. & 11. de simpl med. c. Facultat.  sevum, are promiscuously vsed by Physitians, albeit Aristotle and Galen haue taken great paines to distinguish them euery one from another. To which places, we refer those who desire heerein satisfaction. For we will onely paine ourselves about the temper and generation of fat at this time.  
Galen is of opinion, that fat is congealed by colde, and that he expressely declareth together 

How Fat is curdled.  
Galens opinion by cold.   with the manner of it in this manner. VVhen the asery and more oyly part of the bloud sweateth through the thin coates of the Veines in maner of a dew, and lighteth vpon the colder parts such as are Membranes, it is then by the power of the cold condensed: And hence it is, that women are for the most part fatter then men, because they are colder; & the same reason is of al other creatures growing fatter in the winter time, as do also those 
Why women are fatter thē men.  that haue smaller vessels; now we know, that the smalnes or narrownesse of the vessels, is caused by the coldnesse of the temper. And if at any time those creatures which haue large vessels do not yet grow fat, it is not from their naturall, but from an aduentitious temper acquired by accident( to wit) by diet and order of life. Moreouer, that fat is congealed by colde, hence it is euident, because by heate it is presently molten and liquefied. The Lower 
Arguments to proue that it is curdled by heate.  Belly because it is Membranous and farre remooued from the fountaine of heate, is therefore couered ouer with a leafe of fat, which sometimes is of great weight; but the parts vnder the breast haue lesse fat about them. And this is the Philosophy of Galen, and almost all the Greeke and Arahian Physitians. Those that hold the contrary, do thus demonstrate the matter of Fat to be hot, the worker of it heat, and the effects of it hot. For the matter, Galen himselfe acknowledgeth it to be made of the aery fat & oily part of the blood, as also is choler. and seede; and therefore those creatures that are fat grow barren, and if wee would fat any thing, we first lib or geld it. And Aristotle saith, that that which is fat, is neither earthy 

3. de hist. anim.  
2 de partibus Animal.   nor watry, but airy, and therefore it floateth alwayes aboue. Now ayre wee know is hot and moyst. That the efficient or working cause is hot, Aristotle first of all men prooued, where he saith, That fat is made by concoction or boyling, but it is onely heat which coneocteth or boyleth any thing. And in his Problemes he giueth this reason, why that which is fat is not of ill sauour, because( sayth he) it is not crude or raw, but concocted. This opinion of the Philosopher doth the learned Veiga follow and Argenterius, as also Laurentius Ioubert, who set foorth an elegant and subtile Paradoxe concerning the nature of fat. The weight of the principall reasons for this opinion, we will as briefely as wee can set before you. All concretion is made by that which is actually cold, as is seene in Ice, oyle, honie, and such like, which by the outward cold aire are congealed: but there is no such actuall 
That cold cānot congeale the fat.  cold in a liuing body; the bones are verie hot if they bee touched, and all the Membranes are actually hot, for the membranous stomacke boyles the Chylus, the membranous bladder bur●eth the Flegme euen into a stone. Autcen saith, That the Membranes are hotter then the Braine; now the barine is hotter then the most soulery hot aire that is in the heate of Summer: but the Summer heate melteth and congealeth not; the coldnesse therefore of the Membranes cannot congeale the fat. Againe, the heart which is the hottest of all the inward parts, and in perpetua'l motion, is yet compassed about the basis with aboundant fat. About the Membranes of the Braine, which are watred as it were with aboundance of blood, and wouen with many thousand vessels, neuer any fat adhereth: nor vnto the coates of the bones. Old men and melancholy persons, whose temper is cold, haue yet 
Melancholy men seldo he Fat.  little fat. The Kidneyes which are very hot, and bake, yea burne Flegme into stones, haue yet about them abundance of fat. Beside, the fat is a liuing part of the bodye, because it hath a certaine and definite forme or figure, & is whitened by the power of the membrane which altereth it; now who euer durst say, that a liuing part of mans body was made by actuall cold? We may also add the authority of Galen fauouring their opinion, where hee saith, That in cold and dry bodies the fat is larded amidst the flesh, not about the membranous 
The effects of fat are hot.  coates; but euery one will confesse that flesh is hot. Finally, the effects do teach vs that fat is hot. For Galen reckoneth it among concocting Simples; and the fatty kall( saith he, in his Booke of the vse of Parts) by his heate furthereth the concoction of the stomack; beside, it easily taketh fire. Wherefore they referre the cause of the concretion or congealing with Aristotle, to the fastnesse and thightnesse of the Membranes. For say they, the ayery and fat part of the bloode, passeth easily through the rare and spongy flesh: but when it commeth to the Membranes, there it is stayed and congealed by heate, and becommeth white through the operation of the spermatical part to which it adhereth, to wit the Membrane. Add heereto the authority of Hippocrates, who saith, That heate is the seate and residence of Fat. 
Pinguis sedem & metropolim esse calidum   
Thus you see the battell pitcht on either side, and contrary Ensignes and Armes in the field. Both parts cannot be maintained. It is more safe to side with the old Legions led by Galen, and followed by the Ancients, then with new and vpstart Nouices; wherefore, 
The determination.  we will determine thus; I wish it may be with approbation of the best.  
The Matter of Fat is avery and oyly, the Efficient cause a congealing colde, yet not absolute and actuall( for there is no such colde in any liuing creature) but lesse hotte, which 
What kind of cold curdleth Fat.  Philosopers take for colde, so that the fat is congealed not by parts that are absolutelie cold, but by parts that are lesse hot then others, such as are Membranes. But this may better be exemplified, then taught by precept. Lead as soone as it is taken off the fire, 
Exemplifications.  although it be yet fiery hot, caketh together: this concretion is eyther by vertue of heat or cold; not by a fiery heate, for that melted it before; not by actuall cold, for if you touch it thus caked, it will burne; therefore by a remisse heate, which to it is in stead of colde. For there is a certaine degree of heate, which will not suffer Lead to cake, nor Fat to curdle. This degree is onely in the fleshy parts; whence it is that fat neuer growes about them. But Membranous parts, because they haue not the same degree of heate, doe curdle the Oylie part of the blood into fat. When a Vessell of boyling water is couered, though the couer 
Lesse heate is taken for cold.  be hot, yet the vapour of the water turneth into a steame vppon it, and will stand in drops, yea will run from it in water, as we see in Stils, though the head be so hotte that a man cannot touch it. What then is the reason? Because in the Couer there is a lesse heate then in the boyling water. For it is heated onely by a vapour, the water immediatelie by the fire; The lesse heate therefore of the Couer or head, is in stead of colde to the boyling water.  
In like manner, in Melancholy men their hot and boyling entrals raise vapours, which when they come to the skin which is lesse hot then the entrals, are gathered and thickned 
Why Melancholy men sweate much.  into sweate. So the breathing vapours of all the lower parts being raised into a hot braine which yet is lesse hot then the lower parts, are turned into water, & fal down in Rheumes, Gowts, and such like. As for this manner therefore wee say that Fatte curdles by colde, that is, by a lesser heate then will melt it; so wee say the Brayne is cold, that is, lesse hot, although it be hotter as we haue sayd, then the ayre can bee in the heate of summer. That summer ayre or hot gleames wee call hot, and so they are; yet are they colde in respect of 
It is a fieryheat that we liue by.  fire, yea cold in respect of the heate of a liuing creature; the heart by them being refrigerated: for our life is proportionable to fire; and it is a true rule in Metaphysicks( that is in Logicke,) 

Meanes are contrary to their extreames.  
Answere to the former arguments.   that meanes are contrary to their extreames, else should not liberality which is a vertue, be contrary to couetousnes and prodigality, which are the extreames and vices.  
These things being thus first determined, we will now answere the argument vrged against vs. First, we deny that all concretion or coagulation is done by actuall colde; for as it is sayd, Lead yet firie hot, will congeale; and whereas Fat groweth to the heart, which is the hottest of all the parts, we answere, that herein is a great document of the wonderfull 
The wonderfull prouidēce of nature.  and prouident wisedom of Nature, who hath thus prouided least in perpetuall motion the hart should gather so great a heat as should waste & consume it; for which cause also saith Hippo. it lyeth in water much like vrine, that it might euer be fresh, & as it were flourishing.  
Chrysippus that notable Stoicke in his booke of Prouidence, sayeth that the finall cause ouercommeth both the efficient and matter in naturall thinges; and Aristotle against Democritus 
The finall cause is the first and chiefest in works of nature.  sayth, that in the workes of nature the end is the first and chiefe cause, for it moueth the other causes, itself being immoueable. I know that our aduersaries will obiect, that nature indeuoureth nothing against her owne lawes, shee should therefore haue made the heart temperate. But let me retort their owne weapon against them, Nature should haue made the heart originally temperate, that there might haue beene no neede of breathing cold ayre; how absurd this opposition against the wisedome of nature is, no man but seeth. For the heart was necessarily to bee created very hotte, because in it is the hearth and fire whereby the naturall heate of all the parts is preserued and refreshed. If they thinke not the Fat of the heart necessary, let them remember that it groweth not in the ventricles, nor in the flesh of the heart, but onely vpon the Membranes, of the vessels, which are parts lesse hot then any of the other. Some there are which add further that this Fat is a part of the heart, because it keepeth alwayes the same figure and circumscription, and is not melted by fire, but rather torrifieth.  
For the Membranes of the Braine, we say they haue no Fat, because there was no vse of it; yea it would haue hindered the breathing out of the smoaky vapors by his clamminesse. 
Why there is no fat in or about the braine.  For the Braine like a cupping glasse draweth continually and sucketh vp the expirations of the inferior parts, to which if the Comb-like sutures of the Skul did not gape and giue way, the Braine would be made as it were drunke with their aboundant moystures. Beside, Fat would haue hindred the motion of the Brain, for it moueth perpetually as the Pulse doth, as we shall shew in due place; wherefore in the Braine there wanteth the finall cause of Fat. The materiall cause is also wanting, because there is required a great aboundance of bloud for the nourishment of the brain, and for the generation of Animall spirits; it behoued not therefore that it should be conuerted into Fat. Old men and those that are melancholy are seldome fat, because the material cause of it is wanting, for they are too dry. The Fat of the 
Why melancholy men are leane.  Kidneyes compasseth not the flesh, but their membranes only. Aristotle saith that both kidneyes are fat, but the right lesse then the left, because it is the hotter. And whether the Fat be a liuing part, we shall dispute in our next exercise. Finally, whereas Galen sayth that in cold and dry bodies the Fatte is Larded through the flesh, not through the coates or membranes; we answere that by flesh in that place he vnderstandeth the muscles which are couered 
Galen expounded.  with their proper coates, to which coates the fat groweth, because they abound with bloud and veines; but in those coates that are most distant, whereof he there speaketh, because of their drynes there wanteth matter of Fat; for you may remember wee taught you before, that Fat is not ingendred but only where there is an ouerplus of bloud which sweateth through the spongy flesh after it is satisfied. Now in cold and dry bodies such as Galen there speaketh off, ther is no such aboundance of bloud that there should be any ouerplus. The effects of Fat which they mention conclude nothing; it is true that Fat is a concocting medicine, and that the Fat of the Kall relieueth the heat of the stomacke, but not primarily and of itself, but by euent, because the thicknes and visciditie or clammines of it hindreth the euaporation of the heate, which by that meanes is doubled; besides it stoppeth vp the pores, that the piercing cold cannot reach vnto it. Wherefore it heateth the stomacke, as 
How fat heateth the stomacke.  cloathes heat the body, not by adding heat, but by keeping the naturall heat in, and externall cold out. That it easily flameth, proceedeth from his oyly and aery matter, so Camphire 
Why Fat flames.  burneth in the fire, which yet all men take to be cold.  
Moreouer the effects doe not proue the efficient cause of Fat to be hot; for oyle which becomes thick and congealed in winter, presently taketh flame, and yet no man will deny but that it is congealed by the externall cold of the ayre. We therefore conclude that Fat is curdled by cold, that is, by a lower or more remisse degree of heate, & that it groweth 
The conclusion  or adheareth onely to membranes; because their heate is weaker, as hauing no continuity with the heart, and therefore depriued of that plentifull influence of heat therefrom, which the other parts of the body doe inioy which haue a more notable continuity with it.   

Whether Fat be a liuing and animated part of the body. QVEST. VI.  
_THey who imagine that Fatte is curdled or congealed by heate, beare themselues 
Authorities to proue the fat to bee a liuing part.  much vpon this argument, that no true part of the body is condensed by cold; now say they, Fat is a part & a liuing part of the liuing creature; this point we cal into question. It may I confesse be made probable both by authorities and by arguments. Galen in his Cōmentaries, reckons it among the similar parts; and in another place he sayth, it euery where performeth the same office as 
In lib. Hip. de natura hominis  the Veines, Arteries, and Sinewes; if it performe any office to the body, then certainely it is a liuing part. Againe, in another place where he reckoneth vp foure differences of parts, he reckoneth the Fat among those that are gouerned by themselues. In his booke of the differencies of diseases, hee sayeth that the number of the parts is abated, if the Arteries, the Veines, the Nerues, the Flesh, and the Fat, be not counted among them. In his book of 

Lib. 6. de placit. cap. 8.  
Reasons.   the vnequall Tempers the parts of the Fingers and Toes are these, the Bones; the Cartilages, the Ligaments, the Arteries, the Veines; the Flesh, the Skin, the Fat. And the authoties may be seconded by arguments; The Fat groweth and is augmented to a certain terminus or extent, and in some creatures it hath alwaies a certaine seate and figure, therefore it is a part. Moreouer it groweth white by the faculty or power of the Membrance, that altereth and assimulateth the bloud: nowe this alteration and assimulation is wrought onely by the power of the soule, and of naturall heate. And againe, in the middle of this Larde are found certaine kernels which could not be generated in the Fat, had it not the forming faculty inherent therein. For the vntying of this knot we must know that there is a twofold acceptation of a part, one more large, the other more strict. In the large account, whatsoeuer 
Answered.  addeth any thing to the accōplishment of the whole, may be called a part of the whole 
A twofold part.  which it helpeth to accomplish. In which respect the Fat deserueth the name of a part, as also the Haires, the Nayles, the Marrow, the Bloud, yea and milke itself. But in the 
Arguments that it is no animated part.  more presse and strict signification, the Fat cannot be called a part, because it neither partaketh of a common life, as wee say, neither hath it any proper figure or circumscription. And moreouer as Galen witnesseth, in famine and want of nourishment it may bee conuerted 
Galen.  into nourishment: now one part cannot nourish another, but all parts that enioy common life, haue also one common nourishment, either immediate or mediately. Adde to this, that it is neither spermaticall nor fleshy part; not spermatical, because it appeareth not in the first delineation of the parts; not fleshy, because all fleshy or bloudy parts are red; and therefore it is no liuing part partaking of the liuing soule.  
Concerning the places alleadged out of Galen, where he calleth it a similar part, hee vseth 
Answere to the authorities.  the name of part, in the larger signification; where he sayth it is the author of a function, or performeth an office: by office or function he meaneth a vse. For Galen often confoundeth an action and a vse, although there is great differēce between them; for the haires haue a vse, yet they performe no office or action. Whereas they obiect that it is increased; we grant it, but how? by apposition onely, as the haires also grow and encrease, not by assimulation of Aliment as other parts doe: and therefore it onely increaseth so long as it 
Why haire & fat grow not in old age.  hath matter, when the matter ceaseth, as in old age it doth, then it ceaseth to be generated.  
The whitenesse of the Fat say some, is acquired not by the forming faculty, but by cold; as all phlegme is white, whose efficient cause is colde. I thinke the whitenesse comes by a light alteration which the bloud hath from the membranous parts. For when as any notable quantity of bloud falleth vpon the membranes, it receiueth indeede a light rudiment of alteration from the power of faculty of the membrane; but because the quantity is greater 
How the fat becomes whitish.  then can bee assimulated, and yet it is impacted about the membranes, it is condensed by their weake heate; but is not changed into the nature of the part where it is condensed: so that if it be a part, it is but an imperfect part; and this Aristotle perspicuously discerned in his Booke of Parts, where he saith, that there is this difference betweene flesh and fat: that in the generation of flesh the blood is so throughly laboured and mitigated, that it is turned into a part partaking of sense, but in the generation of the fat, the bloode is indeed changed into a part, but that part is not capeable of sense.  
The last argument may thus be answered. The Kernels which are found among the Fat, are not generated by the fat, but haue a delineation, though not conspicuous in the first forming of the parts. and afterward the fat encompasseth them or groweth about them: or it may be saide that those kernels are generated by the heate of the adiacent parts, not of the fat. And these are the questions which are controuerted concerning the skin and the fat.   

QVEST. VII. Of the Membranes, vse, and productions of the Peritonaeum.  
_COncerning the Rim of the belly, there is some difference betweene the Ancients and the later Writers, yea and amongest the Neoterickes themselues. The Ancients thought it was a single and simple Membrane, because in Dissection it appeareth to be very fine and thin like a Cobweb. Columbus saith, that it is single onely from the Brest-blade to the Nauill, and double from thence to the Share, and that because 
Columbus.  of the vmbilicall vessels which are carried through the duplicatiō. Laurentius 
Laurentius.  saith, he hath alwayes obserued it double euery where; aboue and below; before & behind; on the right hand and on the left, and auoucheth that all Membranes of the body euen the Pia mater or thin Membrane of the Braine, are alwayes double. For saith he; as below betweene the duplication of the Peritonaeum, there arise two Arteries and the Ourachos 
All the Membranes of the body are double.  vnto the Nauell, so from the Nauell to the Liuer passeth the vmbilicall vein between the same duplication aboue; and therefore wondereth at Columbus, who was so occulate an Anatomist, and yet did not obserue so much. Galen obserued a third vse of the Peritonaeum, which is to presse the guts, and to driue downe the excrements of the Belly. This vse 
Galens 3. vse of the Peritonaeum derided by Vesalius.  Vesalius derideth: for how can it haue this vse( saith he) when it hath no voluntary motion of his owne, whereby it can contract and distend itself? by the same reason, the Pleura should helpe the Midriffe in the contraction of the Chest. We answere for Galen, that he 
Galen expounded.  doth not intend that the Peritonaeum doth this by his owne proper motion, or by itself, but onely by accident and euent. As when the Muscles of the Abdomen and the Midriffe like hands ioyned aboue, and open below, doe presse and driue downward that which is straightned in the middest betweene them, then the Peritonaeum which holdeth these two in their proper positions, maketh the pressure more forcible.  
Vesalius beside denies, that there are any productions of the Peritonaeum in Woemen, because their Testicles do not hang downe, but are trussed vp to the sides of the wombe; 
Why women are so often troubled with Boubonocele.  but he obserued not that these productions reach in woemen to the Leske, and become the Cremasteres of the wombe, and that there are the same holes or passages in the Tendons of their oblique descendent Muscles which are in men; whence it commeth to passe, that woemen are often troubled with the Boubonocele.   

QVEST. VIII. Of a new kinde of compunction of dropsie bodies through the Nauell.  
_IT shall not be amisse in this place, to annexe a kinde of Compunction of 
Paracentesis.  the Nauell, by which the water is safely let out of dropsie bodies. The ancient Physitians called all apertions of dropsie bodies 〈◇〉. In the 
That it is feasible.  administration of which Paracentesis, there arise foure Questions. Whether it be feasible; when, where, and how it is to bee performed. That it may be done safely, remaineth vnder the Testimony of many witnesses, all beyond exception; and beside, it may by reason be demonstrated. Hippocrates first of all other, 
Hippocrates. Galen.  prescribes it both in his Aphorismes, and also in diuers other places. Galen in the 14. of his Method, Paul●● of Aegina, Albucasis, and in a word, almost all Physitians. Besides Authorities, reason also addeth her suffrage to this attempt. For when these restagning or gathering waters, can neyther by outward nor by inward Medicines bee euacuated, why should we not proceede to Section in these, as well as in other watery and Flegmatick tumors: especially seeing the parts wherein the Section is to bee made, are all ignoble and base.  
The time fit for this apertion, Hippocrates elegantly describeth, where he sayth, Dropsie 
The time for this worke.  bodies must presently be cut, and those that are Empui, presently burnt. This presently, Hippocrates himselfe interpreteth to be out of hand, or in the beginning of the disease: Galen saieth, it must be before the inward parts are corrupted; for the water is in vaine let out, if the entrals be vitiated, especially any thing notably; because it wil instantly and continually gather againe: so then it is a foule error in a deplorate or desperate dropsie to vndertake this kind of cure, because( as Celsus very well saith,) it is a kinde of impiety in Art rashly or inconsiderately to prophane such remedies, as being rightly vsed may be of great auaile. The third question is concerning the place for this apertion. Paulus and all Physitians after 
The place.  him, euen to these times, administer this Section a little below the Nauell towardes the sides, because of the Tendons or chordes of the Muscles: and that on the side that is opposite to the part affected; as if the liuer be affected on the left side, if the Spleen on the right. That 
Aponcurosis.  kind of section is not to be discommended, yet Laurentius thinketh, it may bee more commodiously done through the very Nauell, and for his opinion bringeth very rare obseruations, and strong reasons.  
Antonius Benneuenius recordeth, how a certaine Dropsie Patient being giuen ouer by the Physitians, by a rash and casuall aduenture recouered his health. For, when hee was 
Laurentius his new conceite established,  exceedingly dry( as is vsuall in that disease) and in despaire of recouery, hee powred in an abundance of water, wherupon his Nauell suddenly opened whence issued so great quantity of the dropsy Lie, that his body fell to the wonted scantling, and he being assisted by a 
By Histories.  discreete Physitian, recouered his health.  
I saw( saith Laurentius) at Monpelier, a dropsie Woman, whose Nauell in a tempestuous night, when she thought little of it, opened, whereout flowed a great streame of water: earely in the morning I was sent for, together with Bartholmew Cabrolius a skilfull Anatomist: we found her spirits almost spent by reason of the sudden and immoderate euacuation; those we presently gaue order to refresh and re-establish, which being done, she perfectly recouered through Gods helpe; and yet continueth in good health.  
Ludouteits Villonouanus a verie learned Physitian, tolde me at Gratianopolis,( saith Laurentius, that he knew a Countrey peasant perfectly cured by this kinde of section. Balthazar 
Gratianopolis.  Garielus my friend, and a learned Chyrurgion of Mompelier, at my appointment, saith the same Laurentius, opened after this manner a dropsie patient, who was very importunate vpon vs; his Belly fell almost vnto the accustomed extent, and he seemed to bee past all feare of death. The tenth day after his Section, without any knowledge, hee ate a pound of Cherries, heereupon he fell into a scowring, by which the frame of Nature was vtterly ouer hrowne, and so within two daies he dyed.  
It is manifest therefore by experience, that this way section may be safely administred: neyther doth reason disswade from it. For, as Hippo. sayth, The way that Nature inclineth 
By reasons.  the Physitian must follow; but Nature oftentimes findeth this way through the Nauel. Beside, this kinde of apertion of the nauell, excuseth the section of many parts. For, about the nauell, do meete the foure nauell vessels, which if they chinke or cleaue, as they vse to do by the forcible confluence of water to that part in dropsie bodyes, then there remaineth nothing to cut, but onely the skinne, and then the water will yssue foorth. But it will bee obiected, that the Chords or Tendons of all the Muscles of the Abdomen, do meete about that place, and therefore if that place bee wounded, it is a venture but Convulsions 
Obiection.  will follow. Wee confesse indeede, that all the extreamities of the Muscles do determine 
Answere.  in the white line, but these extreamities about the nauell are perforated, to make way for the vmbilicall Vesselles, and therefore are not wounded in this kinde of apertion. Moreouer, those which labour of that kinde of Dropsie which is called Ascites, almost all haue strutting or swollen nauels, the tumour growing by reason of the confluence of water to that part, so that if but the skinne bee pierced with a snarpe instrument, then presently followeth a flood of waters. Againe, when the section is thus made in the middest, the patient may with ease lye vpon either side, which he cannot do if the other kinde of section be administred. 
The manner how to administer this kind of apertion.   
The last question, was mooued about the manner of this kinde of Paracentesis, which is on this sort. You must first cast a bought or running knot round about the nauell, that at your pleasure you may streighten the hole or passage, if the water should yssue out with too great violence; next, with a sharpe poynted Nall or Bodkin, you must pierce the skinne in the verie middle of the knot of the Nauell, against which as wee haue said, the Vesselles doe chinke or cleaue in Dropsie bodyes; and then put a Brazen or Siluer pipe into the wound, through which the water may passe, which also may bee stopped at your pleasure: for all the water must not at once bee drawne out, but some and some 
Caution.  by degrees. For Hippocrates saith, That if the Dropsie water, or the purulent Matter of 
Aphor. 27. sect. 6 Apho 51. sect. 2  an empyeme in searing or cutting do all at once yssue foorth, the Patient will dye: For, it is a rule, That all plentifull and sudden euacuations are dangerous. And in another place, Dropsie Waters must be by degrees euacuated. Finally, it may seeme, that Hippocrates had some knowledge of this kinde of apertion, because hee saith in one place, Apply your actuall Cauterie about the Circumference 

De morbis internis.  
De locis in homine.   of the Nauell, to let out the dropsie water, but burne not the part too deepe. Haply least they should not be able to moderate the effluxion.  
(: {inverted ⁂ }:)   
The End of the Controuersies of the Second Booke.   

THE THIRD BOOKE, Of the Parts belonging to Nutrition or Nourishment.  

The Praeface.  
_HAuing in the former Booke dismantled this Castle of the Bodye, and particularly the lower Region, wee are now arriued at that worke-house of Nature, wherein shee hath built her Engines and Instruments by which she doth not onely nourish and sustain the whole Family, but also perpetuate Mankinde by Propagation; the destiny of the matter not admitting a perpetuity in the particular creature. But because these two workes of Propagation and nourishment are altogether distinct, if not in the Faculties being both naturall Alterations; the one called Generation, the other Assimulation; yet in the parts and Organs thereto belonging: wee haue also thought good to diuide them in our Discourse; and referring the worke of propagation to afterward, in this place onely to handle the parts seruing to nutrition or nourishment.  
Seeing therefore the substance of the whole body hath a necessary diffluence and dissipation, as well by the in bred heate, which like the greene worme feedeth vpon the choisest gemmes and flowers euen the Radical moisture, as also by the outward aire, and other externall causes, and therefore cannot possible either encrease to the iust extent or consist when it is growne, vnlesse the detriment and scath which is sustained by such dissipation and dissolution bee restored and made good: Nature hath prouided certaine nourishing Organs, whereby that daily expence is continually supplied. And heerein we haue to admire the wonderfull prouidence of the great Creator, who hath disposed these parts wherin it was necessary there should be such a confluence of noisome excrements in the lowest place, as it were in the sinke of the body, least otherwise their offensiue exhalations should defile the braine and the heart, which are the seats of the principall faculties, or vitiate and disturbe the rest of the senses. For this lower Region, is as it were the kitchen of the house, in which there are some parts, which as Cookes do prepare the common diet for the rest. But in the description of his Region, it must be remembred that we must not follow the order of dignity, or of nature, but of dissection, taking the parts according to their positiō.  
The ●ie therefore falleth first of all into the snare of the kell, and indeede it is of all things most like to a snare or puisenet, the close Meshes whereof, are purfled with curled veines and curdled or crisped fat, so becomming a thrummed rugge to keepe warme the Membranous and vnbloody guts and stomacke vnder it. As for his duplication, wherein the snaking and snayling diuarications of the vessels do craule all ouer the belly, I suspect it to haue bin ordained by nature, for some more secret and mysticall end, then the securing of those tender saplings, albeit I rest heerein vnsatisfied for any thing I haue read.  
Immediately vnder these Cipresse wings( for wings they are called by the Anatomists) or Cauly cobwebs, appeareth the Maze or labyrinth of the guts wheeled about in manifold foulds & convolutions, that neither the aliment should so suddenly passe away, and so the wombe of man become an insatiate Orque voyding whilst it doth deuour, neyther yet the noisom steame of the Faeculent excrements haue free and direct ascent to the vpper parts, but be intercepted and deteined within those Meanders, & so smothered in those gulphs of the Guts, or let out at the port Esquiline. In the middest of the Guttes is scituated the Mesenterie, which we may call not the Midriffe, but the Midruffe, for it is most like vnto a gathered ruffe, sustayning the winding reuolutions of the Guttes in their proper places, and conuaying vnto them the Meseraicke veines, by which as by tender bearded rootes, the Aliment is conuayed vnto the gate of the Liuer: some haue called them Batuli domus, the Porters of the house, because they continually carry the Aliment vnto that furnace, where it is tryed into bloud. Neither are they idle and rigid passages, but as Homer feigneth that the instruments of Vulcan are moued by instinct and of their owne accord, so we may say that these vessels are taught by their Creator, not onely to leade along the Chylus, but to draw it and prepare it for the Liuer.  
Next appeareth the Pancreas which we call in Swine the Sweet-bread, a rude and vnshapely lumpe, most like a map or dish-clout, both in fashion and vse; or if you would liken it to any thing in the body, then it nearest resembleth the Liuer or cake of the wombe, which groweth to the rootes of the Infants nauell. It serueth for a pillow or Cushion, to boulster vp the manifold diuisions of the Veines, Arteries, and Sinewes, which in that seat of the body are distributed vnto the adiacent parts; beside many other vses which we refer vnto their proper place: and passe along vnto the stomacke, the Cooke-roome, where Diet is the Steward, Appetite the Clark, and Concoction the maister Cooke. From thence the viands are deliuered vnto the Liuer, the principall part of this lower region, wherein they attaine their vttermost perfection, being depurated, from the scum by the bladder of Gall, from the residence by the spleene, from the vnprofitable liquor by the kidneies, which conuay it vnto the Cesterne of the bladder, to be cast out by the Conduite. Of all which if I should in this place vndertake to discourse, as it were easie for mee, though briefly as I began, yet the shortnesse of the partes I see would amount vnto too long a summe to bee comprehended in a Preface, especially considering wee shall at large prosecute euery particular in the following discourse: wherefore after we haue giuen you another kinde of distribution of them in the Chapter following, we will apply ourselves vnto their particular Histories.   

CHAP. I. A distribution of the naturall parts contained in the lower Belly.  
_HAuing already intreated of the Inuesting or Cōtayning parts of the lower region or nether Belly, it followeth now that we continue our discourse to the parts contayned also. These are of double vse, for either they serue for nourishment, or for generation; those that belong to generation and propagation of the kinde, we refer vnto the 

The parts belonging to nutrition.  
To chilification.  
Stomack.  
Kell.  
Sweet bread.  
Guts.  
Mensentery.  
To sanguification.  
Meseraicke Veines.  
Gate veine.  
Liuer.  
Hollow vein.  
Parts auoyding the excrements.  
The bladder of gall.  
The spleene.  
Vas breue.  
Haemorroid veines.  
Kidneyes.  
Vreters.  
Bladder and yarde.   next Booke. The nourishing parts doe either perfect the Chylus which we call Chilification, or the bloud which wee call Sanguification. For the first, some make and concoct the Chylus, as the stomacke; some helpe and further this concoction, as the Kell and the Sweet-bread; others put to the last hand of perfection, and then distribute it, as the small guts; others receiue and auoyde the grosse and thicke excrements, as the great Guts, and these together with the smal, are fastned vnto the Mesenterie.  
For Sanguification, some parts sucke the Chylus out of the Guts, alter it and giue it a certaine rudiment or tincture of bloud, as the Meseraicke veines, which also carry it by the Port veine, vnto the gate of the Liuer, and thence into the substance thereof, where it receiueth the perfection of bloud. Others when it is thus perfected, doe distribute it into the whole body, as the hollow veine by his faire forked branches. Others receiue the excrements, either yelow choller, as the Bladder of Gall, and that which wee call Porus Biliarius, and conueyeth it into the Guttes; or blacke and feculent choler, as the spleene or Milt, in which it receiueth a farther concoction, and the more laudable part it reserueth for his owne nourishment, but the very Lees it sendeth away either vpward vnto the stomacke by a short vessell called Vas breue, where it becommeth the Appetites remembrancer; or downward to the Haemorrhoidall veines. Finally, the serous or wheyie part of the bloud is still destilled away by the Kidneyes, wherein there is a segregation or separation made of that whey or vrine from the bloud; the bloud remayning behind for the nourishment of the Kidneyes, but the whey is deriued by the vreters into the bladder, from whence it is deliuered out by the Conduite.  
Of all which parts we will entreat as I said before, according to the order of Dissection, beginning with the Kell or Omentum.   

CHAP. II. Of the Omentum or Kall.  
_THE Kall or Kell which is deciphered in the sixt Table of the second booke, 
The names & the reasons of them.  and in the first and second of this third booke, is called Omentum, as it were Operimentum, that is a couering: of the Greeks 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉 to swim vpon, because it swimmeth vppon the bottome of the stomacke[ Table 2 bb] and the vppermost guts[ Table 2 cc.] From the wandring and implicated passages of his vessels, which may be likened to a fishers net[ Table 1. Figure 1. and 2.] it  

Table 1. Lib. 3. The first figure sheweth the Kall or Omentum, whole and loosed on euery side, resembling a Satchell, or a small fishers Net, with the course of the Veines, Arteries, & Sinewes, running through it. The second figure contayneth the lower membrane of the Omentum, the vpper being remooued with the Collicke gut which it contayneth and the vessels.  
FIG: I.  
FIG: II.  

aaaaaa. The outward face of the vpper membrane of the Kail.  
bbbb. The circle or girdle of the kall at which it growes.  
ccc. The vpper part of the lower membrane aboue the colon.  
def. Sheweth the membrane, vessels, and fat of the Omentū.  
g. The trunke of the gate veine where it commeth out of the Liuer.  
h. An arterie with a nerue reaching to the hollownesse of the liuer, and the bladder of gall.  
i. A vessell comming to the pylorus, especially on the backpart, hauing an artery his cōpanion.  
kk. A vessell with a nerue which goeth to the right bottom of the stomack.  
llmm. Braunches inwrapping the body of the stomacke from a vessell marked with k which also goe through the vpper mēbrane of the kal mm.  
n A vessell reached out to the duodenum, and to the beginning of the empty gut, oftentimes hauing a small nerue to beare him company.  
o The diuision of the gateveine into the right and the lefte branch.  
p The right branch running into the mesēterium & the guts  
q A veine going to the backeparts of the stomacke.  
s A veine imbracing the lefte mouth of the stomacke, in manner of a crowne.  
t The artery of the mesentery.  
u A n artery going to the lower mēbrane of the kal,  
x A vessel sent with a nerue to the colon and to the lower membrane of the kall.  
x A vessel going to the lower Omentum.  
yy The course of the vessels of the spleene from the spleenicke branch.  
z A branch reaching to the left bottom of the stomacke.  
aaaa The Pācreas or sweetbread vnder the vessels and the duodenum.  
The second Figure.  
A A The vpper part of the lower kal arising from the back, which behind is vnder the stomacke, & with twoe membranes comprehendeth or embraceth the colon at the bottom of the stomack.  
B A veine comming from the left trunk of the gate veine and the arterie, with a nerue for the most part tied vp to it, going into the kall.  
C A notable veine and an arterie communicated to the kall and the collicke gutte, to which a small nerue is added in some steads,  
D A veine running along the left side of the kall. E. The right side of the collicke gut which lyeth vnder the hollownes of the liuer here cut away. F. The left side of the collicke gutte which lyeth vpon the spleene. GG, A part of the collick gut running along vnder the bottom of the stomacke. HHH. The lower part of the inner kall arising in some sort from the collick gut. III. The remayning portions of the vpper membrane of the kall torne off, that it may be showne how the kall may be compared to a satchell or bagge.   is called rete or reticulum, for that sayth Archangelus, as a net intangleth the fishes, so in 
Archangelus.  this Membrane the Fatty vapours are intercepted and stayed. The Arabians call it Zirbus, the Latines Mappaventris, the dish-clout or map of the Belly, because it licketh vp the superfluities thereof. All the sanguine or bloudy parts almost are couered heerewith, but ouer some it is more fatty, ouer others more membranous. Amongst all creatures it is greatest in Men and Apes; and of Men, those that liue a sedentarie and idle life, sacrificing to their appetites, haue it so great, that it becommeth a burthen vnto them, whereupon they are called Epiploocomistae, that is, Kal-carriers; but those that vse great exercises, 
Kal carriers.  as Hunters and such like, haue it more membranous, and lesse fatty.  
It is a large membrane, scituated before vpon the bottome of the stomacke,[ Table 6. 
The scituation of the Kal.  PP Lib. 2.] and downeward ouer the guts[ Table 6. XXXX Lib. 2.] vnto the Nauill. Sometimes, but seldome, and that in Apes and Dogges it is stretched euen vnto the sharebone; and vsually in dissections it is obserued to bee rowled vp, or doubled towards the spleene, not onely in such as are hanged or drowned sayeth Vesalius, but also in those that die of other 
Vesalius.  ordinary diseases, or come to their ends by sodaine mischances. Sometimes also it insinuateth itself into the conuolutions or windings of the guts, and sometimes in Women it passeth betweene the bottomes of the wombe and the bladder, and by streightning the mouth of the wombe becommeth an ordinary, but yet not a perpetuall cause of barrennesse or sterility, as also Hippocrates obserued in his book de natura Muliebri. In some women after their trauell, it remayneth gathered together about the middle of their Bellies, 
Hippocrates.  and there is the cause of sore paynes. But if it fall into the passage that descendeth into the Cod, it causeth a soft rupture, which disease no creature is subiect vnto but Men & Apes, as sayeth Galen in the third Chapter of his sixt booke de administrationibus Anatomicis. 
Galen.   
It is fastned alwayes to the stomacke[ Table 6. MNO Lib. 2.] to the Spleen and the Collicke 
His connection.  gut[ Table 1. Figure 2. GGHH] to other parts sometimes it is ioyned, sometimes it is free from them, for it behooued not sayth Galen in the 11. chapter of the fourth booke de vsu partium; that it should hang loosely, least it should be crumpled together, and should leaue many parts vncouered, which stand in neede of his warmth.  
The forme of it is likest to a Purse-net or Faulkners bagge,[ Table 1. Fig. 1. and 2. II] 
The forme of it.  consisting of a double membrane knit together in the bottome; Columbus sayth, but only reflexed or turned backe againe. It hath a round orifice[ Table 1. Figure 1. bb] which ascendeth higher in the hinder part then before, and belowe it is round[ Table 1. Figure 1. and 2.]  
It is compounded of membranes and vessels, and a muddy and easily putrifying Fatte, 
The frame or composition.  which composition Galen expresseth vnder the name of his originall, in the place next aboue named. The Membranes are two( whence of some it is called a double Peritonaeum) 
His two membranes.  and those very fine and smooth( least the guts should bee ouer burdened with his waight) lying one vpon the top of another; the vpper is called the vpper wing, the lower the lower wing[ Table 2. cc.] The vpper and formost ariseth at the bottome of the stomacke[ Tab. 2. aa. bb.] from the Peritonaeum which compasseth it about, and maketh his third coat, and is ioyned in a right line, with a portion of the inferiour membrane in the hollow parts of the Liuer and the spleene. The lower and hind-most wing ariseth from the Peritonaeum at the backe[ Table 1. figure 1. ccc] presently vnder the midriffe; and being led to the hollow side of the Liuer, it cleaueth( yet but seldome) to a part of it, as also to the midriffe, to the right side of the stomacke, almost to the whole gut called duodenum, and to the hollowe part of the spleene; and groweth fast to the stomacke, and to the collicke gut,[ Table 1. 
Connexion.  figure 1. GG] all the way the same is annexed to the bottom of the stomacke, so that to that gut it is as it were[ Table 1. figure 2. HH] a mesenterie. In Dogs it is neither tyed to the Colon, nor to any other gut; in Apes onely to the right part of the Colon.  
Many veines( but onely from the port veine) passe through both his wings. Through 
His vessels. veines.  the vpper from two veines which passe by the bottome of the stomacke( which are called the right and the left[ Tab. 3. H and X] Gastra epiplois) infinitely propagated obliquely downward[ Table 1. figure 1. kk mm.] Through the lower wing from those veines which passe into the spleene[ Table 1. fig. 1. ux figure 2. BCD] which are diuersly spread, sometimes with a foure-fold branch( as in the history of the Port veine shall be sayd) for the nourishment of the adiacent parts.  
They are sprinkled with so many Arteries[ Table 1. figure 1. u figure 2. c] from the Caeliacall 
Arteries.  
TABVLA II.  
The lower belly, with the vpper Membrane of the Kall torn vp, and turned aboue the outside of the Chest and the stomacke; the stomack also remoued out of his seat to the Chest, that the lower Membrane of the kall might the better bee perceiued; as also the guts remayning in their naturall position, and a part of the spleen, are herein deciphered.  

aaaa. The inside of the vpper membrane of the kal, which some call alam superiorem the vpper wing.  
bb. The stomack strutting out couered with the vpper membrane of the kall.  
cc. The lower membrane of the kall, or his nether wing gathered vpward  
d Vessels passing to the spleen which appeareth bunching vnder the Omentum at b.  
e The trunke of the gate vein.  
f The spleenick branch of the port veine.  
g The bladder of vrine.  
h The seate of the spleen.  
i The vessels called Vrachos, by which the Infant is nourished in the wombe.  
kk The 2. vmbilicall arteries.   & mesenterical branches to giue them life; but their nerues from the Ribbe-branch[ Table 1. fig. 1.] of the sixt payre are wondrous small, but finely scattered that they might 
Nerues.  not be altogether without sence.  
The Fat is very plentifull about the vessels[ Table 1. figure 1. d e f] but in the distances betwixt them, none at all. In an ordinary fat man it may amount to a pound, or a pound 
The fat of the Kell.  and a halfe; and amongst it do runne innumerable glandules or kernels, which sucke vp the faeculent moysture, which is separated in the first concoction. Wherefore seeing it is not ingendered of any portion of the bloud, as that fat called pinguedo, or as other fats, therfore it easily putrifieth, so that if vppon a wound it fall out of the body, it becommeth presently rotten, which hapneth not to the other fats vnder the skin, or in other parts.  
The vse of the Fat of the Kall, is to cherish and to comfort the bottome of the stomack,( for the vpper part thereof is warmed by the Liuer which lyeth vppon it, and therefore it is 
The vse of the fat of the Kell.  that the Kall attayneth not so high) as also to increase the heate of the guts: for both these parts are membranous and without bloud; and therefore their naturall heate is but weake. Now this comfort the Kall affoordeth not onely by his owne heate, which yet is the more, because of the manifolde Veines and Arteries which are wouen together thorough his substance: but also because beeing thicke and bedded together, it much hindereth the heate from dissipation, and the incursion also of outward colde, and so by consequence is a great helpe and furtherer of concoction. And that it was ordayned to increase heate; Galen in his fourth Booke de vsu partium, and in the ninth Chapter, maketh manifest by the example of those, who hauing got a deepe wound in their bellies, so that a part of the Kall falleth out, do euer after worse concoct their nourishment, and stand in need of Stomachers or other couerings vpon their bellies to keep them warme, especially when much of it falleth out; for it presently groweth liuid, and constraineth the Chirurgion to take it off, so saith Hippocrates in the beginning of his first Booke de Morbis; If the Kall fall out, 
Hippocrates.  it putrifieth necessarily. And Galen in the place before named saith, hee tooke almost all of 
A●st●●ry out of Galen.  it from a Fencer, who was presently cured, but euer after was easily offended with colde, so as he was constrained to defend his belly with Wooll. Heereto also Aristotle assenteth in the third Chapter of his fourth Booke de partibus Animalium, Nature( saith he) abuseth the Kall to helpe the concoction of the Aliment, that it might bee done with more ease, and greater expedition. For heate concocteth: now that which is fat is hot, and therefore the Kall beeing 
Aristotle.  fat, must needs concoct.  
Another vse of the Kall is to keepe the guts moyst, because they are often distended, & againe corrugated, as they are filled with Chylus, or empried of it againe. A third vse is, that in time of necessity and affamishment, saieth Galen in the xi. Chapter of the fourth 
Galen.  Booke de vsu partium, it might supply a kinde of subsidiarie nourishment to the naturall heate.  
The vse of the Membranes of the Kall or Kell, is to sustaine the branches of the Gate Veine, and the Coeliacall Arterie which passe into the Stomacke, the Spleene, the Gut 
The vses of the Membranes of the Kell.  called Duodenum, and the Collicke gut. Againe, to knit the stomacke, the duodenum, and the Collick guts vnto the backe. To couple together the Liuer and the Spleene.  
Archangelus addeth. That the thicke and bloudie vapours arising from the parts contayned 
Archangelus.  in the Lower belly, might cleaue into these Membranes, and by their densitie and thightnesse or fastnesse be condensed or curdled into fat, that so good a vapour as might afterward be turned into nourishment, should not vapour out in vaine. Finally, Laurentius addeth another vse of the Membranes out of Hippocrates Booke de Glandulis, That 
Leurentius out of Hippocrates.  when the humour which commeth from the Guts, is so plentifull that it cannot be receyued and assumed into the Glandules, the ouer-plus might bee reserued in the Membranes of the Kell.   

CHAP. III. A briefe Description of the Gate-Veine and his Branches.  
_NOw because the Branches of the Gate-veine, and the Caeliacall or Stomacke Artery must be demonstrated by order of Dissection before wee come to the Guts, or else they will be offended, I haue thought it not amisse 
Why we treat of thē in this place.  to giue you a briefe description of them in this place, referring the larger and more exact discourse vnto the proper history of the Veins and Arteries. First therefore, the Gate-veine( so called, because through it as through a gate the Chylus is conueyed into the Liuer) ariseth out of the hollow part 
The Original of the Gate-Veine. Bauhine.  of the Liuer, betwixt the two small eminencies of swellings thereof which Hippocrates calleth Portas the gates. Some thinke, it is propagated from the vmbilicall Veine which proceedeth out of that cauity. We will diuide it into the Trunke and Branches. The trunk before it is diuided[ Tab. 3. R] sendeth foorth two small shootes from his fore-part called 
Cysticae gemellae  Cysticae Gemellae, or Twin-veines of the Gall,[ Tab. 3. c c] which passe vnto the bladder of Gall. The second is called Gastrica dextra, the right stomacke Veine[ Tab. 3. b] which goeth vnto the backe part of the stomacke, and the Pylorus or mouth of the same. 
Gastrica dextra   
The branches are some of them vpper, some neather. The vpper branches which wee call the roots of the Gate-veine,[ Tab. 3. AAAA] are disseminated through the hollow part of the Liuer, and do make one Trunke[ Tab. 3. B C D E.] These roots are by Anastomosis ioyned with the roots of the hollow Veine.  
The nether branches shoot out on the right side, or on the left, from the right side three branches.  
The first, called Gastroepiplois dextra, the right stomacke and Kall veine[ Tab. 3. H] attaineth 
Gastroepiplois dextra.  from the right side of the trunke, to the bottome of the stomacke, and the vpper membrane or wing of the Kell.  
The second is called Intestinalis or the Gut-veine[ Tab. 3 I.] because it is conueyed vnto 
Intestinalis.  the middle of the duodenum, and the beginning of the Ieiunum or empty gut.  
The third is called Mesenterica, or the veine of the Mesentery[ Table 3. b.] which is subdiuided 
Mesenterica dextra.  into three veines: two on the right hand called Mesentericae dextrae, which are distributed into the guts called Ieiunum, Ileon, Caecum, and a part of the collick gut, where becomming 
Tab. iii. sheweth the Vena porta, or Gate-vein with his branches, which he sendeth to the bladder of Gall to the stomacke, to the Spleene, to the Mesentery, and to the Guts.  
TABVLA. III.  

1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The vpper Branches of the Gate Veine, disseminated thorough the Caue of the hollowe parts of the Liuer.  
AAAA. Their distribution maketh the form of the Liuer.  
B. The trunke of the Gate-veine comming out of the hollow part of the Liuer.  
C C. The two twin veines of the Gall, called Cysticae gemellae.  
D The right Gastrick or stomacke Veine.  
E. The diuision of the trunke of the Port-Veine into two branches.  
F The left branch, which is the vpper, and is called the Spleene branch.  
G. The right branch, which is the greater and the lower, called the Mesentericall branch.  
H. The right stomack Kal-veine, cald Gastroepiplois.  
I. The Gut-veine called Intestinalis  
K. The lesser stomacke veine, called Gastrica minor.  
L. The right Kall Veine called Epiplois dextra.  
M. The sweet-bred Veines called Pancreae.  
N. The great stomack Veine called Gastrica maior.  
O O. Two Veins of the last named branch, inwrapping the backside of the stomacke.  
P. The Bifurcation or partition of the great stomak Veine in the vpper part of the stomacke.  
Q. The Crowne-veine of the stomacke called Coronaria stomachica.  
R. A branch of the Crown-veine passing along the vpper side of the stomack, and giuing branches to the Pylorus or mouth of the stomacke.  
S. The backward or hinder Kall-veine called, Epiplois postica.  
T. The diuision of the Splenick branch.  
V. The left kall-veine called Epiplois sinistra, whose root in the great figure is at V. but his distribution is well shewne in the small figure by V. and T.  
X. The left stomack-kall veines, called Gastroepiplois sinistra.  
Y Z. The veines which runne vnto the left side of the stomack turned backe from them which go vnto the vpper part of the Spleene, and the vpper Z of the two, sheweth the vessell called Vas breue or the short vessel, whereby the melancholy passeth out of the Spleene into the stomack, & this is the reason why melancholy people haue alwayes crasie stomackes.  
aaaa Smal branches running through the substance of the Spleene, making the forme of the spleene  
b. The right Mesentericke veine.  
c. The left Mesenterick. dddd. The Meseraicall Veines. ee. The Veine which belongeth to the Collicke gut. ff. Veines belonging to the right Gut. gg. The Hemorrhoidall Veynes which compasse the Fundament: but these shall bee more liuely described heereafter.   verie slender and fine like bearded roots of a tree; they make those veines which we commonly call the Meseraick veines[ Tab. 3. dddd] which passe between the two membranes 
The Meseraik Veines.  of the Mesentery, and gaping with open mouth at the coate, not at the cauity of the Guts; do sucke from them the Chylus, to which they affoord a certain rudiment or beginning of bloud, and then conuey it to the Liuer, or rather into the rootes of the Porta, which are disseminated in the Liuer. From whence a part falleth out into the substance of the Liuer for his Nourishment, the rest is driuen into the hollow Veine, to be communicated to the whole body. Moreouer we must know, that the very same Meseraicke veines which carry the Chylus thus vnto the Liuer, do also bring from the Liuer vnto the Guttes, perfect bloud for their nourishment at the very same time; the Veines of the Liuer drawing the Chylus, and the Gut drawing the blood.  
The third Mesenteriall Veine, is called Mesenterica sinistra, and is disseminated into the 
Mesenterica sinistra.  left[ Tab. 3. C.] and middle part of the Mesenterie. From this commeth the Hemorrhoidalis interna, the inward Hemorrhoidall Vein,[ Tab. 3. gg]( for the external proceedeth from 
The Hemorrhoid Veines.  the Hypogastricall branch of the Hollow Veine) and descendeth by the end of the Collicke[ Tab. 3. f f] vnder the right gut, whose extremity it compasseth with small Tendrils, by which the Hemorrhoides do flow. And thus much of the branches which proceede out of the right side of the trunke of the Gate-veine.  
Out of the left side issueth the splenick bough, and from it many propagations, some before 
Ramus splenicus  some after his diuision: before his diuision spring fiue branches.  
The first called Gastrica minor & sinistra, the lesser and left stomacke veine[ Table 3. K] goeth vnto the back part of the stomacke. 
Gastrica minor.   
The second called Gastrica maior[ Table 3. N] creepeth vnder the stomacke to his vpper 
Gastrica maior.  orifice with three branches; the middle of which is called Coronaria Stomachica, the Crowne veine of the stomacke[ Table 3. Q] because it doeth incompasse the vppermost mouth thereof. 
Epiplois dextra   
The third is called Epiplois dextra, the right Kell veine[ Table 3. L] this attayneth vnto the right side of the lower wing of the Kell, and to the Collicke gut.  
The fourth called Epiplois postica, the backward Kell veine[ Table 3. S] passeth with a double 
Epiplois postica.  branch, one on the right hand, another on the left, to the vnder wing of the Omentum or Kell, and a part of the Collicke gut.  
The fift is manifold, called Pancreae[ Table 3. M] because like small haires they passe vnto 
Pancrea.  the Pancreas or sweet-bread; and these are the braunches which doe issue before the diuision.  
After the diuision from the vpper braunch neere the superior part of the spleene, springeth a notable veine, commonly called Vas breue, the snort vessell[ Table 3. Z] which is inserted 
Vas breue.  into the left side of the bottome of the stomacke, by which the melancholy bloud is belched out into the mouth of the stomack, to strengthē it by his adstriction, to further the principall action of the stomacke which is concoction, and to prouoke appetite.  
From the lower branch proceed two veines: the first called Epiplois sinistra, the left kel 
Epiplois sinistra  veine[ Table 3. V] which passeth to the left side of the lower wing of the Omentum.  
The second is called Gastro epiplois sinistra, the left stomacke and Kell veine[ Tab. 3. X.] It 
Gastro epiplois sinistra.  ioyneth itself with the right, and compasseth the bottome of the stomack; the remainder of them both after their copulation, is diuersly distributed[ table 3. Y Z] into the middle line of the spleene: and so much of the Gate veine and his branches.   

Of the Arteries called Caeliaca, and Mesenterica; that is, the Arteries of the Stomacke, and the Mesenterie which accompany the branches of the Gate veine. CHAP. IIII.  
_THE Arteries which accompany the braunches of the Gate veine before described are three. The first is called Caeliaca, or the stomacke Arterie[ Table 4. figure 1. m] and the other two, Mesenterica superior, or the vpper Mesenterical Arterie[ table 4. figure 1. ζ.] and the lower[ table 7. 10.] called Mesenterica inferior.  
The Caeliacall or stomacke Arterie[ table 4. figure. 1. m and table 
Caeliaca.  7. 6] is so called because it sendeth many branches to the stomack. It is a notable branch of the great Arterie, and euery where accompanieth the braunches of the Gate veine. His originall is from the foreside of the Aorta, where it leaneth vpon the back-bone, and is supported with the lower wing of the Kell, till it come to be diuided into two braunches: the right[ table 4. figure 1. ●] is lesser, and the left[ table 4. figure 1. u] somewhat larger.  
The Right branch[ table 4. figure 1. n] as it goeth vpward to the hollownesse of the Liuer, 
The right branch.  sheddeth small surcles out of itself, some from his vpper part, and some from his lower.  
From his vpper part two: First, the right Gastricke or stomacke Arterie[ table 4. figure 1. 
Gastrica dextra. Cysticae gemellae.  p] is distributed into the lower part of his right Orifice. Secondly, Cysticae gemellae[ table 4. figure 1. s figure 2. x table 7. 8.] two small Arteries creeping to the bladder of gall.  
From his lower part three: First, the right Kell Arterie[ table 4. figure 1. o figure 2. h] attayning to the right side of the Kell and the Collicke gut. Secondly, the gut Arterie[ tab. 
Epiplois dextra.  4, figure 1. q figure 2. d] to the duodenum and the beginning of the Ieiunum. Thirdly and lastly,, the right stomacke and Kell Arterie[ table 4. figure 1. t] which is fastned to the vpper 
Intestinalls.  Kell, and sprinkleth many branches to the foreside and backeside of the bottome of the stomacke.  
That which remayneth of the right branch, determineth in the hollow of the Liuer[ tab. 
Gastro. epiploit dextra.  4. figure 1. Y table 7. 7] by which it receiueth life.  
The left branch[ table 4. figure 2, V] called Arteria splenica, passeth obliquely through 
Arteria splenica  
Table uij. sheweth a part of the Trunke of the great Arterie, out of which the Arterie called Caeltaca proceedeth; and beside it sheweth the branches of the Caeliacall Arterie, which do accompany the Branches of the Gate Veine.  
FIG. II. The second Figure sheweth the mutuall connexion of the Caeliacal Arteries, with the sweet bread and the spleene.  
TABVLA IIII.  
FIG. I.  

g The arterie belonging to the short vessell which passeth from the spleen to the stomack, called vas breue arteriosum.  
m The place where the Caeliacall arterie ariseth.  
n The right branch of the Caeliaca.  
r The right Kal arterie, as it is dissen inated into the lower membrane of the Kall.  
p The right stomacke arterie running into the right side of the back of the stomack toward the Pylorus.  
q The gut arterie which reacheth to the gut called duodenum and to the beginning of the Iciunum or empty gut.  
r The right stomacke-kall arterie which is disseminated into the right side of the bottome of the stomacke, and into the vpper membrane of the kall  
s The two twin arteries of the gal, how they passe vnto it.  
t Arteries distributed into the hollow part of the Liuer.  
u The left braunch of the Caeliaca or Aluina, which goeth especially to the spleene.  
x The greater stomacke arterie which goeth to the hinder side of the stomacke, and to his left orifice.  
y Certaine shootes sent into the middest of the stomacke where it is tyed to the backe.  
z The Crowne arterie of the stomacke, which circleth the left Orifice of the stomacke.  
α The left stomacke arterie which goeth into the vpper parts of the stomacke at the right orifice.  
β The back or hindmost Kall arterie. which is distributed into the lower membrane of the Kal and the collicke gut.  
γ The left kall artery which goeth to the lower membrane of the kall.  
♌ ♌ Branches which passe into the hollownes of the spleene.  
● The left stomack Kall arterie going to the left side of the bottom of the stomacke, and the vpper membrane of the kall.  
ζ The vpper melentericall artery.  
●● The right and the left emulgent arteries as they goe to the Kidneye●.  
●● The right and the lefte spermaticall arteries   
The second Figure.  

aa The veine, the arterie, and the nerue which fould themselues in the Pylorus or mouth of the stomacke.  
b The lesser braunch of the Gate-veine, or the spleenick branch.  
c The greater branch of the Gateveine or the mesentericall branch.  
d A veine and an arterie going to the gut called duodenum.  
e Vessels going to the lower membrane o● the Kall.  
f The roote of the arterie which accompanieth the braunche of the gate veine  
g The Coronarie or crowne veine & arterie of the stomacke.  
h Vessels going to the lower Kall, and to the collick gut.  
i The sweet bread or Pancreas vppon which the vessels are for security distributed.  
k A veine going to the left side of the lower Kal.  
ll A company of vesselles which passe vnto the spleen.  
m The insertion of these vessels.  
nnn Vessels reflected from the former, & offered to the stomack.  
ooo Veines and arteries sent to the guts.  
pq Two arteries going to the mesentery.  
rrrrr The glandules or kernels of the mesentery, which lie vnder the vessels for their security.  
t The trunk of the gate veine.  
u The hole of the bladder of gal where it opneth into the gut called the duodenum.  
x The veines of the bladder of gal.  
y Arteries and nerues that go to the liuer & the bladder of gall.  
〈◇〉 Two braunches which run vnto the back parts of the stomack.  
* The Haemorrhoidal veine & artery   the Pancreas[ Tab. 4. fig: 2. i] to the Spleene.[ Tab. 4. fig: 2. m.] It is larger then the right branch, that it might not easily be obstructed; for it conueyeth vitall spirits to the spleen, & also belcheth out into it the more faeculent part of the bloud contained in the great Artery. This Artery is continually ioyned vnto the splenick veine described in the Chapter going before, and hath so many branches, and in the same order of position, as also named by the same names, which we will runne breefely ouer in this place.  
Before the diuision from his vpper part proceede.  
Gastrica sinistra vel minor, the left or lesser stomacke Artery[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. α] turneth on the right hand to the vpper parts of the stomacke. 
Gastrica sinistra.   
Gastrica maior[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. x] offereth a branch to the backside of the stomacke, as also 
Gastrica maior  to the midst thereof marked in the fourth Table at[ y]; out of this also ariseth the crowne Artery[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, 2.] answering the crowne veine before described.  
From the lower part.  
Epiplois postica[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. β. fig. 1. c] diuided into two stradling branches, which are 
Epiplois postica.  propagated into the lower wing of the Kall and the Collick gut thereto adioyned.  
Epiplois sinistra[ Tab. 4. fig: 1 γ] passeth also to the lower Omentum, and runneth in to the 
Epiplois sinistra  left side thereof.  
The remainder of this branch[ Tab: 4. fig. 1 u] attaineth to the Spleene, and is diuided into an vpper and a lower branch, and these into others, till at length they reach vnto the hollow side of the Spleene,[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, ♌] From whence do proceede Gastroepiplois sinistra,[ tab. 4. fig: 1 ε] which is sustained by the vpper wing of the Kell, and so goeth vnto 
Gastro epiplois sin. stra.  the left side of the bottome of the stomacke.  
Also Vas breue Arteriosum[ Tab. 4. Fig. 1. γ] passeth out of the vpper part of the Spleen, 
Vas breue arteriosum.  and is inserted into the left side of the stomacke.  
The Mesentericall Arterie is double, both of them proceeding from the fore-side of the 
Arteriae Mesentericae.  trunke, the vpper below the Caeliaca; the lower below the spermaticall Arteries.  
The vpper[ Tab. 4. Fig. 1. ζ. fig. 2. P: Tab: 8, 10.] is propagated into the vpper part, and almost 
Superior.  into the whole Mesentery, and reacheth his manifolde surcles to the empty gut, the Ileon, and a part of the Collicke gut, where it approacheth the right Kidney.  
The lower[ Tab. 4. Fig. 1. q, Tab. 8, 12] Mesentericall Artery, runneth vnder the lower end of the Mesentery, and especially to the left side of the Collicke gut and the right gut, 
Inferior.  and maketh the Hemorrhoid vessell, together with the Veins, and it is noted in the second figure of this fourth Table at this marke*. And so much at this time shall suffice to haue spoken of the Gate veine, and the Caeliacall Artery in this place, considering that we shal haue fitter occasion to prosecute their branches heereafter. Now we will proceede vnto the guts.   

CHAP. V. Of the Guttes.  
_THe Guttes are calledin Greeke 〈◇〉, and Intestina in Latine, because they 
The Names.  are placed in the inmost part of the body, and doe take vp the most part of the cauity of the lower belly.[ their naturall position appeareth in the 2. and 5. Tables,] And because they farre exceed the length of the same, they are necessarily gired and rouled into manifolde Convolutions,[ Tab. 2, 5, and 6.] that it might conteine them, as we vse to rowle vp a rope if we would put it into a bag. 
Their Connexions.  They are knit together by the benefite of the Mesenterium[ as appeareth in the 7. Table,] by which also, and the interposition of the Omentum, they are tied to the backe, and are held vp or supported by the cauities or hollownesse of the hanch bones.  
They are long bodies, and commonly sixe times so long as the man whose entrals they 
Their length.  are, round they are and globous, that they might bee more capacious and lesse subiect to outward iniuries; Hollow, but not all of a bore as wee call it, carried also in circuler conuersions( excepting their beginning[ Tab. 6. fig. 1, 2. at I and a] and their end, that the entrance and out-gate of the Aliment should not bee interrupted) least the nourishment should too suddenly slip away before the Chylus be fully distributed, and constraine a man 
The reasons of their length.  eft-soones to call for more, and so be the cause of insatiable gulosity or rauenousnes, which would as Plato saith, interrupt all good and liberall learning. For so we see those creatures whose guts from the stomacke to the siedge, are either streight or lax, are insatiable deuourers, 
Plato.  which also Aristotle witnesseth in his third Booke de partibus animal. chap. 14. for the 
Aristotle.  loosenesse or laxnesse of the gut encreaseth, and the rectitude of it hastneth the desire of meare. Wherefore those creatures whom it became to bee more moderate that way, haue more of these circumvolutions, which also make them able longer to containe the excrements, that they shold not be enforced but at their own pleasure to vnburden themselues; for those creatures that continually put in, must haue answerable euacuation.  
The guts are continued with the stomack at the right Orifice called the Pylorus, but their substance is thinner then that of the stomack, and by reason of the inumerable veines that 
The veines of the guts called Meseraicks.  are inserted into Ieiunū and Ileon, which do in a short time suck it, they receiue much nourishment, which presently by as many vessels is conueyed to the Liuer. This speedy distribution of the nourishment could not be, if it went out of one stomacke into another, because there would not be space for the insertion of such a world of veines, and so the distribution must needs be slower, and beside much of the Aliment would escape the Veins, vnlesse it were eft-soones all the way of the passage againe and many times as it were reuised, till there were nothing left but bare excrement.  
And albeit there be but one ductus or through-passage from the pylorus or mouth of the stomacke, euen to the siedge, that it may not amisse bee called one gut; yet because the parts of it do very much differ in substance, figure, office, place, magnitude; and in number of circumvolutions and turnings: therefore first in respect of their substance, there are two sorts of guts. One slender, fine, and small, which Galen calleth 〈◇〉. Plautus calleth them Lactes of the old word Lacio, which signifieth to draw, because they draw the Chylus more powerfully then the other which are thicke and crasse, called by Hippocrates 〈◇〉.  
The slender or smallest sort of Guts is three-fold, Duodenum, Ieiunum, and Ileon, which 
The small guts.  though they haue all almost one capacitie or amplitude, yet they are easily distinguished by their scituation, length, and by their Meseraick veines. And beside, the Ieiunum about his beginning, where it is tyed to the backe, is sometimes obserued to be enlarged.  

Tab. 5. sheweth the Bowels of the Lower belly, euerie one in their owne place. The ends of the lower Ribbes, together with the Midriffe and the Peritonaeum adhering thereto are turned backe, that the Liuer, the Spleene, and the stomacke might be better seene.  

A. The Brest blade cald Cartilago ensiformis.  
B B. The Peritonaeum, togither with the Midriffe and the broken ribs bent outward.  
C C. The Gibbous or bunching part of the Liuer.  
D. A Ligament tying the Liuer to the Midriffe.  
E. A part of the vmbilicall veine.  
F F. The stomacke filled full of meate.  
G. A part of the Spleene.  
H. The blinde gut of the late writers: for the ancients tooke the top of the Colon for it.  
I. The beginning of the great or thicke guts.  
I. and so to K. sheweth the passage of the Collick gut from the right kidney to the Liuer, & so the Collicke and the stone on this side are in one place, and therefore hardly distinguished.  
K. to L. the same Collicke Gut lyeth vnder the whole bottome of the stomack, which is the reason that those which are troubled with the Collick cast so much.  
L. to M. The passage of the Colon, from the spleene vnto the share bone by the lefte kidney a-way which maketh the payne of the Stone and the Collicke on the lefte side, very harde to distinguish.  
N. The Colon ending into the right gut.  
O. The beginning of the right Gut vnto the bladder.  
P. Q. The sunken or fallen side of the Colon at P. and his Chambers and puffes at Q.  
R S T. The lesser Guttes, especially lying vnder the Nauell.  
a a. The two vmbilicall arteries.  
b. The bottome of the Bladder.  
* The Connexion of the bladder and the Peritonaeum.   
TABVLA. V   
The thicke or great guts are as many[ Tab. 6. fig. 2, 3.] called Caecum, Colon & Rectū, 
The great guts.  all differing in scite, figure, and magnitude. For the Colon and Rectum, that is, the Collick and the right guts, are more ample then all the rest. For the figure, some are right as it wer by a line, as the Duodenum and Rectum, the rest are full of turninges, and as it were chambered more or lesse.  
In respect of their offices, some are appointed both for the perfiting and for the distributing 
Their offices.  of the Chylus, to wit, the smaller and narrower, that so the smallest crumme of the meate may meete with their sides and vessels; others are appointed for beser vse, to gather together the excrements, as the Crasse or thicke guts.  
The smaller, partly by reason of their excellency, partly for their commodity, do occupy 
Their scituation.  the middle place,[ tab. 5. R S T. tab: 7. cccc] euen all the Regions of the nauell & the Hypogastrium, yet in dogs it is not so, which deceiued the Ancients, who called the small the vpper guts, the thicke the lower; which order we finde different in man, whose Colon occupies the vppermost place, and passeth vnder the bottom of all the stomacke. For their commodity they are placed neare the Center of the Mesenterie[ tab. 7. H] that the mesentericall branch might without any great distance be conuayed vnto them, and so the Chylus quickly transferred to the Liuer.  
The thicker guts are placed towards the sides[ table 5. table 6. figure ●. table 7. EEEE] partly because they might giue way to the smaller;( the Colon also is knit to the bottome[ table 5. E] of the stomacke) partly that like a munition or defence they might compasse and defend the smaller, least they should bee pressed or streightned. They were also made large, that they might containe the greater quantity of excrements, before they were prouoked to excretion.  
The first of the slender guts[ table 6. figure 1, from to K] which Herophilus calleth 〈◇〉 
Duodenum.  〈◇〉, in Latine duodenum, hath his name from the length of twelue fingers, which yet we finde it not to holde in our bodies; it may be, because now a dayes the stature of Man is much impaired. Galen calles it 〈◇〉, as it were a production, to wit of the stomacke, which name yet some doe onely allow to the orifice of this first gut. This auodenum beginning 
His scituation  on the right side, at the Pylorus[ table ●. figure 1, H] is reflected or turned backeward, vnder the stomacke, that it may bee knit with membranous ligaments, to the spondelles or rack-bones of the loynes, to hold it straight and right downe; for if it should haue beene rowled and circled about, first the entrance of the Chylus should haue beene hindered, and then being gotten in, it would haue beene subiect to bee returned backe againe. Moreouer, it would haue beene a hinderance to the veine that commeth from the Port or Gate of the Liuer, and to the Arterie which passeth to the Liuer: beside, indeede there is no space or scope for any such cōuolutions or turnings in that place. It determineth vnder the Colon, about the beginning[ table 6, figure 1, K] of his windings. It is the straightest of all, that the Chylus should not suddenly and togetherward fall into it, out of the stomacke; and somewhat thicker then the other two, because it receiueth a short veine from the trunke of the Port veine, which we called Intestinalis[ table 3, I] or the Gut veine,( but no meseraicall 
The duodenum receiueth no meseraical vein  veine at all) and an Arterie from the Caeliacall; both which are led along according to the longitude of this Gut, and to the beginning of the Ieiunum. Vnder this the Pancreas or sweete-bread lyeth, especially in Dogges, that it may boulster the vessels, and moysten or supple the gut with a slimie moysture.  
The second small gut is called 〈◇〉 Ieiunum, or the[ table 6. figure 1, M] Empty gut, It is 
Ieiunum the empty gut.  for the most part found empty, and that because of the innumerable meseraicks, and those very large, which ending in the inner coate of the gut, doe there gape with open mouth, & draw away the Chylus, as the nourishment falles lower and lower, till all the goodnesse bee drawne away. And if any part of the Chylus scape the first conuolution of this gut, yet the second or third will embrace it, till most of the profitable iuyce be drawne away by the meseraicks to this gut belonging; which suction or drawing is much encreased by the vicinitie of the Liuer, and beside, the Aliment as it passeth by, being yet fluid, doeth easilie follow.  
His beginning[ table 6. figure 2. M] on the right side vnder the Colon, where the conuolution of the Guttes begin, is very liuid or blewe; when it commeth aboue the Nauill 
His place. ( whose whole region it taketh vp) being before wound vp into many circled labyrinths, it endeth into the Ileon. It is in length twelue palmes and three fingers. In breadth it exceedeth not the little finger, vnlesse it be puffed vp with winde. In the beginning of this Ieiunum, 

Length. The passage of the gal called Porus Biliarius.  
Why it is found empty according to his name.   or in the end[ table 6. figure 1. L] of the duodenum, is the passage of Choller or Gall inserted, called Porus Biliarius; that after the Chylus is now fallen downe beneath it, the Liuer may vnburden itself by this vent of this humor, which by his acrimonie prouoketh the Guts both to expell the excrements contayned in them, and to work downward the slimy phlegme that cleaueth vnto them; whence it is, that in dissections it is found more empty then the rest.  
The third Gut is called 〈◇〉 or tenue, that is slender, because of the tenuitie of his membranes; it is called also 〈◇〉, from a worde which signifieth to encompasse, as it were the 
The Ileon his names.  circled gut; also voluulus, because of his many circumuolutions, in which the meat maketh profitable stay and deliberation: this gut also giueth name to that fearefull disease called Ileos, 

Iliaca passio, miserere mei Deus. a cruel disease.  
His scituatiō.   or Iliaca passio. It is scituate vnder the Nauell, on both sides at the bones called Ilea, or hanch bones, and the cox or hip-bone: and though it be continuall with the Ieiunum, and of a like substance, yet heerein it differs, that we finde it not either so empty of Chylus, or so full of Veines. It beginneth where the gut groweth reddish, and the Meseraicke Veines grow smaller and fewer, and passing vnder the right Kidney, meeteth vvith the crasse and large or great gut, that[ Tab. 6. Fig. 1: O] buncheth out like a great Globe or Bowle, and endeth in his left side where it hath two holes; one continued with the Ileon, another lower, to which the blinde gut is ioyned.[ Tab: 6, Fig. 1. 2, 3, N] It is the longest of all the guts, euen one and twenty palmes long, and as broad as a finger is thicke, and because this gut onely can fall into the cod, this onely causeth the rupture cald Hernia intestinalis, the gut rupture, and so much of the small guts.  
The great guts begin[ Tab. 6. Fig. 1, 2, 3, O] where on the right side they strut out like a 

The great guts.  
The blind gut called Caecum Intestinum.   great Bowle, where there hangeth downe an Appendixe or additament, which is the first of the thicke guts, and is called 〈◇〉 or Caecum, that is the blinde gut[ Tab. 6 Fig, 1, 2, 3 P] hauing that name from his obscure vse, others call it Monoculus, because it hath but one perforation, yet some say it hath two in the same superficies, but diuided by so fine & thin a distance, that it seemes but one: when notwithstanding one of them is the end of the Ileon,[ Tab. 6 Fig: 1, 2, 3, N] and the other the beginning of the blinde gut, or of the Appendix. It taketh his beginning which is very thicke, from two heads; the end of the Ileon,[ Tab. 6 Fig: 1, 2, 3, n & O] and the beginning of the Colon: vnlesse we had rather say, that the vtmost part of the Colon ends into it, and that the Ileon is continued with it where it begins. In a man it is a slender long Appendix, and like vnto a great writhen worme[ Tab. 6 Fig. 1, 2, 3, P] or a little purse narrow toward the bottome, whence also it is called Saccus; farre narrower and streighter then any of the other guts; foure Finger long, and as broade as the thumbe, and is knit to the right Kidney by the mediation of the Peritonaeum, but hath no Mesentery tyed vnto it. In Dogges it is farre greater, and besides differs in the originall, for in them it taketh his beginning rather from the beginning of the Colon on the right side of it, then on the left.  
The Ancients did not call this Appendix of the Colon the blind gut( whence some of them haue deliuered, that in Beasts there are three thicke guts, in a man but two) but for it, did 
What was the Caecum of the Ancients.  take that Globous[ Tab. 6. Fig: 2 at O] extuberation, which passeth from the insertion of the small guts vnto the Colon, of which we spake euen now. Wherefore Galen placeth the blinde gut on the right side of the Ileon, but the Colon he saith ariseth out of the left side, brought first vpward by the right Ilea or flankes. This blinde gut of the Ancients wh●ch we call the beginning of the Colon, in Apes, Dogges, Swine, & Oxen is very great, in whom it is a good helpe that in their groueling gate, when their fore-parts are violently moued, the excrements do not recoile to the small guts. The vse of this blind Gut saieth Galen,( vnderstanding 
The vse of the blinde gut of the Ancients.  the beginning and bowled extuberation of the Colon) is to be as a belly wherin the excrements are receiued, that if in the passage any thing haue escaped the distributing vertue of the small guts, and the Meseraick Veynes, it might by remayning somet me in this blinde gut be exhausted and sucked out. But the vse of the Appendix is whilst the Infant is in the wombe, to receiue those many and liquid excrements which in many moneths time are gathered together. After the childe comes to any growth in the world, as 
Of the Appendix.  we say, the vse of this Appendixe ceaseth, because( proportionably considered) there are fewer excrements gathered in the Collicke gut, and those that are, are dryer and thicker. Wherefore one saith verie wel, that the excrements growing fewer, are not driuen therinto, and so it remayneth contracted and gathered together, not in length,( for the length continueth the same) but in the Latitude, ouer it was in the Infant, euen we saide before, it hapneth in the vmbilicall vessels.  
The second thicke gut, Tab. 6. Fig: 1. and 2. from O to Z. Tab. 5 from r to o, Tab. 7 EEEE] is more lax and loose, and is called 〈◇〉 of a word which signifieth to fore-slow, because by 
The Colon or Collick Gut.  reason of his many blowne and swelling Chambers or Cels[ Tab. 6 Fig. 2, 3 YY] it forsloweth the passage of the excrements; or of a word which signifieth to wreth, or to rack, because of the racking Collick paine which in it is bred. The beginning of this gut, called by the Ancients the blinde gut[ Tab. 6 Figur. 1, 2. O] as is saide, is very large and more capacious then any other part of the gut is, and round like a Bowle or Globe, seated in the right Ileum or flanke,[ Tab. 5 from I. to K.] for there is a fit place empty for it, because the right kidney hangeth hie, to which it cleaueth; and touching the bladder of Gall vnder the Liuer, 
The scituation of it.  yea sometimes being so fastned vnto it▪ that it is dyed yellow by it, is turned vpward, rouled ouerthwart vnder the bottome of the stomacke[ Tab. 5. from K to L] and so passeth ouer the small guts. And this is the reason why the Ancients haue written that it occupyeth the vpper place, yet not in Dogges but in Men. And surely heerein Nature hath made an excellent prouision both for nourishment and concoction, because we eate many hard meates, which neither the stomacke nor the small guts are able sufficiently to put ouer, which are deteyned in the Chambers of the Colon; and because this Colon passeth vnder the stomacke, and the Liuer the fountaine of heate, are there concocted and made fit for norishment, and from hence are suckt away by the Meseraick Veines. On the left side it is tyed to the Spleene[ Tab. 5 G] with rare and thin Membranes; from the Spleen it passeth vnto the share bone[ Tab. 5 from L to M] and then is presently turned backward to the left Kidney, to which it is strongly bound and so maketh a shew as it were of a Scythian bow. This strong binding of the Collicke gut to the left Kidney, is the cause why the Nephritick paine or fit 
Tab. vi. sheweth the lesser and the greater guts.  
The first figure sheweth the forme and folding passage of the lesser guts.  
The second Figure sheweth the forme and convolutions of the greater guts, and the Muscles of the Fundament.  
The thirde Figure sheweth together with the figure of the great guttes, the value or Membrane of the Colon or Collicke gut.  
The fourth Figure sheweth a part of the collick and right guts and the coats of the Guts.  
TABVLA. VI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  

H. 1, The Pylorus tied with a part of the stomacke.  
I K. 1. The gut cald Duodenum.  
L 1. The pore or hole of the choler, cald Porus Biliarius.  
M 1. The beginning of the empty gut, cald Intestinum Ieiunum.  
N 1, 2, 3. The end of the lesser guts.  
O 1, 2, 3. The beginning of the great guttes, where is the blind gut of Galen and the Ancients.  
T 3. The value or membrane of the collick gut, set to the sides of the Gut on eyther hand, where his beginning is not made round, but lax.  
P 1, 2, 3. The blinde gut of the later Anatomists.  
QRSTV. 2, 3. The collick gut from O to Q: from the right kidney to the liuer, from Q. to R. all along the bottome of the stomack: from R to S: from the Spleene to the share bone: from S to T the returne of the Collicke gut to the nauell: from T to V how it is led along again downward to the right gut  
* 3. The Collicke gut opened, that the value may better appeare.  
XX 2, 3. The sunke or flatted place of the Collicke gut.  
YY 2, 3. The chambers or cels of the Collicke gut.  
Z 2, 3. The beginning of the right gut.  
a 2, 3. the round Muscle of the right gut.  
b c 2, 3. The two right Muscles of the right gut.  
d 2, 3. The place wher the right gut is tied to the yard in mē & to the neck of the womb in women.  
ee 4. The first and vtter coat.  
ff 4. The 2. coate of the guts.  
g 4. The third coate of the guts which maketh their body. hh 4. A part of the Mesentery, tying the right gut to the Holy of great bone.   of the stone in the Kidneyes, is confounded with the collicke payne. But to returne to the collicke gut; at the left Kidney it is much narrower, least it should compresse the spleene; wherefore those men that haue swolne spleenes, doe not easily breake winde, vnlesse their spleenes be pressed; here also it hath no chambers: and againe arising more on the left side as it were vnto the seate of the Nauell[ table 6. figure 2. and 3, from S to T] maketh a double,( which double is the cause that in this place the collicke torments are most grieuous, so that wee haue seene heere apostemations[ table 5. H] maturated or ripened through the skin, and after healed) and so being carried to the beginning of the os sacrum, in that very place where on the one side it arose from the right gut, it now on the other side[ table 5. X] endeth in it; but is distinguished from it by a certaine narrownesse, caused as it were by the whipping about[ table 6, figure 2, from T to T] of a streight band: which place all Physitians in the administring of Clisters, and cure of the Collick torments, must not forget. The 
The length of the Collick gut.  length of this Gut is about 7. palmes[ demonstrated in the 6. table & the 1, and 2, figures] and so many fingers, and in breadth it is as wide as a mans Fist is thicke.  
It is the largest and widest of all the Guts, that it might be a receptacle of the winds ingendered in the first concoction, to wit, in the stomacke and the small Guts; as also of the vnprofitable and faeculent part of the Chylus, which remayneth about the end of the small Guts: least sayth Galen in his fourth booke de vsu partium and the 18, chapter we should be constrayned continually, or ouer often to empty our bodies, because within vs there is continuall segregation made of the excrements from the nourishment. Now this Gut being so capacious, those excrements may in great quantity bee retayned, and auoyded but at conuenient times.  
The Celles also or chambers of this Gutte[ table 5, Q Q, table 6, figure 2, 3, Y Y] make much for this purpose of Nature; and hence it is that some Birds whose Guts haue no such Celles, doe continually mute, or very often: and therefore some haue called this collicke Gut, The lower Belly.  
Least therefore the excrements should forceably issue out, or perpetually prouoke the expulsiue faculty, this Gut first of all ariseth vpward[ table 6, figure 2, and 3, from O to Q,] afterward bending downward, it is againe reflected vpward neare the end thereof[ table 6, figure 2, and 3, from S to T] not vnlike to a Romaine S. And hence it is that in our deiections, the excrements are not auoyded all at once, but as it were at two stooles, the second following the first, after a little distance of time.  
And because it is very great, therefore it hath two strong ligaments; one, whereby it is fast tyed to the vpper parts, and so by the other to the lower. It is also fastned to the backe by meanes of an externall membrane, springing out of the lower membrane of the Kall, as the other Guts are tyed to the backe by the interposition or helpe of the mesenterie. But in Dogges it is no where tyed to the Kall, neither hath it any of these ligaments. If it were narrow as the small Guts, it would alwayes be distended, and so alwayes tortured.  
Againe, whereas the excrements when they passe out of the Ileon into the Collick gut, doe manifestly ascend[ table 6. figure 3. from N to O] least in the compression of the belly,( which is made by the muscles of the Abdomen, and the helpe of the midriffe) to the siedge; the excrements and putrid or rotten vapours should not so easily finde the lower passage by the right gut, as returne out of the Colon into the Ileon, and so disturbe the distribution of the Chylus, and at length issue by the mouth as it hapneth in that miserable disease called Iliaca passio, where the gut Ileon doubling into itself, maketh such a constipation of the belly, that the meat cannot descend, and so the remainders thereof being yet liquid in the small gut, and defiled with the noysome sauour of that place are returned by vomit, and at last the excrements themselues, though not out of the great guts; least I say in euery notable compression of the belly this should happen, Nature hath ordained & scituated a certain value, leaf-doore, or floud-gate, at the beginning[ ta. 6. fig. 3. *] of this Colon where it 
The values of the Colon.  is ioyned to the Ileon, which is membranous and thick, and looketh vpward, because the excrements of the meate are carried by ascent not by descent, out of the Ileon into the Colon, as is said before. This value is easily found by the Anatomist, if you poure water into the right gut and hold it & the Colon vpward, for then you shall perceiue that none of the water will passe into the Ileon, no nor winde, vnlesse you presse it very hard. You may finde it also when the guts are cleansed, but then it is somewhat vitiated by the transfusion of water, which you must necessarily vse in the cleansing of them.  
Hence it is that Galen sayth, the matter of clisters cannot naturally ascend into the Ileon 
Lib. 5. method. meden. cap &  or small guts, although their medicinable force and vertue may goe a great deale higher. 
Lib. 13. method, medend. cap. 17  Andreas Laurentius hath described this value in his Anatomie, where also he maketh mētion of Bauhines description of it, and attributeth vnto it this vse especially of hindering the regurgitation of the excrements. But Archangelus sayeth, that at the blinde gut there are three values like those in the heart, all appoynted for the same purpose, which the rest before did agree vpon.  
The substance of the Colon is more fleshy then that of the other guts, and beside it hath many Celles[ table 5. QQ, table 6. figure 2, 3, YY] or chambered cauities, diuersly as it were arched; and againe sinking into a narrower extent, wherein the hardest part of the meate may rest, and so receiue( for they lie vnder the stomacke and the Liuer[ table 5. at CC) a better concoction. But the small guts haue none of these Cels; the reason is, that the excrements of the Chylus should not be reteined therein, the distribution of the Chylus hindered, or the place of the belly taken vp therewith.  
Finally, least the Cels or chambers of this Colon should bee dissolued or loosened foorth, there runneth through his middle and vpper part after his length, a certaine vinculum or band of the breadth of the middle finger: which being loosened or broken, those chābers are dissolued. When this colon comes near to the right gut, it becommeth round[ table 6. figure 2, 3, v] like the Colon in Dogges( that so the excrements and the winde also which issueth sometimes silently, sometimes with noyse, might bee more easily excluded) and so his end is narrow and straight, fit to ioyne with the right gut.  
The third of the great guts[ table 5, his beginning is at O vnder the bottom of the bladder, table 6. figure 2, 3, Z, table 7, F G] is called rectum, of his right bore, and 〈◇〉, the beginner 
The last great gut called rectum, or the right gut.  by Hippocrates in his first booke Epidem: because it hath his beginning where the boughts of the guts do end, and thence passeth from the top of the sacrum or holy-bone, to the end of the rumpe, to which it is firmely tied by the interposition of[ table 6. figure 4. h h] the Peritonaeum, least when it is burdened, it should fall with his owne waight: and so endeth in the seate,[ table 6. figure 2, 3, a] in men vnder[ table 6, vnder b] the bladder; in women vnder the wombe. In this place it is very great, which Hippocrates calleth partem laxam or his loose part, and groweth to the yarde of men[ table 6, figure 2, 3, d sheweth the place] and to the necke of womens wombes, by the interposition of a musculous substance.  
Hence comes in men that notable sympathy of this gut with the bladder, which maketh 
The great sympathy betweene the right gut and the bladder.  a man that is troubled with the stone in the bladder, to be euery moment prouoked to the stoole; but yet in women there is a greater simpathy betweene this gut and the wombe; so that oftentimes by compassion the gutte is vlcerated, and the excrements are auoyded by the secret parts. This gut could not be more commodiously placed, for the excremēts being herein by degrees collected, may be fitly together excluded. To the end of this gut a round muskle[ table 6. figure 2, 3, a] is annexed, which may binde the orifice of it, whereupon it is called by Hippocrates and Galen 〈◇〉, that the excrements might not at al times 
The sphinter muscle.  but onely by voluntary compression and violence be euacuated. This gut is a palme and a halfe long[ table 6. figure 2, 3, from Z to a] and three fingers broade, and very corpulent or substantiall, and hath certaine fat appendixes or additaments growing to it without.  
All these Guts as they are similar parts, do consist of a spermaticall substance and bloudy matter, changed into their proper flesh, if it may be so called: but as they are dissimilar they haue a membranous substance, that so they may without paine be distended or stretched, when they strut with the Chylus, with the excrements, or with winde; yet is not this membranous substance alike thicke, but the small guts haue it more slender, the great guts more crasse and thicke. This may bee sliuen into three coates; whereof one is common[ table 6. figure 4, c c] to them all, as hauing his originall mediately sayeth Galen 4. vsu 
The 3. coates ●i the guts.  partium 17, from the Peritonaeum: but immediately the duodenum and that part of the Colon that cleaueth to the stomacke, hath it from the lower membrane of the Kall, although it be not so in Dogs: and the Ieiunum, the Ileon, and the remaynder beside of all the great Guts, haue their coate from the membranes of the mesenterie. For the membranes of the mesenterie, carrying the vesselles to the Guts, doe grow vnto them, where parting asunder, they seuerally walk along the sides of the Guts, & do degenerate into their third coat. This first cōmon coat they haue as instead of a ligament, so as a couering for their better defēce. They haue beside, 3. proper coats,[ tab. 6. fig. 4. f f g] partly that their expelling power sayth Galen, might bee of greater force, partly also for security, when they abide many difficult 
4. vsu part. 17.  assayes in diuers diseases, especially in the Dysenteria or bloudy Flux, that the inmost beeing hurt, the other may remaine perfect for the performance of their duty. Wherefore, many haue beene knowne to superuiue when the inner coate hath beene eaten out: yet both these coats are thinner and softer then those of the stomacke, because this receyueth the meate when it is harder and vnconcocted, those when it is for the most part concocted and attenuated or made as thin as pulpe. The first[ Tab. 6. fig: 4, f f] or vtter of these coates is membranous, but strong; for the most part furnished with tranverse Fibres, sprinkled also with fleshy fibres, first to encrease his heate, that thereby the lesse laboured and digested parts of the Chylus may in their passage be more throughly concocted; and again, that like Muscles they might contract the guts to expel those final remainders which could not be auoyded by the compression of the Abdomen. Ouer this coate is drawne as it were a Veyle or Filme, thight but very fine, wouen for the most part of right Fibres. The other proper[ Tab. 6 Figure 4 g] coate is on the inside in the small gats rugous or plightie,( in the Colon the plights are vnfoulded and spred abroad into Cels) that it might moderately stay the Chylus as it falleth downward, that if any part of it bee lesse laboured, it might receiue a farther degree of concoction in the passage.  
Moreouer, that the same Chylus might the better bee sucked vp by the Veynes, these tranuerse foulds make this coate longer, and in some doubly and trebly longer then the vtter coate; and for this cause also it was necessarily gathered into Plights; and these soulds or surphles are moueable, & may be driuen out of one place into another, as the surphles of a hemme gathered vpon a thred, that they may reteine the Chylus moderately & without violence. This coate is also neruous, but yet it appears more fleshy, because of a crust 
The crust of the guts whiche is first lost in bloody fluxes.  like a Membrane which compasseth it about, engendred of the proper excrements of the guts arising from the third concoction, least the mouth of the Meseraicke Veins opening into this inner coate, should be stopped; and least the same inner coate, or the mouths of the Veines should be made callous or hard by the perpetuall passing of the Chylus. Both these proper coats at the end of the Colon, and in the right gut are thicker and thighter or faster.  
They haue Fibres of all kindes, the inner oblique or slope Fibres, that it might reteine the middle transuerse or ouerthwart that it might expell; to the outward are added a few right Fibres, least the transuerse should be separated asunder: wherefore without the gut 
What fibres euerie coate haue.  they are tyed together with the right fibres as it were with a ligament, euen as Chirurgions for the holding on of circular or round Ties, do cast ouer them right bands. But the right Fibres are fewer in the small guts, more in the great. In the Colon the Fibres follow his impressions or chambers. They are very great and large in the right gut, because of the many and hard excrements there heaped together,  
The vessels of the guts[ exhibited in the third Table] are Veines from the port veyne, arteries from the Coeliacall[ Tab. 4] and Mesentericall branches. For to the Duodenum & the beginning of the Ieiunum, the gut-veine called Intestinalis runneth with a long course; 
4. The vessels of the guts.  but the rest of the Ieiunum and the Ileon, and a part of the Colon, from the Ileon to the left kidney, haue Meseraicke[ Tab. 4. Fig: 2 O O O] veyns, which are carryed from aboue with an oblique passage through both the coats of the Mesentery, as it were out of his center. The vse of their veines, is to carry the Chylus from the guts to the Liuer, and bring back blood to them for their nourishment; of their Arteries, that they might be cherished with vitall blood, and by their perpetuall motion be preserued from corruption and putrifaction. Galen thought, that they tooke vp also a little of the meate in their passage. To the other and remaining part of the Colon, and to the right gut, they are in a right line carried from 
4. vsu part. 17.  the left Mesentericall Veine, and the inferiour Mesentericall Artery.  
They haue Nerues from the sixt paire, the Duodenum very small ones from those stomacke sinnewes which compasse the Pylorus or lower mouth of the stomacke: the rest of the guts on both sides, receiue infinite surcles from a braunch which proceedeth from the roots of the ribs, from whence they haue most acute sense, that they might apprehend the prouocation of the choller and the excrements; notwithstanding that a certaine mucous or slimy matter which lineth them within, makes their sensation somewhat more dull. 
The vse of the fat and slime in the guts.   
On the outside they are smeared, sometimes couered with fat, and on the inside lined with slime, and as it were nealed like earthen pots, that through their slipperinesse the excrements of the belly might sooner be precipitated or thrust downe( some thinke the Colon is lined within with fat) and least their exquisite sense should bee continually prouoked.  
The common vse of the guts is to be instead of earth or the soile to yeelde nourishment 
The common vse of the guts  to the parts. For as in the earth is contained the Aliment of the plants which they draw out by the Fibres or strings of the roots, so in the guts is the Chylus, which the rootes of the Meseraick Veines do sucke out for the nourishment of the creature. Againe, the vse of the small guts is to be the Instrument of distributing the Aliment; so saith Galen in his fourth Booke de Vsu partium, the 8. and the eighteenth chapters. For it behooued that there 
The vse of the small Guts.  should be one Organ to concoct, and another to distribute; for otherwise the veines could not but haue drawne crude together with concocted and laboured nourishment. For the Chylus boyled in the stomacke, was to bee distributed to other partes, and the profitable parts thereof to be segregated and separated, which is accomplished by the Meseraicall veines. But because, as it hapneth in a Viall full of water, if it bee turned vp, the water cannot yssue at the necke but by drops and degrees; so in the guts, if the Veines had beene set to one place, the multitude of the Chylus would haue stopped his owne passage: therefore Nature hath well prouided, that the guts shold be drawn out into a great length, that so in each part of them a litle quantity might be conteyned, & so a conuenient proportion suckt away by the mouths of the Veynes. Moreouer; in the very passage of the Chylus along the guts, it receyueth a farther degree of concoction, as also doth the blood in all the Veines. And therfore the substance of the guts is not much vnlike that of the stomack. But because they are not so neere the heate of the Liuer as is the stomacke, therefore Nature hath assisted theyr cold membranous substance, by couering them with the warme happing of the Omentum or Kell, whereby their weake heate is cherished.  
The vse of the great guts is to contain the thicke excrements and remainders of the meat together with the choler deriued vnto them from the Liuer by the passage of gall, as also 
The vse of the great Guts.  the winds that are daily gathered, which are stored in the chambers of the Colon, and the bredth of the other great guttes, and kept in by the Muscles of the fundament, as we shall more manifestly shew afterward.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Mesentery.  
_IT is called Mesenterium and 〈◇〉 in Greek, because it is placed in the middle of the guts, which as we said before, are called 〈◇〉: for it is placed in the middest betweene the guts toward their backward position[ Tab: 7 
The scituation cause of the name.  Fig. 1.] and incircleth them round. It is called also 〈◇〉 from his peculiar substance. His figure is circular[ Tab. 7. Fig. 1, 2] and plaine, but gathered into folds; about the beginning it is narrow, in the middle ample 
His Figure.  and large, and in the sides, especially the left side where it descendeth to the right Gut it becommeth more long, for which causes Galen sayde, it was treble or three-fold.  
His beginning is at the first and thirde Spondell or racke bone of the Loynes from the 
Originall.  Peritonaeum, from whence are produced membranous Fibres which spend themselues in the two Membranes[ Tab. 7. Fig. 2 TY] of the Mesenterie, from whence it is that there is great consent betweene the Loynes and the guts; beside there passe also from thence certaine Nerues vnto the Mesentery. For it is compounded of Membranes, Nerues, Veines, Arteries, Glandules and Fat.  
It hath two Membranes[ Tab. 7. Fig. 2, TY] one lying vpon another( in Dogs where it admitteth no vessels, they so grow together, as if it were but of one simple Membrane, 
His Membranes.  neyther hath it any fat to make separation) and those firme & strong, as well for the strengthening of the vessels which are manifold and passe together vnto the guts, to which Vessels it serueth for a band and strong muniment, as also least in violent motions the position of the guts should be altered or confounded, and that they might be stronglier tyed to the backe.  
The Meseraicke Veines[ Tab. 3. ddd Tab. 7. Fig: 2] diffused or spred abroad thorough these Membranes are innumerable and wondrous smal, as it were the fine & slender threds of the roots of a tree, which are still gathered into greater, till they growe all into one entire roote; so these vessels by little and little are knit together into greater, and those greater into others yet greater, till they are all vnited into one veine, which passeth vnto the Port, and resteth in the hollow side of the Liuer. Two Arteries called the vpper and lower Mesentericall, are sent vnto the guts, which make the Meseraicke Arteries, which also run through the Mesentery, that by their continuall motion they might ventilate, and with 
¶ The first Figure sheweth where the Mesentery beginneth or ariseth, his scite, connexion, and vesselles; in it also the guts are remooued from the middle of the Belly, and are laide vpwarde and downward vnto the sides, that the Mesentery might better appeare.  
The second Figure sheweth the Mesentery taken and freed from the body.  
TABVLA. VII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

AA BB. Parts of the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly, turned outward, and laide vppon the Ribs which are broken backward.  
C C C C. The lesser guts.  
D. The blinde Gut.  
EEEE. The Collicke gut, compassing round about the Lesser guts.  
F. The beginning of the right Gut.  
G. The bladder.  
* The place where the Peritonaeum or rim groweth vnto the Bladder.  
H 1, 2. The Center of the Mesentery where the Peritonaeum tyeth the great Artery and the Hollow Veine to the racke-bones of the backe.  
I I 1 2. A glandulous bodie set for security vnder the distribution of the vessels which are inserted into the Center.  
KK 1, 2. Glandules set between the distributions of the vessels which passe to the guts.  
L M M M 2. Do circumscribe that part of the Mesenterie which tyeth the small guts to the backe.  
From N. to O. 2. A portion of the Mesentery which ioyneth the right part of the Colon to the backe.  
From O to P 2. The Membrane of the lower kal, tying that part of the Colon that is knit to the stomacke, to the backe.  
From P to Q 2. A part of the Mesentery knitting the left part of the Collicke gut which runneth from the spleen, to the right gut  
From Q to R. A part of the Mesentery tying the right guts to the backe.  
S 2. The two Membranes of the Mesentery parted asunder with the nayles.  
T The first Membrane of the Mesenterie.  
Y. The other Membrane of the Mesenterie.   vitall spirite illustrate the Mesenterie and guts, and so keepe them from corrupting; all which also are ioyned into one great one which lyeth vpon the backe. This Galen obserued 
Lib. 6. Admin. Anal. Cap. 6.  sometimes to be presently parted in twaine out of one roote, sometimes to be two seuerall distinct instantly from their beginning.  
It hath Nerues also sprinkled diuersly as it were into many tendrils. Those are two, one on eyther side frō the nerues which are reached from the sixt paire to the roots of the ribs: 
Nerues.  which Nerues being spread abroad after the fashion of a Membrane, doe inuest the branches of the Arteries, by which meanes the colde Nerues by the touch and society of the Arteries becomming warme, the Animal vertue proceeding from the Brain, is more freely communicated to the guts. It hath Nerues also from the sinnewes proceeding from the Spondels of the loynes, and that for his better sense, that feeling those things that molest it, the expelling vertue being prouoked, it might turne them downe into the Guts. These nerues together with the Veines and Arteries, are receiued into the center[ Tab. 7. Fig: 1, 2 H] of the Mesentery, diffused through the whole body of it, and with an innumerable offspring are carried through his coates or Membranes vnto the guts. It hath also glandules 
The Glandules of the Mesentery.  or kernels very[ Tab. 7. Fig: 1, 2 KK] many( to which certaine thredy or hairy veines do come from the Meseraickes) interlaced with infinite diuarications of the braunches of the Portveine, & the great Artery, with which they hold a certain proportion for their magnitude; but the biggest of them are about his center, where the first distribution of the vesselles is made, and where they are most gathered together: as wel that they may support & diuide the vessels, as also that they may hinder their compression which would otherwise forslow the distribution of the Chylus, like as they doe when they become schirrus[ table 7, figure 1. 2, II] or hard; whence followeth for this reason a generall consumption of the whole body.  
Beside, it had not beene safe that so many vessels riding so high, being so slender and running so long a course from their originall, should bee carried to the trunke of the portveine without a kinde of convoy; wherefore these glandules or kernels, as it were certaine wedges, are set between their diuisions, that in vehement motions they be not broken nor offende one against another. Finally they serue to moysten the guts, that their concoction may be celebrated by elixation or boyling, that is, by heate and moysture.  
Amongst these glandules there is plenty of Fat, made of bloud sweating or falling out 
The fat of the melentery.  of those vesselles wee spake of euen now, and there retayned by the solidity of the membranes, with which fat the middle spaces are filled, and the heate of the parts cherished, that so the Chylus which is carried through them, may be prepared for sanguification.  
And although this Mesenterie be one and continued together, yet in regard of his double originall, and of the guts which it tyeth together, and of the two Arteries; it may be diuided into that Mesenterie which knitteth together the small guts[ table 7, figure ●, L M M] in the middest of the belly called 〈◇〉; and into that which tyeth the colon[ table 7, fig. 2, frō N to O] both on the right side and the left;[ tab 7, figure 2, from P to Q] not vnder the bottom of the stomack, for to that it is knit by the help of the Cmentum[ table 7. figure 2, from O to P] & in his lower part[ tab 7, fig 2, from Q to R] groweth to the right Gut, & is called 
How meseraion differeth from mesocolon  by Hippocrates 〈◇〉. Lastly, it hath a part which they call the appendixe[ table 7. fig. 2, from Q to R] of the Mesenterie, being of the nature of a ligament, whereupon Galen diuideth it into the right, the left, and the middle.  
The vse of the Mesenterie is to tie the Guts together, as it were by a common ligament, 
The vse of the mesentery.  and to fasten them to the Racke-bones of the Loynes, that they neither should bee confusedly shufled together, or fall downe by reason of their waight. But the Colon or collick Gut in that part of it that runneth vnder the stomacke, is tyed to the backe by the Kell as hath beene sayde. Againe, the double membrane of this mesenterie doth inclose and sustaine the vessels which runne through it, that they should not be medled together, and so hinder one another, as also that they might more safely attaine vnto the Guttes, whereas happely if they were not strengthned by this duplication, they might break when a man did leape or fall, or otherwise straine his body there about.   

Of the Pancreas or sweet-bread. CHAP. VII.  
_PAncreas, that is, all flesh, is so called because of the likenesse it hath with flesh 
The sweet-bread.  in an ordinary and moderate body, for in a Fat body it seemeth to be Fat itself: it is also called 〈◇〉. It is an vnshapely body, very loose, all glandulous( wherefore Archangelus would haue it called Pandenon) and large. It hath his beginning at the first spondle of the loynes, and thence defused, spreds itself vnder the backpart of the stomack and his bottome, the duodenum[ as appeareth 
The scituation of it.  in the table belonging to the chapter of the bladder of gall at the note 1] and the gateveine at the Kidneyes, euen as farre as the seates of the Liuer and the spleene. In Man it is not so red as in Dogges, and in all beasts because of their groueling gate, it lyeth vppon the stomacke.  
That which in his middle appeareth white, is his Parenchyma or proper flesh, and because of his whitenes and softnesse, some call it Lactes: we call it the sweet-bread, because in Swine it is esteemed a sweete morsell, though the sweet bread of a Calfe or Veale bee another thing, as you shall heare hereafter. It hath veines but very small from the Gateveines 
His vessels & glandules.  for his nourishment: and Arteries from the Coeliacall for his life; sinewes also from the sixt paire, and glandules. The especiall vse of it is to sustaine, secure, and preserue from Compression the diuisions of the branches of the Gate-veine, of the Coeliacal Arterie, and 
His vse.  of the nerues which are carried to the stomacke, and to the Gut called duodenum; but especially the Splenick braunch which passeth vnto the spleene; as also the vessell which contayneth the choller called Porlis Biliarius, because about his seate is the originall of all their diuisions.  
Moreouer another vse it hath, by reason of the many glandules in it contayned, which 
The vse of his Glandules.  is to licke vp the remaynders of that muddy and superfluous Fat( or if you will, the crude and phlegmaticke part of the bloud, which Hippocrates calleth Coenosam humiditatem, the muddy moysture) which the Kall and Mesenterie could not contayne: that the bloud being thus depured, might bee exhibited to the inward partes, more pure and better defecated.  
Againe, whereas these glandules doe as it were feede vppon and deuoure the crude or raw and moyst part of the bloud; it must needes follow that from them should exhale infinite vapours moyst and hot, which steaming vp round about the stomacke, doe make this action of Chilification, a kinde of elixation or stewing, like a Maryes Bath.  
Finally, the Pancreas like a pillow or quishion is placed vnder the stomacke and other parts, least being filled, they should leane too hard vpon the spondelles of the loynes, and 
Another vse of the pancreas  be violated with their hardnesse. Albeit Fallopius and Archangelus I know doe reiect this vse of it, because there is no such vse of it in brute beastes, in whome it lyeth aboue the stomacke. It parteth also the stomacke from the great Arterie, least when the stomacke is very full and strutteth out, the Arterie should be pressed, and so the free course of the vitall spirits to the lower parts intercepted.   

Of the branches of the Hollow Veine, and the great Arterie, disseminated through the lower Belly. CHAP. VIII.  
_WEE should now proceede vnto the stomacke, sauing that wee thinke it not amisse before wee come vnto it, to giue you a short view of the diuarications of the hollow veine and the great artery, as they diuide and subdiuide themselues in the lower belly; that if you please in the same body, you may call for a sight of them before you trouble the carcasse too much, by remoouing the stomack and other entrals. And first of the branches of the Hollow veine.  
The Hollow veine hath two trunkes, one passeth vpward through the midriffe, the other downward, which we will diuide into the trunke and the branches. From the trunk[ table 8. K] most commonly there proceed on each side foure veines.  
The first is called Adiposa, or the veine of the Fat of the Kidneyes: the left of these,[ tab. 8 g] 
Adiposa.  is for the most part higher then the right[ table 8. f.] They runne vnto the Fat of the Kidneyes and their vtter membrane. Sometimes one of them ariseth from the Emulgent, as appeareth,[ table 8 f] sometimes both.  
The second is the Emulgent; the left of these[ tab. 8. e] which sometimes ariseth threefould, 
Emulgent.  is higher then the right[ table 8. d] least one of them should hinder another in their suction; and longer also, because the seminarie or seede vessell springeth out of it[ table 8. i.] Both of them when they attayne vnto the middest of the body of the Kidneyes are diuided and so implanted to carry vnto them the whey of the bloud, which because it should not returne againe into the hollow veine, Nature hath placed certaine values in the emulgents.  
The third is called Spermatica or the seede veine; the right of these[ table 8. h] is sometimes double, arising out of the middle of the trunke below the Emulgent: The left ariseth 
Spermatica.  from the Emulgent[ tab. 8, i] because otherwise it must haue rid ouer the Artery, yet notwithstanding sometimes it receiueth a small branch from the Caua or hollow veine. They descend obliquely to the testicles, and determine in the Bodden body called Corpus varicosum, to which they carry the matter of the seede.  
The fourth are called Lumbares or the veines of the Loynes. These are sometimes two, sometimes three of a side[ tab. 8. mmmm] they passe between foure rack-bones of the loynes, 
Lumbares.  and doe send two veines to the sides of the marrow of the back which arise vnto the Brain, and haply they bring from the braine a part of the matter of the seede.  
Afterward at the fourth spondell of the loynes, the trunke of the hollow veine[ table 8. n] is diuided into two branches which are called Rami Iliaci, out of which before their diuision 
Rami Iliaci.  there proceede on either side two veines.  
The first is called Muscula[ table 8. n p, n p] one of which is higher then the other; sometimes 
Muscula.  it proceedeth not from the branches, but from the trunke, and passeth to the muscles of the loynes and of the abdomen or paunch, from whence it hath his name.  
The second is called sacra, a small veine, sometimes single, sometimes double, and passeth through the vppermost and formost holes of the os sacrum or holy-bone[ table 8. o o] 
Sacra.  vnto his marrow, and hath his name from the bone.  

The Branches of the Holllow veine and the Great Arterie, disseminated through the lower Belly.  
TABVLA VIII.  

AAA The midriffe called septum transuersum.  
B G The Gibbous part of the liuer, the rightside at B. the left at G.  
C C The hollow part of the Liuer called Caua iccoris.  
D The bladder of gall.  
E E The foreside of both the Kidneyes.  
H The Ligament which tieth the liuer to the midriffe.  
I The vmbilical or Nauel veine where it is inserted into the Liuer.  
K The trunk of the hollow veine called vena caual  
L The trunke of the great arterie.  
N The gullet where it passeth through the midriffe or the bosom of the Liuer called sinus hepatis  
a The trunke of the Gate veine.  
b The Cyslicke veines where they goe to the bladder of gall.  
c The passage of the bladder of gall which goeth to the gut called duodenum.  
d e The emulgent veines with the emulgent arteries vnder them.  
f The right fatty veine called adiposa dextra, arising out of the emulgent.  
g The left fatty veine arising out of the trunke of the hollow veine.  
h i The spermatical veines, the right arising out of the hollow veine, the left out of the left emulgēt.  
l l The two vreters which carry the vrine vnto the bladder.  
mmmm I he veines and arteries of the Loynes called Lumbares.  
n p n p Below, the vpper muscle veine and arterie, called musculae superiores.  
n The diuision of the hollow veine aboue the holy bone.  
o o The holy veines and arteries called sacrae.  
p The Iliacal branch of the hollow veine.  
q The Iliacal arterie.  
r The diuision of the Iliacal artery, and the Iliacal veine vnder it, into the inward & the outward: the inward is marked with p the outward with s.    
Jf The interior transuerse or crosse braunch. ssss The middle muscle veine. t t The veine and arterie of the yard, proceeding from the branch marked with p and ●. u u The Hypogastricke veine which sendeth branches from the inner bough to the bladder, the wombe, and almost al the parts in the watercourse. x x The place where the vmbilical arteries are inserted. y A portion of the external branch, wherewith the internal is augmented ● Character. The remainder of the inward branch 2, 2 The Epigastrick vein which is a propogation of the vrte: bough: it creepeth vpward by the lower parts of the Abdomen to the Nauel. 3 The lower muscle veine, reaching to the Coxendix or Hips: a veine without an artery, which deriueth his branches to the muscle of the fundament, and to the skin about them. 4 The great arterie piercing the midriffe. 5 The artery of the midriffe called Arteria phrenica. 6 The Caeliacai artery. 7 9 An artery passing to the Liuer. 8 The Cysticke artery, or artery of the bladder o● gal. 10 The vpper mesenteriacall artery. 11. The original of the spermatical arteries. 12 The lower mesentericall artery. 13 The coniunction of the sper●● atick veine and artery. 14 The diuision of the great artery into the Iliacal branches, and how it ascendeth aboue the hollow vein 15 The artery of the pri●ities called arteria puderd●, which is a shoot of the inmost braunch, going to the parts of generation. 16. 17 The remaynder of both the trunks marked with ● and ●, running to the thighes.  
Then the Iliacall branch is on both sides bifurcated or forked[ table 8. vnder r] into an 
The bisurcation of the Iliacall veines.  exterior or vtter[ table 8. vnder q] and an interior or inner. From these proceede three veines.  
The first is called Epigastrica[ table 8. vnder character, ●] which is disseminated into the 
Epigastrica.  Peritonaeum and the muscles of the abdomen. The chiefe branch of this veine ariseth vnder the right muscles of the Abdomen, euen vnto the vein called māmaria, and with it about the Nauell is ioyned by Anastomosis or inocculation.  
The second is called Hypogastrica, a notable veine[ table 8, uu] and sometimes double. It is disseminated almost into all parts of the Hypogastrium or watercourse, the bladder the 
Hypogastrica.  yarde, and the wombe; and at the right gut maketh the external Haemorroidall veines.  
The third is called Pudenda[ table 8. character 15 15] which is consumed into the scrotum 
Pudenda.  and the flesh of the yarde or virile member.  
These veines being thus deriued out of the Iliacall braunches of the hollow veine, they passe on either side out of the lower belly[ table 8, ● t] & are called Crurales, or the veines of the thighes, of which we shall speeake hereafter. And thus much of the Branches of the 
Crurales.  Hollow veine, now followeth the great Artery.  
The Great Artery also hath two Trunkes, the lesser goeth vpward, the greater[ Tab. 8. character 4] 
The greater trunke of the great Artery.  descendeth, because it hath more parts to be communicated vnto. This trunk accompanieth the Hollow Veine( for the Veines and Arteries are sorted together quite through the body) and sendeth forth branches almost like vnto it, of which wee will now entreate.  
The first is called Coeliaca[ Tab. 8. char. 6.] a notable Artery of which wee haue spoken 
Coeliaca.  before in the fourth Chapter.  
The second is called Mesenterica superior[ Table 8. character 10] before chapt. 4. described. 
Mesenterica Superiour.   
The third is called Emulgens[ Tab. 8 d e] which together with the Emulgent Veines enter 
Emulgens.  into the Kidneyes.  
The fourth is called Spermatica, the right and the left[ Tab. 8. char. 11] both of them arise 
Spermatica.  from the trunke of the great Artery, and together with the Spermaticall veines attaine vnto the Testicles, passing through the productions of the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly.  
The fift is called Mesenterica inferiour[ Tab. 8. char. 12] described in the 4. chapter.  
The sixt are called Lumbares.[ Tab. 8. at the vpper mmmm] They passe through the holes 
Mesenterica Inferiour. Lumbares.  of the Spondels of the Loynes, not onely into the Peritonaeum and the Muscles confining, but do also send two Arteries to the marrow of the backe, which together with the veynes aboue named, do ascend vnto the braine.  
The seauenth is called Iliaca, which before the Artery is diuided, rideth ouer the hollow veine[ Tab. 8. char. 14] least if it should haue couched vpon the bone, it might haue beene 
Iliaca, why it rideth aboue the hollowe veine.  hurt in his perpetuall motion.  
Afterward, as the Hollow veine, so this great Artery is diuided into two trunkes, called Rami Iliaci, each of which parteth into an exteriour or outward, and an interiour or inward 
Rami Iliaci  branch;[ Tab. 8. at r q] the outward is the larger, & runneth into the thigh. From these before they come vnto the thigh proceede six branches.  
The first is called sacra, arising vnder the bifurcation or forking,[ Tab 8 oo] and passeth to the Os sacrum or Holy bone and his Marrowe, as the Veines did called before Sacrae. 
Sacra.  These are but small Arteries.  
The second is called Muscula,[ Tab: 8 ss] a branch of the vtter bough running vnto the 
Muscula.  neighbouring Muscles.  
The third is called Hypogastrica,[ Tab, 8 u u] braunches of the inner bough passing vnto 
Hypogastrica.  the bladder, the yard, the wombe and the Muscles which couer the share bone.  
The fourth are called Arteriae vmbilicalis, of which we haue spoke abundantly before.  

Arteriae vmbilicales. Epigastrica.  The fifte is called Epigastrica[ Tab. 8 char. 1] a branch of the inner bough, which climbbeth vp vnto the right Muscles of the Abdomen, and is ioyned with the Mammaria, as is saide of the Veines.  
The sixt and last is called pudenda,[ Tab. 8 char. 15.] a braunch of the vtter bough, which is consumed in the skin of the virile member. That which remaineth of the great Arterie, 
Pudenda.  passeth into the Thigh, and is called Cruralis of which wee shall entreate afterward: now we will returne vnto the Entra's or Bowels, from which we haue a little digressed, to shew 
Crurales arteria  you the diuarications of these vessels in the Lower belly, but that very breefely, because we reserue their more exact description to their proper place in the Booke of the Veynes and Arteries.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Stomacke.  
_THE Ventricle as it were a little Venter, is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, that is, a cauity or hollownesse, of a word that signifieth Hollow or concavous, and 
The stomacks names.  〈◇〉, which is indeede the proper Greeke word for it. It is the common receptacle of meate and drinke, the Kitchin of the body. It is but one in men and other creatures that haue both iawes set with Teeth, but in those that chew the cud, which haue but one iaw of teeth, it is four-fold; in Birds it is threefold. It was necessarily to be placed where his extention might not be hindred, yet as neere the mouth as might be for the receyuing of the meat to be coqued for the whol body. Wherfore, for that there was no roome in the chest or neere the mouth, it beeing taken vp by the parts which serue for respiration, and encompassed beside with a wall of bone, which 
The scituatiō.  would haue hindred his dilatation, it is seated in the lower,[ Tab. 9. FF] immediatly vnder the Diaphragma, betweene the Liuer and the Spleene,[ Table 9 CC. sheweth the Liuer, G. the Spleene, and FF the stomacke] in the middest of the body, saith Galen 4. vsu partium 7. especially his vpper orifice, ouerthwart between the two Hypochondria, that it might be continuated with the guts, not so much for the distribution of the Chylus, as that the Excrements might be more easily setled lower, least with their noysome vapors they should molest the heart and the Brain. It lyeth for the most part of it, in the left Hypochondrium, as appeareth in the 9 Table, because heere it had most roome, and againe for the more commodious implantation of the vpper mouth, by which it receiueth the meate. Moreouer, to giue way vnto the[ Tab: 9, CC] Liuer which takes vp the right side; and lastly, with the Spleene to helpe to ballance the body against the Liuer. Before, it lyeth bare, especiallie when it strutteth, not vnproperly then called 〈◇〉 venter fermentatus, for when it is empty, it is more hid vnder the Liuer) that it may easily be felt with the hand; wherfore 
Tab. 9. sheweth the Bowels of the Lower belly, euerie one in their owne place. The ends of the lower Ribs, together with the Midriffe and the Peritonaeum adhering thereto are turned back, that the Liuer, the Spleene, and the stomacke might be better seene.  
TABVLA. IX  

C C. The Gibbous or bunching part of the Liuer.  
F F. The stomacke filled full of meate.  
G. A part of the Spleene.  
H. The blinde gut of the late writers: for the ancients tooke the top of the Colon for it.  
K. to L. the same Collicke Gut lyeth vnder the whole bottome of the stomacke, which is the reason that those which are troubled with the Collick cast so much.  
L. to M. The passage of the Colon, from the spleene vnto the share bone by the left kidney a-way, which maketh the payne of the Stone and the Collicke on the lefte side, very harde to distinguish.  
P. The sunken or sallen side of the Colon at P. and his Chambers and puffes at Q.   it is quickly affected with cold, and therefore care must be taken of it. On the right side, the vpper and forepart of it lyeth vnder the hollownesse[ Table 9. F vnder C] of the Liuer, and by it is embraced, whereby his heate is cherished. On the left side his greatest part reacheth to the Diaphragma, wherupon when it is too much stuffed, by hindering the motion of the Diaphragma, it causeth the disease calleth Dyspnoca: likewise the Spleene,[ Tab. 9 G] lieth vnder his left side against the backe and lower part thereof. Behind it are, the backbone as a strong and thicke defence, and the Muscles of the Loynes as a soft bed with fat growing thereto for his better repose, which also doe adde warmth vnto it. Below, it confineth vpon the guts, and the Omentum or Kall, and vnder his bottome lyeth the Colon[ Tab. 9. K L] with the Omentum betweene them, whence commeth their mutuall consent and sympathy not onely in the Collicke paine, but also after the taking of a Medicine there followeth a kinde of loathing and vomiting, the excrements going this way to the Rectum or streight gut.  
His magnitude is diuers, Hippocrates counts it fiue palmes bigge. Taken out and blown 
His magnitude  it is much greater then it can be whilst it is in the body; notwithstanding, whether it containe more or lesse, yet it so closely embraceth that it receyueth for the better concocting and boyling of it, that it leaueth no emptinesse in his whole cauity.  
But least being filled it should fall downe with the waight, his left orifice which is continuated 
The connexiō  with the[ Tab. 10. Fig: 1, 2 G] oesophagus or Gullet is tyed to the Diaphragma, the right is ioyned[ Tab. 10. Fig: 1, 2 H with P] to the Duodenum. On his backe and vpper part, he lyeth vpon the backe bone, and cleaueth to the fifte spondell of the Loynes; below to the Omentum, other where it is loose and free, that it might more freely be distended. Finally, vnder his bottome, and especially vnder his lower mouth called Pylorus[ Tab. 10 Fig: 2 H P] and vnder the beginning of the duodenum is the Pancraeas placed[ Table 10. figure 2. S] to boulster them vp. His figure[ table 10.] is round for the more capacity, and that it might 
The Figure.  be lesse subiect to be offended. Long it is because of his two orificies, which make it very like vnto a Bag-pipe. On the left side, and in the bottome[ Table 10. figure 2. M] it is larger and rounder, but toward the right hand it is by little and little attenuated or lessened, that it might giue place to the Liuer, and that the meate might by degrees fall from that side toward the bottome, which is the chiefe place of concoction. Foreward it is[ Table 10. figure 1. LL] equally bunched; backeward[ Table 10. figure 2. M N O] whilst it is yet in the body it hath two protuberations or bunches, the left is the greater, the right is the lesse and flatter, betwixt which is a hollownesse which doeth not appeare when it is taken out and blowne; which hollownesse was ordayned to giue way to the spondels of the backe,[ Table 10. figure 2, O] and to the descending trunkes of the hollow veine and the greate Arterie.  
On the outside it is smooth, plaine, and white; within[ Table 10. figure 4.] when it is 
His Cauitie.  knit or gathered together, it is rugous or rugged as we see in Tripes; and reddish. It is hollow, and his hollownesse of all other parts the most ample, that it might receiue sufficient quantity of meate and drinke, least for our nourishment we should be constrained to bee alwayes eating; now, when it is once full or satisfied, wee may haue leysure for other businesse, whilst all the meate taken at a meale, be digested and distributed.  
There are two Orificies in the vppermost region of it. On[ Tab. 10. Fig 1. L] the lefte 
His Orificies.  side one which appeareth best when the stomacke is best stuffed. This orifice is continuated with the oesophagus or Gullet,[ Tab. 10, Fig. 1, 2, ABC] and about the eleauenth Spondel of the breast, is knit vnto the Diaphragma or Midriffe. It is also farre greater then the other,[ Tab. 10. Fig: 4 l in respect of m] of the same widthe with the oesophagus, that nothing 
The vpper & left Orifice.  which we can swallow might stay at it. Thicker also it is then the other, least it shold be violated when it is constrained to receyue hard, thicke, and vnchewed gobbets, such as hunger bitten folke do with great rauenousnesse swallow downe and deuoure. It hath fleshye and circular Fibres[ Tab. 10. Fig. 4 l] that it might naturally streighten itself when it hath receiued the meate and drink, to intercept the ascent of vapors into the Brain, which some also would haue to giue great furtherance to the perfection of concoction, because those that would sodainly boyle any thing, do closely couer the pot mouth, that the vapours or fumes might be kept in: Againe, least the vapours flying vp to the heart or braine( which happeneth to great eaters, and those that are of a verie moyst distemper) should cause the Giddinesse, the Meigrame, suffusion, and a stinking or distastfull breath. This Orifice in 
A pretty note why in great griefe meat wil not down.  some vpon extreame greefe is so contracted or drawne togither, that they cannot swallow any whole meate.  
Finally, these Fibres serue to this good purpose, that those things which we eat, should not returne into the oesophagus or mouth when a man stoopeth low forward, or lyeth much 
The seat of appetite.  backward.  
This Orifice because of the aboundance of sinnewes[ Tab. 10 Fig. 1, 2. T V ● Fig: 2 X Y] that it receyueth is of most exquisite sense, that it might feele it owne want; which sense of want stirreth vp the appetite, that the creature might addresse himselfe to prouide for more meate and drinke to satisfie it. The Auncients call this Orifice 〈◇〉, that is, the heart, because when it is affected, by reason of his exquisite sense, the like symptoms or accidents follow, which follow them whose very hearts are affected, whence the pain of this 
〈◇〉 or the heart-burning.  mouth of the stomacke is called Cardialgia, we call it heart-burning, when indeed it is only a disease of the mouth of the stomacke. Sometimes the like soundings do follow as when the heart is affected; and to say truth, the heart is alwayes with it dravvn into consent, not so much because of the neere neighbour hood that is betweene them, as because their sinewes proceede from the same branch. Some call it the mouth of the stomack, commonly the vpper orifice; sometimes it is called the stomack, because of his largenesse; and because it commeth nearer to the back-bone then to the brest-blade, therefore wee applie in his diseases, locall medicines both behinde and before; before is more vsuall, but when the whole stomacke laboureth, then we apply onely before.  
The neather and the right orifice[ Tab. 10. fig. 1, 2 H] of the stomacke, is also bent a litle vpward, being the bredth as it were of foure fingers distant from the bottome, least the 
The neather and right orifice called Pylerus.  weight of the meate should open it. This within, beside transuerse Fibres, is compassed with a thicke and compacted circle, after the fashion of a round Muscle, or like the Sphincter or Muscle of the siedge, which sometime becommeth schirrhus or hard; and by which after a naturall instinct, it may be shut and opened, streightned or widened. This remayneth fast locked till the meate bee perfectly chaunged and boyled into a moyst and liquid Creame, wherefore also it is narrower[ Tab. x. Fig. 4. compare l with m] then the left orifice, yet it may be opened as wide, as do testifie the stones of fruite being eaten, Bullets of Lead swallowed, and other things by chaunce gotten downe, which without annoyance are againe rendred at the siedge. This afterward beeing by degrees relaxed and opened, doth by his strength, not being prouoked by weight, driue downe the Chylus into the duodenum[ Tab. x. Fig: 1, 2. P] and so to the rest of the guttes, to be sucked by the Mescraicke 
The voluntary work of the Pylerus.  Veines; wherefore it is called 〈◇〉 or the Porter, commonly the neather orifice. In a word, wheron the left side the stomack is thick in his top, there his vpper mouth beginneth from the oesophagus or Gullet; where on the right side it is thicke and eleuated, there is the end of the stomacke, and the beginning of the Duodenum.  
But because when it is filled with meate and drinke, it might bee commodiously distended, 
The substance or the stomack  and the vyands being distributed, againe constringed and streightned, and in great Meales when it is thrust full not be violated. For these reasons I say, the substance of it is Membranous and Neruous, which when the stomacke is corrugated or crumpled vp, is thicke; when it is dilated, it is thin. And verily in those that are much giuen to their panches, 
The Membranes of the stomacke.  it is so enlarged and rarified that it can no more be corrugated, which oftentimes is a cause of long weaknesse of the stomacke, after such gourmandizing fyts; for in whomesoeuer the body of the stomacke is thin, such men do worse concoct their meat, then they that haue it fleshy and thicke.  
It hath three Membranes or coates[ Tab. x Fig. 3.] one common, and two proper. The 
The common Membrane.  fyrst which is the vtmost and the common coate[ Tab. x. Fig. 3. hhh] from the Peritonaeum; yssued thence where it compasseth the Diaphragma at the vpper mouth: this addeth strength to the proper coats. It hath right Fibres, and is the thickest of all the coats which come from the Peritonaeum, because from it must arise the vpper Membrane of the Omentum.  
The second coate is altogether fleshy[ Tab. x Fig. 3 i] consisting of fleshy Fibres, which 
The 2. Coate  being contracted, whatsoeuer is offensiue to the stomacke, is as it were wittingly vomited vp; those Fibres also encreasing the heate, do make much for the helping of concoction; because for that office a great heate is required. This is immediately knit vnto that which followeth: it hath also transuerse Fibres[ Tab. x Fig: 3 i] vnder which a few fleshy oblique or side Fibres do lye. Some of which run from the vpper mouth, where they haue theyr beginning euen to the pylorus, but more of them do descend to the bottome of the stomacke toward the pylorus. Vnder these about the left mouth, do arise circular fleshy Fibres which do shut the orifice: but when the transuerse and oblique do moderately drawe the stomacke together, it embraceth the meate; if violently or strongly, they driue the meate now digested by degrees toward the pylorus, because it looketh vpward, and the Chylus is heauie.  
The third coate is inmost and Neruous[ Tab. x. Fig: 3 k] into which the vesselles themselues are ended: this is continuated to the coate of the oesophagus, and of all the Particles 
The 3. coate.  vvhich are in the mouth; because the mouth shold admit of nothing that might be vnpleasant or distastfull to the stomacke; and because the preparation to the first concoction is made in the mouth. Hence it commeth, that vvhen any chollericke humor or vapour is 
The fibres of the third coat  raised vp, the tongue is defiled vvith bitternesse and yellovvnesse, and oftentimes the exulcerations of the mouth and the tongue are communicated to the oesophagus, and the stomacke, and theyrs againe to them: by reason of vvhich consent, vve cannot euacuate the head by the Palate, but we must also euacuate or empty the stomacke.  
His third coat is wouen with three kinds of Fibres, that so the stomacke might bee the better extended. The right Fibres are very many and conspicuous aboue the rest, by which as it were by hands, they say it snatcheth his meate; by the oblique which are outwarde, it 
The vse of the Fibres.  reteyneth it; and by the transuerse it expelleth it after it is labored and concocted. Al these are so thightly wouen one within another, that they wil not appeare vnlesse they be distracted and rent or sliuen asunder. This coate is also rugous and vnequall. In those beasts that chew the cud, harsh beside and rough, and distinguished into certaine proportionable inequalities, not vnlike to the hony-combe.  
It hath these foulds and roughnesse from a fleshy crust which ariseth out of the excrements of the third concoction of the stomacke, and serueth to defend it from anie harde thing that should be receyued into it, least if itself were made callous, the mouths of the Veynes should be stopped, that neyther the Chylus could be sucked out of the stomacke, nor the stomacke be able to draw blood for his nourishment. It maketh also somewhat for the moderate retention of the meate; for by his corrugation and harshnes, it doth so much 
Table x. sheweth the stomacke with the Gullet.  
The first Figure the foreside of them both, with the vessels inserted into them. The second figure their backe sides. The thirde Figure sheweth the Coats and Fibres of the stomacke. The fourth Figure sheweth the stomacke with the inside turned outward.  
TABVLA. X  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  

A 1, 2. The Orifice of the Gullet cut from the throate.  
B 1. The straight and direct course of the gullet from A to B.  
C 1, 2. How the Gullet aboue the first rack bone of the Chest from B to C inclineth vnto the right hand in the first Figure, and to the left in the second.  
D 1, 2. His inclination to the left hande from C to D in the first Figure: but in the seconde to the right hand  
EE 1, 2. The two Glandules called Tonsillae, or the Almonds set close to the gullet in the very end of the throat  
F 1, 2. Another glandulous body in the midst of the gullet about the 5 rackbone, but it lyeth vnder it. In Calues we cal this the sweet bred.  
G 1, 2. The connexion of the gullet with the stomack where the vpper orifice of the stomack is fashioned.  
H 1, 2. The 2. orifice of the stomack, cald Pylorus.  
I, K 1, 2. The vpper part of the stomacke, at I the lower K.  
LL 1. The foreside of the stomacke.  
M N O 2. The backside of the stomacke and M sheweth the prominence of the left side, N of the Right, but O sheweth the doke or impression, where it resteth vpon the racke-bones.  
P 1, 2 The gut cald Duodenum.  
Q R 2. The passage of the bladder of Gall into the Duodenum at R.  
S 2. A Glandulous body growing vnder the duodenum, beating vp his vessels.  
T V 1, 2. The right and the left Nerues of the sixt paire, encompassing about the gullet and the vppermost or left orifice of the stomacke.  
X Y 2. A Nerue on the left side creeping vp to the top of the stomacke, and so running out to the Liuer.  
a 2. The first Veine of the stomacke, cald gastrica dextra, or the right stomack vein comming from the trunke of the gate veine, and his Artery commeth from the trunk of the Coeliacall Artery, both of them teach vnto the pylorus.  
b 1, 2. The second veine called Gastroepiplois dextra, togither with the Artery accompanying it, and a Nerue, all tending to the right side of the bottome of the stomacke.  
c 2. The third Veine of the stomacke called Gastrica minor, it wanteth an Artery for his companion from the splenick branch.  
ddd 1, 2 The fourth veine cald Coronaria stomachica, with his artery, compassing the left mouth of the stomack. This is a branch of Gastrica maior. e 1 Certain branches from the branch marked with a discending from the top of the stomach, and running with their Artery toward the Pylorus. f 1, 2. The first veine called Gastrica maior, deriued from the Splenick branch, which together with his arterie and nerues creepeth to the left side of the bottome of the stomacke. g 1, 2. Vessels deriued from those which passe to the Spleene. h h h 3 The first and outmost coate of the stomacke from the Peritonaeum i 3. The second coate. k 3. The first and inmost parted in this place from the two other. l 4. A round swelling of the left orifice bending inward, where the Gullet is continued with the stomacke. m 4. A round swelling of the right orifice or the circle of the pylorus. n 4. The inward superficies or surface of the stomack.   that nothing raw or vndigested can fall out of it. This Crust is spongie, hauing smal holes 
The crust of the stomacke.  as it were short Fibres from the inward to the outwarde superficies, that by these hollowe passages of his the thinner part of the Chylus might pierce and bee sucked away by the Veines. This crust may be separated from the Membrane or coate in bruit Beasts, yea also in the stomacke of a man if it be perboyled.  
The stomacke is not thicker or fleshier in the bottome then in other parts, as it is at eyther of the mouthes. Some say that in corpulent men there cleaueth a Fat to the bottom, on the left side; which when it is plentifull, they say a man may endure long before he shal haue any appetite to his meate.  
The vesselles the stomacke hath are these. Sixe veines branched from the gate-veine, 
The vessels of the stomacke, Veines.  some of which come from his trunk, others from the mesentericall or spleenicall boughes. From the trunke commeth the right Gastricke[ table 10. figure 2. a] which goeth to the right orifice; and the right Gastra epiplois[ table 10. figure 1. 2. b] from the mesentericall bowe attaineth to the middle of his bottome. From the spleene bow the lesser Gastricke[ table 10. figure 2. c] which goeth to his back-part; the greater[ table 10. figure 1. 2. f] Gastrick, from which comes the crowne veine of the stomacke, which in[ table 10. figure 1, 2. d d d] manner of a crowne incompasseth his left orifice or vpper mouth: the left Gastra epiplois disseminated into the other middle part of his bottome. And finally, that we call vas breue or the short vessell[ table 10, figure 1, 2. g] of all which we haue intreated more particularly in the chapter of the gate or port veine.  
The office of these veines is to bring in bloud for nourishment, for it is nourished continually, 
Their office.  as it was in the mothers wombe, that is, with bloud not with Chylus, by which we grant it is delighted and refreshed but cannot graunt that it is nourished with it. Some few of these also while the Chylus is boyling in the stomack, doe insensibly sucke out some small part of it( for they are but few in respect of those which determine into the Guts, because in the stomacke is celebrated concoction, but the guts containe the Chylus already concocted, which it was fit should be withall expedition distributed) and do change it into bloud by a naturall instinct, before it come to the Liuer, as Galen teacheth. Haply that the 
Gal. 4. vsu part. 12.  membranes of the stomacke may with it be nourished. Or if thou hadst rather, say that these veines doe carry the Chylus, they haue sucked after the manner of the meseraickes, to the rootes of the port veine, that are disseminated through the Liuer, that there it may be turned into bloud. From these veines come those sodaine refections of the spirits by sweete 
A good note of the sudden refections which come from wine & cordiall potions.  and strong Wine, Broths, and Cordials; which refections would not so soone follow, vnlesse the Liuer did suck nourishment by them out of the stomacke. That which is called the vas breue or short veine, which from the veines of the spleene is by an vnited passage of many braunches carried into his bottome, doeth there belch out a sowre and sharpe bloud, sometimes to the vpper mouth to stirre vp appetite,( which yet properly is prouoked by sence of want) and to strengthen it by his adstringent vertue.  
It hath Arteries from the Coeliacall branch of the Aorta[ table 10. figure 1, 2. a b d f] or 
The Arteries of the stomack.  great Artery, which doe accompany euery one of the veines, excepting the lesse Gastricke[ table 10. figure 2. c] to affoord strength of life to preserue it from putrifaction, by ventilation to cherish, refresh and increase his naturall heate with their heat and vitall spirit, that so concoction might be made more perfect: but of these branches more hath beene sayed in the chapter of the Coeliacall Arteries.  
It hath very conspicuous and notable nerues from the sixt paire, which at his orificies or 
The nerues.  mouths are double[ tab. 10. figure 1, 2. T V] disseminated from those branches which make the recurrent nerues, and yeilde certaine Tendrilles to the lungs and the pericardium, or purse of the heart; which Tendrils because of their softnesse and the length of their way, are couered ouer with strong membranes and doe run crosse one another, that for greater security they might passe obliquely or side-long; and piercing through the diaphragma or midriffe are on both sides doubly diuided: so that the left compasseth the[ table 10. fig. 1, 2. T V X Y] right and backe part of the mouth of the stomacke, and the right the lefte and forepart; which orifice they doe so inuolue, that it seemeth to bee made altogether of sinewes; from the aboundance of which it hath most exquisite sence to stirre vp and awake the sence of the want of nourishment, which sence ariseth from suction; for there is the seat 
The cause of hunger.  of the appetite; & to this onely part hath nature giuen the sence of want or of Animal hunger; for euen we feele that part especially to be contracted when wee are extreamely hungry. 
The seat of appetite.  For if we should not feele a kinde of molestation vpon the vtter and absolute exsuction of our nourishment till there be a supply made, wee should by degrees be extinguished & affamished before wee were aware; for our substance is in perpetual wasting and decay; the inbred heate continually feeding vppon the Radicall moysture. But now it is otherwise, because the naturall hunger that is setled in euery particular part, hath with it adioyned 
The appetite of euery particular part.  a sence of discontent, which is onely appeased by assimulation of fresh nourishment.  
These branches of Nerues going downeward, make his membranes which were onely membranous before, to become neruous, being disseminated euen to his bottome. These doe also impart the nourishing force or faculty to the fleshy Fibres of the stomacke. From the left nerue there runneth a branch along the vppermost seate of the stomacke to the pylorus, which when it hath foulded with a few small surcles, it goeth thence to the hollow of the Liuer. To the bottome of the stomacke doe other two nerues attaine from the sixt 
Why the brain being stroken the patient casts.  paire also, to wit, from the propagation led by the roots of the ribbes. Sometime to the left side there are offered nerues arising from the sinewes which runne vnto the spleene.  
Wherefore seeing the stomack hath obtayned so many sinewes, it is no wonder if when the braine bee stroken or affected, the stomacke also bee disturbed, and vomitings caused, especially in the Hemicrania or Meigrame. And on the other side when the stomacke is affected, then the Animall facultie languisheth, and melancholly symptoms do happen: so that one of them suffering the other hath euer a compassion, not as most men haue of others miseries, but indeede a reall fellow feeling.  
Furthermore, there attaineth to this bottome of the stomacke, sometimes a vessell or 
Vessels from the bladder of gal to the bottom of the stomacke.  entrance of many vesselles from the bladder of Gall, carrying choller thither, and causing perpetuall casting. A Family of such men are sayd to be at Spire in Germany, all of which family euery third day, vomit vp a good quantity of Choller, & they be called 〈◇〉, that is, casters of choller vpward.  
The vse of the stomacke is to receiue meate chewed with the teeth, and drinke altered 
The vse of the stomacke.  in the mouth through the gullet, and the same to retaine till it haue contracted itself, and embraced them by closing both his orificies; and then his naturall inbredde facultie and proper heate, boyleth and conuerteth the better part of the Aliments into white creame, which we call Chylus; That is, a substance disposed to be conuerted into bloud. For the 
Galen.  proper action of the stomacke, sayth Galen 5. vsu partium 4. is concoction, it being the organ or instrument of the first concoction, or the shop and forge of Chilification.  
Moreouer, because the substance of the stomacke is membranous, and therefore not so hot, his ingenit heate is encreased, yea doubled by the adiacent parts; as the Liuer, the 
What parts assist the stomacks concoction.  Midriffe, the Spleene, the Kell, the Collicke gut, the trunkes of the hollow Veine and the great Arterie, the Sweet-bread; but especially the Coeliacall Artery, compassing it about almost on euery side yeeldeth most immediate assistance. For the narrower side of the stomacke toward the right hand, is in a manner hid vnder the Liuer; the left lieth close to the Spleene and so of the rest, which are all as so many coales set together vnder a vessell to make it boyle. After the Aliment is concocted, the pylorus or lower mouth of the stomacke is loosened, and the Chylus thrust downe into the duodenum, from thence to supply Aliment to the whole body: and so much of the stomacke.   

Of the Oesophagus or Gullet. CHAP. X.  
_NOw although the Oesophagus or gullet is( for the most part of it) scituated 
The reason why we discourse of the gullet in this place.  in the Chest or second Region; yet because it is continued with the stomack in substance, membranes and fibres little differing from it, being nothing else, but as it were a production of the same; we will intreate of it in this place, and not in the second Region, the rather because the Table wherein the stomacke is deciphered, contayneth also the delineation of this oesophagus. It is called therefore in Greeke by Hippocrates, Galen, and Aristotle, 
The names. Hip. lib de resect. corpor. Gal 6. vsu parti. 5. Aristot. 1. hist. Animal 16.  〈◇〉 from 〈◇〉, which signifieth to carry meat, as also 〈◇〉 the stomack, from words that signifie length and narrownesse. For indeed this name of the stomacke is proper to this part, albeit other authours, especially our English toung hath turned it to signifie the ventricle or place where the meate is contayned; the true stomacke we call the gullet: the Arabians call it meri and vescet, the Latins Gula. It is the common way of meat and drinke from the mouth into the ventricle or stomacke as we call it, which all creatures haue that draw breath. This part taketh his beginning in the lowermost cauitie or hollownesse of the throate, at the rootes of[ table 10. figure 1, 2. A the orifice of the gullet cut from the throat] the toung behind the larynx or wezon to whom it is tyed, and on either side toucheth the Tonsils or Almonds[ tab. 10, fig. 1, E E] and passing through the necke & the breast, betwixt the wezon and[ as appeareth in the table belonging to the chap. of the Lungs, figure 1, 2. where A sheweth the gullet, and B the arterie] the spondels of the necke and breast vppon which it leaneth;( for it might not passe through the middle cauitie of the brest, lest it should trouble some Instrument of breathing, and beside it stood in need of some setled supporter and that farte within, to leane vnto, that so it might be safe from externall iniuries) it goeth directly[ Tab. x. Fig. 1, 2. from A to B] to the fift Spondell of the breast, where it enclineth itself a little to the right side, that it may[ Tab. x. Fig. 1. from B to C] giue way to the trunke of the great Artery descending, which comming out of the left Ventricle of the heart, goeth necessarily to the left side ward. When it hath atteyned to the ninth Spondell, it is lifted aloft by the helpe of certaine Membranes, and passeth aboue the great Artery, least in the descending of grosse and thicke meates, it shoulde lye heauy vpon it, and hinder the course of the arteriall blood and spirits. Then againe it enclineth to the left side[ Tab. x. Fig. 1 from C to D] where the vppermost mouth[ Tab. x. fig: 1, 2 G] of the stomacke is scituated, and going vnder the hollow Veine, passeth through the Neruous part of the Diaphragma, by a posterne of his owne into the lower belly, and is implanted not into the right, least it should necessarily perforate the Liuer, but into the lefte orifice of the stomacke, together with two Nerues[ Tab. x. Fig. 1, 2 T V.]  
In his originall or rising, it is tyed to the throate by a coate that compasseth the mouth, but 
To what parte it is tied  to the stomacke( where it groweth to the Diaphragma) by the continuation of his body: to the bodies of the Spondels, to the weazon and the parts adioyning, by the helpe of Membranes proceeding out of the Ligaments of the backe.  
His figure is round,[ Tab. x fig. 1, 2] both that more matter might passe in lesse roome, 
The Figure of it. ( for of all figures the round is most capacious) and that it might be safer from iniuries: very long it was of necessity to be because the mouth is farre from the stomack; and it may well be called a reddish gut, for after that manner it is distended into a sufficient capacity, that the meate should not stay in it, or pressing the weazon hinder respiration, and put a man in danger of choaking.  
The substance of it is in a meane betweene flesh and sinnewes,( wherefore it may bee 
The substāce.  both enflamed and subiect to convulsion also:) sinnewy or membranous, that it might be extended into length and bredth when the meate is put in, and againe fall, that it take not too much roome when it is empty; fleshy it is also, that being soft it might giue way vnto the meate as it passeth downe. But because as a sacke to be filled with Corne, vnlesse it be held vp and open, doubleth into itself when the corne is powred in; so the Gullet being soft, should double into itself, when the meate is powred into it; it is supported and held open by his connexion to the bodyes of the Spondels. Hence it is, that lying vppon the 
His conexion  long ridge bone when it is affected, we apply Cataplasmes to the ridge of the back. It hath 
The ξ. coates of the gullet.  three Coats, one common, and two proper. The first bred out of the Ligaments of the Spondels, which is the Case or couer of the two proper Coates. The second, which is called the external, is fleshy and very thicke, as if it were a perforated Muscle, and hath his originall from the second Cartilage of the Weazon, as it lookes toward the necke, & hath onely transuerse Fibres, that with these the Aliment that is drawne by the fibres of the inner coate might be more readily thrust into the stomacke; they are also a great help when the stomack violently laboreth to vomit vp any thing that oppresseth it: which two things are after a diuerse manner performed. For if the fibres do beginne to be contracted aboue, they serue to swallow with: if from the Orifice of the stomacke, for vomiting. The thirde coate is internall, and of a dissimilar substance; vnder or within whose inward superficies, a certaine smooth and slippery veyle or wimple is substrated, hauing right and slender fibres to draw the norishment after the mouth hath receyued it. The remainder of his substance from which that veile or filmy couering like the Cuticle from the skin may be separated, is Neruous and more Membranous then the externall, more harde also and sensible, that the pleasure and good rellish of meates and drinkes may be better apprehended by contaction or touching. This Coate ariseth from that which inuesteth the palate, the mouth, lips, and throate; and runneth as farre as the left Orifice of the stomacke. It hath very few oblong fibres, least they should keepe the meate too long in the gullet, which would haue beene a great annoyance to the wezon. That these may be the better obserued, they had neede be parboyled, to take away their aboundant moysture.  
The act of deglutition or of swallowing, is a worke mixed of an Animal and Natural, & is helped by certaine muscles called oesophagaei, belonging to the gullet; but they are accounted 
The act of swallowing.  among the muscles of the weazon, which proceeding from the sides of the gristle called Thyroides, doe wholly embrace the gullet; and being parted by a right line, are inserted into his middle part, as we shall see more at large in the booke of muscles.  
For the facilitie of swallowing, the cauity of this gullet is alwayes moystned by the glandules 
The Glādules or Tonsils called the Almonds.  that are set neare vnto it. In the throate by the glandules that are common to the gullet and to the wezon, which containe the spattle, and[ table 10, figure 1, EE] are called Tonsillae or the Almonds; again, by a glandulous body that on the backside,[ table 10. fig. 1, 2. F F] and toward the sides groweth to his middle passage, commonly in a Calfe called the sweet-bread; as well to moysten his cauity and defend him from the hardnesse of the spondels, as also to hold him steady from inclining to either side.  
It hath veines, but very few, from the hollow veine and the Coronarie braunch of the 
His vessels. Veines. Arteries. [ table 10, figure 1. 2. d d] port or gate veine; Arteries from the great Arteries descending trunke, and from the coronarie branch of the Coeliacall Arterie[ table 10. figure 1. 2. d d.]  
His Nerues are very notable, comming from the sixt paire[ table 10. figure 1, 2. T V] 
Nerues.  which for security sake are carried side-long;( the oblique way being much more safe then the right) for being soft and slender, and to be led a long way, they might easily bee stretched or broken by the waight of the stomacke, if they had been led right on: which nerues when they haue encompassed the gullet round, at length are fastned in the stomacke,[ tab. 10. fig. 2. X Y.]  
The vse of this oesophagus or gullet is, that by it as it were by a tunnell, the meate and drinke, a little altered in the mouth, and turned ouer the rootes of the tongue by his muscles 
The vse of the gullet.  to the beginning of this gullet, might by it be receiued, whither when it is ariued, the throat and parts of the gullet aboue the meate closing themselues, and those below being dilated, the meate and drinke are driuen downe into the stomacke.  
It is worth the obseruation, that with some men solid bittes finde freer passage then liquid drinks or broths, which are often returned into the nose, and this hapneth vsually in those who haue beene long afflicted with the Collicke.  
The cause of this accident is to bee imputed to the resolution of the muscles of the choppes, for solid things with their waight offer a kinde of violence to the muscles, and 
A pretty obseruatiō with the reason of an vncouth accident.  make their owne passage, but liquid things cannot doe so. Although I am not ignorant that there may also be another reason rendred hereof, to wit, a tumor or inflāmation of the glandules before mentioned; for solide meates doe presse them and so open the cauity, to make way for themselues.   

Of the Spleene or Milt. CHAP. XI.  
_THE Milt is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, because it draweth away the drosse of the bloud, as they say Lupines among wheate doe sucke away the bitternesse of the earth; in Latine it is called Lien. It is placed in the[ table 11. O O] vppermost part of the inferior venter or lower belly, in the left Hypochōdrium, vnder the midriffe towards the backe: wherefore in hayle men it cannot be felt, but in those that haue swollen spleenes, it may not onely be felt, but sometimes seene to bunch out a good way in the Abdomen. The embowed part[ table 11. O O] resteth vpon the spondels and bastard ribs which are a defence vnto it; the concaue or hollow part[ table 11. P] turned to the right side, is opposite to the Liuer, as if it were a left Liuer. It is seated either higher or lower in diuerse bodies, betwixt the stomacke and the ribs, for there onely was a roome empty for it. Commonly there is but one spleene, yet sometimes two and three one on the top of another; neuer of an equall bignesse, but distinct in their coates and vessels: it is wondrous rarely absent, and very rarely doth it change places with the Liuer, that it should be in the right side, and the Liuer in the left. It is knit to the Rimme or Peritonaeum and the omentum, sometimes more outwardly to the diaphragma, and to the externall membrane of the left Kidney with very slender membranes, arising from the Peritonaeum, where it compasseth the Diaphragma, for it had not neede of so strong bands as the Liuer, because it is nothing so waighty, sometimes inwardly, forward to the stomacke, backward to the backe alwayes, by the interposition or mediation of vessels, and of the vpper Membrane of the Omentum[ Tab. xii fig: 2 CC] which cleaueth to the Line[ Tab. xi. P. Tab. xii. fig: 2 HH] of the Spleene.  
It varieth much in his Magnitude, colour, and figure. For in a man it is thicke and great, but much lesse then the Liuer, that it may not hinder the dilatation of the stomack. In some men it growes greater; for by reason of the loose rarity of his substance, it easily encreaseth by the affluence of humors; especially it groweth in those men in whom naturally there is more plenty of Melancholy iuice: and although this humor in respect of the Choller and Vrine be but little, yet because it must be drawne a long way, and is stubborne 
TABVLA XI.  

O O. The fore-side and hollowe side of the Spleene, which also sheweth how his position is in the body of Man.  
P. A Line into which the Vesselles of the Spleene are implanted.   and refractary by reason of his thicknesse and vnwilling to follow, therefore the Spleene is ordained somewhat the bigger. It hath not alwayes the same colour. For in an Infant when it is nourished with pure blood defecated by the mothers Spleen it is red like the Liuer; 
The colour.  but in growne bodies where it is nourished with a thicke iuice, it is more then russet toward blacke; for such is the naturall colour of the Melancholy humor. But in those that are diseased in their Spleenes, such as is the humor that offends, such is the colour of the 
A good note.  Spleene, Liuid, Leaden, Ashy or Leeke greene; sometimes it is couered with a coate very like a Cartilage, in colour, thicknesse, and hardnesse; in Dogges, it is of a brighter red then the Liuer.  
His Figure[ Tab. xii. fig. 2] he varieth according as the parts which lye neere him do require, yet is alwaies so long as the vncouered or naked left side of the stomacke will admit It is also broad, and somewhat square like an Oxe tongue, or as Hippocrates hath it, like the soale of a mans foote. Aboue it is broader, and ends in a double obtuse & blunt Angle or 
The Figure.  corner. Below narrower, and ends in one narrow corner or angle. Without and on the left side, and as it looketh to the Diaphragma, somewhat gibbous or embowed, so that it hath a little representation of a globous or round figure. Sometimes from the ribs it hath[ Tab. xii. fig: 4 L L] certaine impressions or distinctions. Inward, and on the right side somewhat concauous[ Tab. xii fig: 2 betweene HH] or hollow, that it might giue way, or rather enclose the stomacke, and so further his concoction. Through the middle length of this cauity, runneth a white line[ Tab. xi. P and Tab. xii, figu: 2 HH] which hath some rising inequalities in it, which receyueth the Veines and the Arteries[ Tab. xii. fig: 2 N] and the Kell[ Tab. 12 fig: 2 BB.]  

The second Figure sheweth all the sides of the Spleene taken out of the body. The first the fore-side with a part of the Kell and his vessels. 2 The hollow side, 3 the gibbous side, the 4 sheweth the impressions which sometimes it receyueth from the Ribbes, the fift sheweth the hollow side slit open.  
TABVLA XII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II  

A. The left side of the Spleene, for the right and the middle part is couered by the Kell.  
B B. The lower wing of the Kel, in which the vessels are led.  
C C. The vpper wing of the kell, thorough which the vessels passe to the stomacke.  
D E the vpper part of the spleen D. the lower E.  
F G The right and the left side of the Spleene.  
H H. A Line in the hollow side of the Spleene into which the vessels are inserted.  
I K. The substance of the Spleen dissected.  
LL. The gibbous side of the Spleene, with the impressions aboue mentioned, which are made by the ribbes.  
M M. The gibbous side of the Spleene, without these impressions.  
N. Veynes and Arteries which run vnto the Spleene.    
The Milt or Splenicke branch of the Gate-veine[ Tab. 3 B] called Ramus splenicus,[ Tab. 3 F] below the Liuer is sent( a great bow it is sustayned by the lower Membrane of the Kall,[ Tab. xii. Fig. 2 BB]) ouerthwart to the Spleen( sending first some few branches from it, described in the history of the port-veine) and diuided in his cauity,[ Tab. xii. Fig: 2 HH] is spent in his substance[ Tab. xii. Fig. 2 I K Tab. aaaa. Tab. 4. Fig: 2 llm] into much smaler branches, not conspicuous as in the Liuer, but so smal and fine, vnlesse it be a few of them, that they rather seeme to be Fibres then vessels: ouer and through which vesselles, runnes a thicke and grosse blood, making the proper substance or flesh of the Milt.  
This Milt or splenicke branch carrieth to the Spleene a thicke iuyce, the more earthie part of the blood, that there it might be wrought into his nourishment. But because some 
The course of the Melancholy humour.  part of this iuyce is so grosse that it cannot be attenuated by the Spleene, and therefore as vnprofitable must be segregated or separated, there are ordained two kindes of Vesselles to receyue it; one which belcheth it out vpward into the left side of the bottome of the stomacke, sometimes vp higher toward the left orifice, where with his sowrenesse he stirreth 
How Melancholy prouoketh appetite.  vp the Appetite after the Chylus is gotten into the Veins of the Liuer: so wee imitate nature, when we make sowre or snarpe sauces at supper, to prouoke and recall our appetite which by our dinner was extinct and lost. Againe, this humour hauing a binding faculty, strengthneth the stomacke, that his actions may be more firme.  
This regurgitation or belching of melancholy, is made sometimes by three, sometimes by many Branches proceeding from the splenick branch; sometimes by one, proceeding from the vppermost branch neere the Spleene, which Galen calleth Vas breue, that is, the short Vessell, described before in the 3. and 4. Tables. Hence comes sometime castings of 
Vas breue.  a blacke humor, which is after carried downe the guts with the Chylus, and so excluded. This Vessell also is of great vse in Quartane Agues; for by it such patients are to good purpose by vomit purged, before and after the fit: for in these Agues, as also almost in all melancholy diseases, not onely the Milt but the mouth of the stomacke is affected. There is also 
Vomits how good in quartane Agues.  another vessell by which this humour is carryed downeward, which beeing inserted at the end of the right gut, maketh the inwarde Haemorrhoida[ Tab. 3. gg. Tab. 4 Fig: 2, *] Veines, for the outward come from the Hollowe veine; although this humour bee often purged by the Arteries, not onely into the guts, but more often into the emulgent veines, 
Did ●ticke medicines in qua●t●ine agues & melancholly diseases.  and so through the Kidneyes into the bladder. And so wee immitating Nature in melancholly diseases vse diureticks, or medicines prouoking vrine.  
The spleene also receiueth many Arteries( more then the Liuer) and those very[ Table 4. figure 1. u] great, the Coeliacall[ table 4. figure 1. m] which commeth out of the Aorta 
The arteries.  or great Arterie vnder the Diaphragma, after the same manner and with the same number of diuisions that the veines haue, not onely that they may affoord him life, but also that by their perpetuall motion they might preserue in good state the body of the spleene, by ventilating, cherishing, and refreshing his naturall heat, almost oppressed with a drossie iuyce, which iuyce they change into a thicke bloud for the spleenes nourishment, and the drosse is purged or auoyded away as wee haue sayde. Beside, these Arteries carry to the Aorta wheyey humors, together with a thin and cold bloud, which are receiued by the Anastomosis or inocculation of the vesselles; which humours by the emulgent Arteries are deriued into the Kidneyes; and from hence comes that quantity of vrine or whey which is in the great Artery.  
It hath Nerues inserted into his coate very smal ones, from that branch of the sixt paire 
The nerues.  which commeth from the rootes of the ribbes on the left side, but whether they passe farther into his substance we yet doubt.  
It hath but one coate, and that very thin, springing from the membrane of the Kall, which we sayd claue to the right line of the spleene, and was a production of the Peritonaeum, which coate compasseth and defends his flesh on euery side, because it is very soft and loose.  
His substance[ table 12. figure 5. I K] seemeth to be nothing else but a thicke blacke and 
The flesh or Parenchyma.  congealed bloud ful of fibres, for it is a Parenchyma as Erasistratus called it, or a fleshy affusion, very soft, thin, loose, and spongious, that it might more easily draw thick iuyces from farre( for a spongie substance is fitter for that purpose then a fast and firme) and giue them entertainment: wherefore also the veines disseminated through it, are softer and looser then others, that the humour may more easily, though it be thicke, fall out of them.  
The vse of the spleene, Erasistratus thought to be none at all; inconsiderately accusing 
Erasistratus. The receiued opinion of the vse o● the spleene.  Nature to haue framed it in vaine. The receiued opinion is, that it was ordayned to bee a receptacle of the crasser and more foeculent part of the bloud, made and separated in the Liuer, like as the bladder of gall is the receptacle of yellow choller; that the bloud being thus on either hand depured, might passe more cleare and neate to nourish the body, and especially the principall parts. This thick and impure bloud yet mingled with much good and laudable, the spleene by the spleenicke braunch of the gate-veine, by an inbred faculty draweth vnto itself as familiar and of kin vnto his substance; which albeit the veines of the Liuer could not change, yet the spleene by reason of the perpetuall motion of his many & large Arteries worketh it into his owne nourishment: of which notwithstanding there remayneth an vnprofitable part which it belcheth out into the stomacke, by the short vessell to stirre vp appetite by his aciditie and sharpnes, and by his adstriction to corroborate and confirme the actions of the stomacke. But against this common receiued opinion, Bauhine in this place annexeth a long discourse, full of wit, but how consonant to trueth, I will leaue to others to iudge. It shall be for the present sufficient to make his conceite knowne vnto you.  
If the spleen, sayth he, had onely beene appoynted to stable an excrement, it should not 
Bauhines conceit of the vse of the spleen. His arguments.  haue been seated in the vpper but in the lower part of the abdomen, as the other receptacles of excrements are: for so woulde it more commodiously haue receiued so heauy and earthy an excrement.  
Againe, seeing of all the humours there is least quantitie of this melancholy, Nature would not haue made the spleene bigger then the bladder of gall, if shee had not intended some other office for the spleene, beside the receite of melancholly.  
Moreouer, if this had beene her only end, she would haue framed in the spleene a large cauitie where this humour might haue commodiously beene entertayned, as she framed a cauitie for the choller in the bladder of gall.  
Fourthly, we must know and vnderstand that no part ordayned for the separation of excrements, doth receiue and naturally auoyd them by the same passages, as we may perceiue by the Kidneyes and the bladder of gall. Fiftly, no part is nourished by the excrement which it attracteth but by laudable bloud. Sixtly, as the passages of choller are dispersed through the substance of the Liuer, among the rootes of the gate and hollow veines, to draw away the excrementitions choller. So also should there haue beene many propagations and tendrils from the spleenick braunch, dispersed through the substance of the Liuer, which we finde to be nothing so.  
Finally, if from the Liuer the foeculent bloud bee purged away, as an excrement into the spleene, then it must of necessity follow that this excrementitious humour should regurgitate or returne into the trunke of the Gate-veine, because the splenick branch ariseth out of the same trunke far vnder the Liuer, and aboue the trunke of the meseraicks.  
Wherefore we think, sayth Bauhine, that the spleene was ordained and instituted by Nature, for a further confection of some kinde of bloud. Which vse, Aristotle first allotted 
Authors on Bauhines side. Aristotle. Galen. Aphrodisaeus. Aretaeus. Vesalius. Fernelius. Platerus. Archangelus.  vnto it, and therefore in his third booke de partibus Animalium and the 7. chapter, hee calleth it a bastard Liuer. The same also Galen giueth assent vnto, in his booke de respirationis vsu, as also Aphrodisaeus and Aretaeus: Vesalius and Fernelius, touch vpon this vse of the spleene also; but Platerus and Archangelus resolue vpon it very confidently.  
The spleene therefore from an inbred faculty of his owne, draweth vnto himselfe the thicker and more earthie portion of the Chylus, somewhat altered in hauing receiued a certain disposition or rudiment of bloud in the meseraicke veines, by the spleenick branch of the Gate-veine, out of the trunke of the meseraick veines before the Chylus get into the Liuer; that so the Liuer may the better draw the more laudable parts of the Chylus, for otherwise the small vessels of the Liuer being obstructed by the crasse and crude bloud, not 
Bauhines proiect.  onely sanguification would haue beene interrupted; but also the Iaundise, Dropsies, Agues, Scirrous hardnesses, and many other mischiefes, woulde haue ouertaken vs of necessity; all which we see do euery day hapen when the spleen fayleth to do his duty; and either through weaknesse or obstructions, ceaseth to attract that crasse and foeculent part of the Chylus. But a great euidence of this trueth is this; that the spleenicke branch doeth not proceede from the Liuer, but ariseth as is sayde, and is seated below it. Neither is it likely that so thicke a iuyce confected and made into bloud in the Liuer, should get out of it by the hairie and threddy veines of the same; yet wee doe not deny that melancholly iuyce is ingendred in the Liuer; but wee say, that that onely is there ingendered which is a part of the masse of bloud, not that which is receiued into the spleen, for his nourishment and the vse of the stomacke.  
Furthermore we are of opinion saith Bauhine, that a part of the Chylus is sucked euen out of the stomack, by veines ariuing at the left side of his bottom from the spleenicke branch.  
When the spleen hath receiued this Chylus a little altered in the long iourney through those spleenicke surcles and branches, it laboureth and worketh it at great leasure, and by a long processe, as the Alchymists say, and much preparation in the innumerable small vessels or Fibrous complications which are disseminated through his substance( like as the other and greater part of the Chylus is laboured into bloud in the complications of the vesselles disseminated through the Liuer) and boyleth it into a thinner consistence by the help of naturall heate assisted by the many and large Arteries, and their perpetuall motion. And then a part of it becommeth the Aliment of the spleen, the rest is carried by veines issuing from the spleenick branch, to nourish the Stomacke, the Guts, the Kell, and the Mesentery; which thing Galen also insinuateth, when he sayth, That the same meseraicke veines do carry 
Galen.  Chylus vnto the Liuer out of the stomacke and the guts, and returne bloud againe vnto them and the omentum. For seeing that the originall and substance of all the veines which are propagated from the gate-veine is one and the same▪ it followeth necessarily, that their action also should be the same; but to returne.  
A part also happely of this humour thus altered is drawne into the next adioyning arteries, and so conueyed into the great Artery, to contemperate the intense and sharp heat of the bloud in the left ventricle of the heart, and to establish and settle the nimble & quick motions of the vitall spirits, which are a very great cause why some mens wits are so giddy and vnconstant.  
Sometimes it falleth out in great and confirmed diseases of the Liuer, when his sanguification 
This is somewhat strange.  is decayed or in manner perished, that the spleen performeth his office, and transmitteth a part of the bloud by him laboured through the spleenicke branch into the veines of the Liuer, which through the rootes of the hollow veine and the branches thereof, is distributed into the parts of the body for their nourishment, euen as the bloud is wont to be distributed, which is laboured and confected in the Liuer itself.  
But that part of the altered Chylus that before we sayd was drawn into the spleen, which it cannot by reason of the thicknesse thereof transforme into profitable iuyce, but is altogether 
why in affects of the Spleen the vrines are often black.  vnapt for nourishment, is poured out, part of it into the stomacke, part into the Haemorrhoid veines; sometimes through the trunke of the gate veine, or through the spleenick Arteries it is deriued vnto the Kidneyes, whence it is that in diseases of the Spleene, the water fals out often to be blacke.  
Wherefore we conclude saith Bauhine, that the Spleene is a great helpe to the Liuer for the confecting of blood; partly because it maketh blood answerable to his owne Nature, partly because it auerteth or draweth aside vnto itself the thicker part of the aliment, not so fit to make pure blood, and by that meanes the Liuer, vnburdened of such a clogge, performeth his office of sanguification with more facility. And thus it may be sayde verie well to purge and defecate the blood, and to make it more pure and bright. And heerupon the Ancients placed the seate of laughter in the Spleene: and Plato saith, that the spleen polisheth and brightneth the Liuer like a Looking-glasse, that it might make a more cleare 
Plato.  representation of the Images of the passions from thence exhibited vnto the soule.  
Aristotle also calleth it a left Liuer, and obserueth that those creatures which haue no Spleene, haue as it were double Liuers: and Galen remembreth in his fourth Book of the 
Aristotle.  vse of parts, and the 7. chapter, that Plato calleth it the expresse Image of the Liuer.  
It is therefore not to bee wondered at, if the diseases of the Spleene doe no lesse( haply more) hinder sanguification then the diseases of the Liuer itself, because by howe much the better the Spleene doth his duty, by so much the bloode in the Liuer is more pure and cleare.  
In Dissections also we often finde, that the Spleene exceedeth the Liuer in magnitude, or is equall to it, being yet sound in colour and consistence.  
Notwithstanding, albeit in both these entralles, when a man is sound and hayle bloud is generated, yet it must needs be confessed, that there is more store of good and hot bloud fit for the nourishment of fleshy parts made in the Liuer then in the Spleen, whose bloud is neyther so much, nor so hot, nor all out so good; which Hippocrates intimateth when he saith, that the same things which make the Spleene to flourish, make the body to wither and consume.  
And thus I haue acquainted you with Bauhines conceit of the vse of the Spleen, wherein 
Bauhines cautelous conclusion.  me thinks he acquitteth himself, as Bellarmine doth in his disputations of the sufficiency of works in our Iustification, who after that in diuers Books, and by manifold arguments he endeuoureth to proue that works may iustify, yet in the end he concludeth, that it is more 
Bauhine likened to Bellarmine.  safe onely to trust to iustification by faith; so Bauhine for all his former arguments, yet you see concludeth, that the more, better and warmer bloode is made in the Liuer: as if hee should say, there is a little & cold blood made in the Spleen, not fit to nourish the fleshy parts, but onely his owne substance, which I thinke no man will deny vnto him. But of this question we shall see more heereafter in the Controuersies; we will now put an end to our discourse of the Spleene, adding this one vse more of it; That with his in bred heate, and the many Arteries wherewith that heate is encreased, it furthereth the concection of the Stomacke.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Liuer.  
_THE Liuer is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, from a word that signifieth Want, because 
The notation.  it supplyeth the want of al the parts; or from making merrie, beecause in this part is the seate of concupiscence. The Latines call it I●cur, as it were Iuxta Cor, because next to the heart his power is most eminent. It is worthily numbred among the principall parts, as being the seate of the 
A principall part.  naturall faculty, and of the nourishing part of the soule, common to alisanguine or bloodie creatures: and first of all the Entralles or bowels it is perfected in the mothers womb. 
The beginning of veins.   
It is the beginning of Veines, not in respect of their originall, which is seed( for the vessels are made before the Viscera or entrals) but in respect of their rooting & distribution; for from hence spring two great and long Veines; below out of his cauity or hollownesse the Port or Gate veine; aboue out of his convexity or embowed side, the hollowe veyne is sayde to proceede, albeit indeede the hollow Veine groweth to his backe[ Tab. xiii. Fig: 2, FG Fig: 3 MN] part, with two notable branches dispersed through his substance, which two vesselles arise out of the Liuer, the Parenchyma or flesh of it being compassed about their roots as the earth is about the roots of a tree, and doe minister nourishment to the vvhole body, wherefore the Liuer is called the shop of sanguification or blood-making.  
It is placed in the[ Tab. 6. lib. 2 FF Tab. 9. CC] vpper part of the lower belly, that being 
His scituation  set in the middest as it were of the body, it might send bloud equally vpward and downeward; it is about a fingers breadth distant from the Diaphragma least it should hinder his motion; in dead bodies sometimes it toucheth it, and is couered wholly by the ribbes. It taketh vp the greatest part of the right Hypochondrium, partly that it may leaue the left for the stomacke[ Table 6. Lib. 2. FF. Table 9. FF] and the spleen[ Tab. 9. G]( for these three occupy both sides; whence it is, that when any of them, much more when all are swelled, ther followeth great difficulty of breathing) partly because the bloud might be better carried to the right ventricle of the heart. It leaneth but lightly vpon the vppermost, foremost, and right side of the stomacke[ see the Tab. 6. lib. 2. and Tab. 9.] least it should presse it with his waight, and driue forth the matter contained in it. A little part of it also reacheth toward the left side, that the body might be ballanced. In Dogs it taketh vp well neere both sides, because their spleenes are long and narrow, but the greatest part is compassed below with the bastard ribs which defend it from iniuries.  
His Figure is diuerse, because of the parts[ Table 13. figure 1. 2.] adiacent, for his office 
The figure.  
Table xiij. sheweth the Liuer with his Veines.  
The first Figure, the Gibbous and forepart.  
The second Figure, the Gibbous and hinder part, together with a part of the trunk of the hollow veine.  
The third Figure, a part of the hollow veine fastned to the backside of the Liuer, and is opened with a long slit, to shew the holes of his branches where they open into the Liuer.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  

A A 1 The Gibbous and foreside of the Liuer.  
B 1. The Vmbilical veine.  
CC 2. The Gibbous and backside of the Liuer.  
D 2. 3. The seate of the hollow veine where it passeth through the midriffe.  
E E 2. The veines of the midriffe called Phrenicae.  
F G 2. In this distance is the place where the trunk of the hollow veine groweth to the backeside of the Liuer.  
H 2. A Ligament which tieth the Liuer to the midriffe.  
I 2. A Ligament tying the left side of the Liuer to the midriffe.  
K 2. A part of the Gate veine.  
L 2, The bosome of the Liuer into which it admitteth the left orifice of the stomack.  
M N 3. Certaine braunches of veines proceeding out of the Liuer.  
OO ●. Smal braunches which are thrust out of the Liuer to the hollow veine.  
PP 3. The roots of the hollow veine dispersed thorough the Liuer.   
The fourth Figure sheweth the rootes of the Hollow and Gate veines, dispersed through the Liuer and their Anastomoses or innocculations.  
FIG. IV.  

A. The trunke of the hollow veine arising vpward from the Liuer.  
BB The trunk of the hollow veine, as it getteth out of the Gibbous part of the Liuer, which is bent downwards, and watereth al the parts of the body vnder the Liuer.  
CCCC. The roots of the hollow veine which are in the substance of the Liuer.  
DDDD. The ends of the roots of the hollow veine which pierce or open into the midst of the roots of the gate-veine.  
E E The principal trunk of the gate vein.  
FF The roots of the gate veine, euen all those that are black, dispersed through the substance of the Liuer, which vnder the lower part of the Liuer do meet, and make one trunk.  
GGGG The endes of the rootes of the gate veine which pierce or open into the midst of the rooots of the hollow veine.   requires no proper figure, but a sufficient magnitude and thicknesse.  
The form of it is outward or inward; the outward forme or surface which is the vpper & more backward part is smooth, equall and conuexe or embowed[ Tab. viii. B G Tab. 2 lib. 4 bb, Tab, xiii. Fig. 1 AA, Fig: 8 CC] round( which is called pars gibba, the gibbous part or 
The Figure.  the head) that it may give way to the Diaphragma, and may agree with the cauity of it; but backward it hath a[ Tab. xiii, Fig. 2 at F G) long bosome sufficient to embrace the stumpe of the hollow veine[ Tab: xiii, Fig. 2 F G] least it shold be pressed eyther with the Liuers waight or the motion of the Midriffe.  
The inward face of the Liuer which is the lower, is[ Tab. 8 C C. Tab, xi, RR. Tab: xv, Fig. 1 BBC] hollow, vnequall, and is called the Simus or saddle side, that it may giue way to the stomacke strutting[ Table 9. TP. Tab. xi E. Tab. 2, lib. 4 CC] with plenty of meat, and couer it immediately to cherish the first concoction of the Chylus.  
In this part there are two hollowes or bosomes, one on the right side to receiue the body of the bladder of Gall[ Tab. xv: Fig. 1, P] the other on[ Tab: xiii. Fig: ● L. tab: xv. Fig; 1 H] the left side, where it giueth way to the passage of the stomacke. In Dogs it hath a priuate hollownesse, whereinto it admitteth a part of the right Kidney. But where the gate-veine 
The quality of it.  getteth out of it, it is vnequall, because it riseth somewhat high, least the Veines should be pressed by the rack-bones. On the Right side it is round[ Tab. 9 CC Tab: xiii, Fig: 1, AA] and very thicke; on the left it groweth thinner by degrees, and endeth somewhat sharpe in an acute Angle;[ Tab. xiii Fig: 2. from L to I] in the forepart also it is thin in the bought or compasse. There is but one Liuer, for the largenesse makes recompence for the number; 
The waste of spirits in man aboue other creatures.  and it is the greatest in a man of any creature for his proportion, and in the biggest men biggest, because it must make blood for the vse of the whole body; not onelie for his nourishment, but also to serue for his expence of spirits: for there are more functions of the soule in a man, then in any other creature; which functions spend more animall Spirits, and those are engendred of the vitall spirits, and the vitall spirits of blood; therefore a man had neede of good store of blood, and by consequent of a great Liuer wherewith to make it. In fearefull men and such as are giuen to their paunches, it is greater then in other men. In fearefull men, because the weakenesse of their vitall faculty comming of the 
In what men it is greater or lesser.  cold temper of the body, might be supplyed by the strength of the natural faculty. In rauenous gourmandizers, because of the aboundance of the meate they eate; for as the Liuer is more plentifully nourished, so it groweth greater. For the most part the Liuer of a man is whole( that when a man goes right vp, it might couer the stomacke with the hollow part of it)[ as is snewed in the 6 Tab. lib. 2. and in Tab. 5] excepting the fore and right part wher there[ Tab xiii. Fig: 1. at B Tab. xv Fig. 1, E] is a cleft like an outlet, which was necessary for the passage of the vmbilical or nauil vein.[ Tab. 6, lib. 2, from D to B, Tab. 5 C. Tab 8 I. Tab. xiii. fig: 1 B] On the backside a part of it filleth the cauity, which both the mouths of the stomacke do leaue.  
But in bruite beasts it is diuided into foure, fiue, or six Lobes or Finnes, which are continuated 
It hath in mē no Lobes or diuisions.  or coupled together, onely by the mediation of Veynes, within which lobes their stomackes are couered as it were with the fingers of a hand, because they haue no cloathes to keepe it warme, as men haue. For if in them it were whole, when they go groueling it would not so lap about the stomacke, but hang off. Wherefore Birds because they stande more straight vp, haue it diuided but once.  
It is knit to the spine bone of the Loynes, to the Diaphragma, and to other parts by the 
The Connexion.  helpe of the rim or Peritonaeum, of whom it receyueth three strong Ligaments, least being heauy, it should at any time fall. The first and right is thin[ Tab, 5 D, Tab. 8 H, Tab. 2 lib. 
Three Ligaments.  4. d. Tab xiii. Fig. 2 H] like a Membrane, broad, neruous, and very strong, proceeding from the Rim where it compasseth the Midriffe; and tyeth the Liuer( into whose coates it doth degenerate) forward to the Diaphragma, and is called Suspensortum or the heauing Ligament: wherefore, when the Liuer growes heauy, the Midriffe is drawne downe, and in respiration there is more difficulty when a man stands, then when he lies along. The second and left Ligament is also very strong, round,[ Table xi. C. Table ii, lib. 4. C. Table xiii, figure ii, I. Table fifteene, figure one, G] and proceeding from the Rim; it knitteth also his thinner part to the Diaphragma, that the sides of the Liuer may on either hande bee held vp, it sometimes also cleaueth to the Cartilages of the bastard ribs. The third Ligasment is the vmbilicall or Nauell veyne, now dryed after[ Tab 6 lib 2. from D to B. Tab. 5 B, Tab. xii: Fig. 1 ●] the birth, whereby at the Nauell it is tyed down to the Abdomen,[ Tab: ●3 Fig: 7, 8. from Z to Y] lest the Liuer falling down should draw the Diaphragma after it. Moreouer, where the beginning of the gate-veine is[ Table 11. I] there groweth to it a portion of the omentum. So on the backside in the compassed face or gibbous part where the hollow veine passeth through it, it cleaueth to the rim. 
The membrane.   
It hath a most fine and slender membrane, and but one, growing from that membrane of the veines which ariseth from the Peritonaeum or rim; and this incloseth all his substance.  
That substance is nothing else but bloud poured out of the veines, whence it is red and 
The Parenchyma.  soft, and standeth round about and betwixt them, as the earth about and betwixt the small bearded rootes of a tree; which bloud being held in by the membrane wee last spake off, cloddeth together, and therefore of Erasistratus is called 〈◇〉, that is, an affusion or pouring out. Galen cals it flesh, Hippocrates a fleshie viscus or entrall: wee with Galen call 〈◇〉, the flesh as well of this as of the other entrals.  
The empty spaces betweene the rootes of the hollow and port veine this substance filleth vp, as may appeare when the flesh is taken away, for so it may be as we haue seene elegantly performed, especially by that occulate Anatomist Petrus Pauius of Leydon neere xx. yeares since, then my first Maister & Moderator in Anatomie; a liuely resemblance wherof wee haue here annexed, albeit it may partly be perceiued by the precedent Table.  


A The trunk of the hollow vein where it pierceth the midriffe  
B A part of the midriffe.  
CC A parte of the trunke of the hollow veine which groweth to the back part of the Liuer.  
DD The trunke of the hollow veine which is carried thorough the lower belly, his brāches being remoued.  
EEEE The roots of the hollow veine dispersed through the substance of the Liuer: these appeare here all white.  
FG The vmbilicall veine, without the Liuer at F. within the Liuer at G.  
HH The trunke of the gate vein without the liuer.  
II A part of the right side of the gate veine torne from his left side, that the vessels might better bee demonstated: but the trunke of the gate veine HH. should haue ridden ouer the hollow veine DD.  
KKKKKK The roots of the gate veine dispersed through the substance of the Liuer, which here appeare all blacke.  
LLL The Anastomoses or inocculations of the rootes of the gate veine with the rootes of the hollow veine.  
M This innocculation is like a Pipe or trunke, & it is a common and continued passage, into which you may put a good big Probe: from this there are open passages into the last strings of the gate or hollow veine.   
Table xiiij. Sheweth the rootes of the Hollow and Gate veines, disseminated through the Parenchyma or flesh of the Liuer, & their Anastomoses or inocculations: also the trunkes of the Nauell, Hollow, and Gate-veines. Into euery one of the trunks you may put a sticke before you boyle the Liuer and separate his substance from the vessels, that so the vessels may appeare open, and not corrugated or crumpled vp together.  
TABVLA. XIIII.   
There are a few Arteries inordinately shed through his substance amongst the other vessels: 
The roots of the great veines.  But there are more rootes of the port veine[ table 13. figure 4. Table 14. the blacke rootes belong to the gate veines] in his lower part, and fewer in his vpper, and on the contrary many more[ Tab: xiii, Fig. 4. Tab. xiiii the white rootes belong to the Hollow veine] roots of the Hollow veine in his vpper parts, then in his lower,( wherefore there is more plentifull sanguification or making of blood in the hollow side, and more aboundant distribution in the conuex or embowed part) but all of them committed acrosse or mixt together 
Anastomosis what it may▪ best be compared to.  by Anastomosis,[ Tab. xiii: Fig. 4. GGGG, Tab. xiiii: LLL] which most resembleth the inoculation of plants; although sometimes the roots of the hollow Vein do fasten their ends into the midst of the roots of the Gate-vein, by which the bloud runneth out of the roots of the Gate vein into the Hollow vein, so that these roots do make plexum mirabilē, or the wonderfull web, texture, or plat of Veines( in respect of which it is likely the Liuer is saide to be the beginning or originall of veynes) for the perfecting and absolute confection of the blood. But there is one peculiar and notable Anastomosis or inocculation to bee obserued[ Tab. xiiii, M] which is a manifest and open pipe and continuated passage into which you may passe a good bigge probe, and from which there lyeth an open way through all the least threds of the Gate and hollow Veines. And so much the rather are these inocculations of the Veines one with another, more diligently to be obserued, because through them the humors offending passe, when the habite or vtmost region of the body is by purgation emptied by the siedge.  
The lower[ Tab. xiii, Fig. 4, FF. Tab: xiiii. KKKK] of these roots, are by little and little gathered 
The port or Gate-veine. The Hollowveine.  into greater, and these into other, till at length in the lower part of the Liuer they consent together into the trunke of the port or the Gate veine[ Tab. xiii, Fig. 4. E● Tab: xiiii HH] as broad as a thumbe or broader.  
The vpper roots are in like manner[ Tab: xiii. Fig: 4. CCCC, Tab. xiiii, EEE] vnited by degrees, till at length they fall into two notable and great[ Tab. xiii, fig: 3, M N] braunches, reaching to the fore-seate of the Hollow veine, where it groweth to the Liuer, and lyeth vpon the Diaphragma, and there make one trunke[ Tab. xiii. figure: 2. F, fig: 3, D. fig: 4 B. Tab, xiiii, AC.] Hence it is that the Gate veine[ Tab: viii, a] is saide to arise out of the hollow side of the Liuer, and the Hollow veine,[ Tab: viii, K] out of the conuex or embowed part.  
Amongst these roots, certaine fine tendrils[ Tab: xv fig: 2, QQ. Table xvi, figure 1, DDD, 
The passage of Choller to the bladder of Gall.  figure 2, aaa] hauing the bodies of Veines, and being gathered into one stumpe or stalke[ Tab: xv, figure 2 a. table xvi, figure 1, E] are disseminated, which carry the choler from the Liuer to the bladder of gall, which also are ioyned with the rootes of the gate-veyne, that the blood before it come into the branches of the Hollow veine, may bee purged and clensed from that cholericke excrement.  
The same substance of the Liuer whereof wee spake before, by compassing about these vessels, strengthneth them, and warranteth their tender threds from danger; by whom also 
How the Liuer is nourished.  it receyueth in lieu a proportionable good, for it is nourished by blood laboured in the roots of the Port veine, and out of those small ends powred on euery side into his lap: the remainder which he refuseth, is carried into the roots of the hollow vein, and thence both thrust out, and drawne for nourishment into the whole body.  
There are a few small Arteries[ Table 4, figure 1 H] from the Coeliaca diffused in his substance 
The Arteries of the Liuer. ( which do appeare more vvhite then the Veines) on the hollow side where the branches of the Gate[ Table 4, figure 1 t and figure 2, Y, table xi. L] veine do ioyne together into their common trunke or stumpe, that they might ventilate and so preserue the naturall heate of the Liuer, wherfore they runne onely through the hollow part; for the embowed part is wafted with the continuall motion of the Diaphragma, as with a Fan. They also carry vitall heate, that the heate being doubled, the sanguification might better succeed; and that the Liuer also might not be destitute of the vitall faculty: for in the whole bodye, the Veines and Arteries are in a league and helpe one another: these ministring spirits to the veines, the veines blood to them.  
It hath two smal Nerues[ Tab: iiii, fig: 2. y tab: xi M] from the sixt paire: one from that branch that is sent to the vpper mouth of the stomacke;[ tab: xv. fig: 1 o, tab. xvi, fig: 1 O] 
The Nerues of the Liuer.  the other from the branch[ table xv. Figure 2 f] which passeth to the roots of the ribbes of the right side, both of them dispersed into his coate, that he might not be altogether like a plant without sense, albeit seruing onely for nourishment it stoode in no need of any quick or notable sense wherefore his Nerues are so very small. Hence it is, that the paines of the Liuer are not acute or sharpe, but obtuse or dull, and grauatiue onely. But the bottome or center of the Liuer is altogether without sense, because of the many motions of the humors therein.  
The vse of the Liuer is by his affused substance to part and separate the vessels that they 
The vses of the Liuer.  cleaue not together; to sustaine and establish them; to cherrish them with his heate, because in that place their coats are thinner, sayth Galen 4. vsu partium, 13. than in any other part of the creature. For by this helpe, sanguification which is celebrated in the rootes of the gate veine, which are in the substance of the Liuer, is duly administred: to affoord vnto them the naturall Faculty as it were by irradiation, euen as the vessels of seede receiue the faculty of Seed-making from the Testicles; as also to procreate the Naturall spirite, which some deny but Archangelus by many arguments doth establish: and last of all to preserue 
Columbus.  and maintaine the Nourishing Soule as they call it, which is seated in euery particular part of the body.  
But because there are many opinions concerning the manner of sanguification, I haue heere thought good to set downe Bauhines conceite, as the opinion of a man to whome I am especially in this worke beholding.  
All Aliments aswell solid as liquid are taken by the mouth and after mastication or chewing as there is more or lesse neede, are swallowed into the stomacke and there concocted 
The maner of sanguification as Bauhine hath described it.  and turned into Chylus. This Chylus, afterward when the pylorus or lower mouth of the stomacke is opened, is thrust downe into the guts; and if any part of it escaped elaboration before, is there reuised and re-concocted. The thin and lawdable part of the Chylus( for the thicke excrements called Aluinaefoeces, are forced into the great guts) together with that humour which is as it were a watery excrement, and was engendred in the concoction of the stomacke, is suckt away by certaine branches of the Gate-vein deriued from his trunke( which is fixed in the hollow part of the Liuer) vnto the stomacke, but especially vnto the guts. These veynes which are called Venae Meseraicae, and wee must call the Meseraick veines, do attenuate the Chylus which they receyue, prepare it and giue it the fyrst 
When the Chylus becōmeth Chymus.  rudiment of blood, so that now it beginneth to be called Chymus, that is, a Humour: which when it approacheth to the trunke of the Gate-veine, is vnburdened of his thicke part, the Spleene drawing it away by the Spleenicke branch, as hath beene sayde in the vse of the Spleene.  
That which remaineth of this Chymus or Humour, is conueyed out of the trunke of the Gate-veyne into his rootes which are very many and very small, dispersed through the hollow part of the Liuer. Their coate also is very thin( as is also the coats of the vessels of the Spleene, the Testicles and the Paps) that the sanguifying Faculty might more easily insinuate itself into them from the Parenchyma or flesh of the Liuer, without which the blood cannot be made profitable for nourishment; and from which those vessels receiue by irradiation the sanguifying Faculty, as the spermaticall do the Faculty of Seede-making from the Testicles. In these vessels therefore the Humour is changed into blood, for no Chylus is powred out of the roots of the Gate-veines into the flesh of the Liuer.  
Now that this Humour might be longer reteyned, and passing through many alterations be diuided into as small portions as was possible, or rather be perfectly laboured, Nature 
Why there is no cauitie in the Liuer, but a web or net of vessels.  ordained no such cauity in this place as in the stomacke; but of infinite & slender branches of Veines made a texture-net or web wherein the Chylus is better thinned, mitigated and parted into small portions, that the flesh of the Liuer on euery side compassing his disseuered parts, might better worke it into a Masse of blood. For if there had beene a cauity formed in the Liuer, then must the Chylus haue had a Canel or pipe for his egresse and regresse through which it woulde haue falne away crude and not perfectly sanguified, and therefore vnfit for the nourishment of the parts.  
After the blood is thus absolued and perfected in the roots of the Gate-veine, they haue a naturall instinct to part with it, partly to powre it into the flesh of the Liuer for his nourishment 
The naturall instinctof vessels.  that before did them so good an office; partly to vnloade their burthen into the rootes of the Hollow Veine, which are especially disseminated through the Conuexe or gibbous and embowed part of the Liuer, which rootes also haue an instinct or desire to draw it into themselues, and to deliuer it ouer into their boughes and branches( in which it receyueth a farther degree of elaboration) pure and defaecated from all excrements, to be distributed vnto the parts of the body.  
The rootes of the Hollow and Gate veines, although they be hand ouer head as we say, without any precise order distributed through the flesh of the Liuer, yet in manie places they are ioyned by Anastomosis or inocculation( excepting the branches which serue for the nourishment of the Liuer itself) as they touch in their passage ouerthwart one another, or else the extremities or endes of the gate veines are fastned into the middest of the 
Anastomosis how it commeth.  rootes of the hollow veine; or contrarily the ends of the hollow veines into the middest of the gate veines: for after no other manner but this, can the bloud be translated out of the rootes of the gate veine into the rootes of the hollow veine.  
But that the bloud might better passe through the narrow and straight passages of the vessels, it is wefted by a thin and watery humour which is most like to whay; and therefore 
The vse of the whay.  is called serum sanguinis, we call it commonly the Vrine; a humour which is not fitte for the nourishment of any part, but onely mingling itself with the bloud, it maketh it more thin, and so readier to passe along: wherefore Hippocrates called it 〈◇〉, The Wagon of the Nourishment.  
And whereas no Aliment is so simple, but that it consisteth of diuers and different parts; we must know, that all those parts cannot be changed into laudable bloud; wherefore as in the first concoction celebrated in the stomacke and the small guts, there was a segregation of the excrements of the belly: so in the beginning of the second concoction, which was in the meseraicke veines, there was a segregation made of the crasse and foeculent part of the Chylus, from the pure and laudable, which was sent away to the spleene. But in the concoction which is accomplished in the veines of the Liuer, two excrements are separated, least if they remayned mingled with the bloud, they should be with it transported into the whole body. These through their proper passages are conuayed and stored vp in peculiar and appropriated receptacles or places of receipt. The first of which, is the bilious or cholericke excrement, which is disposed partly into the bladder of gall, partly sent away into the gut, as we shall say in the next chapter. The second is, the serous or whaey humor, the greatest part whereof, when the bloud is ariued out of the rootes of the gate-veine into the hollow veine, becommeth an offensiue burden vnto it; and therefore the Kidneyes by the emulgent veines and Arteries draw it out of the hollow veine and the great Arterie into themselues.  
The bloud thus cleansed and depured from all manner of excrements, is distributed by the trunkes and branches of the hollow veine through the whole body, in which passage it receiueth an alteration or disposition of nourishment, that no time should bee lost. These branches of the hollow veine doe with the bloud carry also a part of the aboue mentioned whay or vrine, to make it more fluxible, that it might the better passe through the Capillarie veines of the parts to nourish them; where when it is ariued, it is as it were sprinckled vpon the flesh, into which by little and little in manner of a vapour or dewe it soaketh and sinketh, cleauing like glew till it bee wholly conuerted into their proper Aliment; which glew by nourishing and restoring, maketh good the Radical moysture and the substance of the parts. But the whay which accompanied the bloud thither in the third concoction, that is, in nourishment which is accomplished in euery particular part, as an vnprofitable excrement is exhaled in sweat and insensible transpiration: thus far Bauhine.   

Of the Bladder of Gall. CHAP. XIII.  
_THE Bladder of Gall[ Table 15. Figure 1. 2. P P] called vesica biliaria, or folliculum felleum, in grecke 〈◇〉, is the receptacle of pure choller; and hath 
The scituation.  his seate in the right and hollow part[ Table 15. BB] of the Liuer, that it may be fitter to receiue the choller, which being a mad and hare-brain'd humour, had neede at the first generation of it be sent away, least it should set all the body in an vprore; and therefore Nature placed his receptacle in the very bosome of the Liuer; his own acrimonie also hastneth his euacuation. The Liuer therefore hath as it were engraued in it a certaine cauity or bosome, wherein the vpper and middle partes of the bladder are tyed firmly to it; the lower part in the meane time hanging loose from the body of 
The flaming heats of some mens stomacks whēce it commeth.  the Liuer, so as it toucheth the right side of the stomacke and the Colon, dieth them both oftētimes with a yellow colour; yea further affecteth them with his iuice sweating through his coates; whence it is not vnlike, that the burnings and flaming heates of some mens stomacks doe arise. The Figure of it is[ Table 15. Fig. 2.] long, that it might not bee pressed 
The figure.  by the stomacke, round also with his length and hollow, which hollownesse by degrees becommeth narrower, till at length it endeth in a necke.  
It is small in respect of the spleene and the Kidneyes, albeit it drawe a iuyce both of a middle quantity and consistence in respect of the iuyces drawne by them both: but the reason 
Why so small.  

AA 1. A part of the Rimme of the belly, with the ribs is here turned back.  
BB C 1. The hollow side of the Liuer.  
D 1. A part of the gibbous side of the Liuer.  
E 1. The fissure or clefte of the Liuer, made for the ingresse of the vmbilical veine.  
FF 1. Certaine inaequalities in the hollow side of the Liuer neare the original of the gate-veine.  
G 1. A Ligament of the Liuer, tying his left side to the midriffe.  
H 1. The bosom of the Liuer which giueth place to the stomacke.  
I K 1. The stomacke thrust to the left side.  
L 1. The left orifice of the stomacke, with the vessels which compasse it about.  
M 1, 2. The right orifice of the stomacke or the Pylorus ioyned to the duodenum.  
N 2. The gut called duodenum ioyned to the pylorus.  
O 1. A nerue inserted into the hollownes of the Liuer proceeding from those Nerues which compasse the mouth of the stomacke.  
P 1, 2. The bladder of gall.  
QQ 2. The holes of the bladder of gall dispersed through the Liuer, betwixt the rootes of the hollow and gate veines  
R S 2. The rootes of the gate and hollow veines in the Liuer of the gate vein at R of the hollow vein at S.  
a 2. The concurse or meeting of the passages of choler into one branch  
b 1, 2. The necke of the bladder into which the passage is inserted  
c 1. 2. The passage of the gall into the duodenum.  
d 2. The Duodenum opened, that you may see the insertion of the porus biliarius, or passage of choler.  
e 2. An artery going to the hollow part of the Liuer, and the bladder of gal.  
f 2. A small Nerue belonging to the Liuer and the Bladder of Gall, from the ribbe braunch of the sixt paire.  
gg 2. The Cyslicke twins from the gate veine.  
i 1. The Pancreas growing to the duodenum.  
klm 1. The mesenterie, but k. sheweth the distribution of the right trunk of the gate veine into the mesenterie.  
m 1. A part of the mesenterie, to which is ioyned the right side of the collicke gut.  
n 1. A veine going to the backe part of the right gut.  
o 1. A part of the bottome of the bladder of vrine.  
p 1. The right Kidney couered with a fat membrane  
q 1 The right vreter from the kidney to the bladder.  
r 1. The right spermatical veine and arterie.  
s 1. Branches from the foresaid vessels to the Peritonaeum.  
t 1. The vessel of seed called deserens, or the Leading Vessell.   
Table xv. The first Figure sheweth the lower belly, wherein the stomacke with the guts are thrust into the left side: the Liuer is lift vp also, that you may better see the hollow side of the Liuer, the bottome of the bladder of gall, the vessels which passe thereunto, and the passage of gall called Porus biliarius, which goeth vnto the duodenum, and certain branches beside of the gate veine, together with a part of the mesenterie. The second figure sheweth the bladder of gall, his passages and vessels, as commonly Anatomists make demonstration of them.  
FIG I.  
FIG. II  of his smalnes is, because the number of his drawing orifices is both greater and more commodious then those of any other instrument whereby the Liuer is depurated or purged.  
His substance is membranous, to the end that being full, it might be dilated or stretched, 
His substance  and when it is empty it might fall together againe. For it hath a double membrane; one common from the Peritonaeum( Vesa tus sayth from the coate of the Liuer) wanting Fibres 
The membranes.  wherewith that part onely which hangeth off from the Liuer( which onely stands in neede of a defence) is cloathed; and with this coate it is tyed to the cauity or bosome of the Liuer. Another proper, thin indeede, but firme and strong and of such a nature that it is not to be hurt or offended by choller, by which other membranes are much affected. Wherefore though it be but single, yet the number is supplied by the strength and fastnes of it; for it hath all kindes of fibres, that the substance might be stronger and fitter for dilatation; the inmost are right, the outward transuerse, the middle oblique and those not many. It is 
The crust of the vesicle.  within incompassed with a crusty substance ingendred of the excrements of the third concoction of the bladder itself, least it should be hurt by the acrimonie and sharpnes of the choler conteined therein.  
His Vessels are. Two slender Veines from the trunke of the Gate-vein, called Cysticae gemellae, 
The vesselles. The twin-veines.  the twins of the bladder[ Tab. xv: fig: 2 gg. Table xvi. fig. 1 pp] which( as in the vvhite coate of the eye) are distributed for his nourishment. For it is nourished as all other parts of the body with blood not with choler: and by other vessels[ table xv, fig: 2. QQ. Table xvi fig, 1, DD. figure 2 aaa] draweth his proper excrement pure and vnmixed, saith Galen 5. vsu part. 7. blended with blood, as do the Kidneyes.  
The Arteries it hath are very small, from the Coeliacall Artery which ascend[ Table 
Arteries.  xv. fig: 2 c. Tab, xvi, figure I N] vnto the hollownesse of the Liuer, that beeing( as it were) wrought by their continuall motion, it might be kept from corrupting.  
A Nerue it hath, but scarse conspicuous or visible[ Tab: xv, figure 2 f Tab, xvi, figure 1, o] from a little branch of the sixt paire, that creepeth ouer the coate of the Liuer. All these 
Nerues.  vessels are fastned in the same place at the neck[ Tab: xv, fig: 2 b, table xvi, figure 1, C] to the body of the bladder, and dispersed into his coate do reach vnto his bottome,[ tab. xv, fig: 2 P. table xvi, figure i, A]  


A 1. The bottome of the bladder of Gall, in his naturall scituation.  
B 1. A bosome or denne at the beginning of the necke of the bladder, at which place within are the values placed.  
C 1. The necke of the bladder of gall.  
DDDD. The holes or passages of the bladder of gal distributed through the substance of the Liuer between the roots of the Gate-veine at F. & the Hollow veine at G.  
E 1. The meeting of the passages aforenamed.  
FG 1. The roots of the gate-veine at F. the rootes of the hollow veine at G. al distributed through the Liuer.  
H 1. The Porus Biliarius, whose mouth made of the concourse of the passages marked before with DDD. is wider then the necke of the bladder.  
II A common passage or hole( aswell of the Porus Biliarius H. as also of the necke of the bladder C.) reaching to the gut duodenum.  
K 1. The right orifice of the stomacke ioyned to the gut.  
LM 1. The gut duodenum opened, that the insertiō of the forenamed common passage at M. might appeare.  
N 1. An artery dispersed into the hollowe part of the Liuer, and into the bladder of gall.  
O 1. A small nerue common to the Liuer and his bladder proceeding out of the sixt pair: the cutter hath made it a little too big.  
PP. 1, The veines called Cysticae gemellae, or the twin veines of the bladder of gall, which are braunches of the gate-veine deriued to the bladder. They should haue beene made much lesse.  
qq 2. The hollow part of the Liuer.  
r 2. The bottome of the bladder opened.  
s 2. The outside of the bladder of gall.  
t 2. The bosome or denne proper to the vesicle or blader of gal. u 2. The neck of the bladder  
x 2. Three values at the necke, sometimes but two.  
yy 2. The porus biliarius open, which carrieth the thicker choler directly from the Liuer, to the end of the gut duodenum.  
Z 2. The meeting of the necke of the bladder, and of the Porus biliarius into one.  
aaa 2. Certaine small passages out of the bottome of the bladder, carying the thinner part of the Choler into the Liuer.   
The first Figure sheweth the Naturall scituation of the bladder of Gall taken out of the Liuer, his fashion and vessels.  
The second Figure sheweth the bladder of Gall growing to the Liuer, but opened, that you may see his values: it also sheweth the Porus biliarius, which passeth from the Liuer to the Duodenum.  
TABVLA XVI.  
FIG. I  
FIG. II.   
It is diuided into a bottome, a necke, and the passages of choler, which are called Meatus or pori Bilarij. The bottome is the greatest[ Tab: xv. fig: 1, 2. P. Table xvi: fig. i, A] part of the bladder, and looketh downward[ as appeareth table xvi, fig: i] when with the Liuer it remaineth in his naturall seate. It is round, and dyed with the colour of the yellow choler it containeth; sometimes it is blacke, when the choler being long kept in the place is adust or burnt, which also now and then is condensed or hardned into smooth stones of diuers formes, which stopping the lower passages, wee haue knowne to breede perpetuall laundises and incureable.  
The necke is the narrower part[ Table xvi. figure 2, b] of the bladder, much harderthen the bottome, to whose end is set a peculiar bosome or cauity.[ Table xvi. figure i, b. figure 2, t] 
The necke.   
It is also long, looking vpward, and by degrees ending in a narrow passage[ Table xvi. figure 1, C] which making a semi-circular Figure, as of a halfe Moone, determineth into 
The figure.  the passage of choler, called Porus[ table xvi. Fig: 1, M] Biliarius, where the common passage is made[ Table xvi, Figure 1, I]  
The passages of the bladder of Gall are double( called 〈◇〉, because they carry choler) for that the cholericke excrement is two wayes purged out of the Liuer, to wit, pure and vnmingled, or mingled and thicke according to Galen, 4 vsu part. 12, and 13. For 
The passages of it.  the vnmingled and pure choler is drawne by small vessels[ Table xv. Figure ii, Q Q. tab, xvi. Figure 1, DDD, Figure ii, aaa] sent into the Liuer[ Table xvi, Figure ii] with infinite strings: 
The way of the pure choler.  shed abroad between the roots of the hollow[ table xv, Figure ii, S. Table xvi, L] and Gateveines,[ table xv, Fig: ii, R. table xvi, Figure 1, F] and at length ioyned together into one[ tab: xv, Figure ii, b a. table xvi. Figure 1, E] passage, and thence powred into the Bladder, and so it is continually filled and as continually emptied( the Bladder being pressed as some say in those creatures that go vpright by the Liuer, in others by the stomack) by a passage[ tab xv, Figure ii, b. table xvi, Figure 1, G] determining into the pore or hole of choler,[ table xv, Figure ii, C. table xvi, Figure 1, I] which is very fine and threddy, that it will scarse admit a Probe, especially where there are certaine small Membranes about the necke[ table xvi, Figure ii, X] which hinder the recoyling or regurgitation of the choler.  
The thicke and mixed cholericke excrement is drawn from the Liuer by another passage called porus Biliarius[ table xv. Figure 1, 2. c. table xvi. Fig. 1. H Fig. 2, Y Y] the pore 
The way of the mixed choler.  or hole of choller, supported by the inferior membrane of the omentum or Kall. This is a long vessell, which from the Liuer is inserted in a circular or round figure, not into the bottome of the stomacke, least the choller with his biting sharpnesse, should prouoke the stomack to put ouer the Chylus before it were concocted; nor into the seat or place of seidge, not so much for feare least in so long a passage it should be broke; as because this excrement being powred forth into the small guts( for this passage being stopped men become full of Iaundise, and their excrements white) attenuateth and cutteth a great quantitie of Flegme euer heaped vp in them, scoureth their inward superficies, and being mingled with 
The cause of the landise.  the excrements gathered in the great guts, doth prouoke thē to excretion, that so together with the dry excrements it may be auoyded by the stoole. But this pore of choler is inserted 
The vse of choler in the guts. Why the passage of the choler is so inserted.  into the small guts, not at their beginning, least the Choler should flye vp into the stomack( althogh where there is plenty of it it vseth to regurgitate or recoyle to the stomack, which is ordinary in cholericke natures when they fast long) but into the end of the Duodenum at the entrance[ Tab. xv, figure 2, D. Table xvi, fig. 1 M] of the Ieiunum or emptie gut betwixt the two coats of the gut, obliquely, the orifice being couered with loose membranes or rather with the foulds of the inmost coate straightly ioyned and closing vp the passage least any thing should returne backe, much like the passage of the water into the bladder. Somtimes the pore is parted in twain, with a smal distance betweene the partitions & both of them inserted into the same gut. And it carrieth mingled choler together vvith more pure, to stirre vp the faculty of the guts to auoyde the excrement after the Chylus is sucked from them.  
There is also found sometimes a third passage, inserted into the bottom of the stomack, into which it powreth choller; and such men doe continually vomit choller, and are called 
A third passage not perpetually foūd.  〈◇〉, that is, purgers of choller vpward, as those men who haue it at the end of the empty gut, are called 〈◇〉, that is, purgers of choller downward, and these men to stooles are alwayes bilious. The vse of this bladder of gall is to receiue and expel yellow 
The vse.  choller exactly sincere vnmixt and familiar vnto itself immediately from the Liuer and so out of the whole body, which otherwise running at randon through all, would defile the spirits, raise a continuall vlcerous sence his acrimony gnawing the flesh and rending the membranes, cause all our motions to be head-strong and giddy, our sensations phrenetick and mad; and beside diuerse other inconueniences would breed a continual Iaundise.   

Of the Kidneyes. CHAP. XIIII.  
_THE Kidneyes are called Renes of a word which signifieth to flow, because the vrine flowes away by them; and 〈◇〉, as it were Pissers. All men and fourefooted 
The names.  beastes which beget by generation haue them, but no fowle or fish with scales, saue onely the Tortoyse, saith Aristotle in his fourth book de partibus animalium; for their humour is spent into scales and feathers, and beside 
The lower Belly emptied of the Membranes, Guttes, and Stomacke, together with many of the vesselles which are therein.  
TABVLA. XVII.  

A A The midriffe turned backe with the ribs & the Peritonaeum.  
B B The caue or hollow part of the Liuer, for the liuer is lifted vppe, that the hollow part of it may be better seene.  
C The left ligament of the liuer.  
D The vmbilicall veine.  
E The hollownesse in the Liuer, which giueth way to the stomacke.  
F The left orifice of the stomack.  
G G Certaine knubs or knots & impressions in the hollow part of the Liuer.  
H The bladder of gal.  
I The gate veine cutte off, and branches which go to the bladder of gall.  
K A nerue of the Liuer comming from the stomachical nerue.  
L An artery common to the Liuer and the bladder of gall.  
M A nerue common also to thē both, comming from the right Costal nerue of the ribs.  
N The passage of the gall to the guts cut off  
OO The hollow and forepart of the spleene.  
P The Line where the vessels of the spleene are implanted.  
Q The trunk of the hollow veine  
R The trunk of the great artery.  
S The Coeliacal artery cut off.  
T V The Kidneyes yet wrapped in their membrane.  
X Y The fatty veines called venae adiposae.  
a b The emulgent veines togither with the arteries vnderth in.  
cc dd The vreter from either kidney to the bladder.  
e f The spermaticall veines to the Testicles, the right from the hollow veine, the left from the emulgent.  
g g Veines comming frō the spermatical veines to the Peritonaeū.  
h i The spermaticall arteries.  
k The lower mesentericall artery.  
l The ascending of the great artery aboue the hollow veine, & the diuision of it & the hollowe veine into two trunks.  
m The artery of the loynes, called Lumbaris.  
n The holy artery called sacra.  
o A part of the right gut.  
p The bladder of vrine.  
* The connexion of the bladder, with the Peritonaeum.  
q A part of the vessel, which lead the seede from the testicles, is here reflected.  
r s The scrotum or codde, that is the skin which inuesteth the yarde and the testicles.  
t The fleshy pannicle or membrane which is vnder the Cod.  
u The coate which is proper to the testicle with his vessels.  
x A part of the yarde excoriated or flayed, and hanging downe   they drinke little because their longues are not so bloudy as other creatures are. The kidneyes haue seldome the same scite or position in men; and doe lye behinde the guttes and the stomacke, a little vnder the Liuer and Spleene[ table 17. G O] close vppon the backe, at the sides of the hollow veine and the great Arterie[ Table 17. Q R] yet not in an equall distance 
The scituatiō. ( hauing their hollow partes turned toward one another) that they might more readily draw away the whay, that all the bloud that is receiued into the hollow veine, might be presently purged and so carried pure, with a little water onely to weft it, into the whole body.  
For this watery humour, albe it be an excrement and no part can be nourished with it, 
The vse of the whay.  yet is it very necessary as long as the nourishment is contayned in the veines of the mesentery and the Liuer, that by the thinnesse of this humour or whay being made fluxible, it might passe those straight veines, whereupon Hippocrates calleth it vehiculum alimenti, or the wefter of the nourishment, as before is sayd. But when the bloud is gotten into the hollow veine, it then needeth not so much helpe, because it is to passe through large and patent passages, and beside is made of itself more fluxible by the heat of the heart and the Liuer.  
They often stand not one opposite to the other[ table xx. and table 2. lib. 4.] least in their ioynt strife they should hinder one the others attraction, as Galen hath conceiued; but 
Why placed one aboue another.  wee, sayeth Bauhine, imagine that the cause of this position is rather to bee attributed to the arising of the vesselles[ Table xx. h] and properly of the emulgent or sucking veines, because their attraction is greater and of more vse. They lye with their flat sides vppon the muscles of the loynes which they call 〈◇〉, appointed for the bending of the leg; about their heads not much lower then the lowest ribs, in those voyde spaces which are betwixt 
Their position.  the rootes of the ribs and the hip-bones. They lie betweene the two membranes of the Peritonaeum, one of which lyeth vnder them, the other vpon them; whence it is that in fits of the stone, the legge on that side where the stone lyeth is benummed, sayeth Hippocrates, because of the compression as well of the muscle we spake of before, as of a sinew which descendeth that way.  
But before we proceede further in the particular description of the Kidneyes, giue mee leaue to insert a story out of Bauhine, wherein hee describeth a strange fashion and position 
An vncouth forme of the kidneyes obserued by Bauhine. An. 1589.  of a Kidney, with all the vessels thereto belonging; which wee haue caused also to be cut in the following Table for thy better satisfaction, gentle Reader. In our publique Anatomy sayth he, Anno Dom. 1589. we found a very vncouth forme and scituation of a left Kidney, as also of the emulgent and spermaticall vessels: For the Kidney was placed iust vppon the diuision of the great Artery and hollow veine at the os Sacrum or holy-bone[ table 18. d e] in that cauity wherein the bladder marked with[ f] was scituated; but in the Table wee haue remoued the Kidney a little from his place, that the implantation of the emulgent vessels might better be demonstrated: for there were three emulgent veines, and two arteries fastned into it. Two of these veines proceeding out of the middest of the trunke of the hollow vein[ table 18. 6. 6.] and descending directly downeward, were implanted into the right side. The third emulgent arising out of the left side[ tab. 18. 9.] of the hollow vein, and descending vnder the trunke of the great arterie, was a litle mixed with the left spermatical veine[ table 18. 16.] and after inserted into the left side of the kidney.  
As for the emulgent Arteries, one of them had his beginning vnder the bifurcation, out of the right Iliacall branch[ table 18. 7.] The other did arise a little aboue the bifurcation out of the great artery;[ table 18. 8.] the first was simple and inserted into the right side of the Kidney; the second was diuided into many branches and did insinuate itself into the left side. So also the left vreter was very short, arising out of the lower end of the Kidney,[ table 18. 19.] and was inserted into the bladder[ tab. 18. 20.]  
Finally, in that place where the left Kidney is vsually placed, Nature had set a glandulous and fat substance[ table 18. c] to which both an emulgent veine and arterie were disposed[ table 18. 4. 5.] as also from the vpper emulgent veine, the left spermaticall veine[ table 1●. 4.] did arise. It may be that those men who are by fits tormented with grieuous paynes about the Holy-bone, and haue all the Nephriticall signes, haue such a position of one of their kidneyes as this was: now we returne to our description.  
The right Kidney lyeth iust vnder the Liuer, and because of his waight in a man[ table xviii.] 
The seate of the right kidney.  it is lower then the other Kidney, as if it gaue place to his better; his end reacheth to the third racke-bone of the loynes. It is very rarely higher then the left, and then onely when it is shorter, or when the part of the Liuer lying next it, is hollowed: they are also rarely of an equall height, because of the different position and quantity of the Liuer and Spleene; some▪ also adde because of the higher or lower beginning of the emulgent veselles.  
On the left side, the Kidney lyeth vnder the Spleen, and is often( yet not alwayes) higher 
Of the left.  then the other, because there the Spleen is thin and slender; so that the Kidney ascendeth sometimes to the first racke-bone of the loynes, sometimes to the xi. of the breast; yet neuer is one so farre aboue the other, that the middle of the higher doth reach aboue the to● of the lower. But in bruite beasts because of their groueling gate, and because their spleen reacheth further downeward the scituation of the Kidneyes is contrary; so that in Dogges there is a hollownesse or bosome made in the Liuer( which in a man hath neyther hollownesse 
The first Figure sheweth the disport of Nature in the seminary vessels, the emulgents, and the position of the left Kidney, as wee met with it in a publicke Dissection.  
The second Figure sheweth the seminary vesselles, with the Testicles.  
The third Figure sheweth the diuers formes of the Testicles, and their seuerall parts.  
TABVLA. XVIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. II.  

a b. The right kidney a. the left b,  
c A glandulous and fatty substance, which was in the roome of the left kidney.  
d e. The hollow veine d. the great artery e.  
f The bladder of vrine.  
g g. The testicles.  
1, 2. A double right emulgent veine, the first of which hath a double originall.  
3. The right emulgent artery.  
4. The left emulgent veine.  
5. The left emulgent artery.  
6, 6 Two emulgent veines at the left kidney.  
7, 8 The emulgent arteries vnder the bifurcation or diuision at the left kidney.  
9 The fourth left emulgent veine.  
10, 10. The right spermaticke veine.  
11, 12. The originall of the spermaticke arterie 11. his coniunction with the vein 12.  
13 The left spermaticke veine.  
14 The left spermaticke artery.  
15 A veine going from the left spermatick veine to the Peritonaeum, a companied with an artery.  
16 The vnion of the left spermatick veine with the emulgent veine. 17 The leading vessels  
18 The insertion of the right Vreter.  
19, 20. The originall of the left Vreter at 19. and his implantation at 20.   
Figure. 2. xxxx. The Vreters.  

θ θ The spermaticke veines and arteries.  
11 The coate of the testicle which ariseth from the Peritonaeum.  
Λ The spermatical veine and artery, as they passe into the production of the Peritonaeum, and as they passe againe out of it.  
μ The bodden body called corpus varicosū or the wonderfull implication of the veine and artery  
〈◇〉 The left testicle couered with the inmost coat.  
ξ ξ The reuolution of the leading vessels.  
o p The ascent of the leading vessell vnto the share bone.  
〈◇〉 The reflection orreturning of the leading vessels to the backe side of the share bones.  
〈◇〉 The coition or meeting togither, and insertion of those vesselles into the Glandules called Prostatae at 〈◇〉.   
Figure 3.  

A B The forepart of the right testicle.  
C C D The spermaticke veine and artetie cut off where they fall out of the Peritonaeum, and C sheweth the beginning of the bodden body, called Corpus varicosum, and D sheweth his basis or foundation.  
E The passage of the leading vessel.  
F His reflexion. G, A portion of the leading vessel climbing vp ward, with his departure from the testicle. H, The porous or spongy face of the leading vessel or Epididymis, wher it groweth to the coat of the testicle. I, the gibbous or round part of the same vessell, where it groweth not vnto the foresaide coate. L, the forepart of the testicle. M, the backe part of the same, together with his inmost coate, & the bodden body. N N, the first commixtion of the spermaticke vessels. OO, the basis of the spiry bodden body and his insertion into the inmost coate of the testicle. P, the testicle couered with his inmost coate, shewing the vpper part into which the bodden or varicous body was inserted. Q R S, the inmost coate of the testicle, drawne from the testicle at R. but couering the testicle at S. T, the testicle cut through the middest. V V, the distribution of the vessels through his substance.   nor diuision) that the right Kidney might ascend higher. Indeede the true causes of their diuerse scituation, are the different magnitude of the kidneyes, the different length of the vessels, and their position either more or lesse oblique. They are knit by the help of 
The true causes of their diuers position. Their connexion.  an externall Membrane arising from the Rim( which like a Ligament stayeth them firmely in their proper places) to the loyns, the Diaphragnid, and the right to the blind gut, somtimes to the Liuer; the left to the Colon( whence it is that nephriticall paynes, that is, inflāmations or other paynes of the Kidneyes become more grieuous by reason of aboundance of wind or excrements, & the collicke is often hardly distinguished from the paines of the Kidneyes) and to the spleene.  
Beside the membrane aboue named, they haue also other fibres from the Peritonaeum inserted into their gibbous part, which are happely those Hippocrates calleth Nerues, in his 
Their fibres.  booke de natura ossium. They are also tyed by the emulgent vessels to the hollow veine and the great Arterie[ table 17. a b, tab. 2. Lib. 4. m n, table 22. h i.] Finally to the bladder itself by the vreters or passages of vrine, of which wee shall heare more by and by[ table xvii. p c ●, table xxii. m n c.]  
The Kidneyes are two, because one would not haue beene sufficient for the euacuating of so great a quantity of waterish excrement, which is farre more aboundant then both the 
Why two.  excrementitious chollers, yellow and blacke. By this meanes also there is a stronger attraction of serous bloud, and both sides draw alike; and if one happen to bee stopped with the stone or grauell or ought else, yet the worke of attraction standeth not, but the vrine is auoyded;( although Archangelus will not yeelde to this, because Nature hath created nothing against casualties;) whereas if there should bee but one( which is very rare) it must 
One would haue ouer●ayed on one side.  haue beene of necessity as big as both, because of the aboundance of this excrement, and so the body should not haue beene equally ballanced, vnlesse that one had beene seated in the very middest of the backe, iust vpon the hollow veine and great Artery, which scituation would haue hindered the free descent of bloud and spirits by compression. Wherefore Nature for one greater made two smaller, that neither the belly should bunch out, or the creature incline and hang too much to either side. It is also as rare to see three or foure, which when it hapneth they keepe not their ordinary conformation. Eustachius obserued three together, the right was naturall, the left had nothing like a Kidney, but onely the substance of a triangular form, and wanting an vreter, for the vreter proceeded out of the third which was almost foure square.  
The Figure of the Kidney is long and broad, yet broader aboue then below; before and behinde pressed somewhat flat, yet a little more rising before like a bean which therevpon 
The figure.  we call a Kidney beane. On the outside( which they call the backe[ table xxii. figure 1. c.] of the Kidney) towarde the flankes gibbous or embowed and round: on the inside where they looke toward the hollow veine, partly gibbous and partly concauous; flatte or sadled, and as it were crooked into the forme of a line turned with a blunt angle, for such must it of necessity be, both for the admission of the vessels, and for the forming of the hollownes or cauities therein.  
Their magnitude is proportionable to their office of purging the whaeye humor, although 
The magnitude of the kidneys.  for the most part they are not of a like[ table xxii. figure 1.] bignesse, nor their proportion answerable to the body; yet the greatest disproportion is in their longitude, which commonly equalleth foure rack-bones; but their breadth for the most part is but of three fingers, and the left is often shorter then the right.  
About the kidneyes cleaueth fat plentifully[ table 2. Lib. 4, o o p p] because it hath peculiar 
The far of the kidneys.  vessels by which it is nourished; so that in fat men they are almost all couered: the vse of which is to cherish the heate of the Kidneyes●, least by reason of the continuall distillation of so great quantity of the vrine or whay, the heate by degrees languishing might at length be extinguished, & so al their action faile; and beside, least the vessels should be endangered by distention; wherefore in a man it is on the inner side of the Kidney layde as a 
The vse of it.  soft bed or couch between the membrane compassing about the distribution of the vessels and the braunches of the vreters: in a Dogge betwixt the membrane which formeth the faddle side of the Kidney; besides, this fat with his smooth and slippery moysture dulleth the acrimony of the whay or vrine.  
There cleaueth to both the Kidneyes in the vpper part, where it regardeth the hollow veine, a glandule or kernell, the inuention or finding whereof is due to Eustachius, which sticketh fast to their outward membranes, so that oftentimes if a man take not heede in the 
The glandule of the kidney.  taking out of the Kidneyes, he shall leaue it hanging to the membrane of the Diaphragma. This glandule somewhat answereth in substance and figure to the Kidneyes themselues, yet is often more flat and liker to a cake then to a kidney; as long it is as two fingers, as broad as one, of a moderate thicknesse; but they are not alwayes of an equall greatnes, but most commonly the right is the larger. Among the new writers( some say) there are manie of them, but will not haue them to be found in euery body, but to bee engendred when the 
The vse of these Glandules not yet knowne.  matter is too plentifull; but howsoeuer we haue the things, yet hitherto we want their vse, or at least the knowledge thereof.  
To this Glandule there is sometime sent a certaine Tendril from the hollow vein neere the Liuer, sometimes it taketh it from the Veine which we call Adiposa, which goeth to the fat of the Kidneyes to nourish it, of which wee spake euen now: sometimes it hath both Veines.  

Table xix. sheweth the Kidney of a man. The first figure the whole Kidney; with the Glandule set aboue it. The second Figure sheweth the Kidney Dissected, that you may see the inward face of it.  
TABVLA XIX.  
FIG. I  
FIG. II.  

A 1. The Kidney of a man whole.  
B 1, The Glandule placed vpon the Kidney.  
C 1, The emulgent veine and Artery.  
D 1, 2. The Vreter.  
e e e 2. The Vreter open, and howe it parteth itself into the substance of the Kidneyes, as it were with many pipes.  
f f f 2. Caruncles or teats, with very fine perforations, which opening into the foresaide pipes of the Vreters, doe as it were through a fine strainer passe the Vrine into them, to bee conueyed to the bladder.    
The Kidnies are couered with a double Membrane, one outward, arising from the Peritonaeum neere the lower part of the Diaphragma, where it is knit vnto the Peritonaeum: this 
The Membranes.  cleaueth not very straightly to them[ tab, 2, lib. 4 OO, PP] but they are as it were wrapped in it, whence it is called fasciarenum, that is, the Kidneyes swathing band. This Membrane receyueth the vena adiposa,[ table xvii, X Y, table 2, lib. 4, l h] and is rowled in plentifull fat, & so serueth the Kidneyes instead of a couering, of a tye, and of a soft pillow or bolster.  
The other Membrane which is proper to the Kidnies is very thin, and produced out of the common coate that cōpasseth the vessels( but dilated) and growes to them exceeding strongly, so that it maketh their flesh otherwise of itself firme, yet more fast and compact. And although it make the outside glib and shining yet it wanteth fat, neyther is it wouen with any vessels. This accompanieth the vessels, bent inward pierceth into their hollownesse and compassing them round about, makes them more strong.  
The substance of the Kidnies[ table xxi, figure 2] is a hard flesh most like the heart, sa●ing 
Their substance.  that it wanteth fibres, which yet the threds of the veines do supply. Fast and compact ●hat the inherent heate may more strongly and easily draw that which was so neere( for to ●raw an excrement from farre, a loose and laxe instrument is more meete) and expell it; and againe, least the blood which is their nourishment should slippe away with the vrine, which would come to passe if their flesh had beene immoderately loose, whereas now it is fitly reteyned, and hath time to bee diffused all ouer their substance. But on eyther side at the hollownesse[ Tab, xxii, cc] where the emulgent vessels are diuided into greater braunches, their substance is but loose and vnequall, and is on the inside perforated with passages running through it from the Nerues, where are obserued certaine partes rising somewhat from the flesh, which in their substance, figure, and office do imitate the nature of glandules or kernels, whence some of the ancients haue esteemed these parts of the kidneyes to bee Glandules. Without, his superficies or face is like the Liuer smooth and glib: his colour duskish in a mans health, and not much vnlike a red Beane, seldome very red and shining. It is also very rare that a mans kindnies should be outwardly vnequal, and made as it were of many kidnies or small glandules like the Liuer of a Beare or Oxe, yet Eustathius found 
TABVLA XXI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
Fig. 1. shewcth the foreside of the right Kidney. Fig. 2. shewcth the backside.  

a The body of the Kidney, consisting of eight lobes or partitions.  
b The Vreter distended with Vrine.  
c The emulgent vessels.  
d The lower part of the Vreter, far narrower then it vseth to be.   
This Table sheweth the figure of a Childs Kidney, which died the fourth day after it was borne, in the Hospitall of Argentine. The child was opened by Doctor Iohannes Rodulphus Saltzmanus. He did indeede sucke, but auoided nothing either by stoole or Vrine. His guts were full of wind, but his Fundament was not perforated. His kidneys were by lines distinguished into eight parts. His vreters wel stretched with water, but at the bladder they were so smal, that a smal probe could hardly without violence be entred into them, which being stuffed with slime, did stop the descent of the Vrine, so that in the bladder, there was nothing but a little of that slime: the kidnies were somewhat like the kidnies of an Ox.  
It shall not be impertinent also, to annexe this strange forme of the kidnies which Bauhine receiued from that excellent Philosopher and Physitian, D. Leonard Doldius, the ordinary Physitian of the City of Norinberge. This kinde of Kidnies and Vreters was obserued in the body of Andrew Hel●● of Weissenfield, who dyed at Norisberge, the 17. of October, in the yeare of our Redemption, 1602. and the sixteenth of his life, hauing lyen lon● hurt of a blow he receyued in his bely aboue the groyne.  such in two Infants, a Maide of a xi. yeares of age, and a Man at Rome. The forme of a kidney of that kind discouered in a young Childe by Doctor Saltzmanus, and by him sent vnto Bauhine, we haue here a little before annexed.  
They haue two venters or cauities, the outward and inward: the outward improperly 
The cauities of the kidneis.  so called[ table xxii. d] which Fallopius calleth the Gate, is in the saddle side, where the kidney being like a bent bow returned at either end, it is most what diuided into three partes. The first is a bunch or prominence like a smal hillocke, at either end of which there is a bosome or cauity ending in another prominence before you come to their gibbous part. Into the corners of these bosomes the diuided vesselles[ table xxii. l h] doe offer themselues thence to be dispersed into the substance of the kidneyes, one branch into the vpper angle of one bosome, another into the lower angle of the other, out of which also the vreter proceedeth.  
The vessels which are sent vnto the kidneies are of all sorts, Veines, Arteries & Nerues. 
The vessels.  The Veines proceede out of the hollow veine; one of them[ table 17. X Y] is that fatty vein 
Veines. Venaadiposa.  whereof we haue spoken, and it is double; one on the right hand, and another on the left: The right issueth very rarely out of the trunk of the hollow veine, but most what out of the emulgent; the left alwayes out of the hollow veine, and is diuersly distributed to his vtter coate to water or bedew the same; sometimes also it offers a little branch to the glandule which we spake of adioyned to the kidney, which when it hath perforated it is againe consumed in this coate of the kidney.  
The other veine, of his office is called the emulgent or sucker[ table 17. a b, table 22. h i] 
The Emulgent veines.  most commonly one on each side; for in the framing of these vessels Nature often diuersly disports herself, so that they differ oftentimes not onely in seuerall bodies, but euen in the same.  
This emulgent is a notable vessell, and the greatest of all that arise out of the hollow 
Why the Emulgent is so great. Whence the Emulgent ariseth. The values of the Emulgent  veine; not that the Kidneyes stand in neede of so great store of nourishment, but that the serous bloud may haue a free & expedite passage. It ariseth seldom directly out of the trunk of the hollow vein, but is carried with an oblique but short progresse downward, and being parted into 2. branches, is inserted into the saddle side of the Kidney, carrying thither the serous or watery bloud out of the hollow veine. In these emulgents wee haue obserued certaine values or floud-gates which hinder the recourse of the whay or vrine into the hollow veine. With these is vnited a branch one or two of the veine sine pari or without his fellow,( of which we shall entreate more fitly in another place) that there might be a consent betweene the Kidneyes and the breast.  
Arteries it hath of each side one[ table 17. vnder a b, table 22. vnder h i, table 18. character 3, 5.] 
The arteries of the kidnies  from the trunk of the great Arterie; great emulgents or suckers also, which do purge waterish moysture plentifully contayned in the Arteries from the bloud, and withall doe 
Their vse.  allow heate to ouercome the cold of the Kidneyes, which Galen sayth they acquired by the passage of the watery moysture through them.  
These vessels first parted into two, do then get into the cauities of the Reynes & are presently diuided, commonly into foure braunches, and so are disseminated diuersly into the whole substance of the Kidneyes[ table xxi. figure 1. G G] till at length they are so by degrees seuered by manifold partitions, that they become as small as hayres; then they approach vnto the Caruncles which are spongy peeces of flesh, through which the whay is filtered or streyned.  
The Kidneyes needed no other third veine differing from these whereby they should bee nourished, because they doe not draw a pure excrement as the bladders doe, which therefore 
Why the kidneis haue no particular veins to nourish them. The nerues of the kidneyes.  needed particular veines to carry their nourishment; but these vesselles being full of bloud as well as of whay, doe nourish the kidneyes with the bloud, and send away the whay to be auoyded. They haue nerues on either side from the stomachicall branch of the sixt paire( whence comes the great consent betweene the stomacke and the kidneyes, and the subuersion of the stomacke, and frequent vomits in Nephriticall passions or diseases of the kidneyes) which descend downeward to the rootes of the spondelles or racke-bones of the loynes; and are distributed into the proper membrane of the kidneyes. Moreouer from about the originall of the Arteries of the mesenterie, there doe proceede a fewe tendrils of sinewes mingled together; part of which goe vnto the kidneyes and the glandules that lye vpon them, the other part together with the emulgent Arteries doe insinuate themselues into the hollownesse of the kidney, and are distributed through their substance. Hence it is that Nephriticall patients haue not onely a certaine dull sence of paine, but also most vehement torments in their kidneyes; not onely therefore because their holes or dennes, as Galen sayth, are not wide but narrow, and the kidneyes because of the firmenes of their substance cannot be stretched as the bladder may, but especially because of these nerues distributed through their substance; notwithstanding the paine of the stone is greater when it entreth into the vreter, both because of his exquisite sence, as also because of the straightnes of the passage through which the stone falling, must needes teare it almost with stretching, 
Especially.  which paine wee see not alwayes to follow those whose passages are dilated by the often comming downe of stones.  
The inner venter or cauitie of the kidney, hath a hollownesse made of a sinewey membrane 
The inner venter of the kidnies.  which the emulgent vesselles doe not produce, for they determine into exceeding hairy threds; but the vreters, which becomming first broade in the hollownesse[ table 21. figure 1. F] of the kidneyes are the matter of it. At whose side on either part before the vessels are diuided into lesse braunches, the substance of the kidneyes appeareth loose and vnequall( the Anatomists call it Cauernosa, spongi formis, erosa) when the fat that compasseth it about is diligently remoued.  
The vreters are diuided into great braunches, first double or treble( as in the next chapter shall appeare) and then into many others, not( after the manner of other vesselles) still 
The Vreters.  lessened into hairie threds, but broade in the end( so that a man may obserue eight or ten branches like canels or pipes) that they may better receiue the Caruncles before spoken of. For those Caruncles which are like small glandules in the endes of all the vessels( and of a paler colour because they are of a harder flesh then the rest of the kidney) being produced out of the substance of the kidney, and somewhat sharpe like vnto the nipples of breasts, insinuating themselues into the said vessels in manner of a couer or stopple, doe stoppe them vp; which if they be cut according to their length, a man may obserue in them certain furrowes and tunnelles as small as hayres. Wherefore, being so finely bored that they will scarcely admit a haire; by them the whay or serous humour coloured with choler, is separated from the bloud, and is insensiblie percolated or drayned into the pipes of the vreters or membranous tunnels( this is called the Colatorie) and gathered together in that common hollownesse, and thence is sent downeward by the vreters into the bladder: it may bee 
The colatorie  these furrowie passages are hollowed in the substance of the kidney like as the holes in the nipples of the breasts. And these spongie Caruncles had neede to be so finely bored, least the bloud which together with the vrine and choler is drawne by the emulgents but for their proper nourishment, should with them also passe away into the bladder( which we see sometimes to happen and that without paine; when either the separating or reteyning vertues of the kidneyes are decayed or those small passages widened) considering that this separation 
The separation of the whey is by transfusion not by concoction. How the kidnies are nourished.  is made not by concoction where Nature is her owne chooser, but by transfusion; although wee doe not deny but that these excrements do here receiue a kinde of elaboration though not a concoction.  
This bloud thus remayning behind, is as it were sucked by the flesh of the kidneyes, and is sprinkled vpon it like a kinde of dew; from whence by degrees after the manner of a vapour it is scattered into his whole body, cleaueth, is vnited to it, and finally becommeth the nourishment of the kidneyes. But because being so thin it nourisheth but slenderly, it is continually and in great quantity drawne in, together with much vrine, which( the bloud remayning behinde) insensibly droppeth through those Caruncles.  
These things, although they differ from the common opinion of some others, yet may 
The triall of the truth in this discourse of the passage of the vrine.  they fitly be demonstrated if you put a Probe into the vessels as they enter in, and the vreter as it goeth out, and then make incision at the saddle side of the kidney; and yet much better & more elegantly are these passages shewed, if you separate the flesh of the kidney from his vesselles; which separation hath aboundantly satisfied vs in this point: and therefore we haue exhibited it in the xxi. Table and the first Figure.  
But because these things doe not so appeare in Dogges as we haue nowe saide, and yet young Students for want of Mens bodies are often faine to dissect the kidneyes of Dogs: we thought it not amisse, here brieflie to insert the description of Dogs kidneyes also.  
The structure therefore of a Dogges kidney delineated in the second Figure of this 21. Table is on this manner.  
The membrane immediatelie couering the kidney entreth into his cauity where it is reflected 
The description of a dogs kidnie.  or returned and on both sides spred abroad, like as is the membranous bodie from 
Fig. 1. sheweth the vesselles of the Kidneyes separated from the flesh. Fig. 2. sheweth the Kidnies Dissected according vnto Vesalius. The first is the Kidney cut according to the length through the gibbous part, so as the slit reacheth vnto the second sinus or cauity of it, no part of the kidney taken away.  
The second exhibiteth the Kidney where all the substance or partition which is called Septum renis is sliced away in a compasse, that the second cauity may better appeare.  
The third sheweth al the branches of the first cauity or sinus, the flesh of the Kidney being quite taken away.  
Fig. 3. expresseth the deuise of some men concerning the per colation or streyning, of the whey, the first sheweth the Kidney dissected from the gibbous part toward the Hollow part, together with the Cribrum or Siue: the second sheweth the middle part of the Kidney.  
TABVLA XXI.  
FIG: I,  
FIG: II.  
FIG: III.  

A. The trunke of the Hollow veine.  
B The trunk of the great artery  
CC The emulgent veine diuided into two.  
D D The double emulgent artery.  
E The spermaticall veine arising from the trunke of the hollow veine.  
F The latitude of the Vreter in the bodye of the kidney; in the broader part whereof oftentimes are engendred, ragged & branched stones.   
Fig. 2.  

α β 1, 2. The forepart & hinder part of the kidney.  
γ γ, 1, 2 The orificies of the branches of the first sinus or cauity of the kidneyes.  
♌ ♌, 1. The body of the first sinus into which the veine & the artery of the kidney do determine.  
●● 1, 2. The hole where the Vreter begins.  
● 1, 2. A part of the Vreter.  
α β 2. The circle betweene α and β, shewes the second Sinus of the kidney.  
η θ 2. The backe part of this sinus is marked with η, the forepart with θ.   
Fig. 3.  

The emulgent veine and artery.  
B B. The sinus or cauitie into which the vrine is streyned out of the first cauity.  
C C. The cauity into which some think the vesselles do powre the serous or whaey bloud.  
D D. The substance of the kidney compassing this cauity round about.  
E E. The Draine of the Kidney called Colatorium, or the Membrane perforated like a siue, through which the vrine passeth say some, together with the Choler that coloreth it out of the cauity marked with B, into the cauity marked with C.  
F F. The Vreter which receyueth the vrine out of the second Cauity, and leadeth it into the bladder.   which the Vreters do proceede. To this Membrane cleaueth the fat whereupon the distribution of the emulgents into the Kidnies doth leane, as vppon a pillow or boulster for their security. It hath also many holes through which the vessels enter into the Kidneyes. Next followeth that which is called The Membranous body, which is diuided into manie branches, and as a couer compasseth the vessels, it maketh a cauity which conteyneth the vessels and the fat.  
Vpon this Membranous body lyeth the cauity of the Kidney, in the middest whereof hangeth a part of the substance of the Kidney regarding the gibbous side, differing in colour from the rest, and wanting the Membranous couer before named. It is like a new Moone, and hangeth like a partition, so leaning vpon the Membranous body, that the cauities of the same Kidney seemeth to be double. But in the Kidney of a man there are no such cauitie to be found, but the emulgent vessels and the Vreters are diuided through his substance into many branches, and the cauities which are in the Kidneyes are wrought as it were out of them.  
The vse of the Kidneyes is to draw from the whole masse of bloode, as well that of the 
The vse of the Kidneyes.  Veines, as that of the Arteries, the serous humour through the emulgent vessels by a proper attractiue faculty arising from the similitude of substance betweene it and the kidnies, and so to purge both kinds of the blood, arteriall and venall from that excrement. For those parts which through large orificies do draw their conuenient and familiar iuice, cannot draw it pure, simple, & sincere, but with the admixtion of some other of a diuers kind. Wherefore together with the Vrine is drawne both much moyst and thin bloud out of the Liuer, and much yellow choler, which the bladder of Gall did not attract before. But the Vrine or whey by the force of the kidneyes is segregated from the blood in the very concoction of their Aliment, & beside their attractiue faculty gathereth the blood into their substance for the nourishment of it; but the Vrine as an vnprofitable excrement, the expelling vertue straineth through the furrowes or tunnels of the Caruncles( thorough which also the grauell passeth from the body of the Kidney together with the Vrine) into the mēbranous pipes of the Vreters: which vrine is gathered together in the greater hollownesse of the Vreters, and from them is sent into the bladder, where againe it is kept a certaine time, and at length is expelled thence at our discretion through the Yard, the Sphincter-Muscle being relaxed or loosened. The choler also passeth along with the vrine, from 
How the vrines are colored yellow.  whence they haue their yellow tincture: for when the choler gaddeth vpward to the brain( as in phrensies it is not very rare) then are the vrines very pale.  
Before Vesalius time it was a common receyued opinion, and reteyned yet by some, that in the Kidneyes there are two bosomes or cauities running according to their length; one higher, another lower, which are distinguished by a transuerse or ouerthwart Membrane 
The common opiniō of the way of the vrine before Vesalius time.  perforated like a Siue which they call Renis colatorium; and that the emulgents did powre serous blood into the vpper cauity, and thence the choler and the vrine did passe through the fine searcing holes of the Membrane into the lower bosome; the blood remaining behinde because of his thicknesse. Out of the lower cauity vssueth the Vreter, which receyueth the streyned vrine, and conuaieth it into the bladder. The manner of which deduction of the vrine we haue expressed in the third Figure of the 21. Table. Thus.  
The emulgent vessels which powre the serous bloud into the first cauity at A. which is strained through E into the lower cauity C. and then receiued by the Vreter which is marked with F. Afterward Vesalius( who counselleth to Dissect either a Dogges Kidneyes or 
Vesalius opinion.  a Goats, fearing to deale with a mans because of the fat) and almost all before Fallopius, were of opinion, that the Kidneyes had two cauities, the one wouen of the extremities or ends of the emulgents which passe into the kidneyes. This texture is hollow like a Vessell, and is distributed through the body of the Kidney, and at length diuided into a forepart & a backe part, each of which produceth sixe, seauen, or more thick branches equally distant one from another, yet so that the fore most are vnited with the hindmost in the out-side where they make a circle, and so do agree together to make a cauity to receiue the serous blood. The other bosome or cauity is on the backe side, betwixt the branches of that membranous body. And this by the interposition of a part of the Kidney, is diuided into two parts, where it receyueth the whey distilling from the substance of the Kidney, and sendeth it into the Vreters. This cauity in Dissection is found moyst, but without bloode, but the former is alwayes found full of blood, and this conceite is answerable to the Figure of the Dogs kidneyos.[ Tab. 21, fig. 2] And thus much of the Kidneyes.   

CHAP. XV. Of the Vreters or passages of vrine.  
_THE Vreters or vrine leaders or vessels of Vrine, the Greekes call 〈◇〉, as a man should say the pissers. Hippocrates de Glandulis calleth them 〈◇〉 or 
The Vreters.  conduit pipes. They are two vessels[ Tab. xvii, c d. Tab: ii, lib. 4. qq. Tab. xxii m n] on eyther side one( sometimes, but seldome two or more, yet meeting in one before their insertion) which lying vpon the Muscles of the Loynes, and a little reflected or turned inward least they should make an oblique passage, doe descend 
Their course.  betwixt the two Membranes of the Peritonaeum or rimme of the belly vnto which they are knit, and so are ioyned to the bladder.[ Table xxii, ψ. Table xvi, char. 18, 20.]  
Their figure is round, a palme long & of the bredth of a straw; in those that are much troubled 
Figure.  with the stone dilated to the proportion of a smal gut; hollow & running aside or obliquely like the letter s. In women broader then in men, but right and short, and hence it is that they auoide stones with much lesse pain then men. Their substance is properly white( whence some call them the white veines) without blood thicke and neruous,( whereupon 
Substance.  other men call the neruosi canalicult or the neruous Tunnels) which makes them so strong.  

Table xxii. sheweth the Kidneyes with the vessels of vrine and of seede; a part of the Hollow veine and of the great Arterie, the Testicles, the bladder, and the yard. The first figure sheweth the fore-side, the second the hinder side.  
TABVLA XXII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

aaa 1. The forpart of the right kidney.  
bbb 2. the back part of the left kidney.  
c 1. The outward side.  
dd 1, 2. the inner side.  
ee 1, 2. the two cauities where into the emulgent vesselles ●re inserted.  
ff 1, 2. the trunke of the Hollow veine.  
gg 1 2. The trunk of the great artery.  
hi, 1, 2. the emulgent veine & artery.  
kk 1, 2. the right fatty veine.  
l 1, the left fatty vein.  
* i. the Coeliacall artery.  
mn, 1, 2. the vreters.  
op{que} 1, 2, the right spermatick veine which ariseth neere p, the left neere q.  
r 1, the place where the arteries of the seede do arise.  
s 1, 2. Smal branches distributed from the spermaticall veines to the Peritonaeum.  
t 1, 2, the spiry bodden bodie, cald Varicosum vas pyramidale.  
u 1, 2, the Parastatae or Epididymis.  
x 1, the testicle couered yet in his coate.  
y 1, 2, the place where the leading vessell called Vas deferens doth arise.  
α 1, 2. the descent of the same leading vessell.    
β 1, 2, The revolution of the same leading vessell. γ 1 2, the passage of the same vessel reflected like a re-current nerue. 〈◇〉 2, the meeting of the same leading vessels. ε 1, 2, the bladder of Vrine, the first figure sheweth it open, the second sheweth the back parts. ζ ζ 1, the smal bladders of seede opened. 〈◇〉, 2, the Glandules called glandulae prostarae. θ 2, the sphincter Muscle of the bladder. 1, 2, ●●, the two bodies which make the substance of the yard. x x, 1, the vessels which go vnto the yard, and the necke of the bladder. Λ 1, the passage which is common to the vrine and the seede, cut open. 〈◇〉, the implantation of the vreters into the bladder.  
This kinde of substance is found in no other part of the bodie vnlesse it be in the bladder, to whose inward substance they are verie like, and to which they are continuated; by reason of which substance and beside, because they may not be seuered from the bladder without breaking, whereas they may from the kidneys whole and sound, it may be lawfull to say, that they haue their original from the bladder, althogh our great Ancients, Hippocrtaes, Aristotle 

Hip. de nat essi. Arist. ●. Hist. Animal 4. Gal. 6. Epid. Com. 5. text 4. The proper coate of the vessels.  
Their diuarication in the kidneyes.   and Galen haue taught otherwise, namely, that they arise from the Cauitie of the kidnies. This substance, gifted with oblique fibres for distinction sake, if any man will say is the proper and peculiar coate of the vessell, which a common membrane doth inuest giuen him for further strength from the peritonaeum, we will not gaine say him.  
But these vreters after they haue incompassed[ Tab. 21. fig. 1.] the inward venter or cauitie of the kidnie and made 8. or 10. pipes, they passe out at the saddle side, or if you will rather say thus, when the vreter is gone into the kidnie( of a man not of a dog) becomming somewhat broader, it is diuided into three branches like the emulgents, and is distributed into the vpper, the lower, and the middle region of the kidnie, of which the vpper and lower are againe subdiuided each of them into 3. and the middle into two; these being short & large haue broad ends, wherein euerie one of them receiue the glandule which we said was like the nipple of a womans breast, arising out of the flesh of the kidnies in the manner of a fleshie stopple, that so through them the vrine might be streined into euery one of the pipes or tunnels.  
Often many of these branches are perforated in the middle likewise, wheras in their vtter mouths they receiue a glandule also: They are implanted into the backward and lowest part[ Tab. 22. 〈◇〉.] of the bladder,( for their implantation could not be more commodious because 
Their implantation into the bladder.  the bladder cleaueth to the right gut) not farre from the neck betwixt his two proper membranes hauing the distance of two fingers betweene them, and so with an oblique insertion they pierce the cauitie of the bladder; but their passage or entrāce is very narrow; 
The reason of this implantation.  by which kind of insertion the returne of the vrine toward the kidnies againe is foreletted. Some ascribe this hinderance of the refluēce of the vrine to certaine transverse membranes like vnto values, or the small mēbranes of chaffe or husks of corne, or like the leather latches of bellowes, litle differing from the substance of the bladder and placed vpon the insertions of the vreters, whose office also it is to giue place to the vrine when it flowes into the bladder & to hinder it from returning, either when the bladder is distended or in the compression of the belly, by stopping the orificies of the vreters; & trulie those orificies are so close shut vp, that when children blow a hogs bladder and tie it streight at the necke, not so much as the aire can be pressed out. Wherefore Galen speaking of these passages, breaketh out into 
In 6. Epid. com. 5. text 4.  an admiration of the wisedome and prouidence of our Creator, whereof he taketh this, and iustly to, to be a great document or argument.  
Their vessels are very hairie and fine, their veines and arteries they haue from the neighbor parts. Their nerues from the sixt paire or coniugation and from the marrow of the 
Their vessels.  loynes, whence comes their exquisite sense and so exquisite paine, when either the stone is in them or passeth away by the flankes.  
Their vse is, that in their channels the vrine together with a chollericke excrement seuered from the blood by the power of the kidnies, might passe into the bladder which is far 
The vse of the vreters.  distant from them, and placed as a cisterne in the lowest part of the of the Abdomen, they are also thought to giue to the vrine a kinde of alteration; but more manifest it is that they do good seruice in freeing the kidnies from the burden of grauell, or of the stone to which all ages and sexes are very prone and subiect.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Blader.  
_THe bladder of vrine called in Greeke 〈◇〉 of a word that signifieth to hide, because it hideth the vrine, is seated in the hypogastrium, which therefore we cal 
The bladder.  the watercourse, in that hollownes[ Table vi. lib. ii. H. tab. ii. g. tab. ii. lib. iv. γ.] which is made by the holy bone, the hip bones and the share bones meeting together, all which cauitie is taken vp by the bladder( for it is a large cistern or vessell) and the right gut, close to which the necke of the bladder lieth connected or fastened. In women the bladder lieth betweene the wombe[ Tab. vi. lib. 4. T. sheweth the 
The scituatiō.  bladder, L the wombe, but Tab. xxvii. of this booke s shewes the bladder and p the womb,] and the share bone, as well because the draining vessels for the excrements of aliment are most conueniently placed in the lower parts for their easier euacuation, as also because of the entrails seruing for nourishmēt, that those which are the most noble might haue the vpplace. These bones also are ordained for defence of a part so verie necessarie, and of so exquisite sense, albeit the cauity which they make, was made for other vses, of which wee will heare more heereafter. His seate is betweene the two coates of the Peritonaeum 

Between the two coates of the Peritonaeum.  
Diocles.   which make as it were a particular venter( whence haply it was that Diocles diuided the bodie into the head, the chest, the belly, and the bladder) vnder the Sharebone when it is empty; and in Dissection it can scarsely bee found at the first view, for it exceedeth not the greatnes of a reasonable peare, but when it is full it is stretched out into the hollownesse of the very belly, and may be felt aboue the groine.  
The bottome and the fore-part are tyed to the Peritonaeum,[ Tab. vi, lib 2, I. Table 2, *] 
The connexion.  but loosely by two ties. The first is a Ligament[ Table vi, lib 2, b. Table 2, 1. Table xxiii, fig. 7. 8. γγ.] originally arising from[ tab. xxiii. fig. 7. 8. Q] his bottome and carried to the nauill,[ ta. xxiii. fig. 7. 8. γ.] which they cal Vrachus in the infant. And this ligament is fastened to the middle of the bladder. The other tie is of two vmbilical[ tab. vi. lib. 2. a d, tab. 2. k. l. tab. xxiii. fig. 7. 8. x.] arteries dryed, that when a man goes vpright, it might fall vpon his owne necke and so hinder his execretion. In dogges the bottome of it groweth not to the Peritonaeum, but hangeth by a certaine processe, moreouer in them it is very white, smoth at the bottome and slipperie, as it is also on the inside[ tab. xxii. fig. 1. ε.] and lined ouer with a waterish humour.  
His figure is long, a little round,[ tab. xxii. fig. 3. 7. 8. fig. 2. ε tab. 23. Q] which some haue likned 
The figure.  to a sphere, some to a gourd; for if it were round as a bowle is roūd, it wold be too much pressed by the parts that lie about it. It is hollow that it might receiue a great quantitie of liquor & frō a large bottom by degrees growing narrower it endeth in a streight neck, wherfore the parts of the bladder are two, the body and the necke. The substance of it is partly 
The part of the bladder. The substance  membranous or neruous, both for the commodious extēsion because it is often to be filled & to conteine the vrine, that we might not alwayes be constrained, but within conuenient time to yeeld it forth; and for his corrugation or knitting vp together after euacuation: 
The membranes 3. One common.  Partly also the substance is fleshie. It hath three membrances, one common and two proper. The common is the vtter and is from the Peritonaeum, a strong and thicke one, wherewith it is couered ouer and strengthened, that though it be distended with aboundance of water it should not be broken or rent; by this also it is tyed in men to the right gut, and in women to the necke[ Tab. xxvii. t is the necke of the bladder inserted into the necke of the wombe aboue the priuities at u; Tab. viii. lib. 4. fig. 1. 0. the neck of the bladder, and fig. 3. c the necke of the bladder, and d the neck of the wombe] of the matrix or wombe, and to the bones of the hippes which are next vnto it.  
The two proper membranes ioyned together are nowe thicker now thinner, as they are 
Two proper.  distended or angustated or streightned; which in the vppermost part of the bottome and about the necke because of the insertion of the vreters are harder and thicker. The inner of these is transparent, very white, thinne, neruous, wouen exceeding thicke with all kind of neruous fibres, as also are all other membranes which stand in neede to be much distended and contracted. The right fibres are inmost, the transuerse outmost, the oblique in 
The fibres of the inner mēbrane.  the middle according to the order of the functions as they say of attraction, retention and expulsion; which wee say are ordayned for the better conteyning and expelling of the vrine.  
This inner membrane if the bladder be a little blowne, may be separated from the vtter. But that this fine membrane be not hurt by the acrimonie of the vrine because it is of exquisite sense, the inner cauitie of his bottome is rugous and ful of folds and plights, and mucous or slimie,( some say this slime is a kind of Fibrous substance) or rather it is defended with a crusty coate engendered of the excrements of the third concoction of the bladder. The vtter of the proper membranes is thicker, sprinkled with fleshy fibres, yet not red as are the fibres in the muscles, but whitish such as appeare in the coates of the stomacke, and the guts: such they seeme because they are placed betweene white membranes: although sometimes by affluxion or affluence of blood they become so conspicuous, that a man would say it were a fleshy membrane.  
It hath these fibres as well for the preseruation not onely of the heate which otherwise 
The vse of the fibres.  would bee very weake; but also of the vrine from falling by the fibres of the inner membranes much distended in repletion: so, that these fibres being contracted or drawn toward their originall by like little Muscles; by strengthening the bladder, which by the helpe of these knits itself together, it might exclude or shut out euen the least thinges conteyned therein.  
It hath three holes or perforated passages, two in the backward and lower part a little 
The passage.  before it end in the necke, where the insertion of the Vreters[ Tab: xxii, fig: 1, Ψ, Tab. viii, figure 1, H] betwixt the two proper coates, by which the Vrine driuen downe from the kidneyes, is of it owne accord powred into it, not by resudation or sweating through, but by open passages.[ Tab: viii, lib. 4. fig. 1 M] To which( that the Vrine might not recoile or flow backe, no nor the very winde when the bladder is distended) beside the oblique insertion 
Tab. xxiii. demonstrateth the Muscles of the yard, of the Fundament and of the Bladder, and the three bodies of the yard.  
The first and second Figures shew the yard excoriated, cleauing yet to the bottome of the share bone.  
The third sheweth the same separated with his Vessels.  
The fourth and fifth, the yarde cut away, and Dissected ouerthwart.  
The sixt, the Canell or pipe of the yard, diuided at the entrance into the bladder.  
The seauenth, the fore-part of the bladder and the yarde, together with the vmbilicall vessels.  
The eight figure sheweth the bladder of a woman with the vmbilicall vessels, and a part of the vreters.  
The ninth sheweth the backe parts of the bodies of the yard.  
TABVLA XXIII.  
FIG I  
II  
III.  
IV  
V  
VI  
VII  
IIX  
IX.  

A B, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9. The two bodyes that make the yard.  
C C, 2, 3. The place where these two bodies do arise.  
D, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9. The nut of the Yarde, called glans Penis.  
E E, 4: 5. The foungous and red substance of the bodies of the yard.  
F, 4. 5. The mutual connexion of the bodies of the yarde, and the neruous outward substance of the same, compassing round about the former fungous substance.  
G, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9. The passage of the vrine, or the common pipe running vnder the yard all along his length.  
H I, 1, 2. The first paire of Muscles of the yarde which in the first figure doe yet grow to it, but in the second they hāg from their originall.  
K, L, 1, 2. The second paire of the Muscles of the yard; in the first figure growing to, in the second hanging from their insertion.  
M 1, 2. The sphincter of the right gut.  
N, 3, 7. 8, 9. The round sphincter muscle of the bladder.  
O O. A Membrane which is ouer the holes of the share bone.  
P 2. A round Ligament from the Coxae vnto thehead of the thigh.  
Q. 3, 7, 8. The body of the bladder.  
R, 3, 7. The Prostatae into which the seede when it is perfectly laboured is led.  
S S, 3, 8. Portions of the vreters.  
TT 3. Portions of the vessels which lead downe the seede.  
V V, 7, 8. The vmbilicall Arteries.  
X 7. 8. The Ligament of the bladder called Vrachus.  
Y 7, 8. The nauell or vmbilicus.  
Z, 7, 8. The vmbilicall veine.  
a a 7. The veine and artery of the yard.  
b 5. The Artery distributed through the body of the yard.   of the Vreters, there is set on either side a smal Membrane or value, after the maner of the leather latches of Bellowes; but this is an improper acceptation of a Value.  
The third passage or the outlet of the bladder, yeeldeth way vnto the vrine, and is in the necke which is long enough, but straight, conueyed vnder the Share-bones, and placed 
The outlet of the bladder.  vnder the substances or bodies of the Yard, and therefore a little crooked, and is carried vpward from the Fundament vnto the beginning of the virile Member, to make his pipe or hollow Canell, and common passage.  
In women this outlet is shorter[ Table xxiii, fig: 8. about n] and broader[ Table xxvii, t] carried right downeward, and is inserted into the necke of the Matrixe at the vtter and vpper end. Through this passage women auoide their vrine; men both their vrine and their seede, therefore men haue behind it[ Tab. xxii, fig: 2, nn Tab: xxiii, fig: 3, 7, R] two Glandules placed, called by Galen prostatae, thicke and white, receyuing the insertion of the Vessels, 
Gal. 16. vsu part. Cap. 9.  which leade the seede called vasa deferentia.  
The necke of the bladder is most what fleshy wouen with many Fibres, some right vnder 
The necke of the bladder.  which lye hid transuerse also, which are placed at the beginning of this neck aboue the saide Glandules, and do contract it so, that the Vrine cannot drop out against our willes in any compression of the Abdomen, and strong retention of the breath; wherefore from the vse it is called the Sphincter Muscle, and from the Figure of the Greeke Letter sigma, sigmoides. These Fibres being loosened not without a voluntary and strong compression of 
The similitude of the bladder.  the Muscles of the Abdomen and the Diaphragma, the vrine eyther by his quantity or quality and acrimony prouoking the bladder, is with contention or strife pissed forth: for if the vrine runne against our will, and without feeling, it is because the Muscle is either paralyticall, or too much cooled. But if this compression of the vpper parts againe do cease, the Fibres are contracted, and so the drops or remainders that continue yet in the passage are expelled.  
If any man would see this transuerse Muscle lying betweene the right Fibres of the vtter coate and adioyned to the body of the glandules, hee must boyle the bladder lightly, or as we say parboyle it.  
Furthermore below the glandules there are to be seen certaine transuerse fibres encompassing[ table xxii. figure 2 θ, table xxiii. figure 3. 7. 8. 9. n] the canale or passage which Anatomists haue hitherto shewed for the sphincter. But if these were so, then seede coulde neuer passe without the vrine, as it hapneth in the Gonorrhaea or running of the Reines; for in the accompanying of a man with a woman, the muscle in this part must needes bee dilated, which being so, the vrine together with the seede must needes fall away, as it commeth to passe in them that want the vpper sphincter.  
His vessels are veines, arteries, and sinewes; the veines and arteries are on both hands 
The vessels of the bladder. Veines.  at the sides of the necke, that they might not be carried farre without a conuoy, and might bee also safely inserted; and are doubly diuided; one part of them is distributed into the whole bladder with many small threds. The other part which is the greater in man because of the yarde, and the lesser in women is carried downeward according to the descent of the necke. The veines serue for his nutrition, for it is not nourished with vrine, neither doth it as the Kidneyes receiue any portion of bloud with the vrine, but onely the pure excrement, and therefore stands in need of proper veines for his nourishment. The Arteries 
Arteries.  serue for the recreation and refreshment of the life and heate: both of them proceede from the doubly diuided Hypogastricall braunch[ table 8. u u] of the hollow veine and great Arterie: wherefore in the inflamation of the bladder the inner ankle veine is to be opened, 
A good obseruation.  but in women they arise from the vessels which come vnto the necke of the Matrix.  
It hath notable Nerues from the branches of the sixt coniugation which reach to the 
Nerues.  rootes of the ribs and from the marrow of the holy-bone, that the sence of excretion might bee stirred vp at those thinges which molest it; whence also come those exceeding sharpe paines that a man suffers when it is vlcerated, or but raw  
His vse is to receiue like a bottle not only the vrine, which is the excrement of the moist 
The vse of the bladder.  Aliment, by degrees strayned through the Kidneyes and brought downe by the vreters; but also all dry excrements of which the stone is ingendered; which excrements the bladder doth not draw downe, but they are partly put downe by the kidneyes, partly they fall with their owne waight and of their owne accord, whence some call it the vrinall of the body. It also by constriction of the passage keepeth the water till a fit time of excretion, which it doth with a faculty mixed, that is partly Naturall and partly Animall, but the retention belongeth more properly to the Animall faculty, and the expulsion or excretion to the Naturall.   

Of the Fundament. CHAP. XVII.  
_NExt to the Bladder lyeth the Fundament called in Latin Podex and anus, in Greeke 〈◇〉. It is the end of the right gut[ table 6. Figure ii, iii, a] 
3. muscles of the Fundament. 1. Sphincter.  and hath belonging to it three muscles.  
The first is called the Sphincter[ table 24. Figure 1. ●] a round muscle( whence it is called also the Ringe) cōpassing about the end of the right gut to hinder the exiture of the excrements. for it shutteth the passage so close that not so much as any winde can get out. This affordeth a beginning[ table 23. figure 1 2. M] to the muscles[ table 23. Figure 1, H I] of the yarde. The other two muscles are called 
The first Figure sheweth a part of the right gut, with his Muscles cut from the body, which par●twen we take away the guts, wee vse to leaue.  
TABVLA XXIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
1  
2.  
3.  
4.  
5.  

A. A part of the right gut, about which a string is tyed.  
BC. Two Muscles drawing vp the fundament after excretion.  
D. A Musculous substance which groweth to the roote of the yarde, but in women it io ineth to the very lower part of their lap.  
E The Sphincter or round Muscle of the Fundament.   Leuatores ani[ table 6. Figure 2. 3. b c table 24. figure 1. B C] the lifters of the fundament. 
2. 3. Leuatores.  They are inserted into the vtter coate of the gut, and into the vpper part of the sphincter,[ table 24. figure 1. E] and grow also to the roote of the yarde and the necke of the wombe.[ table 24. Figure 1. D.] Their vse is after excretion to retract the Fundament, and if they be weakned, men are constrayned to vse their fingers to doe that office; but because we shall speake more of these muscles in another place, this at this time shall bee sufficient.   

The Muscles and Nerues scituated in the cauitie of the lower Belly. CHAP. XVIII.  
_BEside the Muscles of the Abdomen mentioned and but mentioned in the ninth Chapter of the second Booke, and the muscles of the Fundament named in the former Chapter, there are also other muscles appearing in the lower belly when the parts aboue named are remoued. And those are two paires lying vpon the spondels or rack-bones. The first is the sixt muscle moouing the thigh or the first of his benders, they are called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine Lumbales. The second is the seauenth mouing the thigh or the second 
Lumbales. Iliacus internus  of his benders, and it is called Iliacus internus the inward flanke Muscle, of which wee shall heare more in the history of the muscles of the thigh.  
At the sides of the loynes on either hand is a portion of the broade muscle called Latissimus, which draweth the arme backeward and downeward, vnder which lyeth the square 
Latissimus. Quadratus. Obturator internus.  muscle called Quadratus, which is the first muscle of the back. But in the very denne or cauity itself is the muscle of the thigh, according to Vesalius, called obturator internus, and it is the second muscle of those that turne the thigh about.  
There are also two sorts of nerues dispersed through the lower belly. Some proceeding 
The nerues of the lower belly.  from the sixt paire of the marrow of the braine, from which are distributed branches to all the entralles herein contayned, of which wee haue spoken particularly in the particular historie, 
2 2. kinds of the loynes of the Holy-bone. O● the loynes  yet their production and continuation shall bee better insisted vppon afterward. Other sinewes there are arising from the marrow of the backe, as it is contayned in the rackebones of the Loynes and the holy-bone; wherfore these nerues are of 2. sorts, some of the loyns others of the holy-bone: Of the loynes sometimes foure sometimes fiue paire, of the 
4 4. or 5. paire. Of the Holy-bone 5. paire.  holy-bone alwayes fiue payre, of which we shall entreate in their proper place.   

The Bones of the lower Belly. CHAP. XIX.  
_THE Bones which together with the fleshy partes doe make the lower Belly, although they compasse not the belly round about as the other two Regions are compassed, yet are there some of them on his back part, some on his sides, and some before. On the pack part are the Loynes, the Holy-bone, and the Rumpe.  
Of the Loynes there are fiue rack-bones[ table 25. Figure 1, 2, from b to c] which are knit together with Cartilages and thicke ligaments, and aboue are tyed with the spondels 
The bones on the back part. Lumborum vertebrae. 〈◇〉, Their processes [ table 25. Figure 2. a] of the Chest, below they rest vpon the Holy-bone.[ table 25. figure 1, 2. c.] The first of these Loyne racks is called 〈◇〉 from the Kidneyes which leane vppon it, the last some haue called 〈◇〉, that is the Vnder-propper.  

The first figure sheweth the fore-part of the Bones of the lower Belly. The second figure, the back-part. The third, fourth, and fift shew one of the fiue racke-bones of the Loynes, the third the fore-part, the fourth the backe-part, and the fift the side.  
TABVLA. XXV.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
III  
IV  
V   
They haue ascendent processes[ table 25. figure, 4, 5,] descendent[ table 25. Figure 4. N] and transuerse,[ table 25. Figure 2, C C Figure 3, 4, 5, H] the sharp end of which they call the spine[ table 25. Fig. 
The Spine.  3, 4, 5. C D.]  
The Holy-bone called 
Os sacrum.  〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉, that is, the broad bone, is made of sixe spondels[ tab, xxv, Figure ii. from c to d, table xxvi. Figure 6. from A to B.]  
The Rumpe bone called 
Os Coccygis.  〈◇〉 ξ, or Os Coccygis[ tab. xxv. Figure 1, 2, d, table 26, Fig. 8, 9.] it consisteth of three or foure bones[ table 26. Fig, 6, 7, from G to K] and two gristles; one, where it is ioyned to the Holy-bone[ table 26, Figure 6, 7, a] the other at his end or beake,[ table xxvi, Figure 7, c] sometimes also between his first and second bone,  
At the sides of the lower 
The bones on the sides.  belly there are twoe bones, whose vpper and broader parts committed to the Holy-bone,[ table xxvi. Fig, 13. A B, CC, DD,] are called ossa Ilium; 
Ossa Ilium. [ table xxv, Figure 1. mm, table 26, Figure 13. aboue T at s] the hanch bone, and their circumference is called Spina ossis Ilii.[ table 25, Figure 1, 2, ii, table 26. 13. H L M N.] The lower and vtter parts of these bones are called ossa Coxendicis[ table 25. Figure 1. n n tab, 26, 
Ossa Coxendicis  
The sixt Figure sheweth the fore-part of the Holybone, together with the rumpe bone. The seuenth figure the back part. The eight the rumpe of a man. The ix. the rumpe of a woman. The x. and xi. the fore-part and back-part of the Holy & rump bones of an Ape. The xii. the foreside, the xiii, the inside, the xiiii, the outside of the great haunchbone, the xv the gristle betwixt the share bones of a man, the xvi. the same in a Woman.  
TABVLA XXVI.  
FIG. VI.  
VII.  
X  
XI  
XIII  
IX  
IIX  
XII  
XIV  
XV. XVI.   
Fig. xiii, below T and F vnto R and P] or the Hippe bone, which hath in it a notable boxe or cup[ table xxvi, fig 12, 14, a b c] whereinto the head of the thigh is copulated.  
Finally, the bones in the fore-part of the lower belly 
Ospubies.  are called Ossapubis,[ Tab: xxv, fig. 1, 2, PP. Tab: xxvi, Fig: xiii, xiiii. that which is below ● and θ] the Sharebones; they are tyed together in the middest of the share with a Cartilage[ tab. xxvi, Figure. xv,] they are very thinne, and haue the greatest perforation of the whole body.[ Table xxv. fig 1, 2, QQ. Table xxvi, fig, xii, xiii, xiiii, Q] These bones, together with the Holybone, make that peluis or Dish 
Peluis.  which conteyneth part of the guts, the bladder, and the wombe, marked in the xxv. & Table in the first figure.  
Of all which, wee haue heere giuen you but a view, reseruing the fuller Discourse vnto our Booke of Bones.   

CHAP. XX. Of the Brests or Paps.  
_ALthough the brests or paps are not conteyned in the lower Venter or compas 
The reason why the Discourse of the brests is here placed.  of the Abdomen, yet as before the Gullet, so now these, because they be parts which serue chiefly for nourishment, wee haue thought this place fittest for their history. But because there is nothing so much vse of them in men as in women, therefore we will first intreat of the breastes or paps of women, and then of men.  
The Breasts therefore are called in Latine Mammae, in Greeke by Hippocrater 〈◇〉, by 
Their Names  Aristotle 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉, which signifieth to seeke, because in them Infants seeke their nourishment euen by a naturall instinct: Galen cals them 〈◇〉. No creatures haue paps but such as can beget a perfect creature. And amongst those that haue them, none haue them 
What Creatures haue Breasts.  set afore in the middest of their Chest but onely a man, and indeede this place is most fit for them. For being made for the milke sake which they containe, it behooued they should be seated in that place where soonest and with most ease, because of the neighbour-hoode of the heart which is the shop of heate, the blood might be altred and laboured thereinto; and where also the greatest quantity of the benigne and pleasant superfluity of the norishment may be gathered.  
Moreouer, this scituation serueth also for more convenient suckling. For because the infant cannot go, it is necessary that it should bee embraced in the handes and armes of the 
The scituatiō.  Nurse; being so embraced it can apply itselfe to no place so fitly as to this; & out of doubt our wise Creator by this position of the brests did set a marke of distinction betweene man and beast, for beasts do onely nourish their young, but afterwards neglect them: but men doe transfuse out of their heart into their young ones 〈◇〉, that is a naturall affection, 
The piety of parents.  which the Latines hauing not beene able shortly to expresse, haue called Pious loue, or piety. For the Mother doth not onely nourish her Infants, but embraceth them and kisseth them; and so loue being neuer forgotten, at length growes reciprocall and mutuall. But least the heauy breasts should flagge downe too lowe because a woman goes alwaies vpright, 
Why two.  they are knit and tyed by their whole basis or bottome to the bony part of the chest. They are two,( euen as the whole body almost is diuided into two partes) that like good handmaides they might serue their dame the wombe, which itself is as it were parted into two; for the Milke doth not come vnto the brests, till the infant be throughly perfected. And that if there be two Infants, yet they may both at once haue wherewith to satisfy and nourish them; and therefore those creatures which accustomably bring forth more young, haue also more dugges to suckle them with. But if there had beene but one fastened to the 
Why not one  middle of the Chest, neyther would the blood haue gotten so well to it, because it should haue had one continuated bone vnder it which we call the breast bone; and beside the infant could not haue bin so handsomly applyed vnto it.  
Their forme is somewhat round, they are hardish, and are seuered asunder by a middle 
Their Figure.  distance, and in virgins before they be fit to conceyue they are imperfect, so that scarse any thing appeares of them but Nipples; but as they grow fitter and fitter for conception, they begin to strut out, become hard and like pleasant Apples, whereupon Aristophanes calles them 〈◇〉. They represent as it were a halfe bowle, and when they arise two fingers high, then commonly the monthly courses begin to flow. In women that haue neuer conceiued, they remaine knit and as it were gathered vp, but they grow as the belly and infant in those 
Their magnitude.  that be with childe. When the Infant is perfect and that the time of deliuerance draweth neere, they swell proportionably as much as the wombe: for there is gre●●●● sent betweene them by the mediation of vessels, as we shall heare afterward. This consent appeareth, when the infant in the wombe either is not well,( for if it be weake, the breasts are full of milke before their time, sayth Hippocrates) or perisheth. Neyther is it maruell, seeing 
Howe the Breasts shew the weaknesse of the Infant.  their officies haue so great affinity, for the wombe was made to receiue the seede, and to perfect the creature, and the breasts to nourish it, being brought into the worlde. Also when the infant begins to mooue, then beginne they to rise, and the nipples to strut: and moreouer the infant is lodged on that side where the brest growes greater, whether it bee the right or the left.  
In fat folke they are greater, and in some because of their great weight they hang lowe downe, as it is common among the women of Ireland, who neuer vse to tye vp their brests. In some they grow euen to a monstrous greatnesse as long as they giue sucke and fal afterward. In olde women they be long and flaccid or loose, so that in extreame age the Kernels 
Irish women haue long and flagging Breasts.  and the fat being consumed, onely the skin and the nipples do remaine; sometimes, in such people they are knit wrinkingly vpward.  
The parts of the breastes are externall or internall: without, they are cloathed with the 
The parts of the Breasts.  Slough or Cuticle and the true skin, in the middle is the nipple, of which afterward: the internal, are the fleshy Membrane or panicle, the vessels, the kernelly substance and the Far. The Membrane investeth their glandulous substance and their fat and knitteth them vnto the Muscles vnderneath by certaine Fibres sent thorough their substance, betweene which Membrane and the skin are the vessels, the Glandules or Kernels and the fat dispersed.  
Their Vessels are two sorts of veines[ table 27, α β.] The first are cutanious proceeding from the branch of the Axillarie & Humeratie veins which often look very blew, especially 
Their vessels. Their outward Veynes.  in women with child and in nurses, and are distributed into the skinne of the Chest and into the breasts. Their inward veines are about the rootes, which doe not arise from the trunk of the hollow veine at the Diaphragma, but when the hollow veine hath first attained 
Their inward Veynes.  to the heart and thence to the coller or patell bones, it lendeth two braunches accompanied with two Arteries downward through the whole Chest, and two veines from them are inserted into the Paps, which therefore go so long a iourney that in them the bloud might be perfectly boyled; for as it goeth vpward it passeth by the heart, and againe descending it is mooued and wrought by the motion of the Thorax or Chest which helpeth his more perfect concoction; and these are called the Mammarie or Pap-veines and Arteries.  
The Mammarie descending veine commonly ariseth one on each side from the trunke 
The mammary Veyne.  of the veine called sub clauia, that is, the veine vnder the coller-bones which are called claues or clauiculae, and is carried vnder the breast-bone close by the gristles of the ribs, & getting out of the Chest, is vnder the right muscles of the Abdomen about the nauell inoculated by Anastomosis with the Epigastricke veine( which ariseth from the same braunch with those which are propagated to the matrix and the necke thereof) which creepeth vpward 
The Anastomosis of the mammary veines with the Epigastrick  vnder the right muscles with certaine small tendrils. From the Mammarie veine betwixt the fourth and the fift ribbes, sometimes higher sometimes lower, there are sent certaine outward boughes through the middle spaces of the Cartilages which ioyne the ribs to the breast bone; in men for the nourishing of the interior muscles; but in women( in whome sometimes they perforate the very breast-bone itself) both for the nourishment of those muscles, as also to carry the matter of the Milke to the glandules of the breasts in those that giue sucke and to nourish the breastes, for through them an infinite number of webs of veines are deriued, which nature hath endowed with faculty of Milke-making. By these vesselles sayeth Bauhine( although others are of other minds) is made the consent betweene 
The consent betweene the wombe and the breasts.  the wombe and the breasts( which is so great that onely contrectation of them wil prouoke lust) which are by them ioyned as it were together, so that when the Infant groweth in the wombe, certaine common veines arising from them both doe affoord it nourishment; and when the Infant is born, that attraction of bloud ceasing which was strong whilst the Infant remayned in the wombe, all the ouerplus of bloud floweth towardes the breasts, and the breasts like cupping glasses doe draw and pul it backward and from below. For Hippocrates sayth. The Milk commeth from the wombe to the breastes, which after the 
The milk cōmeth from the womb to the breasts. How it is that the breasts draw more bloud then is needfull for their owne nourishment. Why a milk nurse hath not her courses.  birth is to be the nourishment of the Infant; and when the woman hath brought forth, the beginning of the motion being once made, that is, if she haue once giuen sucke; the Milk is carried with full streame to the breasts. And this it doth not only voluntarily, but the Paps draw more bloud then their nourishment requireth: which traction or drawing is caused by the Infants sucking, by the amplitude of the vesselles, by the motion of the Pappes, and for the auoyding of vacuity or emptinesse: for the veines being exhausted by sucking, doe draw bloud into themselues on euery side.  
Hence it is that a woman cannot well at the same time haue her courses and giue sucke, and Hippocrates sayth that milke is German Cousen to the menstruous blood. But to speak as the thing is; the bloud is not carried to the Pappes so much by reason of this consent of vessels, as that when the motion of the bloud from the whole body to the wombe ceaseth, then the whole body exonerateth or emptieth itself into the glandules of the breastes. Wherefore their substance like that of a sponge is very rare or porous, that they might bee able to receiue the greater quantity of liquor.  
There are also internall Mammarie Arteries from the vpper trunke of the great Artery, which doe accompany the veines and are ioyned with some branches of the ascendent Epigastricks. 
The mammary arteries. The nerues of the breasts.  It hath nerues from the sinewes of the Chest which are carried through the skinne partly to the nipples; but the thicker nerue is that which commeth to the nipple from the first nerue of the Chest, and doeth communicate thereto exquisite sence, and is the cause of the pleasure conceiued by their contrectation.  
The Glandules or Kernels( which they call in Latin mamillae or mammae, or rather glandulous 
The Glandules of the breasts.  bodies) which make the body[ table 27. 〈◇〉,] or bulke of the Pap, are the greatest of the whole body, white, and do not as in most of the other creatures make one body, but are many and distinct, spongious and rare or porous that they might better drawe the Aliment vnto them and conuert it into milke; of these one is the greatest, placed vnder the nipple, and about it are set all the other small ones which cleaue to the muscles of the Thorax or Chest.  
Among these are infinite vesselles with many windings and turnings wouen together, that the bloud before in the veines and arteries perfected & receiued by the breasts, might in these boughts and turnings through the glandulous bodies, bee conuerted into milke, which is a surplusage of profitable Aliment.  
These Glandules in Virgins are hard, in women with Child especially such as haue giuen suck when they are ful of milke they strut more, afterward they grow flacced and loose, and are as it were consumed. About these is a certaine fat disposed, that it might cherish the heate of the vessels and glandules and also make the breasts equall. But that the milke that is ingendered in the breasts might better passe out, the breastes are foreward acuminated or sharpned, and that it might not runne at wast but the Infant get it out by sucking, 
The smal outlets of the breasts.  they haue exceeding narrow and straight outlets which are perceiued when the breast head 
Tab. 27. sheweth the breast of a woman, with the skin flayed off. For the rest of the Table belongeth to another place.  

αα. The Veines of the Paps comming from those veynes which are brought from the top of the shoulder to the skinne.  
β The Veines of the Pappes comming from those Veynes which thorough the arme-hole passe into the hand.  
γ The body of the pap.  
〈◇〉 The Glandules or Kernelles of the paps, together with the fat amongest them.  
〈◇〉 The Mammarie vesselles descending from the Patell bones vnder the brest bone.   is pressed that the Milke spinneth out, but especially when the Nipples are vlcerated in a woman that giueth sucke. And because the childe cannot take holde of the Pap itself to sucke out of it, therfore Nature hath prouided the nipples to stand out, as it were the heads 
The Nipples.  and teates of the breastes, which the Infant may enclose with his lips, and lap his tongue about them, and so draw the Milke through the outlet or passage. But least this nipple or teate should euer and anon slip out of the childs mouth, it is made rough and rugous, and more vnequall then the rest of the skin.  
Plato calleth it 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉 to bud forth, in Latine Papilla, because it is like a Papula, that 
Why rugged.  is, a pimple, whelke, or wheale. It is of a fungous or Mozy substance, somewhat like that of the yard, whence it is that by touching or sucking it groweth stiffe, and after will againe grow more flaccid or loose. In virgins this teate standeth not much out from the brest, & is red and vnequall, very like a strew-bery; in Nurses, because of the childes sucking, it groweth longer and blewer: in old folkes it is long and blackish.  
About this teate is a circle, called in Latine Areola, in Greeke 〈◇〉, we know no English 
The circle of the Teate.  name it hath, vnlesse we call it the ring of the Pap, but in Virgins it is pale or whitish, in women with childe and nurses it is duskish, in olde women blacke, and the skin more rugous and vnequall.  
From the disease of the Wombe it is also sometimes yellow, sometimes blacke. For Hippocrates saith, a man may iudge of the wombe by the colour of the Nipples, for if the 
A good note for women.  nipple or his ring which was wont to be red grow pale, then is the womb affected. The colour of the nipples and the ring about them is also often made duskish and black by setting 
The cuill euent of drawing glasses to the Nipples.  drawing glasses, drawing heades or such like vppon them to make them stand out that the Infant may take them, which may notwithstanding bee preuented if care be had.  
The proper vse of the breasts, is to be a Magazine or Store-house of meate for the Mothers owne childe, or, that in them so long milke should bee generated, as the Infant for his 
The vse of the breasts.  nourishment should stand in neede of it. For whereas it was accustomed in the wombe to be nourished by the Mothers blood conueyed vnto it by the vmbilicall veines, it cannot so suddenly change that liquid for more solid nourishment, for it could not digest it, because when it is newe borne, it is but tender and weake; beside sudden changes are very daungerous, wherefore it had neede of such a nourishment, as should not be too remote from the nature of blood: and that it might more easily bee nourished, should also bee liquid, sweete, and after a sort familiar vnto it; but such is milke which is made in the brests. For so in growne men and women, the Aliments are in the stomacke turned into Chylus, which is a Creame or substance like vnto Milke. Wherefore according to Galen, the first and chiefe vse of the brests, is the generation of Milke, that they may be ashamed, who for nicity and delicacie do forfeite this principal vse of these excellent parts, and make them onely stales or bauds of lust.  
A Secondary vse of them, is in respect of their scituation, that they might be a kinde of couering and defence for the heart, and that themselues hauing receyued heate and cherrishment from the heart, might again returne vnto it warmth, such as we get by garments we buckle about vs; especially this vse is manifest in women, in whom these breasts growe oftentimes into a great masse or waight, so as they being farre colder then men, their Entrals vnder the Hypochondria are warmed by them. It may also be added, that they are giuen for ornament of the Chest, and for a mans pleasure, as is partly touched before.  
Hippocrates in his booke de Glandulis addeth another vse of the Pappes, that is to receiue excrementitious moysture: for if sayeth Hippocrates any disease or other euent, take away a 
Note this.  womans Pappes, her voyce becommeth shriller, she proueth a great spitter, and is much troubled with payne in her head.  
And thus much of the Pappes of women. Now men likewise haue Paps by Nature allowed 
The Paps of Men.  them, scituated also in the middle of the breast, and lying vpon the first muscle of the arme called Pectoralis. They are two, a right and a left, but they rise little aboue the skinne( as they doe in women) because they haue scarcely any Glandules, for they were not ordayned to conuert or conteine milke. Yet we do not deny but in them is generated a humour 
What humor is in them.  like to milke, which Aristotle in the xii. booke of his historie of Creatures cals Milk, but it will not at all nourish, albeit we haue seene it in some men something plentifull.  
The Pappes of Men are compounded of skin, fat, and nipples, which appeare yea sometimes hang forth in them because of the abundant fat which in corpulent bodies is more about that place then in any part of the Chest beside: the nipples of men are somewhat fungous 
Their composition.  and also perforated.  
They haue Veines, Arteries, and Nerues, for their nourishment, life and sence.  
Their vse is to defend the heart as with a Target or Buckler; or it may bee sayed, that they are giuen for ornament, that the breast should not be without some representation in 
Their Vses.  it. The Nipples are the Center in which the veines and nerues doe determine, which also are therein conioyned.  
And heere we will put an end to the History of Parts belonging to Nutrition or Nourishment, and prosecute our intent to discusse the Controuersies and Questions vvhich may arise concerning them.    

A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Contouersies concerning the parts belonging to Nutrition  

QVESTION I. Whether the Guttes haue any common Attractiue faculty.  
_THE Physitians of old time haue beene at great difference among themselues, whether the Guttes haue onely an expulsiue faculty, or all those foure which serue as Hand-maydes to Nourishment, the Drawing, Reteyning, Assimulating, and Expelling. The occasion of the strife was giuen by certaine places of the Greekes and Arabians which were of doubtful construction; for sometimes they acknowledge those foure faculties, sometimes deny them. Our purpose is to skanne and fan this question as near as we can, beginning our disputation at the Attractiue or drawing faculty. But because wee would not be puzled in the equiuocall or want way betwixt a Faculty and Action: it shall not bee amisse to sticke downe some stakes, to lay some foundations for our better direction: such are these.  
Of Actions some are Common or Officiall, others Priuate or peculiar. The common actions were ordained either for the behoofe of the whole, or at least for more partes then 

Two kinds of actions.  
Common or officiall.   one. So the Liuer doeth sanguifie the Aliment, not for his owne vse alone, but for the nourishment of the whole body. The Heart and the Braine doe ingender Vitall and Animall spirits, to giue life and sence to the whole man; not onely for their owne particular and priuate vse. The stomacke chylifieth the meate, not for itself( though it take some pleasure in it) but for the Liuer. The Spleene, the Bladder of Gall, and the Kidneyes, do not draw the melancholy iuyce, the fiery choler, and the whaey vrine for their owne nourishment, but to depurate and cleanse the Liuer and masse of bloud: wherefore these Actions are called Officiall, because they serue and minister vnto many.  
Priuate Actions or peculiar, are such as serue onely for the conseruation of priuate and 
Priuate or particular.  peculiar partes. So the Stomacke beside his Chylification hath also a particular Action whereby it intendeth his owne proper nourishment, drawing, reteyning and concocting bloud familiar vnto itself and expelling the reliques of the same. These things are so notoriously knowne to all men that they neede no curious demonstation.  
Another foundation to be layde is this: that for peculiar and priuate Traction and expulsion, 
There is no need of fibres to the performance of priuate actions.  there is no neede of the helpe of fibres, but onely for the common and officiall; because the priuate is accomplished alwayes without locall motion, but the common with it either alwayes or for the most part. Bones, Gristles, and Ligaments, doe draw and expell without any contraction of fibres; for who euer obserued them to moue in their traction? But as the Load-stone although it moue not, by an inbred and occult proprietie draweth yron; and plants which sticke immoueably in the earth, doe suck and draw out of the same earth a iuyce familiar vnto their nature: after the same manner the particular and singular partes of the body out of the masse of bloud by a proprietie of their owne, doe draw and drinke into themselues a proper and peculiar nourishment. But the common and officiall traction or expulsion, because they are almost alwayes made with locall motion doe therefore stand in need of the help of fibres. So the motion of the hart although it be naturall, yet is not accomplished without the helpe of fibres, for in his diastole or distention, it draweth by right fibres blood through the hollow veine into the right ventricle and ayre by the veynall Artery into the left; againe by the transverse it expelleth spirits, blood and fumed vapors. In like manner the wombe by right fibres draweth the seed of man, and by transuerse is contracted for the exclusion or birth of the Infant.  
These foundations being layde, the state of the question standeth thus. When it is demanded 
The state of the question.  whether the Guttes haue any attractiue facultie, wee doe not enquire about the priuate and peculiar Attraction of the guttes for that is beyond controuersie, considering that life is sustained by nutrition, which is alwaies accompanied by those foure in-bred faculties, Attraction, Retention, Concoction, and Expulsion; but the question is concerning a common or official Traction, that is, whether the Guts haue power of drawing the Chylus from the stomacke. We thinke they haue not, and Galen fauoureth also our opinion; 
Galen.  for in his bookes of the vse of Parts, he sayeth, The Guttes stand not in neede of an attractiue 
There is no common Tractiue faculty in the guts.  facultie, and againe, The Guttes hauing no neede either to draw or to reteyne because their motion is simple, haue also but simple Fibres; and in another place euery Gutte hath in each coate circular fibres, For they are contracted onely but draw nothing; the same also hee auerreth in his 6. booke de Loics affectis. 
3. de nat facult.   
But you will say, if the Guts draw not the Chylus, what power or faculty is it which bringeth the same vnto them? Doth the stomack driue out of itself so profitable an Aliment? 
Obiection. Galen expounded.  We answere, Galens meaning is, that the Chylus is boyled in the stomack, and that the Pylorus or lower mouth all the time of concoction is closely shut vp, that nothing either thicke or thinne may be able to passe away before it be concocted, leuigated and perfectly laboured. When this concoction is throughly celebrated, then is the stomack delighted with the Chylus, imbraceth it a while, as being now become familiar vnto it; afterward Nature in a wonderfull prouidence openeth a certaine small membrane, and then the Chylus as it were an ouerplus or superfluitie, is driuen forth and falleth into the guts; in whose boughts and circles while it maketh stay, the thinner part like vnto creame is sucked away by the veines of the mesenterie; but the thicker by his waight falleth vnto the great guts, and by the circular fibres is thrust forth. Such is Galens true and sound Philosophy concerning this question, whereby we are taught that the Chylus is not drawne by the guts, but driuen into them by the stomacke.  
Notwithstanding there want not many among the late writers, who perswade themselues 
The opinion of late writers.  that the guts, especially the small ones, haue this common Tractiue faculty inherent in them, and I am perswaded that they build their opinion vppon the authoritie and some light reasons of the Arabians. Auicen writeth that the Chylus falleth from the stomacke 
Auicen Fen. 1. primi.  into the guts, by the helpe and assistance of two faculties; one expulsiue of the stomacke, and another attractiue of the guts; and this also he repeateth in his thirteenth booke de Animalibus.  
To this authoritie they adde a threefold reason: First, no man will deny but all the parts do draw a familiar iuyce vnto themselues. Now, the Chylus, say they, is the familiar Aliment 
Their reasōs.  of the guttes, by which they are nourished as the stomacke is. Againe, if the Chylus be onely driuen out or excluded by the stomacke, then is that motion violent; but it is absurd that nourishment should be made by force or violence, for then it would not endure; the nourishment therefore is drawne, not driuen. Lastly, the guttes haue right fibres extended in their length and those we know are onely prepared by Nature where traction is necessarie as being their proper worke.  
But those arguments are so sleight and triuiall as a nouice may see their weaknesse as he 
Answer to the arguments.  runnes. For, first wee may not admit of that paradox which they obtrude concerning the nourishment of the guttes and the stomacke; for indeede the stomacke is not nourished by the Chylus, but only delighted with his presence, otherwise, for his nourishment, it draweth bloud by the Gastricke and Coronarie veines, which also it assimulateth as in due place we shall proue. And for the guttes neither are they nourished by the Chylus, but by bloud which is brought vnto them by the mesaraick veines; the guts therefore draw not the Chylus for their nourishment. Whereas they say that the motion of the stomacke driuing out the Chylus is violent, I thinke they are farre out of the way; it is rather Naturall because it followeth his contraction; against which the naturall forme of the Aliment, that is, his grauitie or waight doth not repugne.  
Lastly, we altogether deny that which they affirme concerning right fibres, for in either coate of the guts there is onely one kinde of fibres and those circular; and if any right Fibres do appeare, yet is it not in the small guts which conteine the Chylus, but onely in the last which is called the right gut, in which the excrements are reserued for immediate euacuation.  
But let vs grant, that in both the coates of the guts there are right Fibres, yet it followeth not that there is any such drawing faculty as they dreame of, for right Fibres are not 
Right fibres are not onely ordained for traction. Galen.  alwayes ordained for traction. And this Galen doth excellently declare in his fourth booke of the vse of parts, where he saith, That the right gut onely hath right Fibres allowed it, not for traction, but for preseruation of the transuerse. For it was to be feared, least the circular Fibres should separate or be drawne asunder, vnlesse on the outside they had been strengthned by right, as it were by bands or ties; so the Coates of the Veines haue right Fibres not for atraction, but onely ad 〈◇〉 as wee say, that is to hinder an inconuenience. So Chyrurgions for the better reteyning in their due place circular bands, do strengthen them with right Ties or Deligations. And thus much shall be sufficient to haue saide concerning the attraction of the guts.   

QVEST. II. Whether the Guts haue any common Retentiue Facultie.  
_THE authorities of Galen aboue alledged do prooue but one facultie of the 
Concerning the retentiue faculty of the guts. Arguments to proue it. Galen. Auicen. Com. ad Aphor. 22. sect 3. ad Aphor. 12. sect. 4. ad Aphor. 1. sect. 6. ad Sent. 53. sect. 3. lib. 3. Epid. also 1. de Criss. b. 22. Fer. tract. 5. c. 5.  guts, to wit, the Expulsiue; yet there are some which striue out of Galen himselfe to prooue common and officiall-Retentiue and Concocting Faculties also. Concerning the Retentiue we will first see and then of the other. Galen discoursing about the nature and causes of the Lienterie( a disease wherein the meat is auoyded whole and vndigested as it was eaten, without any notable alteration) referres it to the weakenesse of the retentiue vertue; not of the proper Aliment that is of bloud, but of the Chylus contayned; the same also doth Auicen determine. Moreouer Galen 3. de symptomat. causis sayeth, that the concoctiue facultie in Children is stronger, but the retentiue and expulsiue weaker, because they haue tender bellies, or doe oftentimes vnburden nature; now those things that are auoyded are contayned in the guts, the retentiue facultie therefore of the guttes is the weaker.  
Againe in his booke of experienced medicines he prescribeth stipticke or binding medicaments for the fluxe of the belly, to roborate or strengthen the vertue of the guttes; and wee in the diarrhoea doe apply outward strengthening and astringent things. Adde hereto that most men are somewhat bound rather then soluble, the cause of which astriction they referre vnto the strength of the retentiue vertue, out of Galens commentarie vppon the xx. 
Galen.  Aphorisme of the second section. Lastly the retention of the Chylus and of the excrement is necessary; of the Chylus, that the Aliments should not suddenly slip away and wee thereby become slaues to our insatiable throates and paunches; of the excrements, lea●● we should be constrayned continually and vnseasonably to auoyde them.  
These and such like things they propound, to teach that there is some force and power 
The former arguments answered.  in the guttes to reteine the Chylus and the excrements, which because they seeme to bee very strange, and abhorring from the determinations of Galen and the ancient Physitians, it shall not be amisse to make interpretation of Galens wordes. The Lienterie is a disease 
Galen expoūded. The nature of the Lientery Galen.  not of the guttes but of the stomacke, and it is a symptome in the ouer hasty egestion or expulsion of meates scarcely at all altered or changed; for Galen thus defineth the Lienterie, When the meate is auoided by the siedge not at all altered or concocted; and therefore they doe ill that call it a leuitie or smoothnesse of the guttes, because it may be sometime when they are rough, being an affection of the stomacke onely and not of the guts; for although they be smooth and slippery, yet if the stomacke doe sufficiently boyle the Aliment, wee are neuer troubled with the Lienterie, because the nature of it consisteth In the priuation of the first concoction, which is celebrated in the stomacke, and in a heady or sodaine egestion; wherefore they conclude amisse that the Lienterie proceedeth from the weaknesse of the retentiue facultie of the guttes, for that Galen conceiteth not; who discussing the causes thereof, referres them to the distemper of the stomacke dissoluing the strength of all his faculties, and to a light and superficiall exulceration, whereby that commeth to passe in the stomacke prouoked by the Lienterie, which hapneth in the bladder through the strangurie. It is true that the distemper of the guts do also breed a Lienterie, but not at the first hand, vnlesse the stomacke also doe sympathize with them, or bee drawne into consent by reason of their mutuall society communion and neighbor-hood.  
And whereas Galen writeth that Children are often troubled with vomitings and loosenesse, 
Why Children vomit & scoure often.  hee referres the cause thereof to the weakenesse of their retentiue vertue; not of the guttes but of the stomacke, for their fibres are softer; beside their liquid eiections are caused by their continuall eating and greedy appetites, the strength of their naturall heat desiring more then it can conteine or concoct; whence it commeth to passe that the fibres, as it were the raynes of the stomacke being loosened, they are ouertaken with manifold vomitings and frequent deiections.  
Those things which they obiect concerning stipticke medicines which coroborate the guts, and stay the fluxe of the Belly are but of small moment; for we doe not therefore apply them to strengthen the Retention of the guts which is none at all, but to bind or Contract the veines of the mesenterie, which are dispersed in infinite braunches through the coates of the guttes, and doe empty into them malignant and superfluous humors; or else to thicken, refrigerate, or appease those r●ging humors which in substance are very thinne, 
The vse of stipticke medicines in fluxes.  in their Temper very hot, and in their quality very sharpe and coroding; that so they might become more vnapt to moue with such violence and force as they are wont. And what I pray you is more absurde, then to referre the cause of the astriction of the belly to the strength of the Reteining vertue? Let them rather harken to Galen, who in the third book of the causes of Symptomes, elegantly assigneth the causes of slowe deiection, sometime to 
Galen. The true causes of costiuenes.  the weaknesse of the expulsiue power, sometime to the dull sence of the guttes, sometime to the thicknesse, stipticke, or binding nature and small quantitie of that which is eaten; sometime to the weaknesse of the muscles of the Abdomen, who haue a great hand & beare a great part in the auoyding of the excrements; but concerning the Retentiue power of the guts he addeth not a word, neither maketh mention thereof.  
Lastly, whereas they obtrude vnto vs, the necessity of their Retention of the Chylus and the excrements, we admit is very willingly; but doe not ascribe it to the retentiue faculty of the guts: for toward the reteyning of the Chylus, the wisedome and prouidence of Nature hath prouided the manifold boughts, doublings, and conuolutions or writhen complications 
The reason of the conuolutions of the guts.  of the guttes; so that in so long a iourney and intricate a passage, it is not possible that almost any part of the Aliment should ariue at the port Esquiline which before was not met withall by the sucking mouthes of the almost infinite veines of the mesenterie. And for the Retention of the excrements, it is not a naturall but an Animall action; because it is performed by the helpe of muscles, to wit, the sphincters, which doe constringe or gather together the lower part of the right gut, that the excrement might not bee auoyded without the commandement of reason and consent of the will. It is therefore hence manifest 
The conclusion.  that the guts haue no Naturall power to reteine the Chylus or the excrement.   

QVEST. III. Whether the Guttes haue any Concocting Facultie.  
_THat in euery Concoction there are three things necessarily required; a Preparation, the Concoction or boyling itself, and a Perfection after it, Galen is a plentifull witnesse. So the preparation of the first Concoction is in the 
Three things required in al concoctions  mouth, the Coction itself in the bottome of the stomacke, and the absolution or perfection in the small guts: the preparation to the second Concoction is made in the veines of the mesenterie, the Coction itself in the Parenchyma of the Liuer, and the absolution or perfection in the great vessels. In like manner the seede atteineth a kind of rudement in the Preparing vessels, but his Idea or form in the testicles and his perfection in the Parastatae. The Animall spirite hath a delineation in the wondrous nettes or webbes of Arteries, his forme in the middle ventricle, his absolution in the latter ventricle of the braine; so that in the workes of Nature these manifold degrees of operations do euery where appeare.  
This Concoction of spirites or of Alement whether it bee priuate or officiall is performed without the helpe of fibres, onely by the assistance and inbred proprietie of our naturall heate, and therefore by Galen it is called Alteration, and by him not denyed vnto the 
Galen. 4. de vsu part & 3 denatu facult.  guts, for so he writeth in his fourth booke of the vse of partes: The guttes though they were not ordained to Concoct the Chylus, but onely to containe and distribute it, yet because Nature is neuer idle, it attaineth in the passage through them, a more perfect elaboration, euen as in the greater vessels there is a certaine facultie of perfecting the bloud which was before made in the Liuer. And this opinion of Galens doeth Areteus and Auerrhoes follow, which also is seconded 
Aret. lib. 1 decausis et Signis Chronic morb. cap. 15.  conded by good reason: for the substance of the guts and the stomacke is all one, whether you regarde the Temper or the Coulor or the frame and texture of their coates. Wherefore the Chylus is concocted in the stomacke, and there attaineth the species and forme of Chylus, but as it stayeth in the convolutions of the guts, and the rugged foldes of their inmost coate, it acquireth also a further alteration.  
I am not ignorant, that there is a new Paradoxe maintained by some, to wit, that the guts 
A paradoxe.  haue more power to concoct the Chylus then the stomacke, and that in the time of concoction, the pylorus is not shut, but that the Aliment not yet throughly boyled, falleth thorough the stomacke into the guts; and they instance in wounds of the Hypochondria & small guts, whence( say they) doth issue a Chylus not yet perfectly concocted, & therefore it had not his forme or perfection in the stomack.  
Furthermore, in Exomphalosi or the rupture of the Nauell, the meate passeth foorth not perfectly laboured; and in the heighth of Summer when we drinke smal drinke, we doe instantly 
Obiection. Exomphalosis. Answere.  feele the cold in our guts. We answere, that they do not perceiue that in the cases instanced, the guts are ill affected, and the stomacke out of hand drawne into consent with them, as well because of their communion and similitude of substance, as also because of their vicinity: for Hippocrates in his Booke of humors hath this golden saying, Those partes which are neere Neighbours, or haue community of substance, are at the first hand and verie notably 
Hippocrates.  affected.  
It is therefore no wonder that crude or inconcocted and liquid Aliment should flowe from a wounded gut. I confesse that liquid things do sodainely fall downeward, so also is their alteration so daine and quicke. But they can hardly be perswaded, that the great abundance of meate deuoured by Rauen-stomackes and Trencher-friends can be conteyned in 
Obiection.  the stomacke alone, seeing Hippocrates saith, that the amplitude thereof exceedeth not fiue 
Hippocrates.  handfuls. But they must know, that the substance of it is Membranous, and is easily distended into all dimensions: beside, these great gourmandizers do not perfectly concoct the 
Answere.  Chylus, because the portall Membrane is loosed before due time by the weight of so great a quantity. We conclude therefore, that the Chylus is concocted in the stomacke & perfected in the smaller guts.   

QVEST. IIII. Of the Expulsiue vertue of the guts, and their Peristaltick motion.  
_THat all the guts haue their expulsiue faculty very strong, not onely for the auoyding of their proper, but also of common excrements; is so manifest, that it needeth no demonstration; as that wherein we are conu●●ced by the authority of learned men, by the structure & frame of the guts themselues, and by the necessity of this kinde of action. To repeate Galens words out of 
Authorities. Galen.  his sixt Booke of the vse of parts in many places, out of his Bookes de locis affectis, & Naturalibus Facultatibus, were to abuse my owne time and your patience. In the structure of the guts if it be well considered, we shall finde both coates wouen onely with circular and ouerthwart Fibres, ordained for expulsion.  
And if these things will not mooue the froward minds and headstrong wits of men, yet 
Arguments.  the necessity of the action, which is the finall cause( and cheefe in Nature) must necessarily conuince them. For the excrements being of necessity to bee avoyded, the Facultie by which they are auoyded, must needs also be necessary; yea more necessary then the attractiue, Nature being euer more diligent to expel that which is noctious or hurtfull, then to attract that which is profitable or behoouefull; and that is the reason why in men that lye 
The necessity of the expulsiue faculty.  a dying, the expiration is stronger then the inspiration, because in expiration the fumed or smoaky vapour which is offensiue to the heart, is thrust out; in inspiration ayre is drawne in, which is naturall and familiar vnto it. The expulsiue vertue therefore of the guttes, is 
Why in the instāt of death the expiratiō is greater then the inspiration.  stronger then the rest.  
But all this while the maner of this expulsion is not manifested, which in the next place we will endeauour to make plaine vnto you. The excrements are expelled by locall motion; and this motion is double, one naturall another animall. The Naturall is proper vnto the guts, the Animal to the Muscles of the Abdomen. I call that natural which is not voluntary, 
The motion of the Guts double.  and that animall which is done with choyse and discretion. The naturall motion, which the Ancients called 〈◇〉 is accomplished by transuerse and orbicular Fibres contracting the guts. And this naturall motion is againe double, One According to nature, 
Naturall motion double.  another Against nature. The first is accomplished when the guttes doe contract and gather themselues from aboue downward, in which motion offensiue humors, winde and excrements are driuen downe; the other quite contrary when the circular Fibres do gather themselves from below vpward, which is called 〈◇〉: and in this motion the wind, the Chylus, and the excrements are auoyded by the vpper parts, nothing by the lower although such euacuations be prouoked by sharpe Clisters. Galen saith, This motion hindreth the wind 
Galen.  from comming downward, yea it maketh it flye vpward.  
Hippocrates acknowledgeth a threefold cause of this depraued motion, Inflammation, a confirmed oppilation or stopping, & sometimes a light exulceration. Inflammations streighten the 
Hippocrates.  passages, Oppilation altogether shutteth them. So then the excrements hauing no currant passage, the expelling faculty following first of al the order instituted by nature, beginneth 
The causes of the depraued motion.  her contraction in the vpper part, to expell the excrement downeward; and this it endeuoureth againe and againe, but being frustrated because of the streightnes or stoppage which opposeth her; she inuerteth the order, and begins her contraction from below, 
The manner.  and that with such violence, that( alas the while) the Chylus & the excrements are thrown out by the mouth: so diligent and circumspect is Nature to vnburden itself of that which is noysome or offensiue.  
Againe, a light exulceration may cause this depraued motion; as, when the gut is afflicted by the proritation or goading of the vlcer it transmitteth vpward such things as would offend it, & as it were altring her sail, beareth her course vpward against Nature, which before she held downward. This Peristaltick motion which is contrary to the naturall, those haue miserable experience of which are afflicted with the lamentable and odious disease called Ileos or Mesererimei Deus, wherein the seate or fundament is so closed, that a Needle 
The Ileos.  cannot be thrust into it, and if any Clisters bee with much adoo administred, they are incontinently suckt vp, the circular Fibres contracting themselues from below vpwardes. This disease Hippocrates in his booke 〈◇〉, calleth a head-strong, sharpe, and daungerous affect. 
Hippocrates.   
There is another motion whereby the excrements are auoided, which is Animall & voluntary, 
The naturall motion or the guts.  wrought and accomplished by the helpe of the Muscles of the Abdomen; which being contracted do presse and straine the guts and so shut out the excrements, which motion is also furthered by the Midriffe and the Rim of the belly. For the eight Muscles of 
The manner of it.  the Abdomen, compressing equally the paunch and the guts, do alike & indifferently driue the excrements both wayes, as well toward the stomacke as toward the seate; it was needfull 
The vse of the midriffe in the auoyding of excrements.  therefore that there should be some assistant part which should driue it downward & turne it from aboue, which office the Midriffe performes.   

QVEST. V. Whither Clisters can passe vpward vnto the Stomacke.  
_BEcause I haue sometimes heard Physitians disputing about the ascent of Clisters, and haue read Galen and Rhasis their contrary determinations concerning this matter, I haue thought it fit a little to discusse the question in this place, the rather because the truth may be demonstrated by Anatomicall Euidence. Rhasis is of opinion, that Clisters may ascend vnto the stomacke, and are often cast out by the Nosethrils, his words are these. If a Clister bee vvith 
Rhasis opinion  great force and violence shot vp, it will ariue at the Stomacke: if it bee put vp gently and by degrees, it scarse reacheth aboue the great guts. Galen on the contrary iudgeth, that though the 
●. Continentis.  Liquor be neuer so forcibly driuen vpward, yet it will scarse reach vnto the empty gut. For 
Galens opiniō.  in the first Booke of his Method, he cureth Vlcers of the Lunges, Chest and Stomacke by Medicines taken at the mouth: but the vlcer of the guts, both by things taken at the mouth, and also iniected at the fundament with this difference, that if the vlcer be in the great guts he vseth rather Clisters; if in the small, then he sticketh more to Medicines at the mouth. The like he repeateth againe in the 13. of his Method, and to him wee rather listen in this case then to Rhasis; for I haue obserued that the guts are seuen times as long as the body of the man whose guts they are, and Hippocrates measureth them to be thirteene cubites; and 
The great length of the guts.  yet that is not all, for the manifold girations or convolutions whereinto they are circled do breake the force of any iniected liquor.  
I thinke therefore that such liquors do not reach aboue the blinde gut. For proofe heereof saith Laurentius, I will tell you that which haply few hitherto haue obserued. Let the guts bee dryed and blowne vp a little, and poure some water into the gut called duodenum 
Laurentius his instance that Clisters cannot passe vp to the stomack. The values of the guts  and it will presently issue out at the right gut; but on the contrary if it be powred into the right gut it wil stay in the appendix of the blind gut because it can can get no farther; which proueth that in the end of the blind gut there is a value which Nature in great wisedome hath set to hinder the refluence or returne of the excrements and vnprofitable humors, such an one as appeareth in the passage of the Choler into the Guts & in the vessels of the heart.  
But it will be obiected that Galen in his third booke of the Causes of Symptomes sayeth, 
Obiection.  That some haue had Clisters so giuen them, as they haue beene cast vp by the mouth; euen as the foeces or excrements in that miserable disease called Ileos or volu●lus. Wee answere that 
Answere, and Galen expounded.  Galen here doth not contradict himselfe: for it is one thing to speake of the stomacke when it is well affected, and another when it is ill affected. For if the stomacke bee well affected the liquor can neuer arise vnto it, but if it be ill affected or affamished, as in the disease called Boulimos, it draweth from below not onely such humours as are iniected by the fundament but also the excrements themselues. For as the pined or greedy Liuer draweth from the veines crude and vnconcocted iuyces, so is it with the stomacke, yea with the mouth: 
The force of hunger.  for we see what riffe raffe and what odious viands hunger maketh toothsome to such as are pinched therewith.  
Againe, if the naturall motion of the guttes bee depraued, the circular fibres gathering 
Another cause that draweth liquor to the stomacke. How nourishing Clisters come to the Liuer.  themselues from belowe vpwarde may make a Clister or other liquor ascend vnto the stomacke. If it be obiected that nourishing Clisters are carried vnto the Liuer, I answere that they arise not thither either of their owne accorde, or by the violence of the liquor iniected, but they are drawne by the veines of the mesenterie and thence transported into the Liuer.   

QVEST. VI. Of the Euill Sauour of the Excrements.  
_MAny men that are but sleightly seene into the course of Nature, doe wonder 
Of the sauor of excremēts.  much why in a sound body and in a Temperate man the excrements of the Belly become so vnsauourie and abhominably sented, because all stench is the consequence of corruption; and corruption or putrifaction hath for her efficient cause outward and acquired not inbred heate.  
For whose better satisfaction we say that Physitians acknowledge a double cause of this 
A double cause of it. The efficient cause is heat.  foetor or stench, an Efficient and a Materiall. Concerning the efficient they say, that our heate though it be one in regard of the subiect, yet in different considerations it is diuerse, and may be two wayes considered, either simply as it is heate, or else as it is inbred heate and the instrument of all the functions of the soule. As it is heate, it continually feedeth vpon and consumeth the moisture, as it is inbred it boyleth or concocteth, assimulateth and ingendreth; so from the same heate doe flow diuerse yea contrary motions.  
Whilest the Chylus is made in the stomacke, the naturall or inbred heate insinuateth itself equally and a like into all the parts of the matter; gathereth together those thinges that are correspondent to our nature and separateth the rest: the first are drawn away into the Liuer by the veines of the mesentery, but the other which cannot bee assimulated are thrust downe into the great guttes, and there as vnprofitable are forsaken by the naturall heate; wherefore the heat worketh vpon it no more as it is inbred or direct from the soule, but simply as it is heate taking the nature of an outward heate, and thence comes the stench. Adde hereto the fitnesse of the matter; for these superfluities are crude and verie moyst whence comes putrifaction; but if the humour bee drawne away the putrifaction is lesse, and the sauour not so noysome.  
And this is the only reason why the excrements of a man most temperate, haue a worse 
Why the excrements of men are more stinking then those of other creatures Arist. Probleme sect. 13. A probleme.  sauour then those of other creatures; because a man vseth very moyste nourishment and very diuerse, that is of seuerall kinds, and leadeth a life more sluggish and sedentarie: other Creatures feede vppon dryer Fother and so their excrements become dryer. And this cause Aristotle assigned in his Problemes: where asking the question why the excrements of the Belly the longer they are reteined are lesse vnsauourie, and on the contrary the vrine the longer it is kept smelleth the stronger, he resolueth it thus. Because sayeth hee, in the long stay, the excrements are dryed, and so the nourishment of putrifaction is subtracted or drawne away, which is not so in the vrine.  
Now the reason of the forme and figuration of the Excrements, is because of the Chambers and cels of the Collicke gut, wherein it swelleth into round & broken peeces.   

QVEST. VII. Of the substance and the scite of the guts.  
_BEfore we passe from the guts, it will not bee amisse to reconcile 
Galen.  some different places of Galen concerning their substance. In his Bookes of Method he saith, that if the guts be wounded or vlcerated, 
What the substance of the guts is.  they do very hardly ioyne togither againe, especially the smaller, because their substance is neruous and membranous: but in the 14. Booke of the Vse of parts, he writeth, that the Guts and the stomacke because they are Instruments of concoction, haue a fleshy Composition. And the same Hippocrates insinuateth in his Aphorismes, wher 
Hippocrates. Aphor. 26, sect 4  he saith, That if vpon a Dysenterie or bloody Flixe little Caruncles or ragges of flesh doe passe away by seidge, it is a mortal signe. The trueth is, that the substance of the guts is neruous or 
Certaine places of Galen & Hippocrates reconciled.  sinnowy, but yet throughout also replenished with fleshy Fibres, so as it may bee saide to be both Membranous, and also fleshy. Like as Galen calleth the wombe somtime a Membranous, sometime a Fleshy part.  
Concerning the scite or position of the guts, the Ancients seem to haue erred, because they thought that the great guts did occupy the lower part of the belly, and the smaller the 
The error of the Ancients about the scituation of the guts.  vpper: but the truth is, that the Colon which is the greatest of all the rest, runnes vp vnto the hollownesse of the Liuer, and the bottome of the stomacke; but the Ileon is extended downward vnto the Share bones. I conceyue that the Dissection of Dogges and foure-footed Beasts deceyued them. Galen himself speaking to the capacity of the common people, 
Galen. Com. in 3. Epid.  calleth the great guts the lower, the small guts the vpper, yea and many Physitians at this day are mistaken, distinguishing the Dysentery of the smal guts from that of the crasse 
Diuers opinions.  or thicke, by this, that if the paine be in the vpper parts then the disease is in the smal; if in the lower, then in the great guts.  
Concerning the scituation of the Collick gut, there are diuers opinions; some do therefore thinke it ascendeth vnto the bottome of the stomacke, that by his contaction as also by that of the neighbor parts, the concoction of the stomacke might be furthered; others 
Different conceits about the ascending of the Colon.  imagine, that it is therefore conueyed to the hollow of the Liuer, where the bladder of gal is seated, that the expulsiue faculty of the Colon, which lyeth as it were asleepe, might by the sweating yssue of choler be better awaked and set on edge.  
Another sort there are who imagine, that the Colon giueth way to the smaller Guts, walling them about in manner of a fence or rampert, comming not neere the center of the Mesenterie, and that therefore it taketh vp the left side of the body, that the greater branch of the Port-veine called Mesentericus, might with a shorter cut be inserted into the guts and carrie or transferre the meate vnto the Liuer by a nearer way.  
Some there are, who thinke that the Colon adhereth or cleaueth to the bottome of the stomacke and hollow of the Liuer, that by their contaction the remainder of the Aliment which stayeth in the chambers of the Colon, might receiue more perfect concoction. Moreouer, they giue this reason of his scituation aloft, that that part of the Chylus which is therein contained might not so soone passe away, and so there might be more perfect & accomplished exsuction of the creame for which cause also the cels and chambred convolutions of the Colon, as also the blinde gut were ordained.  
This Collick gut is indeede the largest or most ample of all the rest, but where it toucheth 
Why the pressing of the Spleene makes melancholy bodyes to auoid wind downward.  the Kidnies and the Spleene it becōmeth narrower, lest it should compresse the spleen, whence it comes to passe, that those whose Spleens do swel or be notably stuffed, can hardly auoide any winde downward, vnlesse the Spleene bee pressed.  
And thus much concerning the difficulties or curious questions about the guts, wherein we haue beene somewhat more prolixe, that such as delight in the contemplatiue part of Anatomy, might not go away from vs altogether vnsatisfied. The stomack followeth.   

QVEST. VIII. Whither the vpper mouth of the stomacke be the seate of Appetite.  
_SEeing the liue-tide of euery creature is inconstant, and like a poaste passeth swiftly away, because of the continuall effluxion or expence of the threefold substance wherein it consisteth, Nature being vigilant and carefull about her owne preseruation, endeuoureth continually to make vp the 
The reason of our threefold nourishment.  breach by Respiration and Nourishment. By respiration the spirituous, by nourishment the fleshy and solide substaunce is restored. And hence it is that our nourishment is threefold, Aer, meate, and drinke. But because there can be no nourishment without Appetite, nature hath dispensed to euery part a certaine desire, whereby as by goades they are pricked forward to draw and sucke into themselues conuenient and familiar Aliment. But this desire in the particular parts of the body is without sense, for they feele not neyther perceiue when they draw or sucke such conuenient aliment. Wherefore, least the parts shoulde pine away when they are exhausted and as it were hunger-starued, 
The vpper mouth of the stomacke the seate or appetite.  nature hath framed one part of exquisite and perfect sense, which alone fore-apprehending the suction and so the want of the rest, should stirre vp the creature to prouide and cooke their nourishment for them. For if the sense of this suction or traction were in euery part, then in the time of affamishment or thirst they would perpetually languish, & so the creature leade his life in a perpetuall disease.  
This part so by nature set out, is the vppermost mouth of the stomacke, which the ancient 
Galen.  Graecians as Galen witnesseth, called 〈◇〉. And all men doe concurre, that in it the Animall appetite and hunger, which is nothing else but a sense of suction, haue their peculiar residence. And this sense is exhibited in this place by two notable nerues called Stomachici, or the Stomacke Nerues arising from the sixt paire or coniungation of the Braine.  
But after what manner this Animall appetite is stirred vp, Galen hath elegantly taught vs in his first Booke of the causes of Symptoms. For the better vnderstanding of which place, these things are first to be obserued, that the animall appetite is double; one naturall, another 
The Animall appetite double.  depraued: to the first, these fiue signes or symptoms must necessarily concurre: first, an exhaustion or deepe expence of the substance of the parts, next there must bee in the same parts a suction or traction; for the exhausted parts do draw from their next neighbors and those from others, till by continuation it do come to some extreame; which extreame is the vpper mouth of the stomacke where the traction ceaseth: from this traction ariseth 
5. signes or Symptomes required to appetite.  the third signe, which is a divulsion or kinde of violence offered to the mouth of the Stomacke, which divulsion or violence striketh the nerue, whence commeth the sense, and from the sense the appetite.  
In the depraued appetite, the same order and degrees of Symptoms are not obserued. For in the disease called Boulimos, there is hunger without appetite, and in the Dog-appetite, 
What Boulimos is.  there is appetite without hunger. In the Boulimos all the parts being exhausted or hunger-bit, do draw from the stomacke, which on euery hand is torne and as it weee launced, yet doth not that divulsion strike the sense, and so no appetite followeth; in the mean time the other parts being defrauded of their aliment, doe wast away and consume. The cause of this insensibility is the refrigeration of the nerue, the obstruction of the same, and the exolution or fainting away of the appetitiue Faculty.  
On the contrary, in the Dogge-appetite there is no Inanition or emptinesse of the parts, but an exquisite sense of suction, by reason of a coole and sowre humor there impacted, 
The cause of the dog appetite.  and it is cured Theorexi, that is, by drinking of wine as Hippocrates witnesseth. Hence therefore it is manifest, that the animall appetite is stirred vp in the mouth of the stomack, 
Hippocrates. Apho. 21 sect. 2 Hippocrates.  which is endued with so exquisite sense, that it is called the Organ or instrument of touching by Hippocrates in his Booke of the Instruments of smelling.  
There remaineth yet one scruple, how the appetitiue faculty standing in reference to the sensitiue, should haue his seate in the mouth of the stomacke, seeing it is of al hands determined 
Obiection.  that the seate of all the animall faculties is in the braine. The answere is easie and at hand, to wit, that the faculty itself is in the braine, but the worke, efficacy, and action thereof in the stomacke. So the faculty of seeing is in the braine, but the sight is accomplished 
Answere.  in the eye. The moouing Faculty is likewise in the braine, yet is the Muscle the immediate organ of voluntary motion.  
If any man obiect that the Liuer is the seate of the appetetiue faculty; wee answere that 
Obiect  the appetite residing in it is concupiscible and without sence, and not sensitiue at all. But we must not there forget that though this appetite of the stomacke bee with sence, yet it is 
Answere.  not ioyned with knowledge or discretion. 
Caution.    

QVEST. IX. Of the scituation and consent of the vppermost mouth of the stomacke.  
THE difference or controuersie concerning the scite of this Orifice is neither light nor vnprofitable, because the resolution thereof stinteth the strife among the Physitians concerning the application of Topicall or locall medicines.  
All men doe agree that it inclineth rather to the left hand then to the right, but the question is, whether it bee nearer the spine of the backe, or the gristle and blade of the breast. Some thinke that Nature framed this gristle to be a defence for it and for no other cause, 
The scite of the vpper orifice.  and therefore hath placed it there-under: for say they, those that vomit or reach for it, doe finde a paine at this gristle and none at the spine or racke of the backe. And Hippocrates conceiueth that the extuberation or distention of the stomacke at the orifice is not backeward but forward; whereas he sayth, That the repletion of the stomacke is a direction for broken ribbes. Wee with Galen doe assigne the place of this orifice to bee in the left part toward 
Hippocrates. Lib. de articul●s sect. 3.  the spine, not that it lyeth or resteth vpon it as the gullet doeth, but because it commeth nearer to the spine then to the breast-blade. And therefore it is that when the gullet or the vpper orifice are affected; we thinke it fit to apply locall medicines both to the backpart 
Where to apply local medicines.  and to the fore-part. That that was propounded concerning the paine of them that reach to vomit, and the direction for the ribbes, is to be referred to the bottome, and not to the vpper mouth of the stomacke; for as we haue obserued, the meate which wee eate is not conteyned in his mouthes or orificies but in his cauitie, which wee doe not deny doeth rather leane to the breast-blade then to the spine.  
But the reason why the breast bone is payned when the vpper orifice is affected is 
The reason of the paine at the breast bone when the mouth of the stomack is affected.  meerly Anatomicall; the midriffe being tyed to the bone, and the mouth of the stomacke adhaering to the large passage made in the midriffe for his conueyance thereout; and therfore the breast-blade is payned by this continuity, because paines are rather felt in the extreamities or ends then in the middest, as is to bee seene in streatched membranes. Concerning the sympathy or consent of this orifice with the heart and membranes of the brain Hippocrates and Galen are very plentifull; for this mouth being affected, the syncope or 
The consent of the mouth of the stomack, with the heart and the braine.  sounding, the exolution or fainting of the spirits, and such like symptomes doe ouertake vs as when the heart itself suffereth violence, whence this part amongst the ancients as wee sayd before, is called 〈◇〉. In wounds of the head, the skull being either broken or s●iuered, and the Dura meninx or thicker membrane of the braine exposed or layde open to the ayre, which is vncouth or strange vnto it, the Patient presently vomiteth yellow and 
Why vomitings follow the wounds of the braine Galen.  Aeruginous or greene choler, because the stomack by reason of societie, is drawne into consent and sympathizeth with the membrane, as well because of the similitude and likenesse of the substance, as also of the community of vessels, which are the chiefe causes of consent or sympathy; as Galen obserueth in his Commentaries vpon the first section of the 3. Booke of Hippocrates Epidemia.   

QVEST. X. Whether the Chylus be made by the heat, or by the forme of the Stomacke: and why the stomack doth not breede foure substances and excrements as well as the Liuer.  
_THE remouing of these two obstacles and dissolution of the doubts arising in them shall neede no great curiosity; the first wee will determine thus. The Chylus is formed not so much by the power of the heate, as by the ingenite property of the stomack. True it is that all concoction is accomplished by 
Why the stomacke is incompassed with warme parts.  the help and assistance of heate, and therefore Nature hath prouided that the stomacke should be cherished and comforted on euery side aboue and below, on the right hand and on the left, before and behinde; but this concoction belongeth not to the heate as it is heate( for by that reason fiery and aguish heate which corrupteth all thinges, should be the cause of concoction) but as it is the instrument of the soule. But that which wee call chylification or making of the Chylus, proceedeth alone from the forme and proprietie of the stomacke, because in other parts sauing this, the naturall heate though it be very strong 
A double reason why the stomack breedeth not 4. substances.  and intense yet doth not chylifie. Now why the stomacke as the Liuer doeth not beget or breede foure kinds of substances, there may bee a double reason assigned; one from the matter, another from the efficient.  
The Efficient or working cause is naturall heate, which if it be very strong, it powerfully 
The first frō the efficient.  and effectually or really separateth Hetrogenia, that is partes that are vnlike or of different natures. But all men know that the Liuer is so much hotter then the stomacke, as bloudy parts are hotter then those without bloud; for the Liuer is a fleshy bowell and the stomack a membranous: wherefore the heate of the Liuer diuideth the Aliment into more particles, which the weake heat of the stomacke cannot doe.  
To this efficacy of the Efficient may be added as we sayd the disposition of the matter; 
The 2. from the disposition of the matter.  for liquid things are more easily altered then solid: nowe the stomacke receiueth the Aliment when it is solide which with great labour it boyleth, breaketh, and altereth; but the Liuer receiueth it already, attenuated and wrought vnto an equality when it is no great labor to separate the disimilar and Heterogenie parts, or being separated to driue them into their proper receptacles.   

QVEST. XI. Whether the Stomacke be nourished by the Chylus or by Bloud.  
_FInally, that we may passe from the stomack, we will end with that great controuersie 
Diuers opinions about the nourishment of the stomacke.  which is amongst Phisitians concerning his nourishment. Some there are who thinke that the Stomacke and the Guttes are nourished by the Chylus, some by crude or raw bloud not laboured in the Parenchyma or substance of the Liuer; but onely hauing an inchoated mittigation in the braunches of the port or gate veine.  
Auicen thought that the vtter coate was nourished with bloud and the inner with Chylus. Zoar writeth that the vpper or neruous part is nourished with the Chylus, and the lower 
Auicen.  which is more fleshy, with bloud. We with Galen determine, that the whole stomack 
Zoar. Galen.  as all other membranes is nourished with pure bloud, which hath had his vtmost and perfect elaboration in the Liuer. For the proofe whereof beside the vulgar and ouerworn arguments which Physitians vse, these of no light moment may be cast vnto the heape.  
The first is taken from Dissection, because through all the coates of the stomacke and his two orificies, there appeare notable and aboundant veines diuersly dispersed, which 
1 1. Reason.  doubtlesse were not idely or in vein ordayned by Nature, neither yet to transport the Chylus to the hollownes of the Liuer, howsoeuer Bauhine be conceited,( vnlesse happely in extreamity of hunger) for then they should carry it rawe, not yet hauing receiued his perfection in the guts.  
Moreouer if the veines were especially appointed for the transportation of the Chylus, it being made rather in the bottome then at the sides or top of the stomacke, there should haue beene more veines and more conspicuous in the bottome then in the top, which experience teacheth vs to be otherwise; for the whole basis and circumference of the vpper mouth is incompassed with an ample vessell called Coronaria stomachica or the garland vein of the stomack, because the coats of the orifics are thicker then those of the bottome, and therefore neede more plentifull Aliment. We resolue therefore that these veines were ordained for the nourishment of the stomacke; but wee will vnder-prop this reason with a stronger.  
In the Chylus although it be laudable and well disposed, yet there remaine some vnprofitable 
2 2. Reason.  and excrementitious parts; to wit, Choler, Melancholy, and whay or vrine, which cannot be separated or purged there from but by the heate of the Liuer. Now nothing can nourish perfectly vnlesse it be cleansed from those recrements: how therefore shal the Chylus not yet defoecated, be sayd to be conuenient Aliment for the stomacke? And this 
Galen.  Galen seemeth to intimate when he sayth; That nothing can perfectly nourish which hath not passed through all the concoctions.  
A third argument to proue our assertion, that the stomacke is nourished by blood, is because those creatures that mew themselues vp all winter in holes and rockes and such secret 
3 3. Reason.  places are nourished by blood, and not by Chylus, because al that time they feed not at al. The infant likewise as long as it is conteined in the womb, hath his stomacke without controuersie norished with pure blood brought vnto it by the vmbilical vein. Hereto Valetius in his Controuersies answers, that the Stomacke is nourished by the more crude or rawe 
Valetius disproued.  part of the Mothers blood which is not much vnlike vnto Chylus. But as well might he say, that the Braine, the Bones, and al the Membranes haue their refection there from, because they are nourished with Flegmatick and crude blood.  
Furthermore, in great weakenesse of the stomacke and loathing of meate, that the patient should not vtterly consume, wee prescribe nourishing Clisters of the best sortes of 
4 4. Reason.  flesh, Capons, Patridges, and such like boyled to a broath. This liquor ariueth not at the stomacke, but is suckt away by the Veines of the guts, and transported to the Liuer where it attaineth the forme of bloode, and after being carried in the veines as in water-courses 
How Clisters do nourish.  vnto the parts, it watereth, nourisheth and refresheth them. Nowe who will say; that at this time the stomacke is nourished by Chylus when there is no chilification therein: and yet I hope they will not deny that it is then also nourished as well as the other parts. Finally this opinion of ours may bee demonstrated by the similitude or correspondencie of the nourishment of other parts like vnto it; and therefore seeing all the membranous parts 
5 5. Reason.  of the body are nourished by blood, why should the Stomacke among all the rest bee exempted? We do therefore conclude, that the Stomacke is nourished by blood, and that not onely hauing an initiation or rudiment in the Port-veines, but laboured and perfected by the power and efficacy of the Parenchyma or substance of the Liuer.  
Notwithstanding these things are so, some learned men among the new Writers, as 
Their reasons who auouche the stomacke to be nourishe with Chylus.  Thomas Veiga and Laurentius Iobertus doe thinke, and mightily contend by manie arguments, that the Stomacke should be nourished by the thinner part of the Chylus, to which we will make some satisfaction.  
In the first place they oppose the authority of Galen, who in the third Booke of the naturall 
First.  faculties, and in the fourth of the Vse of parts in plaine words teacheth, that the stomacke hath his refection and nourishment by the Chylus. For answere to Galen, out of Galen 
Answere  we say, that there is a double nourishment; the one perfect, which is Assimulation, 
Galen expounded.  the last vpshot and accomplishment of natures endeauours in this kinde; the other imperfect, as it were the Ape or imitator of the former, which is a kinde of delight the part conceyueth from a quality that is of kinne vnto it; and this kinde of refection Galen calleth Lasciua, as if the entertainment were rather for dallience then procreation. And in this latter kinde the stomacke according to Galen is refreshed by the Chylus, not in the former.  
Secondly, they obiect that no branches of the Hollowe veine are deriued vnto the stomacke 
Second.  and the guts, but onely certaine small rills from the Gate-veine, who haue but one vse, which is, to transport the Chylus vnto the Liuer, and therefore( say they) the organs or instruments of nutrition are not nourished with blood perfected in the Liuer( for there is no commerce by vessels betweene them) but onely with Chylus. This Argument I take 
Answered.  to be very ydle and friuolous: for if onely the riuerets or channels of the Hollow-vein did containe Alimentary blood, and the branches of the Gate-veine were onely ordayned to transport the Chylus, then should the Spleene, the Mesentery, and the Kell bee likewise nourished with Chylus, because they haue no allowance of Vessels from the hollow vein. In like manner the great guts should assimulate Chylus into their nourishment, in which it is certaine there is nothing conteyned but the excrements, the iuice being before drawn from them.  
Their third Argument is taken from Dissection, because( say they) the Veines do only 
Third  open at the Stomacke, and are not disseminated through his coates, and therefore they suck iuice from it, rather then nourish it with their owne allowance. But( alas the while) what new Anatomy is this? Is there not a double Gastrick or Stomacke-veyne stretched 
Answere.  through all the Coates of the same? Beleeue me, the insertion of these and other veines is altogether alike.  
The fourth Argument is that of the Learned Veiga. The Organs( saith hee) of the first concoction are more ignoble, and are framed of farre impurer iuyce then the Flesh; and 
Fourth.  therefore it is fit they should be nourished also with impurer iuyce, before it is concocted 
Answere.  in the Liuer. But this reason drawes many absurdities with it; for the bones are more ignoble then the stomacke or the guts, and colder by farre, and yet are nourished by blood conueyed vnto them from the Liuer by the Hollow-Veine, yea, and almost all the Membranes colde and base though they be, do draw that blood and no other, which is perfectly concocted in the Liuers parenchyma or substance.  
The Fifte reason followeth, which they put great confidence in, and it is such. 
Fift.  If the Stomacke bee not nourished with Chylus, how then commeth it to passe, that presently vppon the taking of Meate both hunger and thirst is appeased. Wee Answere, that there is a Double hunger, one Naturall, and another Animall: the Naturall is without sense, and placed in the particular partes of the bodye. The Animall is 
Answere.  with most exquisite sense, and proper onely vnto the Stomacke, yea especiallie to the 
A double hunger.  mouth thereof: the first is appeased onely by Assimulation; the latter, because it is a sense or apprehension of Divultion, when the Divultion ceaseth, then it is also appeased.  
Vpon the eating of meate, the Animall hunger of the Stomacke presently falleth, because the Stomacke being filled, his divultion and compression ceaseth: but the Naturall hunger is indeede appeased some-what when the inwarde coates are moystened as it were with a pleasant Dewe, yet not altogether before perfect Assimulation, which is not accomplished without some distance or interposition of time. Thus farre theyr Arguments.  
Now because Galen saith, that whatsoeuer nourisheth must passe through three concoctions. 
Galen amisse interpreted by Veiga.  Veiga to saue his owne Stake, would interprete Galen as if hee meant this onelie of the nourishment of fleshie parts, when as in a thousand places he witnesseth that blood alone is the fit and conuenient Aliment of all the parts.  
Againe, to establish his false Opinion, hee coyneth verie cunninglie, a three-folde 
A quaint conceite of Veiga.  Concoction in the nourishment of the Stomacke. The first( sayth hee) is Chilification, which is made in the bottome: the second, is Sanguification and perfourmed in his Veynes: the third, is Assimulation, which is accomplished in his coates. So that his pleasure forsooth is, that the Chylus is sucked by the Veynes, in them they are turned into Blood, and from them againe are they drawne by the Stomacke for his nourishment.  
But in this Triple faigned Concoction, there is a three-folde errour. For first, 
Wherein is a threefold errour.  it is most certaine that the bloode by no meanes becommeth redde but by contaction or touching the Parenchyma or Flesh of the Liuer. Againe, I see no reason why that the Chylus shoulde bee rather drawne by the Veynes then by the Coates of the Stomacke, if there bee so great similitude of substance betwixt the Chylus and his Membranes.  
Finally, if the Chylus were to bee drawne by the Veynes, and there get some rudiment of bloode, it followeth necessarily that the Stomacke is not immediately nourished by Chylus but by blood. And so much concerning the Appetite, Scituation, and Consent of the mouth of the Stomacke, as also of the Chylification and nourishment of the Stomacke itself. Now proceede we to the Liuer.   

QVEST. XII. What is the Nature of a spirit, and whether the Liuer do breede or beget a Naturall spirit.  
_BEcause in the Schooles of Physitians the Controuersie concerning the naturall spirit is sufficiently bandyed, I will not spend much time in a thing so notorious: onely for their satisfaction to whom these subtilties are most strange and lesse obuious, I will giue a taste or short assay concerning the nature of spirits.  
Galen in his sixt Booke of the Vse of Parts, defineth a spirite to bee 
Galen. What a spirit is.  A certaine exhalation of benigne or wel-disposed blood: The Stoickes call it, The tye or band of the soule and the bodie; for the distance is not so great betweene the highest Heauen and the lowest Earth, as is the difference betwixt the Soule and the Bodye. It vvas therefore verie necessarie that a spirite should bee created, by vvhose intermediate Nature, 
How the immortall soule, and the mortal bodie are ioyned.  as it vvere by a strong though not indissoluble bonde the Diuine soule might bee tyed to the bodie of Earth. Wherfore there are some that say it is an Aetheriall body, the seat and band of heate and faculty, and the prime instrument whereby all the functions of the fo●le are performed. But to say as the truth is, it is called Aetheriall onely Analogically, because of his tenuity and diuine manner of working, for by his nature and in his originall he is meerely Elementary. Our definition of a spirit shall be this, A subtle and thinne body 
● definition of a spirit.  alwayes mooueable, engendred of blood and vapour, and the vehicle or carriage of the Faculties of the soule.  
That it is a body Hippocrates witnesseth, when hee reckons it in the number of those things whereof the body is compounded; for he diuideth the body into Continentia, contenta 
Hippocrates.  & impetūfacientia, that is, into parts conteining, conteined, and such as moue with a kinde of impetous violence. Another argument that it is corporeall, is, because it 
That they are corporeall.  stands in neede of a channell or passage wherein it may be transported, because it distendeth the parts in which it is entertained and occupieth a place; for when the creature is dead, both the ball of the eye is corrugated or wrinkled, and the Membranes thereof doe also fall being no more illustrated by the beames of the spirits. It is therefore a body, but the finest and subtillest substance that is in this Little world. For as the winde it passeth & 
〈…〉 wind  repasseth at his pleasure, vnseene, but not vnfelt; for the force and incursion thereof is not without a kinde of violence; so the seede although it be thicke and viscid, yet passeth thorough vessels which haue no manifest cauities; the reason is, because it is full & as it were 
〈…〉  houen with spirits. Galen in his third Booke of Naturall Faculties, saith, That blood is thin, 
〈…〉.  vapour thinner, and Spirits thinnest of all.  
I saide moreouer, that it was alwayes in motion, for the spirits are continually moued, not by another onely as the humors( which whither they be drawne or driuen are alwaies 
〈◇〉 the 〈…〉 in 〈◇〉 motion  mooued by a power without themselues;) but also by themselues, that is, by an inbred principle of their owne. So that there is a double original of the spirits motion, on homebred another but a stranger; by the homebred principle they are mooued as the flame vpward 
〈…〉.  and downward, as Galen teacheth. Vpward, because light; for they are fiery and airy: and downe-ward towarde their nourishment. If either of these motions bee hindred, the spirit is corrupted, and that by consumption or extinction; by consumption for want of 
〈…〉  nourishment when it cannot mooue downward; by extinction from his contraries, when it is choaked by cold and moysture because it cannot mooue vpwards. Againe they are moued by an externall principle, when they are Drawn hither or Driuen thither. They are 
〈…〉  driuen, the Naturall from the Liuer, the Vitall from the heart in his Systole, the Animall from the Braine when it is compressed. They are drawne, the naturall by the veines, the vitall by the particular parts together with the Arteriall blood; the Animall verie rarely, vnlesse a part be affected either with paine or pleasure. For in such a case neyther dooth the vehemency of the obiect suffer the faculty to rest, nor the heate cease to draw the spirits vnto it. The spirits therefore haue a body mooueable.  
It followeth in the definition, that they are engendred of blood and a thin vapour; so 
〈…〉.  that they haue a double matter, an exhalation of the bloode and aire; and therefore it is, that all our spirits are cherished, preserued and nourished by aire and blood.  
The last part of the definition designeth the vse of the spirits, as being the last and finall 
〈…〉.  cause for which they were ordained. For the spirits are the vehicles or carriages, not of the soule, but of the faculties thereof; for if the Vessels Veines, Arteries, or Nerues be tyed, 
〈…〉.  the life motion and sense of the parts to which these vessels passe do instantly abate & are in short time vtterly extinguished vpon the interception of the spirits, not of the faculties themselues which are incorporeall, because the band or tye dooth neither interrupt the continuity of the vessell with his originall, neither yet his naturall disposition. And this is the nature of spirits in generall.  
Now some spirits are ingenit or in-bred, which are so many in number as there are seuerall kinds and fortes of parts; some influent, which flowe as it were from diuers Fountaines, 
〈…〉.  and serue to rowze and raise vp the sleepy and sluggish operations of the former. Concerning the number of the influent spirits, Physitians are at great difference among themselues. Argenterius thinketh that there is but one sort of spirits, because there is but one soule and that hauing but one organ, one bloode and one ayre which is breathed in. But the Ancients farre more acutely haue recorded three manner of spirites, because there 
〈…〉.  are three faculties of the soule, the Naturall, the Vitall, and the Animall; three principles, the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer; and three kinde of Vessels, Veines, Arteries, and Sinnewes.  
That there is an Animall spirit, beside that Galen inculcateth it in sundry places, many reasons do euict it. For to what purpose else was the braine hollowed or bowed into so many arches? To what purpose are those intricate mazes and laberynthes of small Arteries which in the Braine we call Rete mirabile, the wonderfull Nette? And why are the sinewes propagated into so many braunches? But of this we shall haue occasion to speake more hereafter, as also of the vitall which no man yet euer opposed, and of which the Poet maketh 
Ouid.  mention, calling it a diuinitie.  
Est Deus in nobis, agitante calescimus illo.  
In vs there is spirit seated,  
And by his motion we are heated.  
Onely concerning the naturall spirit there hath been some difference, many labouring 
That there is no natural spirit.  to blot his name out of the rowle; whose arguments we will here scite before the tribunall of Reason to see how they acquite themselues. First they say that the naturall faculty needeth 
1. de loc. affict. 12. meth. & in arte parua. 1. Reason.  no vehicle or weftage, because it is inbred in euery part, for which they auouch Galen. Againe, there is no matter whereof this naturall spirit should bee made, because there bee no vessels whereby ayre may be conuayed vnto the Liuer; neither is there any place for his generation, there be no such cauities in the Liuer as are in the Heart and the braine. Adhereto 
2. Reason.  that there be no currents or channels to be found whereby it should be led through the body: for the coates of the veines are too thinne to hold or contain an aetherial spirit. 
3. Reason.  And truely Herophilus well conceiteth that therefore the Artery is manifolde( sixe fold 
4. Reason. Herophilus.  sayth he) thicker then the veine, because it was made to conteine the spirits, which by reason of their tenuity, if they had not beene inclosed within stronger wals, would easily haue vanished away.  
Moreouer, seeing the spirits as Hippocrates sayth, haue in them a kinde of nimble violence 
5. Reason. Hippocrates. 6. Reason.  and impetious motion, if they were contayned within the veines, they would make the veines to beate as do the arteries. Finally, if it be granted that the spirits doe passe and repasse through the veines, yet with what nourshment shall they bee preserued? For heate sayth the great Dictator Hippocrates is nourished by moderate cold; nowe there is no ayre 
Hippocrates.  led vnto the veines to serue that turne.  
These and such like are the arguments whereby they casheere this naturall spirit, which 
Answere to the former arguments. To the first.  if they be weighed in equall balances will be found too light to sway an established iudgement. For first, Galen doth not absolutely deny that there is a Naturall spirit, only he casteth in a doubt as it were by the by, as also he doeth concerning the vitall spirite, in the fift 
Galen.  chapter of the 12. booke of his Method, when yet notwithstanding it is beyond all controuersie that it is conteined in the arteries. But more plainly in the sixt of the vse of Parts, he writeth that there is a spirit conteined in the veines; yet are there but few of them, and those darke as he sayeth and cloudy. We confesse that there is a naturall faculty bred and 
The naturall spirit but cloudy.  seated in euery part, but because the heate and naturall spirit of the partes wherein this inbredde faculty doth consist is but vncertaine like a fugitiue, and dull or stupid; it standeth in neede of another influent yet like vnto itselfe, whereby it might bee stirred vp, established, and from a potentiall vertue brought into an operatiue act.  
The Arabians imagine that the blood is transported and guided through the whole body 
The Arabians conceit.  vnder the conduct of the spirit; for although euery part like a Load-stone doe draw vnto itselfe such iuyce as is familiar vnto it, yet if the distance of place be too great, neither can the Load-stone draw yron, nor Amber chaffe, nor the part his nourishment. To their second argument that there wanteth nourishment both for the generation and preseruation of this spirit because no ayre is conuayed vnto the Liuer; we answere with Hippocrates, 
To the second Hippocrates.  that all bodies are Transpirable and Trans-fluxible, that is, so open to the ayre as that it may easily passe and repasse through them, though not so aboundantly as it doth by the windepipe, of which aboundance there is no neede, because this thicke and cloudy spirit needeth but a litle ayre for his refection, which is supplyed by transpiration. This Transpiration is made in the hollow parts of the Liuer by the Arteries. In the round or gibbous although there be no arteries, yet the midriffe with his continual motion as it were with a fanne, ventilateth or fanneth, not the Liuer onely, but all the entralles.  
Thirdly, whereas they say there is no cauity, no Cisterne, no place for generation of such a spirit in the Liuer; it is truely a very bold conclusion. But let vs sticke to them with 
To the third.  as great confidence hauing Galen on our sides equiualent to a whole army of such inexperienced Tyrones. It was not necessary sayth he that there should be any cauity or cell in the Liuer such as are in the heart, because those bowelles onely which were either to receiue from others, are to affoorde and impart together-ward and at once a plentifull and aboundant sourse of matter stood in neede of an ample cauity wherein it should be either treasured & stored when it is receiued, or wrought and framed when it is to bee conuayed. The vitall spirit as it is very fine and thinne and therefore quickly exhausted; so it behoued that it should as sodainely bee regenerated that there might neither want plenty for necessity, nor aboundance for sodain expence: it was therefore necessary that it should haue a large cauitie or Cauldron wherein it should be boyled and prepared for vse; as wee see Nature prouided large and ample vessels for the nourishment of the Lungs, because of their continuall 
Why the vessels of the Lungs are large.  motion, which requireth a supply answerable to the expence: but the naturall spirit as it cannot so sodainely spend itself, so there was no neede of any aboundant affluence thereof, and therefore the beds or webs of the veines were sufficient for his generation.  
Fourthly, whereas they say that the thinne coates of the veines are too weake to guide and safe-conduct the naturall spirit; we answere in a word, that a thicke & grosse substance 
To the fourth  or dull prisoner is easily held in durance.  
To the fift argument we answere, that the veines are therefore not moued, because the faculty of pulsation is not deriued vnto them from the heart; for we do not thinke that the 
To the fift.  Arteries are moued by the heate and spirits which they containe, but onely by a vitall faculty streaming through them by irradiation from the heart, as we shal prooue hereafter.  
Finally, they aske how we think these spirits should be nourished? We answere, that it is transpiration which preserueth, refresheth, and maintaineth them, for euery veine hath 
To the last.  his artery accompanying him continually, beside the manifold imbracements and inoculations, whereby they are as it were wedded one vnto another. Wee conclude therefore that there is a naturall spirit, the vehicle or guide of the Naturall faculty and of the thicker sort of the blood which is from the Liuer diffused into the whole body. 
The Conclusion.    

QVEST. XIII. Whether the Bladder doe draw the Choler vnto it for his Nourishment.  
_THat there is a small Bladder tied to the hollow part of the Liuer, replenished with a yellow bitter iuyce which we call Choler or Gall; there is no man ignorant who hath touched Anatomy as they say, but with his vpper lip. But whether 
The seate of the bladder of gall.  this iuyce doe passe vnto the Bladder of it owne accord, or be drawne by the bladder, or abligated and sent by the Liuer, it is not altogether so manifest. That a meere Elementary forme should lead it by a kind of instinct or natural choice( for some choyces may be naturall) or election vnto that place, I thinke fewe men of reason will auouch. More likely it is that it is either drawne or driuen; Galen is for both, so is reason also; although Fallopius that subtle and occulate Anatomist, contendeth that it is 
Galen.  onely driuen from the Liuer and not drawne by the bladder, to whome and his arguments 
Falopius.  we will set our feet in the next exercise.  
That the choler is driuen from the Liuer, the very natue of the iuyce doeth sufficiently proue; it is an excrement, in his whole nature and quality hurtful and noxious, to the Liuer especially; and therefore it ought to be auoyded and that sooner and with more expedition, 
That the choler is driuen from the liuer  then the other two excrements, because his sharpe prouocations are more offensiue, and for that reason the receptacle of choler is tyed or fastned close vppon the cauity of the Liuer, but the spleene and the Kidneyes which receiue the other two, are set further off. 
Why the bladder of gall is fastned to the Liuer. That it is drawn by the bladder of gal Galen.   
Againe that this choler is drawne by the bladder of Gall, Galen teacheth in his fourth & fift bookes of the vse of Parts; and beside the fashion and conformation of the bladder itself and his passages doe aboundantly perswade vs thereunto; for because there be diuers Choler-conduits bending rather down to the guts thē to the bladder whose seite is higher; vnlesse the bladder had a peculiar & in-bred traction, vndoubtedly the choler would rather fall downe into the guts then arise vnto the bladder. The bladder therefore draweth this bitter iuyce, and that sincere without admixtion of any more benigne or pleasant humor.  
But whether this Traction of the Choler by the vesicle or Bladder bee for nourishment, or from a certaine consanguinity betwixt their qualities, or rather by a hidden and vnknowne 
Iobert. his opinion.  propriety, it hath beene a question of old, and yet is not determined vpon record. Laurentius Iobertus set forth a paradox concerning this matter, wherein hee determineth that this bladder is nourished by Gall, as the spleene by melancholy, and the Kidneyes by serous or whaey blood, which opinion may bee established by these reasons. First, it is 
His reasons: Galen.  an axiome in Philosophy and Physicke, which Galen often inculcateth and vrgeth in his bookes of naturall faculties, That nothing draweth for the drawing itself, but for the enioying of that which is drawne, that is to say, all traction hath some particular end for which it was instituted.  
Now the Bladder draweth the choler: to what end? No doubt but for his nourishment; and this the colour of the bladder perswadeth, which is altogether yellow by reason of the choler assimulated vnto it. Secondly, the Veines that are dispersed and disseminated through the coates of the Vesicle are so small and hairy, that a mans eie can scarse finde them out, and therefore by them the Bladder, especially the inner part cannot bee nourished. Thirdly, Galen witnesseth that the Lungs are nourished by choler, why then may not the bladder a more ignoble part be nourished with more impure choler? These 
Galen.  and such like are their arguments, who imagine that the traction of the choler is for the nourishment of the bladder.  
On the contrary, we being guided by authority, and established by Galens weighty arguments, 
That the bladder is not norished by the gall.  do not thinke that the bladder is nourished by Gall but by blood, conducted or led vnto it by the Veines; and that this traction whereof we haue spoken, hath some other end for which it is vndertaken & not for norishment. Galen in his 5. book of the vse of Parts and the 7. chapter writeth, that both the Bladders because they draw a sincere excrement 
Authorities out of Galen.  altogether vnprofitable for nourishment, do stand in neede of bloody vessels or vessels full of blood by which they may be nourished. And againe, in the 12. chapter of the 5. book, he askes the Question why the stomacke and the guts haue double coates, and both the bladders but one, and that proper? He answereth himselfe thus. Because in the Bladders 
An argument out of Galen.  there was to be no concoction made of those things conteined in them; If no concoction of the substance, then no nourishment by the same. To these authorities reason also lendeth 
Reasons.  her assistance on this manner. All nourishment is by assimulation; but choler cannot be assimulated because it is an excrement; not offensiue onely by reason of his quantity, but also in his quality distastfull and vnsauoury. The conclusion we leaue for them to gather who hold the contrary.  
A second reason may be, because Nature neuer attempteth any thing in vaine, why thē were the two Cysticke twinnes or veines which leade vnto this bladder ordained, if it were not for his nourishment? I confesse there are very small( though our grauer hath cut them large) but yet great enough for the nourishment of so small and vnbloody a part; and so much for the establishing of the truth.  
Let vs now another while make answere to the arguments of our aduersaries aboue 
The first opinion confuted  alledged. The bladder of Choler say they is yellowish, and that commeth by the assimulation of Choler. The Conclusion hangeth not well vpon the proposition. For the Colon 
To the first argument.  also in that place where it toucheth the bladder of Gall groweth yellowish by the transudation or sweating through of the yellow iuice abounding therein; yet who will say for all that, that the colon is norished by the Choler? And whereas they compare the nourishment of the Lungs and the bladder of gall, they forget that choler is one thing, and cholericke 
To the third.  blood another. The Lungs indeede are nourished with cholericke blood, that is verie thin and laboured to a height of heate in the left ventricle of the heart, but with excrementitious choler no part is nourished.  
If they obiect that the Spleene and the Kidneyes are nourished, the one with excrementitious 
Obiection.  and foeculent blood, the other with Serous and whaey; we answer, that we will 
Answer  make any man iudge whether there be the like reason of all these partes, the Kidnies, the Spleene, and the bladder. For albeit the Spleen doth draw vnto it foeculent blood, and the Kidnies a serous excrement, yet are not these pure and vnmixed; for their vessels, to wit, the Splenick branch and the Emulgent veines are very large. Now we may remember that 
Galen. Howe the Spleene and  Galen saith, that those parts which draw any iuyce through ample and large orificies cannot draw it pure and sincere, and therefore the Spleene and the Kidneyes do draw their excrements mingled with much benigne and alimentary blood, with which blood they are nourished, but the vnsauoury excrement they separate and auoid. But the bladder draweth vnto itself pure and sincere choler, not mixed or adulterated with any other humor, 
Kidneyes are nourished.  as well because the narrownesse of the passage will not admit any thing thicker, as also for that the a traction is stirred vp by a familiarity betwixt the bladder and the humour. It remaineth therefore cleared as we hope, that the bladder drawes not the choler for his nourishment.  
If it be demanded why then it draweth? We answere, that Galen thought it was by reason of a familiarity and similitude betweene them to vs vnknowne, it may bee also incomprehensible. For as the Load-stone draweth yron, and Amber chaffe; so the bladder draweth 
Similitude.  choler, with whose presence it is delighted and tickled as it were with a sence of pleasure. For so he sayth in the 10. Chapter of the 5. Book of the vse of Parts; Choler is drawn 
Galen.  by the Bladder, by reason of a communion of qualities. For as long as the Creature is a liue, though he liue very long, yet alwayes there is choler contained in the bladder of Gall, yea and after death, if wee will keepe the Gall long, wee may preserue it best in his own bladder; 
Why gal keepeth best in his own bladder.  neither of them suffering violence by other in any reasonable tract of time, for those things that are familiar and as it were a kin, will not offer violence one to another.  
If any queasie stomacke shall aske the question how the bladder can be delighted with such an excrement whose rage and acrimony is so fierce that if it stay but a little in the 
Obiection.  guts it vlcerateth them, & if it be poured into the habit of the body, by irretating the pannicle or fleshy membrane it stirreth vp a rigour or generall shiuering? How the bladder which is membranous and therefore of exquisite sence, should not feele that acrimony or be offended with so impure a humor? We answere first with Lucretius, That Nature couereth 
Answere. Lucretius.  many things vnder a sacred veyle, and that in this great vniuerse, the sympathies and antipathies of things are secret and wonderfull. Againe, the Bladder is delighted with the presence of the choler, and therefore is not hurt by his acrimonie. Happely also because it is vsed to it, it is not afflicted by it; so those men that are accustomed to poyson, doe not 
Custome taketh away sence.  feele the poysonous power thereof, and a drop of liquor strangleth well-nigh the Arterie, whereas full cups delight the stomacke. Againe, the stomacke is pained with a little ayre, and the guts torne asunder with cruell torments, but the Lungs because they are accustomed 
Similitudes.  vnto it, do swallow the aire in great aboundance and are refreshed thereby.  
Those men that will not admit of this familiarity or acquaintance betweene the choler and the bladder, doe referre the cause of this Traction to the necessity and prouidence of the vniuersall Nature; to wit, that the blood may be purged, least being defiled with such an excrement, it should become vnprofitable for nourishment.   

QVEST. XIIII. Of the passages by which the Choler is purged, against Falopius.  
_GAbriel Falopius, the most acute and subtle Anatomist of our age, hath deserued exceeding wel in opening vnto vs many things which in the former ages were 
The commen dation of Falopius.  not knowne. He first of all men did acurately describe the History of a mans Eie, and obserued that gristly body which they call Troclea. Hee first found out the yarde of the wombe called Clitoris, beside the manifold nicities foulded as it were in a thousand difficulties, which hee hath manifested and brought to light in the Historyes of the Muscles, the Veines, and the Sinewes; yet notwithstanding this great 
Dangerous to vary from the ancients.  learned man in his Assignation of the vse of the Bladder of Gall, whilest hee describeth the passages wherby the choler is led, in falling from the authority of the Ancients, falleth into an error whereof he cannot be excused.  
The ancient opinion and indeede the very trueth is, that there are two passages of the Gall, one distributed into the Liuer with aboundante shootes, the other passeth from the 
The two passages of choler. Falopius his opinion.  vesicle vnto the Guts. By the first the Bladder draweth the Gall vnto itself; by the second it dischargeth it again into the Duodenum. Falopius on the contrary, conceiteth that those passages of choler which are disseminated through the Liuer runne directly not vnto the Bladder but to the Duodenum, and doe continually thrust out the choler thereinto. And because it hapneth full oft, that the guttes are either distended with winde, or in the time of distribution are fulfilled with Chylus; so that the passage or out-let ordained for the auoyding of choler is intercluded or shut vp; least sayth he, the choler should flow back and returne vpon the Liuer to defile the blood, Nature hath framed the Bladder as it were a diuerticle or cisterne out of the way, wherein the choler might bee gathered and reserued together, whilest the out-let in the duodenum should be opened.  
Wherefore there be two things which Falopius would haue; the first that the Choler passeth directly from the Liuer to the duodenum: the second that the Bladder draweth not choler, but that it returneth thither from the guttes when they are distended. Which two assertions, by the fauour of this learned man, we cannot subscribe vnto; because we thinke that we are able to demonstrate the contrary both by reason and sence, the two most certayne 
Arguments against Falopius  Iudges and determiners of all controuersies. First therefore wee say and lay as a ground, that in the whole frame and structure of the body there is nothing done or generated as accedentary, but onely vpon certaine ground and necessary vse. Now the vse assigned to the bladder by Falopius is but accedentarie and casuall; for it is not perpetuall that the guts are distended with winde and their passages intercluded; but this happeneth rarely and but to some bodies and those of good constitution. Hence it will follow that the bladder must be vnprofitable, and idly framed by Nature, which true and solid Philosophy will neuer grant. For Nature at no time endeuoureth against the causes of diseases, but against such as doe dayly and necessarily happen. For it was the originall determination of the great Arificer of this noble Fabricke, to create a sound and not a sickly habitation 
Nature endeuoureth a sound body not a sickly.  for the soule: and therefore he generated the parts at the first hand for themselues, and not afterwarde or at aduenture, albeit one and the same particle haue many and diuerse by vses.  
The second engine which we conceiue these paper walles cannot withstand, shall bee this, that it is necessary that the Bilious excrement shoulde passe vnto the bladder before 
The cause of euacuations.  it went to the out let in the duodenum. For if it should flowe by degrees and perpetually vnto the guts, it would not moue them to excretion, because a little choler and that falling by droppes, would haue beene too weake for this motion. But because it is drawne by the bladder, therein gathered and at length aboundantly and at once povvred foorth into the waies of the excrements, it moueth their disposition by certaine distances and with a kinde of suddainnes.  
Thirdly, vnlesse wee admit the Traction of the bladder, and a propriety whereby it is conteined & reteined to a certain time, what would it haue auayled it to be separated from the blood? For if it alwayes descend directly from the Liuer to the gutte, then must it bee mingled againe with the Chylus and defile it; for the way is open, neither can the distribution of the Chylus as Falopius dreameth, interclude the passage of so thin and subtle a humor. Againe, if the choler should returne vnto the bladder, onely when the passage into the duodenum is stopped, then should not the bladder be alwayes found ful of choler, which is euermore to bee seene in sound and healthy bodies. Ad hereto, that if the bladder were onely prouided for a diuerticle to set the choler as it were out of the way; what neede was there of so great a cauity? A little bodie would haue serued that turne, the first intention of nature being not to send it thither but vnto the gutte. Furthermore if the bladder had no power of Traction, why should the choler rather returne vnto it then vnto the Liuer, when the passage to the vesicle is longer, more crooked & oblique? For if there be nothing but a simple refluxion, it is most reasonable that should be by the broader and the shorter way, which seeing it is not, we conclude that it is drawne.  
Finally, if the Choler did onely regurgitate and flowe backe and were not drawne, it would not be reteined, but dispatched away againe in the same moment as an vnwelcome guest, and so this refluxion should be in veine. For if it be not familiar vnto the bladder, why should it not prouoke it as it doth the guts and the stomacke.  
Nature sayth Galen vnburdneth not the Gall into the stomack because it was offensiue, 
Galen his obiection. cap. 4. lib. 5. de vsu part.  for if with his bare touch hee moueth the guttes to excretion, surely it would haue ouerthrowne the concoction of the stomacke. Galen asketh the question why the guttes haue two coates, and the bladders which conteine so sharpe humors as the vrine and the choler but one a peece? hee answereth himselfe, because the choler is noysome to the guttes, but 
His owne answere.  pleasant and familiar to the bladder, a little of it prouoketh the guts, and not the bladder, because they draw it not, neither is it familiar vnto them as it is vnto the bladder.  
I thinke that the onely reason which moued Falopius to father this conceite, was because he saw that the passage from the Liuer to the bladder was crooked or oblique, but direct and straight from the Liuer to the Gut; and that therefore it could not ariue so soone at the bladder by that crooked passage as at the gut by the straight. Yet againe me thinks this argument or reason should bee too light to transport so wise a man; for the motion of 
The motion which followeth the elementary form  the expulsiue faculty is one, and that of the tractiue another, and the motion of the Elementary forme different from them both. That motion which followeth the Elementary forme is straight and direct, and rather followeth the shorter, more ample and straighter passages. In the motion of the Tractiue faculty which is from the soule, neither doth the 
The tractiue faculty.  obliquity of the passages withstand it, nor the grauity or waight of that which passeth; for phlegmaticke blood, although it be heauy ascendeth vnto the braine, and in the time of famine the stomacke recalleth the thicker excrements. Seeing therefore that choler is drawn by the bladder, the crooked passage cannot hinder his ready obedience. Beside, the way from the Liuer to the bladder could not be direct, because it is placed in the hollownesse of the Liuer, so that the passage must first descend, and then ascend.  
It will be obiected, if the bladder do draw the choler because it is familiar vnto it, why 
Obiection.  doth it then discharge itself of it againe? For by the same propriety by which it draweth, it should also retaine and delight itself therewith. I answere, that the choler is not excluded vnlesse it be offensiue either in quantity or quality; and sure it is, that by long continuance 
Solution.  in the bladder, it becommeth more sharpe.  
Now whereas it is obiected by some, that the bladder draweth not the choler, because 
Creatures hauing no bladder of Gall.  many creatures haue it not at al, they heereby conclude nothing. For where the bladder is wanting there hee were wood that would say the bladder drew it; but wee acknowledge this vse of drawing the choler in those creatures, at the cauity of whose Liuer a bladder 
Aristotle.  is set. That this bladder is wanting in some creatures, Aristotle writeth 2. de hist. Anim. cap. 15. The bladder of gall( saith he) in some is tyed to the Liuer, in some not: in the Hart 
Cerui Achaini. Gall in the taile.  and the Hinde it is obserued to be wanting, as also in the Horse, the Mole, the Asse, & the sea-Calse; the Harts called Achaini, are thought to haue it in their taile; the Elephant and the Dolphin haue no gall in their Liuers. In Euboea Cha cide an Island in the midland. Sea neere Greece, the Cat●●e haue none; in Naxus they haue it double and very large. Finally, if as Falopius thinketh, it be so likely that the choler is at first hand led away from the Liuer to 
Falopius argument retorted  the gut because that passage is the shorter, let him giue me leaue to retort vppon him his owne weapon. It shall therefore, say I, returne from the gut vnto the Liuer rather then to the Bladder, because the passage is not so oblique, and so there will become no vse at all of the bladder, if it be onely destinated for a Diuerticle.  
But let vs at length passe from reason to experience, which we will exhibite as plainly as 
Arguments against Falius.  we haue often found the same in our Dissections. I say therefore, that from the Liuer to the Bladder, there is an open or through passage and very conspicuous, but not from the Liuer to the gut. Again, from the Bladder to the Duodenum, there passeth another hollow 
p The Values of the passages of Choler.  pipe, but none from the Duodenum to the Liuer, and in each of these passages there are Values which hinder the refluence of the choler. That this is so, may easily be seene if you put a pipe or Bugle into the passages of the Liuer, and then blow it, for the bladder wil sooner 
Instance.  be puffed vp then the gut, because the way is open from the Liuer to the bladder. Againe, if you put your Bugle into the bladder and blow it, then will the passage of the gut be distended, not that of the Liuer. So then, the choler passeth first from the Liuer to the Bladder, and after from the bladder to the Duodenum.  
To conclude therefore, the Bladder draweth the choler from the cauity of the Liuer, retaineth 
The conclusion.  the same for a certaine time, and after in a season onely knowne and appointed by Nature, dischargeth it againe into the guts. And this was the opinion of the ancient sages of our Art. Hippocrates in his fourth Booke of diseases, Galen in diuers places, and in a word 
Hippocrates. Galen.  the whole Schoole of Physitians haue receiued it without opposition. Now, where there is so great a consent of learned and wise men ioyned with the authority of all antiquity, I am not easily drawne to dance after the nouell musicke of a wanton wit, which shall varie there from.  
But that there may be nothing wanting in the history of these passages, it is woorthy 
The duplicitie of the lower passage or choler.  our obseruation that the latter way by which the bladder emptieth himselfe, is sometimes found double, that is, there be two branches thereof, of which one passeth vnto the bottome of the stomacke, and the other to the Duodenum. Galen made mention of both these in his second Book of Temperaments & in arte parua: and Vesalius affirmes that hee 
Galen. Vesalius  saw it once. Sometime this channell of choler is but one, and is by nature framed amisse, being inserted in some men vnto the bottome of the stomacke, in others below the Duodenum, the former sort do continually vomit choler, the latter as continually auoyde it by seidge; the first are called 〈◇〉 Cholericke vpward, the other 〈◇〉 Cholerick 
Hip de victus ratione in acut.  downward, both cholericke( saith Galen 〈◇〉, that is) in their habite and conformation.  
To make these things more plaine, we must obserue that according to Hippocrates and 
Two sorts of cholerick mē. A cholerick Temper A cholericke Habit.  Galen there are two sorts of cholericke men, some are so by nature, some by euent or accident. By nature cholericke, is either in Temperament, or in Habite. In Temperament those are cholericke, whose Liuers are hot aboue measure; for a hot Liuer engendreth abundance of choler. In habite, those are called cholericke whose bladder of gall is so formed, that the Canell or passage of the gall runnes either to the stomacke, or to the emptie gut, and yet both these thus habitually cholericke, may in their temperament be Flegmaticke. There is an elegant history in Galen, in his Commentary vpon the second section 
A Storie out of Galen.  of the Booke, intituled de victus ratione in morbis acutis, concerning Paul the Rhetoritian, and Eudemus the Philosopher; the Rhetoritian was altogether Flegmatick, yet vexed with continuall vomitings, and for the most part costiue: the Philosopher had many cholerick euacuations downeward, but none by vomit. All these are called Bilious or cholericke by 
Bilious by euent.  nature. There are also some cholericke by euent, that is by a temperament acquired, as by labour, watchings, anger, sharpe salt and spiced meates.  
But whether the bladder do draw and driue the choler by one and the same way, many haue made question. A certaine new writer, a great interpreter of Hippocrates, but not so 
An idle conceite.  well practised in Anatomy writeth, that there are two passages inserted into the bodye of the bladder, by one of which it draweth, by the other it driueth forth the gall. But these are meere imaginations, for the passage of the bladder is onely one, whereby it both draweth and auoydeth choler, though at seueral times: yet from this common passage do spring 
The truth.  two small twigges, the one diuersifyed into the Liuer, by which it draweth onely, the other inserted into the Duodenum, by which it onely expelleth. And this Galen vnderstood right well, as appeareth in the thirteenth Chapter of his third Booke of Naturall Faculties. It is not hard( saith he) to conceiue how traction and expulsion should be made by the same passage at seuerall times, if we consider that the gullet doth not onely leade meate into the stomacke, but also in vomiting casteth it out by the same way. And thus much of the Bladder of gall, now we proceede to the Spleene.   

QVEST. XV. Concerning the vse of the Spleene against the slanderous calumniations of Galens Aduersaries.  
_THere be diuers opinions as well of the Ancient as Moderne writers about the vse of the Spleene, Erasistratus thought it not of any great moment. Aristotle 
Erasistratus. Aristotle.  in his third Booke de partibus Animalium, confesseth it to be necessary indeede, yet not absolutely, but by euent, although hee sayth it sometime draweth the excrement from the stomacke, and worketh it vnto his nourishment. Both these opinions haue beene hissed out of the Schooles of Physitians, as being neither established by reason, nor agreeing with the maiesty, wisedom, and policy of Nature, who vseth not to create any thing in the frame of our bodies, which is not necessary for the better gouernment and order of the common-wealth of the same. Alexander Aphrodisaeus sect. 2. problem, and Aretaeus lib 1. de causis & signis chronicorum, and the author of the Book de Respiratione 
Alexander and Aretaeus.  do conclude, that the spleene is the organ of sanguification, and they call it the bastard Liuer. In this say they is the veinall blood prepared and concocted, yet doth their 
Their reasons  beleefe rest vpon coniecture, because the frame and structure of both the bowels is alike; because in both of them there are large and ample vessels; because nature vseth to make the common ministers or seruiceable partes of the bodie, either double, or if but single then that one is placed in the middest, as the heart, the stomacke, the wombe, the bladder, the mouth, the tongue, and the nose; because the Liuer is in the right side and the Spleene in the left, they seeme to bee two organes ordained for one and the same action. But these 
Confuted.  bare coniectures are too weak to make a party that should hope to preuaile against a common receiued opinion. For how could nature haue set two so ample bowels which were to serue the whole bodie in the midst vnder the heart, and how again should she not haue bin idle if she had made more instruments then one for sanguificatiō, when one was sufficient? Rondeletius was of opinion that the Spleen is not the receptacle of the melancholy humor, 
Rondeletius his opinio.  because that humour remaining in his naturall integrity, is spent vpon the bones & other hard and dry parts of the body, and because there is lest of that humor in vs, there is no part 
His Reasons.  appointed to receiue the superfluities thereof, like as there is no place ordained to receiue the recrements of the blood, which for the most part do passe away by sweats and insensible transpiration. Bauhin runneth a middle course between these whose arguments we haue heard before in the history, & may receiue answer partly by himselfe, partly by the answere to others. Vlmus a Physitian of Poytiers in France, in an elegant and wittie Booke which hee set out of the Spleene, hath deuised a newe and vncouth vse thereof, that is, That 
Vlmus his opinion.  in the Spleene the Vitall spirite is prepared: hee meaneth that the thinnest part of the Bloode, which is the matter of the Vitall spirite, passeth from the Spleene thorough the Arteries into the lefte ventricle of the heart, where it is mingled with the aire, and perfected & so powred foorth through the arteries, as it were thorough chanels and watercourses into the body. And this new paradoxe he establisheth with reasons, which carry a shew of great strength and euidence of truth. 
His reasons.   
The matter( saith he) of the vitall spirit is double, Aire and Blood, and both these stand in neede of preparation and attenuation: the Aire is prepared in the Lunges, but the Blood not in the right side of the heart as Galen would haue it, because there are no manifest passages from the right to the left ventricle: not in the Lunges as Columbus thought, and therefore in the Spleene.  
Moreouer, we are perswaded( saith he) heereunto both by the structure of the Spleene itself, and by the Symptomes or accidents which follow those that are splenetick. For the structure, Hippocrates in his first Booke de morbis mulerum saith, that the Spleene is rare and spongy, as it were another tongue. Beside, there are innumerable foulds of Arteries therein; 
Hippocrates.  now these foulds are no where ordained but for a new elaboration, and therefore in the Braine is the wonderfull or admirable web formed, in the testicles mazy vessels, in the Liuer millions of veines; wherefore it followeth that Nature hath ordained the spleene for the preparing and attenuating of vitall bloode. Add heereto, that all the Symptomes of spleniticke persons as a liuid or leaden colour, vnsauoury sweate, aboundance of lice, puffings or swellings of the feete, palpitiations of the heart, are demonstratiue signes of a languishing or decayed heate and impure spirits.  
The probability of these arguments hath made many to stagger in their resolution concerning this point, and yet notwithstanding if they be called to the touchstone, wee imagine they will proue no current Coine. For how may it be that the vitall spirit prepared in 
Vlmus opiniō confuted.  the webs of the Spleene, should be conueyed by the great Artery vnto the left Ventricle of the heart, when at his orifice there are three Values or Membranes shut without and open within, which hinder the ingresse of any thing into the heart? And this Hippocrates in his Booke De corde plainly auoucheth, whose words because they are sweeter then Nectar 
Hippocrates.  and brighter then the midday Sun we will willingly transcribe. At the mouths or ingate of the Arteries, there are three round Membranes disposed, in their top like a halfe circle, and they that prie into these secrets of Nature, do much wonder howe these orifices and ends of the great Arteries do close themselues: for if the heart be taken out, and one of those Membranes be lift vp and another couched downe, neyther water nor winde can passe into the heart: and these Membranes are more exactly disposed in the mouthes of the left ventricle, and that for very good reason. Thus farre Hippocrates. From whence I gather, if nothing can passe through the Artery into the heart, how shall the bloode attenuated in the Arteries of the Spleene passe thereinto, as Vlmus conceiteth? But I know what the answere will bee, that those Membranes are not ordained altogether to hinder the passage too and fro; but that nothing should passe or repasse together or at once after a tumultuous manner. But this is idly to decline the force of the argument, for the blood that is brought into the heart for the generation of vitall spirits, must both be aboundant, and at once aboundantly exhibited vnto it; which these semicircular Membranes will not admit. But concerning this question, wee shall haue occasion to dispute heereafter when we entreate of the preparation of the vitall spirit., for this time therefore thus much shall suffice.  
Notwithstanding, whereas he obiecteth that the large and manifold Arteries which are 
Obiection. Answer 4. vses of the Arteries of the Spleene.  in the Spleene were not ordained in vaine but for a further elaboration of blood, I answer that the vse of the Arteries of the Spleen is fourefold. The first, that by their pulsation they might purge and attenuate the foeculent and drossie blood; the second to solicit or cal this blood out of the Veines into the substance of the Spleene; the third to ventilate or breath the naturall heate of the Spleene defiled and almost extinguished by so impure a commixtion least it should faint and decay; and finally, to impart vnto the Spleen the vitall faculty. And so wee see how these notable Arteries are not without especiall Reasons ordayned. 
Answere to the argument of the Symptomes.   
As for the Symptoms which follow Splenitick Patients, they happen from the impurity of the blood, not yet cleansed from this foeculent excrement, and are rather effects of a 
Perfect Creatures may liue without their Spleenes.  fault in sanguification then of the store house of the spirits. Moreouer, if the Spleen had beene ordained for the preparation of the vitall spirit, it should haue been found in all perfect creatures, because that spirit is of absolute necessity for the maintenance of life. Yet Laurentius saith, that a few yeares before he wrote his Anatomy, hee cut vppe at Paris in 
A History out of Laurentius.  France the body of a young man corpulent and full of flesh, wherein he found no spleen at all: the splenicke braunch was there and that very large, ending into a small glandulous or kernelly body, and the two haemorrohidal veines which purged the foeculencie of the bloud. Pliny in the 11. Book of his Naturall history, writeth that the Spleen is a great hinderance 
Pliny.  to good foot-man-shippe or swift running, and therefore some doe vse to seare it, yea and they say that a creature may liue though it bee taken out of the side. Againe those creatures which haue lesse of this drossie slime haue no spleenes, and yet it is not to bee denyed but they ingender vitall spirites. Hereof Aristotle is a witnesse, in the 15. Chapter of his 
Aristotle. Creatures that lay egges haue smal spleenes.  second booke de historia Animalium, where hee sayeth that the Spleene is in all creatures which haue blood, but in many of those which lay egges it is so small that it cannot almost be perceiued, as appeareth in Pigeons, Kites, Hawkes, and Owles.  
These thinges being so, let vs now lay downe our opinion concerning the vse of the 
Concerning the vse of the spleene, agreeing with the trueth.  spleen. We will therefore with Galen, that the spleene is ordayned for the expurgation of foeculent blood; and therefore Nature hath placed it opposite to the Liuer, that the thicke and muddy part of the iuice being drunk vp and exhausted, the blood might be made pure. This melancholy iuyce by a wonderfull prouidence and vnknowne familiarity the Spleene inuiteth vnto itself, yet not pure and vnmingled as the bladder draweth choler, but allayed with much benigne iuyce and laudable blood; because as wee sayed before, where the draught is made through large orificies, there the iuyce is neuer sincere, but mixed with some other humour.  
This bloud thus drawne and brought by the Splenicke braunch, the aboundance of Arteries doe attenuate, mitigate, and concoct, making it like vnto the Spleene which is nourished 
Galen.  with the purer part thereof. This Galen witnesseth where he sayth, That the Spleen draweth thicker blood then the Liuer, but is nourished with thinner, and the impurer part sometime belcheth backe into the bottome of the Stomacke, sometime falleth into the Hemorrhoidall veines: and this is the true and vniforme opinion of Galen and the most Physitians concerning 
Confirmed by reasons. The first.  the vse of the Spleene, which it shall not bee amisse to proue also by some arguments. It is most certaine that in the Liuer there are ingendred with the blood three kinde of excrements, one thinne and more ayrie which swimmeth aloft and is called Choler; another thicker and more earthy answering to the lees of wine, the third waterie and whaey. The Choler because his acrimony is more prouoking, is first of all sent aside; the melancholly iuyce as being more myrie and impure, needes the more forcible expurgation; for this expurgation, it was necessarie there should be some receptacle and that not far distant from the place of concoction.  
This receptacle is neither the stomacke nor the guts, nor the Kidneyes, nor the braunches of the hollew veine: it remaineth therefore that it must bee the Spleene, which receiueth a notable splenicke branch from the trunke of the gate veine and the lower partes of 
From the coulor and taste.  the Liuer. An argument hereof is the couler of the spleen, which is almost in all creatures blacke or brownish, as also sowre to taste: now such as the couler is of any part, such is the humor that hath dominion therein.  
Moreouer that the Spleene is ordained for the drawing and purging of the lees of the blood, these things doe sufficiently witnesse; because it is most subiect to obstructions and 
2 2. Argument.  schirrous tumors, not by reason of his substance, for it is rare and fungous like a fast sponge or a smooth pumie-stone; not by reason of his vessels which are very large: wherefore by reason of the humor contained therein, which if it were thin would neyther beget obstructions 
Why the spleen is subiect to obstructions & scirrhous Tumors. Galen.  nor such scirhous hardnesses. This Galen teacheth in the 13. booke of his Method. The substance sayeth hee of the Liuer is very liable to the scirrhus, as Naturally conteining some myrie and grosse iuyce: the substance of the spleene is more rare and open then that of the Liuer, but yet is oftner afflicted with scirrhous tumors, because of a kind of Aliment wherewith it is refreshed. And againe in his 5. Booke of the Faculties of simple medicines. The Spleene hath ample passages. From whence then proceed these frequent obstructions but from the grosse and foeculent blood? In respect of this thicke humor, Galen in his 5. Booke de sanitate tuenda sayth, That the Spleene is helped by the exercise of the vpper and lower partes to attenuate 
Plutarch.  it. And in Plutarch Orchomenes the Lacedemonian was very spleeniticke, yet hee so exercised himselfe in running, that at length he obtayned the prize in a race.  
Furthermore, that the spleene is the receptacle of foeculent blood may thus be demonstrated: If the spleene bee obstructed, this muddy blood floweth presently backe vnto the 
3 3. Argument.  Liuer, and infecteth that which is pure and laudable with his couler, and hence the habite of the body becommeth melancholy, and the patient ouertaken with the blacke Iaundise, 
The cause of the black and yellow iaūdise  euen as when the passage of gall is obstructed the choler returneth into the Liuer, whereupon the whole body becommeth yellow in a yellow Iaundise. For this cause I thinke it was that the Ancientes placed the seate of laughter in the Spleene, for it is a knowne disticke.  
Cor sapit ac pulmo loquitur fel continet Iras,  
Splen ridere facit, cogit amareiecur.  
The seate of wisedome is the Heart, the Lungs our Tongues doe moue:  
The Gall our Rage, the Spleene our Mirth, the Liuer holds our Loue.  
And the Diuine Plato aluding hereto, writeth that the Spleene is placed next vnto the 
Plato.  Liuer to keepe it alwayes pure and bright and shining like a mirrour, fitte to returne the Images of those things that light vpon it.  
But there are many things obiected against the trueth of this opinion, which it is very reasonable we should answere and dissolue. If the Spleene had beene ordained for the drawing 
Obiections.  and purging of the melancholy iuyce, then Nature would haue prouided some passages to leade it from the Liuer; there should haue beene also some cauity to receiue it, and some wayes by which it might be thrust forth. So there are certaine passages of the gall dispersed through the whole body of the Liuer, and hollow like Arteries which leade the choler from the Liuer: there is also a notable cauity in the bladder recieuing it, & wayes by which it is thrust downe into the duodenum. In like manner, Nature for the vrine prouided the emulgent vesselles to leade it from the hollow veine: the membranous cauities of the Kidneyes to receiue it, and the vreters and bladder to expell and auoyde it; but for the melancholy iuyce there are no proper and peculiar passages to leade it to the Spleene, no cauity or hollownesse in the Spleene to receiue and conteine it, nor any wayes whereby it might be auoyded; and therefore the Spleene is not ordained for the drawing and expurgation of this humor. That there is no pipe, passage, or vessell appointed for the transportation of these lees of the blood may be proued thus. Nature is so prouident that as soon as sanguification is perfected, she prouideth that the noysome and heterogenie parts should bee purged and separated from the laudable blood, that it might not bee adulterated with their contagion. But if the melancholy iuyce should passe away by the splenicke braunch, this councell and law of Nature should be vtterly ouerthrowne, because it must needs passe through the trunke of the Gate-veine, and defile with his slimy muddines all the braunches that belong to the stomacke, the kall, and the neighbor parts. Neither can the Spleene be a fit receptacle for this melancholy iuyce, because in it there are no hollow veines, whereas this thicke excrement would occupy a greater place then a thinne. Finally, there are no passages by which these lees might be thrust forth, for it is not returned into the hemorrhoidall veines, nor into the bottome of the stomacke; because if it were thrust into the hemorrhoidall veines, then all men should be trobled with hemorroids, because all men haue this foeculent blood: adde hereto, that the blood that floweth by these veines is thinne and purple, not blacke and thicke. Againe, if the Spleene should belch out the reliques of this foeculencie into the bottome of the stomacke, it should at length bee auoyded either by vomit or by siege, and so we should continually haue sowre vomits or eructations, and black stooles.  
These and such like are the arguments by which the aduersaries of Galens opinion doe 
Answeres to the former arguments.  contend against him. But their blunt weapons will not fasten in the flesh, Nulla sequitur de vulnere sanguis. For we answere, that the splenicke branch is a fit vessell for the conueyance of this melancholy iuyce, from which although almost all the veines of the stomacke and the Kall doe arise: yet those parts doe not draw into them this impure blood, but only the Spleene which by a kinde of familiarity challengeth it as his proper guest. So the kidneyes alone do sucke through their ample vessels the whay, not pure but mingled with the blood.  
As for a cauity, we doe not thinke it necessary in the spleene, because there are an infinite number of beds and webs of veines and arteries therein, in which the slime and muddy blood is boyled and attenuated: so in the Liuer there are many of these webbes and yet no cauity, as also in the breasts and the testicles. Galen in the 4. booke of the vse of Parts, 
Galens obiections.  and the 6. Chapter, asketh the question why there be two Kidneyes and but one bladder, and one spleene? he answereth himselfe, because the serous or whaey humour is in greatest 
His owne answere.  quantity, the choler lesse, and the melancholy least of all. The whay thinnest, the melancholy Lees thickest, and the choler betwixt both. And therefore for a little and thicke humor which was hard to be mooued, a great and rare organ was most fit; but it needed not to be hollow, because the melancholy iuice was not sodainly to bee remooued, but by degrees 
Why there is no notable cauity in the Spleene.  and length of time to be changed and altered. Now, if there be any reliques of this melancholy bloode, who will deny that it is auoyded by the Hemorrhoidall veines at the seige, or by the veinall vessell into the bottome of the stomacke. Neither doth it hence follow, that the stooles should be alwaies blacke, or the vomits sowre; because a little quantity of this foeculent blood by the heate of the inward parts may bee digested and spent in a vapour, as the excrements of the bones, the gristles, & other parts. But if it abound as it hapneth in melancholy men, then the excrements of the belly, the bladder, and the hemorroid veines appeare blacke.  
Tis true indeede, that sometimes a right thin and purple bloode passeth away by the Hemorrhoides, because the Leeches sucke that which is thin, the thicker setling because of the streightnesse of the wound: or els we say, that there are two kinds of Hemorrhoids, 
External and internall, Hemorrhoids  the one externall, the other internall; the internall arise from the splenick branch, and the externall from the Iliack: the first do euacuate ill disposed and foeculent bloode, the other do empty the turged and full veines, and therefore the bloode that passeth from them is pure and lawdable.   

QVEST. XVI. By what wayes the Melancholy iuice passeth from the Spleene to the bottome of the stomacke, and for what vse.  
_ALmost all Physitians do agree, that a part of the Melancholy humor is discharged into the stomacke, but by what passages and to what end, they cannot so well accord. Auicen thought, that it is carried vnto the mouth of the stomacke by the Coronary veine, before it enter into the Spleene. 
Auicens opinion.  Tis a strange thing( saith he) that the light choler should be sent downewarde vnto the guts, to redeeme the stomacke from his acrimony, and the heauie and dull Melancholy should rise vpward to the mouth of the stomacke for the commodity thereof. Galen seemeth to haue thought diuersly concerning this matter. In the third Booke of Natural 
Galens.  Faculties he writeth, that it passeth from the Spleene vnto the Kall, thence into the guts, and by them to the pylorus, and at length to the bottome of the stomacke. In his Bookes of the vse of Parts, he openeth a nearer way, to wit, the Vas breue & venosum, that is, the short or venall vessell, reached from the vppermost branch neere the spleene to the bottome of the stomacke.  
In his Booke of the Dissection of Veines and Arteries, hee affirmeth that this short vessell is not found in all creatures. For mine owne part( saith Laurentius) I haue alwaies obserued it neuer to be wanting. This passage therfore being so short and conspicuous, is most 
What wee ought to thinke of it.  like to be ordained to conuey a part of the Melancholy iuice, which is like vnto the Lees of Wine into the bottome of the stomacke which could not be mittigated and attenuated by the power of the Spleene. Yet I will not deny but that when this short vessel is stopped the grosse iuice returneth into the splenicke branch, and from it sometimes into the Coronary veine of the stomacke, sometimes into the Hemorrhoidall, and somtimes into the 
Why the Melancholy humor returneth into the bottome of the stomack.  veynes of the Mesentery. But why should this melancholy iuice bee sent backe into the bottome of the stomacke? the common and true opinion is, that it is done to stirre vp appetite, for it is cold and sowre; now all cold things because they astringe or binde and corrugate or contract the mouth of the stomacke, doe prouoke appetite. So Hippocrates in Epedimtis saith, That water is deuouring, and melancholy men are great eaters. Auicen thought 
Cold thinges prouoke appetite how. Hippocrates. Auicen. Galen.  that this melancholy did not onely by his astriction stirre vppe appetite, but also further retention and concoction; and of the same minde is also Galen in the 5. booke de vsu partium, It streightneth the stomacke, & contracteth it into itself, and maketh it streightly to embrace the meate, and to retaine it till it be concocted.  
If it be obiected, that if it stirre vp the appetite, Nature should haue implanted the venall 
Obiection.  vessell into the mouth of the stomacke, which wee determine to bee the seate of appetite? We answere, that it is not so placed by the prouidence of Nature, least continually 
Answer.  gnawing and prouoking the mouth of the stomacke, it should induce a perpetuall and rauenous appetite. By the benefit and help of this branch, those who are diseased with a quartane 
How Quartane agues are often eased.  Ague( who for the most part haue it very large) are much eased by vomits, whether they come of themselues, or are procured by Art both before and after the Poroxisme or fit, especially in the declination of the disease. This same branch also is the cause vvhy in Quartanes not onely the Spleene is affected, but also the mouth of the stomacke, yea, almost 
The stomack il● affected in quartanes.  in all diseases which proceede from Melancholy the Stomacke beareth a part of the burthen.   

QVEST. XVII. How those that are splenitick are purged by Vrine, and by what wayes those purgations passe.  
_THat all splenitick and melancholy persons do abound with Vrine, as well 
Hippocrates calleth the Melancholie humor water.  the authority of Hippocrates, as also reason and experience doe perswade. Hippocrates calleth the Melancholy iuyce Aquam, that is, Water; in his fourth Booke de Morbis, where he saith; both the man and the woman haue foure kinde of moistures, Flegme, Blood, Choler, and Water. And in his Booke degenitura, there are foure kindes of moistures, Blood, Choler, VVater, & Flegme. By water all Interpreters vnderstand the melancholy humour, because that of all humours 
And why.  hath most whay or vrine in it, for it is cold: wherefore when that aboundeth, the naturall heare of the Spleene, the Stomacke, the Liuer, and neighbour parts is wasted and dissolued, from whence proceedeth a great encrease of crudities and waters. Adde hereto that 
Much sweate and vrine in Quartanes.  it behoued this crasse humour to haue much whay mingled with it, to be a westage or vehicle thereunto. Common and dayly experience addeth strength to this opinion, for in quartane Agues there is much sweate and much water made, and melancholy men are all 
Melancholie men great spitters.  of them sputatores maximi great Spitters: therefore Galen out of Diocles in his 3. Pooke de locis affectis, reckoneth aboundance of spittle to be the principall amongst Hypochoudriacall signes.  
This therefore is to be resolued of, that spleniticke persons doe abound with serous humour. Furthermore that it is purged by vrine, Hippocrates, Galen, Auicen, Paulus, and Rhasis 
How to purge it.  doe teach, and we finde it true in our dayly practise. Hippocrates in his Booke de internis affectibus, writeth that the medicines which are prescribed to the spleniticke persons, ought to purge by the bladder; and in his Booke de externis affectibus, he willeth that those cholericke Patients who haue great and turgid spleenes, and thereuppon are ill coloured or troubled with malignant vlcers, should haue their vrine prouoked. The moderne Practitioners doe cure the vulcers called sceletyrbica, which are contracted or gotten by the fault 
Vlcera s●eletyrbica, how cured.  of the spleene, by diuretical and diophoretical medicines, that is, by such as prouoke vrine and sweare.  
Hippocrates relateth an elegant History of Bion, in the second Booke of his Epidemia, and the second Section. Bion( saith he) did make much water without any residence, and the bloode 
Hippocrates story or Bion.  yssued out of his left nosethril; for his Spleene was puffed vp and hard. Galen in his second Booke ad Glauconem cures quartane Agues with Diureticall Medicines, such as prouoke Vrine. The guts( saith he) are to be purged by the seige but the Spleene and the Kidnies by the Vrine.  
The same Galen in his Commentaries in sextum Epidem: writeth, that Blacke Vrines are signes of a colliquated or resolued spleene. Auicen Fen. 15. tertij. When splenitick persons 
Auicen. ( saith he) do vse much exercise, the Melancholy humor is deriued to the passage of the vrine, and the vrines become blacke. And we ourselves haue obserued many splenitick persons to haue recouered their health by a liberall and free profusion or euacuation of blacke Vrines. But 
Experience.  we must obserue that such Vrines are not blacke in their proper liquor, nor in their Generation( because those according to Hippocrates in his Prognosticks, Pronheticks & Aphorismes 
Black waters. Hippocrates.  are all mortall, for that they bewray eyther an extraordinary heate, torrifying all things as it were into a blacke Cinder, or else an extinction of naturall heate, and a Morticinium, that is, an vtter deadnesse) but they are blacke through a permixtion of a blacke humor, which the Spleene hath purged and put downe into the Kidneyes. 
How Criticall waters becom black.   
Now by what passages or wayes this serous and melancholy iuice is purged from the Spleene vnto the Kidneyes it is nor so easily knowne. There are two kindes of vessels dispersed through the substance of the Spleene: Veines arising from the spleniticke braunch, 
The passages.  and many Arteries.  
Betweene the spleniticke branch and the emulgent veines, there is no communion vnlesse it be a farre off; for the splenicke branch ariseth out of the trunke of the port or gateveine, but the emulgent from the descending trunke of the caua or hollow veine: now betweene the hollow and the gate-veines wee know there is no communion vnlesse it bee by the mingling of their mouthes in the substance of the Liuer; for some of the new writers haue obserued many such inoculations betwixt them in that place. Wherefore if the expurgation or auoydance of this melancholy humor be made by the veines, it must be returned from the spleene to the gate, from the gate to the hollow, and from the hollow to the emulgent veines, and so vnto the Kidneyes, which were a long and tedious course.  
Our opinion therefore is, that this expurgation is rather made by the arteries then by the 
The most likly way.  veines, because the humour contained in the spleene, may by a nearer and more open passage be deriued from it vnto the emulgēt arterie. So the Empyici, pleuritici et peripneumonici, that is, such as haue suppurations in their chest, are afflicted with the pluresie or inflamation of the Lungs, haue the matter or quitture euacuated not through the veins but through the arteries: and beside, our eyes teach vs that there is more serous and whaey humor conteined in the arteries then in the veines.  
And for this reason I thinke the emulgent arteries were made so large and ample, not 
Why the emulgent arteries were made so large Galen.  so much to leade and bring down the vitall spirit( for if they had been but small, they would haue serued that turne) as to purge the whay contayned in the arteries away by the kidnies: for so Galen teacheth vs in his 5. Booke de vsu partium, and in his Booke against Erasistratus. And so much concerning the vse of the spleen, & the way of the melancholy vnto the Stomacke and the Kidneyes. Nowe followeth that wee should treate of the Kidneyes themselues.   

QVEST. XVIII. Of the vse of the Kidneyes, and the matter of the vrine.  
_ERasistratus and Asclepiades as Galen witnesseth in his Booke de Naturalibus facultatibus, 
Erasistratus. Asclepiades. Aristotle.  ascribed no vse at all almost to the Kidneyes. Aristotle in his Book de partibus Animalium, supposeth that they were at the first intention ordayned to hold or conteine and establish the veines, and that in the second place or by the bye, Nature abused them for the excretion of a superfluous humor. We with Hippocrates, Dioc es, and Galen 1. de naturalibus facult. 5. de vsu partium, and in his 
Hippocrates. Diocles. Galen. Of the vse of the kidneyes.  Booke de locis affectis, doe thinke that they were framed for the expurgation or cleansing of the veinall and arteriall blood. For whereas in the Liuer after concoction, there ariseth a threefold excrement; one bilious or cholericke, another foeculent or melancholy, and the third serous or whaey; and the two former as soon as concoction is celebrated are purged away, but the third remaineth to conduct the thicke and sluggish blood, that it might more easily and freely passe into the narrow and threddy veines: It was meet that at length 
The vse of the whaey humor  hauing performed this his office, it should also be separated and purged as an vnprofitable superfluity, and discharged into his proper receptacles. These receptacles therefore are the Kidneyes, which is euident enough because their substance is hollowed into diuers caues or dennes, and persorated or pierced through with many drayning pipes; as also because of the continuity they haue with the great bladder of vrine by the mediation of the vreters.  
But how this expurgation is made, whether by the traction of the Kidneyes, or by the 
How vrine is made.  expulsiue power of the veines, or by the proper motion of the whay, or after what other manner, it is not yet fully agreed vpon.  
Erasistratus conceiued that this expurgation came to passe by a necessary succession of 
Erasistratus.  one part of that which was euacuated to another, that is to say for auoyding of vacuity. But we will not so much as vouchsafe any answere to this opinion. Hippocrates, Diocles, Praxagoras 
Hippocrates opinion Diocles. Praxagoras. Galen.  and Galen, 1. 2. and 3. de facu t. natural. 4. de vsu partium, and 6. de locis affectis, doe all conclude that the kidneyes by a kinde of ingenit propriety, doe draw the whay vnto themselues, not pure but mingled with bloud. The blood is there reserued and applyed to the substance of the Kidneyes like a dew, after it is assimulated and turneth into their substance; but the whay being vnprofitable for nourishment, is first of all separated, next because of his thinnesse is deriued through certaine fleshy caruncles strutting out like the nipples of breasts, into very many pipes or fistules, and from these into a membranous hollownes, as it were into a Cisterne, and out of it through the vreters into the bladder.  
Some of the new writers haue thought this expurgation of the whay is not made by the Traction of the Kidneyes, but onely by the expulsion of the veines: because nothing draweth, 
New writers. Vrine auoyded by the expulsion of the veines. Their reasons  propter ipsnm trahere, that is, for the drawing itself, but that it may enioy that which it draweth: but we know that the kidneyes are not nourished with the whay neither with serous blood, because their substance is dense, solid, and compact, and the serous blood verie thinne; and therefore the vrine is drawne to the veines, by the power and force of Nature, which is either burdned with aboundance thereof, or prouoked by his saltnes & acrimony. There want not also some which defend the quite contrary, that there is no vse of expulsion in this expurgation, because then there should be a compression of the veines and arteries, 
That there is no expulsion at all.  the vppermost being contracted and the lowermost relaxed, and by that meanes not onely the whay but also the whole masse of bloud should bee driuen downe into the 
1 1. Reason.  Kidneyes.  
Againe, the scituation of the Kidneyes seemeth to contradict this conceit of expulsion; 
2 2. Reason.  for if that had beene their end, then their fittest position had beene directly vnder the hollow veine and the great artery, and not at the sides. Adde hereto, that this expulsion of the 
3 3. Reason.  whay should not onely haue beene into the emulgent, but also into all the crurall and Iliac braunches, yea rather into the lower and neather vessels. And therefore this serous humour, say they, is neither drawn by the Kidneyes nor by them driuen, but of it own accord passeth vnto them, which passage some haue thought to be by accident, as Erasistratus of 
Erasistratus.  whose opinion we made mention euen now: others by itself, that is, by a proper faculty as Auerohoes that acute Arabian, who thought that the Aliment was not drawne by the 
Auerrhoes.  parts, but by an ingenite power and vertue of it owne did passe vnto them. For as in concoction the Aliment getteth a new forme, so it also getteth a new faculty, whereby it is moued to this or that particle of the body: so the Eliments by their proper formes are moued 
Comparison  each to their proper place. But neither Erisistratus nor Auerrhoes can be approoued, because they both take away the faculties of the soule, especially the Tractiue which ministreth vnto nutrition.  
We as our manner is, to reconcile the different opinions of these great learned men do say, That the Vrine is partly drawne and partly expelled; but the force of the Traction is 
Reconciliatiō  greater then that of the expulsion. And yet wee affirme also, that some is onely expelled not drawne at all; and some againe neither drawne by the kidneyes nor expelled by Nature, but onely passeth on by a beaten way, which of long time it hath beene vsed vnto. The Vrine when it is naturall and no way tainted, and is onely the whay of the blood, is partly drawne by the Kidneyes, partly driuen by the expulsiue power of the veines, especially if all the frame of our naturall and legitimate health doe stand as they say in right tune: but yet in this expurgation the attractiue vertue of the Kidneyes is very great, and the expulsiue of the veines very light and weake.  
For why should the whay rather fall into the Kidneyes then into any other part, vnlesse there were a peculiar Traction in the Kidneyes? In Perirrhoea or the Criticall fluxe of the Vrine, it is onely driuen and not drawne by the Kidneyes: but in a Colliquation it is neither driuen into the Kidneyes, because the expulsiue facultie is too weake, neither drawne by the Kidneyes, but as the Poet sayth, of the winde. Qua data portaruit.  
Where way is made,  
It followeth glad.  
These things that they may be made more manifest and apparant, it shall not be amisse to bring them againe to the hammer and the anuile. The matter of the Vrine is very manifold: 
The threefold matter of Vrine.  first all our drinke, sometimes raw and crude and of the same couler it was taken in, sometimes a little altered: secondly, the serous liquor of those humours which are contained in the veines: thirdly all kinde of humours, yea and bodies that are melted, as flesh and fat. This threefold matter Hippocrates comprehended in the first section of the 6. Booke Epidemiωn, where hee sayeth, The Vrine is of the same couler with the meate and drinke, as 
Hippocrates.  well when it is as it should bee, as when it is a colliquation or melting of the moysture. A wonderfull, short, playne, and yet absolute sentence, so as I think it vnpossible to expresse more in fewer words.  
Whereas he sayeth that the Vrine is of the same couler with the meate and drinke, it showeth the first matter of the vrine, to wit, the drinke which some haue thought to be the sole and onely matter, being perswaded thereto by these reasons. First, because those creatures 
Why some thinke the drink the only matter of vrine.  which doe seldome or neuer drinke haue no bladders, but those that drinke much, do also auoyde much vrine. Secondly, because according to the rule of Physitians, the quantity of the vrine should be answerable to the drinke. Thirdly, because in the suppression of Vrine we interdict our Patients drinke, that the quantity of the vrine should not bee encreased. These things truely proue that the greatest part of the matter of the vrine is supplyed by the drinke and liquid meates; but they do not conclude necessarily that those are 
Answere.  the onely and alone matter of it. For the infant auoydeth water in the Mothers wombe by the vessell called Vrachos, yet it drinketh not; and againe in winter we make more vvater by much then in summer, and yet we drinke lesse. And Galen in his first Booke de locis affectis, telleth a tale of a young man who euoyded as much water as came to foure Hemin●, that is, 36. ounces aboue a quart, and yet in three whole dayes hee had taken neither meate nor drinke.  
The second particle is ( when it is as it should be) whereby Hippocrates sheweth the second 
The second matter of the Vrine, the whey of the foure humors  matter of the Vrine which is the true and legitimate matter thereof, and that is the whay of the foure Humors which are conteined in the Veines, and therefore Galen defineth 〈◇〉 the vrine, to be 〈◇〉, that is, The whey of the humor in the Veines. As for Lycus the Maccdonian, he is not to be harkened vnto, who affirmed, that the whay vvas onely the excrement of the Kidneyes. For how was it possible that so small bodies as the Kidneyes are, should beget so great a quantity of whaey humor? And if it be obiected, that 
Obiection out of Galen.  Galen in some place hath saide, that the Vrine is the proper excrement of the Kidneyes and the bladder. We will answere, that it is therefore called proper, not because it is engendred 
Answere.  in the Kidnies, but because it is drawne and separated by them alone.  
The last particle in Hippocrates expresseth the third matter of the Vrine, to wit, All Humors 
The third matter of the Vrine are the humors of the body.  and bodies which are melted or colliquated: the humors are all of them purged by the vrine verie often, as in criticall euacuations by the bladder, in a purulent perirrhaea, and such as is accompanied with a Strangury, or the Symptomes thereof. There remaineth vpon record cōcerning this matter a solemn edict of Hippocrates in the second section of his first 
Hippocrates. Galen.  Booke Epidemi●n, where he saith, Many doe auoid vrines bilious, watery, purulent, fretting, and strangurious or yssuing by drops, because as Galen interpreteth it, The whole body did put downe by the vrines great abundance and varieties of euil humors. But of this expurgation we shall haue occasion to speake in another place.  
Neither are the humors onely, but also such bodies as are colliquated and melted the matter of the vrine, such as are fat and fleshy: and hence come those fat and oyle waters, when a consuming Ague melteth the body, which are called signes of colliquation, whereof 
Hippocrates.  Hippocrates speaketh in his prognostiques on this manner; That Vrine is ill which is Oylie or fat when it is made: now by Oylinesse he doth not vnderstand either the colour or consistence 
What an oyly Vrine is.  of Oyle, but melted or colliquated greace swimming in the surface of the VVater. Concerning this threefold matter of the vrine, Ludouicus Duretus a great learned man of 
Ludouicus Duretus.  France, hath written at large in his elegant and learned Commentaries in Coacas praenotiones of Hippocrates.  
These things therefore being so, and the matter of the Vrine so manifold, we conclude 
The conclusion.  that all Vrine is not drawne by the Kidneyes, but that onely which is naturally disposed, to wit, the whey of the foure humors contained in the veines. Notwithstanding the Kidneyes are not therewithall nourished, for all traction is not for nourishment: the Loadstone draweth iron and amber chaffe, yet are they not nourished by them. But the Vrine which hath for his matter crude humors or any other, which is freely & aboundantly poured forth on the criticall daies, we thinke is onely driuen and not drawne. But if the vrine do flow from the colliquation or Liquefaction, either of the humors, or of some more substantiall part, it is then neyther drawne by the Kidneyes, because it is not According to Nature, neyther is it expelled by the power of the veines, because there is a generall exolution or weakenesse of the spirits: but it passeth of his owne accord through most patent and ample vessels to the kidnies, because those places are most accustomed to that euacuation. And this I take to be the sum and substance of this Controuersie.   

QVEST. XIX. That the reasons of diuers Symptomes which follow such as are afflicted with the Stone, are to be required for Anatomy.  
_IT belongeth neyther to this place nor time to dispute about the causes and generation of the stone, we rather sticke to those things that concerne Anatomy. But because Nephritical patients, that is, such as are troubled about their Kidneyes, especially with the Stone, haue diuers accidents, wherof there can no reason be giuen but onely from Anatomy, I haue not thought it amisse briefely to lay them open with their seuerall causes for the satisfaction of such as are not so well exercised in our Art, who notwithstanding may desire satisfaction in this point.  
The Nephritical paine doth oftentimes immitate that of the Collicke, so that by the similitude not onely the ignorant but such as are right skilfull are often deceiued. Notwithstanding they are distinguished by their particular Symptomes, by those things which are auoided, and those that are applyed. The most greeuous Symptom of all the rest is paine, which in the Collicke is wandering, but fixed in the Stone. The Collick paine ascendeth like as the Collick gut ascendeth, from the bottome of the belly to the stomacke, and so runneth vnder the bottome thereof; that of the Stone descendeth, because of the continuity of the Vreters, especially if the Stone begin to mooue. The Collicke paine possesseth 
Paine wandering & fixed.  all the lower belly, the Nephritick may be couered with ones hand; the Collick greeueth the region of the Hypogastrium and of the nauell, the Stone lyeth forer in the Loines backward.  
Some haue obserued out of the Arabians that the Collicke paine is lesse when the Stomacke 
An obseruation out of the Arabians.  is empty, but the other then is exasperated. And againe, when the stomacke is filled the Collicke encreaseth, which must be thus vnderstood. That the Collick paine euer abateth when the stomacke and guts are empty, but the Nephritick not alwaies; because the stone lyes goading in the same place. Yet sometimes after meate the nephritick paine is abated, because if the stone be fixed in the Kidneyes the waight of it presseth downward, and thence the paine proceedeth; but when such men haue eaten, the guts which support and suspend the Kidnies do swell, and so the paine is mittigated. There are also some Nephriticall paines which are exasperated vpon the eating of meate, as when the Kidneyes are inflamed the distention of the stomacke and guts do encrease it. Againe, the paine of the Kidneyes beginnes dully, that of the Collicke is alwayes a cutting and a sharpe paine. 
Obiection out of Hippocrates  If it be obiected, that Hippocrates in his Booke de internis affectibus affirmeth, that the pain of the Kidneyes is sharpe; we may answere out of Galen that there is a double kinde of dulnesse, the first is occasioned by the Tartnes of the humor, or sharpenesse and asperitie of 
Answere out of Galen.  that which is contained,( imagine it to be grauell) and both these make the paine somwhat acute or stinging; the other is by reason of the waight when the Kidneys are oppressed with abundance. The paine which proceedeth from Tartnes and acrimony, is both in the generation, and also in the expulsion of that which offendeth: that which is from the weight taketh vp all the time betwixt the generation and the expulsion. Or thus, the paine of the 
2 2. Answere.  Stone is dull whilst it resteth in the Kidney, and acute when it mooueth into or toward the Vreter. There are also other Nephriticall Symptomes; for the thigh that is on the same side wherein the stone lies, is as it were benummed or asleepe, which is not so in the Collick paine, wherein the vomitings, loathings of meate, and distastfull belchinges are more frequent and greeuous; and so much of the symptomes.  
Secondly, these paines are distinguished by those thinges that are auoyded; for in the 
Another meanes to distinguish these paines.  collicke the excrements are more obstinately retained, that not so much as a little winde can finde passage, but in the Nephriticall paine the vrine is rather suppressed. In the collicke paine the vrines are thinner in the beginning, and afterward become more thick; and if any winde or Flegme be auoyded, the paine is either mitigated, or else ceaseth: but the nephritical is not appeased til the stone be auoided. Finally, those thinges that are taken inwardly or applied outwardly, do distinguish these paines.  
Now the stone of the Kidneyes is knowne or discerned from that of the bladder by The propriety of the paine, by the scituation, and by the dulnesse. The bladder is placed in the Hypogastrium, 
How the stone of the Kidnies is distinguished from that of the bladder  the Kidneyes in the Loynes; the generation of the stone in the bladder is without any sense of paine, because of the largenesse and capacitie of the bladder: in the kidneyes it is engendred with paine, because of the narrownesse and streightnesse of the Kidney. In the stone of the bladder, the vrine is euermore suppressed not so in the stone of the Kidneyes because there are two of them, that if one bee ill affected, the other might serue the turne. Againe, the Strangury and the Tenesmus, that is, the pissing by drops and a vaine desire of going to the ground, do alwayes accompany the stone of the bladder because of the vicinity or neighborhood of the right gut, which is not so in the stones of the Kidneyes.  
Some there are which make a difference betweene them in regarde of the grauell, because that of the Kidneyes is redder, that of the bladder whiter: the stone also of the Kidneyes 
The grauell of the Kidnies red, and that of the bladder white.  is softer, that of the bladder harder. But this is not alwayes true, for the hardnesse and heate of grauel are to be referred to the power or efficacy of the efficient, and the condition of the matter. And so according to the degree of heate the grauell is eyther white or yellow or blacke, and according to the condition of the humour; when they are made of phlegme they are ash-coloured, and red when they are made of blood. But I may seeme here to haue grazed beyond my teather, I therefore returne. 
The cause of the stupor of the thigh in the paine of the stone, out of Langius & Iacotius.   
There are two symptomes which follow the Nephritical paine, a stupor or sleepines in the Thigh on the affected side and a Vomiting. The cause of this stupor, the learned Langius in his Epistles, and Iacotius in his Commentaries in Coacas praenotiones of Hippocrates, doe referre to the repletion of the veines. The large vesselles say they of the hollow veine and the great arterie as they discend downward, doe lye vpon the ridge of the backe, and from them there be notable branches scattered vnto the Kidneyes and the thighes, in whose repletion( which happeneth when the Kidneyes, the Vreters, or the emulgent vessels are obstructed) the nerues and the muscles are straightned, and thence that stupor or sleepinesse 
Confuted.  proceedeth. But this reason seemeth not to me very Anatomicall; for the stone in the kidneyes doth not cause the veines so to strut that they should presse the muscles, because that many which are wasted with a consumption of the Lungs or some other part whose veins are exhausted, doe notwithstanding in fits of the stone feele this dulnesse or stupidity in their thighes or legges. Adde hereto, that those that are plethoricall, whose veines are turgid to the outward appearance, haue yet no such stupidity in the legges or armes. Wee 
A double cause of the stupidity assigned.  must therefore finde out some other cause of this sleepinesse, and I thinke that it is double; the first is the compression of the muscle called 〈◇〉, vpon which both the kidnyes do rest, which also all Anatomists doe obserue to bee inserted into the inner part of the thigh, and appointed to bend the same. The other reason is the compression of the nerue which is diuersified into all the muscles of the thigh; and this compression is made by the hardnesse and waight of the stone, for while the stone is small and but a growing, this sleepines hapneth not.  
Now the reason why in the fit of the stone there is so great a subuersion or turning of 
Why the stomacke is subuerted in the fits of the stone.  the stomacke, that the Patient loatheth all meates, and presently casteth vp whatsoeuer hee receiueth, is the sympathy or consent betweene the stomacke and the kidneyes; and the cause of this sympathy which is simple, is not to be referred to their vicinitie or neighbourhood, because there is a good distance betweene them, not vnto the similitude or likenes of their kindes or substances, for the stomacke is membranous and the kidneyes fleshy; not vnto the society or entercouse of their operations, for they are not occupyed about one & the same labor; it is therefore to be referred to the communion and continuation of their vesselles and membranes. For there are certaine small nerues which are carried from the stomack nerue to the kidney; and the outward coate inuesting the kidneyes which is commonly called fascia or the swath, hath his originall from the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly, which all men know is continued with the bottom of the stomacke.   

QVEST. XX. Whether the bladder doe drawe the Vrine.  
_COncerning the Tractiue, Retentiue, and Expulsiue faculties of the Bladder, in respect or reference to the vrine, there are some small difficulties which had 
Whether the bladder haue any tractiue faculty. Galen.  neede to be made plaine. And first there may bee question made of a Tractiue faculty, for Galen sometime alloweth, sometime denyeth it. In the third Booke de natural. facult. and the fift de vsu part. he writeth that both the bladders of the gall and of the vrine haue a proper power to draw their owne excrement. And this the structure or frame of the bladder doth also conuince, for it appeareth to be wouen of three sorts of fibres, right, oblique and transuerse. And in the 7. Chapter of the 5. Book 
Galen.  de vsu part: The Bladder sayeth Galen, as well that which receiueth the vrine as that which receiueth the Choler, because both of them doe draw their proper excrements pure and segregated from the rest, do both of them by due right make claime vnto other vesselles which should conuay nourishment vnto them. Aristotle in the 15. Chapter of the third Booke de histor. Animal. 
Aristotle.  sayeth, That after death no humour falleth into the bladder, but whilst men are aliue not onely humour, but also dry recrements doe passe downe, of which stones are ingendred. Nowe if the whay did only discend and were not drawn, why should it not discend also in dead bodies? Galen in the 6. Booke de locis affectis, seemeth to be of a contrary opinion. For searching 
Galen.  into the nature of the disease called Diabetes, that is an exceeding fluxe of vrine, and the causes thereof, he affirmeth, that the bladder doth not draw the vrine vnto itselfe. But I vnderstand 
The cause of Diabetes. Galen expounded.  Galen that where he sayth in the Diabetes, The bladder draweth no whay vnto itselfe, his meaning is, that the cause of the Diabetes is not to be referred to the Tractiue power of the bladder, neither that it is at all any affection of the bladder, but rather a symptome of the exceeding strength of the Traction of the Kidneyes, and of the weaknes of their retention, and therefore in that disease the bladder draweth not so great a quantity of vrine, but the hot and boyling Kidneyes draw more whay then they are able to conteyne, whence either of it owne accord it falleth through the vreters into the bladder, or is thrust downe by violence.  
But if all things stand in good order according to the lawes of Nature, then there is no reason but to think that the vrine is drawne by the vreters and the Bladder. Neither doe I 
How the bladder is nourished.  thinke that the bladder is nourished by that excrement, considering that from the Hypogastricke branch there are many small rillets of veines and arteries dispersed through both his Coates.   

QVEST. XXI. Of the Retention and Excretion of the Vrine, whether it be accomplished by a Natural or by an Animal faculty.  
_THE proper vse of the Bladder is to retayne the Vrine to a certaine time, and afterward to auoyde it; but by what power it doth this, Animall or Naturall, there lyes the controuersie. Some conceite that both the actions, as well 
Retention & excretion are natural actiōs  the Retention as Expulsion are Naturall, because there is the same reason of both the bladders of gall and of vrine, but the bladder of gall reteineth and expelleth onely by the faculty which we call Naturall. Adde hereto that the triple kinde of fibres which are in both the bladders doe perswade vs that there is a threefold Naturall action in them and not an Animall. On the contrary, it may bee demonstrated that both 
That they are animall.  these actions are Animall on this manner. The Retention is made by Animal instruments, and therefore the action is Animall, this Animall instrument is a muscle. Now we know that the necke of the bladder is compassed about with a sphincter muscle, who playes the Porter and stoppeth the gate least the Vrine should passe away without our good pleasure.  
That the Expulsion is Animal is witnessed as by other arguments, so by this, that according to our arbitrary wil it is either flower or quicker, weaker or stronger, as also because it is not acomplished without the help of the muscles of the Abdomen. Galen in his first Book de locis affectis, and 6. Chapter, stinteth this strife, and sayth that the action is mixt; the Retention, 
Galen.  Animall, and voluntarie, as being performed by the helpe of a muscle, the Excretian Naturall which is vndertaken and performed by the expulsiue faculty: For my owne 
What our resolution is.  part I thinke that both actions as well the Retention as the Expulsion, as partly Naturall & partly Animall, but the Retention more Animall, and the Expulsion more Naturall. The Vrine is retained in the bottom of the Bladder by the help of the oblique fibres; now that Retention is naturall; but beside it is retayned also at our pleasure by the helpe of the sphineter muscle, and this action is meerely Animall. The vrine is Expelled by the ingenite power 
The vrine.  of the Bladder, whereby it is prouoked to auoyde that which is noysome or grieuous vnto it, & this Excretion is altogether Naturall. Again, the Vrine is Expelled at our pleasures by the help of the muscles of the Abdomen pressing the Hypogastrium or water-course; and some thinke that those small muscles of the Abdomen called Pyramidales or succenturiati, that is, spirie or assistant muscles were ordained by Nature to further the excretion of this humour, and therefore both these actions are mixed.  
Some will obiect that excretion can be no way naturall, because all naturall actions being perpetuall and indesinent the vrine should bee continually auoyded. Galen answereth 
Obiection Answere out of Galen.  that all vrine is not the obiect of the expulsiue faculty, but that onely which either fretteth or streatcheth, that is, which is offensiue either in quantity or in quality: and so much concerning the Bladder; now follow the Paps.   

QVEST. XXII. Of the action and vse of the Breasts or Paps.  
_ALL men I think are resolued that there is in the Breasts an in-bred faculty of making Milke. This onely is questionable, how they which are but kernels 
The question  should performe an officiall or common action, which is accomplished by alteration and concoction; seeing Galen denyeth vnto these glandules all action and yeeldeth vnto them onely a vse. Now that the Breasts or Paps are 
Galen. The breasts glandules. Hippoorates.  to be reckoned among the glandules, their substance and vse doe manifestly declare. For their substance it is rare, friable, and spongy; and for their vse Hippocrates in his Booke de Glandulis ascribeth the same vnto the Dugges which other kernelly parts performe, where he saith, The Vses of the Paps and of the Glandules before mentioned are alike, for they all sucke vp the superfluities of the whole body.  
For the Solution of this Question, we say there are two kindes of Glandules, for which 
The solution of the questiō Galen.  we haue Galen our Author, in his second Chapter of the sixteenth Book of the vse of parts. There are some Glandules which are ordained onely to establish and vnder-prop the Vessels, or to receiue superfluous humors, or to water and moysten the parts. There are others 
Two kindes.  which are prouided by Nature for the generation of certaine iuices or humors which are profitable for the creature. The former haue neyther Veines, nor Arteries, nor sinnewes: these latter haue very conspicuous vessels, and are of exquisite sense. The former are properly called Glandules; the latter may better be stiled Glandulous bodies. So the Testicles 
Galen. Hippocrates.  and the Kidneyes by Galen are called Glandulous bodies; and Hippocrates in his Booke de Glandulis saith, that the braine itself in respect of his substance is glandulous. The former are onely of some vse, the latter affoord both vse and action, amongst which wee conclude the dugs or breasts to be.  
And whereas Hippocrates saide, that these dugs doe receiue or sucke vp an excrementitious humor, 
Hippocrates expounded.  we vnderstand that this is not there primary or chiefe and maine vse, but onely secondary: for Nature often abuseth one and the same part to diuers vses; so the braine in 
The braine Glandulous.  manner of a Glasse-still or Cucurbita, doth draw and sucke vp the expirations of the lovver parts, and yet notwithstanding there is another and more diuine vse of the braine. So nature often abuseth the guts for the expurgation and vnburdening of the whole body, wheras they were Originally ordained for another purpose, to wit, for distribution of the Chylus.  
The Breasts therefore or Paps haue a proper action and vse. Their action is the generation 
The primarie vse of the breasts.  of Milke, which is performed by a moderate and equall coction or boyling. Their vses are either primary or secondary: The primary vse Galen saith is for generation of milk, but Aristotle would haue them ordained for the defence of the heart, the most noble of all 
Galen. Aristotle.  the bowels; and I thinke he was mislled with this argument, because men had breastes, and yet did not ingender milke. Wee with Galen do determine, that these glandulous bodyes 
Galen.  compassed with fat, and wouen with many thousand vessels, were first and originally ordained for Milke, and are not alike in men and women. And yet I conceiue that they were scituated in the breast rather to add strength to the noble parts conteined vnder them, then for the generation of Milke. For in most creatures they make Milke not in the brests but in other parts.  
You shall therefore reconcile Galen and Aristotle, if you say, that the Dugges were created originally for the generation of Milke, and secondarily for the strengthning & defence 
Galen and Aristotle reconciled.  of the heart. And againe, that the originall cause of their scituation in the breast was for the defence of the heart, and the secondary for the generation of milke.   

QVEST. XXIII. Whether Milke can be generated before conception.  
_IT was disputed of old, and is yet a question amongst the multitude, whether Milke can be engendred in a womans breasts before she haue had the company of man and conceyued. And this doubt is occasioned by some different places in Hippocrates and Aristotle. Hippocrates in his first Booke de Morbis mulierum, inquiring after the signes of the Mola or Moon-calfe, reckoneth this as one of the principall, When in the Brests there is no Milke 
Hippocrates., Aristotle.  engendred. And therefore the generation of Milke is according vnto Hippocrates a certaine signe of conception. Aristotle in his Bookes de Historia Animal, confirmeth the same, where hee sayth, That no Creature engendereth Milke before the womb be filled.  
And reason seemeth to consent with their authority. For if nature do neuer endeuour any thing rashly, but all things for her proper end, what neede is there of Milke before the infant be perfected, it beeing onely ordained for the nourishment thereof? Notstanding Hippocrates in his Aphorismes seemeth to be of a contrarie minde. If a woman( saith he) which is neither big with childe, nor hath yet conceyued, haue milke in her brests, it is 
Hippocrates. Aristotle. Albertus. Auicen.  a signe that her courses are stopped. And Aristotle in his Bookes de Historia Animal: affirmeth, that Milke may be bred in the brests or dugs of men which also Albertus and Auicen do witnesse.  
Hieronimus Cardanus in his Bookes de subilitate saith, that hee saw a man about thirtie 
A Storie out of Cardanus.  foure yeares old, out of whose breastes so great a quantity of Milke did flow, that it was almost 
The men of America haue milk in their breasts.  sufficient to nourish a childe. They that haue trauailed into the new world do report that almost all the men haue great quantity of Milke in their breasts.  
If therefore men doe breede Milke, much more Virgins and Women before they doe conceiue. For their Dugs are more rare and large, and beside they haue a greater aboundance of superfluous bloud; Reason also fauoureth this opinion, for where the materiall 
Reasons.  cause of Milke is present, and the strength of the efficient not wanting what should hinder the generation thereof? Now in Virgines that bee of ripe yeares, the veines of the Chest which water the Dugges haue great aboundance of bloud, they haue also the strength of the glandules to alter and to boyle it: for after the fourteenth yeare, The Dugges sayth Hippocrates 
Hippocrates.  doe swell and the Nipples strut, and young wenches are then sayd 〈◇〉, that is fratrare, to grow together like twinnes. Wherefore Milke may sometimes be bredde, in such women especially whose courses be stopt as Hippocrates writeth. But these disagreeing places 
A reconciliatiō out of Hip Two kinds of milke according to Hip.  of Hippocrates it will not bee hard to reconcile out of Hippocrates himselfe. There is a double generation of Milke according to Hippocrates, and a double nature thereof. One kinde of Milke is true and laudable, another not true nor perfectly boyled. The former is made by a great alteration and true concoction of the breastes, and that not priuate but officiall; the latter ariseth of a remainder of the proper nourishment of the breasts; the first is perfectly white, sweete, and moderately thicke, and fitte to suckle an Infant; this other is white indeed because it beareth the colour and forme of the part from whence it floweth, but it hath neither the true nature of a nourishing Chymus or humour, nor the sweetnes nor the power or vigour of nourishment, and therefore it deserueth the name of Milke, not by his quality or specificiall forme, but onely for his colour, for it is thinne and waterish, altogether vnprofitable to nourish an Infant. The former is begotten by the expression and refluence of the blood from the wombe to the dugges, as also by traction: this latter onely by the Traction of the proper Aliment; the former cannot be generated before true conception, because there should be no vse of it before. The latter may bee ingendered in growne & ripe maydens, and well blooded men, whose bodies and vessels do abound with laudable iuyces. This double kinde of generation of Milke, I gather out of Hippocrates his Bookes de natura pueri & de glandulis. The Nature sayth hee of womens breastes is very rare and spongy, and the Aliment which they draw vnto themselues they turne vnto Milke. This is 
Hippocrates.  the first kinde of generation.  
The other he describeth in the same place. The Milke commeth from the wombe to the breasts, which after the birth must be the nourishment of the Infant: this the Kel presseth out and sendeth vpward, being straightned by the growth of the Infant. Wherefore the blood is pressed 
How the milk commeth vnto the breasts, and why.  or strayned, and so returneth in women with Child by a wonderfull prouidence of Nature from the wombe to the Pappes, and that as soone as the Infant begins to moue. After it is brought into the world there is no more expression made, but the blood floweth of it owne accord to the Pappes, according to his accustomed motion, which Hippocrates sheweth in these words, in his Booke de natura pueri. After a Woman hath borne a childe, if shee 
Hippocrates. The first generation of milk  also haue giuen sucke before, the Milke wil arise into the breastes as soone as the Infant begins to moue: so that after the birth it is therefore led vnto the breastes, because it was accustomed to bee his course that way all the while the Infant did moue in the mothers wombe. Neither doth the blood onely of it owne accord presse vnto the Pappes, but they also drawe a greater quantity then is sufficient for their peculiar nourishment.  
Of this Traction there bee diuers causes; the Infants sucking, the largenesse of the vessels, the motion or exercise of the dugs, and at length the auoyding of vacuity. For when the veines of the breasts are exhausted by the Childs instant sucking, then they draw bloud vnto themselues from euery side.  
Wee conclude therefore that true Milke and perfectly concocted is not generated before conception, but that there may be a thinne and raw Milke sometimes made of the reliques of the proper nourishment of the dugs.   

QVEST. XXIIII. Wherein certaine Problemes are vnfoulded concerning the generation of Milke.  
COncerning the first generation of Milke, there is vpon record a solemne edict of Hippocrates in his Booke de natura pueri. As soone as the Infant beginneth to moue, the milk giueth warning thereof vnto the mother. For the explication of which sentence, there are two Problemes to bee discussed. The first, why at that time the Milke should begin to 
Why the milk is generated the 3 or 4 moneth.  be generated. The second why the infant should not be nourished out of the wombe with the same wherewith hee was nourished in the Wombe. The resolution of the first question will haue some difficult passages in it. For seeing that the Milke is onely ordained for nutrition, and that therewith the infant in the womb is not nourished, but onely after the birth, why is the Milke generated before the seauenth month, til when there is no vse of it, or why doth it not flow from the womb to the brests presently, or soone after conception, 
Question. Hippocrates. Solution.  as well as in the third and fourth months. Hippocrates in the Booke before quoted, answereth this Question thus, That the infant in the third or fourth month becomming great, dooth straine or presse the vessels which are ful of bloode, and by this compression there is an expression made vnto the vpper parts.  
This reason is indeede very true, but verie subtle and obscure, wherefore we wil paine 
A darke sentence of Hippocrates explained.  ourselves a little to make it manifest. In the first months, Natures expence of blood is very great. First of all, because the Parenchymata or substance of the bowels and all the fleshy parts are generated, and afterwardes for the nourishment and growth of them all, so that there remaineth little or no ouer plus of the Mothers bloode. But when the infant beginnes to mooue because there is alreadie a perfect conformation of all partes, Nature thereafter onely entendeth nourishment, which nourishment requireth but a small quantity 
Why the blood returneth from the wombe rather to the Dugges then to any other part.  of Aliment, because there is but small and slender exhaustion or expence in the parts, and therefore in the veynes of the Wombe, there must needes be an ouer-plus of bloode: these Veines being pressed by the motion and weyght of the Infant, which now is growne great, doe driue the blood vnto the vpper parts, and rather into the Dugges then into any other, as well because of the commodiousnesse and fitnesse of the way, as because of the societie and simpathie that is betwixt the wombe and the breasts. Add heereto a third cause which also is the finall, and that is the wonderfull prouidence of Nature, whereby the blood is accustomed by little and little to be transported vnto the place where it shall bee 
The prouidence of Nature.  turned vnto Milke, and so remaine a plentifull fountaine for the nourishment of the infant after it is borne into the world.  
And that is the reason why women are not so much troubled with bleedings at the nose, 
Why women bleed not at the nose, nor are troubled with Haemorhoids.  and with Haemorrhoides, because bloode affecteth the way vnto the wombe, to satisfy the ende or intent of Nature, which is the generation and nourishment of an infant. Giue mee leaue also to giue another reason of this refluence of bloode from the Wombe vnto the Dugges, which is, That the infant might haue occasion offered it to seeke a way out of the Wombe. For, if all the blood were still reserued in the vessels of the wombe, and no part of it discharged or sent away other whether, the Child would neuer striue to come foorth, hauing alwayes nourishment enough at hande to content it: for Hippocrates 
Hippocrates. The true cause of the trauel.  saith, that the onely cause of the strifte of the Infant in the byrth is the vvant of Nourishment.  
It behooued therefore, that in the thirde and fourth Moneths Nature should by degrees transferre the bloode vnto the Dugges to accustome herself to leade it thether for the nourishment of the Infant when it is borne, as also to defraud the infant nowe becom'd better growne of his nourishment, whereby hee might bee prouoked to seeke for it other where. Some thinke, that the blood returneth vnto the brests after the infant beginnes to mooue, to bee kept as it were in store, that thereby at time of neede, and in great want the infant might haue blood so prepared and whitened into Milke to sustain his necessitv.  
And this Hippocrates seemeth to intimate in his Booke de Natura pueri, where he saith, 
Hippocrates expounded.  That the infant with this milk, is somewhat and sometimes norished, which saying of Hippocrates I do thus interpret, The childe is nourished with milke, that is, with the blood conteyned in the veines of the dugs, which is the next and most immediate matter of the milke, or, if the infant should bee extreamly affamished before the time of the birth, I thinke that the white milke may returne from the paps to the vessels, and be there boiled and conuerted into blood by the sanguifying vertue of the veines, which is neuer idle or asleepe. And that the milke may returne from the paps vnto the vessels, and be againe altred into blood, is approoued by the daily experience of nurses and women in child-bed.  
The second Probleme was, why the Infant is not nourished with the same Aliment 
The second probleme.  without and within the VVombe; for within the wombe it is nourished with verie pure bloode, vvithout the wombe with sweete milke. Dinus answereth, That the bloode being 
Dinus answer▪  hotter then the Milke, if it should passe all the three concoctions in a childs bodie, it would at length become vnmeete for nourishment, because by too much heate it would contract a bitternesse: but the Milke which is of a more cold temper is more easily mittigated, and groweth rather sweete then bitter by the three-fold concoction. But is it rather an inhumane 
Another answere  and beastly thing for children to be blood-suckers: or shall we say that therefore the Infant after byrth is not nourished with bloode, least by his sucking hee should open the the mouths of his Mothers Veines, and so the blood which is the treasure of nature should flowe away.  
And whereas some affirme, that after wee are born, it is necessary that our Aliments 
Obiection.  should passe all three concoctions, and that it is not possible that the stomacke should chylefie the blood, and therefore Infants are not nourished by bloode but by milke: I say this reason is false and full of error, for whatsoeuer is taken vnto the stomacke, if it may be assimulated, it may also be turned into a creamy substance, and many there be who drinke the 
Answer.  blood of Swine and Goats, the noysome excrements whereof are auoyded by the guttes and the seidge. Now the excrements of the guts, are onely excrements of Chylification.  
Other things which may concerne this or anie other of the Naturall parts which belong vnto Nutrition, because wee imagine that they are easilie knowne, or if hard yet generally 
The coaclusion of these controuersies  agreed vpon, we do willingly passe ouer, iudging it sufficient that we haue thus long detained the Reader in these Labyrinthes of Controuersies, which notwithstanding as it may be they will not be thought necessary for all, so we presume that they wil not be irkesome to any man, whose Stomacke standeth to these delicacies of Nature, nor vnprofitable for those to whose proper element they belong. Now it is high time to returne to our Anatomical History of the Natural Parts belonging to Generation.   
The End of the Controuersies of the Third Booke.   

THE FOVRTH BOOKE Of the Naturall Parts belonging to generation, as well in Men as in VVomen.  

The Praeface.  
_BEing ariued at this place in the tract of my Anatomicall Perigrination, I entred into deliberation with myself, whether I were best silently to passe it by, or to insist vppon it as I had done in the former. On the one side I conceiued my labour would be but lame 
Arguments perswading vs to prosecute the history of these parts.  if it wanted this limbe, and a great part of my end and ayme frustrated, it being to exhibite the wonderfull wisedome and goodnesse of our Creator, which as in all the parts it is most admirable, so in this( if perfection will admit any degrees) it is transcendent. The whole body is the Epitomie of the world, containing therein whatsoeuer is in the large vniuerse; Seede is the Epitomy of the body, hauing in it the power and immediate possibility of all the parts. Moreouer, the knowledge of these principles of generation is so much more necessary toward the accomplishment of our Art, by how much it is more expedient that the whole kinde should be preserued then any particular. Adde hereto, first that the diseases hence arising, as they bee most fearefull and fullest of anxiety especially in the Female sexe, so are they hardest to be cured: the reason I conceiue to be, because the partes are least knowne as being veyled by Nature, and through our vnseasonable modesty not sufficiently vncouered. Againe, the examples of all men who haue vndertaken this taske euen in their mother tongues as we say, did sway much with me whose writings haue receiued allowance in all ages and Common-wealths. On the contrary there was onely one obstacle; to reueyle the veyle of Nature, to prophane her mysteries for a little curious skilpride, 
Obiection answered.  to ensnare mens mindes by sensuall demonstrations, seemeth a thing liable to heuy construction. But what is this I pray you else but to araigne vertue at the barre of vice? Hath the holy Scripture itself( the wisedome of God) as well in the old Law particularly, as also in many passages of the new, balked this argument? God that Created them, did he not intend their preseruation, or can they bee preserued and not knowne? or knowne and not discoured? Indeede it were to be wished that all men would come to the knowledge of these secrets with pure eyes and eares, such as they were matched with in their Creation: but shall we therefore forfet our knowledge because some men cannot conteine their lewd and inordinate affections? Our intention is first and principally to instruct an Artist: secondarily that those who are sober minded might knowe themselues, that is, their 
How cautelous we haue been herein.  owne bodies, as well to giue glory to him who hath so wonderfully Created them; as also to preuent those imminent mischiefes to which amongst and aboue the rest these parts are subiect. As much as was possible we haue endeuoured( not frustrating our lawfull scope) by honest wordes and circumlocutions to molifie the harshnesse of the Argument; beside we haue so plotted our busines, that he that listeth may separate this Booke from the rest and reserue it priuately vnto himselfe. Finally, I haue not herein relyed vppon my owne iudgement, but haue had the opinon of graue and reuerent Diuines, by whome I haue bin perswaded not to intermit this part of my labour. My hope therefore is that my paynes in this part shall receiue not onely a good construction, but also approbation and allowance of all those that are indeed wise. As for such as thinke there is no other principle of goodnesse then not to know euil, I would wish them to learne of their horses, that it is no good mannage to stand stocke still but to moue in order. We will apply ourselves to our businesse.  
The greatest argument of diuinity, or of a nature relishing thereof is perpetuitie and immutability, the perfection whereof as it is incompetent to any compound creature( for the 
The perfection of euerie thing is perpetuity.  soule is therefore immortall because it hath no parts) so it is most resembled in that we cal Life; wherein there is a perpetuity though not of all the parts of time Past, Present, and to Come;( for Time is the measure thereof) yet of that which in time is subsistent, that is the 
What life is.  Present. For as the production of poynts perpetuateth a line, so the coherence of present times make a kinde of eternity. Life therefore so long as it is prolonged hath no end, and 
Comparison.  may be compared to a clew of yarne, such as the Poets faigned the Destinies to spin, which so long as there is flaxe to supply, may be drawne into an endlesse length. Now wee must know that the matter of all things is eternall for it neuer perisheth, else had the world long agoe beene anihilated. The dissolution of created things is but a resolution of one thing into another; hence comes the perpetuity of all things though subiect to alteration, a perpetuity I say, not of the same particular thing distinguished by one and the same forme, but of the Elementary parts whereof it was compounded.  
But some will say, this is but a speculatiue & imaginary perpetuity, shew it vs more really that we may see it with our eies, & feel it with our hands. I shew it thus. The body of man 
The Elementary forme of man.  consisteth of matter and forme; by forme I mean, not the soule, but the forme subsisting in the matter, and arising out of the power of the same, which though it be not diuine nor aetheriall as some imagine, but meerely materiall, yet so neere it approacheth to the puritie & nature of the first matter wherout it resulteth, that it easily vanisheth into an incompounded principle, subsisting afterwards in Nature, not as a forme being forsaken by the spirite wherein it had his residence and whereby it was nourished, but as a part of the vniuersall Nature.  
This forme we call Life, which as it is raised out of the matter of the body, so it continueth 
How a man is perpetuall.  so long therein, as it is supplied with nourishment, which nourishment is the radicall moysture of the spermaticall parts. Nature therefore being not able to generate anie part of seede whose moysture shoulde not in time bee exhausted, could not produce any particular creature eternall or immutable: notwithstanding she deuised a way by framing parts fit for multiplication of seede, to raise a perpetuity, though not of any particular indiuiduum yet of the kinds of all creatures. Those partes are the subiect of our present Discourse.  
So then first of all she prepareth a matter euen the ouer-plus of the nourishment of the particular parts of our bodie. For the nourishment hauing ariued at the parts, and receiued an impression or stampe of their nature, is partly assimulated into their substance, partly 
The processe of Nature in the Frame of Man. ( at least if there be any ouer-plus when the part is satisfied) falleth backe by the Vesselles vnto the spermaticall Veines and Arteries, which receiuing an irradiation from the Testicles to which they are continued, do giue that matter a kinde of rudiment of seede. The lower it fals and the nearer it approacheth to these Testicles, the better is it still laboured, till in the end it receyue from them his vtmost perfection both in the colour, consistence, and prolificall vertue; being so accomplished, it is conueyed by the leading vessels into the Store-house called Prostatae, where it is tunned vp and reserued for the generation of a new creature, which new creature when it is made, is also able to affoorde matter for the generation of another, & so nature obtained a perpetuity and eternity euen out of mutable and temporary principles.  
The like administration of Nature( though the processe of her worke bee not so long) we see in fruites, and trees, and plants, all of them being able to bring foorth seede, 
Comparison.  which shall perpetuate their kindes, a seede( I say) which though it bee but small, shall conteine in it a power to frame a new all the parts of the bodie from whence it yssued. So an Acorne hath in it the power of a mighty Oake. The quantity of an Emmet of seede, the power to grow into a vast Elephant. But because whatsoeuer is ordained to bee made a liuing creature, must haue not onely one principle whereof it should bee formed, but also another whereby it might bee sustained and nourished, as also a conuenient place for the growth and extension thereof: Nature therefore( vnder which name I alwayes vnderstand the wise administration of Almighty God) made another sexe of mankinde, not altogether of so hot a temper or constitution, because she should haue a superfluity of bloode for the nourishment of the infant, as also that the partes of generation for want of heate to thrust 
Why woman was made.  them foorth remaining within, might make a fit place wherein to conceiue, breede, and perfect the same.  
Againe, that there might bee a mutuall longing desire betweene the sexes to communicate one with another, and to conferre their stockes together for the propagation of mankinde, 
The nature of the obscaen parts.  beside the ardor and heate of the spirits conteyned in their seeds, the parts of generation are so formed, that there is not onely a naturall instinct of copulation, but an appetite and earnest desire thereunto, and therefore the obscoene parts are compounded of particles of exquisite sense, that passion being added vnto the will, their embracements might be to better purpose. As for the particulars it shall be in vaine in this place to make mention of them, because the following discourse shall at large discipher them vnto you. In which we will first describe the parts of generation belonging to men, and then proceede to those of Women also; of which wee would aduise no man to take further knowledge then shall serue for his good instruction. And so we descend vnto our history.   

CHAP. I. Of the Necessitie of the parts of Generation.  
_IT is a ruled case in Hippocrates his Bookes de dieta, Aristotle in his Booke of the length and shortnes of Life, Galen in his first Booke 
Al Elementary things mortal, and how.  de sanitate tuenda, and at a word amongst all Philosophers & Physitians: That all things vnder the Moone which is( sayth Cicero in Scipio his dreame) vltima Coelo citima terris, the last in the Heauen and the nearest to the Earth; all thinges I say contayned within the Elements are subiect to corruption and dissolution. For euery singular and particular thing either hath life or is without it: if it be without life it is obnoxious to diuers alterations, in regard both of the first and second matter whereof it consisteth. For the first matter, it is alwayes in loue with new formes, and therefore most subiect to mutation, which the French Poet Salust 
Salust. du Bart.  expresseth vnder the comparison of a notorious Strumpet, on this manner.  
Or like a Lais, whose vnconstant loue  
Doth euery day a thousand times remoue: 
The general matter of things like a strumpet.   
Who's scarce vnfoulded from one youths imbraces,  
Yer in her thought another she imbraces:  
And the new pleasure of her wanton fire,  
Stirs in her still another new desire.  
The second matter which consisteth of the Elements, because of their intestine discord( for they are contraries, and from contrariety comes all corruption) vrgeth continually the dissolution of the mixed body.  
The Elements themselues whilst they are out of their proper places, although they bee naturally linked together, yet it is not without a kinde of violence and constraint, and therfore doe instantly long to returne into their proper seates.  
But if the body be animated and haue life, beside those already named, it hath also other 
A double destiny.  causes of dissolution bred with it; which no art, no industry of man can auoyde, no not so much as represse: so all things which haue any kinde of life, especially liuing and mouing creatures are destined to corruption, 〈◇〉, that is, by Nature & necessity. By Nature 
By Nat  because of the exhaustion or expence of the Primigenie moysture by the Elementary heat and the continuall effluxion of the threefold substance. By Necessity because of the permixtion 
By Necessity.  of the Aliments and the increase of excrements, the suppression whereof maketh an oppression of the partes, stableth vp a fruitfull nursery of diseases, and finally induceth death itself.  
Wherefore Nature whome Hippocrates calleth 〈◇〉 Recta facientem and the 
Lib. Epidem. The prouidence of Nature, or rather of the God of Nature. An image of immortality.  ordinary power of God, being a diligent and carefull prouider for herself, hath giuen to euery thing a certaine appetite of eternity, which because shee could not performe in the Indiuiduum or particular Creature, because of the mortality of their Nature, she indeuoured to accomplish by propagation of formes and the species or kinds of things; as in the Elements by transmutation of one into another, in Minerals by apposition, & in Creatures by Generation. For so euery indiuiduum extending itself as it were, in the procreation of another like vnto itself, groweth young againe and becommeth after a sort eternall. The father liueth in the sonne, and dyeth not as long as his expresse and liuing Image stands vpon the earth.  
To passe by the production of other things, the generation of perfect creatures is accomplished 
The generation of perfect Creatures.  when the male soweth his seede, and the female receyueth and conceyueth it. For this purpose Nature hath framed in both sexes parts and places fit for generation; beside an instinct of lust or desire, not inordinate such as by sinne is super-induced in man, but natural residing in the exquisite sense of the obscoene parts. For were it not that the God of Nature hath placed heerein so incredible a sting or rage of pleasure, as whereby wee are 
Natural pleasure in generation.  transported for a time as it were out of ourselves, what man is there almost who hath anie sense of his own diuine nature, that would defile himselfe in such impurities? what woman would admit the embracements of a man, remembring her nine moneths burthen, her painefull and dangerous deliuerance, her care, disquiet and anxiety in the nursing and education of the infant. But all these thinges are forgotten, and wee ouertaken with an extasie, which Hippocrates calleth a little Epilepsie or falling sicknesse: and the holy Scripture veileth vnder the name of a senselesnesse in Lot, who neyther perceiued when his daughters lay downe, nor when they rose vp.  
Well, the History of these parts of generation it is our taske in this Booke to describe, ouer which also we could wish we were able to cast a veile, which it should bee impiety for any man to remooue, who came not with as chaste a heart to reade as wee did to vvrite. Howsoeuer that which must needs be done, shall be done with as little offence as possible we may.  
The parts therefore of Generation are of two sorts, some belong to men, some to women. The parts of Generation belonging to men( for of the other we shall see afterwards) are verie many, but all conspiring vnto one end, which is to exhibite something out of 
The parts of generation in men.  themselues which may haue the nature of a Principle; by which, and out of which a newe man may be generated. The Principle exhibited is seed, which because it containeth in itself the forme and Idea of all the parts( for it falleth from them all) and beside 〈◇〉, that is, the fatal necessity of life and death; stoode in neede of manifold preparation, coction and elaboration, and therefore the structure of the parts fit for so great and curious a worke is no doubt very exquisite. For some of them do onely prepare the seede, or as it were rough hew it, as putting thereon a rudiment of seed, which before was nothing else but an ouerplus of the purer part of blood remaining after assimulation in the particular parts of the bodie.  
This preparation is made in thes permaticall Veines and Arteries, whose admirable implications and complications like the wrethed or wormie tendrils of veines, do forme as it were a twisted or bedded net, wherein the matter is so long retained, till it acquire some beginning of alteration from that it was before. Other parts there are which boyle it anew, as that we call Epididymis or Parastatae, others affoord vnto it prolificall vertue, whereby it is enabled to produce and generate a thing like vnto itself, & those are the testicles which giue it the true forme of seede; others, when it is thus perfected, leade it downe toward the place of receipt which are called Deferentia or Eiaculatoria vasa, albeit I see no great reason for the second name, we call them the Leading vessels. Others receiue, containe, and store it vp for necessary vse, as the many vesicles or bladderets, and those Kernels or Glandules which are called Prostatae scituated at the necke of the bladder of vrine. Finallie, others deliuer it out, and strew it in the seede plat, sowe it in the fertile fielde of Nature the wombe of the woman, which is called penis the yard or virile member. Of all vvhich, if but one bee wanting, yea defectiue, the worke of generation goeth not at all or but lamely forward, wherefore we will endeuour to shew you the naturall both position, disposition, and vse of euerie one in their proper places.   

CHAP. II. Of the preparing spermaticke or seede vessels.  
_THE first Instruments of Generation, are called vasa spermatica, the spermaticke 
Two sorts of seede vessels.  vessels. These are larger in men then in women, and they are of two sortes, Preparantia or Deferentia, Preparing or Leading vessels. The Preparing Vessels[ Tab. 2. t x a. Tab. fi 1. g. 1. o q r] which are called 〈◇〉 by Galen, by Auicen vasa Lumbaria, are foure. Two veines[ Tab. 1. o q. Tab. 2. t x] and two Arteries, on each 
Preparing.  side one[ table 1, r, table 2, α] The right veine ariseth[ Table 1, o table 2, t] a little below the originall of the emulgent[ table 1, h i table 2, m n] from the vpper and forward part of 
Veines.  the trunke of the hollow veine, as it were with a long and thick knub or knot[ table 1, p tab. 
The right.  2, u]( to which as Galen obserued, a certain small branch is conuayed from the emulgent) that it might afford more pure and better concocted blood.  
The left[ table 1, q table 2, x] ariseth not from the trunke of the hollow veine, but from 
The left.  the lower part of the emulgent: for if it should haue risen from the same place in the hollow veine where the right seede-veine arose, it must necessarily haue gone ouer the great arterie[ table 1, g] by the continuall motion of whose systole and diastole, that is, eleuation or distention, and depression or contraction, being smal, it would haue been either broken or 
The great prouidence of nature.  much hindered from performance of his proper office, or else haue intercepted or offended the Arterie; both which inconueniences are auoyded by his arising, as we haue sayed out of the lower part of the left emulgent:[ table 1. I, Table 2, u,] yet hath it sometimes a small braunch reached vnto it from the trunke[ Table 2, Y] of the hollow veine; the blood also it brings is more serous then that of the right spermaticall veine.  
The two Arteries arise neare one another[ table 1, r table 2, a] out of the middle trunke 
Arteries.  of the great arterie a good way beneath the emulgents, that they might bring thinner and better cleansed or defoecated blood. The right spermaticall Arterie climbing ouer[ table 1, figure 1. f] the trunke of the hollow veine hastneth obliquely to the seede veine; the left closely accompanieth the veine of his owne side. And this Artery we haue seene sometimes absent, and then the left seede veine is so much the larger; otherwise, generally these arteries are larger then their veines; because it was necessary that many vitall spirites and 
Table 1. Lib. 4 sheweth the Kidneyes with the Vesselles of Vrine and of Seede; a part of the hollow veine, and also of the great Artery, the Testicles, the Bladder, and the Yarde.  
The first Figure sheweth the fore-side, the second the hinderside.  
TABVLA I.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

aaa, 1. The fore-part of the right kidney.  
bbb, 2. The back-part of the lefte kidney.  
c, 1. The outward side.  
dd, 1 2, The inner side.  
ee 1, 2, The two cauities whereinto the emulgent vessels are inserted.  
ff, 1, 2, The trunk of the hollow veine.  
gg 1, 2, The trunke of the great artery.  
hi, 1 2, The emulgent veine and artery.  
kk 1 2, The right fatty veine.  
li, The left fatty veine.  
* 1. The Coeliacal arterie.  
mn 1, 2. The vreters.  
opq, 1, 2. The right spermatick vein which ariseth neare p. the left neare q.  
r 1, The place where the arteries of the seed do arise.  
s 1, 2, Small branches distributed from the spermatical veines to the Peritonaeum.  
t 1, 2, The spirie bodden body called varicosum vas piramidale.  
u 1, 2. The Parastatae or Epididymis.  
x 1, The testicle couered yet in his coate.  
y 1, 2, The place where the leading vessell called vas deferens doth arise.  
α 1, 2, The descent of the same leading vessell,  
β 1, 2. The reuolution of the same leading vessel.  
γ 1, 2. The passage of the same vessel reflected like a Recurrent nerue.  
♌ 2. The meeting of the same leading vessels.  
ε 1, 2. The Bladder of vrine; the first figure sheweth it open, the second sheweth the back-part of it.  
ζζ 1. The smal bladders of seed opened.  
nn 2. The glandules called glandulae prostatae. τ 2. The sphincter muscle of the bladder, ●●, 1. 2. The two bodies which make the substance of the yarde. xx, 1. The vesselles which goe vnto the yarde and the necke of the bladder. Λ, 1. The passage which is common to the vrine and the seed, cut open. Ψ The implantation of the vreters into the bladder.   much arteriall bloud should be conuayed to the Testicle, that when the seede is perfected, it might be fulfilled with spirit and vitall heate. It is obserued also, but more rarely, that in 
A great cause of barrennes.  some bodies both the Arteries are wanting; and happely it falleth out so in them that are barren, because there is no sourse of vitall spirits falling vpon the testicles.  
All these vessels, the right veine with his Artery, and the left with his, not much parted one from another[ Tab. 3. fig. 2 θθ] do beare vpon the Peritonaeum, and proceeding downward, 
The course of the Spermatick vessels.  are ioyned together with fibrous ties,[ Tab. 3. fig. 3 NN] and so passe along obliquely aboue the Vreters[ Tab. 1. fig: 1, mn. Table 2 qq] allowing by the way certaine small braunches[ Tab: 1. s. Table ii, β] to the peritonaeum, thorough whose productions( which firmely grow to their sides[ Table ii, γ. Table iii, Λ] at the groin) they make way, together with a small nerue of the sixt paire, and the Cremaster Muscle[ Tab: 2, 〈◇〉] and so fal to the Parastatae[ Tab: 1, u. Table ii, ε] and to the vpper part of the Testicle, where the Veine and the Artery mixing together, do fashion out betweene them one body like a pyramis[ Tab. ii, from ♌ to 〈◇〉] or spire depressed and plaine on each side. This bodie, because of the innumerable branches of Veines and Arteries ioyned by Anastomosis or inoculation, of which it is wouen as it were into a platted web, is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 by Galen in his book de Semine, in Latine Corpus varicosum[ Tab. 1 t. Table ii, ♌. Tab: 3, Fig. ii, μ, fig. 3. C. sheweth the beginning of it, and D the basis or foundation] the bodden bodye, and from the fashion of the tendrils of Vrine pampine-forme, we may call it the spiry bodden or embossed body, to distinguish 
The spirie bodden bodie.  it from the Parastatae, which are also called corpora varicosa or bodden bodies.[ tab 1. u Table ii, t]  
The vse of these vessels is not onely to leade downe blood of both sorts, Veinall and Arteriall, together with vitall spirits for the nourishment and life of the Testicles, but also to 
The vse of the Spermaticke vessels.  receiue a matter or substance which falleth from al parts of the body;( the last and most perfect superfluity of the Aliment) some-what to alter it, and so to conuey it to the parastatae for the generation of seede.  
Moreouer about the middest of these vessels, the blood hath his first beginning of dealbation or whitening, yea, and a farther preparation also in those textures and webbes of which we lately spake, wherein by a kinde of irradiation the matter of the seede( as also the textures themselues) receyue vertue from the Testicles. Wherefore this spiry body cleaueth, yea groweth at his basis or foundation to the inmost coate of the testicles, bestowing vpon them certaine small surcles, but it entereth not into the body of the testicle, although 
Vesalius. Columbus.  some woulde haueit so, as Vesalius and Columbus, who also thinke that many of the forenamed branches do passe through, and are disseminated into the substance of the testicle, where their coates become exceeding fine and thin, that the power of procreating seede might the more suddenly and at once flowe from the Testicles into those vessels; like as in the Liuer the tunicles or coates of the veines disseminated through his substance are most fine and subtile, that the blood might more easily be altered and concocted in them by the force of the parenchyma. And so much of the Preparing vesselles, now followe the parastatae.   

CHAP. III. Of the Parastatae.  
_THE Parastatae, so called because they stand by the sides of the Testicles, are also called 〈◇〉, because they are placed aboue the Testicles. They 
Their scituation.  are bodies scituate without the Abdomen in the scrotum or Cod, set vpon the Testicles[ Tab. 1 ●. Table ii, 〈◇〉]( to which they are alike both in nature and vse,) as yet wrapped in their inmost[ Table 1 fig. 1. X. Table ii, ζ] coate for their better safegard and defence, and are firmely tied to their head and bottome, but disioyned in 
Their originall.  the middle. These parastatae do arise from the spirie bodden body[ Table 1, c. Table ii, ♌] by continuation, and creepe obliquely backward and downward to the basis or bottom of the testicle, and from thence are reflected or turned backe againe vpward[ Tab. 1. figu. ii, γ α β] but without connexion or copulation, and being rowled as it were into a round orbe, carry the forme of the tendrill of a vine crumpled vp together: wherefore Galen out of Herophylus, 
Galen.  calleth them 〈◇〉, in his 14. Booke de vsu partium, and the 11. & 13: chapters. For they are white, long, thicke, and rounde, distinguished with certaine surfles or 
Their forme.  conuolutions like a wood-worm, and by degrees become narrower, determining on both sides into the Vas deferens or Leading vessell which is like a round sinnew. Some there be as Vesalius and Platerus, who would rather haue them to be the beginning of these Vasa deferentia 
Table 2. sheweth the lower Belly with the Share-bones parted, that the vesselles which serue for generation might the more plainly appeare.  
TABVLA II.  

a a A part of the midriffe and of the Peritonaeum with the ribs broken.  
bb cc The Conuex or gibbous part of the Liuer marked with bb. the hollowe or concauous part with cc.  
d e The right and left ligaments of the Liuer.  
f The trunk of the gate veine cut off.  
g The trunke of the hollow veine.  
h l The fatty veines both left and right.  
i The ascent of the great artery aboue the hollow veine, & the diuision thereof.  
k The Caeliacall artery.  
m n The emulgent vessels.  
oo pp The fat tunicles or coates torne from both the kidneyes.  
qq The vreters that goe vnto the bladder.  
t u The right spermatical veine which ariseth neare to u.  
x y The double original of the left spermaticall veine x from the emulgent, y from the hollow veine.  
α The originall of the spermaticall arteries.  
β Certaine branches from the spermaticke arteries which run vnto the Peritonaeum.  
γ The passage of the spermaticall vesselles through the productions of the Peritonaeum, which must bee obserued by such as vse to cut for the Rupture.  
♌ The spirie bodden bodies entrance into the testicle, it is called Corpus varicosum piramidale.  
〈◇〉 The Parastatae.  
〈◇〉 The stone or testicle couered with his inmost coate.  
〈◇〉 The descent of the leading vessel called Vas deferens.  
y V The Bladder.  
* The right gut.  
〈◇〉 The glandules called Prostatae into which the leading vessels are inserted. 〈◇〉 The muscle of the bladder. 〈◇〉 Two bodies of the yard 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 his vessels. 〈◇〉 The coate of the Testicle. 〈◇〉 The muscle of the Testicle 〈◇〉 his vessels 〈◇〉.   or Leading vessels. And because their substance is a little more folid then that of 
Their substance.  the Testicles, they are esteemed to be of a middle nature betweene the vessels and the testicles, that is harder then the latter, and softer then the former.  
These Parastatae are also on their outside membranous and neruous, and where they are without conuolutions smooth they are and euen, but within glandulous, and if they be cut they appeare fongous or spongy as if they consisted of many small glandules. But when they are separated and remoued from the coate of the testicle, as they may easily bee with a sharpe knife, then are they vnequall. They haue no pores or passages to bee seen in them; yet there bee that thinke ( Vesalius among the rest) that they haue small pipes continuated 
Vesalius.  with the Testicles, through which the spermaticke power ariueth vnto them out of the Testicles.  
Their vse is either to hinder the seede not yet sufficiently laboured from falling downe out of the preparing into the leading vessels, or to labour the prepared seede to a further 
The vse of the Parastatae.  degree of perfection by the helpe of an irradiation they haue from the testicles. For they are often found full of seede, so that they may bee called not amisse, little stones. Againe, they serue to temper and moderate the ouer frequent motion of inordinate concupisence, as Aristotle conceiueth in his first Booke de generatione Animal. Cap. 4.   

CHAP. IIII. Of the Testicles or Stones.  
_THE Stones are called Testes because they are witnesses of virilitie, in Greek 〈◇〉 because in wanton Daliance the seede powreth itself 
Their names.  forth, and 〈◇〉, that is Twinnes, because most what they are two for more fruitfulnesse, but rarely one which yet Archangelus found, & very rarely three vnlesse happely sayth Aristotle Lib. 1. Historia Animal. Cap, 13. a little knot or knub in the Cod be mistaken for a third Testicle. 
Archangelus. Aristotle.   
They hang out vnder the belly at the rootes of the yarde, partly to abate lustfull desires: For those Creatures sayeth Aristotle Lib. 1. de generat. Animal. Cap 4. whose Testicles are hidden within the abdomen are more giuen to lustfull appetites then others, as Birds; alwayes remembred that you compare kinde with kind, and not the particulars of one kind among 
What creatures are most lustful. Why the testicles hang out of the body.  themselues. Another vse of their propendence or hanging out is, that the length and reuolutions of the spermaticke vessels might haue more scope: for because the change of blood into seede needed manifold and diuerse alterations and dispositions, it behooued that the vessels which conueyed it vnto the Testicles should bee of a great length, that in the length of this passage the blood might vnder go more alteration, & so be made fitter to receiue the forme of seede. Now so great length of the vessels the capacity of the belly could not fitly receiue; and therefore the Testicles were placed without the body.  
And because it was neither profitable nor handsome that they should hang bare; for the 
The Cod.  receiuing and cloathing of them, the scrotum or Cod was made as a purse or bagge, wherby also they are borne vp, whereas their owne waight otherwise would haue extended or drawne out into length their manifould foulds; it is also thought that some muscles neare hand doe adde some helpe to this purpose of Nature, of which wee shall heare more hereafter.  
The Testicles in men are larger and of a hotter nature then in women; not so much by 
Heat thrusteth the testicles out of the body.  reason of their scituation, as because of the temperament of the whole body, which in women is colder, in men hotter. Wherefore heat abounding in men thrusts them foorth of the body, whereas in women they remaine within, because their dull and sluggish heate is not sufficient to thrust them out. The trueth of this appeareth by manifold stories of such women, whose more actiue and operatiue heate hath thrust out their Testicles, and of women made them men: as we shall relate hereafter more at large in our Contouersies.  
The coates of the Testicles are of two sorts, Common and Proper. The Common are two; which wee call Common, not onely because they are Common to all the parts of the 
The coats of the testicles.  body, but also because they inuest these two Testicles together. The proper coats are also two. Thus we will determine of them, albeit we know what great difference there is in Authors concerning the number of these coates. Galen nameth three in his Booke de dissectione vteri, 〈◇〉. Vesalius reckons foure, Falopius somtimes three somtimes 
Diuers authors opiniōs.  foure; Columbus three proper coates; Archangelus cals them three sortes of membranes; one sort common to the Testicles with all the partes of the body, which is called scrotum; another sort common to the Testicles with the seminarie vessels, which are two; one arising from the tendons of the muscles, another from the production of the Peritonaeum; ● third sort proper onely to the Testicles: but we will proceed in our determination.  
The first Common coate[ table 17. lib. 3. s] is called 〈◇〉, as it were a purse, and in Latine 
The first common coate.  scrotum or scortum, because it is like to a leather sachell, for the Auntients called those thinges scortea which were made of tanned leather or skinnes; and therefore the leather money which in those dayes was in vse, was called nummi scortei. This coate is soft and rugous, and is diuided as it were with a seame, which Pollux calleth Perinaeum, made of the cuticle and the true skinne[ table 17. lib, 3. r] but thinner then the rest of the partes, and hath 
Whereof made.  no fat about it that it may easily streatch when the Testicles swell with seede, or be corrugated and grow thicke, to serue in steade of many membranes: Archangelus addeth toward the composition of this scrotum, the fleshy membrane falling from the share-bones. For although it haue membranes, and those wouen or chequered with many vessels which are 
Scrotum or the Cod Why it hath no fat about it.  especially necessary for the generation of fat; yet hath it no fat at all, for that there remayneth no oyly substance that might congeale into fat, because all the ouerplus when the testicles are nourished is changed into seede.  
The second Common coate called 〈◇〉, because it may easily bee separated from the 
The second common coat  rest, is produced from the fleshy membrane[ tab. 17. lib 3. t] where it is much thinner thenin other parts, and replenished with Veines and Arteries: with both these coates are the Testicles inuested and suspended, that they might not be iniured either with heate or cold, and so become vnfruitfull and barren. Also when the yarde is flaccid or loose they hang 
¶ The first Figure sheweth the disport of Nature in the seminary vessels, the emulgents, and the position of the left Kidney, as wee met with it in a publicke Dissection.  
The second Figure sheweth the seminary vessels, with the Testicles.  
The third Figure sheweth the diuers formes of the Testicles, and their seuerall parts.  
TABVLA III.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. II.  

a b. The right Kidney a, the left b.  
c A glandulous and fattie substance, which was in the roome of the left Kidney.  
d e. The hollow vein d. the great artery e.  
f The bladder of vrine.  
g g. the testicles.  
1, 2. A double right emulgent veine, the first of which hath a double originall.  
3, The right emulgent artery.  
4, the left emulgent veine.  
5, The left emulgent artery.  
6, 6, two emulgent veines at the left kidney.  
7, 8, The emulgent arteries vnder the bifurcation or diuifion at the left kidney.  
9, The fourth left emulgent veine.  
10, 10, The right spermaticke veine.  
11, 12, the original of the spermatick artery 11, his coniunction with the veine 12.  
13 The left spermaticke veine.  
14 the left spermaticke artery.  
15 A veine going from the left spermatick vein to the Peritonaeum, accompanied with an artery.  
16 the vnion of the left spermaticke veine with the emulgent veine.  
17 the leading vessels.  
18 The insertion of the right Vreter.  
19, 20. The original of the left Vreter at 19. and his implantation at 20.   
Figure II.  

nnnn the Vreters.  
θ θ The spermaticke veines and arteries.  
ii The coate of the testicle which ariseth from the Peritonaeum.  
Λ The spermaticall vein and artery, as they passe into the production of the Peritonaeum, and as they passe againe out of it.  
μ The bodden bodie called Corpus varicosum or the wonderfull implication of the veyne and artery.  
ν the left testicle couered with the inmost coate.  
ξ ξ The reuolution of the leading vessels.  
o p The ascent of the leading vessell vnto the share bone.  
π 5 the reflection or returning of the leading vessels, to the backe side of the share bones.  
τ φ the coition or meeting together, and insertion of those vessels into the Glandules called Prostatae, at φ.   
Figure III.  

A, B▪ the forepart of the right testicle.   CC, D. the spermaticke veine and artery cut off where they fall out of the Peritonaeum, and C sheweth the beginning of the bodden body, called Corpus varicosum, and D sheweth his basis or foundation. E the passage of the leading vessell. F His reflection. G, a portion of the leading vessell climbing vpward, with his departure from the testicle. H, the porous or spongie face of the leading vessel of Epididymis, where it groweth to the coate of the testicle. I, the gibbous or round part of the same vessell, where it groweth not vnto the foresaide coate. L the forepart of the testicle. M. the backe part of the same together with his inmost coate, and the bodden body. NN, the first commixtion of the spermaticke vessels. OO, the basis of the spiry bodden bodie, and his insertion into the inmost coat of the testicle. P, the testicle couered with his inmost coate, shewing the vpper part into which the bodden or varieous body was inserted. Q R S, the inmost coate of the testicle, drawne from the testicle at R. but couering the testicle at S. T, the testicle cut through the middest. V V. the distribution of the vesselles through his substance, downe, but when that rises or is distended then the skin being also contracted and corrugated 
Why the corrugation of the Cod is a signe of strength.  and with the yarde drawne vp, the Testicles also are suspended and drawne vpward; which ordinarily is obserued as a token of strength in young Children, who are often suddenly diseased; but if their Testicles be thus gathered vpward, it is commonly and not without reason, hoped that their naturall strength remaineth vndecayed; whatsoeuer the present cause or violence of the disease may be.  
The proper coates which doe inuest each of the Testicles by itself are two, yet ( Columbus maketh three proper, and reprehends Vesalius for making but two.( The first and vtter 
Their proper coates. The first and vtter.  is called 〈◇〉, that is, vaginalis, as it were the sheath or huskie membrane[ Table 17. lib. 3. u where it appeareth whole; table 3. figure 2. 11. tab. 2. at 〈◇〉 cut open] for so saith Pliny, Prouident Nature hath inclosed all the principall bowels, membranis proprtis ac veluti vaginis, that is, In proper men branes, as it were corne in the huskes. It is also called by Paulus from the fashion it carrieth 〈◇〉, or Capreolaris, that is the Tendrill. It ariseth 
Paulus.  from the production of the Peritonaeum; it is thinne and strong, and outwardly groweth to the 〈◇〉, fastned with a multitude of membranous fibres[ Table 17. lib. 3. from u to t,] which Columbus thought to be a particular coate, yea and some fibres there are which ioyn the husky coates of both the Testicles together. Inwardly it is also thinne but lined with a 
Columbus.  watery humour and aboundeth with veines. To this coate sometimes are added certaine small fleshy fibres( whence it is called by Oribasius the great abreuiater of Antiquity 〈◇〉 
Oribasius  〈◇〉 from 〈◇〉, which signifieth to grow red; for such is the coate where these fleshy fibres are) which goe vnto the bottome of the Testicle.  
The Vse of this Membrane is thought to be, that whilst it inuolueth the stones as it were within a huske or sheath, the spermaticke vessels are closely knit vnto them; or that there 
The vse of the vtter coate.  might be an infusion of imperfect seede into the Testicles out of the vessels, or rather, that from the Testicles some force or faculty might reach vnto the vessels.  
The second or inner proper coate of the Testicles called by Vesalius and Archangelus 〈◇〉, because it immediately encompasseth the Testicle, in Latin Albuginea, the white 
The second & inner coate of the testicles.  coate[ Table 2. ζ table 3. figure 2. u figure 3. Q R S] which ariseth from the coate of the spermaticke vessels is white, thicke, and very strong; whence Ruffus Ephesius calleth it 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉. It immediately inuolueth the substance of the Testicle, that it may firme, stay, and as it were knit together his soft and laxe flesh[ table 3. figure 3. τ] least otherwise it should haue beene too loose, and so haue proued vnprofitable; as also by his interposition as it were of a meane or middle nature, the harder vesselles might more fitly grow and apply to the softer substance of the testicle.  
The Testicles are round of an ouall figure saith Laurentius, or like egges depressed or flatted 
Their figure.  somewhat on either side; and they hang obliquely or sidelong because of the vesselles which grow vnto them, and because of the protuberation or bunching out of the Parastatae 
A note of lasciuious men Aristotic. Galen. Pollux. The right hotter.  as if they were two small stones; which protuberation in lasciuious men is not vnusuall. The vpper bunching part is called by Aristot●e & Galen 〈◇〉 the head, the lower which is blunter and larger is called the bottome; by Pollux 〈◇〉. The right is the hotter because of his vessels which transfer from the hollow veine and the great arterie more pure and sprightfull blood vnto it: it is thought also to be more bodden or embossed, and the seede on that side is thought to be better concocted, albeit Vesalius denyeth any difference, who doeth not conceiue that the procreation of Males and Females dependeth vppon the greater or lesser implication of these substances. Yet Hippocrates calleth the right 〈◇〉, that is, 
6 6. Epid sect. 4.  the Male Testicle, and the lef 〈◇〉, the female Testicles which is fuller of seede then the other, but that more weake and waterish, hauing most of his matter from the emulgent; whence it is that the Nature of women seemeth to be more intent vppon generation then that of man, euen from the very beginning: witnesse the childish disports of young Girles in making of Babies, Nursing, and lying in, as we say, and such like pastimes, wherein they 
The reason of young Girles disports.  are occupied euen from their infancy.  
These Testicles being ioyned by the interuening of membranes, do hang down from the sharebones and the yarde.  
The substance of the Testicles is glandulous, white, milky, soft, laxe or loose in men and spongious, because of many smal veines[ table 3. fig. 3. u u] dispersed through their bodies, 
Their substance.  but yet there appeareth no cauity or hollownes in them.  
They haue on each side one muscle and that a long one[ table 2. Ψ table 3 figure 2. χ] and slender, beginning at the hanch bone, or rather from a strong ligament which runneth 
Museles.  from the hanch to the share-bone in that place where the transuerse muscles of the lower belly doe end, of which these muscles seeme to be a part, and they get out by the out-let of 
The con●nxion and original of these muscles.  the Tendons of the oblique muscles, and outward neere the leskes they grow to the vessels which attaine vnto the Testicles and vnto the heades of the Testicles themselues. Sometimes from the forepart of the share-bone there are certaine fleshy fibres communicated vnto them, so that they may be obserued to haue( as they haue alwayes in Apes) a double originall.  
By the benefite of these muscles, the Testicles which are pendant, are suspended 
Cremasteres.  or hung( whence they are called 〈◇〉) that they should not bee a burthen to the spermatick 
Their vse.  or seed vessels as we touched before. Moreouer in copulation or coition they draw them back, that the seed-through becomming shorter, the seed may more easily and readily be supplyed. And Galen in his fourth booke de vsu partium and the 14. Chapter sayeth that they partake of voluntary motion.  
For their nourishment and life the Testicles receiue matter from the spermaticke[ table 
Their vessels by which they liue.  2 ●] veines and arteries. How then may some say are they nourished with bloud? I answere, as the Paps are nourished with Milke; for their bloud is not red but turned into Milke and Seed, as also the bones are nourished with marrow. For all the parts of the body are nourished with bloud, either red or turned into a substance more conueniēt for the part which it is to nourish. A reasonable nerue also they haue, from the rib branch[ tab. 6. lib. 2. fig. 1. iii] of the sixt paire; sometimes also two other nerues ariue vnto them from the 21. coniugation of the marrow of the loynes( that hanging out of the body they might not yet bee depriued of exquisite sence) which after being ioyned to the spermaticall vessels are carried downward, and implanted into the coates of the Testicles.  
The vse of the Testicles is( for that without them neither can seede be ingendered not 
The vse of the Testicles.  any absolute Creature perfectly generated) by their inbred faculty to giue to the seede not so much the colour( for it falleth not into the substance of the Testicles as Vesalius and Laurentius do suppose it doth) as the very form & generating power, and that so strong and vigorous, that a perfect and absolute Creature out of it may bee generated; which power in men is the cause of virilitie, and in a woman of woman-hood or muliebritie. Moreouer by reason of this faculty the Testicles are esteemed the prime instruments of generation, and also by some, principall parts of the body.  
They adde also to the body much strength and heate as appeareth by Eunuches whose 
Their consēt with other parts.  temperament, substance, habit and dispositions are all altered, as wee shall heare hereafter, and that because of the great consent of the vpper parts with these Testicles mentioned by Hippocrates in his second Book Epidem▪ and the first section, in these words. When the Testicles doe swell vpon a Cough, it putteth vs in mind of a sympathy and consent there is between the Chest the Paps, the Seede, and the voice. And how great the consent is betwixt the parts of 
Of their consent with the chest.  respiration and the parts of generation, he sheweth in the fourth Book Epidem. and the last Aphorisme saue one on this manner. They are troubled with a dry Cough whose Testicles doe swell, and that Cough endeth in the tumor of the Testicle if a veine be opened; and when the Testicles are inflamed men do Cough much. And again, Those that are agueish with tumors in their leske, haue Coughs follow them continually.  
For the consent of the Testicles with the head, I can giue you a notable instance of a 
The head. A story worthy the obseruation.  wanton young fellow, who vpon a small and almost insensible tumor( especially at sometimes) in or about one of his Testicles, fell first into light, and after into extreame fittes of the Epilepsie or Falling sicknesse, whose name I suppresse, not for his desert toward them that deserued well of him, but for the reuerence of our Art.  
Finally, in excellency the Testicles are like vnto the heart; for that Cordiall Epithymations 
The heart.  applyed to the Testicles in great languishments of the spirits doe little lesse auaile, then if they were applyed to the heart itself.   

CHAP. V. Of the vessles called Vasa deferentia, or Leading vessels.  
_THE Vessels which Leade the seede called vasa deferentia[ Table 3. figure 3. H I separated from the Testicles] are called by Herophilus 〈◇〉, by Falopius, Canalis seminarius, the seede-cane.  
They are scituate partly without the Abdomen in the scrotum or Cod, partly 
Their scituation.  within the cauitie or den of the Hip-bones on eïther side one, at the head of the testicle, and are produced from the Parastatae, to which they are continuated,[ Tab. 1 fig. 1, γ, α, β] as also are the preparing vessels,[ Tab. 1. fig. 1. s r] although their names bee diuers according to their distinct officies and scituations.  
Their substance is neruous and crumpled or writhen,[ Table 2 x the descent of the Leading 
Their substāce  vessells, from i to r the reflection or turning of it; and Table 1. figure 2 y is the original of this vessell, his descent at α, his reuolution at β. Table 3. Figure 3. from E to F downward] contorted at the lower end of the resticle; but where they are parted from the Testicles, 
Connexion.  they are round and white, and their cauity or hollownesse is but obscure[ Table. 3. fig. 3 H sheweth the porous surface of the leading vessell, where it groweth to the couering of the testicle] neyther needed it to bee more open, because the seede by reason of his aboundance of spirites wherewith it riseth and houeth or worketh vppe, can easilie passe thorough.  
They arise vpward[ Table 3. fig. 3, G] and are tyed to the preparing vesselles[ Table 2. at 〈◇〉] by the mediation of a thinne and small Membrane, presently after( by the same way by 
Progresse.  which the preparers descended) they are carried through the productions of the Peritonaeum[ Table 2. at e. Tab. 3. fig. 2 o 〈◇〉] to the Share-bone, at which place the bone hath a superficiarie cauity[ Table, 26, lib. 3. figure 12, 13, y] which giueth way vnto the roundnesse of these vessels. After being returned downward[ Table 1. Figure 1. from y to ζ, Tab. 3. Fig. 2. π 〈◇〉] like Nerues, and tyed on the backe side( where the humour they containe is nowe become white) to the Peritonaeum, they are led ouer the[ Table 3. Figure 2, n n] Vreters, and 
Vniting.  vnder the backe side of the bladder aboue the right gut neere vnto the necke of the Bladder; a little before theyr vniting together[ Table 1. Figure 2. ♌. and Table 3. figure 2, 〈◇〉, is the vniting of the Leading vesselles] they are on eyther side dilated and become thicker, where these small Bladderets of seede[ Table 2. Figure 1, ζ ζ] called Vesiculae Seminariae, are adioyned vnto theyr sides, but the Leading Vesselles themselues are spent, the right into the right, the lefte into the lefte Prostate Glandule.[ Table 1. Figure 2. n n. Table 3, Figure 2, 〈◇〉]  
The vse of these Leading vesselles, is to carrie or leade the seede after it is laboured 
Their vse.  in the Parastatae, and made fruitefull and prolificall by the Testicles, vnto those Prostate Glandules, as it were vnto certaine Magazines or Store-houses, where the right Vesselle meeteth and coupleth with the lefte, that the seede of each Testicle might together and at once bee thither conueyed, and so snot together into the Womb by the Virile Member.  
Moreouer, their oblique passage furthereth much the seedes perfection; for as in making of Aqua-vitae or such like strong spirits of wine, wee see the liquor first ascendeth and then descendeth, so the seede being to become a frothy body, was of necessity to bee perfected by such sublimation and precipitation.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Bladders of seede.  
_THE small bladders of seede[ Table 1, fig. 1, ζ ζ shew them open] are placed betweene the Ligaments of the Bladder of vrine & the right gut at the sides of the leading vessels a little before they become thicke and are vnited. They are compounded( saith the Author of the Definitions) of a veine & an Artery 
What the bladders of seede are.  mixed together. They are on either side one, neruous, large and fayre enough to be seene, hauing not as other bladders one cauity, but are full of boughtes and turnings like burst or knotted veines, implicated or folded one within another( and therefore Herophylus calleth them 〈◇〉, Adstites varicosos) so that they seeme to be many, and in them( saith Fallopius) seede may be kept many months. For Nature being 
Why created.  desirous of the continuance and perpetuitie of mankind ordained, that all times should bee fit for their procreation, and therefore it was verie meete, that a matter rightly for that purpose disposed, should at all times be readily supplyed, but because man coulde not alwayes entend that worke, and yet it was necessarie, that euen this excrement or surplusage should be auoyded, therefore like other excrements it also was to bee gathered together in some place, and there kept till a fit occasion were offered, that from thence it might 
Varolius  bee shot foorth.  
And for this purpose( sayth Varolius) these Bladderets were created, into which the seed should bee continually emptied out of the Testicles, and therein stored vp against the time of expence.  
But least so great a quantity remaining in one place should corrupt, there are many turnings & windy boughts and passages in them, which also area stay vnto the Seed, that in 
Their vse.  one Coition or accompanying of the sexes, all the feede should not bee spent. For, the seed winding itself out of those manifold Labyrinths by degrees, doth passe away more safelie and moderately, and with better stay and deliberation.  
But we saith Bauhine haue hitherto obserued that these bladderets are full of a yellow oily 
Bauhine.  humor wherewith the passage common to the seede and the vrine is illined or smeared least it should be hurt by the acrimony of either of them, or least when it is drie it shoulde close together, and so hinder the next euacuation. For to this end in copulation this oylinesse together with the seede yssueth sensibly and feelingly, at other times it welleth out 
Galen.  insensibly; Galen addeth in the 14. Booke de vsupartium cap. 11. that it prouoketh lust, and keepeth moyst the necke of the bladder of vrine.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Prostatae.  
_THE Prostatae as it were fore-standers, are called by Herophylus 〈◇〉. Columbus cals them Parastatae. Fallopius calleth thē assistant Glandules-Varolius 
Their names.  two Testicles smaller then the other. Vesalius out of Galen calleth them 〈◇〉, that is, Glandulous bodies. And so indeede they are two Glandules[ Tab. 1. fig. 2. n n] on either side one, placed in the cauitie of the Abdomen at the lower part of the bladder[ Tab. 2. c] that is in the neck aboue the sphincter 
Scituation. [ Tab. 2. p. Tab. 1. fig. 2. θ] Muscle, or rather betwixt the necke of the bladder, and the lower Muscles of the yard at his roote, where the Leading vessels are vnited.[ Ta. 1. fig. 2. 〈◇〉]  
These Glandules are depressed before and behinde, but round on the sides, into which as it were into other testicles, the leading vessels do end. 
Figure.   
They are couered with the Membrane which did inuest the leading vessels, but now become somewhat thighter, least the substance of these Prostatae being rare and spongie, the seede should soake out of it owne accord through their open pores, albeit they be very narrow. 
Membrane.  Yet is this Membrane verie thin, and hath in it verie blinde breathing pores, which at the first sight are not conspicuous, but when the Glandules are pressed, they appeare, for by them the seede may be scruzed in notable quantitie into the common passage, as it were by grains or like smal seeds, euen as we see Quick-siluer passeth through leather wherin it is 
Comparison.  fast tied, if it be strained, whence also in coition great pleasure ensueth; the exquisit sense of 
The tru cause of pleasure.  the membrane being tickled in the passage with the gentle & pleasing acrimony of the seed  
Their substance is hard, spongie, and whiter then the rest of the Glandules, they are also large, as containing in them so much seede( saith Archangelus) as will serue for the procreation 
Their substāco Archangelus. A ●Word may get a Cai●e when hee is castrated A beastlie abuse.  of foure or fiue infants; three or foure( saith Columbus) in those that are fruitful. And therefore it is no wonder( though Aristotle writeth it for a wonder) that a Bul after his testicles are cut off, may get a Calf. Vesalius hath obserued that the prostate glandules are notoriously large & ful in Monkies; and indeed they are of al creatures the most lasciuious, as we do not only read in authors, but haue also seene by the great Baboons which were heere to be seene among vs; for they would in a maner offer violence euen to a woman. It is therefore a very wicked and inhumane thing for Gentlewomen to cherish them in their bosoms yea in their beds, as I haue seene some doe with mine owne eies.  
The vse of these prostatae say some, is to adsomwhat to the generation of seed, & their reason 
A false vse.  is, because there is no where found so great quantity of it as in them: but if this wer true then euen gelded creatures would engender seed, and seeke to auoid it, which Galen worthily 
Galen.  gainsaieth. Varolius seemeth to countenance this conceit, who saith, that in the end of the leading vessels there are placed two other smal testicles, which giue vnto the seed his vttermost absolution or perfection, the leading vesselles ministring vnto them, as the preparing do to the Testicles.  
Their true vse is to receiue from the leading vessels the seed now sufficiently laboured and made prolifical or fruitful, and to keepe it till the time of profusion or spending as we say. It may be also they make it more thick as adding the last hand vnto it, for it appeareth in these 
Their true vse  thick and white, in the testicles but thin and serous: sure it is, that the seed neuer procureth pleasure till it come from them, witnesse those that are immoderate wantons, who spende themselues so frequently that there is no time for the seede to bee stored vp in these parts; their minds indeed are more then brutishly lustfull, but their bodies are not so delighted as other more moderate men by their owne confession.  

How these glandules are pressed  These Glandules being pressed on their backe sides by the lower Muscles of the Yarde,[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, and 2. H I] which arise from the sphincter of the fundament,[ Table 4, fig. 1, H] do constraine the seede into the common passage[ Tab. 4. fig. 2, G] which in the forepart of it they open. Into which their insertion can hardly bee discerned, but is opened when the seede flowes foorth.  
Vesalius telleth a tale of a fellow that was hanged at Padua in Italy who had the running 
A story out of Vesalius.  of the reines, in whose body euen after his death all these passages were manifestly open and free, especially those of the leading vessels into the neck of the bladder. Moreouer with their solid and firme substance they support the necke of the bladder, that it should not faile or fall, that so those narrow passages, and for the most part insensible which attain vnto the end of the necke of the bladder, should bee kept streight, that the eiaculation of the feede might not be interrupted in the excretion, although the fall of this doe stay the yssue of the Vrine.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the yard or virile member.  
_THE Yard is called in Latine penis a pendēdo of hanging, and Virga; in Greek 〈◇〉, and by an excellency 〈◇〉, that is, virile membrum, the virile member, 
The names.  because of the foecundity thereof. Many other names it hath both in Greeke and Latine, a Catalogue whereof Laurentius hath put downe vnnecessary for our turne, wherefore we haue spared our owne labour and your eares. The scituation is well knowne to be at the bottome of the lower venter on the outside[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, 2] as neere the fundament as it well might, and not be troublesom by falling 
The reason of the scituation.  vpon it in the time of seidge: Not aboue the groine, or in the Hypogastrium or watercourse, because there is no bone to establish his originall. It was therefore necessarie it should arise at the very roots of the share bones, as wel for the establishment thereof in the act of generation, as also that it might be more fit to meete with the womans lap, and yet no hinderance to the actions of other parts. And because it was not necessary there should 
The Figure.  be more of them then one, it is placed alone in the midst. Long it is,[ tab. 4. fig. 1, 2] round, but not exactly, for the vpper side of it, which they call the back, is somewhat broader, and endeth in a dudgen or blunt point. The length and thicknesse of it is diuerse, as well in respect of the kinde or species, as of the particular creature or indiuiduum. In respect of the 
The dimensions.  kinde, it is of such a length and magnitude as the necessity of the kinde requireth for procreation: but in men shorter then in many other creatures, because men doe vse aduersam non auer sam venerem. Of the indiuiduum or particular, because it is formed commonlie according to the proportion of the members, vet sometimes it is large in a little man, because 
The cause of the largenes of the yard. Galen  of the aboundance of the portion of the fathers seede of which it is framed, for the seede falleth from euery part of a mans bodye, and carrieth in it power of generating that part from whence it fell. Although Galen in his sixt Booke de locis affectis towards the end, writeth, that continence makes it to encrease, at least in thicknes. It is thought also it wil be 
How to make it long.  longer if the Nauill-strings[ Table 4. fig. 7. V Y X] bee not close knit by the Midwife when the childe is new borne; and that because of a Ligament which commeth to the Nauill from the bottome[ Tab. 4 fig. 7, X] of the bladder which they call Vrachos, for the straighter that is tyed vnto the Nauell, the more the bladder and the partes adioyning are drawne vpward.  
That part of the yard which hangeth out of the Abdomen, is couered with a cuticle and a skin not very thicke( which is laxe or loose when it hangs, but in erection is stretched) equall 
The coats.  to his length, and knit vnto it at the lower part of the glans or nut, it is also couered with a fleshy membrane which heere becommeth neruous. There is no fat betweene the coates, least the member should grow by that meanes to great, and so his action be hindered, or to soft which would hinder erection.  
It hath two parts, the one next to the belly which is the more principal, and hangeth not out, and it is called 〈◇〉, which is below the commissure or ioyning of the share bones, 
The parts of it  to the middest of which it is fast knit in the Perinaeum,( that is, the space betweene the cods and the fundament) with strong Ligaments and Muscles, and rising vpward vnder the testicles, appeareth round aboue the scrotum or cod.  
The other part of the yard is called 〈◇〉, and hangeth downe without the body from the vpper part of the share-bone if it be flaccid, or if it grow strong and rigid, it is raised vpward and so stands commonly so farre from the body, as the necke of the wombe is in length inward, that so it may yeeld seede vnto the very orifice of the wombe for the propagation of mankinde.  
The structure of this member is such as is fittest for his vse and the necessity of Nature. 
The structure Why not a bone.  It is not bony, as in a Dogge, a Woolfe and a Fox; for so it would not be a pleasure but a great troble to the other sexe; besides, being alwayes rigid or stiffe it woulde haue beene both vncomely and haue hindered many actions and postures or positions of the body.  
It is not gristly or Cartilaginous, for then it could neither haue beene distended( for a 
Gristle.  Cartilage hath no cauitie) neither could it haue beene soft and pliable.  
It is not of the Nature of a veine, for then it could not so soone haue beene filled and 
Veine.  emptyed againe; as also for that the simple coate of a veine would not haue endured any strong streatching.  
It is not of the nature of an Arterie although that haue a thicke and hard coate, because 
Artery.  of the continuall pulsation, vpon which a man cannot lay a law when he pleaseth.  
It is not neruous, because Nerues haue no manifest cauitie, neither are they naturally 
Nerue.  dilated; beside that, the softnes would haue hindered the tension or erection.  
It is not a Ligament, although that would haue been fit for tension or erection, because 
Ligament.  then it should haue had no cauity; and being beside without sence, it would not haue been capable of pleasure.  
It is not a Tendon, because they haue no cauity, and are beside softer then Ligaments, 
Tendon.  and so not so fit for erection.  
Much lesse could it well be made of flesh, or glandules, or muscles, or membranes.  
It was therefore requisite that some other peculiar substance should be found out, such as was not elsewhere in the whole bodie, that should be hard and hollow, that without difficultie or inconuenience, might successiuely at conuenient times according to the presence or absence of the spirits bee raysed vp, or againe sinke or settle downe; and of so exquisite sence beside to breede that pleasure, whereby man is prouoked to rush into so obscoene a peece of buisinesse.  
Of such sort and structure therefore there are two bodies[ table 1, figure. 2. ii, table 4. figure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. A B] 
How the yard is construed.  which together with the Cannell or passage doe make the yarde. They are hard, neruous and like ligaments, on either side one, arising from the lower part of the share-bone[ table 4. figure 2. 3. C C] where it is thicke and round, & the vpper part of the Coxendixe or hanch, as well that hauing a substance partaking somewhat of a bone, 
The 2. bodies.  the yarde might bee better disposed to rigiditie, as also hauing his originall for a stable body, it might bee kept stable and straight in the performance of his action to which it is by nature designed.  
These bodies are on the outside round, on the inside plaine, and below at their original are diuided[ table 4. figure 4. and 5. ● E the two bodies, and o the canale or pipe] that they may yeeld way vnto the passage which commeth from the Bladder; by and by they are carried vpward, and about the middle of the share-bone they are ioyned together[ tab. 4, fig. 4. 5. F] yet so as they seeme to bee distinguished by a white Line running in the middest of them if the yarde bee out ouerthwart.[ table 4. figure 4.] From thence they are returned downward to the Nut[ table 4. figure 4. 7. 9. D] and doe inwardly end in an acute angle, and together with the canale or pipe doe fashion out the length of the yarde. Ouer those ends groweth the substance of the glans or nut, and so the whole figure doth in some sort represent the greeke ζ, which therefore ought to be obserued because of the vse of the Catheter 
The Catheter  in the suppression of the vrine. For if the Catheter be not insinuated or gently put in with a kind of dexterity, it either hurteth the pipe or the necke of the bladder so that bloud will follow, or else it will not passe into the cauity of the bladder.  
The substance of these bodies is excauated or hollowed like a pipe( from whence they are called the hollow nerues) but of a fungous or spongy matter[ tab. 4. figure 4. 5. ● E] and filled with blacke bloud: so that naturally it is blackish. A remarkeable obseruation for 
A good note for Chirurgions.  Chyrurgians, that in the section of a putride yarde, they doe not take that for rotten which indeede is but Naturall; the want of which knowledge I am perswaded hath cost many a man a good ioynt, which otherwise might well haue beene saued. It is also wouen like a 
The vessels of the yarde.  Net made of innumerable braunches[ Table 1. figure 1 x x, table 4. fig. 5. b] of veines and arteries diuersly intangled together which are very notable vessels, and ariue here from the region of the great or holy-bone[ tab. 8, lib. 3. t t.]  
These bodies are also rare and porous, that they might suddenly bee filled with spirites and with venall and arteriall bloud when the yeoman is irritated or incensed; and his violence 
The vse of the structure of his bodies.  being appeased, the same spirts and blood being partly dissipated and partly returned into the vessels, settle and shorten again. For if the member were alwayes strong and stiffe it would be a great hinderance to men in many labours of this life, especially such as are violent, and beside itself would bee alwayes subiect to mischiefes, euen as the arme or hand would be if it were continually streatched forth. On the other side, if it were alwayes flaccid or loose, it would be vnprofitable for that imploiment for which God and Nature haue ordained it. Wherefore onely in the time of coition it ought to bee swolne and rigged or erected: swolne and extended to a iust magnitude that it might fill the neck of the matrix, quo vtriusque pudenda incalescant. For it is mutuall heate which calleth and prouoketh the seed out of the inner parts: Rigid and straight not onely ad commodiorē coitum, but also that the passage being open and direct, the seede might more freely and directly bee eiaculated or shot foorth from the very Prostatae wherein it is contained. For if it were either oblique or crooked,( as it is in those which are called 〈◇〉 in whome the passage is retorted by reason of a bridle at the end of the yarde, who therefore cannot procreate vnlesse that bridle be cut) or did in any place not stand open but fall together, then would the seed stay or make stop in the passage.  
But againe, least the spirits which flow vnto it, and by which it is distended, should bee 
The coates of the yarde.  too soone dissipated or scatrered through the fungous or spongy substance, it is couered and strengthned with membranous coates thight and very strong( which some men imagine doe arise from the commixtion of those vesselles which passe vnto the yarde,) which are therefore called the neruous bodies of the yarde, and they are also thicke and substantiall, that they might more easily be distended.  
For when as in venerious appetites, the bloud & the spirits do in great quantity assemble themselues out of the veines and arteries, that member is as it were a gutte filled with winde, presently swelling and growing hard, which no question commeth to passe when as the sphincter muscle( which encompasseth the necke of the bladder, the roots of the bodies of which the yarde is made, and the ends of the guttes) is contracted and presseth out 
Comparison.  the spirits abounding in those parts, vnto the yarde; for so wee see the iugular or veines of the throate to be distended, when in laughter the chest is compressed and straightned. So also the veines of the arme by reason of the constriction of a Ligature or tye are distended and growe hard and full: so then it appeareth that voluntary motion is not onely requisite for erection, but also for induration.  
The Pipe or Canale of the yarde[ Table 4. figure 1. 4. 5. 7. G] which in greeke they call 
The Pipe of the yarde. Galen.  〈◇〉, the vrinall pipe, or as Galen in his 15. Booke of the vse of parts and the 3. Chapter, the spermaticke pore, commeth from the bladder[ table 1. fig. 1. Λ from the bladder c table 4. figure 6.] whose necke is long. This Pipe scituated vnder the bodies of the yarde[ table 4. figure 4. and 5. G vnder EE] is reflected together with them( in which reflection or returning 
How the seed putrifieth in a Gonorrhaea.  if putride or rotten seede in a Gonorrhaea or running of the reynes, doe subsist or make stay, it there vlcerateth the passage) and becomming in the middle betweene them, it passeth along the length of the yarde vnto the outside of the Nutte, where it is embraced by those bodies ioyning together[ table 4. figure 4. 5. F] in narrow angles, and so maketh the whole yarde perforated as was necessary for the emission of seede.  
This Canale or Pipe hath two membranes( of which none almost of the Anatomistes make any menton, saue Bauhine onely, and Archangelus of the inner) one inward and thinne 
The membranes of the pipe.  wherewith also the nut or glans is couered, bred out of the thin meninx or pia mater of the braine, which inuesteth the nerues of the yarde, in which certaine circles are to be seene; & beside there is in it an exquisite sence to make it capable of the pleasure which the seed in his passage through it stirreth vp, and againe it circumscribeth or limiteth the circumference of the Canale or pipe.  
The other Membrane is outward and fleshy, compounded of transuerse fibres for the better expulsion of the seed and vrine.  
The middle substance of this pipe is lax[ table 4. fig. 6] fungous or spongy and blackish so that it readily distendeth itself togither with the neruous bodies in the effusion of seed, and againe as readily faleth in the euacuation of vrine.  
This passage is common to the Seede, the oylie humor issuing from the smal bladders 
A common passage.  before spoken off and the vrine; and in the forepart of the Nut it hath a yawning out-let, by which these substances are auoyded. It is narrow in young folk, in others so much broader 
Tab. 4. demonstrateth the muscles of the yard of the fundament and of the bladder, and the three bodies of the yard.  
The first and second figures shew the yard excoriated, cleauing yet to the bottome of the share bone.  
The third sheweth the same separated with his vessels.  
The 4. and 5. the yard cut away, and Dissected ouerthwart.  
The 6. the canel or pipe of the yard, diuided at the entrance into the bladder.  
The 7. the forepart of the bladder and the yard, together vvith the vmbilical vessels.  
The 8. the bladder of a woman, with the vmbilical vessels, and a part of the Vreters.  
The 9. sheweth the backe parts of the body of the yard.  
TABVLA IIII.  
FIG I  
II  
III.  
IV  
V  
VI  
VII  
IIX  
IX.  

A. B, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9. the 2. bodies which make the yard.  
CC 2, 3. the place where these two bodies do first arise.  
D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9. The nut of the yard called glans penis.  
EE 4, 5. the fungous and redde substance of the bodies of the yard.  
F 4, 5. the mutuall connexion of the bodyes of the yard, and the neruous outward substance of the same, compassing rounde about the former fungous substance.  
G 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9. The passage of the vrine, or common pipe running vnder the yarde, all along his length.  
H, I, 1, 2. the first paire of Muscles of the yard which in the first figure do yet grow to it, but in the second they hang from their originall.  
K, L, 1, 2. The second paire of Muscles of the yard, in the first figure growing, in the second hanging from their insertion.  
M 1, 2. the sphincter of the right gut.  
N 3, 7, 8, 9. the round sphincter Muscle of the bladder.  
OO A Membrane which is ouer the holes of the share bone.  
P 2. A rounde Ligament from the meeting of the share bones vnto the heade of the thigh.  
Q. 3, 7, 8. The body of the bladder.  
R, 3, 7. the Prostatae into which the seede when it is perfectly laboured, is led.  
SS, 3, 8. Portions of the vreters.  
TT 3, Portions of the vesselles which leade downe the seede.  
VV, 7, 8, the vmbilicall arteries.  
X, 7, 8. the ligament of the bladder cald Vrachus  
Y, 7, 8. the nauel or vmbilicus.  
Z, 7, 8. the vmbilicall veine.  
a, a 7, the veine and artery of the yard.  
b 5. the artery distributed through the bodye of the yard.   as the skin is more or lesse retracted or drawne backe from it. Vesalius maketh mention 
A straunge thing obserued by Vesalius.  of a student in the Law at Forum Iulij, who had two distinct passages, one for vrine another for seede, but that is indeede very rare. For, because the bladder was scituated so neere, it was not necessary that another passage should bee made for the auoyding of vrine, but Nature contented herself to vse that already prouided for the effusion of seede. Wherefore the necke of the bladder is carried vpwarde from the Fundament, vnto the beginning of the yard.  
But because these officies are perfourmed by voluntary motion, it was requisite that it 
The Muscles of the yarde.  should also haue Muscles. It hath therefore diuers Muscles, of which no doubt Galen wrote precisely in his Books de Anat. administrationibus, but we haue lost fiue Books and a halfe of 
Some of Galens workes lost. Vesalius. Laurentius. Bauhine. Two collaterall.  that worthy labour, beside other peeces of excellent vse, as wee may gather by those that remaine. In the fifteenth Booke de vsu partium, he reckoneth but two Muscles of the yard, which saith Vesalius I could neuer finde. Laurentius describeth foure, so will we also according to Bauhine. Two Collaterall on each side one, which do arise neruous from the appendix of the hips,[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, 2 KL, in the first figure they cleaue to their originall, in the second they hang downe to their insertion] below the originall of the bodies whereof the yarde is made; afterward they become fleshy, short and thicker then those that follow; and being obliquely carried vpward, they are inserted into the bodies of the yarde not far from their originall[ table 4. figure 2. C C] and being together contracted in the act of generation, doe bend the yarde and sustayne it whilest the worke be performed; as for the erection itself, we haue sayed before it is made by a voluntary constriction of the sphincter muscle of the fundament, driuing the blood and spirits vnto it. Columbus also saith that these muscles 
Columbus.  haue some vse in our making water.  
The other two muscles of the yarde are called inferiores, because they are scituate vnder the pipe,[ table 4. figure 1. 2. H I in the first figure they appeare yet cleauing vnto it, but in 
2 2. Inferior  the second they hang downe from their originals] on each side one, arising fleshy from the sphincter of the fundament.[ table 4. figure 1. H] They are somewhat long and are on their insides vnited and so carried along directly vnder the Canale, and implanted at the sides[ table 4. figure 1 G] of the same,( and being diuided one from another, doe a little embrace the bodies of the yarde) that they may dilate the lower part of the Canale on both sides drawne downeward, the yarde remayning erected, and so make it shorter least in the repletion of the neruous bodies, especially in the oblique reflexion of the yarde, that passage should be stifled and so the issue of the Seede hindered, which comes indeed leaping forth, 
Comparison.  and yet is continued one part of it with another as a company of Antickes holding hand in hand, do vault vpon a stage.  
Moreouer these muscles do compresse the Prostate glandules[ table 4. figure 3. and 7. ●●] 
The vses of the muscles.  and straine the Seed that filleth them in the time of eiaculation through their membranes by graines as wee sayed before, into the Canale where they are all mingled and issue together.  
In miction also or making of water these muscles haue their vse; for some say they distend the passage as Vesalus, others as Falopius and Archangelus, that in the end of miction they expresse or driue out the reliques of the vrine which remained in the end of the necke of the bladder. But if they worke all foure together, they draw the root of the yarde, which as well as the body thereof hath a power or faculty of erection.  
Betweene these muscles in the Perinaeum[ table 4. figure 1. between H and H] or distance 
Where they cut for the stone.  betweene the Cod and the Fundament are the stones of the Bladder taken foorth. They call the place also inter-faeminium, and in it Fistules and other vlcers are very ordinary. I saw a Knight of Lincolnshire of good place suddenly perish within few dayes of a gangreene new risen in this place, and it was credibly told me that his Father a Knight likewise, about 
A story.  the same age of his life was in the same place taken sodainely after the same manner and so 
A caueat for Chirurgions.  perished. Wherfore this place is diligently to be considered of before a Chyrurgion work vpon it.  
The vessels that come to this virile Member are of 2. sorts, some outward others inward. 
The vessels of the yarde. Veines.  The outward veines and arteries[ table 8. lib. 3. t t] arise from the veine and arterie called Pudendae, and are distributed through the skin. They are many and sometimes blackish like vnto bodden, bursten or variccus vessels.  
The internall veines are double, and spring from the veine called Hypogastrica[ Table 8. lib. 3. u u.] These when they come vnto the middle bifurcation at the Crotch, doe almost alwayes vnite into one, which is carried along the body of the member in the middest among the arteries. From this veine a notable braunch atteyneth into the capacity or cauitie of the Abdomen, and is disseminated through a Ligament which tyeth the bladder to the share-bones.  
In like manner two internall Arteries and those very notable are inserted into the bodies of the yarde, from the Artery called Hypogastrica[ Table 8. lib. ●. u u] at the byfurcated 
Arteries.  originall of the same. The invention of these arteries Vesalius attributeth vnto himselfe, as also the demonstration of their vse, whome Columbus taxeth; but Archangelus auoucheth 
Vesalius. Columbus. Archangelus.  that all the three sortes of vesselles in the yarde are so conspicuous that hee that is halfe blinde may see them; for being nourished sayeth hee, why should it not haue veines as wel as other parts; liuing why should it not haue Arteries, and mouing why should it not haue Nerues. Bauhine is of another minde, to wit, that the arteries are the vehicles of his nourishment which is thicke bloud, and that the same arteries doe also deriue vnto it the mouing 
Bauhines conceite.  faculty, but of that more hereafter. We will return. Between the forenamed arteries in the middest passeth a veine through the backe of the yarde euen to the Nutte or glans, where it is implicated or foulded together with a nerue( which haply make the substance of the Nut fungous) all which conuey bloud and spirites into the spongy substance of the yarde when it is prouoked or chafed.  
It hath also Nerues so notable sayth Falopius that he that hath but halfe an eye may see them; Galen also in his 14. Booke de vsu partium and the 13. Chapter taketh knowledge of 
His nerues. Falopius. Galen  them. They proceede from the marrow of the great or holy bone, of which some that are cutaneous doe passe into the skinne of the yarde and the Testicles, to make them sensible of outward iniuries, others are inward on each side one and that very notable, which ascendeth vnder the share-bone through the middle bifurcation to the coate of the yarde, and from thence runneth diuersly dispersed to his muscles and to his whole body, togither with the arteries through his back, as farre as to the Nut or glans, to giue it a more exact sence, especially the Nut where it is of most vse to stirre vp pleasure in the act of generation. In 
Ganglia what they are.  these Nerues hapneth that tumor which we call 〈◇〉, that is a knotty tumor of a sinew resisting the finger that presseth it, yet not dolorous; which ganglia here are the cause that when the yarde is erected stiffe like a Rams horne a Falopius speaketh, it is not distended beyond his ordinary magnitude, but onely groweth full and turgid.  
Finally, the vpper part of the yarde is carnous or fleshy[ table 4. figure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. D] 
The glans or nu of the yarde.  and looketh alwaies as if it were swollen; and indeede it hath a greater compasse then any part of the whole trunke as Archangelus calleth it, of his body, that like the bottome of a glasse Still or cupping glasse, it might gather more heate vnto itself then any other part. It is equall, smooth, and turbinated, that is, broad at the basis or bottom, and growing smaller, 
His figure.  yet keeping his roundnes euen to the top, much like a Turkes cap or turbant, and it is called glans or the Nut of the yarde, and it is girt with a circle like a crowne. It is very soft that it might not offend the wombe, somewhat acuminated or sharpned also at the top the better to fit it for the orifice of the matrixe; of exquisite sence it is, that in the attrition and 
Substance.  motion, together with the intention of the imagination( which is most powerfull in both sexes in the matter of procreation) the seede might be more plentifully eiaculated.  
It is couered with a fine membrane, produced from that membrane which wee sayed before 
His mēbrane.  did encompasse the pipe or Canale; and it groweth not vnlike to a mushrum vppon the heads of the two bodies of the yarde. It is as we sayed of a spongy substance, which yet is not hollow within, but somewhat more solid and firme then other ordinary spongy bodies.  
But that it might be kept smooth, soft and glib, it hath a couering which ariseth from 
The prepuce or fore-skin.  the skinne of the yarde brought forward, and againe reflected or returned, which the Grecians call 〈◇〉, Galen in his 15. Booke of the vse of Parts calleth it Cutis epiphysin, in Latin praeputium, we cal it the fore-skin, that part which hangeth ouer the end is called 〈◇〉, because in coition it is mooued vp and downe, that in this attrition it might gather more heate and increase the pleasure of the other sexe. Some say it was ordained for ornament also, and not without good reason, because vpon the more dishonest part, God & Nature, or rather the God of Nature, hath put the more honour, that is the more couering.  
This fore-skinne in the end of it is sometimes so contracted or drawne together, that it cannot be drawne backe, nor the Nut discouered without the helpe of a Chyrurgion. But when the Nutte is vncouered, that it may recouer his couer againe, this prepuce is tyed in the lower part with a membranous band or tie, which the greekes call 〈◇〉 some 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉, vinculum caninum, the Latines frenum, in English the bridle. Archangelus calleth it a Ligament, others will haue it to be made of the extremities or ends of the sinewes, and this is it which bridleth or reyneth vp the fore-skinne on the lower side to the toppe of the Nut. It also furthereth the prosusion of seede, communicating by the Canale motion and heate to the prostate glandules which conteine the seede ready for eiaculation. For oftentimes in lustfull disports or imaginations, if this bridle be but lightly moued, the seede will incontinently issue foorth; euen as after a full meale, if a man but touch the end of his throate with his finger, the stomacke by reason of the continuity of the parts, contracteth itself and returneth the crapula or vndigested gobbets into the lap by vomit.  
In the middest of this Nut is a passage or hole through which both the seede and the vrine is powred foorth, for it compasseth the common Canale at which place it is larger, but presently is contracted againe, that the seede hauing there a kinde of momentanie stay or stop, might procure more pleasure in this part. Wherefore those that labour of the gonorrhaea caused by the acrimony of rotten seed heaped vp in this large place, are here tortured with vlcers.  

The vse of it.  The vse of the Yard is as hath beene saide in the particular parts thereof; onely wee will add, that the auoiding of vrine was not the cause of the making of this member.( For we see women make water without it) but for procreation. Euen as Nature hath ordayned the nose for smelling, yet shee vseth it secondarily for purging the mucous excrements of the braine. So vpon a second intention this member serueth to deriue away the vrine wherewith otherwise we should lightly defile ourselves.  
And thus much shall suffice for the parts of Generation in men, wherein I haue bin indeed as particular as the Anatomicall History did require, but yet withall hope I shall finde pardon, because the Reader may perceiue( at least if he haue any knowledge) that I haue pretermitted many secrets of Nature, which I could and would heere haue somewhat insisted vpon, if I had imagined that all into whose hands this worke should come had bin competent and fit Auditors for such kinde of Philosophy.   

CHAP. IX. Of the proportion of these parts both in Men and Women.  
_IT was the opinion of Galen in his 14. Booke de vsu partium, and the 11. Chapter, that women had all those parts belonging to generation which men haue, although in these they appeare outward at the Perinaeum or interfoeminium, in those they are for want of heate reteined within; for seeing 
The same parts of generation in men and women.  a woman is begotten of a man, and perfect also in makind( for Natures imperfections are not so ordinary) it is reasonable that the substance, yea and the shape of the parts in both fexes should bee alike, as comming from one and the same set as it were of causes. Neither is it so vncouth in Nature, that those partes which in some creatures are prominent and apparent, should in others be veyled and couered: for Moles indeede are not without eyes, but haue them lying deeper in their heads and ouercouered, whence Virgil saith, Aut oculis Captifodere cubilia talpae, that is; 
Virgil 1. Georg  Or hood-winkt Moales haue dig'd their Bowers.  
So we call captiues, not those which are not at all, but which are in restraint or in bands. Although heerein Nature hath excellently acquitted herselfe, that the abatement of naturall heate, which in men is the onely naturall and necessary cause of their dissolution, 
The wonderful prouidēce & wisedom of God.  should so admirably become in women the original of generation, whereby we should attaine a kinde of eternity euen of our bodies, against the destinated corruption of the matter, arising from an importunate discord of contraries. For so it pleased the Diuine Wisedome to create for the eternall soule( the most excellent of all formes) if not an eternall habitation 
To bring a kind of eternity out of impersection.  heere, yet so absolute and admirable a structure, as might so long bee perpetuated below, till it come to be eternized aboue after an ineffable manner of recreation.  
Wherefore to return. In this other fexe, there are some partes which bring downe the matter of seede out of the whole bodie, to wit, the spermaticall Veines and Arteries; others 
The particular partes of Generation in women.  worke and labour it into good seede, as the body called Varicosum and the testicles; others leade the perfected seede, called as in men vasa deferentia or leading vesselles; Lastlie, the wombe or Matrixe which receyueth the seede together with the mans, reteyneth it, and worketh vpon it for the generation and preseruation of mankinde. This wombe is likened by Galen in his 4. Booke de vsu partium, and the sixt chapter, to the scrotum or cod of a man[ Tab. 11. fig. 1] as if the cod were but a womb turned the inside outward, and hanging forth 
Galen. The womb is like the scrotū.  from the Share-bone; and Archangelus maketh no other difference betweene them but of scite and insertion. For if a man doe imagine the cod to be turned and thrust inward, betwixt the bladder and the right gut, then the Testicles which were in it will nowe cleaue to it outwardlye on either side, and so that which was before a cod will now bee a perfect Matrixe.  
Againe, the necke of the wombe( saith he) is in stead of the yard, for they are both of a 
The necke of the womb like the virile member  length, and by friction and refriction the seede is called out of the like parts, into the same passage, onely they differ in scituation which is outward in men, inward in women. Fallopius frameth the comparison of the parts somewhat after another sort, as we shall see heereafter when we come to the Controuersies.  
So then, in the first conception or soon after, whether it be in man or woman, the same Members are generated, but the fruite prooueth male or female, because of the temper of 
The cause of the procreation of a womā.  the seede and the parts of generation, either by heat thrust out, or for want or weakenes of the heate reteined within: wherefore a woman is so much lesse perfect then a man by how much her heate is lesse and weaker then his; yet as I saide is this imperfection turned vnto 
Table 5. sheweeh the lower belly of a woman, the guts being taken away.  
TABVLA. V.  

A, B, C, D. The inner face of the Peritonaeum reflected.  
E E. That part of the Mesentery which ioyneth together the small guts.  
F F: The Membranes of the mesentery diuided asunder.  
G G. The course of the vessels and Glandules in them.  
H H. I, That part of the Mesentery which tieth the right and the left part of the Collick gut.  
K. The right gut cut off.  
L. The bottome of the wombe whole.  
M, N. Both the Testicles.  
O O. Q. Q. A Membrane of the Peritonaeum which tyeth the wombe, her vesselles and the Testicles vnto the backe, it holdeth vppe the wombe, and with the Membrane of the other side, it maketh the seconde coate of the wombe.  
P P. Fleshie Fibres which runne into this Membrane, making the right and left Muscles of the wombe.  
R S. The necke of the wombe betweene R and S. couered yet with that Membrane.  
T. The backe side of the bladder.  
V. X. The Nauell, with part of the Vmbilicall Veyne at X.  
Y. The Ligament of the bladder in bruite Creatures, Vrachus.  
Z Z. The two vmbilicall Arteries.   perfection, because without the woman, mankinde could not haue beene perfected by the perfecter sexe. The great Maister workman therefore of set purpose, made the one halfe of mankinde imperfect for the instauration of the whole kinde, making the woman as a receptacle of the seede of which a new man was to be created. Wee haue therefore in this fift Table exhibited the lower belly of a Woman, and remooued the guts that all thinges might be more conspicuous, but now let vs come to the particular partes in a woman, beginning first with the spermaticall vessels.   

CHAP. X. Of the preparing Spermatical vessels.  
_THE spermaticall vessels which bring the seede from the whole bodye, and prepare it for further vse, are foure. Two Veines, and two Arteries. Galen in his Booke de dissectione vteri, maketh mention of foure other vesselles obserued by Herophylus in some women, which arise( saith he) from those vessels which go vnto the Kidnies, and so passe into the womb, which saith Galen I could neuer finde in any creature, but onely in Apes. The right veine buddeth out of the[ Tab. 6. dd] trunke of the hollow vein below the emulgent, nere the great or holy bone; the left proceedeth[ Tab. 6. cc] from the left Emulgent, because on this side the great Artery 
The spermaticall Veines.  is scituated neere the hollow veine, which Artery mooueth or beateth continually, so that if this left spermaticall vessell had proceeded out of the trunke of the hollow veine, it must of necessity haue bin carried ouer the great Artery, and then this thin veine had bin in continual danger of breaking by the incessant motion of the arterie.  
But both the Arteries[ Tab. 6. g h] arise from the trunke of the great Arterie vnder the emulgent neere the great bone, and are full of sprightfull blood. Galen recordeth, that Aristotle and Erasistratus thought they conteined nothing but spirits, with whom Bonacciolus 
The spermatical Arteries.  and Me●catus seeme to consent. And although these haue the same originall with the Arteries of a man, yet do they not, as in men, fal out of the Peritonaeum, neyther reach vnto the Share-bones( for it was not needfull that women as men should cast their seede out of themselues, but onely into their matrix) neither are they mingled together, or growe one into another before they come vnto the testicles, althogh Vesalius would haue it so. Wherfore they vary in their insertion and diuision. For in women they are supported with fat membranes[ table 7. figure 1. E E] and so are carried to the Testicles[ tab. 6. i i tab 2. fig. 1. p] but before they come there, after an inoculation or Anastomosis made between the veine and the arterie; they are diuided saith Galen in his 14. Book de vsu partium & chap. 9. into 2. parts; one part maketh the seminarie vessell[ table 7. figure 1. I ●] and the corpus varicosum, 
Diuided into two parts. The first.  communicating to the Testicles & their coat certaine smal branches for their nourishmēt.  
The other part reacheth to the membrane cleauing to the bottom of the wombe[ tab. 6. l l table 7. H fig. 1. fig. 2. f f fig. 3 b b] and so is distributed into the sides of the matrixe, and carrieth nourishment especially to the vpper part of the bottome or soale of it; as also for 
The second.  the nourishment of the conception, that it may be fitly cherished with laudable bloud; by which vessels also a part of the menstruall courses especially in women, but not with child, is purged, but in men they are all consumed into the corpus varicosum.  
They differ also from mens vessels in the shortnes of their course or way: for because the seede of the women stoode not in neede of so great elaboration as the mans did, therefore there was no necessary vse of the same length; beside if they had beene so long they could not haue beene contained within the belly. These vessels being enfoulded and enwrapped 
How they differ from the arteries in men.  one within another by an admirable Anastomosis or inoculation for the delineation or perfection of the seed, make( sayth Galen in his 14. Booke de vsu partium the 14 chapter) if any, yet very small parastatae and scarcely discerned, because the Testicles themselues are small and the spermaticall vessels small also: Archangelus sayeth that from these vessels goe vnto the Testicles certaine small branches. 
The Parastatae in women very small.    

CHAP. XI. Of the Testicles.  
_THE Testicles which because of the in-bred coldnes of women are included within the lower venter[ table 5. M N table 6. 11. table 7. figure 2. i i figure 3. f f] that they might be kept warme and bee made fruitfull, doe lye one on either side at the sides of the matrix[ table 5. L sheweth the bottom of the wombe, and M N the Testicles, table 6. P sheweth the wombe, and i i the Testicles, table 7. figure 2. and 3. c sheweth the wombe, and i i, f f shew the Testicles] aboue the bottom in women not with childe, but in those that bee, they are about the place where the hanchbones 
The position of the testicles.  are ioyned to the great or holy-bone, and are contained in loose membranes[ table 5. O O Q Q table 7. figure 1. E E table 10. M N] arising from the Peritonaeum which couer also the middle part of the Testicles.  
They differ from mens Testicles in scituation, for they lye vpon the muscles of the loynes within the Abdomen; in Figure because they are not so thicke or rounde, but before and behinde broad and flatted;[ Table 7. figure 2. i i] their vpper face is vnequall as if they were many small glandules[ table 7. figure 2. i i]( like the glandules of the Kell and mesentery sayth Vesalius and with him Platerus) and those vnequall( for some are greater & some 
How they differ from mēs in scituation. Figure. Platerus.  are lesser) ioyned together. Long they are[ Table 7. figure 1. ● figure 3. f f] sinuous or hollow, and beside smal textures in the vessels themselues, they abound with a waterith humor like the thickest whay: In hayle women they are full of this liquor, in those that be sick like bladderts filled with a watery humour, sometimes cleare, sometimes of a yellow or saffron colour and of very euill sent, from whence is often caused the strangulation of suffocation of the matrix, which we call fits of the mother. Vesalius telleth two tales of two women in 
In the contents.  whose testicles he foūd a very noysom and ill sented humor, one of which died in such a fit.  
They differ also in magnitude for they are much lesse in substance, because they are moister 
The suffocation of the matrix.  and softer, yet Vesalius thinks they are harder then in men. Neither is their substance so compact; because they were to ingender a more imperfect seede. In Temperament they are colder, whence womens seed is more moyst, thinne and waterish. It may be, that of this thinnes as it were of water, and of the seede of the man which is thicker as it were of flower a certaine paste should be made in the wombe to bee fermentated or wrought vp 

Magnitude. Vesalius. Temperament.  
Man like a lump of dow.   into the form of a man; or because Hippocrates sayth that man consisteth of water and fire, we may say that the seede of the women is the water, and that of the man the fire, because as the fire it carrieth in a smal body or matter, a great deale of actiniry or form; although I am not ignorant that this of Hippocrates is & may be otherwise taken, as that both the seeds are the water, and the spirit is the fire; which Nature by the helpe of an aduentitious heate 

Womens seed water, man, fire.  
Hippocrates. Hippocrates meaning.   doth extract and segregate from the more excellent part of the seed, especially of the man, lying before hid in the power or possibility of the matter, which is called by Scholers potentia materiae; which spirit assisted by the formatiue faculty of the womb, doth with a discerning iudgement deduce and distinguish into proper acts the power or possibility of the 
Table 6 sheweth the lower Belly the Guts being taken away, as also the Stomacke, the Mesentery, and some membranes, that the vessels seruing for generation may the better be discerned. Also the Breast or Dug of a women excoriated, is here exhibited.  
TABVLA VI.  
The Figures belonging to the Dugs or Breasts.  

ABCD The Peritonaeum reflected or returned backeward, aboue and below.  
EF The gibbous part of the Liuer E. the caue or hollow part F.  
G The trunke of the gate veine.  
H The hollow veine.  
I The great artery.  
K The roote, of the Coiliacall artery which accompanie h the gate veine.  
LM The fatty veine going to the coat of the kidnies.  
NO The fore part of both the kidneyes.  
TV The emulgent veines and arteries.  
aab The right vreter at the lowest a cut from a part which neare to b sticketh yet to the Bladder, because the bottome of the bladder is drawne to the left-side.  
c The left vreter inserted into the bladder neare to r.  
dd The spermaticke veine which goeth to the left testicle marked with i.  
ee The spermatick veine which goeth to the left testicle marked with i also.  
f The trunke of the great artery from whence the spermatical arteries do proceed.  
g h The spermaticall arteries.  
i i The two testicles.  
ll A branch which from the spermaticke vessels reacheth vnto the bottom of the wombe.  
mm The leading vessell of the seed which Falopius calleth the tuba or trumpet, because it is crooked and reflected.  
n A branch of the spermaticke vessel compassing the leading vessell.  
oo A vessell like to a worme which passeth to the wombe, some call it Cremaster.  
p The bottome of the wombe called sundus vteri.  
q A part of the right gut.  
r s The bottome of the Bladder whereto is inserted the left vreter, and a veine ledde from the necke of the wombe neare vnto r.  
t The necke of the Bladder.  
u The same inserted into the priuity or lap. x A part of the necke of the wombe aboue the priuity yy Certaine skinnie Caruncles of the priuities in the middest of which is the sl●e, & on both sides appeare little hillocks.  
αα The veins of the dugges which come from those, which discending from the top of the shoulder, are offered to the skin. β The veines of the dugges deriued from those which through the arme-hole are led into the hand. γ The body of the dug or Breast. ♌ ♌ The kernels and fat betweene them. ●● The vessels of the dugs discending from the lower part of the necke called iugulum, vnder the Breast bone.   parts mixed together confusedly in the masse of seed. This spirit also moueth & illumineth all the parts & moderateth all the actions of mans life, of which it is also chiefe cause. And therefore it is that we say, that the seed of a man is the actiue principle of the body, that of women but the passiue, or at least far lesse actiue thē the other. But if the seed of both sexes had beene thicke, glewy and compact, they could not haue been so perfectly mingled. Finally, they differ in their coats or couerings, for they haue but one,[ tab. 7. fig. 1. ●] because 
They differ in their coats.  being conteyned in a hidden and safe place they needed no more: that coate Galen calleth dartos, and it is thinner & softer then that in men, but cleaueth to the testicles very strongly, as if it were one body with them. This coat also receiueth the vessels of seed, and inuesting their substance conteyneth it or holdeth it in. The productions also of the Peritonaeum doe incompasse only the middle part of the testicles where they receiue the spermatical vessels.  
The vse of the Testicles as say Columbus, Archangelus, Laurentius and Bauhine, is by 
The vse of a womans testicles.  their in-bred power to make the seed fruitfull. Falopius is not of this mind, Platerus halteth betwixt both; but we know assuredly that those women whose testicles are ill disposed are barren and vnfruitfull: for women as well as men do yeeld seed, but cold, though Aristotle deny it in his first book de gener. Animal. and the 20. chapter; who would haue that humor which is anoyded by the necke of the matrix not to bee a seminarie or seedy humour, but a proper humor of the place, to wit, an excrement of the womb, which also should be found in some, but not in others; as especially browne or swart coloured and mannish women. But Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta, and in his booke de natura pueri; and Galen in his 14. Booke of the vse of parts and the 11. Chapter haue taught, that to perfect generation there is required a concurrence and mixture of the seeds of both sexes; and a place wherin the forme of the parts being onely in power present; the seede might be brought into act, such is the wombe; of which we shall heare by and by.   

CHAP. XII. Of the vasa deferentia or Leading vessels.  
_THE vessell which leadeth the seede is on either side one[ Tab. 6. m m. Tab. 7. fig. 1. *. fig. 2. gg. fig. 3. gg] which Laurentius and à Castro woulde haue to arise 
Laurentius a Castro. Pinoeus.  from the preparing vessels, Pinaeus from the Testicles. It is saide to be sustained by the Ligament of the wombe, as it were with a prop. Neruous it is & white, about the testicle broad and large,[ Tab. 6. mm. Tab. 7. fig. 1, *. fig. 2. gg]( faith Galen in the 9. chapter of his Booke De dissectione vteri,) membranous also, and a litle complicated or folded like a little seminary bladder beeing rugous, such as in men is at 
Their substāce Galen.   

The first Figure sheweth the wombe cut from the body, with the vessels which grow vnto it, the Testicles, the Bladder, and the Membranes: the necke of it is turned vpward, that the orifice of the bottome of the wombe may the better be perceiued; the bladder also is opened, that his cauity, and the insertion of the Vreters may better appeare.  
The second Figure sheweth the wombe, with his vesselles parted from the Membranes and the bladder.  
The third Figure sheweth the womb freed from al the vessels excepting the spermaticall vessels, where also the forme of the Trumpet is omitted.  
The fourth Figure sheweth the wombe cut out of the bodye, and thicknesse of his coates in a woman with childe, and the cleft of the lap or priuity dilated or laide open.  
TABVLA. VII.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III.  
IV.  

A. The bottome of the wombe laide open without any Membrane.  
B B. The necke of the wombe turned vpward.  
C D. A part of the bottome of the wombe like the nut of the yard, swelling into the vpper part of the necke of the wombe, in the middle whereof the orifice appeareth.  
E E. A Membrane knitting the wombe to the Peritonaeum, and holding together the vessels thereof.  
F. The left testicle.  
G. The spermaticall Veine and Artery.  
H. A part of the spermaticall vesselles reaching vnto the bottome of the wombe.  
I. One part of the vessels comming to the Testicle.  
* A vessell leading the seede vnto the wombe.  
K. The coate of the testicle with the implication of the vessels.  
L. The cauity of the bladder opened.  
M. The insertion of the Vreters into the bladder.  
N. The Vreters cut from the Kidneyes.  
O. The insertion of the neck of the bladder into the lap or priuity. The second Figure.  
a a. The spermaticall Veine and Artery.  
b b. Branches distributed to the Peritonaeum from the spermaticall vessels.  
c The bottome of the wombe.  
d The necke of the wombe.  
e Certain: vessels running through the inside of the wombe, and the necke thereof.  
f f Vessels reaching to the bottome of the wombe produced from the spermaticall vessell.  
g g The Leading vessel of seed called Tuba the trumpet.  
h h A branch of the spermaticall vessell compassing the trumpet i i. the Testicles.  
k k The lower Ligaments of the wombe, which some call the Cremasteres or hanging Muscles of the wombe.  
l the lap or priuity into which the cremasteres do end  
m A portion of the necke of the bladder.   
The third Figure.  

a a. The spermaticall vessels.  
b b. A branch from these spermaticall vessels to the bottome of the wombe.  
cc The bodie or bottome of the wombe.  
d The necke of the same.  
e The necke of the bladder ending into the necke of the wombe. f f. The testicles.  
g g The leading vessels, commonly though not so wel called the eiaculatory vessels.  
h h The diuision of these vesselles, one of them determining into the hornes at double k k.  
i i The other branch ending in the necke, by which women with childe auoide their seede.  
kk The hornes of the wombe.   
The fourth Figure.  

A B. The bosome of the bottome of the wombe a● whose sides are the hornes.  
C D. A line like a suture or seame, a little distinguishing that bosome.  
EE. The substance of the bottome of the wombe, or the thicknesse of his inward coate.  
F. A protuberation or swelling of the wombe in the middle of the bosome. G. The Orifice of the bottome of the wombe. H H. The coate or second couer of the bottome of the wombe, comming from the Peritonaeum. IIII. A portion of the Membranes which tye the womb. KK. th. beginning of the necke of the womb. L The necke o the Bladder inserted into the necke of the wombe. m the Clitoris in the toppe of the priuite. n The inequality of the priuity where the Hymen is placed o the hole or passage of the priuity in the cleft. p The skinny caruncle o. the priuity.   the Prostatae. In the middle it hath a notable hole or passage like the mouth of a trumpet, whence Fallopius calieth it the Trumpet of the wombe, and sayeth it is found not onely in 
The trumpet of the womb. Fallopius.  the bodies of women, but also of all female creatures, by which as by a breathing vent the smoky vapors of the womb do exhale into the capacity of the Abdomen; & this hole the sper maticke vessels do compasse,[ Tab. 6. n t. Tab. 7. fig. 2. hh] and it is curled vp after the maner of a Vine tendrill. For it is more rugous[ Tab. 7. fig. 3. gg] and fuller of windinges then it is in men, and that because of the shortnesse of the way, which is recompensed by the multitude 
How they differ from mens  of turnings, seeing it could not passe through the production of the Peritonaeum, because the Testicles did not hang out.  
These Leading vessels hauing passed the Testicles a little, become by degrees narrower,[ Tab. 6. mm. Tab. 7. fig. 1. * fig. 2, gg] and are not carried as in men to the necke of the bladder, 
Their progres  but to the wombe; and when they come to the sides of it,[ Tab. 7. fig. 3, kk] which are called the hornes of the wombe( from whence Fallopius and Platerus thinke these leading vessels 
The horns of the wombe.  do issue) they are diuided on either side,[ Tab. 7. fig. 3, hh] & one part which is the shorter and larger, is implanted into the middle[ Tab. 7. fig. 3, k] of the horne of his owne side, or neere vnto it; and powreth into it and into the hollownesse of the wombe, seed persectly boiled; but the other part which is narrower but longer[ Tab. 7. fig. 3, ii] is carried along the sides of the wombe to his necke[ Tab. 7. fig. 3, d] on either side, and is inserted below the innermost mouth vnder the necke into the Prostatae: which are not so conspicuous as they are in men, because the seede of a woman is not so corpulent or beareth not such a bulke. 
Which way a womans seed passeth after she is conceyued.  These keepe the seede till the time of coition, and by this way women with child in accompanying with men do loose seede, and not by the inmost mouth of the wombe opened. For whereas after conception the mouth of the wombe is exquisitely closed vp,[ Tab. 7. fig. 1. betweene C and D, and fig. 4, G] and yet euen then women in coition do loose seede; it is necessary the same should passe some other way, because the cauity of the wombe beeing on euery side filled, the seede that should come from the bottome or side of it cannot haue recourse vnto the orifice, or if it could, yet seeing that is so straightly stopped and must not be recluded or opened for feare of abortment, it would follow that the seed putrifying the Infant should perish. For seede when it is out of the vessels, cannot without great danger 
Seede out of the Vesselles groweth poysonous. Galen. Varolius.  be reteined, yea it becommeth very poison, as Galen saith in his sixt Booke de locis affect is, and the fift Chapter, and we also may plainly see in the greeuous fits of widdowes troubled with the Mother: wherefore this passage[ Tab. 7. fig. 3, ●ii] as Varolius rightly admonisheth must be in the necke of the wombe, which in those that haue not conceyued is so smal, that it cannot be perceiued vnlesse the Anatomist be very diligent and occulate; but in women with childe it is very large and manifest. Hence it is, that many women when they are with childe, conceiue greater pleasure in their husbandes then at other times, and also some 
Why some women haue more pleasure then others after conception. Fallopius.  women more then others. But Fallopius is of opinion, that these Leading vesselles doe arise from the sides[ Tab. 7. fig. 2. g] or hornes of the womb, and are caried vpward obliquely by the testicles; but do not arise from them, because in sound & haile women they are distant from the testicles the bredth of a finger, neyther that there appeareth any vessel which passeth from the testicles to these holes or passages, but are onely coupled together by a thin membrane produced from the Peritonaeum, but do not so much as touch one another. But if the wombe be euill affected, and that on one side, then the Leading vessell is ioyned to the testicle on the ill affected side, but not on the sound; but if both sides of the wombe be affected, then both the leading vessels are ioyned with both the testicles.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the wombe or Matrixe.  
_THE womb cald Vterus, is by Aristotle called the Field of Nature, into which 
Lib. I. de gener. Animal. Cap, 2.  the seed as well of the woman as of the man, is partly powred partly drawne, to which accrueth the womans blood, that the newe off-spring of mankinde might be ingendred, nourished, encreased, and kept to the due time of birth. For the Naturall and vegetable soule which lyeth potentially in the seed, diffused 
The forming Faculty.  equally through the whole masse, must be produced into act; and it is so produced by the vertue & heat of the womb that receiueth the seed, and the forming faculty which potētially consisteth partly in the seed of the man, partly in the nature of the wombe, and is called vis plastica, and so of both seedes mingled are framed and procreated equally together and at one and the same time all the parts of the bodye, vnderstanding their Spermaticall 
How all the parts are formed at once.  foundations and solid substance; but as for their sanguine foundations or proper Parenchymata, they are procreated at diuers times, as they sooner or later get nourishment and fire, that is spirit; and so those parts that are nearer to the Liuer are perfected before those that are more remote, and those first into which first the mothers bloud doth flow; that is, first the vmbilicall veine, wherefore that is first absolued in his fleshy substance, from which afterwards the bloud is led and conuayed into other parts. 
The names of the wombe.   
It is called vterus properly in women, because it is hollow like a bottle, and as a bottle or bagge of leather is filled and distended with the Infant contained in it; Hippocrates calles it 〈◇〉; but most commonly the Grecians cal it 〈◇〉, because it hath the last place among the entralles or inwards; also 〈◇〉, mater, or the mother, because it is the mother of the Infant, some call it vulua, but that is properly in Beastes, as Pliny witnesseth in the 37. Chapter of his 11. Booke; it is called locus or rather loci, the place of a woman. 
The scituation & the reasons thereof.   
It is placed within the bodie[ table 5. L table 8. P table 10. L] because the seede after it is cast into the womb, needed much heat to stirre it vp and to mooue it toward the delineation of the parts. In the lower belly( not in the middle or supreme for that these two are compassed with bones and cannot be dilated according to the increase of the infant, but would haue stifled it by compression:) because this is easily dilated as the burthen increaseth, and in the lower part of it called the watercourse or Hypogastrium, partly because it should be no hinderāce to the nutritiue parts, partly for the more commodious begetting & 

ABCD The Peritonaeum reflected or returned backeward, aboue and below.  
EF The gibbous part of the Liuer E. the caue or hollow part F.  
G The trunke of the gate veine.  
H The hollow veine.  
I The great artery.  
K The rootes of the Coeliacall artery which accompanieth the gate veine.  
LM The fatty veine going to the coat of the kidnies.  
NO The fore part of both the kidneyes.  
TV The emulgent veines and arteries.  
aab The right vreter at the lowest a cut from a par which neare to b sticketh yet to the Bladder, because the bottome of the bladder is drawne to the left-side.  
c The left vreter inserted into the bladder neare to r.  
dd The spermaticke veine which goeth to the left testicle marked with i.  
ee The spermatick veine which goeth to the left testicle marked with i also.  
f The trunke of the great artery from whence the spermatical arteries do proceed.  
gh The spermaticall arteries.  
ii The two testicles.  
ll A branch which from the spermaticke vessels reacheth vnto the bottom of the wombe.  
mm The leading vessell of the seed which Falopius calleth the tuba or trumpet, because it is crooked and reflected.  
n A branch of the spermaticke vessel compassing the leading vessell.  
oo A vessell like to a worme which passeth to the wombe, some call it Cremaster.  
p The bottome of the wombe called fundus vteri.  
q A part of the right gut.  
r s The bottome of the Bladder whereto is inserted the left vreter, and a veine ledde from the necke of the wombe neare vnto r.  
t The necke of the Bladder.  
u The same inserted into the priuity or lap.  
x A part of the necke of the wombe aboue the priuity  
yy Certaine skinnie Caruncles of the priuities in the middest of which is the slit, & on both sides appeare little hillocks.   
The Figures belonging to the Dugs or Breasts.  

αα The veins of the dugges which come from those which discending from the top of the shoulder, are offered to the skin.  
β The veines of the dugges deriued from those which through the arme-hole are led into the hand.  
γ The body of the dug or Breast.  
♌ ♌ The kernels and fat betweene them. ●● The vessels of the dugs discending from the lower part of the necke called iugulum, vnder the Breast bone.   
Table 8. sheweth the lower Belly, the Guts, being taken away, as also the Stomacke, the mesentery and some membranes, that the vessels seruing for generation may the better be discerned. Also the Breast or Dug of a woman excoriated, is here exhited.  
TABVLA. VIII.  bringing forth of the fruite. The den or cauitie of the body wherein it is conteined is called Peluis, that is, the lauor or bason; so that it is compassed about as with strong rampires for defence, with the share bones before, the great bone behinde, and the hanch bones on either side. I speake of the wombe vnburdened, for then the bottome of it reacheth not higher then the beginning of the great bone, neither toucheth it any thing but the right gut.[ Tab. 5. K. Tab. 8. q.] vppon which it lieth, nor reacheth forward aboue the bladder;[ tab. 5. t tab. 8. s] for it is placed betweene the bladder and the right gut, that backeward it might haue, as it were, a pillow( saith Galen in the first chapter of his booke de dissectione vteri, and and in the 14. booke de vsu partium and the 14. chapter) betweene it and the backebone, that it might not be hurt by his hardnesse, and before it a strong membrane, to wit, the bladder as a bulwarke to defend it. 
A remembrance for proudmen.   
Here we may see the glory of the ancient habitation or mansion house of mankinde, how that we are bred of a brittle & perishing substance betweene the excrements and the vrine, and must moulder againe into earth and dust, wherefore in the ruffe of our pride let vs seriously 
Pliny.  consider of that saying of Plinie, Alas, how sottishly franticke is he, that imagines himselfe out of so meane and base beginnings, to be borne to pride; but to returne to our historie. The wombe is placed in the midst of the neather belly, that the body might be equally ballanced saith Galen, and for that cause the lauer or basen is larger in women, from whence also they haue larger buttockes then men.  
But as the burthen increaseth, the wombe in the vpper part which is the bottome, being loose and at libertie groweth vpward to the nauill[ Tab. 10. l] and leaneth vpon the small 
Where it groweth.  guts, yea and fulfilleth all the place of the flankes when they are neere the time of their deliuerance. Neither then doth it so directly keepe the middle place of the belly, but leaneth either to the right hand or to the left, according to the diuersitie of the sexe of the infant, although this be not perpetuall. Sometimes there falleth some part of the kal between 
A cause of barrennes. Hippocrates.  the bladder and the wombe, and there causeth barrennes by the compression of the mouth of the wombe as Hippocrates conceited and expresseth in the 46. Aphorisme of the fifth section. It is knit partly by the very substance of it, partly by foure ligaments, wherof two are 
The connexion.  aboue, two below; but the bottome[ Tab. 8. p] before, behinde and aboue it is adioyned to none of the adherent partes, but is loose free and and at libertie, that it might better bee distended in women with child, and in coition when the desire of conception is, might 
The wombe a very creature  more freely moue, now vpward then downeward and open itself to the end of the yard, whence Plato in Timaeo calleth it 〈◇〉, that is, a crauing creature( so saith Salomon 
Plato. Salomon. Prou. 30. 15. an obseruation of the v●● of sweet and stinking ●●● for women.  The barren wombe neuer saith it is enough,) because in the conception it hath a kinde of Animall motion or lust to be satisfied; neither doth it onely moue itself in the lust of conception, but also it will in a manner descend or arise vnto any sweete smell and from any thing that is noysome: which is the reason that many women are so easily offended with the smel of muske or other perfumes taken at the nose, for that the wombe moueth vpward vnto them; and in the fit of the rising of the mother, we apply burnt feathers and such like noysome vapours to the nose to driue the wombe downeward againe, as also sweete and odoriferous suffumigations to draw it downeward to the owne naturall seate.  
At the sides it is tyed to the haunch bones by membranous ligaments[ Tab. 5. OO Q Q. tab. 10. I K. Tab. 9. fig. 4. IIII] arising as Galen saith in his 4. Book de vsu partium, and cap. 14. & in the 4. chap. of his Book de dissectione vteri, frō the Muscles of the loines; but we rather think( saith Bauhine) from the Peritonaeum, and may be compared to Bats wings.[ tab. 9. fig. I EE] 
Of the conditions of the ●●es of the wombe.  These Ligaments are wouen sometimes with fleshy Fibres( whereupon Vesalius and Archangelus haue named them Muscles) by whose helpe they being distributed into either part of it the wombe is held stedfast. These Ligaments although they bee strong, yet are they some-what loose or laxe and softe, so that in no part there are found so laxe ligaments, the reason is, that they might better bee extended with the wombe, and follow it also in the motions without dilaceration; for the wombe when it is filled is large and wide, but afterward is contracted into the quantity of a Peare or a halfe-peny purse.  
These Ligaments also, as Hippocrates and Plato in Timaeo haue written, like to Bridles do hold in the wombe, which yet notwithstanding rideth as a moored Ship in a Tempest 
The quantity of the wombe Simily.  betweene her Anchors, especially in barren women, sometimes vpward to the Liuer and Midriffe, and compressing them it bringeth a feare of suffocation; sometimes downward, bearing toward the hips, and causeth in them great paine, but especially it troubleth the 
A good obseruation for women.  left side, whence it is that we obserue that those women which beare vnprofitable burthens 
The first Figure sheweth the wombe cut from the body, with the vessels which grow vnto it, the Testicles, the Bladder, and the Membranes: the necke of it is turned vpward, that the orifice of the bottome of the wombe may the better be perceiued; the bladder also is opened, that his cauity, and the insertion of the Vreters may better appeare.  
The second Figure sheweth the wombe, with his vesselles parted from the Membranes and the bladder.  
The third Figure sheweth the womb freed from al the vessels excepting the spermaticall vessels, where also the forme of the Trumpet is omitted.  
The fourth Figure sheweth the wombe cut out of the bodye, and thicknesse of his coates in a woman with childe, and the cleft of the lap or priuity dilated or laide open.  
TABVLA. IX.  
FIG. I.  
IV.  
III.  
II.  

A. The bottome of the wombe laide open without any Membrane.  
BB. The necke of the wombe turned vpward.  
CD. A part of the bottome of the wombe like the nut of the yard, swelling into the vpper part of the necke of the wombe, in the middle whereof the orifice appeareth.  
EE. A Membrane knitting the wombe to the Peritonaeum, and holding together the vessels thereof.  
F. The left testicle.  
G. The spermaticall Veine and Artery.  
H. A part of the spermaticall vesselles reaching vnto the bottome of the wombe.  
I. One part of the vessels comming to the Testicle.  
* A vessell leading the seede vnto the wombe.  
K. The coate of the testicle with the implication of the vessels.  
L. The cauity of the bladder opened.  
M. The insertion of the Vreters into the bladder.  
N. The Vreters cut from the Kidneyes.  
O. The insertion of the neck of the bladder into the lap or priuity. The second Figure.  
a a. The spermaticall Veine and Artery.  
b b. Branches distributed to the Peritonaeum from the spermaticall vessels.  
c The bottome of the wombe.  
d The necke of the wombe.  
e Certaine vessels running through the inside of the wombe, and the necke thereof.  
ff Vessels reaching to the bottome of the wombe produced from the spermaticall vessell.  
gg The Leading vessel of seed called Tuba the trumpet.  
hh A branch of the spermaticall vessell compassing the trumpet ii. The Testicles.  
kk The lower Ligaments of the wombe, which some call the Cremasteres or hanging Muscles of the wombe.  
l the lap or priuity into which the cremasteres do end  
m A portion of the necke of the bladder.   
The third Figure.  

aa. The spermaticall vessels.  
bb. A branch from these spermaticall vessels to the bottome of the wombe.  
cc The bodie or bottome of the wombe.  
d The necke of the same.  
e The necke of the bladder ending into the necke of the wombe. ff. The testicles.  
gg The leading vessels, commonly though not so wel called the eiaculatory vessels.  
hh The diuision of these vesselles, one of them determining into the hornes at double kk.  
ii The other branch ending in the necke, by which women with childe auoide their seede.  
kk The hornes of the wombe.   
The fourth Figure.  

AB. The bosome of the bottome of the wombe, at whose sides are the hornes.  
CD. A line like a suture or seame, a little distinguishing that bosome.  
EE. The substance of the bottome of the wombe, or the thicknesse of his inward coate.  
F. A protuberation or swelling of the wombe in the middle of the bosome. G. The Orifice of the bottome of the wombe. HH. The coate or second couer of the bottome of the wombe, comming from the Peritonaeum. IIII. A portion of the Membranes which tye the womb. KK. the beginning of the necke of the womb. L The necke of the Bladder inserted into the necke of the wombe. m the Clitoris in the toppe of the priuite. n The inequality of the priuity where the Hymen is placed o the hole or passage of the priuity in the cleft. p The skinny caruncle of the priuity.   do especially complaine of greefe, paine, and gnawings in the lefte side, sometimes it beareth more downward, as in lustfull passions, and nowe and then compressing the necke of the bladder, it causeth strangulation.  
But we must vnderstand that the wombe is not like a gadding creature that moueth out of one place into another, relinquishing her proper place, but is onely vnequally extended and againe re-called or drawne backe into itself from that extension, as when vppon the 
How the womb mooueth.  retention of the menstruall courses, there groweth a plenitude, and so a distension of the veines and ligaments( for these ligaments as we sayde, haue fleshy fibres, and are therefore somewhat musculous, and so subiect to some distention) and if it descendeth any thing at all it is but a very little; but when it is drawne vpward to the bottome of the stomack, that hapneth by reason of the conuulsion of the vessels, which is somtimes from repletion, somtimes from inantion; not that the wombe is a liuing creature, or hath voluntary motion, or ariseth itself aboue the stomacke.  
So haue we seene in a generall, or by and by after a generall convusion of the whole body, those vessels so conuelled that the wombe hath pressed vppon the parts next vnto it, 
A strange case like a possession in Mary Glouer of Thames 〈◇〉.  those vpon the midriffe, the midriffe vppon the lungs, the lungs vp euen to the throate; so that some haue thought the partie to bee possessed of the foule fiend; some that would make themselues wiser, and should by right haue had more wit, haue sayd that the mother rose into the throate. But Hippocrates in his Booke de articulis, hit the nayle right when 
Hippocrates.  hee sayed; that the wombe of itself changeth not much his place, but is drawne by other parts. Yet sometimes what with the waight of the Infant, what with the difficulty and violence of the birth, the ligaments are so relaxed that the bottome of the wombe falleth downeward into the lappe: sometimes also the necke is turned and it hangeth forth of the 
The cutting out of the wombe.  priuities like a yarde betwixt their thighes, that it must be taken away by the Chyrurgion, or fall of itself when the ligaments are putrified, as we shall hereafter haply more particularly declare in our Treatise of the accidents of the womb in a work of Chyrurgery, which now gloweth and sparkleth vpon the anuile.  
For it is not to be doubted( say diuerse both Greekes and Arabians, beside some experience also of our owne times) but that a woman may liue without a wombe, because there is no necessity of it for the preseruation of the particular or indiuiduall nature, but onely for the propagation of the kinde.  
The necke of the wombe is tyed to the neighbour parts but not on euery side; at the sides it groweth to certaine membranes, and by their mediation is loosely tyed to the Peritonaeum; 
The tyes of the neck of the wombe.  backward it fastneth to the great or holy-bone, and to the right gut with very thin fibres and a little fat on which it lyeth all along his passage, and aboue the lap groweth into one with the fundament to which it is before vnited; so that sometimes when the fundament is vlcerated a little within, the excrements haue been seene to fall out at the lappe. Before, it is tyed to the necke of the Bladder.[ tab. 8. t table 9. fig. 1. o fig. 4. L] And because 
A good obseruation for women.  the necke of the womb is broader, part of it is tied to the sharebones by the helpe of membranes arising from the Peritonaeum; hence it is that in inflamations of the womb there followeth a Tenesmus, which is a vaine desire or dolorous offer to the stoole, and the strangurie: and so much of the vpper ligaments of the wombe.  
The lower Ligaments of the wombe[ table 8. o o tab. 9. figure 2. K] of which Vesalus maketh 
The lower ligaments. Laurentius. Columbus. Varolius.  no mention, are likewise two, which Laurentius cals 〈◇〉; Columbus, processus vteri; Varolius, the hornes of the wombe: but indeede they are certaine neruous productions, round like to earth wormes, reddish, and hollow especially in their end, like vnto the huskymembrane, which cauity is sometimes found to be filled with fat. These Ligaments proceede on either hand from the sides of the womb[ table 8. at p table 9. at c] and in their beginning or originall they touch the leading[ table 8. m o table 9. figure 2. g] vesselles of the seede; thence they rise vnto the leske, and are carried through the production of the Peritonaeum, as the spermaticke vesselles of men, and passe through the Tendons of the oblique 
The rupture in women how caused.  muscles of the Abdomen. This production beeing dilated, when also the inward coate whereof it consisteth is first broken as in hard bargaines of trauell it often hapneth, there falleth to Women as to Men a rupture of which they are cured by Ligature after section.  
To these after they are out of the Abdomen, are ioyned fleshy fibres comming from the hanch-bones, which make certaine small muscles called 〈◇〉, in Latine suspensores that is hangers vp of which Vesalius maketh no mention. These in women haue no communinion with the Testicles, albeit in men they haue, because they adioyne to the spermaticall vessels.  
These Ligaments aboue the share-bone[ table 9. figure 2. l] do degenerate into a broad and sinewy slendernes( mingled as it were with a membrane which toucheth and inuesteth the fore-part of the share-bone) vppon which the Clitoris cleaueth and is tyed; in so much that being neruous and therefore of most exquisite sence, from his attrition lustfull imaginations are communicated to these Ligaments, and from these to the vesselles leading the seede: although their vse also is, to hold the wombe suspended least it fall out of the lappe 

A, B, C. The inner part of the Peritonaeum.  
E E. The embowed part of the Liuer.  
F F. The Stomacke.  
G, H. That part of the Collicke gut which runneth vnder the stomacke.  
I, K. The Membranes by which the wombe adhereth to the bones.  
L. The womb ascending as high as to the Nauell.  
M, N. Coates arising from the Peritonaeum, which compasse the Testicles, the vessels and the forepart of the vvombe, and make the outward coate of the same.  
O. The fore-part of the necke of the wombe.  
P. The place of the bladder.  
Q. The Vrachus, a Ligament of the bladder.  
R R. The vmbilicall arteries.  
S. The Nauell.  
T. The vmbilicall veyne cutte from the Liuer.   
Table x. sheweth the portrature of a woman great with child whose wombe is bared and the Kel taken away, that the stomacke, the guttes and the wombe might bee better seene.  
TABVLA. X. ( like as the Cremasteres in men doe suspend the Testicles) to strengthen and corroborate it, 
The Vses of the ligaments  as well because of the great burthens it carries often and long, as of the strong throwes in the birth, and the humours which doe flow thither out of the whole body, which doe not onely moysten the part, but also might very well relaxe it. Finally by how much these Ligaments haue more fleshy fibres wouen into them, by so much do they sayth Pinaeus more leane to the office of muscles, helping the voluntary attraction of mans seede out of the necke into the cauity of the wombe.  
The figure of the wombe is round[ table 8. P tab. 9. figure 1. A figure 2. C] that it might bee the more capacious, and lesse obnoxious to iniuries; aboue, it is somewhat depressed 
The Figure of the wombe. [ table 9. figure 3.] like the bladder, excepting the tops of it which they call the hornes. For in woemen with child, as in the bladder so in the womb, the bottome is long and the necke narrow; but in those that be not with childe the bottome is no broader then the necke. Soranus and out of him Falopius likneth it to a pressed cupping glasse, both for the forme and also for the manner of attraction; for the seed of man cannot attaine vnto the bottome of the wombe vnlesse it be drawne. Taking it together with the necke it is very well compared by Archangelus, Laurentius, Pinaeus, and Bauhine to a Peare.[ table 9. fig. 3.] For the bottome 
Like a Peare.  downward directly from the corners becommeth narrower by degrees euen to the 
Archang. Laur. Pinaeus.  beginning of the necke, which is like a long and round passage, yet so as that the bottome is of a figure most like vnto roundnes as wee see in a good fayre Peare, whose bottome is round and bottle fashion.  
The magnitude of it is not in all women alike, but differs according to the age, body, and impregnation or burthen. In Virgins that are growing it is small and lesse then the Bladder; but in women growne it is greater; so in those that vse not mans helpe, and in old women because they are dryed and withered, it is but little,( that it may the lesse trouble the neighbour parts) and thicke, not much broader then two fingers; and in length scarce euer so long as three( I meane the bottome,) seldome reaching aboue the share-bone and the bladder. In ful growne women it is greater,( yet those that haue neuer conceiued are much like to virgins) because there is present vse of it; and after a woman hath bred in it, it remaineth during the strength and ability of their age somewhat larger then when shee was a growne Maide, yet not aboue a handfull. In a woman with child it is increased into all dimensions, for the larger it is stretched the thicker it groweth. It hath two sorts of parts, simple, and compound.  

Table II. the first figure sheweth the wombe of a women with childe opened in the length, that the after birth cleauing thereto might be seene.  
The 2. figure sheweth the after birth separated from the wombe.  
The 3. the coate wherein the vrine of the Infant is receiued.  
The 4. figure sheweth the Allantoides and the Amnion opened, with the naturall scite of the Infant according to the common receiued opinion of Anatomists.  
The 5. figure sheweth the coates or couerings of the Infant according to Vesalius, especially the membranous bladder which receiueth the vrine of the Infant.  
TABVLA XI.  
FIG. I  
II.  
III  
IV  
V  
Fig. 1.  
Fig. 2. 3. 4.  
Fig. 5.  

ABCD. The back part of the womb cut into foure parts.  
E. A part of the necke of the womb.  
FF. Veines and arteries compassing the neck of the wombe.  
G. A certaine fleshy substance growing to the outward coate, called the cake or the liuer of the womb, because of his manifold vesselles. This ministreth bloud vnto the Infant by the nauill.  
H H. The outward couering of the Infant in the wombe which they call Allanto des.  
a a. 2. The distribution of the vessels.  
K K 2. The fleshy cake of the afterbirth.  
LLL 3. The outward coate of the Infant opned, to the backside wherof cleaueth the afterbirth which some thinke is the Allantoides.  
M 3. The inside of this outward coat  
N 3. Vesselles produced out of the cake or liuer of the womb, making the nauill of the Infant.  
* The insertion of the vessels which make the nauill.  
OO 3. The inner coate of the Infant yet whole, which they call Amnion  
P 4. The outside of the Allantoides.  
Q 4. The inside of the same.  
R 4. The cake liuer, or after-birth.  
S T 4. The vessels ioyning into one at T.  
V V 4. The outside of the Amnion.  
X X 4. The inside of the same.  
Y 4. The vmbilicall vessels inserted into the nauill of the Infant.  
Z 4. The Infant as it sitteth doubled in the wombe.  
A. The outward coate of the Infant cut length wise.  
B. The inner coate or Amnion yet whole.  
C. A soft and thin membrane like a bladder, leading out the vrine thorough the nauill; this keepeth the vrine of the Infant whilest it is in the wombe.    
The simple parts are the Ligaments of which we haue spoken; membranes, veines, arteries 
The composition of the wombe. The similar parts of it. Membranes.  and nerues, of all which the wombe is compounded. The compound parts are foure, the bottome, the mouth, the necke, and the lap or outward priuitie. The membranes are two, one outward another inward, whose nature and property it is to be able to be extended or streatched, and againe contracted and gathered together. The vtter[ table 9. figure 4. HH table 5. OO Q Q] which is called the common membrane and is neruous, is the thickest of all membranes that come from the Peritoneum: wherefore it is strong and growes to the wombe on both sides and is doubled, inuesting it for more safety and strength. The inner 
The duplication of the inner membrāe. [ Table 9. Figure 4. EE Table 11. Figure 1. ABCD] or proper is double, but yet so ioyned that they can hardly bee distinguished but in exulcerations; betweene which as betweene the coates of the stomacke there are placed fleshy fibres; which they that say the wombe hath but one coate, doe not call a coate but the very substance of the wombe, when indeed both these and the outward make the substance of it together membranous, thight, & compact; 
What is the substance of the wombe.  that when the burthen is encreased they may bee dilated, and after the birth may bee contracted again; but by reason of this inner or proper membrane it is fleshy or very thick that it might haue heat to cherish the seede and the Infant; and beside it is porous, that it may be extended according to the increasing of the burthen. Wherefore it exceedeth in thicknes all other coates of the belly, neither doth it alwayes keepe the same thicknes sayth 
How it increaseth or decreaseth in thicknes.  Galen in the 8. Chapter of his Book de dissectione vteri: for in youth it is small and also the 
Table 12. wherein the after-birth together with the vmbilicall vesselles are exhibited.  
TABVLA XII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

AAAA 1. The fleshy cake or liuer of the wombe made to strengthen the vessell.  
BBB 1. 2. The membrane called Amnios.  
CC 1. The vmbilicall vessels couered as it were with a gut.  
D 1. 2. The vmbilicall veine and the two vmbilicall arteries.  
EE. The membrane called chorion.  
FFF. The branches of the veines and arteries dispersed through the chorion.  
GG. 2. The coniunction of the vmbilicall vessels as they are encompassed with their coate, resembling a gut.   thinner, but after the courses begin it growes in thicknesse as in magnitude, as also it decreaseth both in magnitude and thicknesses when Women leaue to conceyue and theyr courses stay. For the beginning and end of their courses is, when they begin and cease to be sit for conception. So when the time of the courses is at hande, it growes thick and somwhat tumified, as being watered or dewed with the humidity of the bloode which floweth vnto it. Againe, the oftner a woman hath conceiued the thicker it is.  
Moreouer, in the time of conception it is thicke and softer and growes thicker as the conception encreaseth, beeing thickest of all at the time of the birth. Yet Galen seemeth to say otherwise in his Booke de dissectione vteri, and the 8. chapter, and the 14. Booke of the vse of parts, and the 14. chapter( which opinion of his many follow) albeit it is against himselfe a little before where hee sayth; that it groweth thicke when the courses come because of blood; now we know that the greater the infant growes, the more bloode accrueth vnto the wombe.  
And indeed by Dissection we are taught, that about the time of deliuerance and in the last 
FIG. II.  
The first Figure sheweth an Infant of 14. dayes olde, in which all the parts are exactly delineated.  

A. The Infant.  
B B. The vmbilicall vessels meeting together.  
C C. The diuarication of the vmbilicall Vesselles, thorough the Chorion.  
D D D. The Coate called Amnios.   
The second figure sheweth an abortiue Infant, which was auoided the xxv. day after conception, being depriued of blood to nourish it, because the vmbilical vessels were broken. The magnitude of that infant is perfectly described.  month it becommeth two Fingers bredths thicke, and that not onely in one place but euery where, especially toward the higher part of the bottome or soale in which the vessels of the wombe did meete, and to which the after byrth called the secundinae doe adhere; for as we saide before after the conception it encreaseth in all kinds of dimensions til it be vnburdened. For from the plentifull confluence of blood, because of the many veines and Arteries scatterly dispersed through his coates, his substance becomes fleshy, fungous, spongy, and diuisible into many shels or huskes like a Bezoar stone, or after the manner of mushrumme, that it might containe the greater quantity of blood and spirits or the life and nourishment of the Infant, and beside the heate beeing encreased it necessarily draweth more 
Why women who haue conceiued leaue bearing for a time, & after fall to it againe.  vnto it, and so it tumifieth and is distended, but after the byrth when the confluence ceaseth, it returneth to his former both magnitude and thicknesse. For if it neuer gathereth that carnosity and softnesse the woman neuer conceyneth. But if it sometimes do not gather it, then is she for that time fruitlesse, whence it is that we see some women which haue conceyued to become fruitlesse for a space, and after fall to bearing afresh.  
Betweene these membranes run Fibres( saith Galen in his 14. Booke de vsu partium, and 
The Fibres of the wombe.  the 14. chapter) of all sorts, because it must draw and reteine the seede and expell the burthen; the fleshy fibres make the proper parenchyma or flesh of the womb; that so the heate 
Comparison.  may be encreased for conception: by which also it may be, as by muscles the voluntary motion of the wombe in drawing the seede into his cauity( as a Hart draweth a Snake out of the holes of the earth by drawing in his breath at his Nosethrils) & embracing it afterward is accomplished; haply also they haue another vse( saieth Archangelus) to thrust out some 
Archangelus.  recrements of the wombe, which cannot be cleansed by the sole compression of the Muscles of the Abdomen.  
But in those that are somewhat gone with childe, the trebble kinde of spermaticall Fibres 
The spermaticall fibres of the wombe.  do appeare more manifestly, the right are inwarde which draw the seede, they are but few because the seede is brought euen to the very mouth of the wombe by the yard. The oblique are in the middest and are most and most strong, that they may retaine that which is conceiued till the due time; the transuerse are outward very strong also, because of the force that is necessary in the deliuerance. 
The Veynes & arteries of the wombe.   
The veines and arteries which passe through the coates of the wombe are twofold, for two veins & two arteries are led thither from the spermatical[ Ta. 8. ll. Ta. 9. fig. 1. H fig, 2 ii. fig. 3. bb] vessels, so many also from the Hypogastrical, which run vpward from below;[ tab. 9. fig. 2, ●. Tab. 11. fig. 1, FF] that from all parts of the body as well below it as aboue it, blood might be ministred vnto it; for they bring not Aliment onely to the wombe, but also to the infant, as also they serue to emptie the whole bodye in the menstruall purgation. But the 
The veine frō the spermaticall.  the veines are greater then the arteries.  
The one of these which proceedeth from the spermaticall and discendeth from aboue, is disseminated through his whole bodie especially through his bottome, to bring alimen: 
Galen.  vnto it, yet the ends of the vessels which are carried into the left side are vnited & become one with the ends of the vessels which are distributed in his right side, that so the right side( for this is Galens opinion, in his 14. Booke de vsu partium, and the 9. Chapter) may take to itself some small portion of whaey humidity, which may by his acrimony stirre vp his action 
A cause of pleasure.  and procure pleasure; as we see the whaey humors that are gathered vnder the skinne if they be heated, they stirre vp itching and a kinde of pleasure withall. By this veine also the chiefe part of the menstruall blood, especially in women but not with childe, dooth flowe foorth. 
The Veine from the Hypogastricall.   
The other Veine ariseth from the Hypogastricall braunch of the hollowe Veine at the sides of the great bone about the share; it is the greater and ascendeth by the sides of the necke vnto the middest of the wombe, where it mingleth itself with the former. This is distributed partly through the bottome of the wombe, partly through the necke of it. But the vessels that passe through the bottome, are alwayes vnited( which saith Fallopius, Anatomists haue much neglected) by some branches, and that eyther without the wombe or in his substance: without the wombe, the boughs of the vpper vein are ioyned with the small branches of the lower at the necke of the womb[ Tab. 9. fig. 2, e, with h] where on both sides there are many vesselles, and those notable ones finger-fanged or placed like crosse Fingers, and being vnited doe passe into his substance and end or open into the cauity, which Anastomoses or inoculations of veines are more conspicuous in women with childe, and those whose courses do slowe or are neere vpon it. But if they be not vnited, then from the lower veine some branches are carried vpward, to be planted in the bottome.  
The branches of this Hypogastricall veine being entred the substance of the wombe do 
Acetabula and Cotelydones what they are  mingle themselues with the vpper braunches proceeding from the spermaticall, and the mouths or extreamities of them reach vnto the inner cauity of it, and are called Cotelydones and Acetabula, to which in the conception the Liuer of the wombe or the after birth doth cleaue, from whence the infant receiueth aliment through the vmbilicall vesselles, and by which it is tied to the wombe. Through these, there arriueth more blood at the wombe then is necessary for the nourishment thereof all the while the Woman is childing, that when conception shall happen to bee, there may bee some quantity of the Mothers blood at hand which is one of the principles of generation; as also that when the infant is begotten and doth encrease, it may not want aliment according to that proportion it standeth in neede of; all which blood after the infant is brought into the world, returneth back to the breasts and there is turned into milke.  
At other times, because it is more plentifull then the womb itself requireth, therefore it is like a superfluity excluded euery month, and if it bee reteined it will corrupt and induceth 
The menstruall purgation.  many passions called Hystericae, which we call fits of the Mother, which yet are oftner procured by seed reteined and corrupted then by blood. With this blood also other excrements conteined in or amongst the blood and a whole heape of humors are purged somtimes in three dayes space, sometimes they flow longer, and commonly at the new moone 
An obseruation for the pro curing of the courses  the younger sort haue them, the elder in the full of the moone; which therefore wee note, because when in Maidens the courses are stopped and they know not well when the time, of their euacuation should be, we should apply our remedies either in the end of the olde 
TABVLA XIII.  
The first Figure sheweth an Infant of 14. dayes olde, in which all the parts are exactly delineated.  

A. The Infant.  
B B. The vmbilicall vessels meeting together.  
C C. The diuarication of the vmbilicall Vesselles, thorough the Chorion.  
D D D. The Coate called Amnios.   
FIG. II.  
The second figure sheweth an abortiue Infant, which was auoided the xxv. day after conception, being depriued of blood to nourish it, because the vmbilical vessels were broken. The magnitude of that infant is perfectly described.  Moone, or in the beginning of the new.  
Finally, the other part of the lower veine is inserted into the necke of the wombe,[ Tab. 9. fig. 2, e] 
The other part of the Hipogastrical veine.  whether if too much blood be brought by the spermaticke vessels whilst the woman is with childe, it is exonerated not by the orifice or mouth of the wombe, but by the Anastomosis or inoculations of the veines into the neck of the same. Wherefore by these veines are some women with childe euacuated which haue plethoricall and ful bodies and 
How and by what wayes women with child haue their courses.  so more affluence of blood in the first months after their conception then is required for the nourishment of the Infant, and not by the bottome of the wombe as otherwise in maides and women the menstruall blood vseth to bee purged; otherwise the Infant would be choaked with the aboundance of bloud and the orifice of the wombe must necessarily be opened, which would bring a danger of abortment.  
That which we haue sayed of the veines wee must say of the arteries which accompany 
Of the arteries of the wombe. Their vse.  them, whose vse also is in those that be not with childe to encrease the heat of the womb, to bring vnto it spirit and vital bloud, together with vital faculty and heat, and by their motion to ventilate or breath the in-bred heat, to stir the bloud and so to preserue it from putrifaction. But whether in the time of the courses the arteriall blood bee also euacuated, we ingenuously confesse ourselves to be ignorāt saith Bauhine, sure we are that from these forenamed vesselles or that which is called the lap or priuy veine, there are carried certaine small veines and arteries to the lap and the hillocks or Caruncles thereof.  
The nerues of the wombe though they bee small yet are they very many, implicated or couched one within another like a net, that they may confer exquisite sence vnto it. To the 
The nerues of the wombe.  higher part of the bottom of it, they come from the termination of the branches of the sixt coniugation which go vnto the roots of the ribs. To the lower part of the bottom and to the neck, from the marrow of the loyns and the great bone,( whence is that admirable consent between the womb and the head especially the backpart of it) that feeling those things 
The cause of the conse●t betweene the wombe & the head A cause of pleasure.  that are troublesome, the expelling faculty might be prouoked, and pleasure also conceiued in coition,( therefore about the lower parts they are more plentifull) as also the motion of the wombe wherein it draweth and imbraceth the seed of the man quickned and strengthned. For there are certaine fleshy fibres in the wombe as wee haue shewed already, which are in stead of small muscles. And thus far of the simple and similar parts of the wombe or matrix, now followeth the compound or dissimilar.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the simple or similar parts of the wombe, and particularly of the bottome and the orifice.  
_ALthough from the bottome of the wombe to the very lap or priuities there be but one continuated passage, yet because in it there are many and diuerse 
The parts of the wombe.  parts, therefore it is diuided into the vpper part or the bottom, the mouth or inward orifice of the necke, the necke itself and the outward priuity or lap. The bottom which is properly the wombe & the matrix, Hippoc. in his booke de nat. pueri calleth 〈◇〉, sinus the bosom. Galen so also lib. 14 & 15. de vsu partiū & the 3. 
The bottome or soale.  chapters, and somtimes 〈◇〉, that is a cauity or hollownes. This is the chiefe of all the parts of it, because for it al the other parts were made; for in it is the Infant conceiued of the seed,( that we may so say according to our manner of speech, though indeede conception is nothing els but the wombs receiuing and imbracing of the seede) formed and distinguished, nourished & increased, made a liuing soule, & preserued euen to the infusion of that diuine & immortal substāce, & thē it thrusteth it into the sea of the world & the tides of the same.  
This bottome then is the vpper[ tab. 5. L tab. 8. p tab. 9. fig. 1. A fig 2. & 3. c sheweth the bottom of the wombe of a woman with child cut open] and broader part of the womb placed aboue the share-bone, that so it might better be dilated as the Infant increaseth; on the out side smooth, equall and lined ouer as it were with a waterish moysture and sendeth out on either side aboue a certaine production or rather a corner, which Herophilus compareth to the turning of a halfe moone; Diocles and with him Galen in lib. 2. de dissectione vteri, chap. 2. and chap. 8. and lib 14. of the vse of parts chap. 11. calleth them 〈◇〉, that is hornes, because 
The hornes.  the superficies of the wombe is there somewhat more eminent, euen as in the heades of young calues there are certaine buds where the hornes vvill aftervvards grovv forth. Into these the seed of the vvoman is povvred out in those that be not vvith child, for into the the leading vessels of seed are inserted.[ tab. 9. fig. 1. * fig. 2. gg fig. 3. hh] These you may plainly see if you cut the bottome of the vvombe through the midst; for on the inside at the orifice[ tab. 9. fig. 4. G] you shall perceiue on each side a little corner[ tab. 9. fig. 4. at A & B] vvhich by degrees[ tab. 9. fig. 4. AB] inlargeth itself tovvard the bottome.  
The vse of these hornes is, that the wombe might be made more capacious for the entertayning of the Infant, because vpon these two stocks as vpon bases may two vesselles or 
Their vse.  Infants bee built or generated. Wherefore because it is the instrument of conception it hath a cauity & yet but one, for there are in it no partitions or chambers: notwithstanding 
The cauity of the wombe.  it is vsually diuided into the right and the left bosome; the right in which male childeren are conceiued, the left in which females are conceiued, as Hippocrates and Galen haue determined: yet is not this diuision made by any wall or partition, but onely by a line or suture and seame[ tab. 9. fig. 4. C D] lightly rising vp but very obscurely through the middle part of 
The suture or line.  the superficies, and running forward & backward according to his longitude; which line or suture is called by Aristotle in the 3. Booke of his History of Creatures and the first Chapter 〈◇〉 the mediana or the middle: and thence it is that the antients doe not call it matrix but matrices, or the mothers, as if there were two of them, and sayed they were answerable in number to the breastes, for it is a very rare thing that a womans wombe should be diuided into two as beasts are. This cauity[ tab. 9. fig. 4. A B] is smooth and so narrow that it will scarcely hold a common beane, and when it receiueth the seede from both the Parents it is filled with it, for any portion of seede that getteth into it filleth it, because it embraceth 
The least quātity of seed filleth the wōb.  it so narrowly; for in the least portion of seede that may be, the whole formatiue faculty is potentially included, out of which mingled and as it were fermentated and houed vp, the Infant is generated; and is encreased by blood eftsoons comming to it for nourishment, by which also the substance of the wombe groweth into a greater bulke; as a little sponge if it be filled with water will arise to a greater magnitude, which being pressed out 
A fit comparison.  againe the sponge will become as small as before.  
The bottome hath many pores or passages which are the mouthes of the Cotelydones so called, by which the bloud in the time of gestation reacheth out of the veines of the 
The way of the bloud for the nourishment of the Infant.  wombe into his cauity. In women not burdened for the most part it is lined within with a viscous or slimy substance, whitish or of colour betweene a pale yellow and a red. The substance of the bottome of the wombe is harder and more compact then that of the lap, yet softer then that of the necke, and in the corners it is rugous.  
From the lower part of the bottom there runneth a notable portion resembling the nut of the yarde[ table 9. figure 1. C D] which with his blunt head toucheth not the sides of the 
A secret part wanting a name.  neck, about an inch long, but as slender as a little finger that it will scarcely admit a Probe or a small penne at the most: but it is rough least the seede that is drawne should fall back, which commeth to passe in those women who haue this part slippery because their humors are faulty, and so become barren. This part which is betweene the beginning of the bottome and the orifice, Falopius thinks was called the necke by Galen, Soranus, and the antients. 
Falopius his conceit of the name of it.  It hath a manifest passage[ table 9. fig. 1. betweene C and D] which maketh also another part.  
This passage is the entrance into the bottome of the wombe, wherefore Hippocrates in 
The orifice or mouth of the wombe.  the first section of his Aphorismes, and the 51. Aphorisme calleth it 〈◇〉, vel 〈◇〉, os vteri the mouth of the wombe: Galen in his 14. Book de vsu partium and the third Chapter, and in the 7. Chapter of his Booke de dissectione vteri, calleth it the inwarde orifice of the necke, for by this the bottome openeth directly into the necke. This orifice is transuerse or ouerthwart like a Plaice mouth, or most like to the passage in the nutte of the yarde: so that the whole orifice with the transuerse slitte, is like the letter, θ, smal and wondrous 
The fashion of it.  narrow, that the seede once receiued cannot easily fall backe, nor any thing hurtfull get into the cauity of the vvombe. It is direct against the bottome, because the mans seede might passe in a right line through the necke and it to the bottome; and so also it might be better dravvn by the bottom from a leuel, for if it be diuerted or turned aside may euils follovv sayeth Hippocrates in his first Booke of the diseases of vvomen, for then the vvombe receiueth not the seede, but it falleth backe againe out of the neck instantly. Then also the courses either come not at all, or with great violence and disease: it is alwayes shut except 
The closenes of it.  only at that time, when in coition the bottome draweth the mans seed, and when the seed is conceiued or receiued then is it so closely shut vp saith Hippocrates in the 51. Aphorisme of the 5. Section, that a Needle or a small Probe can hardly be thrust into it: and so it continues nine moneths; for when women with childe yeelde seede it is not out of the bottome but by the necke of the vvombe, as vve haue sayd before.  
Verie rarely is it opened, and that either for the casting out of a false conception a perfect 
By how many meanes it is opened.  conception remaining behinde, or in superfoetation where after one conception another commeth. So likewise, when the wombe not fit to conceiue doth belch out againe the seed of both parties, or when as in polutions or affrictions women that haue not conceiued do loose their owne seed; or when as in women vnburdened the courses or any offensiue humors are that way purged, as in the Whites, in which case oftentimes the whole bodie 
Note this.  is purged that way, the wombe at all not beeing affected; or when false conceptions alone are cast out, as the Mola or Moone-calfe, and such like; or finally, when the Infant it 
The admirable worke of God in the birth.  selfe is borne into the world; for when that is perfected, this passage is so distended & openeth so wide, that from the bottome of the wombe to the very lap the cauity is equall, that through it the Infant may passe; which admirable worke of Nature or Natures Mayster God himselfe, we may wonder at, but not vnderstand saith Galen in his 15. Booke De vsu partium, and the 17. chapter. But because it must be opened according to the magnitude of the Infant, and that by degrees, being it is of a thicke and fast substance[ Tab. 9. fig. 4. at G] and is yet thicker when the birth approacheth, there cleaueth vnto it a certain viscid and slimy body like glew, that by the helpe of it the orifice without feare of dilaceration or divulsion may bee distended and naturally opened. This is round like a crowne, and as often as the passage openeth, commeth away in an orbicular forme. The Midwiues call it the Crowne or the Rose. This Orifice, if it be too much loosened or opened aboue measure, as 
The crowne or rose of the wombe. Why Harlots do not conceiue.  in ouer-moyst bodies, or in the whites, or by reason of too frequent copulation as in Harlots, it bringeth barrennesse; so doth it also if it be too fat, or thicke, or growe callous or hard; sometimes there growe in it the Scirrhus or the Cancer both incureable diseases, which happen especially when the courses faile.   

CHAP. XV. Of the necke of the wombe & of the Hymen.  
_THE third part of the wombe is the neck called Ceruix or Collum vteri[ tab. 9. fig. 2. and 3, d. Fig. 4. KK, in the first figure the necke is turned vpward at ●●] 
The necke of the wombe. 14. vsu part. 3. 15 vsu part. 3. 14. vsu part. 4. Lib. 7. Hist. 1.  into which the yard passeth. This Galen commonly calleth 〈◇〉, sometime 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉. Aristotle 〈◇〉, the matrixe, the necke, and the gate of the wombe. It is a passage within the Cauity of the Peritonaeum, called the Bason or Lauer, placed betweene the right gut & the bladder, whiter then the superficies of the bottome. It hath a deepe cauity and wide,( whence Fallopius calleth it the bosome of modesty) but the mouth or entrance of it is much narrower. 
The capacitie of it.  It reacheth from the inner[ Tab. 5. fig. 4. G] orifice of the wombe, to the outward Orifice[ Tab. 9. fig. 4. O] or very lap and priuity, and being long that the seede of the man may be brought to the orifice of the wombe it receyueth the yard fitly like a sheath, wherefore the amplitude is answerable to that it must contain & is not broader then the right gut. It becommeth in the time of coition longer or shorter wider or narrower as the yard is; and according to the womans appetite more or lesse turgid, more open or more contracted & direct; wherefore the length of it cannot be limited no more then the length of the yarde; and though it be continuated with the bottome, yet it hath a diuers substance from it. For it is Membranous and Neruous, that it may better be enlarged or contracted, neither too hard, nor too soft.  
The substance of it is somewhat fungous or spongie, like that of a mans yarde, for as it was necessary that the yard should bee distended to fill this, so it was necessary that this in coition should be so contracted and straightned that it might straightly embrace the same, 
The substāce.  which happeneth by reason of many small Arteries which fill the passage with spirits, & so it becommeth narrower. Wherefore in women that are full of lust, or in the time of anie womans appetite it strutteth, and the Caruncles swell outward( which in Cowes and Bitches 
The streightnesse whence caused.  is so apparent, that their priuities seeme to bee very much enflamed) and the Cauitie growes very straight. In yong wenches it is more delicate and soft, and becommeth euerie day harder, so that those that haue often conceiued and old women, haue it hard callous & as it were gristly, by reason of the often attrition and the frequent flowing of their courses. Whereupon Herophylus compared it to the weazon or winde-pipe. This when it is not distended 
The fould● of i●  is rugous, if it be much stretched it becommeth smooth and slippery, vnlesse it be in that part which endeth in the lap; but in the entrance of the passage and in the forepart, there are many round folds for the greater pleasure of louers which commeth from the atrition of them by the nut of the yard. These folds are in yong women smoother and narrower, and the passage straighter, that it will scarse admit a finger, which is not from the cloasing of the sides of his necke, but by reason of the mediocrity of his passage, yet thorough it doe passe not onely the bloud in the monthly euacuations of growne Maydens, but also other corrupt humors in the disease of the whites or womens fluxe, which also we haue seen 
A strange obseruation. ( being taught by Aristotle to obserue it) to bee purged this way in young children of foure or fiue yeare old.  
The attrition of these folds and their extension in the first society of mayds with men, Soranus thought to bee the cause of some maydens payne in deuirgination or losse of their 
The cause of paine in deflowring of a mayde.  maiden-head as we speake, and because certaine veines passe by them these being broken by the husband the blood issueth sometimes in great aboundance: but the neck( when neither the seed is sent in, nor the Infant is excluded, but at other times) is writhen & oblique; for being loosned and falling into itself, it is necessary that it must haue certaine contorsions or wrethings, that the partes within contained may bee defended from outward cold, wherefore then it is shorter and narrower, but in coition it is distended vnto the measure 
Whē women take most cold.  of the yarde; in the birth to the measure of the Infant which are to passe through it: and therefore when the courses flowe, but especially when the time of deliuerance is at hand, the necke becomming right, straight and open, women are most subiect to take colde by it.  
In the end of this necke, immediatly aboue the necke[ table 9. figure 2. m figure 3. e fig. 
The Hymen.  4. L] of the bladder, they place in Virgins the Hymen or Eugion,[ table 9. figure 4. n] which many will haue to bee a slender membrane, neruous, not thicke, placed ouerthwart that it may shut the cauity of the necke of the wombe, yet perforated in the middest like a ring, that in growne mayds it will admit the top of a little finger, that through it the courses may passe, sprinkled also with veines. This they say is broken in the devirgination, from whence comes the paine and effusion of blood, and after it vanisheth as doth the bridle of the nut of a mans yarde: with this also are the wings or lips of the lap tyed together, because there is no vse of a large entrance before coition.  
But let vs set downe with your patience, the true History of the Hymen, which Seuerinus Pinaeus the French Kings Chyrurgion hath diligently and at large recorded. 
A discourse of the Hymen out of Pinaeus.   
In the middle of the trench which is in the great slit or clift lyeth alwayes hid the orifice of the Maidens bosome of modesty, being placed not in the end of the trench, but in the inner end of that production which is annexed to the trench. This production which is peculiar to Virgins, is as long as the little finger is broad in the middest, and is incircled aboue with a round cauity. The figure of it is round, yet determineth into a sharpnes, and in the end hath one notable passage which will admit the top of the little finger.  
The substance is partly fleshy partly membranous, being compounded of Caruncles or little peeces of flesh and membranes. The Caruncles are foure, and are like the berries of 
The Caruncles.  the Mirtle, in euery corner of the bosome one; the membranes tying them together are also foure, which are not disposed ouerthwart but runne all right downward from the inner end of the sayed bosome, and are placed each in the distances betweene euery Caruncle, with which they are almost equally extended or streatched forth. But these both Caruncles and membranes are in some bodies shorter or longer, thicker or thinner thē in others, as also the orifice at the end of them is in some wider in some narrower, and then especially is at the straightest when the Caruncles and the fleshy membranes are nearest ioined together, 
Whence commeth the pain in deuirgination.  from whence comes either geater or lesse payne in devirgination or deflowring, which Terence calleth The sharpe coition.  
All these particles together make the forme of the cup of a little rose halfe blowne when the bearded leaues are taken away. Or this production with the lappe or priuity may be likened to the great Cloue Gilly-flower when it is moderately blowne. Galen in the 2. Chapter of his Booke de vteri dissectione likneth this production to the prepuce or fore-skin of a man, because it is somewhat long and perforated in the end; yet is it a little more fleshy and softer then the fore-skin. It is called Hymen quasi Limen, as it were the entrance, 
Hymen.  the piller, or locke, or flower of virginity. For being whole it is the onely sure note of vnsteyned virginity( yet some also haue other quaint deuices to try virginity with; as if a thred measured from the tip of the nose along the fore-heade to the end of the sagitall suture or 
An od trick to try amayd.  seame, will also fitly encompasse the womans necke,) for when the yarde entreth into the necke of the wombe, then the fleshy membranes which are among the caruncles, are torn 
The true cause of pain in deuirgination.  vp euen to their rootes, and the Caruncles are so fretted and streatched, that a man would beleeue they were neuer ioyned; some notable vessels are opened, and in the breaking is payne, which in young wenches is more because of the drynesse of the part, but the effusion of blood the lesse; because of the smalnesse of the vessels. In elder maids whose courses haue now some good time flowed there is lesse paine, because of the moysture and laxitie of the Hymen; but the effusion of blood is greater because the vessels are grown larger and the blood gotten a fuller course vnto them. For all virgins although they be neuer so mellow; 
Why some haue no paine in deuirgination.  yet haue their first coition painfull, but some more some lesse; vnlesse they then are menstruous, or haue beene within three or foure dayes; for then they admit the yard with lesse trouble, because of the relaxation and lubricity of these moyst partes whereupon the Membranes are dilated with little or no paine. And this hath beene the cause why some 
A good caueate for Mothers concerning their daughters honor.  men haue vnworthily suspected the vncorrupted chastity of their wiues. Wherefore it were fit the mothers or women friends of such Virgins should haue care of their Honor, by giuing warning to their Bride-groomes of their Brides purgations, if at that time they be vpon them; and very often they are when the Brides are growne women and well complexioned, because the ioy and priuate pleasures of affianced young folkes, as also their dancings and frolicke diet with such like, do often by moouing the body accelerate and hasten such purgations, and being come do cause them longer to endure.  
The torne Membranes of this production in their vtmost compasse indented, do somtimes hang downe on either hand in the sides by the cleft like vnto values( for so Pinaeus calleth them) or leafe-gates, which are much lesse then the Nymphae, but of the same figure & vse. These are not lost, before a woman hath borne a childe, but are reserued being returned vpward to the orifice of the necke of the wombe, nowe made much wider then in the time of virginity: but in those that haue often brought forth large limb'd Infants, or whose wombe hath falne downward and so the necke of it being inuerted or turned, they are lesned and contracted or drawne vpward toward the necke and so perfectly vnited to the caruncles to which they adhere, that they seeme to be vtterly perished.  
But the foure Caruncles which are like Mirtle berries, whereof one and the foremost is placed at the orifice of the bladder, another and the hindmost with the two laterall scituated 
The Caruncles. Their scituation. Their Vse.  not ouer-thwart but length-wise; these I say doe remaine as long as the woman liueth, though she liue verie long. Their vse, as also that of the Membranes when they are reflected vpward, is immediately to stop the orifice of the necke of the womb as a fleshy production doth stop the necke of the bladder; they hinder also the ingresse of cold aire, dust, or any other such like( in which seruice they are assisted also by the Nymphae, and the wings of the lap or priuity) and in coition doe aggrate the member of the man; for when they are heated and grow turgid with spirits, they so constringe the yard especially in yong women, as if it were closely pressed in the hand.  
Next to these is the rugous or plighted chinke or rifte, which is placed as it were in the trench of the great Cleft, and like a narrow valley leadeth the way by a round cauitie into 
The outward Orifice of the necke.  the inward parts, and maketh the outward orifice of the necke. Galen in his 15. Booke De vsu partium, and the third chapter, calleth it 〈◇〉, or the outward orifice of the neck of the wombe, by which the yard is receyued to prouoke the parts of the woman to yeelde theyr seede, and to infuse his owne. This orifice sometimes by a disease called Rhagades, 
The diseases of it.  otherwhile by a great cicatrice or scar bred after som other exulceration, is so streightned, that such women can no more admit their husbands; sometimes through a notable exulceration after a hard trauell it groweth cleane vp, which once we obserued( saith Bauhine) in an honorable Matron in whom there appeared not any signe of an entrance, but after a whole yeare keeping her owne counsell her courses being all that while stopped, shee was 
A Story out of Bauhine.  tormented with many convulsiue fittes of the Mother, and so perished through her owne default.  
Heere is also to be obserued a skinny Ligament in the backe part of the outwarde Orifice of the necke, which in virgins is straighter and is couered by the trench, but in those 
The skinny ligament  that haue brought foorth it is much more laxe and loose; so that the loosenesse of this Ligament or skinny tye is the onely signe that a woman hath borne a childe; for it is so alwayes in such and in none but such, vnlesse in others the wombe do, or haue falne downe; to this signe there happeneth sometimes another, and that is the ruggednesse or small 
A pretty obseruation concerning this Ligamens.  plightes of the skinne of the lower bellie, which being strained in trauell remaineth euer after rugous.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Lap or Priuities.  
_THE last dissimilar part of the wombe, Galen in his 14. and 15. Bookes De vsu partium, the sixt and the third Chapters, calleth 〈◇〉, in Latine 
The names of the lap.  pudendum muliebre, that is, the womans modesty,[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. l. fig 4. neere n o] of some Vulua, as it were vallis a valley, or Valua a Flood-gate, because it is diuided into two parts by a cleft, which like Flood gates or leafedoores are easily opened or shut as neede is. We will call it the lappe. It is that part into 
The position of it.  which the necke of the wombe determineth, and is seated outwardly at the forepart of the share bone, and is as it were a skinny addition of the necke, as Galen speaketh in his foureteenth Booke de vsu partium, and the sixt Chapter, aunswering to the prepuce or foreskin of a man. In this there are many parts to be discerned without dissection. Of which some are altogether outward, offering themselues before the wings be displayed; others inward, 
The parts of it.  not appearing before the wings be opened and seperated on both sides. Of which we will first entreate.  
There is therefore a large trench, in which are the passage of the necke[ Table. 9. fig, 2. m. fig. 3. c. fig. 4. L] of the bladder with a Caruncle, the Nymphae and the Clitoris. For, although 
The inner partes of the Lap.  the Hymen and his membranes and caruncles with the slitte and the orifice of the necke may also be seene without dissection, yet because they pertaine not to the lap but to the necke of the wombe, we haue described them already.  
At the end therefore of the necke of the wombe, immedietely vnder the share-bone, lightly aboue the lap itself, on the fore-part there is an entrance or passage which commeth 
The passage of the vrine.  out of the implantation of the necke of the bladder, by which the vrine is let out into the vtmost part of the necke of the wombe, or rather into the lap itselfe, euen as in a man the vrine floweth out of the passage or channell which is appointed for the seede. In the compasse of this there is a caruncle[ Tab. 9. fig. 4. p] or a little fleshy hillocke by which this 
The caruncle belonging to it.  passage is couered, that after the vrine is let go, the outward aire shoulde not get into the bladder through his necke which is short and wide; which caruncle also as it regardeth the trench, strengthneth the leafe-gate or locke of virginity.  
The Nymphae, so called by Galen, of others 〈◇〉, because they first admit the man, of the Latines Alae the wings, of others skinny caruncles, are two productions on 
The Nymphae.  eitherside one in the beginning almost ioyned; which arise from a welt or gard of the skin of the substance of a Ligament in the backe part of the orifice of the necke, and lying hid 
Their scituation.  betweene the two lips of the lap and almost alwayes touching one another, do ascend to the end of the commissure or meeting of the share-bones. These being ioyned doe make a fleshy eminence, and couering the Clitoris with a fore-skin ascend with a manifest rising Line to the top of the great cleft: they are longer from their middle outward and do hang sometimes a little foorth through the great cleft, without the lips of the lap, and that with a blunt angle, being otherwise of a triangular figure.  
They are very like in colour and shape to that part of a Cockes combe which hangs vnder his throate. Their substance is partly fleshy, partly membranous, soft and fungous, & they are inuested with a thin coate. Somtimes, they grow to so great a length on one side, 
Their substance.  more rarely on both; and not so ordinarily in maidens as in women,( and then it is called by Ruffus 〈◇〉,) what through the affluence of humours, what through attrectation, that for the trouble and shame( being in many Countryes a notable argument of petulancie & immodesty) they neede the Chirurgions helpe to cut them off( although they bleed much and are hardly cicatrised) especially among the Egyptians, amongest whom this accident 
The Egyptian women lasciuious. ( as Galen saith) is very familiar. Wherefore in Maidens before they grow too long they cut them off, and before they marry.  
These Nymphae, beside the great pleasure women haue by them in coition, doe also defend the wombe from outward iniuries, being of that vse to the orifice of the necke which the foreskin is to the yard; for they do not onely shut the cleft as it were with lips, but also 
Their vses.  immediately defend the orifice as well of the bladder as the wombe from colde aire and other hurtfull things. Moreouer, they leade the vrine through a long passage as it were betweene two walles, receyuing it from the bottome of the cleft as out of a Tunnell: from 
Why they are called Nymphae.  whence it is that it runneth foorth in a broad streame with a hissing noise, not wetting the wings of the lap in the passage; and from these vses they haue their name of Nymphes, because they ioyne vnto the passage of the vrine, and the necke of the wombe; out of which, as out offountaines( and the Nymphes are sayed to bee presedents or dieties of the fountaines) water and humours doe issue: and beside, because in them are the veneriall delicacies, for the Poets say that the Nymphes lasciuiously seeke out the Satyres among the woods and forrests.  
Clitoris in Greeke 〈◇〉 commeth of an obscoene worde signifying contrectation but properly it is called the womans yard. It is a small production in the vpper, forward[ table 9. figure 4. m] and middle fatty part of the share, in the top of the greater cleft where the Nymphes doe meet, and is answerable to the member of the man, from which it differs 
How it differeth from a mans.  in the length, the common passage and the want of one paire of muscles; but agrees in scituation, substance and composition. For it consisteth of two neruous bodies( which Laurentius cals ligaments) round without, hard and thick; but within spongy and porous, that 
The substāce.  vvhen the spirits come into it, it may bee distended and grow loose when they are dissipated, these bodies, as those of the mans yarde, are full of blacke, thicke and sprightfull blood.  
Their originall is from both the share-bones where they ioyne with the bone of the hip, and are seuered at first, but after they are gone a little foreward they are vnited about the 
The originall of it.  coniunction of the sharebones, and so make the body of a yard harde and solide, and haue a termination like the nut, to which on either side is adioyned a small muscle.  
The head is properly called Tentigo by Iuuenall, which is couered with a fine skin made of the coniunction of the Nymphae as it were with a fore-skinne. It hath an entrance but no through passage; there are vesselles also running along the backe of it as in a mans yarde; and although for the most part it hath but a small production hidden vnder the Nymphes and hard to be felt but with curiosity, yet sometimes it groweth to such a length that it hangeth without the cleft like a mans member, especially when it is fretted with the touch of the cloaths, and so strutteth and groweth to a rigiditie as doth the yarde of a man. And this part it is which those wicked women doe abuse called Tribades( often mentioned 

Tribades odiosae feminae.  
Leo Africanus, Coelius Aurelianius.   by many authours, and in some states worthily punished) to their mutuall and vnnaturall lustes.  
The vse of this part is the same with the bridle of the yard; for because the Testicles of the 
The vse of it.  women are far distant from the yard of the man, the imagination is carried to the spermaticall vessels by the motion and attrition of this Clitoris, together with the lower ligatures of the wombe, whose originall toucheth, cleaueth and is tyed to the leading vesselles of the seede, and so the profusion of their seede is stirred vp for generation, for which businesse it was not necessary it should be large: wherefore although by this passage their seede is not eiaculated, yet by the attrition of it their imagination is wrought to call that out that lyeth deeply hidden in the body, and hence it is called aestrum Veneris & dulcedo amoris; for in it with the ligaments inserted into it is, the especiall seate of delight in their veneral imbracements, as Columbus imagineth he first discouered.  
For Nature who wisheth as Galen sayth in his 14. Booke de vsu partium and the second Chapter, that if it might be, her worke might be immortal, and falling from that hope because 
The wise disposition of nature.  of the contrariety of the matter, hath giuen to all creatures both the instruments of conception, and hath also infused into them a straunge and violent kinde of delight, that none of the kindes of the creatures should perish but remayne euer after a sort immortall. And truely it was very necessary that there should be a kinde of pleasant force or violence in the Nature of mankinde to transport him out of himselfe or beside himselfe as it were, in the act of generation; to which otherwise being maister of himselfe he would hardly haue beene drawne; which extasie,( for it is called a little Epilepsie or falling sicknes) is caused by the touch of the seede vpon the neruous and quicke sensed parts as it passeth by them.  
To draw to an end. Those parts which appeare outwardly are the great slit, the lips and the groyne or leske for as soon as the lippes are diuided, there appeare three clefts or flits; 
The outward parts of the lip.  one and the greatest which is the first and vtmost, and two lesser and collaterall betweene the Nymphes, the vse of which is to close vp the parts more safely. But that cleft which is called 〈◇〉 or the great and long fissure is made by the lips and bendeth backward to the 
〈◇〉 the great fissure.  Fundament from the share-bones downward toward the cleft of the buttocks: for it ought to bee longer then the orifice, least the Infant should bee hindered in the birth, because the skinne is much thicker and not so yeelding as are membranes: and the more it tendeth backward the deeper and broader it is, and so degenerateth into a trench or valley, representing the figure of a boate, and endeth in the welt of the orifice of the necke. In the middle of this trench is placed the orifice of the necke, and this is the fissure that admitteth the yard, and is a part thought too obscoene to look vpon; which is the reason sayth Pliny that 
The reasons why the carcasses of women floate with their faces downeward.  the carcasses of women doe floate in the water with their faces downeward, contrary to mens which swimme vpward; euen Nature itselfe yeelding to modesty; although the cause also may bee referred to the largenes of a womans belly, as also because the water getting into the lap filleth the belly, and for that the waight of her breasts turneth her body downwards.  
The two lips which Hippocrates in his Booke de locis in homine calleth 〈◇〉 follow next, 
The lips.  which make the fissure of the outward orifice; they are long, soft and of a skinny substance and fleshy withall, after a sort glandulous and spongy, and vnder them haue a hard fat and are as it were callous. They are couered with a thin skinne, and are in married women more smooth and depressed.  
The extuberations of these winges are called hillocks or mountainets ( Vesalius calleth these extuberations alae or wings, the other labra or lippes) and the mount of Venus: these 
Monsvencris the mountain o● Venus. Pubes, pecten, or the bush. Their vse.  in mature or ripe women are adorned with haire, the bush of which is called pubes or pecten. These hayres are in women more curled then in Virgins, and do reach as a couering vnto the lippes; the lippes were made for ornament and for defence that the womb might be kept from refrigeration.  
But if in the demonstration of the wombe we will begin at the externall parts, wee must proceede by the guide of a vterine probe, and then the partes will thus arise. First the region 
Another way of demonstration of the parts and apputtenances of the wombe.  of the share-bones, then the bush, the hillocks whereon the hayre growes, the two lips, the great outward fissure betweene the lippes making the outward orifice, the trench like aboate, the two smaller clefts or fissures between the Nymphes, the two Nymphes themselues; the Tentigo or head or nutte of the Clitoris couered by the Nymphes as by a foreskin and the impassable passage of it; the two bodies of the Clitoris and two muscles belonging to it; the passage of the necke of the bladder with the Caruncle or fleshy hillocke which couers it; the skinny ligament which wee sayed was a signe whether a woman had beene a mother or no; the rugous fissure or cleft making the orifice of the necke; the foure Caruncles and the foure membranes between them making the Hymen in virgins, the neck or canale of the wombe, all these may be seene without incision, the rest must be found by incision.  
And thus much of the parts of generation belonging to women: now the discourse of Hermophradites or of Androgunes that are both man and woman, wee will referre to another place.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the wombe of a Sheepe and a Dogge.  
_NOw because in the want of woemens bodies it is an ordinary custome for 
Why we haue added this chapter.  Anatomists to exercise themselues and their auditors in the dissection of the wombes of other creatures; therefore I will shortly exhibite vnto you the wombe of an Ewe and a Bitch, as wel by way of history as also by a Table carued onely for that purpose.  
In an Ewe therefore the necke of the wombe reacheth from the priuity 
The womb of an Ewe or a Cow.  to the top of the Holy-bone, where beginneth the bottom of the wombe spreading itselfe a litle in the region of the Loynes. This womb is a long body pressed on either side, but toward 
The figure.  the end it parteth into two processes looking vpward and bending outvvard very like the hornes of a Ramme.[ table 14. figure 2. P] The outvvard superficies of the bottome, 
Connexion.  after the manner of membranes is glib and smooth; and is tyed to the neighbour parts( euen as the necke is tyed) by membranous ligaments arising from the Peritanaeum, through vvhich there are also vesselles disseminated vvhich are sent vnto the vvombe. The processes of the bottome vvhere they are diuided asunder on the insides are also smooth, and doe grovve to many particles of the belly, but their outsides are continued vvith the bottome of the vvombe itself by certaine membranes.  
The bottome also hath tvvo cauities[ table 14. figure 2. D] vvhich meete at his orifice[ table 14. fig. 2. C] that reacheth vnto the necke. The cauities or bosomes are somevvhat 
The bottome.  yellovvish, and haue in them many risings or svvellings like little knobbes, vvhich after the creature hath conceiued, open themselues and make dennes or cauities. If they breed one Lambe, then onely one of the cauities is dilated; if tvvo, then in each cauity is one contayned. 
Membranes.  The membranes of this vvombe are tvvo, one externall[ table 14. figure 2. FF] from 
Figure 1.  

A. The spermaticall Veine and artery.  
B. Portions of the spermatical vessels reaching branches to the vpper part of the wombe.  
C. The Testicle and the Leading vessell.  
D D A Membrane tying the womb to the Peritonaeum.  
E. A veine and an artery distributed to the necke of the wombe, and the lower part of the bottome.  
F. The right side of the bottome of the wombe, couered with the outward coat.  
G. the left side of the bottom of the womb halfe of it freed from the cutward coate.  
G. H. The outward couering at G the inward H.  
I. The leste leading vessel separated from the testicle.  
K. The place where is the orifice of the bottome of the wombe.  
L. The necke of the womb, the left side is vncouered from the outward coate.  
M. A part of the necke of the bladder.  
N. The skin left at the priuity.   
Figure 2.  
Figure 2.  

A. the left testicle.  
B. The vessell leading the seede into the hornes of the wombe.  
C. The place of the orifice of the bottome of the wombe.  
D. The place where the wombe is diuided into two parts.  
E. The two parts of the womb resembling the hornes of a Ram.  
F F, G. the outward coate of the wombe at F, the inner at G.  
H. A portion of a Membrane, ioyning the womb to the Peritonoeum.   
Figure 3.  
Figure 3  

AA The outward coueriog of the Calfe.  
BB. The places where the outward couerings is tied to the wombe, & admitteth the vessels, where also there is a fleshie substance, which is likened to the flesh of the Spleene.  
C C. The meeting of the veines and arteries through this couering, for the making of the vmbilicall vessels.  
D The place where those veynes and arteries dispersed through this couering, are gathred together a litle before they make the vmbilicall vessels.   
The fourth Figure.  
Figure 4  

A A. A fleshy substance growing vppon the outside of the vtter couering of the Calfe, which compasseth the couering ouerthwart, otherwise then in men.  
B B. That part of the outwarde couering which is not ouer growne with that fleshy substance marked with A A. but is branched with veines and arteries.   
The first figure sheweth the womb of a dog, because those may more plentifully be gotten for dissection.  
The second figure sheweth the womb of a Cow( altogether like that of a Sheepe, sauing that it is bigger, that the hornes might better appeare, because it is fit that yong Anatomists should excercise themselues in the dissection of the wombes of sheepe.  
The third sheweth the after birth or clensing of a Cow.  
The 4. hath another representation of the clensing of a Cow.  
TABVLA XIIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
III.  
IV.  the Peritonaeum, from which the Ligaments do proceede, and wherein the vessels are leade vnto the wombe. The other internall[ Tab. 14, fig. 2. G] and proper, which compasseth the wombe round about. 
Vessels.   
Betweene these coates are dispersed an infinite number of Veines and Arteries, strangely implicated or folded together; and these implications are heere more manifest by much then they are in the wombe of a woman, although the coates of her wombe be rent assunder. About these vessels there appeare many round bodies like little knubs, which in women 
Acetabula.  are called Acetabula,[ Tab. 9. fig. 4. about B and D] very small they are, and nothing else but the mouth of the vessels.  
Their Testicles are scituated at the sides of the wombe[ Tab. 14. fig. 2, A] vnder the tops of the hornes. The vessels which attaine vnto the Testicles and the womb are the very same 
The Testicles  with those of a woman both in their originall and their passage, excepting those which leade the seede into the cauity of the womb, whose implantation in these creatures is much more manifest, so that you may easily enter a Probe into them. Such also and after the same maner is the fashion of the wombes of a Goate and of a Cow.  
But the wombe of a Bitch,[ Tab. 14. fig. 1] hath a necke[ Tab. 14, fig. 1, L] reaching but to the beginning of the Holy-bone. The bottom is presently diuided into two parts, which 
The womb of a Bitch.  by degrees determine in a sharpe end, and do not turne round like the hornes of the womb of an Ewe or Cow, but run out straight. And because these creatures beare many whelps at once in particular parts of their wombe, these parts are distinctly implicated or rowled vp like the guts.  
These two parts of the bottome[ Tab. 14, fig. 1. F G] do end in a common orifice,[ Table 14, fig. 1, K] 
The two parts of the bottom  which reacheth vnto the vpper part or seate of the necke. It hath a double coat, one outward from the Peritonaeum,[ Tab. 14. fig. 1, DD] from which it hath his processes: the other inward.  
The Testicles[ Tab. 14. fig. 1, C] are placed at the tops of the two parts of the bottome. The vessels are like those of an Ewe before described, but they haue no such knobbes in the 
The Testicles Vessels.  cauities, as we spake of in the former.  
It is a strange thing which Gesner and others doe write, that in a Paria a Prouince not farre from the Region of the Patagons in the West India, there is a creature found which our Country-men cal a half Fox. For it hath two wombs, one inward in which they generate 
A strange creature in the West India.  as other creatures do, the other outward scituated vnder the former, wherin they cherish and defend their Cubbes, and out of which they seldome take them but vvhen they would sucke. Heere we will put an end to our History of the parts of Generation, & come to the Controuersies.    

¶ A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies of the fourth Booke.  

QVESTION I. Whether the Testicles be principall parts or no.  
_ARistotle & the Peripatetick Philosophers do admit but one principall or chiefe part in the body of man which is the Heart; but 
The Peripatetians.  their opinion is long agoe hissed out of the Physitians Schoole. Many do accuse Galen of leuity & inconstancy in assigning the 
Galen accused but redeemed  number of the principall parts. For sometimes he accounteth the Testicles among the principall parrs, sometimes he excludeth 
Lib. de sem. de arte porua. & de vsa part. &. de placitis.  them, but it will not be hard for vs to reconcile Galen vnto himselfe.  
The Testicles, because they are the chiefe Organes or instruments of procreation & by procreation mankind is preserued, 
The testicles after the temper, habit, and maners.  are therefore to be accounted principall parts; and haply so much are they more excellent then the heart, by how much the species or whole kinde is more noble then one indiuiduum or particular of the kinde. Surely the power and vertue of the Testicles is very great & incredible, not onely to make the body fruitefull, but also in the alteration of the temperament, the habit, the proper substance of the body, yea & of the maners themselues. In these doth Galen place, beside that in the heart, another hearth as it were of the inbred heate, and 
Why the Egiptians painted Typhō gelt  these are the houshould Goddes which doe blesse and warme the whole bodye. Hence it is, that the Egyptians in their Hieroglyphickes doe paint Typhon gelt, signifying thereby his power and soueraignty to be abolished and decayed.  
That they change the temperament it is manifest, because the testicles being taken away or but fretted, contorted, or writhen, yea refrigerated, or hauing suffred convulsion, there 
The temperament.  presently followeth a change from a hot to a cold temper, and in olde time it was accounted a singular remedy for the leprosie to cut off the Testicles, and to this day we vse to apply Epithymations to them, and finde that they doe wonderfully corroborate and strengthen the whole frame of the body. And it is ordinary for women( and that not vvithout reason) to presume much vppon the death or recouery of children by the firmenesse or 
Prognostication by the Testicles.  loosenesse of these parts; yea Hippocrates himselfe sayth in his Prognostickes, That the Convultion of the testicles and priuy parts do threaten danger of death.  
We see also that in gelt men called Eunuches, there is a change of the whole habite and proper substance of the body, for they become fatter and smooth without haires; the flower also of their bloode decayeth and their vessels or veines loose their bredth and capacity, 
The habite.  and all vigour of lust and desire of ioylity is extinguished; beside the flesh of such creatures looseth the former tast and smell; for whereas before it breathed out a certaine vnsauoury and rammish sowrenesse, after they are gelt it becommeth sweete and pleasant to the raste.  
Concerning the chaunge of their Manners, that is notable of Auenzoar the Arabian, where he saith, Eunuchs haue a shrill and piping voice, euill manners, and worse dispositions, 
The manners.  neyther shall you lightly finde one of them of a good inclination, or not broken witted. Claudian against Eut● opius inueyeth thus against Eunuchs.  
Adde quod Eunuchus nulla pietate mouetur,  
Nec Generi natisque Cauet.  
The Eunuch is deuoide of pietie,  
Both to his Parents and his Progenie.  
Albeit in the seauenth Booke of the Institution of Cyrus it is recorded, that this kind of men is quiet, diligent, and especially faithfull: but we may answere that they are quiet because they are dull and blockish; diligent because they are seruile and base minded; faithfull because 
Why gelt mē are so chāged  they haue so much distrust of themselues. But howsoeuer, whence comes trow we this so sudden alteration of the temper, habit and maners? Aristotle thinketh that the heart is stretched by the testicles, and therefore relaxed when they are cut away, and so a common principle affected, because the strength of the Nerues is relaxed or loosened in their 
Aristotles prety conceits.  originall or beginning. Euen as wee see it commeth to passe in instruments, which haue a more acute or trebble sound when the strings are stretched, and a lower and more remisse when they are loosened; right so it is in Eunuchs, the Testicles being taken away and so the 
Comparison.  heart affected, the voice and very forme becommeth womanish; for a principle though it be small in quantity, yet it is great in power and efficacy.  
Against this opinion of Aristotle Galen disputeth in his first Booke de Semine, and we in our next exercise shall prosecute it at large; for neither doeth the strength of the heart depend 
Confuted by Galen.  vpon the contention or stretching of the Testicles but vpon his owne proper temper; neither if the heart needed any such tension or stretching, were the testicles pinnes fitting for the same. The Common opinion is, that all the other parts are heated by the repercussion of heate from the Testicles vnto them; but because their substance is soft and rare, & reflection or repercussion is vsually( especially if it be any thing strong) from thight and hollow 
The common opinion.  bodies, I imagine that their smal and slender reflection can be no cause or author of so powerfull a heat as the parts do stand in need of. Galen referres this alteration to the natiue and ingenit temper of the testicles themselues; for in the place last before named he sayth, that in them there is another fountaine or furnace rather of heate, euen as there is in the 
Galens opinion  heart. But vnder correction it seemeth to me more reasonable, that the heate of the Testicles is not so much from their natiue and in-bred temper, because they are without bloode & like vnto Glandules, as by reason of the seed conteyned in them; for where that is it heateth 
Not altogether allowed.  the whole body, distendeth yea enrageth it. For Hippocrates saith, that seede is of Nature fiery and aery; by the aery part it distendeth the whole frame of Nature, and by the fiery setteth it on worke, or a gog as we say, transporting not the body onely, but the minde 
Comparison,  also from reason to rage. For as the least part of mortall poyson in a moment changeth the whole body; so is it in seede, whose quality is so actiue and operatiue, that it darteth forth as it were by irradiation his beames through the whole body. And thence it is, that we see gelt creatures are not so stirring as others, whose many motions do stirre vp and so encrease their heate.  
It may be obiected that Galen in another placce attributeth onely to the Liuer and the Heart power to change the whole body, not to the Testicles. For thus hee sayeth: Those 
Galen redeemed.  that haue hot Liuers haue also all their habit hot, vnlesse there bee some obstacle in the heart: on the other side they that haue hot heartes haue also hot habites, vnlesse the Liuer doe vehemently oppose against it: but of the Testicles not one worde or any mention at all; these men may thus be satisfied.  
There is a twofold influence of heate, one immediate, another mediate. The immediate 
A twofold influence of heat.  influence of the twofold spirits and bloud and with them of the heate, is from the heart and liuer by the veines and arteries. The mediate is from the Testicles into the whole body indeede, but by the mediation of the Heart and the Liuer and the common vessels. For the Testicles haue no peculiar vessels by which they might deriue their influence into the whole body; but they impart this power and faculty of alteration, to the heart by the arteries, to the Liuer by the veines; from which it is againe reinfused into the particular members.  
It will be obiected that this faculty of alteration proceeding from the Testicles is infused 
Obiection.  not bodily but onely operatiuely; what neede then hath it of a conduite or pipe either arteriall or venall? But I answere, that faculties doe not vse to bee infused or transfused but 
How faculties are infused.  by the mediation of spirits, which although they wander and gad vp and downe the body; yet notwithstanding they stand neede of peculiar receptacles to containe them in, such as are the veines, nerues, and arteries. So poyson although in the specificall or essentiall form it opposeth the heart, yet is it carried in a moment of time and matter to the heart through 
Comparison.  the arteries and spirits wherein the faculties haue their consistence.  
Such therefore is the excellency, such the admirable faculty of the Testicles, as well in procreation of seede as we shall declare in our next exercise, as also in the alteration of the temper, habit and manners; and in that respect are they called by Galen, principall parts.  
But their want not aduersaries who would thrust them out of this ranke of dignity, although 
Obiections.  their arguments are very weake. First they say Galen in two places defineth a principall 
What a principal part is according to Galen.  part, in the first by Necessity, in the second by communication of a faculty or some common matter. But for the Testicles there is no necessity of them, for Eunuches liue without them, neither is there any faculty proceeding from them; for the animall faculty proceedeth from the braine, the vitall from the heart, the naturall( to which the faculty of procreation is referred) issueth from the Liuer the chiefe of all naturall partes. Moreouer from the Testicles there is no matter communicated to the whole body, for they haue no spirits proper vnto them, no vesselles which runne through the body by which it may bee conuayed; but these are trifles.  
For we confesse the Testicles are not necessary for conseruation of the life of the indiuiduum 
Answered.  or singular man, but for propagation of the whole species, or of mankinde they are of absolute necessity. Wherefore they are principall parts in respect of mankinde, not in respect of this or that particular man. For the propagation of mankinde is onely accomplished by procreation: procreation is not without seede, seed is only concocted and perfected by the Testicles, to which the spermaticke vessels doe serue as well for preparation as for conduction and leading of the seede.  
But me thinkes I heare the Peripatetians obstreperously deny the Testicles this power of 
Obiections of the preparation of seed.  procreation of seede, against whome we will in the next place bend our forces.   

QVEST. II. Of the vse of the Testicles.  
_COncerning the vse of the Testicles there are diuerse opinions, and those farre differing one from another. Aristotle denyeth them the vertue of making seed 
Aristotles opinion. His arguments. 3. Hist. Anim. 1. & 1. de gener. Anim. 4.  and attributeth it onely to the spermaticall vesselles, because many creatures want Testicles, as Fishes and Serpents, which yet enioy a coition, and doe auoyde perfect seede able to propagate their species or kinde. That a Bull or Horse hauing lost their Testicles may yet presently couple with their Females and procreate; and finally because they accomplish or fill vp no part of the passages; that is, haue no society with the spermaticke vessels. He taketh knowledge of other vses of these Testicles which he maketh to be threefold.  
The first, that they establish the motion of the seede, and hanging at the vessels inuerted 
His threefold vse of them.  or writhen with a wonderfull art, doe hold them together and make them more patent and ample,( as we see weauers hang waights at the strings of their warp) and therfore when 
Comparison.  they are cut off, the spermaticall vessels are contracted and their passages occluded or shut vp so as the seede can haue no passage.  
The second vse of the Testicles is for the strength of the heart, for by these as by certain waights the heart is streatched, and thence proceedeth the change of the Temperament and whole habit when they are taken away, the bridle being loosed and the strength of the heart so as it were dissolued or resolued.  
The third vse I gather out of his Problemes; that by their waight and poyse they should helpe the tension or erection of the yarde. And this is Aristotles opinion of the vse of the Testicles, which we will now bring to the touch-stone to see how it will hold.  
For the first vse he may well be confuted by himselfe: the vessels of seede sayeth he are writhen and intorted with wonderfull art, and implicated or foulded vp in many boughts and circumuolutions; the waight therefore of the Testicles should bee so far from dilating 
Confutation of the first vse  their passages, that if they did streatch them they would rather draw them out in length euen vnto the feete. But the truth is, that these vessels are so firmely tyed to the neighbour parts that they admit no streatching or tension at all, or if they should be streatched they would not onely not be dilated, but they would become narrow and straighter; for vesselles when they are streatched out in length cling closer together.  
But what vse is there of any such sensible cauity or amplitude for the excretion or emission of? Is there not seede contayned in the substance of the Testicles and of the Epididymis 
No vse of any sensible cauity for the seed  in which there is no sensible or conspicuous cauity? and is not the seede led along by the leading vesselles to the smal bladders and Prostatae, and there kept in readines for effusion without any cauity? The seed itselfe is houen with aboundance of spirits which maketh it to passe orgasmo, that is, with a kinde of impetuous violence. If it be obiected that seede is thicker then arteriall blood which yet hath need of a conspicuous canell or pipe to passe 
Obiection.  in as are the arteries. I answere, that the arteriall bloud is a plentifull streame ordayned 
Solution.  to water the whole body with a continuall and aboundant influxion, which could not bee without very patent and open passages; so Nature formed the arterial veine large and ample, that it might be sufficient to nourish the Lungs, a rare body and in continuall motion. But the seede falleth by degrees and insinuateth itself rather then floweth into the spermaticke vessels, and is first prepared in their circumuolutions and after is deriued through small pores and hayrie passages into the substance of the Testicles, and is thence driuen into the eiaculatorie vessels which are indeed porous as an Indian Reede, but haue no sensible cauity at all. There is not therefore required any such rectitude and amplitude in the vessels or substances conteyning the seed as Aristotle dreamt of, either for the concoction or eiaculation and auoyding thereof.  
But let vs presse Aristotle a little farther: although the Testicles doe hang in their due place, yet doe those men become lesse apt for generation who haue their Testicles bruised 
Arguments against Aristotle  or worne and wasted or refrigerated, so that euen thence it is manifest that their chiefe vse is not to streatch or dilate the vessels: besides many creatures haue their Testicles within tyed to their backs, and yet are as fruitfull as any other; as some Tuppes or Rammes called Riggall Tuppes, and all female creatures who are very prolifique though their Testicles hang not at all. Furthermore if the Testicles were made as waights to keepe the passages open; then in the time of coition or generation and eiaculation of seede the Testicles should descend downeward that the passages might bee made more patent and open: but we finde the quite contrary to be true, that in coition the Testicles are contracted & drawn vpward, not let lower downward. Aristotles nice conceited vse therefore is but supposititious and not the true vse of Nature. Auerrhois being not able to auoyde the strength of 
Auerhois forsaketh Aristotle.  these reasons, departeth from Aristotles opinion to whome he was so much addicted, and yeeldeth that the Testicles haue power to procreate seede.  
The second vse ascribed to the Testicles by Aristotle, is for the tension and strengthning 
Confutation of the 2. vse.  of the heart, to which we answere: that they bee of small waight, neither doe they hang at the heart vnlesse it be by arteries, and those not right but oblique, and yet those adhearing and tyed to the neighbour partes so as the Testicles cannot by them streatch or bend the heart: againe if this were a vse truely assigned, then their hearts and vigor should be strongest whose Testicles are more relaxed and hung lower: but women finde these much more impotent, and account them lazie loyned fellowes: adde hereto, that if the heart needed any tension, it might better haue beene tentered, and with shorter stringes to the spine of the back; also the Liuer is very neare and a waighty body, and tyed to the heart by the hollow vein, & therfore certainly stratcheth it more then the smal bodies of the Testicles placed so farre off and so slenderly depending vpon it, and that by strings fastned to the backe by the way: moreouer the vessels which leade to the Testicles are diuersly contorted, and if they weere streatched out woulde reach vnto a mans feete almost; againe, all creatures whose Testicles are hidde within should be faynt and crauen-hearted. Finally if this were true, the heart which is a most noble part should haue his strength not of himselfe but by dependencie from elsewhere, which were a great absurditie in reason. Wherfore we think this opinion of Aristotles to bee but a quaint deuice, worthy of the wit but not of the iudgement of so great a Phylosopher.  
As for the last vse assigned by Aristotle which is the erection of the yarde, that may be 
Confutation of the last vse.  consuted by that we haue sayd before to be the true cause of erection, and that is partly Natural, to wit, an aboundance of winde and spirits filling the hollow Nerues; and partly Animall, from an appetite mouing the muscles which are appoynted to make this erection: We will therefore bid adue vnto Aristotle his faigned conceite, and to them also who deny 
Obiection.  vnto the Testicles the power of procreating seede: for whereas they obiect that there are many creatures which haue no Testicles and yet doe abound with seede prolifique or fitte 
Solution.  for generation: wee answere that such Creatures are imperfect and their generation not perfect but lame.  
To conclude, that a new gelt Horse or Bull can copulate and ingender seemeth hard to be beleeued, because of the extreame payne that must necessarily follow the violation 
How a new gelt horse may get a soale.  of parts of so exquisite sence; but if it do so come to passe, then is it by that seede that is already laboured by the ingenit power of the Testicles before they were separated and reserued for present vse in the Parastatae and Prostatae; and not by any seed concocted after the taking away of the Testicles.   

QVEST. III. The opinion of Phisitians concerning the true vse of the Testicles.  
_THere are some not vnlearned Physitians, who will not allow to the Testicles 
The opinion of some Physitians.  any power of procreating seede, but reserue that onely for the preparing vessels and the Epididymis; because there appeare no passages by which the seed should passe from the bunching implications of the vesselles into the Testicles: 
Their reasons  againe the Epididymis and the preparing and leading vessels may be separated without rending from the Testicle: adde hereto that the Epididymis is often full of 
What vse they assigne to the testicles  white seede, which is rarely found in the Testicle itselfe. They therefore say that the Testicles were made to sucke away the serous humour and excrement of the seed and to conteyne it, for which reason their substance is glandulous.  
Now Hippocrates assigneth this vse to Glandules to receiue the excrements of the parts, and therefore the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer, haue their seuerall Emunctories. But 
Answere to them.  for my owne part I see no reason why the excrement of the seede should rather passe into the substance of the Testicles then the seed itselfe, which is so houen and barmed as it were with spirits: besides, the body of the Testicles is rare and spongy, & hath many small pipes inserted into them out of the vessels; wherefore through these small and almost insensible passages, they sucke the seede by an ingenit faculty of their own; for if Aliment be brought vnto them to nourish them, and yet there are no conspicuous vessels disseminated through their substance, I see no reason but seed also may without manifest vessels be conueyed into them. Their bodies are indeed glandulous or resembling Glandules, but very Glandules 
Another opinion  they are not, as is sayed already. The third opinion concerning the vse of the Testicles is theirs who think, that they are ordayned for Pillowes to safe-gard and strengthen the vessels. For say they where there is any notable partition of vesselles in the whole body, there Nature hath appoynted glandules as pillowes to secure them. So is the Pancreas placed vnder the diuision of the vena porta or Gate veine, many glandules are in the diuarications of the veines of the mesentery. The Thymus vnder the subclauian diuision, and vnder the axillary and crurall veines notorious glandules or kernels are to bee found: in like manner the 
Which ignorance of Anatomy hath brought forth  Testicles are appointed for the security of the spermaticall vessels. But the truth is that the onely ignorance of Anatomy brought in this old wiues fable. For the kernels or glandules which are placed at the diuisions of the vessels, do on euery side sustaine, establish and support them; but the Testicles are hung only at the ends of the vessels.  
Wherefore the opinion of Hippocrates, Galen and almost of all the Phisitians is much more probable, who doe attribute to the testicles a power of their own to procreate seed, 
The true opinion of almost all Physitians  and the prime place in the worke of generation, because they haue a great power for alteration of the habit, the temperament and the manners themselues. Moreouer those creatures who haue abstained long from the worke of generation, haue their Testicles swolue and distended with seede, which vppon the vse of the Female doe abate againe. Which 
Their reasons  thing also Aristotle himselfe hath left testimony of where he sayeth. That certaine Birds and Beastes at what time they vse to couple, haue their Testicles very great, but when that season is ouer, they become so small that it may be doubted whether they haue any Testicles at all or no: Againe when the Testicles are refrigerated or ouer-cooled, then barrennes followeth. And truely if a man list to runne ouer all the concoctions in the body of a man, hee shall finde 
Diuerse instances.  that there is onely a preparation in the vessels, but concoction and perfect elaboration to be in and from the particular substance of the part.  
The Animall spirit as we shall declare hereafter, is prepared in the wonderfull implications and texture of the arteries, but his forme and proper difference it acquireth in the marrowy substance or ventricles of the braine. The Milke is prepared in the veines but groweth white in the glandules of the Breastes. Blood getteth a kinde of rudiment in the veines of the mesentery, but his rednesse and the forme of bloud it onely obteyneth in and by the Parenchyma or substance of the Liuer.  
In the small and threddy veynes of the particular partes there is a preparation vnto the third concoction, but assimulation is onely made by and in the substance of the parts. So 
The true course of the seede.  there is a delineation and preparation of seede in the spermaticke vessels, which are diuersly implicated by a wonderful artifice of nature, that in those implications the spirits might be exactly mingled with the bloud, and therefore here an artery entreth into a veine, and a veine into an artery.  
The seede thus prepared the Testicles draw for their nourishment, to which they giue forme, perfection, and foecundity, wherewith when they are satisfied, the remainder they expell into the leading vessels: these doe exonerate themselues into many small bladders, and into the Prostatae, and there it is reserued and kept in store for the necessary vse of Nature in procreation.   

QVEST. IIII. Of the substance and coates of the Testicles,  
_THE substance of the Testicles some say are Glandules, alleadging Galen, who reckoneth them among the Glandules in his third Booke de Alimentis: and Hippocrates in his Booke of Glandules defineth them to be spongy, rare, fatte 
That the Testicles are not glandules. The differēce between a glandule and a glandulous body.  and friable, but such are the Testicles, therefore they are Glandules. We answere that we must distinguish betweene Glandules and glandulous bodies. The Testicles are indeede glandulous bodies, so are the Kidneyes, so is the Braine, yet no man will call it a Glandule, but the body of it is like a Glandule, as wee shall shew more at large when we speake of the Braine.  
Againe, concerning the coates of the Testicles, Anatomists doe differ one from another, 
Of their coats How many coates stones haue.  some make more, some fewer: we resolue they are foure; two common and two proper; the two common are called scrotum or the Cod and darton: the two proper called Eleuthroides the first, and 〈◇〉, that is the neruous membrane the latter. Vesalius calleth this Epididymida; but Falopius elegantly confuteth him; for the Epididymis is indeede 
Varicosum corpus.  that we call Parastatae, and is a body not a membrane, a little Testicle not a coate of the Testicle as the word signifieth: euen as a Cuticle is a small skinne; the Epiglotis a smal toung as it were. And Galen in the 15. and 16. Chapters of his Booke de semine calleth the Epididymis a particle fixed to the head of the Testicle, which wee haue seene to swell notably, the Testicle itself not being taynted at all, yea, and many Epilepticall fittes to arise therefrom.  
The Testicles of women haue not this additament, or if they haue it is so smal that it cannot be perceiued. The reason may be because it was not necessary that their seede should be so laboured or thicke as that of mens, but remaineth more moyst and fluid, as it were to temper the action of the seede of man.   

QVEST. V. Of the consent betweene the Chest and the Testicles.  
_THE Consent betweene the Chest and the Testicles is expressed by Hippocrates 

The consent betweene the Chest and the testicles.  
Three places of Hippocrates expounded.   in three seuerall places. In the first Section of the second Booke Epid. he sayeth, When the Testicle swelleth after a Cough, it calleth to our remembrances the consent or sympathy betweene the Chest, the Breasts, the Seede & the Voice. Againe, in the first Section of the first Booke thus; Many were ouertaken with dry Coughes, & many of those men long after were troubled with painful inflamations, sometimes in one stone, sometimes in both. Thirdly in the first againe of the second Booke thus: Long 
What Hipoc. meaneth by a dry cough.  and inueterate Coughes doe cease when the Testicles begin to swell. Howe this commeth to passe we will now declare: but first it must be resolued what that diuine old man meant by dry Coughes; not that Cough which is without matter; caused either by a bare distemper as when the winde is at the North, or by the inequality of the rough Artery, or by the simpathy of the sinnewy parts, for how could that breede tumors and Apostemations? But a Cough with a matter, whose cause is either the thinnesse of the matter, which the breath cannot intercept as we cough, but it slideth downe by the sides of the weazon; or else the 
The wayes by which the humor must pas out of the chest into the testicles.  thicknes of the same which will not follow the constraint of the chest. This matter whither thin or thicke Hippocrates vnderstandeth to be euacuated by Apostemations belowe, and especially in the coddes or testicles: but all the difficulty is, which way this crude matter should passe out of the chest vnto the parts of generation.  
There are three sorts of vessels which goe to the Testicles; A Nerue, an Artery, and a veine, all which haue through-passages from the chest to the testicles. First of al, a notable 
The way of the Nerue.  and euident branch of the rib sinnew called Costalis, runneth by the sides of the ribs into the Testicles. A vaine from the non-parill or vn-mated veine of the brest runneth thorough 
The way of the Veine.  the Midriffe, and determineth into the veine of the Kidney, and the spermaticall veines. As for the Artery, albeit none do come to the great trunke from the Lunges( in whose lappes 
The way of the Arteire.  the matter of the cough doth lye) yet it is not vnreasonable to thinke that the offending humour may passe by t●e venall ar●ery into the left ventricle of the he●rt, and from thence into the great Artery, and so into his branches; by which way ●lso the matter or pus of pleuriticall 
The passage of matter thorough the left Ventricle of the heart.  and Peripneumontcall, or Empyicall patients descendeth, and so is diuersly auoyded by vrine, seidge, or Apostemations in the lower parts; and by this passage also it is more then probable, that the matter should fall out of the chest to the testicles.   

QVEST. VI. Of the scituation of the Prostatae.  
_COncerning the Glandules called Prostatae, Anatomists doe contend; 
That the Prostatae are aboue the sphincter.  some thinke they are placed beneath the sphincter Muscle, others aboue, we adhere to the latter. For, beside the credite of dissection, if they were placed below the sphincter then the seede should neuer be spent without the auoyding of vrine also, & again in the running of the reines, the seed could not flow without the water; besides the Vrine would alwayes lye vpon these Glandules and fret them with his ●crimony. They are therefore placed aboue the sphincter, and their inflamation or exulceration breeds the venerious gonorrhaea or running of the reines.   

QVEST. VII. Whether the Erection of the yard be a Naturall or an Animall action.  
_EVery action according to Galen, is Naturall or Animall; that he calleth Naturall which is not voluntary, so the vitall faculty is Naturall because it is not 
How manie so●ts actions there are  Arbitrary. The inflation of the virile member is an action, because there is in it Locall and Mathematicall motion, it must therefore needs be a Natural or an Anmiall, or a mixt action.  
To prooue it to be meerely Animall this argument is vrged, because all the Animal faculties, Imagination, Motion, and Sense do concurre to the perfection of it. For the first, 
That erection is meerely Animal.  before the distention of this part, whether wee wake or sleepe wanton and lasciuious imaginations do trouble vs. Now mens Imaginations when they wake are alwayes voluntary and arbitrary with election; and when they sleepe, then are their imaginations like those of bruite beasts, following the species or Idea and representations of the seede as it pricketh & swelleth these parts of generation. For euen as in sleepe Flegme stirreth vp in our imaginations 
The effects of the humours in sleepe.  similitudes of raine and waters, Choler of rage and fury like vnto itself, Melanlancholy that enemy of the light and demolisher of the principles of life itself, powreth a cloude of darknesse ouer our minde, and representeth to our imaginations similitudes full of terror and feare; right so the seede contained in the Prostatae swelling with aboundance by his tickling or itching quality communicated to the braine by the continuity of the sinnewes, 
How venerious imaginations 〈◇〉 sleep are mooued.  mooueth or stirreth vp images or shaddowes of venerious delights in the fantasies of men, wherefore this part or member is not erected without the helpe of the imagination.  
The Sense mooueth the imagination, the imagination commandeth the moouing Faculty, that obeyeth, and so it is puffed vp. The moouing Faculty hath the help of four Muscles, two of which run along the sides of the member; now wee know that all motions of the Muscles is Animall, because a Muscle is defined to be an instrument of voluntary motion. This inflation hath pleasure also ioyned vnto it, but pleasure is not without sence; wherefore all these three Animall faculties concurre in erection, and therefore it is meerly an Animall action.  
On the contrary that it is a Naturall action may thus bee demonstrated: all the causes 
That it is meerly naturall. The instruments.  of this distention, the instruments, the efficients and the end are Naturall. The Naturall organs or instruments are two ligaments, hollow, fungous and blacke, which though they be called Nerues, yet are not voluntary and sensible or feeling sinewes, they arise from the hanch and share-bones, not from the brayne or marrow of the backe. The efficient cause is not our will, because erection is not alwayes at our commaundement either to moue or 
The efficient.  to appease as we may doe our armes, legges and eyes; but the efficient cause is heate, spirites and winde, which fill and distend these hollow bodies, with an infinite number of vesselles both veines and arteries dispersed and wouen through them. The finall cause is procreation 
The finall.  which belongeth to the Naturall not to the Animall faculty.  
Betwixt these two extreames we wil take the middle way and determine, that the action of erection is neyther meerely Animall nor meere Naturall, but a mixed action. In respect of the imagination & the sence it is Animall, because it is not distended vnlesse some 
The middle and true opinion that it is a mixt action.  luxurious imagination goe before, and the distention when it is made is alwayes accompanied with a sence of pleasure and delight; but in respect of the motion we rather thinke it to be Naturall which yet is somewhat holpen by the Animal. For as the appetite which 
Comparison from the appetite.  is stirred vp in the vppermost mouth of the stomacke( because traction breedes diuulsion, diuulsion sence, sence Appetite) is called Animall; and yet the motion wherby the greedy stomacke sometimes snatcheth vnchewed meate euen out of the mouth is Naturall: so the erection of this member because it is with sence and imagination is sayed to bee Animall, but the locall motion whereby it is mathematically inlarged is Natural, arising from the inbred faculty of the ligaments: such is also the motion of the wombe when it draweth seed, and of the heart when it draweth into itself ayre and bloud. Yet it must be confessed that this naturall motion is holpen by the Animal, because the foure muscles before mentioned though they be very small, yet they helpe to enlarge the distention, and doe also for a time keep it so distended.  
If it be obiected that in the running of the Reynes called the venereall Gonorrhaea, there 
Obiection.  is erection without imagination or pleasure, yea with payne. I answere with Galen that there is a twofould erection, one according to nature, another vnnaturall; the first is from 
Solution.  the ingenit faculty of the hollow ligament; the other is symptomaticall; the first with pleasure, the other without it yea with payne; in the first the yarde is first distended and after filled with a vaporous spirite; in the latter it is first filled then after distended. In a word, 
Comparisons.  there is the same difference betweene these two distentions which is between the two motions of the heart. In the Naturall motion of the heart which is accomplished by the vitall faculty, because the heart is dilated it is filled with ayre and bloud, and because it is contracted it is emptyed; but in the depraued palpitation of the heart the heart is distended because it is filled. So smiths bellowes because they are dilated are presently filled with ayre for the auoyding of vacuity, but bottles are distended because they are filled with wine or water.  
Wherefore the Naturall erection euer followeth imagination and hath pleasure accompanying it, but the vnnaturall which Galen calleth Priapismus, is altogether without 
Priapismus.  lust or appetite. The cause of this is a plenitude of thick & crasse wind, proued because the motion is so sudden and so violent; for all violent and sudden motions are of winde not of 
The causes of it.  humor as Galen saith; and this wind or vapour is generated either in the hollow nerues and ligaments, or is thither brought by the open passages of the arteries. But of what? Surely of crasse and thicke humours, and that is the reason why melancholly men are most troubled with this vnnaturall erection; as also are Lepers, and therefore the Antients called the 
Melancholly men subiect to it and why.  Leprosie satyriasis. And thus much concerning the parts of generation in men, now it followeth concerning those of women.   

QVEST. VIII. How the parts of generation in men and women doe differ.  
_COncerning the parts of generation in women, it is a great and notable question 
Whether the parts of generation in men and women do onely differ in scituation.  whether they differ onely in scituation from those of men. For the ancients haue thought that a woman might become a man, but not on the contrary side a man become a woman. For they say that the parts of generation in womenly hid, because the strength of their naturall heate is weaker then in men in whom it thrusteth those parts outward. Women haue spermaticall vessels, aswell preparing as Leading vessels and 
Reasons for it  testicles which boile the blood, and a kinde of yard also, which they say is the necke of the wombe if it be inuerted. Finally, the bottome of the wombe distinguished by the middle line, is the very same with the cod or scrotum. This Galen often vrgeth in diuers of his works as before is saide; so Aegineta, Auicen, Rhasis, and all of the Greeke and Arabian Families, 
Authors.  with whom all Anatomists do consent. For confirmation also heereof there are many stories current among ancient and moderne writers of many woemen turned into men: some of which we will not heere thinke much to remember. First therefore we reade that at Rome when Licinius Crassus, and Cassius Longinus were Consuls, the seruant of one Cassinus 
Examples▪ Cassinus Maid-seruant.  of a maide became a young man, and was thereupon led aside into the desert Island of the Sooth-sayers. Mutianus Licinius reporteth, that at Argos in Greece, he saw a maide named Arescusa, who after she was married became a man and had a beard and after married 
Arescusa.  another woman by whom she had yssue.  
Pliny also writeth, that he saw in Affrica P. Cossitius a Citizen of Tisdetra, who of a woman the day before became a man the next day. The Hyaena also a cruell and subtle Beast, 
Cossitius. The Hyaena.  doth euery other yeare change her sexe. Of whom, Ouid in the xv. of his Metamorphosis saith:  
Et quae modo foemina tergo  
Passa marem, nunc esse marem miramur Hyaenam.  
The same Hyaena which we saw admit the male before,  
To couer now her female mate, we can but wonder sore.  
Pontanus hath the same of Iphis in an elegant verse: 
Iphis.   
Vota puer soluit quae foemina vouerat Iphis.  
Iphis her vow benempt a Maide,  
But turned boy her vow she paide.  
Of later times. Volateran a Cardinall saith, that in the time of Pope Alexander the sixt he 
A story of Volateran the Cardinall. Another in Auscis.  saw at Rome a virgin, who on the day of her mariage had suddenly a virile member grown out of her body. We reade also that there was at Auscis in Vasconia, a man of aboue sixtie yeares of age, grey, strong and hairy, who had beene before a woman till the age of xv. yeares, or till within xv. yeares of threescore, yet at length by accident of a fall, the Ligaments( saith my Author) being broken, her priuities came outward, and she changed her sex; before which change she had neuer had her couses. Pontanus witnesseth that a Fishermans 
A Fishermans wench of Caieta. Emilia.  wench of Caieta of fourteene yeares olde became suddenly a young springall. The same happened to Emilia the wise of Antonie Spensa a Citizen of Ebula, when she had been twelues yeares a married woman.  
In the time of Ferdinand the first K. of Naples, Carlota and Francisca the daughters of Ludouike 
Carlota and Francisca. Amatus Lusitinus his story. Hippocrates his Phaetusa.  Quarna of Salernum, when they were 15. years old changed their sex. Amatus Lusitanus testifieth in his Centuries that hee saw the same at Conibrica a famous towne of Portugall. There standeth vpon record in the eight section of the sixt Booke of Hippocrates his Epidemia, an elegant History of one Phaetusa, who when her husband was banished was so ouergrown with sorrow, that before her time her courses vtterly stopped and her body became manlike & hairy all ouer and she had a beard and her voice grew stronger. The same also he recordeth to haue hapned to Namisia the wife of Gorgippus in Thaso. 
Namisia.   
Wherefore say they, if a Woman may become a man and her parts of generation which before lay hid within may come foorth and hang as mens do, then do women differ from men onely in the scite or position of their parts of generation.  
Notwithstanding all this, against this opinion there are two mighty arguments: one is 
Reasons and experience against the former opinion.  taken from the 〈◇〉 in dissection, another from reason, which two are the Philosophers Bloud-hounds, by which they tract the causes of things.  
For first of all( saith Laurentius) these partes in men and women differ in number. The 
From the number of the parts. What parts of man a woman wanteth.  small bladders which first Herophylus found, and called varicosos adstites, that is, the Parastatae women haue not at all; nor the Prostatae which are placed at the roote of the yard and necke of the bladder, in which seede is treasured vp for the necessary vses of nature; although there be some that thinke that women haue them but so smal that they are insensible, which is( saith he) to begge the question. Againe, me thinks it is very absurd to say, that the neck 
From the forme & structure of the parts.  of the wombe inuerted is like the member of a man; for the necke of the womb hath but one cauity, and that is long and large like a sneath to receiue the virile member: but the member or yard of a man consisteth of two hollow Nerues, a common passage for seede and vrine, and foure Muscles. Neyther is the cauity of a mans yard so large and ample as that of the necke of the wombe. Add to this, that the necke of the bladder in women doth not equall in length the necke of the womb, but in men it equalleth the whole length of the member or yard. Howsoeuer therefore the necke of the wombe shall be inuerted, yet will it neuer make the virile member: for three hollow bodies cannot be made of one, but the yard consisteth of three hollow bodies; two Ligaments arising from bones and the 〈◇〉, as we haue before sufficiently shewed. If any man instance in the Tentigo of the Ancients, or Fallopius his Clitoris, bearing the shape of a mans yard, as which hath two Ligaments and foure Muscles, yet see how these two differ. The Clitoris is a small body, not continuated 
Concerning Fallopius his Clitoris.  at all with the bladder, but placed in the height of the lap, the Clitoris hath no passage for the emission of seede; but the virile member is long and hath a passage in the middest by which it powreth seede into the necke of the wombe.  
Neither is there( saith Laurentius) any similitude betweene the bottome of the wombe inuerted, and the scrotum or cod of a man: For the cod is a rugous and thin skin, the bottome 
Concerning the Cod and the bottom of the wombe.  of the wombe is a very thicke and thight membrane, all fleshy within and vvouen with manifold fibres.  
Finally, the insertion of the spermaticke vessels, the different figure of the mans and womans 
The insertion of the spermaticke Vessels.  Testicles, their magnitude, substance and structure or composition doe strongly gainsay this opinion.  
But what shall we say to those so many stories of women changed into men? Truely, I thinke saith he, all of them monstrous and some not credible. But if such a thing shal happen, 
Answeres to the obiection of the change of sexes. The first The second.  it may well be answered that such parties were Hermophradites, that is, had the parts of both sexes, which because of the weakenesse of their heate in their nonage lay hid, but brake out afterward as their heate grew vnto strength. Or we may safely say, that there are some women so hot by nature that their Clitoris hangeth foorth in the fashion of a mans member, which because it may be distended and againe growe loose and flaccid, may deceiue ignorant people. Againe Midwiues may oft be deceiued because of the faultie conformation of those parts, for sometimes the member and testicles are so small, and sinke 
The third.  so deepe into the body that they cannot easily be discerned.  
Pinaeus writeth, that at Paris in the yeare, 1577. in the streete of S. Dennis, a woman trauelled and brought foorth a sonne, which because of the weaknesse of the infant was suddenly baptized for a daughter, and was called Ioanna. A fewe dayes after, in dressing the 
A Historie.  Infant the Mother perceyued it to be a manchilde and so did the standers by and they named it Iohn.  
As for the authority of Hippocrates. It followeth not that all those women whose voyces 
Answere to the authoritie of Hippocrates.  turne strong or haue beards and grow hairy do presently also change their parts of generation; neither doth Hippocrates say so, but plainly the contrary: for he addeth, When we had tried all meanes we could not bring downe her courses, but she perished. Wherefore hir parts of generation remained as those of a Woman, although her bodye grew mannish and hairie.   

QVEST. IX. Of the motions of the wombe.  
_ANother question there is, whether the wombe moue locally and Mathematically, 
How the womb is saide to mooue.  or Physically onely: concerning which we wil resolue thus. There is a threefold motion of the wombe, one altogether naturall, another altogether Symptomicall and Convulsiue; the third mixt, partly Naturall partly Symptomical. The 
A threefolde motion.  Naturall motion is meerely from the faculty of the soule; the Symptomatical meerly from an vnhealthfull cause, the third from them both together.  
The naturall motion is when the wombe draweth seed out of the neck into his bottom, for then it runneth downward to meete it, insomuch that sometimes it hath beene seene euen 
The natural motion of the wombe.  to fall out; it mooueth also naturally when in conception it is contracted and imbraceth the seede strictly on euery side; as also when it excludeth the Infant, the after-birth or any other thing contayned in it beside Nature. For the accomplishment of this motion it hath right fibres and very many transuerse or ouerthwart, and this motion comes from the necessity of Nature.  
The symptomaticall motion is onely from a cause that is morbous or diseasefull and 
The symptomatical motion of the wombe. The suffocati on er strangulation of the matrixe.  that is convulsiue; which motion is manifest in the suffocation of the matrixe, for then the wombe is moued vpward because it is drawne convulsiuely; and that comes either from repletion or from exhaustion or emptines, the ligaments either being by drought exsiccated or steeped in ouermuch moysture: sometimes it commeth from a poysonous breath, from the suppression of the courses, or the retention and corruption of the womans seede falne into it out of the vessels.  
In this convulsiue motion the midriffe is pressed or borne vp, which is the chiefe instrument 
Why such women do not breath.  of free respiration or breathing, and the braine is also drawn into consent which is the chiefe seate or tribunall of the Animall faculty, which faculty is the efficient cause of respiration. Hence it is that in such suffocations or strangulations there is an interception 
All the causes of respiration in this suffocation are taken away.  of respiration, for the instrumentall cause the midriffe is intercepted, the efficient cause the Animal faculty also, because the braine is drawn into consent. The finall cause also is taken away, for the heat of the heart at that time is very small and requireth therefore no other ventilation but by transpiration, which is by the pores of the habit of the body.  
But you must marke that I cal not this motion a convulsion, but onely a convulsiue motion; for convulsion properly is, an vnbidden motion of those parts which we vse to moue 
What parts suffer convulsions.  at our commandement, but the wombe is not mooued by our willes but by it owne will, wherefore convulsions belong not to the wombe but to the muscles onely which are instruments of voluntary motion; but abusiuely we may call this a convulsion as Hippocrates calleth the Hiccocke a convulsion.  
The third motion of the wombe wee sayed was mixt, proceeding from a morbous or 
The 3 mixt motion of the wombe.  vnhealthy cause and partly from the faculty, as in a great exiccation it runneth vpward toward the Liuer which is the fountaine of sweete moysture; for all dried partes doe as it were thirst after this moysture with a naturall appetite; and this motion is indeede truely mixt, being partly physicall or naturall the dry wombe drawing toward the seate of moysture, or drawing the moysture vnto itself as Galen interpreteth it; and partly mathematicall or locall it moouing as Hippocrates sayeth, with a kinde of impetuous violence to the pracordia; although I am not ignorant that Galen in this poynt reprooueth his maister, and taketh this motion to be meerely Physicall or naturall; and is called mathematicall by Hippocrates but abusiuely onely.   

QVEST. X. How the Wombe is affected with smelles and sauours.  
_FVrthermore it is not only recorded by antient Authors, but approued by daily experience, that the wombe is much affected with sauours and smelles; so that some haue beene knowne to miscarry vpon the stench of a candle put out 
How the wōb is affected with smels and sauours.  as Aristotle recordeth is his 8. Booke of the History of Creatures and the 24. chapter. But how and by what passages this apprehension of odours is, few haue sufficiently declared; wherefore we will payne ourselves a little and our readers also, to lay open this difficulty, because it may be of great vse for the preseruation of health, and will not be altogether vnpleasant to them that desire to know themselues.  
As therefore Colour is the onely obiect of the sight, so is odour of the smelling; and as the sight hath the eye as his peculiar & proper instrument of seeing, so is the nose( I mean 
Not vnder the forme of smels.  principally the partes contayned within it, that is the spongy bone and the two processes called mamillares) the onely instrument of smelling: it were therefore very absurde to imagine that the wombe did smell sauours or smelles, because it is not the proper instrument of smelling, howe then? It is affected with sauours by reason of the subtile and thinne vapour or spirite which ariseth from any strong sented thing; euen as our spirites 
But by vaporous spirits.  are refreshed and exhilerated with sweete sauours, not by apprehending the sent of them; but by receiuing a thinne ayrie vapour from them whereby the spirites are nourished, enlightned and strengthned; right so is the wombe affected with the vapors of things which yeelde a strong smell be it pleasant or vnpleasant and that very suddenly, because it is a part of exquisite sence. But if it bee so, it may be demaunded, why then the wombe is pleased with sweet smels and displeased with those that are vnpleasant; for it seemeth hereby 
Obiection.  to make choyce of smelles euen for the very sauour and sent? I answere that all thinges 
Solution.  which yeeld a noysome smell are vnconcocted and of a bad or imperfect mixture, & therfore they affect the sence with a kinde of inaequality; or else the spirits or vapours that arise from these ranke bodies are impure( whence come faintings and swoundings sometimes,) and so defile the spirits contayned in these generatiue parts.  
One difficulty there yet remayneth. If the wombe delight in sweete sauours, why then 
Obiection. Why muske and Ciuit cause fits of the mother, and stinking things cure it. Answere. It is a signe of an ill disposed wombe to bee offended with sweet things.  doth the smell of Amber greece, muske and such like bring suffocation of the mother; and that of assa faetida and castoraeum & such like extreme stinking things cure the same disease? I answere, that all women fall not into suffocation vpon the smelling of sweet perfumes or the like, but onely those whose wombe is especially euilly affected. For sweet smels hauing a quicke spirit arising from them, doe instantly affect the Brayn and the membranes of the same, the membranous wombe is presently drawne into consent with the Brayne and moued, so as those bad vapours which before lay as it were a sleep in the ill affected womb, are now stirred and wrought vp by the arteries or other blinde passages vnto the midriffe, the heart and the braine itself, and so comes the suffocation we spake off. But those things that yeeld a noysome sauour, because they are crude and ill mixt, doe stoppe the passages 
How noysom smel, cure the suffocation.  and pores of the braine, and do not reach vnto the inner membranes to affect them: they cure also the Hystericall paroxisme or fitte of the mother, because our nature being offended with them as with enimies rowseth vp itself against them, and together with the ill vaporsexcludeth also out of the wombe the euil humors from whence they arise, euen as in acute diseases nature being prouoked by the ill quality of the humors moueth to criticall excretions, 
Comparisons  or in purgations when she is goaded with the aduerse quality of the medicine relieueth herself by euacuation.  
But you will aske by what passages are these vapours and spirites carried. I answere, beside the open passages of the arteries by which such ayrie spirits doe continually passe and 
Obiection. Answere. The passiges of these spirits and vapors.  repasse, in a mans body there are many secret and vnknowne waies which those subtile bodies may easily finde, considering that euen crasse and thicke humours doe ordinarily follow medicines we know not by what passages; as when a little Elaterium euen a graine or two will purge away three of foure pintes of water or more which lay before in the capacity of the Abdomen, drawing it thence into the guttes, and yet we knowe no direct passages from the one part to the other; and this hath made men to say that as open as the body of 
Dropsy water how purged.  glasse is to the light although it be very solide, so open is the whole body as to external aire of which we finde our body oftentimes very sensible, so to humours, much more to spirits and thinne and subtile vapours. Experience hereof we haue in the vse of Tobacco, for a man 
The working of Tobacco in the fingers ends.  shall often finde it sensibly in his toes and fingers ends presently vpon the raking.  
But of this we shall take leaue in the next discourse to speake a little more largely seeing it not onely concerneth almost all women, but may serue somewhat to stay their minds vppon many accidents which euery day befall them   

QVEST. XI. Of the wonderfull consent betweene the wombe and almost all the parts of womens bodis.  
_COncerning the wonderfull sympathy that is betweene the wombe and almost all the parts of womens bodies, that place of Hippocrates in his 
An enumeration of the parts with which the wombe doth sympathize.  Booke de locis in homine is most remarkable, where he sayeth, That the wombs of women are the causes of all diseases: that is to say, The wombe being affected there follow manifest signes of distemper in all the parts of the body, as the Brayne, the Heart, the Liuer, the Kidneyes, the Bladder, the Guts, the Share-bones: and in all the faculties, Animall, Vitall, and Natural; but aboue all, the sympathy betweene the wombe and the breastes is most notable, yet will we not sticke a little to insist vpon the former particulars.  
Betweene the Brayne and the wombe there is very great consent, as well by the nerues 
The consent between the wombe and the braine.  as by the membranes of the marrow of the backe: hence in affects of the mother come the paynes which some women often feele in the backe-parts of their heade, their frenzies or franticke fittes, their dumbe silence and indeede inabilitie to speake, their strange fearefulnesse, sometimes loathing their liues yet fearing beyond measure to die; their convulsions, the calligation or dimnesse of their sight, the hissing of their eares, and a world of such like and of vnlike accidents.  
Betweene the heart and the wombe the consent is made by the mediation of manie 
Betweene the heart and the wombe.  notable Arteries called Spermaticall and Hypogastricall, that is, the Arteries of seede, & of the inferiour part of the lower belly. Hence come light faintings, desperate swoondings, the cessation of breathing and intermission of the pulse, the vse of them both being taken away by a venemous breath, which dissolueth the naturall heate of the heart; and such women liue onely by transpiration, that is by such aer as is drawne through the pores of the 
What it is to liue by transpiration.  skin into the Arteries and so reacheth vnto the heart; so that it is impossible almost to perceiue whether such women do yet liue or no, and doubtlesse many are buried in such fits( for they will last sometimes 24. houres or more, and the bodies grow colde and rigid like 
Many womē buried quick.  dead carkasses) who would recouer if space were giuen.  
In my time there went a woman begging about this Cittie, who had a Coffin carried with her, and oftentimes she fell into those Hystericall fits, and would lye so long in them, nothing differing from a dead carkasse, till the wonted time of her reuiuing. Hence it may 
A Historie.  be came the Prouerbe, Thou shalt not beleeue a woman( that she will die) no not vvhen shee is deade.  
This is a sore accident, and therefore it shall not bee amisse to tell you how you may know whether such haue any life left in them or no. A downy feather applyed vnto their 
How to know whether a woman be aliue or dead.  mouth will not sometimes serue the turne, for you shall not perceiue it to shake and yet the woman liues; the onely infallible token of life or death, is if you apply a cleare looking glasse close vpon their mouths, for then if they liue the glasse will haue a little dew vpon it, if they be dead none at all. But the safest way is not to be ouer-hasty to burie women, especially such as dye suddenly and not vppon euident cause, til 2. or 3 dayes bee ouer, for some 
A miserable case.  haue beene knowne so long after their supposed deaths to reuiue, and some taken agayne out of their Coffins haue beene found to haue beaten themselues vpon their reuiuing before their sti●ling into the graue, if we will beleeue the reports of such as we haue no great reason to mistrust. But to returne to our simpathy.  
Betweene the Liuer and the wombe the simpathy is a little aboue expressed, to which 
Betweene the Liuer and the wombe see aboue. Iandises. Greensicknes Dropsies.  we may adde, that as from other parts affected, so from the ill affection of the womb, somtimes come Iaundises, Cacexies, that is, ill habits of the bodie, green sicknesses, and then which nothing is more ordinary, the Dropsie itself.  
Betweene the Kidneyes and the wombe the consent is euident in the torments and pains of the Loines, which women and Maids haue in or about the time of their courses. Inso much as some haue told me they had as leefe beare a childe as endure that paine; and my 
Betweene the kidnies & the wombe.  selfe haue seene some to my thinking by their deportment, in as great extremity in the one as in the other. This consent commeth by the mediation of the spermaticke veines, for the left of these vessels ariseth out of the emulgent or kidny vein on the same side. The like may be said of the simpathie between the womb the bladder and the right gut, for vpon inflamation of the wombe, as Hippoc. writeth in his first Booke de Morb. mulier. commeth the disease 
Betweene the bladder, the right gut, and the wombe.  of the right gut, called Tenesmus, that is a vaine desire to empty the belly, and also the Strangurie, because the inflamation presseth both partes; so that neither the excrements nor the vrine can be long kept.  
This consent is by reason of the vicinity or neighbour-hood of the parts, as also by communion. The communion is by the membranes of the Peritonaeum which tye the wombe 
How this consent cemmeth  to these partes, and by their common vessels, for from the same braunch of the Hypogastricall Veine come small riuerets to the bladder, the wombe and the right gut. Neyther is the Connexion of the wombe with the share-bone and the Lesk to be ouer passed without 
The Connexion of the womb.  remembrance, which is made by two exceeding strong Ligaments, for which cause in the suffocations of the matrix, we apply Cupping-glasses to the sides of the Share-bones & 
Cupping glasses applied.  to the Leske, that by these Ligaments as by certaine cords the wombe labouring vpwarde may be retracted and drawne backe.  
But aboue all other Consents is that simpathy betweene the womb and the brests which 
The simpathy betweene the brests and the womb.  exceedeth euen admiration itself, and is diuersly manifested by the frequent translation of humours out of the breasts into the wombe, and out of the wombe into the brests; by the signes of the wombe affected which are taken from the inspection of the brests; from the vsuall cures of the diseases of both partes; and finally from the knowledge wee haue by the 
How it is manifested.  brests of the condition of the infant yet contained in the wombe. Beside the authority of Hippocrates in his Book de Glandulis, we haue many examples of the first, that is of the translation of humors too and againe betweene these parts.  
Amatus Lusitanus in his second Century the second Cure reporteth, that hee saw two women, who vpon the suppression of their courses did auoid bloode out of the Nipples of their breasts at certaine and set times and returnes, imagine shortly after the vsuall time of 
Blood out of the Nipples.  their courses. And Hippocrates it appeareth had seene the like, for hee writeth in the 40. Aphorisme of the fift section, that those women who haue blood gathered about their brests are in danger to grow mad and raging. Brassavolus reporteth, that hee saw a woman out of whose brests issued blood in stead of milke; and this may well be, for we all knowe that Nurses haue their courses stopped, because the blood returneth from the wombe vnto the brests, where it is turned into milke vsually; that in this example the blood came out vnturned that was the rarity. We haue seene also on the contrary many women in childebed who haue auoided by the womb and the bladder great quantities of milke. This translation 
Milk auoided by the womb and by Vrine.  of humors therefore is ordinary. Somtimes the blood goeth other wayes, as I haue known an ancient maide in Lincolnshire, who euer about the time she should haue her Courses, for many daies together hath founde in her mouth in the morning when shee awaked, 
A strāge thing of a Maide or Lincolnshire  the quantity of foure or fiue ounces of blood more or lesse, and most part of it caked as it is in a Safer after blood letting, and this continued with her for many yeares together, but hirteeth rotted fowly with it, her breath grew noisome, and she faint at those times, but without any other disease.  
For the second, that is, that by the inspection of the breasts the condition of the wombe 
The conditiō of the wombe known by the brests. Hippocrates.  may be knowne, we will alledge onely that oracle of Hippocrates in the sixt Booke of his Epidemia and the fift section. If the Nipples of the breast and that which is vsually red about them, grow plaed or yellowish, then is the wombe diseased.  
For the third, that the cure of the affectes of these parts demonstrate their sympathie, we may remember that which Hippocrates hath deliuered, and is continually put in practise as neede requireth, viz: If you would stay the immoderate fluxe of a womans Courses, then set a 
How to stay immoderate Courses.  great Cupping-glasse vnder hir breast; for that will draw backe the bloode by an accustomed way.  
Finally, by the inspection of the brests, the age, the sexe, and the health of the Infant yet in the wombe is demonstrated. Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri. As soone as the infant beginneth to mooue, the Milke acquainteth the Mother with it, for presently vpon the motion 
The breasts shew the age, sex & health of the infant in the womb  the breasts swel, and the Nipples strut out. If therefore the breasts bewray the time of the infants moouing then doe they also declare the age; for a man childe mooueth the thirde month, a maiden childe the fourth. And for the sexe, If the right brest, saith Hippocrates in the 38 Aphorisme of the fift Section, doe consume or fall, it fore-tokeneth an abortment of a 
The Age.  male childe; if the left of a female so if the right brest swel and strut; it is a signe that a male childe is conceiued, if the left a female.  
Last of all, the inspection of the breasts doth foretel the health or sicknesse of the infant. For if in a woman with childe the breasts do suddenly fall swampe as we say, then will shee 
How the brests foretell the health or sicknes of the Infant.  abort or miscarry, so saith Hippocrates in the 37. Aphorisme of the fift section. All these are most euident and necessary arguments of the consent and sympathy between the brests and the wombe: but because almost all simple sympathies are made by the communion of vessels, we will in a few wordes lay open vnto you how the vesselles of these two partes doe communicate one with another, as Laurentius conceyueth it. 
How the vesselles of these parts do communicate.   
Almost all Anatomistes do agree, that the branches of the ascending Epigastrick veine, do meete in one with the branches of the descending Mammarie veine; and that there are in these branches many Anastomoses or inoculations. I doe not deny( saith Laurentius) the 
The common receiued opinion.  coition or coniunction of these branches, but seeme to myself to haue found more patent, large, and nigher wayes for this communion. For the Epigastricke veine is not dispersed in his branches through the wombe, but ariseth more commonly from a branch of 
another more likely.  the Crurall veine.  
Likewise that veine which they call Mammaria or the brest veine, runneth by the inner 
The Mamarie Veine.  part of the brest-bone to nourish the Triangular Muscle, neither doth it send any branches to the brests vnlesse they be very small and threddy. I suppose therfore( saith he) that blood, milke and other humours doe flowe backe by the Hypogastricke and spermaticall Veynes( which are proper veines of the wombe) vnto the trunke of the hollow veine, and out of it into the vein called Axillaris or the shoulder vein, from which there arise two notable chest 
The Hypogastrick and sper maticall.  veines called Thoracicae, which do water the Muscles of the chest, and the Glandules or kernels of the brest.  
On the other side, I conceiue that the milk returneth by the Thoracicall veines to the Axillarie, from it vnto the trunke of the hollow veine; from which it passeth somtimes by the spermaticke branch into the womb, sometimes by the Hypogastricall partly into the womb partly into the bladder, from whence come oftentimes those milky waters which wee call 
Milky waters made after women ●abour.  Locteae, that are made after the woman is deliuered. There is also a nearer way for the milk to passe by the wayes of the vrine through the emulgent veines.   

QVEST. XII. Concerning the Acetabula, the hornes and coates of the wombe.  
_COncerning the endings of the vessels in the bottome of the womb, to which the after-birth cleaueth till it be seuered either by the strength of the Infant, or after 
Cotyledones what they are  by the dexterity of the Midwife, they are called Acetabula in Latine; in Greeke Cotyledones, which are nothing else but the ioyning of the endes of two paire of veines( one comming from the spermaticall another from the Hypogastricall braunch) with the mouths of the vmbilicall veine, and so making a sumphysis or connexion between the mother and the Infant.  
The latter Anatomists deny that there are any such conspicuous in women, but only 
In what Creatures they are found.  in Sheep and Goates: Aristotle sayth in his 3. Book of the Historie and the second of the Generation of Creatures, they are onely to be found in horned Beasts: we say. There is a 3. fould acceptation of this word Acetabula in Galens Booke of the dissection of the wombe. First they signifie visible holes into which the vessels of the wombe doe ende in fashion resembling the hearbe called Venus Nauill which we call in English Penny-grasse or hippewort. 
What Galen meaneth by Acetabula.  These Acetabula are neuer found in women but in Sheep and Goates are very conspicuous. Secondly by Acetabula we vnderstand the mouthes of the vesselles swelling like Nipples. And lastly, they are the ends of the vessels at the bottom of the wombe ioyning 
How they are to be found in women.  with the vmbilicall or Nauill veines. In this third acception no man will deny but that they are to be found in the wombe of a woman.  
These mouthes of the vessels sayeth Hippocrates in the 45. Aphorisme of the fift Section, 
A cause of abortion.  if they be ful of mucous or slimy water are the cause of abortment, because it dissolueth the continuity or connexion of the Infant with the mother.  
Concerning the horns of the womb which bud out at the sides therof, Diocles first of all 
Of the hornes of the wombe  men made mention of thē. Galen & almost all Anatomists following him do confesse them to be in the wombe of a woman; but the truth is, that they are only conspicuous in Sheep, Goates, and Kine. Indeede the sides of a womans wombe doe swell a little and are raysed where the leading vessels doe end, but not sufficiently to expresse the forme of hornes or Nipples.  
Lastly, Galen seemeth to speake diuersly concerning the coats of the wombe, somtimes 
Of the coates of the wombe  affirming it hath but one, as in the third Booke of Naturall faculties: againe in his Book of the dissection of the wombe he sayeth it hath two; the outward neruous, the inward venal; 
Galen reconciled to himselfe.  the outward simple, the inward double; but these places may easily be accorded: for wheras he sayeth it hath but one, he vnderstandeth the proper coate of the wombe which is the thickest of all the coates of the body; but when he sayeth it hath two, he addeth to the proper a common coate comming from the Peritonaeum or Rim of the Belly.   

QVEST. XIII. Of the Membrane called Hymen and the markes of virginitie  
_IT hath been an old question and so continueth to this day, whether there be any certaine markes or notes of virginity in women and what they are 
What the Hymen is thought by some to be . Almost all Physitians thinke that there is a certain membrane sometimes in the middest of the necke of the wombe, sometimes immediately after the passage of the water, placed ouerthwart which they call Hymen This membrane they say is perforated in the middest to giue way to their courses, and is broken or torne in their first accompanying with men; and therefore they call it 
The lock of virginity.  Claustrum virginitatis, The lock of virginity: for which their opinion they bring testimonies out of the holy scriptures. For it was a custome among the Iewes that the Brides should 
A custome among the Iewes.  not accompany with their Bridegroomes but vpon a sheete, wherein the bloud should bee kept, which was giuen to the Brides parents as a witnesse of their daughters true virginity. Falopius yeeldeth to this opinion, Columbus writeth that he hath seene it, Laurentius sayeth 
Laurentius his opinion.  that he hath cut vp mayden children borne before their time, of three moneths, of 3. 4, 6. and 7. yeares old, and yet hee could neuer finde it though he searched curiously for it with a Probe; which( sayth he) might haue beene felt to resist the Probe if there had beene any such thing, and therfore he thinketh that it is but a meere fable. Yet notwithstanding thus far he giueth credite to Columbus and Falopius, that hee thinketh there is sometimes such a membrane found; but if it be stretched ouerthwart in the middle or at the end of the neck of the wombe, then hee thinketh it is not Naturall, but an Organicall disease or of the instrument being faulty in conformation. So oftentimes at the very end or extremity of the lap there groweth sometimes a membrane sometimes a Caruncle or small peece of flesh, which affection or disease Auicen calleth clausuram or the inclosure; the Grecians call it 
Imperforatae mulieres.  〈◇〉 & such women 〈◇〉, that is imperforatas. Some are so from their infancie, some by mishap, as by an vlcer, inflamation or some other tumor against nature; but hee that will reade more of this disease let him resort to Aetius, Paulus, Celsus, Albucasis and Oribesius 
Aeti. Tetra 4. ser. ●. cap. 96. Paul lib. 6 cap. 73 .. Celsus lib. 7. cap. 28. Albucasis lib. 2. Oribas. Col●ect. mediem lib. 24  who thinketh that there is at all no such matter. Wee must therefore finde out some other locke of Virginitie. Some thinke the sides of the necke of the wombe do cleaue together in mayds and in the deuirgination are separated. Almanzor writeth that the necke of the womb in virgins is very narrow and rugous, & those foulds or plights are wouen together with many small veines and arteries which are broken in the first coition. Laurentius is of opinion that those foure Caruncles described in the history of the womb and placed not ouerthwart but longwise, doe so ioyne together in virgines by the interuening of exceeding thin membranes, that in the first coition both the Caruncles are fretted and the membranes torne, and that thence floweth the blood. This ioyning of the Caruncles Seuerinus Pinaeus a learned Chyrurgion belonging to the French King hath notably described in a Booke which hee wrote of purpose concerning the marks or notes of Virginity, which wee also remembred before in our discourse. And thus much shall suffice to haue spoken concerning the partes of Generation both in men and women, and the Controuersies thereto be. longing.  Honi soit que mal y pense.  
The End of the Controuersies of the Fourth Booke.   

THE FIFT BOOKE, Wherein the Historie of the Infant is acurately described, as also the principles of Generation, the Conception, the Conformation, the Nourishment, the Life, the Motion, and the Birth of the Infant, as neere as may be according to the Opinion of Hippocrates.  

The Praeface.  
_FInding this following discourse of the forming of the Infant in Laurentius immediately following his History of the parts of Generation, and considering that it contained many things not only profitable but pleasant also, I thought good( gentle Reader) to make thee partaker thereof. And the rather I heere to perswaded myself, because at the first sight I conceiued that myself also in this my conception shold find pleasure. But it hapneth all otherwise with me then it is in naturall generation, where the infant is begotten in pleasure, though brought forth in paine. For this I assure thee was begotten with much paine & trauel, and if thy gentle hand help not in the birth, that also wil be very irksome. I know I shalbe taxed by some for hanging too long in this argument, but I also know that all the Authority blame hath, is frō the Authors therof. The subiect of our present discourse is the history of the Infant, of the Principles of his generation, his Conception, Conformation, Nourishment, Life, Motion and Birth. Verilie a knotty & snarled skaine to vnreele; a thicket, wherein he that hasteth with bold rashnesse 
The argumēt of the Booke following.  and temerity shall offend & stumble at euery step; he that is diligent shall entangle himself, and he that is guided by blinde ignorance shall light vpon pits and bogs; so that it will bee impossible for any man that enters into these Listes fairely to acquite himselfe. The further he wadeth in this Riuer, the greater confluence of waters wil ouertake him, the deeper must he sound if he will finde the bottome.  
We begin with the seed which is like the Chaos. Vpon which as the spirit of God moued whilst it was without forme; first to preserue it & after to distinguish it, so it is in this masse 
The maner of the Infantes production outof the seed  of seed; the Formatiue spirit broodeth it first. After as a Spider in the center of her Lawnie Canopy with admirable skil weaueth her Cipresse web, first hanging it by slender Ties to the roose, and after knitting her enter braided yarn into a curious net: so the spirit first fastneth the seed to the wombe with membranes and ligaments, after distinguisheth it into certaine spermaticall threds which we call Stamina corporis, the warpe of the bodie. To these when the second principle which is the Mothers blood accrueth, it filleth vp their voyde distances and so amasseth them into a solid body, which euery day is nourished and encreased into all dimensions, furnished also with motion, sense and finally with a reasonable soule. Then as impatient of so close imprisonment, as vnsatisfied with so slender allowance, it instantly striues till this Little world arriues into the great.  
After we haue thus perfected the History, we descend vnto the many and busie Controuersies depending thereupon. These concerne the differences of the sexes, the Nature of 
The Controuersies conteined in this Booke.  the Seed with the maner of his excretion; the qualities of the Mothers blood, the accidents hapning vnto vs there-from, with the causes of the monthly euacuation of the same; the manner of Conception as well lawful, both simple, double & manifold, as illegitimate and Monstrous; the order and times of Conformation, not onely of the infant itself, but also of the membranes and vessels to which it is fastned; the Similitude of the children to theyr parents; the admirable effects of the Imagination; the causes of superfoetation, the maner & matter of the infants Norishment; the admirable Vnion and communion of the vessels of the heart; how he breatheth by Transpiration, not by Respiration; the works of his Vital & Animall spirits; his Scituation or position in the womb; and finally, the nature, differences times and causes of his Birth, togither with the consequences thereof. All these with many more falling in with our disputations we heere exhibit for their satisfaction whome they may concern, & who are more desirous to know them, then able of themselues to attaine thereto.   

CHAP. I. What things are necessary toward a perfect Generation.  
_THE propagation of kindes, as it is made in the Elements by Transmutation, and in Mettals by Apposition, so it is in creatures by Generation. But of Generation there are diuers maners. 
The propagation of kindes diuerse.  For some creatures engender without coition onely by affrication. Others quite contrary to the ordinarie course of Nature, by a reception of the instrument of the female. Some females also do engender within themselues without the help of the male. There are also some creatures which are engendred onely by putrifaction without either male or female: others are sometimes bred out of putrifaction, other-whiles out of seede. But all these kinds of generation are maimed and imperfect, and therfore the 
Insecta Animalia.  creatures so procreated, are called 〈◇〉 vnbloodye and insectile creatures, of which a man of worthy memory among vs, D. Muffet hath written a learned and 
D. Muffet.  curious discourse, which happely time may communicate vnto the world. The Generation of man and of the perfect creatures is farre more noble, as whereto three things are alwaies required; a diuersity or distinction of sexes, their mutuall embracements and copulations, 
Three things required to perfect generation.  and a permixtion of a certaine matter yssuing from them both which potentially containeth the Idea or forme of the particular parts of the body, and the fatal destiny of the same, & this the Grecians call 〈◇〉.  
The distinction of the Sexes is especially necessary, because Generation is not accomplished but by seeds which must be sowne in a fruitefull ground, that is, shedde into such a place as wherein their dull and sleepy faculties may be raised and rowzed vp, which we call 
1 Distinction of sexes.  Conception, and afterward that which is thus conceiued, may be cherished, nourished, and so attaine the vtmost perfection of his kinde. But because man was too hotte to performe this office( for his heate consumeth al in him and leaueth no remainder to serue for the nourishment of the infant) it was necessary that a woman should bee created( for wee will insist now onely in mankinde) which might affoord not onely a place wherein to cherish and conceiue the seede, but also matter for the nourishment and augmentation of the same. Both these sexes of male and female do not differ in the kinde as we cal it or species, that is, essentiall form and perfection; but only in some accidents, to wit, in temper and in the structure and scituation of the parts of Generation. For the female sexe as well as the male is a perfection of mankinde: some there bee that call a woman Animal occasionatum, or Accessorium, barbarous words to expresse a barbarous conceit; as if they should say, A 
A barbarous conceite.  Creature by the way, or made by mischance; yea some haue growne to that impudencie, that they haue denied a woman to haue a soule as man hath. The truth is, that as the soule of a woman is the same diuine nature with a mans, so is her body a necessary being, a first and not a second intention of Nature, her proper and absolute worke not her error or preuarication. The difference is by the Ancients in few words elegantly set downe when they define a man, to be a creature begetting in another, a woman a Creature begetting in herself.  
The second thing required to perfect generation, is the mutuall embracements of these 
2. Copulation  two sexes which is called Coitus or coition, that is, going together, A principle of Nature whereof nothing but sinne makes vs ashamed. Neither are these embracements sufficient, vnlesse from either sexe there proccede a third thing, by which and out of which a newe man may bee generated. The effusion therefore of seeds( which are indeede the immediate 
3. Emission of seede.  principles of generation) is altogether necessary, otherwise it were not a generation, but a new Creation. These three things therefore must concurre to a perfect generation, a distinction of sexes, their copulation, and an emission of seede from them both.   

CHAP. II. Of the Principles of generation, seed & the Mothers blood.  
_WHatsoeuer is generated( saith the Philosopher) is begotten out of somwhat and from somvvhat; else vvere it as vve said a nevv Creation no Generation; Wherfore 
Two principles of generation.  the Ancients haue resolued that tvvo principles must concurre to generation, Seed & the Mothers blood. The seed is the principle 〈◇〉, that is, the efficient or workman which formeth the Creature, and ex quo, that is, the matter whereof the spermatical parts are generated. The blood hath onely the Nature of a matter and passiue principle,( we therefore vse the Schoole words because they most emphatically expresse the thing) for out of this bloud the fleshy partes are generated and both the spermaticall and the fleshy are nourished. The Nature of both these principles is very obscure, which we will endeuour to make plaine on this manner. The Seed is called in Greek 〈◇〉, in Latine semen, Genitura, betweene which Aristotle puts a nice difference, but Hippocrates takes them promiscuously for the same. And so we wil call it Seed and Geniture, which we define. A body moyst, hot, frothy and white, consisting of the remainders of the last and perfect nourishment and the spirites mingled therewith, laboured and boyled by the vertue of the Testicles, and so made fit for the perfect generation of a liuing Creature. 
A perfect definitiō of seed.  This definition doth fully and sufficiently expresse all the causes, the formall, the materiall, the efficient and the finall.  
The humidity, heate, frothinesse and whitenes do make the forme. The seed is moist 
The formall cause. Ctesias his error.  〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉, that is in Power and Consistence: and therfore Ctesias Physitian to King Art●xerxis was deceiued, who thought that the seed of an Elephant was so dry that it wold become like vnto Amber; but it is necessary it shold be moyst, as wel that it might be moulded by the efficient, as also because it must contayne the Idea or specificall forme of all the 
How moyst.  particles. Hot it is, that it might produce those formes, for cold entreth not into generation vnlesse it be by accident. It is frothy by the permixtion of the spirits and by their motion; 
Why hot. Why f●othy.  whence it is that the Poets call Venus 〈◇〉 as if shee were made of the froth or foame of the sea; and therefore seede when it is auoyded soone looseth his magnitude, because the spirits which houed it vp do vanish; whereas phlegme and other mucous matters keepe their bulke because they haue little spirites in them. It is white, because it is boyled in the Testicles and the spermaticall vessels whose inward superficies is white, as also because it containeth in it much ayre and spirits: and therfore it is but a vaine thing which Herodotus reporteth of the seed of Negroes or Blacke-Moores, that it is black.  
The matter of the seede is double, the ouerplus of the last nourishment and spirits. That 
The material cause double bloud.  ouerplus is bloud, not altered and whitned in the solid parts as the Antients imagined, but red, pure and sincere, deriued to the Testicles and the preparing vessels from the trunke of the hollow veine through the spermaticall veines. And hence it is that those men who 
Soranus. Why kinsmen are called consanguinei.  are very immoderate in the vse of Venus, auoyde sometimes bloody seede, yea nowe and then pure blood. Of this minde also is Soranus and therefore it is, sayeth he, that the Antiēts called those that were of a kindred Consanguineos. i. of the same bloud, because the seed is made of bloud, which phrase we also at this day retayne. The other matter of the seede is that which maketh it fruitfull; to wit, those Spirites which wander about the body; these 
And spirits.  potentially conteine the Idea or forme of the particular parts( for they are ayrie and moyst easily taking any impression) and passe through the spermaticall arteries to the mazey vessels of the Parastatae and the Testicles. There they are exquisitly minglled with the bloud, and of two is made one body, like as of that admirable complication of the spermaticall veine and arterie is made one vessell.  
This double matter of the seede Hippocrates expresseth by the names of fire and water, 
Hippocrates. How seed is firie. How watry.  for so he sayth sometimes, that the seed is fire, sometimes he calleth it water. It is firie by reason of the spirites which haue in them an impetuous violence or nimble agility, whence also it is called 〈◇〉 semen turgens, swelling seede. In respect of the blood which is the corpulency or bulke thereof, it is called aqueum watery. Both these Hippocrates in his Booke de diaeta in one sentence: legantly expresseth, where he sayth, The Soule creepeth into man being made of a mixture of fire and water: By the Soule he meaneth the Seed, which 
A hard place of Hippocrates explained.  therefore in other places he calleth 〈◇〉 that is Animated: by Fire hee meaneth the spirits and the in-bred heat which is commonly called Innatum calidum; by Water he meaneth the Alimentary moysture which is bloud. The fire sayeth hee moueth all things through and through, the water nourisheth all things through and through. In respect therefore of this double matter the seede carrieth the nature of both the principles of generation; of the materiall in respect of his crassament or thicke body out of which as out of their proportionable matter the spermatical parts are generated; of the efficient and of the forme in respect of the spirits wherewith it is fulfilled. I sayed that the seed was called an efficient 
How seed is both an efficient and materiall cause.  and formall principle, because the efficient and the forme are two actors in respect of their different operations, though indeede and trueth they are but one and the same. For the forme being diffused through the matter, maketh it to be that which it is & no other thing, and it is called 〈◇〉 the species, or 〈◇〉 the act: but considerit as it affecteth, moueth, disposeth and worketh the matter into a proper and conuenient habitation for itself, and then it carrieth the nature of an efficient. The seede in respect of his bodie yssueth onelie from the vessels; but in respect of his spirits which wander vp and downe and through all, it may be sayde to yssue from all the parts of the body. This therefore is the double matter of the seede, blood and spirits.  
The Efficients and authors of the seede are onely the Testicles, for the power called 〈◇〉, 
The efficient cause of the seede.  that is, of making seede, we attribute first of all and originally to the testicles. To the spermaticall vessels secondarily per 〈◇〉, that is, by influence and irradiation from the testicles.  
The last part of the definition designeth the small cause of the seede, to wit, the generation of a liuing creature, and the nourishment of the testicles. And thus it appeareth how this definition of seede is accomplished euery way and compleate. 
The finall cause.   
Furthermore, seede is of two sorts whatsoeuer the Peripateticks prattle to the contrary, one of the male, another of the female; because in both sexes there are by Nature ordained 
Seede of two sorts. Of the Male.  Organs or instruments for the preparing, boyling and leading thereof; as also the same causes of pleasure and delight in the spending or euacuation. But yet the seede of the male is the first principle of generation and more actiue or operatiue; the Females the second 
The Female.  and lesse operatiue, yet they are both fruitfull and powerfull for procreation, but neyther of them auaileable without the helpe of the other.  
Hippocrates in his first Booke de Diaeta maketh mention of a double kinde of seed in both 
Two kinds of seeds in both sexes.  sexes, the one strong & hot, the other weaker and colder. The first he calleth semen masculū or male seede, the other semen foeminium, or female and foeminine seede: out of the diuers mixtion whereof, and as they ouercome one another, hee thinketh that a male or foemale creature is generated. And thus much for the first principle of Generation, vvhich is Seede.   

CHAP. III. Of the Mothers Blood, the other principle of Generation.  
_THE other principle of our Generation is the Mothers Blood, to which we 
What partes are made of this blood.  ascribe the Faculty of suffering onely, and not of dooing, that is to say, it is onely a principle which is wrought vpon by the seed, but itselfe worketh not in the generation of man.  
Of this blood are the Parenchymata of the bowels made, as also the flesh of the Muscles; with this as well the spermaticall as the fleshy parts are nourished, doe encrease 
Menstruall putgations.  and attaine their seuerall perfections. This bloude wee thinke is of the same nature with that which at certaine times euery moneth is purged out by the wombe, in which respect Hippocrates first called it 〈◇〉, that is, the Menstruous or monthly bloode. The Nature of this blood entangled in a thousand difficulties we will make plaine by this definition. The Menstruous blood is the excrement of the last Aliment of the fleshy parts, 
A definition of the courses  which at certaine times and by standing periods is in a moderate quantity purged by the wombe, but originally ordained for the Generation and Nourishment of the New creature. This definition expresseth six heads concerning the menstruall blood: the matter, the Efficient cause, the vniuersall time, the particular time, the quantity, the wayes of euacuation, and the vse which hath the nature of the finall cause.  
The matter of the menstruous blood is the ouer plus of the last Aliment. For in the nature of woman there is a superfluity more then she spendeth for many reasons. First, because her heate is but weake, and cannot discusse or euaporate the reliques lifte after the parts are satisfied; secondly because of the softnesse and loosenesse of their flesh; whence it is that a womans body is scarsely perspirable, that is, in respect of men they sweate but little. Thirdly, by reason of their course of life and order of diet. For they eate more moist meates, they vse bathing oftner, they sleepe more, and in a word their life is more sedentar● and idle, at least they vse lesse exercise; for these reasons a woman among all creatures is followed with these monthly euacuations.  
We call the matter of this bloud an Excrement, not that it cannot bee assimulated or is of a hurtfull or noxious quality like an vnprofitable excrement, but because the quantitie thereof redoundeth after the flesh of the parts is satiated and filled, and is returned into the veines and thence as an excrement vomited out by Nature offended with an vnprofitable burden, for there is a satietie euen of that which is good. And this is that affluence and refluence Hippocrates speaketh off, that tide of the blood sometimes flowing, again ebbing sometimes. For when the veines strut with fulnesse the hot flesh draweth the bloud vnto it, which, when that attraction is satisfied and ceased, ebbeth againe into the vernes. This 
Hippocrates expounded.  blood therefore is laudable and Alimentary, and as Hippocrates writeth in his first Booke de morbis mulierum, floweth out red like the bloud of a sacrifice and soon caketh if the women be sound.  
The veines being fulfilled with these remaynders of the Aliment, and burdned with the 
The efficient cause of the courses.  wayght of the blood whose quantity onely is offensiue vnto them, they solicite Nature to excretion. Nature, being alwayes vigilant for her own behoofe, and a true louer and cherisher of herselfe, by the expelling faculty which she hath alwayes at her command driueth out these reliques. For as a man that hath lost one or both his legges, if hee continue that fulnesse of dyet which hee vsed before, is often solicited with a great issue of blood by the siedge, because the liuer sanguifieth as much as it was wont, which yet there wants one part or more to consume it euen so and after no other manner is this menstruall euacuation accomplished; by Nature not being able to dispose of that plenty which by the Liuer is ministred.  
But because Nature doth all her businesses in order and therefore prescribeth lawes vnto 
The vniuersal time of the courses, and the reasons thereof.  herselfe, she doth not endeuour this excretion in euery age, at all times, nor euery day, but at set times and by determined periods, which shee of herselfe neither anticipateth nor procrastinateth; that is, doth not either preuent or foreslow vnlesse shee be prouoked and hastned before her time, or else hindered or interrupted at her owne time. These Natural times are either vniuersall or particular. The Vniuersal time, all men do accord, beginneth for the most part in the second seauen yeares, that is at 14. yeares olde, and endeth the seauenth seuen, that is at 49. or 50. Now the reason why this bloud floweth not before the 14. yeare is this, because both the vessels are narrower, and beside the heate ouercome with the aboundance of the humour cannot expell the reliques, which after it hath gotten more strength it is able to maister and driue as it were out of the field. Adde hereto that in the first yeares a great part of the bloud is consumed in the growth of the body; and beside before the woman is fit to conceiue, Nature doth not bestow this matter of the menstruall blood vpon her.  
Now at the second seauen yeares the heate begins to gather strength, to burst foorth as 
Why the courses flow ●●. 4. yeares old.  the Sunne in his brightnes, and to rule in the Horizon of the body; from which heate doe proceede as necessary consequencies, the largenes of the wayes and vesselles, the motions and commotions of the humours, their subtilty or thinnesse, and finally the strength of the expelling faculty. At that time men begin to grow hayrie, to haue lustfull imaginations and to change their voyce; womens Pappes begin to swell and they to thinke vppon husbands. After the fiftieth yeare the courses cease, because the heate being nowe become more weake is not able to engender any notable portion of laudable bloud, neither yet if 
Why they stay at 50.  there be any such ouerplus, is able to euacuate or expell the same; you may adde also, that Natures intention and power of procreation beeing determined; it is no more necessary that there should be any nourishment set aside.  
Concerning the particular times of this monthly euacuation, Aristotle is of opinion that it cannot be precisely set downe, and almost all learned men herein consent with him. Notwithstanding 
The particular times of the courses. Aristotle.  it is reasonable, we say, to think that Nature hath set and determined motions and established lawes, albeit wee are ignorant of them: for who was euer so neare of Natures counsell but that he might in some things erre, in somethings be to seek. These times knowne to herselfe shee keepeth immutable and inviolate, vnlesse either the narrownes of the wayes or the thicknes of the humour doe interrupt her, or else shee bee prouoked by the acrimony of a corroding quality in the bloud, or by some other outward prouocatiō; to poure them forth before her owne stinted and limitted time. Once therefore euery moneth she endeuoreth at least, this menstruall excretion, sometimes in the full of the Moon sometimes in the waine; and in those women which we cal viragines, that is, who are more mannish, for three dayes together, in others that are more soft, idle and delicate, such as Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta calleth 〈◇〉, that is, waterish women, for a whole seuen-night. And againe, in the first Section of his sixt Booke Epidem. In women that are waterish the courses continue longer. In those women that are of a middle and meane disposition they continue foure dayes; and these we cal Particular times.  
The quantity of this monthly euacuation cannot be defined. For as Hippocrates obserueth 
Hippocrates.  in his Book de natura muliebri, the blood issueth more freely or more sparingly according to the variety of their colour, temperament, age, habite and the time of the yeare. Those women which are fayre and white haue such aboundance of humour, that it issueth diuerse wayes; contrary to those are browne and swart skins which are commonly drier. In moderate and meane tempered women the quantity of the courses is about two Hemina, that is 18. ounces which is Hippocrates his proportion.  
The wayes ordayned for this euacuation are the veines of the womb and the womb it 
The wayes of the courses.  selfe. The veines do run from the Hipogastrick and spermatick branches to the bottom & necke of the wombe; by the veines of the necke of the wombe it issueth in those women which are with child, by the other in virgins and such as are not conceiued, but not per diapedosim, that is by transudation, but per anastomosim, that is by the opening of the orificies of large and patent veines.  
Now if it be asked why the blood is purged through the womb; I answere, it is done by a wonderfull prouidence of Nature, that the bloud being accustomed to make his iourney 
Why nature purgeth the bloud throgh the wombe.  this way, it might after conception presently accrew for the nourishment and generation of the Infant.  
Hence we gather the finall cause of the menstruous bloud( which was the last poynt in our definition) to be double, the generation of the parenchymata or substances of the bowels 
The finall cause of the menstruous bloud double  and the flesh, as also the nourishment and sustentation of the Infant as well whilest it is in the mothers wombe, as also after it is borne into the world. For howe should the seede conceiued atteine either nourishment or increase vnlesse this bloud should be disposed into these wayes wherein the Infant is conceiued. Afterward when it is born, the same blood returneth by knowne and accustomed waies also into the pappes and there is whitned into milke to suckle it. And this we take to be the nature of the second principle of our generation, the mothers bloud or the monthly courses.   

CHAP. IIII. Of Conception.  
_THese two principles of Generation, Seede and the Mothers bloud are not at one and the same time auoyded in coition, because the spermaticall and the 
The order of the accesse of the principles  fleshy parts are not at one and the same time delineated. But if the generation goe rightly on, first both sexes doe affoord fruitfull and pure seedes which are poured out into the wombe as it were into a fertil field. Afterward when the filaments or threds of the solide parts are lined out, then the bloud floweth thereto as wel for the structure of the parenchymata or substāces of the bowels, as also for the nourishment of the whole embryo or little Infant.  
The man therefore and the woman ioyned together in holy wedlocke, and desirous to raise a posterity for the honour of God and propagation of their family; in their mutual imbracements 
Hippocrates expounded.  doe either of them yeeld seede the mans leaping with greater violence. The woman at the same instant doth not onely eiaculate seede into herself, but also her womb snatcheth as it were and catcheth the seede of the man, and hideth it in the bottom and bosome thereof.  
These seedes thus cast and drawne into the bottome of the wombe are out of hand exquisitly mingled, otherwise sayeth Hippocrates in his Book de Naturapuert, they are neither nourished nor animated together. And if any man, sayth he in his first Book de diaeta, do deny that the Soule is mixed with the Soule, let him be held for a dotard. Now by the Soule hee meaneth the Seed, as we haue sayed before. This mingling of the seedes is the first work or indeuour of Nature in generation. And presently after the seeds are thus mingled, the 
Conception what it is.  womb, which is the most noble and almost diuine Nurse, gathereth & contracteth itself, and that I may vse the words of the Arabians is so corrugated that ther is no empty or void place left therein. And this it doth as being greedy to conteyne and to cherish, we say to Conceiue the seed. Moreouer, least the geniture thus layd vp should issue forth againe, the mouth or orifice of the wombe is so exquisitly shut and locked vp that it will not admit the poynt of a needle. Then the wombe rowzeth and raiseth vp the sleepy and lurking power of the seeds, and that which was before but potentiall, it bringeth into act. This action of the womb we properly call Conception, the Grecians 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉, and it is a Virification 
An action of the wombe.  of fruitfull seede to make a creature, depending vpon a proprietie of the body of the wombe.  
Hippocrates in his Booke de Principijs, and the fift Aphoris: hath left vnto vs some signes 
The signes of Conception.  of Conception. Some also doe gather signes of Conception out of all the parts almost of the body. We thinke a woman hath conceiued, if in the confluence of their seedes there runneth a chilnesse or light horror through her whole body; or if she perceiue her womb to contract itself; if she receiue the seede of man with delight and it yssue not from her againe, if the inner mouth of the womb be exquisitely and perfectly snut; if she haue a light and wandering paine about her Nauell or Hypogastrium, which we call the Water course; if her monthly courses do stop vnvsually; if her Paps grow hard, do swell and haue paine in them; if she be not so fit for, or desirous of Venus combats; if she suddenly grow mery and as suddenly againe sad beyond her accustomed manner; finally, if shee haue a loathing of her meate, and vse to cast in the morning after her bodye is a little stirred. But vvhether a 
Of a man and of a Womanchild.  woman be conceiued with a man or a woman childe it is very hard to iudge. Notwithstanding, we may thus make coniecture out of Hippocrates in the 48. Aphorisme of the 5. Section. She that goeth with a manchilde is well coloured, she that goeth with a woman child is swarthy or pale coloured. Againe, in the same place Male children are born in the right side, Females in the left; & in the 38 Aphorisme of the same Section. If she haue conceiued a male the right pap will swell, if a female the left: but all these signes are rather coniecturall then carry any certainty with them.   

CHAP. V. Of the Conformation of the Parts.  
_THE Generatiue faculty which before lay steeped, drowsie, and as it vvere intercepted in the seede, being now raised vp by the heat and inbred propriety of the wombe breaketh out into acte, as raked Cinders into a luculent flame. Then that noble and diuine builder setteth vpon her worke, & buildeth herself a habitation fit for the exercise and performance of all hir functions. 
The spirite is the workman  But because she could not performe this so great a worke without an organ or Instrument, she vseth the spirit, wherewith the froathy seede swelleth, as hir Painter or drawer to score out and delineat● all the particular parts. This spirit walketh through the vvhole body of the seede, and diffuseth itself into euery part and portion thereof. This spirite is he which maketh the parts Homogenie, that is, gathereth all the particles of a kinde together, extendeth them, and as a glasse maker holloweth or boreth them by blowing into thē. To this spirit Aristotle imputeth the Ordination, the Segregation, the Concretion, the 
Aristotle.  Densation, Rarefaction, and Contraction of the matter of the parts. This Galen in his second Booke de Semine, calleth the framing Artizan, the begetter or the former of the parts of man. And Mercurius Trismegistus saide well, that it was the spirite which viuifieth or 
Mer. Trismegist  quickneth euery forme in the whole world, dispensing and gouerning all things according to the proper worth of each particular.  
The spirit therefore is the first and immediate instrument of the soule, disporting itself in the bulke of the seede, and like a cunning Painter shaddowing out first with a rude Pensill the conformation of all parts both Similar and Organicall, the forme and Idea whereof it conteineth in itself, afterward it addeth the liuely colours, beautifying and pollishing euery one in their due order.  
This whole worke of conformation that admirable Hippocrates, as Galen witnesseth in his first Booke de Semine, distinguisheth into foure times. The first time is that, wherein the 
The Conformation diuided into four times.  seeds mingled doe yet retaine their own forme which he calleth 〈◇〉, for then there is nothing to be seene but the seede coagulated or sammed together, and couered as it wer with a fi●me. The second time he calleth 〈◇〉, wherein there is a certaine rude adumbration of the parts, and as it were a fleshy masse. The third, wherein a man may see the representation of the three principall parts, the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer, together with the first threds and as it were the warp of all the spermaticall parts, and this constitution of the creature he calleth 〈◇〉. The fourth and last time wherein there is a persect separation, discretion and description of all the parts, and then he calleth it 〈◇〉, the childe or the Infant. This surely is an excellent distribution, but for those that are rude such as wee intend to informe a great deale too darke and obscure. We will therefore endeuour ourselves more manifestly to shew vnto you the whole processe of Nature in the conformation of a man, and in what order all the parts are at first orderly delineated.  
Whilst the spirit, the instrument of the soule, beginneth to work vpon the masse of seed which to see to is vniforme, but indeed full of Heterogeny or different parts; First of all it seuereth the parts which are vnlike one another; the thinner more noble and better furnished with spirits it hideth within; the thicker, colder and clammier which most part are supplied by the mothers seede, it compasseth about the former. At these cold and viscidparts of the Seede it beginneth the conformation, for of them it maketh membranes, and streatcheth 
First the membranes.  them out in breadth according to Natures vse and intent, shewing therein her admirable prouidence. For with these as it were with defences the more noble part of the seede is walled about and secured; the inward spirites concluded or imprisoned which otherwise because of their tenuity would easily vanish. Adde farther, that if the membranes had not first beene made, the tender Embryo and the principall partes thereof would haue suffered offence from the hardnes of the wombe.  
For euen as God in the great world hath separated the fire from the earth by the interposition of water and ayre, so in the Microcosme or Little world, the Nature of manimitating the grand Architect hath separated the Infant from the wombe by the interposition of these membranes. But the Nature of these membranes is not all one in Beastes and in men. For in Beastes, especially such as haue hornes, we haue obserued three membranes 
In Beastes 3.  called Chorion, Amnion, & Allantoidem. That we call Chorion cleaueth wholly to the womb by the interposition of the vmbilicall veines and arteries, and in this membrane are to bee seene those Cotyledones wouen of a fleshy and spongy substance. The second membrane called Amnios is thinner then the former, this compasseth round about the Creature and is thought to bee the receptacle of the sweate. The third is called Allantoides, because it is much like that we call a Haggas pudding, for it doeth not encompasse all the Creature but only from the Breast-blade to the Hips, and may be compared to a girdle or broad swathe, and is sayed to contayne the vrine of the creature whilest it is in the womb. In a man there are onely two membranes to be found, the first and the second called Chorion and Amnios. 
In men two. Chorion.  The Chorion is neruous and strong, & encompasseth the Infant roūd whence haply it hath his name, either because it compasseth it as a circle or crowne, or because it is foetus 〈◇〉, the conceptacle of the Infant, or because it supplyeth nourishment vnto it, for somuch 〈◇〉 foundeth.  
This membrane like a soft boulster or pillow susteyneth and supporteth all the veines and the vmbilicall arteries; for it was not safe that the vesselles of the Infant issuing out of his Nauill should go so long a iourney naked without defence. In them are not as in br●●● 
Why in women the Cotyledones are not found.  beastes those Cotyledones or knubbes like the Teates of the Breast, but onely a fleshy masse made of infinite branches of veines and arteries wonderfully implicated or wouen togither and filled vp with blood which supplyeth the place of these Cotyledones. The later writers call it the cake or Liuer of the wombe, and some orbicularem affusionem the round affusion. Whose vse is as another Liuer to prepare and boyle the bloud for the nourishment of the Infant. We do rather call this round and red body like the orbe of the Moone when it is at the full, which cleaueth onely to one part of the wombe and doth not wholly encompasse the Infant; 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉 the Sweete-bread of the wombe, and doe assigne vnto it that vse that the Sweete-bread hath in the lower belly, to wit, safely to support and as a pillow 
The vse of the cake.  to beare vp the vmbilicall vesselles diuersly sprinkled through the Chorion. But it may be demanded why an Infant hath not those acetabula or Cotyledones to tye the Chorion firmly to the wombe as it is in beastes: happely because a woman doth not bring forth so many young as beastes doe; or because the wombe of a beast swelleth more outward, and therefore could not beare their burthen vnlesse it had beene fastned with stronger tyes.  
The other coate which immediatly encompasseth the Infant, from the softnes and thinnes thereof is called 〈◇〉 the Lambs-skinne: others call it the shirt, and the Arabians ●bigas. 
Amneios.  It is loose on euery side vnlesse it be at the place of the cake, where it groweth so fast to the Chorion that it can hardly be separated; and this coate receiueth the sweate and theyrine from whence the Infant hath no small help, for it swimmeth as it were in these waters or is couched in them as it were in a bath: beside, it maketh the birth more facile and easie 
His vse.  because it moystneth the orifice of the wombe and maketh it more slippery.  
These coats growing one to another seem to make but one couering, which the greels call 〈◇〉, the Latines secunda or secundina, either because it issueth last out of the 
The afterbirth.  womb in the birth, or because it is a second habitation for the Infant, the womb being the first, we call it commonly the after-birth.  
The inner or more noble part of the seede being secured by these membranes or coat, more bloudly vndertaketh the forming of the parts. At that time therefore the spirite waketh through the whole body of the seede, and because there are two faculties assistant to the procreating faculty, that is to say, the Changing and the Forming: therefore first of all the seede is altered or changed and disposed, then almost in the same instant the first threds of the spermaticall partes are together and at once skored or shaddowed out with rude lines.  
Then are to be seene three bubbles or cleare drops such as the raine rayseth when it falleth into a riuer, which are the rudiments of the three principall parts, & beside a thousand 

The foundations of the parts are layd at once.  
3. bladders. Hippocrates.   strings which are the warp, as it were, of the vessels and the spermaticall parts. So that it is very likely that those oracles of Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta, and in his Book de locis in homine are most true, where he sayeth, that all the parts are inchoated or begun together, but doe not appeare neither are perfected at once but by degrees. But at what time whether the fift or the seauenth day, all these begin to be figured, hee only the Creator who 
The 7. day the parts are deliniated.  maketh the Infant knoweth, and none else. Yet if we will relye vpon Hippocrates authority or vpon our owne experience, which is very tickle, we may say, That the seauenth day the seede hath what soeuer the body ought to haue, that is as I interpret it; the seuenth day doe appeare the rudements of all the spermaticall partes, which also your eye may discerne if you cast the masse into fayre water and then diligently view it These foundations of the spermaticall 
What parts are first formed.  parts being thus layed, euery one is after accomplished in their owne order, first those that are most noble and most necessary, as the three principall partes, the Brayne, the Heart and the Liuer, and the vessels to them belonging, nerues, arteries and veines. The veines are propagated from the Liuer euen to the Chorion, and to the same membrane are deriued arteries from the Iliacall branches, and doe ioyne with the mouths of the vessels of the wombe, so that these vmbilicall vesselles by which the Infant draweth his breath are the of-spring of more inward vessels contrary to the common opinion of the vulgar Anatomists.  
The harder and more solide parts are figurated together, but not together perfected. 
Their order.  For of the bones some are sooner perfected some later. The ribbes, the lower iaw, the smal bones of the eares, the patell or choler bones, the bone hyois, are all bones euen from the first originall. The bones of the arme, the legge and the thigh haue their heads imperfect and meerly gristly; the bones of the vpper iaw, of the hands, of the whole spine & the rump are nothing else at the first but gristles.  
The cause of the more speedy forming or perfecting of any part is to bee referred to the 
The causes of this order.  vse thereof, that is, to the necessity of the finall cause; and therefore the ribbes because they make the cauity of the Chest are at first made bony, least otherwise the bowelles should be compressed. The lower iaw was very necessary instantly after the birth of the Infant for his sucking and other motions. The small bones of the eares that they might resound the better needed be dry and hard. The patell or coller bones were necessarily made strong at the first, because they tye the arme and the shoulder blade to the trunke of the body; as also the bone hyoids to establish the toung. And thus may we make estimation of the other parts; in the delineation whereof the forming quality perpetually laboureth, neuer resting 
At what times the conformation is accomplished.  till it haue made an absolute separation and description of them all. This is performed in male children the thirtiteh day, and in females the 40. or the 42. day. So sayth Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri, and de septimestri partu. A woman child hath her conformation at the farthest the two and fortieth day, and a man child at the farthest at the thirtieth.  
This is the first conformation of the Infant made onely of the body or substance of the seede, which the creature exceedeth not in magnitude. For sayeth Aristotle in his seuenth Booke of his History of Creatures and the third Chapter, if you cast the Embryo into cold water it will not appeare bigger then a great Pismyre; but I, sayth Laurentius, haue often seen an Infant of 40. dayes old, as long as a mans little finger.  
There is another conformation of the Infant of the other principle of Generation, that 
The second conformation from the bloud.  is of bloud, of which the fleshy parts are framed, as the spermatical are of seed. This bloud floweth through the vmbilicall veine, which is a branch of the gate veine filling the emptie distances betweene the fibres.  
But whereas there are three sorts of flesh; that which groweth to the bowels they call 〈◇〉; that which adhereth to the fibres of the muscles they call absolutely flesh; and 
3. sorts of flesh.  the third is that which is proper to euery particular part. This threefold flesh we say is not generated together and at once but in order: first the Parenchymata, next the flesh of the 
The order of this conformation.  particular partes, and last of all the flesh of the muscles. Of the Parenchymata the first that is formed, is that of the Liuer, because the vmbilicall veine first powreth out the bloode thereinto; then the Parenchyma of the heart, then those of the other bowels. And this is the manner and order of the conformation of the infant, and of all the parts thereof.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Nourishment of the Infant, and how it exerciseth the Naturall Faculties.  
_AS in the workes of Art men do proceed from that which is lesse perfect to that which is more perfect; right so is it in the works of Nature. Wherfore the tender Embryo liueth first the most imperfect life, that is, the life of a 
Three kindes of life.  Plant which we call the Vegitatiue life. Afterward growing vnto further strength, it attaineth the life of an vnreasonable creature which we call the Sensatiue life, and last of all the most perfect life of a man when it is endued with a reasonable soule. This Aristotle teacheth in his first Booke de Generatione Animalium where he saith, the Infant is not made a liuing Creature and a man together. But we must 
Aristotle.  vnderstand that this progresse in perfection commeth not by reason of the forme, because that is simple and cannot be diuided, but by reason of the matter, that is, of the Organes, which that noble forme and first acte vseth for the accomplishment of second Acts as wee call them, and all the functions.  
The first life of the creature whereby it liueth from the very beginning of the Conception, is the most simple; and is maintained without that which wee properly call Nourishment. And indeede what neede was there of Nourishment or restauration where there was no exhaustion or consumption of the parts? The Embryo at first hath sufficient to cherish itself out of it owne heate, and by it owne inbred spirit. But after the parts are distinguished 
Two kinds of Nourishing  and delineated, then presently it beginneth to be nourished and encreased, yet is not this nourishment of the same kind with that which the infant enioyeth after it is ariued into the worlde. For then it sucketh Aliment by the mouth, but whilst it is in the wombe it receiueth it onely by the Nauell, whatsoeuer Democritus and Epicurus say. And that did Hippocrates not obscurely intimate, when he saide in his Booke De Alimento, 〈◇〉. that is, The first Nourishment is the Nauel through the Abdomen. After it is borne it swalloweth into the stomacke meats of all kinds, before( saith Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura puert) it draweth onely of the purest bloode from the Mother, 
One only action in the nourishment of the Infant.  which is transfused into the Liuer. The Infant after it is borne maketh manifolde changes and alterations in the Aliment: first Chylification, then Sanguification, lastly perfect Assimulation which is the third concoction. When the infant draweth pure bloode, it giueth not thereto any forme or fashion, but only a perfection and temper like vnto itselfe. Wherfore we ascribe to the infant not Chylification nor Sanguification, but onely the third concoction which is the particular Nourishment of the singular parts. The manner of this thirde and onely concoction in the infant conteined in the wombe, is thus.  
The infant being tied by the mediation of vessels and Membranes to the Mothers womb, draws the purest of her blood through the mouths of those vessels inoculated one into another after a wonderfull manner. This blood thus drawn is powred into the body of the Liuer 
The true way how the Infant is nourished.  through the vmbilicall veine, which is a branch of the gate-veine, and reacheth to the Fissure of the Liuer, yea you may often in dead bodies followe a probe out of it into the small veins of the Liuer: Here the blood is more and more perfected, afterward the thicker and more crude part is distributed through the roots of the Gate-veine into the stomacke, the spleene and the kidneys, the excrements and reliques wherof by the Splenick & mesenterick branches are abligated into the cauity of the guts, and there are by degrees gathered together, and in their abode are so dried that they become thick and blacke. The purer and better concocted part of the bloode is conueyed into the trunke of the hollow veine, from 
The extrements of the Infant where bestowed.  which it is diffused through the whole body by the veins, as it were by smal riuerets. But because the blood is not without his whey, which serueth to weft it through the smal Veines, therefore the whey hauing performed that his office is partly spent in sweate by the habite of the body, partly it is drawne by the Kidneys, and so transcolated through the Vreters or Vrine vessels into the bladder. For the conteyning of which sweate and Vrine, Nature appointed the Membrane called Amnios. Yet we must not thinke that the Infant pisseth his 
The vse of the Vrathus.  vrine into this Membrane by the priuities, but it is conueyed thereinto thorough the Vrachos, which is a long and bloodlesse Canale or pipe lengthened from the bottome of the Bladder vnto the Nauell. Neyther hath it any Muscle thereto belonging, because in the Infant no time is vnseasonable for the auoyding of these excrements; whereas when we auoide our vrine, we haue Muscles at the roote of the yard, to stay or to further that euacuation that it might not be performed but in conuenient time, and at our best leisure as before is saide.   

CHAP. VII. How the Infant exerciseth his vital Faculties.  
_THE Infant also liueth in the wombe farre otherwise then hee liueth after he is borne; for neither is the Chest distended and contracted, because hee 
The dissimilitude of the life of the Infant before & after birth.  draweth not his breath by his mouth, neither doth hee engender any vitall spirits because he draweth them from his Mother: neither lastly dooth hee neede the motion or worke of the Heart or the Lungs, but the heate of the perticular parts is cherished, preserued and refreshed onely by Transpiration and the pulsation of the Arteries.  
This different life hath also a different structure, substance, and vse of the vitall organes, which because it hath not beene knowne to any of the Anatomists of this our age; albeit it was first of all discouered by Galen in his sixte and fifteenth Bookes of the Vse of Partes, though obscurely, we will endeuour to make it as manifest and plaine as possibly we can.  
In the Basis of the heart, that is, in the broad end, there appeare foure notable vesselles, 
Galens wonderful Obseruation.  two in the right ventricle, the Hollow veine, and the Arteriall veine, and two in the lefte, the great Artery, and the venall Artery. The vse of these after we are borne is this. The 
The Vse of those Vessells after birth.  Hollow veine which gapeth with a wide mouth into the heart, powreth the bloode into the right ventricle as it were into a wide Cisterne, there it is reboyled and attenuated as well for the generation of vitall spirits, as also for the nourishment of the Lungs. A parte therefore of it swetheth through the middle wall betwixt the ventricles into the left ventricle. Another part is carried by the arteriall veine into the thin, rare, and spongy substance of the Lungs. The Venall Artery leadeth into the left Ventricle the aer which wee breath in, prepared before in the Lungs where it is mingled with the blood, of which permixtion the vitall spirits are generated. This spirite the heart driueth into the trunke, and so into 
The vse of the vessels before the Infant is borne.  branches of the great Artery. In the infant before birth all these things are otherwise, and afarre other vse is there of all the vessels.  
For the hollow veine doth not poure this streame of blood into the right ventricle, because neither the Lungs stand in need of attenuated blood, being at that time all of thē red, thicke, and immooueable, neither is there any generation of vitall spirits. The venall artery leadeth not the aer into the left ventricle, because the infant doeth not breath by the mouth, but onely hath vse of Transpiration. The great Artery receiueth no vitall spirites from the heart, but by the vmbilicall arteries: and therefore the Arteriall veine dooth not the office of a veine but of an Arterie, for it carrieth onely vitall spirits, but no bloode. Againe the venall artery doth the office of a veine, containing onely thick and hie coloured blood for the nourishment of the Lungs. But because there was no passage from the Hollow veine to the venall Artery, Nature ioyned these two vessels( which doe but touch one 
How the Vessels of the hart are vnited.  another) by a large and round hole through which the bloode hath free passage from the Hollow veine, to the venall Artery.  
To this hole she hath also set a thin and cleare Membrane like a couer, which shoulde giue way to the blood rushing out of the Hollow vein, but should prohibit it for returning againe thereinto. As also that by means of this Membrane, the hole after birth when there is no more vse of it, might sooner bee souldered vp, hauing a principle of consolidation so neere and ready at hand. And because the arteriall veine and the great artery were distant a little space each from other, she hath ioyned them by a third pipe or Canale of the Nature of an artery running aslope betweene them, that so the vital spirite might passe freely from the great artery into the arteriall veine.  
This is that admirable vnion of the vessels of the heart in the infant vnborn, to wit, of the 
The wonderfull resiccatiō of the passages after birth  hollow veine with the venall artery, and of the great Artery with the arteriall veine; but the shutting vp and resiccation of these vessels within a few dayes after the birth, that is indeed beyond all admiration. For that large hole vvhereof vvee spake, is so closed that there remaineth no footsteps or signe of it. As for the third arteriall pipe or Canale, vvithin a fevv daies it vvithereth and shrinketh together, and at length it grovveth so small that no man would beleeue there vvere any such thing.  
Hence it may bee concluded that the Infant in the wombe draweth his mothers spirites by the vmbilicall arteries, and liueth contented onely with the pulsation of the arteries, not at all needing the help or motion of the heart.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the motion and scituation of the Infant in the wombe, which are Animall faculties.  
_THE Soule being an 〈◇〉 or act of an Naturall organicall body, doeth not nor cannot performe her functions without a conuenient organ or instrument. Wherefore in the first monethes the tender Infant by reason of 
Why the Infant moueth not the first 3. months.  the weaknes of the Brayne and softnesse of the sinewes is not able to moue his members. But when the bones begin to gather strength, and the nerues, membranes and ligaments, which before were full of a mucous and slimy humour begin to dry, then the Infant kicketh and moueth.  
The first beginning of this motion sayeth Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri, and de morbis Mulierum, is in Male children at the third moneth, in Females at the fourth: so 
When the motion begins. Hippocrates.  that there is a certaine and definite proportion of the conformation and the motion of the Infant, and a double time comming betweene them. Male children therefore because they haue their conformation the thirtieth day doe mooue the ninetieth, now the 90. day maketh vp the third moneth. Females because they haue their conformation the two & fortieth day, they are mooued the hundered and twentyeth, which fulfilleth the fourth moneth.  
This motion of the Infant is not Naturall but voluntary, as beeing perfourmed by the helpe of the Muscles contracting themselues. The muscles are contracted because the 
The Infants motion voluntary.  Soule so commaundeth. This commaundement is carryed by a corporeall Spirite and conuayed thorough the Nerues; which Spirte is daylie generated in the Sinus of the Braine or in his substance of the Vitall, which the Infant receiueth from the vmbilicall Arteries.  
To this moouing faculty wee must also referre the scituation or position of the Infant in the wombe. For so Hippocrates in his Prognostickes referreth the position or manner 
The scituation of the Infant.  of lying of the sickeman, eyther prone that is downeward, or supine that is vpward or on either side, to the weaknes and strength of the mouing faculty.  
The Naturall scituation of the Infant is thus described by Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri. The Infant as he is placed in the wombe hath his hands at his knees, and his head bent downe to his feete. Wherefore he sitteth in the wombe crumpled, contracted or bent 
The natural scituation. Hippocrates.  round, holding his knees with his hands and bending his head betweene them, so that each eye is fixed to the thumbe of either hand, and his nose betwixt his knees.  
This Figure though it bee not exquifitely the meane or middle position as wee call it, that is so Naturall as that all the partes are in their due position; yet it commeth nearest thereunto, and therefore is neither paynfull nor wearisome to the Infant; and for the mother 
Figura media what it is.  very conuenient because thus the Infant taketh vp the least roome, and beside riseth not so high that it should presse or beare vp the midriffe or the stomacke, as we see in some women vvhen their burthen lyeth high they are short breathed and much more vnvvealdy 
The reason of the position.  as vve vse to say.  
Moreouer this position is most fit for the easie birth of the Infant, for lying thus vvith his head betvvixt his legges, vvhen he seeketh meanes to get out, he is sooner turned vvith his head dovvnevvard to the orifice of the vvombe, vvhich manner of trauell is of all other the easiest and most secure, both for the Infant and the mother, as shall better appeare in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. IX. The exclusion or birth of thr Childe.  
_THE tender and soft particles of the Infant being now all perfected and established hee becommeth euery day greater and hotter, and requireth more nourishment, and being now not contented onely with transpiration, desireth and striueth after a more free vse of the ayre.  
Now when as the mother is not able to supply vnto the Infant either the ayre whereby it liueth in sufficient quantity through the narrow vmbilical arteries, or other nourishment by the vmbilicall veines, whereby it might be supported and refrigerated, the Infant then as it were vndertaking of himselfe a beginning of motion, striueth to free himselfe from the prison and dungeon wherein he was restrayned; kicking therefore hee breaketh the membranes wherein he was inwrapped, and arming himselfe with strong violence maketh way for his inlargement with all the strength and contention that he may.  
This contention and distention the wombe ill brooking, and besides being ouer burthened with the waight of the Infant now growne, striueth to lay downe her loade, and with 
The causes of a womās deliuerance.  all her strength by that expulsiue faculty wherewith she is especially furnished she rowzeth vppe herself, and with violence thrusteth her guest out of possession of his true inheritance.  
Thus the ioynt strife and as it were consent betwixt the Infant and the wombe bringeth to light a new man, not vppon his feete, nor side-long, but as diuine Hippocrates hath foreshewed 
In what manner the Infant is borne.  〈◇〉, that is head-long, so be his out-gate be naturall. The reason is, because the vpper parts which hang vpon the nauel string as at the beame of the ballance, do ouerway the neather.  
Furthermore, this strife and contention of the Infant and the wombe is assisted by the voluntary endeuor of the woman in trauell, which is by drawing in her breath and by that meanes bearing down the midriffe: adde hereto the skilfull hand of the heads-woman or Midwife as we cal them, for she setteth the woman in a due posture or position of parts, receiueth the Infant gently which falleth from betwixt her knees, directeth it if it offer itself amisse; and finally draweth away as easily as is possible the after-birth which stayeth behinde.  
Here Galen in his 15. Booke de vsu partium, breakes out into an admiration of the Immortall 
Galens admiration at the prouidence of God.  God; for the mouth or orifice of the womb, which in the whole time that the burthen was carried, was so exquisitly closed vp, nowe enlargeth itself to that extent that the body of the Infant passeth through it.  
This birth hath no certaine or limitted time in man as in other creatures, but hapneth vncertainly at any time of the yeare: the reason is, because other creatures haue set times of copulation, but man because the propagation of his kinde was most necessary; is not tyed to any time or season, but left to the liberty of his appetite and guidance of his discretion. 
The time of trauel vncertaine.  Adde hereto; that other creatures in their coitions are glutted and more then satisfied: man( I know not how) hath his appetite encreased euen in the fruition of that which hee affecteth. Other creatures vse alwayes one and the same manner of diet, which may be a brydle and restraynt: Man wandreth wantonly through infinite varieties of viands and delicaces whereby he is goaded and prouoked to intemperate lust. I forbeare to speake of the power of those fancies, lustful imaginations and passions wherby euery houre as by so many furies he is racked and tormented: all which we know are of great auaile to alter the body of man.  
The times of the birth of man are the 7. 8. 9. 10. and eleuenth monethes. The seauenth 
The time of mans birth.  moneth is the first time, because before it an Infant cannot be borne aliue into the world, neither indeede is such an exclusion properly called a birth, but an abortment. The eleauenth moneth is the last time and vtmost limit, which whosoeuer exceedeth, is deceiued in the time of her conception, and the Cat we say hath eaten her marke. The middle months are the nine and the tenth.  
By a moneth we meane with Hippocrates that which they call mensis solaris, that is to say 
Hippocrates.  thirty dayes. Nor that birth which we cal Septimestris, or Nonimestris, or Decimestris, each fulfill seauen or nine or ten whole and compleate monethes: for wee knowe that there is a great latitude of the seuenth and tenth moneth, so that the Infant that is born in the beginning or middle or end of the seuenth month is truely called partus septimestris. The beginning 
Septimestris partus what it is.  of the seuenth moneth Hippocrates designed in his Booke de septimestri partu, where he sayeth that those Infants which wee call septimestres are brought into the world within an hundred and fourescore dayes and a peece of a day. The end of the seuenth month hee limitteth in his Booke de principiis, where he sayth that the Septimestris partus is circumscribed within thirty weekes, that is two hundred and ten dayes; for 7. times 30. amounteth to that number.  
The Infants called Octimestres, that is, such as are borne the eight moneth do neuer liue, vnlesse happely in Egypt, because the heauen and the soyle are there most gentle and benigne. The birth at nine moneths is most legitmate and to Nature most familiar. In the tenth month trauell is not so vncouth, in the eleuenth most rare.  
But why the seuenth month and the ninth should bring forth liuing Infants not the eight, the Pythagorians do refer to the power and efficacy of Numbers, the Geometricians to the duplicated proportion of the conformation and the motion, and the triplicated proportion 
Why the Infant borne the 7. month suruiueth.  of the motion to the birth. The Astrologians refer it to the diuerse and different Aspects of the Planets and Stars. But these are meere toyes.  
The Physitians vppon better grounds haue found out certaine and established rules of Nature and her ordinary Circuites and Returnes, which vnlesse she be interrupted or prouoked, she neuer either hasteneth or foresloweth. Wherefore seeing the infant in the seuenth 
The Physitiās reasons.  month becommeth perfect, not wanting any accomplishment of his parts, if at that time he haue strength sufficient, he breaketh the Membranes and worketh out his passage, liuing and suruiuing because he is perfect, especially if it be a male childe.  
But in the eight moneth if he be borne, albeit he haue the perfection of his parts, yet he suruiueth not, because he is not able to endure two instantly succeeding afflictions( as we call them) or contentions; for the seuenth month being now perfected he laboureth sore and striueth for his enlargement. If therefore being weakened by that strift he againe returne to labor before he be refreshed, it is impossible he should hold out or suruiue so great expence of strength and spirits but must needs sink and faile.  
Furthermore, at the eight moneth the Infant doth not liue, because he commeth after 
Why the viii. month the infant liuethnot  the day of birth which should haue been in the seauenth month, and before the day which is to be the ninth.  
Whereupon we gather, that some euill accident hath betided him, which eyther hath hindred his birth the seauenth month, or preuented his stay till the ninth. But because these things are somewhat obscure, we referre you for further satisfaction to the Controuersies 
The subiect of the Controuersies following.  next ensuing, wherein we will labour to assoile not onely this difficulty, but also all others which may arise concerning the difference and temper of the Sexes, the Nature and Effusion of the seede, the quality and causes of Excretion of the Mothers bloode, the Lawfulnesse and Errors of Conception, the manner and time of Conformation, the Growth and encrease of the Infant, and how it exerciseth the Naturall, Vitall and Animall Functions; and finally, concerning the Nature, Differences, Times, and Causes of the Birth:    

¶ A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies concerning the Historie of the Infant.  

QVEST. I. Of the Difference of the Sexes.  
_ARistotle in his Bookes of the History and Generation of creatures, doth often inculcate that the difference of Sexes is most necessary vnto perfect Generation, which is also sufficientlie proued by the Finall cause the most noble of al the rest, moouing 
The necessity of the distinction of the sexes.  the other causes itself remaining immooueable. For as in the seede of a Plant, the power of the whol tree is potentially included and contained, which notwithstanding neuer breaketh into acte, vnlesse that acte be stirred vp by the heate of the earth; Right so, the seeds of the Parents conteyning in them the Idea or forme of the singular parts of the bodie, are neuer actuated, neuer exhibite their power and efficacie, vnlesse they be sown and as it were buried in the fruitfull Fielde or Garden of Nature, the womb of the woman.  
It was therefore necessary that there should be a double creature, one which shoulde beget in another, and another that should generate in itself: the first we call a Male, the second a Foemale.  
The Male is originally the hotter, and therefore the first principle of the work, and besides 
What the Male is.  affoordeth the greatest part of the formatiue power or faculty.  
The Female is the colder, and affoordeth the place wherein the seede is conceiued, 
What the Female is.  and the matter whereby the Conception is nourished and sustained, which matter is the crude and raw remainders of her owne aliment.  
The place is the wombe, which by a naturall disposition looseneth the bondes wherein the spirit of the seede is fettered, and withall helpeth to adde vigour and efficacie therunto. For if the seede should be powred into any other part of the body it would not be Conceyued but putrified; not preserued, but corrupted.  
The matter whereby the seede is nourished is the Mothers bloode. The Excrement of the last aliment of the fleshy parts.  
This difference of the Sexes do not make the essentiall distinctions of the creature: the 
The diffrence of Sexes is not essentiall,  reasons are: First( because as Aristotle saith in his second Booke de Generatione Animalium and the 4. chap. and in his 4. Booke de Historia Animalium and the 17. chapt.) in all creatures there is not this distinction or diuersity of Sexes. Secondly, because essentiall differences do make a distinction of kinds: now we know that the Male and the Female as both of one kinde, and onely differ in certaine accidents. But what these accidentall differences are is not agreed vpon as yet.  
The Peripatetiks thinke that Nature euer intendeth the generation of a Male, and that the Female is procreated by accident out of a weaker seede which is not able to attaine the 
Aristot. Error.  perfection of the male. Wherefore Aristotle thinketh, that the Woman or female is nothing else but an error or aberration of Nature, which he calleth 〈◇〉 by a Metaphor taken from Trauellers which misse of their way and yet at length attain their iournies end; yea he proceedeth further and saith, that the female is a bye worke or preuarication, yea the first monster in Nature.  
Galen in his 6. and 7. chapters of his 14. Booke de vsu partium, following Aristotle something 
Galens Error.  too neere, writeth, that the formatiue power which is in the seede of man being but one, doth alwayes entend the generation of one, that is, the Male; but if she erre from hir scope and cannot generate a male, then bringeth she foorth the female which is the first and most simple imperfection of a male, which therefore he calleth a creature lame, occasionall and accessary, as if she were not of the mayne, but made by the bye.  
Now heerein he putteth the difference betwixt her and the Male, that in males the parts of generation are without the body, in Females they lye within because of the weakenesse of the heate, which is not able to thrust them foorth. And therefore he saith, that the neck of the wombe is nothing else but the virile member turned inward, and the bottome of the wombe nothing but the scrotum or cod inuerted.  
But this opinion of Galen and Aristotle we cannot approue. For we thinke that Nature aswell intendeth the generation of a female as of a male: and therefore it is vnworthily said 
Disprooued.  that she is an Error or Mouster in Nature. For the perfection of all naturall things is to be esteemed and measured by the end: now it was necessary that woman should be so formed or else Nature must haue missed of her scope, because shee intended a perfect generation, which without a woman cannot be accomplished.  
Those things which Galen vrgeth concerning the similitude, or parts of generation differing onely in scite and position, many men do esteeme very absurd. Sure we are that they 
No similitude betwixt their Genitals.  sauour little of the truth of Anatomy, as we haue already prooued in the Booke going before: wherein we haue shewed how little likenesse there is betwixt the necke of the womb and the yard, the bottome of it and the cod. Neither is the structure, figure, or magnitude of the testicles one and their same, nor the distribution and insertion of the spermatick vessels alike, wherefore we must not thinke that the female is an imperfect male differing onely in the position of the genitals.  
Neither yet must we thinke that the Sexes do differ in essentiall forme and perfection, but in the structure and temperament of the parts of generation.  
The woman hath a wombe ordained by Nature as a Field or seed-plot to receyue, conceiue 
How the Sexes are distinguished.  and cherish the seed; the temper of her whole body is colder then that of a man, because she was to suggest and minister matter for the Nourishment of the Infant. And this way Aristotle in the second Chapter of his first Booke de Generatione Animalium seemeth to incline, where he sayeth that the Male and the Female doe differ as well in respect as in sence: In respect, because the manner of their generation is diuerse; for the Female generateth in herself, the Male not in himselfe but in the Female: In sence, because the partes appeare other, and otherwise in the Sexes. The partes of the Female are the wombe and the rest which by a general name are called matrices; the parts of a man are the virile member and the Testicles. And so much shall be sufficient to haue beene added concerning the difference of the Sexes. But because there is more difference of the Tempers in men and women, we will insist somewhat more vpon that point.   

QVEST. II. Of the Temperament of women, whether they are colder or hotter then men.  
_COncerning the Temperament of men and women there is a notable controuersie, which if I may take vppon mee to censure or arbitrate, I will briefly acquaint you with what I haue gathered concerning this matter, out of the fountaines of the Grecians, and Cisternes of the Arabians.  
There are some which thinke that women are hotter then men: others on the contrary, that men exceede women in heate by many degrees: Neither of these opinions want patrons to defend them, nor reasons to sustaine and support them.  
If the Edicts of Hippocrates our Dictator doe stand for a law, as truely they deserue well to doe, then shall mens part goe to the wall; for in his first Booke de morbis mulierum, hee 
That women are hotter then men. Hippocrates.  playnly auoucheth that women are hotter then men, his words are these. I say that the flesh of a woman is more rare then that of a man. Nowe rarity with the Phylosophers is the worke of heat, to wit, his secundary quality; as it is the property of cold to condense or thicken: so it is the property of heate to rarifie or make thin. Againe in the same place hee sayeth that the body of a woman draweth more suddenly and more aboundantly the moysture out of the belly, then the body of a man.  
Now wee know that sudden and aboundant traction is not accomplished without the help of notable heate, and therefore it is that Hippocrates in his 6. Section of his 6. Booke Epidemiωn calleth carnes attractrices, because they are very hot. Finally, let vs see what Hippocrates inferreth vpon this rarity of the flesh and strong attraction of moysture. The woman hath hotter bloud, and therefore is hotter then a man; what cold hee say more playnely? what more determinately?  
Of the same opinion was Permenides as Aristotle reporteth in the second chapter of his second Booke de partibus Animalium. But let vs see how this opinion of Hippocrates may be 
Reasons for this opinion.  established by reason.  
The Temper of the whole body is to be esteemed according to the Temper of the principall parts, especially of the heart and the Liuer; and this we haue from Galen in his Book 
The first.  de Temperamentis, and de Arte parua, where he sayeth: Those whose heart is hot, are also of a hot habite of body, vnlesse there bee some obstacle in the Liuer; and those that haue hot Liuers haue also hot habits vnlesse there be some repugnancie in the Heart. But if both these bowels doe conspire in the same Temper, then of necessity must the Temper of the whole body be like vnto them; but the Heart and the Liuer of women are hotter then of men; and therefore their whole bodies are also of a hotter temper then mens.  
That the heart of a woman is hotter then the heart of a man may thus be demonstated, the Temper of the particular parts is especially known by the strength of their action; now 
A womans heart hotter then a mans.  the actions and faculties of the heart are two, vitall as say the Physitians, and 〈◇〉 or Irascibilis, that is, the passion of anger as say the Platonists. Both these are more operatiue & liuely in a woman then in a man. The vitall faculty shyneth most euidently in the pulse.  
Now the pulses of women are more quicke and frequent, of men more rare and slow as Galen teacheth in the 9. Chapter of his Booke of pulses ad Tyrones, and in the second chapter of his third Book de causis pulsuum. That also Auerroes affirmeth in the fourth Colliget: and the 19. Chapter. But the frequency and swiftnesse of the pulse bewrayeth the strength of the heate; for as it is the property of colde to make the partes sluggish and dull in their motion; so heate moueth them continually, and giueth them no rest at all.  
The other faculty also of the heart which we called Irascibilis or the passion of Anger, we many of vs know by woefull experience to bee quicker and more vigorous in woemen 
Women sooner angry then men.  then in men, for they are easily heated and vpon very sleight causes; but Anger with Galen in his Booke de Arte parua is a signe of a hot heart. Hence it is that females are more bold and cruell then males. For Hunters affirm, that of Tygers, Beares and Lyons, the females are farre fiercer then the males.  
That the Liuer of a woman is hotter then a man may bee prooued by the same demonstration. 
The Liuer of a woman hotter then of a man.  The Naturall Faculty which hath his residence in the Liuer, and is diuided into the encreasing, nourishing and procreating vertues, is stronger in a woman then in a man. For we see that wenches grow faster then boyes, become sooner ripe, and yeeld seede the 
The procreating Facultie.  sooner, which is the worke of the generatiue Faculty; they are also more wanton and lasciuious, as hauing the Testicles hid within their bodies, by which they are heated. For Galen saith, that the Testicles after the heart, are as it were another hearth of Naturall heate.  
The Nourishing Faculty, which is a certaine signe of the heat of the Liuer, is more perfect in a woman then in a man, for their liuer engendreth more blood, now so much blood 
The Nourishing Facultie.  as we haue, so much heate haue we also. Neither is this blood of theirs of any hurtfull or ill quality, but onely offensiue in quantity. Beside the habit of women is more fat, plumpe and delicate to see to and to feele, and altogether without haires.  
Finally, in women all the Animall Faculties are most perfect, their senses most sharpe, their Muscles more nimble and deliuer to mooue their ioynts, their memories more happy, 
The Animall Faculties.  their inuention more subtile, their words, which expresse the conceit of the mind, more plentifull and abundant, and therefore Virgil expressing the communication of the Gods, makes Iupiter begin, and venus to answere, but addeth:  
Iupiter haec paucis, at non Venus aurea contra 
Aenci. 10.   
Pauca refert.  
Thus in few words did Iupiter his royal sentence end,  
But Venus faire in many more did thus her cause commend.  
If therefore all the Faculties, Vitall, Naturall and Animall, are in women more perfect then in men, who will deny but they are also hotter then men? Neither will we passe ouer in silence that which Macrobius hath obserued in the 7 Book of his Saturnalia, What time the 
Macrobius. Saturnal.  bodies of men were burnt, to euery ten men they put the body of a woman, to make them the sooner take fire.  
These things are indeede probable, and couered ouer with a veile of trueth, which notwithstanding if we weigh in the ballance of Philosophie and of Physicke, they will appeare 
That men are hotter then women.  to be as light as vanity itself; we will therefore maintaine the other opinion, that men are generally hotter then women. And this we will confirme by strong and substantial reasons, as also by the authority of the best and most authenticke Authors.  
There are very many things which will euince this truth, but these among the rest. The Principles of Generation; the Place in which, and out of which the Infant is generated; the 
The places from which the argumēts are fetched.  Conformation; the Motion; the time of Birth; the Purgation after Birth; the Structure and Habit of all the parts; the manner of Diet and course of life: And finally, the Finall cause. All which we will briefly run through.  
If we consider the Principles of Generation, Men are generated of hotter seede then women. This hath Hippocrates elegantly declared in his first Book de diaeta. For acknowledging 
The principles of Generatiō.  a double or twofold kinde of seede in both Sexes, a Male feede and a Female, he concludeth that of the male seede, that is the hotter and more vigorous, a man is generated; out of the weaker a Woman. Moreouer, men are generated in a hotter place, Hippocrates in the 48. Aphorisme of the fift section, saith, Male infants are borne on the right side, females on the left. now we know that the right side is hotter then the left by reason of the Liuer. 
The place of Conception.  For the heart is indifferent and in the very middest, especially the Basis thereof which is the hottest part.  
Neither are Males generated onely in the right side, but also out of the right side. For so saith Hippocrates in his Bookes Epidemiωn; when a man begins to grow lustfull, if his right 
The place out of which the Infant is conceyued.  Testicle swell, he will beget a manchilde, if his left a woman. And thence also it is that he calleth the right Testicle Masculū the male, and the left Foeminium the Female, because the seede of the one is very hot and exquisiuly boyled and made of the purest blood, that of the other colder & thinner, hauing much whey in it because of the originall of the left spermaticall veine out of the emulgent. This the Countreymen know full well, and therfore when they would haue Cow-calues, they tye the right Testicle of the Bull, that the seed may only yssue from the left; which they learned or might haue done from Hippocrates in his book De superfoetatione, where he sayeth, When you would engender a Female, tye the right Testicle of the Male, when a Male tye the left.  
If wee respect the 〈◇〉 or conformation of both the Sexes, the Male is sooner perfected 
The conformation.  and articulated in the wombe; for he is accomplished the thirtieth, the Female not before the 40. day, as wee haue before noted out of Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta, de natura pueri and Epidemiωn: but conformation is the woorke of heate. So likewise the Male is moued sooner that is the third moneth, the Female later that is the fourth beside the motions of the Male are more frequent and more violent, all which are manifest signes of an aboundant heate. Adde hereto that the Male borne the seuenth moneth commonly surviueth, the Female seldome or neuer.  
That also which is auoyded after the Infant is borne into the world called Lochia doeth 
The Lochia.  testifie the heate of a Male childe: for the woman which is diliuered of a Female is longer in her purgations, of a Male shorter, because the Male being hotter spendeth more of the bloud gathered together in the wombe. This Hippocrates teacheth in playne tearmes in his Booke de morbis mulierum: After the birth of a mayde( sayeth hee) the longest purgation lasteth 42. dayes, but after the birth of a knaue childe( so our Fathers called a Male) the purgation lasteth at the longest but 30. dayes.  
If we consider the habite and structure of the parts of both Sexes, you shall finde in men 
The habit and structure.  more signes of heate then in women. The habit of a woman is fatter, looser and softer; but fat is not generated but by a weake heate, woemen are smooth without hayre. The flesh of men is more solide, their vesselles larger, their voyce baser: now it is heate which amplifieth and enlargeth, as cold straightneth and contracteth.  
A woman sayth Hippocrates in the 43. Aphorisme of the seauenth Section, is not Ambi-dextra, that is, cannot vse both hands as well as one, because she wanteth heat to strengthen both sides alike.  
In diet also, that is, in the custome and vsage of their liues in meat and drink and such like, 
The dict.  men appeare to be hotter then women.  
Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta. Men doe liue a more laborious life, and eat more solide meates then women, that they may gather heate and become dryer, woemens foode is more moyste; and beside, they liue an idle and sedentarie life, pricking for the most part vppon a clout.  
Finally, to all these we may ad the necessity of the Finall cause which is in Natural things the chiefe of all causes: It behoued therefore that man should be hotter, because his body 
The finall cause.  was made to endure labour and trauell, as also that his minde should bee stout and inuincible to vndergoe dangers, the onely hearing whereof will driue a woman as wee say out of her little wits. The woman was ordayned to receiue and conceiue the seede of the man, to beare and nourish the Infant, to gouerne and moderate the house at home, to delight and refresh her husband foreswunke with labour and well-nigh exhausted and spent with care and trauell; and therefore her body is soft, smooth and delicate, made especially for pleasure, so that whosoeuer vseth them for other doth almost abuse them.  
Wherfore we conclude, that if you respect the principles of Generation, the place, conformation, 
Conclusion.  motion, birth, purgations after birth, the habit of the whole body, the structure of the parts, the manner and order of life, and the finall cause of Creation, you shall finde that in all these respects a man is hotter then a woman.  
If our aduersaries will not yeelde to all these demonstratiue arguments, let them at least 
Authorities to proue men hotter. Hippocrates.  giue credance to the whole Family of the Grecians both Philosophers end Physitians.  
This Hippocrates before the birth or incarnation as we may say of Philosophy, with a diuine spirit declareth, not darkely and obscurely but in playne tearmes in his first Booke de diaeta, after this manner: Generally and vniuersally men are hotter and dryer then women( for we insist vpon mankind) and women moyster and colder then men. That Genius and interpreter of Nature, Aristotle in his Booke of the length and shortnes of life, sayth, that men liue 
Aristotle.  longer then women because they are hotter. In his third Booke de partibus Animalium, men are stronger and more couragious. In the first and eight Chapters of the first Booke of his Politicks, men in all actions are more excellent then women; surely because of their heate from whence commeth the strength of the faculties. And in the 29. Probleme of the 4. Section, he enquireth why men in winter are more apt for Venus and women in summer, hee answereth, because men who are hotter and dryer are in Summer spent as it were and broken; and women in winter because they are cold and moyst & haue little store of heat, haue their humors as it were frozen or curdled, not fluxible and moouing.  
Galen in a thousand places establisheth this truth, but especially in the sixt chap. of his 14. Booke de vsu partium, where hee saith that women are more imperfect then men, because they are colder. For indeed of all qualities heate is the most operatiue. 
Conclusion.   
Hence therefore we conceiue that it is manifest to all men that list to vnderstande the truth, that men are vniuersally hotter then women, and that those that maintaine the contrary are Apostataes for the ancient and authenticke Philosophy. But because wee may seeme not fully to satisfie men by our reasons and authorities, vnlesse we answere the arguments brought and vrged on the contrary part, we wil a little paine ourselues and the Reader to answere them in order.  
To begin therefore with the authority of Hippocrates, because it is a kind of wickednesse 
Answer to the authorities.  not to subscribe vnto this Father of Physicke, we will thus interpret the force of his words.  
Whereas therefore he saith, that a woman hath a rarer kinde of flesh then a man, we answere, 
Hippocrate pounded.  that he vseth the word Rare abusiuely or at large for that which is laxe and soft, not for that which is porous. For if we so vnderstand it, the body of a man is more rare, that is more porous and open, and therefore they sweate more freely and more easily. And that this is Hippocrates meaning we appeale vnto himselfe in his Booke of Glandules, where hee saith; It is therefore manifest, that the Chest and Paps, and the whole body of a woman is laxe & soft. And a litle aboue, A mans body is ful; & like a cloath, thicke and thight both to see to & to feele to, but a woman is rare, and laxe, and moyst, both to see to and to feele to. Nowe laxity argueth a defect of heate which is not able to boyle and dissolue the superfluous moisture; on the contrary, solidity and fastnesse of the flesh ariseth from the perfect assimulation of well boiled and resolued Aliments. Wherefore seeing the flesh of men is faster then that of the woman, it followeth necessarily that they are also hotter.  
And whereas Hippocrates saith, that women draw more aliment then men. Hee also abuseth the word Traction for that which is to receiue and conteyne. For the bodye of a woman being looser and as it were spongye, receyueth and conteyneth a greater quantity of blood. And that this is Hippocrates meaning, I gather from the Context of the place cited. For he illustrateth his opinion by an elegant similitude. If( saith be) you lay out all 
An excellent Similitude.  night vpon the ground the like waight of wooll, and of a well wouen cloath; you shal find in the morning the wooll to waigh heauier then the cloth, because it hath sucked vp more moysture: so it is reasonable that the lax and loose flesh of women doth receiue & retaine a greater quantity of blood then the fast flesh of a man.  
And whereas in the same place he saith, that the bloode of a Woman is hotter then the blood of a man, and therefore a woman is of a hotter temper then a man; that we thinke is 
A place of Hippocrates corrupted. Duretus. Vega.  crept into Hippocrates text, being added by some nouice scribe. And thus that great Learned man Ludouicus Duretus vnderstandeth Hippocrates and conceyueth of this corrupted place; as also Christopherus a Veiga in his Commentaries vpon Hippocrates Prognostiques. Wherefore we cannot admit of Cordaeus his interpretation, who thinketh that the bloode 
Cordaeus interpretation of the corrupted place reiected  suppressed, because transpiration is hindred, attaineth an outward and Aguish heat, and so becommeth hotter then the blood of men. For then wee must needes accuse Hippocrates of folly,( which were a kinde of blasphemy) because he compareth a sick woman with a sound and haile man. But if you compare the blood of both sexes diseased, the heat of a man wil certainly be more intense then that of a woman, because it is ioyned with siccity. Now siccity( saith Auerrhoes) is the File of heate: And thus we suppose that wee haue satisfied the 
Auerrhoes.  authorities out of Hippocrates. Now let vs waigh the arguments with as much diligence as we may.  
VVomens pulses are more frequent and swift therefore they are hotter; for the swiftnesse 
Answer to the former Arguments.  or frequency of the pulse commeth from heate. We answere, that their pulses are more quicke and frequent, not because of the aboundance of heate, but because of the straightnesse of their organes. For the Arteries beeing small and narrowe, and oppressed with aboundance of crude and colde humours, could not bee so extended and dilated as in men; wherefore the necessity of life maketh recompence in the quicknes and frequency 
Why Women haue quicke Pulses.  of he pulse; Nature prouiding for herselfe one way, when she cannot another. But the pulses of men are strong & great by reason of the strength of the faculty, because a great Artery may be extended into all dimensions.  
That which is obiected concerning the two faculties of the heart, the Irascible and the courage we thus dissolue: In Hippocrates and Galen 〈◇〉, that is Iracundia and Ira, Anger and Wrath are two distinct things. Anger is a disease of a weake mind which cannot moderate itself but is easily inflamed, such are women, childeren, and weake and cowardly men, and this we tearme fretfulnesse or pettishnes: but Wrath which is Ira permanens belongs to stout heartes, and therefore Homer calleth Achilles Anger 〈◇〉. 
Homer.   
Iliad. 〈◇〉. &c.  
O Goddesse sing the fixed rage of Peleus wrathfull Sonne.  
And Galen in his second Commentarie vppon the first Booke Epidemiωn opposeth 〈◇〉 
Galen.  Iracundos, angry men, 〈◇〉 to wrathfull men; because these latter are of a manly courage and contemners of base things, the former are faint harted or white Liuered as we vse to tearme them. And the Temper of these two sorts is very different; for those that are angry, pettish, fretfull or wantle, chuse you which you will call them, are cold; but those that are wrathfull are hot. If therefore women are Nockthrown or easily mooued of the hindges, that they haue from their cold Temper, and from the impotencie and weaknes of their mind, because they are not able to lay a law vpon themselues.  
And whereas Galen in his Booke de arte parua maketh 〈◇〉 to be a signe of a hot hart, 
Galen interpreted by Hip  he abuseth the word. For Hippocrates in the fourth Section of the sixt Booke Epidem. maketh it a signe of a cold habit in expresse words, where he sayeth, Those that haue hot bellies haue but cold flesh, such are thinne and veynie, and 〈◇〉, that is, angry or fretfull. Women therefore are peuish creatures most-what, but nothing stout or strong hearted though their stomacks be good. Hippocrates in his Booke de morbis virginum hath this saying 〈◇〉, The Nature of a woman is to be of an abiect minde.  
And whereas they contend, that among rauenous Creatures the Females are most 
Why females are fierce.  fierce, we say that the loue they beare to their yong addeth spirits and courage vnto them, and therefore that is rather to be accounted woodnes then fortitude. There are some creatures which because of their giddy madnesse make a shew of generosity, as the Female Elephant: some also there are in whome the feare of a worse condition begetteth boldnes, such are Panthers. In a Dogge partly his trustinesse to his maister-partly his enuy maketh him fierce. Wee say therefore that Females are more churlish and fierce, but not stouter or stronger hearted. That which is obiected concerning the strength of their naturall faculties is of all the rest the most friuoulous and veine.  
They say that women grow faster and doe sooner generate, and therefore they are hotter; but we say, that these are demonstratiue signes of a cold temperament. For therefore 
Why women grow faster & be ripe sooner then men.  they grow faster and ingender sooner, because their end is nearer, for that the principles of their life are weaker. For as a short disease which we call acute, doth suddenly run through his foure times; the beginning, the encrease, the height, and the declination so that one time ouertaketh another; so women being of a shorter life then men, because they are colder, they sooner grow women and so also sooner grow old then men. And hereto subscribeth Aristotle in the sixt Chapter of his 4. Booke de generatione Animalium where he saith, That all things that are lesse and weake as well in the works of Art as of Nature, doe sooner attayne vnto their end.  
That Females are more wanton and petulant then Males, wee thinke hapneth because 
Why females are lasciuious  of the impotencie of their minds; for the imaginations of lustfull women are like the imaginations of bruite beastes which haue no repugnancie or contradiction of reason to restraine them. So bruitish and beastly men are more lasciuious, not because they are hotter then other men, but because they are brutish. Beastes do couple not to ingender but to satisfie the sting of lust, wise men couple that they might not couple.  
That womens Testicles are hidden within their bodies is also an argument of the couldnes of their Temper, because they want heate to thrust them forth. Yet for all this we doe not say that women do generate more then men, for they want the matter and the spirite. Indeede they haue more bloud as wee sayed euen now, and that is by reason of their colde Temperament which cannot discusse the reliques of the Aliment; adde heereto that the blood of women is colder and rawer then the bloud of men. We conclude therefore that vniuersally men are hotter then women. Males then Females, as well in regard of the Naturall Temper, as that which is acquired by diet and the course of life.  
But now I had need heere to Apologise for myself for speaking so much of woemens weaknes, but they must attribute something to the heat of disputation, most to the current and streame of our Authours, least of all to mee who will bee as ready in another place to flourish forth their commendations as I am here to huddle ouer their ntaurall imperfections.   

QVEST. III. What Seede is.  
_HAuing thus discoursed of the difference of the Sexes the first thing necessary to Generation, it followeth that we intreat of the Seede which is the immediate matter of the same. To this common place we may wel giue the same Epithite which Homer was wont to giue to those places which were scituated vnder mountaines, which hee calleth 〈◇〉, that is, hauing many springs of liuing water. For I doubt not but the Reader shall find it ful of pleasure and contentment, ful of variety and of pleasant philosophicall flowers, especially if I can acquit myself wel in gathering them, and if they loose not their verdure and sauour now transplanted into a strange soyle. That I may therefore take euery thing in order, it will not be amisse first to informe you what the worde itself in the originall signifies.  
〈◇〉, semen and genitura, Seede and Geniture, among Physitians are taken for 
The names of seed.  one and the same. Hippocrates intituled his Book of Seed 〈◇〉. And Galen his 〈◇〉. And Hippocrates in many places of the same Booke calleth it also 〈◇〉, as where hee sayeth 〈◇〉; There is as in a man so in a woman 
Hippocrates. Galen.  Male and Female Seed. And Gal. in his Comentary vpon the 62. Aphorisme of the first Section 〈◇〉, We call Seede Geniture. Hippocrates also for the same vseth 〈◇〉 in his second Booke de Morbis. But Galen in his Commentarie in 1. Prognost. 
What 〈◇〉 is.  distinguisheth betweene 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉, where he saith that 〈◇〉 signifieth rather the excretion of Seed. Aristotle in the 18. Chapter of his first Book de Generatione Animalium, putteth 
Aristotle.  a difference betweene Geniture and Seede, as if Geniture were ens imperfectum, an imperfect thing, and onely one principle of Generation, but Seede perfect, compounded of both principles. For our part we will take them promiscuously, although the name of seed be more frequent and in more ordinary vse.  
The Nature of Seede no man that I know hath yet essentially defined; Hippocrates in his 
Hippocrates. Plato. Alcmaeon. Zeno Criticus. Epicurus.  Booke de Genitura calleth it, The best and strongest part of that humour which is contayned in the whole body. Pythagoras, The froth of the best and most laudable blood. Plato, The defluxion of the spinall marrow. Alcmaeon, A small portion of the Brayne. Zeno Criticus The spirit of a man which he looseth with moysture, and the slough of the Soule. Epicurus A fragment of the Soule and the Body. Some of the Antients haue defined it to be, A 
A definition of the antients. Aristotle. Fernelius.  hot spirit in a moysture able to moue itself and to generate the same out of which it issueth. Aristotle sayeth it is an Excrement of the last Aliment of the solide parts; sometimes he calleth it a profitable Excrement. Fernelius describeth it on this manner: It is that out of which originaly are made all thinges which are according to Nature, not as out of a matter, but as out of an Efficient Principle. But it seemeth to vs that none of all these do sufficiently expresse the nature of Seede. The fiue first are most imperfect, and therefore we will not contend with them.  
Aristotles description defineth onely the matter, which is the remaynder of the last Aliment; but the forme and the efficient cause it toucheth not; neither indeede doeth it expresse 
All disalowed.  the whole matter of Seede, because as we shall shew anone there is a double matter of Seede, bloud and spirits. So that to say that Seede is an excrement of the last Aliment, is all one as if he should haue sayed Seede is Blood. Fernelius definition contayneth neyther the forme nor the matter of Seede, but attributeth to it onely an operatiue or efficient dower, whereas it is also a materiall principle: wherefore we haue here exhibited another definition perfect we hope and absolute in all his members and parts which is this.  
Seede is a moyst spumous or frothy and white body, made of the permistion of the surplusage 
A perfect definition of seede.  of the last Aliment and of the influent or errant spirits boyled and laboured onely by the vertue of the Testicles, and that for the perfect Generation of a Creature. We already in this Book a little before examined the singular particles of this definition, which we shall not therefore need to run ouer againe; here we will onely prosecute a little more curiously the matter of Seede.  
We therefore say that there is a double matter of Seede, the Excrement of the last Aliment, 
The matter of seede double.  and Spirits. That this first matter is an excrement, Aristotle prooueth by an elegant ●nduction, on this manner. VVhatsoeuer is contayned in the body eyther is a part of the body, or an Aliment, or a colliquation, or an excrement: Seede is not a part of the body, nor an Aliment, nor a Colliquation, and therefore an Excrement. It is not a part, because 
It is no part.  whilst it remaineth in vs there is nothing made of it, neither hath the body any vse especially of the matter of it. Add heereto, that if it were a part so often as it is lost the creatures should become maimed.  
It is not an Aliment for then it should not be auoyded, much lesse is it a Colliquation. 
No Aliment. No Colliquation.  For a Colliquation is a thing beside Nature, seede is truly naturall yea the quintessence of the Nature of man. Those things that are fat are most subiect to Colliquation or melting, but we know that fat men haue least quantity of seede. Moreouer Colliquation may bee made of any moisture in any part of the body, but the seede hath his owne determinate & limited seate wherein it is contained. Colliquation is alwayes hurtfull, but the auoyding of seed is sometimes very profitable. 
But an excrement.   
It remaineth therefore that seede must needs be an excrement. But what manner of excrement is it? In all creatures that bring foorth their young aliue there is a double excrement. The one naturall and profitable, the other vnprofitable. The first is profitable either to norish some part, or to procreate, conceiue and breed vp the young, as Galen teacheth in his Commentary vpon the 39. Aphorisme of the fift Section; the other cannot bee assimulated 
Excrements double.  because it is of a dissimilar substance. The first is called an excrement onely by reason of the abounding quantitie thereof. The second is noxious and hurtfull euen in qualitie also.  
The Chylus which is made in the stomacke is acceptable euen to the stomacke which is pained about the concocting thereof, but at length it is thrust downe into the gut as an 
What is a profitable excrement.  ouer-plus or superfluity; so that which was an excrement to the stomacke becommeth to the Liuer an Aliment. The Liuer being satisfied and glutted with blood, driues that which remaineth as a surplusage into the great veines, so the excrement that is, the superfluity of the Liuer, becommeth a conuenable aliment for the particular parts.  
The parts both fleshy and solid when they are satisfied with blood, do leaue that which remaineth in the veines; these resiques are by little and little drawne by the Testicles and 
How euerie part ministereth to another out of his owne aboundance.  at length are conuerted into the nature of seede. And for this cause the seede is called an excrement of the last concoction, because it is generated out of the remainders of the last Aliment. That remainder is blood, not changed or whitened by the solid partes, for the seede hath his whitenesse onely from the spermaticall vessels and the Testicles; but redde and pure blood deriued from the trunke of the Hollow veine into the spermaticall veines. 
How seed be comes white.  An argument heereof is, because children and decrepit old men do not yeeld seed, for that in these there is no ouerplus left, and such wantons as doe too immoderately satisfye theyr inordinate concupiscence do often yeeld bloudy seed, because it is not altered hy the spermaticke vessels and the testicles.  
There is another matter of the seede far more noble which maketh it prolificall or fruitfull, 
The second matter of the seede.  and that is spirits brought vnto it by the spermaticall arteries; which being fierie & aery substances wandering and coursing about the whole bodye doe containe in themselues the Idea or forme of the particular parts. Neither do these spirits only cōteine the forme of the sexes, but also 〈◇〉, the fatall necessity of life and death; so that from whence we haue the acte of life, from thence also we haue the necessity of dissolution.  
In regard of these spirits the seede is called an efficient and a formall principle. For the spirit is the immediate and proportionable instrument of Nature wherby the noble Architect, that is the soule, extendeth the Membranes, produceth and lengtheneth the passages, and by a kinde of puffing sufflation perforateth them.  
This therefore is the double matter of seede, blood and spirits. Hence it is that among the Philosophers the seede is esteemed to haue a double Nature; one aery, spumous or frothy, 
The double Nature of seed.  another waterish and diffluent. For in that the seed is aery it is neuer congealed or frozen, and in that it is waterish, it is no sooner out of his owne vessels but it melteth the spirits being vanished which did vnite his parts.  
Now, whereas there are some which affirme that seed is onely waterish, because the colour is like water, as also the consistence when it hath bin but a little time out of the vessels; 
How seede & water differ. Aristotle.  we will against them oppose Aristotle who disputeth this very point in the second chapter of his second Booke de generatione Animalium, where he saith, that the natures of water and seede are very different, for water by heate becommeth not thicke as seede doth. All waterisn things by colde are congealed, seede is made more fluid. And in the 51 Problem of the first Section he saith, that seede is like to Flegme and water, not in Nature but onely in colour. But we proceede.  
This double matter is mingled in these Labyrinths in which the vein openeth into the 
How the double matter is mingled.  artery, and the artery into the veine by a wonderfull inoculation, so that of two there becommeth one vessel; an Embleme of the holy mixtion of seedes in Matrimony. For as of two vessels a veine and an artery there is made one vessell, so of a double matter blood and 
An Embleme of Matrimony  spirits there is made one seede, and of two seeds the Males and the Females one infant, and of two parents the husband and the wife one body. But we returne.  
The blood and the spirits being thus mingled do attaine in the preparing vessels a rudiment of seede, not so much by the inbred power or faculty of the vessels themselues, as by an irradiation or beaming influence they haue from the Testicles. Finally, in the Epididymis 
How this mixture becommeth seede.  and the Testicles the seed is boyled by their proper and ingenit vertue whose substance is rare, spongy and friable; and from these it is deriued into the eiaculatory vessels as an ouer plus and peculiar excrement of the Testicles. From whence it is manifest, that fruitfull & prolificall seede yssueth onely out of the Testicles not from the whole body, as we shal further prooue in our next exercise.   

QVEST. IIII. Whether seede fall from all the parts of the body.  
_ME thinkes now I see a faire and large fielde before me, wherein I may expatiate and disport myself a little, not restraining my discourse within those narrow cancels wherein I haue formerly confined it. It was a common receyued 
The olde and receiued opinion.  opinion in old time, that the seede did flow from all parts of the body. This Hippocrates auoucheth in his Booke de genitura, de morbo sacro or of the Epilepsie, & de aere aquis & locis, for ther he saith That seed yssueth from al moysture which 
Hippocrates.  is contained in the body. And in another place, Seede falleth from all the parts, sound seed from sound parts, and sicke or diseased from diseased parts. Hence it is, that lame men beget lame children, bald men bald children, and Spleniticke men children afflicted with the Spleene. This opinion is confirmed by foure reasons. First, because in the acte of Generation or 
Confirmd by foure reasons  Copulation the whole bodie is delighted and as it were stupified with an extasie of pleasure, or if you wil, suffereth a pleasant Convulsion. Whence it was that coition is called parua Epilepsia, a light Fit of the Falling sicknesse, as we saide euen now.  
The second reason is, because the Childe beareth the Carracter of the Fathers imperfections: Balde men, balde children; Lame men, lame children and so likewise in all the Cense of Hereditary diseases.  
Thirdly, because those that are immoderate in the vse of Venus doe waste and consume all the parts of their bodies. Finally, because children do resemble their parents in all parts of their bodies.  
There is an elegant History of a Boy in Calcedo, who bare in his right arme from his 
An elegant history.  birth certaine markes which were seared before in his Fathers right arme also.  
But this opinion is gainsayed and disprooued by Aristotle in the 17. and 18. chapters of his first Booke de generatione Animalium, & that with weighty arguments which we list not 
Aristotle. Fernelius.  heere transcribe. Fernelius also in the seauenth Booke of his Physiologia and the second Chapter addeth other reasons to which we referre the studious Reader. It shall suffice vs in this place to answere the former arguments.  
The argument drawne from the vniuersall pleasure and tickling delight of the whole body 
The former arguments answered.  is of no force; for euen in itching the whole bodie is tickled, though onely one part itcheth. Moreouer, if the pleasure were therefore conceiued because the seed floweth from the whol body, it shold not be perceiued in all the body at once but by degrees, first in one part then in another as the seede fell from this or that part. For we cannot imagine that in one moment of time the seed is deriued from al the parts into the Testicles, and so into the 
Why all the body is tickled in coition.  eiaculatory vessels. We therefore acknowledge another cause of that pleasure whereby the whole body is delighted in Coition, to wit; the high heate, froathinesse and aboundant spirites of the Seede; for that Seede so qualified as it tickleth the partes of Generation which are of exquisite sense vvith his suddaine motion, it draweth the vvhole bodye into a sympathy and consent with them. For as if a Membrane be affected any way with paine, all the Membranes of the body conceyue a sense of dolour therewith: so when a Membrane is tickled the vvhole body receyueth a sense of delight and is likewise mooued therewith.  
That lame men beget lame childeren, or maymed maymed is not perpetually true, for we see oftentimes that lame men beget perfect childeren, and hee that wanteth a ioynt begetteth a childe with all his ioynts.  
That in immoderate coition the whole body is resolued and consumed, happeneth because the remaynders of the Aliment and the Spirits are in such men exhausted, whereof when the partes are defrauded then they must of necessity waste and consume. And therefore Auicen sayeth, that the great expence of Seede wasteth the bodye fortie times so much as the expence or the losse of bloud, if the losse of them both bee proportionable.  
Finally, that which they obtrude concerning the likenesse of Childeren to their Parents belongeth to a higher contemplation, and shall bee disputed at large by and by in a more conuenient place; yet thus much in the meane time wee say for answere, that the similitude they speake off proceedeth not so much from the crasse and thicke matter of the Seede, as from the formatiue faculty seated in the particular partes, and communicated to the Testicles, and at length to the Seede by the influent Spirites which are neare of kinne vnto those which haue their perpetuall residence in the parts of the body.  
Wee therefore doe protest against that old errour as a beggerly rudiment receiued from hand to hand among the Auntients, that the Seede falleth from all the partes of the body.  
Some there are who deriue the greatest part of the Seed from the Brayn and the Spinall 
Another opinion of those that deriue the seed from the brayne.  marrow. This opinion of theirs I will illustrate by authorities, examples and reasons. The authoritie is that of Hippocrates in his Book de Genitura, where he sayeth, that the Seede is diffused out of the Brayne into the Loynes and the marrow of the backe, from thence into the Kidneyes, from the Kidneyes it attayneth through the middest of the Testicles to the priuy partes. In his Booke de Natura ossium, hee wryteth that the Iugular 
Authorities to proue it.  veynes proceede from both sides of the heade into the Testicles, and thither conuay the Seede, wherefore from the Brayne to the Testicles Hippocrates sheweth a double way, the spinall marrow, and the veines behinde the eares.  
Plato in his Timaeus defineth Seede to be A defluxion of the spinall marrow. Alemaeon. A small portion of the Brayne; whence it is that the common people think that the braines and marrow of the bones do engender much seed.  
For the confirmation of this opinion, there are elegant Histories in Hippocrates Book 
Histories.  de aëre aquis et locis. The first is of such men as were called 〈◇〉, the other of the Scithians.  
There were in tymes past among the inhabitants of Europe certayne men called macrocephali who were had in great esteeme, whose heades were long, and such were accounted 
Macrocephali what they are  noble and generous spirites. And therefore the Nurses were wont to presse the tender heads of Infants and to lengthen them with swathes, till at length those that by custom and constraint had long heads, begat children with long heads naturally and by conformation without any constraint at all.  
The Scithians hauing no skill at all in Horse-manshippe, and riding without stirrups, 
The Scythians cut the veines behind the eares.  grew all of them almost to be troubled with the hipgowt or sciatica, which disease that they might cure, they caused the veines behind their eares to be opened, which being cut a sunder they after proued barren, and some thought this came to passe because the cicatrice or scarre closed vp the way of the seede descending from the Brayne. To which conceit a Lawyer it may be alluding, wrote that Theeues should haue their eares cutte off least they should beget young Theeues. They conclude therfore that the greatest part of the fruitfull and best concocted seede falleth from the Brayn and the spinall marrow. This also may be confirmed by some sleight reasons.  
In coition the Brayne is most chiefly affected; then the spinall marrow and the veines; 
Reasons to confirme this opinion. Hippocrates.  and oftetimes as Hippocrates obserueth in his Books Epidemiωn, and Lib. de internis affectibus, vppon the immoderate vse of Venus there followeth Tabes dorsalis a consumption of the marrow of the backe.  
Albertus Magnus maketh mention of a petulant & lasciuious Stage-player, whose head 
A story out of Albertus mag.  when he was dead was opened, and there was found but a little part of his Brayne left, the rest forsooth was consumed vpon harlots. Adde hereto, that vpon immoderate vse of women followeth baldnesse; now baldnes we know commeth from the want of a hot and fatty moysture, which kinde of moysture is spent in coition. And Aristotle saith that no man growes bald before he haue knowne the vse of Venus. This was often cast in Caesars teeth when he triumphed ouer the Galles. Citizens keepe vp your wiues, for wee bring home a bald 
Caesars disgrace  Leacher. And these are the authorities, histories and reasons whereby some are perswaded to thinke that the seed floweth from the head vnto the testicles: concerning this matter we will be bold to speake freely.  
I confesse that Hippocrates had a most happy and diuine wit, which as sayeth Macrobius, would neuer deceiue any man, nor could itself be deceiued. Yet herein hee hath neede to be 
Hippocrates commendations.  excused, and no maruell; for in his age the Art of dissection was but rude, scarcely knowne to any man, and therefore it is that many of his sayings concerning Anatomy wee cannot 
His age rude in Anatomicall dissections.  either vnderstand or giue consent vnto. Sure we are that there are no manifest or conspicuous passages as yet found from the Brayn and Spinall marrow to the Testicles, vnlesse haply some small nerues which carry onely spirites but are not capable of seede: neyther yet doe we finde any braunches deriued to the Testicles from the externall iugular veines, vnlesse as all the veines of the body are continued one with another: wee therefore cannot conceiue how thick and well laboured seed should passe into the Testicles from those veins which run behind the eares.  
The Story of the Scythians which they obiect, who grewe barren vppon the cutting of 
How the Scythiās become barren.  the veines behinde their eares is of no force; for they vnderstand not aright the cause of that barrennesse. Some think that the Cicatrice or scar which grewe vppon the wound did shutte vppe the wayes of the seede. Auicen thinketh that it came to passe because the descent of the Animall spirit was intercepted; others think that the arteries were cut, and so the passage of the vitall spirit hindered: but these are fond assertions and sauour little of any knowledge in Anatomy; for these veines and arteries which appeare behinde the eares are externall vessels. There are farre larger vesselles internal, which runne into the Brayne through the holes of the skull, by which as by riuerets the brayne is w●tered and by which rather then by these outward which touch not the brayn at all, the seede should fall from the head. But let vs grant that the seede falleth through these outward veines; shall we thinke that a scarre will hinder the passage, or interclude the wayes of the seede and the spirites? by no meanes. For if thicke bloud floweth and returneth through these vesselles notwithstanding those hinderances, why should not the seed passe also which is full fraught with spirits and will passe through insensible pores. VVee must therefore enquire further 
3. Causes of their barrennes out of Hippocrates.  for the cause of this sterility or barrennesse and not impute it to the interception of the wayes. I finde in Hippocrates three causes of this their sterility; their much riding, their sciatica payne, and the too great effusion of bloud vpon the cutting of those veines. Continuall riding weakneth the strength of the loynes, the kidneis and the spermatick parts: now the Scithians did vse to ride perpetually and without stirrups.  
That much riding may bee a cause of barrennesse, Hippocrates sheweth in the place before 
Much riding may cause barrennes.  quoted, where hee sayeth. Amongest the Scythians the richest and most noble weere most of all others thus affected, the poorer sorte least of all; for the noble spirites because they vsed to ride much incurred these mischiefes, whereas the poorer sorte went on foot. From their frequent riding proceeded also their hip-gouts, which is the second cause of sterility. For nothing so much infirmeth and weakneth the body, and to weaknes addeth the corruption 
So may paine  of the humors, as payne.  
This payne that they might mittigate they cut the veines behinde their eares, out of which issued great aboundance of bloud. And hence came the third cause of their sterilitie, for by the losse of much blood which is the very treasure of Nature, theyr Braynes weere ouer cooled.  
Nowe the Brayne is a principall part, into consent wherewith the Heart and the Liuer were eftsoones drawne: and hence came it to passe that their Seede was waterish, 
And large effusion of bloud.  barren and vnfruitfull. For the principall partes are all of them knitte and tyed together in so great and in so strayght bandes of conspiration, that but one of them fayling, or faltering both the other are sodainly deaded or be-numbed & all their vigor and strength quite abated.  
That their Braynes were refrigerated by the immoderate effusion of bloud, Hippocrates 
Hippocrates.  playnely declareth in these wordes. When the disease beginnes to take hould of them they cut both the veines which are behinde their eares. And presently after abundance of bloode yssuing foorth they fall asleepe for meere weakenesse; by which it appeareth that the cause of their barrennesse was not the closing vp of the passages, but their inordinate riding, the paine of the Sciatica and the refrigeration of the braine by the immoderate effusion or expence of blood and so consequently of spirits.  
That which they obiect concerning the Macrocephali, doth indeede proue that the sormatiue Faculty yssueth from the braine vnto the Testicles, but it dooth not prooue that 
The obiectiō of the Macrocephali answered.  white and perfect seede descendeth thither from thence.  
And whereas in coition the braine and the spinall marrow are especially affected, that commeth to passe, say we, because their soft substance is soonest exhausted, and doth lesse 
why the brain is most affected in coition  resist the traction of the Testicles. Add heereto, that the braine is the last part wherein the traction of the Testicles doth rest and determine.  
Galen in the third Chapter of his second Booke de Semine writeth, that Empedocles doth not thinke that the seed fell from the whol body, but half of it from one parent, halfe from 
Empedocles opinion.  the other: the more excellent parts from the Father, and the more ignoble from the Mother. But it were time ill spent to insist vpon the answering of such idle conceits.  
Some haue been of opinion, that white seede falleth from all the solid parts, passing from them into the smaller veines, out of the smaller into the greater, and in them rideth in the 
The opinion of others  humors as a cloud or sedement in the vrine, and so is drawn away by the ingenite traction of the Testicles. These men Aristotle elegantly confuteth in the places before cited, & Galen 
Confuted by Aristotles  in his Bookes de Semine.  
Auicen the Prince of the Arabians contendeth, that the matter of the seede falleth vnto 
Auicens opinion.  the Testicles from the three principall parts of the body, the Braine, the Heart and the Liuer, and him haue many of the new writers followed. Neither were the Poets ignorant of this kind of Philosophy, but least it should grow common or be profaned by the rude vulgar wits, they cloaked it vnder obscure and blacke veiles and shaddowes of fables, as they would do a holy thing. For they thought it a great wickednesse and not to bee expiated, if 
The Poets Philosophy concerning this matter.  the secrets of Philosophy were bewrayed to the common people. Wherefore they feigne that when Venus and Mars were in bed together, they were deprehended or taken in the manner, as we say, by Mercury, Neptune and Apollo. Apollo with his rayes as with a quickning Nectar illustrateth them. Now by Apollo they meane the heart, whose affinitie with the sunne is so great, that they call the Sunne the heart of the world, and the heart the sunne of the body. Neptune the God of the Sea and the ruler of al moisture resembles the Liuer 
An Elegant Mythologie.  which is the fountain of beneficall moisture. Vnder the name of Mercury that witty and wily God they designed the braine. These three principles therefore respect Mars coupling with Venus, that is, haue the ruling power in procreation.  
Thus haue you heard the diuerse and different opinions of the ancients and late writers concerning this matter, it remaineth now that wee resolue vppon something ourselves, which we will do on this manner.  
The seed is a moyst; spumous and white body, compounded of a permixtion of blood 
What wee resolue of.  and spirits, laboured and boyled by the Testicles, and falling onely from them in the time of generation, or from the adiacent parts. Neither do we ascribe that faculty which they cal 〈◇〉, the Faculty of making seede to any other part saue onely to the testicles and their vessels. But whereas there is a double matter of the seede, blood and spirits; we think that the blood is red and not at all altred by the solid parts, and falleth only from the veins. As for the spirits which are aery, thin and swift Natures, wandering through the whole body being neere of kin vnto the ingenite spirits of the particular parts, we thinke they fall into the Testicles out of the whole body, and bring with them the Idea or forme of the parts and their formatiue faculty. And in this sense haply it may be saide, that the seede falleth from all the parts of the body, but in no other.  
But some man may say, If the seede yssue onely from the Testicles, how may it bee that two so small bodies as the Testicles are, should be able to boile so great a quanty of seede? I answere, that heerein appeareth the wonderfull wisedome and prouidence of the GOD of 
Obiection. Answere.  Nature, who hath made all officiall parts, not onely to draw fit and conuenient Aliment for their owne vse, but so much and so great a quantity as may suffice the other intentions of Nature also. So the Liuer draweth more blood out of the Veins of the Mensetery then is sufficient for his owne nourishment, so the heart generateth aboundance of spirits; not 
The wonderfull prouidēce of God.  onely for his owne vse, but to sustaine the life of all the parts. The Testicles therefore beeing common and officiall members, and the first and immediate organs of generation, do draw more blood then may suffice for their own sustentation, which ouerplus being there arriued, is by them continually concocted and boyled into seede.   

QVEST. V. Whether women do yeelde seede.  
_COncerning the seede of women, there is a hot contention betweene the Peripatetians and the Physitians. Galen in his Bookes de Semine, and in the 14. book de vsu partium, elegantly discusseth the whole question, wherefore that which he there hath at large and in many words exemplified, wee in this place will contract and draw into a briefe summe. There shall be therefore three heads of this Disputation. First of all we will propound the reasons of the Peripatetiks. Secondly, 
Three heades of this Controuersie.  we will giue you a view of the opinion of the Physitians; and lastly wee will answere all Obiections that are brought against the truth.  
Aristotle in his Bookes de Generatione Animalium contendeth, that women neither loose 
The argumēts of the Peripatetiks that women haue no seede.  any seede in the acte of generation, neither yet indeede haue any seede at all, and that for these reasons.  
First, because it is absurd to thinke that in women there should be a double secretion at once of blood and seede. Secondly, because women in their voice, in their haire & in the habit of their body, are most like vnto Boyes, but boyes breede no seed. Thirdlie, because women do sometimes conceiue without pleasure yea against their wils. For Auerrhoes telleth a Story of a woman who being in a Bath together with some men, receyued seed that fell from them and floted in the water and thereupon conceiued. Fourthly, because a woman is an vnperfect male, and hath no actiue power but onely a passiue in generation. Finally, because if women should loose seed they might engender without the helpe of the male, because they haue in themselues the other principle of generation, to wit, the Menstruall blood.  
On the contrary, the Physitians bring stronger arguments to prooue that women yeeld 
The opinion of the Physitians.  seede. This first of all men Hippocrates auoucheth in his Bookes de Genitura and de diaeta, where he doth not onely acknowledge that women haue seede, but addeth moreouer, that 
Hippocrates. Aristotle.  in either sexe there is a twofold kinde of seede, one stronger, another weaker. Aristotle also himselfe in his tenth booke de Historia Animalium is constrained to confesse that to generation there is necessarily required a concourse of the seeds of both sexes.  
Galen in this businesse hath so excellently acquitted himselfe, that he hath preuented all men after him for gaining any credit by the maintenance of this truth. Notwithstanding 
Galen. , we will endeauour by demonstratiue arguments to make it so manifest, as for euer all mens mouths shall be stopped.  
First therefore it is agreed vppon by all men, as well Physitians as Philosophers, 
The reasons on the Physitians side.  that Nature endeuoureth nothing rashly or in vaine. If therefore there bee all Organes for generating, boyling, and deriuing or leading seede to the parts of generation in Women as in men, it must needs follow that they also doe generate, boyle and leade downe seede. Now for the preparation of seede they haue foure vessels, two veines and two Arteries, for the boyling and perfecting seede they haue testicles, for the leading it down they haue eiaculatory vessels. And this is agreed vpon by all Anatomists.  
I know well that the Peripatetiks will Obiect, that in those vesselles there is conteyned a kinde of waterish moysture and serous but nothing sufficiently boyled, and that the Testicles 
Obiection. Answere.  of women haue as much vse as the paps in men. But how miserably they are deceiued, good reader be thou iudge. If those preparing vessels do containe nothing but a whaey and serous moisture, crude and vndigested, why are they contorted with so many Girations and Convolutions? why so wreathed and plighted one with another? Nature no where in all the body hath made any web or complication of vessels but onely for a newe coction and elaboration. Add heereto, that if these vessels do onely yeelde a waterish and serous humor, why doth the spermaticall veine insinuate itself into the spermaticall artery, 
That there is not the same reason or proportion in the paps of men, and the Testicles of womē,  so that of two vessels they become but one, as it is in men? Is it not rather therefore, that the double matter of the seede should be exquisitely mingled, and one body made of the permixtion of blood and spirits? As for the proportion betweene womens Testicles & mens breasts, we say it is not equall. For the Pappes in men serue onely for ornament, to strengthen the chest and defend the noble parts therein contained. The Testicles of women vnlesse they make seede, are altogether vnprofitable. The Pappes of men haue no Glandules, neyther do they generate milke; the Testicles of women are perfect Glandules, and their substance is mouable and hollow or cauernous as they are in men. Moreouer, why are the eiaculatory vessels which are inserted into the sides of the wombe, which they 
An argument from the eiaculatory vessels.  commonly call the hornes, more intorted in women then in men, but only that the shortnes of the way might be recompenced by the variety of the complications? What neede was there of so great curiosity in this admirable work of Nature, if it had been only for the Generation or eiaculation of a crude and waterish humour.  
This demonstration we take to be strong enough and indeed not to be gayn-sayed; yet 
Another demonstration.  giue mee leaue to strengthen it yet more with another. There is nothing more certayne then that woemen in their accompanying with men doe loose somewhat from whence comes their pleasure and delight. That therefore which is auoyded is either bloud, or a thinne and serous humour, or perfect and laboured seed. No man in his right wits will say it is bloud; for when the courses flow there is no pleasure, no delight followes thereuppon, yea most commonly dire and terrible racking paynes. That it is not a serous or vnconcocted humour is conuinced by the wonderfull structure of the preparing and by the complications of the eiaculatorie vessels. VVherefore it remayneth that it must bee something well concocted and laboured in these complications which they loose. And that is Seed, which is prooued by the white colour, the thicknesse and the spirites wherewith it is houed and turgid.  
If you dissect the organs of women which haue long refrayned the vse of men, you shall finde their vesselles and Testicles full of seede. Adde hereto that those who of a long time haue intermitted the vse of the mariage bed, or otherwise are wanton women doe in their sleepes auoyde great quantity of seede. And are not women often troubled with the gonorrhaea or running of the reynes and that disease which we cal priapismus? Yea sometimes when their genitalles are full of seede they grow into woodnesse and rage of lust, and euen to bee starke mad indeede; but after that seede is auoyded they come againe vnto themselues.  
Continuall experience tels that those Females which are castrated or gelt, will neuer 
Another opinion of some Peripateticks.  admitte the vse of the Male, but the goads of lust are in them vtterly extinguished. The strength and validitie of these arguments haue driuen many of the Peripateticks to confesse that women also doe auoyde seede, but least they should depart from the opinion of their Maister Aristotle, they say that that seede is vnfruitefull, hauing in it no actiue or operatiue faculty or power. So that all the actiue power of generation they attribute to men, comparing the man to the Artificer and the woman to the wood which hee squareth and heweth and worketh into a shape or forme. The man they say yeeldeth the Soule and the forme, the woman onely the matter.  
The principall of this sect are Auerrhoes and Albertus Magnus: for say they, whereas in euery Nature there must be a Patient correspondent and answerable to the agent, it is most 
Auerrhoes. Albertus Magnus.  likely that the passiue power is giuen to women which might answere to the actiue power in men. And truely to receiue the seede, to conceiue it, to beare the burthen and to nourish the Infant; are all arguments of a passiue faculty.  
With this deuice they think they haue eluded and escaped the darts of the Physitians, when yet alas they wallow still in the same myre. For, to auoyde white, spumous, thicke 
Womens seed is operatiue.  and well concocted seede is all one as to auoyde actiue and operatiue seede. For will the spirites which are brought by the spermaticall arteries and are exquisitely mixed with the bloude in these mazy complications, play them idlie in the conformation? Or shoulde we not rather beleeue that the spermaticall partes are of them generated as of their proper matter? I he seed therefore of vvomen is actiue as that of men, but yet it is vveaker, because it is lesse hot and hath in it fevver spirits.  
I vvill giue you a taste of one or tvvo of Galens arguments vvhich shall manifest the foecundity and fruitfulnes of vvomens seede. 
A strong reason of Galens.   
That the childe is sometimes like the father sometimes like the mother no man vvill deny. This similitude is either from the seede or from the menstruall bloud; not onely from the menstruall bloud, because then children should alvvaies be like their mothers neuer like 
How children become like their parents.  their fathers; neither onely from the seede of the father, for then children should alvvayes bee like the father and neuer like the mother: the similitude therefore proceedeth from a common cause issuing from them both, vvhich common cause is seede. The Peripateticks vvill ansvvere that sometimes the children are neither like father nor mother, but like their grandfathers or great grandfathers, vvho neither actiuely nor passiuely did contribute any thing to their generation. But I cannot see what they can answere to that argument of hereditary diseases.  
The woman that is troubled with the Gowt bringeth foorth a son subiect to the gowt, if she be subiect to the Falling sicknesse she will bring foorth an Epilepticall infant, or being troubled with the Stone a childe disposed to that disease; these diseases I hope they wil not say come by reason of the fault of the blood. For who euer was so mad to say, that the Menstruall blood contained in it the Idea or forme of the particular parts? The impurity of the blood wil indeede make the childe weake and sickly; but to make a calculous impression in the Kidneyes, or a gowty impression in the ioyntes is onely proper to the seede, which conteyneth in it the fatall necessity of life and death.  
Againe, all formation and specification( for you must giue vs leaue to vse our Schooletearmes in these matters of Art) that is, all power to set the seale or figure or difference vpon 
A third.  any thing proceedeth from the seede alone. For the matter as it is a bare matter cannot chaunge the species or sorme of any thing, but the species followeth rather the Dam then the Sire. For if an Ewe be couered by a Goate, she will not bring foorth a Kid but a Lamb with a hard and rugged wooll; if a Tup couple with a she-Goat, she will bring forth 
Note this. Athenaeus.  not a Lambe but a Kid with a soft wooll, as Athenaeus auoucheth. There proceedeth therefore from the Dam a formatiue Faculty, now all formatiue facultie as we said is from seed, none at all from the blood.  
But there is a place in Galen which seemeth to be against vs. For in the first chap. of his 14. Booke de vsu partium he denieth to the seede of the woman the power of procreation. 
A hard place in Galen.  A woman( saith he) because she is colder then a man, hath in her Parastatae a thin and vnconcocted humor, which conferreth nothing to the procreation of the infant, and therefore when it hath done his office it is cast foorth; but another humour, that is the seed of the man, is drawne into the wombe. Wee must thus vnderstand Galen, that in women, beside their seede, there is another waterish moysture which delighteth, tickleth and washeth 
Expounded.  their genitals; and that indeede conferreth nothing to generation, for so he saith a little after. But in the time of coition that humor suddenly and together with the seede yssueth, and therefore mooueth the sense; at other times it yssueth also by little and litle and sometimes without any sense at all. We conclude therefore, that women do yeeld seede which hath in it some operatiue or actiue faculty.  
The vse of this seede according to Galen in the eleuenth chapter of his fourteenth booke de vsu partium is manifold. First for generation, for by it as by a workman concurring together 
The vses of a womans seed.  with the seed of a man, the parts are figurated; and of it as of their matter the membranes are generated wherewith the infant is compassed. The second vse is to be an Aliment for the hotter seede of the man. For euery hot thing is norished by that which is moderately cold, that is, lesse hot as saith Hippocrates in his Booke De Alimento. The thirde 
Hippocrates.  vse is to irrigate or moysten the sides of the wombe, for all the parts of the womb could not be lined or moistened by the seede of the man. The last vse Galen addeth, which is to open the necke of the matrix.  
Argenterius derideth these vses of the seede, because nothing is nourished that doth not liue, but the seede liueth not. Againe, the seede of the woman is not eiaculated into the 
Argenterius the Cauiller.  sides of the wombe, because a womans wombe hath no hornes. But he is indeed himselfe ridiculous, endeuouring to correct Magnificat as we say, when hee cannot sing Te Deum. Neither shall you finde any man more forward to carpe at others, then those who themselues lye most open to scorne and disgrace, as that petulant Author doth in most passages of his workes. But for your sakes who may haply learne something by it, we will do him the 
Answered.  honesty to answer his cauils.  
We say therefore, that the seed is potentially Animated, & when it is cast into the womb that power by the heate of the womb is broght into an act, and therefore presently it worketh the workes of the soule; for it formeth and figurateth the parts. If then it be animated 
Galen expounded  it liueth, but that life is the life of a plant. Beside, when Galen saith that the seed of a man is nourished by the seede of a woman, we must not be so grosse as to vnderstand him as if he meant a perfect nourishment which is made by assimulation; but because the seede of the man was hotter then the seede of the woman, it is tempered and made more dilute or 
By Hippocrates.  fluxible by the cold and thin seede of the woman. After the same manner we say, that the spirits are nourished by the aer, and so we must vnderstand Hippocrates where he saith, That euery hot thing is nourished by that which is moderately cold.  
That the seede is not eiaculated into the sides of the wombe because the womb hath no hornes, sauoureth of Crasse and palpable ignorance of the insertion of the eiaculatory vessels into the sides of the bottome of the wombe, and so we let it passe.  
It remaineth now that we make aunswere to the arguments of the Peripatetickes. First 
Answer to the Peripatetiks arguments.  therefore  
1 That double secretion or profusion of blood and seede we do not thinke is made togither and at once but at diuers times; that is, of seed in the coition and conception, of blood immediately after the first discretion or separation of the spermaticall parts.  
2 There is not the same reason of young boyes and of women. For in Boyes there is no remainder of lawdable blood of which seede should bee made, because one part of the blood is consumed in their nourishment and the rest in their growth, but in women there is abundance of superfluous blood.  
3 Those women who do conceiue without pleasure haue ill affected wombes.  
4 Auerrhoes his History we take to be a right old wiues tale and no credit to be giuen thereto.  
5 That a woman is not an imperfect male, but a perfection of mankinde wee haue abundantly prooued before.  
6 The last argument of Aristotle which carrieth most shew of truth, we may thus answere. Although a vvoman haue in herself the efficient and materiall causes of generation; yet cannot she generate in herself without the helpe of the man; I speake of a lawfull generation, because her seede is but weake and too cold. We see that Henns wil lay Egges without the Cocke, which we cal Addle egges because they will neuer proue Chickins, yea neither Cockes egges which sometimes they lay will proue any thing. Wherfore the concourse or confluence of the seedes of both sexes is of absolute necessity in generation.  
Valesius answereth this Obiection thus; that if a woman be of a cold constitution her 
Valesius his opinion.  seede is too weake to endeauour of itself the conformation of the parts. If the woman be hotter, then is her seede fruitfull enough and of sufficient power, but then there is in such women want of the remainder of Aliment by which the seede conceiued and formed in the wombe might be nourished. Wherefore a hot woman without a man may generate but cannot nourish and perfect that which she hath conceiued. But if these things were so as Valesius woulde haue them, then hot and mannish maydens without the embracements of men should suffer many abortments. And sometimes it hath bin obserued that the geniture 
Disprooued.  yssuing from a woman the seuenth day after conception hath bin dearticulated, so that in it hath appeared the rudiments of the three principall parts and the threds of al the spermaticall parts very conspicuous: For these are the workes of seede onely and not of blood, because the blood conferreth nothing to the conformation and discretion of the parts, neither yet floweth vnto the Conception till the description of the spermaticall parts bee begun. And thus much of the seede of women wherein I haue beene somewhat more large, because the Aduersaries are in this point very violent and will hardly be gainsaide, whatsoeuer euidence of reason is brought against them. Now we proceed to the manner of the emission of seed.   

QVEST. VI. Of the Excretion of the Seede, by what power or Facultie it is accomplished.  
_COncerning the excretion or auoyding of seede, there remaines two things to be 
Whether the excretion of seede be Naturall or Animall.  handled, two doubts to be cleared. First, by what power or Faculty this excretion is made, by the Naturall or by the Animall. Secondly, why there is so great pleasure in the emission of seede. Both these doubts it shall not be hard to assoil, yet because we would giue the Reader full satisfaction, we wil insist somwhat the more particularly vpon them.  
That the excretion of seede is altogether Naturall may thus bee demonstrated. Because euery excrement is driuen foorth by the power of Nature, and seede is an excrement. So 
That it is naturall. Reason 1.  the menstrual blood which is a profitable excrement of the last Aliment of the fleshy parts is purged onely by the force of Nature at certaine times and determinate courses; wherevpon we cal them Courses. So the Chylus which is the excrement of the stomack, although it be profitable is thrust downe into the guts by the ingenite faculty of the same stomacke onely. So the excretion of the excrements of the belly and of the bladder is meerely Naturall. Moreouer for the excretion of seed, Nature hath ordained no Muscles at all, for there appeare none in the spermaticall vesselles nor in the Testicles nor in the Prostate Glandules.  
Happely you will say there are the muscles called Cremesteres which compresse the Leading 
Obiection.  vessels, by which compression the seede is strayned forth; but we do not acknowledge that vse of the Cremaster muscles, because in the vesselles of seed which are in women there 
Answere.  are no such muscles found, who notwithstanding auoyde seede as well as men as hath bin proued. Hereto may be added the authority of Hippocrates, at least of Polybius in his book 
Hippocrates authority.  de genitura, who referreth the cause of excretion to the spumy or frothy nature of the seed, which thence being turgid and not able to containe itself in his place, maketh way for his owne euacuation.  
On the contrary that the excretion of seede is Animal these arguments may perswade: First, because neither whilest we wake, nor in our sleepe there is any such excretion vnlesse 
That it is animall. Reason. 1.  the force of the imagination goe before it. Secondly, because in the auoyding of seed the legges and the armes are contracted and the whole body suffereth a kinde of convulsion; whereupon as wee haue already sayed, Democritus calleth coition a light Epilepsie or falling sicknes. Thirdly, because that excretion is made sometime slower sometimes sooner according to our arbitrary will and discretion. Finally, because it is alwayes ioyned with pleasure, now pleasure is an affect of the sensatiue faculty which is meerly Animall.  
We are of the same opinion concerning the eiaculation of Seede that wee were of concerning 
What we conclude of. It is a mixt action.  the erection of the yarde, to witte, that it is a mixt action of a Naturall and an Animall. It is Animall because it hath imagination going before and pleasure alwayes accompanying it. It is Naturall, because it is made when Nature is prouoked either by an itching or tickling quality, or oppressed with a burden of aboundance and that without the help of muscles.  
But it must be remembred that we here speake of that profusion of seede which is Naturall, 
The causes of the running of the reynes.  not of that which is symptomaticall, which they call the Gonorrhaea or running of the reynes; which neither hath any imagination going before nor pleasure accompanying it, neither yet is driuen out by the strength of Nature, but falleth away by reason of the acrimony of the seede, the weaknes of the vesselles, their convulsion and the inflamation of the neighbour parts: finally, which bringeth vpon the Patient an extenuation and consumption 
A story of a Satyre.  of the whole body. Witnes that Satyre in Thaso whose name was Grypalopex, of whom Hippocrates maketh mention in the 7. Section of the 6. Booke Epidemiωn, who at the age of 25. yeares poured out his seed in great aboundance night and day, and in the 30. yeare was vtterly consumed and so dyed.   

QVEST. VII. Whence commeth the pleasure in the eiaculation of Seede.  
_THE wonderfull prouidence of Nature hath giuen to all Creatures certayne goades and prouocations of lust, and an impotent desire of copulation for the preseruation of the seuerall kindes of Creatures, because the Indiuiduum or particular is of itself and by an inbred necessity dissoluble and mortall. And indeede this sting of pleasure was very necessary, without which man especially the one sexe in scorne and detestation of so bruitish and base a worke, the other for feare of payne and trouble, would haue abhorred this woorke of Nature. The Finall 
The finall cause of pleasure in coitiō.  cause therefore of this pleasure which is conceiued in the whole action of copulation, but especially in the emission of the Seed, is onely the conseruation or preseruation of mankinde.  
The Efficient causes of this pleasure we acknowledge to bee many and diuerse; to omit the rest, we will make mention onely of three which are the especiall and most immediate. 
3. Efficient causes.  The first is the tickling of the turgid and itching seed: now the seed is turgid, that is, houen or frothy by reason of the impetuous motion of the spirites; for seede without spirites such as is anoyded in the Gonorrhaea breedeth no pleasure at all; after the same manner those that abuse the vse of woemen by frequent copulation haue lesse pleasure then other men because they haue fewer spirits.  
Yet is not this cause of itself sufficient to procure pleasure such especially as is conceiued, but another cause is required which is the celerity or svviftnesse of the motion and of the excretion. For as paine is neuer caused vnlesse there bee a sudden and svvift alteration, so vvhen the seed issueth by little and little or vveepingly, there is no pleasure at all. Finally, to these tvvo is added the exquisite sence of the partes of generation and their narrownesse. For so the parts being tickled, and the vesselles which were distended returning into their naturall scituation and constitution, there is stirred vp a wonderfull delight and pleasure. But that these things may be made more euident we will handle heere two problemes. The first, why the spirits as they passe through the other parts, Veines, Arteries, 
2. Problemes The first.  Sinnewes, Membranes these last especially being of exquisit sense, together with the blood and the humors, do not induce the same pleasure which they doe in the spermaticall Organs. Haply it is, because this kinde of sensation by the wonderful prouidence of Nature is bestowed onely vpon the genitals for the conseruation of the species or kinde, like as she 
Solution.  hath giuen onely to the mouth of the stomacke the sense of divulsion and appetite. Or we may say, that in the other vesselles there is not so sudden and headstrong an effusion of humors and spirits together.  
The other Probleme is, why men and woemen that are asleepe haue great pleasure in 
The second Probleme.  their Nocturnall polutions, seeing that in sleepe the sensatiue faculties are all at rest: for the Philosopher calleth sleepe 〈◇〉, the rest of the first sensator. Wee answere 
The Solution  first, that the imagination in sleepe is stronger then when wee are awake, as appeareth in those that walke and talke in their sleep. Againe, in sleep the senses are not so drowned in sencelesnesse but that they are rowzed vp by a violent obiect, and therefore such awake if they be violently stirred: and for the most part such nightly pollutions doe awaken those who are troubled with them. If you prick a sleeping man with a Needle euen before he awake he gathereth vp his body; and if you continue he will awake though hee sleepe neuer so soundly. Now the excretion of seede in a dreame is indeede a very strong obiect to the spermaticall parts. These therefore are the causes of pleasure in the excretion or auoyding 
Whether mē or woemen haue greater pleasure.  of seede. But whether the pleasure of the man or of the woman be the greater, it would be a vaine and fruitlesse disquisition to enquire. Indeede the woman conceiueth pleasure more waies, that is in the auoyding of her owne seede and also in the attraction of the mans: for which cause the Tyresian Priest who had experience of both sexes preferred 
The answere.  the woman in this kinde: but the pleasure of the man is more intense, partly because his seede is more hot and spirituous, & partly also because it yssueth with greater violence and with a kinde of Almaine leape or subsultation.  
And thus much concerning the first principle of generation, that is, the seed of both sexes. Now we come to the second principle, which is the Mothers blood.   

QVEST. VIII. Whether the Menstruall Blood haue any noxious or hurtfull qualitie therein.  
_COncerning the Nature of the Menstruall blood, there hath been and yet is so hard hold and so many opinions euen among Physitians themselues, that it were a shame to make mention of all their differences, much more to insist vpon them. But because we would pretermit nothing that were worthy of your knowledge, wee will insist vppon the chiefe heads of the Controuersie. The first of which shall bee concerning the matter of the Courses.  
All men do agree that this blood is an excrement, for like a superfluity it is euery month 
Of the matter of the courses  driuen foorth of the wombe; but because there are two kinds of excrements, the one Naturall and profitable, the other altogether vnprofitable and vnnaturall, wee must enquire of which kinde this menstruall blood is.  
That it is an vnprofitable excrement and of a noxious or hurtfull quality, may bee proued by the authority of famous learned men, as also by strong reasons. Hippocrates in his 
That it is ill qualitied. Hippocrates authority.  first Booke De morbis mulierum, expresseth the malignant quality thereof in these words, It fretteth the earth like Vineger, and gnaweth the body of the woman wheresoeuer it lighteth and vlcerateth the parts of generation. Aristotle in the 19. Chapter of his fourth Booke De Natura 
Aristotle Galen.  Animalium writeth, that that kind of blood is diseased and vitiated. Galen in the eight Chapter of his Booke de Atra bile saith, that euery moneth a superfluous portion of blood vnprofitable not onely in quantity but also in quality is auoided. Moses that great Law-giuer as we read in holy Scripture, made an Edict that no Menstruous woman should come 
Moyses.  into the Sanctuary, Let her touch no holy thing, nor enter into the Sanctuary whilst the dayes of her purgation be fulfilled. By the Lawes of the Zabri, those women that had their courses 
The lawes of the Zabri.  were interdicted the company and society of men, and the places where she did stand were cleansed by fire. Hesiodus forbiddeth that any man should frequent those bathes vvhere menstruous women haue bathed themselues. Pliny also in the 28. Chapter of his 7. booke 
Pliny.  & Columella doe think that this bloud is not only vicious but poysonous. For by the touch thereof the young vines do wither, the buds of hearbes are burnt vp, yea glasses are infected 
Columella.  with a kinde of tabes. If a Dogge licke of it he will run mad; and wanton women are wont 
Reason and experience.  to bewitch their Louers with this bloud; whence Outd calleth it Lunare virus, the Moone poyson; wherefore it is not onely superfluous in quantity but in the whole quality a noysom excrement. This poysonous quality thereof women haue dayly and lamentable experience of in their owne bodies, for if it bee suppressed it is a wonder to see what horrible and how many symptomes doe arise there-from.  
If( sayeth Hippocrates in his first Booke de morbis mulierum) it bee stabled without the wombe, it ingendereth Inflamations, Cancers, Saint Anthonies fires, and scirrhous, that is, 
What diseases come therefrom.  hard and indolent tumors. If it returne vnto the vpper partes it breedeth many diseases which follow the Nature of the part affected and the offending humour. In the Liuer it breedeth the Caecexta, the Iaundise, the Dropsie. In the Spleene obstructions and Sctrrhous tumors: in the Stomacke, depraued Appetite and strange longings: in the Heart palpitations and Syncopes or sounding; in the Lungs Vlcers and Consumptions: in the Brayn the falling sicknes and mad melancholly, and many other such like.  
Amongst the new writers Fernelius the best learned Physician of them all, in the 7. book 
Fernelius opinion.  of his Phisiologie, proueth that this bloud is not Alimentarie nor of the same Nature with that by which the Infant is nourished in the mothers wombe, but thinketh it noxious and hurtfull both in the quantity and quality.  
On the contrary we thinke, and perswade ourselves wee shall also conuince others, that this bloud which is monthly euacuated by the wombe, is all one with that bloud whereof 
The contrary opinion that it is naturall.  the Parenchymata or flesh of our bowels are made, and wherewith the Infant in the wombe is nourished, and that it is in his owne nature laudable and pure bloud and no way offensiue to the woman but onely in the quantity thereof. And this we hope wee shall euict both by authority of the Antients and by inuicible and demonstratiue arguments.  
First of all Hippocrates fauoureth this opinion as also doth Galen. Hippocrates in his first 
Hippocrates.  Booke de morbis mulierū hath this saying. The bloud falleth from a woman like the bloud of a stickt Sacrifice, which soone cloddeth or caketh together because it is sound and healthfull. And this also he repeateth in his Booke de Natura pueri: now the conditions of laudable bloud are, to be red and quickly to cake. Galen in his third Booke de causis symptomatum, writeth 
Galen. Reasons to proue it naturall.  that this bloud is not vnnaturall, but offendeth onely in quantity. And this may also be demonstrated by good and true reasons: this bloud in a sound woman( for if shee bee sickly the whole masse of bloud is corrupted) the bloud I say that is auoyded euery month by the wombe, is made of the same causes by and of which the other bloud is made with which the flesh is satisfied and nourished. For the matter is the same, the same heat of the Liuer, the same vesselles conteyning it, why then should there bee any difference in their qualities?  
Moreouer, if( as the Philosopher often vrgeth) the Finall cause be the most noble, and preuayleth in the workes of Nature ouer all the rest, why should this superfluous bloud redound 
First.  in the colde Nature of women, vnlesse that it might become an Aliment vnto the conceiued and formed Infant? why doeth shee purge it rather by the wombe then by the 
The second.  nose, as it is often auoided in men? vnlesse it be to accustome herself to this way, that after the conception it may exhibit itself for the nourishment of the Infant.  
This is the small cause of the menstruous bloud acknowledged by Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, and all the whole schoole of Physitians. Aristotle sayeth that such is the Nature of a woman, that their bloud perpetually falleth to the wombe and the principall parts, & therfore if they be haile and sound of body and haue their courses in good order, they are neuer troubled with varices or swollen veines, neuer with the Haemerrhoids nor with bleeding at the nose as men are.  
Now if these courses doe affect the way into the wombe for no other cause but onely for the nourishment of the Infant, then no man will deny but that it is benigne and laudable bloud. For Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri and in the first booke de morbis mulierum sayeth, that the Infant is nourished with pure and sweete bloud; in the first place he sayth, that the Infant draweth out of the bloud that which is the sweetest; in the second, that the woman with childe is pale all ouer, because her pure bloud is consumed in the nourishment and increase of the Infant.  
Moreouer, that the bloud which Nature purgeth by the wombe of a sound woman is 
Third.  pure and Elementary, this is a manifest argument because of it returning to the paps milke is generated, and therefore Nurses haue not their courses as long as they giue sucke; nowe that milke is made of the purest blood, Hippocrates witnesseth in his Booke de Natura pueri.  
Aristotle in the first Chapter of his fourth Book de Generatione Animalium, sayth that the 
Why Nurses haue not their courses neither yet conceiue.  nature of the Milke and of the menstruous bloud is one and the same, and thence it is that those that giue sucke haue not their courses, neither yet do conceiue with childe, and if they do happen to conceiue, then their milk faileth.  
Add hereto that if the impurity of the courses were so great as some would haue it then it would follow that when women are with childe and their courses faile vppon that cause, they should be worse disposed, then if they should faile vppon other causes, because the Infant drawing away the purer part of the bloud, that other which is venomous or of a malignant quality would rage so much the more hauing lost the bridle whereby it is restrayned: moreouer those symptomes would be more violent in the last moneths then in the first after conception; all which is contradicted by common experience.  
Wherefore the menstruall bloud is onely aboundant in women, and hath no other fault 
Conclusion.  at all, if they be sound and hayle; and is of the same Colour, Nature and Temperament with the rest of the bloud conteyned in the trunke of the hollow veine, and wherewith the flesh is nourished. Yet is it called an excrement but that 〈◇〉 abusiuely; because the flesh being therewith filled and satisfied doth returne that which remayneth back into the veines and voyde it out; so the Stomacke beeing satisfied with the Chylus thrusteth it into the Guttes.  
But Auicen maketh a question whether this menstruall bloud be an excrement of the second 
Auicens question.  or of the third concoction; we say it is of both but in a diuerse respect. It is an excrement of the second concoction, because the whole masse of bloud hath his first Generation in the Liuer the seate of the second concoction, and from the Liuer is powred as an ouerplus 
Answered.  or redundancie into the trunk of the hollowveine. It is an excrement of the third concoction, because it is as we sayd vomited away by the flesh when it is satisfied after the third concoction.  
Those arguments which before were alleadged against this truth are but veine and light. 
Answere to the former arguments.  For as we grant that all those mischiefes and inconueniences before named doe happen in a diseased woman, so we deny that there is any such in a sound, haile and well disposed womans body. And if at any time the suppression of the courses in a sound body doeth bring forth any of those fore-mentioned symptomes, that commeth to passe because of the stay & abode of it, or else because euill humors doe fall together with the blood vnto the wombe which is a common sinke as it were of the body, by the permixtion of which humours the blood acquireth a malignant quality.  
Those incommodities of the menstruous blood before remembred, are great arguments 
The discomodities of the courses proue their purity.  of the purity thereof: for those thinges which are most pure are soonest vitiated, and being once taynted are most offensiue; so the symptomes of suppressed seede are more grieuous then those that come from the suppression of the courses, because the seede is the purer and fuller of spirits.  
Hence it is that the carkasse of a man casteth a worse stench or sauour then the carkasse of any other creature, because a mans body is of all other the most temperate. And Hippocrates in his Booke de morbis sayth, that by how much the Aliment is better and more pure, by so much is their corruption worse and more offensiue. And thus much of the Nature and quality of the menstruous blood.   

QVEST. IX. Whether the menstruous bloud be the cause of those Meazels and small Pocks which are wont once in a mans life to trouble him.  
_IT belongeth not to this place to dispute of the Nature, differences and all the causes of the small pockes, as also whether the varioli, morbilli, exanthemata, and ecthymata be of one and the same Nature or no; wee will onely touch that which pertayneth to our present purpose.  
It is a very obscure question which hath a great while exercised the wits 
The question  of many men, Whether the small Pocks and Meazels which are wont once in a mans life to happen vnto him, doe come by reason of the impurity of the menstruall bloud. I will not heere enlarge myself to reckon vp vnto you all the opinions of all men which haue written of this question, but onely tell you what we thinke and that as shortly and perspicuously as the Nature of the cause will giue leaue. It is a sure thing, that among ten thousand 
All men haue once the smalpox.  men and women there can bee scarce one found who once in their life are not afflicted with this disease. Auenzoar writeth that it is almost a miracle if any man escape them. It is therefore a common disease because it taketh hold of all men.  
Now it is Hippocrates resolution in his Booke de Natura hominis, that common diseases haue also common causes. When many men at the same time labour of the same disease, wee determine that the cause of that disease is common. But what cause may this be that is so common to all men? Not the ayre, for we doe not all breath the same ayre; one man liueth in an impure ayre, another in a pure; one inhabiteth in the North another in the South; wherfore 
The opinion of the Arabians that they come of the impurity of the courses.  it must be some Principle which is this common cause. This Principle the Arabians first of all men acknowledged to be the Menstrual blood( as Auicen, Auenzoar, Halyabas and Auerrhoes) wherof the Parenchymata of the bowels are gathered and the particular particles of the Infant are nourished.  
For though this blood bee pure and laudable, yet by the permixtion of the humours which fall from all the partes of the body vnto the wombe as it were into the common poomp or sinke it becommeth impure; whence it is that as well the spermaticall as the fleshie partes beeing defyled with that corruption, are of necessitie once in a mannes lyfe cleansed and depurated, no otherwise then VVine in the caske woorketh and cleanseth itself.  
The trueth of this opinion that it may appeare more cleare, we wil see what may be obiected to it, and discusse the same as carefully as wee can, that no scruple may bee lefte behinde.  
The Infant is nourished with pure blood. 〈◇〉 sayeth Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri, 
Reasons to the contrary. First Answered.  〈◇〉, It draweth out of the bloud that which is the sweetest: and therefore there cannot any euill quality settle vppon the solide or fleshy partes. I answere out of the sixt Chapter of Galens first Booke de causis Symptomatum: That the Infant whilest it is young and small in the first monethes, draweth the purest part of blood; but when it becommeth larger then it draweth the pure and impure together promiscuously: or we say, that the blood that the Infant draweth out of the veynes wherewith it is nourished is of it owne Nature pure, but is defyled by the humours which are wont to be purged by the wombe. For Aristotle sayeth in his tenth Booke de Historia Animalium, that the wombe is a seruile member, ordained to expell those things of which the body behooueth to be purged.  
Againe they obiect, if the small poxe grow vpon the impurity of the menstrual blood, 
Second.  why is not that ebullition or boyling of the bloud instantly in the first monethes when the Infant is tender and weake, and there is the greatest disposition of the causes moouing thereunto; but after many yeares yea sometimes not before olde age? why doe not acute Agues or other diseases which happen in the life time cleanse the body of that corruption?  
Wee answere out of Hippocrates, that one age differeth from another and one Nature 
Answered.  from another. A poyson wil sometimes lurke in the body more yeares then one, which in the end will bewray itself and either oppresse Nature or bee ouercome by it and auoided. So the virulency and poyson of the French disease and of the Leprosie will lie hid for some yeares, and the poyson of a mad dog a great while before it shew itself.  
Their third reason is That some men are troubled with the smal pox oftner then once yea 
Third.  many times, and therfore they procced other-whence then from the infection of the menstruall blood. But this is a childish argument; for the disease doth therefore returne because 
Answered.  haply the expulsiue faculty is weak and thereupon there remaine some reliques of the matter of the disease: so sayth Hippocrates in the 12. Aphorisme of the 2. Section. The remaynders or reliques of diseases are wont to be the causes of relapses.  
Their fourth reason is, the menstruall blood is turned into the substance of the parts by nutrition; now the parts do not suffer any ebullition but the humors onely, it is therefore 
Fourth.  absurd to imagine that the pox should be generated of their heat or working; to whom we answere thus. The solid parts do not indeed worke or suffer ebullition, but they doe infect 
Answered.  the humors with that quality which they acquire from the impurity of the mēstruall bloud, which humors boiling and being offensiue to nature, are thrust out into the skin; insomuch as the parts themselues are purged by that working which is in the blood.  
So musty vessels( saith Auenzoar) do infect the wine conteined in them, but if the wine do worke in a musty vessell, then it becommeth sweete euer after.  
The fifte reason is, if the poxe do arise out of the impurity of the Menstruall bloode why then are not women ouer taken with the pox when their courses are stopped? We answer, 
Fift. Answered  that the blood so suppressed is onely in the veins, and is not sprinkled through the substance of the parts, and therefore doth not set●le that malignant quality in the solid parts.  
Their sixt reason. Why are not brute beasts which are full of blood and haue those monethly euacuations the matter you say of the poxe, and a working heate beside? why haue 
Sixt Answered.  not such beasts the pox also? Haply, because they vse a drier kinde of nourishment and beside lead their whol life in labor and exercise, whence it is that the reliques of their impure blood are spent and euaporated. But a man in his tender infancy sucke aboundantly, and after he is wayned neuer ceaseth eating, and beside the first seauen yeares of his age hee spendeth in great idlenesse.  
Finally, seeing the fault of the Mothers blood hath continued euer since the beginning 
Seauenth.  of the world, so that this disease should haue beene the most anncient of all others, howe commeth it to passe that neither Hippocrates nor Galen, nor any of the Graecians did euer make any mention thereof; insomuch that it seemeth to be a new disease knowne onelie to the Moores? It is not likely therefore that it proceedeth from the impurity of the Mothers blood.  
But we say that it is very likely that the disease was of old time, but because men were more continent and liued in better order then now they do, it was not so ordinary in the former 
Answered.  times as now it is. Hippoc. in his Books Epidemiωn doth often make mention of red, round, & small Pustules which he calleth Exanthemata; and Aetius in his 14. Book saith, that children had certaine Pustules or whelkes which brake out all ouer their bodies. I do not therefore thinke that this disease was altogether vnknowne to the Grecians, but haply not so acurately described, because in those dayes by reason of their good dyet, the symptoms or accidents of the disease were not so dangerous. So euen at this day we haue knowne many full of the poxe without either Ague or vomiting, or any notable disease at all; and children oftentimes haue them and know not of it till they be gone.  
They which referre the cause of the poxe to the malignant disposition of the aer, are in 
Fernelius his opinion confuted.  my opinion fat wide, for then we must needs acknowledge that the aer is alwaies infected, because we see Children haue them at all times and seasons and euery year. Neyther then would the disease haunt children onely, but olde folke also as the plague dooth; neither would it happen onely once in a mans life, but as often as the aer is so affected, as it dooth in the plague and other Epidemiall and pestilent diseases which come from the aer.  
Mercurialis that learned man in an elegant Booke hee set out concerning the diseases of 
Mercurialis his opinion.  children resolueth many and those very obscure problemes of the nature & causes of these small pox; but endeauouring to establish a new and vnheard of cause of them, he seemeth to be mistaken.  
His opinion is, that the pox is a new disease vnknowne altogether to the Grecians, and that it spring first of all from the ill disposition of the heauens and the aer, and raged almost vpon all men; who afterward being themselues tainted, conferred the succession of the disease vpon their posterities. For as a gowty Father begetteth a gowty child, and a leprous father a leprous childe, an Epilepticall father an Epilepticall childe, why also should not a father infected with this poisonous disease communicate the same disposition to his child? These things may seeme to some very probable, but if we looke more narrowly into them, they will scarse hold water as we say.  
For to knit vp all in few words, Hereditary diseases are not communicated from the Father or Mother to the childe, but by seede. These seeds containe in them potentially the Idea, 
The first Reason.  Formes and Proprieties of all the partes. So the seede of an arthriticall or calculous Father hath in it the disposition of the gowt or the stone; wherfore that disposition of the pox must remaine in the solid parts of the parent. But in those who haue had the poxe and are perfectly recouerd of them, there remaineth no corruption nor any such disposition as being wholly euacuated by criticall excretion and eruption of the postles; otherwise out of doubt the disease would againe returne. How therefore shall they communicate vnto their children that poysonous disposition which now they themselues haue not in their solid parts. Neither are all diseases hereditary, but those onely which are in beeing in a mans 
What diseases are hereditary.  body, and therefore putrid Agues and such other diseases as happen by accident, are not communicated to the children. Now at that time when this disease first began to rage, it must needs be granted that it was as we say in Schooles Morbus Fiens, that is, a disease not 
Morbus Fiens.  subsisting but breeding, hauing his hearth or seate in the corruption of the humours, and therefore it could not be communicated to the children. Add hereto, that if these things were so, it would follow, that as we are all once in our liues troubled with the pox, so wee should once in our liues be troubled with the plague. For the time hath beene vvhen the 
The second.  plague raged so fierce that few men escaped it. As is the poxe so is the plague a common disease contracted from the fault and impurity of the aer, why then should not our parents leaue vs also that vnwelcome inheritance as well as they do the pox?  
We conclude therefore with the Arabians, that the cause of the poxe is the impurity of the Mothers blood wherewith the infant is nourished, which impurity it acquireth as well 
The conclusion with the Arabians.  by his stay in the body beyond the limited time, as also from the permixtion of the humors which fall into the womb as vnto the sinke of the body.   

QVEST. X. Of the causes of the periodicall euacuation of the Menstrua.  
_ALl men know that the Menstruall blood is purged through the wombe by certaine standing and limited circuites and Courses, but the causes of this returne is a very hard thing to finde out. Many do wonder why seeing all 
Why it is not purged euerie day.  other excrements are euacuated euery day, this blood which is the excrement of the last Aliment should be auoided but once in a month.  
The thicke excrements of the first concoction as they are daily generated, so they are dayly auoided. The Choller is euery day thrust out of the Liuer into the bladder of the gall, and thence into the Duodenum; the vrine is daily transcolated from the Kidneyes vnto the bladder of vrine. So likewise the excrements of the third concoction, i, those of the habit of the body are spent by sweating, breathing & insensible transpiration, by the haire and the soile of the skin. Those of the braine by the palate, by the nosethrils, the eares and the eyes; those of the chest by coughing; why therefore is not the Menstruall blood euery day euacuated, seeing it hath a continuall generation?  
This I thinke is to be attributed onely to the singular prouidence of Nature, and to the Final cause the most excellent of all the rest. For if the blood were euery day purged away 
The true reason.  by the wombe, then could women neuer conceiue with childe, neyther yet any man haue due and comfortable vse of a woman. First conception would be hindred, because the seed powred out into the cauity of the wombe, would either fall backe or be extinguished; the coates of the wombe being irrigated, moistned and as it were inebriated or made drunke by the daily affluence of the blood. So saith Hippocrates in the 62 Aphorisme of the first section, Those women that haue moyst wombes do not conceiue, because their geniture is extinguished. Beside, what pleasure or contentment could any man finde in a wife so lothsomly defiled, and that perpetually. It was not therefore fit for the accomplishment of the intention of Nature, that a womans blood should issue euery day, but onely at certaine and definite times and circuites, to wit, once euery moneth.  
But why this excretion should be made euery moneth not oftner nor more seldome, is 
Why it is purged euery moneth.  a great question and I assure you very full of difficulty. Aristotle in the 2. and 4. de generatione Animalium, referreth the reason of this periodicall or certaine euacuation to the motion of the Moone, and saith; that when the Moone is in the wane womens courses do especiall 
Aristo opinion  flow, because at that time the aer is colder and moister, from whence comes the encrease and aboundance of that colde and crude humour; but Aristotle is by some heerein reprehended, because in the full of the Moone all things are most moiste, as appeareth by Shel-fishes, Oysters, and such like. The Peripatetikes answere, that there is a double humiditie, one viuisicall or liuely, the other excrementitious. The first is encreased in the full of the Moone, because then there is more light, the second is encreased in the wane, because then the aer is colder; now Menstruall blood is generated by a weake heate.  
The Arabians thinke there are diuers times of this purgation, according to the diuersitie 
The Arabians opinion.  of womens ages- Young women( say they) are purged in the new Moone, and olde women in the old moone, whence commeth that common verse.  
Luna vetus vetulas, invenes noua Luna repurgat.  
Young women in the New Moone purge, Old women in the wane.  
Some there are, who referre the cause of this circuite and monthly euacuation to the propriety of the moneth, as if the month had a peculiar power to purge the courses, as the day hath to purge the ordinary excrements. And for this we may alleadge a notable testimony of Hippocrates in his Booke de septimestri partu, where he sayeth, In the moneths the same 
A strāge place in Hippocrates.  things are done by certaine and right reason which are done in dayes: for euery moneth hayle women haue their courses as if the moneth had a peculiar power and efficacy in their bodies. Wee must needs acknowledge that the Moone hath great power ouer inferior bodies, but that the sole cause of the Criticall daies and of this menstruall euacuation should be referred to the motion of the Moone I could neuer yet perswade myself.  
That many things are dispensed by numbers and by moneths I doe not deny; but to attribute any operatiue power to quantity and to number as it is number, I thinke is vnworthy 
What wee resolue vpon.  of a Philosopher. It is more wisedome to referre the cause of this periodicall euacuation to the determinate motions and established lawes of Nature to vs vnknowne, which yet she neuer breaketh or abrogateth, but keepes immutable and inuiolable vnlesse she be either prouoked or hindred: for when she is prouoked she antiuerteth or hastneth the excretion auoyding the bloud before her owne time. So whereas the seuenth dayes are only 
How Nature is prouoked.  truely criticall, yet Nature indeuoureth vacuations sometimes in the dayes betweene, yea & accomplisheth them, because of some prouocation comming from without, that is, beside her owne lawfull contention. Againe, being hindered either by the narrownesse of the passages, or by the thicknes of the humours, she oftentimes procrastinateth and delayeth 
How hindred.  their accustomed euacuation.  
Hence it is that in some women the courses flow twice in a moneth, in some scarce before euery fortieth day. But why the blood should flow from the wombe rather once euery moneth then twice, or why the seauenth dayes should rather bee criticall then the sixth 〈◇〉, is aboue the capacity of humane wit.  
Hippocrates verily promiseth in the end of his Booke de principiis, to make manifest the necessity of Nature why she dispenseth all things in the seauenth dayes: but I thinke he was diswaded 
Hippocrates promise.  by the difficulty of the buisinesse, and therefore no where perfourmeth that promise. Wherefore seeing he that best could durst not aduenture vpon it, we will also ingenuously 
Not kept.  confesse our ignorance and ranke these secrets among those mysteries of Nature which she reserueth onely to herself, to teach vs not onely in this but in other things, to obserue her administrations the better and to suspect our owne weaknes. For wee see that in the most abiect and base things of the world there are some secrets of Nature whereof either we are 
All secrets of nature not to be knowne.  not at all capable or not yet sufficiently instructed.  
And thus much concerning that other principle of Generation, the mothers blood. now it followeth that we come vnto the Conception, wherein also we shal finde some difficulties worthy the discussing.   

QVEST. XI. Whether it is necessary to Conception that the Seed of both Sexes should issue together, and that with pleasure, and be presently mingled.  
_WEe haue already proued that both the Seedes as well the fathers as the mothers are required in a perfect Generation; but whether they ought both at 
Auerrhoes opinion of the eiaculation.  once to be euacuated is not yet so euident. Auerrhoes contendeth that the eiaculation of the Seed into the cauity of the wombe is not alwayes necessaray, and that a woman may Conceiue without the embracements of a man. And to this purpose he telleth a Tale of a woman who conceiued the seede of a man floating in the water of a bath, so strong sayeth hee was the attractiue faculty of the wombe in drawing of seede. But it is great wonder that a Philosopher would be so credulous to beleeue the excuse of a light-skirts, who to saue her honesty deuised this excuse by looking vpon 
How finely he was gulled by a light skirts.  her apron strings: for sayth he a neighbour of mine told me this tale of herself. The woman I cannot but commend for her wit, though not for her honesty: but Auerrhoes had forgot what his maister Aristotle taught him in his second Booke de Generatione Animalium. 
Auerrhoes disproued.  Seede sayeth he is altogether aerie, frothy, and if it be exposed to the ayre it presently melteth, groweth waterish and becommeth vnfruitful. In the sixt Chapter also of his first Booke de Generatione Animalium, he writeth that those creatures which haue long yards or 
First reason.  virile members are therefore vnfruitfull, because in the length of the way the seede is refrigerated. If therfore it may be refrigerated in his first and natural conceptacle, much more being exposed to the ayre or lost in the water.  
Those which are called 〈◇〉 whose common passage of seede and vrine is turned 
Second reason.  aside, by reason that the yarde is too hard reined with the bridle, cannot generate, not because they haue not fruitfull seede, but because hanging a little in the contortion of the yard, it cannot immediately be conueyed into the wombe whilst it reteineth his heat and spirits, as saith Galen in the 3. chapter of his 15. Booke de vsu partium.  
Doth not Hippocrates in his first Booke de Morbis multerum affirme that to be a cause of 
Third reason.  sterility and barrennesse in women when the womb is peruerted or distorted, because then the seede cannot directly passe without delay vnto the inner orifice of the same? It is therefore necessary O Auerrhoes that there be a direct and impetuous or forcible eiaculation of the seede of the man into the wombe of the woman. Furthermore, because in brute 
Why Beastes conceiue at the first.  beasts which couer one the other, the eiaculation of the seede into the wombe is more direct, it commeth to passe that at once couering for the most part they holde as we vse to say, which is not so betwixt reasonable creatures. Againe, beastes are quiet in that action, being so taught by Nature, for motion often preuenteth conception.  
Now, if at the same time both sexes yeelde their seede, then is the conception sooner, and also more perfect, because the wombe at that time being as it were enraged, dooth more greedily draw and more narrowly embrace the seede which is cast vnto it. This Hippocrates acknowledgeth in his first Booke de morbis Mulierum in these words; If that which proceedeth 
It is not necessary that the eiaculation of both seeds should be at once.  from the man, doth together and in a right line concurre and meete with that which is auoyded by the woman, then doth the woman sooner conceiue, he saith 〈◇〉, by a Metaphor taken from Water-men, who together do rise vpon their Rowers, together dip them in the water, and together driue their stroke. And whereas he saith that they sooner conceiue, it is an argument that it is not of absolute necessity vnto generation, that both sexes shoulde at one and the same time yeeld their seeds; but that there may be conception though it bee slower, if one come a little before or after another; but if the distance of time bee too great between them then the conception succeedeth not, because the spirits of the first seede are exhausted and dissipated.  
The same thing hath Aristotle in his tenth Booke De Historia Animalium, vppon which Scaliger hath written an excellent Commentary, as that mirror of Learning did all things 
Proued by Aristotles authority.  excellently: There are( saith he) that think, there can be no conception vnlesse the seedes of both sexes do at the same time meete one with another; these are deceiued, because the better habited body sooner yeeldeth, wherefore that seed being the stronger, is not corrupted but reteineth his spirits, and being drawne by the wombe, is reteined for the future permixtion, so that to conception simply this concurrence of seeds at one and the same time is not absolutely, but to a sooner conception it is necessary.  
It is also demanded, whether conception may bee without pleasure. On the mans part 
Whither conception may be without pleasure Dinus opinion  there is no question, but on the womans; for you shall heare many say that they haue no sense or inkling of pleasure at all. Dinus is of this minde that conception is not alwaies with pleasure on the womans part; but Dina were a better iudge of this controuersy: let vs hear his reason, because sometimes( saith he) the seede is immediately eiaculated into the bottome of the wombe which is of a duller sense, neuer touching the orifice whose sense is 
Confuted.  more exquisite. A pretty shift I promise you, but the good man was in an error. For pleasure is not therefore conceiued because the seede toucheth the orifice of the wombe, but because it runneth through the spermaticall vesselles of the woman which are of exquisite sense, otherwise women with childe who eiaculate their seede not into the inward orifice, but into the middle of the necke of the wombe, should haue no pleasure in such eiaculations; but it is manifest that they haue greater pleasure after they bee with child then before, because their seed passeth a longer course, as we shall say more at large in our Discourse of Superfoetation.  
Hippocrates in his Booke de Principijs assoileth this question. For after hee hath giuen vs 
The question ass●yled by Hippocrates.  some signes of conception he saith, that these do not happen to all women, but vnto those onely whose bodyes are pure and cleane; but where the body is grosse, full of mucous and impure humors, there are no such signes. That is to say, an impure, mucous and moyste woman may conceyue without pleasure, or any sence of titillation at all.  
Finally, some doubt whether the permixtion of the seeds bee requisite to conception, 

Whether the seede of both sexes be mingled.  
Obiections. Answered.   because it is absurd to thinke that species or kinds are mixed: againe, if they be mixed then should essenties be intended and remitted, which in Philosophy is a grosse absurdity, because euery essence is impartible. Likewise of two beings by themselues, one being by itself cannot be made. But we answere, that the Seeds being not actually animated, they doe not of themselues make the species of the Creature. If it bee granted also according to Aristotle, that they are imperfect essences or beings, it is necessary that they should bee 
Aristotle.  mixed, otherwise they cannot bee nourished or animated together as Hippocrates sayeth in 
Hippocrates.  his Booke de Natura pueri. And in his first Booke de diaeta, he blameth them that doubt whether of two fires a third may arise. If any man sayth he deny that a Soule is mingled with a Soule, that is, one seede with another, let him be held for an Idiot in Physicke. And in the very beginning of his Booke de Natura pueri. If the geniture proceeding from both the parents be retayned in the wombe of the woman they are presently mixed into one. And thus much of the effusion of the seedes of both Sexes, the pleasure thereuppon conceiued, and the permixtion of the seeds themselues.   

QVEST. XII. Whether the wombe haue any operatiue or actiue power in the conformation of the Creature.  
_IT wil not be hard to vntie this knot. According to the Philosophers rule there is a double agent, one Principall another Helpfull or assistant onely. A principall agent no man will say the wombe is, because then a woman could conceiue 
A double agent.  alone without the helpe of the man, and besides Females onely, Males neuer should be formed. The wombe therfore worketh as Causa sine qua non, a cause not so much of the being, as without which it could not be; because it awaketh and stirreth vp the sleepy and hidden vertue of the seede. The Physitians make three kindes of 
3. kinds of Efficent causes among Physitians.  Efficient causes Principall, Helping, or that without which a thing cannot be done.  
So in Purgations the principall cause is the propriety of the medicine, the Helping cause is the hot Temper; the cause sine qua non is our naturall heate, without which the power of the medicine being drowsie would neuer be brought into act. So in the conformation of the Infant, the principal cause is the Seed, I meane the spirits of the seed, by which as by workemen the Soule which is the noble and chiefe Architect frameth a mansion fit for the performance of her different functions. The Helping cause is a laudable Temper of the seedes and of the wombe. The Causa sine qua non is the wombe. For because the seeds are not actually Animated but only potentially, they need another principle whereby their 
How many wayes the wombe worketh.  power may be brought into act: the wombe therefore worketh diuerse wayes. First of all it draweth the Seede of the man through the necke, no otherwise then a Hart draweth a Snake by his nosethrilles out of the earth. For the seede is not powred into the cauity of the wombe as some of the Auntients thought but into the necke thereof. The bottome 
First by traction.  therefore of the wombe meeteth with the Seede halfe way, and with his inward mouth as with a hand it snatcheth it vnto itself and layeth it vp safely in her bosome. And euen as, sayeth Galen in his first Booke de semine, a hungery stomack runneth with his bottom euen vnto the throate to snatch the meate out of the mouth before it be halfe chewed; so the wombe which is the very seat of Concupiscence, being desirous and longing after the seed, moueth itself wholly euen to the priuities, and this is the first action of the womb, to wit, the traction of the Seede of the man.  
The second action of the wombe is the permixtion of the seedes; now they be mixed either 
2. By mixtion.  by themselues or by another; not of themselues because they are not alwayes auoided at the same time, as we haue in the question before going proued out of Hippocrates & Aristotle; neither yet are they eiaculated into the same place, for the mans seede is cast into the neck of the wombe, the womans into the sides of the bottome which we call the horns of the wombe: the wombe therefore maketh this permixtion of the seedes which the Barbarians call Aggregation.  
The third action of the wombe is the Retention of the seedes, in which the woman feeleth a manifest motion of the wombe: for it gathereth, crumpleth and corrugateth itself, 
3. By retention.  and so exquisitly shutteth his orifice that it will not admit the poynt of a Probe.  
The last action of the wombe is the suscitation or raising vp of the seedes which wee 
4. By conception.  commonly call Conception. Now the faculty of the seed is raysed or rowsed, not so much by the heate of the wombe as by his in-bred propriety, for if the seede should be cast into any other part of the body though it were hotter then the vvombe, it would not be conceyued but putrified.  
After Conception the action of the vvombe ceaseth; the vvhole processe of the vvorke of Nature, in fourming, nourishing and increasing is left vnto the Infant: this one thing the vvombe performeth, it conteyneth, preserueth and cherisheth the Infant, because the place is the preseruer of that which is placed therein.   

QVEST. XIII. Of vitious or faulty Conceptions, and especially of the Mola.  
_THat Conception is made by the in-bred propriety of the Wombe, this among the rest manifestly prooueth, that into what part of the body soeuer, sauing into this, the seede is powred, this power or efficacy is neuer stirred vp, neither commeth into acte; so that conception is as properly the action of the wombe, as Chylification is the action of the stomacke. But that conception may be perfect, the seede which is yeelded and reteined must be pure and fruitfull. 
What is required to perfect conception.  By pure I vnderstand with Hippocrates, that which is not sickly or diseased, neither yet mingled with blood. For blood is not requisite to generation till after the description of the spermaticall parts is begun; otherwise the seede being choaked by the aboundance of the blood, neither at all attempteth his worke, neither can it bring to perfection that it could haue well begun. Againe, if the seedes be vnfruitfull, what hope can there be of a haruest.  
To perfect conception there is further required an 〈◇〉 or lawdable temper of the wombe; for those whose wombes are either hot or colde, or moyst or dry aboue measure do not conceiue as saith Hippocrates. If therefore any of these things be wanting, wee cannot hope for a lawfull conception, but either there will bee none at all, or a depraued and vitious, such as is of the Moone-calfe or Mola. For Nature rather endeauoureth an imperfect 
Nature endeuoureth a depraued conception rather then none & why.  and depraued Conception then none at all, because she is greedy of propagation and diligent to maintaine the perpetuity of he kindes of things: wherefore rather then she will do nothing, she will endeuour any thing how imperfect soeuer. So when Nature maketh wormes in the stomacke and guts, she doth better then if she should generate nothing at al, because of a thing immooueable she maketh a thing mooueable by itselfe and of itself, & of a putrid and rotten humour an animated creature.  
The nature and causes of this faulty conception which they call the Mola or Moon-calfe 
The names of the Mola.  we will endeauour to finde out. The Mola the Grecians call 〈◇〉, some think that the name came from a Bakers Mill, because it is like thereto both in hardnesse & in roundnesse. Among the Persians the word Moli signifieth a deformed thing. Affranius the Poet 
Affranius.  calleth it Molucrum, Aristotle often 〈◇〉, because it is like a parboyled thing. We call it A Moone-Calfe. Galen in the 7. Chapter of his 14 Booke de vsu partium, defineth a Mola to 
Galens definition.  be 〈◇〉, that is, an Idle and imperfect flesh. But this definition dooth not expresse the whole Nature of the Mola. For there may bee a rude flesh generated without motion, which is not a Mola. There are euery where Caruncles generated, which no man wil call Moles. We thinke that this rather is a perfect definition of a Mola. The Mola or moon 
A perfect definition of the Mola.  calfe is an idle flesh without forme and hard, engendred onely in the wombe of a woman, and that of weake seede, which seede vndertaking the Conformation, but beeing oppressed or stifled vvith aboundance of blood, it cannot atteine his owne end, and therefore in steade of a creature generateth a lumpe of flesh.  
The particular parts of this definition we will discourse of and discusse in order. The 
Flesh. Idle.  Mola is a flesh, because his substance is fleshy and red like clodded blood. It is Idle, that is, without any Animall motion; for it is not at al moued vnlesse it be after the motion of the wombe. It is rude without forme, not that it wanteth his owne forme, for it hath as saith the 
Rude.  Philosopher his owne being, but it hath neyther 〈◇〉 nor 〈◇〉, that is, neither the species nor the forme of a creature. It is engendred onely in the wombe of a woman, because as writeth 
Onely in a woman.  Aristotle, onely a woman hath aboundance of menstruall purgatoins, for that her diet is moist, and her course of life sluggish and idle in respect of other creatures. That which is obiected of the Beare which alwayes bringeth foorth her young rude and vnformed, and perfecteth them by licking, either we say it is a Fable, or else that their young doe appeare deformed or vnformed but are not so indeede, but because they lurk all winter in the caues of the earth, they are couered with a slimy and Flegmaticke moysture which the Dam licking of makes their proportion appeare.  
The rest of the parts of our definition, doe fully declare the manner of the generation, and the causes of the Mola. I know there are diuers opinions of the Ancients concerning 
Plutark of the Mola. Disprooued.  their generation. Plutark saith that a Mola may be generated without the cōpany of a man, whom many follow, who thinke it may be generated onely of the seed of the woman, when to it a great quantity of her bloode accrueth. But this opinion is disprooued by Galen in the 7. Chapter of his 14. Booke de vsu partium, where hee saith that among all creatures which walke continually vpon the earth, none doe euer conceiue without the seede of the Male, no not a faulty or vitious conception; because all beginning of conformation proceedeth from the seede of the Male as that which is the first principle of Generation. Add hereto that if a Mole could be conceiued onely of the seede of the woman, then those Virgines which doe suffer nightly polutions might conceiue the same which neuer yet was hard off.  
The Coagmentation therefore of the Mole is neuer made without copulation. Some 
Mercurialis his opinion.  thinke that the Mole is generated as other flesh, onely by the affluence of aboundance of bloud which is gathered or caked together by the heate of the wombe. But because the blood hath no actiue or operatiue power but onely passiue, I doe not see how a Moale can 
Re●elled.  be made onely of bloud, when as we see it is tyed with ligaments to the wombe and inuested with membranes, which ligaments and membranes are the rudiments of a conformation inchoated or begunne. Neither are wee to giue credite to them that affirme that it is generated onely of crude and corrupted seede, or when the seede of the woman ouercommeth the Seede of the Male. The true manner of their Generation Hippocrates setteth downe in his first Book de morbis mulierum, which, because we esteem it as an Oracle, I wil 
Hippocrates opinion.  here transcribe. Concerning the Conception of the Mola this is the very trueth: when agreat aboundance of bloud cloyeth a little ill disposed seede there cannot bee a lawfull conception, yet the belly swelleth as if the woman were with Child. What could be sayed more succinctly, what to better purpose?  
Two things he requireth to the Generation of the Mola: First that there be the Seede 
Explayned.  of the man; but that in little quantity and vitious or faulty. Secondly that great quantity of blood should flow vnto it. That little and vitiated seede vndertaketh the worke of conformation and beginneth to forme the membranes; for almost all Moone-calues are couered with filmes and membranes.  
But when as the seede thus little and weake endeuoureth to perfect his woorke hee hath 
The maner of the generation of the mola  begun, then is the discretion or separation of the parts hindered and interrupted by the affluence of too much blood, & the Conception becommeth illegitimate, because the blood beareth greater sway then the seede; so that in steade of a liuing Creature which was the first intention of Nature, there is generated an vnformed & rude masse of flesh hauing indeede the principles of Life, but those so weake that they are presently suffocated and extinguished. For whereas it dayly groweth and encreaseth that commeth not by true nutrition but by apposition onely.  
Some thinke that this flesh is not altogether without life, but 〈◇〉 as if they should say it had halfe a Soule. It is therefore Hippocrates resolution that the mola can neuer bee generated without the seede of the man, and that the beginning of the coagmentation or gathering of the same is alwayes from that same seed. The very same thing Actuarius confirmeth by this definition. The Mola sayeth he, is a fleshy tumor which hath his beginning and his firmenesse or fastnesse from prolificall Seede. And thus much shall haue been sufficient to 
Actuarius definition.  haue sayd of the Nature and cause of the Mola.  
Now let vs acquaint you by what notes and signes it may be distinguished from a true 
The signes to distinguish a Mola from an Infant out of Hippocrates.  Conception. Hippocrates in his first Book de morbis mulierum, and in his Book de Sterilibus conceiueth that the signes of the Mola are fetcht from these foure. The tumor or swelling of the belly, the motion, milke and the time of the gestation. For the first, the belly sooner swelles vpon the conception of a Mola then of an Infant; beside, it is stiffer stretched 
The tumor of the belly.  and carried with more difficulty. For the motion; if after the third and fourth moneth the woman feele no motion the Conception is faulty; for sayeth Hippocrates Male Infants do moue the third moneth and Females the fourth.  
But the Mola is altogether immoueable vnlesse it be accidentally moued together with the wombe: and if a woman in that case feele sometimes a trembling and panting motion, 
The motion.  wee say it is not so much caused by the Mola itselfe, as from the wombe which striueth to shake off so vnprofitable a burthen. Beside, the motion of the Mola and the Infant is altogether vnlike: for the Infant of it owne accord turneth himselfe and mooueth euery way, the Mola like a bowle or vnwealdy bulke is rowled to the right side or to the lefte as the wombe doeth incline to either hand. A Mole pressed with the hand giueth way instantly but presently returneth thither againe: the Infant as it yeeldeth not presently, so after it hath giuen way it returneth not into the same place and position againe.  
The third signe of the Mole Hippocrates taketh from the Nature of the Milke. This is the greatest and most certaine argument of the Mola, if there appeare no Milke in the Pappes. But if the Conceptions be legittimate there is milke. For this we haue a Golden saying in the Booke de Natura pueri, As soone as the Infant beginneth to mooue, euen then the Milk bewrayeth 
3. signifi from the Milke. Hippocrates.  it to the mother. But if a Mola be conceyued there is no Milke generated. Amongest all the rest, there is indeede no signe so infallible as that which is fetched from the time of the Gestation. For, if the Tumor of the belly continue after the eleauenth month which is the vtmost limit of Gestation, and yet there appeare no signes of a dropsie, wee may bee bold to say, it is not an infant but a Mola that is conceiued. And Hippocrates saith, That a woman may beare a Mola two yea three yeares.  
Aristotle also in the 7. chapter of his fourth Booke De generatione Animalium saith, that a Mola may endure in a womans body foure yeares, yea the whole course of her life, so that 
A Mol● may lye long in the womb & why.  she may grow old with it, yea and dye with it of another disease; and in the tenth Booke De Historia Animalium he rendreth the reason; because( saith hee) being no creature it vrgeth not the wombe neither mooueth therein as doth the childe, who by kicking seeketh a way out for himselfe. Moreouer, the Mola breatheth not, neither needeth any aer at all, and therefore seeketh not passage for it.  
The late Writers add, that the woman which hath conceiued a Mola becommeth pale, looseth all her colour, yea and pineth away in her whole body. And thus much of the Mola his nature, and the signes whereby it may bee distinguished from a Lawfull Conception.   

QVEST. XIIII. Of Monsters and Hermophradites.  
_TO depraued and illegittimate Conceptions must Monsters be referred, concerning which, it shall not be out of our way to giue you some briefe Notice. Monsters Aristotle calleth Excursions and Digressions of Nature, taking his Metaphor from Trauellers, who wander out of their way yet go stil on their intended iourney. For when Nature cannot accomplish and bring to perfection that shee intendeth, least she should be idle, which is a thing incompetent to 
The definitiō of a Monster.  her disposition, she doth what she can. And in the second Booke of his Physickes, he defineth a Monster to be a fault, or error, or praeuarication of Nature working for some ende of which she is frustrated because of some principle corrupted.  
Monsters happen many wayes, and there are of them innumerable differences. We will onely handle the chiefe in this place, because haply in another work we may be in this kind 
The differences.  more particular. Monsters happen either when the sexe is vitiated, or when the Conformation is vnlawfull. In the sex, when they are of an vncertaine sex, so that you may doubt 
Monsters in sexe.  whether it be a male or a female or both, as Hermophradites. Bi-sexed Hermophradites they call Androgynas, 〈◇〉. In males that commeth to passe three 
How manie kinds of Hermophradites.  manner of wayes. When in the Perinaeum or Interfaeminium, that is, the place betweene the cod and the fundament, there appeareth a small womans priuity; again, when the same happeneth in the cod but without any auoyding of excrement by it; and thirdly, when in the same place the vrine issueth. In females there is but one manner, when a yard or virile member beareth out in the bottome of the share-bone aboue the top of the genitall in the place of the Clitoris. Some add in men, when there appeareth a small priuity of a woman aboue the roote of the yard. In women, when a yard appeareth at the Leske, or in the Perinaeum.  
In conformation Monsters are more ordinary. To Conformation we referre Figure, 
Monsters in conformation  Magnitude, Scituation and Number. In Figure Monsters happen: if a man haue a prone or declining Figure like a bruite beast, if he haue the face of a Dogge, of a VVolfe, a Fox, 
In Figure.  a Toad, or such like. In Magnitude Exceeding or Deficient: if there be an vnequal proportion 
Magnitude.  of the parts as a great heade, or againe so little that it agreeth not with the rest of the parts. In Scituation, as if the eyes be in the middle of the forehead, the Nosethrilles in the sides, the eares in the nowle, or such like. In Number Exceeding, as when it is diuided into 
Scituation. Number.  two bodies, two heads, foure armes, or such like; or Deficient, if it haue but one eye, no eares, and the like.  
Concerning the causes of Monsters, diuers men are of diuers mindes. The Diuine referres it to the iudgement of God, the Astrologers to the Starres: Alcabitius saieth, there 
The Causes of Monsters.  are certaine degrees in which if the Moone be when a child is conceiued, the birth becommeth monstrous. We list not to exclude the iust vengeance of Almighty God, which no doubt hath a great stroake in these things; but to speake as a Physitian or Naturall Philosopher, it must be granted that all these aberrations of Nature are to be referred vnto the 
The true causes.  Materiall and Efficient causes of generation. The Matter is the seede, the Efficient or Agent is either Primary or Secondary. The Primary or principle cause is double. The formatiue Faculty and the Imagination. The Secondary is the instrument, to wit. the Place and certaine qualities as heate. The matter is in fault three wayes. For it is either Deficient 
Monsters frō the matter.  or Aboundant, or is diuersly mixed. If there be want of Spermaticall matter, then the Monster is deficient either in Magnitude or in Number. If there be ouer plus of Seede, they become double-headed, with foure armes, &c. If there be a confused permixtion of the seede, then are Monsters generated of diuers kindes: as vpon Sodomy and vnnaturall 
Why so many Monsters in Egypt & Affrica.  copulations of men and beasts horrible Monsters haue beene brought into the worlde; so Aristotle saith, that in Egypt and Affrica, where Beasts of diuers kindes meete at the waters of Nilus, or in the Desert-places and mis-match themselues, there are often manie Monsters generated. And thus come monsters arising from the Matter. From the Agent or 
The differēce of Monsters from the Efficient.  Efficient monsters may happen diuers waye. The Primary Agent as we saide, was eyther the Formatiue Faculty or the Imagination. The power of the Imagination wee shall shew a little after in a fitter place, heere it shall bee sufficient to shew out of the learning of the Arabians, that a strong Imagination is able to produce formes euen as say they the superiour Intelligences in the Heauens do produce the formes of Mettalles, Plants, and creatures.  
We reade that in the precinct of Pisa, a woman brought foorth a female childe full of haire like the haire of a Camell, because( saith the Author) she was wont to kneele before the picture of Iohn Baptist, cloathed in Camels haire. The Secondary Agent is the Heare 
A Historie.  or the place of Conception. Heare hauing a fiery mobility or quicke motion, formeth sundry shapes of bodies and worketh the matter into diuers fashions. The peruersion also, the euill Conformation of the place, that is, of the wombe, may be the cause of a depraued figure. And thus I make an end of this common place at this time, wherein my purpose was onely to touch the heads of things, reseruing myself to heereafter for the particular prosecution. Hitherto we haue intreated of the difficulties which might arise concerning the Conception, now it followeth concerning the Conformation.   

QVEST. XV. Whether all the parts are formed together.  
_THis question is so hard and ful of obscurity, that Galen saith it is only known to God & Nature. For what is more Diuine then the first Conformation of 
The difficulty of the questiō.  a man? What more admirable? What more secret? This the kinglie Prophet inspired from aboue acknowledgeth, I wil confesse before the O Lorde, because I am wonderfull made, thy eyes saw mee before I was shaped, &c. Seeing therefore the resolution of this question is aboue the reach of humane capacity, which God wot is circumscribed within very narrow limits; if to make some ouerture thereof I shall take a little more liberty to myself, I desire all those that desire with mee heerein to be informed, not to impute it to my wandering wit but to the greatnesse of the subiect. Because therefore as by the Collision of stones fire is beaten out, so by the ventilation or skitmish of aduersary opinions the truth comes best to be knowne, we will first with your patience see what the Ancients haue conceyued of this matter.  
Alemaeon thought, that the braine was first of all formed because it is the seate of reason and the habitation of the soule, as also for that in infants the heade is greater in his proportion 
Alcmaeons opinion.  then any other of the parts. It may be he had reade in Hippocrates his Epidemia, that the magnitude of the bones and of all the parts is to be esteemed according vnto the magnitude of the head, as if all the rest vvere formed by the heade, and had dependancie therefrom.  
Galen in the second Chapter of his sixte Booke de Placitis Hippocratis & Flatonis remembreth that Pelops taught publickly that all the vessels had their originall from the braine; the 
Pelops.  same also was the opinion of that Persian Philosopher whom Auicen calleth Theseus Perseus; 
Theseus or Syamor.  others Syamor Cabronensis.  
But because the braine is onely the author of sense and motion, and the principal Faculties which the Infant hath no neede of in his first Conformation; I see no reason vvhy the braine should be formed before the other spermaticall parts.  
Democratus as Aristotle sayeth in the first Chapter of his second Booke de Generatione Animalium, 
Democratus.  did think that the outward parts were first formed, & afterward the inward parts, as Artificers are wont first rudely to frame the modell of Creatures in wood or stone before they cut out the more curious lines. Orpheus thought that a creature was formed as a net is knit, that is in order; Empedocles that the Liuer was first formed; the Stoycks all the parts 
Orpheus. Empedocles Aristotles opinion.  together. Aristotle in his second Booke de Generatione Animalium sayeth that the heart is first of all formed, and by and from it all the partes are produced, which as a childe enfranchised by the father, taketh vpon him to rule and dispence the whole body. This sayth hee is the first and onely principle, the first liuer, the first moouer, the first that maketh blood, because it dyeth last of all, now that that dyeth last liueth also first. That the heart dyeth 
The heart dieth last, after Gal. & Arist.  last, beside that wee are taught it by dayly experience, Galen also confesseth as much in the first Chapter of his sixt Booke de locis affectis, Death neuer followeth, sayth he, vnlesse the heart be first affected with an immoderate distemper. It is therefore necessary that the Father or Lord of the family which is the Heart, should bee created before the Cater or Steward which is the Liuer. This opinion of Aristotles, Auicen the prince of the Arabian Family 
Auicens opinion.  seemeth to follow, which also hee establisheth by some reasons; because the creature cannot be nourished vnlesse he liue and participate of the influence of heat, now the heart is the plentifull fountaine of naturall heat.  
Againe, in the first dayes after Conception the Formatiue faculty needeth no nourishment, because there is no notable resolution or expence in the parts; but of heate and vitall spirits there is alwayes neede, therefore it was necessary that the heart should bee formed before the Liuer.  
But this opinion of Aristotles is long since cast out of the schooles of Physitians. For that 
Aristotles opinion confuted.  it is not the onely nor the first principle we haue already prooued sufficiently in the second question of the Controuersies of the first Booke. Nowe that it is not first generated may be demonstrated both by Reason and Sence, which two are the most vnpartiall Iudges of all Controuersies. By Sence because there alwayes appeare together and at once three 
By sence.  bubbles, which are the rudiments of the three principal parts, neither did any man euer obserue one of those bubbles only.  
By reason, because in the first dayes after Conception the Embryo needeth not the help 
By reason.  of the heart. For liuing the life only of a plant, it needeth neither pulsation or spiration nor the influence of heat, because it cherisheth himselfe with his owne heat and with his owne inbred spirit. And wheras Arstotle would conclude it to be the first that liueth, because it is the last that dyeth. We say that followeth not: for those things that are first in Generation are not alwayes the last in dissolution.  
So in the Generation of any thing that is mixed, the matter goeth before the forme, and yet the abolition of the forme is the corruption of the thing mixed. By this reason also in 
That the hart doth not first liue.  Snakes and Serpents the tayle should be that which liueth first, because when all the other parts are starke dead and immouable, yet the tayle liueth and moueth. We think indeed that the heart is last of all depriued of life, because when the Infant is perfected and absolued the vitall heate floweth onely from the heart as from a most plentifull fountaine, but that it first liueth we vtterly deny; because to liue is either to be Norished or to be Animated. The heart is neither first nourished nor first animated. All nourishment is by blood, 
What it is to liue.  blood is not but by the veines, all the veines are from the Liuer; and the Vmbilicall veine which is the first Nurse of the Embryo powreth the blood into the Parenchyma of the Liuer before that of the heart. Neither is the heart first animated because the seed when it breaketh into act. i. when it beginneth the conformation is wholly & actually animated. Therfore all the parts thereof doe actually liue onely by the participation of heate in the moysture. Wee bid therefore adue to Aristotle, Chysippus, the Stoyckes and whosoeuer else doe thinke that the heart is the first liuer and the first maker of bloud.  
Galen seemeth to differ from himselfe in the order of the conformation of the parts, for 
Galen in this is diuers.  sometimes he sayeth that the Heart and the Liuer are formed together, somtimes that the Liuer is first formed, sometimes that the vmbilicall veine hath the preheminence, yet herein he is alway of one minde, that he thinketh the partes are generated in succession, not at once and together. And this he illustrateth by examples of those things that are wrought by Art. For a house is not built all at once, but first the foundations are layde, then the 
The parts are generated successiuely.  walles are reared, and finally the roofe is layd on: so sayeth he it is in the Infant, one part is formed before another, to wit, that first which is most necessary for the Embryo. And that he thinketh is the Liuer, because the Infant liueth at first the life of a plant needing onely nutrition as doth a plant; now the Liuer is the shop or storehouse of Aliment. As therefore a plant hath no need of a heart, so neither the Infant in the beginning.  
Moreouer that the Liuer is first generated may be proued by his magnitude and the facility of his generation, for it is made onely of congealed bloud; adde hereto that the vmbilicall veine atteyneth to the Liuer before it commeth to the Heart. That all these things are true Galen teacheth in the third Chapter of his Booke de formatione faetus, because in Infants 
Galen.  the natural faculties as being the first of all other are the strongest, those that rise from the Heart much weaker, those weakest of all which come from the Brayne. Furthermore all Generation proceedeth from that which is more imperfect to that which is more perfect: wherefore first is the liuer generated, then the Heart and last of all the Brayne. This is the opinion of Galen and almost of all Physitians both old and new concerning the conformation of the parts.  
We for our owne part doe not vse to sweare vnto the opinion of any man, but as wee esteeme much and haue in great reuerence the patrons and founders of our Art, as becommeth vs well; so if at any time they stray from the rule of right reason, wee shall not make 
Galens opinion not to be approued.  scruple to dissent from them. VVhatsoeuer therefore Galen may think, we cannot be perswaded that the Liuer is first formed, because before the delineation of all the parts of the Infant hee needeth not the helpe of the Liuer; for it was not behoofefull that the blood 
The reasons.  should flow till after the discretion and discription of the spermaticall parts, otherwise the seede would be cloyed and clogged with blood and instead of a lawfull Conception a Mola would be formed.  
As for that nourishment and encrease which Galen feygneth should bee made by the blood, we are so farre from thinking it necessary to the first conformation, that we rather thinke with Hippocates and Aristotle that it would haue beene a great hinderance thereto, so that we may retort Galens weapon which he vseth against Aristotle vppon himselfe. The Infant sayth Galen needeth not the helpe of the heart, therefore the heart is not formed before the Liuer. VVe say, the Infant needed not the helpe of the Liuer because it is not nourished till after the delineation of the spermaticall partes is absolued, wherefore the Liuer ought not to be formed before the Heart and the Brayne.  
You will obiect for Galen that life is limited and defined by nutrition, if therefore the Embryo doe liue it needeth to bee nourished. I answer, that in creatures that are perfect 
Obiection. Solution.  nothing liueth that is not nourished, but imperfect creatures and such as are without bloud may liue a time without nourishment, so some creatures liue al winter in holes and a plant all winter is not nourished, but viuifieth and quickneth itself. The tender Embryo therfore which is without blood liueth the first dayes and yet is not nourished, because there is no necessity of nourishment seeing there is no exhaustion of the parts.  
It remayneth now that we make manifest vnto you our own conceit of the order of Conformation, which we will doe as briefly and perspicuously as possibly wee can: but because 
What we thinke.  we would haue euen the most ignorant conceiue vs the better we wil vse first these distinctions.  
Of the partes some are proper to the Infant itself of which it hath vse in the whole course of his life; others are seruiceable vnto it onely so long as it abideth in the mothers wombe, of which kinde are those skinny couerings and small membranes compassing the Infant about. Againe we must obserue thus much, that some partes are spermaticall engendered of the crassament of the seed, others fleshy whose originall is immediately from 
Differences of the parts of the Infant.  the bloud. And of these fleshy parts there are three kinds as there are three kinds of flesh. For it is either the flesh of the bowelles which wee call Parenchyma or the flesh of the muscles, which Hippocrates properly and absolutely tearmeth 〈◇〉, that is Flesh, or the peculiar flesh of euery part which hath not any proper name.  
These things being thus, we conceiue. That the membranes called Amnion and Chorion 
The membranes first generated.  are first of all formed, because the inward and most noble part of the seede was to bee defenced and walled about with these curtaynes, as we shall shew more distinctly in our next exercise.  
These coates being formed, we thinke that the rudiments or stamina and threds of all 
All the parts formed together.  the spermaticall parts are formed together at once, because the matter is the same, alike altered and disposed by the heate, the workeman the same to wit the spirit diffused through the whole masse of the seed, the Finall cause the same, that is, the vse of euery singular part.  
For, seeing that in the first delineation the Infant needeth not eyther the nourishment of the Liuer, or the influence or pulsation of the heart; or the sense of the braine, but cherrisheth itself with his owne in-bred heate; why should wee thinke that one of the parts is formed before another? If Nature when she vndertaketh the concoction of quitture or Pus which we call Matter, dooth bring the whol to an equalitie together, and insinuate itself equally and alike into all the parts thereof, why shall shee not in this first delineation of the Spermaticall parts( the Idea of all which the Formatiue Faculty conteyneth in itself) beginne 
Hippocrates opinion.  and accomplish the description of all of them together? Neyther is this our opinion but the Conclusion of Hippocrates in his first Booke De Diaeta and in his Booke de Locis in homine.  
In his Booke De Diaeta, The partes are all delineated together, all together encreased, not one or more, before or after another or the rest, but those that are greater by Nature doe appeare before those that are lesse.  
In his Booke De Locis in homine straight after the beginning hee breaketh out into these 
The Fleshie parts are the last made, and their order  wordes, It seemeth vnto mee, that there is nothing first in the bodye, but all thinges are the beginning and all things the end, all parts first and all last. What could he say more plainely? What more breefely? Or what indeede could bee eyther spoken or immagined more Diuine?  
The Spermaticall parts therefore which we call solid or first parts, are shadowed or lined out at once and together, but afterwards they are perfected euery one in their order; First those that are more noble and necessarie, and those last which are most ignoble and lesse necessary. After the delineation of the spermaticall partes are formed the Fleshie, and first of all the Parenchymata of the bowelles, nexte the proper flesh of the particular parts, and finally the emptie spaces of the Muscles are filled vp.  
Among the Parenchymata we thinke that of the Liuer is first gathered together, beecause the Vmbilicall Veyne dooth first powre the blood thereinto, which beeing concreted 
How Galen may be excused.  or caked maketh the substaunce or flesh of the Liuer; and this happely Galen meant, where he saith that the Liuer is first generated; so that in this sense if he spake hee may wel be excused.   

QVEST. XVI. Whether the Membranes which encompasse the Infant bee first formed, and whether they bee made by the Forming Facultie, and of the Seede of the Woman.( {inverted ⁂ })  
_COncerning the Originall of the Membranes which compasse the Infant three thinges are to bee enquired after. First, whether 
3 Questions. The first.  the Formatiue Facultie doe at these beginne the Conformation, that is, whether these bee first of all formed. Wee thinke that they are, being taught both by Reason and Experience. For 
That the mēbranes are first formed.  Experience, wee will auouch Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, and our owne.  
The Geniture sayeth Hippocrates, After it is mixed and reteyned, 
Experience.  what day or houre soeuer it bee auoyded, dooth alwayes appeare couered with a Filme or crust. The same vvriteth Aristotle in his Bookes De Generatione Animalium. And Galen in his first Booke de Semine. I haue often seene the Geniture conceyued onely couered with Membranes.  
Who euer saw a conception, although it were vitious and illegitimate which was not couered with a Filme as it were with a Garment? The Mola albeit it be verie rude & without forme, yet is it cloathed with a Membrane( a manifest argument that the Formatiue Facultie in all Conceptions beginneth her woorke with the delineation of the Membranes) where shee is hindered that shee can proceede no farther.  
To Experience wee may add Reason. The Membranes were necessarily first to bee made, that the Seede heerein being encompassed might the better manifest his operations, as also that the inwarde Spirits thereof might bee kept from Dissipation and vanishing away, and that the tender Embryo might not hurt his soft sides against the hardnes of the wombe.  
The second Question is more obscure and the more knurrie knotte a great deale to riue, which is, whether these Coueringes bee made by the Formatiue Facultie? 
The second question, Whether the Membranes are made by the formatiue Faculty.  Some thinke that they are generated onelie by the heate of the VVombe, and for their opinion dooth vrge Hippocrates Authoritie and his Reasons. For, in his Booke De Natura Pueri he VVriteth, that the Geniture beeing heated and puffed is compassed with a Filme, euen as Breade when it is baked is compassed with a Crust. Now the crust of breade or such like is raysed in the superficies of the Masse onely by the heate of the fire. 
Authoritie.   
His reason is on this manner. The seede conteyneth in itself the Idea or Forme onely of those partes, from whence it floweth; but in neyther of the Parents are there 
Reasons against it.  any such Membranes, how then shall the Seede haue any power at all to make or forme them?  
But wee thinke that the three Membranes are generated by the Forming Facultie of the Seede, and not by the onely heate of the wombe, because there is no such great heate 
Our resolutiō  in the wombe which in so short a time can burne or puffe the Superficies of the Seedes into such Membranes. For if the VVombe shoulde atteine vnto that degree of heate, surely there would bee no conception. So saith Hippocrates in his Aphorismes, Those women who haue hot wombes do not conceiue, because when the wombe is too hot, the seede is baked and torrified.  
As for the aboue alledged authority of Hippocrates, it maketh nothing against vs; for he doth but illustrate an obscure thing by a similitude or comparison: as if he should say, euen 
The authority expounded  as the bread is compassed with a Crust, so is the infant compassed with Membranes; but that the maner of the generation of these two is alike, that he doth no where affirm: & wher as they say that the seed containeth only the Idea or forme of those parts from which it issueth, 
The reason answered.  and that there are no such Membranes actually either in the Father or in the Mother; I answer that such & so diuine are the powers of the forming Faculty, that they can diffuse or transfuse themselues out of one seede into another. If therefore the markes which were in the body of the Grandfather do often appeare in the Grandchilde, yea in his posterity after many degrees of affinity or consanguinity; why shall not the forming Facultie of the fathers seede make an impression in the infant of that power which the Father himself had when he was seede? Add heereto the necessity of the Finall cause. It was behoouefull that the Infant should be inuested with Membranes, and therefore the noble and absolute Architect hath made them.  
The third question which we haue heere to discusse is, whether these Membranes bee 
The thirde question  generated of the mans seede, or of the womans. It is the olde receiued opinion, that they are generated onely of the Mothers seede, because that is the colder and lesse fruitefull, 
Whether the Membranes are generated of the Mans seed or of the womans.  wherefore Nature hideth more inward the noble and especiall parts of the seed; the more ignoble and base she disposeth on the outside as a defence to the rest; now the seede of the woman is more ignoble. Moreouer the quantity of the mans seede is but little and not sufficient for the forming of the outward and inward partes both, and therefore it prayeth aide of the seede of the woman.  
We thinke that for the most part the Membranes are made of the seede of the woman, but that they are made only thereof, that we deny. For if the seede of the man be sufficient 
The resolution.  for the Generation of all the parts of the Infant, why should it not also be sufficient to generate the Chorion? Againe, if the seede of the woman doe onely generate these Membranes, how commeth that to passe which Hippocrates auoucheth in his first Booke de Diaeta; that when the womans seede getteth the victory ouer the mans, there are procreated three kinds of Females. Dooth not the womans seede sometimes ouercome in the permixtion of the seeds of the sexes? Therefore when the womans seede is stronger then the mans, why should we attribute the generation of the Membranes vnto the stronger seede, and of the whole body of the Infant to the weaker.  
We conclude therefore that the Membranes may bee generated of either seede of the 
Arantius his idle opinion.  male or Female but of the Female more ordinarily, and againe that of the Mothers Seede not onely these Membranes but also the Spermaticall partes of the infant may beformed.  
Arantius in the Booke he set out of the Infant saith, that the two Membranes the Amnion and the Chorion are not generated before all the rest of the parts, but that they are propagations of the inner coats; the Amnion of the fleshy Membrane, and the Chorion of the Peritonaeum; but this is against all experience and reason, as we haue sufficiently shewed in the beginning of this exercise.   

QVEST. XVII. Of the Number of the vmbilicall vesselles.  
_IN the History of the Vmbilicall vesselles, there are two thinges obscure, to wit; the Number of the vesselles, and their Originall. Concerning their Number the Anatomists are at variance, some 
Of the number of these vessels diuers opinions.  say there are onely three, others foure, some fiue. They which acknowledge three, make onely one veine and two Arteries. They which woulde hane foure, adde to these three the Vrachos, those who would haue fiue, number two Veines, as many Arteries and the Vrachos.  
We resolue, that as well in men as in beasts there are foure alwayes, & only foure to be found. The first is the veine which is the Nurse of the Embryo, which alone and by itself 
Our resolutiō  arriueth at the Nauell from the Fissure of the Liuer. This veine, when it hath passed the 
A description of the vmbililicall veine.  Nauell is clouen into two and maketh two distinct channels, and these againe are diuided and subdiuided, whose branches being supported by the membrane called Chorion, do conioyne themselues with the veynes of the wombe; in Sheepe and Swine by certaine rounde and Nauel-like Excresences which they call Cotyledones or Acetabula, in Women by that bulke of flesh which the late Anatomists call the cake or Liuer of the wombe, but I know not for what reason: for I doe not beleeue sayth Laurentius that the blood is prepared and boyled in that flesh, but I acknowledge the same vse of it which the Auntients assigned to the glandulous body called Pancreas, to wit, safely to sustain and like a pillow to vnder prop the innumerable propagations of vessels which are distributed through the Chorion. The veine therefore from the nauell to the Liuer is but simple and single, which after it is passed the nauell is clouen in twaine and appeareth double. And thus are the different places in Galen to bee reconciled, where hee writeth sometimes that this veine is single sometimes 
Galen reconciled to himself.  that it is double.  
The Vmbilicall arteries are two, one on either side, proceeding not from the heart but from the Iliack branches of the great Arterie descending. The fourth vessell remayneth, and vpon this hindge is the whole controuersie turned; the Antients called it vrachus, because by it the Infant powreth his vrine into the membrane. Almost all the late Anatomists 
The vmbilical arteries. The vrachus  deny this to be in a man and say it is onely found in beastes. Yet I sayeth Laurentius, haue alwayes obserued it euen in men also: for that a neruous production is ledde in men from the bottome of the bladder to the nauell as well as in beastes, I thinke no Anatomist 
Proued in. men.  will deny. I aske therefore what vse is there in man of this production? not onely that it may serue for a ligament( for the bladder is tyed and doeth adhere to the neighbour partes very strongly by the interposition of many fibres arising from the Peritonaeum) but to leade away the vrine as it doth in bruite beastes? And in this my opinion sayeth the same Laurentius, 
A history out of Cabrolius.  I am confirmed by the History of a wench whose vrine being a long time suppressed, did at last issue out at her nauell.  
This Bartholemew Cabrolius a most expert Chyrurgion, and the ordinary dissecter to the Colledge of Physitians at Monpelier in Fraunce, hath often made mention off. Fernelius also in the 13. Chapter of the sixt Booke of his Pathologia telleth the like story. One there was sayeth he about 30. yeares of age in whome the necke of the bladder was obstructed, 
An elegant history out of Fernelius.  and whose vrine issued plentifully for many moneths together at the nauell as it had beene pressed out, and that without any tumor, collection of water in the Abdomen, or any offence at all in his health: when many hereat wondered much, and I hard that when he was borne his nauill was ill tyed and euer after some little quantity of water issued that way; I conceiued that the Vrachos was not dryed, and that his vrine did now as it did when he was in his mothers wombe returne from the bladder to the nauill.  
There are therefore foure vmbilicall vesselles, one veine, two arteries, and the Vrachus; all which about the nauell doe meete and are included in a long neruous and writhen canale 
How the 4. vessels are tyed together.  like a gut, which they call the rope, the tye, or the gutling. The reason why they are so encompassed is, that they might not part one from another, and so be either broken being seuered, or intangled if they had scope to intangle themselues. These foure vesselles when the Infant is borne, as now becomming of no vse, do degenerate into a Ligament. Yet it hath bin obserued that in some after they are grown to good age, the vmbilicall vein 
A rare obseruation about the vmbilical veine.  hath beene changed into a loose and open veine, as Volchier Coiter obserued at Noriberge in a mayden of 34. yeares old.   

QVEST. XVIII. Of the originall of the Vmbilicall vessels.  
_THE Controuersie is no lesse concerning the originall of the vmbilcall vessels then it is concerning their number. Some think they haue their originall frō the vesselles of the wombe, because they are continuated with them, and are torne from the Infant sooner then from the wombe. And this same Galen 
Galen expounded.  seemeth to approue in his Booke de dissectione vteri. The end of that vessell that is propagated through the wombe giueth beginning to that vessel which is in the Chorion: so that you may see that these two are one. For they are so vnited by their mouths that the veine draweth blood from the veine, and the artery spirit from the artery. The same writeth Aristotle in the 8. Chapter of his 7. Booke de Historia Animalium: The nauell, sayth 
Aristotle.  he, is as it were the cup of an Acorn about the veines, whose originall is from the wombe, in those creatures which haue acetabula from those acetabula, in those that haue them not from the veine itselfe. But I thinke Galen in this place tooke more liberty to speake after the common opinion of the multitude not as himselfe thought. For that hee might declare 
Gal. excused.  the continuity of the vesselles, hee sayth, that the end of one vessell is the beginning of another. A beginning I say not Physicall or Originall, but Mathematicall, that is, quantitatiue, as the Barbarians speake. Some there are who thinke, that the vmbilicall veines and arteries are first of all generated, and that all the rootes of the Veines and Arteries yssue 
The opinion of some Anatomists.  from them, because the Veines proceede from the Liuer and the Arteries from the hart; now the vmbilicall veine is generated before the Liuer; for his Parenchyma is not gathered without blood, and blood is not deriued but through Canales, and therefore it was necessary that the vmbilicall veine should be formed before the Liuer.  
This opinion is indeed very probable, and so sometimes seemed it to me( saith Laurentius) 
That the vmbilicall veine is not first formed.  to be, but when I tooke a more serious consideration of the matter I found it to bee otherwise. For how should so many and so notable roots of veines as are dispersed through the whole Parenchyma of the Liuer, arise from so small a branch as this vmbilicall veyne is? Againe, those parts that arise one from another must of necessity bee continuated the one with the other. Now there is no continuity betweene the vmbilicall veine and the hollow veine, vnlesse it be by the inoculations of the rootes of the gate veine. What is more absurd then to thinke, first that the Parenchyma of the Liuer is made of the vmbilicall veine, & afterward that from that Parenchyma the rootes of all the veines should arise? Are not the spermaticall parts delineated before the fleshy? On the other side, who will say that all the Arteries are propagated from the vmbilicall arteries, seeing they reach not directly to the heart but to the Iliack branches? VVould we commend that builder who would set vp his wals before he lay his foundations? I know what wil be said, that these vessels are the roots by which the infant is nourished after the maner of a plant, now the roots are first formed. But they must know, that the infant is not nourished before his spermaticall parts be delineated, because before that time there is no necessity of Nutrition.  
We resolue therefore that these vessels are begun together with the rest of the spermaticall parts, and that the vmbilicall vein is a branch of the gate-veine to which it is continued; 
What wee resolue of.  that the two vmbilicall Arteries are scions or shoots of the Iliack branches of the descending trunke of the great Artery; Finally, that the Vrachos ariseth from the bottome of the bladder and ascendeth vnto the Nauill. Yet we thinke that the vmbilicall Veine and Arteries are perfected before the rest of the vessels, because there was more neede of them for the coagmentation or gathering of the flesh, especially of the bowels.   

QVEST. XIX. Of the times of the Conformation of a man and of a woman-childe.  
_WHich is the first and which is the last day of the Conformation of the Infant, God alone knoweth who made them; and if we haue any thing to say of this matter, we haue it out of Hippocrates Fountaines. His opinion is in his book de Natura pueri and De Principijs; That the seauenth day the rudiments of all the spermaticall parts do appeare, but the perfect dearticulation and description 
The time of Conformatiō.  of the Female is in 42. daies, and of the Male in 30. at the longest. But this vvee thinke is to be vnderstood onely of the first Conformation; for we do not beleeue that the flesh of the Muscles is in that space perfected and accomplished, but the 3 or the 4. moneth rather, at what time the infant beginneth to mooue: so that we make a double Conformation, 
A double conformation.  one of the seede another of the blood; the first goeth before, which therefore Hippocrates in his booke de Septimestri partu, and De Natura pueri calleth 〈◇〉, the first coagulation or coagmentation; the second doth onely fill vp the distances of the first, that is, the spaces betweene the threds and fibres.  
Strabo the Peripatetike, and Diocles Carystius dispense the fabricke of the infant by seauens 
Strabo & Diocles.  and seuens, alluding to that maiesty of the Septinary number which Plato conceiueth it to carry in it. Others thinke that 45 dayes is the vtmost limit of Conformation. For sixe dayes they ascribe spumificationi, to the frothing of it; foure Lineationi to the delineation, eight to the Repletion of the lines, fourteene Carnificationi to the generation of flesh: finally thirteene Afformationi to the accomplishment. The least time of this processe of Nature is thirty dayes, sixe for Spumification, two for Delineation, foure for Repletion or filling of the Lines, nine for Carnification, and as many for Afformation.  
Others thus in Verse.  
Sex sunt in lacte dies, ter sunt in sanguine terni,  
Bis seni Carnem, ter seni Membra figurant.  
Sixe dayes it is in Milke, in blood three thrice accounted,  
Twelue figurate the flesh, Members sixe thrice amounted.  
Hippocrates much more diuinely and distinctly. Males are formed at the vttermost the 
Hippocrates. Why the male is sooner formed in the wombe.  30. day, and Females the fortieth or the 42. Now the reason why a man childe is sooner formed in the wombe then a woman, and yet a woman out of the womb sooner commeth to perfection then a man, is indeed worth the search. This Hippocrates hath left vs in the second Section of his sixt Booke Epidemiωn. Mas concreuit coaluitque citius, vbi motus est conquiescit & tardins augescit longioreque tempore. A Male gathereth sooner and is sooner articulated; after hee moueth hee stinteth his motion and groweth more slowly and in a longer time; the same also he hath in the third Section of the third Booke Epidemiωn. That which moueth sooner and is sooner articulated is longer increasing in his growth The demonstration of the trueth of this is to be fetched also from Hippocrates: the Man-child is sooner formed in the wombe because he is hotter, for conformation is the worke of heate: and in the first Booke de Diaeta, Males are generated of hotter seede, Females of colder. And in his Booke de Natura pueri in expresse words. This is the reason why a Female is formed and articulated later then a Male, because the seede of the one is moyster and weaker then the seede of the other. Adde hereto the nature and condition of the place, for Males for the most part are generated in the right side Females in the left, as appeareth in the 48. Aphorisme of the first Section; now the right side is hotter then the left.  
But why the Female out of the womb is sooner perfected, we must seek for a demonstration out of Aristotle in his Book de ortu adinteritu. The times of perfection and imperfection 
Why the female is sooner perfected out of the wombe. Aristotles reason.  ought to be proportionably answerable one to another; corruption is an imperfection, but accretion and generation are accounted kinds of perfection; whatsoeuer sooner perisheth attayneth also sooner his perfection. So an acute and short disease runneth suddenly through all his foure times, and commeth sooner to his height or pitch then a chronicall or long disease. Now for the most part and generally women die sooner then men, as being of a shorter life because the principles of their life are weaker, and therefore they also doe sooner attayne the perfection of their life. To this wee may adde the softnesse of their bodies which makes them more apt for extension.  
Hippocrates who was ignorant of nothing, in his Booke de septimestripartu, expresseth this briefly and plainly in these words. After Females are separated from their mothers( that is, are borne) they cotten sooner then men, grow sooner wise and sooner old; as well because of 
A double reason assigned by Hippocrates.  the weaknes of their bodies as by reason of the maner of their life. He therefore acknowledgeth a double cause; the first is weaknes, so that that which in the wombe was the cause of their flower conformation and motion, the same is the cause out of the wombe of their more sudden & accelerated perfection. For a Female is a thing more imperfect then a Male and hath her end nearer then he, and therefore needeth not so long a worke of Nature. The other cause is the manner of their diet and course of life; for their life is idlie led in want of exercise.  
Now slothfulnes sayeth Celsus dulleth the body, labour strengthneth it; the first maturateth 
Celsus.  or hastneth old age, the second prolongeth youth. Nether sayeth Hippocrates in his Book de victus ratione in morbis acutis, can a man enioy perfect health vnlesse he labour his 
Hippocrates.  body and take paynes, and in the fourth Section of the sixt Booke Epidemiωn. The best way to maintaine health, is to eate vnder satietie and to be free and diligent at labour.   

QVEST. XX. Whence it commeth that children are like their Parents.  
_AS among Philosophers there is a three-fold forme of euery creature; the first 
A threefold forme.  Specificall; the second of the sexe; and the third of the Indiuiduum or particular by which it is that & no other thing: So among Phisitians there is a threefold 
A threefold similitude.  similitude. The first in specie, i. in the kinde; the second the sexe, the third in the fashion or feature or indiuiduall figure.  
The similitude of the kinde they call that, when a creature of the same kinde is procreated, 
What is the similitude of the species.  as a man of a man a dog of a dogge: for euery thing worketh not vpon euery thing, neither doth euery thing suffer by euery thing; but euery agent worketh vpon his determinate patient; and therefore of the seede and bloud of a man onely a man is made. In this specificall similitude there is much attributed to the materiall cause, and that is the reason why the of-spring is vniuersally liker to the Female then to the Male, for the Female affordeth more matter to the generation then the Male, so of a shee Goat and a Ramme is generated a Kid not a Lambe, of a Sheep and a hee Goat a Lambe not a Kid. 
What is the similitude of the sexe and whence.   
The similitude of the sex( that is why a Male or Female is generated) hath for cause the Temper of the seede, his mixture and victory. For if the seede of both Parents be very hot Males are generated, if very cold Females. If in the permixtion of the seedes the male seed haue the vpper hand a Male is procreated, if the Female seede a Female. This first of all Hippocrates taught in his first Booke de diaeta, where he acknowledgeth in either sexe a double seede, the one masculine hotter and stronger, the other feminine that is colder, out of the diuers permixtion of which, both Males and Females are generated.  
He therefore thus distinguisheth a threefold Generation of Males and Females. If both 
A threefold generation of Males out of  the Parents yeeld a masculine seede they breede Male children of a noble and generous disposition, 〈◇〉, Nobly minded and strong of body. If from the man there issue masculine seede from the woman feminine and the masculine preuaile a 
Hippocrates.  Male will be generated, but lesse generous and strong then the former. If from the woman there issue masculine seed from the man feminine and the masculine ouercome a Male wil be generated, but womanish, soft, base and effeminate. The very like may bee sayed of the Generation of Females: For if from both the Parents doe issue feminine seede a Female will be procreated most weake and womanish. VVhich Hippocrates in the first Section of his sixt Booke Epidemiωn calleth 〈◇〉, aquescentes, soft, waterish and loose bodies. If from the woman proceede a feminine seede and from the man a masculine and yet the feminine ouercome, women are begotten bold and moderate.  
If from the man proceede feminine seede and from the woman masculine, and the womans 
A threefold generation of Females.  seede preuaile, women are begotten, 〈◇〉, that is fierce and mannish. The Temper therefore of the seede and the victory in the permixtion are the causes of the similitude of the sex, that is of Males and Females; which causes are also not a little assisted by the Temper of the wombe and the condition of the place, for as I haue often said Male children are borne in the right side, Females in the left.  
The third similitude remayneth which consisteth altogether in the figure forme and accidents 
The similitude of the indiuiduum.  of the indiuiduum. This Galen in his second Booke de semine, will haue to consist in the differences of the partes and in the conformation of the members. By this, one is white another blacke, one hawke nosed another flat or saddle nosed. In this similitude of the Indiuiduum consisteth all the difficulty of this question, which we will mince as small as we can that it may be disgested without labour, from hence taking our beginning.  
The Infant sometimes is altogether like the mother, sometimes altogether like the Father, other somtimes like them both, that is in some parts resembling the mother in others the father. Oftentimes he resembleth neither the father nor the mother, but the grandfather or the great grandfather; sometimes he will be like an vnknowne friend, as for example an Aethiopian or such like who neuer had hand in his generation. Of all these similitudes we haue many examples in authours of approued credit.  
The people called Cammatae haue common wiues, and euery man chuseth his childeren 
Diuers examples of this similitude.  or refuseth them as they are more or lesse like vnto himselfe. Among the Chinians the children are like their fathers in their nose, their eyes, their forehead and their beard. There haue beene in certaine stockes and Tribes signes which they called signa gentilitia, that is, Stocke-markes, as to the Spartanes and Thebanes a Launce, some had a Starre, Thyestes a Crabbe, which were imprinted in their bodies from their birth; and these sometimes were extinguished in their children and grand children, but after a long time appeared againe in their posterities.  
Deleucus and his posterity had in their thighes the fashion and representation of an Anchor. Iulia the daughter of Augustus Caesar, although she playd false and had many copesmates, yet all her children were like her husband: Being asked what Art she had for that conuayance, she answered wittily and in some sort honestly in respect of others of her profession; That she neuer took in her passenger till her ship were fraughted. I passe by what might be sayd of the Lentuli and the Macrocephali: It will concerne vs more to spend our time in the search after the causes of these things.  
The cause of this similitude or likenesse of the forme and feature is very obscure and 
The first opinion of them that refer this likenes to the imagination. The Arabians opinion.  full of controuersie. Empedocles the Pythagorean referreth the cause of this likenesse only to the Imagination, whose force is so great that as it oftentimes changeth the body of the Imaginer: so also it transferreth his efficacy into the seed conceiued. The Arabians attributed so much to Imagination that they thought the Soule might so farre bee eleuated by imagination, that it should not only worke vpon it own body but also vpon an others: and that Soules so eleuated and enobled were able to change the Elements, to heale diseases, to weaken whom they listed, to worke myracles, and finally to exercise a kind of command ouer all kinds of matter. Aristotle in the 12 Probleme of his tenth Section, acknowledgeth this power of the Imagination in the Conception and Infant conceiued. For he asketh 
Aristotles  the question why the off-spring of men are so vnlike one to another: and maketh aunswere, because in man the swiftnesse of the cogitation and the variety of their wits did imprint many and diuers markes and seuerall impressions.  
Galen in his Booke de Theriaca ad Pisonem. I counselled( saith hee) an Aethyopian that hee 
A History out of Galen.  might beget a white and beautifull childe, to set at his beds feete a faire picture, vppon which his wife might wistly looke in the time of her conception. He obeyed my counsell and obtained his desire. And that was the reason why Hessodus forbad women to haue company vvith theyr husbands when they returned from a Funerall, but when they came from bankets and disport. For the illustration of this we haue a story of a Sabine wife, of whome Sir Thomas More wrote an elegant verse. And S. Hierom in his questions vpon Genesis maketh mention 
S. Ierom.  of a woman who was suspected for an Adultresse because she brought foorth a childe no way like her husband, but cleared her honesty because shee shewed a picture in her chamber like the childe she brought forth. Thus Iacob in the 30. of Genesis cunningly made 
Iacob.  the greatest part of the flocke of a spotted fleece, by laying before the Ewes spotted rodds. Pliny in the 7. Booke of his Naturall History remembreth many examples to this purpose, and Fernelius in the 7. Booke of his Physiologia conceiueth, that the Imagination onelie is the cause of this similitude of the feature, by which alone hee thinketh the Facultie vvhich 
Fernelius.  formeth the figure is led and gouerned.  
But me thinkes it is very harde to make the Imagination the onely cause of this Similitude. For, neither the Imagination nor any other faculty which hath knowledge ioyned 
That it is not the imagination alone.  thereto is able to work vnlesse it haue his obiect present by which it may be mooued. Now we know that a childe often resembleth one whom the mother neuer knew. Adde heereto, that in the coition all the Animall faculties are almost intercepted, so as the forming faculty can scarse receiue or conceiue those Imaginations.  
Againe, if the Imagination alone were the cause of the similitude then no infant should be deformed, neither should they be troubled with hereditary diseases; for no mother wisheth or imagineth euill to her owne children. The Astrologians referre the cause of the similitude to the Starres. For( say they) as often as the Sunne is in the Center of the Horoscope 
The Astrologians.  and the Conception is in the day time, so often are sonnes begotten like their Fathers. And Daughters like their Mothers when the Moone is with the center of the Horoscope if the conception be by night, or when Venus is with the Center of the Horoscope if the conception be by day. But these are meere vanities.  
There are others who referre the cause of this likenesse onely to the motion of the seed 
Their opiniō that referre it to the motion of the seede.  and to the formatiue Faculty. And this is Aristotles opinion in his 4. Booke De generatione Animalium, and Galen in his 2. Booke de Semine.  
Aristotles Philosophy concerning this point is indeede very witty & excellent, but withall very obscure. For he saith, that there are in the seede many Motions; some are Actuall, 
Aristotles subtile Philosophy.  some Potentiall. The Actuall motions are either Vniuersall or Particular: Vniuersall, which generate a creature or a man; Particular, which generate males, & those such, that is, of such a Forme, Magnitude of members, Lineaments & Habit. Those motions which are Potentially in the seede do proceede from the Grandfather, great Grandfather and the Mother. If one of these motions, to wit, that which is nearest and most Particular bee intercepted, then is transition made into the next motion, and if that be Deficient, transition is made into the Contrary; and at length into the Vniuersal. These distinctions of Motions which I doubt not seeme vnto you confused and entangled we will make more manifest by 
Made plaine by an instance  an example.  
In the seede of Socrates, there is a power to beget a male childe like vnto himselfe. The seede therefore is mooued toward the forme of Socrates. This Motion, if it bee hindred eyther by the seede of his wife which happely is stronger then his, or by the coldnesse of the wombe, or by any other cause; then is that first motion of the father dissolued & lost which was actually in Socrates, and transition is made into the motion of the Grandfather or great Grandfather which was not in the seed of Socrates Actually but Potentially, & so the child becommeth like Socrates Father or his Grandfather; if this second motion be interrupted then is transition made into a Contrary motion, that is, into the motion of the seed of the Mother, which Aristotle calleth Contrary, because Nature at the first hand and of herself euer intendeth the Generation of a Male. Whereforei, n the steade of a Male shall then a Female be procreated like vnto the mother or the grandmother or great grandmother, whose effigies or representation the seede of the woman potentially contayneth. This third motion if it be intercepted, finally there is transition into an vniuersall motion, and a man 
Galens opinion.  shall be borne indeed, but like neither father nor mother.  
Galen in his second Booke de semine doeth not acknowledge these so diuers motions of the seede, but referreth the causes of the similitude to the temper of the seed, and the diuers permixtions thereof, as also to the strength of the formatiue faculty. That learned man 
Erastus opinion.  Erastus referreth the cause of this indiuidual similitude onely to the formatiue faculty, quite excluding the power of the Imaginatiō, because he perceiued that blind creatures brought forth young like vnto their sires. The formatiue faculty sayth he hath no need of a pattern: for as in the seede of Lettuce that faculty being therein, generateth and formeth a Lettuce without a patterne; so in the seede of a man, the formatiue faculty accomplisheth his work without any pattern or imagination at all. But what will Erastus say to that white woman 
What our resolution is  who attentiuely fixing her eyes vpon the picture of an Aethiopian brought foorth a blacke childe? what to her that brought forth a hayrie child by looking often vpon the picture of S. Iohn Baptist cloathed in Cammels haire?  
VVee, that through the waues of this turbulent sea of opinions wee may ariue in a safe harbour, will acknowledge a double cause of this diuers similitude, which is in the feature forme and accidents of the Indiutduum or particular creature. The one ordinarie which alwayes worketh vnlesse it be interrupted, and this is the formatiue faculty ingenite with the seede: the other extraordinary which doth not alwaies concurre to generation, but commeth from without & is more noble then the former, because it hath power ouer it now and then and setteth a new seale vppon the tender and soft nature of the childe, and this we call Imagination or Cogitation.  
That first forming faculty because it conteyneth in itself the Idea of all the particular parts if it worke freely and at liberty and be not interrupted by any thing in the whole time 
What the formatiue faculty can do.  of the conformation as it hapneth in other creatures and in plants, it euer more setteth that stamp vpon the Infant which is in the seed itself, and so the children become alwaies like vnto their Parents; wholly to the father if the fathers seede doe alwayes and totally ouercome, and altogether to the mother if the mothers seede haue the victory: In some parts to the father, in others to the mother if any part of the seed of either be ouercome by the other. For though the seede appeare to the view homogenie yet hath it some partes more thicke others thinner.  
Sometimes the children represente the grandfather or great grandfather, because there 
How children become like their progenitors.  lurkes yet in the fathers seed some faculty deriued from them. For Aristotles opinion is that the species or forme of the parents may be extended to the 4. generation: & euen as a Loadstone shooteth forth his force and efficacie through the needles hanging one at the end of another to the fourth or beyond; so that formatiue faculty is transmitted from one seed to another. So Helis who accompanied with an Aethiopian did not bring foorth a blacke daughter, but yet that daughter of hers brought forth a blacke sonne. And Nicaeus the 
Histories.  Poet of Constantinople though begotten of white Parents, did degenerate into the colour of his grandfather who was an Aethiopian.  
If therefore the formatiue faculty work at liberty it will alwayes generate children like the Parents; but if in the beginning of the conformation the formatiue faculty be hindred by another which is more powerfull and diuine then itself, such as is the Imagination, then will the impression follow not the weaker but the stronger, and so the Infant will become 
What the Imagination can do in this similitude.  vnlike the Parents. For the Imagination commandeth the forming faculty, because the formatiue faculty is but a production of the procreating power which is Naturall; but the Imagination is a Principall faculty: now what Imagination can doe as well in the conformation as after it we haue touched already, to which we will adde these things to make vp the question with.  
Oftentimes the Imagination of that thing is imprinted in the tender Infant which the mother with childe doth ardently desire, which is onely to bee imputed to the strength of 
Why and how the impression is made vpon the infant.  the fancy. For the reall species of a Figge or a Mulbery is not transported to the wombe, but onely the spirituall forme or abstracted notion, which is sooner fastned vppon the Infant then vpon the wombe, because an impression is sooner made in soft waxe then in hard yron.  
Furthermore, the manner of this impression Auicen hath expressed in his first Booke De 
Answere out of Auicen.  Animalibus, where he saith, That a strong Imagination doth instantly mooue aery spirites which are mooueable of their owne Nature, and in these it setteth the stampe of the thing desired; the spirits being mingled with the blood which is the immediate Aliment of the Infant, do imprint in it the same figure they receyued from the Imagination. But howe the spirits should so suddenly receiue and apprehend the spectra or Images represented by the imagination, belongeth to a higher contemplation. Our opinion is, that as the forming faculty in the heauens of those creatures whose generation is equiuocall, is imprinted 
How the spirits receyue the impressiō of the imagination.  in the aer; after the same maner the formes of the Imagination are insculped or engrauen in the aery spirites. As therefore the aer is full of formes( as wee shall shew more at large when we come to the Nature of the sight) so our spirits which are aery doe easily admit all species or formes of things. So the seede by reason of the spirits which wander and gad vp and downe through all the parts of the body dooth containe in itself, as wee haue shewed already, the Idea and images of all the particular parts.   

QVEST. XXI. How Twinnes, or more Infants are generated.  
_THe Immortall God of his Diuine prouidence hath giuen almost to all brute creatures a power to bring foorth many young at once least their kindes should be extinguished, for that of themselues they are but short liued & 
Why man engendreth not so many yong as bruit beasts  beside serue man for food & raiment, yea prey also one vpon another. Man the most temperate and of longest continuance, by the prescript of Nature breedeth but one infant at once, or at the most but two; because there is but one bosom in the wombe of a woman; but two parts thereof the right and the left distinguished only by aline, not disscuered by any partition; and onely two dugges appointed to nourish two infants which we call Twinnes. And if at any time a Woman bring foorth three or more that seemeth to the Philosophers to be 〈◇〉, vnnaturall.  
Wee haue many Elegant Histories of such manifolde burthens. In Egypt where Nylus that fruitfull Riuer runnes, women bring sometimes six at a birth. Aristotle in his seuenth Booke De Historia animalium affirmeth that one Woman at foure birthes brought into the 
Histories of manifolde infāts at a birth  world twenty al perfect. Tragus reporteth, that in Egyp it hath been known that a woman hath borne seauen infants at once. Albertus telleth a tale of a woman in Germany who hauing two and twenty infants formed in hir wombe suffered abortment, and of another who had at once 150. all of them being a bigge as a mans little finger.  
Margaret Countesle of Holland, is saide to haue brought foorth at one burthen 364 liuing infants, who were all christned but dyed presently after, the Males were named Iohn, and the Females Elizabeth there remaineth to this day a stately Marble Sepulchre of him in a Monastery in Holland. Ther are also many other Histories of such like burthens as these which I willingly pretermit, being more willing to spend my time in searching out the causes of them.  
Many of the Ancients referre the cause of Twinnes and manifolde burthens to the variety 
The cause of Twinnes.  of the bosomes of the wombe, for they make seauen bosomes in the wombe of a Woman, which they call 〈◇〉 or Cels; three in the right side of the VVombe appointed for male children, and three in the left appointed for females, the seuenth in the midst wherin Hermophradytes are engendred, but these are idle conceites, next a Kinne to Olde wiues tales. For in a womans wombe there is but one bosom, as there is but one cauity in the stomacke 
Is not the variety of Cels.  which yet may be diuided into the right side and the left. These sides are diseuered by no partition, whatsoeuer Auicenna Haliabbas & many other Anatomists do auouch, as they are in sheepe, but onely distinguished by a line, which Aristotle calleth 〈◇〉, that is, A middle Line, which word he tooke out of Hippocrates in his Coacae Praenotiones. Moreouer 
But one bosome in a womans wombe.  that the variety of Celles cannot be the cause of the multiplicity of the burthen that among other things may bee an argument, because sometime twenty young ones or more may at once bee conceiued, but no man I thinke will say there are so many bosomes in the womb; neither yet in other creatures are there so many bosomes as there are yong, as appeareth in Fishes who haue an infinit number of spawn yet no partition or distinction between them. Erasistratus referreth the cause of Twins to a repetition of conception. Empedocles vnto the plenty of seede, Ptolomy to the diuerse positions of the Starres.  
The true cause Hippocrates acknowledgeth in his first Booke de Diaeta, to be the Diuision of the seede. So it was necessarie that the Seede be diuided equally into both sides of the wombe. For often times in coition all the seede is not at once eiaculated but by fittes or turnes; so saveth 〈…〉: neither doth the seed alwayes issue at once but it boyleth had is eiaculated 〈…〉 or thrice. A part therefore of the soed falleth into one side of the womb, and another part into another, and so Twins are conceiued.  
Asclepiades referreth the cause of Twinnes to the excellency of the seede, which if it bee 
Asclepiades opinion.  strong is able to make many Infants. Auicen addeth as another cause the motion of the wombe which draweth vnto itself the seede of a man and disposeth it diuersly, bestowing 
Auicens opinion.  the parts of the seede in this side and that side of the wombe from whence domes a multiplicity of Conceptions. And these are all the cause of Twinnes or many Infants. But that their Conception and Conformation may the better bee manifest, wee are to discusse three questions. The first whether at the same coition a Male and a Female may bee procreated. Secondly, whether Twinnes are included within the same membranes, and conteyned in diuerse places. Lastly, why Twinnes are commonly so like one another, and all these we will resolue out of Hippocrates. For the first wee say that at once two Males, two 
Whether in one coition a male and a female may bee conceiued.  Females, a Male and a Female may be conceiued at one and the same coition: The manner is thus expressed by Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta, and in his Booke de Natura pueri: If from both Parents masculine seed doe issue then are two Males generated, if feminine seede two Females, if both masculine and feminine, then of the masculine is a Male conceiued, and a Female of the feminine.  
Moreouer Twinnes that are both Males or both Females do for the most part suruiue, but if they prooue a male and a female, the female doeth scarce suruiue or at least is very weake, because it is not formed and perfected at the same time wherein the Male is formed and perfected. This Aristotle expresseth very plainly in the sixt Chapter of his fourth book de Generatione Animalium. If the Twins be a male and a female they rarely suruiue, because this duplication in men is vnnatural, for that the male & the female are not distinguished in the same time, vnlesse the males conformation bee foreslowed, or the females ouerhastned.  
The second question Hippocrates answereth in his Book de superfoetatione: The woman sayeth he, that is with childe with Twinnes, trauelleth of them both in one day, and if they be both of one sex they are conteyned in one after birth. VVherefore the Twinnes of the same sexe are wrapped in the same membranes, yet each of them haue their particular vmbilicall vesselles: but if they bee of diuers sexes they haue their diuers coates. Againe, if they be both of one sexe they are carried in the same side of the wombe, two boyes in the right side, and two wenches in the left, but if they bee of different s●xes, the male shall bee concluded in the right side of the wombe, and the female in the left.  
The third question was why Twinnes are so very like one another. Hippocrates in his first Booke de diaeta acknowledgeth a threefould cause of this similitude. First of all sayeth he the places wherein they receiue their augmentation are equall, whether they be conceiued in the right or in the left side of the wombe, because by a wonderful prouidence of nature, the right are equall to the left, that so the whole body might be 〈◇〉, that is, equally ballanced. Againe, because they are conceiued together; lastly because they vse the same Aliments, for they sucke the same bloud and enioy the same vitall spirites which they draw from their mother by the vmbilicall arteries. And thus much of Twinnes, now wee proceed to superfoetation.   

QVEST. XXII. How Superfoetation is made, why onely a woman when she hath conceiued desireth the company of the Male, and by what wayes she then elaculateth Seed.  
_THere are so many difficulties concerning the nature and manner of superfoetation that many men haue imagined there can be no such thing, but we must not giue eare vnto them. For Hippocrates wrote a booke De superfoetatione, & there is a notable example of superfoetation in his first booke Epidem: in a woman of Larissa, who the fortieth day after her deliuerance of a legittimate 
Diuers exāples of superfoetation.  childe auoyded another preposterously conceiued. Famous also is that birth of Alcmoena, when she brought forth Hercules and Iphiclus his brother after him. Aristotle in the fifth chapter of his fourth Booke De generatione Animalium saith, that some creatures admit superfoetation, others do not admit it: and of these that do, some are able to nourish both burthens, some are not able sometimes, at other times they are able. And in his Booke De Historia Animalium, he alledgeth some examples of superfaetation. A certaine adultresse, saith he, brought forth one infant like her husband, another like the adulterer: another being with child with twins had a third by Superfaetation. Another brought forth one the seuenth moneth which died, and in the ninth was deliuered of two others which did surviue. Galen makes mention of superfaetion but seldome. Rhazis 22. Continent, Alzara●ius and Anieen are all of opinion, that those women are subiect to superfaetatation who whilest they are with childe haue their courses. Plinie in the eleuenth chapter of his 7. Booke writeth, that Proconnesia a seruant accompanied the same day with her maister & his man, and conceiued by them both, and bare either of them a sonne like to the father. That another was deliuered of a childe at fiue moneths and went out her iust time with a second: that another was deliuered of a child at seuen moneths and went out her whole time with two twins beside. Dodoneus in his obseruations telleth stories to the same purpose. Wee conclude therefore that there may be superfaetation. Now this superfaetation is nothing else but a second conception, when a woman already with child accompanying with a man 
What superfoetation is.  conceiueth againe, as if it were a new conception aboue another before conceiued. This superfaetation or iterated conception is not common to all creatures, as Aristotle teacheth in his fourth Booke De generatione Animalium, to women it happeneth oftener then to others creatures, vnlesse it be Hares and Swine; notwithstanding whensoeuer it happeneth, it is beside the ordinary course of nature. Now the reason why superfaetation happeneth most in women, is because women, and they almost only, after their conception do desire the company of their husbands. Other creatures when they are pagled as we say, do neuer 
Why superfoetation belongeth most to women. Dinus.  or very seldome admit the Male, but what may be reason hereof? Dinus in his Comentaries vppon Hippocrates booke de natura pueri saith, that other creatures after they haue conceiued, doe not desire the company of the Male, because all that which should bee the matter of new seede is consumed in the nourishment of their young, and therefore they are not goaded with their wonted lust. But a woman, because she hath in her aboundance of moysture, hath also her vessels full of seede, from whence comes the motion and sense of the obscoene parts. But this reason I cannot approue. For although the infant do consume 
Disproued.  almost all the reliques or surplusage of the blood, yet doth it not defraude the parts of the mothers body of their conuenient nourishment; neither taketh from the Testicles their proper faculty of drawing and altering the blood. So women at sixtie years old haue no surplusage of blood and therefore their courses faile; yet they continue to procreate seede euen to their extreme age, which also in coition they auoyde, which though at that age it be not fit for generation, yet is it sufficient to prouoke pleasure.  
VVe acknowledge other causes of this disposition of women and those naturall. For the Morall causes of which Lactantius writeth in his book de vero cultu we leaue to diuines. 
The true causes thereof. First.  The first is, the scituation and conformation of the wombe: for in other creatures when they are great with yong the wombe is nearer the outward parts, and therefore more in danger to be violated by the Male whose genitals are of a great length, and for the most part of a harder substance. But a womans womb is scituated further inward and beyond the mans reach and therefore she beareth him the more easilier. Again, to beasts the vse of Venus 
Second.  is onely giuen for the preseruation of their kinde; if therefore they conceiue the finall cause being satisfied their desire of coition is also appeased; but man vseth these pleasures not onely to propagate his kind, but also to sweeten and mittigate the tedious and irksome labors and cares of his life. Poppea the daughter of Agrippa being asked this question why 
Poppea her accute answere.  beasts did not copulate after they had conceiued, her answer was, because they were beastes; and truely the answere beside the quicknesse of it was not amisse; for it is a prerogatiue which Nature hath giuen to man aboue other creatures: but to returne to our question. It appeareth therefore that the reason why superfaetation is more ordinary in women then in 
How superfoetation is.  all other creatures is, because when shee hath conceiued yet shee may desire the society of the Male. Now let vs enquire how this superfaetation may be.  
Most certaine it is that the wombe is so greedy of seede, that after Conception it is so contracted that there is no void space left in it, and the inward orifice so close shut that nothing can passe into it or issue out of it. This Galen teacheth vs in many places, and Hippocrates 
Hippocrates. The opinion of some.  in the 51. Aphorisme of the 5. Section. Those that are with child haue the mouth of their wombes closed. How therefore can it be that the seede of the Male can ariue into the bosome of the wombe to make a second Conception? There haue beene some of the Antients who dreamt that by a wonderfull prouidence of Nature, the womb at certaine times did open itself to auoyde those things which might otherwise offend it; at which times if a woman with child should accompany with a man, the wombe might entertaine his seed, 
Consuted.  and so breede a Superfoetation. But I take these to be but idle and addle imaginations. For if through the whole course of those nine months the wombe should at certaine times open itself to expell that that is superuacuous: why then are the Lochia( i, those purgations which issue after trauel) reteined all the time in the womb? Or can the womb at the same time that it auoideth that wherewith it is offended, receiue also the seede whereby it is pleased and conceiue the same? Rather the seed would so be extinguished.  
Among the late writers there are some who thinke that the wombe is neuer so exquisitly shut, but that it may admit seede; which their opinion they establish by these Reasons. 
Another opinion of the new writers. Reason. 1.  When women are with child they often auoide their Courses pallid, Flegmatick or black, which out of question lay lurking in the cauity of the VVombe, and therefore the Orifice thereof is not so perfectly shut.  
Againe, a woman with childe in coition looseth seede, which she perceyueth to yssue from her by her lap, which way it could not yssue vnlesse it came thorough the necke from the cauity of the wombe, because a woman eiaculateth her seede by the sides into the bottome of her wombe. The orifice therefore of the wombe is alwayes open and so hapneth superfoetation the more easily. With these arguments they think they haue won the cause, 
Disproued.  whereas for want of skill in Anatomy they cast a mist ouer Hippocrates Sunshine. For that I may answer their first argument. It is manifest by this maner of reasoning that they are ignorant, 
The first reason satisfied.  that there are two veines which disperse their branches through the wombe, some of which are carried to the inward cauity thereof by which the infant is nourished, others run to the outward part of the wombe euen vnto the necke and the lap itself.  
By these all the time of their ingrauidation or in which they go with childe, the bloode yssueth and the superfluities of the body are purged without interruption, although the inward orifice of the wombe be neuer so closely shut. Their latter reason would vrge more 
The second reason answered.  but that we finde two passages whereby the womans seede is auoyded. The first passage determineth in the hornes or sides of the wombe by which the seede is eiaculated into the bosome of the wombe when a woman is not with childe, for it is the shorter and the opener way. The other passage was vnknown to the Ancients and to many also of the later Anatomists, 
Two passages of seede.  but easie to be obserued in Dissection if it be diligently sort for. It ioyneth vvith the former but is longer, and runneth along the sides of the wombe and the necke and endeth in the lap. By this passage we beleeue that women with childe do auoide their seede, and therefore do conceyue greater pleasure in their husbands companies, because the Seede runneth a longer course through the vessels and beside through the Membranous neck of the wombe, both which are of exquisite sense.  
The manner of Superfoetation Hippocrates first of all opened in his Booke de Superfoetatione, where hee saith; Superfoetation hapneth to those women, the mouth of whose wombe after 
The manner of superfoetation out of Hippocrates.  their first Conception is not close shut. For if at that time a woman do againe accompanie with her husband, she will easily receyue his seede and lay it vp in the bosom of the womb, from whence commeth a second Conception. Now this must be vnderstood of the thirde or fourth day after the first conception, for the wombe cannot abide open all the time of Conformation.  
But a Question may be asked whither Superfoetation may happen after the first, second, 
Whether superfoetation may be after two or three moneths. Answere.  or third month of the first conception, as many men do write and alledge manie examples therefore? We answere, we thinke it may so happen but very rarely. For the wombe may be so enraged, that it may open againe and receiue new seede, and yet the former conception not be violated if the woman be sound and the infant strong, as well because it is firmly tied to the wombe by the mouths of the vesselles, as also because as yet it seeketh not to bee enlarged.  
This we, sayth Laurentius, haue sometimes obserued in Twinnes. I saw( sayth he) a Noble Woman conceyued of two Twinnes, who first was deliuered the first day of the ninth 
Histories.  Month of a dead child, and the seauenth day after of another aliue.  
The like Historie there is in Hippocrates seauenth Booke of his Epidemia, vvhose wordes are these: Teroida a Woman of Doriscus( a Citie of Thracia) vvhen shee had gone 
Terpida.  vvith Twinnes fiue Monethes, by some mischaunce suffered Abortment, the one yssued foorth presentlie compassed with a Membrane, the other shee vvent vvith about fortie dayes after. The inwarde Orifice of the VVombe may therefore bee opened, and yet the the infant remayneth behinde. Wee haue also for this the authority of Hippocrates in the the 38 Aphorisme of the fift Section, where he saith, A Woman with childe with Twinnes, if 
Hippocrates authority.  either pappe fall and grow loose, she wil abort of one of her children, if it be the right breast of a Male, if it be the left brest of a Female. The infant therefore may be reteined in the Wombe although the Orifice of the wombe open euen to an abortment. And although the second conception happen the third or the fourth month, yet is it not necessary that the first shold miscarry; & yet the second conceptions do seldom thriue and suruiue, especially if they be 
Second Conceptions rarely thriue  long after the first, because the former infant beeing great draweth away most part of the blood, whence it commeth to passe that the younger Brother is desrauded of his nourishment, and so perisheth and is most what auoyded before his due time. And so much of Superfoetation. Now it is time that we proceede vnto the Controuersies concerning the norishment & augmentation of the Infant.   

QVEST. XXIII. Whether the Infant drawe his Nourishment at his mouth.  
_OVrwhole disputation concerning the Nourishment of the Infant we will absolue in three questions. In the first we wil dispute by what wayes he draweth his Aliment. In the second, what kinde of Nourishment he draweth. In the third, how that Nourishment is changed and whether it passe all three concoctions. 
Which way the Infant drawes Nourishment. Alcmaeons opinion.   
For the first. Alcmaeon thought that the Infant drewe his nourishment by his whole bodo, because it is rare and spongy; and as a Sponge sucketh vp water on euery side, so thoght he the infant sucketh blood not onely from his Mothers veines, but also from the substance of her wombe. Democritus and Epicurus thought, as Plutarke reporteth in his fift Booke de placitis Philosophorum, that the Infant in the wombe drew his nourishment at his mouth, 
Democritus & Epicurus.  which thing also Hippocrates seemeth to confesse in his Booke de Principijs, The Childe in the womb gathering his lips togither, sucketh out of his Mothers wombe and draweth both Aliment 
Hippocrates corrupted.  and spirit to his heart when the Mother breatheth.  
This opinion hee confirmeth with a double reason. First, because children when they are borne haue excrements in their guttes. Secondly, because as soone as they are borne they sucke Milke with their mouths, because they were accustomed to sucke in the womb. Hippocrates verily was so diuine a writer, that in all that he sayth we are bound to reuerence him and giue good heede vnto him. And therefore heerein wee are either to excuse him, because in those times the skill of Anatomy was but in the infancy; or else wee may thinke 
Hippo. excused  that this, as many other things, was foisted into his workes. For, in his Golden Booke De Nutritione he maketh knowne vnto vs the wayes of this norishment of the infant in this oracle. The first Aliment is through the Abdomen by the Nauel. As if he should say; the first Aliment is drawne by the Nauell, because it is scituated in the middest of the Abdomen. For 
His own opinion in manie places.  how should he draw it by his mouth seeing there are no vessels deriued thither? Neyther hath the infant any coniunction with the womb of the Mother vnlesse it be by the mouths of their vessels meeting together, all which vessels do determine into the Nauell. Moreouer in his Booke de Natura pueri he writeth in plaine wordes, that the infant draweth both his nourishment and his spirit or breath by the Nauell. In the middle of the flesh is the Nauel separated, by which the infant breatheth and getteth his encrease. And in his Book de Octimestri partu. The Nauel by which the way is for the ●er and the Aliment to sustaine the infant, and the onely ingresse by which he cleaueth to his Mother. And by this way is the infant made partaker of those things that enter into the body. And againe in his Booke de Natura pueri. The Midwife as soone as the Infant is borne tyeth his Nauel, as beeing no more necessary to nourish him by; and withall she openeth his Mouth to shew him another way by which hee should receyue his nourishment.  
Seeing therfore Hippocrates in all these places teacheth vs that the Infant draweth his Nourishment and aer also by the Nauell not by his mouth; wee conclude that the place aboue vrged is surreptitious. For the reasons which he is made in that place to giue are not beseeming the learning of so great a man, neither answerable as you see to his opinion in other Tractates which are legittimate and past exception, as which indeede none but the diuine wit of Hippocrates could endite. Neyther therefore doth the infant sucke Milke after he is 
Why the Infant sucketh as soone as he is borne.  borne because he was accustomed to sucke in the wombe, but because hee is so taught by vntaught Nature; the same hath Hippo. in the sixt Booke of his Epidemia, Nature not taught doth yet that rightly which shee hath not learned, and in his Booke 〈◇〉 de Nutritione, Nature is taught of none. The Infant therefore instantly sucketh, not from custome but by Nature or by wil, which is by instinct: for after he is grown old he wil suck again if he think it fit so to do, because, as that most subtile Scaliger sayeth in his 239. Exercise, There is but 
Scaliger.  one faculty which serueth the Soule for the behoofe of the body, which also hath therewithall adioyned a notion of his owne conseruation.  
As for those excrements which the Infant auoydeth by siedge as soone as it is borne, 
What it is the Infant auoydeth down-ward.  they are not excrements of the first concoction or of Chylification, and therefore cannot properly bee called faeces and stercora; but recrements of the more impure and thicker blood, which are conuayed by the Spleenicke and mesentericall branches from the spleen to the Guttes, and there by long stay and heate doe grow drye and exiccated. VVherefore wee conclude that the Infant draweth not his nourishment by his mouth but by the Nauell.   

QVEST. XXIIII. Whether the Infant be nourished onely with bloud, and whether he accomplish onely one Concoction.  
_COncerning the Nature and kinde of Aliment wherewith the tender Embryo is nourished so long as hee is contayned within the mothers wombe, there is no light Controuersie. Hippocrates thought that he was nourished with the purest 
That the Infant is nourished with pure bloud.  part of his mothers blood. To this purpose there is an elegant place in his first Booke de morbis mulierum. A woman with child( saith he) is all ouer of a greenish pallid colour, because her pure bloud is dayly drawne from her, and descendeth to the nourishment of the Infant. Galen in his first Booke de causis symptomatum and the 7. Chapter saith that the small and tender Infant drawes in the first moneths the purest of the blood, but when he is growne greater, he draweth the pure and impure together.  
Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura puert, wrote many things but very obscurely, concerning the Aliment of the Infant: for he acknowledgeth a double Aliment, Bloud & Milke. 
Whether the infant in the wombe be nourished with milke.  In the first moneths he thinkes the Infant is nourished with pure bloud: but when he beginneth to moue, that then a part of the bloud returneth to the Pappes, and is there turned into Milk, and from thence commeth againe to the wombe by the communion of the veines for the nourishment of the Infant; as if the bloud were circularly conuayed from, and to the wombe againe as Chymists vse to do in their destillations. But I see not either why, or how the Infāt should be nourished with Milke, seeing al his Aliment is carried first by the veines vnto the Liuer: Vnlesse we shall say that the Infant growne great is nourished with Milk, that is with bloud 
Hippocrates expounded.  contayned in the veines of the Pappes, which commeth neare to the Nature of Milk. For when the bloud is exhausted or drawn out of the first veines, he draweth bloud from other veines, especially from such as are more common and ample or large. Now the socrety of the veines of the wombe and the Paps is admirable. Here some man may aske how the 
Obiection.  Infant can draw pure bloud seeing it hath much whey mingled therewith, which is prooued by the collection of the vrine? I answere that the naturall whey doeth not take away 
Solution.  the puritie of the blood, yea if it wanted his whey it were not pure but altogether faulty: and Hippocrates alwayes disalloweth of that bloud which is 〈◇〉 that is, sincere and vnmixt.  
The third thing to be enquired off remaineth, that is, how the Aliment of the Infant is 
How many concoctions are in the Infant.  changed and altered, whether it passe through the three concoctions, or but two, or onely one? Some Imagine that the blood is conueyed by the vmbilicall veine to the branches of the gate veine, from these vnto the stomacke where it is conuerted into a substance like vnto Creame, and thence by the branches of the mesentery transported to the Liuer, and by it turned into blood, and so is made by Chylification and Sanguification in the Infant. For blood if it be taken at the mouth and swallowed into the stomacke, putteth of his forme of blood, and acquireth a new forme of Creame. For myself if I may speake as I thinke, I conceiue that there is but one concoction in the Infant; for what neede is there of Chylification or of a new Sanguification, seeing he draweth the purest of his mothers blood? I confesse that it is perfected and further boyled as well in the greater as in the lesser vessels, that so there may be the greater similitude betweene the Infant and his nourishment; but that it should acquire a new forme, that will not sinke into my minde; for the bloud remaineth bloud and hath the same power of nourishing it had before, onely it differeth in perfection and in some accidents.  
As for Chylification that was not necessary in the Infant, because the excrement of Chylification which is thicke and foeculent or euill sauoured would with the waight and burthen be troublesome to him, seeing hee hath no membranes allotted for the receiuing or contayning them. Heereto you may also adde the noysome smell of the excrements, 
That there is onely the third concostion.  which doubtlesse would be offensiue both to the Infant and to his mother. VVe conclude therfore that in the Infant there is no other but onely the third concoction.   

QVEST. XXV. Of the Communion of the foure Vessels of the Heart in the Infant.  

The first Exercise, wherein the trueth of Galens demonstration is illustrated.  
_THat wonderfull Communion of the vesselles of the Heart which is found in the Infant, to wit, of the hollow Vein with the venall Artery, and of the great Artery with the arteriall Veine, Galen first of all men hath so excellently described in his sixt and fifteenth Bookes of the vse of Partes, that there is nothing 
Galen first described this communion.  in that whole worke more playnly, more clearely, nor more diuinely handled: but in the vse of these Anastamoses hee hath not so sufficiently explayned himselfe. For in the 15. Booke hee thinketh that both those inoculations were framed onely for the Lungs sake; but in the 6. Book he writeth that they are some helpe vnto the Heart for the performance of the offices of the vitall faculty. VVherefore because in diuers places 
But varieth in the vses therof.  he speaketh of diuers vses of thē, although both places may well stand togither, yet thence haue all those taken occasion to carp at him who either from a spirit of contradiction, or from an ambitious desire to gayne-say great men, or from a kinde of wantonnesse of witte doe forsake the authenticke learning of the Antients and seeke for a new kinde of Philosophy in the greene, raw and vnripe fruits of the later writers.  
It is not good indeed to pin a mans knowledge vpon any particular mans sleeue, neyther doe I thinke it the part of a true Philosopher to sweare that another man hath sayed, were it Hippocrates himselfe: but yet wherein the Antients haue gone before vs in strength 
How far we are to sticke to the antients.  of demonstration and euidence of trueth, there to start aside after the nouel and vndigested inuentions of greene wits, I hould it may be a signe of a ripe wit, but not of sound and established wisedome or iudgement. VVherefore I will endeuour in this place to shew you Galens curious, elegant and acurate demonstration of the Communion of these vesselles; afterward we will enquire also what other men haue said of it.  
Galen therefore in his fifteenth Booke de vsu partium and the sixt Chapter, asketh the 
Galens elegāt demonstration of this communion.  question, why the Lungs in the Infant are redde and not whitish as they are after a man is borne. He answereth, because they are nourished with thicke and red bloud brought vnto them by vessels hauing but a single coat, that is by Veines. But there are no passages from the hollow Veine into the Lungs; and therefore it was of necessity that that hollowe Vein should haue a passage bored into the venal Artery. This therefore is the first and primary vse of this hole or perforation.  
The vse of the other coniunction which is betweene the great Arterie and the arteriall Veine by a canale or pipe running betweene them, he thinketh ought to be referred to the maintenance of the life of the Lungs. For all life is from the vitall spirite and the arteriall blood, this is deriued by the riuerets of the arterie, which because they no way pertayne or 
Illustrated.  reach vnto the Lungs, it was of necessity that the great artery should be vnited to the arteriall Veine. This is Galens demonstration which haply wil seem to many obscure, but I will make it brighter then the mid-day Sun.  
The Lungs in the Infant are red, much like the flesh or Parenchyma of the Liuer, and thicker beside then they are after a man is borne; red they are, because they are both generated and nourished by red blood: thicker because they are neither attenuated by inspirated ayre, nor yet moued perpetually as they are after the birth. For we do not think that the Chest of the Infant is moued in the wombe; if the Chest be not mooued then it is not likely that the Lungs are distended or contracted, because the Lungs are not mooued by any proper or in-bred faculty of their own, nor by the pulsatiue faculty of the Heart, nor by the Brain; but onely they follow the motion of the Chest to auoyde vacuity, as wee shall hereafter more clearely proue when we come in the next Booke vnto the History of the Chest. But when the Infant is borne the Lungs become suddenly more rare and spongy, and whiter by much because they are attenuated by perpetuall motion and by the permixtion of ayre breathed into them.  
Wherefore the substance of the Lungs is not the same in the Infant when he lieth darkling in the corners of the wombe and when he enioyeth the vse of the worlds light. If the substance bee not the same, neither is it proportionable that the Aliment should bee the same. The Lungs being rare and spongy stand in neede of thinne blood laboured in the hotte and boyling right ventricle of the Heart, and therefore Galen thought that that right ventricle was onely made for the vse of the Lungs. And as Aristotle first obserued those Creatures which haue no Lungs do also want the right ventricle of the Heart.  
Now the thick, red and immoueable Lungs of the Embryo do not need blood attenuated, but are contented with that which is thicke and like themselues. This crasse and red blood is onely conueyed in the branches of the Hollow Veine. But how should it attayne out of these branches of the Hollow veine vnto the Lunges, seeing there are no braunches from that Hollow veine dispersed into the Lungs? for the Lungs haue onely three vessels. The Venall Artery, the Arteriall Veine, and the Rough Artery. Heere therefore Nature with wonderful prouidence and Art, perforated the venal Artery which adioyned vpon the hollow Veine, therein to inoculate the veine, that so the bloode might haue a free passage for the nourishment and encreasing of so fleshy a bowell as the Lungs are; so that in the infant 
Auicens opinion of the vse of this Communion.  the venall Artery performeth onely the office of a veine, and may absolutely then bee called a veine as well for his vse as for his structure. This therefore is the true vse of that open hole, this the necessity of that famous inoculation.  
Auicen the Prince of the Arabians hath confirmed this demonstration of Galen. The Lungs( saith he) are red in the tender infant, because he draweth no aer into them, for they grow not white but onely by the permixtion of breathed aer. They are therefore nourished vvith redde blood, and to that end is the hole made out of one vessel into another, which is presently stopped after the Infant is borne.  
Neither yet is this inoculation made onely for the Nourishment of the Lungs, but also 
Second vse of it.  for the first generation of their Parenchyma or substance. For it is out of doubt that the flesh of all the bowels is made of the blood congealed or clodded together. This blood is onely brought by veines, but there were no passages from the hollow veine to the Lunges, and therefore there was bored an open and patent hole out of the Hollowe veine into the Venall Artery.  
I will add a third vse of this Communion, that that venal Arterie might bee formed out of the hollow veine. For a thin and venall vessell could not arise out of the thicke & crasse left ventricle of the heart: now it was necessary both that this vessell should bee fixed into 
A third.  the left ventricle of the heart and also be thin, that when wee draw in our breath it might suddenly receiue the aer, and when we exspire it might expell fumid and sootie vaport. It was necessary therfore, that the hollow vein should be vnited with the venall artery; so that the venall artery may seeme to be a production of the hollow veine; and his first originall is not from the heart as is commonly imagined, but from the Liuer by the continuation of the Hollow veine.  
The vse of the other Communion which is betweene the great Artery and the arteriall Veine by the interposition of a Canale or 〈◇〉, I thus manifest. The Lungs do liue in the 
The vse of the the other cōmunion by the Canale.  Embryo, therefore they stood in neede of vitall spirits and arteriall bloode for their conseruation. This vitall spirits and blood are onely conteined in the branches of the great Artery; from this great artery into the Lungs there was at all no passage. Nature therefore least the Lungs should be defrauded of that quickning Nectar, made an arterial pipe perforated from the great artery into the arteriall veine, by which a part of the arteriall blood & vitall spirits might be conueyed vnto the substance of the Lungs.  
I acknowledge also another vse of this second communion; that this arterial veine might take his originall from the Aorta or great artery. For the veine of the right side of the heart 
Another vse of it.  stood in neede to be Arteriall that is, to haue a thicke coate like that of the Arteries. Now the fountaine of the Arteries was in the left ventricle. Wherefore Nature propagated the great Artery, and made out of it an Arteriall production or pipe which reacheth into the right ventricle, there to forme the arteriall veine; so that hence it is euident that the arteriall veine is a production of the great Artery, and the venall Artery a production of the hollow 
The vse of the vessels of the Lungs in the Infant.  veine. So it is therefore with the vessels of the Lungs in an infant yet contained in the wombe, that the venall artery performeth the office of a veine, the arteriall veine of an Artery, but the Rough Artery is altogether Idle. And this is the true demonstration of these two Vnions or Communions of the vessels of the heart in the Infant yet vnborne.   

THE SECOND EXERCISE. Wherein the new demonstration of the vse of these Communions divulged by Simon Petreus a Physitian of Paris is confuted.  
_BVT that the truth of this demonstration of Galen may bee more apparent, let vs a little examine some opinions of the late Writers concerning the vse of the Inoculations. Petreus is of opinion, that they were ordayned rather for the vse of the heart and the whole body, then for the Nourishment and life of the Lungs. And this is the summe of his demonstration, and these for the most part his owne words.  
The first intent of Nature is to make all things perfect, but the absolute perfection of her worke she doth not alwayes attaine by reason of the crosse or auerse disposition of the subiect 
Petreus opiniō  matter, which Aristotle calleth the Hypotheticall or materiall necessitie? But what Necessity constrained Nature to produce these inoculations of the vessels? Surely the Necessity was very great, which if a man be ignorant of, he shal neuer vnderstand their history. The Vse and the Action is the end of Nature when she worketh & the scope or aime of the Physitian who searcheth into the workes of Nature, which scope if he neglect all Anatomy will be vncertaine, and all his inspection of the partes will but double theyr obscurity.  
Aristotle often admonisheth, that the Organs are made for the Vse, not the vse applyed to the Instruments; whence it is that Galen first propoundeth the Vse and thereto recalleth the composition & Conformation of euery part: I will therefore first shew the vse and necessity of these inoculations of the vessels of the heart.  
The ymbilicall Arteries do transmit from the Mother to the Infant Arteriall and Vitall blood, for they are inserted into his Iliacall Arteries. From these the blood ascendeth into the trunke of the great Artery, yea euen to his gate in the Basis of the heart, where it is constrained to make stay, because Nature hath set at that gate of the great Artery three Values whereby the passage is bolted from without inward, albeit from within outward any thing may passe. For this inconueniency and obstacle Nature deuised a present remedy. For considering that the blood laboured in the left side of the Mothers heart, and further prepared in the length of his way from the mother vnto the infant, was fit for the nourishment of his Lungs; she prouided that it should bee powred into the Arteriall Veine which is destined for the nourishment of the Lungs. And for that purpose she prepared in the infant a passage common to the great Artery and the arteriall Veine which is conspicuous aboue the Basis of his heart which we call Anastomosis. For the other Anastomosis I thus demonstrate the vse thereof.  
Wee before determined that the arteriall bloode which the infant receyueth from his Mother by the vmbilical Arteries, is spent in the nourishment of the Lungs. Now it wil be worth our labour to learne how vitall bloode sufficient to bee diffused thoroughout the whol body is in the infant generated; for ther is no aer led by the Venal arterie into the left ventricle of the hart wherof the spirits should be made, because the infant breatheth not in the womb, neither getteth any thing into the hart by the great Artery, for the values which open outward and shut inward will admit nothing to enter. The lefte ventricle therefore of the heart had beene vnprofitable thorough want of matter and the discommodity of the place, vnlesse Nature had learned of herself to frame wayes for her owne behoofe more easie and expedite, which is the other Anastomosis, wherein shee hath wrought a worke beyond all admiration.  
This Anastomosis is out of the Hollow veine into the venall artery, by which the bloode which is too much for the nourishment of the Lungs, is commodiously transported into the left ventricle of the heart, where it is laboured, confected and receyueth an impression of the vitall Faculty, and so turneth aside into the great artery which is neere neighbour and toucheth it, that by it it might be distributed into the whole body.  
This demonstration I take to be most true, that the worke of this Anastomosis which is a very miracle in Nature might rather be referred to the vse of the whole body then vnto an vnprofitable commodity onely of the Lungs. Neyther doe I see by what reason it may be sayd that the Lungs of the Infant which doe not moue at all whilest it is in the wombe, should yet then require and dispend a greater quantity of Aliment and Bloud then they doe after the childe is borne, when for the generall behoofe of the body they are perpetually moued. For if those inoculations had beene made onely for the Lungs, they being greedy would haue drawne all the bloud by those patent passages which in growne men they drawe onely out of the Areriall Veine. Furthermore this absurditie would follow, that the vitall faculty of the Heart in the Infant must bee idle all the time of his gestation.  
This is Petreus his demonstration, wherein that I may speak in one word, he establisheth two things: the first that the Arteriall Canale or pipe was made for this purpose to poure 
The summe of Petreus opinion.  out into the Lungs alone the arteriall and vitall bloud which the Infant draweth by the vmbilicall Arteries; so that he vnderstandeth that the vmbilicall Arteries weere not made for the vse of the whole body but onely of the Lungs.  
The second thing he would establish is, that the Lungs are not nourished by the bloud brought thorough the hole of the hollowe Veyne into the venall Arterie, but that all that blood is transmitted into the lefte ventricle of the Heart for the Generation of the vitall spirits.  
Which two things how absurde they are and dissonant for true and right reason, I will 
Petreus impugned.  endeuour to shew both by reason and sence, which are the two most certaine Iudges of all things.  
In his vse of that Communion which is by an arteriall Canale or pipe from the great Artery into the arteriall Veine; I find some things contradictorie, and very many false and absurd.  
For sometimes he willes, that both the inoculations were made for the vse of the whole body, not for the commodity onely of the Lungs; afterward as if hee had forgotten himselfe, he writeth in his whole discourse that that Canale which is frō the great artery to the arteriall Veine serueth onely for the Lungs: VVhereas to make good his demonstration, he should haue sayed that the inoculation which is from the hollow Veine to the venal arterie 
A contradiction in his demonstration.  is to be referred to the vse of the whole body; but that which is from the great artery into the arteriall Veine, onely to the nourishment of the Lungs. There is therefore in the first place a manifest contradiction; I forbeare to say howe improperly hee calleth the arteriall pipe an Anastomosis: because I am taught by Aristotle not to take too much care of words or to stand too much vpon them.  
Galen indeed sayth that there are many Anastomoses or inoculations of veines & arteries, and that an Anastomosis is nothing else but an opening of the mouth of one veine or vessell into another, and those medicaments are called Anastomotica which haue a faculty to open. VVee also may vnderstand by Anastomosis the confluence of humours made when the vesselles doe open one into another. Aristotle in his Booke de mundo( if that Booke were Aristotles) vseth the word in another sence, when he calleth the ocean 〈◇〉, which Budeus 
He vseth the word Anastomosis very improperly.  interpreteth in fauces se comprimentem: but to call a Pipe, a Tunnell, a Vessell an Anastomosis, is a monster in Grammer, in Philosophy and in Physicke. Now Petreus words are these. And for that purpose Nature prepared in the Infant a passage common to the great Artery and the arteriall Veine, which is conspicuous aboue the basis of his Heart which wee call Anastomosis. Let any man now iudge, yea let himselfe see how farre this nouell speculation of his hath transported him: but this is but to play with him, let vs now set vppon him with keener weapons. He writeth that the arteriall bloud which the Infant draweth by the vmbilicall arteries, is wholly consumed in the nourishment of the Lungs, and that those notable arteries were onely made for their vse: then which what could he haue sayd or faigned more absurd?  
Let him turne ouer all the writings of the Grecians the Arabians and the Latines, and hee 
He thinketh amisse that the vmbilicall arteries serue only for the Lungs.  shall see that they all accord in this, that the vmbilical Arteries were made for the vse of the whole body not of the Lungs alone. By these Arteries the whole Embryo doeth transpire and draweth the mothers spirits, not the Lungs alone. The vse therefore of the Arteries is common to the whole body of the infant. And this Hippocrates teacheth in his Bookes de Natura pueri, and de Octimestripartu, in these words, In the middle of the flesh is the Nauell separated, by which the whole Infant doth transpire and attaineth his encrease. Do not the artery in their Diastole or dilation draw aer and expel the sooty vapors in their Systole or contraction? There are made manie inoculations from the arteries into the veynes, therefore the aer is transported out of the arteries into the veines, not out of the veynes into the arteries.  
Galen in his fourth and sixt Booke de Locis affectis, in his Booke De vsu pulsum, in his Commentarie vpon the sixt sect. lib. Epidem. teacheth vs that transpiration is through the arteries not through the veines; and in his first Booke de semine, he sayeth. The hole or passage of the membranes about the Nauel is alwayes open for the transmission of bloud and spirits, for bloud floweth out of the Veines, but out of the Arteries spirits with a little thin and hot bloud: VVhat could he say more playnely, what more perspicuously? This also auoucheth Auicen the Prince of the Arabians, and finally it is the vniform consent of the Schoole of the Grecians and Arabians: and with vs this common consent of so great learned men shall euer stand for a law. But Petraeus one man, of his owne head taxeth and challengeth all antiquity of error. VVell, wee will therefore no more contend with him with authorities, but by waight of argument.  
It is an axiome in Aristotle, that all liuing creatures doe breath. For as a flame pent vp in a straight roome and not ventilated or breathed with aer groweth dimme and at length 
Spiration double. Transpiratiō and respiration.  is extinguished, so our naturall heate is also extinguished vnlesse it be ventilated and wafted with aer as it were with a fanne. This spiration which the Grecians call 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉 is double; the one insensible called 〈◇〉, or Transpiration, which is made by the arteries and other blinde breathing holes of the body; the other may be seene with the eyes, and is made by conspicuous passages, as the mouth & the nosethrils which Galen calleth 〈◇〉 Respiration. That the Infant in the wombe doth not Respire it is most manifest, because 
The infant doth not respire.  he neither ought nor can, as well shall proue in our next question. It is necessary therefore that he must haue Transpiration, which is not by the vmbilicall veine, nor by the vrachus, & therefore by the two vmbilicall arteries; for there are no more but these foure vesselles in the Nauell. VVherefore this vse of the vmbilicall arteries is common to the whole Infant not proper onely to his Lungs.  
Now that in the arteries not only aer as Erasistratus thought, but also a vitall spirit and arteriall bloud is conteined, we are taught by 〈◇〉 or inspection. The arteriall bloud then which the Infant draweth by the vmbilicall arteries is it not prepared for the life of the whole Embryo and the conseruation of the naturall heate? Doth the redde and thick Parenchyma of the Lungs, not at all as yet moued, stand in need of so great a quantity of thinne and arteriall bloud? If one veine which they call the Nurse of the Embryo, sufficeth for the 
That all the arterial blood is not spent in the nourishment of the lungs.  nourishment of the whole Infant, why should not one small artery haue been sufficient for the nourishing and cherishing of the Lungs, which are a little part of the Infant? But Nature made two vmbilicall arteries and those notable ones, which are branched through the Chorion with infinite surcles.  
Moreouer, if all that bloud that the Infant draweth by the vmbilicall arteries were consumed in the nourishing of the Lungs, then these absurdities would follow. First, that the Lungs are not nourished with bloud like vnto their substance, nor with pure bloud. For the vmbilicall arteries doe returne the bloud into the Iliacke branches, and from them into the trunk of the Aorta or great arterie; wherefore the arteriall bloud of the mother shall bee mingled with the arteriall bloud of the Infant, which hee sayth is generated in the left ventricle of the Heart and thence diffused into the pipes of the great artery: and so it will come to passe that one of them shall offend another; for in the same vessel there shall be at one & the same time perpetually two contrary motions: one of the bloud ascending from the Iliacke braunches to the Lungs; and another of the arteriall bloud descending from the lefte ventricle of the Heart to the same Iliacke branches: which thing albeit we confesse, it somtimes hapneth in Critical euacuations and notable indeuours of Nature: so, that it should be perpetuall we cannot be perswaded. Let vs then wipe away this myst from our eyes, and let vs beleeue that the two vmbilicall arteries were made for the vse not of the Lungs alone, but also for the whole body. Now let vs come vnto the vse of the other Inoculation.  
Petreus conceit is, that the hollow Veine is perforated into the venall Artery, that the 
His vse of the other in oculation impugned.  bloud might be powred into the left ventricle of the Heart for the generation of vitall spirits, neither doth he acknowledge any other vse thereof. But wee with Galen thinke that it was formed for the generation and nourishment of the Lungs. For if there be a new generation of vitall spirits in the left ventricle of the Heart, made of the bloud vvhich is conuayed in the hollovv Veine as Petreus vvould haue it; then vvhat neede vvas there of that hole or perforation? Doth not the hollow Veine gape into the heart with a wide mouth to poure abundance of blood into his right ventricle? Why is not the blood there boiled & attenuated, and after sweateth through the partition into the left ventricle, and there receiue the stampe or impression of the vital spirit; The blood so attenuated in the right ventricle would be purer and more defaecated, then if it should be transfused out of the hollow Veine into the left ventricle by that Anastomosis; there would haue therefore beene no necessity of vitall spirits, but for the nourishment of the Lunges there is absolute necessity thereof.  
Againe, it is an axiome in Physicke and Philosophy which Galen often beateth vppon, that there is neuer made any perfect elaboration vnlesse a preparation go before. So the 
2. Reason.  Animall spirits are prepared in the webs of the braine; the seed is delineated in the writhen complications of the seede vessels; the blood attaineth a rudiment in the veines of the Mesentery; and the preparation to the third concoction is made in the small veins of each particle. But if according to Petreus Hypothesis, the blood should be transfused from the hollow Veine into the venal Artery which toucheth it, and from that into the left ventricle of the heart, where I pray you shall that blood be prepared or attenuated? If that newe conceite of the Generation of vital spirits in the infant were to be admitted at all, it were more probable to say, that the blood were powred out of the hollow Veine into the right Ventricle and there prepared, because the Membranes do not hinder the ingate heereof, and beside the partition is bored with so many passages to conuey it into the lefte. For it is the opinion of all learned men, that the right ventricle was ordained for the preparation of the vitall spirit.  
Moreouer, it is most certaine that there is a double matter of the vitall spirite, Aer and Blood; Now Petreus doth not thinke that aer is carried into the heart, for the infant in the 
3. Reason.  wombe doth not respire, how then shall that vitall spirit be generated and preserued? Out of doubt it will decay and bee extinguished beeing defrauded of conuenient Aliment. Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri saith, Euery thing that is hot is nourished vvith that which is moderately colde. Indeed Transpiration is sufficient to preserue a little heat; but for the perpetuall generation of vitall spirits in bloody Creatures there is required great abundance of aer, which onely can be supplied by Respiration. But let vs pursue these Detractors a little farther.  
If we shall admit this new and onely vse of the hole or inoculation, that is, that all the blood should be conueyed from the Hollow Veine through the venall Artery into the lefte 
4. Reason.  ventricle of the heart, with what blood shal then the Lungs be nourished? Open the waies? shew me the veine of the Lungs? For now al the venall Arterie is taken vp, forsooth, to lead blood vnto the heart, and the Arteriall Veine only leadeth vitall spirits and arteriall blood which it receyueth from the Great Artery by the Canale or arteriall pipe. Shall the Lungs be without aliment? He wil answere, that it is nourished with arteriall blood which commeth from the Mother, and that for that purpose the two vmbilicall arteries were ordained. But hath he forgotten that all parts want two sorts of blood, one Venall, another Arteriall? The venall blood by true assimulation turneth into the substance of the part. The arteriall is appointed to conserue, refresh and cherish the naturall heate of the particular parts which is but fugitiue.  
I will not deny but some part of the Mothers arteriall blood is conueyed into the Lungs by the arteriall pipe to preserue their life and to defende their naturall heate, but that the Lungs are therewith nourished, I altogether deny. For the Lungs of the Embryo are thicker, faster and heauier then they are after the birth, and therefore must be nourished with thicker blood, for it is a constant truth, that we are norished with that which is like vnto vs; euen euery particular part is nourished with that which is most like vnto it.  
This Law and Constitution of Nature, Petreus by this new demonstration doth quite 
He abrogates the Lawes of Nature.  abrogate and annihilate, because he appointeth thinner blood for the Lunges of the infant which are red, heauy, sad and thicke, then for the Mothers which he must confesse are whiter and thinner. For the Mothers Lungs are nourished with blood attenuated in the right ventricle of the heart, and deriued vnto them by the arteriall Veine: hee stiffely maintaines that the Lungs of the Embryo are nourished with no other then arteriall bloode laboured and heated in the left ventricle of the Mothers heart and brought vnto them by the vmbilicall arteries, forsooth, to make recompence for their want of motion. Heere also we haue 
Another contradiction in Petreus demōstration.  a manifest contradiction. He confesseth that the Lunges are thinner after birth, thicker in the Embr●●, and yet he saith that the first are nourished with thicker blood, the latter with pure 〈◇〉 all blood ●●ll of spirits.  
And whereas he buildeth vpon Galens foundation that the 〈◇〉 are made of the 〈◇〉 of the blood, and therefore do require for their nourishment th●● and after all blood. Hee 
Galen expounded.  see●h not that that place is to be vnderstood of the Lungs after the birth; for in the Infant the Lungs are no●●●●athy nor whi●sh, but red, heauy and 〈◇〉 yea euen a while after the birth doe the Lungs remaine heauy and red; whence it 〈◇〉 to passe that many Infants shortly after their birth are strangled, because the Lungs cannot play themselues, eythe● 
How children are often strang●●●●. How to remedy it.  when the childe lyeth vpon his back, or by some compression of his Ch●●●; and therefore it is best to lay Childeren with their heades somewhat eleunted or raysed vp, that the Lungs which are heauy may more easily followe the contraction and distention of the Chest.  
Those Children which dye so suffoc●ted if they bee opened will bee found to haue their Lungs full of thicke bloud, and very red. But let vs heare Galen accurately describing the Lungs of a ●ender Infant in the sixt Chapter of the ●●. Booke de vsu partium, in which place he of set purpose expresseth the History of the Infant. Why are the Lungs of an Infant redd● and not whitish as afterbirth? Because they are nourished with bloud brought vnto them by vessels which haue but a single coate. And then he addeth, When the creature beginnieth to respire 
A pregnant place in Galen against Pe●reus  the Lungs are moued perpetually: whence it is that the bloud being diuided by the double motion of the b●●ath is made thinner then before and as it were frothy, and so the flesh of the Lungs which before was redde, heauy and thight, becommeth white light and rare or spo●gy. How pregnant and plaine a place this is who seeth not? The flesh of the Lungs of the Infant is red, heauy and last, and afterward becommeth thinner and frothy: wherefore the Lungs of the E●bryo stood neede of red and thicke bloud, which kinde is onely conueyed by the ●●llets of the hollow veine, not through the thicke pipes of the great Artery. But there are no passages from the hollow veine to the Lungs, and therefore Nature made that admirable Anast omosis for the nourishment of the Lungs. And thus Petreus ought to haue playd the Philosoph●r, and not to haue abused that which Galen intendeth concerning the nourishment of the Lungs after birth, to the nourishment of the Lungs of the Embryo, in the mothers womb. But if he wil not yeeld to these reasons which are cleare demonstrations, then wee cite him to the tribunall of trueth to 〈◇〉, that is, to ocular inspection. Cutte the 
Arguments from Au●opsia.  Lungs of the Embryo and you shall see all the branches of the venall Arterie full of red and thicke bloud. From whence, good Petreus, is that bloud, is it not from that hole of the hollow veine?  
We conclude therefore that that admirable Anastomosis or inoculation was framed by Nature, not for the elaboration of the vitall spirit, but for the generation, nourishment & increment of the Lungs. Thus much we thinke ourselves bound to haue sayd, not onely to redeeme the credite of our maister Galen, but especially to vindicate and redeeme the trueth, albeit it be with the losse of a learned man, such as we willingly acknowledge Petreus to be; but he must be content to suffer himselfe to be gaynsayed if he gaynsay the truth; and if any thing fal from vs in discourse which may found somwhat more harsh in his eares or those that follow him, that also must be attributed to the heate of disputation, for much may be forgiuen a Souldeir when he is heated in the medley which might bee imputed to him for cruelty in cold bloud.   

THE THIRD EXERCISE. Another new Demonstration of the vse of the Inoculations, deuised by Francis Rosset, a learned Physitian belonging to the French King.  
_LAurentius reports that when Doctor Francis Rosset the French Kings learned Physitian heard of this difference of opinions betweene him and Petreus concerning the vse of the Inoculations, he wrote vnto him that he had found out a new vse of both these Communions of the vesselles of the Heart in the Infant, 
Rossets opinion of the vse of the Inoculations.  and that he sent also to him this Table which we haue annexed.  
His opinion is, that both these Inoculations were ordayned onely for the conueyance of aer, directing it to the Lungs before it should come at the Heart, and mingling it with both kindes of bloud venall and arteriall prepared before in the Liuer and the Spleene: For as after birth the outward aer is not carried crude & raw into the hart, but passing through the rough artery is prepared in the rare substance of the Lungs, and is made fit for the heart; so in those that be not yet borne the internall aer must necessarily come to the Lungs for the same end where it vndergoeth a peculiar Castigation before it bee admitted to the heart. Moreouer, from the thinnesse of that aer and the pulsatiue motion of the heart this commodity the Lungs must needs haue, that their Parenchyma in the infant & the vessels therein are accustomed and prepared to the motions of Expiration and Inspiration which are to follow after he is borne, for the aer enlargeth the pores in them and so fitteth them for the vse of the childe when he cryeth.  
Wherefore the two inoculations in the infant vnborne, and the rough arterie after the birth may be compared to Castor and Pollux, of which when one ariseth the other is destinied to set.  

IN THE INFANT.  
To be Borne, Already Borne, Do Worke, Are Idle. Do Worke, Are Idle. 1. The Chorion, the stomacke beeing idle. 1. The Stomacke, the Chorionworking. 1. The Stomacke, the Chorion beeing Idle. 1. The Chorion, the Stomacke vvorking. 2. The Vmbilicall vessels, the vessels of the Mesenterie being idle. 2. the vessels of the Mesentery, the vessels of the nauell working. 2. The vessels of the Mesenterie, the Nauell vessels being idle. 2. The Nauill vessels, the vessels of the Mesenterie working. 3. The ●rachus, the Vreters being ydle. 3. The Vreters, the vrachos vvorking. 3. The Vreters, the Vrachos beeing Idle. 3. The Vrachos, the Vreters working. 4. The Inoculations of the Heart, the Rough Artery or Weazon being idle. 4. The weazon or Rough Artery, the Inoculations working. 4. The Rough Arterie, the Inoculations beeing Idle. 4. The Inoculations of the Heart, the rough artery working.  

The Exposition of the Table.  
Euen as the operation at certaine times, and the rest at others, of the three first, to wit, the Chorion, the Nauell vessels and the Vrachos is answerable to the other three set against them, to wit, the Stomacke, the Mesentery vessels and the vreters, each one respecting his consort or substitute in the administration of one and the same thing necessary to life: so likewise is there the same succession of operation and rest at different times betweene the fourth paire of Consorts, to wit, the inoculations of the heart and the rough Arterie or 
Rosse● his demonstration.  Weazon, in the administration of one and the same thing necessary to life.  
For seeing there can be nothing found nor imagined in the whole bodye, which in the wombe, when the rough artery is at rest, should supply his office which is necessarie to life, vnlesse it be the inoculations of the vessels of the heart; which inoculations in the wombe do worke but cease their labour when the infant is borne, the rough Artery then vndertaking his incessant labour himselfe: it must needs follow that the vse of the inoculations in the wombe is the very same that there is of the rough artery after the infant is borne. Now all men acknowledge that the rough artery is ordained for the transuection or transportation of the externall and ambient aer to the Lunges of the infant which prepare it, for the heart standeth in neede of aer so altered. Wherefore the true vse and office of the inculations( which onely haue vse whilst the infant is in the wombe) is the transvection or transportation of aer( but that internall comming out of the Mothers womb through the Ch●rion and the vmbilicall vessels) to the same Lungs of the infant which are to prepare it for his heart.  
The last limit is the eleauenth moneth, the times betweene are the ninth and the tenth.  

The 11. mōth the last time.  This is Rossets opinion, wherein he laboureth to establish, that both the Anastomoses or inoculations are appoynted onely to leade ayre to the Lungs, and that by them the Infant doth respire and the Lungs are moued for the new generation of vitall spirits. But our 
Rossets opinion disproued.  opinion is, that the Infant doth not at al Respire but Transpire only, as we shal shew in the next question; neither yet doe we thinke that it was necessary there should haue bin made so notable inoculations if only the conueyance of ayre to the Lungs had bin necessary. For seeing in perfect creatures and those that haue most vse and strength of voyce, there is but one weazon or rough Artery ordayned, why should not one inoculation haue serued in the Infant whilest yet he maketh no vse of his Lungs for voice? It had bin more probable if he had said, that one of the Inoculations was made to leade ayre the other to lead bloud.  
Moreouer if onely ayre be ledde by these inoculations to the vessels of the Lungs, why doth there appeare in the venall Artery so redde bloud, and in the arteriall veine arteriall bloud full of spirits? With what bloud shall the red and thicke Lungs of the Infant be nourished? In a tender Infant that Transpiration which is made by the arteries & other blind passages is sufficient for the conseruation and refection of his weake heat.  
We conclude therefore that both the inoculations were originally made to generate and nourish the Lungs, because whereas the Lungs of an Infant before birth do differ frō 
The conclusion.  his lungs after birth, in colour, thicknesse and fastnes of flesh; they needed also another kind of bloud for their generation and nourishment before then they do after. And thus we are come to an end of that admirable worke of Nature in the inoculations of the vessels of the Infants Heart.      

QVEST. XXVI. Whether the Infant in the wombe doe respire and stand in need of the labour of his Lungs.  
_COncerning the nature of Respiration we shall haue a fitter place to dispute in the next Booke where we treate of the Lungs. In this place it shall bee sufficient 
What respiration is.  to giue you Galens description thereof in his Commentary vppon the Booke de salubri diaeta, where he sayth. 〈◇〉 or Respiration, is when the breath is drawne in and let out by the mouth: so that in Respiration it is necessary the Chest should be contracted and againe dilated and the Lungs moued thereafter. If therefore I shall prooue that in the infant the Chest is not contracted or dilated nor the Lungs moued, it will follow that he doth not Respire but Transpire only.  
The vitall faculty in bloudy and hot Creatures stands neede of two things for the conseruation therof, Respiration and Pulsation: but those Creatures which are without bloud 
That the Infant doth transpire only not respire in the wombe.  and imperfect, which haue little heate, doe liue contented onely with the Pulsation of the Arteries and transpiration. So those we call 〈◇〉 and which liue in holes all winter doe transpire but respire not: so likewise Hysterical women, that is, such as are in fits of the mother, the heate of whose heart is languid and weake being dissolued by a venemous breath of corrupted seede, do liue a time without respiration, and many haue been buried for dead when they were yet aliue.  
The Infant because he hath but a weake heate; and is in the wombe before the day of his birth as it were an imperfect creature, is contented onely with transpiration and therefore he draweth not his breath by his mouth, neither vseth hee the helpe of his Chest or Lungs. Moreouer Respiration is onely ordayned for the behoofe thereof, that the spirituous substance which is established in the glowing hot left ventricle thereof the, might with the ayre be cooled as it were with a fanne, and beside purged and refreshed; but there is no generation of vitall spirits in the Infant, as by and by wee shall demonstrate: and therefore there is no neede of respiration; for the finall cause fayling which moueth all the rest Nature is too wise to vndertake any labour. The infant therefore doth not respire because he 
The Infant neither ought nor can respire.  ought not.  
Adde hereto that hee neither can respire: for being shut vp in his mothers wombe and compassed about with membranes, if he should draw in breath at his mouth with the ayre he should also draw in the water wherein he swimmeth, and at the first draught would be so suffocated as they that are drowned in a riuer. Again, he hath no ayre that he might draw, for there is no space in the vvombe that he doth not fill, and beside the orifice of the vvomb is so close locked vp that it vvill not admitte a little vvinde to enter into it. Again, that no ayre is inspirated by the mouth or the nosethrils, the substance and colour of the Lungs do sufficiently declare. For all creatures which draw aer at their mouths and noses haue white and thin Lungs, but the Lungs of the infant, as hath beene often saide, are red and thicke, and are nourished with red and thicke blood brought vnto them by vesselles hauing single coats, that is, by veines. Wherefore the infant doth not respire, because neyther ought hee 
Rossets obiection answered.  if he could, nor can if he ought. Rosset Obiects, that by both the inoculations there is plenty of aer transported to the infants Lunges, because it dilateth and contracteth his Chest. But if that were so, then should it follow that the Chest is mooued after the motion of the Lungs; for the Lungs being puffed vp by the aer inspirated should enlarge the chest; and againe falling vpon the expiration of the aer should compresse the same. So the lungs should not be filled because the Chest is distended as it is in a paire of bellowes; but because the Lungs are filled the Chest should be distended as it is in a bottle or bladder, which to say were very absurd, as Galen teacheth in a thousand places. For the Lungs follow the motion of the chest for the auoiding of vacuity, as in the next booke we shall more plainly proue.  
Neither is the distention and contraction of the Chest simply necessary for the maintenance 
Respiration is not absolutely necessarie to life.  of life; for those creatures which lurke in holes all winter, we cal thē 〈◇〉, & some women do liue without that motion of the chest. Respiration therfore in the Embryo or young infant is not absolutely necessary.  
Some there be, who thinke that infants doe respire in the wombe as diuing Fisher-men; who will remaine more houres then one in the bottom of the water, and returne fresh vp 
That the Infāt doth rispire. A comparison  and laden with Fish. Why should not the infant being warme in the womb as wel liue, his weazon haply a litle helping him, as the cold fisher draw aer out of himself with his mouth being compassed round about with cold water? The same thing also they confirme by the authority of many authernticall authors. Hippocrates in his Booke De Natura pueri saith, First the infant breatheth a little and draweth a little blood from the wombe; and his breathing is encreased 
Authorities.  when he draweth more blood, it descending more plentifully into the womb. Galen de locis affectis, If the heart be depriued of Respiration, the man must of necessity instantly perish. Is not the infant a man? Furthermore, women feele their infants to mooue with Animall and voluntary motion. Why therefore are not the Lungs and the heart moued. As therefore in the first months when the infant beginneth to moue, he is truly said to mooue though it be obscurely: so though he breatheth obscurely, yet he may truly be saide to respire. Galen in his 4. Book de causis pulsuum saith, that women with child haue greater, quicker and swifter pulses then they haue when they are not with childe; because they are compelled to breath not onely for themselues but also for their infants. But all these thinges do prooue indeede that infants do transpire, but they do not prooue that they do respire. For, in respiration the Chest is contracted and distended and aer is breathed in by the mouth & the nose; which that it is not so in the infant we haue already demonstrated. Indeede by the 
The Solution of the Arguments.  vmbilical arteries there is aer transported togither with the spirituous blood into the whol body of the infant, & from the arteries there are many inoculations into the veins; whence it commeth to passe that though the arteries be tied, yet the creature doth not presently die as being a while sustained by that aer which the whole body receiueth from them.   

QVEST. XXVII. Whether the vitall Faculty which procreateth the spirits is idle in the infant, and whether his heart is mooued by it owne proper power. A Paradoxe.  
_COncerning the life of the Infant, that is, how hee excerciseth his vital faculties 
A paradoxe, that the vitall Faculty of the heart in the infant is ydle.  there is a new Paradoxe, which we will Discusse. I doubt not but at the first view it will seeme to many men absurd, but if it bee better attended I presume it will appeare so strong and so wel supported with strong demonstrations that it will be hard for a contentious spirit to shake them. The Paradox is this: There is in the infant no necessity of the lungs & the heart, because he liueth without their official action.  
This if I can prooue, I shall ouerthrow the iudgement and determination of Aristotle & the Peripatetiks concerning the soueraignty of the Heart in mans body. The demonstration of our Paradox shalbe wholy Physiologicall and Anatomicall.  
The Faculties of the Soule are reckoned by Aristotle to be three, the Vegetatiue, the Sensatiue, and the Intellectuall. The Physitians account so many, but giue them other Names: 
The Demonstration.  The Naturall, the Vitall, and the Animal. That which the Peripatetiks call the Vegitatiue differeth nothing from the Physitians Naturall. For as we say the whole Natural Faculty is conteined in the Increasing, Nourishing, and Procreating vertues; so Aristotle in his second de Anima saith, that the same vertues serue the vegetatiue soule. This vegetatiue faculty is common to all things that are animated, that is, which haue any kinde of life in them, and proper to them onely. For all things that haue life are nourished, but the Vital faculty of the Physitians, which is the procreator of the spirits of life, which shineth in respiration and in the pulse, doth not appeare in plants and things without bloode, because their colde and crasse spirits are scarse at all expended or wasted. In hotter creatures there was neede of a fire-hearth, from whence the vanishing heate of the particular parts might bee redintigrated and refreshed by the influence of another. That liuely and quickning Nectar is the vitall spirit which the heart 〈◇〉, The Originall of heate and life continually generateth of bloode and aer mingled together by his admirable motion; as a water Engine worketh vp a streame. That this vital faculty of the Physitians doth not shine in the infant neither yet his heart mooue by a proper and ingenite power although he liue, we are fully perswaded by these arguments.  
The heart is mooued to generate vitall spirits, and the same to diffuse out of his left ventricle 
The first Argument.  as out of a liuing fountaine to the channels of the great Artery to refresh the fading & decaying heat, to supply by his sourse of vitall spirits the liuelode of the particular parts. This is all the necessity of his perpetual motion, this the Final cause. But in the infant there is no generation of vitall spirits in the ventricles of the heart, neither are vitall spirits deriued from his heart into the Arteries; Ergo his heart mooueth not, there being no necessity 
What necessity there is of the motion of the heart.  of the motion.  
The Maior proposition of itself is cleare enough. For who seeth not that in the Diastole or distension of the heart, both the matters of the spirit Aer and Blood are drawn into the heart? The Aer by the Venall artery into the left ventricle, the bloode by the hollowe veine into the right: againe, that in the Systole or contraction of the heart both the sooty vapors which are the recrements of the spirits are purged, and the vitall spirits driuen into the pipes of the great artery as into water-courses? Insomuch that this generation of the spirits which it accomplisheth by his perpetuall motion seemeth to be the onely officiall action of the heart. The Minor proposition is thus confirmed.  
The vitall spirit is generated of aer and blood mingled together. Both the matters before 
There is no generation of vitall spirits in the infant.  they attaine the left ventricle of the heart do stand in neede of preparation. The aer by his abode in the substance of the Lungs attaineth a quality familiar to the inbred spirit. The blood is prepared in the right, which they call 〈◇〉 and the bloody ventricle. But in the infant there is neyther any plenty of aer conueyed into the Lungs,( for the Weazon is idle) neither is there any bloode powred into the right ventricle. There is therefore in the heart of the infant no shop nor worke-house of the vital spirits. That neither Aer nor Blood is deriued into the Ventricles of the infants heart is manifestly prooued by the structure of his vessels. For the vessels are vnited; the hollow veine and the venal artery by a large hole, the great artery and the arteriall veine by an arteriall pipe or Canale: wherefore the Hollow veine doth not poure blood into the right ventricle, as it doth after we are borne, but into the venall artery through that hole for the nourishment of the Lungs. The venal artery leadeth not aer but blood, and that thicke and venall. The great artery doth not drawe spirits from the heart but from the vmbilicall arteries, which it transmitteth by the arteriall pipe into the arteriall veine.  
Now if the vitall spirits were generated in the left ventricle of the heart, what need were there of that Arteriall pipe, seeing there is in the heart a wide vessell which is diuersely dispersed through the whole substance of the Lungs, I meane the venall artery? This surelie is a strong demonstration whose force no man can perceiue, vnlesse he be skild in Anatomy, for it dependeth wholly vpon ocular demonstration, and the credite of a mans owne sight. But this we will establish by other reasons.  
There is in the infant no necessity of that common storehouse or worke house of the spirits, because the two vmbilicall arteries do supply vnto him arteriall blood, and a sufficient 
The second argument.  proportion of vitall spirites and those very pure and bright, as beeing made by the strong heate of the Mothers heart. Nature doth nothing idly or in veine, why therefore should she make two vmbilicall arteries if new arteriall blood were to be generated in the infantes heart? You will say that the Mothers arteriall blood was vnprofitable, and not so fit for the 
There is no necessitie of new vital spirits.  vse of the infant, and therefore it needed to be re-boyled by his heart. But I desire to bee shewed the wayes whereby that arteriall blood can be transmitted into the left ventricle; by the mouth of the great artery it cannot passe together ward because Nature hath bolted it with 3. values which look from within outward; albeit we think with Galen that some small quantity of the bloud sypeth into the Heart to nourish it and preserue his life. From the great artery it is freely powred into the arteriall veine through the arteriall pipe, but from the arterial veine into the heart there is no way open: for the membranes or values of this vessell are open outwardly but closed within, which giue way to any thing that commeth out of the hart, but do intercept the returne of it into the heart. Seeing therfore that the arteriall bloud of the mother doth not forsake the Arteries; neither hath any accesse vnto the left ventricle of the Infants heart, wee cannot admit any new preparation of the old, or preparation of any new.  
Again, if that the spirit of the mother and the arteriall bloud be prepared for the nourishment 
The third argument.  of the Lungs, and for the conseruation of their heate, as Petreus would haue it: why also should not the other parts of the body liue by the influence and illustration of the same spirite? Or if the heart of the Infant doe generate vital spirits whereby the life of the whole is preserued, why shall it be thought insufficient for the preseruation of the Lungs which are but a little part of the whole? Wherefore the Infant truely liueth by his owne proper life, but he neuer ingendreth new spirits nor hath any vse of the motion of the heart. Notwithstanding 
Why the hart of the Infant cannot be said to be idle.  wee must not say that therefore the heart is idle, for Philosophers say, that is onely idle which doth not worke when it ought and when it can.  
The Heart of the Embryo neither can make vitall spirits, nor ought if it could. It ought not, because the two vmbilicall Arteries doe supply both a sufficient number of spirites and those also very pure. Nether can it, because there is a want of matter, for it hath no ayre which it should draw.  
As therefore we doe not acknowledge any new Chilification or Sanguification in the Infant,( for where should the recrements of either of them be reserued or treasured for seauen months together.) So neither doe we admit a new generation of vitall spirites in the Heart of the Infant. But you will obiect that Infants Arteries are mooued, and all motions 
Obiection.  of the arteries are from the Heart, because the Heart and the Arteries are continuated together. VVherefore if the Arteries be mooued together with the Heart, it will follow necessarily that we must admitte in the Infant the vitall faculty by which the spirites are ingendred.  
I answere, that the Arteries of the Infant are indeed moued, but that their motion followeth 
Answere.  or floweth from the Arteries of the mother; so that his Arteries doe not beate by a proper and ingenite faculty of their owne, nor by any power issuing from his heart, but by 
The arteries of the Infant are moued after the motion of the mothers arteries  a force and efficacy transmitted from the heart and the arteries of the mother. That these things are thus, this elegant demonstration I thinke will sufficiently proue. It is most certaine that the Veines and the Arteries of the wombe doe so adhere to the Veines and Arteries of the Chorion, that both arteriall and venall bloud doe flowe out of one vnto the other. And this continuity of the vessels, Galen maketh often mention of, for in his Booke 
The first demonstration.  de dissectione vteri he sayeth, The end of that vessell which is propagated through the wombe, giueth beginning to that which is in the Chorion, so that you may call these two one vessell, for their mouthes are so vnited, that the Veine draweth bloud from the Veine, and the Artery spirit from the Artery.  
If this be true in the Arteries so opening into the mouths either of other, it must needs follow that the end of the artery of the mothers wombe when it beateth must driue arteriall bloud into that part of the Chorion which is continuall therewith, otherwise that arteriall bloud must either recoyle into the wombe out of the which it is issued; or else there must bee a conculcation of two bodies confused and mingled in the same time and place, mutually penetrating one the other; whence it shall come to passe that if we graunt there is a dilatation in the diastole, wee must also yeelde that there is at the same time and in the same vessell a compression in the systole.  
Furthermore, is it not true which the Philosopher so often vrgeth, that a part of that 
The second,  which is continuall being moued the whole is moued vnlesse it bee hindered? The arteries of the Infant are continuated with the arteries of the mother; therefore when the mothers arteries are dilated, it is of necessity that the arteries also of the Chorion must be dilated. But if that pulsatiue faculty did flow from the heart of the Embryo, there should flowe also vitall spirits from the left ventricle into the arteries of the Infant, which alwayes be accompanyed with arteriall bloud, and so the arteriall bloud of the mother should bee alwayes mixed with the arteriall bloud of the Infant; and there should be a double motion in the arteries of the Infant, one from the heart of the Embryo, the other from the mothers arteries which would not be answerable but contrary the one to the other.  
VVe conclude therefore that the Arteries of the Infant are moued after the mothers arteries, because they are continuated with them: and therefore that that vitall faculty which procreateth the vitall spirits and the arteriall bloud, must by no meanes be admitted to bee in the Infant.  
Galen sometimes seemeth to haue beene of this opinion: for in his Booke de formatione 
Galens opinion.  foetus, hee sayeth that the Infant liueth after the manner of a Plant, and therefore standeth neither in neede of the action of the Heart nor of the Brayne, as neither of the eyes nor of the eares. As therefore a Plant oweth all his life vnto the earth, so the Infant oweth all to the mother: yea sometime hee sayeth that the Infant is as it were a part of the mothers body. As therefore a part of the body needeth not any particular respiration, nor any particular stomacke to digest his Aliment, yet of necessity requireth the pulsation of Arteries; so the Infant liueth contented onely with transpiration, which is accomplished by the Dyastole and Systole of the Arteries.  
In the 21. Chapter of his sixt Booke de vsu partium Galen sayeth, Wee neede not wonder 
Galen.  that the Heart of the Infant to his proper life needeth but a little spirit, which he may draw out of the great Artery, seeing it sendeth neither bloud nor spirits to the Lungs nor to the Arteries of the whole body as it doth in perfect creatures. VVhere marke that hee sayeth, The Heart may draw a little out of the great Artery. For the values or floud-gates there set by Nature, do not hinder a little arteriall bloud and spirites from siping into the Heart, but they hinder a sudden and plentifull consluence, such as should be necessary, if of them the Heart shoulde make vitall spirits and arteriall bloud for the whole body of the Infant.  
This I say was Galens opinion: yet in many places he seemeth to say the quite contrary; that the Arteries of the Infant are moued by a faculty sent from his Heart vnto them, 
The contrary opinion. That the arteries of the Infant are moued by a power issuing from his hart. Authorities out of Galen.  and that the Heart itselfe is moued by an in-bred and proper motion. In the 22. Chapter of the seauenth Booke de vsu partium. The Heart( sayth he) not onely in perfect creatures but also in Infants, supplyeth to their Arteries the power by which they are moued: and in 21. Chapter of the sixt Book, If you tie the Arteries of the Nauel whilst the Infant is in the womb, all the Arteries which are in the Chorion will cease beating, & yet those Arteries which are in the body of the Embryo will continue their pulsation: but if with the vmbilicall Arteries you tye also the vmbilicall veines, then will the arteries which are in the body of the Infant leaue beating also. By which it is manifest, first that that power which moueth the arteries of the Chorion proceedeth from the heart of the Infant; againe, that the arteries get spirits from the veines by their inoculations. In the same Booke in another place hee sayeth, The Heart in the Infant when it dilateth itselfe, draweth bloud and spirites from out of the venall Artery. In the ninth Chapter of his Booke de formatione foetus. When the Heart of the Infant commeth to haue ventricles, and hath receiued venall and arteriall bloud, then it pulseth, and together with itself moueth the Arteries, so that it liueth now not onely as a Plant, but also as a Creature. This opinion may also be confirmed by reasons.  
Seeing the Heart is the hottest of all the Bowels and as it were a fire-hearth, if you depriue it of motion it hath nothing left wherewith it may bee refrigerated; by transpiration 
The first argument.  it cannot, because it is included in a hotte and narrow roome, nor by the appulsion of externall ayre; for the solidity and thightnesse of the membranes wherewith it is compassed hinder the accesse thereof; adde hereto that those watery excrements doe hinder the perspiration. Neither hath the Heart of the Infant any refrigeration from the mothers arteries by the accesse of a new matter or spirit, for nothing can ariue into the Heart of the Infant from his arteries because of the membranes which lye vpon the mouth of the great arterie.  
The motion therefore of the Heart was necessary, by the benefite whereof both bloud and spirit are drawne into it, and from thence communicated to the whole body. The credite 
The 2 argument.  also of this opinion is increased by Histories: For many women report that some haue beene cut out of their mothers womb after they were dead and so saued, as Scipio and Manilius. 
Histories of many cut out of their mothers wombs.  The Ciuill Lawyers doe condemne him as a murtherer that shall bury a woman great with childe before he hath taken the Infant from her, because togither with the dead mother he seemeth, or his held in construction, to haue buried a liuing Infant; which Law being made with the consent of Physitians, doeth sufficiently declare that the Infant may suruiue after the Mother is dead.  
It is reported that Gorgias the Epirote, after his Mother was dead and vppon the Beere to be buried, yssued aliue from her wombe, which could not haue beene vnlesse the heart of the infant had had in it a vitall faculty, which without the assistance and communion of the mothers heart for a while did sustaine his life.  
But I thinke it will not be hard to giue a sufficient answere to all these authorities and arguments. For Galens authority we make the lesse account of it, because it contradicteth 
Answeres to the authorities and arguments.  himself. Moreouer we say that the experiment which Galen biddeth vstry is impossible for you cannot intercept the vmbilicall veine and arteries of the infant vnlesse the Mother bee dead and her wombe opened, and then we say the infant doth respire not transpire. And whereas they say that the heart hath not wherewith it may be refrigerated vnlesse it be moued. VVe answere, that the infant contained in the prison of the womb, hath sufficient for the preseruation of his life from the mothers Arteries, because it liueth as those creatures do, which the Grecians call 〈◇〉, beside it receiueth some refrigeration from the lukewarme water wherein it swimmeth.  
The last reason from the cutting out of liuing Infants our of their dead Mothers, may seeme to some to vrge much, but the answere is at hande. That the vitall faculty diffused through all the arteries, without the communion of the heart may for a short time preserue the infant aliue after the Mothers death.  
We haue seene( sayth Galen in his second Booke de Placitis) a Sacrificed Beast walke after his 
Galen.  heart was taken away, and haue often made experiment of the same in a Dogge. What also if I shall say, that those Mothers were Hystericall and esteemed as dead when yet they were aliue, which thing is not vnvsuall? The truth therfore of our opinion remaineth firme, that the heart and the arteries of the infant do pulse or beate from a power proceeding from the 
The Conclusion.  heart and arteries of the Mother, not from any proper and ingenit faculty of their owne, & that no new Arteriall blood is generated in his left ventricle, seeing the Mothers Arteries do supply a sufficient quantity, and that very pure.  
From hence let the Peripatetiks learne, how vnaduisedly Aristotle calleth the heart the 
Against the Peripatetiks principality of the heart.  first liuer, moouer, and blood-maker. For both the Arteries of the infant do mooue before his heart, and the heart liueth onely by the pulsation of the Arteries. Finally, as long as the infant is included in the wombe of his mother, we do not beleeue that his heart is the Shop or Store house either of vitall spirits, or of Ateriall blood.   

QVEST. XXVIII. Whether there be in the infant any generation of Animal spirits, and what position the Infant hath in the womb.  
_THE moouing Faculty floweth into the flesh of the Muscles from the brain by the Nerues. not by a simple irradiation or separated quality, but by a Corporeall substance, which the Physitians call Animalem spiritum, an Animal spirit. Seeing then the Infant in the wombe mooueth of his own accord sometimes to the right side, sometimes to the left, and oftentimes kicketh with his neeles, it followeth necessarily that he hath also Animall spirits. But whether he draweth these from his Mothers wombe as he doth the vitall, or generateth them in the sinus or substance of the braine by a proper and inbred faculty, it hath of long time beene a 
The generation of the Animall spirits in the infant.  great question. In thinke that they are generated in the braine, and my reasons are these. Because there is no Communion or connexion betweene the Nerues of the wombe and of the infant, as there is betweene their Veines and Arteries. Now onely the Nerues conuey the Animall spirits.  
You will Obiect, that the Animall spirit standeth in neede of aer for his conseruation & expurgation, but no aer is inspirated as long as the infant is in the Mothers wombe. I answere; 
Obiection. Solution.  that this Animall spirit is cherished, purged & tempered by that transpiration which is made by the vmbilicall arteries, but his generation we thinke to be the same in the womb that is after the infant is borne, which how it is we shal declare more at large in the seuenth Booke where we shall of purpose entreate of it.  
Concerning the time of the infantes motion, Hippocrates seemeth not alwaies of one 
In the time of the infantes motion Hippo. varrieth.  minde. For in his Booke de Morbis mulierum he saith, that male children moue the third moneth, and females the fourth; but in the third Section of his second Booke Epidemi●n he saith, the infant is mooued the seuentith day in these words, Whatsoeuer is mooued the seuenth day is perfected in the Triplicities. And in his Booke de Nutritione, thirty dayes forme the infant, 70 mooueth it, and 210. perfect it. You may reconcile Hippocrates to himselfe in my 
The places reconciled.  opinion, if you say, that there is one motion obscure, another so manifest that the eye may iudge of it and the hand may feele it if it be laide vpon the belly. In 70. dayes the Infant may mooue but the motion shall be neyther visible nor to bee felt till after the thirde or fourth month. And surely myself haue knowne a woman in three children confidentlie 
That the Infant may mooue at viii. weekes.  auouch, that after 8. or 9. weekes she hath alwayes felt her infant mooue very sensibly, which I could not beleeue, till I had well considered of this place in Hippocrates.  
Concerning the position also or scituation of the infant in the wombe, which is referred to the moouing Faculty, there are some places which neede to be reconciled. Hippocrates 
Concerning the position of the infant, Different places reconciled  in his Booke De Natura pueri saith, that in the womb the infants head is neere vnto his feet. Thou canst not iudge( saith he) though thou shouldst see an infant in the womb, whether his head be placed aboue or below. But in his Booke de Octimestri partu hee writeth, that the head is placed in the vpper part of the wombe in these words, All Infants are begotten hauing their heads vpward. Aristotle in the 8. chapter of his 7. Booke De Natura Antmalium seemeth to reconcile these places on this manner; All creatures( saith hee) in the first months after their Conformation beare their heads vpward, but when they encrease and grow toward their byrth, their heads bend downward.  
Againe, in Hippocrates Booke De Natura pueri almost all Copies haue it thus. The Infant 
A diuers teading in Hippo  seated in the wombe hath his hands at his cheekes, yet all interpreters translate it ad Genua at the knees. I thinke that both readings may be maintained; for there are some Copyes of both readings. For the Infant hath his hands at his cheekes and at his knees. The palmes 
How both readings are made good  of his hands take hold on his knees, and the backes of his hand touch his cheekes. For, if as Aristotle writeth in the place next before quoted, the infant is so rowled vp that his nose is betwixt his knees, his eyes vppon his knees, his eares on either side his knees, and that with his hands he take hold of his knees, he must necessarily rest both his cheekes vpon his hands. Those things some haue written of the different scituation of Males and Females, are but deuices of their owne braine. But those things which Aristotle hath written in his seauenth Booke De Natura Animalium concerning the different scituation of diuerse creatures, are well woorth the obseruation and our knowledge; Notwithstanding, I do not thinke fit to transcribe them heere, but referre him that desireth satisfaction vnto Aristotle himselfe.  
And thus much shall be sufficient to haue spoken of the infant all the while he is conteyned and contenteth himselfe with the prison of the wombe; it remaineth now in the last place, that we speake of the birth of the infant.   

QVEST. XXIX. Of the Nature and Differences of the birth.  
_WE now enter into a vast Sea, a huge and enorme Tract when wee vndertake to dispute of the Nature, Times and Causes of the birth of Man; wherein wee shall meete with many contrary gusts of opinions, many vnpassable and thorny wayes. How many reciprocall waues in the concertations of the Ancients? how many quick sands in the accounts of months and dayes? howe many rockes in the search after the causes of things? amongst which vnlesse a man bee well steared by reason, he must needs set vpon some misaduenture? Notwithstanding, so necessary and profitable a voyage this is, as we will aduenture ourselves; the Pole we are guided by is fixed truth, and the Pilote shall be Hippocrates, who as saith Macrobius, Coulde neuer deceiue or be deceiued: out of his Bookes De Septimestri & Octimestripartu, De Naturapueri, De Principijs, de Alimento, and De Morbis mulierum, will we draw our demonstrations.  
But that we may proceed in order through the whol course of our disputation, that the capacities of such as are not throughly grounded may not be confounded, we will diuide our 
Three heads of the questiō.  discourse into three heads. In the first, we will open vnto you the Nature of the Birth and all the differences of the same. In the second, wee will handle the Times of the Birth by a computation of the yeares, the months, and the dayes. In the last place, wee will manifest the Causes of the varieties of the Birth, as well the Generall as the Particular, the Naturall, the Physicall, the Arithmeticall, the Geometricall and the Astrologiall Causes.  
To begin therefore with the first. The Birth, which the Graecians call 〈◇〉, we define to be an Edition or bringing into the world of an infant perfected and absolued in the womb: 
What a byrth is.  so that whatsoeuer month, day, or houre, the infant arriueth into the worlde, that arriuall may properly and truely be called the birth. To this perfection wee speake of, there is required not onely a dearticulation of the parts, for then if a woman should miscarry at foure moneths that miscarriage should be called a Birth; but also their strength & growth, which because the Infant attayneth not before the seauenth moneth, we cannot properly call it a 
What is required to a perfect birth.  Birth before the seauenth moneth, but either an abortment or a miscarrying. An abortment the Grecians call by diuerse names, 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉. VVe therefore define an abortment to be Either the issuing of an imperfect 
The names of an abortment The definitiō  Infant or his extinction and death in the wombe. Some there are who will not haue it called an abortment before the infant hath moued, so that a woman shall not bee sayed to abort but from the third moneth to the seauenth, and that before the motion it shall be called 
The error of some.  an effluxion or miscariage.  
But these men seeme to me not to conceiue Hippocrates meaning aright: for Hippocrates after the Embryo is formed vseth to cal it an abortment if it come before the due time, whether 
Hippocrates.  it be before the motion of the Infant or after it. As in the 44. Aphorisme of the first Section, Those women that are too much extenuated doe abort at two moneths: and in the Aphorisme following in the same Section, Those that are naturally disposed, doe abort at three 
What an effluxion is.  moneths. But if the Geniture be auoyded before conformation, then is it not properly called an abortment, but 〈◇〉 an Effluxion, so sayeth Hippocrates in his Booke de septimestri partu, Those corruptions which happen a few dayes after the Conception, are called effluxions not abortments. Aristotle also in the fourth Chapter of his seauenth Booke de Natura Animalinm, calleth those corruptions which fall out before perfect conformation, Effluxions. 
Hippocrates all excesed.  Wherefore some say that Hippocrates is not to bee accused of impiety or of breach of his oath, because hee counselled the dauncing Dame hee calleth Psaltria to prouoke an abortment, because she lost not an Infant, but suffered onely an effluxion seauen dayes after shee had conceiued.  
But howsoeuer we in Schooles may distinguish thus nicely, yet God iudgeth after another manner as we may perceiue by his iudgement vpon Onan. Neither do we by abortment onely vnderstand an exclusion of an imperfect Infant, but we say that a woman may 
His large acceptation of an abortmēt.  abort in her wombe though the Embryo be not brought away: so sayeth Hippocrates in his first Booke de morbis mulierum: When a woman aborteth and the Infant is not excluded. So that abortment signifieth not onely an exclusion of the Infant before the due time, but also the extinction or death of the same in the wombe before the due time of birth. For an Infant may be carried in the wombe after he is dead many yeares, as may bee proued by many examples. Among the rest that is notable, of the Infant which the mother bare in her body 28. yeares which was turned into a stone, as it is recorded by Iohannes Albosius a learned 
Two strange stories.  Physitian. Likewise that about Newarke not many yeares since, which after it dyed in the mothers wombe remayned there a good space, and after was vomited vp by peece-meale out of the stomacke: a Story past all beleefe sauing that it hath so many eye-witnesses yet 
Octimestris partus is not an abortment.  liuing and ready to iustifie the trueth of it. Thus we see out of Hippocrates what is a Birth, what an Abortment, and what an Effluxion.  
Birth is when an Infant perfected in the wombe commeth into the world whether it issue aliue or dead: So that they are in no small error who call the Infant of eight moneths old an abortment, because it is not aliue: for it is not simply and absolutely of the essence of the birth that the Infant should be borne aliue, but that it should be borne perfect, now at eight moneths it is perfect. To be aliue or not aliue, to be legitimate or not ligitimate, are differences of the Birth as wee shall say by and by. An abortment is an exclusion or extinction of an vnperfect infant: an Effluxion or miscariage is an auoyding of the geniture before perfect conformation.  
Hauing thus made plaine the Nature of the birth, wee come nowe to the differences thereof. A Birth is either Naturall or not Naturall, Legitimate or Illegitimate. To a Naturall 

The differences of the birth.  
The first condition required in a naturall birth.   birth three things are required. The first, that there bee an equall contention of the infant and the mother. For the action of the birth is common both to the infant and the mother. But to which of these we ought to attribute the beginning of the motion, whether to the wombe or to the infant, Galen expoundeth in his Commentarie vppon the 37. Aphorisme of the fift Section, The Infant bringeth to the mother the beginning of the birth. For being become larger and hotter and needing more store of Aliment and spirite, with often and violent motions of his hands and feete hee breaketh the membranes. And the wombe ouerburdned with so great a waight and so vnruly an inmate, desiring to lay down her vnwealdy burden, wholly contracteth itself to the shutting out of the infant. So that from an equall contention of the infant and the wombe, the birth proceedeth 〈◇〉, according to Nature. But if neither of them endeuour, or but one of them fayle, then is the birth not Naturall. For if all the worke lye vpon the hand of the mother, then is the byrth hard and laborious: now that hapneth when the infant is weake, or his strength spent, or he be dead; which Hippocrates expresseth in these words, in his first Booke de morbis mulierum. The birth is then most difficult when the Infant issueth either dead or apoplecticall, that is, depriued of motion and fence.  
The second condition of the Naturall birth is, that it come foorth in that figure which is according to Nature. This figure Hippocrates first of all men described in his first Book 
The 2. condition.  de morbis mulierum, and in his Bookes de Natura pueri, and de Octimestri partu. The Childe commeth with his head forward if he come according to Nature. Nowe why this figure and 
A description of the natural figure.  forme of issuing is according to Nature, Hippocrates rendreth a reason. Because the Infant hanging vpon the Nauel as a ballance vpon a beame, his vpper parts are the heauier, and therfore his head turneth sooner downward. Adde hereto that if the infant come with his head forward, 
Why the head forward is the most naturall figure.  the rest of his parts being flexible like waxe doe not hinder the birth but yeelde and giue way vnto it. But if he come with his feete forward, his armes may be so spred and extended that they may hinder the rest of the body. And this is Hippocrates opinion in his Book de Octimestri partu. The flexible parts of the Infant are no hinderance vnto him if he issue with his head forward, but if he come with his feete forward, then they stop the passage. That this figure, of the head forward, is the most Naturall & safe way for the infant, Pliny confirmeth in the 8. Chapter of his seauenth Booke de Naturali Historia. The olde custome is sayeth hee 
Why dead men are carried with their feet forward.  that dead folk are carried to their graues with their feet forward, because death is contrary to life. As therefore a man commeth into the world with his head first, so being dead hee must be carried out of the world with his feete first.  
Beside this al other figures of the Birth are to be called not Naturall. Now there are diuers figures of the birth 〈◇〉 not Naturall, but three especial; with their feete forward, with the side first or double; all which Hippocrates expresseth in his Bookes de morbis 
Diuerse vnnaturall figures of the birth.  mulierum, & de Natura pueri. It is dangerous when the feete come forward, for in such a birth oftentimes the mother perisheth or the Infant, or both together. To deprecate or auert this danger, the auntient Romanes built Alters to the two Carmentae: the one of them was called Postuerta, the other Prosae of the right or wrong proceeding of the birth. And such births are commonly called Agrippae, as it were aegrepartus. So Agrippina sayde her sonne 
Agrippae why so called.  Nero came into the world with his feet forward.  
The third Condition of a Naturall birth is that it bee swift, easie and without any vehement 
The 3. condition.  symptomes. I call that a lawfull or legitimate birth which commeth in due time, & that illigitimate which happeneth before or after the due time. The eight moneth birth is illigitimate, because it preuenteth the ninth moneth or stayeth after the seuenth month: and this is the Nature of the Birth, these are all the differencies thereof.   

QVEST. XXX. How many times there be of a Mans Birth, and what they are.  
_ARistotle that Genius and Interpreter of Nature, as he hath in all things acquitted 
Aristotle. The times only of mans birth vncertaine.  himselfe wondrous well; so herein also he hath written excellently, that whereas Nature hath appoynted almost to all Creatures a determinate and certaine time for the bringing foorth of their young; circumscribed and constant limits of their gestation: yet to man shee hath granted a larger and freer patent for the time of his procration and gestation. House Doues do euery month bill and breede young; a Bitch whelps at foure moneths; a Mare Foales the ninth, and an Elephant the second yeare. Onely man hath diuerse times wherein he is brought foorth, the 7. 8. 9. 10. and 11. moneths. This women doe all of them confesse, whome wee ought to beleeue sayth Hippocrates in his Booke de Septimestri partu, because they are most skilfull in this kinde of learning.  
This also is confirmed by the authority of Hippocrates, Aristotle, Plutarch, Galen and Aphrodysaeus; and beside by certaine lawes of the Romanes. The seuenth month is the first 
The 7. month the first time.  limit of a mans birth, and before seauen moneths no infant suruiueth, albeit some Egyptians, the Poets of Naxus, and many Spaniards report that some haue beene borne aliue the sixt moneth.  
The seuenth-moneth birth, Hippocrates saieth is vitall or dooth suruiue in his booke De Principijs. The Infant borne the seuenth month is reasonably borne and liueth. He is reasonably 
The 7 month childe Vitall. Hippocrates.  borne, because he wanteth nothing in the perfection of his parts; for in the two months following there is nothing added to the perfection of the parts, but vnto the perfection of his strength.  
Aristotle in his 7. booke De Natura animalium affirmeth the same, as also Aphrodisaeus in his Problemes. Galen in his Commentary vpon Hippocrates book de Septimestri partu saith, 
Aristotle. Galen. Lawes of the Romanes.  that he hath seene many children borne the seuenth month suruiue and do well. The same in Honor of Hippocrates was concluded by the Roman Lawes, and standeth in force at this day euen among ourselves.  
Pliny reporteth, that Sempronius and Corbulo, two Consular Romanes, were borne of 
Pliny.  their Mother Vestilia the seauenth month. I haue also credibly heard it reported, that that good old man Doctor Turner of S. Ellins now lately gone to heauen, was borne the seauenth 
D. Turner.  month and preserued by some small sustenance till he was able to sucke, which was about two months after he was borne. And if you obiect Hippocrates, who in his Booke de Septimestri partu, saith, that there be few seuen-month children, and of those few many 
Obiection.  perish, and therefore Aristotle biddeth that they should bee laide in wooll and carefullie swathed. I will giue you this answere, that there are many seauen-month birthes, because 
Solution  there is a great latitude of the seauenth month.  
Those that are borne in the beginning of the seuenth month may indeed liue, but they are exceeding weake and do not recouer strength in forty dayes, and of these we must vnderstand that place of Hippocrates, for he saith they are borne after 182. dayes and a part of 
The differēce of the 7. moneth infants.  a day, now 182. dayes do make but the beginning of the seauenth month. But those that are borne in the end of the seauenth month, that is, after 210. dayes are strong, and fewe of them perish. Of such he speaketh in his Booke de Principijs, where he saith; The 7. monthinfants are borne according to reason, and do liue because they accomplish three tenths of weekes, and euery tenth fulfilleth seauenty dayes.  
Againe, the seauenth-month infant is either a Male or a Female; A male because hee is sooner formed, mooued and perfected in the wombe, if he be borne the seauenth month he suruiueth. A Female because she keepeth not that proportion which is required to the Conformation, Motion and Birth, if she be borne the 7 month she will haue life, but not hold it long. This first rule we establish as a Law, that the seuen-month childe is legitimate and vitall, and that this is the first limit of a mans birth. The bringing foorth of a childe at 8. monthes is called, not an abortment, a birth, but yet it is neither a vital nor a legitimate birth. Hippocrates in his Booke de Principijs. No Infant borne the eight month suruiueth, and 
The 8. month infant is not Vital.  the same he repeateth in his Booke de Octimestri partu, and De alimento, elegantly indeede, but very obscurely, where he saith, The birth of 240. dayes( such is the eight-month birth) is and is not. As if he should say, the infant is indeede borne the 8. month, but so, that it had as good not haue bin borne, because it cannot suruiue.  
In Egypt where that fruitfull Nylus runnes, and in Spaine where women haue easy trauels, 
In Egypt som suruiue at 8. months.  and where the heauen and the earth agree together to bee kinde to man, there manie men say, that some 8. month infants do liue. Asclepiades saith, that the women of Naxus doe bring foorth their children aliue the 8. month, and they suruiue either because Iuno Lucina hath giuen them this priuiledge for Bacchus sake, or because Bacchus was borne that month, after whose name it is called Dyonisia Naxos. But these are rare things, and beside are different from the Vniuersal Nature as the Philosophers speake. Add heereto, that in the account of the months women are often deceiued, so that they seeme to themselues to bring foorth the eight month when it is indeed the ninth; for there are some whose courses flow the second month after their conception, and such women think they haue not conceiued when indeede they haue conceyued.  
Aristotle in his tenth book de Historia Animalium sheweth how there may many errors 
How women are deceyued in the acompt of their Conceptions.  happen in the computation of the time of their conceptions. There are some( saith he) who think that there can be no conception vnlesse both parents do at the same time eiaculate their seed. Nowe such are deceyued; because the body that is best disposed soonest looseth, wherefore that seede being very strong is not corrupted, but beeing drawne it is reserued for that mixtion which is to be afterward.  
They erre also who thinke they haue not conceyued vnlesse the wombe bee dry and all the seede be reteined; because of the whole seede which proceedeth aswel from the man as from the woman the matrix draweth first no more then it can, then no more then it should 
Many women think they haue conceiued whē they haue not.  draw. Many women therefore haue conceiued which thinke they haue not conceiued, and these doe easily mistake the sixt for the seauenth, the eight for the ninth months.  
The nine-moneth birth is of all other the most vitall and legitimate, as that which is in the middle of the two extreames, and is beside most familiar to Nature. Concerning 
The 9. month birth is most legitimate.  the ten-moneth birth Hippocrates hath written many things in his Bookes de Natura pueri, and de septimestripartu. Homer Odyss. Λ maketh Neptune to speak thus vnto the Nimphe. After a yeare is accomplished thou shalt bring forth a beautifull burthen. That is to say the tenth moneth, 
The 10 mōth birth vitall.  for of ten moneths consisteth the yeare among the Aeolians, as also among the ancient Romanes, now Homer we know was an Aeolian.  
Concerning the eleuenth-moneth birth there is great difference among authours; Hippocrates seemeth to haue conceiued diuersly of it; in his Booke de Naturapueri he determineth that the tenth moneth is the longest limit of gestation, within ten moneths at the furthest 
11. monthbirth controuerted. How women are deceiued in their computation.  sayeth he the Infant is borne. But those women who thinke they go vnto the eleuenth month are deceiued in the number of dayes and computation of the time of their Conception, for sometime the wombe is distended with winde and breedeth a false conceit of their being with childe. Oftentimesvpon the suppression of their courses their bellies swell and they thinke they are conceiued, making their accompt from the time of that suppression.  
Aristotle, who indeede tooke all that he writ concerning the Nature of Creatures onely from Hippocrates, and yet( vngratefull man as he is, neuer maketh mention of him) reprooueth 
Aristotle vnthankfull to Hip his good maister.  those women who say they haue borne their children eleuen and twelue months. The beginning sayth he of Conception most women are ignorant off, especially if they couple and conceiue when before their wombes are distended with winde; for then they esteeme that they haue conceiued when their bellies beginne to be distended, whereas indeede they are first distended with winde and afterward conceiue: For Hippocrates determineth that the tenth month is the vtmost limit of gestation;( and Vlpianus the Lawyer admitteth no children to the inheritance who were borne after the tenth moneth;) but in his Booke De septimestri and octimestripartu, he acknowledgeth the 11. month.  
You shall reconcile Hippocrates to himselfe, if you say, that the end of the tenth moneth is the absolute and longest limit of gestation, and that a woman cannot fulfill eleauen compleat moneths, but if she bring forth in the eleuenth month it is in the beginning thereof, 
Hippoc re●nciled to himselfe.  and that is Hippocrates meaning when in his Booke de octimestripartu hee sayth, that some women carry their burthens vntill the eleuenth month, he meaneth vnto the beginning of the 11. moneth.  
As for the twelfth, the thirteenth and the foureteenth moneths Massurius reporteth that L. Papyrius the Praetor awarded an inheritance of Land against an heyre whose mother confessed that she bore him after thirteene moneths; because the time of his birth seemeth to him to be litigious. Auicen writeth that he saw a childe borne fourteene months 
Auicen of a birth at 14. months.  after Conception: but if any such thing happen, we conceiue it to bee a rare accident and beyond the consideration of Art.  
Wee conclude therefore that the first limit of a mans birth is the seauenth moneth, the last is the eleuenth, the intermidiate times are the ninth and the tenth.  
Now what are seuen-moneth, eight-month, nine-month, and ten-month births, and of how many dayes euery one of these consisteth, and also what account and supputation of dayes we are to make it remayneth that we should declare, for vppon this Axle-tree is the whole Controuersie rowled, this laberynth hath innumerable windings and turnings, out of which no man shall be able to redeeme himselfe who is ignorant of Hippocrates computation 
Months are manifold.  of moneths, decades, weeks and dayes; wherefore we will a little while stay our reader vpon the consideration of them.  
A Moneth according to the Astrologians is manifould, one called Solaris another called Lunaris, a third Common, that is to say, according to the Iulian Kalender. That is called 
Mensis solaris.  a Solarie moneth wherein the Sunne runneth through thirty degrees of the Zodiacke, 
Mensis lunaris.  and it contayneth perpetually thirty dayes. The Lunary moneth according to Galen is double, the one of Progression the other of Apparition. The moneth of Progression he calleth 
The month of progressiō  that space which commeth betweene one coniunction of the Moone with the Sunne and another, and it conteyneth nine and twenty dayes and a halfe. A moneth of Apparition 
The month of Apparition.  consisteth onely of 27. dayes, because three dayes are subtracted wherein the Moone lurketh as it were and giueth not her light. The Common month or the month of the Kalender doth not alwayes consist of the same number of dayes. For the month of February hath 
The common month. What is Hip. month according to some.  xxviii. dayes, May xxx. Iuly xxxi. And this is the variety and difference of months. Nowe what is Hippocrates month is very difficult to determine, some doe thinke it to be the Lunary, and the Lunary of Progression onely. And this may be warranted by the authoritie of Hippocrates: for in the beginning of his Book de Septimestri partu he writeth, that 2. months consist of nine and fifty dayes, and that fiue months are accomplished of an hundred seuen and forty dayes and a halfe. Now fiue times twenty nine, make an hundred forty fiue, wherto if you add two dayes and a halfe, the summe will amount to 147 dayes & a halfe; so that euery month shall containe nine and twenty dayes and a halfe. Galen in his Computation of the Criticall dayes and the dayes of Gestation, accounteth according to the Lunarie month, and in his Commentary vpon Hippocrates Booke de Septimestri partu is of opinion that no infant suruiueth after two hundred and foure daies.  
We on the contrary do imagine that Hippocrates Months are Solarie consisting of thirty 
We thinke Hip month to be Solary, consisting of 30. dayes Authorities to proue it.  daies, as we gather by his owne computation. For in his Booke de Principijs he saith, that the seauenth-month birth hath three Denaries or Decades of weekes, and in euery Decade are 70. dayes; and that three Decades of weekes make 210. dayes.  
If therefore the seuenth-month birth do accomplish two hundered and ten dayes, then euery month shall conteine thirty dayes, because seauen times thirty makes two hundered and ten.  
Againe, in the same Booke he writeth; that a perfect birth is not accomplished till nine months and ten dayes, but nine times thirty makes two hundred and seauenty, whereto if you add ten, the sum wil amount to two hundred and eighty.  
Moreouer, in his Booke de Alimento he writeth, that the birth at two hundred and forty dayes,( by which all men vnderstand the eight month-birth) is and is not: now two hundred and forty dayes make eight Solary months. Furthermore in the third Section of the second Booke Epidemi●n, Whatsoeuer is mooued within seuenty dayes, is perfected within the triplication. Now three times seauenty make two hundred and ten, which accomplish seuen compleate months.  
Finally and most manifestly in his Booke de Octimestri partu he teacheth that wee must make our computation of months in the gestation of the Infant by the Solary months consisting of thirty dayes. The New Moone( saith he) is one day, & the thirtith part of the month. Two dayes make the fifteenth part of the month, and three daies a tenth; wherefore wee conclude, that the months of the birth are Solary rather then Lunary. And truly the efficacy and power of the Sun is more auaileable to generation then that of the Moone, whence it is that Aristotle in the second of his Physicks calleth the Sun Stellā Salutarem & 〈◇〉, that is a healthfull and fruitfull Starre, because it is the parent and procreatrix of al things. For the Sun and a man do generate a man. As for the Decads and weeks of Hippocrates, there is no reason we should much trouble ourselves about them, for they are as cleare as the midday-sun itself. Euery Decade conteining seuenty daies, and euery weeke seuen.  
One scruple there remaineth to be remooued, wherewith I confesse I was a great vvhile puzled, and that is, why the Computation of daies to make the seuenth-month birth is not 
How diuerse Hip. is in computation of dayes.  one and the same: for in his Booke de Principijs hee saith, that the seauenth-month birth is brought into the world the two hundred and tenth day, which opinion of his, Auicen the Prince of the Arabians followeth. Fen. 21. lib. 21. cap. 2. of the generation of the Embryo. But in his Booke de Septimestri partu and in the very beginning he saith, that the seuenth-month birth is borne within an hundred and eighty two dayes, and a part of a day, which also he repeateth in his Booke De Octimestri partu, where he sayth, that the seauenth-month birth is fulfilled in halfe a yeare and a part of a day, that is to say, in a hundred eighty two daies and sisteene houres.  
Some of the Interpreters, that they might auoide these snares, haue disallowed of his Booke de Septimestri partu, as if it were not Hippocrates owne, at least they boldly affirme that this place is corrupted. But wee on the other side are as confident that it is truly Hippocraticall. 
That Hippoc. Booke de Sept. partu is legitimate.  For not onely Galen Commented vpon it, a few fragments of whose labour remaine to this day, but also the Lawyers of that time vvhen Learning did most flourish at ●ome and Athens did translate this very sentence according as we at this day read it into the number of their Sanctions. Wherefore these diuers not contrary places concerning the number of dayes we will thus reconcile.  
The Latitude of the seauenth month is very great, neither is the seauenth-moneth birth 
Hip. interpreted.  alwayes brought into the world in one and the same day. There is a seauenth moneth beginning, and a seauenth month perfected. The Beginning consisteth of a hundred & eighty daies & a part; the perfection consisteth of two hundred & ten dayes. Before an hundred eighty two dayes no infant suruiueth, so that this is the first limit of the seauenth moneth. After two hundred and ten daies it is no more called a seuenth-month but an eight-month birth. The first births in the beginning of the seauenth moneth are indeede vitall yet verie languid and weake: the latter are very strong. Wherefore Hippocrates in the places before quoted expressed onely the two extreame times of the seauenth-month birth, that is to say, the first and the last. The middle times he maketh no mention of, as of two hundred & foure daies, &c; because they are sufficiently knowne by the nature of that extreame vnto 
The vtmost time of the seuen-month birth.  which they approach the neerest. And this is not my interpretation of Hippocrates, but Hippocrates owne. For, as in his Booke de Octimestripartu he calleth those Decimestres not onely who accomplish ten whole months, but also that reach a few dayes within the tenth month: So those are called Septimestres, who beside six full months do attaine some dayes of the seauenth. And yet more plainly in his Book de Alimento after he hath described the Septimestres, Octimesters, Nonimestres, and Decimestres partus, at length he breaketh out into these words, In these months are begotten or rather breede more and fewer according vnto the whole and the parts, that is, either in a part of the moneth, or in the whole and full moneth. And in his Booke de Septimestri partu he saith, that the fiue months which come between: the first and the seuenth must be numbred whole: but the first and the seuenth it skilleth not much though they be imperfect.  
So in the computation of the Critical dayes, those daies which go before the Crisis must be accompted whole; but the Criticall day itself wherein Nature endeauoureth the Crisis hath a great latitude; for a Crisis yea a happy and prosperous one, may fal out in the beginning, 
The intermediate daies & months are onely perfect.  in the middest, or in the end of the seauenth or the fourteenth daies: wherefore those months which go before the birth, must be al accompted whol excepting the first againe, the very month of the birth which is of the same nature for accompt with the Criticall day, hath two extreames and many intermediate times. In any of which if the infant be borne he may suruiue. And thus I thinke you may cleare yourself out of the Thornie and intricate passages of months and dayes in the Computation of the legitimate or illegitimate times of the birth.   

QVEST. XXXI. What are the vniuersall and particular Causes of the Birth.  
_DEmocritus a great Philosopher of his time, complaineth that the truth is drowned in a deepe well. The Pyrronij or Scepticke Philosophers thinke that all 
Democritus. The Septickes. Aristotle.  things are vncertaine and that nothing can be determinately knowne. Aristotle the Father of the Schoole of Philosophers saith, that the certaine and Naturall causes of all things naturall are onely knowne to Philosophers; which before Philosophy itself was borne our admired maister Hippocrates, in his Booke de Aere aquis, & locis hath thus expressed, 〈◇〉, Nothing in Nature is done vvithout 
Hippocrates.  Nature, that is, without a naturall cause. These causes if any man with Heraclitus shal deny, he shall not onely entangle himselfe in a thousand Labyrinths of absurdities, but also for feite 
Heraclitus.  all knowledge and assured demonstration; for to know, saith the Philosopher, is to vnderstand the Causes of things; Seeing therefore the birth is a naturall action, and that the times therof are very different, it shal not be amisse a little in this place to enlarge ourselves in the disquisition of the causes thereof.  
The Causes therefore of the birth are some of them vniuersall, others particular. The vniuersall causes are common not onely to man but also to al creatures; and some of then 
The vniuersal causes of the birth.  are on the part of the birth; others on the part of the Matrix or woombe; because the byrth proceedeth from an equall contention of the birth, and the bearer. The Cause on the part of the birth Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri, elegantly expresseth to be the defect of both sorts of aliment: Spirituous and Solid on this manner; When the Infant becommeth larger and stronger, the Mother cannot supply it with fit and sufficient Aliment, which while it seeketh with often kicking it breaketh the Membranes, and being vnloosed from those bandes yssueth foorth. 
On the partof the infant.   
The Mola or Moone calfe may be carried in the womb many yeares, because it is neither nourished nor doth transpire; wherefore desiring neither Aliment nor ayre, it is stil retayned. 
Why the Mola and many monsters lie long in the womb.  There are ingendred oftentimes in the wombes of women, Monsters and Creatures of diuers kindes, as Serpents and Mould-warps which because they haue little bloud haue also little heate and being contented with transpiration alone doe lurke many yeares in the corners of the wombe, neither would euer issue of their owne accorde vnlesse they were driuen forth either by the contention of the wombe or by the helpe of the Physitian. The want therefore of nourishment is the first cause of the birth.  
There is also another vniuersall cause on the part of the wombe: for the wombe hauing 
The vniuersal cause of the birth on the part of the wombe. Hippocratci.  a determinate quantity & magnitude beyond which it cannot be extended, when once vpon the increase of the Infant it is come to that extent, it laboureth to lay downe the burthen wherby it is oppressed: and according hereto Hippocrates saith in his first book de morbis mulierum that abortments do happen when the wombe is too little, that is, when the Infant is so encreased that it can be no longer contayned in the wombe. The wombe saith hee hath peculiar dispositions bred with it which cause abortment, and among those dispositions he accounteth the narrownesse thereof: wherefore the Infant seeking nourishment and the wombe not admitting further distention, do make the birth.  
The particular causes doe belong onely to the birth of a man, because man onely among all creatures hath the times and spaces of gestation and birth very diuerse and different, 
The particular causes of the birth.  of which differences the causes also are as different. First it is manifest that all bruite beastes are at certaine times prouoked to Generation: as therefore the times of their coition are certaine: so also are the times wherein they bring foorth; mankinde because at all times and seasons hee is fitte for Generation, doeth at all seasons also bring foorth his burthen.  
Now the limits of gestation and birth of the Infant are manifold and diuers; not on the part of the vniuersall agent, that is of Nature; for the power of Nature is the same in man and in beast; the motion one and one established Law: but the variety comes from the diuersity 
The diuersity is from the matter.  of matter, which in a man vndergoeth manifould alterations more then in a beast: for bruite beastes vse alwayes the same simple dyet, a man doth not onely vary in the matter but in the times of his repast. The other creatures after they haue conceiued will no 
The 1. cause  more admit the Male, which is not so with a woman, whence comes no small alteration in 
The second.  the body of the Infant. The other creatures are not transported with passions, which how hurtfull they are vnto men euery man hath too much experience in himselfe and Plato in 
The third. Plato.  Charmide elegantly recorded, writing That all the mischiefes that happen to mens bodies proceed from the affections of the minde.  
Some there are who referre the causes of the variety of the birth to the different Nature of the seede, some ripening sooner some later. To these we will adde the singular prouidence 
The fourth.  of Nature for the conseruation of mankinde, which is the Final cause: For being more carefull of man( whome Pliny calleth Natures darling) then of bruite beastes, shee 
The fift.  hath granted vnto him more times and limits both of gestation and birth. The times of of birth are the 7. 8. 9. 10. and eleuenth monethes: but why the seuenth and ninth moneths are vital, that is, why children suruiue who are borne in those moneths and not in the eight 
Why the infant suruiueth at 7. months and not at 8. The opinion of the Pythagoians.  this indeed is hard to be knowne.  
The Pythogorians, Geomitricians, Astrologians, and Phisitians are of diuerse minds concerning this matter, and because it is an elegant controuersie and full of variety wee will take liberty in this place to discusse them all.  
The Pythagorians and Arethmeticians referre all thinges to number; for they make and ordaine a threefould order in things; of formes, figures and numbers, among which, numbers are the chiefe: for in the whole Scripture wee reade that all things are disposed in number, waigth and measure.  
Of Numbers some are equall some are vnequall; the equal numbers they call foeminine, 
Differences of numbers.  the vnequall masculine; the first imperfect, diuisible and vnfruitfull; the latter perfect, fruitfull and indiuisible; and therefore say they these numbers haue the nature of a principle; for the equall number is generated of two vnequals; but an equall neuer generateth an vnequall. Furthermore among the vnequall numbers the seauenth hath the first place, whose maiesty and diuinitie is so great, that the antients tearmed it sacred and venerable. The Magi 
The excellency of the number of 7.  of the Indians and the wise Priests of the Egyptians called the seuenth, the number of the greater and the lesser world.  
Phylo the Iew in his Booke de mandi opificio attributeth this prerogatiue to the seuenth that it alone can neither generate nor bee generated: of other numbers which are within tenne, some doe generate but are not generated as the number of one or the vnity; some are begoten but doe not beget as the number of eight; some both beget and are begotten as the number of foure: only seuen neither begetteth nor is begotten, and hence commeth the perfection and dignity thereof; for whatsoeuer neither begetteth nor is begotten that remayneth vnmouable. Againe, the Pythagorians call the septenary number the tye or knotte of mans life, which Tully in Scipio his dreame acknowledgeth, where he sayth, That seauen is the knot of all things. 
Harmony.   
There is also in this number most harmony, as being the fountain of a pleasant Diagramma, because it contayneth all the harmonies, Diatesseron, Diapente, Diapason; as also all proportions Arithmeticall, Geometricall and Musicall.  
The Diuines call it the number of Perfection, because all things were perfected the seuenth 
What the diuines say of the number seauen.  day. The number of Rest, because the seauenth day God rested from all his workes. The number of Sanctification, because it was commaunded to bee sanctified or kept holy. Finally, the number of Reuenge, of Repentance and of Beatitude: whence it was that the Poet sayde, ô terque, quaterque beati, O thrice and foure times happy.  
Phylo Iudaeus and Linus an old Poet haue written many things in the commendation of this number of seauen. To omit that which some haue obserued, that there are seauen wonders of the world, seauen wise men among the auntients, seauen greater and lesser Triones in heauen, seauen circles wherewith the heauens is ingirt, seauen wandring starres, seuen starres in the Beare, seauen starres of the Pleiades, seauen changes of the voyce, seauen physicall and naturall motions, seuen vowels among the Greekes, seauen ages; that the seauenth age shall be a golden age, seauen mouthes of Nilus, seauen mettalles, seauen liberall Arts, seauen windowes in the head, seauen causes of all humaine actions, seauen Citties that stroue for Homer, that the seauenth Sonne is able to cure the Kings Euill, and a seuenth Daughter if she be present quickeneth a womans trauell, the hearbe Tormentill which hath seauen leaues resisteth all poysons. All these things I say we wittingly and willingly passe ouer, for it must bee confessed that vnder the name of numbers there are many friuolous and superstitious toyes thrust vppon the world: I come to Philosophicall and Physicall demonstrations.  
It is to bee marked that the Physitians and Philosophers haue obserued how our life is dispensed by seauens.  
Hippocrates in his Booke de principiis, sayeth that the age of Man consisteth of the septenarie 
The life of man cōsisteth of seauens.  number of dayes: For many of them who in seauen dayes space doe neuer eate nor drinke, doe dye one of those dayes, aswell because the Gut called Ieiunum is contracted, as also because the stomack in so long cessation of his office becommeth forgetfull afterward to do his duty.  
The Seede of the man which within seauen houres after eiaculation returneth not backe, wee may bouldly pronounce is Conceiued: so the seauenth day after Conception, the first rudiments of all the spermaticall partes doe appeare, and the Geniture sayth Hippocrates hath the seuenth day whatsoeuer the body ought to haue.  
The seauenth-moneth birthes are vitall not the eight, and the seauenth day after the birth the Infant casts the remaynder of his Nauell: after twice seauen dayes hee beginnes to mooue his eyes towardes the light, after seauen times seauen hee is able to mooue his head and eyes euery way. The seauenth moneth hee beginnes to breede his teeth, after twice seauen hee is able to sit without feare of falling, after thrice seauen hee beginnes to speake, after foure times seauen to goe, and after fiue times seauen to leaue sucking.  
The seauenth yeare hee changeth his teeth, their third Generation beeing then made of most solide Aliments as Hippocrates writeth in his Booke de principiis; at that time also his speech growes perfect, whence the Grecians doe make seauen vowelles. After twice seauen yeares the signes of youth beginne to breake out, in maydens the courses flowe, breastes swell, and they are fitte for husbands. In men the voyce changeth, and they grow petulant by reason of the vigour of their naturall heate. After thrice seauen yeares they grow towards their strength which remayneth constant the fourth, fift and the sixt seuens, and that age is called virilis and constans aetas, that is, Man-hood. The seauenth septenarie is called Quadratus, because then a man is euery way accomplished both in bodye and in mind.  
The ninth is esteemed Clymactericall and very dangerous, for it hath beene alwayes obserued( as Aulus Gellius noteth) that this time of a mans life is for the most part accompanied with some notable danger of the life, or greefe of the mind. And therefore we read in the same Author, that Augustus Caesar congratulateth his Nephewe Caius concerning this 
August Caesar to Caius.  Climactericall yeare on this manner. All hayle my pleasant Nephew Caius, whom beleeue me, I do alwayes desire when thou art absent from me, but especially at such times as these my eyes do euen faile with looking for my Caius, yet wheresoeuer thou art this day I hope that with good health and good cheare thou doest celebrate this my 64. birth-day. For as thou seest wee haue ouercome the 63. yeare, the common Clymacterical and dangerous yeare for old men.  
The tenth Septenary which fulfilleth the seauentith yeare, is esteemed to be the limit of life, and so the Kingly Prophet singeth in the Psalme, The dayes of a man are seauenty yeares, 
Psal. 90, 10.  beyond which all is labor and sorrow. Wherefore all Septinary dayes and moneths and yeares are especially to bee considered, because in them there happen notable mutations.  
Hence it is that Ficinus the Platonist giueth him Counsell that desireth to prolong his life, euery seuenth yeare to take counsell of an Astrologian and a Physitian. Of the Astrologian, that he may vnderstand what dangers and where do hang ouer his head; and of a Physitian, that by a prescript rule of dyet he may auoide the threatnings of the Starres and their maleficall influence.  
Aristotle in his seauenth Booke De Historia Animalium doth also acknowledge this prerogatiue of the number of seauen, because in euery Septinary the greatest changes do vse to happen. Galen deliuering the precepts of health, maketh the distinction of Ages according to seauens. It is not therefore without good warrant, that the Pythagorians call the septinary 
Pythagoras and Tully.  number the beginning or principle of all things. Tully the tye or knot of all thinges; and Physitians warranted by certaine experience, the King or prince of the Decretorie or Criticall dayes. Wherefore the Pythagorians and Arithmetitians do therefore conclude, that the seauen-month birth is vitall because it consisteth of an vnequall and most perfect number.  
And this Hippocrates in his Booke De Principijs doth also acknowledge, for therefore hee thinketh that Infants borne the seauenth-month do suruiue, because they haue attayned a 
Hippocrates acknowledgeth the power of the septinary number.  iust and full number of seauens. And that the eight-month birth is not Vital, because it hath not fulfilled the full Decades of weekes. Moreouer in his Booke de Septim. partu he writeth, that the Conceptions, Abortments and Births of Infants are iudged, as wee speake, in the same times in which diseases haue their iudgement or Crisis. Now we know that all diseases are most whot iudged on vnequall dayes, and that the Septinary number is onely truly Criticall.  
If it be obiected, that the tenth month although it be equall and foeminine is yet for the 
That the 10. number is perfect,  birth Vitall and legitimate the Pythagorians will make answere, that ten is the perfection of all Numbers and conteineth in itself all numbers of perfection. And this is the opinion of the Pythagorians and Arithmetitians of the causes of the seauen-moneth and eight-month birthes, who conceite that all things are to bee referred vnto the force of Numbers.  
For my owne part I thinke with Aristotle in his Metaphysickes, that Number of itself 
What wee thinke of Nūbers.  hath no operatiue power, for so it is a quantity; but the nature of Number as it is the form of time concluding all the workes of Nature hath a strong efficacy. And this Nature & necessity as it were of Nature itself, Hippocrates in the end of his Book De principijs promiseth to explaine.  
The Astrologians and Figure-flingers do referre the causes of the seuenth-month, eight-month, 
The opinion of the Astrologians. Saturne.  and nine-month births to the diuerse Aspects of the Planets, for ouer euery moneth they thinke each Planet hath predominance. Saturne ouer the first, who with his coldnes & drought reteyneth the liquid and moyst seed, and congealeth it as it were into a conception. Ouer the second Iupiter, who by his warmth and Vitall heat causeth it to increase. 
Iupiter.  Ouer the thirde Mars, who with his heate and drought maketh the members beginne to mooue. Ouer the fourth the Sun, who by the power of his woonderfull heate enlargeth all 
Mars Sol. Venus.  the passages. Ouer the fift Venus, who addeth grace and beauty to the infant. Ouer the sixt Mercury, who pollisheth & absolueth the Organs of motion. Ouer the seuenth the Moon; 
Mercury. Luna.  who filleth the empty spaces and distances of the Fibres with flesh & fat, and with hir moysture relaxeth the orifice of the wombe that the birth may be the more easie. If therefore the infant do the seauenth-moneth yssue furnished with all these endowments of the Planets, then is he Vital and is likely to suruiue; but if being weak he be not able to loosen himself from the sides of the wombe, then Saturne that maleficall Planet and aduersarie to the principles of our life, returneth againe vppon him and so like a Tyrant holdeth the Infant prisoner; or if in that month he come into the world he presently perisheth, as hauing his Vitall heate nipped by the cold of that churlish Planet. Add heereto, that the weake infant is not able to beare or endure so sudden an alteration from the Moone to Saturne, as if it were from the lowest staffe to the top of the Ladder, because all sudden mutations are enemies to Nature.  
But if he ouercome the eight month, then to Saturne succeedeth Iupiter that benefical Planet, by whose prosperous and healthfull aspect all the ill disposition that came by Saturne is frustrated and auoyded; wherefore the ninth moneth the infant is borne vitall and liuely, as also the tenth and the eleauenth, because of the familiarity of Mars and Sol with the Principles of our life. And this is the opinion of the Astrologers concerning the Causes of our birth, which is indeed elegant and maketh a faire shewe but is in the meane time full of Error as picus Mirandula hath prooued in a Booke which he hath written against Astrologers. 
The opinion of the Astrologians confuted.  For how may it be, that Saturne should alwayes beare sway the first and the 8. months, when as a women may conceiue in anie months of the yeare any day in the month or any houre in the day? Why do Hindes calue the eight month and their yong suruine, as Aristotle writeth in his sixt Booke De Natura Animalium. Pliny is of opinion in the fifte 
Pliny his idle opinion.  chapter of his seuenth Book De Naturali Historia. That only those children are Vital if they be borne the seauenth month, who were conceyued the day before or after the Full of the Moone, or in the New Moone. But all these are idle and addle immaginations of vvanton braines.  
The Geometricians referre the Causes of the birth vnto the proportion of the Conformation and motion of the Infant. For( say they) there is a double proportion of the conformation to the motion, and a trebble proportion of the motion to the birth, which proportion 
The Geometritians proportions  if the Infant holde, then shall hee arriue aliue and liuely into the worlde. So the seauenth month birth is vitall, because it is formed the fiue and thirtith, mooued the seuentith, and borne the two hundred and tenth day.  
And this opinion may be confirmed by the authority of Hippocrates, for in the third Section of his second Book Epidemiωn he saith: whatsoeuer is mooued in the seuentith day is perfected 
Hip. authority Auicen,  in the triplicities. But Auicen confuteth this opinion. For if onely the proportion betwixt the conformation and the motion of the infant were the cause that he suruiued; thē should he aswell suruiue the eight as the seuenth moneth, because they keepe the same proportion. For instance; Say that an infant be formed the fortith day, then shall hee mooue the eightith, and be borne the two hundred and fortith. And in this birth the proportion is exquisitly held, because twice forty make eighty, and thrice eighty two hundred and fortie dayes. Now Hippocrates in his Booke De Alimento saith, that an infant borne at 240. daies( which all men vnderstand to be the eight-month birth) is and is not. But the authority of Hippocrates may well stand with this opinion, for it is not his meaning that this proportion 
Hip. explained  is the cause of the life of the infant, but simply and absolutely hee sayth, that there is a certaine proportion betwixt the conformation, Motion and Birth of the infant, which no man will deny.  
It remaineth now, that wee acquaint you with the Philosophers and Physitians reasons 
The 5. opiniō of the Phylosophers and Physitians.  why the seuenth-month birth is Vitall and not the eight? Nature although she be illiterate and vntaught, yet hath she constant Lawes which herself hath imposed vppon herself; definite also and limited motions which she alwayes keepeth without inconstancy or mutability, vnlesse she be hindred by some internall or externall principle. As therefore shee 
The Lawes of of Nature are certaine.  neuer endeauoureth any perfect Criticall euacuation vnlesse the humor bee before boyled and prepared: So she neuer vndertaketh a Legitimate birth till the infant bee perfected and absolued in all his numbers. And as in crudity no good Crisis is to be hoped for according to Hippocrates: so before the infant be perfected, the birth cannot bee ligitimate or Vitall. For the birth saith Galen is a kinde of Crisis. Now before the seuenth moneth the infant is 
No vital birth before perfection  not perfected, and therefore before the seauenth month he cannot be borne aliue. But the seauen-month if he be strong he breaketh the Membranes, maketh way for himselfe and suruiueth because he is perfect, especially if it be a male child. 
The eight month birth why not vital. 1. Reason.   
The eight month although he be perfect hee cannot survive, because hee is not able to beare two afflictions, one immediately succeeding in the necke of another. For in the seuenth moneth he laboreth sore, and repeateth his contention the eight, before his strength is refreshed.  
And this is Hippocrates opinion in the very beginning of his Booke de octimestri partu, Concerning the eight-moneth birth I am of this iudgement, that it is impossible that the Infant 
Hippocrates authority.  should beare two succeeding afflictions, and therefore those Infants doe not suruiue. For they are twice afflicted, because to the euils they suffered in the wombe are added also the payne in the birth.  
Again, the eight-month birth is not vital, because it commeth after the birth day, which 
The 2. reason  should haue beene the seauenth moneth, and before the birth day which is to bee the ninth moneth. Whence we may gather that some ill accident hath betided the Infant or the mother which hindred the birth the 7. month and preuented the ninth.  
And hitherto belongeth that golden sentence of our admired maister Hippocrates in the eight Section of his sixt Booke Epidemiωn. If nothing happen within the prescript time of the birth, whatsoeuer is borne shall suruiue.  
But now why a woman doth not beare her burthen beyond the tenth and the eleauenth 
Why a womā goeth not aboue 11. moneths.  months. Hippocrates in his Booke de Natura pueri referreth the cause to the want of Aliment. Now the Aliment fayleth as well because a great part of the bloud flowes back vnto the Pappes for the generation of Milke, as also because the Infant is nourished only with pure and sweete bloud which the mother can no longer in sufficient quantity supply vnto him. Neither is that to bee passed ouer with silence which Hippocrates obserued in the Booke before named, to wit, that in some women the Aliment fayleth sooner, in some later. Those which are not accustomed to bring foorth haue lesse Aliment then others for 
What women destaud their Infants soonest.  their Infants, because the bloud is not accustomed to turne his course toward the wombe. Againe, those women who haue lesse store of their courses and of Milke their Aliment faileth the soonest.  
It is also worth our obseruation that large and great creatures do carry their burthens 
Why great creatures carry their yong long.  the longest, because they doe not so soone attaine the perfection of their increment or growth: So an Elephant bringeth not forth before the second yeare after her conception, but house-doues breed euery month.  
Man being of all Creatures the most perfect, the most wise, the most temperate and as it were the measure of all others, hath also moderate times of gestation, that is, the 7. and the 9. months if Nature be not interrupted or preuented.   

QVEST. XXXII. Whether in a desperate byrth the Caesarian Section be to be attempted.  
_ARistotle in his seauenth Booke de Natura Animalium, sayeth that among all 
Why the birth of man is most difficult.  creatures a womans trauell is most laborious and difficult, as wel because she leadeth a soft and sedentary life, as for that a mans Brain is the largest and so his head great, especially as long as he is in his mothers womb; now the head 
A miracle of Nature in the birth.  vseth to come forward in the birth. This birth as sayeth Galen in the eight Chapter of his fifteenth Booke de vsu partium, exceedeth all admiration; for the mouth or orifice of the wombe, which all the time of the gestation is so closed that a needles poynt cannot passe into it; in the birth is so enlarged that the Infant yssueth out thererat.  
But there are many obstacles which intercept the passage of the Infant by the orifice and 
What things hinder the outgate of the infant.  necke of the wombe; as the thicknesse and magnitude of the Infant, or naturall straytnesse of the inward orifice and of the neck; a distortion, inslamation, some tumor against nature, a fleshy Caruncle, a scarre, or the faulty confirmation of the share-bones. For oftentimes in the inner part of the share-bone there is a sharp processe which intercludeth the passage of the Infant vnto the birth blace, and then there is no hope that the woman can be deliuered: Wherefore either the Infant must perish or the mother, or both together. In this so 
The wombe must be presently opned if the mother be dead.  hard and desperate an extremity, the question is what may be attempted? wee answere. If the mother be dead and the childe yet liuing, then presently without any delay the wombe of the mother must be ript open. And those children that are thus taken foorth are called Caesares, or Caesones from the cutting of the mothers wombe, from whence the Caesars had their names. After this manner as Pliny reporteth in the ninth Chapter of the seauenth Booke of his Naturall History, was Scipio Affricanus the elder, Iulius Caesar and Manilius borne.  
But if the mother be yet aliue and the Infant by no other meanes can safely bee brought foorth the same section or opening of the wombe may bee administred; for common experience and the authority of antient Physitians doe assure vs that the wounds of the muscles 
Though the mother liue, yet this section may be attempted. Hippocrates. Paulus.  of the lower belly and of the Peritonaeum or rim are not mortall.  
Hippocrates in the third Section of his sixt booke Epidemiωn, commaundeth vs to cutte our Dropsie patients instantly: now this Section for the Dropsie is a wounding of the Epigastrium or lower belly and the Peritonaeum: as for the wombe itself Paulus Aegineta teacheth vs that the wounds thereof are not mortall. It appeareth vnto vs saith he that though the whole Matrix bee taken away, the woman will ordinarily suruiue.  
Concerning this Caesarian section, Franciscus Rossetus the French Kings Physitian hath 
Franciscus. Rosset.  set foorth an elegant Booke so beautified with Histories and abounding with good arguments, that wee should abuse our time and your patience to transcribe them in this place: wherefore wee remitte those who desire further satisfaction heerein to that learned Authour.   

QVEST. XXXIII. Whether in the Birth the Share and Haunch-bones doe part asunder.  
_THE workes of Nature in the conformation, life and nourishment of the Infant are indeede full of admiration, but her last endeuour in the birth thereof is indeede the crowne of all the rest, as that which exceedeth all admiration. For the orifice of the wombe which after the first apprehension and conception 
The wonderfull indeuour of nature in the birth.  of the seede was so exquisitely closed that it will not admit the point of a Probe: now that the Infant with turning, kicking and breaking of the membranes prepareth toward his enlargement, it is so relaxed as if it were a gate wide open.  
But because Nature is so wise and prouident that shee vndertaketh nothing without due preparation, therefore in the last moneths of gestation she lyneth the inner surface of the orifice with a slimy and mucous humor, which thereupon becomming moyst and soft doth more easily distend or inlarge itself without feare of laceration or tearing.  
Now whereas the wombe is contayned within the capacity of the hanch-bones, and is walled about on the fore-side with the share-bones, on the backe-side with the holy and rump-bones, and on either side with the hanches, whereof some are ioyned together with a fast and immouable articulation, other by the mediation of a cartilage or gristle: whether in the birth there bee a divulsion or separation of these bones, that now is the question we haue in hand.  
Some learned men are of opinion that the share-bones and the haunch-bones are seuered, 
That the bones are parted in the birth. Authorities. Hippocrates.  which also may bee confirmed by the authorities of many right learned men and by reasons which carry with them a faire shew of trueth. Hippocrates in the end of his Booke de Natura pueri wrote on this manner. In the very birth the whole body is as it were vppon the racke, but especially the loynes and the hanches, for their Coxendices are distracted and parted asunder. And Auicen in his third Booke Fen. 21. Tract at. 1. Cap. 2. sayeth. When the Infant 
Auicen.  is borne the wombe is opened with such an apertion as cannot be made in any other place, and it is necessary that some iunctures must be separated, which are so sustayned by the helpe of God so disposing and preparing, and afterward doe returne to their naturall continuation; and this action of all the workes of Nature is the strongest and most forcible. Rabbi Zoar vppon the first of Exodus. 
Rab. Zoar.  Thou shalt not easily finde any thing in the whole administration of Nature more to be admyred then that distraction of the share-bones in womens trauell, which indeed is done by the prouidence of God to whom Nature is but a seruiceable hand-mayd, for otherwyse no strength almost is able to seperate them. The like also we haue seene in the shooting of Stagges hornes which euery yeare fall and grow againe.  
Seuerinus Pinaeus in his Physiologicall & Anatomicall work is of the same opinion, which also he strengtheneth by some reasons. Before the seuenth moneth, sayth he, the wombe 
Pinaeus opiniō His first reason.  and with it the Infant doth alwayes ascend; after the seauenth moneth hee descendeth and prepareth himselfe toward his enlargement. At that time the priuities of the woman with childe are moystned with a mucous slime, and the parts are dilated and relaxed, with which humour also by degrees the gristles of the share-bones are inebriated, that in the birth they might bee the more laxe. Furthermore almost all the gristles of the body in progresse of 
The second.  time doe dry into a bony substance as may be seene in the chinne; but the cartilage which tyeth together the share-bones remayneth gristlely to the end of our life, neither euer becommeth bony, because in the birth it is to be distended and enlarged. Moreouer if you 
The third.  well consider virgins of 16. or 18. yeares old, and againe take notice of them after they haue conceiued, thou shalt perceiue that their hanches are distended, their Hypogastrium enlarged and their buttockes become broader, especially when they are neere the time of theyr deliuerance: and therefore it followeth that those partes are dilated. Moreouer, those who 
The fourth.  haue liued long virgins haue harder trauels then yonger wenches, because their gristles in those places are more dried and lesse relaxed.  
Finally, such as neuer haue conceiued haue thinner gristles, and such as haue oftenest conceiued haue them most thicke and are broadest in the hanches. Wherefore in the birth 
The fift.  the share-bones are parted assunder one from another, and the hanch-bones from the Os 
A history.  Sacrum or holy-bone. And for the confirmation of this his opinion, he telleth a Story of a woman who was new deliuered and shortly after hanged, whose share-bones were so distracted that one of the Coxae was lifted vp and the other depressed.  
For my owne part that I may freely speake what I thinke, I do not think that these bones in the birth can be vnioynted, for they are so fast knit together that no violence can seuer 
Our opinion that the bones cannot be seuered.  them. And if they bee separated asunder how shall they be againe coupled? with what Cement or Glue shall they be vnited? For a new Synchondrosis or articulation by the mediation of a Cartilage cannot be made. If you say with Hippocrates that they chinke a little, I will not be against it. Also that the gristly end of the Holy bone, which they call Coccyx or the rumpe, may be totally retracted and so giue way to the infant that there should bee a 
Pinaeus Arguments answered. To the first.  greater space left for his out-gate, that I can well beleeue. As for Pinaeus arguments they may thus be in order answered. It is indeede said and saide truly, that in the last months of Gestation the inner orifice of the wombe is lined with a slimy humor, proceeding eyther from the vterine vessels, or from the humours sweating through the Membranes, or otherwise from the reliques of the infant; but that humor say we cannot attaine vnto the Share-bones or to the Cartilages betweene, them neither yet vnto the hanch-bones; because the womb doth not imediately touch the share-bones; for betwixt the wombe and the bones lyeth the bladder lurking betweene the two coats of the Peritonaeum and compassed round about with the Peritonaeum as it were with a purse or Sachell.  
And whereas he saith, that the Cartilage which knitteth together the Share-bones neuer 
To the secōd.  becommeth bony but alwayes remaineth gristly that it might bee relaxed in the birth; it is but a slight reason; for neither in men is that gristle euer found to be bony. In young wenches after they haue conceiued, their hanches are distended and the capacity becommeth 
To the third.  larger, and that because at that time all the parts of their bodies do grow & the heate which before was well neere choaked with the aboundance of humors beginneth to shine foorth and gather strength. Elder Maidens hauing conceyued haue harder trauelles then yonger, not because the gristles are drier but because their wombs are drier; for those that 
To the fourth  vse to conceiue and beare children haue moister wombes, larger vessels and all the capacities more large and ample and therefore their trauell is more easie. One History dooth nothing mooue vs, for we haue seene many who haue perished in the very brunt of their trauell 
To the fift.  in whom there hath appeared no such matter, and we obserue that women in their trauels do more complaine of the paine of their Os sacrum and rump, then of the region of the share-bones.  
And thus are we come to an end of our long Discourse of the History of the Infant and the Controuersies thereto belonging, wherein how we haue acquitted ourselves it resteth in thee gentle Reader to iudge; this one thing wee know, that wee haue wrought out our way through many difficulties, which if they shall prooue as profitable and pleasant vnto thee as they haue beene to vs difficult to ouercome, wee haue aboundant recompence.  
Now we proceede in our entended iourney to the Chest, wherein what Admirarable rarieties Nature hath bestowed, we referre thee to our Discourse to be satisfied.   
The End of the History of the Infant, and of the Controuersies thereto belonging.   

THE SIXT BOOKE, Of the Middle Region, called the Chest or the Thorax, which conteyneth the Vitall partes to to which also wee will referre the Necke with the VVeazon.  

The Praeface.  
_HAuing thus absolued the Lower Region with the parts thereof as wel Nutritiue as Generatiue, togither with the history of the Infant; it followeth that we ascend by the staires of the ridge to the middle Bellie, wherein as in a curious Cabinet Nature hath locked vp the vitall Instruments and wheeles whereby the Watch of our life is perpetuallie mooued from the first houre to the last minute by so iust a counterpoise as no Art of man could euer attaine vnto, albeit some rare Enginers haue gone very farre in imitation thereof. If we should enter into the causes of this perpetual motion, as it would be very hard to find them out, so would it spend much time to enquire after them. The highest cause is the hande of God, who hath prepared the Pullies, hung on the weights and gouernes and winds vp the Chime at his own good pleasure. For if the Philosopher were not able( though he were nere of councell to Nature) to discerne with the sharp edge of his incomparable capacity the reason of the reciprocal ebbing and flowing of the Sea: how shall we be able to yeelde a reason of the Dilatation and Contraction of the Heart. Notwithstanding it is commonly conceyued that the most immediate cause is the auoiding of Vacuity that Arch-enemy of Nature. For the Faculty of pulsation although it be potientially in the heart of the infant in the Mothers wombe, yet it is not drawne into acte till the Chest distending itself doth draw in the aire wherof that Vitall spirit is made, about whose generation that Pulsatiue vertue is wholly occupyed. As for the motion of the Arteries, we conceiue that they follow the motion of the heart, like as a Lute lying by another that is played vpon, will represent or returne the distinct Tune thereof.  
I might heere enter into a large discourse of the excellency of the Heart; how in this Litle world, it is like the Sun in the Great world; how it continually supplieth the expence of Vitall spirits; how it quickneth and strengthneth the Naturall heate of the whole body; how it is an Embleme of an excellent Magistrate; how the Lungs as fresh Fannes do temper the flaming heate of the hearts furnace, and how as Bellowes they kindle the same againe. For albeit this Sun of the body can neuer be truly ecclipsed, this Genial fire neuer extinguished without the dissolution of the indiuiduum; yet we see in many cold diseases of the braine & malignant exhalations from the wombe, that to our sense this sparke of Sacred fire is deaded and put out, which notwithstanding by the helpe of the Lungues is afterward blowne vp into a luculent flame.  
Beside the Organs of life, there belongeth also to this Region another no lesse admirable instrument of Nature, whereby the voice is so diuersified, that vpon the ground therof that Noble Science of Musicke hath beene from the beginning and still is infinitely propagated and yet the end or perfection thereof not attained vnto. But why do I go about in this place to exemplifie the administrations of Nature in this middle Region? considering that to say a little is derogatory from the woorth of the argument; to say much vvere heere in vaine, seeing the following Discourse is purposely addressed for the Readers satisfaction therein.   

CHAP. I. Of the Thorax or Chest, and the Diuision of it.  
_THE middle belly is called 〈◇〉, of a word which signifieth to leap or dance, because in it the heart continually mooueth from the ingate 
The Chest. How it is limited.  to the outgate of life. It is comprehended by the ribs, or rather circumscribed by the Ribs and Patell bones, and is separated from the lower Belly by the Midriffe or Diaphragma, and it is the seate or conceptacle of the vitall Faculty which harboureth especially in the heart, for whose sake this Chest or Thorax was made; 
The chest was made for the heart. Compared to a Crowd.  the habitation of the breathing partes, and the shop wherein the voice is framed; and for this cause it is called of Hippocrates 〈◇〉 testudo, a Citterne or Crowd, because the sound of it maketh Musick. It is placed between the vpper and lower bellies, that the Natiue heate which resideth in the Heart may bee equally communicated to all the parts.  
The Figure of it is very capacious, being long & round like an Egge, whose magnitude 
The Figure of it.  may be guessed by the compasse it carrieth without. Before and behinde it is wider in man( saith Aristotle 2. Hist. Anim. 1.) then in other creatures; before, that there might be sufficient space for the Heart and Lungs to mooue and spred themselues in, both for the voyce 
Table I. sheweth the body when all the bowels are taken out of the Lower Belly, and reclined backeward, that the Scituation of the Midriffe might better be discerned, it sheweth also the other part of the Chest as yet couered.  
TABVLA I.  

a The Midriffe in his seate.  
e the hole of the great Artery cut open.  
h, i. Two fleshy originals of the Midriffe.  
k. The diuision of the Midriffe wher it transmitteth the Artery.  
l. The leste perforation of the Midriffe giuing way to the gullet.  
m. the hole of the Midriffe through vvhich the hollow veine ascendeth.  
n. The veine called Phrenica.  
o. the Artery called Phrenica.  
p p. the sixt paire of Muscles of the thigh called 〈◇〉.  
q q. the seauenth paire of Muscles of the thigh, which fil the cauity of the hanchbones.  
r The fift Muscle of the backe.  
s the Holy-bone, together with som nerues arising out of the marrow thereof.  
t The brest bone.  
u The brest-blade.  
xx the ribs.  
y y the intercostall Muscles.  
A B. the pectorall Muscle, or the first Muscle of the arme in his proper seate at A, the same separated as farre as his implantation at B.  
C C. the Muscle called Serratus maior, or the second Muscle of the Chest.  
D. Serratus minor, or the first Muscle of the Shoulder blade.  
E. the Muscle called Deltois or Epomis, the second Muscle of the arme his originall is at t.  
F. The Clauicula or Coller bone.   and for respiration saith Galen in the 6. chap. of his 13. Booke de vsu partium, that we might haue abundance of spirits; for that in it the sprightfull blood is laboured of blood and aer, and the voice also is to be formed of the aer. Behinde it is wide, that a man may ly at ease vpon his backe; in other creatures it is fashioned like the Keele of a Shippe; betwixt their fore feete in foure-footed Beasts for their better sootmanship; in Birdes for the nimbler motion of their wings when they flye. If it had beene otherwise framed in men( saith Galen in the 11. chapter of his 13. Booke de vsu partium) it would haue hindred the actions of their armes and in Beasts it would not haue suffered their fore-bowes to haue beene so close brought to their chest, which would haue hindred them much in their gate.  
The substance of it is neyther altogether bony as the scull is, for then it could not haue 
The substāce and structure  beene mooued, nor altogether fleshy as the Lower belly, for then the Muscles would haue falne vpon the heart and the Lungs euen of their owne accord: wherefore that both there might be a space within for the motion, and also al the whole frame of the iustrument might be mooued together, the Muscles and the bones are set as it were by courses one beside another. For because the heart, one of the principall bowels, was to be seated in this Chest, it needed 
The Reasons of it.  a more safe and secure muniment or defence, and therefore it is walled about with bones: but because the exceeding great heate of the heart stoode in neede of much colde aer, by which as by a fan it might be ventilated and preserued, it was necessary that the chest should be moueable, that in the dilatation of it aer being drawn into the Lungs might refresh the heart, and in the contraction the sooty vapors might bee expelled. Whereforeit was necessary that it should be composed of many bones, which because they should mutually follow the motion one of another; it was requisite also that they should bee ioyned togither with some pliable substance such as is a Cartilage or gristle.  
The Chest therfore is moued with Muscles & made vp and compacted with bones, & therefore is rightly called the Middle venter, not onely because of his scituation, but also by reason of his substance, neither wholy bony as the heade, nor wholy fleshy as the lower Venter. 
How rightly called the Middle belly.   
The whole Thorax or Chest is diuided inro a fore part, which is called 〈◇〉 pertus, commonly the brest; the side parts called 〈◇〉, Latera the Sides; and the back partcalled 〈◇〉, Dorsum the Backe, all which appeare in this precedent Table.  

The Diuision of the Chest.  The parts of this Chest are some conteyning, some conteyned. The conteining parts are common or proper, the Common are the Skin-scarfe or Cuticle, the Skin, the Fat, the Fleshy pannicle, and the Membrane of the Muscles. The Proper are soft or hard, the soft are fleshy, as the Muscles( and the breasts, of which we haue spoken before as rather belonging 
The parts of it.  to the lower Venter, though for ornament and commodious vse they haue their seat here) or Membranous, as the Pleura and the Mediastinum.  
The hard parts are bones or gristles. And first of the Conteyning parts, after of those conteined, according to the order of Dissection.   

CHAP. II. Of the Skin, the Fat, and the skinne vesselles of the Chest and the Necke.  
_BEcause we haue entreated at large in the former Book of the common conteyning parts, we will onely heere shew how farre in this place they differ 
How the commō inuesting parts differ from the same in other parts  from the same in other parts, and so passe on vnto the Proper Conteyning parts.  
The Scarfe-skin and skin of the Chest, do heerein differ from the same in the Lower belly, because in the arme-pits it is hairy, which haires are called by Hadriaus 
The Haires of the arme pits.  Iunius, Grandebalae, I thinke coyned of a Greeke word which signifieth to send soorth, and a Latine which signifieth great( because in some men of all the haires of the body they com out the greatest and most brislie) imitating Plautus, who to serue his turne maketh the word Grandegro, to stalke on with wide steps of Grande and eo. But the vse of these haires is, that those parts which sweate soonest and most( for heere are the Emunctories of the heart, vnto 
Their vse.  which it sendeth his excrements as we see ordinarily in plague sores) might not bee galled or fretted with the often and strong motions of the armes. In many men also the fore-part of their Chest is more hairy then the Abdemen, and as in the Lower belly is the Nauell, so in this middle belly are the nipples of the brests perforated as we haue saide in both sexes.  
The fat in this place is not so plentifull as in the belly( excepting the breastes) least with 
The fat.  his waight it should hinder respiration.  
Betwixt the fleshy membrane and the skinne runne certaine vessels called Skin-veines, some by the sides of the necke and the head from the two outward iugular veines, which 
The vessels.  with their surcles runne along the fore-part of the necke; others on the backe-side from a 
Veines.  braunch which the shoulder veine called humeraria sendeth vpward, others are dispersed through the foreparts of the Chest, to wit, two comming from the Axillary veines, one of which is a branch of the Axillary veine the other of the humeraria, like as through the back are disseminated certaine small branches from the same veines. The Arteries which come hither are exceeding small and capillary: Finally, there are certaine nerues sent from the nerues that lye lower vnder the muskles and the skinne, but two more notable then the rest which meete about the teates, which are the cause of their so exquisite sence.   

CHAP. III. Of the muscles of the middle belly and of the parts of the necke.  
_THE Muscles of the middle venter are double, for either they lye vppon the ribbes or are scituated betweene them, yet all of them are not made onely for the motion of the Chest; for albeit they arise from the Chest, yet they moue either the armes or the shoulder blades or the backe or else the Chest itself, and such are called the proper muscles of the Chest, & these muscles are placed without or within: those that are seated without are on the forepart or on the backpart.  

On the forepart there are three on either side.  
1 Pectoralis, the pectorall, and it is the first muscle of the arme, which is broade and large 
Muscles on the foreside of the chest.  and seated vnder the Pappes.  
2 Serratus maior, the greater saw, the second muscle of the Chest which lyeth vppon the ribbs, and to them is inserted as it were with fingers, whence it hath the name of the saw, and occupieth especially the side.  
3 Serratus minor, the lesser saw, or the first muscle of the shoulder-blade, it is triangular, and lieth vnder the pectorall muscle.   

On the back part there are ten on either side. 
Muscles on the backside of the chest.   
1 Cucullaris or the Munks-hood the greater part of the second muscle of the scapula or shoulder blade.  
2 A part of the third muscle of the arme called Latissimus or the broadest muscle, because it taketh vp almost all the back-part of the lower belly.  
3 Rhomboydes, the third muscle of the shoulder-blade scituate vnder the Munks-hoode.  
4 Serratus Posticus superier, the vpper hinder saw, or the fourth muscle of the Chestlying vnder the Rhomboides.  
5 Serratus posticus interior, the lower hinder saw, or the fift muscle of the Chest, scituated vnder the muscle called Latissimus.  
6. Sacrolumbus, or the sixt of the chest.  
7. Longissimus, the long muscle, the 2. of the backe.  
8. Semi-spinatus, the fourth muscle of the backe.  
9. Splenij pars inferior, the lower part of the spleniū or of the first muscle of the head placed vnder the vpper hinder saw.  
10. Complexi pars inferior, the lower part of the Complexus, or the 2. muscle of the head.  
On the inside there is one triangular, the sixt of the Chest; lying vnder the lower part of the brest-bone, of which in the 19. Chapter of this Book. Those muscles that are between 
On the inside.  the ribs called intercostales we shall intreat of by and by, when wee haue numbred vnto you the parts of the necke.  
I do in this place describe the necke, because the chiefe parts therein contayned belong vnto the vitall parts, as the muscles of the voyce, the weazon, the larynx and such like.  
It is therefore called Colum a colendo, because we vse to adorne this part with chaines & itwelles. Galen called it 〈◇〉 because of the sharpnesse of the bones of it. It is a middle 
The necke.  part betweene the Chest and the head made for the vse of the Chest and the Lungs; long that in the length of it the voice might bee better modulated or tuned, and therefore birds haue the most variety of tunes of any vnreasonable creatures, but fishes because they haue no Lungs and so are mute, haue no necks, but all creatures that haue Lungs haue also necks. It is round because of the bodies which are seated in it. The parts contayned in it are the iugular veines externall and internall: the Arteries called Catotides, nerues of the 
The figure. The parts contained.  sixt paire and the recurrent nerues: all which are placed on the sides, but before, the weazon called aspera arteria or the sharpe artery and the gullet called oesophagus of which we haue spoken before. The muscles which are in the necke are many, some mooue the necke itself, some the larynx or throttle, some the bone Hyots, some the tongue, some the head, the 
Concerning the muscles of it.  lower Iaw and the shoulder blades. Of these some are scituated before some behinde. Behinde those that follow which we will name as they lie each vpon other.  

1 Cucullaris pars superior, the vpper part of the Munks-hoode or the second muscle of the shoulder blade, descending from the occipitium or nowle of the head.  
2 Leuator. The fourth of the shoulder blade seated more toward the sides.  
3. Splenius, The first muscle of the head.  
4. Complexus, The second of the head.  
5. Recti maiores, The third paire of the head.  
6. Obliqui superiores, the fift paire of the head  
7. Obliqui inferiores, The sixt paire of the head  
8. Recti minores, The fourth paire of the head which lye vnder the second muscle of the backe.  
9. Transuersalis, The third of the necke.  
10. Scalenus, The second of the neck, it lieth on the side from the first rib into the neck.  
11. Spinatus, The fourth of the necke.    

Before; these, beside those which grow to the iaw and are vnder the Chin.  

1. Quadratus seu Platysma myodes, The first muscle common to the cheeks and the lips.  
2. Mastoydes, The seauenth of the head, from the pattell bone to the sides of the head.  
3. Sternohyoidei, The first paire of the bone Hyois, which lye vpon the wezon.  
4. Coracohyoidei, The fourth paire of the bone Hyois seated at the sides.  
5. Oesophagiaei, The third paire of the common muscles of the Larynx or throttle.  
6. Longi duo, The first muscles of the neck.   
But we returne vnto the Chest, and first to the Intercostall muscles as being proper only to the Chest, & therefore we will here follow their discription more accuratly in this place.    

CHAP. IIII. Of the Muscles betweene the Ribbes called Intercostales.  
_THe Muscles which are wouen between the ribbes and do fill vp the distances between them are called 〈◇〉 Intercostales. Gal in his Book de vsu respirationis, 
The Intercostal muscles  accounts them according to the eleauen ribs 22. other where thrice so many and two ouer, that is 68. as sayeth Archangelus, but hee himselfe reckons them 34. wee will account them 44. For because there are on either side eleuen distances and in euery distance there are two muscles, there are on either side 
Their number.  22. Of which some are externall[ Table 1. yy] which are eleauen, and so many internall or within. These are fleshy and narrow but long, according to the proportion of the distances; their fibres are carried obliquely from one ribbe to another in a contrary position, so that those of the inward and outward muscles lying one vpon another doe mutually intersect themselues in the manner of a Saint Andrewes crosse, or this letter X. The outward of these muscles or the superior are carried from the lower partes of the vpper end of the ribbes to the vpper parts of the lower end of the ribbes: for they beginne in the backe part from the transuerse processes of the rack-bones to which the ribbes are annexed and passe with their fibres obliquely forward all along the bought of the ribbes to the beginning of the cartilages;( where the bony parts of the ribbes doe end) and are ioyned to the breastbone; they want tendons because of the narrownes of the place, neither do they reach thorough the distances of the gristles.  
The interior or inward muscles quite contrary are carried from the vpper part of the lower ends of the ribbes to the lower part of the vpper end of the ribs, but do not beginne from the processes of the rack-bones, but from that part in which the ribs are bent, and run forward with their oblique ascendent fibres, and fall vpon the distances of the ribbes as well where they are bony as where they are gristly, and keeping alwayes the same series or course of Fibres passe on to the very bones of the brest, yet so, that in the distances of the gristles they are lifted vp alittle to the outward face of the Distance, and so supply the places of the exterior where they are defectiue or wanting. And this is the cause why the Fibres in the distances of the gristles do appeare diuerse from those in the distances of the ribbes themselues. 
Diuers fibres one vnder an other.  And if you take off these Fibres betweene the gristles, you shal finde also others vnder them of another position, which are the Fibres of the sixt Muscle of the Chest which is called the triangular Muscle.  
From the vndue distinction of these Fibres, some haue made 68. intercostall-Muscles, when indeede they are but 44. reckoning those differing Muscles which are betwixt the 
Auicen.  bony parts of the ribs[ Tab. 2. fig 1, CC] from those that are betweene their gristly parts.[ tab. 2. fig. 1. DD] And whereas the distances of the ribs are eleuen, six of the true ribs and fiue of the bastard ribs; they think, that there are four in euery distance of the two ribs, two where 
How Auicen and Columbus wer deceiued.  they are bony, and two where they are gristly, and those internall and externall but in euery distance of the bastard ribbes they will haue but two, one externall and another internall.  
But we must further obserue, that the outwarde Muscles, by how much they arise neerer 
A note concerning the original & end of these Muscles,  to the rack-bones, by so much the sooner do they determine in the fore-parts of the ribs; so againe the inward, by how much the later they arise from the bent of the rib, by so much do they come short of the brest-bone.  
Why they are obliquely placed and intersect themselues Varolius hath elegantly shewd; prouing that it was so necessary for the dilatation and constriction of the chest. For because the distance which is betweene one rib and another, was not aunswerable to the length of 
Why these Muscles are obliquely placed o' necessity.  the Muscles required necessarily for the dilatation and constriction of the Chest, therefore they are disposed betweene the ribs not with right Fibre;( & euen Galen intimated so much in the 23. chapter of his Booke De Dissectione Musculorum, but was not vnderstood, at least not obserued by the Ancients) but with oblique; and that this helpeth dilatation we may euidently 
How they help dilatatió.  see, because euery thing retcheth more being drawn obliquely, then if it be drawn right out, as Cloth, Leather and such like, which we call drawing Biace. For constriction also it is as fit, because the Muscle is contracted more or lesse according as it is greater or 
How they helpe constriction.  lesser. Wherefore, if they had had right Fibres, they must needs haue beene short and so their contraction much straightned, neither coulde they haue sufficiently bound in the Chest.  
Moreouer, because euery Muscle drawes according to the course of his Fibres, therefore least the ribs in their oblique motion should ioyn close together, the intercostal Muscles 
Why these Muscles are double.  are framed double( a thing vnknowne to the Ancients) that with their contrary fibres they might intersect themselues. For when two opposite bodies do together drawe obliquely, there resulteth by their opposition one straight and direct motion.  
The Vse of these Muscles( as most Anatomists haue recorded) is to constringe & dilate the Chest. Of the exterior in expiration to beare down the ribs together, and so to streighten 
The Vse of Muscles.  the Chest; of the interiour to distend and separate the ribs, and so to enlarge the cauity of the Chest for inspiration. But when Galen saith in the 15. chapter of the fift Booke devsu partium. That the intercostall Muscles helpe the Midriffe, that they might draw the Chest inward, it is to be vnderstood not that they further the proper motion of the Midriffe, but 
Galen How the inter cost all Muscles helpe the Midriffe.  that they mooue the ribs inward; which is their proper function. But what kinde of motion is this? For either they bring one ribbe to another or seuer one rib from another, or they lift vp the ribs or presse them downe. The two former motions they performe not; for there is no vse of any such motions, neither can any of them of itself as a voluntary instrument dilate the place wherein it is, or separate one rib from another; neither can they lifte vp the ribs, for the Muscles which lift them vp are placed without the chest and haue their originall from elsewhere, and are called the proper Muscles of the Chest.  
It remaineth therefore that they do presse the ribs onely, and that but lightly, that the contraction of the chest may so becom equall, being drawn down together with their contraction 
They onelie depresse the ribs.  and the contraction of the Midriffe: and so that is made good which Galen saith, that they helpe the Midriffe. We may also say they help the sixt Muscle of the chest which is vnder the brest-bone. Yet we will not deny but that they confer also to dilatation, but that by accident as Fallopius and Pleterus haue obserued, to wit, as they supply the place of a Ligament, and ioyne the ribs one to another. For when the lower ribs are drawne downeward 
How they cōferre to dilatation.  and dilated by the proper Muscles of the chest; or when the vpper ribs are eleuated by their proper muscles, it is of necessity that the middle ribbes should follow the draught, and so the middle distances in deep Inspirations are dilated by the helpe of the intercostall whether as they be muscles or as they bee ligaments; which yet they could not performe if the proper muscles of the Chest were wanting: and therefore we may more properly say that 
They are rather moued then moue.  in this case the intercostall muscles are moued by the proper muscles of the chest, then wee can say they moue of themselues, though their motion is not meerely constrayned but begunne and as it were led the way by other muscles; and haply such a kinde of motion there is also betwixt the Serratus maior and the oblique externall muscles of the Abdomen. There is another way also how the middle distances of the ribbes may bee dilated by the intercostall muscles; for if on either side the first muscle of the chest( which is called subclauius scituated 
Another way how they dilate the distāces of the ribs  betwixt the first rib and the patell bone or clauicle and hath oblique fibres like the intercostals) do draw vp the first ribbe, then by conseqution the other distances vnder shall also in some sort be dilated.   

CHAP. V. Of the midriffe called Diaphragma.  
_THe Midriffe called in Greeke by Plato 〈◇〉, of a word which signifieth 
The Midriffe The names and reasons of them.  to distinguish, because it distinguisheth or separateth the instruments of noarishment from the instruments of life and respiration; and in Latine septum transuersum or the ouerthwart partition, because running ouerthwart the bulke of the body it parteth it into two venters[ as is manifest in the first Table.] This the Antients as Hippoc. in his Book de principiis called 〈◇〉. i. the minde, not that it hath any intelligible faculty, but because of his notable sympathy with the Brayne: for when this is affected, instantly the minde and all the sences are out of order, and vpon the inflamation of it, followeth a kind of phrenitis or rather a continual aberratiō of the mind, and in maydens sometimes madnesse itself, as Hippocrates sayeth in his Booke de iis qu●d 
Madnesse in maides.  virgines.  
It is the 65. muscle seruing for respiration, and differs from all the muscles of the body in excellency, scituation, figure and action. It is one, very great and strong, common to 
It is a muscle.  both sides, and as large as the capacity of the lower part of the Chest; as Table 1. declareth.  
His scituation in the cauity of the body is ouerthwart & oblique[ looke Table 1. a] and declining somewhat downward ouer all that vtmost compasse of the Chest which is limited by the gristles of the bastard ribbes and the lower part of the breast-bone: This muscle whilest it is at quiet remayneth lifted vp as we see in dead carcasses, and maketh a great cauity, but when it worketh and is contracted it beareth downeward.  
The midriffe riseth with two long and fleshy productions[ table 1. and table 2. figure 2. hi] from the bare rack-bones of the loynes to which it adhereth very strongly, & a great 
The frame of the Midriffe.  way together, for euery muscle must haue something to rest his head vpon, and most commonly it both ariseth from and is implanted into an immoueable part. The two productions at the sides of the great Artery doe cleaue to the muscles of the loynes[ table 1. pp] and becomming broader by degrees doe meete at the eleuenth rack-bone of the Chest, and so make the muscle circular or round, and it is tyed in his fleshy circumference to the inside of 
The connexion of it.  the Chest and the ends of the bastard ribbes all along the twelfth ribbe at the lower part of the breast-bone and at the breast-blade[ table 1. u] which was made for his defence; but in the middest it endeth into a strong membranous and neruous tendon[ tab. 2. figure 2. bcd] framed of very firme sinewes and membranes. Now it was very necessary that it should bee neruous in the middest, partly for the more security, that it might endure diuers motions 
Why it is neruous in the midst  without hurt, & not be endangered with payn because of their violence: partly that the hollow veine[ table 1. and table 2. figure 2. m] and the aesophagus or gullet[ table 1. and table 2. fig. 2. l] which passe through it, might not be streightned, and so the course of meate and bloud hindered. Wherefore howsoeuer this muscle worketh, seeing onely his fleshy fibres[ table 2. figure 2. f g] are contracted or drawne together, the neruous part about those vessels is neuer constringed: but rather when the fibres are contracted the neruous part from the center to the circumference is distended, and the holes through which those vessels go wider opened. Moreouer, it is vnited to two of the muscles of the Abdomen, the oblique 
More of the Cēnexion.  ascendent and the transuerse, and aboue it is so straightly ioyned to the purse of the heart or pericardium, that without tearing it cannot be separated from it.  
The figure of it is almost[ table 2. fig. 2. sheweth it] circular, round like a Plaice or Thornbacke, or likest a racket which we vse in the Tennis-court, especially if the racket be straight 
The figure.  streatched, and the processes are very like to the handle of the racket.  
His substance is partly[ table 2. figure 2. f g] fleshy partly neruous[ table 2. figure 2. ab 
The substance  cd] as if it were compounded of two broade circles, but ending in one part in an acute angle[ table 2. fig. 2. d] of which the fleshy circle is on euery side annexed to the chest[ see the first table] and compasseth the other neruous circle which is in the center, to which as vnto 
The fibres of it.  a center many fibres like lines do runne from the circumference and as it were from the beginning or originall of the muscle, which that you may rightly discerne you must separate the Peritonaeum or rimme from the midriffe, which in Hogs may be done easily, but in a man and a dog not without difficulty.  
It hath a double membrane one lower from the Peritonaeum, another vpper arising from 
The membranes of it.  the pleura with which it is compassed for more strength; although it haue another coat of his owne but a very thinne one, that it might bee distinguished from all other parts by proper circumscription. Veines it hath arising from the trunke of the hollow[ table 1. m table 6. A] veine called Phrenicae( sometimes also it receiueth branches from the fatty veine called 
His veines.  Adiposa) which are accōpanied with arteries from the great artery[ tab. 1. c] called also Phrenica;[ the veines table 1. n. table 6. c the arteries table 1. co table 13. KK] the veines carry vnto 
Arteries.  it bloud for his nourishment; the arteries vitall spirits together with the vitall faculty, & beside by ventilation with their motion they preserue his naturall heat.  
It hath two nerues[ table 2. figure 1. P P] proceeding out of the lower rackebones or vertebrae of the necke made of three surcles on each side( and this is peculiar to this muscle, for 
Sinewes.  other parts vnder the patell bones or clauicles receiue none from the marrow of the necke) 
A propriety.  which nerues being carried through the cauity of the Chest are contorted or wound about the Mediastinum, & by it fastned and stayed aloft least they should be hurt. And it was necessary that these nerues should come from an vpper place, that they might more equally extēd their action into euery part of it: wherfore they are disseminated through his whole 
Why his nerues come from aboue.  substance, that they might affoorde vnto it all sence and motion whence it is of very exquisite sence, and when it is iniured for the most part death followeth.  
It hath two passages or holes, one on the right hand[ table 1. and table 2. figure 2. m] in 
The passages  the middle neruous part for the ascent of the hollow veine out of the vpper and gibbous part of the Liuer vnto the Heart; another on the left hand[ table 1. and table 2. figure 2. l] a little backwarder & greater, through which passeth the Oesophagus or gullet and 2. nerues vnto the stomacke, vnto which not withstanding his membranes do grow and encompasse streightly and very strongly.  
At the originall or beginning of this muscle or midriffe betweene his productions[ tab. 
His diuision for the artery and the veine non parill.  1. and table 2. figure h i] at the racke-bones, there is a diuision[ table 1. and table 2. figure 2. k] resembling a semicircle or halfe Moone for the descent of the great Artery & the vein without a peere or non parill; and for nerues of the sixt payre fixed to the ribbes which are carried vnder the pleura; and this diuision imbraceth the racke-bones vpon which the great artery leaneth.  
The chiefe vse of the Midriffe, which Galen found out, as appeareth in the 15. and 7. 
The vses of the midriffe. The chiefe vse  Chapters of his 5. Booke de vsu partium, and which dependeth especially vpon her scituation, is that it might be the organ or instrument of free, gentle, and voluntary respiration or breathing, euen as the instruments of violent or deepe breathings are the 64. muscles which are about the Chest exactly dilating or contracting it. For his fibres being equally retracted or drawne together, all the bastard ribs are drawne toward the centre of the Chest, and so they draw the vtmost parts of the Chest vnto the rack-bones, and constringe or contract the lower part whereupon the Midriffe is lift vp, streached and serueth for expiration. Hence it is that in a dead body it alwayes appeareth contracted and streatched for the life endeth with expiration; and if the Chest be perforated within the ribs or Midriffe, it falleth straight loose downeward, and suffereth the Liuer & the stomack which before were somewhat suspended, to fall. But when the fibres are loosened the Midriffe falleth; for the bastard ribs are loosened, & the lower parts of the Chest, and consequently the Lungs are dilated & so we draw in breath: wherfore when the Midriffe is hindred or affected, then must needs follow difficulty of respiration as Galen saith in the 8. Chapter of his 4. Booke de locis affectis. This motion according to some authors, Archangelus among 
Of what kind the motion of the midriffe is.  the rest, is mixed of a voluntary & a naturall motion, voluntary it is but not simply, because there is a necessity which vrgeth and exacteth this motion: as in respiration a necessity of cooling the hart vrgeth euen as in vnburdening the belly & making water the excrements do vrge and prouoke the sphincter muscles of the Fundament and of the Bladder.  

The first Figure sheweth the middle Belly, the Skinne and the Muscles being cut away, the Breast-bone also is remooued and the ribbes broken, that the capacity of the Chest, the Membranes thereof and the Lungs might better be discerned.  
TABVLA. II.  
FIG. I  

A. The gristles of the ribs retracted or drawn backe.  
BB. The bony part of the rib diuided from the gristle.  
CCDD. The Intercostall muscles filling vp the distances of the bones at CC. and the distances of the gristles at DD.  
E. The clauicle or coller bone discouered in his seate,  
E e. The course of the vessels running to the arme-hole.  
G. The outward Iugular veine which shewes itself as soone as the skin is cut.  
HH. The Mediastinum.  
II. The surface of the midriffe.  
K. The connexion of the Mediastinum with the midriffe.  
L. A place somewhat būching to receiue the heart.  
M N. The Mammarie veine and artery descending vnder the breast-bone.  
OO. Braunches of the vessels before named which go to the mediastinum.  
PP. The nerues of the midriffe supported by the mediastinum.  
Q. A veine which together with the nerue descendeth to the midriffe.  
RSTV. A part of the Lungs in the left side of the cauity. R and T shew the vpper lobe, S and V the lower.   
FIG. II.  
Figure II. sheweth the midriffe taken out of the body.  

a. The midriffe.  
b c d e. The sinewy part thereof.  
f g. The fleshy part thereof.  
h i. Two fleshy originals.  
k. A diuision or perforation of the midriffe where through the great artery is transmitted.  
l. The perforation on the left side, which giueth way to the gullet.  
m. The right perforation through which the hollow veine ascendeth.    
Another vse of the midriffe is to ventilate or fanne the Hypochondria, especially the Liuer, 
Another vse.  because in his conuex or vpper part it wanteth Arteries to doe that office; as also the moyst vapours contayned in the capacity of the lower belly, least being at rest they should putrifie and corrupt; for which cause Hippocrates in his first Booke de morbis mulierum calleth it the breather or bellowes of the lower belly  
Another vse of it is, as Galen aduiseth vs in the 9. Chapter of his second Book de mot● 
A third vse.  musculorum to helpe forward the expulsion of the excrements and the Infant in trauell by helping the muscles of the Abdomen as wee haue shewed in the former Booke; for which it is the more conuenient because of his oblique scituation. For aboue it presseth the guttes as it were with hands, and so driueth the excrements downward, which otherwise might as well be excluded vpward as downward if this helpe were not.  
The last vse is, that according to Plato, it might deuide the Irascible or Angry part and 
The last vse of the midriffe. Plato. Aristotle. Plin●es conceit  faculty of the Soule from the Concupiscible & lustfull; or according to Aristotle, it might distinguish the naturall parts from the vitall, the ignoble from the noble, that the vapours which arise from the lower parts as from the sinke of the body, might not offend the heart the seate of life and sence as he thought. Pliny ascribed to it the subtility or nicenesse of the wit, and esteemed it the seate of mirth which appeareth by tickling: for if the skinne about the Hypochondria be gentlely touched we are tickled and laugh presently; but more rare was that of a young man in my knowledge, who had the cause of an Epilepsie in his foot, which at certaine times would rise vp and might be stayed by binding the legge and thigh, but when the vapor or breath came vp about the place of the Midriffe, then would he laugh extreamly and presently after fall in his Epilepticall fit. But the Philosophers reason was, because the motion commeth presently to that place; for that the skin is thin and warmeth the part, though lightly yet enough to open it, & so moueth the minde euen against the will of him that is mooued. For in the single Combats of Sword-Fencers( called Gladiatores) at sharpe vsuall in those times, some haue bin seene to dye laughing when they haue bin thrust through about that part.  
And the reason why onely men of all creatures are ticklish, is partly the thinnesse of the 
Another. How tickling causeth laughter.  skin, partly because a man onely of all creatures can laugh; for titillation is the cause of Laughter, when such a part is mooued as from which the affection may rise vp and fil the wings of the nose.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Membrane called Pleura.  
_THE Pleura is a Membrane taking his name from the Ribbes which they call 〈◇〉, because it is stretched vnder them all, excepting the twelfe, and truely 
The Pleura.  it is called a Membrane because of his substance, and a coate because of his Vse.  
It is a Membrane enclosing the whole cauity of the Chest, wherefore his Figure and magnitude is answerable to that cauity, which is Semiouall or like half an egge. 
His figure & magnitude.  It ariseth and is bred of spermaticall filaments or threds of the seed and the mothers blood powred betweene them after the manner of a Parenchyma or as the flesh of the Liuer or other of the bowels; or it is produced from the Membranes of the Braine which inuest the Marrow of the backe, which being brought together with some Nerues into the Chest do 
His Originall  on both sides frame it; wherefore there it is thicker and cleaueth strongly to the rack bones or Vertebrae of the backe, from which vnlesse it be broken it cannot be separated, because from thence it hath his beginning of place or production.  
It is tyed backward to the racke bones of the backe, which is the reason that some haue 
His cōnexion  said it ariseth from their Ligaments, or from the Ligaments of the Vertebrae of the Chest as Pallopius; before, it is tyed to the brest-brone; on the sides to the Membranes of the intercostall Muscles, and to the Membranes which immediately compasse the rib bones; aboue to the Clauicles or Patel-bones; below in his Basis as Galen calleth it, 5. Administ. Anat. 8. or bottome, to the Midriffe, and in the middest vnto the Lunges and heart-purse or Pericardium.  
His substance is like that of the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly, but in strength & thickenesse 
His substance and structure  somewhat exceeding it; for because it was to passe betweene the bonie hardnesse of the ribs and the soft bodies of the Lungs, it was ordained neither too soft nor too hard, yet somewhat hard the better to defend the Vital parts; thight & close wrought yet light, that the weight of it might not hinder the motion of the Chest, but strong and neruous, harde to be diuided, and sometimes in some diseases of the Chest it hath beene obserued by Platerus to grow ten fold thicker then vsually it is.  
It is all ouer double, partly because of the hardnesse of the bones, that the inner side which is very sensible might not be hurt by the continuall motion of the Lunges, partlie 
It is double & why.  that betwixt both the Membranes the intercostall vessels might more safely passe.  
The one of these is thicker, especially about the backe where it may bee cleane seuered from the ribs, and it is harder because of the continuall motion of the Lungs and his inner face is smooth and smeared ouer with moysture, the vtter superficies or face of it is vnequall and rugged. The other is thinner, and of some is called the Membrane compassing the ribs. Betweene these two is the matter of the Pleurifie oftentimes collected( because there are vessels which run betweene them) and not onely betweene the Pleura and the intercostall 
Where the matter of the pleurifylyeth  Muscles. From this Membrane sometimes on one side sometime on another,( as Vesa'ius and Valuerda haue well obserued) but especially on the left side, doe certaine sinnowy Fibres come, by whose interposition the Lungs are strongly tyed to this Pleura in men when they be in health, and among them is seene some small portions of fat neere the rack-bones of the back where the vessels are greater, as it is in the Peritonaeū; but this is but rare. And as the intercostall Muscles like other Muscles haue their proper Membrane, so the ribbes like other bones are compassed with their Periostion or proper and immediate Membrane, which Vesalius that oculate Anatomist tooke to be one of these Membranes which we haue described.  
It is perforated where it sendeth vessels into the Chest or out of it. It sendeth out aboue the iugular and Axillary Veines, and the Carotides or Axillarie Arteries; but it letteth in 
His perforations. Aboue. Below.  the Gullet, the Weazon, and a Nerue of the sixt paire belonging to the Midriffe; below, it is perforated at the Diaphragma or Midriffe; for the ascent of the Hollow veine, and the descent of the Gullet as was saide in the former chapter; at the sides for the intercostall vessels. The vessels which are tied vnto it as they passe vnto the Neighbour partes doe 
At the sides. His vesselles.  lend it small braunches which come most plentifully from the Mammary and intercostall vessels. Hence it is that it is often inflamed with great tension and a pricking or goading paine.  
His vse is much like the vse of the Peritonaeum or Rimme in the Lower belly; for as the 
His vse.  Peritonaeum is stretched about all the partes of the Lower belly, and affordeth vnto euerie one of them a common coate; so the Pleura is stretched vnder all the cauitie of the Chest, and giueth a common coate saith Galen to all the instruments of breathing, as also to the midriffe and the intercostall muscles and the vessels, and defendeth and knitteth them altogether. It giueth also to the vessels a safe waftage and a kinde of stability, and where it is stretched vnder the ribs, it serueth the Lunges for a defence, that they light not vppon the bare bones when they d●●ateth themselues in the gathering in of breth, and so be hurt vvith their hardnesse, and beside that the Lunges in their motion do not entangle themselues in the distances of the ribs.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Mediastinum.  
_THE Mediastinum so called, because it mediateth or diuideth the Chest in the middest. Collumbus calleth it Intersepimentum and Dissepimentum, a, a hedge 
The Mediastinum. His Names.  that diuideth two Pastures. It is double: The right[ Tab. 3. GG the right, HH the left] and the lefte, which Galen calleth 〈◇〉, because they diuide the cauitie of the Chest, which the Pleura encompasseth into two partes. For the cauitie of the Chest is not one open and continuall, but is diuided by these membranes. Wherefore in the middle of the chest there is one on either side which passe from aboue 
His scituation  downeward according to his Longitude euen vnto the Midriffe, and backeward from the Breast-bone vnto the Racke-bones, so that the chest is by this meanes diuided into two circles, or if you had rather, they frame a certaine Triangle of vnequall and oblique sides, for they haue space enough to resemble this Figure: because of the deapth and length of the Breast.  
These Membranes do arise from the pleura, which where it climbeth from his originall 
His originall.  on either side to the sides of the breast bone, creepeth so backe againe towardes the ridge where his beginning was, that it attaineth from the middest of the breast to the very spine of the backe. These are thinner then the pleura, and softer that they may more easilie follow the motion of the heart; on the outside as they looke to the Lungs( to which they somtimes 
His substance  grow) they are smooth, and oftentimes about the vesselles they appeare interlaced with much fat, so as they may bee compared to the Kall or Ome tum; on the inside rough, because of the Fibres with which the Membranes are ioyned, as also to the Pericardium; and in the hollow of the throate the Thymus so called( of which we shall heare afterwards) groweth vnto them. Heere, according to the length of the racke-bones of the backe vnto which they are ioyned by the mediation of the pleura, they euen touch together, and make but a very narrow cauity, but are after by degrees seuered and at the Breast-bone stand as wide asunder as the Breast-bone is broade, to which they cleane euen from one end of it to the other; and this distance[ Tab. 3. LL] is intertexed or wouen between with diuers threddy 
Their distāce.  Fibres and Membranes; but they are widest asunder and make the largest distance at the Diaphragma or Midriffe, to which they are ioyned as far[ Tab. 2. fig. 1; A] as his neruous part reacheth, insomuch that this cauity which is smooth and moist, before containeth the heart knit vp in his purse and the hollow-veine ascending vpward, and behinde the gullet with the 
Wher the distāce is widest  stomacke Nerues.  
In the fore-part of this Cauity there is oftentimes a matter conteyned, which causeth a disease resembling a Pleurisie, which matter if the breast-bone( saieth Columbus) bee verie cunning he perforated may bee safely drawne out. In Dogges this Cauitie is more large 
A disease resembling a Pleurifie.  but hath no such webbe of Fibres as in a man. The Veynes and Arteries that it hath are 
Table 3. sheweth the middle belly before and at the sides, bared from the skinne to the Muscles, wherin also the brest-bone with the gristles of the ribs are separated from the Mediastinum and reflected backewarde, that those thinges vvhich are conteyned in the Chest may better bee perceyued.  
TABVLA III.  

A A A. The middle A. is the inside of the brest-bone; the other two shew the inside of the gristles and the ribs ioyned together.  
B, C. The Mammary veines descending vnder the brest-bone vnto the right Muscles.  
D, E. the Mammary arteries descending  
F. Certaine glandules or kernels about the Coller bone, apointed to secure the distribution of the vessels.  
G G, H H. The right and the left place of the Mediastinum, which before the diuision of it did grow vnto the brest-bone.  
I, K. The right & left superficies of the same Mediastinū, which is next to the lungs.  
L L. The distance betwixt the Membranes of the Mediastinum.  
M M. This swelling place sheweth the scite of the left part of the heart.  
N. The vpper part of the right Lobe of the Lungs.  
O. The lower part of the right Lobe of the Lungs.  
P. The vpper part of the lefte Lobe of the Lungs.  
Q. The lower part of the lefte Lobe of the Lungs.  
R R. The Midriffe separated from the brest-bone, and from the tops of the gristles which cleaue vnto it.  
S. The Gristle called the brest-blade.  
T, V. The skin drawn downward from the foreside of the Chest.   very small from the Mammary[ Tab. 3. BCDE] which passe from the hole of the throat downward vnder the brest-bone, from which in their passage as also from the vein Non-paril they borrow a surcle.[ Tab. 2. fig. 1. OO, from the Mammary vessels.] Moreouer in a man it receiueth a good large veine out of the hollow of the throate, which descendeth accompanyed with a Nerue[ Tab. 2. fig. 1, Q] by the whol length of both the Membranes to the Midriffe, but groweth onely to their outside; sometimes also it receiueth small branches from those Vessels which we haue before named Phrenicae that is the vessels of the Midriffe.  
The vse of this Mediastinū or bound hedge is first to hold the hart vp suspended( for being 
The vses of this Mediastinum.  tyed to the purse of the heart it must needs do that office) lest if it had no such tye, but hung downe at liberty, in the diuerse position of the body it might fal to the sides, to the brest, to the spine, or else downward. Secondly, this serues to strengthen and secure the passage of the vessels. Moreouer, it incompasseth the parts conteyned in the Chest that they should not hurt the Lunges in his motion. And finally, it diuideth the Chest into two partes or 
Their cheefe vse.  cauities which is their chiefe profit saith Galen in the 3. chapter of his 6. Booke de vsu part. so that if one part be hurt, yet the other may be safe: as wee haue knowne a theefe Anatomized who was a strong and stout fellon, but had one side, that is, the right side of his lungs 
A strong and stout mā with one Lung.  withered almost all away and dryed vp into a very small quantity, but the other remained faire and fresh as any other mans. So in wounds, if one part bee very sorely wounded, so that because of the entrance of the outward aer the motion of the Lungs do cease; yet the other part will not be wanting to susteine life by performing his part of the worke. For, if both parts of the Lungs be wounded any thing wide through, the voice and respiration to must needs perish: although I saw when I was a Boy a Knight wounded quite thorough 
〈…〉 Euers.  the backe on both sides the bone, and so deepe that on both sides in his dressing his breath would at the mouth of the wound blow out a Candle, and yet the Patient hath perfectlye recouered. And this shall suffice to haue spoken of the Conteyning parts of the Chest, especially of those that are soft, for the hard parts which are the bones and the gristles, will fall out better to be handled afterward. Now wee will pursue our Historie vnto the partes conteyned.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Thymus and Purse of the Heart called Pericardium, and the water conteyned therein.  
_THE conteined parts of the Chest are double, Bowels and Vessells. The Bowels are two, the heart couered with his purse and the Lungs. The vessels 
The parts conteyned in the Chest. Bowels and Vessels. veins, arteries Thymus. Nerues.  are branches of the great Veine and the great Artery, borne vppe in the hollow or lower part of the throate with a glandulous body called Thymus, double Nerues from the marrowe of the racke bones of the Chest, from which the intercostall nerues do come; and also from the marrow or substance of the brain conteined within the scull, from which the sixt paire or coniugation proceedeth, & from it the Costalis or the sinew of the ribs, the Stomachial and Recurrent both the right and the 
The sixt coniugation.  left; and finally, the Weazon called Aspera Arteria, and a part of the oesophagus or Gullet. But first of the Thymus.  
The Thymus which Galen in the fourth Chapter of his sixt Booke De vsu partium, calleth 
The Thymus.  〈◇〉, his Interpreter, the lowest of the Glandules, is of a glandulous body, soft and spongie. ( Galen Administ. Anat. 7, 9. cals it the great and softest Glandule) which in the vpper part of the Chest neere the hole of the throate lyeth vnder the brest-bone, and serueth for a pillow or boulster to secure all the diuisions of the Hollowe veine and the great Artery, and all 
Why it is framed.  the sproughts that come from them, which are in this place very many and diuerse, going to the armes and the shoulder-blades; as also the Hollow-veine itself, that it be not hurt by the hardnesse of the brest-bone, from whome in lieu it receiueth certaine small vessels. For this is an ordinary and perpetuall worke of Nature, that wheresoeuer shee diuideth a 
Note.  great vessell, there she interponeth a Glandule to fill vp the diuision. This is that part in Calues, which is accounted among the delicates of the Table, and is called Lactes or the sweete bread.  
The Purse of the Heart, called of the Grecians Pericardium; of the Latines Cordis inv●lucrum 
The pericardin̄ or purse of the heart.  and Capsula, Camera, or Aula Cordis, Hippocrates in his Booke de Corde, calleth Culeus. It is a large Membrane, couering and incompassing all the hart; and carrieth his Pyramidall Figure[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. DEF] or rather is like a pine Kernell, hauing a broad Basis aboue, 
His Figure.  and ending by degrees in an obtuse angle.[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, F] This is placed in the midst of the double Mediastinum, and is embraced by it on either side, to which it groweth round about by the mediation of many Fibres. It is also tied before, to the Pleura, where the Gristles 
Connexions.  of the sixt and seauenth ribs on the lefte side are ioyned to the Membranes of the Mediastinum, where they part or gape from the brest-bone; behinde to the spine of the backe; below to the sinewy circle[ Table. 4. fig. 1. from E to G] or Tendon of the Midriffe his point[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. F] doth so strongly adhere especially on the left, as also on the right[ Tab. 4. fig 1, Q] side that it cannot be separated without tearing it asunder, and this Connexion is peculiar onely to man. For in other creatures as Dogges & Apes, it standeth off from the Midriffe and is not tyed to it.  
The Originall[ Table. 4. fig. 1, B Fig. 2. A] of this Membrane at his Basis is large, produced 
His originall.  from the coats which the Pleura affoordeth vnto the foure vessels which yssue out of the heart; for these vesselles in all that distance which is betweene the Basis or broad end of the heart and this Pericardium, haue not the common coate from the Pleura, because it is employed in the frame of the Pericardium.  
His substance both for thicknesse and strength( as Galen saieth in the first chapter of his sixt Book de vsu partium) is very proportionate; if it had been harder then it is, it would haue 
His substance & the reasons 〈…〉.  offended the Lungs by pressing them; if softer, itself might haue bin pained by the bones: for as his position is betweene two contraries, so is his substance middle betweene two extremes  
For it is so much softer then a bone, as it is harder then the Lungs; but indeede the Pericardium toucheth not the Lungues but by the interposition of the Mediastinum, least they should hinder another in their motion, alwayes I except the forepart of the brest-bone, where the Membranes of the Mediastinum stand of one from another.  
This purse is hard, because of the continuall motion of the heart; on the outside fibrous, within smooth and slippery, that the heart might mooue more freely in it, but on neyther side hath it any fat, although Aristotle saith otherwise, whom Vesalius imagined to bee deceyued by taking for it the Membranes of the Mediastinum, which are indeede sometimes fat as we haue saide.  
It is tied at the Basis of the heart, which is at the fift rackbone of the Chest, to the vessels 
His Connexions.  which come thence[ Tab. 4. fig. 1, B fig. 2 A] which also it boulstereth; but to the body of the heart it is not tied but is as farre from it at the Basis, the point and the sides[ Tab. 4. fig. 2, BB sheweth the Pericardium bent backe to the sides] as is sufficient for the dilatation of the heart, and for the serous humor heerein conteined. Wherefore it is on euery side a little distant from it; which distance if it had been larger it would haue taken vp too much of the cauity of the chest, and so haue bin a hinderance to Respiration.  
It is continuall or whole round about except in the basis, where it hath at the least siue perforations for the entrance of the hollow veine[ Tab. 4. fig. 1 A Fig. 2. F] & for his egresse, 
His perforations.  as also to let out the arteriall veine,[ Tab. 4. fig. 2 G] the Venall Artery, and the great Artery.[ Tab. 4, fig. 2 H]  

Table 4. figure 1. sheweth the heart included within his purse or Pericardium, together with the Lungs, and a part of the Midriffe.  
Figure second, sheweth the Pericardium opened, and so the scituation of the hart and particularly the fore-parte thereof.  
TABVLA. IIII.  
FIG. I.  

A. A portion of the ascending trunke of the hollow Veine.  
a. A portion of the Great Artery.  
B. The beginning of the Pericardium, cleuing very close to the hollow veine, vnto the Arteriall veine and to the Great Artery.  
C. The small Veines of the Pericardium or Purse of the heart.  
D E. The foreside of the Pericardium bearing the Figure of the Basis of the heart.  
F. The sharpe end of the Pericardium.  
From F to G. the connexion of the Pericardium with the Midriffe.  
H. A part of the Septum transuersū or the midriff  
I I. His Nerues.  
L M N O. The foure Lobes of the Lunges.   
FIG. II.  
The second Figure.  

A. The place where the Pericardium is continued with the vesselles of the heart.  
B B. The pericardium reflected to the sides.  
C D. The Basis of the fore-part of the hart.  
E The point of the fore-part of the heart called Mucro.  
F. The Hollow Veine.  
G. The Arteriall veyne.  
H. The great Artery and the Venal artery, which cannot be seene vnlesse the heart be leaned to the left side.  
I. The right eare of the heart.  
K. The top of the left eare.  
l. The coronary or crown-veine and artery of the heart.  
L L. Certaine branches proceeding from these vessels.  
M N O P. The foure Lobes of the Lungs.  
Q. A part of the Midriffe.    
It receiueth very small veines[ table 4. figure 1. C] and threddy, partly from those that 
His vessels.  are sent to the mediastinum, partly from the veins called Phrenicae where they are ioyned to the midriffe; some say it hath a small braunch from the Axillary veine which they call the Capsulary or purse-braunch; though Laurentius will haue it to come from the subelauian veine. It hath no arteries vnlesse they be exceeding smal, because being so neare vnto the heart it may receiue vitall spirits at hand from it. His nerues are very small and sometimes scarcely sensible, but from the left branch of the Recurrent sinew to giue him sence.  
His vse is to be as a habitation and shelter for the heart or as a mantle to couer it, and 
His vses.  being of all membranes( except the dura mater of the Braine) the strongest, it keepeth it also from pressure that his motion bee not impeached, and that it touch not the hard bone. Moreouer it conteyneth a serous humour whereof wee will speake in the next place, and serueth in stead of a ligament together with the helpe of the membranes of the Mediastinum to reteyne the heart in his right seate. Galen in the 13. Chapter of his 7. Book de Anatomieis Admin. telleth a strange story of a childe whose breast-bone was cut out, and this 
A story.  Pericardium rotted part of it off, and yet the child recouered.  
In this purse there is contayned a watery humour as Galen calleth it, carrying the forme of vrine: wherefore the diuine senior Hippocrates who in his Booke de Corde calleth it 〈◇〉, 
The humour contayned in this purse.  sayeth that the heart dwels in a Bladder, yet this water hath no acrimony or saltnesse in it. It springeth partly from a humour which sypeth out of the vessels( I meane the veines and arteries of the heart) which the heart as Hippocrates speaketh drinketh in, licking vp withall 
What is the matter of it.  the drinke of the Lungs and pisseth it out againe( for the watery humor is by the high feruour of the heart driuen forth, as we see in greene wood when it is burnt) partly of a portion of the drinke which soaketh in the passage through the sides of the weazon, as it were a deaw and falleth downe hither, and from hence some of it into the venall arteries. The first 
That it sipeth out of the vessels.  is proued by the cure of the palpitation of the heart which is caused of the aboundance or ouerplus of this humour, which is turned sayeth Galen in the second Chapter of his fift Booke de locis affectis by bloud letting; when together with the bloud the serous humour is let out which before fel into the Pericardium.  
The latter is euicted by an example propounded by Hippocrates, for sayth he, if you giue 
That it is part of our drinke.  a Pigge that is very dry water mingled with minium or vermilion and presently stick it, you shall finde all his winde-pipes along dyed with this coloured drink; some would haue it to be generated from moyst vapours and exhalations raysed from the humours of the heart, and driuen forth by his perpetuall motion and high heate vnto the Pericardium, by whose density they are turned into water: and of that opinion are Falopius, Laurentius & Archangelus; who remembreth sixe opinions concerning the matter of it, which we shall hereafter make mention of.  
This humour is found not onely in dead bodies as some would, but also in liuing, but 
That it is found in liuing bodies. But more in dead and why  more plentifull after death( except in those that die of consumptions in whome it is little and yellowish) because the many spirits which are about the heart, the body being cold are turned into water euen as those vapors which are raysed from the earth are by the coldnes of the middle region of the ayre conuerted into water: wee also affirme that it must of necessity be in liuing bodies, and not onely in those that are diseased, as they that are troubled with palpitation of the heart, but also in all sound bodies; yet in some more plentifull in others more sparing, but in all moderate; because if it bee consumed there followeth a 
In sound bodies as wel as in diseased.  consumption, if it be aboundant palpitation of the heart, and if it bee so much that it hinder the dilatation of the heart then followeth suffocation and death itself. That it is in liuing bodies may be proued by the testimony of Hippocrates in his Book of the heart, where he sayeth there is a little humour like vnto vrine, as also by the example of our Sauiour out of whose precious side issued water and bloud. It appeareth also by the dissection of liuing 
The example of our Sauior  creatures which euery yeare is performed for further aduertisemēt, especially a sheep or such like great with young, Vesalius addeth an example of a man whose heart was taken out of his body whilest he liued at Padua in Italy. Finally the vse and necessity of it doth euict the same.  
For the vse of it is to keepe moyst the heart and his vessels; a hot part, it is so as the left 
The vses of it.  ventricle will euen scald a mans finger if it be put into it, and so continually moued that vnlesse it were thus tempered it would gather a very torrifying heate, by cooling it also it keepeth it fresh and flourishing. It moystneth also the Pericardium wherein it is conteyned, which otherwise by the great heate of the heart would bee exiccated or dried vp. By it also the motion of the heart becommeth more facile and easie, and this motion spendeth it and resolueth it insensibly by the pores as it is bred; but if in the passage it bee stayed then saith Varolius are there many hairs found growing right against it on the brest. Finally, it taketh away the sense or feeling of the waight of the heart, because the heart swimmeth as it 
The cause of haue vpon the brest.  were in it, euen as we see the infant swimmeth in sweate in the wombe, aswell to take away the sense of the waight of so great a burthē from the Mother, as also that it might not fal hard to any part in her body; you may add to this if you please, that it helpeth forward the concretion of the fat about the heart.  
In the cauity also of the Chest there is found such a like water mingled with blood with 
Another water and blood mingled in the Chest.  which the parts of the chest are continually moistned and cooled. And thus much of these circumstances of the heart. Now followe the Vesselles of the chest.   

CHAP. IX. Of the ascending trunke of the Hollow veine.  
THE trunke of the Hollow-veine hauing perforated the Diaphragma or Midriffe,[ Tab 5. fig. 1. from A to D Table. 6. from B to H] runneth along the Chest as high as the Patell-bones 
Tab, 5. Fig. 1. sheweth the diuision of the Hollow-vein in the Iugulum or hollow vnder the Patel-bones. On the right side is shewed how it is commonly beleeued to bee diuided into two trunkes, the one called the Sub-Clauius, the other Super-Clauius, from whence came that scrupulous choise of the Cephalica and Basilica Veines in Phlebotomy or blood-letting. On the right side is shewed how the trunke is but one, out of which both the foresaid veines of the arme do proceede.  
Fig. 2. sheweth a portion of the Hollow veine as much as ascendeth out of the right ventricle of the hart vnto the Iugulū, wherin is exhibited the nature of the Fibres which are in the bodies of the veines.  
TABVLA. V.  
FIG. I.  

AA. The trunke of the hollow vein from the heart to the Iugulum or Stickingplace.  
B. The Coronary veine of the heart.  
C. The veine Azygos or sine-part. ddd The branches of the foresaide veine called Intercostales inferiores.  
D. The diuision of the hollow Veine in the Iugulum.  
EE. The Mammarie Veines.  
F. The vpper Intercostall veine.  
G The veine called Subclauia.  
HH The Cephalica or head veine yssuing there-from.  
II. the veine called Hepatica or the Liuer veine issuing also from the Subclauian trunke marked with G.  
KK The internall iugular veine.  
LL The externall iugular veine.  
M. The subclauian veine, out of which issueth the right Liuer veine at Q.  
N. the superclauian veine out of which issueth the right head veine at P.  
OO. the veines called Ceruicales or neck veines. Q the Hepatica or liuer-vein.  
P. the Cephalica or Head veine.   
FIG. II.  
The 2. Figure.  

AA The trunke of the Hollow-veine.  
B. the vein Azygos or the vnmated vein.  
C. the diuision of the hollow vein in the Iugulum, on either side into two branches as it is commonly receiued.  
DD. the subclauian branches.  
EE. the superclauian branches.  
FF. the externall iugular veines.  
GG. the internall iugular veines.   
FIG. III.  
Fig. 3. sheweth a rude delineation of the Fibres in the bodies of the veines.  

A. the transuerse or ouerthwart Fibres.  
B, C. the oblique or flope fibres of each  
D. the right fibres.( kind  
E. the implication or texture of the 3. kinds of Fibres.   
FIG. IV.  
Fig. 4. sheweth the distribution of the Veine Azygos, which we shal shew more distinctly in the 7. Table.  

A, A part of the trunk of the hollow vein  
B. the originall of the veine Azygos.  
CO. the diuision of the same vn-mated veine at the eighr rib.  
DDDD the right and left intercostall veines.   before it be diuided. It is greater then the descending trunke, because it is to conuay bloud to more parts; it hath also vnder it the Thymus or sweete-bread, that thereby being boulstered it might more safely be diuided.  
Before the diuision it sendeth out foure branches.  

4 branches before the diuision. Phrenica. 1  The first is called Phrenica[ Table 6. C] or the veine of the midriffe, one on each side, which diuersly are disseminated through the midriffe, & beside it transmitteth branches to the Pericardium and the Mediastinum: the right issueth out of the trunke sometimes in the chest, the left alwayes vnder the midriffe: then the trunke of the hollow veine perforateth the pericardium and inclining a little to the left hand[ table 6. aboue B] degenerateth into the right eare of the heart[ table 6. D] and is fastned into the right ventricle of the heart into 
Table 6. sheweth the trunk and branches of the hollow vein as they are disseminated through al the three Regions of the body.  
TABVLA. VI.  

A The trunke of the hollow veine below the Liuer.  
αα The roots of the same hollow veine proceeding out of the Liuer, which make the trunke thereof.  
β Another roote arising out of the hollow side of the Liuer,  
B The seate of the hollow veine betwixt the Liuer and Midriffe.  
C The veine phrenica or the veine of the Midriffe.  
D The orifice by which the hollow veine groweth to the heart.  
E The crown-veine of the heart.  
FF The trunk of the veine Azygos.  
GG The intercostall veines proceeding from the foresaid trunke.  
H The by-partition of the trunke of the hollow veine at the Iugulum or sticking place.  
II the subclauian veine tending to the arme.  
K the vpper Intercostall veine.  
LL the Mammary veines descending.  
M r The coniunction of the descēding Mammary vein at M with the Epigastricall veine at r.  
NN the neck veine called Ceruicalis.  
O the veine called Muscula.  
PP the vpper chest veine.  
Q the double Scapularie or the veines of the shoulderblade.  
RR the lower chest veine.  
SS the internall Iugular veine.  
TT the externall iugular veines.  
V the external iugular vein diuided into two vnder the roote of the eare.  
X the inner branch thereof.  
Y the outer branch thereof.  
Z A braunch proceeding from the vtter veine next aboue named, to the face.  
α the fore-head veine.  
ae A branch creeping vp the temples.  
* A surcle reaching to the nowle or back-side of the head.  
aa the veine called Cephalica or the vtter veine of the arme.  
bb the veine called Muscula superior. dd A veine climbing to the top of the shoulder which is somtimes double. mm the veine called Basilica. ζ the trunke of the hollow veine vnder the Liuer. 〈◇〉 the right fatty veine or Adiposa dextra. 〈◇〉 the left fatty veine or Adiposa sinistra. θ i the emulgent veines. 〈◇〉 the right and lefte spermaticke veines. Y the beginning of the vessell called vas varicosum or the bodden vessell. ξ the veines called Lumbares or belonging to the loynes. o the bifurcation of the hollow veine into the Iliack branches, 〈◇〉 the vpper veine called muscula. 〈◇〉 A diuision of the left Iliack branch into an interior marked with 〈◇〉 and an exterior marked 〈◇〉. τ The veine called muscula media. 〈◇〉 the veine called sacra. 〈◇〉 The veine called Hypogastrica which is a branch of the inner bow marked with 〈◇〉 descending to the bladder & the wombe. 〈◇〉 A veine proceeding out of the externall branch marked with 〈◇〉 which is ioyned to the small branches of the inner vein not far from the perforation or hole of the share-bone. 〈◇〉 The veine called Epigastrica which is an exterior shoote of the branch 〈◇〉 rising vpward. Δ the veine called pudenda, an interior shoot of the braunch 〈◇〉 going to the genitals. 〈◇〉 the first skin-vein of the leg descending to the toes of the feete. 〈◇〉 a branch offered to the place of the groyn or lesk. ξ a branch creeping through the skin of the thigh. Ω the vein called muscula inferior, creeping through the place where the hip is articulated or ioyned with the thigh. 1 A vein distributed to the 7. and 9. muscles of the leg. 2 A veine conueyed to the sixe muscle of the thigh.   which as into a Cisterne it powreth his blood. The second is called Coronaria cordis[ tab. 
Coronaria.  5. fig. 2 B. Tab. 6, E] the crowne veine of the heart, because like a Crowne it compasseth the Basis of the heart. This disperseth many branches through the outward surface of the heart euen to the Cone or point thereof especially on the left side, because the substaunce of it there is thickest and therefore needeth more Aliment.  
Afterward the Hollow-veine perforateth the Pericardium againe, and againe groweth round but much lesse then before, and riseth vp where the right Lung is parted from the left, and so passeth to the Iugulum, but aboue the heart in the middest of the bodye it parteth with a notable trunke or branch to be distributed to the Spondels and the spaces betweene the ribs.  
And this is the third branch called Vena 〈◇〉, or sine pari, that is, the vn-mated Veyne 
Vena 〈◇〉.  which we haue before called Non-paril[ Tab. 5. fig. 1. C. fig. 2 B Fig. 4 B] because commonly in a man it is but one, as also in Dogges, and hath not another on the other side like vnto it.  
It ariseth out of the backward and lower side of the hollow veine[ Tab. 5. fig. 4. A] aboue the hart, betweene the fourth and fift spondell of the Chest, but more toward the right side then toward the left. In those creatures that chew the cud it is double, as also in some men( happly in those that wee call Ambidexters, that can vse both hands alike) but verie rarely, 
Why some men are ambi-dexters. Fallopius.  yet Fallopius hath worthily obserued, that there is in men a left branch which doth the office of the Vena sine pari[ Table 7, 1] arising from the left subclauian branch, and affoordeth branches to some of the distances betweene the ribbes. Sometimes it ariseth not out of the 

aa. The hollow vein from the Iugulum to the holy bone.  
bb the diuision of the hollow vein into the Iliack branches.  
cc The diuision of the hollow veine at the Iugulum on both sides into the Subclauian branches.  
dd The trunke of the veine Azygos which insinuateth itself into a branch of the Hollow veine at *.  
ee, f A left branch from the veine Azygos, inserted into the emulgent veine at f.  
gg The Kidnies.  
hh the Vreters.  
i The left vpper intercostall veine.  
l the right descending Mammary veine.  
m the internall Iugular veine.  
n the externall iugular veine.  
o the veine Muscula going to the Muscles of the necke.  
p The diuision of the subclauian branch into the Cephalica & Basilica veines:  
qqq the Cephalica vein cald also humeraria  
rrr The Basilica veine, which some also call Axillaris.  
s The vpper Chest-veine called Thoracica.  
tt the lower chest-veine going to the outward Muscles of the Chest.  
u A branch of the Cephalica veine deriued vnto the Muscles that lift vp the arme & to the skin therabout before it passe vnder the shoulder.  
xxxx Certain veins in the Chest from the Azygos, which are vnited with the outward branches yssuing from the exteriour Chest-veine, which is deriued out of the Basilica.   
Although it shewe the Trunke of the hollowe verne disseminated thorough both the Bellies, notwithstanding it serueth especially to exhibit the distribution of the veine Azygos, and the coniunction of the branches thereof with the veynes of the Chest, which heere is onely shewed on the right side.  
TABVLA VII.  
yyyy The outwarde Veines of the Chest which are vnited with the inner braunches of the Azygos. z A branch of the Basilica, which is ioyned with the Cephalica A. A branch of the Cephalica, which is ioyned with the Basilica, z B The veine called Mediana or the middle veine.  Subclauian branch, but out of the trunke of the hollow veine neere the third Spondel of the Chest before the diuision thereof.  
Commonly from the trunke of the veine 〈◇〉[ Tab. 5. fig. 4. B Tab. 6. FF Tab. 7. d] out of the backside of it as well on the left hand as on the right, but on the right especially branches 
The branches of Vena sine pari.  are distributed to the distances, sometimes of all but most what of the ten lower ribs,[ Tab. 5. fig. 4] which are called Intercostales rami[ Tab. 6, GG] braunches betweene the ribs. This Veine also without his mate, affoordeth many surcles to the Gullet, and sometimes nere the fourth Spondell of the Chest it sendeth a branch vpwarde[ Tab. 7. at the vpper d] from which are deriued surcles to the foure vpper ribs.  
The Intercostall branches also yeelde small strings of vessels[ Tab. 7, xxx] which yssue out 
The Intercostal branches.  of the Chest, which are inoculated with surcles of the veine called Thoracica inferior,[ Tab. 7. yyy] whence it is that we with good successe in Pleurisies open the internall Veyne of the affected side.  
The trunke of the 〈◇〉 at the 8. or 9. rib is aboue the spine diuided into a right branch 
The diuision of Vena 〈◇〉.  and a left[ Tab. 5. C, O] which both passe downward. The left which is the larger determineth into the midd●e of the emulgent. The right is ioyned to the hollow veine about the emulgent, to the emulgent more rarely, most commonly it is implanted into the last veyne of the Loines,[ Tab. 7, *] and hence it is that in the beginning of the Pleurisie it is profitable to open the veine in the ham or in the foote.  
The fourth is that Veine we call Intercostalis superior, or the vpper Intercostall vein[ Tab. 5, fig. 1, F. Tab. 6, K] on each side one arising from the Subclauian braunch about the beginning of the Iugular veines[ Tab. 6. ST] and reflected vnder the Artery of the arme, and is 
Intercostalis Superior  diuided into two branches especially on the right side, which are distributed to the distances of the two vppermost ribs, sometimes to the three vppermost, and are ioyned with the Mammarie branches which creepe along the gristles.[ Tab. 6. LL] But this Vein is somtimes wanting, that is, when the Veine 〈◇〉 affoordeth branches to all the ribs, as we said euen now that sometimes it did. Also from all the Intercostall veynes there are small tendrilles which passe into the holes of the racke-bones for their nourishment, as also for the nourishment of the spinall Marrow.  
The trunke[ Tab. 6 H] ascending is sustained by the Sweete-bread[ Tab. 3, P] and diuided 
the ascending trunke  into two notable branches[ Tab. 6, II. Tab. 7, CC] one tending to the right hand, the other to the left, these as long as they are within the Chest, are called Rami subclauij, beecause they are vnder the Patell-bones, which they call Claues. From each of these Subclauian branches, some Veynes spring out of their vpperpart, some out of theyr neather part. From the lower part before the Subclauian braunch is diuided dooe yssue foure boughes.  
The first is called Mammaria descendens[ Tab. 5. fig: 1, ●●. tab. 6, LL. ta. 7, l] the descending 
Mammaria inferior.  pap-veine.  
The second Mediastina,[ Tab. 2, Q] because it is Disseminated especially through the 
Mediastina.  Mediastinum.  
The third Creuica'is or the Necke-veine[ Tab. 5. OO. Table 6, NN] because it communicateth 
Ceruicalis  surcles to the Marrow conteined in the rack-bones of the necke.  
The fourth Muscula inferior[ Tab. 6, O] because it is distributed into the vpper Muscles 
Muscula infer.  of the brest, and the lower Muscles of the necke.  
When the Subclauian veine attaineth out of the Chest[ Tab. 7, P] it is called no more subclauia but Axillaris, because it is come to the arme-hole called Axilla. The Axillary veine therefore before it be diuided sendeth out two propagations.  

The Axillarie veine. Scapularis interna.  The first is called Scapularis interna[ Tab. 6, Q] because it is dispersed to the, Muscles on the inside of the Scapula or shoulder-blade.  
The second Scapularis externa[ Tab. 6, d] is diuided to the outside of the blade.  

Scapul externa Cephalica.  Afterward the Axillarie veine is diuided into two branches[ Tab. 5, uL. table 6. am. table 8. qr] the vpper of which is called Cephalica[ Tab. 6. a Table 7, q] the lower Basilica.[ Tab. 6 m Tab. 7, r]  
From the trunke of the Basilica yssue two veines. The first called Thoracica superior[ Tab 6, PP Tab. 7, s] because it is distributed into the skin and Muscles which couer the chest.  

Basilica. Thoracica sup. Thoracica infer  The second Thoracica inferior[ Tab. 6 RR. Ta. 7, tt] because it runneth along the side of the Chest, and the branches of this Veine are inoculated[ Table 7, yy] with the surcles of the Veine 〈◇〉. Table 7 xx]  
From the vpper part of the subclauian veine 3. veines doe arise.  
The first is called muscula superior[ table 7 o table 6. bb] because it is distributed into the 
Muscula superior.  muscles and skin on the backside of the necke.  
The second Iugularis externa[ tab. 5. fig. 1. LL tab. 6. TT tab. 7 n] is commonly on each side 
Iugularis externa.  one, but sometimes double, and is againe diuided vnder the roote of the eare.  
The third Iugularis interna[ table 5. fig. 1 KK tab. 6. TT tab. 7. m] is greater in a man then it 
Iugularis interna.  is proportionably in other creatures, because a mans brayne is greater; iust at the head it is diuided.  
But because all these veines we must handle more acurately in our booke of the vessels, it shal be sufficient here only to haue named them and shewed them vnto you, we proceed to the Nerues.   

CHAP. X. Of the Nerues in the Chest and the necke.  
_THE Nerues disseminated through the Chest and the necke are of two sorts, yet all proceeding from the marrow of the brayne; the first sort whilest the marrow is in the skull, the other after it is in the racke-bone, and is called spinalis medulla.  
Out of the marrow yet in the skull: the sixt paire come.[ ta. 8. fig. 1: ee] They seeme to be but one nerue, but indeed are two inuested with one membrane, and passe out 
The sixt paire of sinewes.  at a hole betweene the nowle and the temporal bones. The anterior and lesser part of this nerue is disseminated into the muscles of the tongue and into the mouth. The posterior and greater sendeth branches to the muscles of the neck,[ table 8. figure 1. f] to the second moouing the shoulder blade, and descending more inward to the muscles that are in the cauity of the larynx or throttle[ table 8. figure 1. q] some slender ones also to the muscles of the bone Hyois.  
Aboue the Iugulum or Region of the Coller-bone before it enter into the Chest, this branch is diuided into two[ tab. 8, fig. 1. h] boughes, the one outward and the greater, the other inner and the lesse.  
The outward bough maketh the Recurrent nerues, found out first by Galen. They are also 
The Recurrent nerues.  called the Vocall nerues, because if they bee wounded, the creature looseth his voyce as we haue often tryed in the dissection of liuing Dogges, for if one be cut or tyed he looseth halfe his voyce, if both, he looseth it wholly.  
The outward branch of the right nerue presently after the diuision[ table 8. figure 1. h] 
The right nerue of the 6. coniugatiō.  sendeth surcles on both sides[ tab. 8. figure 1. kk] to the muscles arising from the brest-bone and the clauicles or coller-bones; & presently when it commeth to the Axillary artery[ tab. 8. fig. 2 P] it transmitteth as it were about an Axle-tree[ tab. 8. fig. 2. P] three braunches from the inner side[ tab. 8. fig. 1. l] which being reflected toward the head and vnited do make the right Recurrent;[ tab. 8. fig. 2. QQ and fig. 1. m] and it is inserted with the left into the second gristle of the larynx[ ta. 8. fig. 1. n] and implanted into the glottis & the muscles of the larynx.  
The foresayd branch after it hath made the Recurrent nerue, descendeth obliquely vnder the coller-bone, and in the way outwardly affordeth surcles to the pleura[ ta. 8. fig. 1. qq] and to the coat of the lungs, inwardly to the pericardium or purse of the heart[ tab. 8. fig. 1. r] and to the heart itself, and then maketh the nerue called Stomachichus dexter or[ tab. 8. figure 1. st] the right stomacke nerue which reacheth ouer to the left side, as the left doth to 
Stomachicus dexter.  the right side, and so at length is consumed into the left orifice of the stomacke, whence it hath his denomination.  
The inward branch of the right nerue is called Costalis[ table 8. figure 1. iii] which affordeth 
Costalis hath 3, branches.  braunches to all the bowels of the lower belly, and reacheth as far as the holy-bone, and is distributed into three branches.  
The first[ tab. 8. fig. 1. y] creepeth to the lower membrane of the kell, & is subdiuided into three small branches, whereof one goeth to the Collick gut[ table 8. fig. 1. z] and this is the reason that after a long fit of the collicke men grow hoarse; another[ table 8. fig. 1. α] to the beginning of the guts which is so small, that it can hardly be perceiued. The third affordeth surcles[ tab. 8. fig. 1. β] to the bottome of the stomacke: on the right side thereof, and to the vpper membrane of the kell, the rest of it is spent in the coat of the Liuer[ tab. 8. fig. 1. γ] and the bladder of gall. The second and the lower[ tab. 8. fig. 1. ♌] reacheth to the right kidney, and hence it is that men vomit in fits of the stone.  
The third which is the greatest[ ta. 8. fig. 1. ε] passeth to the Mesentery and the guts. The 
Table 8. Figure 1. sheweth the Brayne and the after-Brayne or Cerebellum together with the nerues( as the common opinion is) proceeding out of them: and this Table we haue especially set in this place to shew the distribution of the nerues of the sixt coniugation through both the bellies.  
TABVLA VIII.  
FIG. I.  
II  
Figure 2. exhibiteth the Recurrent sinewes together with a portion of the great Artery and the Rough Artery called the weazon. A The orifice of the great Artery cut from the heart. aa The coronall arteries. BCD The diuision of the great artery into two trunke, the descending C, the ascending D. E The left Axillary artery. F The right Ax●llary artery. G The right Carotis or sleepy artery. H The left 〈◇〉. ●. ● the trunke of the rough artery. KL the diuision of the rough artery. M the head of the rough artery called the larynx or throttle. NN Certaine glandules or kernels at the root of it. OO the right and the left nerues. P a reuolution of small branches of the right nerue to the right axillary artery. QQ The right Recurrent nerue. R a reuolution of smal branches of the left nerue to the descending trunk of the great artery. SS The left Recurrent sinew.  

A The Brayne.  
B The Cerebellum or after-brayne.  
C A processe of the braine, but not that which is called Mammillaris.  
DD The marrow of the backe as it is yet within the skull.  
E The Mammillary processe or instrument of smelling.  
F the opticke nerue.  
G the coate of the eye into which the opticke nerue is spread.  
H the nerue that moueth the eye or the second payre.  
I the third coniugation, or the harder and lesser branch of the nerues of the third coniugation brought forward.  
K The fourth coniugation or the greater and thicker Nerue of the third payre bending downward.  
L A branch of the nerue marked with I, which goeth to the fore-head.  
M Another braunch of the nerue I, reaching to the vpper iaw.  
NN A nerue proceeding from the branch I, intexed or wouen with the coate of the nose.  
O the nerue of the tēporal muscle yssuing from the branch, I.  
P A nerue contorted of the nerues K and b.  
Q A nerue proceeding from the braunch K, to the soccets of the vpper teeth.  
R A nerue creeping from the nerue K, to the lower iaw.  
S A surcle of the branch R offered to the lower lip.  
TT other surcles from the branch R attayning to the lower teeth.  
V V A branch of the nerue K, diffused into the coate of the toung.  
XX the fourth paire of sinewes which goe into the coat of the pallat.  
Y the fift payre of sinewes which are the nerues of hearing.  
a The membrane of the eare, vnto which that fift nerue goeth.  
b c Two small branches of the fift coniugation vniting themselues with the nerue P. d The eight coniugation or a nerue of the fift payre attayning vnto the face. ee The sixt payre of nerues. f A branch from the nerue e, reaching to the muscles of the neck. g Sm●l branches deriued vnto the throttle or larynx. h the byfurcation of the nerue into two branches. iii An inner branch hanging to the rack-bones, and strengthning the intercostall nerues, and is therefore called Intercostalis. kk Surcles of the vtter braunch going to the heades of the muscles, to the breast-bone and to the coller-bones. l m branches of the right nerue l, making the right Recurrent nerue. mn the insertion of the Recurrent sinewes into the muscles of the larynx. o p branches of the left nerue o, making the left Recurrent sinew p. qq branches from the sixt coniugation going to the coat of the lungs. r Small nerues of the heart and of the purse thereof called the Pericardium, as also some approaching to the coate of the lungs. s nerues on either side sent to the stomack. t the right stomacke nerue going to the left orifice of the stomack. u u the left stomack nerue going to the right orifice of the stomack. x A nerue from the branch u, passing into the hollownes of the liuer. γ the nerue belonging to the right side of the kell. z the nerue belonging to the collick gut. α A nerue creeping to the gut called duodenum and the beginning of the ieiunum or empty gut. β A nerue implanted in the right side of the bottom of the stomack. γ A nerue belonging to the Liuer and bladder of gall. ♌ A nerue reaching vnto the right kidney. ζ A branch reaching the Mesenterium and the guts. ζ A braunch sprinkled to the right part of the bladder. n A branch going through the left part of the kell. θ● Surcles deriued to the collick gut & the kell. x Smal branches inserted into the spleen. ΛΛ A nerue approaching to the left side of the bottom of the stomack. M a branch belonging to the left side of the mesentery and the guts. r A branch which attayneth to the left kidney. ξ Small nerues creeping through the left side of the bladder. ● The 7. payre of sinewes. 〈◇〉 A branch deriued from the sixt coniugation to the muscles which arise from the processe called Styloides. 〈◇〉 A branch of the 7. coniugation which goeth to the muscles of the toung, of the bone Hyois, and of the throttle or larynx. σ A coniūction or coition of the sixt and 7 paire into one nerue.   rest descendeth directly to the bladder.[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, ζ]  
The left Nerue of the sixt coniugation[ Tab. 8. figu. 1, e Fig. 2 o] is diuersified after the same manner with the right, and when it attaineth to the coller, is diuided into an outward 
the left nerue of the ●. coniugation  and an inward branch. The outward communicateth itself to the pleura[ Tab. 8. fig, 1 q] & the coate of the Lungs, and descending to the trunke of the great artery[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, C] transmitteth commonly three small surcles, which being reflected and vnited[ Tab. 8, Fig. 1 R] make the left recurrent Nerue.[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, SS] The remainder of this outward bough enclining to the right hand maketh the Nerue, which they call Stomachicum sinistrum, the 
The lefte Recurrent.  left Stomacke Nerue[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, uu] which vnder the gullet is ioyned with the right Stomacke Nerue.[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, s]  
The inward bough of the left Nerue passeth through the chest where it maketh Sinistrum costalem, the left Rib-nerue, and vnder the Midriffe it is diuided into three branches. The 
His inwarde bough diuided into three  first and vppermost[ Tab. 8. fig. 1 n] goeth to the Kell, from which doe proceede two small surcles, one to the collicke gut[ Tab. 8. fig. 1, θ] and the lower Membrane of the Kel;[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, ●] the other to the bottome of the stomacke[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, ΛΛ] and the vpper Membrane of the Kell; that branch which remaineth is inserted into the Spleene[ Table 8. Fig. 1, x]  
2 The second[ Tab. 8. fig. 1, μ] runneth to the left side of the Mesentery, and vnto the guts thereabout, and sometimes some surcles there-from accompany the Semmary Vessels euen to the Testicles.  
3 The third[ Tab. 8, fig. 1, ν] attaineth to the left Kidney: the remainder of the whole branch is consumed in the left side of the bladder.[ Tab. 8, fig. 1 ξ]  
And thus much of the diuarication or distribution of the Nerues from the sixt coniugation which yssue from the marrow of the braine contained within the scull.  
The Nerues that yssue out of the marrow of the Braine after it is conteined in the spondels of the backe, and is commonly called Spinalis medulla are of two sortes, some of the 
Two sorts of Nerues.  Necke, others of the chest.  
Of the Nerues of the Necke there are seauen pairs, and from the three last proceedeth 
Ceuicales pairs seuen.  one branch called the Midriffe-Nerue, made of three surcles al dispersed into the Diaphragma or Midriffe.  
Of the Nerues of the chest there are twelue paire called Intercostales Nerui, because 
Thoracici pairs 12.  they pertaine to euery distinction betweene the Ribs, and runne close to the bone on the the lower side thereof all along the length of it; for in the bottome of the Rib there is a cauity 
A note how to make ●n●ision in the Empyema.  where the Artery veine and Nerue doe meete; and therefore when you shall open a mans side diseased of the Empyema, you must make your incision at the vpper part of the Ribbe.  
And this shall suffice to haue spoken of the Nerues belonging to the chest at this time and in this place, the more accurate Discourse you must looke for in our Booke of the Vesselles.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Heart.  
_THE heart is a principall part; not as Aristotle called it principall, who placed in it all the actions of life and sense; but as being the fountaine of the Vitall Faculty and spirit, the place and nourishment of naturall heat, wherby the naturall heate of all the parts is preserued, and by his influence repaired; the seate of the Irascible or angry parts of the soule, the root of the Arteries and Author of the Pulse.  
It is called Coracurrendo, because it seemeth continually to run, for that it is continually 
Na●●es  mooued. The Greekes call it 〈◇〉, either of a worde which signifieth to beate or pante, which is 〈◇〉 proper word for the beating of the heart; or from a word which signifieth a Bakers moulding-boord, because in it the Alimentary blood is as it were kneded, wrought, moulded, and driuen out into thinnesse, till it turne into a vitall spirite; or finally from a word which signifieth principality, because it is a principall part as well as the braine; yet so 
The necessity of the Heart.  that as the Braine is of greater dignity, so the heart is of greater necessity; for the least hurt of this most what causeth death; and Galen saith, that death neuer happeneth but when the heart is immoderately distempered. Whereupon also Aristotle saith, There was neuer any creature seene without a heart, because without it there can bee no Originall at all of heate.  
It is scituated in the midst of the cauity of the chest in a Noble place as it were a Prince; and after the manner of those which being but one do occupie the middest as well for security, as that the body may be equally ballanced. At the fift rib it is embraced by the lobes of the Lungs as it were with fingers[ Tab: 3 N O P Q. Tab. 9. fig. 1 and 2. Table. 10, fig. 1, and 2] round about, that equally out of all the Lungs, it might draw breath by the venall arterie, and might againe deliuer ouer and diffuse blood by the arteriall veine, and life and heat by the great Artery to all the outward parts, & it is locked vp in his owne Capcase[ Tab. 9. fig 1, D E F. Fig. 2 B D] but so that the Basis resteth exactly in the middest, whether we regard the right hand or the left, the fore-part or the back, the vpper or the lower; but the point[ tab. 9. fig. 2 E] reacheth to the left hand, yet forward as farre as the left Nipple, so that in a liuing man it looketh directly forwarde( with a kinde of strutting position) to the Gristles of the sixt and seuenth ribs of the left side, where they are ioyned to the brestbone, that it may the better warme the forepart against which we moue. And truly it behooued that it should encline to one side that it might giue way to the Midriffe, and so neither of their motions 
Why it ought to encline to one side. ( which are both perpetuall) should be hindred; but not vnto the right side, for that the hollow veine takes vp as he ascendeth thorough the chest; happely also Nature was heere of Aristotles minde in the fourth chapter of his third Booke de partibus Animalium( for he was often of hers) that the lefte side was the colder and therefore she placed this hot part in it; for on the right are the hollow veine and the Non-paril, which heate it sufficiently; and so 
Why to the left.  both sides are prouided of heate and strength alike. Notwithstanding the common people are deceyued, who thinke it lyeth wholy on the left side because the motion and pulsation is most felt on that side, when indeede it lyeth in the very middest, as in the more Noble 
The common error of the multitude.  place; but the left ventricle which is the Store-house of spirites and the great arterie vvere the cause of their error, as Galen saith in the second chapter of his sixt Book de vsu partium. Add heereto, that in dead carkasses it is drawn somewhat to the left side, partly by his own waight, partly by the waight of the great artery which is fastned vnto it.  
It is tied by the mediation of the Pericardium or purse to the Mediastinum[ Tab. 9. fig. 1. from F to G] 
His connexiō.  and to the Midriffe, as also by his vessels to other parts. For Galen saith, that principals in som●things are to be tied together, and communicate one with another: otherwise it is loose, that it may mooue the more freely.  
The Figure of it as Hippocrates saith in his Booke de Corde is Pyramidal,[ expressed so in 
His Figure.  the Tab. 9. fig. 2] or rather turbinated and somewhat answering to the proportion of a Pine Kernell, because a man is broad and short chested. For the Basis aboue[ Tab. 9. fig: 2, C D] is large and circular but not exactly round, and after it by degrees endeth[ Tab. 9, figu: 2, I] in a cone or dull and blunt round point; for such a figure was fittest for his function, beecause length maketh much for traction or drawing, & roundnes for amplitude & strength: so in great dilatations it is sphericall that it might hold more; and in his contractions long and as it were Pyramidall, especially in bruite beasts.  
His superiour part which is called the Basis, the head, and the roote[ Tab. 9. fig: 2 C D] is 
The names of the Basis.  broader because of the vessels which in that place haue ingate and outgate, haply also beecause of his motion, that in this broad Basis the excauations or cauities might be the larger that when it is contracted both kindes of Blood arteriall and venall might haue place and room to retire to, and not be too vehemently wrought or pent vp in too straight a room, lest it should violate the continuity of his substance or of the fibres therein.  
His lower part is called the vertex or top, Mucro or point, the Cone, the heighth of the heart. Hippocrates calleth it the taile[ Tab. 4. figure. 2 E] which Galen saith in the seauenth chapter of his 6. Booke de vsu partium is the basest part, as the Basis is the noblest. Before 
The names of the Lower end.  the heart is gibbous or bunching, behinde hollow and in the sides prominent. The Superficies or surface of it is smooth and pollished all ouer, vvere it not that in some places the Fat, in other the Coronarie vesselles strutting with bloode, did make it vn●●●all.  
His quantity or magnitude is not alike in all, & in a man proportionably, as also the brain and the Liuer greater then in other creatures being as long as the bredth of sixe Fingers & 
His quantitie or magnitude  four broad, and so many high. But in fearfull creatures as the hare, Hinde, asse, and such like it is proportionably very great, for the heat when it hath too much scope or roomth( sayth Aristotle) is easily dissipated and vanisheth.  
The parts of the heart are some externall, others internall. The externall are the Purse, 
The parts of the heart. Externall.  of which we haue already spoken, the coate, the fat, the vessels which are of two sorts, some which encompasse the hart, others which reach vnto the entrances into his Ventricles and 
Table 9: figure 1. sheweth the heart included within his purse or Pericardium, together with the Lungs, and a part of the Medriffe.  
Figure second, sheweth the Pericardium opened, and so the scituation of the hart and particularly the fore-parte thereof.  
TABVLA. IX.  
FIG. I.  

A. A portion of the ascending trunke of the hollow Veine.  
a. A portion of the Great Artery.  
B. The beginning of the Pericardium, cleuing very close to the hollow veine, vnto the Arteriall veine and to the Great Artery.  
C. The small Veines of the Pericardium or Purse of the heart.  
D E. The foreside of the Pericardium bearing the Figure of the Basis of the heart.  
F. The sharpe end of the Pericardium.  
From F to G. the connexion of the Pericardium with the Midriffe.  
H. A part of the Septum transuersū or the midriff  
II. His Nerues.  
L M N O. The foure Lobes of the Lunges.   
The second Figure.  
FIG. II.  

A. The place where the Pericardium is continued with the vesselles of the heart.  
B B. The pericardium reflected to the sides.  
C D. The Basis of the fore-part of the hart.  
E The point of the fore-part of the heart called Mucro.  
F. The Hollow Veine.  
G. The Arteriall veyne.  
H. The great Artery and the Venal artery, which cannot be seene vnlesse the heart be leaned to the left side.  
I. The right eare of the heart.  
K. The top of the left eare.  
l. The coronary or crown-veine and artery of the heart.  
L L. Certaine branches proceeding from these vessels.  
M N O P. The foure Lobes of the Lungs.  
Q. A part of the Midriffe.   the eares. The inward parts are the fleshy substance and the Fibres, the Ventricles and the Values or Flood-gates.  
The coate is proper to the heart, very thin and fine. Vesalius likens it to the Membrane that compasseth the Muscles, this inuesteth it as that of the Muscles, and so strengthneth 
The Coate.  his substance from which it cannot be seuered. The fat called pinguedo with Columbus, or Adeps with Galen and Aristotle or both with Archangelus, is very plentifully gathered about it like Glue, especially at the Basis where the greater vessels are placed, because there is the concoction celebrated of those things that are conteined in it, & not in the Cone or point. 
The Fatte of what kind it is  This fat is harder then it is in any other part; and therefore it should seeme rather to be Adeps then Pinguedo, and that is Galens and Aristotles reason; for if it were Pinguedo it would melt with ●●e extreame heate of the heart to great disaduantage. Howsoeuer the vse of this fat ●●to moisten the hart, least being ouer-heated with his continuall motion it should 
The vse of fat.  grow dry and exiccated, but this kinde of fatty humidity is hardly consumed, but remaineth to cherish it, and to annoint and supple the vessels that they cleaue not with too great heate and drought.  
Moreouer, the heart being the fountaine of heate which continually flameth, it serueth for a sufficient and necessary Nutriment whereby it is cherished and refreshed, & in great affamishment, nourished and sustained, least otherwise the heart should too soone depopulate and consume the radicall moysture. Wherefore Galen ascribeth this vse to fat, that in great heates, famines, & violent exercises, it should stand at the stake to supply the want of Nature at a pinch. So sayeth Auicen, Fats of all kindes are increased or diminished in the body according to the increase or diminution of heate, wherefore heate feedeth vppon them. We haue often obserued in opening of the ventricles of the heart, in the very cauities of them a certaine gobbet or morsell if not of fat yet of a substance very like it, so that 
A substance like fat obserued in the ventricles of the heart.  we haue more wondred how that should in such a furnace congeale, then the other in the outside. The cone is alwayes moystned by the humor contayned in the Pericardium.  
The vesselles of the heart are of all kinds, which doe compasse the heart round about.[ table 9. figure 2. l and branches from these LL table 10. figure 2. D] The veine is called Coronaria 
The veine called Coronaria.  or the Crowne veine arising from the trunke of the hollow veine[ table 6. E] before it bee inserted into the right ventricle, and sometimes it is double: this engirteth round like a crowne the basis of the heart, and hath a value set to it, least the bloud should recoyle into the hollow veine.  
From this crowne veine are sprinkled branches downward along the face of the heart, which on the left side are more and larger, because it is thicker & more solid then the right side. This bringeth good and thicke bloud, laboured onely in the Liuer to nourish this thicke and solid part, that the Aliment might be proportionable to that it should nourish. 
What nourishment the hart needed.  By this vessell also it may be beleeued that the Naturall Soule residing in the Naturall spirite is brought into the heart with all his faculties.  
It hath also two Arteries called Coronorias[ table 12. figure 1. BB] proceeding from the 
The Arteries.  descending trunk of the great Artery, which together with the vein are distributed through his substance to cherish his in-bred heate, and supplying vitall spirites doe preserue his life: for if the heart did liue by the spirits perfected in his left ventricle and carried vnto his substance without Arteries, then also might the same spirit passe through the pores of the hart 
By what spirits the heart liueth.  and so be lost.  
It hath also Nerues but very small ones, from the sixt coniugation[ table 10. figure 1. K] or from the nerues which are sent vnto the Pericardium which are distributed into his basis 
The nerues. [ table 10. figure 2. h] close by the arteriall veine, but not very perspicuously; and as some thinke for sence onely and not for motion; because his motion is Natural and not Animal. But saith Archangelus if there must be but one and not two principles of motion in vs, then shall the Brayne be also the originall of all motions, because it is the seate of the sensible Soule;( for that opinion of Aristotles who attributeth vnto the heart onely all the powers and faculties of the foule, Galen and the later writers do with one consent disauow) and so 
Archangelus his conceit that the motion of the hart commeth frō his nerues.  this nerue shall minister vnto the heart not onely sence but also motion and both their faculties, and also the faculty of pulsation or the motion of dilatation and constriction. And this nerue sometimes though seldome is suddenly stopped, whence commeth hasty and vnexpected death, which wee call sudden death, the faculties of life and pulsation being restrayned so that they cannot flow into the heart. But we with Gal. in the 8. Chap. of his seauenth 
A cause of sudden death.  Booke de Anatom. Administ. will determine for our partes, that the faculty of pulsation ariseth out of the body of the heart not from the nerues; for then when these are cut away, the pulse should cease; and the hart taken out of the chest could not be moued, which we find otherwise by dissection of liuing creatures.   

CHAP. XII. Of the substance, ventricles and eares of the heart.  
_THE substance of the heart is a thicke[ table 10. figure 3. sheweth this] and red 
The substāce of the heart Why so thick.  flesh, being made of the thicker part of the bloud; it is lesse redd then the flesh of muscles but harder, more solide and dense, that the spirits and inbred heare which are contayned in the heart and from thence powred into al parts of the body should not exhale; and that it might not bee broken or rent in his strong motions and continuall dilatation and constriction. And it is more compact, spisse and solid in the cone then in the basis, because there the right fibres meeting together 〈◇〉 more compact, right as it is obserued in the heads or tendons of the muscles. This flesh is the seat of the vitall Faculty and the primary and chiefe cause of the functions of the heart, which 
Where is the seat of the vital faculty.  consiste especially in the making of vitall bloud and spirites. For it hath all manner of fibres right, oblique and transuerse, most strong and most compact and mingled one with another( and therefore not conspicuous as in a muscle) as well for the better performance 
The heart hath all kinde of fibres.  of his motion, as for a defence against iniuries; wherefore according to the opinion of Galen in the 6. Chapter of his third book de motu musculorum, and in the 7. Chapter of his 8. Booke de vsu partium( who sometime calleth it after the common name of the bowels a parenchyma; sometime the fleshy bowell) it is not a muscle, because it hath all kinde of fibres and is not moued with a voluntary motion, for after Gal. determination a muscle is the instrument of voluntary motion: but the motion of the heart which dependeth vppon his substance and flesh is not Voluntary but Naturall, neither can cease so long as the creature liueth; but the action of the muscles resteth sometimes and is againe set on woorke according to the determinate purpose of the Creature to which it is obedient. Notwithstanding Hippocrates in his Booke de Corde calleth it a very strong muscle and not vnwoorthily, 
How Hippoc. is to be vnderstood when he calleth the heart a muscle.  for he defineth a muscle to bee flesh rowled into a globe, and such is the flesh of the heart: wherefore both of them resting vpon their own definitions haue deliuered the trueth. And therefore Picholomenie answered for Hippocra. that there is in vs one motion Naturall whose muscle is the heart; another motion voluntary to which all the other muscles of the bodye are obedient; and he maketh a generall definition of a muscle, that it is a fleshy instrument working motion in a creature: vnder which the heart also may be contayned.  
The perpetuall motion of the heart because of the continuall generation of spirites( because 
The double motion of the heart. Contrary motions must haue a rest between thē.  euery part standeth in neede of them) is double consisting of a Dyastole or dilatation, and a Systole or contraction, which is accomplished by the fibres: for as long as the Creature liueth it is dilated and contracted, and betwixt either of these motions commeth a rest or cessation: for contrary motions, saith the Philosopher, cannot be without a rest between them.  
It is dilated when the cone or end is drawne to the basis with right fibres, and then it becommeth 
How the hart is dilated.  short indeed, but his sides are so distended that it appeareth sphericall or round. The vse of this motion is to drawe bloud into the right ventricle by the hollow veine, and 
How it is contracted.  ayre into the left by the venall artery, the values falling downe and giuing way to their entrance: but it is contracted when the cone or poynt departeth from the basis, and then the heart becommeth longer indeed but narrower, the right fibres being loosed to their length and the transuerse which encompasse the heart round being strongly gathered together & straightned, the values of the hollow veine and the venall arterie partly shutte, but those of the great artery & the arteriall veine are opened, yeelding out-gate to the bloud out of the right ventricle by the arteriall veine into the Lungs, and to the vitall spirite out of the lefte ventricle into the great artery, and to a portion of the vitall bloud together with the soote through the venall artery. This motion of the heart is called Systole or contraction and depression.  
This contraction is not a little helped, if not altogether performed, by certayne strong 
Ligaments in the heart helpers or authors of contraction.  ligaments[ table 10. figure 6. L figure 7. HH] which are streatched in the inmost parts of the ventricles of the heart; for when these being contracted doe fall, they also drawe together with them the coats of the heart inward.  
Finally the oblique fibres which lye obliquely along the length of the hart, are the cause 
The rest of the hart how wrought.  of the small rest that is betweene these contrary motions; and those things whether bloud or spirits, which are drawne into the heart by their helpe are a little while reteyned in the ventricles, the heart being on euery side straightned about those things it contayneth: but 
4. Motions in the heart distinguished by their times and places.  if in the dissection of a liuing creature you carefully obserue the motion of the heart, you shall discerne foure motions distinguished by their seuerall times and places, whereof two are proper to the eares of the heart, and two to the ventricles. The cauities of the heart which we call ventricles, Hippocrates called 〈◇〉. Bellies, so doth Galen in the 11. Chapter of his 6. Booke de vsu partium, but by a diuerse name 〈◇〉. They are two very notable differing in largenes and in form.  
The right[ tab. 10. figure 3. GG] is not exactly round, and hath a proper superficiall circumscription 
The right ventricle.  of his own, semicircular and crescent like a halfe Moone, for the belly of the partition which is like a semiorbe stands out into it. This sayeth Hippocrates compasseth Candam 〈◇〉, that is the taile, he meaneth the poynt or cone of the heart, but reacheth not to the very extremity, yet lower sayeth Vesalius then the left ventricle doth. It is broader also and larger much then the other, because it is to containe a farre greater quantity of bloud, therefore Galen in the 7. and 12. Chapters of his sixt Booke de vsu partium and an antient Greeke Physitian of Ephesus called ●uffus, call it the bloudy ventricle and venosus, that is the veiny ventricle. His flesh is more laxe and soft and his partition thinner[ tab. 10. figure 5 QR] in compensation of the waight of that it contayneth, that the heart might not be ouer-ballanced. Into this the ascending hollow veine whilest the heart is dilated powreth bloud, that in the dennes which are among the fibres of it, it might by the heate of the 

A. The right side of the heart, and a great part of the backe-side. B. The right eare of the heart.  
C The Hollow veine opening into the heart, from which place Aristotle thought it tooke his originall.  
D. sheweth the place where the Hollow-veine passeth throuph the Diaphragma or Midriffe.  
E. A part of the Diaphragma or Midriffe.  
F. The hollow-veine tending to the Iugulum.  
G. The beginning of the veine Azyges  
H. The trunk of the great Artery. I wher it descendeth  
K. A part of the Nerue of the sixt coniugation, from which the heart getteth a Nerue.  
L M N O. the soure Lobes of the Lungs.  
P. The way of the Vessels which attaine to the Lungs.   
Figure II.  

A B, C The left side of the heart, and a great part of his back side.  
D the vessels of the heart which compasse his Basis.  
E The branches of the same vessels.  
F The left eare of the heart.  
G, H The venal artery, his distribution into the lefte Lung. I The Arteriall veine.  
K His branch going to the left Lung,  
L His branch going to the right Lung.  
M the top of the right eare of the heart.  
N N the hollow vein. O the trunk of the great artery  
P His descending trunk. R S His ascending trunke  
Q the left Axillary artery. T the right axilarie artery  
V X The Carolides or sleepy arteries cal● also Soporariae  
Y The trunke of the Weazon or rough artery.  
a The right nerue of the sixt paire.  
bf Certaine branches making the right Recurrent sinnew f. c the left Nerue of the sixt paire.  
d Certaine branches making the Recurrent Nerue.  
c A surcle of the same offered to the left Lung.  
g The left Recurrent Nerue.  
h A small Nerue attaining to the Basis of the Heart.  
i, k l, m. The Lobes of the Lungs.  
n, o. The Midriffe or Diaphragma.   
Figure III.  

A C D Portions of the vessels of the heart.  
B. The right eare of the heart.  
E The lefte eare of the heart with a part of the Venall artery. F the point of the hart cald the Cone & Muero  
GG the right ventricle of the heart.  
HH. The left Ventricle of the heart  
II, The partition called Septum which distinguisheth the Ventricles.   
Figure 4. and 5.  

A B, A part of the Hollowveine from the Midriffe to the Iugulum.  
CCC. The orifice of the hollow veine opening into the right Ventricle.  
D E The orificies of the descending and ascending hollow veine.  
F The rugous or vnequal inside of the right ear of the heart, which is placed in the lefte side, because the heart is dissecied through the middest.  
G. the beginning of the Crown-veine of the heart.  
HHH. A circle bunching out in the orifice of the hollow veine. K L M the 3 Values of the hollow veine  
NN The Filaments or Fibres of the Values.  
OO Certaine fleshy excrescencies to which these Filaments do grow.  
P. A cauity regarding the orifice of the arterial veine.  
QR. A part of the hart compassing the right ventricle   
Fig VI.  

A, B A portion of the hollow veine and the great Artery  
C D. the orifice of the arteriall veine, the mouths also of his two branches.  
E F G. the three Values or Flood gates.  
HH The wal betweene the Ventricles of the heart.  
I One of the Values of the Hollow veine.  
K the Filaments of the same  
L the fleshy portion to which those Filaments are implanted.  
M the right eare of the hart inuerted & hanging down.   
Fig. 7.   
A the trunke of the great Artery. DA portion of the arteriall veine. CC the orifice of the venal Artery. DD A bunching circle in the same orisice. EF the two Values of the venal artery. GG Filaments drawne downward from the Values. HH the fleshy portions to which they are fastned. I the left eare of the heart turned inward K the wall or partition betwixt the ventricles. L A bosom or canity reaching the orifice of the great Artery. M M. A portion of the heart compassing the left Ventricle.  

Fig 8.   
A the orifice of the great artery. B C D, the Values that are set belore that Orifice. E F the beginning of the Coronall Arteries, G Portions of the same arteries shutting foorth H the Orifice of the Venal artery. I K h●● two Values. L the Filaments of the same. M the fleshy portions to which they grow. N. The left eare of the heart inuerted. O. A portion of the arterial Veyne. P Q. the substance of the heart compassing the left Ventricle. R. the wall betwixt the ventricles of the heart called Septum. SS. A certaine substance at the roote of the great Artery which sometimes in Beasts is bony.  

FIG I.  
Table 10. Fig. 1. sheweth the right side of the heart freed from the Pericardium or purse, which together with the Lungs is reflected to the left side, that the continuity of the Hollowe veine with the heart at his basis might better bee discerned, together with the vessels and a part of the Midriffe.  
FIG. II  
Fig. 2. sheweth the heart turned vpon the right side, that so the left side & the venall Artery with his Nerue might better be discerned.  
III.  
Fig. 3. sheweth the heart cut ouerthwart that the thicknesse of the ventricles might better appeare.  
IV  
Fig. 4. sheweth the bones of the heart as some expresse them.  
V  
Fig. 5. sheweth the heart freed frō the Lungs & the midriffe, the right ventricle & the orifice of the hollow-veine dissected.  
VI.  
Fig. 6. sheweth the heart cut thorough the right ventricle and the orifice of the Arteriaell veine.  
VII.  
Fig, 7. sheweth the heart cut through the left ventricle, as also the orifice of the venall Artery cut open.  
VIII.  
Fig. 8. sheweth the heart cut through the left ventricle & the orifice of the great artery.  
Tabula X.  heart be reboyled, attenuated and purified, both for the generation of vitall spirits, as also for the nourishment of the Lungs: for the greater part of that bloud in the Systole or constriction of the heart is powred out into the Lungs by the Arteriall veine, but the thinner part sweateth through the partition into the left vētricle; for this right vētricle was created 
Respiration or transpiration.  especially for the Lungs sake, as being found onely in those creatures which haue Lungs, but in those creatures which doe not respire but onely transpire as Fishes, this right ventricle is not found. And so the heart maketh recompence vnto the Lungs sayeth Galen in the 10. chap. of his 6. book de vsu partium, which drew in ayre for his behoolfe, by making and sending them nourishment fit for them.  
The left ventricle[ table 10. figure 3. HH] is made iust in the middest of the heart; if you 
The left ventricle.  take away that part which made the right you shall better perceiue it. It is narrower then the former, because it is made to contayne a lesse quantity of matter, and his cauity is rounder, and goeth sayth Galen in the first chapter of his 7. booke de Anatom. Administ.( though Vesalius be of another minde as we haue sayed) vnto the verie end of the cone. His flesh or 
The reason of his thicknes.  wall is thrice so thicke[ table 10. fig. 8. RQ] as that of the other as well because of the smalnesse of his cauity which must needs leaue the sides thicker, as also for that it preserueth the in-bred heate: it is also harder and more solide to keepe in the vitall spirits that they do not exhale or vapour out, and to poyse the body; the thicknes of this and subtilitie of the contents answering to the largenes of the other, and thicknes of his contents, that so the hart might not incline too much on either side. In this the vitall spirites are laboured and contayned 
The poyse of the heart.  together with the arteriall bloud, wherefore Galen in the 7. and 11. chapters of his sixt booke de vsu partium, and Russus call it the spirituall, others the spongie, ayry and arteriall ventricle.  
For in the cauity of this ventricle the vitall spirits are laboured, and from hence by the 
What is contained in it.  arteries are distributed through the whole body to cherish the in-bred heat of the parts, to reuiue it when it growes dull or drowsie, and to restore it when it is consumed.  
The matter of this spirite sayeth Galen is double, ayrie and bloudy mingled together. 
The matter of the vital spirit.  The ayre drawn in by the mouth and the nose & prepared in the Lungs, is carried through the venall artery into the left ventricle whilest the heart is dilated. And the bloud attenuated and concocted in the right ventricle, is partly distributed into the Lungs by the arterial veine for their nourishment, partly is drawne by the left ventricle through his wall and retayned by an in-bred propriety which being mingled with the ayre is absolued and perfected by the proper vertue of the heart, his in-bred spirit, heate and perpetuall motion, and so putteth on the forme of a spirit, which is continually nourished by the arteriall bloud. This bloud thus fraught with spirits in the contraction of the heart is powred out into the great artery to sustayne the life of the whole body; for all life is from the heart and the vitall spirite.  
The inward face of both the ventricles is vnequall and rugged, that the substances which 
The inward superficies of the ventricles  come into the heart should not slippe out before they are perfected, for which purpose also the values doe stand in great stead.  
That inequality commeth partly by reason of many small dennes which are more notable 
Whence the inequality is.  in the left ventricle,( wherefore Hippocrates in his booke de Corde, sayeth it is more broken and abrupt then the right, because here Nature hid the diuine fire which the Poets feyne Prometheus stole from heauen to giue life vnto man: and Hippocrates because of the great heat of this place thought it to be the seate of the Soule) partly because there are 
Prometheus fire  certaine small fleshy particles[ table 10. figure 5. OO figure 6. L figure HH figure 8. M table 12. fig. 2. s●] which about the cone of the heart appeare small & slender, to which the neruous fibres of the values[ table 10. figure 7. GG figure 8. L] called by Galen in the 8. Chapter of his ●. Booke de vsu partium, and by Archangelus the ligaments of the heart, do grow.  
These ventricles are diuided by a wall or partition[ table 10. figure 3. H figure 6. HH figure 
The wall of the ventricles  7. ● figure X. R] least the contents should bee mingled and shufled together, which on the right side beareth out as we sayed and is gibbous; on the left concaue and hollow, and is of the same thicknesse with the left side of the left ventricle, as if the heart were only made for the left ventricles sake.  
This wall is also full of holes and small trenches( it may be Aristotle therefore called it ● third ventricle) that in them the bloud might be wrought into a further thinnesse; porous also it is especially on the right side, that the bloud might more freely passe out of the right ●nto the left side for the generation of vital spirits, which Galen insinuateth in these words, in the 15. Chapter of his third booke de Naturalibus facultatibus. Out of the right ciuity that which is thinnest is drawne by the pores of the wall, whose vtmost ends a man can scarce discerne, because in dead bodies all such passages fall together. That the bloud is carried by these passages it appeareth because nature neuer endeuoured any thing rashly or in veine; but there are many trenches as it were and deep caues in the partition which haue narrow determinations. Thus far Galen.  
These breathing passages are most conspicuous in an Oxe heart after it is long sodden. 
How best discerned.  But there are some as Varolius, Columbus and Vlmus, who deny that there is any such passage, and wil that the bloud should be carried by the arteriall veine out of the right ventricle 
The opinion of some learned men.  into the Lungs, part of which to remayne for their nourishment, and the remayd●●● to be conuayed after some alteration in the Lungs mingled with the ayre which is drawne by the breath through the venall artery into the left ventricle of the heart for the nourishment and generation of the vitall bloud and spirits.  
But wee will leaue this subtle question to Philosophers, for vs it shall bee sufficient to haue made this mention of both waies by which it may passe, leauing the Controuersie to farther disquisition.  
At the Basis of the heart on either side hangeth an appendixe[ Table 9. figure 2. ●● ●● 10. figure 3. BE] which is called the Eare, not from any profite, action or vse it hath sayeth 
The deafeeares.  Galen in the fifteenth Chapter of his sixt Booke de vsu partium, and therefore wee in English call it commonly the deafe-eare, but for the similitude; for it hath a long Basis and endeth in an obtuse or blunt cone or poynt.  
These are placed about the ventricles before the orifices or entrances of the vessels 

Their scituation.  
The right.   which carry matter into the heart. The right[ Table 9. figure 2. 1 table 10. figure 1 B fig. 3. 2] which is placed neare[ table 10. figure 3. A] the hollow veine is the larger, and maketh as it weere a common body together with the veine, and his cone or poynt looketh vpward. But the left[ Table 10. figure 2 F figure 3. E] placed at the arteriall veine[ Table 10. figure 3. D] is much lesse, because the orifice of this vessell is much lesse then that of the hollow vein, 
The left.  and beside ayre followeth more freely at a narrow passage then bloud. It is also shape: 
Why the ears haue correspondency with the ventricles.  and runs more on the side of the heart and is more rugged and vneuen on the outside then the right, harder also and more fleshy and thicker, for the eares haue a correspondency with the ventricles, as seeming to bee by Nature framed to bee assistant in some preparation of the matters which belong to the heart. They are hollow as making way vnto the heart.  
Their substance is peculiar and such as is found in no other parte; much like the scarffe-skinne, and membranous that they might endure the force of attraction with out breaking, and also that they might better follow the motion of the hart; for they are like values streched and contracted; when they are full and extended then are they gibbous and smooth, but when they are contracted then they appeare outwardly rugous and wrinkled, and with 
Their figure  in they resemble the vnequall superficies[ Tab. 10. figure 5. the right inuerted 1 rugous fig. 7. the left inuerted 1. fig. 8. N] of the ventricles.  
They are thin that they might more easily be contracted, soft, and neruous for strength 
Substance.  for that is strongest which is most sinewy.  
The vse of these eares is that whereas the bloud and ayre rush violently toward the heart 
Their vse.  these should take them vp by the way, and keepe them as in a safe and let them into the heart by degrees, otherwise the creature should bee in danger of suffocation and the heart of violence in their sudden affluence. Moreouer they defend the vesselles to which they are set in the motions of the heart which haue a soft and thinne coate, and therefore other wise when they are streatched in sudden repletion might be subiect to cracke or burst. Hippocrates sayd they serued the heart as fannes to coole it, or as bellowes to smithes forges to gather in the spirits as they gather in wind.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the vessels of the Heart and their values.  
_THere are seene about the Basis of the heart in the outward sides of the ventricles 
4. vess●ls.  foure vesselles and so many orificies, whose originall some woulde deriue from the heart, as Vesalius and Varolius, and they are in each ventricle two. Hippocrates in his Booke de Corde calleth them the fountayns of humane Nature. In the right the hollow veine[ Table 9. figure 2. F Table 10. figure 1. C figure 2. NN] 
Their postiō.  and the arteriall veine.[ table 9. fig. 2. G] In the left the venall artery[ table 10. fig. 2 ●] and the great artery.[ Table 9. figure 2. H Table 10. figure 1. H figure 2. OP] Within these vesselles are certaine values or leafe-gates placed, which Hippocrates called the secret filmes 
The values.  of the heart, and Galen membranes and the Epiphysis of membranes eleuen in number, all arising from the orificies of the vesselles. Some of these are three-forcked, some like halfe 
11. in number  Moones: some againe are carried from without inward into the ventricles of the heart, to 
Their sorme.  which they are tyed with strong membranes, especially to the partition toward the cone or poynt, that in the dilatation of the heart the ligaments might draw the values vnto 
Foras intus. Intus ●●ras.  themselues, and as it were turne them vp to the body of the heart: others are carried from an inward position outward, as soone as the two vesselles do peepe out of the heart. In those 
Where stronger and why.  vesselles which receiue matter into the heart they are strong, because they are not onely to hinder the regresse but also are to drawe; but in those that send out matter out of the heart, they are weaker.  
In the dilatation of the heart they are all extended, the forked values making certain gaping 
The work 〈…〉 the values in dilatation.  fissures betweene their forkes, by which the matters are let in; those like the halfe-Moone or the semicircular values doe shut close the endes of their vesselles and so hinder those matters that are gone out for returning in againe.  
In the contraction of the heart they are all likewise contracted, & then the forked ones do close vp those yawning fissures which they made in their dilatation and so hinder those 
In contractiō.  matters that are gone out for returning in againe. These circular values flagging to the sides of the vessels doe leaue open way for the bloud and spirits to issue out. Of these values 
Hip. first mentioned them.  Hippocrates made first mention, and extolleth their structure as a wonderfull secret of Nature, and they are sayeth Galen in the 11. Chapter of his sixt Booke de vsupartium. framed with such exquisite Art that if they bee all at once streatched and stand vpright, then they stop the whole orifice of the vessell.  
They haue all one common vse which is to hinder that which is gotten into the heart 
Their vsecommon. Proper.  for passing out againe. They haue also proper vses, the vse of those that are set within and goe outward, is to leade out matters out of the heart and not suffer them to come back: the vse of those that are set without and goe inward, is to keepe the matters gotten in, that they get not out againe, and both these that the labour of the heart should not be in vaine.  
But because the constitution of these vessels is one in the heart of an Infant whilest it is in the wombe, and another in the heart after the birth, wee will intreat of them seuerally. And first as they are in a man after he is borne into the world.  
The hollow veine hauing perforated[ Table 10. figure 1. D figure 2. NN sheweth the passage 
Of the hollow veine in the heart.  of the veine] the midriffe, and being come vnto the hearte first sending out a short braunch from his lefte side, is receiued by the right deafe-eare with his ample and patent orifice[ Table 10. figure 1. from C to B] thrice as large as the orifice of the great artery, and is presently inserted into the right[ Table 10. figure 5. CC sheweth his orifice] ventricle; to which it adhereth so firmely that vnneth it can be separated from it. Whence came the occasion of Aristotles error and his followers, who thinke that there the hollow veine[ tab. 10. figure 1. C] as also all the rest haue their originall. And for the strengthening of the heart, this great braunch becomes like a ligament, and his vse is to bring the bloud which is sent vpward from the Liuer vnto the right ventricle and there to powre it into the heart whilest it is dilated, to bee farther attenuated therein, as well for the nourishment of the Lungs which require a thinner bloud, as especially for matter to make the arteriall bloud and spirites afterward to bee perfected in the left ventricle. The greater part of which is afterward sent out in the contraction of the heart by the arteriall veine[ Table 10. figure 5. P.]  
To this orifice groweth a membranous[ Table 10. figure ●. HH] circle, which addeth 
The circular membrane.  strength to the heart, it passeth inward and not farre from the beginning is diuided or slitte into three small but strong portall membranes[ Table 10. figure 5. KLM] or values whose Basis is large, and they end in an obtuse or dull poynt, and when they are shutte and doe as it were wincke together, they are like broade headed Iaulins or broade arrowe heades triangular, and euery angle forked; all which forks consist and growe together of small threds of fibres[ Table 10. figure 5. NN]( which Aristotle mistooke for nerues) ioyned together with fleshy breaches,[ Table 10. figure 5. OO] which by those fibres as by ligaments are stretched in the contraction of the heart, and those being streatched the orifice is almost cleane shut 
Breaches.  vp. But when this circle is open together with his fibres it resembleth a Crowne such as Princes in old time wore.  
But these Values, as also those of the venall Artery doe encline from without inwarde, that the bloode in the contraction of the heart should not regurgitate into the Holloweveine: how then is it possible that blood should bee laboured in the heart for the nourishment of the whole body when as no blood can passe out of this Ventricle into the hollow veine but onely into the Lungs? Wherfore it was necessary that Nature should prouide away out of the Lungs into the hollow vein, from whence branches might be dispersed thoroughout the whole body.  
The other Vessell of the right Ventricle is the Arteriall Veine[ Tab. 9. figure 2 o. Tab. 10, figure 6 C D Tab. 11, figure 1 C] 
The Arteriall Veine. A veine by office. An artery by substance▪ his Originall.  or the arteriall vessell. A veine it is, because of the office it hath to transport blood, an artery because his frame and substance is like that of an arterie. It is fastned to the ventricle with a lesse orifice[ Tab. 10, figure 6, C D] then the hollow vein,[ Tab. 10, figure 5, CCC] and from thence some say it hath his originall, yet it may better be imagined to be a branch and off-spring of the great arterie, because( as saith Archangelus) it is most likely that a veine should come from a veine, and an artery from an arterie; 
Archangelus his argument.  therefore the Venall artery, which though it haue the vse of an Artery, yet hauing the single coate but of a veine hath his Originall from the Hollow-veine made also of one single coat. And so the arteriall veine hauing the vse of a veine but the double coat of an arterie, most likely proceedeth from the great arterie which hath a double coate. Of which opinion also are Varolius and Laurentius, & it is further confirmed by their Connexion which in the Infant vnborne is more conspicuous.  
But the verie trueth as I conceiue is, that it ariseth as other spermaticall parts do from 
The true original of the arterial veine  the seede. His coate is not simple as that of a veine, but double[ Tab. 11, fig. 3. B C] as an arterie, and that for the vse as well of the Infant in the wombe as of the man afterward; of the Infant, that the Mothers arteriall blood and vitall spirit which it carrieth into the Lunges, 
The vse of the single coat of this Arterie.  dooing therein the office of an arterie, should not breath out as it would if it were as thin as a veine: of the man afterward( and in him it dooth onely the dutie of a veine, not of an arterie) partly because in respirations it was not fit it should bee easily dilated and contracted, as it would haue beene if it had had the single coate of a veine, for then there woulde not haue beene capacitie sufficient in the Chest for the instruments of breathing, and beside the blood should haue had too free and full accesse to the heart; partly, because the Lungs which are of a spongy and light substance required to be nourished with a thinne and vaporous not with a thicke and crasse bloode( for euery thing is nourished with aliment likest vnto itself) which could not haue beene either so prepared or so conteined in a vessell with a single coate, as in one with a double.  
Wee will add also that cause whereof Hippocrates maketh mention, that is, that the right 
Hip. his good vse of this single coate.  ventricle which is not so hot as the left, might not be as much cooled as the lefte, and so at length his heate extinguished. For seeing that the branches of the Weazon which drawe in the cold aer are diuided betweene the branches of the arteriall veine and venall arterie,[ Tab. 11, figure 1, BCD] if the coate of the arteriall veine were but one, it would receyue as much aer as the venall artery whose coate likewise is but one, and so both ventricles should be alike refrigerated; whence it must needes follow, that the lefte hauing more heate then the right, the heat of the right must of necessity be in time extinguished, the heat of the left remaining inviolate; wherefore Nature made this vessell thicker and so narrower, to carry aer not so much for refrigeration as for refection.  
This is a verie notabl● vessell, that so much as it becommeth lesse by the thickenesse of his coates, might be recompenced in the largenesse of the Vessell, and so the Lunges haue sufficient nourishment.  
It leaneth vpon the great Arterie, and turning his bulke vnto the left side, is diuided into two[ Table 10, figure 6, C D. Tab. 11, figure 3 FF] trunkes which are carried to the lefte 
his amplitude His diuision.  and the right Lungs, and there distributed quite through into inumerable[ Tab. 11, Fig. 3, GG] branches.  
The vse of this vessell is in the contraction of the heart, to receyue the greater part of the blood out of the right Ventricle( in which it is made thinner and lighter, that it might 
His Vse  passe out more forcibly) and to carry it into the Lunges for their nourishment. For the heart seemeth to make retribution to the Lunges, yeelding them bloode for their nourishment, because they sent aer vnto him for his refection.  
But although this Veine was made thicke and hard, that it might not too easilie be either contracted or dilated, yet it is not so hard, but that his branches are contracted & dilated 
Table 11. Figure 1. sheweth the fore-side of the Lungs taken out out of the Chest, from which the Heart vvith his Membranes are cut.  
Fig. 2. sheweth the backe and gibbous side of the Lunges, as it lyeth vpon the backe.  
Figure 3. Sheweth the Arteriall Veine.  
Figure 4. Sheweth the Venall Arterie separated from the substance of the Lungs.  
TABVLA XI.  
FIG. I  
FIG. II  
FIG. III  
FIG. IV.  

A A, 1, 2. The Gullet called oesophagus vnder the wezon or Rough arterie.  
B 1, 2. The rough artery.  
C 1, The arteriall veine.  
D 1. The venall artery.  
E F G H, 1, 2. The foure Lobes of the Lungs.  
K, 1 The Midriffe.  
I, 2. The Canale or pipe of the Lungs.  
A 3. The Orifice of the arteriall veine.  
abc, 3. His three Values.  
B 3. The inner Coate.  
C 3. The vtter coate  
D 3. The diuision of the arteriall veine.  
E F. 3. The two Trunkes whereinto it is diuided.  
GGGG 3. The distribution of the same through the substaunce of the Lungs.  
A, BB, CC 4. The orifice of the venall Arterie, marked with A. where it groweth to the heart, then diuided into foure trunkes.  
E E E E 4 Their distribution through the Lunges  
F 4. The simple or single coate of this artery.   by the chest; and so in the next dilatation of the heart the blood must needes returne into the heart by the same way it came out; but against this inconuenience prouision is made by three Values[ Tab. 10, figure 6, KFG] which are set to the Orifice of this trunk where it swelleth a little.  
These Values haue their Originall from the very coate of the Veine, and beeing placed inward do looke outwarde, and each of them is like a semi-circle or halfe-moone, or the 
Whence the Values are. Their figure.  Latine Letter ●. If all these three be together stretched and set vpright, they seeme to bee but one great Value stopping vp the whole Orifice, & whilst they are stretched carry their Figure of the halfe-Moone; but when they sinke or flagge then they become rugous and resemble the Moone in the first quarter.  
Their outward Couering or Circūference, as also is that of the great Artery, is more solid 
The Vtter coate of this Vessel.  then the rest of their body; for where in both Orificies they touch themselues or ioyn some way together, they become so indurated, that they appeare to bee like a long and rounde tilage.  
The Venall artery[ Tab. 10, fig. 2 G H not rightly expressed Table 11, fig. 1, D] is a vessell of the left Ventricle. An artery because of his vse, for it containeth and bringeth aer, 
The venal arteries.  as also because it beateth as other Pulses doe; not so indeede that it can bee discerned by the eye; but so it must of necessity bee, because it is continuated with the left ventricle 
It hath pulsation though not visible.  where is the originall of pulsation. A veine it is as being of the substance that veines are of.  
It proceedeth out of the left ventricle of the heart at his Basis with a spacious & round & open orifice[ table 10. figure 7. CC] greater then that of the great artery. It is supposed to haue his beginning out of the softer part of the ventricle; but it may better be beleeued to haue sprong out of the hollow veine if wee marke the connexion that is found in Infants vnborne.  
It hath but one thinne and simple coate in growne bodies, that the Lungs might bee 
His coate but single.  nourished with defaecated thinne and vaporous bloud brought by it but sent by the heart, and that in a greater quantity then a thick stiffe vessell would carry: because the Lungs are parts of great expence as well because of their continuall motion, as also for the rarenesse and loosenesse of their substance which suffereth the thinner part of the bloud to exhale 
Why this vessel is to be capacious, many reasons.  from them: againe it was needfull that this vessell should be capacious, becaue the heat of the left ventricle required great store of ayre for the tempering of it, beside that it needed for the reparation of spirits: for in growne men it hath the vse of an artery to carry ayre, & not of a veine as it had whilest the Infant was in the mothers wombe: and againe, the larger it is and more spacious the better may the smoake and soote passe through it into the braunches of the weazon without infecting the ayre it brinketh into the heart, which in a narrower passage would necessarily haue beene mingled: and in the Infant it had no vse of a double coate because it onely carried the Aliment of the Lungs vnto them from the hollow veine.  
It is a notable vessell, and as soone as it is gotten out of the heart is diuided into two trunks[ table 11. figure 4. BBCD] so that it seemeth to be a double orifice of the same vessell. The right of these is sent vnder the Basis of the heart into the right Lung,[ table 11. figure 1. D] The left into the left like the arteriall vein, and so they are both disseminated through 
The right branch. The Lest.  the Lungs, and make the representation of rootes[ tab. 11. figure 4. ●●●●] and may be compared to the rootes of the gate-veine: for as it doth sucke the nourishment with his ends or extremities, so the venall artery is deriued into the Lungs to draw ayre out of the branches of the weazon. But at the originall of this vessell and the great artery, they both meete and are ioyned together, by the interposition of a good thicke and large particle which in the Infant was perforated and made a passage as we shall declare hereafter. The vse of this venal artery is in the dilatation of the heart to draw ayre out of the Lungs for the generation of spirits, and in his contraction to expell or drawe out into the Lungs a portion 
The vse of the venal artery.  of the vitall bloud for their nourishment and life, as also the soote and smoake that ariseth from the flame of the heart: but least all the ayre should returne again out of the hart 
His values.  into the Lungs, there groweth to the orifice of this vessell a membranous circle[ table 10. figure 7. DD] out of the substance of the heart, which is ledde inward and deuided into two values[ table 10. figure 7. FF table 12. fig. 2. r] bending from without inward; which as they exceede in largenes the values of the hollow veine, so also they are stronger, hauing longer thredy strings[ Table 10. figure 7. GG] to which more fleshy[ Table 10. figure 7. HH table 12. figure 2 ss] explantations or risings do accrew; one of these values looketh to the right side another to the left, which when they are ioyned do resemble a Bishops myter.  
They are but two because this vessell was not to be ouer closely shut and that for two 
Why but two  causes: first, seeing that all parts need vitall spirits and bloud to be sent vnto them for their life the Lungs also must neede them; wherefore as they receiued Alimentary and nourishing bloud by the arteriall veine, so were they to receiue vitall by the venall artery; therefore in the venall artery there is alwayes contayned subtile and arterial bloud, which that it may be, it hath onely two values set to it, that in the contraction of the heart the way might not be altogether stopped vp, but so much space lefte as was necessary for the transvection of vitall bloud.  
But if the values were wanting then would the arteriall bloud in contraction flow forth in greater quantity and with more violence, and so the great artery and consequently the 
The necessity of them.  whole body should be defrauded. Againe, that if there should bee any smouldry excrements ingendred betweene the ayre attracted and the natiue heate which is conteyned in this ventricle, they might haue free egresse this way into the Lungs and so goe out by the weazon; which otherwise if they were retayned might endanger the suffocation and extinction of the creatures naturall heate.  
The second vessell of the left ventricle is the great artery, of which though wee doe entreat at large in his proper place, yet it will be necessary to discourse of it here so far as shall make for out present purpose.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the great Artery and his values and vse about the Heart.  
_THis great Artery called Aorta was made before the heart, hauing as the heart 
The great artery.  a beginning of generation from the seed, out of which it is immediately made at the same time that the other parts are. Albeit his originall of dispensation and radication be from the left ventricle of the heart, from whence it issueth with an open mouth and patent orifice to receiue from the same when it is contracted bloud and vitall spirit laboured in it to be distributed together with the heat into the whole body. Which bloud and spirits that they should not returne into the heart againe when it is dilated there are set in his orifice[ Table 10. 
His values.  figure 8. A] three[ Table 10. figure 8. BCD. Table 13. character 1. 2. 3] values like halfe Moones bending from within outward as it is in the arteriall veine, but greater and stronger because the body of the great artery is harder then that of the arteriall veine: these values are also a hinderance that the nourishment or Chylus drawne by the mesaraicke arteries out of the guttes should not be presently conuayed into the heart.  
There is also placed at his orifice to establish him the better, a hard substance sometimes 
The cartilage  gristlely,[ Table 10. figure 8. SS] which in some Creatures are red Deere is a very gristle, sometimes in greater creatures it is a bony gristle for it seldome growes into a very bone, 
Or bone.  as Galen sayeth in the 10. Chapter of his 7. Booke de Administ. Anatom it doth in an Elephant: but in a man it is not so to bee found. And these are the particles of the heart in a perfect Creature after it is brought into the world: nowe it followeth that we speake of the vessels in the heart of an Infant before the birth.   

CHAP. XV. Of the vnion of the vesselles of the heart in the Infant vnborne which is abolished after they come into the world.  
_THE structure and connexion of the vessels of the heart in an Infant vnborne or any other creature yet in the Dammes belly differeth much from that it appeareth to be afterward when the burthen is brought into the world. This 
Galen the true obseruer of these vnions.  Galen most perfectly and manifestly explayned in the 10. Chapter of his sixt Booke de vsu partium. And albeit most Anatomists after him haue lightly passed it ouer, yet will we stand somewhat more vppon it.  
We sayed before that there were foure vessels of the heart, two in the right ventricle, to wit, the hollow veine[ Table 12. figure 1, 2, 3. ab] and the arteriall veine[ Table 12. fig. 
How the vnions are made  1. m] and two in the left, the great Arterie[ Table 12. fig. 12, and 3. df] and the venal artery:[ Table 12. figure 12, and 3. which in the second figure is manifest] which vessels in the Infant are so vnited and coupled two & two together. The hollow veine a vessell of the right ventricle, with the venall artery a vessell of the left ventricle: and the great Artery a vessell of the left ventricle with the arteriall veine a vessell of the right ventricle: which vessels in men after they are borne are disioyned asunder.  
But these vnitings are not alwayes after one manner: for the former, partly because of the neighbour-hood of the vessels, partly because of the likenesse of substances they being 
The former.  both veines, is accomplished by the coniunction of their mouthes called Anastomosis, wee call it inoculation from the similitude it hath with that poynt of husbandry where a science or but a leafe is so fitted to another kinde as that the sap may runne equally through them both.  
The latter vnion because of the distance of the vessels to be vnited is accomplished by a Canale or Pipe. The first vnion which is by Anastomosis or inoculation or apertion and 
The satter.  opening of two vessels one into another, is of the hollow veine with the venall artery[ tab. 12. fig. 1, & 2. ag] which is to be obserued vnder the right eare of the hart before the hollow veine open itself into the right ventricle[ Table 12. figure 2. appeareth at h] and near that region where the coronall veine ariseth.  
For touching one another so that you may easily thinke them to be but one vessell, Nature 
Their common bore or hole.  bored them with one hole common to them both[ Table 12. agh] which is large and patent and of an ouall figure by which the bloud passeth out of the hollow veine into the venall artery and so is carried to the Lungs. But least the bloud should flowe backe into the hollow vein there is set to the regiō of this bore or hole which looketh toward the venal artery, a membrane like a couering or lid[ Table 12. figure 2. and 3, 1.] thin, hard and transparent, 
The membrane.  larger then the hole or passage which is fastned onely at the roote; but the rest of the body of it hangeth loose in the cauity of the vessell, that falling loosely and flagging into itself it might the more easily bee turned vp to the vessell of the Lungs. i. the venall artery and giue way to the bloud flowing forcibly out of the hollow veine; but hindering it 
The vse of the venal artery in the infant.  from returning thither againe. Wherefore the venall artery in the Infant doeth the office of a veine to the Lungs, but after the birth the office of an artery; for in these whilest the heart is dilated the bloud is powred out of the hollow veine into the right ventricle, and from thence when the heart is contracted thrust out by the arteriall veine into the Lungs. 
In the child alter-birth.  But in the Infant the heart being not moued and yet the Lungs requiring nourishment & encrease, Nature deuised the former way by which the bloud brought vppe by the hollow veine is not powred into the ventricle of the heart, seeing neither the Lungs stood in need of attenuated bloud, neither was there any generation of vitall spirites, but runneth straight into the venall artery and thence into the Lungs.  
These are admirable workes of Nature, but the conglutination or ioyning together of the foresayd hole presently after, passeth all admiration; for as soone as euer the creature is 
The admirable worke of God.  borne into the world, breatheth and the heart is mooued, it hath no further neede of this hole or passage, wherefore by degrees the membrane is dryed vp and the bore closeth and groweth together, so that if you looke for it a few weekes after either in the heart of an Infant or of a Calfe, you would deny that euer it was perforated, but in dryer creatures it sooner groweth vp, in moyster creatures later.  
The other vnion is of the great artery with the arterial veine[ Tab. 12. figure 1, 2 and 3 fg] by a canale or pipe[ Table 12. figure 1 l] for seeing the venall artery performed the office 
The 2. vnion by a pipe.  of a veine to the Lungs, it was necessary that the arteriall veine should chaunge his vse into that of an artery: wherefore Nature also made a perforation into the great artery. But because these two vesselles were a little distant one from the other[ Table 12. figure 1. d●] she made another third vessell but very small by which they might bee ioyned, so that they are ioyned not by inoculation but by a pipe or canale.  
This canall or pipe beginneth[ Table 12. figure 1. l] not from the trunke or stocke of the great artery, but from that region of the trunke carried downward[ Table 12. figure 1, 2, & 3. f] where the left nerue of the sixt payre or coniugation making the Recurrent is circumvolued 
Where the pipe beginneth.  or rowled about, & the pipe passeth not ouerthwart but obliquely or sidelong from the great artery[ Table 12. figure 1. from d to m] to the arteriall veine, where it is deuided into two trunkes and appeareth as if the arteriall veine were deuided into three trunkes, of which the first passed vnto the left Lung, the second vnto the right, and the third( which is a little lesse then the other two) should obliquely reach vnto the great artery, and is from the Basis of the heart in an Infant distant about the breadth of two fingers, in a grown child after birth the breadth of foure: and the longitude of it is so notable that you may put vp your finger betweene the two vesselles, but in Oxen you may easily put vp two fingers or more.  
This canale or pipe or vessell call it which you please, hath no membrane ioyned to it 
Why it hath no membrane or couer as the former perforation hath.  which might hinder the regresse of the bloud out of the great artery into the arterial veine, because the length and obliquity of the pipe itself is sufficient for that purpose. This canale or pipe is not encreased as other parts of the creature are, but as Nature drieth vp the vmbilicall or nauel-veine & arteries which are at the spine when shee hath no further vse of them and maketh of them small tyes; after the same manner the forenamed coniunctions of the vessels which reach vnto the heart when the creatures is brought forth are abolished, & this pipe is by degrees attenuated so that in a short time it is quite dryed vp. But in children of three or foure yeares of age it may be found, because of the thicknesse of his roote, but not perforated or hollow.  
These vnions or coniunctions are made for the behoofe of the lungs that they might be 
The vse of these coniunctions.  formed, growe and encrease; and therefore the pure bloud of the mother is carried out of the hollow veine directly by the venall artery into the Lungs by inoculation for their generation: for they are formed at the same time with the heart, & being generated and formed they are nourished by the same matter, and encreased as long as the burthen is carried in the wombe: but the vitall spirit is ministred to the great artery together with the mothers arteriall bloud from the vmbilicall arteries, and from thence are carried into the Lungs to 
Table 12. in 3. Figures, sheweth the vnion of the vessels of the heart, as it is found in the Infant, but abolished soon after it is brought into the world.  
TABVLA. XII  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  

a 1, 2, 3. The ascending Trunke of the hollow-veine.  
b 1, 2, 3. The descending trunke of the hollow-veine.  
c 1, 3. The eare of the right Ventricle.  
d 1, 2, 3. The ascending Trunke of the great artery.  
e 1, 2, 3. The left axillarie artery.  
f 1, 2, 3. The descending Trunke of the great artery.  
g 1, 2, 3. The Venal artery which in the second figure is open.  
h 2. The Anastomosis or inoculation, as it appeareth in the venall artery.  
i 2, 3. A small Membrane like a Value, closing vp the hole of the inoculation.  
k 3. The inoculation as it appeareth in the Hollow-veine.  
l 1. A Canall reaching into the arterial veine, from the descending Trunke of the great artery.  
m 1. The arteriall veine lifted vpward, from the right ventricle to the Lungs  
n 1. Veines and arteries dispersed thorough the coate of the heart.  
o 2. the left ventricle of the hart opened  
p 1. The fore-part of the heart vvhich regardeth the Lungs.  
q 3. The backe-part of the heart, regarding the Spondels or rack-bones.  
r 2. the values of the venall Arterie, with his Filaments.  
s 2. The fleshye implantations of the same.   preserue their life through the Canale or pipe by the arteriall veine. Wherefore the vse of the coniunction is, that whilst the Naturall and vitall blood is transported vnto the Lungs, it might not fall into the ventricles of the heart; for because the heart is not moued it would remaine there, and so should the Lungs be defrauded; but when the creature is come into the world, it vseth no more of the mothers blood but his owne, where it cannot holde the same course; but it must fall into the heart, and there as afore is shewed must bee changed. But it shall not be amisse to relate the order of Anatomicall administration for the finding of these vnions.  
The first vnion which is by inoculation, doth elegantly appeare, if the Trunk of the Hollow-veine carried through the Chest from the Midriffe vnto the right eare of the heart bee 
How to finde out these vnions in dissection.  diuided in the middest, for then will appeare two holes ●r passages; the greater which is that of the inoculation into the venall artery, and the lesser which is the hole or passage of the the coronary veine of the heart. But the second vnion which is by the Canale or pipe is demonstrated, if the descending trunke of the great Arterie be diuided thorough the middest euen vnto his outgate out of the lest ventricle of the heart, for then withinwarde will appeare the small and narrow passage of the pipe into the arteriall veine.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Branches of the great Artery disseminated through the Chest and the Necke.  
_THE great Artery is the largest[ Tab. 13, figure 1 A] at the left ventricle of the heart whence it ariseth, and before it fall from the Pericardium or purse it bringeth foorth aboue his Values or Membranes[ Tab. 13, fig. 3, character 1, 2, 3] sometimes one, sometimes two Arteries, which we call Coronarias,[ Tab. 13, fig. 1, BB] because like a crowne they compasse the Basis of the 
Table 13. Fig. 1, sheweth the trunke of the great Artery, together with his branches as they are disseminated through the three bellies or Regions of the body.  
The second Figure sheweth a portion of the Arterie as it is on the backeside, from whence it sendeth branches to the distances betwixt the Lower ribbes.  
The thirde Figure, sheweth a portion of the great Artery, where it yssueth out of the Heart is heere shewed open: & by that meanes wee may better perceyue his Coates and Fibres.  
TABVLA. XIII.  
FIG. I.  
II  
III  

A. The orifice of the great Arterie, where it is continued with the heart.  
BB The Coronary arteries.  
C the diuision thereof.  
D the descending trunke.  
E the ascending trunke.  
F the right Subclauian artery, whose originall at a is higher then the lefte.  
G The left subclauian Artery, whose originall is at b.  
H, I. The vpper Intercostall Artery at I. reaching to eight distances of the ribbes at H.  
K the Phrenicke Arteries on either side.  
* The trunke of the great Artery, where it passeth through the Fissure of the Midriffe.  
L L the Mammary artery. ccc Growing to the Muscles that are betwixte the gristles, and to the paps.  
M M. The artery called Ceruicalis.  
NN the ingate thereof into the bone of the Occipitium.  
O O the artery called Muscula.  
P P. the right and the left Axillarie Arteries.  
Q Q. the vpper chest Artery, called Thoracica superior.  
R R. The lower called Thoracica inferior.  
S S the artery called Scapularis.  
T T. the Artery called Humeraria.  
V V. the remainder of the Axillarie artery reaching to the armes.  
X Y the right and left Carotis or the sleepie Arteries.  
ee The coniunction of the Mammary with the Epigastricke Arteries.  
ff the diuision of the sleepy arteries at the chops  
g the externall branch.  
h the internall branch which is deriued to the throtle, the Chops, and the tongue.  
i This at the basis of the scull is distributed into two branches.  
l the distribution of the braunch g, vnto the Cheeks, and the Muscles of the face.  
m the distribution of the braunch g, vnder the roote of the eare.  
n the same branch creeping vp the temples.  
o And the backeside of the eare.  
p the stomacke artery called Coeliaca.  
q the vpper Mesentericall artery.  
r s the emulgent arteries,  
tt, vv the spermaticall arteries  
x the lower Mesentericall artery.  
yyyy the arteries of the Loines called Lumbaris α the vmbilicall arteries. β the Artery called Muscula superior. 〈◇〉 the byfurcation of the great artery into the Iliack branches, 〈◇〉 the artery called Sacra. 〈◇〉 the inner bow of the left trunke. 〈◇〉 the vtter bowe which descendeth to the thigh. 〈◇〉 the artery called Muscula inferior. λλ the artery called Hypogastrica. μ the remainder of the same bow, which being encreased by a branch from the exteriour passeth by the share-bone. 〈◇〉 the arterie called Epigastrica to which the Mammarie arteries marked with 〈◇〉 are ioyned. 〈◇〉 the artery called Pudenda. 〈◇〉 the Crurall artery. Figure 2 & 3. AAA, A coate like a Spiders web. B B the inner coate of the artery. C, the vtter coate of the artery. D E the original of the Coronary arteries. 1, 2, 3 Three Values set to the orifice of the Artery in the heart.   heart: afterward it yssueth out of the Pericardium and is vnequally diuided into two parts, one ascending vpward to the head[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 E] which also is the lesse, the other and larger by farre tendeth downward[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 D] because the parts below the Heart, are many more then those aboue.  
Out of the greater descending trunke[ Tab. 13. fig. 1 D] which in the Chest is large and 
The descending trunke,  thicke, these branches following do yssue.  
The lower Intercostall Arteries[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 HHH] which are sent vnto the distances of 
Intercostalis.  the eight low ribs.  
The Artery called Phrenica, that is, of the Midriffe, on each side one[ Table. 13 fig 1, KK] 
Phrenica.  which are disseminated through the Midriffe and the Pericardium.  
The remainder of the trunke pierceth through the Fissure or perforation of the midriffe[ Tab. 13. fig. 1, *] and cleauing to the bodies of the Spondels or rack-bones, doth diuerselie communicate itself through the lower belly.  
The lesser and ascending[ Tab. 13. fig. 1 F] trunke being fastned to the Weazon is communicated 
The ascending trunke.  to all the parts of the body aboue the heart; and first of all it is forked into two notable branches, which vnder the Pattell or coller-bones bendeth to the first ribbe of his owne side, and therefore it is called Arteria subclauia, for the Latines call the coller Bones 
Subclauia  Clauiculae,[ Tab. 13, fig. 1, FG] then the trunke is diuided into the two arteries called Carotides or the sleepy Arteries.  
The right Subclauiae[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 F his originall is at 2] issueth out of the great artery, euen where it is parted into the sleepie arteries, it is higher, larger and runneth more ouerthwart 
The right.  then the left, whose course to the arme is rather oblique then transuerse.  
From these Subclauiae before they fall out of the Chest( for after they are out of the chest they are no more called Subclauiae but Axillares)[ Tab. 13. fig. 1 P●] as soon as they touch the first rib do passe certaine propagations.  
From their Lower part, that which is called Intercostalis superior.[ Tab. 13. fig. 1 II] 
Intercostal. sup-Mammaria.   
From their Vpper part yssue, first the Mammaria[ Tab. 13. fig. 1 LI] which vnder the brestbone being reflected together with a Veine, descendeth vnto the Paps and the Muscles,[ Tab. 13. fig. 1 CLC] betwixt the gristles of the true ribbes, and so descendeth vnder the right Muscles of the Lower belly vnto the Nauell, where it is diuided into many surcles[ Table 13, figure 1 dd] and so meeteth with the Epigastricall Arterie ascending vpward.[ Table 13 fig. 1, cc]  
Secondly the Ceruicalis,[ Tab. 13, fig. 1, MM] which yssueth more backeward toward the 
Ceruicalis. 2.  bodies of the rack-bones, and at the 7. spondell of the necke entreth in at the holes of the transuerse processes of those spondels, and so is communicated to the Muscles, the marrow of the necke, and the Spondels themselues. Betwixt the first spondell and the nowl-bone these Arteries on either side[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 NN] enter into the scull, and at the Basis of the braine they are vnited.  
Thirdly, the Muscula[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 OO] because it watereth the Muscles of the necke. 
Muscula 3 From the Axillary Artery. Thoracica super Thoracica infer Scapularis.   
From the Axillary artery,[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 PP] so called because it passeth by the Axilla or Arme-hole before it reach vnto the arme, do yssue from the lower part Thoracica superior[ Tab. 13, fig. 1 QQ[ which deriueth his branches to the Muscles lying vpon the breast. Thoracica inferior[ Tab. 13, fig 1 RR] which creepeth downe the whole side of the chest. Scapularis[ Tab. 1, fig. 13, S] disseminated to the Muscles in the hollowe part of the Shoulderblade. From the vpper part Humeraria[ Tab. 13, fig. 1, TT] which climbeth to the toppe of the shoulder, and is distributed into the Muscles there●bout. That which remayneth of 
Humeraria.  the Axillary artery[ Tab. 13, fig. 1, QQ] being accompanied with the Axillary veine passeth vnto the arme.  
That which remaineth of the ascendent trunke[ Tab. 13, fig. 1, ●] lying vpon the sharpe Artery and supported by the Sweere bread, whilst it is yet in the cauity of the chest is diuided into two vnequall branches which they cal Carotides,[ Table 13, fig. 1 XY] or the sleepie 
Carotides.  Arteries, which rising directly vpward are by the mediation of a Membrane tied to the wezon and the internall iugular veines, and so attaine vnto the head. But of these wee shall speake more in the eight Booke.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the Lungs.  
_THE Lungs which are the instruments both of the voice and also of respiration, the Grecians cal Pneumones, because of the reception of the ayre which they call pneuma, or from a word which signifieth to breath, for by breathing inward they drawe ayre, and by breathing outward doe put it foorth againe. These Lungs are allowed by Nature to all breathing creatures, and placed in 
Why placed in the chest.  the cauity of the Chest[ tab. 3. NOP] because they were to be a little distant from the mouth least by the affluence of the ayre they should haue beene presently cooled. In liuing creatures whilest they breath inward they fill the whole cauity of the Chest, excepting the region which wee haue already sayed the membranes of the Mediastinum[ Table 3. L] and the 
How to puffe them vp in dead bodies.  heart couered with his purse doe occupy: but when the creature breatheth out then they fall, but not so as they doe in dead bodies flat and flaccid, because they are still full of ayre and bloud: and although they may bee puffed vp in a dead body by putting a payre of bellowes into the weazon, yet hardly can you rayse them to such a height as that they will occupy so much place as they doe in a liuing body. For being to contayne so much ayre as 
Why so great.  should suffice the diuerse motions of the heart, that we might not be constrayned to be alwayes fetching breath to speake, sing, or cry out, it behoued well that their quantity should be very great.  
And although for the most part they hang loose and at liberty that they might more 
Their connexion.  freely mooue, yet by the mediation of the vesselles of the weazon they are suspended and hung to the neck and the back least they should fall downward, and by the interposition of the Mediastinum[ tab. 3. GH to A] they are tyed forward to the breast-bone, backward to the rack-bones; also in some places at the sides of the chest they grow to the pleura with fibrous tyes produced from their owne membrane, which is peculiarly obserued in men as in the 
How they follow the motion of the chest.  wisest creature: by which meanes the Lungs which of themselues are deuoyd of all motion more easily follow the motion of the Chest do otherwise then for the auoyding of vacuum or emptinesse.  
Galen verily thought that the Lungs followed the motion of the chest for the auoiding of that vacuum or emptinesse which is so irreconcileable an enimy of Nature, because the 
Galens opinion for the auoyding of vacuum or emptines.  chest being distended they are dilated as they are filled with ayre drawne in; and the same chest being contracted and the Lungs euacuated by expiration, they fall into themselues: which he sheweth by an instance of a wound of the chest. For if the Chest be wounded so that the ayre can get into it, the Lungs sayth he become immouable and do not follow the 
His demonstration.  dilatation of the chest, because there is ayre which filleth the vacuity or emptinesse of the chest; but when the chest is sound and distended, the Lungs are necessarily dilated least there should bee vacuum or emptines, and the same Lungs, not for the auoyding of emptines, but either being compressed by the chest, or because of the ayre breathed out or both together, they fall necessarily.  
But we adde, that Nature taking knowledge of the necessity of the motion of the lungs, 
How the lungs moue when the chest is wounded.  that the chest being perforated the ayre going in by the wound might not hinder the dilatation of the Lungs which is caused for the auoyding of emptinesse, hath knit them in men onely as we said before to the pleura, that so by the necessity of this connexion they should follow the dilatation of the chest though it were perforated. They also adhere to the heart by the arteriall veine[ tab. 9. fig. 2. c] and the venall artery.  
They haue their figure( which is shewed in the 3. and 4. Tables) according to the proportion of the parts vpon which they rest: wherefore on the outside that they might be fitted to the cauity of the chest, they are gibbous and swelling; on their inside hollow[ table 9. figure 1. and 2. table 14. figure 1.] 
Their figure.  to giue way to the heart couered with his purse, which with their lobes or diuisions they encompasse round about. When both parts the right and the lefte are ioyned, they represent the shape of a clouen foote of an Oxe or such like,[ Table 14. figure 1. and 2.] for as the hoofes before are diuided asunder by a line as it were; 
Like a clouen hoofe.  so the Lungs backward[ Tab. 13. fig. 2.]( because of the bodies of the vertebrae or spondels) haue an oblique impression or diuision, and forward they cleaue in the very middest. They are diuided by the Mediastinum[ table 3. GG HH] into a right Lung and a lefte, that one part being hurt the other might serue the vse of the Creature( for oftentimes as wee see in 
How they are deuided.  the cutting vp of such as dye of Consumptions of the Lungs, the one Lung on the one side beeing vlcerated yea and consumed, yet the man may liue long with the vse of the other)  
They are onely ioyned together by the mediation of vessels[ Table. 14, fig. 1] which are disseminated into them from the Weazon & the heart. Againe, each Lung is diuided into two Lobes or Finnes if you draw a line from the place of the fourth rackbone or vertebra of the Chest: obliquely ouerthwart[ Tab. 14, fig. 2] to wit, the vpper Lobe or Fin & 
The Lobes or Finnes of the Lungs  the lower, yet so, that in a man they adhere together by Membranous Fibres, so that there is rather a note or footstep of diuision then any true diuision indeede,( though it bee otherwise in Dogges) and the lower is longer then the vpper. And it is so diuided, as well that the whole Lungs might more safely and swiftly be dilated and contracted( the act breathed in more easily penetrating into their narrowest passages) as also that they might the more firmely embrace the heart, and not be compressed when we bow downward. And althogh they be found to be distinguished( though not with any true diuision) somtimes into three, sometimes into more, sometimes into two, yet rarely shall we find in a man, because of the shortnes of his brest, fiue Lobes; in a dogge and an Ape often: and if it happen to be so, then saith Galen in the 2. and 10. Chapters of his 7. Booke de vsu part, they ly very high into the throat vnder the hollow-vein. Their substance[ Tab. 14, fig 2.] is fleshy( wherupon it is called Parenchyma & a fleshy bowell) wouen with three sorts of vessels[ Tab. 14, fig. 2 BCD] and 
Their substāce  couered with a thin Membrane, which varieth in softnes and colour, according to the age 
How their substance and colour differeth before & after birth.  of the party. In yonger men it is faster, in the prime of our age rare caue and hollow. For the Lunges being not mooued in the wombe of the Mother as neither the heart, are then thicke and firme as is the substance of the Liuer; red also from the colour of their nourishment, for nourished they are in the Mothers wombe with that wherewith they were generated, that is, blood brought out of the Hollow veine to the venall artery by inoculation, and spirits sent from the great artery to the arteriall veine by the pipe or canale before mētioned: but the infant being borne when the heart beginneth to mooue, his motion and heate softneth and puffeth vp their flesh by little and little, and so being mooued with the motion of the Chest, they also become pliable to the motions thereof, and are lifted vp and fall againe with ease; they lye also bedded as it were betweene the diuisions of the 
Plato his Mollis saltus. Why they ioyne after death, being cut or sliced.  vessels filling vp the empty places, and by that meanes are a defence and strengthning vnto them that they be not broken in their continuall motions. And this is the reason that Plato calleth their motion 〈◇〉, saltus mollis a soft motion, which is furthered in that their substance is full of a slimy and viscid moysture, insomuch that Varolius saith that after death if they be cut, yet will they glue together againe by this viscidity. 
Their substāce   
Their substance also is laxe, spongy and rare, made as it were of the froth of the blood, that it may better admit the aer drawne in like a paire of Bellowes, and be freely filled therwith. Their colour is yellowish, oftentimes ashie, spotted with certaine dull and blackish 
Their colour.  speckes or cloudye streames; and in those that dye of any long and lingering disease they grow yet blacker.  
They haue a Membrane bred out of the Pleura, for where the vessels passe into the lungs 
Their Membrane. [ Tab. 14, fig. 1, CD] ther their common coate sprung from the Pleura departeth from them, and is finely stretched ouer the superficies or vpper face of the Lungs, to forme & containe their soft substance, which otherwise being shaken with continuall motions would quickly breake off by peece meale.  
This Membrane is thin, that it should not be burthensome, and soft that it might better stretch with the motion of the Lungs, full also of pores though after death insensible, that if any quitture or matter should be gathered in the chest in a pleurisy or inflamation of the 
Why the mēbrane is porous.  Lungs called Peripneumonia, it might by these pores haue yssue, & so be spit out by Cough; albeit we are not ignorant that in both these diseases the Lungs themselues are affected; which we are taught by the dissection of Pleuriticall bodies; and also by them which haue recouered of Pleurisies, in whom doth remaine difficulty of breathing, and some payne in the weakned side as long as they liue.  
This porosite also makes their vpper face smooth, and bedewed with a kind of slimy moisture. Into this Membrane, because it needed but a little sense, there are smal Nerues disseminated from the sixt coniugation, on the right side[ Tab. 8. fig. 1 t] after the right Recurrent is framed, but on the left side[ Tab. 8, fig. 1 q] before the framing of the recurrent, these 
Why Vlcers of the Lunges are with paine  Nerues do not reach vnto the substance of the Lungs, least they should be pained or wearied in their continuall motion; and hence also it is, that all the vlcers of the Lunges are without paine.  
They haue disseminated through them three vessels[ Tab. 14. fig. 1, BCD] whose diuerse 
Table 14. Figure 1. sheweth the fore-side of the Lungs taken out out of the Chest, from which the Heart vvith his Membranes are cut.  
Fig. 2. sheweth the backe and gibbous side of the Lunges, as it lyeth vpon the backe.  
Figure 3. Sheweth the Arteriall Veine.  
Figure 4. Sheweth the Venall Arterie separated from the substance of the Lungs.  
TABVLA XIIII.  
FIG. I  
FIG. II  
FIG. III  
FIG. IV.  

AA, 1, 2. The Gullet called asophogus vnder the wezon or Rough arterie.  
B 1, 2. The rough artery.  
C 1, The arteriall veine.  
D 1. The venall artery.  
EFGH, 1, 2. The foure Lobes of the Lungs.  
K, 1 The Midriffe.  
I, 2. The Canale or pipe of the Lungs.  
A 3. The Orifice of the arteriall veine.  
abc, 3. His three Values.  
B 3. The inner Coate.  
C 3. The vtter coate  
D 3. The diuision of the arteriall veine.  
E F. 3. The two Trunkes whereinto it is diuided.  
GGGG 3. The distribution of the same through the substaunce of the Lungs.  
A, BB, CC 4. The orifice of the venall Arterie, marked with A. where it groweth to the heart, then diuided into foure trunkes.  
EEEE 4 Their distribution through the Lunges  
F 4. The simple or single coate of this artery.   branches ride ouer and mingle one with another. These are diuided first into two, as the Lungs themselues are, and presently after into other parts, euery one keeping his course til at length they end in threddy branches at the very superficies of the Lungs, between which vessels their substance is circumfused as it is in the Liuer. One of these vessels proper vnto the Lungs is called the rough Artery, or Aspera Arteria, we commonly call it the wezon or 
The windepipe or weazon called Aspera Arteria.  winde-pipe.[ Tab. 14, fig. 1 B and Tab. 15] The branches of this pipe are very great, and disseminated through the middest of the others, and bringeth aer drawne by the mouth and the nose to the Lungs, of which we wil speake in the next chapter.  
Two vessels it receyueth from the heart, of which wee haue spoken before, one called the arteriall veine[ tab. 14. fig. 1, C Fig. 13. the whole arteriall veine] which out of the right 
The Arteriall veine.  ventricle ministreth to the Lungs Alimentarie blood therein attenuated for their nourishment, and with this blood the naturall spirit and the naturall soule therein residing with all her powers and faculties are communicated to the Lungs.  
The other called the venall artery[ tab. 14, fig. 1 D figure. 4 the venall arterie separated] which is an instrument onely of the spirits, but conteyneth also pure, thinne and vaporous blood; wherefore the aer which was attracted by the winde-pipe, and prepared in the lungs it leadeth to the heart, and from the lefte ventricle bringeth foorth vitall bloode with the vitall spirit and faculty to the Lungs, partly that therewith they may bee nourished, partly 
Whence life it.  for their life that the in-bred heate may be cherished,( for life is from the vitall spirite and the arteriall bloud perfected in the left ventricle of the hearte) partly that by it the smoake and soot may be carried out of the heart.  
These two vessels are farre greater then the magnitude of the Lungs may seeme to require if the proportion be compared to that of other parts, & that because the Lungs with their perpetuall motion do consume and dissipate much moysture; and moreouer because they serue not onely to carry out naturall bloud and vitall bloud with vitall spirits; but also by their extremities doe receiue from the ends of the winde-pipe ayre which they lead into the ventricles of the heart; and if any small braunch of these vesselles be broken the Lungs become purulent and yeeld matter vp in coughing, as Hippocrates sayeth in his first Booke de morbis, and in the same place addeth, that the Lungs with their heat do draw vnto themselves phlegme out of the whole body, especially out of the head.  
And as the substance of the Lungs is differing from the substance of the whole body, so is their manner of nourishing; for there is no part either so rare, light and spirituous, or which 
Their difference from other parts in substance & maner of nourishment.  is nourished with so pure, thinne and vaporous bloud; wherefore the Lungs haue vesselles contrary to those which are in other parts: for in other parts the veins haue a rare and thin coat, that the thick bloud might be freely and speedily distributed to the parts about them; for bodies are nourished with bloud drawne through the verie coate of the vessels, but the arteries are thicke and dense or thight that the neighbour parts may for their life draw only subtile and spirituous bloud and but a little of it; because no particle of the body though neuer so small can bee preserued without it: but in the Lungs all is farre otherwise. The 
How extraordinary in the Lungs.  coates of the veines[ Tab. 14. figure 3. BC] are thicke and thight, that nothing but that which is very thinne may sweate out, because euery thing is nourished with Aliment of his owne Nature, and the bodie of the Lungs being light and rare doe therefore stand in neede of a pure vaporous and thin bloud.  
But because the Lungs as well in respect of their perpetual motion, as for their store of heate which they haue partly by the vicinity or neighbour-hood of the heart, partly by the assiduity of their motion; doe neede more plentifull nourishment then other parts: therefore Nature hath giuen to their arteries the coate of a veine[ Table 14. figure 4. ●] that they might yeelde vnto the Lungs thinne and spirituous bloud plentifully and in aboundance: that because the veines in regard of their thicknesse or density yeelded them lesse store of nourishment, aboundant recompence might be made by the arteries which because of their thinnes and rarity cannot containe it from them.  
These three vessels some will haue to be moued according to the motion of the Lungs; 
How these 3. vessels are moued, & by what vertue.  others according to the heart; onely the weazon or asper arterie is dilated when the lungs are dilated. But the venall artery is moued truely after the motion of the heart, but not with the same motion nor with the same power or vertue that the arteries or pulses are moued with. For the heart in his dilatation drawes ayre from the venall artery; in his contraction he thrusteth foorth a part of the yitall bloud together with the sooty excrements: wherefore this venall artery is emptied in the dialtation of the heart and filled in his contraction.  
The vses of the Lungs is, first to be the instruments of respiration and of the voyce, 
The vses of the Lungs. ( for all those creatures that want Lungs vse not to breath and are mute beside) for beeing dilated, like a paire of bellowes they receiue in ayre from the braunches of the windepipe, which they prepare as being the shoppe of the spirites, and by degrees change it for the vse of the heart, which otherwise should receiue it impure and rushing suddenly and at once in to him; and by this delay and preparation it becommeth a conuenient nourishment for the in-bred spirite. For some quality of the aire is familiar and agreeing with that inbred 
New limed houses are dangerous to dwel in.  spirit, another is full of enmity and wil corrupt it; and hence it is that we see those that dwel in houses newly limed get diseases, and especially the fume or smoother of coales and such like will presently kill a man.  
This ayre the heart in his dilatation draweth vnto itself by the branches of the venall artery out of the rootes of the winde-pipe whose mouthes doe meet, whereby hee is cooled; for euery thing that is hot is nourished, cherished and conserued by that which is moderately cold, as Hippocrates saith in his Booke de naturapueri: For as a flame being straitned in a narrow place and not ventilated with the ayre is consumed; so our Naturall heate when it wants cooling growes weaker( as they know well which sit in hot houses) and faint and is at length extinguished; for as a flame it is continually mooued; wherefore the Philosophers called the Lungs the Fan or flabell of the heart; and Plato thought that the heart 
Gal de vsu respir. expoundeth this saying of Hippoc.  when it was heated with anger was tempered againe by the Lungs.  
Againe, when they are constringed and contracted in expiration( for in inspiration and expiration life doth consist saith the Philosopher in the 21. chapter of his Booke Derespiratione) they driue out the aer that remaineth by the same way, that it may giue place vnto that which is fresh, and make also matter for the voice: this aer when it comes in is colde, when it goeth out hot, because it hath met with the heate that is conteyned in the Heart. Another vse of them is in expiration to auoide the fuliginous and smoaky sootinesse of the heart and spirits, and the thin and thicke excrements of the Lungs gathered in the braunches of the sharpe Artery or Weazon by coughing into the winde-pipe, which are carried vp as in a Reede and spit out of the mouth, yea sometimes cast out with a cough.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Weazon or winde-pipe called the sharpe Artery, or Aspera Arteria.  
_THE third proper vessell of the Lungs the Ancients called simply the Artery, because it containeth aer; the later Writers with Galen call it the sharpe artery, 
Of the wind-pipe.  because of the inequality of his substaunce, and to distinguish it from the smooth Arteries; we call it commonly the weazon or winde-pipe.  
It is one and a great pipe[ Tab. 15, fig. 1 and 2] giuen to all creatures which haue Lungs, it looketh toward the holes of the nose which open into the mouth, and is placed 
His position.  before the Gullet or oesophagus[ Tab. 14, fig. 1 AA] vpon which it lyeth in the bottome of the throate, and is carried directly downward from the mouth along the necke( which seemeth to be framed especially for this cause) into the Lungs, into which it alwayes gapeth very wide, and in his lower part is diuided into many smaller Pipes, called by Hippocrates in his Booke de locis in homine, syringas and Aortas, which determine in the Lungs with manifold branches.[ Tab. 15, fig. 1, bb, cc]  
The vpper part of it which is the head, is called Larynx, we call it the throttle:[ Tab. 15 fig. 1 and 2 g h] 
The throttle or Larynx.  of it we will speake in our History of the mouth: the rest[ Tab. 15, fig. 1 aa] is called Branchus, because it is moystened with drinke.  
The head of it or the Throttle is tyed to the throate by his inwarde coate, then by his outward coate it groweth forward, and at the sides to the Muscles and Vessels that neighbour 
His connexiō  about it, but behinde to the oesophagus or Gullet by certaine Fibrous tyes that it may descend downward the safer.  
The substance of this part is partly Membranous,[ Tab. 15, fig. 2 f] partly gristly,[ Tab. 15, fig. 2 dd] and is invested with two coates, one outward arising from the Pleura which is 
His substance  thinne and groweth exceeding fast to the Membranous bandes of the Cartilages or Gristles, and is as it were a couering to the pipe, which by this coates interposition is tyed to 
His outwarde coate.  the parts neere hand, and ioyneth the Recurrent sinnewes neerer to this arterie, and beside leadeth them more safely along.  
The other coate is inwarde, arising from the coate that inuesteth the Palate of the mouth: this encompasseth the whole pipe, whereby the gristles are more firmelie ioyned 
The inwarde coate.  together; it is thight and solide and much thicker then the outward, by which his thickenesse and solidity the artery is warranted from the iniuries which might come by any sharp Rheume or other matter that should fall from the head or bee hawked vp, as sometimes salt Flegme and putrid, sometimes bilious or cholericke, sometimet ill qualited and sharpe quitture which is coughed out of the Lungs, or by any sharpe things that should fall or bee swallowed downe, as fumes or vapors and meats or drinkes of a tart or sharpe quality; yet is this coate in the branches dispersed into the Lungs farre thinner then in the throtle, least it should hinder the attraction of the aer, or the expulsion of the smoake or foote, but in the middle of the pipe it is of a middle consistence.  
This coate wouen with right Fibres which runne through his length, is soft & smooth and smeared ouer with a fatty and vnctious humor that the artery might not bee dryed eyther 
The sound of the voyce in burning Agues.  when hot aer is drawne in, or when sharpe fumes yssue out in great outcries or clamorous motions, for that such drinesse would be very offensiue to the voice and the transmission of aer: for when the parts which appertaine to the throate and to this vveazon are vehemently dryed, as it happeneth in burning agues, then follow those sounds of the voice which Hippocrates in many places, calleth 〈◇〉 Clangosas, which beginne base and end 
Tab. 15. Fig. 1. sheweth the foreside of the throttle and the weazon, and the branches of the same disseminated through the substance of the Lungs. Fig. 2. sheweth the backeside of the Throttle, and of the trunke of the weazon.  
TABVLA. XV.  
FIG. I.  
II.  

aa 1. The pipe of the Rough Arterie or weazon.  
bb 2. The diuision of the same.  
ccc 1. The distribution of those branches through the Lungs.  
dd 2. The semi-circular gristles of the weazon.  
ee 1, 2. The Membranous Ligaments.  
f 2. The Membranous part of the weazon-pipe.  
g 1. The forepart of the Throttle or Larynx.  
h 2. The back-part of the same.  
ii 1. the two Glandules.  
kk 1. The Gristle called Sentalis.  
l, 1, 2. The Epiglottis.  
mm 2. The gristle called Arythenoides.  
nn 2. The gristle called Crycoides.  
o 2. the slit which we call the Glottis.   sharpe, as if the voice failed in the end as it doth in drunken men; and this kinde of voyce is of euil presage in such Agues; but when the parts are abundantly moistned as in destillations & poases, then the sound is raucous or hoarse, but beside such destillations it is moistened by a humor conteined in certaine Glandules[ Tab. 15, fig: 1. 11] set at the root of the throttle or Larynx, and others that lye vpon them( for it is rare to finde small Glandules in 
The Glandules of the Throttle.  the pipe itself though sometimes it be so) as also by a part of the drinke which insensiblie descendeth by the sides of the pipe[ Tab. 15, fig. 1 aa] as we shall say when we come vnto the History of the Larynx.  
This coate is also verie sensible, that it might quickly finde fault with that that troubles it and solicit the Lungs to cough it vp. Betweene these two coates are placed the gristles, and their proper Membranous Ligaments.[ Ta. 15, fig 2 ee] For this winde-pipe is made of 
The Gristles of the Weazō  many gristles like rings, but not fally round[ Tab. 15, fig: 2 dd] wanting a fourth part on the backe-side, which are called Sigmoides, resembling the old Greeke Sigma, and our ● thus 
Their Forme  turned backward, the Physitians in Galens time called them Bronchia. These all along are equally distant one from another, and the vpper are greater then the lower, and thicker in their bredth, especially in the middest, because their middest standeth formost, that the artery might not easily be hurt by outward iniuries. 
Conexion & Scituation.   
These by little and little are attenuated and grow thinner, and so go as it were into a mēbrane, and are knit to the proper membrane of euery gristle[ tab: 15, fig: 1 e e] by the interposition as it were of a Periostion Ligament-wise: but this ligament if it may be so called, is in brute beasts more Membranous, and in men more fleshy: or shal we cal these ligaments[ tab: 15, fig: 2 ee] small muscles, because they intersect themselues like the intercostall Muscles, and fill vp the distances of the gristles.  
And because the gristles do not make a perfect circle or rundle on the backpart, they are 
How they are ioined behind  so ioyned by the help of membranous productions brought from the ends of the gristles, that the gristles with these membranes[ tab. 15, fig: 2 f] doe make a perfect and full though not a round circle. And this their substance and structure was more meet for their vse then any other. For if either the weazon had beene made of one gristle, or of many altogether 
Why this their structure is best.  round, it would haue bin alwayes alike open, which would haue bred a difficulty in inspiration and expiration, because it is necessary that it should arise and fal with the lungs. It could not haue bin made onely of a membrane, for then the membrane being soft would fal, and so the cauity not alwaies be kept open; beside that, or any other such soft substance had bin vnmeete for the generation of the voice, as wee may perceiue in instruments when the strings are moist.  
But because this pipe was to be the instrument not onely of respiration, but also of the voyce, it behooued that this substance should be gristly and rigid, or stiffe and harde like a pipe, not onely for the freer egresse and regresse of the aer, but also for the necessity of the voice, because the sound could not be made without the collision or beating of the aer as 
How sound is 〈◇〉.  it goeth out against a hard body. For that which soundeth must be smooth and solid, that there may bee asymetrie or proportion, and yet are sistance betweene the aer and the substance against which the aer smiteth at which it may a little rest, wherfore in respect of the sound it might haue consisted onely of one gristly substance, but because the voice coulde not be formed without inspiration and expiration and these stood in neede of dilatation & constriction, it was necessary it should be compounded of many gristles and Membranous Ligaments, by which it might performe the foresaide motions. Wherefore when we draw in our breath, the ligaments which tye the Gristles together are stretched, and do separate the gristles so much assunder as themselues are stretched. Contrarywise when wee breath out, those ligaments are loosed and doubled and fall into themselues so that the Gristles touch one another, which may bee perceiued in a dead bodie if you blowe winde into his weazon: and therefore the Gristles and the instruments of the voice and the membranous ligaments which ioyne them together, are instruments of respiration. For the artery itselfe 
The Gristles serue the voice and the Ligamentes the breathing  prepareth the voice for the throttle or Larynx, for that is the first and most principal instruinstrument of the voice, as we shall declare afterwards.  
Add to this, that if the gristly rings had been perfectly round, not onely the gullet which is soft would haue beene hurt by their hardnesse, but it would haue beene also a hindrance 
The inconueniency of the rings it they had bin round  to the swallowing of the meate, by restraining the iust dilatation of the gullet, especially in the swallowing of solid meates, which they haue proofe of who rauenously deuoure their meate before it be chewed: wherefore, that the Larynx which is altogether gristlie, should be no impediment to the Gullet, the Gullet in swallowing is drawne downeward, and the throttle ascendeth vpward.  
When this pipe commeth[ Tab. 15, fig. 1, aa] into the capacity or hollownes of the chest 
The diuision of the windepipe.  to his fourth rack-bone, it is diuided into two trunkes[ Tab. 15, fig. 1 and 2 bb] the right going to the right side, the left to the left side of the lungs, into which when they are passed, they are againe subdiuided on eyther side into two other branches to each Lobe, and these into many others,[ Tab. 15, fig. 1, cccc] whose gristles are sometimes triangular, sometimes square, sometimes otherwise formed, and passe on disseminated euen to the extreamities of the Lungs, that they might better fit themselues to their dilatation and constriction, neither be obstructed but bee free for inspiration and expiration, and alwayes open for the auoyding of any matter Rhenmaticke, Bloody or Purulent by Cough or otherwise. The branches of these diuisions are placed betweene the branches of the venall arterie and the arteriall veine[ Tab. 14, fig. 1 BCD] in the middest, and are greater then either of the other, but so that the Veine is on the backside of it, and the artery on the right, which presently as it comes out of the heart entreth the Lungs, for that it was not safe that his thinne coat should runne along without some Firmament, hauing so actiue and flippant matter in it. Necessary it was that these branches of the Weazon should be neere vnto both those vesels 
Why the brāches of the windpipe ioin mouths with the venal Artery.  and ioyne mouths with them; and first with the Venall artery, that so there might bee free passage out of the Rough Artery into the smooth for the aer to passe to the left ventricle of the heart, and as free an outlet for the vapors and soote, but not for bloode & other humors, vnlesse it be by violent Coughing; wherefore, if at any time they become more open then they should be, eyther by breaking one of them, or by opening of their orifices, or if any of them should be gnawne asunder, then part of the bloode contained in the branches 
The causes of coughing of blood.  of the smooth Arteries is powred into these Rough, which hindreth the recourse of the breath taking vp the passages of it, and so suddenly followeth a cough, and the bloode comes vp into the mouth; but if that which insensibly slid downe the Weazon, & so passed vnto his lowest pipes do thicken in the outlets which are very smal, it breeds such a difficulty of breathing, as that his breath seemeth continually to faile, and he in great necessity 
The cause of shortneste of breath.  of perpetuall inspiration.  
Secondly, it was necessary it should ioyne with the arteriall veine, and that by inoculation, 
Why they ioyn with the arterial veine  that from the veine it might receiue blood for his nourishment. And this is the manner of the coniunction of the Weazon to the Heart by the mediation of the smooth arteries, and how small propagations of the Veines are inserted into the strings of the windepipe for their nourishment, because of themselues they are altogether without blood, but the smooth or venall arteries haue no Veynes inserted into them, because they them-selues containe blood. Moreouer, the Rough arteries hath small vessels deriued vnto them from the neighbour vessels.  
This Vses of this Weazon are, that the Lungs as a paire of bellowes might by it, as by 
The vses of the Weazon. First.  a Conduite or pipe draw aer in respiration atracted by the nose and mouth( for the lungs being dilated, onely the rough artery is dilated) and send it to the heart, and by the same passage constringed, send out from the heart the hot aer which is vnprofitable for it, together with smoaky vapors and sooty excrements, and deliuer them out of the mouth and nose. And againe, that it might be the instrument of the voice; for to the generation of 
Second.  the voyce which is formed in the Throttle, the aer which is breathed in, and is the proper matter of the voice is required, euen as wee may obserue that in the pipes of the bellowes when they are filled with aer, there is a sound engendred. Wherefore Hippocrates in his 
Third.  Booke De Morbs called it Organum vocale & spirabile, a breathing and vocall instrument. And finally, that with violent exsufflation either in coughing, of deepe hauking( for that which is lightly hawked vp comes but from the roots of the tongue) those things which sel from the head, or are gathered in the Lungs might by it bee cast forth.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the Muscles and Nerues which are in the cauity of the Chest.  
HAuing runne through all the parts conteyned in the Chest, and as it were remooued them out of the way, we meete with certaine Muscles, Nerues and Bones.  

Table 16. sheweth the Cauitie of both Bellies without the bowels and the Midriffe, as also what Muscles & what bones remaine when the bowelles and brest-bone are remooued.  
TABVLAXVI.  

A B. The first Muscle moouing the Necke, or the long Muscle.  
C C. The second Muscle moouing the neck called Scalenus.  
DDDDD. the outward intercostal muscles  
EEEEE. The inward intercostall Muscles.  
FF. The Muscle called Serratus maior, or the second Muscle of the Chest.  
G. The Muscle called Serratus minor, or the first Muscle of the shoulder-blade freed from his Originall.  
H. The Muscle called Pectoralis or the first muscle of the arme separated frō his original I the Muscle Deltoides or the 2. of the arme.  
K The shoulder-bone without flesh.  
L the first muscle of the Cubite, cald Biceps.  
M the 2. Muscle of the Cubite cald Brachiaeus.  
N the Clauicle or coller bone bent outward  
O the first muscle of the Chest cald subclauius  
P The higher processe of the Shoulderblade  
Q The sixt muscle of the head or the Lower Oblique.  
R. The second Muscle of the head.  
S. The fourth Muscle of the Shoulder-blade or the Leuator.  
TV. The two bellies of the fourth Muscle of the bone Hyois.  
XX aa. The fift Muscle of the backe, whose beginning is at aa.  
YY bb, cc. The first Muscle of the thigh, called Psoa, whose Original is at cc. and his Tendon at bb.  
ZZ. The 7. Muscle of the Thigh.  
d The holy-bone or os sacrū, out of the holes whereof at o certaine Nerues do yssue.  
e A part of the fift Muscle of the thigh at the share-bone. f The share-bone bared.  
k The ninth Muscle of the Thigh, or the first Muscle whereby it is turned.    
The Muscles are two, called Ceruicislongi[ tab. 16. AB] the long muscles of the neck, which 
Two muscles.  being scituated vnder the gullet are affixed to the rack-bones. The muscles which are seated on the sides and behind and doe extend the head and the necke, wee haue in some sort described before in the third Chapter of this Booke.  
There are also two kinde of Nerues which passe thorough the chest; one from the sixt 
Two kinds of nerues.  paire of the marrow in the brayne, exhibited in the first figure of the 8. table: another from the spinall marrow which is either in the racke bones of the necke or of the chest; of which also we haue spoken before in the 10. Chapter.   

CHAP. XX. Of the Clauicles, Breast-bone and the Ribs.  
_THE Clauicles or Coller-bones are called in Greek 〈◇〉 because they shut vp the whole Chest; they are two, on each side one, scituated ouerthwart in the bottome of the necke and top of the breast. Their figure is not straight 
●ure of ●ler.  but outwardly embowed at the tugulum[ tab. 17. fig. 2. H] and on the inside hollow; contrariwise at the shoulder they are hollow on the outside and imbowed within,[ tab. 17. fig. 1, 2, 3.] but in men they are not so crooked as in Apes, and doe neare resemble the letter s. Likewise in women they are lesse crooked then they areia 
Why not so crooked in women.  men[ table 17. fig. 4. R] which maketh them lesse nimble in the moouing of their armes, as wee may see when they offer to cast a stone: notwithstanding they haue a manifest protuberation or swelling, & also two lines[ tab. 17. fig. 1, 3. ● fig. 2, 3. FG] that from thence the subclauian muscle and a part also of the Pectoral might arise. They are also on either side exasperated[ table 17. fig. 1. K fig. 3. P] toward their ends, from which exasperation or inequality 
Their inequality or roughnes.  doe proceed certaine ligaments; as also the seuenth muscle of the head called Mastoides.  
These Clauicles on either side fasten the shoulder-blade to the brast-bone by Diarthresis, a notable gristle being betweene them.[ Table 17. figure 5. TS] Celsus called them Iugula 
Why called Iugula.  a iungendo, of ioyning or because they are like to the yoake wherein Oxen are ioyned which we call Iugum. Their vse is to hinder the shoulder-blade and armes from falling vpon 
Their vse.  the breast.  
The breast-bone is called 〈◇〉, because it is disposed in the middest betwixt the ribs, 
The breast-bone. [ Table 17. figure 9 ghi] or the breast-bone, because it maketh the forepart of the Chest and secureth the parts vnder it. It is a little bowed, long and broad like the handle of a Dagger as the antients vsed it[ Table 17. fig. 6, 7.] and therefore it is called 〈◇〉, the swordlike cartilage or the Breast blade.  
The substance of it is not solide as other bones, but fungous or spongy redde and compounded of bones and gristles. In a childe new borne it is altogether gristlely, excepting 
The substāce of it.  the vppermost which is a bone from the beginning. Then it is deuided into eight partes; seauen of them receiue the gristles of the seauen perfect ribbes; the eight receiueth the gristle 
The diuision of it.  called ense-formts. After seauen yeares they growe better compacted and haue fewer partitions and at length are onely foure. The first[ Table 17. figure 5. a] which is the broadest; the second and the last, the rest betweene ioyne into one. The vppermost[ tab. 17. figure 6. abc] is larger and thicker then the rest, and representeth the broad knubs or stay at 
The quantity of the parts.  the end of the Dagger handle. The second is like[ tab. 17. fig. 6. pqr] the grasping place, & in the sides of it hath many cauities or bosomes[ Table 17. fig. 6. klmn] not equally distant one from another, wherein the gristles of the third, fourth, fifth and sixt ribs are receiued. The third bone is lesse then the first[ tab. 17. fig. 6, 7. s] but broader then the second, & these are all that appeare bony in a growne man.  
The gristles of it beside those two which are betweene the coller-bone and it, are, one betwixt the first bone and the second,[ Table 17. figure 6. h] another in the end of it long, 
The gristles of this bone.  immouable and triangular[ Table 17. figure 6, 7. E] which is commonly sharpned at the end like the poynt of a sworde, whence it hath his denomination, for it is peculiarly called the Breast-blade. If this gristle be in children curued downeward it offendeth the Liuer and the stomacke and such children pine away and dye. Here also is that cauity which is commonly called Scrobiculus cordts, the Trench or Spoone of the heart. Note also that in woemen the breast bone is flatter then it is in men because their paps are larger.  
The vse of this breast-bone is the same with the ribbes. The vse of the breast-blade is 
The vse of this breastbone.  partly to defend the parts vnder it, partly to giue scope to the motion of the midriffe.  
The ribs which the Greekes call 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉, are commonly as well in men as in women on either side twelue.[ Table 17. figure 9. 10. character from one to 12.] They are 
Table 17. hath twelue Figures, whereof foure shewe the Coller-bone. The first the anterior part: the second the posterior: the third the lower part: the fourth the Coller-bone of a woman which is straighter then of a man.  
The fift Figure sheweth two gristles placed on either side betwixt the ioynts of the Coller-bone.  
The sixt Figure sheweth the foreside of the breast-bone. The seauenth the back-part thereof. The eight sheweth the foreside of the breast-bone of a woman, together with the hole therein after the fashion of a Heart.  
Figure 9. sheweth the foreside of the bones of the Chest. The tenth the backeside. The eleauenth one of the true ribs broken. The twelfth sheweth the back part of the twelfth broken.  
From the first Character to the twelfth, in the 9. and 10. Figures are exhibited the twelue ribs: the seauen vppermost true ribs: the fiue lowermost bastard ribs.  
TABV LA. XVII.  
FIG. I  
I  
II  
III  
IIII  
V  
VI  
VII  
VIII  
IX  
X  
XI  
XII  

A 1 2 3. The head of the clauicle which is ioyned to the breast-bone.  
B 1. The first angle or corner of this head.  
C D 1 2 3. The second and third angles  
E 1 3, The eminent and forward line of the clauicle.  
FG 2 3. The lower line which neare G is rugged.  
H 1 2 3, The middest of the clauicle or coller-bone which is round.  
I 1 2, The exterior part which is broader and crooked.  
K 1, A roughnes in that place.  
LMN 3, The lower side of the clauicle which is sinuated and rough, and about N ther riseth a ligament which is fixed into the inner processe of the shoulder blade.  
O 2 3, A swelling of the clauicle opposite to the breast-bone.  
P 3, the lowes roughnesse of the inner side,  
Q 1 2 3, The playne or smooth heade wherewith it is ioyned to the shoulder blade.  
R 4, the coller-bone of a woman.  
S 5, That cartilage or gristle of the coller-bone which is betwixt his ioynt with the shoulder blade.  
T 5, the other gristle which is betwixt his ioynt with the breast bone.  
a 6, The swelling or bunching prominence of the first bone of the sternon or breast-bone.  
bc 6, An impression or doke on eyther hand at the sides of the sayed prominence.  
d 7, The backeside of the breast-bone which is somewhat hollow.  
ef 6, The bosome or cauity which admitteth the coller-bones.  
g 6 7, The bosome or cauity to which the first rib is articulated.  
h 6 7, the articulation or ioyning of the first bone with the second.  
i 6 7, The sinus or hollownes to which the second rib is ioyned.  
k l m n o 6 7, Other sinus or bosomes to which the fiue following ribs are articulated.  
p q r 6, the lines which remayne after the bones do grow into one.  
s 6 7, the third bone of the sternon.  
t 6 7, the gristle of that third bone.  
u 8, A hole made in the bottom of the brest bone carrying the represent aion of a heart.   
Fig. 9. 10. 11. & 12.  
AB 9, The ioyning of the ribs with their gristles. CD 9, The articulation of the gristles of the ribs with the breast bone. E 9, The blunt heade of the gristle. FF 9, the gristles of the bastard ribs which are sharpe. ghi 9, the breast-bone in the midst of the ribs. GH 9, the distance betwixt the 11. ribbe where the gristle sometime is parted from the other gristles, but at 12, alwayes. II 9, An vnequall prominence of the gristles, K 9, the sword-like cartilage. K 11, A bosome running along in the inner side of the rib. LM 11, the head wherewith the rib is articulated or ioyned to the spondel or rack-bone L. and M sheweth the head wherby it is ioined to the transuerse processe. N 12, the blunt head of the 11, and 12●, ibs. O 11, 12, A knub into which the 11, muscle of the back is inserted. P 11, An asperity or roughnes betwixt the two heads which bringeth forth a ligament. Q 11. A roughnes with a light extuberation into which the muscle of the chest called Sacrolumbus is implanted. R 11, The fungous substance of the rib appearing when it is broken.  many that hauing many muskles, the chest might more easily be moued, yet seldome fewer or more then 12.  
They are diuided into true or legitimate, & bastard or spurious ribs: the legitimate are the seauen vppermost,[ Tab. 17. fig. 9. from char. 1 to 8] so called because they perfect their 
Their diuision  semi-circle. They are ioyned backward with strong Ligaments to the racke bones of the back[ Tab. 17, fig: 10 S T] by Diarthrosis, & that with a double knot to make them the fasten The vpper knot is to the body of the Spondell, the lower to the latterall processe. Forward 
Their Connexion And Names.  they are articulated to the brest-bone[ Tab. 17, fig. 9 c] by certaine gristles growing vppon their heads. The two vppermost of these are called Retortae, the two next Solidae, the three last Pectorales. The bastard ribs are the fiue lower; softer as being almost gristly, at lest they end into a perfect gristle. These fiue are retorted or bent vpward, and so are glewed togither[ Tab. 17, fig. 9 FF] excepting the last which is the twelfth.  
These are also imperfect, because they are knit onely to the spondels but touch not the brest bone, that so the Lower belly especially the stomacke and the wombe might better bee dilated or enlarged. The eleuenth and the twelfth are sometimes tyed vnto the Midriffe. 
The substance of the Ribbes.   
The substance of the ribs is not onely bony( though that bonynesse be but spongy)[ tab. 17. fig. 11, ●] but euery one hath his proper Cartilage both behinde where they are tyed to the Spondels, and also before where they are ioyned to the brest bone[ Table. 17, fig. 9, A B shewes the coniunction of he ribbes with their Cartilages, and C D the coniunction of the cartilages of the brest-bone.]  
Their figure is semi-circular or bent like a Bowe, that so the Chest might be the stronger and more capacious. The vpper and neather ribs are the shortest, the middle are the longest 
Their Figure Magnitude.  and the broadest excepting the first which is the shortest and the broadest of all the rest. On the outside especially where they are tyed to the spondils they are sharpe[ Tab. 17, fig, 11 P] and vnequall, that from thence the Ligaments might proceede: but on the inside they are smooth least they shoulde hurt the Pleura, and yet in the lower part they are hollowed[ Tab. 17, fig. 11 K] like a gutter quite through their length, into which hollownes 
Their cauity.  they receiue three Vessels, a Veine, an Artery, and a Nerue.  
The vse of the ribbes is to be a strength to the Chest, and a defence to the bowels vnder them, they receyue also the implantations of the Muscles seruing for respiration. Their 
Their vse.  Gristles also doe make them more plyable in the motions of Inspiration and Expiration euen when we are asleepe.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the bones of the Chest.  
_THE bones which make the Chest or middle Venter are these. On the fore-part the brest-bone, and on the top of it the two coller bones, on the sides foure and twenty ribbes, of all which we haue entreated in the chapter going before.  
On the backe-part of the Chest are the spondels or racke-bones, and the shoulder-blades, of which we will speake in this place, and so put an end to our Discourse 
The spondels.  of the Middle Venter.  
The Spondels therefore of the Thorax in a man are for the most part twelue[ Table 20 Fig. 1. at D] iust so many as there are ribbes, for euery racke hath two ribs articulated with 
Their number  it,[ Tab. 18 fig. 5. D p] wherefore also they haue two cauities,[ Tab. 18. fig. 1 from C to D] one at their sides, another at their transuerse processe. It is seldome seen that any of the racks are wanting, but much more rare that there should be too many.  
There son of their multitude is the better flexion or bending of the backe, for they are 
The reason of their number.  put together with ioynts knit and tyed with strong Ligaments[ Table. 18. fig. 6. character 5. Tab. 20. fig. 1, RR] betwixt euerie one of which there runneth a Cartilage to make the motion more nimble and glad.[ Tab. 18. fig. 6. char. 1, & 3]  
These Spondels haue bodies bunching out in the middest round, embowed aboue[ tab 18. fig. 1] and below[ Tab. 18. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 A] plaine, thicker also then the rackes of the neck and lesse solid, thrilled also with small holes made for the passage of those vesselles that deriue 
Their Forme or Figure.  nourishment vnto them and the marrow of the backe.  
Their processes are some sharpe, cald Spinales[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, & 2 MNP] which bend downward: 
Their processes.  others transuerse[ Tab. 18. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 H I] which are thicker, solid and long ending in a round head for the firme articulation of the ribs: againe, others ascending which are two 
Tab. xviij. sheweth the backeward bones of the Chest.  
Figure 1. exhibiteth the fore-face of the middle Spondell vnto which the other ten are very like.  
Figure 2, The backe-part of the same Spondel.  
Figure 3. The backe-part of the eleuenth Spondel.  
Figure 4. the backe part of the twelfth spondel.  
Figure 5. The three middle Spondelles of the Chest, together with their articulation with the rib.  
Figure 6. sheweth the gristly Connexion of two spondels.  
Figure 7. sheweth the inward part of the right shoulder-blade.  
Figure 8. the outward, as the 9. Figure sheweth the side.  
TABVLA. XVIII.  
FIG 1  
II  
III  
IV  
V.  
VI.  
VII.  
IIX.  
IX.  

A 1, 2, 3, 4. The vpper-part of the Spondel, to which the lower part is answereable.  
Φ 3. The vpper Appendix of the head of the Vertebra, to which the lower Appendixe is like.  
B C 1. The bosome which receyueth the rib marked with B. another lesse bosom at C.  
D 3 5. The bosome of the eleauenth rackebone to which the eleauenth rib is articulated, and in the fift Figure it is shewed together with the rib.  
E 4. A Sinus or hollownesse in the twelfth Spondell.  
F 4. A roughnes or inequality in the bone bringing foorth the Ligament or tye of this ioynt.  
G 2, 3, 4. The holes that are in the backside of the bodies of the rack-bones.  
HI, 1, 2, 3, 4 The transuerse processes of the rack-bones of the Chest.  
KK, 1, 5. A Sinus in the top of the transuerse processes, to which the rib is articulated.  
L 1, 2. the gibbous or embowed part of the transuerse processe,  
M 1. the hollow part of the transuerse processe.  
N O P, 1, 2. The spine distinguished in the three sides by three lines.  
Q 1. A sharpnesse in the inside of the spine.  
R 3. The spine of the eleuenth racke-bone.  
S 4. the spine of the twelfth racke bone.  
T V 1 the foreface of the ascending processes.  
XY 2, 3 the backface of these processes.  
ab, 2, 3. the outward face of the descending processes.  
c 1. Their foreface crusted ouer.  
e f 4 The ascending processes of the twelfth rack bone which goe vnder the eleuēth.  
g h 4. The descending processes of the xii. racke bone, which are articulated to the Cauities of the ascending processes of the first racke bone of the loines.  
i, l, l, 5. The three middle Vertebrae ioyned together.  
m n 5. the bosome which is in the body of the Vertebrae, and receiueth the heade of the rib.    
o 5 the articulation of the rib to the transuerse processe. p 5 the circular bowing of the ribbes from D to p. backward, from thence to s forward. qr 5. the ioyning of the rib with his Cartilage. s 5. the blunt heade of the Cartilage. Char. 1, 2, fig. 6 A Cartilage ioyning the Appendices of eyther rackbone to their Bodies. Char. 3: 4 Fig, 6 the appendices of eyther rackbone. Char. 5. Figure. 6 A gristly Ligament ioyning both the rack bones. Heere followeth a threefold delineation of the Scapula or Shoulder-blade. A B, 7, 8. The bosome or cauity of the blade which is called Acetabulū, into which the bone of the shoulder entreth. α 8, A gristle which enlargeth that cauity, which is also by itself described and noted in K. CD 7, 8. the neck of the shoulder-blade. E 7, 8, the lesser processe of the shoulder-blade. F 7, 8, the knub of the same, vnto which the Clauicle is connected. f 7, the roughnesse thereof which bringeth foorth a Ligament. G H, 8, 9 The Spine of the shoulder-blade. 1, 8, 9. the thicker part of the spine which hath an Appendix. K, 7, 8, 9 Acromion consisting of an Appendixe. L 7. the sinus of that Acromion sustaining the Coller-bone.  
MMMM. Certaine small dens made by the contaction of the ribs. N O P 7, the inward hollow part of the roote of the spine at N O. the inward extuberation of the lower side at P. p 7, the sharpenesse of the shoulder-blade in the vpper side. Q 7. the sinus of the lower side from whence ariseth the first Muscle extending the Cubite. S 8 the outward protuberation or swelling of the Lower side. T 8, An impression of the lower side from which ariseth the fourth Muscle of the arme called Rotundus maior. V, V 8 the cauitie of the outside of the Scapula. X 7, 8, 9 An Appendix of the Basis of the shoulder blade. Y 7, 8, 9, Another Appendixe of the lower angle. Z 7, 8, 9 The vpper angle of the basis of the shoulder blade. Φ 7, the inner protuberation or swelling of this angle. a 7, 9 the bosome of the vpper side of the shoulder blade. b 9, The thinnest part of the shoulder blade. c 9, Heere sometime is sound a small hole through which the veins do creep for the nourishment of the bone.  
[ Table 18. figure 1. TV] and two descending[ tab. 18. figure 2, and 3. ab] notwithstanding the transuerse processe of the 11. and 12. spondels[ tab. 18. fig. 4. efhg] doe differ from the processes of the rest.  
The haue also fiue Appendices, two at their bodies aboue and[ tab. 18. fig. 3. Φ] beneath; 
Appendices 5.  two at the transuerse processes, and one at the end of euery spine.  
The holes or perforations of these rack-bones are bored according to the thicknesse of 
Their perforations.  the marrow that must issue out of them[ table 18. figure 2, 3, 4. G] for as the marrow in discending is attenuated, so are the holes of the lower spondels straightned.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the shoulder-blades and racks of the neck.  
_THe shoulder-blade called Os-scapulae is on each side one[ Table 18. figure 7, 8, 9.] 
The shoulder blade.  which hangeth vpon the ribs on the backeside like a buckler, and is articulated with the shoulder or arme and the coller-bone, ioyned also to the ribs, 
His connexion.  the bone Hyois and the occipitium or nowle-bone by the mediation of the muscles.  
The Figure is almost triangular, on the inside it is concauous or hollow[ Table 18, fig. 7 M] on the outside[ Table 18. figure 8. vv] it buncheth, and that bunch is called the Basis of 
His figure.  the bone; it hath also an angle or corner, and a ribbe both aboue and below, from which is produced a spine tending vpward.[ table 1. 8. fig. 9. GH] The vpper angle is shewed in the 18. table fig. 7, 8, 9.  
The processes of this scapula aboue are three; the first is very short and determineth 
The processes.  with a short necke[ table 18. fig. 7, 8. CD] into a hollowed head[ table 18. figure 7, 8. AB] such as the Anatomists cal Acctabulum wherin it receiueth the head of the shoulder-bone. And this hollowed head of the scapula is compassed with a thicke gristle[ table 18. figure 8. α and ●] 
Acctabulum.  whereby the cauity is enlarged, least that the head of the shoulder should easily fal thereout.  
The second processe is the very end of the spine and hangeth ouer the ioynt of the shoulder; and therefore it is called Humeri mucroor summus humerus, The top of the shoulder,[ Table 18. figure 7, 8, 9. K] and by this processe the shoulder-blade is ioyned to the collerbone.  
The third is inward and lesse[ table 18. fig, 7, 8. E] called Sigmoides, and this contayneth the shoulder-bone in his seate.  
The appendices, or if you will, appurtenances of the shoulder-blade are fiue, three are in the inside and at the Basis[ table 18. figure 7, 8, 9. XY] affording a beginning to some muscles; 
The appendices.  and two other out of which issue the ligaments which ioyne the shoulder to that hollow head of the blade wee spake of and also the coller-bone to the second processe which we called the top of the shoulder.  
It hath also a double cauity one aboue, the other beneath the spine with the Anatomists Inter scapulium.  
The bone of the blade is very vnequall, for in the middest it is the thinnest, the processes thicke, medullous and spongy; it hath also certaine perforations by which veines and 
The substance  arteries are admitted for his nourishment.  
The Neck which was framed to sustaine the head and to mooue the same, consisteth of many spondels called vertebrae or rack-bones which are commonly seauen[ tab. 19. fig. 2, 3. 4.] 
The spondels of the neck.  differing one from another and from the rest of the vertebrae of the spine.  
The first[ Table 19. figure 2, 3. FF table 20. figure 2, 3, 4,] is called Atlas, and hath a thinner yet thighter and faster body then the rest, and wanteth the vpper processe or the spine. 
The first rack bone.  The ascending and desending processes of this rack are hollowed on either side,[ table 20. figure 2, 3. EF] aboue to receiue the two processes of the occipitium[ table 19. figure 1. D●] 
The processes of it.  for the better motion of the head, below to receiue the processes of the second vertebra:[ table 20. figure 5. 6. MN] it hath also at the sides thereof two transuerse processes[ table 19. fig. 2, 3. II table 20. fig. 2, 3, 4. GG] perforated[ table 19. figure 2. K table 20. figure 2. M sheweth the perforation] for the ascent of a veine and an artery into the brayne.  
It hath also a cauity or sinus[ table 20. figure 2, 3. ●] crusted ouer with a gristle[ table 20. figure 2, 3. C] wherein it receiueth the tooth[ table 20. figure 7. O] of the following vertebra, 
The cauity of it.  and at the processes where the racks are ioyned there is also a sinus on either hand: in the first[ table 20. figure 4. z] and the second[ table 20. figure 6. y] it is like a chinck or rift: in the rest it is orbicular as also it is long in the rackes of the chest. Through these cauities the 
The vse of the cauities.  
Table 19. sheweth the bones of the necke.  
Figure 1. the bone of the occipitium or nowle separated from the skull.  
Figure 2. sheweth the coniunction of the seuen vertebrae of the necke as it appeareth in the back-part.  
Figure 3. sheweth the forepart.  
Figure 4. the later all face.  
Figure 5. sheweth the ligaments which ioyne the first and the second rack-bones.  
Figure 6. sheweth the gristles which are sometimes found betwixt these vertebrae.  
TABVLA. XIX.  
FIG. I  
II.  
III  
IV  
V  
VI  

A 1, The hole in the nowle-bone made for the outlet of the spinal marrow.  
BC 1, Two heades of the bone occiput or nowl-bone, which are articulated to the first rack-bone of the neck.  
D 1, The roughnes wherein the ligament is inserted.  
E 1, A Sinus or hollownes in the backepart of those heads, making a way for the first payre of sinewes.  
FF 2, 3, The first rackbone of the neck.  
GH 2, 3, 4, the cauity of the first rack-bone receiuing the two heades of the nowle-bone.  
H 2, 3, The transuerse processe of the first vertebra.  
K 2, the hole of this transuerse processe.  
L 2, A cauity which with the cauity of the nowle-bone marked with E maketh a common passage which is prepared for the nerues.  
M 2, 4, A rough place there where the first rackbone of the neck wanteth the spine.  
NN Λ 2, 3, the second vertebra of the necke whose body bunching in the middest & depressed on either side, Λ in the third figure exhibiteth.  
O 2, 3, 4, the appendix or processe of the second vertebra called the Tooth.  
P 2, A hole made of the cauity of that Tooth & of the first rack-bone, through which smal branches of nerues are transmitted.  
Q 2, A roughnesse wherein the hole is not perceiued to be thrilled through.  
R 2, The descending processes of the second vertebra.  
S 2, 3, the third vertebra of the neck.  
T 2, The descending processe of the third vertebra.  
VV 2, 4, The processes of the racke-bones on the backeside diuided thorough the middest.  
X 2, 4, The backeward processe of the seauenth rack-bone which is not clouen as the former ββ.  
Y 3, 4, The highest processe of the racke-bones.  
Z 3, 4, the two first extraordinary processes in the highest part of the vertebra.  
α α 2, The extraordinary part of the laterall processes.  
ββ 4, The processes deuided through the middest.  
〈◇〉 3, the bodies of the racke-bones.  
aa 3, 4, the holes of the lateral processes.  
bb 4, The lower nodes or knots of the processe. Character 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Shew the seuen vertebrae or racks of the neck. Figure V.  
ABCD, The first vertebra of the necke. ABC, the second DD. EF, A membranous ligament knitting the first vertebra to the nowle bone at E. and the first to the second at F. G, the body of the second vertebra. H, The tooth of the second vertebra. I, the ligament tying the tooth to the nowle-bone. K, A ligament compassing the tooth of the firstracke-bone.  
Figure VI. The gristles which Vesalius saith are sometimes found betwixt the two first vertebrae.   coniugation of the nerues and the braunches of the veines and arteries do passe, which minister nourishment vnto the marrow and to the bones.  
The second vertebra[ table 19. fig. 2, 3. N table 20. figure 5, 6, 7.] besides his body, his 
Table 20. Figure 1. sheweth all the racke-bones of the backe knit together.  
Figure 2. sheweth the fore and vpper face of the first rack-bone of the necke.  
Figure 3. sheweth the backward and vpper face of the same.  
Figure 4. the lower and backward face thereof.  
Figure 5. the forepart of the second rack-bones.  
Figure 6. the back-part of the same.  
Figure 7. the lower part of the sayd second rack-bone.  
Figure 8. the foreward and vpper face of the third vertebrae.  
Figure 9. the backer and vpper face thereof.  
TABVLA. XX.  
FIG. I  
II  
III  
IV  
V  
VI  
VII  
VIII  
IX  

From A to B, The seuen vertebres of the necke.  
From C to D, The twelue vertebres of the chest.  
From E to F, The fiue rack-bones of the Loynes.  
From G to H, The Os sacrum or Holybone.  
From I to K, The bone Coccyx or the rump-bone according to the late writers.  
LL, the bodies of the vertebrae.  
M, the transuerse processes of the vertebrae.  
N, the descendent processes.  
OO, the ascendent processes.  
PP, the backward processes.  
QQ The holes that are in the sides of the vertebrae through which the nerues are transmitted.  
RR, A gristly ligament betwixt the vertebrae.  
A 2, 3, 4, The hole whereout the marrow of the backe issueth.  
B 2, 3, The cauity which admitteth the tooth of the second rack-bone.  
C 3, 4, A cauity or Sinus in the same place crusted ouer with a gristle.  
D 2, A prominence in the outward region of this Sinus.  
EF 2, 3, The Sinus or cauity of the first racke-bone which admitteth the two heads of the nowle-bone.  
GG 2, 3, 4, the transuerse processe of the first vertebra.  
H 1, the hole of this transuerse processe.  
I 3, The Sinus, which together with the cauity of the nowle-bone marked with E, maketh a common passage prepared for the nerues.  
K 3, 4, A rough place where the spine of the first rack is wanting.  
LL 4. two cauities of the first rack receiuing the two bunches of the second rack marked with MN.  
MN 5, 6, the two bunches of the second racke which fall into the cauities of the first.  
O 7, The appendix or tooth of the second rack.  
P 5, A knub of this appendix crusted ouer with a gristle. Q 6, the backside of the tooth. R 6, the Sinus or cauity of the same, about which a transuerse ligament is rowled contayning the sayd tooth in the cauity of the first rack. ST 6, Certaine cauities at the sides of the tooth whence the roots issue of the fore-branch of the second payre of sinewes. V 5, the poynt of the tooth. X 3, An asperity or roughnes where there is a hole but not thrilled through. Y 6, A cauity of the second rack which togither with the cauity marked with Z maketh a hole, through which the nerues do issue. Z 4, the Sinus of the first rack. a 5, 6, 7, the double spine of the second rack. b 5, 6, 7, the transuerse processe of the second rack. c 7, the hole of the said transuerse processe. d 6, 7, the descending processe of the second rack whose cauity is marked with d in the sixt figure. e 6, 7. the place where the body of the second rack descendeth downward. fgg 8, The lower side of the body of the third rack at f, the two eminent parts of the same at gg. hi 8, the ascending processes. lm 8, The two descending processes. nopq 8, The transuerse processes. r 8, 9, the spine or the backward processe. st 8, the two toppes of the spine. u 9, the descending processe of the third rack. x 9, the ascending processe. y, the transuerse processe of the third rack, α 8: 9, the hole of this transuerse processe. β 9, the vpper hollowed part of the body of the third rack. 〈◇〉 9, the Sinus or cauity which maketh the lower part of a hole through which the coniugations of the nerues are led. 〈◇〉 7, the vpper part of the same hole.   laterall processes[ table 20. figu. 5, 6, 7. b] which are short and obliquely perforated[ table 2. figure 7. c] his backward processe bifurcated[ table 20. figure 5, 6, 7. a] because of the muscles, & beside his ascending processes lightly bunching out, and his descending[ tab. 19. fig. 2. ● tab. 20. fig. 6, 7. d] lightly hollowed; beside all these( I say) there ariseth out of the middle of his body an appendix commonly called a processe which is round and long[ table 19. fig. 2. 3. 4. O table 20. fig. 6. Q fig. 7. O.] and is called 〈◇〉 because it is like that tooth of 
His tooth.  a man which we call the Dog-tooth. The surface of this tooth is somewhat rough, to giue an originall to a ligament[ table 19. fig. 5. ●] whereby it is tyed to the occipitium: it is also compassed with a round and solide ligament[ table 19. figure 5. K] lest the marrow should be compressed: it is also ioyned with the first by a broad ligament[ table 20. fig. 5. F] compassing it about.  
The third spondell of the necke[ table 19. fig. 2, 3, SS Table 20. fig. 8, 9,] which is called 
The 3. spondell.  〈◇〉( and groweth together very firmely on the foreside with the other foure) as also the 3. following haue their laterall processes bifurcated or forked[ Table 19. fig. 2. vv fig. 4. β] because of the implantation of the muscles. But the seauenth spondell[ table 19. figure 2, 3, 
The seuenth.  4. character 7.] is like the rack-bones of the chest, and his backward processe is not alwayes forked[ table 19. fig, 2. 4. x] but sometimes whole, the body below is playne that it may fully loyne with the following vertebra.  
All of them( except the first) haue appendices betweene which doe run thicke and soft 
Their appendices.  gristles to make them more nimble and free.  
And thus much shall suffice for the bones of the chest in this place; where also we will put an end to the History of the middle belly, and proceede to the Controuersies concerning the same.    

¶ A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies concerning the Chest and Heart, &c.  

QVEST. I. An Anatomicall demonstration concerning the Phrensie of the Midriffe.  
_THE ancient Physicians before Plato, did not call the Midriffe Diaphragma, 
Why the midriffe is called phrenes.  but 〈◇〉, not because there was in it any seate of wisedome which the Greeke worde signifieth, but because when this muscle is inflamed, presently followeth the disease called Phrenitis or the phrensie, which is a continuall abalienation or distemper of the minde, ioyned with an acute feuer and want of rest or sleep. 
What is a phrensie.  The inflamations of many parts breede this deliration as of the liuer, the Stomacke and the Lungs; but such distemper is but vncertaine and at some times not continual, only the inflamation of the 
How the phrensie of the midriffe is distinguished from that of the Liuer, & other parts.  midriffe breedeth a perpetuall or continual phrensie, which so neerely resembleth the true phrensie arising from the inflamation of the brain and his membranes, that it may deceiue a Physicion vnlesse he be right skilful: we wil deliuer in this place the signes how they may be distinguished. They are therefore discerned the one from the other by respiration, by the voyce and by the handling of the Hypochondria. The true and primarie phrensie which commeth from the inflamation of the braine or his membranes, maketh the respiration 
How from the phrensie of the braine.  great, and that is deepe and long, that is seldome and rare with much distance betweene the breathings: but in the phrensie of the midriffe the respiration is small and frequent or quicke, small or shallow, because the instrument of respiration is inflamed, so that the chest 
How by the respiration.  cannot moue or be inlarged in all his demensions in inspiration, nor yet be freely collected or gathered vp together in expiration, as it may be in the former, where the instrument of breathing is not taynted or violated, but onely the brayne: frequent also it is and quick, often returning, because of the necessity imposed by the flame of the ague; for so the shallow breathing is recompenced by often breathing.  
Secondly, these phrensies are distinguished by the voyce: for in the phrensie of the 
How by the voice.  brayne the voyce is base, they cry out, spurne and byte any that comes neere them: contrariwise in the phrensie of the midriffe the voyce is acute or treble, because the chiefe instrument of free respiration is affected, and being drawne vpward by the inflamation, the chest becommeth narrower; for the magnitude and basenes of the voice followes the constitution of this instrument.  
The last and most proper signe of this phrensie of the midriffe, Hippocrates deliuereth in the 55. Aphorisme Coacarum poenotionum, where he sayth: In these men their Hypochondria 
How by the retraction of the Hypochondria.  appeare intro sur sum revulsa. i. to be drawne inward and vpward: the demonstration of which saying is to bee made by Anatomy thus: The midriffe in the vpper side is couered with the pleura; on the lower with the Peritonaum or rim of the belly, which incloseth as in a sacke all the naturall instruments and parts conteyned in the lower belly, and giueth 
The Anatomical demonstration.  euery one of them his owne coate. The midriffe then being inflamed, is drawne vpward, and carrieth with it the peritonaeum, with the peritonaeum are the hypochondria, the Liuer, the Spleene, the Stomack, and all the bowels retracted; also hence comes that inward and vpward revulsion of the Hypochondria Hippocrates mentioneth: wherefore these are the three proper and demonstratiue signes of the phrensie from the midriffe: small or shallow and 
The three demonstratiue signes of the plurisie from the midriffe Why when the midriffe is inflamed, there followeth a phrensy  frequent respiration, a shrill or treble voyce, and the vpward and inward revulsion of the Hypochondria. But why happeneth it, that when the midriffe is inflamed, there followeth a phrensie? Some thinke that when the midriffe is inflamed, the brayne is also presently alike affected; for the inflamation of the midriffe hindering respiration, the heat is increased in the chest and the heart, the bloud is attenuated and groweth cholerick and flyeth vp into the brayn, whence commeth an erisypelas, that is, a cholericke inflamation of the brayn, the immediate cause of the true phrensie; but these things are ridiculous. For if it were so, then whensoeuer the Lungs also are inflamed, presently a perpetual phrensie would follow; because there followeth both a difficulty of breathing, and the Lungs are nourished with a bilious, that is, a very thin bloud: moreouer, if an Erisypelas should breede in the brayne, then were the phrensie a true phrensie, & not depending vpon the inflamation of the midriffe. Others referre the cause of the phrensie to an analogy or proportion in all correspondency betweene the midriffe and the brayne. But because the marrow of the backe is more correspondent to the brayne, and yet when that is inflamed, there followeth not alwayes a perpetuall phrensie, we doe worthily search farther for the cause. Wee therefore vnderstand that there is a double concurring in this busines, to wit, a wonderfull connexion 
The true cause.  and society of these two parts, and then the perpetuall motion of the midriffe. The society is by nerues, which communicate both heate and a vaporous spirite to the brayne. And the continuall and strong motion of the midriffe driueth vp with force and violence smoaky vapours to the brayne. For if you onely admitte the society or sympathy of the nerues, why should not the same phrensie fall out when the mouth of the stomacke is inflamed, which hath notable stomachicall sinewes which from the brayne are inserted into it?   

QVEST. II. Of the motion of the Heart and the Arteries or Pulse, a Philosophicall discourse.  
_THE busie wit of man obseruing the perpetuall motions of the heauens, hath long trauelled to imitat● the same, and in making experiments, hath framed excellent and admirable peeces of workmanship, whilest euery one carried a perpetuall motion about himselfe, which happly hee little remembred or 
Euery man carries a perpetuall motion about him  thought vpon, and that is the perpetuall motion of the heart, which from the day of birth, til the day of death, neuer ceaseth, but moueth continually: by what engines & pullies, what poyses and counter-poyses, what affluencies and refluencies this perpetuity is accomplished, we imagine will neither be vnprofitable nor vnpleasant to vnderstand, especially to those who desire to know and acknowledge the admirable workes of God in this little world of the body of man, as wel as his great administrations in the greater. We read of Aristotle, that when hee was in banishment in Chalcide, and obserued the seauen-fold Ebbing and Flowing in one day & a night of the Euripus ornarrow Frith between Aulis and 
The cause of Aristot. death.  the Iland Eubra, and could not finde out the cause of it, he pyned away euen to death with sorrow. Me thinks therefore that euery man when he puts his hand but into his bosome and feeleth there a continuall pulsation, by which hee knoweth his owne life is gouerned, should also bee desirous to vnderstand what maner of engine this is, which being so small that he may couer it with his hand, hath yet such diuersities of mouing causes therein, especially 
The heart cōpared to a smal watch.  considering that a little skill to cleere and dresse the wheeles may keepe this watch of his life in motion, which otherwise will furre vp and stand in his dissolution. We will therefore a little payne ourselves, to discourse of the manifold difficulties wherein the causes of this motion are so intangled, that some not meerely learned haue thought, that they are onely knowne to God and Nature and to none other.  
The motion therefore of the heart is double; one naturall, the other depraued. The 
The motion of the heart double. The natural motion.  naturall we call the Pulse, the other we call Palpitation: the one proceedeth from a Naturall faculty, the other from an vnnaturall distemper: the one is an action of the heart, the other a passion. Our discourse shall be onely of the naturall motion which consisteth of a dilatation called Diastole, a contraction called Systole, and a double rest betweene them.  
Aristotle imagined the onely cause of this motion to be heate, but perpetuated by the 
Aristotles conceire of the cause.  continuall affluence of oylie moysture, which as continually is consumed as it is ministred, euen as oyle put to a lampe: but the dilatation( sayth hee) commeth from ebullition or boyling of the bloud, whereby it riseth and occupieth a larger place, yea and powreth itself out into all the cauity adioyning thereto: and this he illustrateth by an example taken from boyling water; water when it boyleth riseth vp and occupieth larger place then it did 
A pregnant example.  before, but if you blowe cold ayre into it, it presently falleth; right so is it( sayth he) in the heart of a man the heate boyleth vp the bloud, and the cold ayre we draw in by inspiration settleth it againe: and this is farther proued because the pulses of yong men are more liuely and stronger then of old, of whole men then of sicke, of waking men then of sleeping, 
Another instance.  because their heate is more vehement, and the feruor or working of their bloud more manifest. These things are very probable, and carry( I must needs say) a great shew of trueth, but if they be weighed in the ballance of Anatomy they will bee found but light. Herein was the Philosophers error that he vnderstandeth the heart to be distended or dilated, because 
Wherein was the Philosophers error.  it is filled: contrariwise, the Anatomist vnderstandeth the heart to bee filled because it is dilated.  
In the depraued motion or palpitation of the heart it is distended indeede, because it is filled either with water or with vapours, but in the proper and naturall it is dilated by an inbred 
Comparison.  power of his owne, and being dilated drawes in bloud and spirits, and so is filled, like as a Smithes bellowes being opened by the power of the smith is filled with ayre whether hee will or no; bladders whilest they are filled are distended, those fill in the dilatation, these dilate in the filling.  
Beside this conceite of Aristotles, others haue diuersly deuised concerning this motion. 
Erosistratus. Hiracledus.  Erasistratus, Hiracledus, Erithreus, conceiued that the motion of the heart was from the Animall and vitall faculties together. Auerrhoes, that it was from the appetent and sentient soule; and that the heat was but the instrument which the appetite vsed: others thought 
Auerrhoes.  that nature onely moued the heart, because alone it is sayd to bee principium motus, or beginning 
Other opinions.  of motion in those things that are moued: others, that the dilatation of the heart was from the soule, and the contraction meerly naturall, the sides of the heart falling down with their owne waight, like as in the disease called Tremor, or the shaking palsie; the faculty 
The cause of the snaking palsie.  of the soule continually rayseth vp the heade, and the waight beareth it downe againe, whence the perpetuall shaking proceedeth.  
But trueth is, the motion of the heart is no trembling but a constant and orderly motion; neither is the contraction caused by the waight of the heart, it buckling vnder the burthen of itself, but the greatest strength of the heart is in the contraction, whereby it hurleth 
The kinds of motions.  forth( as the lightning passeth through the whole heauen) his spirites into the whole body, and excludeth oftentimes not without violence, the fumed vapours into the arteriall veine. But before we set downe our resolution concerning this matter, a few things are to 
Voluntary motions.  be first established.  
There is a threefold motion; Violent, Animal, and Naturall: of violent motions none at all can be perpetuall, whereupon wee may conclude that no Art can make a perpetuall motion. Animall motions are all voluntary: this Galen well describeth in the fifth Chapter of his second Booke de motu musculorum, where he sayeth, If thou canst settle and appease those things that are moued or done at thy pleasure, and againe mooue or doe that was at rest or was not done, that action or motion is truely voluntarie; if moreouer thou canst doe any thing swifter or flower, oftner or seldomer at thy pleasure, these actions are obedient to thy will. Finally, the Naturall motion is manifold, as a thing may diuers waies 
Natural motions manifold.  be sayd to be naturall.  
There is one simple naturall motion which is accomplished only by nature and the Elementary forme; with this motion heauy things moue downeward, and light things vpward.  
Secondly, all motions are called Naturall which are opposed to violent motions; so the motions of the muscles, though they be voluntary, are sayd to be naturall, if they be naturally disposed.  
Thirdly, all motions are called Naturall which are not Animall, that is, voluntarie: So Galen sayeth in the place before quoted, that the motion of the heart is not of the soule, that is, of the will, but of nature: & againe, the motion of the heart is of Nature, the motion of the chest, of the Soule.  
So that Galen in his 7. Book de vsu partium, deliuering but two kinds of faculties, the one Animall, the other Naturall, vnderstandeth all that to be Naturall which is not Animall or voluntary. Now we conclude, that the motion of the heart is Natural in the third acception; 
The resolution of the question.  that is, that it dependeth neither vpon the will, nor simply vpon Nature; but vpon the vitall faculty of the Soule which is Naturall: not vpon the wil, because wee can neither stay it nor set it going againe, neither slacken nor hasten it at our pleasure: not simply vpon Nature, for in a body that is animated, that is, that hath a Soule, nothing mooueth but the Soule, otherwise there should be more formes then one, and more beginners of motion then one, which true and solid Philosophy will not suffer. This Soule is the Nature itself of the Creature, which that it may preserue the vnion between the body and itself, moueth the heart, concocteth in the stomacke, reboyleth in the Liuer, and perfecteth the bloud in the veines. When we say therefore that the motion of the heart is Naturall, wee meane that it is from a naturall faculty of the Soule which is not voluntary. And that this motion is natural, all the causes of it do euidently shew.  
There be three immediate causes of the pulse, the Efficient, the End or finall cause, and 
Three immediate causes of the pulse. The efficient.  the Instrument, all Naturall.  
The Efficient cause is the vital faculty, which imploieth itself wholly about the generation of spirits, which by that perpetuall motion are brought foorth, for in the Diastole or dilatation it draweth bloud and ayre. In the Systole or contraction it draweth out the spirits already made, and their excrements.  
The Finall cause( which you may call either the vse or the necessity at your pleasure) 
The Final.  is three-fold; the nourishment of the spirituous substance, which is kept in the left ventricle of the heart; the tempering and moderating of it( for there was great danger, that because of the continuall motions the heart should be inflamed, vnlesse it had beene ventilated with ayre as with a fan) and the expurgation of smoky or fumed vapors.  
The Instruments also of this motion are Natural, not Animall. Galen calleth the Animall 
The instrument.  instruments, the Muscles and the Nerues: the heart is no muscle, vnlesse wee speake abusiuely, because of the fastnes and colour of his flesh; and for nerues there are none that 
That the nerue helpeth not the motion of the hart  reach vnto his ventricles. There is indeed a small surcle or tendrill from the sixt coniugation that maketh the Recurrent, which is disseminated in the purse and Basis of the heart, but the heart standeth in no need of it for his motion; for if this nerue be intercepted with a string, or( which is the surest way) his originall which is easily perceiued by the sides of the weazon; yet neuerthelesse is the heart moued as also the arteries, as in Dogges we haue often made experiment. Seeing therefore all the causes of the hearts motion be Naturall, we may conclude that itself is natural, comming from the vitall faculty which is not volūtary.  
But that the trueth of this conclusion may more playnely appeare, some obiections must bee answered, which otherwise would breede scruple in the mindes of them that are 
The first obiection.  not so sufficiently grounded in these secrets of Nature.  
First therefore say some, all naturall motions are continuall; but the motion of the heart is interrupted with a double rest, one betweene each motion. Let vs admit that one simple 
Answere.  Naturall motion is continuall: yet when there are two natural motions and those contrary, there must needs be a rest betweene them.  
Secondly, they say, no natural motion is compound: but the motion of the heart is 
The second. Answere.  compound. I answere, The motion of the heart is not compound, but double; not simple, because of two contrary motions cannot be made one compound motion; neither of many motions is made one motion as one line of many poynts.  
Thirdly, they vrge vs further thus, with Aristotle in the 7. Booke of his Metaph. Whatsoeuer 
The third.  is moued by Nature is moued to some end, which end when it hath obteyned, then it resteth; as water being heated, if by it own force and proper forme it be cooled, neuer groweth hot againe by the same forme or force. Wherefore if the heart be moued naturally, it is mooued that it may be dilated or contracted; when therefore it is dilated, why is it contracted? and when it is contracted, why is it dilated againe? I answere, that that is true 
Answere.  in a motion that is purely and meerely naturall; but the motion of the heart is from the vitall faculty of the Soule, which hath a naturall instinct and knowledge of his owne vse, and according to the diuers appetites of that naturall instinct moueth diuersly. For when the heart is contracted, it desireth to be dilated that it may draw in cold ayre, when it is dilated or distended, it desireth to be contracted to auoyde the smoke and soote that by his heate are ingendred: so the vitall faculty of the Soule which is sensible of his owne want, moueth the heart perpetually with diuers motions, according as the needs of the Soule do require. By which this motion of the heart is distinguished from other motions of the Naturall faculty of the Soule, to wit, of the wombe and the stomacke. For the motion of these parts is not perpetual, because there wanteth a perpetuall obiect, neither doth any necessity vrge, 
How the motion of the heart differeth from that of other parts.  the finall cause it is not alwayes at hand, but the heart hath a continual obiect, necessity and end: for it wanteth perpetuall nourishment, tempering and expurgation. Finally, they contend that the motion of the heart is not Naturall, because it is to two contrary poynts, but opposite and contrary motions are onely performed by the Animall faculty: so the arme is lifted vp and pulled downe onely by the will. I answere, that in things without 
The fourth. Answere.  life this is true, but all things that haue life, yea euen in plants themselues there is motion to contrary poynts. I say more, there is neuer in the Soule one motion, but presently resulteth another opposite or contrary vnto it: so in nutrition, the attraction of the Aliment is from the Soule, so is also the expulsion of excrements from the same Soule. The Soule is so diuine a thing, that not only it doth many things beside the lawes of other formes, but 
The diuinity of the Soule.  also is the author of contraries; for it moueth vpward and downeward and beyond the Nature of Elements, to the right hand, to the left. and circularly. The motion of the earth is simple and vniforme, the motion of the Soule manifold, because the forme of the earth is one and simply simple. The Soule is simple, manifold, and manifold wayes: Simple in his Essence, manifold in his Power and Vertue, and manifold wayes in his knowledge of obiects, 
Multiplicity  from which his operations and actions are drawne.  
We therefore conclude that the motion of the heart is Naturall, and proceedeth from the vitall faculty for a certaine end and purpose of Nature, and that it doth so proceede, 
The conclusion.  these two arguments doe necessarily auerre.  
First, because in the dilatation there is a certaine and determinate kinde of bloud and ayre drawne perpetually through the same set and determinate vessels. In the contraction likewise the smoky ayre and the spirits are thrust out by certayne vessels.  
Secondly, because the flesh of the heart is wouen with all kindes of fibres. If therefore those seuerall fibres doe in other parts some draw, some contract, and some loosen, either they are superfluous in the heart( which to say, is to blaspheme Nature) or else they haue the same vses in the heart that they haue in other partes. VVee sayed it proceeded for a certaine end, because this faculty neither worketh voluntarily as the Animall, nor according to the power of the Agent in respect of that which suffereth, but for meere necessity. The stomack, although it be not hungry, yet it concocteth so much meat as is put into it, if it can: but the heart is not moued but as necessity vrgeth, making a pulse either swifter or slower, as the vse of Nature is to haue a slow or quick pulse.   

QVEST. III. Of the manner of the motion of the Heart, and whether it strike the Brest in the dilatation or in the contraction.  
_THus much concerning the cause of the motion of the heart. It followeth now to speake of the manner of his motion, which is better knowne by the eye 
The maner of the motion of the heart.  then by discourse of reason: wherefore it is vsual with Anatomists, for the better obseruation of this motion, to open Dogs aliue, that they may more distinctly see the manner thereof. From this Autopsia and witnesse of the eye will we vnfold this mystery.  
There are two motions of the heart, Dyastole or dilatation, and Systole or contraction; 
The ●. motions of the heart. The double rest how necessary.  betwixt each of these is a rest or cessation, one following the distētion, the other following the contraction. For it is not possible that two contrary motions should immediately succeed one another: but in the poynt of the refluxion or returne from one contrary to another there must needes be a rest, otherwise there could be no beginning nor end of one motion distinct from the beginning and end of another; and so the motions could not be contrary which had no distinct beginning nor end particular to either of them, because there is no rest from which the beginning of the motion should arise, or into which the end of the motion should determine: wherefore whatsoeuer hath any reflexion, hath also some rest before the reflexion.  
A manifest instance hereof wee haue in the Tyde, which when it hath flowed to his 
An instance in the tyde.  height, standeth sometime at a stay before it begin to Ebbe, which stay we call a high water when no motion of the tide can be perceiued. But what is done in these contrary motions? In the Dyastole the heart draweth bloud by the gate of the hollow veine into his right ventricle, 
Dyastole what.  and ayre by the arteriall veine into the left. In the Systole the heart driueth out vitall 
Systole what.  spirites into the great artery, or fumed and smoky vapours together, with a small portion of the spirits, by the venall artery. In the Dyastole the ends of the heart are corrugated & contracted, the Basis being drawne to the mucro or poynt, and the poynt to the Basis: so that the heart becommeth shorter in his longitude, but is so amplified to his sides, that his figure commeth neere to the spherical, which is the figure of most capacity. Contrariwise, in the Systole the ends of the heart are distended, but the sides fall and flag, as it were, and so the heart becommeth longer, but narrower.  
Both these motions are performed by the helpe of the fibres; for the right which passe 
The vse of the fibres of the heart.  directly from the Basis to the poynte, contracting themselues make the dilatation. The transuerse or circular straighting the sides, doe make the contraction; the oblique serue for retention, and make that double rest whereof we spake. Againe, in the Dyastole all the values are extended, in which distention, the forked values make many chinkes or crannyes as it were, but the semi-lunarie values do close vp the ends of their vesselles. In the Systole all these membranes are contracted, and then the forked shutte those chinks and crannyes 
How the values are in the motions.  which they made when they were dilated, and the semilunarie being corrugated or wrinkled, leaue such distances or rifts by which the bloud freely passeth forth. Moreouer, the dilatation of the heart is before the contraction in time, for ayre is first drawn in before the smoky excrement is shut out: and againe, inspiration must needs be first, because expiration is last, for the life vanisheth in expiration.  
But whether is of greater necessity? VVe answere, that in hayle bodies they are of alike 
Greater vse of expiration then of inspiration.  necessity. In Agues especially rotten and putrid there is more necessity of expiration, as wee see in those that dye, their Systole and expiration is greater, because Nature is more diligent to exclude that which is hurtfull, then to drawe that which is profitable; now wee know that the ayre that is drawne is familiar to the heart, but the smoaky and sooty excrement is an offence vnto it.  
Lastly, it is questioned whether it strike the breast( which wee feele with our hand about 
Whether the heart striketh the brest in the Dyastole or in the Systole.  the left brest) in the dilatation or in the contraction. Galen seemeth to differ herein from himselfe: for in one place he saith, Quando rur sum euacuatum fuerit Cor, & in naturalem figuram recurrerit, tunc prosilit pectori, et percussionem facit, et ita concidens pulsum perficit: that is, Againe when the heart is emptied, and returneth to his naturall figure and position, 
Galens authority.  then it leapeth against the brest, and maketh that percussion, and so falling accomplisheth that pulse.  
To this authority may bee added this reason: when the heart is dilated it becommeth 
Reason to the authority.  short, and againe long when it is contracted. VVherefore when it is distended it goeth from the brest, and when it is contracted it flyeth to the brest, and so striketh it: beside, almost all Anatomists say, that the flesh of the heart is more solid in the mucro or point, then 
The consent of anatomists.  in the Basis; that in the violent motions of the brest it should touch the bone, to which it is very neere, and so be hurt, & so vitiate his motion: the point therefore striketh the brest, 
What the trueth is.  but experience and waight of reason is on the contrary part.  
The reasons are these: If you lay one hand vpon the brest, and another vpon the wrest, 
The reasons to proue it.  you shal perceiue in either place at the same time the same stroke; and this both Galen hath obserued in the 3. ch. of his 3. Book de praesag. expuls. & we daily proue it true by diffections of liuing creatures; but it is most certaine, that the stroke of the artery is in the ende of the dilatation, for the end of the contraction cannot be felt; therefore that stroke of the heart we feele, is the end of the dilatation, not of the contraction.  
It may bee obiected, that when the arteries are distended, the heart is contracted, and 
Obiection.  when the heart is contracted, then are the arteries dilated; if therfore you place your hand vpon the wrest or the temples, and there finde the stroke of the artery, and with the other hand vpon the breast finde also the stroke there at the same time, it must follow necessarily, that the heart is then contracted when the arteries are dilated, but the vanity of this obiection 
Answere with reference.  shall appeare in the next exercise. For the heart and the arteries are distended at the same time and in the same motion.  
Moreouer, if the heart when it is contracted should strike the breast with his mucre or poynt, the stroake should not be felt at the left breast but somewhat lower, for the point of the heart reacheth to that place of the chest into which the midriffe is inserted. The brest therefore is beaten not with the poynt of the heart, but with the left ventricle when it is distended, which is the originall of the arteries; for when the poynt is gathered to the Basis in the Diastole, the heart is made larger, and so striketh the breast at the left Pap; but when it is contracted, the heart becommeth longer & narrower, and so falleth back into the chest; and of this also is Galens opinion in his Anatomicall administrations, and in those golden Hymnes of his, of the vse of the parts. Let vs proceed to the other difficulties which concerne the motion of this heart and arteries.   

QVEST. IIII. By or from what power the Arteries are moued.  
_THE motion of the Arteries Hippocrates first of all others called 〈◇〉, that 
Hippocrates first found the pulse and so named it.  is, the Pulse, & although he left indistinct precepts about it, yet was it not vtterly vnknowne vnto him, as some nouices would beare the worlde in hand, which may be prooued by many places, if it were necessary to wrastle in that floore: but we list not insist in that, but proceed. That the forme of the motion 
The forme of the motion.  of this pulse is all one with that of the heart; for it consisteth of a Diastole and a Systole, and a double rest.  
In the Diastole the Arteries draw and are filled, and in the Systole they expell. The rest is double, vnlesse Nature bee prouoked either by a violent obiect, or by some external cause; for then the arteries may be moued together with an insensible rest, as in the pulse called dicrotus ad vibrans: so a stone which is throwne vpward, if it meet with a falling Tower, descends againe without any rest, although Aristotle thinketh that no violence can tie 
Aristotle.  to contrary motions without some rest.  
The vse of this pulsation is double; one greater, another lesser. The greater is for the conseruation of the naturall heate as well of the heart as of other parts: for by contractions 
The vse of pulsation double.  whatsoeuer is smoky the arteries auoyde, and so the naturall heate is kept from suffocation, by dilatation they draw outward ayre into the body, by which the dissolution of the same heate is inhibited.  
The lesse vse is, that in the braine may be ingendered the Animal spirit, for by the pulsation the spirits of life are carried into the plexus choroides. There is therefore the same vse of the pulse that there is of respiration, sauing that what respiration doth to the heart, that the pulse of the arteries doth to other parts, which as they neede lesse heate then the heart, so are they not so soone offended: for if the heart bee depriued of respiration, presently the creature perisheth, but the part dyeth not as soone as it wanteth the pulse.  
The nature of the motion of these arteries is very obscure, and many things must bee 
The nature of their motion obscure. Prapagoras.  resolued of and known, before we can attayne to the vnderstanding of so deepe a mystery. First of all, whence are the arteries moued from themselues or from some other. Prapagoras thought the arteries did moue of their owne accord, and that they had the same pulsatiue vertue that the heart hath, in themselues, not by influence. But this Galen disproueth 
Galens instāce  by an obseruation; for sayth he, if an artery be cut ouerthwart, that part onely will pulse which remayneth ioyned to the heart; but that which is separated from the heart, will not beate at all.  
Erasistratus was of minde, that the arteries were not mooued by any proper power of 
Erasistratus.  their owne, but by the constraint of the heart, and that constraint hee meaneth not of any faculty but onely of some matter. Aristotle thought they moued, because of the feruour or 
Aristotle.  boyling of the bloud contayned in them, whome some haue followed, because they know 
The reasons.  that the spirits are those which make strife & offer violence; and again, because the veines 
Neither heat, nor spirits, nor bloud, are the immediate causes. Not heat.  neere the hart do not moue, which they would do( say they) if they had in them such bloud as the arteries haue: but we will proue that neither heate nor spirite, nor boyling bloud can be the immediate cause of this perpetuall motion. For the heate, it either hath a body or hath no body; if it had a body, then the arteries that are neerer to the heart would soonest be dilated; if it be onely a naked quality, then will it first heate those things that are neere hand, and after that which is farther off. For heate is not of the number of those formes which may in a moment be diffused as light, but his contrary is cold, which first must be expelled out of the subiect before itself bee receiued: but the pulse is in a moment diffused through all the arteries, it is not therefore only from heate.  
It is not of spumous bloud; for then it would follow that where the bloud is more plentifull 
Not bloud.  and hotter, there the pulse should be not onely more vehement, but more frequent also; and so the pulses of the great arteries should bee quicker then the pulses of the small: but experience teacheth, that all the arteries both great and small doe mooue alike vnlesse there be some hinderance; they are not therefore moued by the bloud contayned in them. Furthermore, intercept an arterie with a tye, and the part below the tye, though it strut 
An instance.  with spirits and thinne bloud, yet will not beate, because the continuity of the faculty with the heart is intercepted; but as soon as the tye is vnloosed, the artery will instantly beate againe; but the heate nor the humour can in a moment or instant flow from the heart into the vtter arteries. Adde to this, that if the arteries should beate because of the bloud contayned in them, then in all large pulses there should also be vehemencie, which is nothing so: For sayth Galen in his Booke de vsu pulsuum, and in the fourth de causis pulsuum, there is 
There may be great, yet a faint pulse.  a pulse which is small yet vehement, and there is likewise a pulse which is great but languid and faynt, which variety cannot come from the heat.  
Asclepiades acknowledgeth a faculty in the motion of the arteries; but whereas this 
Asclepiades his opinion.  motion is in dilatation and constriction, hee affirmeth that the distention onely is from the faculty, and the contraction from nature; that is, from the predominant element and from the waight, because when the creature is dead the arteries doe fall. So bladders if they be filled with any thing they are distended, but they fall of themselues: and all round and hollow bodies are dilated by some facultie, but afterward doe fall with the waight of their owne parts. On the contrary, those things that are contracted by any faculty, that faculty ceasing, they are againe dilated. Therefore if the arteries bee dilated by a faculty, then are they contracted by their grauity, and so on the contrary: wherefore they need not a faculty for both.  
Herophylus quite contrary will haue the contraction to be performed by a faculty, but the dilatation( sayth he) is nothing else but the returne of the arterie to his natural position: 
Herophylus his opinion.  Because sayth he, the arteries of dead carcasses being cast into hot water, when they haue gotten the measure of heate that they had in the liuing body, will be dilated, but neuer fall, because there wanteth a faculty: but they are both deceiued.  
For if both the Dyastole and Systole came not from the faculty, but from the constitution 
How both were deceiued.  of the artery, then the artery should euer keepe the same magnitude, and the same vehemencie of pulsation; but we see that the pulse is now greater, now lesser, as the strength is great or little; sometimes the Systole, sometimes the Dyastole is greater, as the vse of either is increased. There want not some who striue to prooue that the motion of the arteries is from the brayne, standing vpon one authoritie of Galens, where hee sayth in the 2. Booke 
That the motion of the arteries is not from the braine.  de causis pulsuum, When in a man the pulse beginnes to be convulsiue, presently he is taken with a convulsion, which seemeth to intimate, that there is one originall of the faculty of pulsation, and of that to which convulsion doeth belong. But Galens owne obseruation bewrayeth the vanity of this opinion. For if the brayne be compressed, sence and motion will perish, but the arteries will still beate. If the nerue which commeth from the brayn to the heart bee cut or intercepted, the creature becommeth dumbe, but the arteries beate still.  
Seeing therefore that the arteries neither moue by a power of their owne, nor from the 
The true cause whereby the motion is moued.  Elementary forme, nor onely from heate, nor from a spirit or spumy bloud, it remayneth necessary that they should be mooued by pulsatiue power of the heart. For if they should be moued by any thing saue by a faculty, their motion should be not continual but violent: neither would there bee any attraction of ayre in dilatation, but the boyling bloud would take vp all the roome.  
This Faculty or power pulsatiue is in a moment carried, not through the Cauitie but along the coats of the Arteries; and that it is carried in a moment this is an argument that 
Which waie the Faculty is led.  all the Arteries are mooued with the same motion, all together in the same time vvhen the heart is mooued. If it be obiected, that Galen( in the 1. de different. pulsuum, & de 2 prima cognitione ex puls. speaking of those that haue hot hearts, and cold Arteries in whom the parts of the Arterie that are neerer to the heart are dilated sooner then those that are more remote) is constrained to confesse, that the pulsatiue power is mooued through the 
What may hinder the motion of the heart.  arterie & slowly by degrees. I answer, that the faculty floweth in a moment vnlesse it be hindred. But it may be hindred sometimes by his owne fault, sometimes by the fault of the Instrument; by his owne when the heate is weake, by the instrument when the arteries are either cold or soft or obstructed. It remaineth therefore, that when al things are aright disposed it floweth in an instant, and not through the Cauitie, but along the coats of the Arteries. Galen in the last Chapter of the Booke Quod sanguis Arterijs delineatur, giueth an 
An instance for experiēce  instance from experience. If you put a Quill or Reede into the Arterie, which will fill the whole cauity, yet will the Artery beate; but if his coats be pressed with a Tie, it will cease instantly. If it be obiected that the Arteries in an Infant beate before the heart, and therefore the pulse is from the spirit, not from the heart: I aunswere, that the Infants Arteries 
Obiection. Solution.  do mooue by a vertue that proceedeth from the heart of the Mother: for the Arteries of the infant are continuall with those of the Mother, and receiueth as well life & the pulsatiue Faculty from her, as the Liuer and all the other parts do nourishment.   

QVEST. V. Whether the Arteries are dilated, when the Heart is dilated, or on the contrary then contracted.  
_THere ariseth now a more obscure, thornie, and scrupulous question, then 
A difficult question.  the former, and that is, whether the Arteries and the heart are mooued with the same motion. For the explication whereof, we must first resolue that the Arteries are filled when they are dilated, and emptied when they are contracted, 
The Arteries are filled in their dilatatiō  that they draw when they are dilated, and expell when they are constringed. The reason is manifest; For the vessels must needs draw with that motion whereby they are made most fit to receiue; but the vesselles by how much they are more enlarged, by so much are they more capeable: now they are enlarged by dilatation; therefore, when they are dilated they draw and are filled: so that Archigines is no way to be hearkned vnto, 
Archigines.  who was of opinion that in the Systole the arteries do draw and are filled, and in the Diastole do expell and are emptied; whose argument for this was, because in inspiration the lippes are streightned, and the Nosthrils contracted: but whether this Diastole of the Arteries 
The first opinion. Erasistratus.  be at once and together with the dilatation of the heart, that is indeede a great controuersie. Erasistratus was the first that thought their motions contrary, that is, that when the heart is dilated, the Arteries are contracted; and when the heart is contracted, the Arteries are dilated.  
Amongst the new writers, these haue sided with him: Fernelius, Columbus, Cardane, & Sealiger: and truely his opinion may be confirmed by authorities and reasons. Galen in his 
Authorities.  Booke De Puls. ad Tyrenes saith, that the Vitall Faculty dooth mooue diuers bodies at the same time with diuers motions, which can be vnderstood of nothing else but the motions of the heart and of the arteries. Auicen Fen. 1. cap. 4. doctrin. 6. affirmeth, that the vitall 
Reasons. The first  Faculty doth together dilate and constringe. The reasons beside these authorities are: In the Diastole the heart draweth blood by the hollow veine into his right Ventricle, and aer by the venall artery into the left. Therefore at that time the heart is filled, and the vessels are emptied. Contrariwise, in the Systole the heart expelleth the Vitall spirit into the arteries; therefore at that time the heart is emptied and the arteries are filled; but when the arteries are filled they are distended, and when they are emptied they fall: wherefore when the heart is distended, the arteries are contracted, and when it is contracted they are distended. Beside, there is the same proportion betweene the arteries and the heart, which 
The second.  there is betweene the heart and the deafe eare: but it is most certaine, which our eie-sight teacheth vs, that the motion of the heart, and of the eares of the heart are diuers; for when the heart is dilated, then those eares doe fall; and when the heart is contracted, then they are distended and filled: wherefore the heart and the arteries are mooued with a diuers motion.  
Thirdly, as attractions and expulsations are in other parts, so it is likely they are in the heart; 
The third.  but when the stomack driueth out the Chylus, the messentery veines do draw it, and therefore when the heart driueth out blood and the vitall spirit, then the arteries draw it; and so their motions are contrary.  
Fourthly, when the heart is dilated then becommeth it shorter, and draweth vnto it 
The fourth.  selfe the arteries that are continual with it and therefore maketh them narrower, but when the heart is contracted the arteries are dilated and become longer.  
Lastly, if one hand be placed vpon the brest & another vpon the wrest, the same stroke will at the same time be perceiued; but the stroke and percussion of the brest is done by the 
The fist.  contraction of the heart, for when it is contracted it commeth to the brest and striketh it: but when it is distended it becommeth shorter and recedeth from the Chest. Now the stroke of the Artery is not from the contraction, but from the dilatation. Wherefore the heart and the Arteries are moued with a diuers motion. But notwithstanding all these 
The truth itself proued by  reasons, yet are we perswaded with Galen in his booke de vsu puls. & 3. depraesag. expuls. & 6. de vsu partium, that the heart and the Arteries are moued with the same motion. And this we are taught first by experience, then by strong & inuincible force of argument. The experience is instanced by Galen, which euery man may make tryall of in himselfe. If one 
Experience.  hand be laide vpon the brest and another vpon the wrest, the same stroke will be perceiued at the same time; and beside in diffections of liuing creatures we haue often obserued the very same. But beside, these reasons doe euince it. We haue already proued that the arteries are not moued by the impulsion of the bloud, not by the boyling or heate of it, but 
Reason. First.  by a faculty and that not of the Arteries but yssuing from the heart; therefore they are contracted by the faculty which contracteth the heart and distended by the same force and power by which it is distended. But if they were moued with diuers motions, it would follow that the dilating faculty must flow from the heart in the same moment wherein it is contracted, which no Philosopher will dare to admit. Beside, that motion is the same which hath the same efficient and finall causes: but the pulsatiue power is the same which 
Second.  moueth the heart and the Arteries; and the end also is the same, to wit, nutrition, temperation or qualification, and expurgation.  
Thirdly, the motion of the part and of the whole is all one; and a part of that beeing 
Third.  moued which is continuall with the whole, the whole is moued: as is seene in the strings of Instruments: but the Arteries and heart are continuall together; wherefore if they bee 
An instance.  moued by the heart as is most euident, then will it follow necessarily that they shall both be moued together by the same motion.  
Fourthly, vnlesse the heart and the Arteries were together distended and together 
Fourth.  contracted, the hart should not be refrigerated in his dilatations, because the Arteries being contracted there would follow an exclusion of the smoky excrments into the left ventricle, and so the hart and the artery should mutually striue, & their motion be in vaine.  
Fiftly, it would follow that in the contraction the heart should draw ayre from 
Fift.  the dilated and distended arteries. For sometimes the vse of respiration being taken away, as in passions of the mother; the hart doth not draw ayre from the Lungs and the venall artery, because then no ayre is drawne in by the mouth and the nostrils, yet the hart moueth and the arteries beate. Now it is moued for the generation of vitall spirits, but this generation is not without the admistion of ayre: it draweth therfore ayre from the arteries not contracted because then are the excrements expelled, but from the arteries distended. But if when the arteries are distended the heart be contracted, then the contracted heart shall draw from the distended arteries, and so shall the motions of the heart become contrary.  
Sixtly, this faculty is incorporeall, communicating itself in a moment: wherefore at 
Sixt.  what time the hart beginneth to dilate, it distendeth all the arteries, and so on the contrary.  
Finally, the pulses which are in anger, sorrow and other passions doe sufficiently shew that the heart and arteries are moued with the same motion. For, if when the hart 
Seuenth.  is dilated the arteries should be contracted, then in anger the pulses should bee small, in griefe great; because in anger the heart is somewhat contracted and therefore the arteries should be but a little dilated. Contrariwise, in griefe the arteries should be very much dilated because the heart is strongly contracted: but how false this is, common experience will witnesse. Let vs therefore settle ourselves in Galens opinion and determine, That the 
What deceiued the former learned men.  arteries are dilated and contracted when the heart is dilated and contracted.  
The structure of the vesselles of the heart, deceiued those learned men which hold the contrary opinion, together with the obscure maner of the hearts motion. For there being in the Basis of the heart foure notable vessels: the hollow veine, the arteriall veine, the venall artery, and the great artery: they imagined that the heart in his Dyactole did draw somthing from these foure vesselles, and in his Systole driue something into them all; and that therefore in the Dyastole of the heart they were all emptied that the heart might bee filled, and in the Systole of the heart they were all filled because the heart is emptied.  
Beside, they seeme to haue been ignorant of the Efficient cause of the motion of the heart and the arteries. For they would haue the heart and the arteries to bee dilated because they are filled with ayre or bloud. But the trueth is, that the arteries are not dilated because they are filled; but because they are dilated therefore are they filled: onely the power 
What the trueth is.  & pulsatiue faculty which floweth from the heart distendeth the arteries, not the bloud contayned in them. For whether they be distended or contracted they remayne alwayes full of bloud: but if you shall thinke that they are distended because they are filled, then 
The arteries in both motions are still lust of bloud.  will it follow that at the same time they cannot be all distended; for how can that corporeall bloud bee carried in a moment from the heart to the arteries of the foote? I will giue you for illustration of this matter an elegant example. The Smithes bellowes because 
A fit example  they are dilated are therefore filled with ayre; and the chest because it is distended by the animall faculty is presently filled; but purses bagges and the hogges bladder with which boyes often play themselues, are distended because they are filled.  
But we must carefully marke, that whereas there are foure vesselles of the heart, onely 
The former distinction concerneth only the arteries.  the arteries is filled because it is dilated: the other three are distended because they are filled and doe fall because they are emptyed; because onely the arteries haue the motion of Systole and Dyastole from the faculty of the heart, the other vesselles are immouable. And this is the reason why when the heart is contracted the left eare is dilated, because 
Why the left eare is dilated when the hart is contracted.  the eare is a kinde of store-house of ayre and bloud which suddenly rush into it; from the which when the heart draweth bloud or ayre, it is of necessity that it should contract itself.  
These things being determined, it will bee easie to make satisfaction to whatsoeuer is obiected on the contrary part. The authorities of Galen and Auicen are not contrary to our determination, for they call the heart and the arteries diuers moouable bodies, which 
satisfaction to the ●uthorities alledged.  at the same time are mooued with diuers motions; for they are dilated and concracted at once and together by the same vitall faculty. And I imagine that Galen and Auicen spake this against the antients, who sayde that onely the dilatation was from the faculty, but the contraction from the Elementary forme and from the waight of their bodies. The reasons 
The reasons answered. The first.  are thus to bee answered. The arteries are not distended because they are filled but are filled because they are distended; neither doe the arteries fall altogether when they are contracted but retayne still their cauity; and the plenty of the matter is more which issueth from them then that which is receiued into them: the arteries therefore are not dilated by the influence of the matter which goeth out of the heart.  
The second argument is of no moment: for there is not the same reason of the heart 
The second.  and the eares thereof; for the eares expell nothing, but the arteries expell more at that time then they receiue; beside, the eares are dilated because they are filled, but the heart & 
Hippocrates de corde expounded.  arteries are therefore filled because they are dilated: and this did Hippocrates silently insinuate where he sayth, The heart is mooued by his whole Nature, that is, by his proper faculty: but the cares doe priuatly swell and fall againe; that is, as they are filled or emptied of ayre and bloud.  
To the third reason we thus make satisfaction; in other parts the attractiue and expelling 
The third.  vertues are in-bred, but contraction and dilatation the arteries haue by influence.  
The fourth reason instanceth but in a light contraction, which is into length not into 
The fourth.  bredth.  
Last of all, the last reason is against experience, for we haue before proued that the brest is beaten in the dilatation, the left ventricle being largely displayed. 
The last.    

QVEST. VI. Of the generation of the vitall spirit, and by what wayes the bloud goeth out of the right into the left ventricle of the Heart.  
_WEE haue hitherto prooued that the motion of the Heart and the Arteries is 
Of the vitall spirit.  one and that a perpetuall motion, consisting of a Systole a Dyastole and a double rest, arising from a naturall pulsatiue faculty of the Soule residing in the heart, there assisted by the structure of the fibres and thence deduced by influence or irradiation into all the arteries at one instant, not through the cauity but along their coates. Now because all this curious and maister-peece is wrought by Nature, onely for the generation of vitall spirits; it is more then requisite that we vnderstand what this spirit is, & how generated. We will not trouble you with many things hereabout, but those we will insist vpon shall not be triuiall and ordinary but hewen out of the deepe quarries, vnueyled from amongst the most secret mysteries of Nature. That there is a vitall spirit in perfect creatures no man euer denyed. Hippocrates in his Booke de Generat. & de principiis first put vs in minde of it, Galen hath a thousand times inculcated the same.  
The prince of the Arabian tribe Auicen hath set his seale vnto it; and all the multitude 
All physitians agree that there is a vitall spirit.  of Greek and Arabian Physicians haue added their suffrages. And amongst the later waters, though some haue doubted concerning the Naturall and the Animall spirites, yet all with a ioynt consent allow of the vitall. There is therefore a vitall spirit which is primarily seated in the Left caue or denne of the heart as it were in a shoppe or work-house; and from hence it is diffused by the arteries as by conduits or pipes into the whole body. This spirit cherisheth the in-bred heat of euery part, quickens it when it becommeth drowsie, bringeth it forth when it lyes hid, and being spent or wasted restoreth it againe.  
This spirit whilest it shineth in his brightnes and spredeth itself through all the Theater of the body as the Sunne ouer the earth, it blesseth all partes with ioy and iolitie and 
The office of this spirit.  dies them with a Rosie colour; but on the contrary when it is retracted intercepted or estinguished, all things become horred wanne and pale and finally doe vtterly perish. So wonderfull and almost so heauenly are the powers of the heat and spirit, that the diuine Senior Hippocrates applying himselfe to the rude capacity of the people( as Galen witnesseth, 
Hippocrates calleth the spirit the soule.  hee sticketh not often to doe) calleth it the Soule, that is, the chiefe instrument of the Soule.  
The Soule of a man( sayth hee) is seated in the left ventricle and is nourished not by meates or drinkes from the lower belly, but by a most pure and bright substance out of the separation of the bloud; as if he should say, it is creamed as it were off from the bloud, and by the heat of the heart rarified into an aetherial consistence. For the Soule itself being a denison of heauen( 〈◇〉, for wee are also of his generation) how could it be 
Paul. The spirit is the medium between the soule and the body.  tyed to this house of clay vnlesse it were by the mediation of some middle Nature, participating as neere as mortality will suffer of the puritie of the Soule and yet hauing his originall from the body, that the Soule might haue a nimble and agile instrument to follow her sudden designes.  
By the Soule therefore in this place, Hippocrates meaneth the vitall spirite, which is nourished with pure and attenuated bloud, that is, Restored; for therein lyeth a mystery: that the nourishment of the spirit is not, in all things, like the nourishment of the partes, but rather is an illumination, vnition and establishment of them, as wee shall heare afterward.  
The vses of this vitall spirite are according to his nature deuine also, both within and 
The vses of the vitall spirit within & without the heart. Calor influens.  without the heart. In the heart to bee the principall instrument of the functions of the heart; without the heart his vse is double: one to bee the subiect of the heat of the heart which wee call Calor influens the influent heate, which it may receiue as the ayre doeth the light and so exhibite it to the whole body; and the other to bee the marter of the Animall spirit.  
This vitall spirit hath a double matter aery and sanguine, for it is made as Galen saith in 
His matter double.  his seuenth Booke de placitis Hipp. & Platonis) of aer and blood mingled together. That it is made of aer Hippocrates taught in Epidemijs when he saith; Such as is the aer such are 
Ayre.  the spirits; a foggie and cloudy aer engendreth a grosse and duskish spirit: and againe Hippocrates; The Southwinds dull the hearing, are misty and breed a dissolution of the spirits. This aery substance alone cānot contein within the body the vital heat; It is necessarie therfore that there should be an admistion of thin and subtle blood which should restraine the 
Bloud.  impetuous force of the aire. And both these matters before they come vnto the left ventricle of the heart stand in neede of preparation. The aire drawne in by the mouth and the 
How & wher the aer is prepared.  nose is prepared in the Lungs his vessels and his whole soft rare and spongie substance, & by a long delay doth acquire a qualitie familiar to the in-bred spirite. This aire thus prepared, is conueyed by the venall Artery into the left ventricle. And this is the preparation of the aer, these the passages by which it is conducted to the heart.  
Concerning the preparation of the blood, in what place it is made and accomplished 
How the blood is prepared. 4. Opinions.  and by what waies it is deriued into the left Ventricle, the Anatomists do striue with implacable contention. I haue read and turned ouer many of the Monuments both of the Ancients and also of later Writers and I finde foure opinions euerie one repugnant to another.  
The first and the most ancient is that of Galen. He thinketh, that the blood is carried 
The first and truest of Galē.  through the Hollow veine which with an open mouth gapeth into the right ventricle of the Heart as into a Cisterne, and is there boyled attenuated and subacted, and then a part of it is sent by the arteriall veine into the Lungs & distributed into thē for their norishment, the remainder is carried through the middle partition, which like a wall seuereth the two Ventricles asunder, into the left, where it is by the in-bred vertue of the heart mingled with the aer and doth there acquire the forme of a vitall spirit, assisted partlie by the inbred spirit of the heart, partly by an exceeding heate & flame whereby it is wrought as in a Furnace into a more pure Elementary forme. This opinion of Galen which of all the rest is most true, some of later times haue condemned. For they do not thinke it possible that in so short a time so great a quantity of blood as is sufficient for the generation of 
Obiections.  vitall spirits for the vse of the whole body can sweate thorough the wall of the heart into the left ventricle, there being no apparant and sensible passages, and the wall also beeing very thicke and solid.  
Moreouer they obiect, that if it should be so, then the labour of the heart were vaine and idle; for why shold not the blood and aire being thus attenuated repasse again out of the left into the right, seeing the same way is open for them, the same passages & no values or gates to hinder it? But these Obiections are of lesse weight then that they shold weaken 
Galens minde explained by himself.  the authority of so great an author of our Art: and Galen himselfe foresaw( in the 15. cha. of his 3. Booke De Facultatibus Naturalibus) that there would be some which would make these childish Obiections. Wherefore in another place he thus elegantly explaineth himself. Out of the right Ventricle that which is the thinnest is drawne through the pores or passages of the partition, whose vtmost ends can hardly be perceyued, because after death all such yea all other passages that are not distended by the matter conteined in them, doe fall together. But that it is this way transmitted hence it is manifest, because Nature neuer endeuoureth any thing rashly or in vaine; but there are certaine dens in the fence or partition, deep bosomes very many which grow narrower to their outlet, by which the blood may freely and with a large streame yssue out of one ventricle into another. But the cause why this blood doth not returne againe out of the left into the right side, may be well referred to the peculiar force and vertue of the heart.  
The left Ventricle drawes this bloode and retaineth it by an inbred propriety and for a while enioyeth it, and then thrusteth it foorth into the Tunnels of the arteries. So the blood which either hath sweate through the coates of the veines, or is powred foorth at their mouths into the substance of each part, returneth not into the veines againe because it is reteyned and receyued into the substance of the part. The truth of this opinion, albeit it be most cleare of itself, yet it will bee better manifested vnto vs after wee haue taken knowledge of other mens conceites and discussed them to the full.  
The second opinion therefore is that of Columbus. That the bloode indeede is attenuated and prepared in the right Ventricle of the heart, but is carried into the left ventricle by 
The second opinion of Columbus.  other passages and not through the pores of the Fence or partition. And what neede we seeke for so small and secret pores, when it hath an open channell, the arteriall veine, which( sayth he) carryeth all the bloud out of the right ventricle into the Lungs, where a part of it is distributed for their nourishment, the rest is returned into the venall artery, and from it together with the ayre into the left ventricle; and this opinion of his he strengthneth with two reasons. The arteriall veine( sayth he) is greater then was necessary for the nourishment of the Lungs, it is therefore like that it was destinated also for the conueiance of the bloud for the generation of the vitall spirits. His other reason is this: there is alwayes in the venall artery thinne and arteriall bloud; this bloud is receiued not from the left ventricle, for the three-forked Membranes wil not suffer it; therfore frō the veine of the Lungs.  
These things are very probable and cloked with the vaile of truth, yet not to be admitted for currant. For whereas he saith the veine of the Lungs is larger then their small body 
The answere to Columbus his First reason.  stands in need of, we vtterly deny it. For the rare lax and spongy substance of the Lungs is easily dissipated, it is also continually moued, and by reason of the neighbourhood of the heart is easily inflamed; whence comes a huge expence of the threefold nourishment; but where there are great goings out, there also had need be great commings in: now the bloud could not come plentifully in but by a wide vessell, therefore the vessell of the Lungs was of necessity very ample and large. Besides saith Galen, Nature made this vessell large, that how much was abated in the nourishment of the Lungs by the vessels thicknesse, so 
Lib. 6. de vsu part. cap. 10.  much might be recompenced in his amplitude and largenes.  
To the second reason we may answere thus: The bloud that is found in the venall artery 
To the secōd.  is a portion of the vitall sprits and arteriall bloud which the heart poured foorth into the substance of the Lungs: for all life being from the heart and the vitall spirit, and no deriuations of vessels from the great arterie vnto the Lungs; it is likely yea necessary that vitall spirits should bee conueyed to the Lungs by the venall artery, neither is there any reason they should obiect the opposition of the thre-forked Membranes; for there are but two in the orifice of this vessell, because it behoued not that it should bee perfectly closed vp. Happly they may obiect the contrary motions and the mixture of smoky vapor with the 
An obiection. Answere.  spirits, but they attribute very little to the wonderfull prouidence of Nature and are ignorant what the diuers appetites and attractions of particular parts can do. The veines of the messentery do together and at once distribute Chylus and bloud: Milke passeth sometimes out of the brests all along the trunke of the hollow veine yet is not mingled with the 
Pure milke auoyded by vrine.  bloud, but passeth out by vrine pure and sincere; and as we shall by and by proue, the matter and quitture of those we call Empyici is purged by the left ventricle of the heart and so through the arteries into the kidnies and the bladder, yet is not the vitall spirit stained with this filthinesse if all things be in good order with the patient: and so much for Columbus.  
The third opinion is that of Iohn Botallus, the french Kings Physition, who boasteth 
The third opinion of Botallus.  that he found a passage open which no man euer knew, out of the right deafe eare into the left, by which he imagineth that the bloud prepared in the right ventricle passeth into the left. This he saith is very euident in Calues and other young creatures, but in man & creatures that are growne, it is not so open.  
This opinion of Botallus hauing no reasons to establish it, ouerthroweth itself; for if 
Confuted.  Nature made this passage for this vse, to transfuse the bloud from the right ventricle vnto the left; then should it be manifest in all creatures in all times of their life, yea the creature growing large and the naturall heat daily increasing the passage also should grow more manifest as whereof there is euery day greater vse. But Botallus confesseth it is not found in Oxen nor in creatures of any growth.  
Beside, this passage is in the orifice of the hollow veine, how therefore should the attenuated bloud flow backe from the right ventricle vnto the veine, seeing there are three values open without and shut within, which doe admit the bloud indeed into the right ventricle but will not suffer it to flow backe into the hollow veine? This good honest man was ignorant of the vse of his passage, which Galen acurately describeth first of al men in his golden 
Botallus ignorant of the vse of the passage he thinkes hee found.  bookes of the vse of the parts.  
myself haue seene this passage very often with the other arteriall pipe, but they serue onely for the Infant before it be borne, because his life and nourishment is much vnlike to that it is afterwards, and therefore after the birth the passage is altogether shut; & the pipe so dryed vp that a man would deny that euer any such thing was; the vse of this passage & pipe we haue at large described aboue, and thether do we transmit the Reader that is not satisfied concerning them.  
The last opinion of the preparation of the bloud, is that of Vlmus a Physition of Poy●●●, 
The fourth opinion of Vlmus.  who set out a very eligant booke of the spleene. He is of opinion that the arteriall bloud is concocted, attenuated and prepared in the spleene, and thence conueied into the great artery and so to the left ventricle of the heart, where, by an admirable and mysticall worke o● Nature it is mixed with the ayre already prepared by the Lungs. I must needs confesse that the opinion of Vlmus pleased me wondrous well, both for the nouelty of the conceite, as for that he handled the matter with great subtilty of argument, and deepe discourse; but because he leaneth vpon vnsound foundations to establish a new doctrine, which do shaddow 
A subtile disputation.  the brightnes of the Art of Anatomy, it wil not be amisse to recal the principal points of it to the touch-stone in this place.  
First of all, hee thinketh that the bloud cannot passe out of the right ventricle into the left by the fence or partition, because( sayth hee) if this way were not sufficient in a tender Infant in whome the vesselles are more laxe and the substance of the wall more rare and thinne, and wherein there is lesse dissipation or wast of spirit; then surely it will much lesse suffice in an older man: but this way is not sufficient in the Infant, so that nature prouided another; to wit, two arteries, which are carried from the Nauel to his crural arteries. Therefore in a growne man it is necessary there should be other more open passages.  
An argument truely most subtile, but most false and stuffed with error: For in the Infant, 
Answere to Vlmus.  the bloud doeth not sweate through from the right ventricle to the left, because there is no generation of vitall spirits in the ventricles of the heart; but the Infant draweth the mothers spirite by the vmbilicall arteries, which is diffused into all the streames of the great artery. The Lungs are not nourished with pure and thin bloud but with thicke, carried vnto them by the hollow veine; wherefore from that hollow vein to the venal arterie there is a cleare passage, and a conspicuous pipe from the great artery to the arteriall veine, by whose interposition the vessels of the heart in the Infant are vnited.  
The opinion therefore of Vlmus is false, because in the Infant there is no shop of the spirits, neither doth the orifice of the hollow veine powre out bloud into the right ventricle of the heart; for that, as Galen sayth in the 15. Chapter of his 6. Booke, de vsu partium, the Lungs in an Infant are redde, dense and immouable, and are nourished with thick and grosse bloud.  
Secondly, the membranes placed in the orifice of the great artery( which hee calleth not well three-forked, for the values of the hollow veine and the venall artery one are three forked, the rest are semicircular) he doth not imagine are made to that end that they should prohibit bloud for going out of the great artery into the hart; because while the Infant was in the wombe, they hindered not the arteriall bloud from entring into the left ventricle of the heart. But here Vlmus offendeth at the stone at which he stumbled before, for nothing 
Nothing goeth into the Infants heart out of any of the vessels.  floweth into the ventricles of the Infants heart by his foure orifices. Not bloud by the hollow veine, for what need is there of his attenuation, when the Infants Lungs are nourished with thick bloud? Not ayre by the venall artery, for the Infant breatheth not in the womb. Not arteriall bloud by the Aorta or great artery, for this labor were vaine, because in a moment it should bee thrust backe into the same Aorta againe: adde to this that there should haue beene no neede of that arteriall canale or pipe going from the great artery to the arteriall veine, vnknowne to thee Vlmus as I see, and almost to all Anatomists.  
Thirdly, whilest Vlmus assenteth to Botallus, and fashioneth to himselfe a peculiar vse of that hole or passage, he walloweth in the same puddle with him and deserueth the same reproofe Botallus had. In confuting of Columbus he is most subtile, at length he bringeth 
Vlmus opiniō.  to the birth his witty conceite which he trauelled with, and after many sharpe throws and pinches is deliuered of it. To wit, that in the spleene the arteriall bloud is prepared, because the spleene is made as it were of a woofe and web of veines and arteries inexplicably wouen 
How it cannot be true.  together: that when it is so prepared it is sucked away by the arteries and carried into the trunk of the great artery, and so into the left ventricle of the heart: but there be indeed many obstacles which will hinder this ready passage if wee will but stay a while and follow the streame a little.  
First of all, in the orifice of the great artery there are three membranes shut without against it, so that by them the arteriall bloud cannot passe: This our very eies teach vs, and beside our great Dictator, in his Booke de Corde, hath in direct wordes deliuered the same. Vlmus I know also will deny this vse of the values, and yet I know also hee will not say that Nature formed them in vaine. I say then, that if they doe not altogether interclude or hinder the egresse and regresse of the bloud; yet as he himselfe is constrayned to confesse, they break and stay the aboundant and violent influence of the same; which if they doe, then cannot the whole matter of the vitall spirits bee brought from the spleene by the great artery vnto the left ventricle of the heart; because seeing the generation of the spirits must bee sudden and aboundant, their matter also had neede to bee ministred with a full streame, and not drop or sipe by degrees into the heart. Furthermore, in the structure of the heart there is one point of Natures excellent worke-manship, that draweth by one vessell, and expelleth by another. It draweth blood by the Hollow-veine, the same it expelleth by the Arteriall veine; it draweth aire hy the venall artery which it mingleth with the blood, and expelleth the vitall spirit into the great artery; but if by the great arterie it should draw the matter of the spirites, and almost in the same moment shoulde expell the spirit into the same great artery againe, there would be a mixture of those iuices, and in the arteries would there also be perpetually two contrary motions, one of the bloode, ascending from the spleene to the heart, another of the arteriall bloode descending from the heart to the spleene, which as we admit may be sometimes in criticall euacuations & in notable Maister-prises of Nature, so we deny it to be perpetuall, but the generation of spirits is perpetuall.  
Vlmus will obiect, that the venall Arterie leadeth aire vnto the heart, and shutteth also out into the Lungs smokie vapours, together with some portion of bloode: but we will answere 
Obiection.  that there is not the like reason of aire and of blood. Aire by reason of his subtilitie 
Answere.  and finenesse can passe through the blood and the coats, which blood cannot do.  
Moreouer, if the Arteriall blood be prepared in the Spleene, and not in the right ventricle of the heart as Galen thought, why doth the Hollow veine open into the heart with so wide a mouth? Was it onely for nourishment of the Lungs? No verily, for the orifice 
An argument  of the Hollow veine is much larger then the orifice of the arteriall veine, as Galen saith( in his 3. booke and 15. chapter De facultate Natural.) was it for the nourishment of the heart? Nothing lesse. For the heart hath a peculiar veine, called the Crowne veine by which it is nourished; therefore that patent orifice of the Hollow veine at the right ventricle of the heart, was ordained to cast in the seede of the spirites into the wombe of the heart, where they are forced and sent out into the little world of the bodye. Finally, from hence I gather, that the Spleene was not ordained for the preparation of the Vitall spirites, because 
why thesplene cannot prepare the blood for the heart.  the Spleene is very subiect to obstructions, not by reason of his vessels which are very ample and large, nor by reason of his Parenchyma or flesh which is rare and spongie, and therefore by reason of the foeculent and muddie humour conteined in it: but how shall it serue for the expurgation of the drosse and the bloode and for the preparation also of the same blood. Wee therefore conclude, that the bloode is prepared in the right Ventricle of 
The conclusiō  the Heart and thence is deriued into the left by the holes and nooks of the partition wal.   

QVEST. VII. Whether the Matter and Quitture of those that are called Empyici maybe purged by the left Ventricle of the Heart and the Arteries, and how it is purged by the Vrine, by the Seidge and by Apostemation.  
_THis Question hath wrung the wittes of many Schollers a long time, notwithstanding according to the meane modele of our wit, we will heere, if 
Who be Empyici.  it may be vntie that knot. Wee call those Empyici with Hippocrates, who haue an impostume( as we call it) or a bladder broken in the side or the Lungs, the matter of which is powred out into the cauity of the Chest, & there is kept and floweth vp and downe, so that with the impurity of it the Lungs are as it were laid in steepe.  
This purulent matter, according to the doctrine of Hiypocrates may be purged 4. waies, 
This quitture may be purged 4. wayes.  Vpward by the mouth, by the Vrine, by the Seidge and by Apostemation. The vpward excretion is by a proper motion of the Chest, casting that which is noisome with a strong contention out at the mouth. This is familiar to Nature, and the way which we alwayes 
The easiest way.  desire Nature should take, for it is by places naturally commodious, & witnesseth a strong force and power of all the Faculties. And this is the proper Crisis of the Empyici, of those that haue plurisies and inflamations of the Lunges: and this is the best and the safest way. But if Nature be insufficient to mooue this way, either by reason of the thicknesse of the matter that yeeldeth not to the concussion of the Chest, or because of the Muscles. Then 
The other 3. wayes.  Nature is so wise and prouident that she openeth another passage, findeth out some other way by which she may ease herself both of the disease, and of the cause of it. Therefore, oftentimes she purgeth this purulent matter by the Vrine, sometimes by Apostemation, sometimes but rarely she emptieth it by the seidge.  

By Vrine.  That it passeth away by the Vrine is prooued by daily experience, and euen now whilst 
Aninstance.  I am writing these things, Nature hath found this very way in an olde Gentleman a Lawyer, who hauing had a Pleurisie, and no meanes of blood letting or almost any other of any moment, is beholding to Nature, who daily in great and notable abundance venteth this noisome humor by the Vrme. But beside experience, it may also be confirmed by the authority of very many as well of ancients as of later writers. Hippocrates and Galen are very plentifull witnesses of it: we will onely quote the places in them, and thither referre the Readers for his better satisfaction. Hippocrates lib. 1. Epidem. sectione secunda, twice in that section. Lib. 2. Epidem. sect. 3. Galen lib. 6. de locis affectis. Cap. 4. Comment. ad Aphoris. 75. sec. 4. We may add to these if it were needfull, Auicen, Paulus, Mesues, and many others.  
Thirdly, this matter is purged by the Seidge, but Hippocrates saith, It is very daungerous, 
By Seidge.  yea mortall. Galen in his Booke de Coacis, It is no wonder( saith he) that Quitture or purulent matter shhuld flow downe from the parts aboue the Midriffe into the belly; that is, into the guts. 
By Apostemation  Fourthly, this matter is purged by Apostemation( Physitians call that per abcessum) either of the lower or vpper parts. Hippocrates saieth in Porrhet, From a Peripneumonia or inflamation of the Lungs Apostumations do breede vnder the eares, or in the lower parts, and do there suppurate, and those men are deliuered from the disease. And againe in Coacis, Those Apostemations that descend vnto the Thighes in such as are troubled with the Peripneumonia; are al of them profitable.  
Thus many wayes therefore are numbred by Hippocrates, by which the purulent matter 
Which way is best.  of the Chest is by Nature euacuated, first by the mouth, secondly by the kidnies, thirdly by the gut and lastly by Apostemation or abcesse. The first is safest, and therfore chiefely to be desired, next that which is by the Vrine, for it bringeth least labour or trauel to the frame of Nature, that is, to the due disposition of the bodie: onely it is troublesome, because it is painefull, as being accompanied with a Strangurie, yet not that continuall, but catching as it were and by turnes. That which is by the guts is the worst of all, for it breaketh or dissolueth the Faculties of the stomack, as well of Appetite as of Concoction, and of the guts also with his noysome stenche, and beside by this acrimony and ill-quality of the matter, causeth an incureable bloody Flix. But that euacuation which is by apostemation is profitable, if so be it fall into the lower parts, both because it is far remoued from the 
The way of apostumation when good  first diseased part, and also because that kinde of excretion is as the Physitians sayes, 〈◇〉, a conuenient kind of euacuation, and proportionable both to nature & to the disease. For a lawfull Apostemation ought neither to be 〈◇〉 nor 〈◇〉, that is, neyther ought part of the matter flow to the place of Apostemation, but all; nor al take way vpward but downward, onely for to ascend is against the nature of the humor, and argueth 
By the womb.  alwaies a gadding quality therein. Ariteus in his booke de Morbis Chronicis addeth, that in women sometimes this purulent matter of the Chest commeth away by the womb. Thus we haue declared all the manners of Natures worke in the euacuation of noisome humors 
How the matter of the Empyici is purged  out of the cauity of the Chest, but by what wayes and passages Nature deriueth them as it belongeth to a higher contemplation, so will it be harder to know, and when it is knowne more profitable. The vpward expurgatiō by the sharp artery or wezon is manifest enough, for when the Chest is dilated the Lungs are blowne vp, & like a spunge sucketh vp the matter wherein they lie soked as it were in suds, & when the Chest is contracted the Lungs fall down and so thrust out the purulent matter togither with the smoaky excrements of the heart into the sharpe arteries, and they by continuity of passage into the wezon, and so it passeth to the mouth, and by coughing is excluded. But by what waies it goeth to the kidnies 
How it commeth vnto the Kidneyes. Erasistratus his opinion.  & so to the bladder is greatly controuerted. Erasistratus would haue it go by the right ventricle of the hart, & so into the hollow vein, & thence by the emulgent into the kidnies. It is sucked( saith he) first by the rare & spongie flesh of the lungs, then by the arterial vein, which is appointed for the norishment of the Lunges, & thence is deriued into the right ventricle of the heart; out of it into the hollow veine, from thence into the emulgents, thence into the vreters, & so into the bladder. But this opinion of Erasistratus cannot be true, because nothing passeth out of the arterial vein into the right ventricle by reason of the membranes which are shut 
Confuted.  outward, & nothing goeth out of the heart by the hollow vein because of the three-forked membranes which shut inward. Mesues was of opinion, that this expurgation of purulent matter is by the veines, somtimes to the concauous part of the Liuer, & so by the seidge away, 
Mesues opiniō  sometimes to the gibbous or conuex and so by the kidnies. Fallopius that oculate Anatomist, thinkes he found a neerer and more ready way, & for it describeth a small branch which runneth from the Non-paril, or vena sine pari, along by the ribs, and so pierceth the midriffe, & ioyneth itself with the fatty veine called Adiposa and the emulgent. This excretion of the pus or matter by the veines I do not altogither gainsay, yet I think it to bee a very vneouth way because their mouths opē not into the chest, neither are the veins stirred any motion whereby they might sucke so thicke and foeculent a matter, and that it should sweate through their coates is a very difficult matter and hard to be beleeued. Some there are which dreame of certaine secret meatus or pores for this expurgation, because when men are aliue all passages yea euen substances are open, and the body perspicable both 
Strange passages which nature findeth.  within and without.  
True it is, that the body is so open; for we know( as saith Hippocrates in his 2. Booke de Epidemijs, and the 55. Aphoris. sect. 7.) That nature maketh way for Apostumations, euen through the bones; the dropsie water passeth out of the capacity of the abdomen into the guts and sometimes into the wayes of the vrine, the vrine is transcolated through the flesh of the kidneis, the seed through the substance of the testicles, the flegmatick humors of the ioynts sometimes are drawne into the guts, sometimes in a slimy spittle they are auoided out of the mouth by vnctions of quick-siluer. All these things I say we admit, but why 
Answere to the obiections  should we seek such insensible passages for this expurgation of purulent matter, when ther be many very patent and easie to be perceiued? But what are they? Let vs heare Galen chalking them out vnto vs, in his 4. chap. and 6. Book de locis affect is. This question( saith he) doth not a little trouble Erasistratus followers, who thinke that there is nothing contained in the 
What the passages are.  arteries but onely spirits; but to vs it is of no difficulty, because we vnderstand that the venall artery of the Lungs can leade so much of the purulent matter of an impostumation as it receiueth into the left ventricle of the heart, to be thence conueyed into the kidneyes by the great Artery. His meaning therefore is, that the substance of the Lungs doth sucke vp the pus or matter and deliuer it vnto the venall artery, that, vnto the left ventricle of the heart, the heart vnto the trunke of the great artery, and that, vnto the kidneyes and so to the bladder by the ●●eters. And before Galens time Diocles acknowledged the same way of expurgation.  
But let vs heare now the exclamations of some new Writers against Galen. How may 
Obiections.  it be( say they) that so noysome purulent and mattery a humour can be purged through the left ventricle of the heart, the shop and worke-house of the vitall spirits, and through the arteries the store-houses of the same spirits, without great danger vnto the patient? Shal not the spirits which of their owne nature are most pure, be infected and tainted in that medley? For if but a malignant vapor or poysonous ayre do breathe from a bone, or any vessell vp vnto the heart, straight we are ouertaken with a fainting or swounding. Why therfore shall not an vnsauory and noysome quitture or pus gotten into the very heart itself do at least so much? But we know nature to be so wise and prouident that shee vseth not to moue her excretions but by wayes that are safe and of auaile: now who will call the heart and the arteries places safe or conducible to lead away such foeculencies? These and such like obiections they make who do not allow of the passages assigned by Galen. But they do not remember that it is one thing for a thing to be done critically, and another thing 
Answere to them.  to be done symptomatically; one thing to be done by force & contention of Nature, another by the force and contumacy of the malady; one thing to be done by a faculty, another thing by a disease: and finally, one thing by a strong and vigorous, another thing by a weake and feeble faculty.  
If this transfusion of the purulent matter be criticall and the spirits strong, then is this passage by the heart without any damage to the patient; for nature retaineth and preserueth the spirits and auoydeth onely that which is hurtfull. But if the strength be feeble, then doth the patient dye in the very expurgation; and if you cut him vp when hee is dead, you shall finde the left ventricle of the heart ful of purulent matter; which deceiueth 
A mistaking of an apostumation of the heart.  many vnskilfull people, who cry out that his heart was apostumated.  
Finally, beside the authority of Galen, in his Commentary In Coacas praenotiones, and Anatomicall demonstration, I will adde for confirmation of this poynt two Histories. The 
Two Histories Hollerius.  first Hollerius reporteth where hee treateth of the heate of the vrine. A certeine woman( sayth he) with intolerable torment did make a purulent water, after the fourth month she dyed and was opened: there were found in her heart two stones, with many small Apostumations, the Kidneyes and all the wayes of the vrine being sound. Wherefore this purulent matter was purged by the great artery.  
Of the other History Laurentius, one of our trusty guides in this trauell, is a witnesse. 
Laurentius.  An honest Citizen of Mompelier in France was sicke or indisposed with a hypochondriake melancholy for 3. yeares, and the disease was sharpe: at length an acute Ague ouertooke him and he dyed, but a whole month before his death twice in a day lightly hee was troubled with a light swounding or fainting with some little heate of his vrine, and an incredible desire of making water, but after he had auoyded a thin, red and stinking vrine, hee came presently againe to himselfe.  
After he was dead and opened, we found the whole cauity almost of his chest filled with that thinne, red and abhominably sented humour, and the like wee found also the left ventricle of his heart to be full of, which, sayth Laurentius, when I saw and wondred at, presently the place in Galen before quoted came into my minde, and in the presence of some maisters in Chirurgery and many young studients in phisicke, I opened, that the cause of his frequent defections and vnconstant strangury was to bee referred to the transfusion of the virulent matter through the left ventricle of the heart and the arteries; which my opinion they all applauded; because the humour contayned in the chest and the vrine that hee auoyded in his defections or swounds were both of a colour, substance and sauour. And thus much to redeeme Galen from the vniust impuration layd vppon him by some, otherwise not vnlearned, but in this not so considerate as I thinke they ought to haue been.   

QVEST. VIII. Of the Temperament, nourishment, Substance and Flesh of the Heart.  
_COncerning the Temperament of the heart, the Physicians are at great strife among 
Of the temperament of the heart.  themselues. Auerrhoes was of opinion, that the heart of his owne nature was cold, because his greatest part consisteth of such things as are naturally cold, as immoouable fibres, foure great vesselles which are spermaticall parts and without bloud and cold; and that it is hot by accident onely, by reason of the hot bloud and spirits contained in it and his perpetuall motion.  
This opinion of Auerrohes his followers strengthen with these reasons. First, because 
Auerrhoes that the heart is cold.  the flesh of the heart is thight and solide, and nourished with solide, thicke and cold bloud. Secondly, because at the Basis of the heart which is his noblest part, there groweth a great 
The 1. reason The second. The third.  quantity of fat, whose efficient cause( saith Galen) is cold. Lastly, because it is the storehouse of bloud; now bloud( saith Hippocrates in his Booke de Corde,) is naturally cold, for as soone as it is out of the veines it caketh. But to the first argument we answere, that the fibres 
Answere to the first.  and the vessels are not the chiefe parts of the heart, but the flesh: and therefore Aristotle and Galen call it a fleshy viscus or bowell. To the second, that the fat groweth not in the ventricles, nor about the flesh of the heart, but onely about his Membrane which in 
To the second  respect of his flesh is but a cold part: beside Natures finallcause, that was to keepe the heart from torrifying, ouercame all the rest, which thing in nature is not vnusuall. To the 
To the third.  third we answere, that there are two sorts of blood, one venall and another arteriall; the veniall indeed is lesse hot but the arteriall bloud is exceeding hot. Now the hart is the shop or worke-house of arteriall not of venall bloud.  
We conclude therefore that the heart is not onely hot, but of all the bowels the hottest, 
That the hart is hot. Authorities.  which we are able to prooue by authorities, reasons, and experience. Hippocrates de principijs saith, There is much heate in the heart, as being of all members the hottest. Galen in the last chapter of his first booke de temperamentis. The bloud receiueth his heate from the heart, for that of al the bowels is by nature the hottest. The reason is, The hart is the fountaine 
Reasons.  of heat & of the Nectar of life: it ingendereth the arteriall blood, the venall it attenuateth for the Lungs; heere the vitall spirits the hottest of all others are made. Finally, heere is the hearth & the fire wherby the natural heate of al the parts is refreshed. Experience also. For if you put your finger into the hart of a beast suddenly opened, the heat of it wil euen burn 
Experience.  as Galen saith in his first booke de semine, and experience proueth. Againe, the flesh of the heart is the most solid of all flesh, because it is ingendered of most hot bloud, made dense and thicke by the parching power of an exceeding great heate. But some will say that the 
How the spirits are hotter then the heart by which they are made. Comparison.  spirits are hotter then the heart: I answere, it is true that in the spirits there is a greater heat, but in the heart there is more heate, more sharped and which heateth more, because of the density of his substance; so fire in straw or stubble though it be a flame burneth but lightly, for you may draw your hand through it without any great offence; but hot glowing yron although it haue not the same degree of heate that the flame hath, yet it burneth more strongly and cannot be touched without danger. But it may be demanded, if the spirits be 
Whence the spirits haue their heate that is hotter then the hart is.  hotter then the heart and are bred in the heart, whence haue they that greater heat? I answere, The heart consisteth of three parts as it were or substances; a spiritual, a moyst and a solid. The spirits are ingendered of the spirituall and hottest part of the heart, and are hotter indeed then the whole heart, but not hotter then that part that ingendereth the spirits. 
Three substāces of the heart.  That this may be, Galen giueth an instance in milke: milke in his whole substance is either cold or temperate, but his fatty and buttery part is hotter then the whole body of the milke; so the heart is hot in his whole substance, but the spirituall part of the heart is hotter then the whole heart, and from that part haue the spirits their intense heat: & thus much of the actiue qualities of the heart. Now for the passiue there is as great dissention. Auicen de Temperamentis, and Galen in his second Booke de Temper. Cap. 3. and 12. and in his 3. Booke de Aliment. facultatibus say it is dry, and his flesh hard and solid; now it is a sure rule 
Whether the hart be moyst or dry. An axiome.  That whatsoeuer is hard to feele too in a liuing body, that also is dry. On the other side Auerrhoes will haue it moyst, because life consisteth in heate and moysture, but the heart is the beginning of life and the shop of moysture. Galen in the last Chapter of his first Booke de Temperamentis, calleth it a Bloudy Bowel, therefore moyst; and in the same Chapter, It is a little lesse dry then the skinne, therefore moyster then the skinne. I answere, it is true that the heart is moyster to feele too then the skinne. But Galen when hee sayeth it is drie, 
Resolution.  compareth it not to the skinne but to the other parts, for so his words are. The flesh of the heart is so much dryer then the flesh of the spleen or kidneyes, as it is harder: And so much of the Temperament of the heart.  
Concerning his nourishment, Galen in his first Booke de vsu partium, and the 7. de Administ. 
How the hart is nourished.  Anatomicis, sayeth it is nourished with venall and thicke bloud; many of the later writers say it is nourished with the thin bloud contayned in his ventricles. On Galens side, that is on the trueths, are these reasons. It is a Catholicke principle, Euery thing is preserued 
An axiome.  and refreshed with his like. The flesh of the heart is hard, thicke and solid, such therfore must be his nourishment: beside there is a notable veine called Coronaria or the Crowneveine, which compasseth a round the Basis of the heart and sendeth foorth branches into all his substance; but Nature vseth not to doe any thing rashly or in vaine, it serueth therefore 
An argument from ocular inspection.  for his nourishment: beside occular inspection prooueth it which no reason can conuince.  
The braunches of the coronarie veine are more and more conspicuous on the left side of the heart then on the right, because the thicker part wanteth the more nourishment. But the aduersaries say that the outward part is onely nourished with this veine, the inward with the bloud contayned in the ventricles: for say they, this veine is too little to nourish 
Arguments for the other side.  the whole heart being a very hot member and in perpetuall motion; beside the veine looseth itself in the superficies of the heart and passeth not into the ventricles. But for the narrownes of the veine I cannot perceiue it is so small as they talke of it; and for this motion it is true, yet there are many things that temper it, on the outside it is couered almost with fat and compassed with a watery humour, and within it hath aboundant moysture whereby 
Answered.  though it be not nourished yet is it watered and kept from drying and flaming; as boyling hot water-keeps a vessell on the fire from burning. And whereas they say the branches of the coronary veine passe not into the ventricles; I answere, that neither are the vesselles dispersed into the inner substance of the muscles and the bones. Hippocrates sayeth That flesh draweth from the next vessels. If you would faine reconcile the newe writers to Galen, 
A reconciliation.  you may say. That haply the inward parts of the heart are nourished with the bloud contayned in the ventricles but not yet attenuated, for why should the inward parts be nourished with rarified bloud and the outward with crasse and thicke; seeing the nature of the inward flesh and outward is all one? and somuch of the nourishment of the heart. Nowe 
Of the substance of the heart. Whether it be a muscle.  for the substance and flesh of it, some say it is musculous, but that we haue answered before in the description; briefly thus. Hippocrates in his Booke de Corde calleth it a strong muscle: againe it is moued by a locall motion and so are none of the other bowels, as the Liuer, the Spleene, the Kidneyes, &c. but all muscles are so moued. Moreouer, the flesh of the bowels is simple and similar, but the flesh of the heart not so but wouen with threds and fibres 
That it is.  like that of the muscles, therefore it is a muscle. Galen on the contrary will haue it no muscle, for that muscles haue simple fibres but the heart manifold, the muscles haue but 
That it is not.  one and that a simple motion, for they bow or streatch forth, lift vp or pull downe; but the heart hath diuers yea contrary motions: and this is a very powerfull argument which yet some seeke to ouerthow: because say they there be many muscles which haue diuers kinds of fibres, and also diuers yea and contrary motions; as the Pectorall muscle which hath diuers 
Answere of some to Galens argument.  fibres: and moueth the arme not vpward and downward onely but forward: also and the muscle called Trapesius which moueth the shoulder blade not only vpward and downward but backward also; and therefore the variety of his fibres and the diuersity of his motions do not exempt him from the number of muscles.  
I answere for Galen. Those two Muscles aboue named haue indeed diuers motions but 
Answere for Galen.  not from the same part; but from diuers parts of the muscles; for they haue diuers originals or beginnings. The Trapesius ariseth from the back-part or nowle of the head & from the rack-bones of the backe; by the former part it moueth vpward, and downeward by the latter. The pectorall also hath diuers beginnings, for it ariseth from the Throte and from the whole breast-bone; wherefore these muscles doe not pull downe with the same part wherewith they lift vp, but the heart is dilated and contracted in the same part; there is not therefore a like reason of their motions. The like may be said of their fibres; for the fibres of those aboue-named muscles though they be of more kinds thē one yet are they distinct; the fibres of the heart are wouen together and confounded that no art or industry wil part them. The fibres of the muscles are diuers in their diuers parts, but those of the heart are all in euery small part of the heart.  
Moreouer, the taste of the heart and of the muscles is not one saith Galen in the 8. chapter of his 7. booke de Administrat Anatom. Auicen saith the muscles are weary the 
Auicen for Galen one weake argument.  heart neuer: yet this seemeth to be no sound reason, because the midriffe which is a very strong muscle mooueth perpetually: but Auicen hath another reason for Galens opinion of more force which is this. The heart is no muscle because his motion is not voluntary, for 
Another stronger.  we can neither forslow nor hasten, neither stay nor stirre vp his motion as we may the motion of the midriffe and of all the other muscles. We conclude therefore with Galen that 
The conclusion with Galen.  the heart is no muscle, but either an affusion of bloud which Erasistratus called parenchyma; or some peculiar flesh. How Hippocrates is to be vnderstood wee haue said before, to 
Answere to Hippocrates authority.  wit, abusiuely; it is musculous because it is red & fibrous, but not a muscle. But it will be obiected it is moued with locall motions, therefore it is a muscle.  
I answere, that by the same reason should the wombe be a muscle, for we haue shewed 
To the first reason.  how that is moued euen locally sometimes, as when it closeth in conception, or is dilated in the birth: and the guts haue a locall motion called motus peristalticus which no man will say is a voluntary motion or that therefore they are muscles.  
To the other argument we say, that the flesh of the heart though it bee fibrous yet it is simple, because the fibres are of the same substance with the flesh of it as the fibres of the 
To the second.  stomacke, the wombe and the guts; but the fibres of the muscles are particles of Nerues and Tendons much vnlike their flesh: and this indeed is Galens answere in his 2. booke de temperamentis; yet we affirme that the fibres of the heart are stronger and harder then the rest of his flesh, which maketh it stronge and better able to indure his perpetuall labour.  
But why is the flesh of the heart more fibrous then that of the Liuer or kidneyes. Galen answeres, The fibres of the heart are made for necessary vses of traction retention and expulsion, 
Why the flesh of the hart is fibrous  by the right it draweth in the Diastole or dilatation, by the oblique it retaineth, and by the transuerse it expelleth in the Systole or Contraction.   

QVEST. IX. Whether the heart will beare an apostumdtion, solution of continuity or any grieuous disease.  
_THE last quaestion concerning the heart shalbe whether it will beare any notable disease or no. Hippocrates saith,( in his booke de morbis.) The heart is 
Authorities that the heart will not beare a disease. Hippocrates. Aristotle. Aphrodisaeus. Paulus Aegineta. Pliny.  so so●d and dense that it is not offended with any humour, and therefore it cannot be tainted with any disease. Aristotle. The heart can beare no heauy or grceuous discase because it is the originall of life. Aphrodisaeus. In the heart can no discase consist, for the patient will dye before the disease appeare. Paulus. Any disease of the heart bringeth death head-long vpon a man. Pliny. Onely this of all the bowels is not wearied with discases, neyther indureth it the greeuous punishments of this life; and if it chance to bee offended present death insueth. Yet how repugnant this is to experience many Histories doe beare witnesse. Galen( in his 2. Booke de placitis) reporteth that a sacrificed Beast 
Manifold Histories proouing the contrary.  did walke after his heart was out, and in his 7. Booke de Administra. Anatom. he maketh mention of one Marullus the sonne of a maker of Enterludes, who liued after his heart was laide bare euen from the pursse or pericardium, and( in his 4. booke de locis affectus) if a man be wounded in the heart and the wound pierce not into the ventricles but stay in the flesh, he may liue a day and a night. Beneuenius writeth that he hath seene many Apostemations in the heart. We told you a story euen now out of Hollerius of a woman who had two stones and many Apostemations found in her heart.  
Mathias Cornax Physitian to the Emperor Maximilian saith, that he dissected a Bookseller, and found his heart more then halfe rotted away. Thomas a Vetga writeth, that there was a red Deere found, in whose heart was sticking an olde peece of an Arrow wherewith he had beene long before wounded in hunting. But you shall reconcile these together, 
How these are to be reconciled.  if you say the heart will beare all afflictions, but not long; or that it is subiect to all kinds of diseases, but will beare none greeuous. For example, the heart will suffer all kindes of distemper, but if any distemper be immoderate or notable the party presently dies, so sayeth Galen in his fift Booke de locis affectis, Death followes the immoderate distemper of the Heart, When Galen saith, in the fifte Chapter of his first Booke De Locis Affectis. That 
Galen interpreted.  the heart will beare no Apostemations, hee vnderstandeth such an Apostemation as comes by the permutation of an inflamation. For the Creature will die before the inflamation 
Answeres to the examples  will suppurate or grow to quitture. Say that the Apostemations found by Beniuenius, Hollerius and Mathew Cornace were Flegmaticke; or say, that rare things do not belong to Art; or with Auerrhoes; as in Nature so in diseases wee oftentimes finde Monsters. That a creature can walke and cry when his heart is out I beleeue well so long as the spirits last in his body which it receiued from the heart, when they faile hee presently dieth. 
A strange story of a Florentine Ambassador in the Court of France.  Andreas Laurentius maketh mention of a strange accident which happened in the Court of France. Guichardine a Noble Knight and Ambassador for the Duke of Florence beeing in good health and walking with other Noble-men, and talking not seriously but at randon, presently fell stone dead neuer breathing and his pulse neuer moouing. Manie tolde the King, some saide he was dead, some that hee was but falne into an Apoplexie or a Falling sicknesse and that there was hope of his recouery; The King( saith Laurentius) commanded me to take care of him; when I came, I found the man starke dead, and auouched that the fault was not in his braine but in his heart. The next day his bodye was opened, and we found his heart so swelled that it tooke vp almost all his Chest; when wee opened the Ventricles, there yssued out three or foure pound of blood, and the orifice of the great Veine was broken, and all the forked Membranes torne, but the Orifice of the great Artery was so dilated that a man might haue thrust in his arme So that I imagine, that all the Flood-gates being loosened, so great a quantity of bloode yssued into the ventricles that there was no roome for the dilatation or contraction, whereupon hee fell suddenlie dead; yet is it a great wonder how without any outward cause of a stroke, or fall, or vociferation, or anger, so great a vessell should be broken. It may be he was poisoned, for the Italians they say are wondrous cunning in that Art, & in the Contention of Nature that dilaceration hapned.   

QVEST. X. Of the nature of Respiration, and what are the Causes of it.  
_AND thus much of the proper motion of the Heart, what causes it hath, what manner motion it is, what power or faculty mooueth the Arteries, when and as the heart is mooued; or after and otherwise: Howe 
A briefe enumeration of the difficulties about the motion of the heart.  and where the vitall spirites are generated and their immediate matter prepared, what is the temperament of the heart, how it is nourished, what his structure is & how many the parts are of his substāce with their vse and functions: Finally, howe able to beare and endure affectes and diseases. Theresolution of which questions, though they do not properly pertaine vnto Anatomy all of them, yet do they so depend one vpon another as it seemeth necessary that he that would know one should also know all; notwithstanding in our treating of them we haue verie often restrained our Discourse and conteyned it within such limites as are not farre distant from Dissection itself.  
It remaineth now, that we should a little stand vpon another motion in our bodies and 
Of Spiration.  the Instrument thereof which Nature hath ordained to be seruiceable to this motion of the heart, and that is Spiration or breathing. For the Heart being exceeding hot and therfore a part of great expence needed a continuall supply of nourishment for the spirites, and of ventilation for himselfe. For Hippocrates saith in his Booke De Naturapueri, Calidū omne 
Why necessary.  frigido moderato Nutritur & fouet us? That which is hot is nourished and cherished by that which is moderately colde: which sentence Galen in his Book de vsu Respiration is thus elegantly expoundeth; Euen as( saith he) a flame shut vp in a straite roome and not ventilated with the aer burnes dimmer and dimmer till it be extinguished, so our naturall heate if it want cold to temper it growes saint and wasteth away to vtter confusion. For it is like a flame mooued both waies vpward downward, inward and outward; vpper and outward, because it is light as being of a fiery and aery nature; downward and inward in respect of his nourishment; either of these motions if they he hindred, the heate either decayeth or is extinguished; it decayeth for want of nourishment because it cannot be mooued down ward and inward. It is strangled and extinguished when it cannot be mooued vpward and outward and so refrigerated.  
Wherefore, the spiration or breathing of colde is verie necessary for the preseruation of naturall heate; but what shall this cold be? Surely either aer or water: aer is more 
Whether aer or water is fittest to cool the heats.  necessary in perfect and bloody creatures, first because it sooner followeth the distention of the brest and so the dilatation of the Lunges, and filleth all that is dilated to keepe out vacuity; secondly it cooleth sooner, as better distributing his partes into euery secret corner of the heart: finally, it is better expirated or breathed out then water, though it be not more easily drawne in. Aer then is the best cooler for the heart, and that must be brought vnto it by breathing: now this spiration or breathing is double, insensible and sensible; Insensible spiration Hippocrates and Galen cal properly 〈◇〉, and the Latins Perspiration & Transpiration. The other and sensible breathing is called 〈◇〉, that is, Respiration. Transpiration 
Transpiration & Respiratiō.  is by the secret pores of the skin, Respiration by the mouth and the nose. Those creatures whose heate is weake and faint do liue onely by Respiration, so all that are without blood or which we cal Insecta of certaine diuisions they haue about their necks or bellies; so the infant in the womb transpireth onely but doth not respire; and many women in fits of the Mother( the naturall heate of their hearts being dissolued by a poisonous breth 
Fittes of the Mother.  arising from putrified seede) do liue a while in trances onely by Transpiration. But those creatures whose heate is neerer to the nature of flame, by transpiration onely cannot bee tempered. Wherefore such heate needeth a farther helpe to wafte more aer vnto it, and that is done onely by respiration.  
This Respiration therefore hath two parts, Inspiration and Expiration; Inspiration is 
The partes of Respiration.  the drawing in of the aer, Expiration the breathing it out. Inspiration is like the Dyastole of the heart, Expiration like the Systole.  
This Respiration whether it be Naturall or Animal hath troubled the heads of Schollers a great while, and would also now trouble ours if we shold muster together all the Reasons 
Whether Naturall or Animal.  which are brought on both sides; yet because the question is worthy the decision wee will breefely as we can resolue it with your patience. The arguments to prooue it not to bee Animall or voluntary are. First because voiuntary actions are from election: but men asleepe 
Not Animall. ( when yet there is respiration) haue no election, no will, because sleepe is a rest or 
The Reasons.  cessation of all Animall actions. Hence it is that Galen calleth the Caros a sleepie disease Puiuationem Animalitatis, a priuation of al the animal Faculties; yet in that disease the Respiration is free: as likewise in the Apoplexic which is a resolution or palsie of the whole body. Now where is no sense remaining, can there then remaine any voluntary motion? yet we see Respiration remaineth.  
Againe, to be voluntary and perpetual are contraries; for voluntarie actions do albreed wearinesse, but Respiration breeds not wearinesse in the motion, but if the motion be any whit checked or stayed, that stay or checke breeds wearinesse: Finally when the Respiration is vitiated we apply remedies vnto the region of the heart not vnto the braine, which is the originall of voluntary motion. On the contrary, the great argument to prooue it to 
That it is Animall.  be voluntary is, that we can breath when we will, and when we will we can stay our breath: so as many haue thus voluntarily ended their dayes, I meane by staying their owne breath. Galen in his second Booke de Motu Musculorum telleth of a Barbarian seruant, who beeing throughly angred purposed to lay violent hands vpon himselfe, hee threw himselfe therefore 
Histories.  vpon the ground, and held his breath a long time remaining vnmooued, at length turning himselfe a little he breathed out his life.  
C. Licinius Macer a Pretorian Citizen of Rome, being accused for oppression by exactions, whilst the Iudges were giuing sentence shut vp his owne mouth, and couering it with his Handkerchiefe reteyned his breath till he fell downe dead.  
Coma the brother of one Maximus a Captaine of Out-lawes, when hee was asked concerning the strength and enterprises of the Fugitiues, gathered his strength together, couered his head, and falling vpon his knees held his breath till he dyed euen in the handes of those that guarded him and before the face of the Iudges.  
Cato Vticensis, when his sonne had taken away his sword, he perswaded his Seruants to giue it him againe, saying he would keepe it for his defence, not to murther himselfe with, For sayeth hee, If I listed to die, I could easily hold my breath to serue that turne: Besides Hippocrates sayth in his third Section of the second Booke Epidemiωn, that the cure of continuall yawning which Physitions cal oscitation, is long breathing: & Aristophanes in Plato his Symposio, being troubled with a hiccock, intreated Eriximachus the Physition to tell out his tale 
How to cure yownings & the hiccock.  for him, That wil I saith he, & in the meane time hold your breath some good while & your hiccock wil cease, and then you shall take my turne as I haue taken yours. We may then reteyne our breath when and how long we will and therfore it is a voluntary action. For the instruments whereby wee breath are all Animall, as the intercostall muscles, the midriffe which is also a muscle, and the nerues. Finally, if the braine bee offended as in a phrensie, then is the Respiration offended.  
Wee see here two opposite opinions, both which wee cannot maintaine vnlesse they will either of them remit somewhat and yeeld a little either to other, and then it will not be 
A reconciliation of 2. aduorse opinions.  hard to reconcile them after this manner. Some actions are purely and simply Naturall, as Concoction, Nutrition &c. Some partly voluntary, as speech and walking. Some mixt, that is partly Naturall partly Animall, as the auoyding of water and excrements, as Galen sayth in the fourth Chapter of his 6. Booke de locis affect; and in the sixt Chapter of his second Booke de motu musculorum he likeneth Respiration to these. Respiration therefore is a mixt action, partly Natural and that in respect of the final cause and of necessity, partly 
Respiration a mixt action.  Animall in respect of the instruments of it, the muscles.  
Those that are strangled do not breath because they cannot Animally; the nerues and 
2. instances.  muscles being intercepted with the rope. Hystericall woemen that are troubled with the mother do not breath, because they cannot Naturally: for there is no vse of respiration, nor no necessity vrging it although the instruments bee at liberty; and Nature hath here very wisely ordayned that although this action were absolutely necessary and so naturall for the 
Why it was necessary that respiration should be partly voluntary.  preseruation of life; yet there should also be in it some commaund of the will, because it is often very profitable to stay the breath and often to thrust it out with extraordinarie violence.  
If wee be to giue very diligent eare to any thing, if to passe through any vnsauoury or noysome places, if we fall or be throwne into the water, it is very necessary that we should bee able to conteyne our breath: on the contrary, to blow vp any thing, to winde a home or sound a trūpet, to blow the fire or such like; it is very profitable that we should be able to breath with extraordinary violence. Now in a word we will satisfie the arguments on both sides; and to the first in the first place.  
They say that men Respire when they sleep, but in sleepe there is no vse of election or will. I answere there is a double will, as Scaliger sayeth, One from election proper to men and men awake, the other from instinct and this is in men a sleepe and in bruite beasts. The motion 
Wil is double  of respiration when we sleepe is by instinct, neither are all the Animall faculties idle in sleepe, or extinguished in those diseases before named; but in sleep they are remitted as Galen sayth not intermitted; for euen the muscles haue a motion which we call Tonieum metum Arigid motion, especially the two sphincter muscles, and in the diseases they are depraued. 
Motus Tonic ●●   
The reason why we are not wearied with continuall respiration, is because there is continual vse and necessity of it, although it cannot be denied that euen respiration being constrayned wearieth the creature much.  
On the contrary, they that affirme this respiration to bee meerely voluntary, alleadge that we are able to stay it when we will and to moue it when wee will; to which I answere. That is properly and absolutely a voluntary action which may bee stayed at our pleasure when it is doing, and againe done when it is stayed; but respiration is no such action: for if the Respiration be altogether stayed, as in those whose histories are aboue mentioned, then is the creatures life extinguished and the respiration cannot againe bee mooued. And for the two other arguments that respiration is by Animall instruments, & that in a phrensie which is a disease of the brayne, the respiration is vitiated. I answere, that they proue indeed that in respiration there is somewhat voluntary, but they doe not proue that there is nothing naturall. We therefore do determine that Respiration is a mixt action, and to it do concurre both principles ioyned together the Brayn and the Heart, the Animall and 
The determination.  the Naturall faculties.  
To conclude this Chapter and discourse of Respiration: The pulse and respiration we see are two distinct motions, yet so neare of kinne as men doe not ordinarily obserue the differences betweene them: wee will therefore in a word tell you wherein they differ and wherein they agree.  
They agree in that that they both serue one faculty that is the Vitall; for they were both ordained onely for the heart which is the seate of the vitall faculty. Moreouer, they haue both one finall cause a threefould necessity; of nutrition, temperation and expurgation: nourishment of the spirits, tempering of the heate and purging of smoky vapours. Thirdly, they agree in the condition of their motions, for both of them consist of a Systole and a Dyastole, and a double rest betweene them: but in these things they differ. That the pulse is a Naturall motion, continuall not interrupted, and without all power of the will. Respiration is free, and ceaseth some whiles at our pleasure; the efficient cause of the pulse is only Nature, of Respiration Nature and the Soule together; the instruments of the pulse are the heart and the arteries, of Respiration the muscles: the pulse is from the heart, Respiration not from the heart but for the heart. Finally, the heart beateth fiue times for one motion of Respiration.  
Lastly, whether is the pulse or Respiration more necessary or more noble? More noble 
Whether is more noble and necessary the pulse or respiration.  surely is the pulse, because his instrument the heart is more noble, his effect the vitall spirit is more noble then the ayre; and the end is better then that which serueth for the end: but Respiration was made for the preseruation of the pulse: but nowe for their necessity there needeth a distinction. There is one pulse of the heart and another of the arteries; the pulse of the heart is more necessary for life then Respirution, but the particular pulsation of the arteries is lesse necessary then Respiration; for though the arteries bee bound or intercepted the creature dyeth not presently, but if the Respiration be stopped hee is presently extinguished.   

QVEST. XI. Of the Temperament and motion of the Lungs.  
_COncerning the Temperament of the Lungs, there is question among the Masters of our Art. Some hold them in the actiue qualities to bee cold, others 
Of what temper the lungs are. That they are cold. Reasons.  to be hot. Those that would haue them cold giue these reasons for their assertion.  
First, because their whole frame and structure consisteth of spermaticall that is cold parts: these are, the gristly artery, the arteriall veine, and the venall artery.  
Secondly, because they are made to refrigerate the heart, wherefore they are called the Fanne of the heart.  
Thirdly, because they are subiect to colde diseases, as obstructions, shortnes of winde, difficulty of breathing, and knottines called Tubercula.  
Fourthly, because they abound with flegmaticke and cold humors, which is discerned by that we cough vp.  
Lastly, they alleadge an authoritie and a reason out of Hippocrates, the authority, for 
Authority.  that he sayth, The Lungs are of their owne nature cold, and are farther cooled by inspiration. Hippocrates ground out of which they draw this argument is where hee sayeth in his Booke de Alimentis, The Lungs do draw a nourishment contrary to their body, whereas al other parts draw 
A reason drawne from Hippocrates.  that which is like to them. From whence they reason thus. The Lungs draw vnto themselues blood attenuated in the right ventricle of the heart and are therewith nourished. That bloud being very hot, their substance( if Hippocrates sayd true, who is sayde neuer to haue deceiued any man, nor neuer to haue beene deceiued himselfe) must needes bee cold. But these arguments may thus bee answered. 
Answere to the arguments.   
To the first, the vessels are not the substance of the Lungs but the flesh; which is made of a hot and frothy bloud.  
To the second, that they refrigerate and coole the heart not by their owne Temperament, but because they drawe and containe outward ayre, which is alwaies colder then the heart though it he neuer so soultry hot.  
To the 3. that their vessels because they are many and diuersly implicated are subiect to obstructiōs, but their flesh which is their true substāce is subiect to inflamations & hot affects.  
To the fourth, that the aboundance of flegme which we cough vp, is not generated by 
Whence the phlegme commeth that we cough vp. How it becommeth white.  the natiue temper of the Lungs but falleth continually from the head which is the recepticle of cold excrements into the Lungs, so saith Hippocrates, Many Catarrhes or Rheumes fall into the vpper venter, that is the Chest. The lower part also as the stomack and the hypochondria do send vp plentiful vapors which the Lungs with this continuall motion do mixe with the foresaid humor & thence commeth the whitnes. And as for Hippocrates authority it may bee answered that hee compareth the temper of the Lungs with the remper of the heart and then indeed they are cold, as also the aer of a hot-house is cold in respect of the heart.  
In the other place we say that Hippocrates speaketh of the aer inspirated or breathed in, 
Hippocrates expounded & retorted.  not of bloud; and so that place proueth that the Lungs are hot rather then cold, because they draw aer which is cold and contrary to their body which is hot. But the truthis, that the contrariety he speaketh of in that place is rather a contrariety of motion; as if hee should say, other parts draw a nourishment like vnto themselues frō an inward store. house which is the Liuer into the very vtmost parts of the body; but contrariwise the Lungs draw the nourishment of the spirits, that is, the aer by the outward parts, that is, the nose and the mouth into the inward, that is, the heart. Although I am not ignorant that Galen interpreteth those words otherwise which shall not be necessary to make mention of in this place.  
It seemeth therefore that the Lungs are not cold; which yet will better appeare if wee 
That the lungs are hot. 3. arguments.  can proue them to be hot. Three arguments we will be contented with; one from their substance, another from their nourishment, and a third from their vse. Their substance is fleshy soft & spongy, made as it were of the froth that ariseth of the hot bloud in the boyling; therefore not cold. Againe, they are nourished with thin bloud heated and attenuated in the right ventricle of the heart, which seemeth to haue beene made especially for the Lungs sake. Lastly, their vse is to prepare aer for the generation of the vitall, that is, the hottest spirit; they must therefore be hot. Thus Physitions reason on either side. I 
A notable doubt put.  will onely heere put a doubt, reseruing the determination to another place.  
The Rheume falleth out of the head, part into the Lungs and part into the stomacke; Nature in both places worketh vpon it. The stomacke boyleth it againe, attenuateth it if it be thick, and of some part of it maketh good bloud; the rest it auoydeth into the guttes where another vse is made of it; and if the heate of the stomacke be languide and weake so that it cannot sufficiently mitigate it, we then helpe Nature.  
The Lungs quite contrary do thicken that part which falleth into them and that necessarily, for else it could neuer he auoyded; for it must be a solid body that the aer must lift 
Why the Rheume must be thickened before it bee coughed vp. Whence dry coughes cōe.  vp before it in our coughing, because there is no passage for it downward appointed by Nature; and therefore it is, that thinne and subtle Rheume maketh a dry cough because the aer is not able to intercept it, but it trickleth downe the sides of the weazon still prouoking vs to cough, but in vaine because it hath not a compacted body which the aer might intercept till by time it be ripened, that is, grow thicke and then it is brought vp; or if of itself it do not thicken we thicken it by Art. Wee may therefore iustly wonder at this contrary worke of Nature; surely coldnesse in the Lungs can not thicken it, it being so neere to the fountaine of heate nor the ayer which is the moistest of al Elements cannot dry it: besides that, the Lungs are of themselues very moist as we shall prooue by and by. Againe, if heate in the Lungs do thicken it, why should it not thicken it also in the stomacke; but we see that cold stomack; doe onely make thicke and viscid flegme.  
Truely heereunder lyeth a great mystery worthy of another place to be discussed in, to which therefore we will referre it and proceede to the second qualities of the Lungs, and 
A mystery of Nature.  enquire whether they be moist or dry. It may seeme they are dry, because their passages doe alwayes remaine open and neuer fall together, which is an argument of their hardnes 
That the lungs are dry Arguments  and drynesse. Againe, Galen saith( in his 4. booke de vsu partium) they are nourished with chollericke bloud, but chollericke bloud is dry. Lastly, Hippocrates saith the Lungs are the seare of drought; for he appointeth two places of drought, the stomack & the Lungs. Concerning which, is that notable edict of Hippocrates( in Epidemijs.) The way to appease and satisfie thirst is to drinke cold water and to breathe in cold aer. These arguments we will first answere before we determine the contrary.  
To the first we answere, that if the opennes of their passages argue their drinesse, then 
Answered  should the braine also be dry whose ventricles are alwayes open and do not fall together in the strongest concussions or motions of the head, as in sneezing and fits of the Epilepsie or falling sicknesse. As therefore the braine is harder in the ends of the ventricles thereof( in which respect Anatomists cal that part the Callous body as we shall heare heereafter): So the Lunge where it compasseth the vessell is somewhat harder: or say rather, that the stifnesse and hardnesse of the branches of the Sharpe and Rough Artery do hold it out & keep the passages in a kinde of distention.  
To the second we answere, that Galen by bilious or Cholericke blood meaneth thin and 
Galen expounded.  attenuated blood laboured in the right ventricle of the heart, which no man will say is drie but rather abundantly moist, as being mingled with aer the moistest as we saide of all Elements. To the last we answere, that the Lungs indeede if they be torrified are the state of drought, because they dry vp the moisture of the heart and the partes adioyning; but if they be naturally disposed they are no cause of drought. It remaineth therefore that the Lungs are not dry, and then they must needs be moist; which yet further to prooue wee want not arguments beyond all exception. First, because they are soft; for as hardnesse is 
Arguments to proue the Lungs moyst.  a sure note of drinesse so is softnesse of moisture, but the substance of the Lungs is soft and lax, of which the very touch is a sufficient witnesse. Besides Galens authority is plainely for it, where he saith in his 4. Booke de vsu partium, The flesh of the Spleene is soft indeed & laxe, but nothing to the substance of the Lungs which is the softest, the loosest and the lightest.  
Auicen interposeth saying, That the flesh of the Lungs is not soft of his owne nature but by accident 
Auicens conceite.  or euent, because they lie steeped & drunken as it were in the moisture which faileth from the head, therefore he saith they are not soft but maddid; which if it were so, then wold they be drier in those bodies that haue dry braines, and more ouer would in al other bodies 
Confuted.  become drier, as the moisture which falleth from the head is exhausted and dried vp, both which are contrary to all experience. We therefore conclude that the Lungs are naturally moist, and by so much moister then the liuer by how much they are softer. And thus much 

The determination.  
3. Opinions. Aristotles.   of the temperament of the Lungs, now followeth their motion. Concerning which I find three opinions; one of Aristotles, another of Auerrhoes; the third of Galen and the Physitians. Aristotle in the 6. chap. of his third booke De Partiammalium thinketh, that they haue the original of their motion from the heart on this manner.  
The heate of the heart being encreased, with a kinde of violence lifteth vp the Lungs & then aer entreth for the auoiding of vacuity and empcinesse that infest enemy of nature; the colder aer setleth the boyling of the heate, as we see cold water beeing powred to boyling watersetleth it; as therefore in the diffusion of the heate the Lungs are dilated, so the heat residing or setling they are contracted and the aer expressed or driuen out. Auerrhoes ioyneth 
Auerrhoes.  so far with Aristot'e that he thinketh the heare to be the author of Respiration, but he saith that the Lungs follow not the motion of the Chest, but are mooued by a proper and peculiar power of their owne, because else there should be a violent motion which shoulde be perpetuall, that which is vtterly against the rules of nature. True it is( saith he) that there is a wonderfull consent betweene the Chest and the Lungs, which is the cause that one of them cannot moone or rest but when the other mooueth or resteth, yet neither of them is cause or originall of the others motion. The third opinion is of Galen and the Physitians 
Galens. The Lunges not mooued by any proper power of their owne. Not by the faculty of Pulsation.  to which also we encline, who thinke the Lunges are not mooued by an inbred or proper power of their owne, for where are their Fibres and the strength of Filaments or strings for that purpose? Neither by the faculty of Pulsation which ariseth from the heart by which the arteries are mooued, & that because the motion of the Lungs somtimes doth intermit, sometimes is quicker and slower as we list: neither by the animall faculty because there be no Muscles: but we conceiue that the Lungs are mooued by an accidentary motion, as following 
Not by the Animal faculty. But by accident or Consequence.  the motion of the Chest to auoid vacuity. For when the Chest is distended the Lungs are filled with aer and enlarged, and when that is contracted they are emptied and fall. Galen establisheth this his opinion with this reason, because there is no disposition of the body found wherein the Lungs are mooued when the Chest remaineth immoouable: 
Galens reason.  which thing Experience also confirmeth. For if the Chest be opened so as the aer may get in by the wound, the Lungs become immooueable; because the aer being gotten into the 
Experience.  void and empty space taketh away the necessity of the motion of the Lungs which is to auoid vacuity as we haue saide: but if the Chest be sound, it is of necessity that it beeing distended the Lungs also should be dilated for auoyding of that vacuity. And whereas Auerrhoes obiecteth that there is no violent motion perpetual, and yet the motion of the lungs 
Answere to Auerrhoes.  should be violent if it should follow the motion of the Chest. I answer, that the inference is very absurd, for euery motion is not violent which is mooued after anothers motion, for 
Why the Lunges are neuer wearie.  by that reason the bones also should be mooued with a violent motion. But why are not the Lungs wearied with their perpetuall motion? I aunswere, because they are almost insensible.   

QVEST. XII. What kinde of motion the Cough is, and whether any part of the drinke fall into the Lungs.  
_THat the Cough proceedeth from the affection of almost all the partes of the Chest, as the Pleura, the Mediastinum, the Lungs with their vessels, the midriffe, 
What parts are causes of coughing.  and sometimes of the Intereostall muscles also, it is more then manifest; For in both the kindes of Pleurisies, the true and the bastard, the Peripneumonia or inflamation of the Lungs; the Asthma or difficulty of breathing, the vlcer of the Lungs called ' Pthoe, the Dropsie wherein the Midriffe is pressed vpward: in all these I say the Patient is troubled with a continuall Cough. But now to what faculty wee should referre this coughing that is a great controuersie. It may be thought it is Animall 
That the cough is frō the Animal faculty.  and voluntary, because the Cough is nothing else but a strong efflation or breathing forth. Now this efflation is done by the helpe of all the muscles which contract the chest.  
Galen also in his second Booke de causis symptomatum speaking of sneezing coughing and vomiting, concludeth that vomiting is a symptome of the naturall faculty and coughing of the Animall. Others there be which thinke it to bee an action of the naturall faculty, because it is a concussiue motion and is done by the endeuour of Nature, to exclude that which is offensiue vnto her; now all Concussiue motions are Naturall. For all the partes of 
That it is frō the Natural faculty.  the body of their owne naturall constitution haue euery one their owne 〈◇〉. Concussions when they are shaken for the auoyding of any thing which offends them: such is the concussion of the brain in sternutation or sneezing; of the stomacke in the hiccock, of the bladder in auoyding the stone, of the whole habite of the body and the fleshy membrane in a rigor or shaking fit, and finally of the chest in coughing. Moreouer sometimes we cough against our will, neither can we alwaies when we will forbeare it. Both these opinions may 
The reconciliatiō of these two opinions.  be reconciled, if as we saide earst in respiration, so here in coughing, that it is a mixt action of an Animall and a Naturall.  
The motion is Animall because it is done by the helpe of muscles, but the cause moouing the motion is Naturall; for a cough is not raised without the endeuor of the expelling faculty. But another question may be asked here, whether the cough be a disease or an ordinary 
Whether to cough be a disease or no.  worke of Nature. Galen in his second Booke de symptomatum causis, and in his fift de locis affectis seemeth to determine diuersly; sometimes that it is a worke of Nature, and sometimes againe as in his Booke of Trembling and Palpitation that is against Nature: but we may well reconcile Galen with himselfe if wee say, that in respect of the faculty whereby we cough it is a Naturall affection; for the beginning of the motion is from nature, that is 
Galen reconciled to himselfe.  from the expelling faculty; but in respect of the cause which mooueth the faculty as the rheume, the bearing vp of the midriffe or such like, it is against Nature and a very disease; but ouer this cause the Naturall faculty hath a kind of power or command which it sheweth in laboring thus to auoide it.  
To conclude both this Chapter and all our discourse of the vitall parts, it is a question whether the drinke we drinke goe into the Lungs or no. Hippocrates sayeth in his Booke de Corde 
Whether the drink go into the Lungs.  some part of it goeth that way, because if you giue a Swine a drinke coloured with vermiliō or any such like thing & presently cut the throat, you shal perceiue the wezon colored with the drink, which is a certaine argument & demonstratiue; also in the same place hee thinketh that the water which is found in the heart purse is a portion of our drinke: againe Physitians in the fretting or exulceration of the weazon, and diseases of the chest do appoynt the Patient to lie long vpon his backe and leasurely to lick down their medicines, that so some of them may fall downe into the Lungs.  
Another demonstration may be that the arteries haue more whey or vrine in them then the veines; whence should this whay come? but that a part of the drinke and more liquid nourishment doth slip downe by the weazon into the Lungs and so into the arteries, and from them by the emulgent arteries into the kidneyes to bee auoided by the bladder: for I see no reason why the emulgent arteries should haue beene made so large, vnlesse it were 
Why the emulgent arteries are so large.  for the expulsion of this excrement, Aristotle amongst al the Philosophers is against this. Hippocrates in his fourth Booke de morbis laboureth might and maine against it, yeelding diuers reasons why it cannot bee: but wee must vnderstand that Hippocrates laboureth to prooue that all the drinke goeth not into the Lungs, hee confesseth that some slippeth by. And thus Galen in his eight Booke de placitis Hippoc. & Platonis reconcileth Hippocrates to himselfe; namely, that some of the drinke falleth insensibly downe along the weazon, the rest passeth ouer the Epiglottis into the stomack: but if neuer so little a crum of solid meate get into the weazon, it bringeth danger of suffocation. So Anacreon the Poet was suffocated 
Examples of such as haue beene choked with crums or such like.  with a Grape-stone. And Fabius the Senator is said to haue beene strangled with a haire which got into his weazon in supping of a draught of Milke. Alexander Benidictus writeth that a mother at Brussels thrust a pill downe her childes throate with her finger, vpon which it presently dyed.  
And thus much shall be sufficient to haue beene saide concerning the vitall parts belonging 
Conclusion of the discourse of the vitall parts.  to the middle Region called the Chest, with all the Controuersies and subtleties of Nature therto appertaining. It followeth now that we should ascend vnto the Throne of the soule, the Tower of the body, which is the Head.   
The End of the Sixt Booke and the Controuersies thereunto belonging.   

THE SEVENTH BOOKE, Of the Third and vpper-most Venter called the HEAD, wherein are described the Animall Organes.  

The Praeface, Wherein is conteyned the summe of the first Eight Bookes.  
_AS a Traueller that desireth to make profit of his paine, when he hath passed one Citie before hee enter into another vvill recount with himselfe his principall obseruations, especially when the recognition of the former may stand him insteade for his better vnderstanding in that to which hee bendeth his course: so I thinke it not amisse hauing passed through so great variety of partes in the two former Regions of the body of Man, before I enter into the Third, to cal vnto your remembrance( not al the particulars before rehearsed, for that would be irkesome to vs both Gentle Reader) but the Principall, as wel to refresh thy memory, as also to make a more easie passage vnto that which followeth.  
MAN who is the subiect of our whole Discourse, consisteth of a Soule and a Body. The Soule is the Lady and Mistris, the Soueraigne and Commander. The Body is a most perfect Organ or Instrument of the reasonable Soule, consisting as Hippocrates well saith( though obscurely) of Fire and Water.  
For the Soule, albe it when shee is free from the prison of the Bodye can see without an Eye, heare without an Eare and by her owne simple act discourse without the help of spirits; 
Why the body is made of many organs.  yet so long as she is immured within these wals of clay shee cannot contemplate the speculations of Externall things without an Externall medium; and therefore Nature( by which I vnderstand the wisedome of the eternall Creator) framed the body of many Organicall parts whereby and wherein the Soule might exercise her Diuine administrations, produce and exhibit the powers and efficacies of her manifold Faculties. For the Body in deede is but a dead trunke till the Soule arriue into it, and quickneth it vnto the performance of perfect actions of life.  
But because the Soule is of all Formes the most excellent as being created immediately partaker of immortality, Nature in emulation of the diuine Numen hath striuen to make her habitation also immortall, which although the destiny of the matter did gainesay, yet she hath brought to so admirable a perfection that it is worthily called 〈◇〉, the wonder of Wonders, the Myracle of Nature, and a Little world.  
Whereas therefore there was no proportion or correspondencie betweene mortality 
why the spirit was created.  and immortality, betweene the Soule and the Body; Nature with wonderfull skil, out of the principall part of the seede did extract and separate a spirit which lay lurking in the power of the Matter, a spirit I say of a Middle nature betweene Heauen and Earth, by whose mediation as by a strong band the diuinity of the soule might be married to the humanitie of the body. This instrument of Nature we call Fire, which moueth and illustrateth the whole packe of the members, and moderateth all and singular actions of life, of which also it is the next and most immediate cause.  
But because the nature of Fire is such that it hath in it much forme and but a little matter, neither can diffuse the beames of his light vnlesse it be receiued into some substance 
The second principle.  wherein his power may be vnited; therfore it was necessary there should be another Principle not so subtle, wherein this aetheriall body might expatiate and disport itself according to the diuersity of his functions and that without danger of expence. Such a Principle is the mutuall confluence of the seeds of both parents, out of whose slimy matter the Plasticall or formatiue faculty of the wombe stirred vp by the vigor of heate diduceth and distinguisheth the confounded power of the parts into their proper actions, not without a discerning Iudgement and naturall kinde of discourse. This masse of seed irrigated with the power of the whole body according to Hippocrates I call Water; not onely because this Element doth delineate nourish and make fruitefull, but also because the future siccitie and hardnesse of the spermaticall parts stood in neede of a moist and viscid matter whereby those things which otherwise could hardly be sammed together might receiue their conglutination, that so of many dissimilar particles, one continued frame might arise.  
This farme thus coagmentated and distinguished for the seruice of the soule, we haue 
How the body is like the world.  in the beginning of this work compared to the whole world or vniuerse, and that not without good ground. For as of the world there are three parts, the Sublunary which is the basest, the Coelestiall wherin there are many glorious bodies, & the highest Heauen which is the proper seate of the Diety. So in the body of man there are three Regions. The lower Belly which was framed for the nourishment of the Indiuidium & propagation of mankinde. The middle Region of the Chest, wherein the Heart of man the sunne of this Mycrocosme perpetually moueth and poureth out of his bosome as out of a springing fountain the diuine Nectar of life into the whole body, and the vpper Region or the Head wherein the soule hath her Residence of estate, guarded by the Sences and assisted by the Intellectuall faculties at whose disposition all the inferior parts are imployed.  
In the lower Region Nature hath placed two parts more excellent then the rest, wherof 
The lower Region.  one endeuoureth & attendeth the conseruation of the Indiuidium, the other of the Species or kinde. The first is the Liuer which some haue said is the first of all the bowels, both in respect of his originall & of his nature. It is seated in the right Hypocondrium vnder the 
The Liuer.  midriffe. The figure of it if you except his fissure) is continuall, but vnderneath vnequall and hollow, aboue smooth and gibbous. In a man this bowell is proportionably greater then in any other creature, and greatest of all in such as are giuen to their bellies. The proper parenchyma or flesh of this Liuer, which is most like to congealed and adust bloud, by a proper & inbred power giueth the forme, temper and colour of bloud to the Chylus confected in the stomacke, deriued into the guts, prepared in the meseraick veines and branches of the gate-veine by which also it is transported to the hollow part of the Liuer, there as we saide wrought and perfected, and so conueyed by the same rootes of the gate-veine, and thence exonerated into that which is called the Caua or hollow veine; by whose trunks and boughes it floweth into the whole body. The temperament of this Liuer is hot and moist; for the moderation of which heate and conseruation of the spirits therein contained it receiueth certaine small Arteries which attaine but onely vnto the cauity thereof. It is inuested round with a thinne coate wherein two small Nerues belonging to the sixt coniugation of the braine are diuersly dispersed.  
We say moreouer; that this same Liuer is the shop or work-house of the venall bloud and the originall of the veines; in whose thrummed rootes the more aery portion of the Aliment is conuerted by the in bred and naturall faculty of the Liuer into a vaporous bloud, which becommeth a naturall, thicke and cloudy spirit, the first of all the rest and their proper nourishment: which spirit is the vehicle of the naturall faculty, and serueth beside to helpe to transport the thicker part of the bloud through the veines into the whole bodye; where it needeth but a little ayer and therefore is refreshed and preserued only by Transpiration made by the Anastomoses or inoculations of the Arteries with the veines in their extremities or determinations. This Naturall faculty( we before mentioned) is diuided into 
The Naturall faculty.  three faculties, the Generatiue, the Alteratiue and the Increasing faculty. Of the Generatiue we shall speake by and by. The action of the Alteratiue faculty is Nutrition which hath many handmaides attending her, Attraction, Expulsion, Retention, and Concoction. The action of the Increasing Faculty we call Accretion, that is, when the whole body encreaseth in all his dimensions. Finally, wee say that Concupiscence as it is a distinct Faculty from Reason and Rage, ruleth and beareth sway in the Liuer as in her proper Tribunall, and is distinguished into Libidinem & Cupediam, Lust and Longing.  
But because in all her workes Nature euer intendeth immortality, which by reason of 
The partes of Generation.  the importunate quarrell and contention of contraries she could not attaine in the indiuiduum or particular, she deuised a cunning stratagem to delude the necessity of Destiny, & 
The Testicles  by an appetite vnto the propagation of the kinde, hath sowed the seedes of eternity in the nature of Man. For the accomplishing of which propagation shee hath ordained conuenient instruments in both fexes, which are for the most part alike, but that the instruments of the Male are outward, those of the Foemale for want of Naturall heate to driue them foorth are deteyned within. The Chiefe of these are the Testicles, two Glandulous bodies of an ouall Figure which in men hang out of the Abdomen and are inuested with four Coats, whereof two are common, the serotum or Cod a thin and rugous skinne, and the Darton which hath his originall from the fleshy Panicle. The other two are Proper, the former is called Erytroides, and the latter Epididymis. The temperament of these Testicks is hot and moyst, and they haue a very great consent with the vpper parts especiallie with the Middle Region, as also hath the wombe. The manner of the Operation of the Testicles is thus.  
The matter of the seede, together with the spirites carrying in them the forme and impression of all the particular parts and their formatiue Faculty, falleth from the whole body and is receiued by the Spermaticall Vesselles, in whose Labyrinths by an irradiation from the Testicles it is whitened. After it is so praepared it is conveighed to the Epididymis thorough whose insensible passages it sweateth into the spongie and friable substance of the Testicles themselues; where hauing atteined the forme and perfection of seede it is deliuered ouer by the eiaculatory or rather the Leading-vessels to the Parastatae, and from them transcolated to the Prostatae, which reserue the seed being now turgid and full of spirits for the necessary vses of Nature. Hence it followeth that that power which is called 〈◇〉, that is, the seede-making Faculty, or the Faculty of generation, is from the Testicles immediately, by which Faculty the parts being stirred vp do poure out of themselues the matter of the seede when Venus dooth so require. This Faculty is the authour in men of Virility and in women of Muliebrity and breedeth in all creatures that 〈◇〉 by which the heate being blowne vp is the cause 〈◇〉, so that the bloode being heated and attenuated distendeth the Veines, and the bodie or bulke of that part groweth turgid and impatient of his place, which the Grecians call 〈◇〉. And thus much of the Lower Region.  
In the Middle Region there are many parts of great woorth, but the excellencie of the 
The Middle Region.  Heart dimmeth the light of the rest, which all are to it but seruants and attendants.  
The Heart therefore is called 〈◇〉, which signifieth to beate because 
The Heart.  it is perpetually mooued from the ingate to the outgate of life.  
This is a Pyramidal Bowell whose Basis is in the middle of the Chest, the mucro or point reacheth toward the left side. The magnitude but small that the motion might be more free and nimble, the flesh very fast and exceeding hot intertexed or wouen with all three kinds of Fibres, and nourished with bloode which it receiueth from two branches of the Coronary Veine.  
On the out-side it hath a great quantity of fat and swimmeth in a waterish Lye which is conteyned in the Pericardium wherewith as with a purse the Heart is encompassed.  
On the inside it is distinguished by an intermediate partition into two Ventricles. The right is lesse noble then the left and framed most what for the vse of the Lungs. It receiueth a great quantity of blood from the yawning mouth of the Hollow-vein, and after it is prepared, returneth the same blood againe through the Arteriall veine into all the corners of the Lunges. This right ventricle hath annexed to it the greater care and sixe Values are inserted into the Orifices of his vessels. The left Ventricle which is also the most noble hath a thicker wall then the right, because it is the shop of thin blood and vitall spirites. Out of this Ventricle do two vessels issue, the first called the Venall artery which receyueth the ayer prepared by the Lungs and for retribution returneth vnto them vitall blood and spirits; at which artery the left deafe care is scituated, and in whose orifice there slande two Values bending from without inward. The other vessell of the left Ventricle is the Aorta or great Artery which distributeth vnto the whole body vitall blood and spirits. For according as the opinion of some is, it draweth the better part of the Chylus by the Meseraicke Arteries into the bosome of the left ventricle for the generation of arteriall blood, and at his mouth do grow three Values opening inward. We say further that the Heart is the 
The Vitall faculty.  habitation of the vitall Faculty, which by the helpe of Pulsation and Respiration begetteth Vital spirits of Ayer and Blood mixed in the left ventricle. And this Faculty although it be vitall yet is it not the life itselfe, and differeth from the Faculty of Pulsation both in the functions and in the extent and latitude of the subiect. The Faculty of Pulsation is Naturall to the heart, as proceeding and depending vpon the Vitall Faculty. For it is not mooued 〈◇〉 or voluntarily as is the Animall Faculty, but onely obeyeth the command of the necessity of Nature.  
From the foresaide Faculty of Pulsation do proceede two motions, the Diastole & the Systole, betweene which there is a double Rest. These motions in the Heart and Arteries are the same and at the same time, but so, that the cause of the motion is supplied from the Heart vnto the Artrries as from a principle both mooued and moouing.  
Finally, to come vnto that which we are now in hand withall. In the vpper Region wee meete with the Braine compassed with the strong battlements of the scull, adorned with 
The vpper Region.  the Face as with a beautifull Frontispice wherein the Soule inhabiteth, not onely in essence and power as it is in the rest of the body; but in her magnificense and throne of state. This Braine is the most noble part of the whole body and framed with such curiositie, so many Labyrinthes and Meanders are therein, that euen a good wit may easily bee at losse when it is trained away with so diuers sents in an argument so boundlesse and vaste. Notwithstanding we will as briefely and succinctly as we can giue you a viewe of the Fabricke and Nature thereof, referring the Reader for better satisfaction to the ensuing discourse, wherein we hope to giue euen him that is curious some contentment.  
The substance therefore of the Braine is medullous or marrowy, but a proper marrow not like that of other parts; framed out of the purest part of the seed and the spirites. It is 
The Braine.  moouable and that with a naturall motion which is double, one proper to itself, another comming from without. It is full of sence, but that sence is operatiue or actiue not passiue. For the behoofe of this braine was the head framed, nor the head alone but also the whole body, itself being ordained for the generation of animall spirits and for the exhibiting of the functions of the inward senses and the principall faculties: in this brain we are to consider first his parts then his faculties.  
The Braine therefore occupieth the whole cauity of the skull, and by the dura mater or hard membrane is diuided into a forepart and a backpart. The forepart which by reason of the magnitude retaineth the name of the whole and is properly called the Braine, is againe deuided by a body or duplicated membrane resembling a mowerssy the, into a right side & a left, both which sides are againe continued by the interposition or mediation of a callous body. This callous body descending a litle downward appeareth to be excauated or hollowd into two large ventricles much resembling the forme of a mans eare, through which cauities a thrumbe of crisped vessels called Plexus Choroides doth run, wherein the Animal spirits receiue their preparation; and out of these Ventricles doe yssue two swelling Pappes which are commonly called the Organes of smelling and do determine at the spongy bone aboue the top of the nose.  
These two venticles are disseuered by a fine and thin body called speculum lucidum, or the bright Glasse, vnto which adioyneth the Arch of the braine called Corpus cameratum which is supported by three finials or Columnes which like Atlas do sustaine the weight of the braine, so that the thirde ventricle which lieth vnder them is not obliterated. This middle ventricle which is a common cauity of the two vpper, occupieth the very center of the braine and runneth out with a double passage. The first descendeth to the Basis of the braine where the originall of the Nerues is most manifest, and the extremity thereof endeth in a portion of the Pia mater or thinne membrane very like vnto a Tunnel, through which Tunnell the flegmaticke excrement of the braine is transcolated into the pituitary glandule thereunder disposed, and so thorough the holes of the wedge-bone distilleth into the Pallate of the mouth.  
The other passage of the thirde Ventricle which is larger then the former is directed into the fourth Ventricle where the Glandule or Kernell called 〈◇〉 is seated, at each side of which do adioyne the Buttockes of the Braine, and vnder them the Testicles appeare, which seuer the passage of the Animall spirit out of this into the fourth ventricle. Finally, the fourth ventricle succeedeth, which is the least and most solid of all the rest, and wherein say some, the Animall spirit receiueth his vtmost perfection, and therefore it is made in the Cerebellum that is, the backe-ward or after-braine, which for this very reason was framed of a harder consistence then the former. And so much of the parts of the braine. Now for the faculties; we determine that the Braine is the Pallace of the Rationall Soule, which soule vsing for her instrument the temper & confirmation of the braine, according 
The Animall Faculty.  to the diuersity of her functions bringeth forth mixt actions by the mediation of the animall spirit. These very actions, produced according to the variety of the temperament and medium, into diuers acts of Ratiocination Imagination and Memory as the soule is best pleased to worke, we call Faculties; which are seated and established together & promiscuously in one and the same place.  
Againe, we say that this braine as it is the beginning of the inward, so is it also of the outward senses, from which each of them receiuing their proper vessels or passages together with their Faculty do suffer the incursions of Species or Images resorting vnto them according to the diuersity of the Organe. The eye receiueth the visible formes, the care the audible, the nose such as cast an odour from them; and so of the rest. All these indiuiduall formes receiued by the sences, are by them resigned vp in token of foealty to the Common sense or priuy-chamber of the soule from whence they receiued their faculties: and then out of those formes the soule gathering phantasmes or notions doth eyther lay them vp in the Memory, or worke vpon them by discourse of Reason. Finally, we attribute to the braine the faculties of sense or motion, which faculties together with the animall spirit differing in forme and kinde from the vitall, and prepared concocted and perfected in his ventricles and substance, he doth continually and without intermission transmit through the same Nerues into the whole body to supply the expence of the foresaid spirits, which is made either by action or by passion.  
And thus haue wee runne through not onely the two lower Regions to refresh our memories, but also the vpper, wherein the Reader may haue such a taste of that which followeth, as may haply make him sauour it the better when he commeth thereto. And so wee proceede to our businesse.   

CHAP. I. Of the Names, scituation, forme and parts of the head.  
_HAuing hitherto as exactly as we could and with great leasure made our progresse through the two lower Regions Naturall and Vitall. It is now time we should ascend into the third venter, the seate & very residence of the soule, the sacred Pallace or Tower of Pallas, & there suruay her royall Court, her guard of outward Sences, her Councellors of state and all their aequipage.  
This Region therefore is by the Graecians called 〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉, Appians Interpreter holds it was called 〈◇〉, of a word which signifieth to grow dry, because being of a bony substance it must needs be dry. Apollidorus deriues it from the word 〈◇〉 to hide or couer, because it is the couering of the braine. Others because there 
The names of the head.  〈◇〉 the lights are placed. Others 〈◇〉, from the Cauity or hollownes of it. The Latines call it Caput, because from hence the sences do Capere initium take their beginning.  
There is a double acception of the word Caput among Physitions, one strickt & presse, another large and ample. In the strict signification it is vsed by Celsus out of Hippocrates booke of the wounds of the head and thus discribed. The Head is the Mansion and skonce 
A strict signification. Celsus description of the Head.  of the braine, whose skull is made of two Tables, between which is a marrow eye substāce called Diplois, inuironed with Caruncles and small veines, ouer which is spread the membrane called Perieranion; which Membrane is couered againe with the hairy scalpe; but vnder the skull lyeth the Membrane called Dura mater. And in this signification the antients called it 〈◇〉, the Vessel of the braine; we also in our common speech cal it the Skonce. 
Skonce.   
But in the large and ample signification, vnder the name of the head we vnderstand all 
The large signification.  that is circumscribed within the first racke-bone of the Necke and the top of the Crowne. We will intreate of it in this large signification: wherein therefore we are to consider of the forme, the scituation, the magnitude, the frame and structure, the motion & the particular parts thereof.  
First therefore the head was made round and that for diuers reasons. Inprimis. That it 
The forme.  might be of greater receipt and capacity, because it was to receiue the vast and huge bulke of the Braynes. For the braines of a man are foure times as big as of an Oxe: now of all figures the round figure is of most capacity, witnesse the world itself.  
Secondly, the head was made round ad 〈◇〉, that it might bee lesse subiect to 
Why round.  outward iniuries nor so easily wounded. For this figure as it is most capacious, so is it the strongest, because it hath no asperity whereupon a blow might fasten, but is euery where alike smooth, hauing no point whence the dissolution of it should commence.  
Thirdly, the head is round for his better motion, that it might be speedily and easily turned to euery side. The Platomists thinke that the head was therefore made round, because it is the seate and habitation of the soule. For the soule is infused into vs out of heauen which is round. Adde heereto that the most Noble member deserued the most noble figure.  
Notwithstanding though the figure of the head be round, yet is it not exquisitely and 
Why compressed.  to a haire globous, but some what long, swelling out with two tops like promontories, which therefore they call heads of land; it is also pressed on the sides. Long it was to containe the braine and the Cerebellum; swelling out before because of the mamillary processes which are the Organes of smelling, and behind to admit the originall of the marrow of the backe.  
It is pressed on the sides, but more forward: first because the processe of the backe called Dorsalis is much thicker then that ordained for the outlet of the Nerues of the face. Secondly, because in the forepart there was to be a bosome or hollownesse, into which the 
More on the fore-part.  aer was plentifully to passe, that is, the mouth. Thirdly, that the eyes rowling on eyther side, might not haue their prospect hindred by the bones of the temples, which would haue beene if the skull in that place had beene more embowed. Lastly, that the head might stand equally ballanced; for seeing the forepart hath his waight increased by the Iawes, the head would haue waighed too much forward if the back-part had not beene more embowed and runne out as it were into a knowle, which therefore with little alteration in the word and lesse in the sence we call the nowle of the head.  
But descanting thus about the figure of the head, it must be vnderstood that we meane a head Naturally disposed; for otherwise of vnnaturall formes some are perfectly round, others do rise vp in the toppe likk a ridge almost of a house, bearing bredth little in the 
Naturall heads.  Crowne. The round head they call in Greeke 〈◇〉 because it hath no 〈◇〉 or ietty eyther in the forehead or in the nowle. The sharpe or turbinated head is called 〈◇〉 or as Athenaeus hath it 〈◇〉 because to them that behold it, it seemeth somewhat sharpe like a 
Vnnaturall.  suger-loafe. Such a head had Thersites in Homer much like those moulded Cups among 
Thersites in Homer.  the Graecians which were called 〈◇〉. Eustathius rather thinketh it is called 〈◇〉 quasi 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉 which signifieth flame, because flame endeth in a sharpe Cone or spire. But of the formes a little more heereafter when we will also exhibite the pictures both of the Naturall and of the vnnaturall formes.  
The magnitude of the head is diuers in diuers creatures, yet greater in man then in any 
The magnitude.  other, because his braines are of a bigger bulke. A little head is alwayes faulty, because it argueth both the impotency and weaknesse of the forming faculty and also the want of spermaticall matter. Whence it is that Physiognomers say, that a little head betokeneth 
A little head.  a sudden and rash wit, because in such there is want of spirits, which being pent vp in a narrow roome, are heated aboue measure, and beside haue no space to mooue themselues in.  
A great head, if other things be aequall, that is, if there be an equal proportion of all the 
A great head.  bones is alwayes laudable. Whence Hippocrates in the sixt Book of his Epidemiωn, sayeth that we must esteeme and measure the nature of the bones according to the magnitude of 
Hippocrater expounded.  the head: not that the bones doe arise from the head, but because all the bones should proportionably answere to those to which they are articulated or ioyned. For example, The bones of the arme to the shoulder bones, the hippes to the holy-bone, the holy-bone to the racke-bones, the racks to the marrow of the back, the marrow to the brain, the brayn to the skull.  
But Aristotle in his Problems sayth that a man is the wisest creature, because he hath 
Aristotle expounded.  a little and a short head. We must vnderstand that by paruitie he meaneth the thinnesse of the bones and the flesh, not that the inward cauity of the skull is little in respect of other creatures.  
The head is scituated in the highest place, because say the Platonists it behoued that the 
The scituation.  intelligible faculty of the Soule, as the Queene and Princesse of the rest should sit in an eleuated Tribunall, that the Irascible and Concupiscible faculties as handmaydes should rest at her feete, be seruiceable vnto her and obey her commands. Galen doeth not say in his 8. Booke of the Vse of parts( though Auerrhoes would father it and fasten it vpon him) that the 
Galen. Auerrhoes.  head was made for the eies;( for it was made onely for the braine) but he saith indeede that it was lifted vp into the highest place because of the eyes. For the eies being ordained as 
Why the brain is set highest.  scout-watches, to looke out for vs night and day; it was requisite that their station should bee in the highest place; but because the sight stoode in neede of the softest sinew and the shortest, least his soft body if it had beene any thing lengthned might haue beene in danger of breaking: therefore it was necessary that the braine which is the originall of sinewes should be placed neare the eies: neither doth this scite of the braine auaile the eies onely, but also all the sences, for the smel better apprehendeth an ascending vapour, and the voice is better heard from aboue.  
The Head is diuided into two parts, the one is hayrie the other without haire: the hairy 
The parts of the head and their names.  part is called 〈◇〉, Calua the scalp; that which is without haire is called 〈◇〉, Factes the face. The scalpe from the cauity and roundnes of it is called by Aristotle in the first Booke of his Historie of creatures and the 7. Section, and by Pollux 〈◇〉. This comprehendeth all the vpper part, backward as farre as the haire groweth, forward to the forehead: it hath three partes. The forepart reacheth from the foreheade to the Coronall suture or 
The parts of the scalp.  crowny seame & taketh vp almost halfe of the head; it is called 〈◇〉 which signifieth to water, because it is the softest and the moystest; Sinciput also of the Latines, as if it were summum caput the top of the head, although there be a higher place.  
The backpart of the scalp reacheth from the Lambdall suture to the first rack-bone of 
Hippocrates. Aristotle.  the necke. Hippocrates in his Booke de vulneribus capitis, calleth it 〈◇〉. Aristotle 〈◇〉, because it is fibrous and neruous, for many tendons reach vnto it; beside almost all the nerues arise from about that part, in Latine occiput or occipitium as Plantus hath it; we call it the nowle. The middle part of the scalpe betweene these is gibbous or round called in Greeke 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉 to hide as it were 〈◇〉, because that part of the head is especially couered with haires.  
Galen in the 11. Booke of the Vse of parts and the 14. Chapter, calleth it aruumpilorū the Field of haires: the Latines call it vertex, because in that place the haires runne round 
Galen.  in a ring as waters doe in a whirle-poole. Finally, the sides of the scalp betwixt the eyes, the eares and the necke are called 〈◇〉, 〈◇〉, sayeth Aristotle in his first Booke of his History and the eleauenth Chapter, because the pulse is there very manifest, the Latines cal them Tempora, because their gray haires and sunken flesh bewray the age of a man.  
Againe, the parts of the scalp are contayning and contayned. The contayning parts 
Another diuision of the parts. Containing.  are some of them Common some proper. The Common, are the Cuticle or scarfe-skinne, the true skinne bearing a wood or bush of haire, the fat and the fleshy pannicle. The proper contayning parts are either externall or internall. The externall are two membranes, pericranium and periostium, certain muscles and the bones of the head. The proper inward conteyning partes are the two mothers called Meninges, dura and Pia, which encompasse both the skull and the braine.  
The parts contayned are the braine and the Cerebellum or after-braine, from which ariseth the marrow, which when it is gotten out of the skull is properly called the marrow of 
Contained.  the backe, or pith of the spine, from which doe arise many nerues as well before it issue out of the skull as after. Of these we will first entreat, and then after of the part without hayre or the face in the booke following.   

CHAP. II. Of the common containing parts of the head.  
_THE common contayning parts of the head are fiue; the Haires, the Cuticle, the Skinne, the Fat and the fleshy pannicle; of all which wee haue spoken 
5. common parts.  heretofore at large; yet because in euery one of these there is some difference from the same parts in other places of the body wee must a little here insist vpon them: and first of the haires.  
Albeit therefore the haire is generally more or lesse all ouer the body as before is sayd, yet aboue all places the head is adorned with the greatest aboundance of them. The haires of the head are the longest of the whole body, because sayeth Aristotle in his first Booke de Generatione Animalium and the third Section the braine affoordeth toward their nourishment 
Aristotle.  a large supply of humour or vaporous moysture whether you will, which also is most clammy and glutinous. For the braine is the greatest of all the glandulous bodies. They are also in the head stiffest, because the skinne of the head is the thickest, yet is it rare and full of open pores, so sayeth Galen in his ninth Booke de vsu partium and the first Chapter. 
Galen  In the head Nature hath opened conspicuous and visible waies for the vaporous and smoky or sooty excrements, for the head is set vpon the body as a roofe vppon a warme house, so that vnto it doe arise al the fuliginous & vaporous excrements from the subiected parts 
Pollux. Eschylus.  The haires of the head are called in Latine Capilli, as it were Capitis pili, by Pollux and Eschylus 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉 to cutte. In men they are called 〈◇〉 Caesaries, because they are often mowed; in women 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉 to dresse with diligence, from whence haply wee haue out worde to combe, or rather from the Latin word Coma, whose signification is all one with the former. In woemen they are diuided by a line, which separation the Greeks call 〈◇〉 the Latins discrimen and aequamentum, in English we cal it the shed of the haire.  
The skinne of a man although in comparison of other creatures it is most thinne; yet if 
The skin of the head.  you compare the skinne of the head with that of the chest or the lower belly it is very thick as also is the cuticle. And therefore Columbus insulteth ouer Aristotle for saying that the skinne of the head is very thinne .. The place is in the 3. Booke of his history and the eleauenth Section, where hee doth not say that the skinne of the head is very thinne,( for in the 
Aristotle redeemed.  fift Booke de Generatione Animalium and the third Chapter, hee calleth the skinne of the head 〈◇〉, that is, very crasse and thicke) but he saith and that truely that the skinne of a man in respect of his magnitude is very thin.  
Well, the skinne of the head as it is the thickest, so sayeth Galen in his second Booke de Temperamentis and the 5. Chapter, it is so much drier then the skinne of the rest of the body by how much it is harder; yet is it rare sayeth Aristotle in the place next aboue named, that the sooty excrements might be auoided for the generation of haire as before is sayed. It hath vesselles running in it, Veines from the outward braunch of the externall iugulars, 
The veines.  which creeping on both sides are vnited in the forehead, and are sometimes opned in grieuous paines of the head, and these veines running vnder the drie and hairie skinne carrie bloud vnto it for nourishment. Arteries it hath also from the outward branch of the Carotides 
Arteries.  deriued to the rootes of the eares and to the temples especially, which bring Vitall spirits vpward from the Heart.  
It receyueth also certaine endes of Nerues reflected vpward from the first and seconde coniugation of the Neck to giue it sense. I saide ends of Nerues, for so saith Gal. in his sixeteenth booke de vsu partium and the 2. Chapter. The skinne hath not a proper & definite 
An elegant place in Galen  Nerue belonging vnto it as euery Muscle hath his Nerue disseminated in or about his body but there attaine vnto it certaine Fibres from the subiected parts which connect or knit it to those parts, and also affoord sense vnto it. The sense of this skinne of the heade is not fine and exquisite as in the Chest or the Lower belly. Aristotle in the third booke of his Historie and the eleuenth Chapter saith, it hath no sense at al and rendreth a reason because it eleaueth to the bone without any interposition of Flesh. But Galen disprooueth this opinion in his sixeteenth Booke of the Vse of Parts and the second Chapter. It may bee Aristotle meant the Cuticle and not the true skinne. Or excuse him as Archangelus dooth, 
Archangelus. Why the skin of the head hath but a dul sence.  who sayth that he meant it of the true skin, but as it is a similar part distinct from a Nerue, for indeede onely the Nerues haue sense. Bauhine and Laurentius giue another reason why the skinne of the Heade is lesse sensible, because( say they) in the Heade the skinne adhereth but to a Musculous or fleshie Membrane, whereas in other parts it cleaueth to a Neruous Membrane.  
The vse of the skin of the head is to compasse the scull and be a couering vnto it. 
The vse.   
There is no fatte at all saith Platerus vnder the skinne of the Heade, and hee giueth his Reasons, first because there is no vse of it, for the small vesselles vnder the hairie Scalpe 
The fat.  are placed in sufficient safetie, there needed therefore no Fatte at all to secure them. Secondly, because there had beene an abuse of it. For in the infant the Head is proportionably 
Platerus.  to the other partes exceeding great, but if it had any fatte about it, it woulde haue bene a great remora or impediment in the birth. But Vesalius in his seuenth Booke & the 18. chapter saith, that a man may easily with his hands diuide the skin with the fat and the 
Vesalius. Columbus  fleshy Membrane from the scull. And Columbus saith that beside the Yard and the Codde there is no part but a man may finde fat in it. The trueth is, that in the fore-head there is none at all, for because in the fore-head the skin is moued at our disposition it would haue beene a hinderance to his motion, for that in this place the skin is vnited to a Musculous substance, but in and about the Occipitium or nowle of the heade there is some fat to bee found.  
The fleshy Membrane spred vnder the skin cleaueth close vnto it in the foreheade, because 
The Fleshie Membrane. Fallopius.  there is no fat to separate them, and there this Membrane is very thick. It also sometimes runneth like a Tendon from the Muscles of the forhead to the Muscles of the nowle and the eares, insomuch that Fallopius warneth vs to take heede least we mistake it for the Pericranium, and the Pericranium for the Periostium. And thus much for the common inuesting parts of the Head, how they differ from the same parts in other places of the Bodie.   

CHAP. III. Of the Pericranium Periostium, and the Muscles about the Head.  
_THE Membrane which lyeth next vnder the fleshye Pannicle is called 〈◇〉, because it compasseth the whole scull on the out-side. The Arabians 
Pericranium.  call it Almocat and Almocatin. Laurentius woulde haue it called Periostium. And Fallopius in his Institutions and in his Booke de Ossibus 
Fallopius.  and the 19. chapter saith, that this Membrane is common to all the Bones about the scull & called Pericranium, but by his common name Periostion. It is scituated betwixt the fleshy Panicle and the Periostium, to both which it is tied by certaine Fibres. Soft it is and thin, but thight and solid saith Laurentius and of exquisite sense. It ariseth from certaine processes of the Dura Meninx like thin Membranes or rather Ligaments( for they haue the vse of Ligaments) passing through the sutures or seames of the scull. For euerie 
His originall.  one of these Ligaments are extended ouer that part of the scull against which they yssued, and going on meete one with another and are exactly vnited so that all of them put together make a common membrane. This membrane dooth not onely encompasse the scull, but also the temporall Muscles although the Anatomistes commonly take it in that place 
Progresse.  for the coate of the temporal Muscles or for a Tendon of them, making them to haue two Tendons, one outward another inward, whereas indeede saith Fallopius in his obseruations it is nothing else but a part of the Pericranium. Yet doth it not clothe these Muscles so farre as to their insertion, but onely as farre as the Iugall bones and that for their safegarde; and the better it may doe them this good turne because in that place it is thicke and harde; it parteth therefore from these Muscles neere vnto the Iugall bone as is said, where between the Membrane and the Muscles on either side there is a little what of fat to be found.  
The vse of this Pericranium is to binde and rowle the scull on the outside round about as it were with a rowle or swathing band whereby his bones are firmed; it knitteth also the 
His vse.  Dura Meninx to the scul, and hangeth it so that it cannot fall or presse vpon the Braine. Platerus addeth that it tyeth vnto itself the skin of the head and that very strongly, because there is no flesh nor fat betweene them, and that is the reason that onely the skinne of the head when it is wounded needeth not to besewed together, because the lippes of it doe 
Platerus.  not nor cannot start farre asunder being held together by this membrane.  
Next vnder this lyeth the Periostium, which saith Vesalius you may seuer from the Pericranium with the point of a knife, although Fallopius thinke they are both one, and Laurentius 
Periostium. Falopius. Bauhine.  conceyueth that Anatomists are deceiued by the thicknesse of the Pericranium, which heere was necessary because it couereth a noble bone. But Bauhine whom we wil now follow describeth them seuerally. The Periostium therefore is a Neruous Membrane and therfore very strong and thin. It cleaueth very strongly to the scul as also it doth to the rest of the bones; the reason is, because the bones being very hard substances would not bee 
How the Bones ●ecle.  altred or affected with any obiect, & so want the benefit of the Tactile quality, vnlesse they had beene couered with this Membrane of exquisite sense, by whose assistance now they are not destitute of feeling; whence by the Grecians it is called 〈◇〉, that is, Circumossalis about the bone; for it compasseth all the bones excepting the teeth onely saith Varolius, but we may also except the inside of the scull and the articulations or ioyntes of the bones; for if it had beene extended ouer the ioynts we could not haue mooued them without paine. Some, saith Columbus, being ignorant of this Membrane haue maintayned that the bones themselues are not destitute of sense.  
The Muscles about the head are very many, some arise from the lower part of the scull, 
The Muscles about the head.  others are disposed vnder the skinne of the fore-head moouing it for the behoofe of the eyes, whereupon the skinne of the fore-head is rugous, full of transuerse and right lines; some also there are couched vnder the hairy scalpe, sometimes( for they are not perpetuall) by which the whole scalpe and the eares in some men are mooued; Finally, others belong to the neather iaw( for the vpper is immooueable) of all which we shall particularlie entreate in our Booke of Muscles.   

CHAP. IIII. Of the diuers Figures of the Head, the Sutures and substance of the Scull.  
_BEfore we come to entreate of the Bones and Sutures of the scull, which we purpose in this place but lightly to handle, it shal not be amisse to adde a little to that which hath beene already saide concerning the whole figure and fashion of the head, because if the figure be changed then must the Sutures or seames needs alter both in scituation and in number, as Hippocrates saith in his booke de Ossibus, and after him Galen in diuerse places, although I knowe that there are some great Anatomists who are not of this minde.  

Table 1. sheweth the Figures of the Head. Fig. 1. exhibiteth the Natural and blamelesse conformation of the Heade on oneside, the other foure Figures are all depraued & faulty.  
TABVLA I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. IIII.  
FIG. V.   
The Figure therefore of the 
A double Figure of the head. Natural.  head is double, Naturall and Good, or else depraued. The Naturall Figure[ Ta. 1. fig. 1] is that which is like a long sphere, on both sides nere the temples by little and little depressed and made narrower, but at each end shooting out; yet so that the backe parte is more capacious, that so it might stand vppon the Necke equally balanced. For because the fore-part though it be not so much compassed nor so much embowed, yet by reason of the bones especiallie of the vpper iawe is some-what heauy, it was needfull that the back-part should be made as heauy by the capacity therof.  
The depraued figure is what soeuer varieth from the former description. I dare not 
Depraued 5.  cal it in opposition to the former Vnnatural, because some very good Anatomistes haue interposed their iudgementes & determined that all figures of the head are Natural, albeit they vary somewhat from the exact forme: yet Archangelus calleth these depraued figures Praeter Naturam.  
This depraued figure Galen in his ninth booke De vsu partium and the 17. chapter calleth by a Generall name 〈◇〉, for in that place he reckoneth the round and globy head as a kinde of that 〈◇〉. There be three sortes of them. The first 
Table 2. sheweth some bones and sutures of the head.  
Figure 6. sheweth the left side.  
Figure 7. sheweth the right side, the yoke-bone being remoued.  
TABVLA. II.  
FIG. VI.  
VII.  

AB, The Coronall suture.  
CD, The Lambdal suture.  
E, the Sagittall suture.  
FGHΩ, the fourth proper circular suture.  
IK, The bones of the Sinciput.  
L, the forehead bone.  
M, the occiput or nowle bone.  
N, the bones of the Temples,  
O, the wedge bone.  
Φ 7, the fourth hole of the wedge bone in the orb of the eie.  
P 7, Foure processes of the wedge bone marked with 2, 3, 4, 5.  
QQQ the first bone of the vpper iaw,  
R, the prominence of this bone toward the temples,  
SSS, A semicircle in the skull, from whence the temporal muscle doth arise.  
TT, the fourth bone of the vpper iaw.  
VX, the yoke bone.  
Y, A suture in the yoke bone which some haue accounted for the fourth common suture.  
Ω 6, aa 7, the forepart of the fourth proper suture.  
b, the fift proper suture of the skull running obliquely from H to g.  
c 7, A scale growing sometimes to the wedgebone  
d 7, A line distinguishing this scale from the bone  
ee, the lower part of the second common suture at the sides of the pallat,  
f 7, the first suture of the vpper iaw in the cheeke.  
ggg, the first common suture in the side of the eiebrow,  
h 7, A cauity of the temples made for the articulation of the lawer iaw,  
i, the appendix of the temples called Styloides,  
k, the mammillary processe of the temples,  
l 7, the heads of the occiput or nowle bone where it is articulated with the first rack-bone,  
m 6, A suture betwixt the bone of the iaw and the forehead,  
n 6, The third bone of the vpper iaw.  [ Table 1. figure 2.] wherein the eminence or out bearing before, shooting from the vpper part of the forehead is wanting, although the backward eminence in the nowle bee faire to be seene.  
The second is quite contrary vnto this, in which[ Table 1. figure 3.] the backward outshoote in the nowle is wanting but not that in the forehead.  
The third[ Table 1. figure 4.] in which both the eminences or out-shoots are wanting. There may bee another added to these three which many esteeme but onely imaginarie, and that is when the skull swelleth more in compasse toward each eare then it doth either forward or backward. But Galen in the place next aboue named saith and prooueth, or atleast seemeth so to doe, that this is a meere speculatiue thing, but cannot be indeed in Nature, 
Difference of Anatomists.  for then sayth he the fabricke of the braine must needes be ouerthrowne, yea it would proue a Monster and cannot liue. Vesalius is of opinion that Hippocrates maketh mention of this forme, and beside telleth a story of an Innocent as wee tearme them or foole in Venice, whose braine was of that shape; Falopius gain-sayes him, and auoucheth that Hippocrates made mention onely of three sortes, and that he mistooke the figure of the childs head at Venice of the same minde also is Eustachius.  
There may be a fift figure added out of Hippocrates, and that is an acuminated or sharp figure, wherein the left figure is but a little altered. This figure, sayeth hee in his booke 
A fift Figure.  de aëre aquiset locis, and the 35. Text, was first made by Art: for the Midwiues vsed to presse 
Table 3. Fig. 8. Sheweth the fore-side of the Skull, as also the bones, the holes or perforations and the Sutures both of the Skull and of the vpper Iaw.  
TABVLA. III.  
FIG. IIX.  
IX  

A A. A hole in the fore-head bone.  
B B. The hole of the fourth bone of the vpper Iaw, which is in the Cheeke.  
C. A hole of the second bone of the vpper Iaw in the inward angle of the eye.  
D D. The fourth hole of the wedge-bone in the outward side of the eye.  
E E. the first hole of the same bone,  
G. the second hole.  
H, the third hole of the same bone in the seate of the eye.  
I I. the forehead bone.  
K, the left bone of the Sinciput.  
L, the left bone of the temples.  
M. the mammillary processe of the temples.  
N N, the wedge-bone.  
Γ Γ Γ, the first bone of the vpper Iaw.  
Δ, the second bone of the vpper Iaw,  
θ, the third.  
ΛΛ, the fourth in the eft eye.  
ξξ, the fift bone of the vpper Iaw in the nose.  
O O. the bridge or partition of the Nostrils.  
P, the Suture in the yoke-bone.  
Q, A part of the second common Suture from the first N, to S.  
R S T V Y X Z. the third common Suture drawne obliquely through the Orbe of the eye.  
a D, the first externall Suture of the vpper Iaw in the Cheeke, and from thence through the eye to Q.  
b the third externall Suture of the vpper Iaw from b to c.  
c, the second externall Suture of the vpper Iaw in the eye.  
e, the fourth externall Suture reaching to ξ.  
f, the sixt externall Suture of the vpper Iaw in the middle of the Nose.  
g, the second internall Suture in the Nose.  
h, the seauenth externall Suture of the vpper Iaw.  
i, A bastard Suture of the vpper Iaw at the eye,  
Fig. 9, Sheweth the Basis of the Skull, and many holes and Sutures therein.  
A, the end of the coronall Suture. C C, the lower additaments of the Lambdall Suture on either side. D, the fourth hole of the wedge-bone in the outside of the Orbe of the eye. F, A part of the fourth proper Suture. H, the great hole of the occipitium made for the Spinall marrow. K, A part of the bone called Sinciput. L L, A part of the forehead bone. M M, the lower part of the nowle bone. N, A rift or cleft of the wedge bone which is common to the bones of the temple, drawne on the left side from ● to ●. O O, the wedge bone. P, His foure processes marked 2, 3, 4, 5, A R, the sixt hole of the wedge bone at the bottome of the throte, A, the seauenth hole of the same at R. Γ, the first bone of the vpper Iaw. S Λ, the fourth. π, the sixt, where the cutter betwixt c and π, hath not well expressed the Suture. T T, the bones of the temples on either side. V, the fourth hole of the bones of the temple made for the hearing. σ, the bridge or partition of the nose. X, the first hole of the temple bone in his Basis. Y Y, the yoke bone. a a, the anterior part of the fourth proper Suture. b, the lower part of the fift proper oblique Suture, c, the lower part of the bridge of the nose which is like a coulter where 3 is placed, d the vpper part of the second common Suture. f, the first externall Suture of the vpper Iaw in the Cheeke. g, the first common Suture in the side of the brow. h, the cauity of the temples whereto the lower Iaw is articulated, ii, the appendix of the temple bone called Styloides. k the mammillary processe of the same temples. l l, the knub of the nowle bone, m m, the 6 proper oblique Suture of the Skull, n n, the 7 trāsuerse Suture, o p, A line beginning from the last named Suture which climeth by the temples, & is more like a diuision then a line. q q, the lower part of the 2 commō Suture of the Skull in the hollownes of the nose, r, the line of the hole of hearing, s ae, the stony bones, t v, the 5 externall transuerse Suture of the vpper Iaw, X y, the 7 externall right Suture, α β, A bastard Suture of the vpper Iaw in the Pallate, γ, the hole of the eare, ♌, the 5 hole of the temples neere vnto ●● processe where Y should be blotted out, B, A hole of the nowle bone which is not alwayes found, E, the 2 hole of the nowle bone made for the 6 coniugation of the sinewes & for the iugular veine & artery, H, the 1 hole of the occipitium or nowle bone for the passage of the marrow, ●, the 3 hole for the outgate of the 7 coniugation, χ Λ, two holes of the nose, μ ν, two holes in the Pallate which is accounted the 4 of the wedge-bone, ξ, Fiue holes in the basis of the wedge-bone, π, the hole of the 4 bone of the vpper Iaw in the Pallate. Note that M, V, at the right side pointeth out the cauity which the yoke bone maketh for the passage of the temporall muscles.   the heads of Infants lightly on euery side to make them rise somewhat toward the crowne, and after so rowled it with bands till that forme was confirmed; the reason was saith Hippa. because the people had an opinion that it was a signe of a generous & noble disposition to be so featured; afterward Nature imitated Art and children were so borne; Quintilian in his second Booke and 17. Chapter, saith that Pericles had an accuminated head and somewhat long, and his words came thronging and thundring out, not peaceably as other mens; so we see, saith Bauhine, that most of the French and low Countrie men haue long heades, because they vse to lie with their heades vppon their Temples or on one side: whereas the Germanes haue most what round heads, because from their very infancie they lye vppon their backes.  
Finally, Vesalius maketh mention of a begger of Bononia whose head was foure square, 
A sixt.  sauing that it was a little broader then long. And myself haue seene in Lincolneshire a wondrous small head made very like the ridge of a house neere vnto sharpnes al the length 
A seauenth seene in Lincolnshire.  through, that boy was a foole and a wondrous great eater; and so much of the figures and fashions of the head.  
The skull or cranium is all that bone which compasseth the braine and after-brain like 
The skul.  a helmet, which is not made of one bone, least this brain-pan by one wound should be broken throughout, as we see a pot will be, the rift running quite through from the top to the bottome. It is made therefore of many bones ioyned together with sutures or seames like the teeth of two sawes set one against the other[ tab. 1. and tab. 5. fig. 13.]  
These sutures are of two sortes, proper and common. The proper sutures are either 
Proper sutures. True.  true or false, the true sutures are three, two of them transuerse, the third runneth along the head.  
The first is that which is in the forepart called Coronalis[ Table 2. AB table 4. figure 11. nn] and distinguisheth the forehead bone from the bone of the sinciput[ Table 2. L from I to K.]  
The second suture is in the nowle[ table 2. CD table 4. PP] and is called I ambdoides separating the bone of the nowle or occiput[ table 2. M from I to K] from the bone of the synciput: this suture is sometimes double, containing in the middle a bone with three corners called Triangulareos.  
The third suture is in the middest betwixt these two[ table 2. figure 1. P table 9. fig. 2. CO] and is called sagittalis, it is a straight seame and diuideth the bones of the synciput[ tab. 2. fig. 6. IK] descending sometimes euen to the nose.  
The false sutures are not so conspicuous as the former; some reckon foure.  
The first are two, on either side one aboue the eares[ table 2. FGH] aboue the bones called 
False sutures.  petrosa or the rockie bones. They are not properly called sutures, but are rather scalie aglutinations. The second two belong to the bone called sphenoides or the wedge bone, on the forepart and the hindpart.  
The common sutures are those that belong as well to the skull as to the vpper iaw, and they are fiue. The first is in the outside of the brow.[ table 2. figure 6. and 7. gg table 3. fig 8. R figure 9. g.] 
Common sutures fiue.  The second is double, the vppermost is in the outside of the eye & the hollow part of the Temples[ table 3. figure 8. from s to Q at figure 9. at d table 2. figure 7. at d] The lowerwost is at the sides of the pallat.[ table 3. figure 9. from d to c] The third is in the inner and laterall part of the eye.[ table 3. figure 8. RSTVXYZ]  
The fourth runneth through the middest of the iugall bone[ table 2. figure 6. T table 3. fig. 9. Y fig. 8. P.]  
The fift is in the bredth of the nose and is common[ tab. 3. fig. 9. vnder 〈◇〉.] to the sphenoides, or wedgebone and the bridge of the nose.  
The vse of the sutures is to giue way to the thicke and sooty excrements; againe to tye the dura meninx to the skull, and to giue way for the filaments of the same which make the 
The vses of the sutures.  Pericranium and Periostium as is sayed; and finally to giue ingate and outgate to the vesselles.  
Beside the sutures, the skull itself is crasse; rare and full of holes.  
Crasse or thicke for the security of that therein contained.  

The substāce of the skul.  Rare that it might not be too great a burthen; and full of holes[ tab. 4. fig. 11. 12. L tab. 7 fig. 14. C] to giue way to the transpiration of sooty excrements.  
It is also made of a double table as we call it, or of two leaues[ table 5. fig. 14. ao] which may best be distinguished about the place of the browes, the outward of these may bee caten 
His tables.  away by the French disease, the inner remaining sound.  
Betwixt these Tables are conueyed Veines and Arteries for the life and nourishment 
Meditullium,  of the scull, among which vessels there is a kinde of medullous or marrowy substance[ tab 5. fig. 14. betwixt a and o c] which some call Meditullium.  
These Tables are oftentimes perforated in many places but without order, thorough 
His perforations.  which perforations small vesselles passe into the inward Cauity euen to the dura Meninx.  
On the outside the scull is smooth, but if you turne the bottome vpwarde it is full of inaequalities and protuberations. Of all which we shall entreate more at large in our book of bones.   

CHAP. V. Of the bones proper to the Scull.  
_THE bones of the head are of two sorts, some are proper to the scul alone, some belong to the vpper iaw also. The bones proper to the scul alone are six in number 
The proper bones of the Head. ( for wee goe not now precisely to worke to account the small bones of the eares) those of the Iaw two.  

Tab. 4. Fig. 10. sheweth the inner and lower part of the scul, together with many holes especially those of the Wedge-bone. Figure 11. sheweth the vpper part of the inside of the scull cut from the Lower.  
TABLVA IIII ..  
FIG. X.  
FIG. XI.  

A, The Wedge-bone. B, his first hole.  
C, the corner of that hole.  
D, the anterior transuerse cauities of this bone in which the Optick nerues are hidden.  
E, The latter of these fouresquare wherein the pituitarie Glandule lyeth.  
F, The forward passage through which the Flegme gathered together is deriued.  
G, The second hole of the Wedge-bone in the vpper part of the orbe of the eye.  
H, the third in the bottome of the eye.  
I, the small holes of the spongy bone.  
K, A cleft of this bone through which the dura meninx is tied. L 10, 11, the cauity of the for-head bone betwixt the two Tables.  
M, the Wedge-bone in this place hath oftentimes a perforation.  
N, A cleft or slit common to the Wedge-bone & bones of the Temples.  
O, the last of the Wedge-bone. Q, the sixt hole.  
R, the 7 hole in the chops at the bottome of the throate.  
SS, 10, 11 and T, Certain inscriptions or furrowes in the scull, impressed by the veines of the Dura Meninx.  
V, the eight hole of the Wedgebone at the nostrils.  
X. The fift hole of the same bone. Y, 11, the Fontanell  
ZZ A cauity made for the forwarde extuberarions of the braine.  
a The sixt hole of the Temple-bones, which is the fourth for the hearing.  
b, The second hole of the nowle-bone.  
c The third, d the first, e the second, f, g, the two Posterior cauities of the scull.  
h, 10, 11, the extreamity or ende of the third and middle cauity.  
ii, 11, A Bosome of this passage running thorough the length of the scull,  
i, 10, A bosome common with the nowle bone, m, 11, Certaine small holes in the inside of the bone of the synciput. n, n, 11, the Coronal suture.  
oo, 11, The sagittall suture. pp, 11. the Lambdal suture.  
qq, 10, 11. The 4 suture called Squami-formis.  
rr, The forepart of this suture compassing some part of the wedge-bone.  
s, A part of the Lambdall suture, which some call the 6. proper suture.  
t, A line that ioyneth the ends of the Lambdal suture, called by others the 7 proper transuerse oblique suture.  
u, u. The eight proper transuerse suture.  
x, The bridge or partition of the spongie bone.  
αα. The processes of the Wedge-bone called Clinoides.    
The first bone of the scull is called Os Frontis the fore-head bone:[ Tab. 2, fig. 6, 7. L Tab. 3, fig. 8. I I] it is circumscribed with the Coronall suture,[ Tab. 2, fig. 6, C. fig. 7, A B] and that 
The forhead bone.  which is common to the head and the vpper iaw.[ Tab. 3, fig. 8, R. Table 2. fig. 6, and 7, g] In this bone on either side the browes[ Tab, 4. fig. 10 & 11 at L] there is a notable bosome or hollownesse, wherein is conteyned a soft and medullous matter, or haply it was framed to contein aer for the sense of smelling. It hath two processes, the one reaching toward the lesse, the other toward the greater angle of the eie, & make the vpper part of the orb therof. The second and third are called Ossa syncipitis,[ Tab. 2 fig. 6, I K] they are full of dens or small holes on the inside with many inscriptions like the path of a snaile or Emmet[ Tab. 4 fig 10 and 11 SS] 
the side bones Ossa syncipitis.  where the vessels runne. They are fouresquare, of substance in respect of the rest very thin and weak. They are limited backward by the Lambdal Suture[ Tab. 2. fig 6, D C] forward by the Coronall[ Tab. 2, fig. 6, A B] and belowe by the scalie Sutures of the Temple-bones.[ Tab. 2. fig. 6, G F H]  
The fourth is called Os Occipitis the Noddle or Nowle-bone.[ Tab. 2, fig. 6 and 7 M. Tab. 3, fig. 9 MH] It is ioyned aboue to the bones of the synciput[ Tab. 2, fig. 6. I K] by the Lābdall suture;[ Tab. 2, figure 6, C D] at the sides to the Temple-bones,[ Tab. 3, fig. 9, in C] in the middest 
The Noddle bone.  to the wedge bone.[ Tab. 3, figure 9, O O] The figure of it is almost rounde, the substance is very thicke and hard, yet but thin and weake at the side of the great hole made in it,[ Tab. 3, fig. 9. ● Tab. 4. fig. 10, d] through which the marrow entreth into the rack-bones of the necke. It hath nine bosomes or hollownesses. On the inside seauen, on the outside two. Fiues holes or outlets; and lastly two processes or heads[ Tab. 3, fig. 9, ll] broad, couered with a Cartilage or Gristle which are inserted into the cauities of the first rack-bone of the neck vpon which the head is mooued. Backward it hath a small processe like a tooth which is receiued by the first racke-bone.  
The fift and the sixt are called Ossa temporum the Temple bones, or Lapidosa the stonie bones.[ Tab. 2. fig. 6. and 7 N. Tab. 3 fig. 9 TT] They are ioyned aboue by the scaly Suture 
The temple bones. [ Tab. 2, fig. 6, 7 F G H] to the bones of synciput, below to the additament of the nowle-bone by the sixt suture,[ Tab. 3. fig. 9 m n] to the first bone of the vpper iawe by the fourth common suture.[ Tab. 2, fig. 6 Y] Each of these hath foure processes. The first is called Mamillaris.[ Tab. 2, fig. 6 and 7 K. Tab. 5. fig. 8 H. Fig. 9, R] The second is called Styloides. The third Labyrinthus, conteyning the small bones of the eare. The fourth is a parte of the Iugall bone.   

CHAP. VI. Of the two Bones common to the Scul and the vpper Iaw.  
_THE two Bones which belong as well to the vpper iaw as to the scull, are called Sphenoides or the Wedge-bone, and Spongoides the spongy bone called 
The Wedge-bone.  also Cribriforme or Ethmoides. The first is set like a Wedge( whence it hath his name) betwixte the bones before described and the bones of the Vpper iaw, so that it toucheth them almost all. In infants it is made of foure bones but after we are growne it also groweth into one entire bone. And because it hath many processes and inequalities on both sides, a man can compare it to no one thing, wherfore the Ancients called it 〈◇〉, as if we should say, seare-shaped.  
The substance of it is fast and strong, but the inside somewhat spongie. It hath many processes, two on the inside called 〈◇〉, two called 〈◇〉 like Bats winges, and foure small ones which make the saddle or seate.  
It hath also many hollownesses or bosomes, some outward in the wingie processes, others inward, in which[ Tab. 4. fig. 10, at C] the Opticke Nerues are ioyned, then the saddle itselfe wherein is the Glandule placed[ Tab. 4. fig. 10, ●] which receiueth the Phlegme, from whence afterward it floweth into the Palate and the Nosethrils.  
It hath also many cauities and ten holes, fiue in the Orbe of the eye, and other fiue in the basis of the Scull. The exact description of all which you must looke for in the booke of Bones.  
The second bone common to the Skull and the vpper Iaw is called Spongoides or Ethmoides Cribre forme; because it is full of holes as a Siue or searce, but it may better be called 
The Spongie bone.  the spongy bone, because the holes are not for the most part direct, but crooked and oblique like the pores of a sponge.  
It is placed in the forepart of the Skull without the meninges and occupieth almost all 
Tab. 5. Fig. 12. sheweth the inside of the wedg and spongy bones. Fig. 13. Two portions of the bones of the Sinciput a little disioyned the one from the other, that the frame of the Suturemight be better perceiued. Fig. 14. sheweth a part of the bone sinciput diuided with a saw from the rest of the same bone, the better to exhibite the substance of the Scull.  
TABVLA. V.  
FIG XII  

A A. The spongy or the eight bone.  
B. A bridge or partition diuiding the Organes of smelling.  
C. D. Two cauities of the wedge bone.  
E. A partition distinguishing them asunder.  
F. A hole of one of the Cauities ending in the Nostrils.  
G. A right Cauity scituated vnder the two former.  
H H. Processes like to Bats wings.  
a b 14. The vpper or exterior Table a, the interiour o.  
c 14. A cauernouse or spongy substance in the middest betwixt them called Diplois.   
XIII  
XIV.  the cauity of the nose; it is ioyned to the middest of the bottome of the forehead bone,[ Tab. 4, fig. 10, ●] and is distinguished from the wedge bone by the a bastard seame called a Harmony, which is accounted for the ninth Suture.[ Tab. 4, fig. 10, aboue u] There are foure parts of this bone. The first is an vpper processe in themidst, long & triangular like a Cocks combe. The second is on both sides that processe[ Tab. 4, fig. 10 K I. Tab. 5, fig. 12, AA] which is couered with a thinne Membrane likewise perforated. The third is a lower processe opposite to the vpper which diuideth the vpper part of the nose into two parts. The fourth part is the substance itselfe of the sponge from whence it hath his name. The vse of it is to admit aer for the generation of Animall spirits, to admit vapours to the sense of smelling; 
The vse of it.  but the pores of it are not direct but oblique and crooked least the cold ayer should too directly ascend vnto the braine to refrigerate or coole it ouermuch.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Meninges or Membranes of the Braine.  
_AS the lower belly and parts therein are compassed with the Peritonaeum, & the middle with the Pleura, so there are two membranes stretched ouer the cauity of the Skull, which Galen and those who haue written since his time haue 
Galen. Hippocrates.  called 〈◇〉. And indeed Galen had the name out of Hippocrates his book de Carnibus, who there taketh it in a larger signification, which giueth that name to all parts that are hollow, as the veines, the stomacke the guts and such like. Erasistratus called these membranes 〈◇〉, Pollux 〈◇〉. The Arabians called them 
Their names.  Matres the Mothers, and so now they are commonly tearmed. Macrobius calleth them Omenta or kelles. The one of these which is the outward is thicke and called dura mater the hard Mother, the other inward and thinne called Pia mater, the deere or neere Mother, because it immediately incompasseth and imbraceth the substance of the braine.  

The dura mater.  The thicke meninx Hippocrates( in his booke de locis in homine) calleth 〈◇〉. Galen 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉, that is, the thicke hard or skinny meninx, commonly the dura mater, because of all the membranes of the body it is the thickest, hardest and strongest, and particularly in relation to the thinner meninx.  
In figure and magnitude this membrane answereth the bones of the Scull, because it incompasseth all his bosomes and cauities. It is greater then the Pia mater or thinner meninx 
His figure & magnitude.  least if it lay to close vnto it the vessels that run therin should be compressed, which if they be distended and swell too full of bloud, do cause the head-ach yea oftentimes the Apoplexie; whence it is that many which dye of the Apoplexie, auoid bloud out of their nose and their mouth.  
It is tyed very strongly to the Basis of the Scull and to his sharper processes, and to the orbes or circles of his holes,[ Tab. 11, fig. 7, ZZ] whereupon some haue thought that from 
Connexion.  this Basis it tooke his originall, because seede is the matter out of which this, as all other membranes are made. Notwithstanding it cleaueth not so close to that bosome of the wedge bone[ Tab. 4, fig. 10 ●,] where the Glandule of phelgme is scituated,[ Tab. 7, fig. 15, A] nor yet at the sides thereof where those bosomes are which giue way to the branches of the sleepy arteries called Carotides. It incompasseth all the inside of the Scull, from which as also from the braine it hangeth in the like distance as doth the Pericardiū or purse from the heart, least the eleuation and depression, or the Systole and Dyastole of the braine should be hindred. I knowfull well( that we may say something of it by the way) that Platerus thought that the braine itself did not moue, but that it was onely the pulsation 
Whether the braine mooue or no. Platerus. Columbus. Archangelus. Laurentius.  of the third ventricle much like the beating of an artery, which we feele in the Sculs of tender Infants before their bones are ioyned close together. But Columbus and Archangelus doe demonstrate a manifest Systole and Dyastole of the braine from their experience in those whose Sculs are wounded and the bones taken out with a Trepan. And Laurentius thinketh him not worthy the name of an Anatomist that will call it into question.  
It is tied very strongly to the Scull by thinne and membranous fibres( which Galen in the 8. booke of the vse of parts and the 9. chapter calleth Ligaments) arising there-from, which passe through the Sutures of the Scull, especially about the Lambdal Suture, euery one of which Ligaments or fibrous ties chuse you whether, are extended ouer the part of the Scull where against they issue, and running along are exactly vnited together & make that common Membrane which we saide before was called Pericranium, vnder which there is yet another farre finer and thinner called Periostium; from which two membranes all the other membranes of the body haue their origninall, that in this respect this Dura meninx may well be called Mater, as being the Mother of all other membranes. It is also knit to the Pia mater and to the braine by the mediation of vessels.[ Tab. 6, fig. 2, DD GG. Tab. 11, fig. 8, KK.]  
This membrane is double as are the rest of the membranes of the body; and Columbus makes two membranes of it, one inward another outward, and boasts himselfe of the finding 
It is double but not two.  of them: whom Laurentius closely taxeth confessing that it is indeed double, but they are not therfore to be called two membranes; so saith he, we do not say that there are two rims of the belly, and yet we know that the Peritonaeum is double. Well, it hath a double superficies or surface; the outward like abroad Tendon is stretched ouer the other and groweth vnto it; hard it is and rough, partly by reason of the fibres which if you take away a piece of the Scull you may perceiue a little to swell vp like a small line,[ Tab. 6, fig. 1, GGG, HH, II,] partly because in the crowne of the head where the sagitall Suture meeteth with the Coronall, there are certaine smal knubs or knots, which in the Scull haue their proper bosomes wherein they conch and to which they grow very fast.[ Tab. 6, fig. 1, K.]  
The inner superficies or surface is bright, smooth, slippery and much whiter without any such knubby or kernelly substance or fat( what you will call it) at all; moistened also with a watery humor,[ tab. 6, fig. 2, HH] whereas the vtter is dryer. On the inside also it is of exquisite sense, but on the outside not so that it might better endure the contaction of the 
Tab. 6. Fig. 1. sheweth a head, the Scull being taken away that so the braine may appeare as it is couered with the Dura meninx.  
Fig. 2. sheweth the Braine cleared from the Dura meninx, together with the third Sinus thereof, diuided through the middest, which is shewed couered with the Pia mater.  
TABVLA. VI.  
FIG. I.  

A A. B B. The Dura meninx or thicke membrane.  
C C C. The third Sinus of this membrane.  
D D, The course of the veines as they run through the membrane, or the second veine of the braine.  
E E, The fift veine of the braine.  
F F F, Certaine small veines which perforate the Scull and reach to the pericranium or Scull-skin.  
G G G. Fibres of the Dura meninx passing through the Coronall Suture which fibres make the Pericranium.  
H H. Fibres passing through the sagittall Suture.  
I I. Others passing through the Lambdall Suture.  
K. A knub which vseth to grow to the Sinus of the Scull.  
L. A cauity in the forehead bone.  
M. The Scull.  
N. The Pericranium or Scull-skinne.   
II.  
Fig. 2.  

A A A. A part of the Crasse meninx diuiding the braine.  
B B. the third Sinus of the same Crasse membrane opened.  
C C. the beginnings of the vessels out of the third Sinus into the Pia mater.  
D D D. the propagation or branching of these vessels.  
E E E. the Pia mater or thin meninx immediately compassing the braine.  
F F F. Certaine vessels running through the conuolutions or breaches of the braine.  
G G G. Certaine branches of veines running through the sides of the dura meninx.  
H H H. The thicke membrane reflected downeward.   bone without offence.  
It hath many holes or passages in it, first of all( saith Galen in his 9. booke of the vse of 
His holes or passages.  parts, and the 6. chapter; to giue way to many veines; againe, for the outgate of the Coniugations or paires of the sinewes. Moreouer in the middest it hath one notable perforation and that round, to let out the braine Tunnell, called Insundibulum,[ tab. 12, fig. 11, F] as also others at the sides of the former to admit the sleepy arteries called Carotides,[ Tab. 12, fig. 11, C and D] and one larger then all the rest through which the marrow of the backe descendeth out of the braine.[ Tab. 12, fig. 9, H] Finally, where it is stretched ouer the spongybone, it is perforated manifold like a Siue.[ Tab. 14, figure 18, at F and figure 9, at ●]  
In the top of the head it is redoubled and separateth the braine into two parts, a right 
His Reduplication.  and a left, euen as low as the center thereof.[ Tab. 10, fig. 13, from D to B] Which Reduplication lyeth all along the third bosome or Sinus of this hard membrane & runneth with the bosome through the length of the head forward vnto the top of the nose, and groweth fast vnto the distinction of the mamillary processes,[ Tab. 9, fig. 3, N] euen as it groweth backward in the middest to the hinder processe.  
This Reduplication of the dura meninx is called the vpper processe and is likened by 
The Sythe.  all the best Anatomists to a Mowers Sythe; and Laurentius is not affraide to call it Faix or the Sythe, and saith that this reduplication makes the body of the same: but Vesalius saith that the processe which is like a Sythe is not duplicated but simple as the membrane itself is simple, and seemeth onely to be double because of the bosome which parteth the braine; of the same minde also is Platerus. But let vs see how it resembleth a Sythe: Bauhine fashioneth it thus. Backward,( where it is continuall with a part of the same membrane which couereth the Cerebellum or after-braine) it is broad and answereth the broad end of the Sythe,[ tab. 9, fig. 3, at D] about the midst of his length it groweth to be very thicke like the backe of the Sythe, and the fore end is like the point; for it groweth narrow by degrees and therefore that part of it which is next to the braine turneth inward obliquely iust like the hooking point of a Sythe.[ tab. 9, fig. 3, from FG to H]  
The other processe of the Dura mater is backward and shorter, and for the most part distinguisheth the Cerebellum or after-braine from the braine itself,[ Tab. 11, fig. 7, OOOO] Beside 
The other processe of the Dura Meninx.  it couereth the Cerebellum, and it is foure-fold as thicke and hard as it is in any other place saith Columbus and with him Archangelus and Laurentius, Vesalius saith three-folde Dogges in this place haue a bone which vnderproppeth the braine that it should not lye 
A bone is Dogges.  heauy or beare vpon the Cerebellum.[ Tab. 11, fig. 7, betwixt OO and XX]  
In this membrane there are found two kinds of Canales or pipes; one through which 
Two kinds of Cauities.  the vessels are carried, as the Arteries which are disseminated through the membrane. The other into which the veines do determine, which kinde of Canale or hollow passage is to it instead of veines; and these they call the backward bosomes, or hollownesses, or canales,( for other words to expresse a Sinus I cannot deuise) of which wee will immediately intreate.  
Fallopius in his obseruations reckoneth ten of these Sinus, on either side foure; the ninth is that which other Anatomists take for the third, & the tenth that they take for the fourth; 
Fallopius his ten Sinus.  but in his institutions he reckoneth but sixe: foure of which we know well, the other two saith Bauhine, I thinke no man knowes but himselfe.  
We with Bauhine( whom for the most part we follow) do reckon foure, which Galen in the ninth booke de Anatomicis Administrationibus called 〈◇〉 in the 9. booke de vsu part. 
Foure Sinus of the Dura mater.  and the 6. chap. sometimes meningis 〈◇〉 leading bloud: sometimes 〈◇〉 the ventricles of the thicke membrane; as in his 9. booke de Anatomicis Administrationibus and the first chapter, because they arise from the duplication of the membrane, and are as it were Rillets carrying bloud and spirits. And haply hence tooke Pelops the occasion of his error, who auouched that all the vessels had their originall from the head.  

Pelops his error whence. The two first. Sinus.  The two first of these Sinus or Canels, or Rillets,( call them as you please) haue their beginning behind in the Basis of the Occipitium or nowle betwixt the braine and the after-braine at the sides of the hole through which the marrow of the backe descendeth: they are one on each side,[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, MN] called the right and the left. They lye neere the sides of the Lābdall Suture, and into them do the veines and the arteries exonerate & vnburden themselues. They are fastened to the Scull, and when they come neere the middle of the Lābdall Suture & the top of the Cerebellum they ioyne in one and make a common cauity, which place[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, O] Herophylus( saith Galen in his 9. book of the vse of parts and the 6. chapter, and in the 9. of his Anatomicall Administrations and the first) called 
Galen.  〈◇〉 that is, Torcular the Presse, because from thence as from a high place the Rils runne 
The Presse of the braine.  downe on eyther side; some of them out of the middest of it are deriued into the whole after-braine, others run from the forepart, from whence, as wine from a grape-presse, the bloud poured out of the veines and arteries is squeesed into the whole braine. From these on eyther hand at the sides runne small branches like veines, some of them as small as a very haire, some of them larger,[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, SS] which runne out into the bordering mēbranes, both the thicke one[ Tab. 11, fig. 7, OOO] and the thin one[ Tab. 12, fig. 9, ●D] where they couer the whole Cerebellum.  
Out of the concurrence of these[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, O] do arise two other Sinus or Rils differing in length and in the fashion of their cauities. The one of them is the higher and is called the third Sinus[ Table 15. figure 13. PP] the other lower called the fourth[ table 7. fig. 13. R]  
The third Sinus which is like a Rill of bloud, called sometimes by Galen a veine and not vnproperly( for what should you call a vessell in which bloud is contained but a veine 
The third.  though it haue not the coate of a veine) though some thinke it to be Herophilus his presse of which we spake euen now; it passeth directly forward through the length of the head[ table 6. fig. 1. and 2. CCC] betwixt the right and the left parts of the Braine vnder the vpper part of the Lambdall Suture and vnder the Sagitall Suture, and vnder the middest of the forehead bone in the top of the nose is ioyned to the bony partition[ tab. 7. fig. 13. Q] of the organs of smelling, and would be like a triangle, sauing that in the vpper part it is some what neere to a semicircular form: for the cauity of this Sinus, as also of the two former, haue two crooked ribs as it were inward, and the third curued outward.  
From this Sinus or canale on either side the braine all along the head there arise very 
Branches frō the 3. Sinus.  thicke certaine vessels as it were branches out of a great trunke of a veine which Galen calleth 〈◇〉, of which some are but small which they call venas reptitias, the creeping veines. Of these some arise from the higher part of the Sinus, some from the lower, some from the sides thereof. Those which arise out of the higher part[ Table 7. figure 13. XXX] which is next the skull, do run vpward to the duplication of the skull, that is to the porie substance between the tables thereof, and to the Perteranium, and mingle themselues with those small vesselles which descend from the skinne of the crowne and passe through the skull at small pores thrilled therein for the same purpose. Those which arise from the lower part of the canale, that is, which is next the braine[ table 7. figure 13. VVV table 9. figure 3. E●. HH] are but small, and runne downeward onely into that part of the dura meninx which euen nowe we called the sithe. Those which arise out of the sides of the Sinus, that is out of the bredth of it[ table 7. figure 13. TTT tab. 8. figure 2. DDFF] are infinitely diuersified into the piae mater and together therewith into the conuolutions of the brain; and where the piae mater endeth they proceed on into the very substance itself of the braine. These vessels sometimes opening, 
Great quantity of bloud out of the nose whence it comes.  so great a quantity of bloud hath issued by the Nosethrils, that it is credibly reported to haue amounted to 24. pound: in which kinde of fluxe wee must not apply medicines to the forehead, but either to the crowne or to the coronall suture.  
Columbus was of opinion that these vessels do not arise out of the Sinus itselfe, but out 
Columbus Archangelus.  of the veines running therin, for he thought that the internal iugular veines passed through it. Archangelus also seemeth to incline this way, who sayth that through the two former Sinus or rils, the inner iugular veines and arteries doe passe and infinuate themselues into the third Sinus and so run out to the nose, yea backward also to the fourth Sinus and quite through it.  
The fourth Sinus sayth Vesalius the professors of diffection haue not remembred. It is 
The fourth.  no where neare vnto the skull as the others are, but seated in the lower part of the braine: very short it is and runneth directly betwixt the brayne and the after-brayne to that part of the braine called Nates or the bottocks, and the glandule called pinealis( for such representations there are in the substance of the braine[ table 7. figure 13. R table 11. figure 7. T] and the cauity of it is like a triangle made of three equall ribs curued inward. The beginning of this cautiy, or rather trueth to say the meeting of all foure[ Tab. 7. fig. 13. O] some call the Torcular or the presse; and from hence do spring the veines, sayth Columbus and with him Bauhine, which are dispersed through the substance of the braine to nourish it.  
From this Sinus also in his progresse doe issue small branches, some of which runne vpward 
Branches frō the 4. Sinus.  to that part of the dura mater which is aboue the Corebellum and as far as to the sithe,[ table 7. figure 13. YY] others downward[ tab. 7. fig. 13. aa] which are dispersed into the dura mater, where it lyeth aboue the after-brain, as also into the pia mater, both where it compasseth 
The vpper.  the after-braine and the braine itself.  
Afterward this Sinus is deuided into diuers rillets; two issue out of the vpper part of it and one out of the lower; of the two which issue out of the vpper part, one is greater another lesse.  
The greater[ table 7. figure 13. b] creepeth along the lower part of the dura meninx where it deuideth the braine in his length; from which certaine surcles runne[ Table 7. fig. 13. ccc] vpward to the processe of the same dura mater.  
The lesser which is double, a right and a left[ table 7. figure 13. de table 3. figure 3. IIFGG] supported with the thinne membrane after the manner of veines are ledde through the length of the braine on either side aboue the callous body called Corpus callosum, and afford some small twigs to the piamater which are distributed on either side into the braine.  
The lower rillet[ table 7. figure 13. f] is but one propagated into that part of the piamater which compasseth the Cerebellum; but it is diuided into two branches, one of them runneth 
TABVLA VII.  
FIG. XIII.  
Table. 7. Figure 13. exhibiteth the vesselles of the Braine and their distribution, especially through the right side, whither they proceede from the internall iugular veine, or from the sleepie Arterie, or from the sinus of the Dura Meninx.  
XIV.  
Figure, 14. sheweth the wonderful Net as Galen describeth it.  
XV  
Figure 15. sheweth the pituitary Glandule with the Bason and the sleepy Arteries.  
XVI.  
Figure 16. sheweth the Rete-mirabile or wonderfull Net, together with the glandule as it is found in the heads of Calues and Oxen.  

A. The internall Iugular veine.  
B. The sleepy or Iugular artery,  
C. the first veine.  
D. the 2 veine which is led vnto the Sinus.  
E, the 3, creeping through the dura meninx  
F, the fourth running into the Sinus.  
G H, the 5 and 6 going to the dura meninx.  
I, the first Artery.  
Φ A braunch of the same Artery running through the Muscles of the necke.  
K, the second artery reching into the sinus  
L, the third without a companion.  
r A small branch of the third Artery.  
M, N, the 1 & 2 sinus of the Dura Meninx.  
O, the congresse or meeting of both those sinus. PP, the 3 sinus of the Dura Meninx  
Q, The end thereof.  
R, the fourth sinus of the Dura meninx.  
SS, Branches of the first Sinus deriued into the Membranes neere at hand.  
TTTT, Branches of the third Sinus dispersed into the Pia Meninx.  
V V, the lower smal branches of the 3. sinus  
X X, the vpper, distributed through the Dura meninx.  
Y Y, certain surcles of the 4 Sinus sent vpward. aa, Others sent downward.  
b, the vpper passage of the fourth Sinus running by the Syth.  
cc, Surcles runing vpward from this passage  
de, the right & left vpper branches of the fourth Sinus. f, The lower branch going to the Piamater.  
g, A branch of the same pas. going forward  
h, The same bending backewarde to the Choroides reflected to the Corebellum.  
i, A notable vessell into the which the 4. Sinus doth determine.  
K the vpper. The by-partition of this vessel in the braine.  
l, m, Two branches of this by-partition.  
n. A surcle reching to the organ of hearing  
ooo, the distribution of the 3 vein & artery,  
ppp, Surcles proceeding from the Brāches marked with o deriued into the pia mater  
〈◇〉, The diuision of the third artery where it entreth into the scull. s. A braunch reaching to the hollownes of the nostrils  
t, the end of this in the extreamity of the vessel. uu, 2 branches entring into the scul  
x. A branch deriued vnto the eie from the coition or meeting of the branches uu,  
e, A branch attaining to the pia mater.  
A, A brāch attaining to the right ventricle 〈◇〉 The complication of vessels called Plexus Choroides formed on either side of the branch marked with A. Fig. 14, A, B, Arteries climbing into the scull, and making this wonderful net. C D, Branches into which the surcles of that net are ioyned. E, the pituitaryglandule or kernel of flegm Fig: 15. A, the Glandule receiuing the bason. B, the bason itself, or if you wil, the Tunnel called Peluis or insundibulum. C C, the sleepy Arteries. D, A branch of the artery going to the side of the Dura Meninx. E, Another branch of the same artery going to the nostrils. FF, An artery in one side diuided into 2 branches, but in the other side meeting togither againe. G. A partition of the artery creeping through the dura meninx, H, Another branch which getteth out of the scull and reacheth to the eies. Figure 16, A The petuitary Glandule. B, C. The sleepy Arteries going into the scull. D, D. The wonderfull Net.   forward[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, g] through the Circles of the braine and endeth in the lower seate of the ventricle, & is ioyned with an artery ascending thither[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, y] to make as they say that web of vessels which they cal Plexus Choroides, because it is somewhat like the after-birth called 〈◇〉. The other branch is reflected backeward to the Cerebellum[ tab 7, fig. 13, i] & is diuersly sprinkled into his pia mater. Finally, and at length this fourth sinus, 
Where the 4 sinus endeth.  determineth into a notable vessell couered with the pia mater[ Ta. 11, fig: 7 v. tab: 7, fig. 13 i] which neere the testicles of the brain, so called, is diuersly diuided and knotted & so goeth vnto the Glandule called Pinealis and vnder the arch of the brain called Fornix runneth into the inside of the third ventricle & there is parted into a right branch & a left. The right branch reaching[ tab, 7, fig. 13 l,] vnto the right ventricle and the lefte vnto the left.[ Tab. 7, fi. 13 m] & Anatomists do think that they are mingled & ioynd to the branches of the first and fourth arteries to make that plexus choroides of which we made mention euen now.  
These sinus or cauities of the dura meninx haue not the coats of veins but are in substance like to the Meninx itselfe. For as soone as the veine( put case the internall iugular) toucheth 
The matter of these sinus.  the scul, the dura meninx is there presently duplicated & the inside becommeth fistulated or hollowed like a pipe, & with these pipes as if they were veines the veines themselues are ioyned. They do the office both of veines and arteries, for they beate like arteries sayth Platerus, they receiue into them both veines and arteries( although Fallopius thinke they receiue only veines) and the blood and spirits of them both. For they are full of blood which 
They doe the office of veins and arteries.  they preserue as they receiue it full of spirites, but after death this bloode cloddeth into a grainy substance, haply because the bloode they receiue out of the vessels is a little thicker then ordinary saith Bauhine. They send also out of themselues scions and surcles like to the branches of Veines which passe vnto the Braine and both the Meninges.  
For because the Braine is large and standeth in neede of a great quantity of blood, but 
why the brain needeth much blood.  yet cannot admit any notable branches of Veines and Arteries to runne thorough his substance, Nature made these sinus or rillets to be in stead of veines and arteries to passe thorough and irrigate or water the whole substance thereof: for into them there is continually powred great abundance of blood which is mingled, the Venall I meane with the Arteriall, and afterward conneyed by these pipes vnto the convolutions of the Brain, yea into his very substance, aswel forhis nourishment and life as also for the generation of the Animal spirits which are wrought within his substance. For seeing these Animall spirits are continually supplyed vnto the instruments of sense and motion, and by motion are spent & dissipated, it was necessary there should be great quantity of both kinds of bloode in this place mingled together to make supply of them.  
The vse of the Dura Meninx is, to hold together the whole substance of the Brain and be 
The vse of the Dura Mater.  a couering thereunto and to all the parts of it, for it compasseth about the spinall marrow also, yea and all the Nerues that yssue out of the Braine. It also defendeth the brain from the impressions of the Scull or compressions if by any outward iniury it be beaten downward. It also preserueth the Arteries which runne in the surface of the Brain, that in their Diastole they be not offended by the hardnesse of the Scull.  
Moreouer, it diuideth the Braine from the after-braine or Cerebellum, as also the braine itself into a right part & a left. Finally, it produceth Ligaments through the sutures of the scull to make the Pericranium and to fasten it to the scull, that it might not sinke downe toward the braine, as also to hold vp the braine itself least setling down it should compresse the Ventricles which would cause sudden death. And thus much concerning the dura mater or Meninx, wherein we haue beene somewhat prolixe, that nothing might escape worthy your obseruation. Now it followeth that we entreate of the Pia Mater or thin Meninx. The Dura mater being taken away we meete with the second Membrane called Pia mater, 
The Pia mater or tenuis Meninx.  delineated vnto you in the sixt Table and the second Figure, but in the ninth Table & the third Figure P P sheweth the Dura Mater and O O the Pia Mater of which we now speake. This Membrane euen considered of itself, as also in comparison with the other Membranes of the body is exceeding thin, and therefore called 〈◇〉 by Galen in his ninth booke de Administrationibus Anatomicis and the second Chapter. The name he had out of Hippopocrates 
His Names.  his Booke of the Falling sicknesse, where he saith that this 〈◇〉 diuideth the middle of the Braine, or the Braine in the middest. Galen also in his eight Booke of the vse of parts and the ninth chapter calleth it 〈◇〉, that is the Membrane like the secundine or after birth, because it conteyneth or holdeth fast the veins and arteries of the brain, least whilst they mooue they should be displaced, their basis or foundation being but weak and infirme.  
This membrane is for the most part conteyned within the skull immediatly couering the brain and there is iust of his figure. In magnitude answerable to the braine & the parts 
His figure. Magnitude.  thereof; but the substance or body of it is exceeding thinne and sine, and yet Cabrolius and Laurentius say it is double. It is thinne that it might more easily insinuate itself into the 
Substance.  conuolutions of the braine, and yet not be offensiue by the waight of it to the brayne vpon which it lieth, and beside to carry the vessell quite through the same[ tab. 6. fig. 2. ●●● table 9. figure 3 OO.] It is soft and of exquisite sence because it communicateth the Tactiue vertue to the Brayne and the Nerues; and Archangelus sayeth it is the very instrument of Touching.  
This Nature placed betweene the brayne and the dura meninx, least the braine sayth Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of parts and the 9. Chapter should be offended by so hard a 
The counsel of Nature.  neighbour. For euen as sayth Plato betweene the earth and the fire because their natures are very contrary, God interposed the water and the ayre, so Galen sayeth that Nature betwixt the brayn and the skull which are partes of very different substance hath placed these 2. membranes or minninges. For it there had been none but this thin pia mater it could not haue agreed with the skull without offence, if there had beene none but the dura meninx; yet the braine would haue beene therewith offended. That therefore neither the braine nor his couer should endure any vncouth violence, Nature hath immediately couered the Braine with this pia mater; and then the pia mater hath she compassed with the thicker; for by how much the thicker is softer then the bone, by so much is the braine softer then the thinner.  
If you would know what distance there is betweene these two membranes, you must make a little hole in the thicker, and then put a hollow bugle to it and blow it and you shal perceiue that the distance between them will containe a great deale of ayre, by which you may imagine how farre they were seuered when the man was aliue.  
This membrane doth not onely cleane closely to the braine and couer it immediatly as 
The progresse of it.  his naturall coate, as a mother embraceth her infant( whence Platerus thinketh it was called pia mater) least the soft and moyst substance thereof should be seuered by the continual motion wherwith it is wrought vp and down( for we perceiue that the brain wil easily run abroad when it is taken away) but also it insinuateth itself into the bottome of the braine, and extendeth itself vnto the inside of the cauity of his ventricles saith Galen in his 8. book of the Vse of parts and the 8. chapter, lining them round within. The vulgar Anatomistes sayth Laurentius thinke that it passeth into the ventricles from the vpper part of the brayn; but the truth is that it ascendeth from below where the Infūdibulum or Tunnel of the brain is scituate, and where those small arteries deriued from the sleepy arteries called Carotides do passe into the brain at the sides of the wedge-bone; so that euen in the bottom it meeteth; without the skull it cloatheth the marrow of the backe and the nerues. The bones also sayth Archangelus doe seeme to bee couered with this thinne membrane, which nowe 
Archangelus.  hauing with his vse changed his name is called Periostium. But how it maketh the Infundibulum or Tunnell called also Peluis the Bason, and how it inuesteth the vpper part of the phlegme-glandule, we shall declare afterward.  
The Vse of it is, to couer and establish the braine, the after-brain, the marrow of the spine and the nerues, as also all the vesselles which runne through it, it knitteth together, 
The vse of the pia mater.  so that they are more safely and commodiously distributed through the whole body of the Brayne and through all his partes. Adde hereto that which Archangelus determineth in the first Booke of his Anatomy, that it is the most exquisite and proper instrument of the sence of Touching.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the vessels disseminated through the Brayne.  
_THE vessels disseminated through the Braine are Veines and Arteries and those Sinus or Canalles whereof wee intreated at large in the former Chapter.  
The Veines are braunches of the inner or vtter Iugulars: the Arteries 
The veines.  of the Carotides or sleepy Arteries, and of that we call Ceruicales or the artery of the necke.  
The inner Iugular at the Basis of the skull in the backpart[ table 7. figure 13. at Λ] is deuided into two brāches, one bigger which watereth the backpart, & another smaller branching 
The inner iugular.  forward. The bigger[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, the lower c] attaineth into the braine at the first hole of thr Nowle-bone.[ Tab. 4. fig. 10, b] The lesser,[ Tab. 6, fig. 1, DD] getteth into the braine at the seauenth hole of the wedge-bone.[ Tab. 4, fig. 10, R]  
The vtter Iugular veine sendeth three branches into the Scull: the first[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, B] 
The vtter Iugular.  entreth into the Sinus of the dura meninx through the hole of the temple bones.[ Tab. 4, fig. 10, C] The second[ Tab. 7, fig. 13. G. Tab. 14, fig. 19, HH] passeth in at the second hole of the wedge-bone.[ Tab 4, fig. 10. G] The third[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, H. Tab. 14, fig. 19, II] is distributed into the dura meninx, and getteth in at the hole of the spongy bone.  

FIG. XIII.  
XIV.  
XV  
XVI.   
Beside these fiue veins, Vesalius 
Another vein of Vesalius his finding:  and Platerus add another, to wit, the end of the Necke veine which entreth the Scul( say they) at the third hole of the Nowle bone which was purposely made for it. But Bauhine could neuer obserue it; yet wee haue added it in the Table.[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, D.] Thus much of the veins, now of the arteries.  
The sleepy artery called 
The arteries.  Carotis whē it is come on either side to the Chops is diuided into two branches, one exterior of which heereafter, the other interior which is the larger of the twain. This at the Basis of the Scull[ tab. 7, fig. 13, B] is diuided into 2. vnaequall branches. The first is a little lesse then the Trunke, 
The first [ tab. 7, fig. 13, L. fig. 15, CC. tab▪ 14, fig. 19, P] pierceth the Scull through a proper hole of his owne thrilled in the templebone, passeth vnto the saddle of the wedge bone and then sheaddeth a branch on each hand into the side of the dura mater,[ tab 7, fig. 15, D] and afterward being diuersly carried and diuided( as wee shall heare more distinctly in the booke of veines) it helpeth to make the Rete mirabile.[ tab. 7, fig. 14] and the Plexus Choroides. From this first issueth a branch obliquely,[ tab. 7, fig. 13, q] and getteth into the braine at the second hole of the 
The second.  temple-bone, and then is diuided into two branches, the one running outward[ tab. 7, fig. 13, s] through the eight hole of the wedgebone into the cauity of the Nose:[ tab. 7, fig. 15, ●] the other inward, which is diuided into two,[ tab. 7, fig. 13, uu] and after distributed into the Dura Meninx; and this is called the second artery, though it arise out of the first.  
The third artery[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, I] is the other branch of the inner trunke of the Carotis, 
The third.  much lesse then the first; getteth in at the first hole of the nowle-bone,[ Tab. 4, fig. 10, b] and so passeth into the Sinus of the dura meninx.  
There is also one other artery called Ceruicalis which is a sprout of the axillary artery, it 
A fourth.  perforateth the dura meninx in the side where it inuesteth the spinall marrow and entreth the Scull at the same large hole whereout the marrow issueth, and ascendeth vnto the place of the Glandule called pituitaria where it is diuided into two branches, which helpe to accomplish the Plexus Choroides.  
Beside these veines and arteries; the Sinus of the dura meninx is also a vessell of the brain which we haue at large discribed before. It receiueth three veines,[ Tab. 7, fig. 13, CDE] and 
The Sinus of the Dura meninx.  two arteries[ IK] which vnburthen themselues into it: and this Sinus according to his diuers course is distinguished into foure as you haue heard, which are larger then the veines that ascend vnto the Scull but not round as they are, but rather like a triangle consisting of three ribs of an equall length and curued somewhat inward. From these do issue certaine passages like vnto veines, by which both sorts of bloud Naturall and Vitall, is distributed into the substance of the braine as we haue said before.  
The vse of the veines is three-fold, first to bring plentifull nourishment to the braine. The second, to bring a Natural influent spirit from the Liuer to nourish the ingenit Naturall 
The vse of the veines.  spirit of the braine.  
The third, together with the Naturall spirit to bring the Vegetable soule or power into the braine.  
The vse of the arteries is to bring vitall spirits and facultie to cherish the vitall spirit of the braine, to ventilate the in-bred heate of the braine, to moue the bloud in the veines 
The vse of the Arterres.  which otherwise would putrifie: And finally to make the bloud of the veines which is thicker heere then ordinary as we haue already obserued, somewhat thinner that it might passe and repasse more freely.  
And thus much shall suffice concerning the containing parts of the head both outward and inward, common and proper, with their appurtenances the vessels. Now it is time we should come vnto the parts contained, which are the braine and the after-braine, with the spinall marrow and Nerues arising there from: and first of the braine itself.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Excellency, Scituation, Figure, Substance, and Temperament of the Braine.  
_BEing to vndertake the history of the braine, me thinkes we may make a diuision of those parts that belong vnto & fall vnder our sense into foure sorts. One sort of them that are about the braine as the containing parts already spoken of outward and inward, common and proper. Another sort of them that are within the braine as the substance thereof, the figure, the magnitude and the diuers parts which haue diuers names giuen them according to their different formes, 
A diuision of the Head.  of which we will heere and heereafter intreate. A third sort of them that ascend vnto the braine, as the veines and arteries, of which we spake somewhat in the former chapter, and shall do more if God permit in the booke of vessels. A fourth and last sort of them which issue from the braine as the marrow of the backe or spine, the Nerues and the Animal spirit of which also we shall presently heereafter discourse: But to the purpose.  
Aristotle( in his 2. booke de partibus Anamalium and the 7. chapter, and in the first book of his History of Creatures, and the 16. chapter) saith, that all Creatures which haue bloud, haue also a braine and none other, vnlesse it be somewhat proportionable as the Polipus. 
Aristotle.   
This braine among the auncieut Greekes had no proper name, but because of the scituation it was called 〈◇〉 because it was contained 〈◇〉 in the head. Of the generation of it Hippocrates hath learnedly discoursed in his booke de Carnibus to which wereferre the learned Reader; as also for the order of the generation thereof to Aristotle in his booke de generatio e Animalium and the sixt Section.  
It is the principall part of the whole body which may be proued by the scituation, the figure, the defences it hath, and the vse of it. The scituation is in the highest part of the 
The braine the principall part of the whole body, and why.  body as it were in a defenced Tower, that it might bee better secured from outward iniuries.  
The figure is round, which is the most noble figure of all the rest, for it was proportionable that the diuinest part should haue the most perfect and absolute figure.  
The defences of the braine are very many, the haire, the skinne and that the thickest of all the body, the fatte, the fleshy Membrane, the Pericranium, the Periostium, a double tabled Scull and two Meminges or membranes, by all which it is of all sides defenced from 
The defences of the braine.  violence, so that it cannot be hurt or offended but with extreame wrong. But neyther the heart nor any other part is so prouided for by Nature, wherefore it should seeme she made more of store, as we say, of it then of all the rest.  
In respect of the vse it will easily carry away the prize of Excellency; for the soule 
The excellency of the vse of it.  of man saith Varolius, being not tyed to any bodily instrument cannot apprehend those out ward things which are without itself; vnlesse it be by the mediation of a corporeall organ into which the species or formes of materiall things may be transmitted by which afterward they may be exhibited, and in which they may be apprehended and contemplated: euen as 
Comparison.  he that is shut vp in a roome, cannot see those things which are, or are acted without, vnlesse there be some Tralucent body wherein the Images of those outward things may first be receiued and after represented to him that is within. Such an instrument is that which wee call Commune sensorium the common sence; for nothing can come into the vnderstanding vnlesse it be first in the sence.  
Now this first or common sense according to Plato and Galen is the braine;( for Aristotle 
Arist: dreame.  did but dreame that it was the heart) and they thought well. For not onely Galen but Aristotle himselfe did resolue that that was the first Sensorium or common sence, which is 
The common sence is the braine.  the originall of sinewes. Nowe Anatomy teacheth vs that all the sinewes arise from the braine.  
Hence then it is manifest that the Braine is the seate of the Sensatiue Soule; for if a nerue which is directed vnto any part be obstructed, that part is depriued of sence and motion & so of the sensatiue Soule. If the originall or beginning of the spinall marrow be obstructed all the parts vnder the head doe loose both sence and motion, when as yet the head enioyeth them both. But if the fourth ventricle of the Braine be obstructed, then not onely the whole bodie but the head itself looseth motion and sence, and is depriued of the sensatiue Soule.  
Who then will deny that the Brayne is the most noble of all the members, seeing it is the seate of all the Animall faculties, Imagination, Reason or discourse & Memory( wherfore Aphrodisaeus called it 〈◇〉 The Organ of wisedome) and the beginning or originall 
Aphrodisaeut.  of sence and voluntary motion; and beside seeing from it doe issue and on it do depend all the instruments of the senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching yea and speech also. And therefore Plato did worthily call it, because hee could giue it no higher a stile, 
Platoes  The deuine Member. For what the Heauen is in the worlde, the same in man is the Braine. The Heauen is the habitation of the supreame Inteligence, that is of God; and the Braine the seate of the Soule, that is the demi-God of this Little-world.  
Hence it was that Homer called it 〈◇〉, that is the Heauen, because as from the Coelestiall 
Comparison  influence all things below it are moued both in heauen and earth; so all the parts of the body haue sense and motion from the influence of the Braine.  
Wherefore with Galen we determine that the Braine as well as the Heart is a Principall part: not that wee think, as some doe, that the Braine is the Prince and King of all the rest, no more then we thinke with Aristotle that the Heart is the most noble of all the parts. But 
The braine not the prince but a principal part.  we say that as the heart is of greatest and most instant necessity for life, so the place of dignity belongeth to the Braine. Columbus giueth an elegant reason hereof taken from Generation.  
The Liuer sayth hee is ingendred by the mediation and helpe of the vmbilicall veine, 
Columbus his reason.  the heart by the mediation and helpe of the vmbilicall arteries, and these are ingendred by the vessels of the wombe: but the nerues which are the instruments of sence and motion doe immediatly arise out of the braine of the Infant.  
The Braine is commonly called 〈◇〉. Galen in his Book de motu musculorum, calleth 
The name: of the braine.  it 〈◇〉 The marrow of the head, for a difference betweene it and the marrow of the backe which is called 〈◇〉, and the marrow of the bones from which it much differeth, because it is not dissolued by fire, nor consumed in hunger, nor contained in the skull to nourish it. Wherefore Galen in his 8. Booke de vsu partium and the 4. Chapter putteth a difference betweene it and the marrow of the bones, because this is fluxible and like vnto fat, neither couered with coates nor wouen with vcines and arteries, neither hath any communion with the muscles and nerues, all which is contrary in the Braine.  
Apollidorus thought that none of the Antients had giuen any name to the Brain in any 
Sophocles.  of their writings, and that therefore Sophocles called it 〈◇〉, the white marrow; imitating therein Plato, who when he would giue a name to the Brayne called it 〈◇〉, and True Loue the Grecians say is 〈◇〉, euen at the vppermost marrow or at the Brane of the Soule, no doubt because they thought that the Soule was in the Braine. 
A greeke phrayse.   
It is scituate in the head as in a Castle most safe, because of the defences thereof before mentioned; as also because it is the highest place, & as it were the Tribunall or throne of her body. For as God who is the parent yea the Creator of the Vniuerse is said to haue his seate and throne in heauen. So the Braine which is the pallace of the soule was wiselie seated in the height of the body, partly because of the eyes and eares, for their nerues being soft had neede also be as short as might be, and therefore placed neere vnto the brain. Now aboue they must necessarily be seated because they are the scout-watches of the Bodie to foresee and to heare of dangers before they come vpon vs.  
The Figure of the Braine is answereable to the Figure of the Scull, not that it is fashioned by the Scull, for if it had beene so, then the Scull shoulde haue bin formed before the 
Figure.  Braine. Againe( saith Galen in his 8 Booke of the vse of parts and the 12 chapter) they that say that the Braine is fashioned by the Scull do not obserue that the Brain is manifestly separated from the Dura Meninx, and that the Meninx itself although it touch the scul yet it adhereth not vnto it. It expresseth indeede in the surface of it the forme of the cauitie of the scull, and when it is rightly formed it is round and a little longer then globous, beecause of the ventricles which were to be formed therein.  
Forward it is somewhat narrower, backward broader and on either side lightly depressed[ Tab. 6, fig. 2 sheweth this] but in those that haue as we say Laesa principta, that is, in I deots it is often otherwise fashioned as we haue said before. But in the Basis it is vnequal & full of variety because the scull hath there diuers dens and bosoms, especially at the wedgebone[ Tab. 14, fig. 19 betweene A and the latter B] and the inward processe of the Templebones.[ Tab. 15, fig. 20, betweene H and N] But aboue all it swelleth out forward at the instruments of smelling, and produceth two teates as it were[ Table: 14, fig: 19, CC] vvhich are therefore commonly named Mamillares processus. But where it coucheth vpon the Cerebellum or after-braine it is smooth and more equall.[ Tab. 14, fig. 18, AA, BB]  
Concerning the magnitude, the braine of a man( saith Aristotle in his 2 Booke de partibus Animalium and the 7 chapter in comparison and proportion with other creatures is the 
Magnitude. Aristotle.  largest, so that the Braine of one man is more then three Oxen, first because in man there are many Animall functions which beasts haue not, and those that we haue common with beasts are in vs much more perfect. For being in man the instrument and organ of reason, it was necessary it should conteine yea and pertect also great plenty of spirits. Now many spirits cannot be made but of much blood, and aboundance of blood cannot be conteyned in a little body. Againe, it was fit that the braine should be large, moist, thick & glutinous that they might not by reason of their notable tenuity vanish away but passe into the whole body by proper and peculiar channels framed for them.  
But the magnitude in length, bredth and thicknesse is so great as the capacity of the scul is able to conteine, for together with his Membranes the Flegmaticke Glandule and the vessels that ascend vnto it; it filleth al his compasse[ Tab. 6. fig. 1 and 2. Table. 9. fig. 3 and 4] before and behind, and on either side, only leauing so much distance as may suffice for his Diastole and Systole. Finally, it is so great saith Bauhine that in our dissections we haue found it weigh foure or fiue pounds; and Archangelus addeth fiue pound and a halfe; for the larger a man is the greater and more weighty is his braine, yea children because of the waight of their braine cannot of a long time carry their heads steddy vpon their shoulders.  
It is knit by a common connexion of Veines, Arteries and Sinnewes with the rest of the 
Connexion.  parts, although more familiarly to the spinall marrowe and the sinnewes, because they are produced heere-from. Hence it is, that when the least or basest part of the body is pained the Braine also partaketh of the smart. As for supportation and strength it needed no assistance from the other parts because it is so strongly fortified and as it were intrenched with in the scull.  
The substance of the braine hath a double principle of which it is formed, the seede and the Mothers blood. Archangelus thinketh it hath no such principle, it may be he is of the 
Substance. Archangelus Praxagoras. Philotimus.  opinion of Praxagoras and Philotimus of whom Galen maketh mention in his 8 book of the vse of parts and the 12 chapter, who thought that the braine was nothing else but a production or propagation of the spinall marrow, and that was the reason why it is foulded vp in so many convolutions and revolutions. But this is an idle speculation of a vvandering Brain. We wil determine as is saide that it hath a double principle seed and blood, of which is generated a peculiar kinde of glandulous substance like whereunto there is none in the whole body, so that Aristotle exceeding well in his 2. Booke de part bus Antmalium and the 
Aristotle.  7 chapter saide, that it was suigeneris of his owne kinde, intimating thereby, that there vvas no other kinde in the whole body whereunto it might fitly be referred. For because the ingenit functions of the Braine are peculiar vnto it alone as Vesalius hath well obserued, it was framed and fitted by Nature for the performance of those functions, of a peculiar substance 
Vesalius  and essentiall forme wherein the principall faculties of the soule, Iudgement, Imagination, Reason and Memory might reside, and which they might vse as their proper instrument, and on which the rest of the senses might depend.  
It is white, soft and very moist. White by reason of his spermaticall matter, for it is made 
why the brain is white.  of the purest part of the seed furnished with abundance of spirits, as also that the Animall spirits therein conteined should be cleare and bright, not muddy or otherwise coloured. Yet is not all his substance perfectly white, for that which is neerest to the convolutions[ Tab. 9. fig. 4. Ta. 10, fig. 5 EF] is somwhat neerer to an Ash colour, as it is also in the Cerebellum; 
Comparison.  the reason whereof some thinke to be because there are so many small veines disseminated through it. For as we thinke the vialactea or Milky Way in heauen is occasioned by an infinite number of small starres which to vs are inuisible, but yet do giue a brightnes to that part of the sky; so though we cannot see how the veines do alter the colour in this place, yet seeing it is altered, it is very reasonable that the insensible membranes of the small veines giue that ashie colour vnto it. The rest of the Braine a little more inward is pure white[ Tab. 9. fig. 4, GH. Tab. 10, fig. 5, G●. Tab. 11, fig. 7 and 8, ●●]  
It is soft, and softer saith Galen in his 8. Booke de vsupartium and the sixt Chapter then the Cerebellum, because it is the originall of the soft Nerues pertaining to the Organes of 
Why soft.  sense, but the Cerebellum is the originall of the hard Nerues commonly thought to bee the Nerues of motion. In Children the Braine is so soft that it is fluid. The reason of the softnesse is because it is to receiue all the species or representations of the outward senses, as also of the imagination and vnderstanding. For vnlesse the alteration or impression that is made in any of the senses do proceede first from the Braine and after returne againe vnto it, the creature hath sence of nothing; which is proued by the example of su●h as are taken with the Apopleixe. Wherfore seeing sensation is a passion, it was requisit that the braine should be of such a substance as is fit to receiue the impressions of other things. Yet it behooued not it should be so soft as that the impressions made therein, should presently sink 
Why not like to Fat.  away and be obliterated, as it hapneth in water and other fluide bodies, but that it should haue with the softnes a kind of consistence of solidity, which solidity is so exquisitely mingled with the softnes, that the fire cannot melt it as it doeth fat or wax and such like. To conclude it is like the substance of a nerue, of which also his marrow is the originall, but a 
Why it melteth not.  little softer: Hippocrates in his booke de Glandulis likneth it vnto a kernell, because as a kernel it is white and friable, and beside is of the same vse to the head that a glandule would bee, drawing vp the exhalations of the lower partes which after vapour out by the Sutures of the skull.  
The Temperament of the brayne is cold and moyst, as wee may easily with Galen in 
The temperament of the Braine.  the 8. booke of the Vse of parts conclude from the softnes and moystnes of his substance. Wherfore Hippocrates in his book de Carnibus, calleth it 〈◇〉 the Metropolis or chiefe seate of cold and glutinous moisture. Glutinous to hold and conteine the subtile Animall spirits which otherwise would soone vanish and decay; and colde that the part ordained for the exercise of reason and therefore fulfilled with hot spirits should not easily be set on fire or enflamed. For when the braine by any accident or distemper growes hot as we see in phreniticall patients, the motions thereof are furious and raging, and the sleepe turbulent and vnquiet. And indeede the Heade is verie subiect( colde although 
The Reason thereof.  it be by nature) to hot distempers, partly because of the perpetuall motion thereof and of the spirits, partly by reason of the aboundant Veines and Arteries and great quantity of blood therein conteyned, and finally because whatsoeuer hot thing is in the body either naturall or vnnaturall if it be inordinately mooued flieth vp vnto the braine, or at lest sendeth hot vapors vnto it.   

CHAP. X. Of the Substance & parts of the Braine.  
_AS the Braine is the Originall and seate of all the Animall Facuties, so for the exercise of the same it hath diuerse and different parts cast into 
why the brain hath diuerse parts.  sundry moulds which we will now take view of according to Anatomicall Method, alwayes remembring that by the Braine wee vnderstande whatsoeuer is conteyned within the Scull and compassed about by the hard and thin Membranes.  
The Braine therefore wee deuide into three parts. For first it is parted into a forepart 
3 Parts.  and a hinde-part by the dura meninx quadruplicated or foure-foulded.  
The forepart because it is the greater and most principall( for in it the Animall spirites 
The forepart.  are especially laboured) reteineth the name of the whole, and is properly called Cerebrum or 〈◇〉. The hinder part is much lesser, and is called by a diminitiue word, Cerebellum we call it the After-braine. Herophilus as Galen witnesseth in his 8. book of the Vse of parts, and the 11. Chapter, calleth it 〈◇〉.  
Againe the forepart or the Braine, by the dura meninx duplicated and resembling a 
Subdiuided.  Mowers Sythe, is parted in the top throughout his whole length into two equall parts, one right another left.[ tab. 8. fig. 2. from A to A tab. 9. fig. 3. from N to K.]  
This partition reacheth altogether to the Center of the Braine and stayeth at that body which we call Corpus callosum.[ table 9. figure 3. at L L.] And this is the reason why alwayes the same part of the head is not pained, but sometimes one part sometimes another, sometimes the whole head.  
Some, sayth Laurentius, haue dreamed that the braine is deuided quite through, but they are much deceiued, for the callous body vniteth the parts together. As for the afterbraine though it bee not vnited to the braine, yet is it in two places continued with the beginning of the spinall marrow, and the same marrow by two originalles ioyned vnto the Braine.  
The vse of the diuision of the Braine is first out of Vesalius and Archangelus, that the 
The vse of this diuision Out of Vesalius.  braine might be better nourished, for by this meanes the thinne membrane together with the vesseles there-through conuayed, doe insinuate themselues deeper into the substance thereof: for without this partition and those deepe conuolutions which wee see in it when it is cut, it could not haue beene nourished.  
The second vse wee will adde out of Laurentius, to wit, beside the nourishment for the better motion of the same; for as water is not so easily moued where it is deep as where i● 
Out of Laurentius.  is shallow; so if the braine had beene one entire massie substance, it would not so willingly and gladly as we say, haue risen and falne in the Systole and Dyastole.  
The vse of this diuision out of Bauhine is more expresse: for the safe conduct of the Sinus or pipes of the hard meninx mentioned in the seauenth Chapter, from whence doe issue 
Out of Baubine.  small surcles of vessels to conuay nourishment into the conuolutions of the braine.  
For because the quantity of the braine is very great, through which the Capillarie vessels were to be dispersed for his nourishment; if the vesselles themselues so small as they are veines and arteries, should haue passed from the backepart to the forepart, from the right side to the left, or on the contrary, they would in so long a iourney through so soft and clāmy a body haue beene in danger of breaking, wherefore the braine was deuided into three parts; betweene which diuisions there runne foure Sinus or pipes of the hard meninx into which the internall Iugular veines and the sleepy arteries called Carotides ascending from the Basis of the Nowle of the head doe powre their bloud and spirits; which is conuayed on either hand into the after-braine and the brain, by certaine branches deriued out of the height and depth & the sides of those pipes as we sayd ere-while, especially out of the third Sinus, into the left and right parts of the braine.  
Finally, because soft bodies when they are great doe easily fall into themselues, therefore the braine was diuided into two partes that it might the better consist, as also that the instruments and organs which were led vnto it might not be shufled together: and somuch of the vses of the diuision of the braine.  
Now the outward face of the braine which we sayed was of an Ash-colour rather then white, hath many and diuers orbicular circumuolutions and circular ruts, which the Antients 
The conuolutions of the braine.  sayeth Vesalius and those after him haue excellently compared to the gired windinges of the guts when the kell is taken off.[ Table 8. figure 2. tab. 9. figure 3. ccc.] Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of partes and the 13. Chapter calleth this variam compositionem, and Vesalius himselfe compareth them to the Clouds that a Painter maks in the roofe of a house. Some of these snailing paths are deeper, others do not pierce so deep into the substance of the braine[ Table 9. figure 4. DD] and therefore are called pars varicosa cerebri, the knotted or embossed part of the braine by Laurentius. They are innested with the pia mater or thin meninx( and when that is taken off may be better discerned) which not onely compasseth them and contayneth them in their superficies, but also with them in many places diueth into the depth of the braine.  

FIG. I.   
Some are of opinion that these conuolutions are onely 
Their vses.  framed of necessity, but haue no vse at all: but we with Galen do determine that their vse 
Galen.  is to secure the vessels, that going together with the Pia mater they might carry vnto the braine nourishment and life, and not be in danger of breaking in the perpetuall motion and agitation of the brain. For the Pia mater being a thin and fine membrane and simple( not double that the vesselles might run betwixt the duplication thereof) needed these winding Meanders to secure the vessels.  

II.   
But if the superficies or surface of the braine had bin smooth and aequall & the vessels had run along about the circumference thereof they had been subiect to breaking, especially in the Dyastole or Eleuation & in the full of the Moone, at which time the braine by reason of the humidity thereof so swelleth that the vessels must needs haue borne vpon the Scull. Beside, the vesselles would not haue beene sufficient to haue irrigated and watered the huge and vast body & bulk of the brain if they had onely runne ouer the surface thereof. Platerus addeth further; because the venall and arteriall 
Platerus.  bloud arising to the braine is not yet fit for the vse thereof, it was necessary it should runne in proper vessels, and that into the inmost substance of his marrow where the inbred power of the braine might labour it and purge it from those excrements which are gathered and heaped vp in these Conuolutions, that being so prepared the braine might apply it vnto his nourshment and also for the procreation of Animall spirits.  
Another vse of the Conuolutions remembred also beside Bauhine by Archangelus and Laurentius is; for the recreation of the spirits and the bloud contained in those vessels. For 
Another vse out of Bauhine Archangelus. Laurentius.  if there had not beene these gyrations in the substance of the braine, the vessels especially in the full of the Moone would haue beene so closely compassed by the Scull, that their motion would haue beene intercepted, and the spirit being compressed would haue beene suffocated or strangled, and the heate for want of ventilation extinguished.  
Erasistratus thought that the braine of a man had more Conuolutions then the braines of other creatures because of his reasonable soule; which conceite of his Bauhine, Archangelus 
Erasistratus his 〈…〉.  and Laurentius do sweetly smile at, when, they behold the same conuolutions in the braine of an Asse, the most dull and stupid of all other creatures. Beside we learne out of Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of parts and the 13, chapter, that vnderstanding followeth not the variety of the composition but the good temper and disposition of that bodye which vnderstandeth. Laurentius and Columbus thinke that Nature by these conuolutions 
Archangelus taxeth Columbus and Laurentius.  prouided for the lightenesse of the braine, and to make it more prompt and ready for motion. But Archangelus taxeth them for it. As if( saith he) Nature could not haue made it of a lighter matter if that had beene behoouefull, or a little lesse and so lighter? Beside 
Tab. 9. Fig. 3. sheweth the braine vncouered from both his Membranes, and laid on the one side that the processe or duplication commonly compared to a Mowers Sythe, which diuideth the Braine; as also the Callous body might better be shewed.  
Fig. 4. sheweth the Braine freed from his Membranes, as also a part of the braines itself is taken away that the marrow and the ventricles might be better discerned.  
TABVLA. IX.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  

A A, The right side of the Braine.  
B B, the left side of the Braine.  
C C, the conuolutions or breaches of the Braine.  
D D, the duplication or processe of the durameninx called the Sythe.  
E E E, the beginning of the vessels proceeding out of the third Sinus into the thin membrane are heere broken off.  
F, A passage running out of the fourth Sinus in manner of a veine into the lower part of the thicke membrane,  
G G, Certaine propogations of this passage running vpward into the same membrane.  
H H, Certaine Surcles disseminated from the lower side of the third Sinus into the processe.  
I I, the beginnings of the vessels which passe from the fourth Sinus into the thin Membrane.  
K the beginning of a vessell bred out of the fourth Sinus, which runneth vnder the arch into the third ventricle to make the Plexus or thrumbe of crisped vessels therein.  
L L, the Callous body of the braine.  
M M, the Sinus on eyther hand, at the sides of the Callous body.  
N, A portion of the Sythe which groweth to the partition of the Organe of smelling.  
O O, the thin membrane or Pia mater.  
P P, Parts of the thicke membrane reflected.   
Fig. 4.  

A A A, B B B. the right and the left sides of the marrow of the braine remaining yet in the Scull,  
C C C, A part of the braine taken away.  
D D, D, Diuisions or lines frō the breaches of the braine.  
E E E E, the Shel or Barke of the braine compassing his marrow.  
G G, H H, the marrow of the braine which when it is pressed is full of red points or small drops or graynes.  
I I I, the Callous body freed on eyther side from the substance of the braine.  
K K, A part of the Callous body. L L, M M, the right & the left ventricle of the braine.  
N N, A part of the vpper side of the left ventricle.  
O O, the complication or thrumbe of vessels called Plexus Choroides.  
P P, Small veines growing to the ventricles.  
Q. Other vessels running frō the same veins into the Pia mater or thin membrane.   we see that the heart is of a most solid and firme substance without any of these gyrations & yet it moueth in Systole and Dyastole very freely. Vesalius and Laurentius adde that they were also ordained for the supportation of the soft substance of the braine that it might aequally 
Another vse out of Vesalius & Laurentius.  be supported and not sway too much to eytherside. And thus much for the vses of these conuolutions as also for the vpper part of the substance of the braine.  
Now the internall or inward superficies hath in it diuers parts and impressions because of the many vses for which Nature hath ordained it. The substance therefore of the Braine 
The inward part of the Braine.  is by Archangelus diuided into the Braine and the Marrow. The Braine he calleth that Ash-coloured part which compasseth the rest, whereby he meaneth the marrow: we will say it may be diuided into the Shell and the Kernell. The Shell is that Ash-coloured bodye 
The Shell & the Kernell.  [ Table 9. figure 4. Table 10. fig. 5. E F] which compasseth immediatly the kernel or marrow. The kernell or marrow is that white body[ Table 9. fig. 4. G H Table 10. fig. 5. G H Table 11. fig. 7. and 8. E E] which is hid within the ash-couloured body and is somewhat more solide; for this white body is within the ash-coloured body as the christaline humor of the eie is in the glassie humour. Wherefore the shell differeth from the kernell first in colour, the one ash-coloured the other white; then in consistence for the shell is softer the kernell a little harder firmer and more compact; then in scituation because the kernell is in the middest the shell in the circumference distinguished with oblique and crooked lines.  
Wherefore the kernel or Marrow is the middle and white body of the braine, of which 
The kernel or marrow.  there are two parts; one contayned within the skull, the other falling out of it and lengthned downe to the great hole of the occiput and ending in the spine of the back. These two bodies also, the shel and the kernel, may actually be separated if we haue the head of a sound 
Note this.  man newe slaine and presently with dexterity dissected, otherwise both of them will grow very moyst and extreame soft, as it hapneth to the mammillary processes which are the instruments of smelling, which in a fresh body may easily bee parted at the marrow, but not so if the body haue beene dead any time.  
Now if you dissect the braine ouerthwart, about the middest of it you shall perceiue small vessels therein descending to his ventricles, and if the marrowey substance be pressed 
A difficult place in Hip.  there will start out of it many drops or graines of bloud, which make me remember that of Hip. in his book of the falling sicknesse. Many and small veines doe ascend out of the whole body vnto the braine, and especially two notable, one from the Liuer another from the Spleene: in the quest of which( if any such be) I would haue the great Anatomistes spend some of their curious howres.  
Aristotle in the first booke of his History and the 16. Chapter is of opinion, that the 
Aristotle.  braine is altogether without bloud( that we finde false by manifest experience) neither contayneth any veine within it, but that onely the Meniux about it hath veines. Vesalius leaneth 
Vesalius.  too neare vnto him, for these are his wordes: The substance of the Braine and After-braine is neuer found with any veines therein, although you shall find in those that die mad or phreneticall and such as are hanged, certaine red and bloudy specks or spots; but these spottes carry no resemblance of a veine at all. Notwithstanding, though these two great Clarkes, the one the Genius of Nature and the very President of her priuy Councell and the other the Eye of Anatomie, haue thus resolued vpon the case: I presume there is something 
Commendation of Hip.  in that Hippocrates hath so particularly related, whose vse is not so peremptorily to seduce his Reader: but I leaue the disquisition to those whose meanes and oportunities are fit for such priuy searches, onely adding this one thing which I confidently auouch, that the onely writings of Hippocrates after so many ages and Commentaries past, haue in these dayes led the diligent and studious Readers into the knowledge of more mysteries of our Art, then all the writers in the world beside; for he alone is a boundlesse and bottomles ocean of Physicke: we returne to our history.  
If you lightly with your fingers deuide the sides of the braine till you come to a veine 
The corpus Callosum.  of a notable bignesse running through his length and sprinckling branches on either hand into the braine, there will offer itself vnto your view a body placed exactly in the middest of the braine[ Table 9. fig. 3. L M] gibbous or rising somewhat round[ Table 9. figure 2. L] in which sayeth Archangelus the two first ventricles are excauated, long, narrow, smooth and 
Archangelus.  equall, whiter also then the vpper part as being made of the marrow or inward substance, which because it is harder and somewhat like a callus or hardnesse of the skinne gotten by labour but much whiter is called 〈◇〉, by Galen in the 9. Booke of his Anatomicall Administrations and the third Chapter, that is, A callous body. It is a part continued with the braine, wherefore at the sides thereof in his length two Sinus or ventricles[ Table 9. fig. 3. at ●] are hollowed in the marrow of the braine like deep lines or hollow pipes, which are esteemed to receiue the defluxion, of rheume, or phlegme out of the vpper partes of the 
The vse of it.  braine, and to send it forward by the gibbous superficies of the callous body vnto the nose. But the vse of the callous body vndoubtedly is by his vpper part to sustaine the waight of the braine which lieth vpon it, and that by his mediation both the parts of the brain might be conioyned, as also to make a distinction or hedge which they call septum[ Table 10. fig. ●. ●● holdeth vp YY, XX, and XY lift vp S T V, least A A A in the sixt figure should presse H I in the same fig, or H in the 7 and 8. figures of the 11. Table] which separateth the two ventricles; which partition it also sustaineth & lifteth vp the arch called Fornix, least falling downe it should compresse the third ventricle.  
In this place sayth Bauhine in the yeare 1582. I found a scirrhus or hard tumor in the noble 
A story out of Bauhine.  Baron Bonacurtius( who lay a long time in a manner Apoplecticall or astonished) when we opened his head after his death.  
When we haue cut away the substance of the braine on either hand as deepe as vnto the Callous body before we lift it vp, we must mark the septū or partition of the two first ventricles.  
This septum or partition[ table 10. fig. 5. at RRR reflected backeward] in the vpper part groweth to the Callous body and is perfectly vnited thereto( wherefore Vesalius calleth it 
The septum lucidum.  the inner or lower superficies of that callous body) but below it groweth to the place of the Arch or Fornix, so that it standeth in the middest between the callous body and the Arch. This septum before it be stretched is loose & rugous and doeth not shine, neither can you perceiue how it is continued with those bodies of the Callus and the Arch; but drawe it vp so high till it be streatched( and take heed it breake not for it is but thinne) and then if you put a waxe candle to one side of it you shall perceiue the brightnesse of the light through 
Diuersly compared.  it as if it were through a glasse. Vesalius compares it to the host in the Masse, which being a thinne wafer and a little wet you may see a dull light through it; or say it is like a sliuer of the Muscouy glasse whereof we vse to make Lanthorns, or the horne of a lanthorn itself. Whereupon Columbus, Archangelus and Laurentius haue called it speculum, speculum lucidum, 
The names of it.  septum lucidum and lopis specularis, the Looking-glasse. Galen giueth it a name from his vse in his 9. Book Anatomicis Aministrationibus, the first, the third and the fourth chapters, calling it 〈◇〉, The partition of the foremost ventricles, because the inner lips of the ventricles are hereby distinguished; wherefore you cannot aright perceiue it vnlesse both the ventricles be layd open, and if it be neuer so little too much stretched it easily breaketh, because it is so very thinne and subtile, yet cannot it not be manifestly seene vnlesse it be lifted vp.  
An Anatomist therefore in these curious thinges had neede to haue a fine and a dainty hand and at command. This partition is of the same substance( sayth Galen in the book before named and the third Chapter and after him Vesalius) with the braine but thinner, and 
The substāce of it. Galen & Vesalius Columbus & Archangelus.  in respect of his tenuity as it were the substance of the braine drawne out into a membrane. Columbus and Archangelus thinke it is nothing else then the pia mater in this place duplicated; but Laurentius and Bauhine agree with Galen. Yet though it bee thinne it is not simple, and it hath in the middest a little rising like a line[ Table 10. figure 5. Y] which line bearing downward is by degrees lessened and becommeth the partition of the ventricles.[ tab. 10, fig. 5. the lower part of the septum at x x the vpper at Y.]  
These ventricles beeing taken away to the middest of their substance, wee meete with foure swelling particles: two before, about which is the Basis of the ventricles; two on the backeside making the Arch or Fornix of which wee will entreate in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. XI. Of the ventricles of the Braine, the Arch, and the Plexus Choroides.  
_ALthough the Cauity which is in the Brain be continuated quite through, yet because according to the forme of the Braine and the vse it is diuersly formed, so that one part is more dilated another more angustated or contracted; therefore the Anatomists haue diuided it into certaine places, 
The ventricles of the braine.  and the larger of them they cal ventricles, the narrower they call meatus or passages. The ventricles called by Galen 〈◇〉, the Antients and many of the new writers also following therein Herophylus haue reckoned foure. In the Braine three; two foreward a right and a left, and the third in the middest. The fourth they make common to the after-braine and the spinall marrow.  
The first two of( these called by Archangelus the Superior because they hang ouer the other; by Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of parts the 10, 11, and 12, chapters and diuers other places the Anterior ventricles) are cut out of the marrow of the braine and are the largest of all the rest, because( saith Laurentius) they containe a crasse spirit or rather aboundance of phelgme. They are on eyther side one, the right on the right hand and the left on the left, alike each to other in scituation, forme, magnitude and vse. They are scituate length wise in the marrow of the braine in the very middest thereof,[ Tab. 9, fig. 4, Tab. 10, fig. 5, I fig. 6, the right is noted with D but the left in the 9 Table and the 4, figure and the 10. Table and the fift figure at M in the 6. figure at E] whether you respect the length or the depth of it. In their fore and hinder parts they are broader and more disioyned, in the midst lesse where they are only diuided by that thin partition we spake of in the former chapter.[ tab. 10, fig. ●, XX YY] They runne obliquely or semicircularly saith Archangelus,[ Tab. 9, fig. 4, from 
Their figure.  L to M] for beginning about the temples where the marrow begins, they are by little and little curued toward the center of the marrow, and at the Region of the Eares they are bent againe, and so seeme to make two Semicircles. They are long, winding & somewhat large. Their forepart is blunt and round[ tab. 9, fig. 4, and tab. 10, fig. 5, L and the lower M] and in their inside they ●●nke downe vnto the third ventricle,[ Tab. 10, fig. 5, vnder S T V and in the 6. figure at H and I, in the eleuenth table and the 7, fig. at H] whereupon some who haue not diligently followed their curued passage haue thought that beside these two there are other two ventricles in the forepart of the braine, and so haue made vp the number of sixe ventricles; but we esteeme them to be portions of these vpper, for they are indeede larger then vsually they are esteemed. Backward also they are obtuse and round,[ tab. 9, fig. 4, the vpper L and M] and do descend by degrees downeward into the substance of the brayne, and foreward are straightened like the small end of a horne, and so creepe on to the mammillary processes and the ingresse of the opticke Nerues[ tab. 11, fig. 7, and 8. F G] and the sleepy arteries. Their vpper face is lined with a waterish moysture, and they are often found full 
The water in them.  thereof. Their vpper part[ tab. 9, fig. 4, from L to L and from N to N] according to the length of the braine is smooth and aequall; the lower part is vnaequall,[ tab. 10, fig. 6, R or S] because of the hollownesse prepared to receiue the defluxion of the phelgme; which hollownes creepeth obliquely out of the backepart of the ventricles foreward into their common cauity: 
Whether they bee lined with the Pia mater. Vesalius against Galen.  For these two ventricles, as we shall say by and by, do determine into a common cauity. Galen and the ancients after him do write that the superficies of the first three ventricles are as the brayne couered with the Pia mater. Vesalius denyeth it and addeth a reason: for, saith he, if the ventricles were lined within, the Membranes would hinder the substance of the braine from working the matter conueyed into them into Animall spirits. But Columbus and Archangelus side with Galen against him, and Archangelus thinketh that the septum lucidum is made of the duplication of the Pia mater after it hath inuested these ventricles. We leaue this to be farther scanned by the curious Dissectors: sure we are that that which is called Plexus Chorides lyeth vpon them, from whence small veines[ tab. 9, fig. 4, PP. tab. 10, fig. 5, n figure 6, oo] are deriued which grow in the forepart to their substance, like vnto those which runne through the coate of the eye called Tunica Adnata. Archangelus is of opinion that the Pia mater being itself of exquisite sense may by meanes of these small veynes suffer inflamation, whence come those deepe paines which are sometimes felt in the Center 
The cause of deepe paines in the head.  of the brayne. And indeed Galen maketh expresse mention both of the Pia mater compassing their cauity as we haue saide before, as also of these veines which insinuate themselues into the ventricles in the second and third Chapters of the 9. Book of his Anatomicall Administrations: so that Archangelus doeth but gather the conclusions out of Galens praemises.  
It behooued sayeth Galen in the 8. Booke of the Vse of Parts and the 10. Chapter, that 
Why two ventricles out of Galen.  there should bee two of these ventricles,( because the Braine and euery organ of sence is double; for the braine is the first and most common cause of all those double organs) that if one of them be violated, the other might serue the turne; and this hee prooueth by an instance of a young man of Smyrna, who was wounded into one of these ventricles and yet 
A story by him cited.  escaped: but sayth hee, if both of them had beene wounded he could not haue liued a moment of time.  
Vesalius( as he is an importunate aduersary of Galens, the lesse his thanke) reproueth him 
Vesalius oppugneth him not without some reason.  for this, alledging that though the braine be parted into two, yet it is againe vnited before the ventricles are formed therein; and to say trueth it is hard to conceiue how one ventricle should be wounded and the other not violated, considering the thinnesse of the menbrane or partition that parteth them, and beside the common cauity whereinto they both determine; but experience often assureth vs of that which meere Reason and discourse wil not allow of or subscribe vnto.  
The vse of these ventricles is according to Galen in his eight Booke of the Vse of Parts 
The vses of these ventritricles. Galen.  Chap. 10. and 11. that of the ayre which we draw in conuayed into the brain by the organs of smelling & of the vitall spirit ascending from the hart by the sleepy arteries, the Animal spirites prepared before in plexu choroide might in those ventricles bee perfected, but how perfected? Vesalius thinketh by the particular substance and forme of the Brain. Archangelus 
Archangelus. Laurentius.  thinketh they haue no such vse or power as to make Animall spirites. Laurentius sayth that they serue for the inspiration and expiration of the Braine, to receiue smels and to prepare the Animall spirites, and to containe them as it were in a store-house yet not perfectly accomplished but inchoated onely. Archangelus subscribeth vnto this and 
Archangelus his other vses  addeth moreouer, that the ayre drawne through the nose and spongy bone into the ventricles, is laboured and prepared for the nourishment and refection of the Animall spirites, as the ayre is prepared in the Lungs for the refrigeration & recreation of the vital spirits. Another vse sayth he of them is( but that onely a secundary vse) to serue for wayes whereby the excrements of the braine may be purged. Neither sayth he, is there cause why we should wonder that the same ventricles should hold the Animal spirits and serue also for the ablegation of excrements, seeing we know that Nature hath ordained the Nose first and primarily to be a meanes of smelling, and secondarily to call out the phlegme out of the brain and auoide the same.  
Wee sayeth Bauhine thinke, they serue to gather the excrements which are separated 
Bauhine.  in the nourishment of the Brain, the phlegme( for example there) engendred, and by their common passage to send it into the Tunnell called Infundibulum to bee conuayed away by the throate.  
Archangelus in this place maketh mention of a passage which is sayth he) is in the middest 
A passage to be obserued.  vnder the mamillary processes and hath a double issue, one directly into the ventricles wee speake off, the other into the pallate and so into the Lungs. This passage is knowne but to a few, neither can it be found but in a sound Brain when the man commeth to a sudden and vnlooked for end and is presently dissected; for the partes of the braine that are about this passage do in a short time so fall and close together that the passage is cleane obliterated.  
Hence Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of parts and the 10. Chapter sayed, that the ayre 
Galen explayned.  we breath in by our noses passeth vnto the heart, but a part of it getteth into the ventricles where it is prepared and made the nourishment of the Animall spirites. Columbus ascribeth the finding out of this passage to himselfe, but Archangelus taxeth him therfore. And so much of the two first ventricles.  
The third ventricle followeth, which is nothing else but the concurrence or meeting of the two former lengthned out somewhat backward. For the two former ventricles in their 
The 3. ventricle.  lower part vnder the Arch[ Table 10. fig. 5. STV] figure 6. AAA] do meet together in one place & there determine, being in their nether parts like a narrow path which runneth out backe ward a pretty length into the hindmost ventricle. This is called by Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of parts and the 12. Chapter, the common cauity or common place of the foreward 
Galen.  ventricles;[ Table 10. figure 6. vnder M I table 11. fig. 7. and 8. M] by others who doe deny the third ventricle it is called the perforation of the two former ventricles: others call it the third ventricle or the middle ventricle, because it is in the middest of the braine, yea and in the very Center of the marrowe betwixt the two forewarde ventricles and the fourth.  
This at the first sight is like a long slit or cauity,[ Tab. 11. fig. 7. and 8. ●] but more backward 
The forme of It after Galen.  it becommeth larger, and is discerned, part of it when the arch is drawne a little backward, part of it when the Testicles and the Buttocks of the braine are diuided in the midst. It tendeth directly from the forward ventricles vnder the arch, the testicles and the buttocks,[ Table 12. fig. 10. from I to K] toward the fourth ventricle[ Tab 12-fig 10. ● sheweth the end of it.] And this is Galens delineation of his passage in his 8. book of the Vse of parts and the 11. chapter, whereunto Vesalius, Platerus, Archangelus and Laurentius do subscribe, but Columbus maketh it shorter and sayth it endeth at the backeward passage neare to the Glandula pinealis. The figure of it sayeth Archangelus is vncertaine because there are many eminencies or inequalities in it.  
This third ventricle hath two passages, of both which Galen maketh mention in his 9. 
The two passages thereof.  booke of Anatomicall Administrations and the fourth Chapter, the one he calleth the vpper hole or the Tunnell, the other the great hole of the third ventricle, wee according to Bauhine will describe them thus.  
The one[ Table 11. fig. 7. and 8. I] proceedeth out of the middest of the ventricle and is 
The first.  reasonable large: it is caued in the substance of the braine and runneth directly downward toward the Bason which receiueth the phlegme at the Basis of the braine, and by it the phlegme of the two forward ventricles doth descend.  
The other passage[ Table 11. fig 7. and 8. K] which is the more backeward ( Laurentius addeth the larger also is not round in his originall although it be a part of the third ventricle 
Second.  which is round. Galen in the 9, booke of his Anatomicall Administrations and the 5. Chapter, thinketh that it hath a peculiar coate like that of the pia mater wherewith it is lyned. It runneth vnder the Buttocks[ Table 11, fig. 7. MN fig. 8. NOPQ table 12. fig. 19. DEFG] and 
Another passage.  the Testicles into the fourth ventricle aboue the beginning of the spinall marrow. Out of the lower and forward angle of this passage, as soon as it is gotten vnder the testicles, there issueth another passage[ Table 11. fig, 8. neare to K] farre narrower then the former, which passing slily forward through the substance of the braine, sinketh downeward and determineth in the end[ Table 11. fig. 8. I] of the first passage; out of both which ariseth an orifice[ Table 15. figure 20. D] which endeth in the Bason, and leadeth the phlegme out of the third ventricle. This Vesalius taxeth Galen for pretermitting, in the place next aboue named. 
Vesalius taxeth Galen.  Now whereas at the second passage there appeareth a certaine slitte or cleft, Columbus will needs liken the same vnto the lap or priuity of a woman.  
The vse of the third ventricle is to be a receptacle of the Animall spirit, which also is by 
The vse of the 3. ventricle.  Nature so quaintly formed( for Archangelus referreth all those resemblances of the arch, the buttocks, the testicles, the fundament, the womans lap and the yarde vnto the third ventricle) that it driueth them into the fourth ventricle.  
Aboue this third ventricle lyeth the Fornix or Arch called 〈◇〉, because in forme and vse it resembleth a crosse vault or arch. Columbus calleth it Corpus cameratum 
The Fornix or arch.  The vaulted body, which( saith he) is supported with 3. pillers. This arch is but one and lyeth vnder the Callous body almost in the middle of the braine but a little backward, and swelleth equally out of both sides thereof: for it is common to both sides of the brain. 
His names.  It groweth out of the backe part of the two vpper ventricles[ Table 9. figu. 4. the vpper L M 
And delineation.  Table 10. fig. 5. ST figure 6. BC] where they bow forward. VVhilest it is contayned within the brain it is a long and callous body, yet broader toward the backpart, but as it creepeth forward it groweth sharpe to his very end.[ Table 10. fig. 5. from S T to V fig. 6. from BC to the vpper A.] At that forward sharpe end[ tab. 10. fig. 6. at P] it is againe ioyned to the substance of the braine as also to the callous body; but in the middest and in the rest of his bredth it is free and at liberty[ tab. 10. fig. 5. XX.]  
The figure of it is Triangular but consisting of vnequall sides, so sayth Galen in his eight booke of the Vse of parts and the 11. Chapter. Vesalius and Laurentius call it semicircular, or 
His figure. Galen.  rather like a bridge whose backpart standeth vpon two knees, the forward vpon one. For first in the backpart it reacheth from one of the ventricles ouer to the other, and that side is short[ Table 10. fig 5. from S to T and fig. 6. from ● to D.] The two other sides are equall and somewhat longer, reaching from the backpart to the forepart[ tab. 10. fig. 5. from ● to V and frō T to Y fig. 6. from ● to the vpper A and from C to the vpper A] so that backward it hath two Arches and forward one, and standeth like a threefooted stoole vpon the braine.  
The substance of it is like the substance of the ventricles but somewhat whiter and harder, 
Substance.  like the substance of the callous body. It is no where compassed with the pia mater, and in the bottome where it archeth ouer the ventricle, it is free and at liberty not tyed to any of the adiacent parts.[ Table 10. fig. 6. AAA.] In the sides where it respecteth the two forward ventricles[ tab. 10. fig. 5. at LM.] it is supported, backeward with two props and forward with one; the superficies of it is smooth and moystned with a waterish humor.  
On the outside neare the originall it is gibbous, embowed[ tab. 10. fig. 5. ST] or conuex, and in the originall orbicular or round, that without payne( sayth Galen in the 8. de vsu partium and the 11.) or desease it might sustain the waight of the braine lying vpon it, that the common passage or third ventricle vpon which it coucheth, might be kept open and large and not compressed, because vnder it the two first ventricles do meete.  
In the length of it it swelleth a little in the middest like a broade line[ table 10. figure 5. ●●] by which it is continued with the partition of the ventricles called septum lucidum.  
VVithin it is hollow[ Table 10. fig. 6. AA] as well for the free passage of the spirits, as also that the vessell[ table 10. fig. 6. H I table 11. fig. 7. V arising from T] arising out of the fourth Sinus of the Dura mater and deuided into the two forward ventricles, might passe vnder it and not be pressed by the substance of the braine hanging ouer it. And thus much of the arch.  

Table 10. Figure 5. sheweth the same that the former Table did, sauing that the Callous body in the foreside separated from the Braine, and reflected backward, and torne from that partition which distinguisheth the ventricles, is heere more manifestly to bee perceiued, together with the Fornix or Arch of the Braine.  
Figure 6. sheweth the Arch loosned on the foreside and drawne backward, that the lower part and the vessels might better be seene.  
TABVLA. X.  
FIG. V.  
VI.  
Figure 5.  

RRR, The lower super ficies of the callous body reflected.  
STV, The triangular surface of the Fornix or Arch.  
XX, The lower part of the partition of the ventricles continuated with the Arch.  
YY, The vpper part of the partition continued with the callous body.   
Figure 6.  

AAA, The lower surface of the Arch.  
BC, Two corners of the Arch by which it is continuated with the ventricles.  
DE, The right and left ventricles.  
FG, Arterie climbing vp from the sleepy arteries thorough the lower side of the ventricles for the forming of the complication of vesselles which is called Plexus choroides.  
H, A vessel issuing out of the 4. Sinus vnder the Arch & passing into the third ventricle.  
IKL, The diuision of this vessell, a part whereof goeth to the right ventricle at K and another to the left at L.  
MN, The Plexus choroides made of the artery FG and the vessell H.  
OO, Small veines passing thorough the ventricles of the braine produced from the vessels K and L.  
P, Other veines arising from the same, dispersed without the ventricles into the pia mater.  
Q a passage from the third ventricle vnto the Bason or Tunnell.  
RS, Canales or Sinus grauen or furrowed in the substance of the ventricles in which the phlegme is led along to the orifice of the foresaid passage marked with Q.    
The Plexus Choroides hath his scituation in the forward ventricles[ Table 13. figure 13. Δ] 
The Plexus Choroides. The names.  betwixt them and the Arch, they are called 〈◇〉, because they are like the 〈◇〉 that is, the After-birth or membrane which compasseth the Infant. But by all Anatomists they are called Plexus Chore formes or Reticulares.  
They are complications of small vessels in the ventricles of the brain compassed with the pia mater[ Table 9, fig. 4. OO table 10, fig. 5. OO fig. 6. MN.]  

what it is.  How and of what vessels they are made is diuersly set downe by the Authours of Anatomy, and because it is a speciall matter and of subtile conuayance, I will not spare my 
Diuers descriptions thereof.  labour to set downe the diuers delineations of Archangelus, Laurentius, Vesalius, Fallopius, and Bauhine.  

Table 11. Figure 7. sheweth the Brain, wherein that part is taken away which made the vpper ventricles and did lie vppon the Cerebellum: here also the vessell led along from the fourth Sinus, is separated from the Plexus Choroides & so eleuated, that the third ventricle, the Sinus of the Dura Meninx, and the After-braine itself may better be descerned.  
Figure 8. sheweth the Braine yet further dissected and more of it taken away, so that the Testicles are diuided that you may see the passage of the third ventricle into the fourth, and the Cerebellum vncouered from the thick membrane.  
TABVLA. XI.  
FIG. VII  
VIII  

AABB, Portions of the braine remaining yet in the skull,  
CCC, The lines of the conuolutions of the braine toward the Basis thereof.  
DD, the Barke of the braine.  
EEE, the white marrow of the brain circumscribed with lines.  
FG, Parts of the sleepy arteries.  
H, the lower side of the third ventricle distended.  
I, the anterior hole of the third vētricle which goeth into the Tunnell.  
K, The posterior hole of the third ventricle which goeth vnto the fourth.  
L, the pine-glandule vppon which lyeth the venall vessell marked with V when it is in his proper scituation.  
MN, the Buttocks and Testicles of the brain.  
OO, A processe of the Dura Meninx betwixt the braine and the after-braine.  
PPQQ the first & second Sinus of the Dura Meninx.  
R, the Presse of the braine called Torcular, or the congression and meeting together of the foure Sinus.  
S, the beginning of the third Sinus.  
T, the fourth Sinus opened,  
V, a reflected and broken vessel of the fourth Sinus which runneth into the ventricles.  
XX, the Cerebellum or After-brain couered with the pia mater or thin membrane.  
Y, A passage from the fourth Sinus into the thin membrane where it couereth the after braine and the testicles.  
ZZ, the connexion of the thick membrane or Dura Meninx with the stony-bone, which contayneth the organs of hearing.   
Figure 8.  

AABB, That part of the braine which remayneth,  
CDE, the lines, the barke and the marrow of the braine,  
FG, Portions of the sleepy arteries,  
H, the forepart of the third ventricle,  
I, the hole vnto the Tunnel or Bason,  
K, Another hole from the passage L deriued to the first hole I,  
L, the backpart of the third ventricle descending to the fourth.  
M, the Pine-glandule depressed toward the side.  
NOPQ the testicles and buttocks of the braine.  
RR, the Cerebellū couered with the pia mater,  
SS, Certaine vesselles which do compasse the pia mater and do afford small branches  
TT, to the sleepy arteries,  
VV, the thicke meninx which did inuest the Cerebellum,  
xx, vessels from the Dura meninx sprinkled into the tenuis  
zz, the cōnexiō of the dura meninx to the skul.    
Archangelus thus: It is made of arteries( to which no veines are ioyned) creeping vp into 
Archangelus.  the ventricles through the inside of the braine from that admirable net or complication seated in the saddle of the wedge bone.  
Laurentius thus: It is a mazey laberynth of small veines and arteries running through the 
Laurentius.  parts of the pia mater as it riseth vpward.  
Vesalius and with him Platerus thus: It is wouen of a braunch of the fourth artery, and 
Vesalius & Platerus.  of the vessels proceeding out of the fourth Sinus of the dura Mater, and of the Pia Mater, and a duskish kinde of flesh.  
Fallopius in his Institutions more particularly thus. It is made of Arteries onely without any admixtion of Veines, partly of the Soporary Artery which also maketh the retemirabile 
Fallopius.  or wonderful Net, partly of Arteries which ascend through the transuerse processes of the Necke and go into the Braine by that large hole whereout the spinall marrow yssueth; and are led vnder the Basis of the braine, and do degenerate into Vesselles like Veines, which vniting themselues into one braunch doe approach forward to that place where the wonderfull Net is made by those soporarie Arteries, and being vnited with these do make the Plexus Choroides which passeth through all the foure Ventricles, & as it passeth thorough the third Ventricle when it commeth to the fourth Sinus of the Dura Mater it is ioyned thereto by certaine small and slender branches.  
Bauhine yet more particularly thus. It is wouen of vessels which arriue at the Ventricles 
Bauhine.  partly running from the fourth Sinus of the Dura Mater, partly of Arteries arising other-whence. For from the end of the fourth sinus of the Dura Mater[ Tab. 13, Fig: 13, ●] is formed a venall Vessell,[ Tab. 13, Fig. 13, i] which running through the middle ventricle is led along in the forward Ventricles.[ Ta. 13, Fig. 13, l m] So also another of a branch of the fourth sinus which goeth downeward and forward to the vpper Ventricles[ Tab. 13, Fig. 13, g] And another of a branch of the fourth Artery of the Braine which passeth into the Ventricles.[ Tab. 13, Fig. 13, A] All these Vessels are accompanied with a portion of the Pia Mater which embraceth them and knitteth them together; a reddish Flesh or Glandulous substance being scattered betweene them: which Vessels, Membrane and Flesh make the Plexus Choroides. This Webbe or complication ariseth from the Lower part of the Ventricle to the backe part of the Ventricles, and so passeth on till it meete with that Venall vessell[ Tab. 13, Fig. 13, from i to R] brought from the fourth sinus foreward thorough the third Ventricle where they ioyne together, and then it distributeth small branches through the substance of the Ventricles[ Tab. 10, Fig. 6. from F to G to ●● after to K L, then from I to H. Tab. 13, fig. 13, from A to s l I]  
In these complications are the Animall spirits concocted, attenuated and prepared, 
The vse of the Plexus Choroides.  Columbus( as he is alwaies his owne friend) brags that hee first found out the generation of the Animal spirits in this web: but Archangelus gaynsayeth him and quoteth Galen wherhe maketh mention of the same. He also thinketh that the Animall spirit is but inchoated in the Rete mirabile and perfected and absolued in this complication: but the power whereby it is perfected is from the substance of the Marrow of the Braine itself. And then that they are powred out from this Plexus into the forward Ventricles, and thence into the Organes of the senses. Platerus cannot admit of this vse of the Plexus, but saith, that because the inner substance of the Braine hath no such complications or gyrations 
Platerus his conceit of the vse of it.  as the outward hath, or vessels deriued vnto it; these Vesselles were by Nature ordained in the center therof, that by them it might receiue vital spirit and a proportion of blood, that as the outsides had aboundance, so the inside might not bee altogether destitute of life and nourishment. And thus farre of the Plexus Choroides.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Glandule called Pinealis, the Buttockes, the Testicles and the fourth Ventricle of the Braine.  
_IN the third Ventricle at the entrance into the fourth,[ Tab. 11, figure 7 ●] there is seated a Glandule or Kernell,[ Tab. 11, Fig. 7, I. fig. 8, M. Table 12 fig. 10, H] 
The Pineglandule.  resting vpon the foreside of the Testicles,[ Table. 11, fig. 7, MN] Tab. 12, fig. 10, ● D] and lyeth vnder the Venall vessel[ Tab. 10, fig. 6, H, I. Tab. 11, Sig. 7, V. Tab. 12, fig: 10, I] which springeth out of the fourth Sinus, 
Calfes heads fit to cut vp.  with which vessell also in Dissection it is easily drawne away from the Braine, for in men it scarse cleaueth to the substance of the Braine, but in a Sheep or Calfe it is continuall after a manner with the substance of the Braine: also in Beasts it is much larger then in men, yea not onely this Glandule but all the other partes and particles of the Braine are farre larger and more conspicuous in bruite beasts then they are in men: and therefore it is fit that yong men should bee initiated and exercised in cutting vp the braines of a Calfe or such like, that when they come to dissect a man they may not be too farre to seeke.  
The Figure of it is like a Cone, that is a round turbinated figure, much like the fruit of 
Table 12. Figure 9. Sheweth the Cerebellum drawne a little out of the skull aboue the Braine, that the lower surface thereof and the cauity of the spinall Marrow might better bee discerned.  
Figure 10. Wherein is shewed a portion of the Braine from which the spinall Marrow taketh his beginning, together with the Testicles, the Buttocke, the Pine-glandule and the fourth Ventricle.  
Figure 11. Sheweth a part of the Skull couered with the Dura Meninx, through which the opticke Nerues, the Bason and the sleepy Arteries do passe.  
Figure 12. Sheweth the Bason or Tunnell lifted vp, and 4. passages which leade the Phlegmatick excrements of the Brain from the glandule or kernell.  
TABVLA. XII.  
FIG. IX.  

AA, a part of the Braine left in the skull.  
BCD, Three parts of the Cerebellum reflected, incompassed with the Pia mater and growing to the marrow of the backe.  
E, The hindermost processe like to a worme called vermi-formis.  
FGH, the beginning of the spinall marrow falling out of the skull to H.  
I, the greater part of the 4. ventricle which is excauated or hollowed in the marrow of the backe.  
K, Vesselles deriued to the Cerebellum from those vessels which are emptied into the first and second Sinus.  
L, other vessels from the dura meninx, sprinkled into the pia mater.  
MN, the fift and sixt coniugation of nerues.  
O, the toppe of the fourth ventricle like the neb of a quill.  
PQR, The backeward bosome of the skull made to receiue the Cerebellum, which bosome is yet couered ouer with the Dura meninx.  
SS TT, the first and second Sinus of the dura mater.   
X.  
Figure 10.  

AA, Parts of the spinall marrow cutte from the braine.  
BC, the places where this marrow did grow vnto the braine.  
DE, the Testicles. FG, the buttocks, H, the pine-glandule.  
From I to K, a part of the third ventricle going to the fourth, vnder the Testicles.  
KLMN, A part of the fourth ventricle which is engrauen in the marrow.  
O, the top of the fourth ventricle.  
P, the place where the spinall marrow goeth out of the skull.   
XI.  
Figure 11.  

A B. Parts of the optick nerues.  
CD, the sleepy arteries. E, the Bason or Tunnell hanging downe.  
F, A hole or perforation of the Dura meninx, through which the Tunnell reacheth vnto the glandule.  
GG, parts of the second coniugation of sinnewes.   
XII.  
Figure 12.  

A, The Glandule. B, The Bason or Tunnell called Peluis or Infundibulum.  
CDEF, the foure holes thorough which the phlegmatick excrement issueth.   a Pine-apple, broade and round in the Basis, and growne smaller but keeping round to the top; and hereupon it is that it is called 〈◇〉, and Glandula Pinealis: some haue resembled it to the end of the Virile member, and therfore call it penis Cerebri, the yarde of the brain. Somewhat long it is, and the Basis sayth Vesalius resteth vpon the substance of the braine, but the top regardeth vpward.  
The substance of it is somewhat hard, rather sayeth Vesalius inclining vnto the nature 
Substance.  of a glandule then of the Braine, and couered with the thinne membrane. The coulour of it somewhat differeth from that of the marrow, as being a little yellowish. It lyeth vnder the vessell sayth Bauhine[ Table 10. fig. 6 H] which goeth to the third ventricle, from which vessell all the webs almost which are in the ventricles doe proceede: and hath the same vse that other glandules haue, which are placed vnder vessels, that is, to confirm their diuisions. For as soone as this vessell entreth into the third ventricle, it is presently diuided into many branches couered ouer with the Pia Mater; and therefore the glandule becommeth to them a strength and stay; but Archangelus denyeth this vse of it. Againe, it 
Vse.  hath another vse acknowledged by Vesalius, Platerus and Laurentius, and that is to keep the passage of the third ventricle open that it bee not stopped by the ingate of the fore named vessell, and so the Animall spirit hindered from descending into the fourth ventricle.  
Archangelus obseruing that this glandule was placed at the beginning of the middle or 
Archangelus his conceit.  third ventricle, out of which the spirit is transmitted into the ventricle of the after braine, thought that this glandule had the same vse that the Pylorus of the stomacke hath, to be a Porter as Galen saith to moderate the outgate of the spirits. But the the trueth is, that this 
Disproued.  Glandule can haue no such vse because it is no particle of the Braine, neither adhereth to the inward sides of the ventricle, but only lyeth vpon it on the outside; neither indeed doth it so nearely touch the passage as that it can stop the same. Indeede if it were a part of the brane( sayeth Galen) then it were more likely, that as the braine is dilated and compressed, the Glandule also should alter his position and somtimes open the passage sometimes shut it, but seeing of itself it cannot moue being no part of the Braine, this vse cannot bee attributed vnto it.  
Vnto the backeside of the Pine-glandule on either hand the third ventricle and vnder 
The Testicles and Buttocks.  the Arch doe leane foure[ Table 11. figure 7. MN figure 8. NOPQ, table 12. fig. 10. ●DFG] small bodies, which Galen in his eight Booke of the Vse of Parts and the 14. Chapter, calleth thinne and long eminencies of the braine, for they swell vp round and are somewhat hard. They are particles of the Brain and of the same substance therewith, but their colour apprcoheth nearer sayth Vesalius to the colour of the Braine there where it lyeth next to the Pia Meninx. In their lower part they grow out of the Braine, but aboue and at the sides they are not continued to any part of it or in it, but are onely couered with the Pia mater; but because they are scituate betweene the forepart of the After-braine and backside of the third ventricle they are better descerned when the Cerebellum is taken away.  
And because they carry the representation of two buttocks ioyned together, Galen in his 8. Book of the Vse of Parts and the 14. Chapter called them 〈◇〉 that is, small buttocks; and if you marke well the meeting of these two, and also cast your eye vppon the spinall marrow that descendeth by them, you will readily compare them to a mans thighes set close together. Others comparing thē to Testicles, had rather call them 〈◇〉 then 〈◇〉. Others, because these bodies are not separated into parts, but distinguished onely by anouerthwart line[ table 12. figure 10. betwixt ED and FG] do call those parts of them which are next to the Pine-Glandule[ table 12. figure 10. N] and vppermost, Testicles, and those that are lower, Buttocks: because in their lower and backward part[ table 12. figure 10. vnder ● and G] when the After-braine is remooued, the passage out of the third ventricle into the fourth conspicuously appeareth[ tab. 11. fig. 8. K table 12. fig. 10 aboue K] which passage resembleth the very fundament between the buttocks.  
The vse of these bodies is to sustaine the waight or bulke of the braine, least the third 
Their vse.  ventricle or the passage[ table 11. figure 7. 8. K table 12. figu. 10. IK] which goeth out of the third into the fourth should be compressed, and so the Animall spirit intercepted. Some thinke that these particles driue foreward the Pine glandule to shutte vp the passage of the ventricle: and Archangelus thus. The Testicles thrust forward the Gladule, and the Buttockes thrust forward the Testicles: for if you deuide these particles and enter a Probe at the backe hole of the third ventricle, you shall more plainly perceiue the other part of the third ventricle scituated vnder the Testicles[ Tab. 12. figure 10. I and K shew the whole third ventricle] which endeth into the fourth.  
The left ventricle which Galen in his 8. Booke of the Vse of Parts and the 12. Chapter, calleth the ventricle of the Cerebellum: Laurentius sinus quartus the Common Anatomists 
The fourth ventricle.  the fourth ventricle[ table 12. fig. 9. I fig. 10. LMNO with table 15. fig. 21. H] is scituate betwixt the After braine and the spinall marrow for it is common to them both: so sayth Vesalius It is compounded of the hollownesses of the Cerebellum and the Marrow of the backe, no otherwise then if you ioyne both your hands together and make one hollownes between them, or as Fallopius hath it in his Institutions. It is scituate in the back part of the Braine, betweene it and the Cerebellum where the beginning of the spinall Marrowe ariseth out of the braine, for in it it is for the most part formed. It is the least and the finest of all the Ventricles: the figure of it is round, but withall somewhat long after the fashion of an Egge. At the first it beginneth somewhat large and by degrees is straightned 
The Figure.  till at length it end in a sharpe corner. For the lower and chiefe cauity of this ventricle 
Calamus scriptorius.  is in the spinall Marrow[ Tab. 12, fig. 10, from K to O] hauing a hollownesse like a slit, which sinus Herophylus likened to the cauity of a writing pen, the end of it which is resembled to the neb of the pen arising on eyther side[ Tab. 12, fig. 10, N] like a wing. The vpper part of it is made of the After-brain and the pia Mater encompassing it.[ Tab. 15, fig. 21 H] For this Ventricle is lined with the pia Mater, before[ Tab. 11, fig. 7, XX. neere to MN] where it ioyneth the Cerebellum to the Braine and to his buttockes, behind[ Tab. 11, fig. 8. as it were ioyning E to ●] where it ioyneth the Cerebellum to the spinall Marrow.  
This Ventricle is not double but single, because out of it the Spinall Marrowe was to be produced as Galen saith: now the Spinall Marrow is single, for it had not beene possible, or if possible, it had not beene fit that one Creature should haue hadde a double Spine. The magnitude therof is conuenient to receyue the Animal spirits out of the forward Ventricles by the common passage or third ventricle and to communicate them 
The magnitude.  to the Nerues which vnder the head are distributed into the whole bodie, whence it was that Herophylus called this Ventricle Principalissimum, the most principall. Yet it is lesse 
Herophysus.  then the forward Ventricles, because( sayth Galen) it conteyneth a thing of more power and Faculty. In this ventricle Vesalius thought was the seate of the Memorie, but wee 
The vse of it. Vesalius his conceite disproued.  knowe and are able to demonstrate that no cauity of the bodye is the seate either of the sensatiue soule or of any of her Faculties, but rather the solid substance of the parts.  
This Ventricle we finde in Dissections( as also al the rest) to conteine in it a waterish moysture. The two forward beside this water conteyne also the Plexus Choroides[ Tab. 9. fig. 4. OO. Ta. 10, fig. 5, OO. fig. 6, MN] and the third the Venal Vessel[ Ta. 10, fig. 6, H, I. Tab. 11. fig. 7, V brought out of T] which is propagated from the fourth finus of the dura 
What euery one of the vētricles conteine.  Meninx, and maketh the plexus as we saide before more complicated. Many there are who thinke that all these foure Ventricles do conteine the Animal spirits laboured and perfected in the plexus Choroides.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the Tunnel, the Flegmaticke Glandule, the wonderfull Net, and the vse of the Braine.  
_AT the first or forward hole of the third Ventricle, or at the sides of that hole or orifice[ Tab. 11, fig. 7, and 8 l] we meet with a deepe cauity ioyned aboue to the Braine and made( as saith Galen in his ninth booke of 
The Tunnell.  the Vse of parts and the third chapter) of the pia mater compassing the basis of the Braine. For of this pia mater lengthned out is made a round processe or production,[ Tab. 15. fig. 20. CC] whose beginning is large and ample,[ Tab. 12, fig. 11, E fig. 12, B] but after is straightned into a pipe till it end in a long Fistule or quill( wouen with small but many veines) which through a proper hole[ Tab. 12. fig. 11, F] made for it in the Dura mater descendeth and determineth into the Pine-Glandule. This passage by Galen in his ninth Books of the Vse of parts and of Anatomicall Administrations and the third Chapters, as also by many that haue followed him, is called 〈◇〉 peluis the Bason. He calleth it also in the place before named 〈◇〉 Infundibulum the Tunnell, because in the top it serueth as a Tunnels top to admit the Humor, 
His Names.  and in the bottome like the pipe to let it out; for by this the thicker excrements of the Braine stored vp in the ventricles are receiued and transmitted to the Flegmaticke Glandule of which we shall speake by and by. Vesalius maketh the vpper part to be called 〈◇〉, and compareth it to a Bathing tub such as they vse in Hot houses. The neather part 〈◇〉, which cannot be better compared then to the pipe of a Tunnell such as they 
Vesalius.  run Beere with.  
Concerning the vse all Anatomists do agree; but Laurentius me-thinkes for the fashion and the vse compareth it best to such a bagge as wee call Manica Hippocratis in English commonly an Hippoccas bagge, because through it they run; Hippoccas which is called Hip. wine. Next to the bason followeth the flegmatick Glandule. Galen in his 9. book de vsu partium and the third Chapter calleth it simply 〈◇〉, that is, a Glandule. The seate of it 
Glandula pituitaria.  is vnder and without the Meninges at the end of the Tunnell in the saddle of the wedgebone. For this saddle or bosome of the bone was purposely made to receiue this Glandule: and therefore the forme of them both differeth little; for it is flat hollow aboue, gibbous below and almost foure square. The substance is Glandulous, but yet more compact 
His substance  and harder then other glandules. Thicke it is and compassed about with the Pia mater haply with that part thereof which maketh the Tunnell, and by this Membrane it is tyed to the bone and leaneth to two branches of the soporary Arteries called Carotides which creepe vp by the sides thereof.[ Table 12, fig. 12. CDEF] This Glandule receiueth the excrements in 
Vse.  manner of a sponge as they fall from the braine, which excrement it not onely emptieth into the palate, but also some fals downe by his sides through those holes which are bored in the Basis of the Scul. Neyther was Hippoc. ignorant hereof, who in his books de Glandulis & de locis in omine saith, that Humors fal out of the head through the eares, the eies, the nose; others 
Hippocrates.  by the Pallat into the throat & the gullet, some also through the veins into the spinal marrow and into the bloud: that is 7. wayes. For at the sides of this Glandule there are bored two holes in the bōe which descēd, one forward ending in that hole where through the 2. payre of sinewes is led, the other descendeth more backward and passeth by the sharp Cleft at the sides of that hole through which that notable branch of the soporary Artery ascendeth into the Scull, of which outlets we shall speake more at large in the History of the bones.  
And these are the wayes by which the phelgme is euacuated out of the braine. For the braine being great and large stood in need of much aliment, and because it is very moist & not very hot out of that much aliment many excrements do arise & are gathered therein; which excrements being of two kindes thinne and thicke, the thin do vapour out through the Sutures, the thicke are euacuated partly by the Nostrils as we haue saide already, partly by the Palate. For those that arise aboue the Ventricles and are stabled in the diuision of the braine are purged by the foreward hole and the Nose, and is called Mucus; we giue it a homely name but proper to it, and call it Snot.  
But those that are gathered in the ventricles do most what descend to the Tunnell and are auoided by the Palate, eyther by simple spitting which we call Rheume, or else by ercreation or hawking which we cal phelgme. And thus much of the Glandule & vse therof.  
The Rete mirabile or wonderfull Net which Galen( in the 9. booke of the Vse of parts & 
Wonderful Net.  the third chapter) calleth, 〈◇〉,[ Tab. 13, fig. 14,] that is, the Net like complication, hath his name from the artificiall figure; for it is made of the soporary arteries,[ tab. 13, fig. 14. A B] which arising vpward from the heart through the Chest climbe vnto the head 
Wherof made  and at the Basis of the Brayne neere the originall of the opticke Nerues, do make this web or Net. This net compasseth the glandule[ Tab. 13, fig. 14, ●] at the sides of the saddle of the wedge-bone, and is not like a simple Net, but as if you should lay many fishers Nets 
The vse of it.  one aboue another; wherein this is admirable, that the replications of one are tyed to the replications of another so that you cannot separate the Nets asunder, but they are all of them so wrought into one another as if it were a bodye of Net meshed together not into breadth onely, but euen into thicknesse also. In these according to Galen, the Animall spirits make long stay; which haue for this proper and immediate matter the vitall spirits raised vp in the arteries and heere wrought into Animall, from whence they are conueyed into the ventricles of the braine. For saith Galen( in his 9. booke of the Vse of parts and the fourth chapter) where Nature intendeth exactly to forme any thing she prouideth that it shall remaine some good space in the instruments of concoction. Some are of opinion that the vitall spirits are prepared in these small arteries, and some ( Archangelus for instāce) that the Animall spirits are inchoated heere and perfected in the Plexus Choroides, that hauing receiued their power and efficacy from the Braine & the marrow thereof, they might yssue into the ventricles and there be stored vp for vse.  
Vesalius affirmeth that this wonderfull Net is onely found in the heads of beasts, but we, saith Bauhine, haue beene able to make demonstration of it in all the mens heads we 
Bauhine. Vesalius.  haue hitherto cut vp, although we confesse that in Calues and Oxen it is much greater & more conspicuous. Now these three particles, the Tunnell, the Glandule and the Net cannot be demonstrated before the substance of the After-braine be taken away; and the 2. 
The way how to demostrate these parts.  latter not before the Dura meninx be dissected. Finally, before you make demonstration of these three, you must shew the spectators the Mamillary processes and the payres or coniugations of the sinewes, which otherwise in the search for these will be defaced.  

Table. 13. Figure 13. exhibiteth the vesselles of the Braine and their distribution, especially through the right side, whither they proceede from the internall Iugular veine, or from the sleepie Arterie, or from the sinus of the Dura Meninx.  
Figure, 14. sheweth the wonderful Net as Galen describeth it.  
Figure 15. sheweth the pituitary Glandule with the Bason and the sleepy Arteries.  
Figure 16. sheweth the Rete-mirabile or wonderfull Net, together with the glandule as it is found in the heads of Calues and Oxen.  
TABVLA XIII.  
FIG. XIII.  
XIV.  
XV  
XVI.  

A. The internall Iugular veine.  
B. The sleepy or Iugular artery,  
C. the first veine.  
D. the 2 veine which is led vnto the Sinus.  
E, the 3, creeping through the dura meninx  
F, the fourth running into the Sinus.  
G H, the 5 and 6 going to the dura meninx.  
I, the first Artery.  
Φ. A braunch of the same Artery running through the Muscles of the necke.  
K, the second artery reching into the sinus  
L, the third without a companion.  
r A small branch of the third Artery.  
M, N, the 1 & 2 sinus of the Dura Meninx.  
O, the congresse or meeting of both those sinus. PP, the 3 sinus of the Dura Meninx  
Q, The end thereof.  
R, the fourth sinus of the Dura meninx.  
SS, Branches of the first Sinus deriued into the Membranes neere at hand.  
TTTT, Branches of the third Sinus dispersed into the Pia Meninx.  
VV, the lower smal branches of the 3. sinus  
X X, the vpper, distributed through the Dura meninx.  
Y Y, certain surcles of the 4 Sinus sent vpward. aa, Others sent downward.  
b, the vpper passage of the fourth Sinus running by the Syth.  
cc, Surcles runing vpward from this passage  
d e, the right & left vpper branches of the fourth Sinus. f, The lower branch going to the Pia mater.  
g, A branch of the same pas●going forward  
h, The same bending backewarde to the Choroides reflected to the Cerebellum.  
i, A notable vessell into the which the 4. Sinus doth determine.  
K the vpper. The by-partition of this vessel in the braine.  
l, m, Two branches of this by-partition.  
n. A surcle reching to the organ of hearing  
ooo, the distribution of the 3 vein & artery,  
ppp, Surcles proceeding from the Brāches marked with o derined into the pia mater  
φ, The diuision of the third artery where it entreth into the scull. s. A braunch reaching to the hollownes of the nostrils  
t, the end of this in the extreamity of the, vessel. uu, 2 branches entring into the scul  
x. A branch deriued vnto the eie from the coition or meeting of the branches uu,  
e, A branch attaining to the pia mater.    
A, A brāch attaining to the right ventricle ♌ The complication of vessels called Plexus Choroides formed on either side of the branch marked with A. Fig. 14, A, B, Arteries climbing. the scull, and making this wonderful net. CD, Branches into which the surcles of that net are ioynedin to E, the pituitaryglandule or kernel of flegm Fig: 15. A, the Glandule receiuing the bason. B, the bason itself, or if you wil, the Tunnel called Peluis or infundibulum. CC, the sleepy Arteries. D, A branch of the artery going to the side of the Dura Meninx. E, Another branch of the same artery going to the nostrils. FF, An artery in one side diuided into 2 branches, but in the other side meeting togither againe. G, A partition of the artery creeping through the durameninx, H, Another branch which getteth out of the scull and reacheth to the eies. Figure 16, A The petuitary Glandule. B, C. The sleepye arteries going into the scull. D, D. The wonderfull 
Net. The vse of the Braine.  For the vse of the Braine. Aristotle( in his second booke de partibus Animalium and the 7. chapter) writeth, that the braine was made as a commō good for the behoofe of the whole Creature, to temper the feruour and heate of the heart; which opinion because it is sufficiently refuted by Galen in his 3. booke of the Vse of parts and the second chapter wee wil not insist long vpon it, only these two things we open. First, that the heart is sufficiently refrigerated by our perpetuall inspiration and expiration. Secondly, that if Nature had intended the brayne to coole the heart, she would not haue set them so farre distant, but placed it eyther about the heart or at least in the Chest: as well therefore might he haue saide that the Heele was made for the vse of the heart as the Braine.  
Wherefore we determine the vse of the braine to be, first for a habitation for the soule whereby she performeth her Animall functions, as well those that are principall as also 
Diuerse  those of sense and motion. Secondly, that in the substance thereof the Animall spirits might bee laboured, therein conueyed and from thence deriued into the body. For so saith Galen( in his 8. booke of the Vse of parts and the 13. chapter, and the 9. booke and the 
Galen.  4. chapter.) In the whole substance of the body of the Braine is the Animal spirit wrought and reserued, not onely in the ventricles: and in his 12. booke of Method the 5. chapter & the third de locis affect is and the 7. speaking of the falling sicknesse he saith, It is caused in the braine, the humor hindering the Animall spirits which are contained in the ventricles that they cannot yssue out. Thirdly, that the Nerues and spinall marrow might proceede from the marrow thereof, which is so manifest as we neede not cite the places of Galen to proue it. For the Nerues receiue from the braine as from a principle, as we say á quo and of dispensation, the Animal vertue and sensatiue soule which do reside in his substance and do distribute the faculties of sense and motion into the Organs or Instruments of sense & motion as it were through Channels hauing in thē the Animall spirits to conuey the same faculties.  
This Animall spirit although it performe many seruices, is one and the same; leading 
The Animall spirit.  all the faculties of the sensatiue soule through the Nerues into all the parts of the body: but the Instruments into which out of the braine it is powred into the Nerues are manifolde. Wherefore if they runne into the eyes which are the Organs of the sight they make Vision; if into the eares Hearing, &c. This Aristotle( in his second booke de generatione Animalium 
Aristotles Comparisons.  and the last text) elegantely declareth by the example of a Smiths hammer, for as the hammer is but one instrument yet doth many seruices according to the variety of the subiect vpon which it worketh; so is the spirit in the worke of Natures administrations; & as the beames of the Sunne are one and the same yet appeare diuers if they light vpon diuers coulers, so is it with the Animall spirits.  
The substance of the Braine although it be deuoide of Animall motion and sense( for 
The seate of the sensatiue soule.  it is not deuoide of Naturall) yet is it the originall of sense and voluntary motion which we may better perceiue if we consider that disease which we cal the Apoplexie. For those that are Apoplecticall although all their Instruments of the senses are perfect, yet because the Animal spirits are intercepted they haue no sense at all. For the originall of the spinall marrow being totally stopped, all the parts vnder it doe loose doth sense and motion: so also if the Nerue which is conueyed to any part be obstructed, that part is depriued of sense & 
Animall motion & sense.  motion. Hence it followeth that the braine is the seate and residence of the sensatiue soule, and the fountaine of sense and motion. Of sense, because it receiueth the impressions of all sensible things. Of motion because it dispenseth the knowledge of auoiding that which is hurtfull, and desire to follow after that which is profitable and behoouefull.  
As for Natural sense and motion there is a great question whether the braine haue them 
Natural sense  or no: and first for sense. Hippocrates( in his booke de vulneribus capitis) saith, that the braine hath present and exquisite sense about the Sinciput or sides of the head, because in this place the bone is the thinnest and most of the braine is there contained; beside, the skin of the head is there thinnest also. Moreouer saith he, the diseases of the braine are the most acute and dangerous, yea for the most part mortall and hard to be iudged of by those that are not very well experienced.  
Galen( in his first booke of the cause of Symptoms and the 8. chapter) saith, that the braine was not made by Nature an instrument with sense, but so that it is able to comprehend or 
Galen.  perceiue all those things by which it suffereth, as if he should haue saide, The braine is not made to be a particular instrument of sence, so as it can perceiue or apprehend colours onely as the eyes, sauours onely as the tongue, &c: But it is a common instrument of sensation discerning colours, sauours, smels, sounds and tactile qualities; and in a word all sensible obiects.  
Wherefore the braine feeleth vniuersally whatsoeuer is offered vnto it, not with choice as the eye which receiueth not the sound but onely his owne obiect and so in the rest. It remayneth therefore that the Naturall sence of the braine is none at all or at least so weak and dull as it is hardly perceiued, for in his substance there is rather a faculty of Touching then an instrument of Touch.  
Fernelius thinketh that all motion is from the marrow of the braine, and all sence from 
Fernelius his Philosophy about this.  his membranes; because the body of the braine is perpetually moued but hath no feeling at all: on the other side, his membranes are of themselues immouable especially the Dura mater, but feele very exactly. So in the Lethargy or Phrensie which are diseases of the substance of the braine there is no paine at all, but if a sharp vapour or humour be raised vp vnto the Meninges, then grieuous paine followeth. Moreouer the spinall marrow and all the nerues haue their marrow from the braine & that couered with the Meninges, al which haue the same and no other power or faculty then what they receiued from their original. wherefore the forepart of the braine is the beginning of Sence, the hinder part of Motion, but of Touching the Meninges or Membranes are the originall. Those nerues which are full of marrow are the instruments of Motion; of Touching, those whose greater parts are produced by the Meninges. And this is Fernelius his Philosophy concerning this poynt, but how consonant to reason we shall see afterward.  
Concerning the motion of the braine great difference there is among Authors. Galen in his 8. booke of the Vse of Parts and the second Chapter, sayth it hath perpetuall motion. 
The motion of the braine.  Vesalius denies it, answeres his arguments & addeth that he could neuer perceiue any such 
Vesalius against Galen.  motion either in great woundes of the head, or which is more in his dissections of liuing Creatures. Fallopius halteth in this poynt, he sayes it but hee dares not auouch it.  
Platerus thinks that those that say it moues, mistake the motion of the braine for the motion of the third Sinus, which beateth like an artery. Columbus, Archangelus and Laurentius, doe all consent that it moueth continually; and instance in woundes of the head. Laurentius 
Laurentius.  is so confident that he sayth he is a mad man and wants his sences that will deny it. To resolue vpon somewhat among so many opinions, we think; that the braine is not moued by any Animall or voluntary motion, but by a Naturall and that double: one proper of his owne, another from the arteries, albeit this last Archangelus doth deny, because those 
What we resolue of.  arteries that runne aboue are too small, but those that are in the bottom of the brain much lesse, yet it giueth the power of voluntary motion to other parts.  
This motion is proper and peculiar to the braine, for the generation, nourishment and expurgation of the Animall spirit, for it is dilated and againe constringed as may be seene 
The vse of the motion.  in wounds of the head where a notable part of the Scull is taken away, as also of the membranes sayth Bauhine. And in children new borne in the mould, the braine is so manifestly 
How the motion is discerned.  seene to beate and pant, that euen the bones which at that time are very soft are mooued therewith. When it is dilated it draweth out of the Sinus of the dura mater( some say out of the wonderful net or web of the soporarte arteries) vitall spirits and ayre by the nosthrils, for the restauration and preseruation of the Animall spirites, & when it contracteth itself it driueth out the Animall spirits laboured in his substance through the nerues, as through 
The Animal spirits.  pipes and canals into the organs of sence and motion, or as Archangelus hath it out of the foreward ventricles being contracted into the third and fourth, and so into the organs aforesaide: which spirites when they ariue in the particular parts they nourish the Animall spirits bred and fixed in those partes. For the Animall spirit floweth through the nerues into all the parts, not onely to be the conuayer of the sensatiue and mouing Soule, but also to giue nourishment to the Animall spirits fixed in the parts; and this spirit is the medium or Meane by which the Sensatiue Soule and al his faculties which are incorporeal are ioyned with the body. The outward parts because their instruments are farther off, stood in neede of nerues as it were Channels through which the Animall spirites accompanied by the Vital as it were by guides might be conuaied, but the inward parts because their instruments are neare and at hand needed no nerues, but receiue the same by blind and inuisible by-waies yet guided by the same Vital spirits.  
We haue also sayd that at the entrance into and at the out-gate from the heart there are 
A witty conceit of Archangelus.  certain Values or floud-gates set, and their vses wee haue allotted. Now Archangelus is of opinion that the Buttocks and Pine-glandule of the Braine doe here the same offices that the values did in the heart. For sayth he, in the dilatation of the braine the way out of the third ventricle into the fourth closeth itself, and beside is shut vp by the glandule falling betweene the Buttocks, that no part of the spirits can returne out of the fourth ventricle into the third. On the contrary, in the contraction the glandule is lifted vp and the Buttocks are diuided, and so away is made for the Animall spirit to flow out of the third ventricle into the fourth.  
Concerning the generation of Animall spirits there are diuers opinions; especially 
Diuers opinions of the generation of the Animall spirits.  seauen, one of Galen, another of Vesalius, a third of Columbus, a fourth of Argenterius, a fift of Archangelus, a sixt of Laurentius, and a seaueth of Varolius, to which Bauhine our author subscribeth.  
Galens opinion was, that they were made of the vitall spirite brought by the soporarie arteries 
Galens.  and of ayre breathed in, mary as for the place of their generation he seemeth to be altogether vncertaine; for sometimes hee assigneth the Plexus Choroides, sometimes the ventricles, sometimes the substance and body of the braine.  
Vesalius sayeth they are laboured in the right and left ventricle by a power and efficacy 
Vesalius.  receiued from the brain, and haue for their matter vitall spirits from the heart, & aire drawn in by inspiration ascending through the third ventricle.  
Columbus sayth they are made of ayre drawne by the nosethrils and altered in the cauities 
Columbus.  of the forehead bone and the wedge-bone, and carried through the pores of the spongy bone to the forward ventricles where it meeteth with the vitall spirit sent vpward from the hart by the soporarie arteries, & powred into the Plexus choroides which is in the ventricles; both which spirits and ayre, sayth he, by the perpetuall motion of the braine and this Plexus Choroides are exactly mingled, and of them the Animall spirits are generated in that Plexus Choroides which is in the ventricles, and this he sayth was his owne inuention.  
Argenterius will haue but one influent or moouable spirite besides the fixed spirites of 
Argenterius.  the particular partes, whose arguments shall be sufficiently answered in our Controuersies by Laurentius.  
Archangelus opinion is, that the Animall spirits are made of the vitall, changed by many 
Archangelus.  exagitations and alterations by the arteries which make the Rete mirabile and the Plexus Choroides, but receiuing his vttermost perfection in and by the substance of the Braine, & so becommeth a conuenient vehicle of the sensatiue soule. The processe of which generation he sayth is after this manner. There is an inchoation or beginning made in the Retemirabile, but the plenarie perfection is in the Plexus Choroides, yet that from a power or facultie of the marrow of the braine in which alone such power resideth; being so perfected they are powred out into the ventricles( which adde nothing to their generation) as into store-houses or places of receyte where they are kept to bee transported into the whole body.  
Laurentius thus, the Animall spirit is generated of the vitall spirit and the aire breathed 
Laurentius.  in; whose preparation is in the labyrinthian webs of the small arteries, & in the vpper or forward ventricles; but they receiue a farther elaboration in the third ventricle and their perfection in the fourth, and from thence by the nerues are diffused into the whole body: but he reprehendeth those that auouch that this spirit receiueth his forme and specificall difference in the webs before named.  
Finally Varolius and with him Bauhine and wee with them will resolue, first for their matter that it is arterial bloud aboundantly fulfilled with vitall spirits and ayre drawn in by the 
Varolius. What we resolue of.  nosethrils; for the manner wee say it is thus. The spirituous and thin bloud is sent vp from the heart by the soporarie arteries vnto the braine, and is powred out into the Sinus of the dura mater whilest they are dilated as is venall bloud out of the veins. With this is mingled ayre drawne by inspiration through the nosethrilles, and ariuing into the braine through the pores of the spongy bone. These substances thus mingled and mixed in the vesselles, 
Bauhine.  whilest they are carried through the conuolutions of the Braine are altered and prepared, purged also from phlegmatick excrement, which whilst it nourisheth the braine, the more subtile part is transfused into his substance, and there, that is, in the marrowy substance of the braine, it is laboured into a most subtile Animall spirite, and so is from thence by the same passages returned and communicated to the spinall marrow and to the nerues of the whole body. Neither saith Varolius is it necessary that these spirits should haue any cauities to be laboured in; and hee sheweth it by an example. When wee shut one eye the Animall spirit in a moment returneth vnto the other, so that it dilateth the ball or pupill of the other, and yet is there no manifest passage between them, sauing those insensible po●●s which are in euery nerue and also in the substance of the braine. And hereunto subscribeth also Platerus on this manner: the common opinion saith he, is that the Animall spirit is generated and contayned in the Plexus Choroides, which I cannot approue as well because 
Platerus.  these vesselles are so very small, as also because so many excrements of the braine fall through the ventricles. I thinke therefore that the Animall spirit is tyed to the substance of the braine, so that the braine is neuer without Animall spirites, neither can the Animall spirites subsist in any part without the substance of the braine: for what else is the inward substance of euery Nerue but a kinde of production of the braine compassed about with a production also of the membranes of the same.  
And thus much shall be sufficient to haue sayed concerning the vse of the Braine and the generation of the Animall spirit. Now wee proceede to the After-braine or the Cerebellum.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the Cerebellum or After-braine.  
_THat the whole Masse of the Braine is diuided into the Braine & After-braine we haue already shewed. The cause of this diuision Varollius taketh to be this. Whereas of those things which are apprehended by the senses there are two chiefe, differing much the one from the other yet both of them so immediately seruiceable to the vnderstanding that they cannot be substituted one for the other; wherof one belongeth to the Sight the other to the Hearing; and because there 
The reason of the diuision of the Braine.  is required to the perfection of sight the mediation of a moist and waterish body as we see in the eyes; therefore for their behoofe especially and of the visible Species which they admit, that part of the braine was made which is the softer and so great that it filleth almost the whole Scull; and this is called properly Cerebrum or the Braine. But because those Species which are apprehended by sound, or resounding; do require a kinde of drines in their Organ, as Hippocrates excellently acknowledgeth( for where there is only moysture there is little or no resonance at all): therefore vnder the braine in the backepart of the head there is ordained and scituated a lesser and faster portion which they call Cerebellum we the After-braine which as it is truely harder then the braine itself, so is it consequently dryer. And this is Galens opinion in the 6. chapter of his 8. booke de vsu partium where 
Galen.  he saith; that therefore it is harder then the braine because it produceth hard Nerues; albeit Vesalius, Columbus and Archangelus wil not admit any difference in their substances. 
Vesalius.  Wherefore the Braine itself was especially made for the behoofe of the eyes, & theyr obiects: the After-braine for the vse of resounding species or such things as were to bee 
Why the braine is aboue the after braine. The after-braine. Aristotle.  represented to the hearing. And because the sight is more excellent then the hearing, ministring vnto vs more difference of things, therefore it is seated aboue the braine.  
The Cerebellum or After-braine, called in Greeke 〈◇〉 and by Aristotle 〈◇〉, that is after the Braine; is as it were a priuate and small Braine scituated in the backe and lower part of the scull vnder the Braine[ Tab. 11. fig. 8. R R] from which it is separated: it is also couered with both the Meninges or Membranes, and is vnited to the spinal marrow for a little space where also it affoordeth a part out of itself to make the bulke of the same narrow. 
His connection.   
In brute Beasts it is round and acuminated or growing sharpe and taketh vp almost all the backpart of the head. It is continuated on eyther hand to the sides of the Braine by two orbicular or round portions:[ Table 11, fig. 8. neare H G.] But to the spinall marrow it is ioyned in the very middest, yet toward the backside,[ Table 12, fig. 9. ●] by the interposition of the Pia mater: And because the fourth ventricle should not there start open it is compassed with the thinne Membrane which is spred as farre as to the Buttocks.[ Table 11, fig. 8. betwixt O P and Q] It is separated from the braine that through the thicke Membrane the vessels might be securely conueyed into the depth of the braine.  
The forme of it is broader then long or deepe, and in the lower and backpart it resembleth a flat bowle, in the middest whereof there is a sharpe impression ietting out from the 
The forme of the after-braine.  bunch of the Nowle-bone; forward toward the buttocks of the braine it runs into a sharpe wedge hauing that figure because the place will admit no other.  
It consisteth of three parts, the right, the left, and the middle( which yet are not diuided 
The parts of it.  but continuated) because of the bunch of the Nowle-bone, of which we shall speake more particularly heereafter.  
The right and the left parts are like two bowles set together,[ Table. 12, fig, 9. B D] in the middest of which where the bowels do not touch, is placed the third part which is rounde and runneth as it were into a Ring from before backward, & maketh those processes which are called vermiculares. By reason of these parts it hath three-fold impressions, some ouerthwart 
Table 14. figure 18. Sheweth the Head on the left side somwhat raised from the right side, as also a part of the Brain( the After-Braine being remooued) remaining, and a little eleuated and reflected backeward, that the Instruments of smelling might be discerned.  
Figure 19. sheweth the Head set vpon the Nowle, that a portion of the Braine hanging backward, the Organs of smelling, the coition or meeting of the Optick Nerues and the Soporary Arteries might better appeare.  
TABVLA. XIIII.  
FIG. XVIII.  
XIX.  

AA, BB, the brain couerd with the pia mater.  
CC. The swellings of the braine called by some Mamillary processes.  
D, One of the organs of smelling remaining yet in his owne seate.  
E. The other togither with the braine reflected backward.  
F, the sinus: of the left organ of smelling couered here with the thick meninx perforated  
G, The partition of the organs of smelling.  
H. The sixt veine of the braine deriued into the dura meninx.  
I. The fift veine of the braine which goeth into the scull through the hole, ordained for the issuing out of the Nerues of the 5 coniugation.  
K. A part of the Syth groing to the partitiō  
L M N. The place or seate of the Cerebellum or After-brain.  
O P Q. The right, left and middle Sinus of the Dura meninx.  
SSS. The double Tabulature of the scull.   
Figure 19.  

AA, BB. A portion of the braine couered with the pia mater.  
CC. Those swellings of the brain which are called the Mamillary processes.  
D, E. The organs of smelling reflected togither with the braine.  
FFFF. The two vpper shew the bosomes of the scull in which the Mamillary processes do rest, the two lower shewe the bosoms or cauities of the organs of smelling  
G. A partition distinguishing these organes and their bosomes or cauities.  
H. the 6 veine doth here enter into the scull.  
I. The fift veine of the braine.  
K. A vessell like a veine running out of the dura meninx into the Tenuis.  
LL. The beginning of those passages which run by the sides of the dura moninx ioynd to the arteries after the maner of Veines.  
M N. The right and left optick nerues.  
O. Their coition or coniunction.  
P. A branch of the Soporary artery, perforating the Dura Meninx at the side of the Tunnell.  
Q. A branch of the Arterie reaching to the right ventricle.  
R. Another branch going to the Pia mater.  
S. The Tunnel receyuing the Phlegm of the braine.   and scored along through it; others running right downeward which are ioyned on eyther side as it were vnto a Center. For the lynes it hath are long and almost superficiary, yet diuided manifold and distinguished by the thin membrane running betwixt them. 
The Line.  The reason why they runne in the superficies or surface only is, because if they did descend deeper as we see in the Conuolutions of the Braine itself, they would perforate the Cerebellum euen vnto the ventricle. They are also manifolde that their plenty might supply 
Why superficiary.  their superficiall course; as for those long and winding contortions which are in the braine, in this After-braine they are not to be found.  
The substance of it is almost the same with the substance of the Braine itself, if wee take it freed from the Pia mater, excepting in the Basis of the Braine where the spinall marrow beginneth, which is harder then all the other parts, yea then the After-braine itself. For 
The substance  
Table 15. Figure 20. sheweth the head turned vppon the Eare, that the inner Basis of the Skull couered with the dura Meninx might be seene, there is also so much of the Braine and spinall marrow left, as serueth to exhibite the coniugations of the nerues of the Braine.  
Figure 21. sheweth the After-braine taken out of the Skull, separated from the spinall marrow, and lying with the lower side vpward: from which also the wormy processes are seuered.  
TABVLA. XV.  
FIG. XX.  
XXI.  

AA, a part of the marrow of the braine, together with the beginning of the spinall marrow.  
BB, a portion of the opticke nerues.  
CC, the Tunnel receiuing the phlegme  
D, a hole out of the third ventricle into the Tunnell.  
EF, branches of the soporarie arteries, attaining vnto the skul near the Tunnel.  
G, the second paire of nerues moouing the eies.  
H, the third coniugation, or the greater roote of the third coniugation.  
I, the third paire of nerues, after some the fourth.  
K, the fourth paire of the braine.  
L, the lesser roote of the fift paire.  
M, the fift paire of nerues of the braine.  
N, the beginning and surcles of the sixt paire of nerues.  
O, the beginning of the seuenth paire of nerues.   
Figure 21.  

AB, the right and left part of the After-braine.  
CD, the anterior and posterior regions of the middle part of the After-braine.  
E, the anterior wormy processe.  
F, the posterior wormy processe.  
GG, In this place the After-braine did grow to the spinall marrow.  
H, the cauity of the After-braine which with the cauity in the spinall marrow maketh the fourth ventricle.  
IK, the anterior and posterior processes of the braine, called vermi-formes or the wormy processes.   For this spinall marrow neither in colour nor in hardnesse is answerable to the Cerebellum, because the After-braine is yellower or rather more Ash-coloured, being no where white but in the surface of his ventricle; but the spinall marrow is exceeding white, as also is the Basis of the Braine which giueth beginning vnto it.  
The quantity of the After-braine is much lesse then that of the Braine. The Braine being 
The quantity.  as sayth Fallopius foure times, as Vesalius would haue it, tenne times as bigge as the Cerebellum.  
In the middest thereof it hath a broad Sinus or hollownesse not very deepe, which maketh 
The Sinus.  as it were the roofe or vpper side of the fourth ventricle, for the rest of it is couered with the thin membrane;[ Table 15. fig. 21. H] with in ward it hath no cauities as hath the braine, because it neither aboundeth with so many excrements, and those it doth gather, it easily turneth downe on the out side.  
It hath two processes ( Platerus reckons foure)[ Table 15. figu. 21. CD] which because 
Platerus. Galen.  they are like to wormes in rotten wood, Galen in the 14. Chapter of his 8. Book de vsu partium calleth vermi-formes excrescentias, VVormy processes, one of which regardeth the 
The wormy processes.  foreside, the other the back of that ventricle which is common to the After-braine and the spinall marrow. These processes are diuersly orbiculated or rowled vp, consisting of many particles, not oblique or right but transuerse, coupled together by the pia mater or thin membrane, whose end or top is embowed and thinne( which Aurantius calleth the pease) and entreth the cauity which they call the Cisterne, yea into the fourth ventricle.  

Aurantius.  Archangelus maketh this wormy processe not as Galen would haue it, to be of the substance 
Archangelus, his opinion of the substance of the wormy processe.  of the braine and a part thereof, but a long membranous body, being indeede nothing else but the pia mater corrugated or foulded together, which in the dilatation of the braine is necessarily extended: but in the contraction is corrugated or crumpled vp like a worme.  
For because( sayeth hee) the braines of those that die are contracted and fall into themselues, it necessarily followes that after death the membrane must in that part bee contracted.  
It appeareth also thicker then otherwise the crumpled membrane would, because being scituated in a low part, it receiueth the moysture there collected and encreafeth with that additament. VVherefore sayth he the worme as it is a worme is of no vse at all. But to returne.  
VVe sayde these wormy processes were two, the first which lyeth on the forepart[ tab 15. figure 21. C] neare the buttocks is thought by Galen in the 5. Chapter of his 9. Booke 
The first processe.  of Anatomicall Administrations, to keepe open the passage of the third ventricle into the fourth; albeit Vesalius taxeth Galen for assigning that vse vnto it. Galen also in the 14. chapter of his 8. Booke de vsu partium sayth further, that this processe when it is extended ouer the foresaid passage doth wholly obstruct or stop the same; but if it be reflected backward 
Galens vse of the wormy processes.  and rowled vp, his imbowed parts do draw the membrane to them adioyned, and the passage is so farre opened as way is made by that retraction. For as it is reflected and rowled round, by howe much the length of it is diminished by so much the breadth is encreased; wherefore it behoued not, that these processes should be either too thicke or too thin: not too thicke, for then they could not haue exactly closed the passages because they should haue had no slender parts which might haue insinuated themselues into the narrow straits of the passages. Againe, if they had beene too thin, the passages before said could neither haue bin exactly shut nor well opened.  
And least these processes should altogether fall into the passages, Nature hath on eyther side bound and conioyned them to the buttockes with slender bodies which the Anatomists call Tendines proceeding from the thinne membrane; which membrane being extended to the hinde-most ventricle maketh the end of this processe. And this is Galens Anatomy concerning these processes, and deserueth well to beconsidered of, especially if we make our dissection of the head after the ordinary and accustomed manner.  
The other processe[ table 15. fig. 21. FD] which is the hinder, and from behinde inclineth 
The 2 processe.  forward, doeth not beare out as the former did, but his poynt is rather hid in the substance of the Sinus of the After-braine.  
The vse of the first is to vsher the spirits; of the second that the way or passage of the fourth ventricle( which Galen in the 11. 12. and 13. Chapters of his 8. Book de vsu partium calleth the ventricle of the Cerebellum) might not be obstructed by the After-braine pressing 
Their vse.  vpon it. But we are of opinion that this is the common vse of both the processes, because this passage( so often now mentioned out of the third into the fourth vētricle) ought neuer to be shut but to remaine alwayes open that the Animall spirit might haue perpetuall free insluence into the spinall marrow. Platerus thinkes that this vse is common to all the foure processes( for hereckoneth foure.) But Vesalius assigneth to them no other motion or office then to the rest of the substance of the Cerebellum, but if you aske his reason, I thinke it was onely that he might gain-say Galen.  
At the sides of these processes we meet with two other portions which are continuated to the spinall marrow[ table 15. fig. 21. GG.]  
The vse of the After-braine( as saith Galen in the 6. Chapter of his 8. Book de vsu partium) is that from it the harder nerues might haue their originall: which notwithstanding Vesalius and Columbus doe deny. Archangelus and Platerus esteeme it to be of the same nature 
The vse of the Cerebellum.  with the braine and adorned with the same faculties. Galen thinketh that the Animall spirit being contained in the whole substance of the braine, not only in the ventricles thereof, is in great quantity treasured vp in this After-braine, as being to be the original of all the sinewes which were to bee distributed into the whole body: and that those middle distances which tye together the parts heereof; are the paths and wayes wherein the Animall spirits disport themselues.  
Finally, Varolius conceiueth,( which we partly touched before) that the Braine was especially 
Varolius.  made for the eyes and the visible obiects. The After-braine for the eares and resemblances of sounds to be conueyed vnto them.   

CHAP. XV. Of the spinall Marrow or pith of the Backe.  
_THE name of Marrow is properly attributed to that substance which is simple and vniforme, moist, fat, white, without sense contained in the Cauity of 
What true marrow is.  bones and hath his original from the bloud; which through the veines slideth by secret pores and passages into their hollownesse or spungy sides. It becommeth white and as it were spermaticall by a mutation it receiueth from the bones, because in them it is stored to be their proper nourishment and to refresh them when they are heated and dryed by motion or other violent causes.  
But of this marrow we do not intreat at this time: the name is improperly giuen to the Braine also and the pith of the Backe: For the Braine itself is called 〈◇〉 medulla 
Why the Braine is called marrow. Plate.  cerebralis the Marrow of the Braine, because saith Plato the substance thereof is marrowye, although there be great difference betweene them, for that it will not melt and consume as marrow doth, and beside is inuested or clothed with both Membranes the thicke and the thin meninx.  
Moreouer to distinguish it from ordinary marrow, it is called by Galen 〈◇〉 Spinalis. By Hippocrates in his book de Carnibus, 〈◇〉 Dorsalis, by others Ceruicalis and Lumbaris, 
The names of the pith.  because it descendeth through the Neck, the Backe and the Loynes, and filleth the whole spine or Ridge-bone.  
Now there is a double acceptation of the Spinall marrow, for in the larger signification it signifieth the whole marrow of the Brain lengthened out, one part wherof is yet contained in the Scull,[ Tab. 17, fig. 1. from D to E] the other continuall with the former yssueth at 
A double acceptation of the spinall marrow.  the great hole of the Nowle-bone and descendeth to the very end of the ridge.[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. from A to H]  
But in a strict & more proper acceptation it betokeneth that part of the marrow which without the Scull is contayned in all the racke-bones or vertebrae of the spine or chine.[ ta. 16. fig. 1. is an expresse Image of it] Wherefore that it may bee free from all ambiguity, the history thereof is on this manner.  
That which is commonly called the Braine, that is, the whole substance included within the Scull we haue diuided into the Shell and the Kernell or Marrow. For these two differ in colour and consistence. That which on euery side compasseth the marrow is Ash-coloured; 
The parts of the Braine.  the marrow itself is white and of a more solid, fast and compacted substance: and these two parts in greene or fresh heads are distinguished by many oblique lines, so that with a raysor they may be separated if a man haue a steddy and cunning hand, yet not without breaking both the substances; so that Archangelus said well, that the white was drowned in the Ash-coloured as the christalin humor of the eye is in the glassie; and as the 
Archangelus. An elegant Comparison.  glassie humor is esteemed to be the Aliment of the christaline, so the Ash-coloured substance may well be thought to be the foode of the white, because the Ash-coloured appeareth so to be by reason of innumerable veines disseminated through it.  
The marrow itself may be said to be double, one Globous or round, the other Long. The Globous part which is like the figure of the Scull, is of a great bulke and therein are 
The marrow double. Globous.  ventricles excauated or hollowed. At this and continuall with it hangeth the other called Cerebellum of which we haue intreated in the Chapter going before according to the receiued opinion of Anatomists.  
The Long marrow of the Braine which is like a Pith or staffe may bee diuided into that part which is contained within the Scull, and that which is yssued out which properly is 
Long.  called the spinall marrow; although some there are that giue this name vnto all the Long marrow of the Braine as well within the Scull as without; and this is it of which wee now speake.  
The Spinall Marrow therefore according to this large signification taketh his beginning 
The originall of the spinal marrow. ( as Galen saith in the tenth chapter of his 8. book de vsu partium) from the backe ventricle of the Braine; for he thought it nothing else but the Braine lengthened, which may seeme to agree with the Scripture which calleth it The siluer cord. And this, hee saith in the 
Ecclesiastea.  twelfth chapter of the former book, is continuated onely with the Braine at the Basis therof.  
There be many opinions of the originall of this spinall marrow, we will reckon vnto you the most notable.  

Diuers opinions. Hippocrates opinion. Galen. The common opinion. Vesalius. Archangelus. Platerus.  The first is that of Hippocrates in his booke de Carnibus, where he saith in general words that it ariseth from the Braine. Galen more particularly and distinctly from the hinder ventricle of the Braine. The common opinion is that it ariseth out of the Cerebellum or After-braine. Vesalius saies from the Basis or foundation of the Braine. Archangelus from the Globous part of the marrow of the Braine, betwixt the Braine itself and the Cerebellum; for those that say it hath a double beginning say as much as nothing. Platerus thinketh that it proceedeth like a new Long Braine from the Basis of the other and receiueth increase of strength from the Cerebellum also. Columbus saith it is nothing else but a Long 
Columbus.  Braine hauing a double beginning, the one greater from the braine itself, the other lesser from the after braine. The beginning it hath from the braine is but single, that it hath from the after-braine is double and as it were forked into a right and a left. The greater originall is from the forepart of the braine but a little distant from the Region of the Opticke sinewes, and therefore, saith he, I am constrained to confesse that the 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. paires of sinewes do not arise from the braine but from the spinall marrow.  
Varollius who indeed was excellent in dissecting of the head saith, that there yssue from the braine and the Cerebellum foure roots making one notable trunke which they call the 
Varollius.  spinall marrow, out of which do yssue Nerues deriued vnto all the parts of the body. Laurentius is also of the same opinion. The truth is, that it is a production as well of the braine itself as of the after-braine out of which it proceedeth as a stemme from the roote, which 
Laurentius.  we shall more particularly shew afterward.  
This spinall marrow lying vnder the Cerebellum to which it is continewed, taketh vp 
The seimatiō  that hollownes of the Scull which is aboue the great perforation or hole in the bone of the Nowle or backpart of the head; and the beginning thereof for the length of foure fingers 
and proportion thereof.  breadth cleaueth to the braine within the Scull,[ Table 17, fig. 1. from D to F] the latitude and depth of that originall are so aequall that it appeareth almost circular neere the quantity and forme of an Hens Egge as Archangelus saith; and from this originall those Nerues which are accounted the proper sinewes of the braine together with the Organs of smelling are produced and deriued into the Instrument of the fiue senses as Varollius, Plater, Archangelus, Laurentius, and Dominicus do ioyntly agree.  
But the spinall marrow properly so called or the other part of it which is continuall with the former[ Table 16, fig. 1.] is wholy without the Scull. For when the marrow of 
The spinall Marrow properly so called.  the braine now lengthened attaineth vnto the great perforation in the Nowle-bone[ Tab. 13, fig. 17. H] it discendeth and passeth along through the holes of the racke-bones euen to the end of the os sacrum or holy bone. It passeth I say through the bones themselues, least being soft and like the substance of the braine as Galen speaketh, it should in the length 
Galen.  of his production suffer violence by those things which might light vpon it, whereas now the bones are as it were a safe conduct and firme defence thereunto all the way that it passeth.  

His course.  And hence it is, that the Graecians call this perforated part of the spine, 〈◇〉 sacram fistulam the holy pipe. Sacred or holy because it containeth a principall part, and a pipe because it is as it were fistulated or bored, through which Cauity such a substance is transported as where from all the other Nerues are produced.  
It is inuested or clothed with three membranes which Hippoc. in his booke de Arte calleth 〈◇〉. The first of which, according to Galen, arisieth from a strong ligament exactly fastening 
The 3. Membranes of the Marrow. The first.  the foreparts of the vertebrae or rackebones, which ligament in the backpart determineth into a Neruous and strong coate, least in the bending or extention of the spine it should be broken or offended by the bones; because it is contained not as the braine in any immouable bone, but in rack-bones, which are not only moued but also sometimes somewhat dislocated. Wherefore the Nerues also which arise from the spinall marrow properly so called( least they should bee offended by the hardnes of the bones through which they passe) are clothed beside the two Menings with this third coate also.  
About this is a thicke and slimy humor powred, as also about all the ioynts and parts 
The vse of the humor.  that were to be moued; least being ouer dried they should suffer paine, and so their actions or functions be interrupted; which wisedome of Nature men doe imitate when about the Axle-trees of Carts and Coaches they smeare a soft and viscous grease that they might more currantly moue.  
The second membrane ariseth from the dura mater or hard Meninx; the third from 
The second and third Membrane.  the pia mater or thinne Meninx[ Tab. 16. figure 1. expresseth the coates ioyned together] which two are not separated as they bee in the braine: moreouer the thicker secureth the marrow from the bones, the thinner infoldeth his vessels and closely bindeth together his soft substance, for through the thinne membrane the veines and arteries which nourish 
The vessels of the marrow.  the marrow and supply it with vitall spirites are conuayed; which vesselles we haue obserued to proceede from the veines and arteries of the loynes as wee haue already shewed in the third Booke.  
The substance of this spinall marrow is all one with that of the Basis of the braine, or rather of the globus marrow. VVherefore it is somewhat hard, compacted and white, yet 
His substance.  so that it is much harder then the braine itself. And Galen in diuers places of his ninth 
Galen.  Booke de vsu partium sayth, that this spinall marrow is the originall of the harder nerues, as the forepart of the braine is of the softer: for to the strength of motion a harder production was more behoofefull; and for the exactnes of sence a softer. Note againe that the further it is distant from the braine, by so much it is harder and more compact; neither is it answerable to the colour and hardnes of the Cerebellum. For the Cerebellum or After-brain is onely white in the surface of his ventricle, other-where it is yellowish or Ash-coloured; but the spinall marrow is very white most like to the marrow of the braine, sauing that it is without any contortions or conuolutions, because it is made onely to receiue and not further to labour that it hath receiued.  
VVith the Braine it hath these things common; first his substance; secondly that it is an 
What it hath common with the Braine.  originall of sinewes ( Ga. addeth of all sinewes) and is compassed with both the Meninges. Yet heerein they say it doeth not communicate with it, because the braine( though it bee contayned within an immouable bone) yet beateth and is moued; wheras this marrow albeit be contayned within mouable spondels or rack-bones is not itself at all moued. But if that motion bee in the substance of the braine by an in-bred faculty, and the spinall marrow hath the same nature and substance that the braine hath, me thinks it should bee reasonable that this marrow should be moued in like manner as the braine is moued, albeit our sence is not apprehensiue of it. And truely Archangelus conceiueth that it hath a motion, and when it is dilated receiueth Animall spirits from the fourth ventricle, and when it is contracted powreth them againe forth into the nerues which arise there-from.  
The figure of it is long, thicke and large at the originall,[ Table 17. figure 1. from D to 
The figure.  ● tab. 16. fig. 2. from A to B] and though being gathered together it become somewhat narrower, yet is it not( as some thinke) by little and little continually attenuated till it come to the extremity of the os sacrum: for as far as the vertebrae of the loynes[ table 16. fig. 1. from ● to ●] it keepeth an equall thicknesse almost; although Galen and Vesalius did thinke that it was consumed as it sent more nerues out from it. Fallopius in his obseruations and Platerus doe not thinke that it groweth lesse at all. Yet we must needes acknowledge that we find it fuller & thicker in the neck whence those great nerues issue which are dispersed through the armes,[ Table 16. fig. 1. from I to K] and in the loynes whence proceede the great nerues of the loynes which descend vnto the thighes;[ tab. 16. fig. 1. from B to C] and that afterward when it commeth nearer to the os sacrum his marrowy substance is somewhat abated.  
A cauity or Sinus there is formed in it presently after his originall whilest it yet remaineth 
His cauity. Calamus scriptorius.  within the Skull; which is like a writing pen, and therefore it is called Calamus scriptotorius[ Table 12. fig. 10. MNO] for it is hollowed into a poynt or neb becomming lesse by degrees, because in that place there are no more excrements.  
This cauity maketh the middle part of the fourth ventricle of the braine; for the rest of the ventricle is formed by the After-braine[ table 15. figure 21. H] at which place the After-braine is ioyned to this marrow.[ Table 15. fig. 21. GG is ioyned to BC as also in the 12. tab. and fig. 10.] Archangelus conceiueth that this cauity is vnder the fourth ventricle and continued 
Archangelus.  with it, and that out of the fourth ventricle into it the Animall spirits doe flow, and that from this cauity they are distributed most what into all the fiue sences.  
And although the marrow be but single and seemeth to haue no manifest cauity, yet in the very middest it is deuided into two parts by the thinne Meninx as far as to the rack-bones of the loynes; so that on either side there appeareth a little cauity which may not onely be demonstrated in the marrow of an Oxe if it bee lightly boyled, but also as sayeth 
Table 16. Figure 1. sheweth the true forme of the spinall marrow properly so called, together with his membranes & the nerues proceeding from the same.  
Figure 2. sheweth the spinal marrow naked & bare, as it appeareth both within the Skull & without, together with his nerues as most part of the Anatomistes heretofore haue described it.  
TABVLA. XVI  
FIG. II.  
FIG. I.  

A, The beginning of the spinall marrowe where it fals out of the skull.  
B, the thicknesse thereof in the spondels or rack-bones of the loynes.  
C, the diuision thereof into strings, or hairy threds.  
D, the seauen nerues of the necke.  
From D to E or from 7, to 19, shewe the nerues of the backe.  
From E to F, the nerues of the loynes,  
From F to G, the nerues of the os sacrum or holy bone.  
H, the end of the marrow.  
I K L, doe shew howe the nerues doe yssue from the marrow in strings.  
MM, the knots of the sinewes made of the coniunction of those strings.  
N O, the membranes that inuest the marrow.   
Figure 2.  

A, the beginning of the spinall marrow in the skull.  
3, 4, 5, 6, 7. These Characters shew( according to Vesalius opinion) how the cōiugations of the nerues of the braine doe take their originall from the marrow remayning yet within the skull.  
B, the egresse of the spinall marrow out of the skull.  
C, the cords or strings whereinto it is diuided.  
D 7, the marrow of the neck and seuen paire of sinewes.  
E 19 twelue pairs or coniugations of nerues proceeding from the marrowe of the Chest.  
F 24, the marrow of the loynes and 5. paire of sinewes.  
G 30, the marrow of the holy-bone and 6, paire of sinewes.  
H, the extremity or end of the spinall marrow.   Platerus in a mans, because it may bee parted asunder without laceration. Archangelus thinks this cauity to be sufficiently manifest to the eye; we are sure to the vnderstanding it is most apparant, by that we finde in those that are troubled with the Palsie, in whome sometimes one side sometimes another is alone affected. Howsoeuer the marrow appearing simple and vndeuided passeth through the whole necke and the Chest euen vnto the loines and lower;[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. from A to B] and in his passage it scattereth nerues out of his sides: afterward, that is, at the rest of the loynes it is no more simple but deuided into many smal threds and filaments, very much resembling a horse tayle and so runneth on to the end of the os sacrum. For as it began with the spine( wee meane the marrow properly so called) so it determineth therewith, sometimes simple sometimes deuided into three short surcles. For 
How it may be saide to be deuided and where.  it was necessary that in that part where the spine was especially curued or bent backward or forward, it should be diuersly diuided that it might not be compressed by the vertebrae. Hence the reason appeareth why a hurt or annoyance in the lower part of the spinall marrow is worse and more dangerous then in the vpper, because below it is more Neruous aboue more marrowy.  
Now although the Nerues yssuing from the spinall marrow be almost infinite, yet according 
Whereof his nerues are made & how they yssue.  to the number of the out-lets or holes of the vertebrae they are said to be so many coniugations as the vertebrae haue holes. For euery Nerue doth indeed consist of many hairy strings or marrowy fibres, which by the helpe of the Membranes at the holes of the vertebrae are conioyned and making as it were a knot do yssue outof the bone; so that one Nerue seemeth to be made of one propagation,[ Table 16. the first figure sheweth it at L L] which thing as it is true in those Nerues which proceede out of the Marrow whilest it is simple and angle, so is it also in them which after the diuision are distributed into the lower parts.[ Table 16, fig. 1, at M M]  
To put an end to our discription of the spinall marrow, we will take leaue to insert in this placea description therof out of Rondeletius and Laurentius which is on this manner 
Rondeletius.  All the Nerues,( saith Rondeletius) which no man before me hath obserued, are diuided frō the very beginning of the spinall marrow in the Brain. Wherfore the cause of the Paralysis or Palsie doth not so much proceed from the marrow of the backe as from the very heads of the sinewes; & thence it is that Galen so often repeareth that the Palsie hapneth when the heads of the sinewes are eyther obstructed or resolued. Thus Rondeletius hath it in his chap. of the Palsie. Laurentius thus: All Anatomies haue hitherto beene ignorant of the originall and propagation of the Nerues of the spinall marrow; for they al thinke that the nerues 
Laurentius.  of the necke come onely from the marrow of the necke; the nerues of the backe from the marrow of the backe, and of the Loynes from the marrow of the Loynes. But how miserably they haue bin mistakē, is conuinced by a new and vnheard of obseruation of mine own. Separate therefore the marrow from the rack-bones but keepe it whole, then take from it both the Membranes wherewith it is compassed, cast it into water and shake it a little, and you shall perceiue that the whole marrow from the top to the bottome is made of innumerable surcles and filaments, like a Horse tayle composed of infinite hayres; and that the 
A hard probleme explained.  nerues of os sacrum do arise from the same beginning with the nerues that are aboue. This new and admirable obseruation maketh plaine an obscure probleme, why, when the marrow of the neck is offended the motion of the thigh is sometimes taken away, when as the motion of the armes and of the Chest is not at al vitiated; thus far Laurentius. To conclude.  
The vse of the spinall marrow properly so called, is saith Galen in his twelfth booke de vsu 
The vse of the spinal marow  partium, that from it as from one other brain there should proceed many nerues as it were small riuerets which might conuey the Animall faculty, sense, motion and the Animall spirit; which they receiue by continuation from the braine( to the parts vnder the head) excepting those whereto are transmitted certaine propagations from the sixt payre[ table 17 fig. 1, and 2, e] of the marrow of the braine, which also are disseminated through the middle and lower bellies. For, because it was no safe, in consideration of the length of the way, that all the nerues should be transported vnto the inferior parts from the marrow of the braine contained in the Scull; and yet it was necessary that those inferior parts should be supplyed with voluntary motion and sense to apprehend annoyances: it was most requisite that from this marrow, as from the braine elongated or produced, those sinewes should be deriued; for if a man had wanted motion hee had beene more like an Image then a creature. And thus much of the vse of the marrow properly so called. But if you take it in the larger signification, then the vse of it is, that from it where it is included within the Scull on both sides should yssue seauen Coniugations or payres of nerues,( as is commonly thought) we say eight, which are called the nerues of the braine,[ table 15, fig. 20, ● G H I K M N O] together with the Organs of smelling.[ table 14, fig. 19, D ●] But as it consisteth in the spine without the Scul there are produced there-from thirty paire[ table 16, fig. 1] euen al the nerues that passe through the whole body. And thus much of both the braines and the spinall marrow, now it followeth that we should intreat of the nerues yssuing there-from.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Nerues of the Braine, and first of the Organs of smelling, called Processus Mammillares.  
_THE Nature of the Braine, the After-braine & the Spinall Marrow being thus manifested, it remaineth that we should speake of the Nerues proceeding frō 
The 5. senses.  each of them; and first of the Nerues of the braine. Whereas therefore there are fiue outward senses, the Sight, the Smell, the Hearing, the Taste and the Touching, which from the braine itself or rather from the Marrowe thereof doe receiue by nerues as it were by Channels some of them the faculty of Sensation 
and their nerues.  alone, some of them of Sensation and motion together, which nerues are sayed thence to arise as from a principle of dispensation & radication, from whence they bring the Sensatiue and mouing faculties of the Soule to the instruments of the Sences: it is very fit that in this place we should deliuer their history. Wee will therefore begin with the Organs of smelling. Although the Nose be the way & path of smels, yet is not the instrument of smelling, neither yet his bindmost coate; but farther within the skull there are certaine processes or productions esteemed for the very organs of this sence, which the Anatomists looking onely vpon their prominent part haue called Processus mammillares, and some the organs of smelling. Vnder which Title Galen hath written of them at large. These are two some thing like nerues but scituated in the Basis of the braine; they are whiter, softer and broader then nerues are Notwithstanding like nerues they are round and slender. In men they are very small; in beastes as Oxen, Goates, Sheepe and Dogges they are much larger; 
Why be asts smell better then men. Their originall.  whence it is that all these Creatures haue this sence of Smelling more exquisite then men.  
These processes arising out of the marrowey substance of the braine in his Basis[ tab, 17  

Tab. 17. Fig. 1. Sheweth the Basis of the Braine and After-braine freed from their membrane that the originall of the Nerues of the brain might be better perceiued.  
Fig. 2. Sheweth one side of the Braine the After-brain, the spinall marrow and the Nerues.  
TABVLA. XVII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

A A 1, 2. The braine.  
B B 1, 2, The After-braine.  
C C, 1, 2, the swellings of the braine which some call the mammillary processes.  
D, 1, the beginning of the spinal marow out of the Basis of the braine.  
E 1, 2, a part of the spinall marrowe when it is ready to yssue out of the skull.  
F F, 1, 2, the mammillary processes which serue for the sence of Smelling.  
G G 1, 2, the opticke nerues.  
H 1, the coition or vnion of the optick nerues.  
II 1, 2, the coate of the eye whereinto the optick nerue is extended.  
KK 1, 2, the second paire of sinewes ordained for the motion of the eyes.  
LL 1, 2, the third paire of sinewes, or according to most Anatomists the lesser roote of the third paire.  
MM 1, 2 the fourth paire of sinewes, or the greater root of the third paire.  
N 2, a braunch of the third coniugation deriued to the musculous skin of the forehead.  
O 2, a branch of the same to the vpper iaw.  
PP 2, another into the coate of the nosethrils.  
Q 2, another into the temporall muscle.  
R 2, a branch of the fourth coniugation crumpled like the tendrill of a vine.  
S 2, a branch of the same reaching vnto the vpper teeth and the gummes.  
T 2, another of the same to the lower iaw.  
V 2, a Surcle of the branch, T to the lower lip.  
XX 2, other surcles from the braunch T to the rootes of the lower Teeth.  
YY 2, the assumption of the nerue of the fourth coniugation vnto the coat of the toung.  
Z 1, 2, the fourth paire vulgarly so called which are sp●● into the coate of the pallat.  
a 1, 2, the fift paire of sinewes which belong to the hearing.  
φ, the Auditory nerue spred abroade into the couity of the stony bone.  
* a hard part of the fift coniugation aboue the * which may accounted for a distinct nerue.  
b 1, 2, a small braunch deriued from this harder part of the fift payre.  
c 1, 2, a lower branch from the same originall.  
d 1, 2, this nerue is commonly ascribed to the fift payre, but indeede is a distinct coniugation which we will call the Eight, because wee would not interrupt the order of other mens accounts.  
e 1, 2; the sixt paire of sinewes. f 2, 2 branch from them deriued to the necke and the museles couched there upon, g 2, another branch to the muscles of the larynx or throttle. h 1, 2, the seauenth paire of sinewes i 1, the vnion of the seauenth paire with the sixt. l 2, a propagation of the seauenth paire to those muscles which arise from the appendix called Styloides. m 2, Surcles from the seauenth coniugation to the muscles of the toung, the bone Hyois and the Larynx. o p q 1, three holes; through the hole o the phlegme yssueth out of the third ventricle of the braine to the Tunnell, and at p q is the passage of the soporary arteries to the ventricles of the braine.   fig. 1. & 2. F tab. 14. fig. 19. DF], neare the optick nerues[ tab. 17. fig, 1, 2. ●] do passe betwixt the braine,( whereto they are tyed by the mediation of the pia mater) the wedge-bone and the bone of the forehead vnto the Sinus or cauity of the spongy bone;[ tab 14. fig, 19. H F] which cauities are couered with the dura meninx diuersly perforated & are made to receiue these productions. To each of these processes saith Fa●lopius reacheth a manifest hole from the 
Fallopius.  ventricle, from which hole the passage is open to the spongy bone. This passage in a man is very narrow, so that it cannot be discerned, but when the head is very greene or new. In Oxen it is very large. Through these passages & productions aire and vapors attracted or 
Their vse.  drawn in respiration through the nosthrils as it were by pipes and channels, are carried vn to the braine that it might iudge of odoriferous obiects. Varolius is of opinion that from these productions there is no free passage vnto the ventricles themselues; although Fallopius was vtterly of another minde. They are like to nerues in their passage, colour and vse, 
How they may be called nerues.  and therfore do well deserue to be called the Nerues of smelling as Archangelus stileth them. But Vesalius counteth them to be the first paire or coniugation of the braine; yet because they neuer attaine through the thicke membrane and cauity of the skul, neither hane as other nerues any propagations deriued from them: therefore neither Herophilus nor Marinus nor Galen himselfe, nor many amongst the Neotericks or new writers haue vouchsafed them the name of nerues; wee stand not vpon wordes and therefore passe from them vnto the nerues of the eies.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the nerues of the Eyes, or of the first and second Coniugations.  
_ALbeit in a particular discourse hereafter following wee intend more districtly and carefully to prosecute the Nature and diuarications of nerues in generall and euery one in particular; yet because all the nerues of the head haue their originall from diuers partes of the substance of the same: Wee cannot chuse in this place but make some mention of them though 
The optick nerues.  it be the briefer.  
The first coniugation therefore of the nerues of the braine are the Opticks,[ Table 17. figure 1. and 2. G] larger and softer then all other simple nerues. Larger because they bee sensibly perforated, softer because they arise out of the Center of the Basis, whence proceeding forward with a slow course they are vnited aboue the saddle of the wedge-bone[ tab. 17. figure 1. H table 14. figure 19. O] and so make a common body. After being againe separated[ Table 14. figure 19. M N Table 17. figure 1. aboue H] they passe obliquely foreward through their proper hole] table 4. figure 10. B] the one to the Center of the right eye, the other to the Center of the left[ ta. 3. lib. 8. fig. 8. a or together with the membrane fig. 2. abc. 
Their double substance. ]  
They consist of a double substance, the one marrowey the other membranous. The marrowey is soft like the substance of the braine, which you shall perceiue to yssue if it bee 
Marrowey.  hard pressed, and of this marrowy substance dilated in the orbe of the eye is that coat made which of the similitude of a net is called Retina tunica[ Tab. 17. fig. 1 and 2. I] and this compasseth the glassy humour like a sphere. 
Their membranes.   
It hath two membranes from the two Meninges of the braine. The thin membrane inuesteth it from the originall to his out-let from the skul; the thick Meninx is added to it, frō thence to the eye; and so the thicke membrane degenerateth into the horny coate, the thin is consumed or spent in the Vuea, and so the Animall spirit is transported through the continuation of this nerue vnto the pupilla or Apple, which is the hole of the grapie mēbrane.  
They are called therefore Opticke nerues from their action, because they communicate to the eye the sence of seeing.  
The second coniugation is of the nerues which moue the eyes,[ table 18. figure 1. and 2. 
The 2. coniugations of the mouing nerues. Their fraine.  ● tab. 15. figure 20. G] which is distinguished from the former only by a little and thin bone, and riseth from the Basis of the braine[ tab. 25. fig. 1. C] a little behinde the former as Vesalius saith. This is smaller and slenderer by much then is the opticke, as also harder because it was to be inserted into the muscles. It yssueth by a proper hole of his owne[ tab. 4. fig. 10. G] which is the second of the wedge-bone, where after it is diuided into notable braunches which are sent into the muscles. In some bodies( though it be but seldom) they send small 
Note this.  twigs to the temporall muscles; whence it is that sometimes if that muscle be offended the eie also suffereth with it, and so on the contrary.  
Their vse is to afford to the muscles the facultie of Motion, as also a drawing power to their membranes. Now the reason why when one eie is mooued to the side the other also 
Their vse. Why both eies moue together.  necessarily followeth, is, because these nerues are continued one with another in their originall.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the third and fourth coniugations of the Nerues of the Braine.  
_THE third coniugation[ Tab. 19, fig. 1 and 2 I. Ta. 15, fig. 20 H] is sent vnto the Muscles of the face & is commonly called the smaller roote of the third 
The 3. Coniugation.  paire, but it deserueth, we think, to be a particular coniugation, because it is not ioyned with the following paire[ Tab. 15. fig. 20 I. Tab 19. fig. 1 and 2. L with M] neyther in his beginning nor in his progresse.  
It ariseth from the lower and backer part of the marrow of the Braine. It is very smal 
His Original.  and perforateth the dura Meninx at the side of the basis of the Braine where it is fastned to the second coniugation[ Tab. 19, fig. 1. A] and so with it yssueth into the orbe of the 
Issue. 4. Branches.  eye by a hole common to them both.[ Tab. 3. fig. 8, G] Then it is diuided into four branches: the first[ Tab. 19. fig. 2 N] ascendeth vpwarde by the fat of the eye and yssueth at a hole of the forehead bone proper vnto it[ Tab. 3. fig. 8 A] and so passeth into the skinne of the Forehead to which it giueth motion, as also to the vpper eye-brow.  
The second descendeth[ Tab. 19. fig. 2. O] and passeth through a hole of his owne, bored in the fourth bone of the vpper Iaw[ Table. 3. fig. 8. B] and so is dispersed into the Muscles of the vpper lip, into those that mooue the wing of the Nose outward, into the tip itselfe and some of the gummes.  
The third branch[ Tabl. 19. fig. 2. P] passeth thorough the second hole of the vpper iaw[ Tab. 3. fig. 8 C] and attaineth into the Cauity of the Nosethrilles and is spent into their coate,[ Tab. 19. figu. 2. the lower P] and affoordeth a small surcle to the membranous Muscle vvhich contracteth the wing of the nose.  
The fourth branch[ Table. 19. fig. 2. Q] being led thorough the Fissure which is betwixt the bone of the vpper iawe and the Wedge-bone[ Tab. 3. fig. 8 D] is spent into the inner part of the temporall muscles.  
The Fourth Coniugation are the 
The fourth Coniugation.  Nerues of Tasting,[ Tab. 19. fig. 1. and 2. M. Tab. 15. fig. 20. l] it beareth on the former in his progresse but not in his originall. It proceedeth not out of the backe 
The reason of his Originall.  parts of the brain because they are hard; not out of the sides because their waye would not haue been safe; but out of the basis yea the very Marrow of the Braine[ Tab. 25. fig. 1. Char. 3] aswell for security as because of the Situation of the toong.  
It yssueth at the sixt hole of the wedg-bone 
Where it yssueth. [ Tab. 3. fig. 9. Q] and presently sendeth a Surcle out of it like the crumpled Tendrill of a Vine, in which the Animall spirit maketh some stay. Afterwards, it is 
It hath three branches.  by two branches vnited to the Nerue of Hearing,[ Table. 19. fig. 1, 2. b c] and so is disseminated into the muscles of the face the Temporall, the grinding Muscles of the Cheekes and to the Skinne of the face.  
A second branch it also parteth with[ Tab. 19. fig: 2 S] which affoordeth surcles to that part of the Gummes wherein the grinding Teeth are fastened, yea vnto the teeth themselues.  

TABVLA. XIX.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.   
A third branch also sprowteth out of his back-part,[ Table 19, fig. 2. T] which is inserted into the muscle that lurketh within the mouth, and passeth through the inner hole[ tab. 11. lib. 8. fig. 2. F] of the lower Iaw, and there offereth surcles to the Rootes of the lower teeth 
How the teeth haue sense.  on the same side,[ Tab. 19, fig. 2. xx] and by their helpe the teeth haue sense, whereas the other bones haue none.  
Finally, the Trunke itself[ Table 19, fig. 2. Y] passing through the muscles lurking in the mouth together with the Trunke of the other side attaine to the side of the tongue and is consumed into his coate to make it a conuenient Organ of Gustation.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the Nerue of hearing, or of the fift Coniugation of the Braine.  
_THE fift Coniugation[ Tab. 20, fig. 1, and 2, a Tab. 15, fig. 20. M] ariseth out of 
The fift Coniugation.  the Marrow of the Braine lengthened, where it ioyneth with the Cerebellum.[ Table 25, figure 1, i] There his originall seemeth to be out of two Surcles or Nerues, the one softer the other harder, which together perforate the membrane 
His 2. surcles.  and passe to the stony bone.  
This Nerue passeth through a notable writhen hole thrilled in the stony-bone, which 
His out-gate.  they call the fift hole of the Temple bone, where it meeteth with that cauity which is compared to a Conniborough and prepared for the Organ of hearing. Afterward the harder part falleth into the cauity called Tympanum or the Drum.  
The softer part[ Table 20, fig. 2, a] which is indeed Neruus auditorus the sinew of hearing, 
The true Organ of hearing.  accompanieth the former, and when it attaineth to the extremity of the aboue named cauity it is dilated like a membrane[ Table 20, fig. 1, 2. Φ] and becommeth the speciall Instrument of hearing, and in that place remaineth haply after the same manner that wee saide before the Organ of Smelling was extended.   

CHAP. XX. Of the sixt, seauenth, and eight Coniugations of the Sinewes.  
_THE sixt Coniugation[ Tab. 21, fig. 1, and 2, e Tab. 15, fig. 20. N] taketh his beginning of a few fibres a little below the originall of the Nerue of hearing. These Nerues being instantly vnited doe make one notable Nerue as some haue thought, but indeed they are neuer so vnited but that they remaine two 
That the sixt Coniugation is not one but two Nerues.  Nerues contained or held together in one membrane, and passe out at one hole,[ Tab. 4, fig. 10. b] which is counted the 2. hole of the occipitium or Nowle-bone. The one of those is the forwarder & the lesser: the other the backwarder & the greter. The lesser runneth directly to the muscles of the tongue, and for the most part is spent in the mouth; 
Where it issueth.  the greater as soone as it is issued out of the Scul sendeth a branch backward[ Tab. 21, fig. 2, f] which is diuersly distributed into the Mūcks-hood muscle of the shoulder blade. The trūk itself descending is tyed to the seauenth Coniugation,[ Tab. 21, fig. 2. H] and at the sides of the throtle is increased with a branch from that seauenth Coniugation,[ Table. 21, fig. 2, i] 
The course of it.  with which notwithstanding it is not mingled but onely colligated or tyed: after it sendeth surcles to the muscles of the Layrinx or throtle,[ Tab. 21, fig. 2. g] as also some other smaller to the muscles of the Chops, thence it descendeth to the Chest, where we will leaue it til another time.  
The seauenth Coniugation[ Ta. 21, fig. 1, h fig. 2, H] moues the tongue, and is the hardest 
The seauenth Coniugation.  of all the sinewes proceeding out of the Scull; for it ariseth iust at the place where the marrow of the braine falleth out of the Scul.[ Tab. 21, fig. 1, 2, E] It ariseth of many Roots somewhat 
His originall  distant each from other, which ioyning together into one do passe out of the Scull at an oblique hole bored in the bone of the Occipitium, and for more security is ioyned by strong membranes with the sixt Coniugation, yet not mingled therewith. For this seauenth paire keepeth his owne body and so runneth downward to the roote of the tongue, where 
and course.  the most part of it[ Ta. 21, fig. 2, Z] is loosened into many fibres which giue motion therto. Other parts of it are deriued to the muscles of the bone Hyois and the Throtle to giue them motion; some surcles also it sendeth[ Ta. 21, fig 2, l] to those muscles that arise from the appendix called Stylo-ides.  
The eight Coniugation[ Tab. 21, fig. 1, 2, d Table. 15, fig. 20, L] proceedeth out of the 
The eight Coniugation.  marrow of the braine aboue the Auditory Nerue betwixt the second and the third Coniugations.  
It perforateth betwixt those 2. paires the thicke Meninx and attayneth into the orbe of the eye through the hole that belongeth to the second coniugation, and is almost wholly spent into that muscle of the eye which draweth it vnto the vtter corner.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Nerues proceeding from the spinal marrow properly so called.  
_HAuing acquainted you with those coniugations of sinewes which belong vnto any part of the brain or his productions contained within the Skull, it remayneth nowe to giue you a short viewe of those nerues which are deriued out of the spinall marrow contayned in the rack-bones of the Chine. These therefore are accounted to be 30. paire, all proceeding out of distinct and seueral parts; that is to say out of the racks of the neck, the chest, the loines & the holy-bone.  
The Coniugations of the Neck some account seauen, others eight, dispersed into the 
Seauen or 8. paires of the Necke.  outside of the whole head and the muscles thereof.  
The first Coniugation yssueth betweene the Occipitium or Nowle bone & the first rack-bone, and is diuided into two little branches, a forward and lesser,[ Tab. 22, H] and a backward.[ Tab. 23, F]  
The second Coniugation of the Necke hath two originals, a forward[ Tab. 22, N] and a backward which is the larger,[ Table 23, I] which is diuided into two branches, a thicker[ Tab. 23, K] and a thinner.[ Tab. 23, aboue H]  
The 3. paire[ Ta. 22, charracter 3] breaketh out of the common hole betweene the second and the third spondels or rackes and is diuided into two branches, one forward[ Tab. 22 P] which is subdiuided into foure Surcles. The first at Tab. 22, Q.] The second at Ta. 22, and 23, R.] The third at Tabble 22, S and Table 23, KL. The fourth at Tab. 22, and 23, T.] Another backward,[ Tab. 22, and 23, O] disseminated into the muscles which are common to the head and the necke.  
The fourth Coniugation[ Tab. 21, Char. 4] falleth out of the common hole of the third and fourth vertebrae, and is diuided into two branches, the first forward and greater,[ Tab. 22, and 23, x] which is diuided into three Surcles, the first at[ tab. 22, y.] the second at[ tab. 22, a.] the third at tab. 22, b.] The second branch is the lesser and more backward,[ tab. 22, and 23, v] and is spent in the muscles of the Necke and the membranous muscles of the Cheekes.  
The fift Coniugation[ tab. 22, char. 5] falleth out vnder the fourth rack-bone, and is diuided into two branches, one forward and another backward; the forward[ tab. 22, & 23, ●] hath three Surcles, the first at tab. 22, a d] the second[ tab. 22, e] the third[ table 22, & 23, f] The backward branch[ tab. 23, c] is distributed as is the backward branch of the fourth paire.  
The sixt Coniugation[ table 22, char. 6] falleth out vnder the first racke, and is likewise diuided into a fore and a hinder branch: the fore branch at[ table 22, l] the hinder branch at[ table 23, k.]  
The seauenth Coniugation[ table 22, char. 7] yssueth vnder the sixt racke bone of the Necke, and is ioyned with the sixt paire of the Necke and the first of the Chest[ tab. 22, s.] for more security; and the greatest part of it passeth into the arme, which sometime sendeth a branch to accomplish the Nerue of the Midriffe. The backer branch[ table 23, t] is the lesse, and is bestowed vpon the muscles lying vpon the necke and vpon the square muscle of the Cheeke, which first suffereth convulsion in the disease called Spasmus Cynicus, or the Dog laughter.  
And thus much of the Nerues proceeding from the spinall marrow contained within the vertebrae or spondels of the necke, which we sayde were seauen Coniugaions. It followeth now that we should intreate of the nerues proceeding from the marrow of the rack bones of the Thorax or Chest. Of these there are as some thinke but eleauen Coniugations others resolue of twelue, all which after their outlet are diuided into two branches, 
Twelue paire of the Chest.  one greater, the other lesser; one passing forward, another reflected backward.  
The first Coniugation[ table 22, char. 8] is snewed betwixt the seauenth bone of the Neck and the first of the Chest. It hath two branches, the first greater sendeth certaine propagations to the shoulder blade[ table 23, αα] to the first rib.[ table 22, y] The second lesser[ table 23, u] is disseminated into the adioyning muscles.  
The second Coniugation[ table 23, char. 9] yssueth betwixt the first and second bone of the Chest; then it distributeth a branch backward,[ table 23, β] and after is ioyned with a branch of the former Coniugation,[ tab. 23, 〈◇〉] & so passeth into the arme; that which remaineth of this Coniugation followeth the course of the first ribbe, and maketh an intercostall Nerue.  
The 3. Coniugation as also all the other nine[ table 22, from char. 10, to 20] of the Chest are distributed after the same manner. For after they fall out of the sides of the vertebrae they 
The third and all the rest.  are diuided into two branches, one forward and another backward; the forward branches are called Intercostales, that is, betwixt the ribs,[ table 22, ☐] for from them many branches are disseminated into the Intercostall muscles,[ table 22, 〈◇〉 and the charracters of the left side] into the muscles lying vpon the Chest,[ table 22, 〈◇〉] as the great and lesser Saw, the pectorall and the broad Muscle;[ table 22, μμ] and are strangely reflected to the vessels thereabout. The backward branches leane backward to the spines or sharpe points of the vertebrae, and are deriued into the muscles which moue the backe of the Chest, and into the skinne of the backe; but their distribution is not in all men alike.  
Finally, the two last coniugations of the twelue do send Surcles[ tab. 22. at the sides of the 18. and 19. Characters] to the head of the sixt muscle of the thigh.  
From the spinall marrow contained in the racks of the loynes doe arise fiue coniugations 
The nerues of the Loynes fiue paire.  greater then the former, deuided likewise after their out-gate into a forward & a backward branch, and from their backward branches[ table 23, char. 52 and 53] send surcles into the muscles which grow to the vertebrae of the Loynes.  
The first Coniugation[ table 22, char. 20] as also all the rest yssue out of the holes of the vertebrae vnder the Peritonaeum, and is diuided into two branches, a greater and anterior partly ascending to the Diaphragma, partly to the muscles of the Abdomen or paunch; and a lesser and posterior which is reflected into the muscles which leape vpon the vertebrae of the Loynes.  
The second Coniugation[ table 22, char. 21] runneth vnder the sixt muscle of the thighe and riseth to the top of the haunch bone, but the forward branch is distributed to the sixth internall Iliack, and the first bender of the legge. It sendeth also a small long nerue[ table 22, char. 49] accompaning the spermaticall vessels of the same side euen vnto the Testicle.  
The third coniugation[ Table 22. Char. 22] yssueth also vnder the Lumball muscle; the fore-branch passeth neare the haunch-bone & is deuided into two propagations, one going to the knee the other accompanying the veine called Saphena; but the back braunch is reflected and disseminated into the muscles, lying vpon the loynes and into the skin. So likewise from all the fore-branches of the three first coniugations certaine shootes[ Table 22. the sides of the 20. 21. 22. Characters] do attaine to the costall nerue, and are ioyned therewith.  
The fourth coniugation[ Table 22. Char. 23.] which is the biggest of all the coniugations of he loynes accompanieth the veine and arterie to the groine, and distributeth cert●●● surcles to the forward muscles of the thigh and the leg.  
The fift coniugation[ table 22. Char. 24.] is parted in twaine as are the former. The fore-branch and the greater passeth through a hole betwixt the Coxa, the share-bone and the hanch-bone and sendeth diuers shootes to the muscles of the thigh, the yarde, the neck of the wombe also and the bladder; but the backe-braunch is reflected to the muscles, they leane vpon the vertebrae of the loynes and into the skin there abouts. Furthermore, these coniugations are tyed one vnto another, the first to the second, the second to the third, the third with the fourth, and the fourth with the fift, as is shewed in the first figure of the 22. Table.  
To conclude, out of the marrow conteyned in the vertebrae of the Os sacrū or holy-bone do proceed sixe coniugations. 
The nerues of the Os sacrum.   
The first[ Table 22. char. 25.] yssueth betwixt the last of the loyne and the first racke of the holy bone, and is deuided into a fore-branch and a hind-branch; the fore-branch sendeth a surcle[ table 22. charact. ●3] into the inside of the hanch-bone, from which certaine shoots are offered to the muscles of the Abdomen, and the seuenth muscle of the thigh. The back-braunch passeth in a like course as doe the backe branches of the other coniugations & a shoot beside into the muscles[ table 23. charact. 54.] produced from the haunch-bone, specially into the first mouing the thigh, from whence it is consumed into the skin.  
The fiue other coniugations[ table 22. from the 26. to the 30. chara.] are produced after 
The other fiue.  mother manner; for before they yssue they are double on either side; one proceeding forward and another backward. Or the fore-branches the three vppermost runne to the leg, 
Table 22. and Table 23. Because the same Characters belong to them both, we haue set them together.  
Table 22. sheweth the Racks of the spine and the nerues yssuing there from on the foreside.  
Table 23. sheweth the same Racks and Nerues on the backside.  
TABVLA XXII. & XXIII.  A 1, 2, The spinast marrow as it goeth into the rack-bones. BC 2, The seauen vertebrae or racke bones of the neck. Character from 1, 2, to 30. in the 15. table do shew the racks of the whole spine. CD 2, amongst these the twelue racks of the Chest. DE 2, The fiue Racks of the Loynes. E 2. The holy bone. F 2, the hinder braunch of the first coniugation of sinewes. G 1, 2, the distribution of the same branch into the muscles of the head. H 1, the forward branch of the first coniugation. I 2, a small branch of the hinder propagation of the second paire which is distributed vpward. K, a thicker braunch of the same nerue. L 2, the coition or coniunction of a branch of the third paire, with the branch of the second paire marked with K. MM 1, 2, the second paire distributed vnto the skin of the head as far as to the neeke. N 1, the anterior branch of the second paire. Character 3 in the first Table sheweth the third coniugation and the third rack-bone. O 1, 2, the hinder branch of the third paire reflected first backeward, then forward vnto the muscles: & such a reflection there is in all the nerues vnto char. 24. P 1, the anterior braunch of the third paire parted into foure. Q 1, the first going vnto the muscles. R 1, 2, the see and ioyning with the fourth paire. S 1, the third commixed with the branch K. T 1, 2. the fourth branch going to the muscles of that place. Character 4, in 1, the fourth coniugation of the fourth rackbone. V 1, 2, the posterior branch of the 4. paire. X 1, 2, the anterior braunch of the 4. paire parted into three. Y 1, the first admitting the branch R. a 1, the 2 going to the muscles. b 1, the 3 reaching to a part of the fift payre marked with e. Char. 5 in ●● the 5 paire. c 2, the posterior branch of the 5. payre. d 1, 2, the anterior brāch of the 5. paire. e 1, this portiō maketh the nerue of the midriffe. f 1, 2, a braunch of the nerue d creeping along the top of the shoulder, vnder which are certain surcles attaining to the shoulder blade. g 1, 2, a surcle of the nerue f deriued to the skin on the top of the shoulder. h 1, 2, a surcle of the nerue f going to the second muscle of the arme. i 1, 2, another branch inserted into the same muscle and the skin. Char, 6, in 1, the sixt paire. k 2, the posterior braunch of the same sixt coniugation. l 1, the anterior braunch of the same coniugation. m 1, a surcle of the same nerue appointed to make vp the Sinew of the midriffe. n 1, 2, the nerue of the midriffe made of three surcles, b, b, and m. o o 1, 2, the insertion of this nerue into the midriffe. p 2, A branch of the sixt coniugation running to the cauity of the shoulder blade. q 1, 2, the coniunction or implication of the branch l with the branches neighbouring about it. Char 7 in 1, the seauenth coniugation of sinewes. r 2, the posterior branch of the seauenth paire. s 1, the congresse or meeting of the seauenth coniugation with the branches that are neere it. t t 2, Surcles of this nerue deriued to the muscles of the shoulder blade and the arme. char 8. in 1, the eight coniugation or the first paire of the Chest running aboue the first rack-bone of the Chest. u 2, the posterior branch of the eight paire. x 1, 2, the coition or coniunction of the 8. paire with the 7. y 1, A brāch of the eight paire reaching to the top of the brest. αα 2, Surcles proceeding from the eight coniugation and deriued to the muscles in this place. char 9 in 1, the ninth paire of nerues. β 2, the posterior branch of the ninth paire. 〈◇〉 1, the anterior branch of the same coniugation. 〈◇〉, 1 Surcles from this branch to the distances or spaces of the Chest. Chara. 10, to 20, in 1, the paires of sinewes deriued to the distances betwixt the ribs. 〈◇〉 1, Surcles of the intercostall sinewes going to the roots of the ribs and increasing the costall nerues. θ θ θ 1, Branches from the intercostall sinewes deriued vnto the muscles which lye vpon the Chest. 〈◇〉, 1 Branches going to the pectorall muscle or the first muscle of the arme. 〈◇〉 1, Other branches going to the lower side of the same muscle. λ λ 1, Branches going to the oblique muscles of the Abdomen. μ μ 1, Others deriued to that muscle of the arme which is called Latissimus. v 1, A brāch passing vnto the Pap. o o 1, Branches from 18, & 19, to the beginning of that muscle of the thigh which is called Lumbalis or the sixt muscle of the Thigh. π π 1, the first nerue of the arme distributed into the skin. 〈◇〉 1, 2, the second nerue of the arme. σ σ, 1, From this doe nerues passe to the first muscle of the cubite called Biceps. 〈◇〉 1, 2, The third nerue of the arme. ● 1, 2, A branch of the same going to the skin of the arme. φ 1, A small branch deriued to the second muscle of the cubite called Brachiaeus. χ 1, Others passing to the skin on the foreside of the arme. 〈◇〉 1, the congresse or coniunction of the third nerue with the second. ω 1, the second & the third nerues after their coniunction doe heere creepe downeward. T 1, A Nerue deriued vnto the second muscle of the Radius which muscle is called Supinator longior, ΔΔ 1, the vpper branch of the second nerue, running to the wrest and to the first ioynt of the thumbe. 〈◇〉 1, the middle branch of the second nerue, Λ 1, the progresse of the same euen vnto the hand. ξ 1, the lower branch of the second nerue. π σ 1, Two branches of the same nerue going to the inside of the hand. Φ 1, 2, the fourth nerue of the arme. γ 2, From hence do proceede nerues to the muscles which extend or stretch out the cubite. Ω 2, A branch going to the skin of the arme on the backside. 32, 2 Branches deriued to the outward skin of the arme. 34, 2, the by-partition of the fourth nerue at the cubite. 33, 2, A branch creeping along the outside of the cubite euen vnto the wrest. 35, 2, The vpper branch of the foresaide diuision. 36, 2, Surcles belonging to the thumbe, the forefinger and the middle finger on their outsides. 37, 2, the lower branch of the foresaide diuision. 38, 2, Surcles heerefrom to the muscles arising out of the externall bunch of the shoulder bone. 39, 40, 41, 2, Three branches going to the muscles which spring from the bone called Ulna. 42, 2, The end of the branch, 37, neere the ioynt of the wrest. * 1, 2, The fift nerue of the arme. 43, 1, Surcles of the third and fift nerues to the inside of the cubite, 44 1, A branch of the third nerue going to the palme of the hand and the fingers. 45, 1, A branch of the 5, nerue to the inside of the hand. 46, 1, A Surcle of the branch 45, led to the outside of the hand. 8, 1, 2, the sixt nerue of the arme. 47, 1. the end thereof next the ioynt. 48, 48, 1, Surcles from the sixt nerue vnto the skin. Char. 20, to 24, 1, Nerues proceeding out of the racks of the loynes. 49, 49, 1, A branch going into the Testicles from the 20 paire. 50, 50, 1, The nerues belonging to the muscles of the Abdomen. 51, 1, Surcles from these to the broad muscle of the arme called Latissimus. 52, 52, 2, The backward branches proceeding out of the racks of the Loynes. Char 25, to 30, The coniugations or paires of sinewes proceeding out of the holy-bone. 53, 1, A branch of the 25 paire going to the inside of the coxendix or hip-bone. 54, 55, 2, A branch attaining to the outside of the coxendix. * 2, Hence proceedeth a nerue communicated to the yard. 56, 2, the end of the spinal marrow. 57, 1, The first nerue of the Leg. 58, 1, Brāches here from to the skin. 59, 1, Other brāches herefrom to the muscles. 60, 1, The 2. nerue of the Leg. 61, 61, 1 Brāches herefrom to the skin. 62, 1, A brāch descēding to the top of the foot. 63, 1. Branches from 61, compassing the knee. 64, 1, A branch of the 2. nerue going to the muscles. 65, 1 A brāch here-from going to the fift muscle of the thigh cald Triceps 66. 1, the nerue of the Leg. 67, 1, A surcle creeping to the hole of the share-bone. 68, 1 A branch allowed to the skin on the inside of the thigh, 69, 1. A portion of the third nerue going to the muscles. 70, 1, A portiō hereof communicated to the 2. muscle which bendeth the leg or Tibia, 71, 1, 2, The fourth nerue of the leg 72, 1, 2, A branch heereof comunicated to the skin of the thigh in the backpart. 73. 1, Another to the muscles which arise from the Coxendix. 74, 1, A branch allowed to the fourth muscle of the Tibia or leg and to the skin. 75, 1, Surcles from the fourth to the heads of the muscles of the foote. 76, 1, The diuision of the fourth nerue in the Ham into two Trunkes. 77, 1, the outward trunke. 78, 78, 1, A branch heere from to the skin of the leg or Tibia on the outside as farre as to the little toe. 79, 1, Another branch inserted into the muscles. 80, 1, A branch dispersed into the skin of the foreside of the leg from the branch. 79 81, 1, A part of the branch. 79, going to the mucles of the foote. 82, 1, the inner trunke of the fourth Nerue. 83, 83, 1. A branch creeping along the inside of the legge vnder the skin. 84, 1. A branch of the Trunke, 82, disposed vnder the skin to the back side of the Calse of the legge 85. 85. 1, A branch of the trunke, 82, creeping along the foreside of the legge to the vpper part of the foote. 86, 1, A branch of the trunke 82, passing along the backside of the legge and distributed to the muscles. 87, 1, The remainder of the inner trunke allowed to the Toes. the two lowermost are diuersly distributed into the muscles of the Fundament & the Bladder and parts thereabouts. But the back-branches[ table 23. char. 54. and 55] are distributed into the muscles on the backside of the hanch and holy bones, and into the skin of the ●uttocks.  

Table 24. sheweth the Braine together with the After-braine, the spinall marrowe and the nerues of the whole body.  
TABVLA. XXIIII.  

A, that part of the brain that is next the nosethrils.  
B, that part which is at the side of the ventricles.  
C, the backpart of the braine.  
D, the Cerebellum or After-braine.  
E, the Mamillary processe on the right side.  
F, the originall of the opticke nerue.  
G, their coniunctions.  
H, The coate into which the optick nerue is extended.  
I, the second paire of the sinewes of the braine.  
K, the lesser roote of the third coniugation.  
L, the thick roote of the same coniugation according to the common opinion.  
M, the fourth coniugation of sinewes.  
N, the lesser roote of the fift paire.  
O, the bigger roote of the same paire.  
P, The small membrane of the eare which they call the Tympanie.  
Q the lower branch of the bigger roote of the fift coniugation.  
S, the sixt paire of sinewes.  
T, the seauenth paire.  
V, the beginning of the spinall marrow out of the middle of the Basis of the braine.  
X, the right sinewe of the midriffe cut off.  
Y, a branch from the fift paire creeping to the top of the shoulder.  
Z, the first nerue of the arme from whence there goeth a branch to the skin.  
A, the second nerue of the arme, and a branch therefrom into the first muscle of the Cubite.  
B, the third nerue of the arme and a branch going to the skin on the outside.  
C, a branch from the third nerue to the second muscle of the Cubite.  
D, the congresse or meeting of the second nerue with the third.  
E, a small branch from the third nerue to the second muscle of the Radius.  
F, the distribution of the second nerue into two branches  
* The lesser branch of this diuision lengthened out to the skin as far as the thumbe.  
a, the place of the spinall marrow where it yssueth out of the braine.    
1, 2, 3, &c. Thirty paire of nerues arising from the spinall marrow are here noted by their Characters, that is to say, seauen of the necke, twelue of the Chest, fiue of the loynes, and sixe of the holy bone.  
b, the thicker branch of the second nerue deuided into two parts. c, Braunches of the third nerue sprinkled here and there. d, Nerues from the third paire to the thumb, the forefinger and the middle finger. ee, the 4. nerue of the arme. f, the passage hereof through the inside of the shoulder. g, a tripartition of this braunch where it toucheth the Cubite. h h, a branch distributed from the fourth nerue to the outward skinne of the Cubite. i, the vpper branch of the deuision of the fourth nerue, kk a branch of i reaching to the outside of the hand. l l, the lower branch of the diuision of the 4. nerue passing through the backeside of the Cubite. m, the fift nerue of the arem. n, branches of this nerue dispersed here and there. o o, a branch of the 5. nerue reaching to the inside of the hand and the fingers. p, a surcle of the braunch o deriued to the outside of the hand and the fingers. qq, the 6. nerue of the arme and the course thereof vnder the skin. rr, the Intercostall nerues, there cut off where they are together with the ribs reflected forward. s s, branches on each side running backward. t t, nerues attaining vnto the chest. uu, the commixtion of the nerues rr with the descending branch of the sixt coniugation of the braine. xx, nerues from the loynes led vnto this place. y, a branch going to the testicle here cut off. z, a nerue reaching to the first muscle of the thigh. e, the first nerue of the leg. αβ, a surcle of the former nerue deriued to the skin at α and inserted into the muscles at β. γ, the 2. nerue of the leg. ♌ ♌ ♌, a nerue from the former, allowed vnto the skin as low as to the foot, & passing along the inside of the leg. ε, a branch of the 2. nerue running vnto the muscles. ζ, the third nerue of the leg. ε, a surcle thereof vnto the skin. θ, another surcle vnto the muscles. ●●, the 4. nerue of the leg. χχ, the anterior propagations of the nerues proceeding from the holy-bone. Λ, the end of the spinall marrow, μ, a branch from the 4. nerue inserted into the muscles arising from the Coxendix or hip bone. ψ, another branch going to the skin of the thigh on the backside. ξ, a propagation deriued to the 4. muscle of the leg & to the skin of the knee. oo, nerues attaining to the heads of the muscles of the foote. πη, the deuision of the 4. crurall nerue into two trunks. σ, a branch from the trunk π dispersed into the outward skin of the leg. τ, a surcle of the trunk ● deriued to the muscles. ●, another surcle to the skin of the leg on the foreside. φφ, a branch of the trunk p to the skin of the inside of the leg & of the foot. γ, a surcle of the trūk p to the hindmost skin of the leg. 4, a brāch of the whole trunk p led along to the forward part of the leg & the foot. ω, the defect of the trūk p into the foot.  
Finally, the end of the spinall marrow[ table 22. and 23. char. 56.] proceeding from the holy-bone sendeth one propagation on either side, which is sometimes diuersly diuaricated and disseminated into the fourth muscle of the thigh, and the skinne betwixt the buttocks and the fundament. Notwithstanding in Dogs and Apes there are three coniugations proceeding out of the Coccyx or rump-bone.  
Wherefore to summe vp all, we must remember that the spinall marrow hath 30. paire 
The vse of this chapter.  or coniugations of sinewes; seauen belonging to the marrow of the necke, twelue to the marrow of the backe, fiue to the marrow of the loynes and sixe to the marrow of the holy-bone: all which it is very necessary a Physition and Surgion should know, that hee may be able to apply Oyntments, Cataplasmes and such like to the proper parts of the spine, when the nowle of the head, the face, the necke, the hands, the parts of the Chest, the muscles of the Abdomen, the wombe, the bladder, the fundament, the yard or the legges are depriued of Sence or Motion or both together.   

CHAP. XXII. Varolius his manner of dissecting the Head.  
_THere is in the body of man so great variety of all manner of parts, that it is impossible to follow the trace of Nature by humane diligence so neerly that a man shall not sometimes wander out of his way or be at losse. It is therefore no wonder if the ancient and first Anatomists( men questionlesse very oculate and sharp sighted) did not yet attaine to the exquisite knowledge of all particulars, but left many thinges to bee found out and perfected by their Successours. Nay we assure ourselves that no processe of time, diligence of inquisition or helps of other mens labours shall euer be able to bring Anatomy to such perfection, but that there will be place left for them that come after to finde out something neuer before discouered; so like is this little world of mans body to the great globe of the Vniuerse, wherein euery day new Countries and Nations, yea populous and rich states and Common-wealthes are by Trauellers found out. An instance hereof in the Art we haue in hand is Constantinus, Varolius, who in the yeare 1570. inuented a new manner of dissection of the braine, which 
Varolius his inuention.  how it is accōplished as we haue partly learned by his Epistles written An. 1573. partly by our own dissections saith Bauhine, for these 24. yeares together we will here relate, because it doth better exhibite the true originall of the spinall marrow and the nerues proceeding there from, as also the structure of the ventricles for our better satisfaction in the causes of the deseases of the head and the explayning of some passages in Hippocrates and Galen.  
The difference betwixt these two Administrations is; that in the former, the vpper parts of the skull and the Meninges of the braine being remoued, the contayned parts are layde 
How admnistred.  open to the view. But in this which is full of labour and difficulty, the bones of the head are on euery side remoued; and the parts contained within the skull yet couered with both the membranes hauing the eyes, the coniugations of the sinewes and the spinall marrow ioyned thereto; are at one view represented and the section begun at the Basis of the brain. But for this Administration the head must be greene and not waterish, otherwise we shall loose our labour: you must therefore take the head of a man newly cutte off, or for want thereof a Calues head will serue the turne, because all the particulars may bee therein discerned.  

Of the Spinall Marrow.  
First of all wee must begin at the Spinall Marrow which they say ariseth from the lower Basis of the braine at the great hole of the occipitium or nowle bone.[ table 25. fig. 1. from D 
The administratiō of the spinall marrow.  to ●]. This is established within the skul in his proper seat and is compassed or inuested with the membranes: wherefore after the thicke Meninx is remoued, the other called pia mater is also to be taken away, which is transparant and strong, & by whose mediation the forepart of the marrow is tyed to the braine and the hind part to the After-brain. It also detayneth or establisheth the spinall marrow that it be not reflected backward, which haply is the cause why Anatomists haue not knowne his true originall; for if you take it vp with a hooke and lightly remooue it with a knife from the partes vnder it, and bend the spinall marrow somewhat forward[ Table 25. figure 2. a b] then will his originall shew itself to be not in the occipitium or where it was first tyed to that thin membrane, but ascending some-somewhat vpward and in the forepart of the braine.  
This Marrow therefore consisteth of foure roots, whereof the two greater[ Tab. 25, 
The 4 rootes thereof.  fig. 2, b c sheweth the trunke reflected, Char. 4. and 1. shew the trunke in his owne seate] do yssue out of two parts of the Braine in that place wherein the Ventricles are reflected[ Tab. 25. fig. 2. f g] from the forward prominence or swelling of the brain vnto the middle, & whereabout the Opticke Nerue[ Tab. 25. fig. 2. c d] passeth without the ventricle.  
The other two Roots are two short trunkes of the Cerebellum[ Tab. 25. fig. 2. cha. 6] 
Where ioined  arising on either side out of the vpper part thereof, which are ioyned to the two greater productions of the Braine euen now spoken of,[ Tab. 25. fig. 2. betwixt the two characters 2 and 3] and so of foure are made two,[ Tab. 25. fig. 1, ●] which afterward do accomplish the spinall Marrow, from which all the Nerues of the whole body haue their originall as diligent inspection doth sufficiently prooue.  
And the same Galen affirmeth in the 13. chap. of his 8. Booke de vsu partium and in many other places where he saith, That all the Nerues which are attributed to the spinal 
Galen acknoledgeth the truth of this.  Marrow do arise from the After-braine, so that according to his Anatomy the spinall Marrow is ioyned to the Cerebellum.  
Some there are and Columbus among the rest, who heerein taxe Galen, affirming that no Nerue proceedeth from the Cerebellum. But, saith Varolius, Galens opinion may be after some sort maintained to be true; but those that find fault with him affirme that which 
He is taxedby Columbus. Redeemed by Varolius.  is absolutely false, because the spinall marrow ariseth out of two roots of the brain whēce two paire of sinnewes are produced, and out of two roots of the After-braine which are ioyned to the former and do together fulfill or accomplish the spinall Marrow; and so all the Nerues of the spinall Marrow do arise out of the Cerebellum. 
Why the originals of the sinnews grow into one.   
And verily that this should bee thus, it was profitable yea necessary; for the principles or originals of all things had neede to bee firme and stable. Now by how much any thing is more single and simple, by so much without doubt it is more solid and firme; wherefore it behooued that the originall of all the sinnewes should be but one simple and single originall. For if all the Arteries and Veines be reduced to one originall, the Arteries to the Heart, the Veines to the Liuer; it is agreeable to the wisedome of Nature that the Nerues also should proceede from one originall; because these are three common Organs or Instruments of the body through which the Animall, Vitall and Naturall Faculties are by the helpe of spirites transported together with the vitall & naturall blood. And this both Hippocrates & Plato seeme to haue known. Hippocrates who in the beginning of his Booke De Natura Ossium writeth, that the Originall 
Hipp. & Plato insinuate so much,  of Sinnewes is from the Occipitium which is the seate of the After-brain. And Plato in Timaeo speaking of all the Sinnewes writeth, that God disposed the Nerues about the lower part of the Head, and compassed them with a spinal Marrow, which is of a substance like vnto theirs.  
Now the originall of the spinall marrow was to bee out of the middle part of the 
why the spinal marow ariseth out of the cēter of the braine.  Braine,[ Tab. 25. fig. 2. b c, and character 4. do manifestly shew it] because through it as it were through a common water-course the spirits which are perfected in the middest of the Braine were to be deriued into other Riuerets and so into the whole body. Wherefore their beginning was to bee placed in the center of the Braine neere the Store-house or shop of the spirits, whence they might receiue them as it were with a ful streame; like as Anatomy teacheth vs, that the Arteries and the Veines do arise out of the middle of the Heart and the Liuer.  
It will be obiected, that this Trunke which heere we call the Spinal marrow ought not to haue that denomination till it haue attained into the Vertebrae or racke-bones of the Chine, and therefore it is improperly saide that the Opticke Nerues doe arise from 
Obiection.  the Spinall Marrow. We answere, that we haue before sufficiently satisfied this doubte in the 15. chapter of this Booke, yet for further contentment( if they will bee contented with reason) we answere by instance; doe not the Nerues of the Sight, Hearing and of 
Answere by instance.  the rest of the senses receyue their names from the Organes to which they are destinated before they touch those Organes? yea whilst they remaine within the scull? So also this Marrow may be called the Marrow of the backe or the Spinall Marrow before it enter into the Spine. For whilst it remaineth within the scull it is diuided from the Braine, and in it may be obserued proper Fibres belonging to itself alone.   

Of the After-Braine or Cerebellum.  
After we haue done with the spiuall Marrow wee must come vnto the Cerebellum[ Tab 25. Fig. 1. BB. fig. 2. Ch. 8, 9, 10] bared from the Membranes, which beside two processes called Vermi-formes which are parts of the substance therof, and beside the two lateral parts 
Table 25. Fig. 1. sheweth the Braine taken out of the Scul separated from the Dura Meninx and inuerted, whose right side exhibiteth the Originall of the Spinal Marrow and the seauen Coniugations of the Sinnewes of the Braine, according to the ordinary receiued opinion: but the left side sheweth their true originals.  
Fig. 2. sheweth the Braine inuerted, & the partes thereof in the Basis distracted, as also the Original of the Spinall Marrow out of the braine and the After-braine, the largenesse of the Ventricle, and the originall of the Opticke Nerue out of the Marrow.  
TABVLA. XXV.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II  

A A A. The Braine.  
BBB, the After-brain.  
CC, the swellings of the braine commonly cald the Mamillarie processes.  
D, the beginning of the Marrow of the back, as it is commonly beleued.  
E, the termination or end thereof in the Scull.  
F, the originall of the Organes of smelling according to the vulgar opinion.  
H, the originall of the Opticke Nerues, as it is commonlie receiued.  
I, the coate into which the Opticke Nerue is inserted.  
2. The second paire of sinnewes.  
3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The coniugations of the sinnewes, whose Originall Vesalius himselfe attributeth to the beginning of the Spinal Marrow.  
8. A branch of the third coniugation as Anatomistes doe beleeue which passeth forward, but we take it to be the third Coniugation.  
9, A branch of the fift coniugation according to Vesalius, but we esteem it to be a coniugation of itself, and therefore cal it the eight paire.  
10, 11, 12, 13. The barke or shell of the Braine; for 8, 9, 10, 11. is the verie marrow of the Braine itself, and these two are not cōtinual but only contiguous, or touching one another.  
a, b. The whole Optick Nerue, and at b. is the reflection of the Nerue to the back-part of the Spinall Marrow.  
c, The coition or concurse of the Optick Nerues.  
d e. A part of the second Nerue not commonly knovvne, whose originall is at e.  
f, g, h. The Marrow of the Braine lengthened and determining in the spinall Marrow.  
k. The transuerse processe of the After-braine which is called the Bridge.  
i, i. the Auditorie Nerue arising out of this processe.  
l, m. the passage of the Organ of smelling lurking between the vpper and middle prominence of the Braine, and at l. is his originall.  
n, the middle prominence of the Braine diuided from the rest of the Braine.  
o, the beginning of the backward prominence of the brain from whence the middle was dissected.  
p, the intercussation which the Optick Nerue maketh with the Nerue that mooueth the eye.   
The Second Figure.  

1, 2, 3. The halfe of the Spinall marrow drawn to one side.  
4, 5. the coniunction of the same marrow with the ventricle  
6. A portion of the spinall marrow growing out of the After-brain.  
7. the Optick Nerue reflected in the backpart of the spinall marrow and entering into the cauity of the Ventricle.  
8, 9, 10. the lefte side of the After-braine from which the right side is remooued.  
11, 12. A slit going vnto the second Ventricle, vvhich slit is formed partly by the bodie of the Arch, partly from  
the inner part of the Spinall Marrow.  
13, 14. The Coniunction of the right and the left sides of the Braine by the Callous body.   
a. The right part of the Spinall Marrow reflected vpward to his owne side, that so the originall therof which is in the cauity of the Ventricle might be perceyued. c, b. The beginning of this Marrow as it respecteth the hollownesse of the Ventricle. d, e. The Optick Nerue reflected about the roote of the Spinall Marrow.  
The first originall of the Optick Nerue. f, g, h. The whole Cauity of the Ventricle, f sheweth the Anterior, g the middle, and h the Posterior Cauity hollowed in the Braine. i, k. The complication of vessels cald Plexus Choroides about the roote of the spinall Marrow in the ventricle. l, m. A portion of the Basis of the brain which together with the Spinall Marrow maketh the cleft which entreth into the ventricle. n, o. the length of the callous body which ioyneth together the two sides of the Braine. p, q, r. Portions of the braine reflected backward that the cauity of the ventricle might better be perceyued.  which resemble two bowles closed together, of which wee spake sufficiently before in the 14. chapter of this booke: there remaineth yet another processe thereof to be exhibited & manifested vnto you.  
This processe is a very notable one,[ tab. 25, figure. 1, k] arising on eyther side out of the 
The processe called the Bridge.  Cerebellum neere the trunks wherof the spinall marrow is amassed, and runneth ouerthwart forward and downeward, by the mediation whereof this After-braine imbraceth the forepart of the spinall marrow after the same manner that the transuersall or ouerthwart muscles of the Larynx making the third paire of common muscles doth imbrace the back-part of the beginning of the oesophagus or Gullet and thence are called oesophagaei: and this processe is distinguished by a course of ouerthwart fibres with a kinde of eminency from the right fibres of the spinall marrow.  
This processe Varollius calleth pontem Cerebelli, the bridge of the After-braine, from the similitude it hath with a bridge, because vnder it the spinall marrow runneth as a streame runneth vnder a bridge.  
At this processe the nerue of hearing hangeth and hence ariseth,[ table 25, fig. 1, ii] so that we may boldly auouch that the Cerebellum is also the first originall of the sense of hearing. 
How the auditory nerue ariseth out of the Bridge.  And this beginning of the auditory nerue teacheth vs the cause why more from their infācy are deaf then destitute of any other sense; for because the nerues proceed from the after-brain and run no long course, they are easily filled and choaked with Mucous and slimy excrements; & this is the reason, as saith Cassius in his 17 Probleme, why children from their 
Two pretty questions resolued.  infancy loose their hearing of both eares together, whereas vpon an accidentall disease it is more vsuall to haue one alone vitiated.  
Seeing therefore almost halfe of the spinall marrow and this processe or bridge from which the auditory nerue ariseth do proceede from the After-braine; Varollius thinketh that Galen hath great wrong to be taxed by the late Writers, when as they affirme against 
Galen iniured by the Neotericks.  him, that no nerue hath his originall from the Cerebellum: for saith hee, some nerues arise onely from the braine and not from the After-braine as the optick sinewes; some from the After-braine only and not from the braine as the auditory nerues; some from them both together as the nerues of the spine: but no nerue ariseth immediately out of any of the two 
Varollius.  principles but all out of their owne principles eyther by the mediation of the spinall marrow or by the mediation of that transuerse processe which we called the Bridge.   

Of the Nerues of the eyes.  
Next followeth the nerues of the eyes, and because there are two payre of them, the one called optici, the other motorij because they moue the eyes; we will first speake of the opticks. They say they arise out of the basis of the braine but toward the forepart,[ table 25, fig. 1, i] whereas indeed a great part of them proceedeth farther,[ table 25, fig. 1, from p to b] 

The common receiued originall  
The true originall.   and lurking in a certaine space formed betweene the braine and the beginning of the spinall marrow, they runne out toward the occiput where they arise[ tab. 25, fig. 2, sheweth their originall] out of the beginning of the former trunkes of the spinall marrow,[ tab. 25, fig. 2, b c] where they respect the cauity of the ventricles of the brain,[ tab. 25, fig. 2, g] and in the backpart thereof they are reflected toward the middest.[ tab. 25, fig. 2, d e] Wherefore seeing the originall of these nerues is almost in the occipitium, it followeth( as also wee finde 
Why Caureries at the necke helpe the eyes.  it true by daily experience) that Cauteries applyed to the Occipitium are of great vse in the diseases of the eyes: which out of question hapeneth because the originall or beginning of the opticke sinewes beeing depurated and confirmed the visible spirits haue freer recourse vnto the eyes.  
If you would demonstrate these sinewes you must remoue the Pia mater at that place where the Opticks are commonly saide to arise; but carefully that you hurt not the nerue, 
How to demonstrate the Opticke nerues.  & then you may perceiue that the brain there is only contiguall; thē draw the brain lightly forward from the marrow till you finde the Opticks there lurking, and if you thrust a probe without violence betweene them and the parts to which they adheare, you may lift them from the subiected parts till you come to their originall, and withall you shall perceiue where the spinall marrow taketh his beginning out of the braine. They say commonly that the mouing nerues[ ta. 25, fi. 1, Ch. 2] haue their beginning neere the Opticks, a little more ourward; but if you dissect a part of the brain toward the midst you shal perceiue them 
The mouing nerues.  distinguished from the brain to attaine to the middle of the head & to passe vnder the Opticks after they haue made an intercussion,[ Table. 25, figure. 1, d] that is, haue crossed one the other, and do arise at the inner part of the beginning of the spinall martow,[ Table. 25, figure 1. e] and in their originall are so vnited that they touch one another in one corner, 
Why both cies moue together.  which haply is the cause why both the eyes are together moued to the same side.  
That the rest of the coniugations of the sinewes of the braine do yssue from the Spinall marrow, Vesalius is content to affirme, excepting onely the third. Columbus acknowledgeth that third with all the subsequent coniugations to arise from the said marrow, and for the two first paires we haue euen now proued their originall: it remaineth that we proceed to the instruments of smelling.   

The instruments of Smelling or the Mammillary processes.  
The instruments of smelling or the antertor processes of the braine which proceed outward betwixt the optick nerues vnto the fissure of the spongie-bone scituated at the toppe 
Their cōmon receiued originall.  of the nose, are commonly esteemed to arise out of the Basis of the braine[ tab. 25. fig. 1. F] neare the coniunction of the opticke nerues[ Tab. 25. fig. 1. c.] But the truth is, that Anatomists hitherto haue shewed onely the one halfe of these instruments; for beside that they doe shew[ table 25. figu. 1. from m forward] they proceede as much more[ Table 25. figure 1. from m to l] lurking betwixt the forward and the middle swelling of the braine, for their progresse is backeward, and by how much they reach further, by so much is the distance more betwixt them. They are also by little and little attenuated, growing thinne vntill they determine into a sharpe poynte at the sides of the braine almost at the vtmost limite thereof[ Table 25. figure 1. at n] which is aboue the holes where the ayre beateth into the eare, for this is the place of their originall. And hence haply it is that if the smelling bee 
Their true original.  intercepted; the hearing also is somwhat affected; for we see that when vpon a cold or murr( as we cal it) the nose is stopped and the smell hindred, the hearing also is somewhat offended: wee also manifestly perceiue that when wee sneeze or blowe our nose or retayne our 
Of the simpathy between hearing and smelling.  breath by shutting vp our nosthrils, the hearing is also instantly interrupted, and those that loose their smell doe verie easily become deafe: it may also bee that from this sympathy that Probleme of Aristotle the fift of the 11. Section, and the 23 of Cassius, Why those that be deafe do speake through the nose may be assoyled.   

Of the Venticles of the Brain.  
These things being thus demonstrated, and the eyes with the optick nerues being drawn each into their owne side, you must lengthwise cut into two partes the bridge of the Cerebellum 
How we must proceed in this kind of section.  and the spinall marrow, then must you remoue the Cerebellum quite away, and one part of the spinall marrow so deuided lengthwise as we sayde before must be drawne to his owne side, and one side of the braine both before and behind must be cut to shew the magnitude and figure of the ventricles thereof, for this Administration sheweth a great difference in the scite, magnitude, forme, number and vse of them from the common demonstration.  
The receiued opinion is that there are foure ventricles, Arantius in his obseruations accounteth six; foure acknowledged by the antients and vnder these two other; but indeed and trueth by how much the number is increased, by so much is the error the greater, there being in trueth but two, for the braine both of man and beasts being double, as first Hippocrates 
Hippocrates Aristotle.  obserued in his Booke of the Falling sicknes, and after him Aristotle in the 10. chapter of his fourth booke de Historia Animalium, it seemeth aequall that each part should haue a ventricle. For these two which they place in the forepart of the braine are as wel seated in the middle and in the hinde-part as they are before: for hetherto scarse their ourth part hath beene demonstrated, their magnitude being answerable & proportionable in respect 
The magnitude of the ventricles.  of their forme to the magnitude of the whole braine, and the swelling prominences thereof: neither is it to be doubted but that the cauities of the braine while the creature is aliue are farre larger then after he is dead, because after death the braine that was streatched and as it were extended with spirites, when those spirites are vanished falleth into itselfe and so the cauities are lessened and contracted.  
Now the braine is on either side long, and where the two sides the right and the left doe regard each other it is plaine and depressed, in other partes it hath sphericall or round productions or prominencies answerable to the hollownes of the bones wherein it is contayned.  
The anterior or forward prominence filleth the cauity formed by the forehead bone, a part of the spongy bone, the bone of the sinciput or side of the head and the wedge-bone; 
The anterior prominence.  the middle and lower prominence filleth on both sides the cauity formed by the backepart of the wedge-bone, the forepart of the stony-bone and the bone of the temples.  
The posterior or backward prominency filleth the cauity made by the vpper part of the Occipitium and the latter part of the wedge and stony-bones. And to these prominences 
The posterior  the cauity of the ventricles is answerable; for from the forward prominences there runneth a notable bosome or hollownes, euen vnto the latter or backward; which Sinus or hollownesse is so farre distant from the outside of the braine in the back-part as it is in the forepart.  
But when it attaineth vnto the angle or corner which is in the vpper part of the stony-bone, it is reflected to the middle and lower prominence of the braine and after the same manner is excauated or hollowed in that prominence or production as it is in the anterior or posterior parts.  
But why is the ventricle thus figured? why did Nature neglect the round figure and reflect it thus into itself? Mercurialis maketh answere; That as in a pond or Lake wherein water may rage, men do frame out some oblique angles, or corners wherein his direct and impetuous course might be broken or as it was in that Hauen into which Aenaeas put in a storme, against the sides whereof Virgil saith:  
omnis ab alto  
Frangitur, in que sinus scindit sese vnda reductos.  
The waues are broken from the Mayne,  
And in the Creekes are cut in twaine:  
So Nature to interrupt the violent motion of the spirits, least they should offend the wals as it were the shores of the ventricle, cut out these Angles or set out these Peeres against which or in which their violence might be broken.  
Furthermore the braine, which without the compasse of the ventricles is very thicke( considering the ventricles as they are commonly demonstrated;) if you haue a respect to these two ventricles as we exhibite them is farre thinner then it is in other parts, and like a shell compasseth these two cauities, which truely might be called but one ventricle were it not distinguished by the interposition of that body which is called Corpus Callosum;[ table 25, fig. 2, m n o] & these only are the ventricles of the brain. Now what those parts are which are commonly called the third & the fourth ventricles it remaineth that we shew vnto you.  
The whole braine as also the spinall marrow is diuided into two parts, and is onely ioyned in the middle and lower part by that Callous body we spake of euen now,[ Table 25, fig. 2, m n o] 
What are the 3. and 4. ventricles commonly so called.  which is nothing else but the braine in that part conioyned. For where the right & the left parts were to be ioyned they are bent a little outward, afterward growing white they are reflected to the middest and so vnited. This vnion hath a kinde of conuexity or embowed figure proportioned to the conuexitie of the braine, which also is as long as the Sagittall suture or seame. Some thinke that it is harder then the other parts, but wee 
The Corpus Callosum.  thinke it is as soft as the braine itself, and is very white like the inward parts or sides of the ventricles. The interior part of this vnion is ordinarily called Fornix or the Arch.  
The two Trunkes produced from the braine being become round do touch another, and so bend somewhat forward; but againe returne backward toward the hole of the Occipitium; 
The Arch of the Braine.  and because they are round bodies they make betwixt themselues in their first contaction a a light anguler or cornered cauity vpon which the Basis of the braine beeing vnited doth leane itself, so that from the mutuall touch of the bodyes before spoken of that space is formed which they call the third ventricle, which to say truth is without the braine and formed 
The third ventricle.  not by any intention of Nature but of necessity, because of the coniunction of these bodies.  
In the vpper part heereof towards the sides there appeare two long slits or fissures which run almost through the middle circumference of the trunkes of the spinall marrow, and so passe into the ventricles of the braine, and by the way of these fissures the ventricles haue an outlet vnto that they call the third ventricle. And because the foresaide trunkes doe reach as farre as to the Saddle of the wedge-bone where the Tunnell is, therefore it is commonly saide that the anterior passage of the third ventricle reacheth vnto that part.  
The fourth ventricle so called, is a Sinus or hollownesse betwixt the lower part of the Cerebellum and the vpper trunks of the spinall marrow, where the same spinal marrow is caued 
The fourth ventricle.  or hollowed like a writing pen. This Sinus or bosome is made of the two trunks proceeding out of the Cerebellum for the framing of the spinall marrow, and is lengthened out of the distance of both those propagations of the After-braine. For before they bee vnited with those two other greater trunkes which arise from the braine itself, they passe along aboue them a little distant one from the other. So that this cauity like as the other, ariseth rather vpon necessity of the position of the parts then from any foresight or intention of Nature; because like as the third so also this fourth ventricle is scituated without the braine and the Cerebellum.  
That hole which is called the latter foramen of the third ventricle, which some make to 
The fundament of the Braine.  be like vnto the fundament and will haue to enter into the fourth ventricle; is nothing else but a space made by the contaction or mutuall touching of the foure trunkes of the spinall marrow where the trunkes of the Cerebellum are bent downeward and adheare or cleaue to the Trunkes arising from the braine.  
Here appeare foure orbicular prominences commonly called the Buttocks and the Testicles 
The buttocks and Testicles.  of the braine, which they commonly affirme to be within the braine though indeed they are without. And these Varollius thinketh to be the true originals of the spinal marrow: 
The true originals of the spinal marrow after Varollius  and that the buttocks are nothing else but portions of the roots of the spinall marrowe proceeding out of the Cerebellum, like as the Testicles are small portions of the roots proceeding from the Braine.  
Concerning the vse of the ventricles, the common opinion is, that they are the conceptacles or receptacles of the Animal spirits as the left ventricle of the heart is the place of the 
The vse of the ventricles.  vitall spirit. But although we will not deny that there may bee many vses assigned to one and the same part:( and therfore Galen in the tenth chapter of his eight book de vsu partium was of opinion that the vpper ventricles did serue for the preparation of the spirits & 
Galen.  also for the expurgation of superfluities,) yet we are of opiniō that these ventricles are the receptacles 
That the ventricles receiue the phlegme.  of the phlegmatick humor which is ingendered in the braine, which through the infundibulum or Tunnel is conuayed to the phlegmatick glandule and so purged away. For the ventricles haue no where any outlet but onely at the Tunnell: but for the Animall spirits we think that they are disseminated through the whole substance both of the brain & of the After-brain. And this we shew first by the testimony of Hippocrates, who when he had 
Hippocrates his first reasō.  deliuered that man consisted of foure humors, and did assigne to euery one their proper place he saith; That the place of the spirits and of the bloud is in the hart, of yellow choller in the Liuer, of blacke in the spleene. And if the place of phlegme be in the braine there must of necessity be a cauity which may containe it; such as is the ventricle in the heart and the bladder of gall in the Liuer: Now beside these two ventricles there is in the braine no cauity at all.  
Secondly, it is proued by the general vse of Glandules which is to sucke vp and consume superfluous humidity. Whereas therefore in these ventricles there are Glandules found in 
2. reason.  that complication or web of vessels therein disposed; it followeth that phlegme is therein gathered, which distilleth out of that textute or web into the ventricles and there is heaped together;( for they are not able to consume so great a quantity) otherwise both the Glandules should be in vaine added by Nature, and their vse and commodity assigned by Hippocrates should be idle and of no vse.  
Furthermore it is acknowledged by all men that the phlegme doth distill from the 
3. reason.  braine through the Tunnell vnto the Pallet. Now the beginning of the Tunnell is in the ventricle, neyther is there any passage from any part of the braine vnto the Tunnell vnlesse it be out of the said ventricles.  
Fourthly, it is proued by an argument taken from necessity: because this phlegmatick 
4. reason.  excrement did require great and large cauities. For if there had beene no conuenient place wherein a notable quantity thereof might be stabled or heaped together; wee should haue beene troubled with continuall spitting and spawling( euen as they in whose bladders the vrine is not collected and retayned doe continually auoid their water by drisling or drops) and so our speech and other noble actions interrupted. And hence it is that in sleepe a 
Many instances from our sence.  great quantity of this phelgme being collected, after we awake we auoid it plentifully in a short time. Now this quantity because it could not be contained within the Dennes or hollow cauities of the nose behooued to haue some other receptacle in the braine wherein it might be reserued till conuenient time of euacuation.  
We do also sensibly perceiue that if a man be desirous to spit and therefore sucke the vpper part of his Pallate, he shall gather great quantity of this phlegmatick excrement into the cauity of his mouth and thence spit it foorth. But if hee againe instantly striue to spit he shall auoid a lesse quantity; and so lesse and lesse till by sucking hee can gather no more spittle. But after a short interim or interposition of time the excrement wil againe fal into his mouth; which is a most euident signe that this matter is in some notable quantity colected or gathered together before it be auoyded as it is in the Vrine & the excremēts of the belly.  
We conclude therefore that these Cauities of the ventricles do receyue the foresaid excrements, because those Glandulous complications doe enter into them, and out of 
What we conclude.  them onely are the passages by which the moysture is auoided.  
Mercurialis opposeth on this manner. How may it be that so thicke, cold and obscure or dull a humor so contrary to the spirits should be collected in that place where the spirits 
Mercurialis his obiections.  themselues which are pure and subtle bodies are as it were in an Ouen baked & perfected? Moreouer, the causes of an Apoplexie, Epilepsie or Falling sickenesse and the Incubus or Night-Mare are by all Physitians acknowledged to be, when as Flegm or Melancholy, or crasse and thicke winde is reteyned in the Ventricles, which stopping them vp either wholy or for the most part, do strangle the spirits therein conteined, which( as Galen saith in his third Booke De Locis affectis) Hip. signifyed in darke and obscure words in the end of the second Section of the sixt booke Epidemiωn, where he writeth, That the 
Hippocrates.  disease called Melancholia hapneth when the humour falleth into the seate of the minde, and the Epilepsie when it falleth into the body of the Brain.  
Plato also consenteth with Hippocrates in Timaeo where he writeth, that the Falling sicknesse happeneth when Flegme mingled with Melancholy entreth into the diuine cauities 
Plato.  of the braine: Varolius maketh answere on this manner. For the Causes of the Apoplexie, 
Varolius his answere to Mercurialis.  Epilepsie and Incubus, although I sometimes read in Hippocrates as in the Ninth Text of his Booke De Glandulis, that the Apoplexy is occasioned by the Corrosion of the braine, and in the nineteenth and twentith Texts of his Booke De Flatibus, that the Epilepsy is caused when the blood is disquieted and defiled in all the veines, as also vvhen 
The causes of the Apoplexie Hippocrates. Galen.  the same veines are obstructed. And that I reade in Galen in the seauenth Chapter of his third booke De Locis Affectis, that hee doubted whether the Epilepsy were made by an obstruction of the ventricles of the Braine, or of the Spinall Marrow, and therefore that I willingly graunt that these diseases may haue these causes: yet I conceiue that it wil not abhorre from reason to thinke, that the Ventricles( though the Animall spirits bee conteyned in them) are sometimes so fulfilled with a viscid humour or thicke wind, that the 
Do not contradict Varolius opinion.  first roote of the Spinall Marrow may be compressed by the aboundance thereof, so that the transportation and affluence of the spirits thereunto may bee interrupted and intercepted, and consequently the whole bodye depriued of sense and motion. Like as the bladder in the suppression of the Vrine being beyond measure distended lying hard vpon 
Another satisfaction.  the guts, the auoyding of the excrements is hindred.  
And if this answere will not please the pallate, I will say with Galen in the place before quoted, that the Epilepsy and such like diseases do proceede by the obstructing or immuring 
This opinion. Confirmed by Dissection  of the Spitits, which happeneth when the beginning of the Spinall Marrowe is choaked by an vnnaturall confluence of humours vnto it. And this opinion is confirmed by the Dissection of the heads of such men as dye Apoplecticall, in the Ventricles of whose brains there is not found any greater quantity of excrements then is commonly found in other men.  
Furthermore, they Obiect that in the Epilepsy, the Apoplexy and the Incubus the Animal spirits residing in the Ventricles of the Braine are strangled or their outgate hindred. Varolius answeres that these diseases happen not from any humour or winde atteyning 
Another Obiection. Answered.  any way vnto the Ventricles, but by reason of a great quantity and notable thickenesse, or sudden eruption. Wherefore euen as the excrements descending by the pallate and the nose do not offend the taste or the smell if they passe through those Organs moderately and according to Nature, but do either hinder or vtterly intercept their operations if they exceede the measure and proportion of Nature in quantity or in quality: so we thinke we are to conceiue of the excrements accruing vnto the ventricles of the brain or receding there-from.  
Now that the Spirits are dispersed through the substance of the braine, we prooue 
That the spirits are in the substance of the Braine. Galen.  by the testimony of Galen in the 13. chapter of his eight booke de vsu partium where hee sayth, That the Animal spirite is in great quantity conteyned in the body of the braine, as also of the Cerebellum to which he attributeth the Original or beginning of the nerues of the whole body, and therefore he inferreth that it is necessary it should bee filled vvith the aboundance of spirits.  
If therefore the Cerebellum which hath in it no cauity at all doth yet conteyn in his substance plenty of spirits which flow from it to so many nerues remooued by so great distances therefrom, why may we not beleeue that after the same maner yea a great deale rather the spirites may bee conuayed without manifest cauities out of the braine to a fewer nerues and those not far distant from it but euen at hand? Seeing therefore that the Animall 
The conclusion.  spirits can ebbe and flow without any sensible passage; why may wee not ascribe that vnto the substance of the braine which others haue ascribed vnto the ventricles although they haue not duely obserued them?  
Of the web or complication called Plexus Choroides.  
Finally, the complication or web of vessels which they call Choroides or the Net which 
Of the Plexus Choroides.  is in the ventricles of the braine;[ table 25. fig. 2. ik] seemeth to be altogether glandulous or kernelly, so that both in substance and colour it may be likened to the Pine-glandule wee spake of in the 12. Chapter; yet if you handle it nicely and mark it diligently you snall find 
What it is.  that it is nothing else but a heape of broade and long membranes growing out of the pia mater of the braine, at the one side whereof through out their whole length hangeth a little thicke vessell full of excrementitious moysture, through which exceeding small vessels are deriued: & if we may compare little things with great, it is like a gut tyed vnto the mesentery, yet for the proportion there are in it more glandules then in the mesentery of the lower belly. And this manifestly appeareth in their heads whose braines are very moyst & therefore sayeth Varolius, it were more agreeable to their nature to call them Glandulous then Net-like complications.  
And if any man doubt whether the substance of them be such as we haue saide, wee remit him vnto his own ocular inspection, ther being no argument of greater valliditie. For 
That it is glādulous.  sayth Varolius in all carkasses which we haue opened, we haue found these glandules full of such a muddy moysture as we finde in the rest of the Glandules of the body. Albeit Archangelus doe thinke that such excrements are onely found in diseased braines.  
The vse of this glandulous complication seemeth to be; that like other glandules it might 
The vse of this complication.  sucke vp the superfluous moysture of the brain, for that is the office of the glandules in the whole body: yea Hippocrates himselfe in the second Text of his Booke de glandulis, proueth by an induction of the particular glandules of the whole body, that when the body aboundeth with superfluous humidity it is thereof exonerated and discharged by the glandules; yea he proceedeth so far as to say that the whole substance of the braine is glandulous.  
Now concerning the rest of the parts of the braine of which in this new demonstration or dissection wee haue made no mention, you must conceiue of them as their histories are described before.  
But if a man bee desirous in this kinde of Section to demonstrate or exhibite to the 
How this section must be administred.  spectators all the parts, then must he proceede in this order. After he hath taken away all the bones of the head by sawing them through the length aboue and beneath, before and behinde; he must first make demonstration of the Sinus or vessels of the dura meninx. Afterward turne the head and at the Basis of the braine separate the Meninx from the spinall marrow, yet must he leaue portions of the Meninx about the nerues that they be not broken, for then you cannot follow them to their originall.  
Vnder the membrane which inuesteth the spinall marrow there appeareth a texture or web of vessels diuersly crossing one another, which they commonly call Rete-mirabile, the 
How the particular parts of the braine arise.  Wonderfull Net; then the flegmatick glādule commeth in sight which is almost square, & the neck of the Tunnel which are scituated without the thick Meninx. From hence our eye passeth vnto the membrane of the spinall marrow and the marrow itself; which being lifted vp we behold the buttockes, the testicles, the passage into the fourth ventricle and the fourth ventricle itself, all which are without the braine. Wee see also the After-braine, the processes thereof, the auditory nerue, the mouing nerues of the eye together with the opticks, the organs of smelling, the two ventricles of the braine together with their passage into the Tunnell, as also the Callous body, the Arch, the Complication called Choroides, and the Pine-glandule. And thus much concerning Varolius his newe way of dissecting the head, which we haue added as an accomplishment to this Booke of the braine, because indeed after this manner all the parts thereof are best showne and to best purpose. Now we proceed to the Controuersies.     

¶ A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies concerning the Braine and the Parts thereof.  

QVEST. 1. Whether the Braine be the seate of the Principall Faculties.  
_THE Animall Faculties are by the Physitians distinguished into Faculties of Sense, Faculties of Motion and Principall 
A diuision of the Animal Faculties.  Faculties. The sensitiue Faculty is double, one Externall whose obiect is singular or one; the other Internall vvhose obiect is common or manifold: this Internall Facultie the 
The common sense.  Philosophers call the Primary or Common sense; and this is it which alone maketh the differences of Images as wee call them or Abstracted Notions. She sitteth in the substance of the Braine as in a throne of Maiesty beholding the Formes or Ideas of all things vnder her feet. This is shee that discerneth betwixt sweete and bitter, and distinguisheth white for sweete. This common sense Aristotle compareth to the center of a circle, because the shapes and formes receiued by the outward senses are referred or brought heereunto as vnto their Iudge and Censor.  
After this inward sensitiue Faculty do follow the principall Faculties; and first of all the Imagination which conceyueth, apprehendeth and retaineth the same Images or representation 
The Imagination.  which the common sense receiued; but now more pure and free from all contagion of the matter, so that thogh those things that moue the senses be taken away or other wise doe vanish, yet their footsteps and expresse Characters might remaine with vs. And this conception or apprehension we call Phansie. By this Phansie that supreme & soueraign Intellectual power of the Soule is stirred vp and awaked to the contemplation of the Ideas 
The Intelligence.  or Notions of vniuersall things.  
Finally, all these are receyued by the Memory, which as a faithfull Recorder or Maister of the Rolles doth preserue, store vp and dispose in due order all the forenamed Notions 
The memory.  or abstracted formes. And these are the Principal Faculties according to the Philosophers and the Physitians, concerning which we haue three things to enquire.  
The first, whether the Braine be the seate of them all. Secondly, whether in the braine 
3. Questions.  these diuers Faculties haue diuers Mansions. And lastly, whether these principall Faculties do result or arise out of the temperament or from the conformation of the Brain, and whither they be Similer or Organicall.  
Concerning the seate of the reasonable Soule the opinions of the Philosophers and 
Diuers opinions.  Physitians are very different. Herophilus placeth it about the basis of the braine. Xenocrates in the top of the head. Erasistratus in the Membranes of the braine. Empedocles, the Epicures 
Herophylus. Xenocrates. Erasistratus. Empedocles. Moschion. Blemor.  and the Egyptians in the Chest, Moschion in the whole bodye. Heraclitus in the outward motion. Herodotus in the eares. Blemor the Arabian in the eyes, because the eyes are the discouerers of the minde, and so fitted and composed to all the affections and affects of the same, that they seeme to be another Soule, for when we kisse the eye wee thinke wee touch the soule itself.  
Strato the Naturalist thought the soule inhabited in the eye-browes, because they are the seate of Pride and Disdaine, and therefore the Poets were woont to call pride the Eye-brow, 
Strato Physicus. Prouethe.  and we commonly say of an insolent man, that we see pride sitting vpon his browe. Moreouer from the haires of the browes the Phisiognomers gather signes of the disposition 
Strato his Phisiognomy of the eie-browes.  of the minde. For if they bee straight it is a signe of a soft and flexible disposition; if they be inflected neare the nose they are a signe of a scurrulous Buffon; if they bee inflected neare the temples they argue a scoffing Parasite; if they bend all downewards they are an argument of an enuious inclination. The Perepatetickes and Stoicks doe all of them place the faculties of sence and vnderstanding in the heart, because say they that that is the 
The opinion of the Peripateticks.  principle or beginning of motion is also the originall of sence: But the heart is the principle of all motion, because it is the hottest of all the bowels and a liuing fountaine of Naturall heate. Moreouer, in passions of the minde, as Agonies, Feares, Faintings and such like, the spirites and the heate returne vnto the heart as vnto their Prince. And for this 
Hip, authority.  they bring the authority of diuine Hippocrates in his golden Booke of the heart, where hee sayth, The Soule of a man is seated in the left ventricle of the heart, & from thence commandeth the rest of the faculties of the Soule, and it is nourished neither with meate nor drinke from the belly, but with a bright and pure substance segregated from the bloud.  
We with Hippocrates, Plato, Galen and all Physitions, do determine that. The braine is the seate of all the Animall faculties, for if the braine be offended, wounded, refrigerated, 
The opinion of the Physitions.  inflamed, compressed, or after any other manner affected, as it is in a phrensie, Melencholia, Charos, Chatoche, or Epilepsie wee may discerne a manifest impeachment of all the Animall functions, which if wee desire to cure, wee apply our remedies not to the heart but to the 
That the braine is the seat of the Animal faculties.  braine. But if the heart were the seat of the principal faculties then in all affections or notable distemper thereof, all the functions should be interrupted, because the action is from the Temperament. But in a Hecticke Feuer in which there is an vtter alienation of the Temperament, the voluntary and principall faculties remaine sound and vntainted. When the heart is violently moued as in Palpitation, neither is the voluntary motion of the parts depraued nor reason itself. Who will deny that the vitall faculty is oppugned by a pestelent aire, the byting of a venomous creature, or by taking of poyson? but al those that are so affected do yet enioy their sence and reason. If( saith Galen in his 2. booke de placitis Hippocratis & Plat.) you beare the heart and presse it, you shall perceiue that the creature will not be hindred in his voyce, his breathing or any other voluntary action.  
And whereas Hippocrates placeth the Soule in the heart, happly hee speaketh after the manner of the common people as hee vseth oftentimes to doe; now the vulgar imagined 
Hip. expounded.  that the Soule was in the heart. So he calleth the Diaphragma or Midriffe 〈◇〉 the Minde, when as notwithstanding those Vmbles haue no power whereby the creature doth vnderstand any thing, as he teacheth in his Booke de morbo Sacro or the Falling sicknes.  
Or we say that by the Soule in that place hee vnderstandeth the chiefe instrument of the 
Hip. often vseth the word Soule for heate.  Soule, to wit, the Heate. So in his first booke de diaeta he commonly vseth the word Soule for Heat, as when he sayth That the Soule of man is encreased euen vnto his death. And againe in the same Booke The Soule creepeth into a man being mingled of fire and water. Whereby the Soule I vnderstand the heat throughly dewed or moystned with the in-bred and primigenie moysture and the spirits. And that in his Booke de Corde by the Soule hee vnderstandeth the heate, those words do declare, where he sayth, That the Soule is nourished by the most pure and defaecated bloud. Now in his first booke de Diaeta, hee writeth that the Soule cannot be altered neither by meats nor drinks. VVhich place because it is as bright is the Sun in his strength and worthy to be written in golden Letters, wee will here transcribe. 
An elegant place of Hip. concerning the immortality of the soule.  The causes of all those things whereby the Soule is altered, are to be referred to the nature of the passages through which it penetrateth. For as the vesselles are affected whereinto it retyreth and to which it falleth and with which it is mixed, such is their condition; and therefore wee cannot alter them by dyet, for it is impossible to alter or change the inuisible Nature.  
In his Booke de morbo sacro, he affirmeth, that in the heart there is no wisedome or intelligence, all sayth he is in the power of the Braine. From the braine we vnderstand, doote and grow mad, as it is hotter, or dryer, or colder.  
Galen in his third Booke de Placitis, conuinceth by many arguments that the braine is the seate of all the Animall faculties. And in the fourth Chapter of his third booke de locis 
Galen.  affectis according to the opinion of the vulgar hee accounteth that man foolish that wanteth braines. For the further confirmation of this opinion we wil adde an elegant argument out of Philo.  
VVheresoeuer the Kings Guard is there is the person of the King whome they doe 
Philo his argument.  guarde; but the guarde of the Soule, that is, all the organs and instruments of the Sences are placed in the head as it were in a Citadell or Sconce; there therefore doth the soule keepe her Court, there is her residence of Estate. If therefore the sensatiue faculty be placed in the braine, the intellectuall must be there also, because as saith the Philosopher the office of the Intellectuall faculty is to behold and contemplate the Phantasmes or Images which by the senses are represented vnto it. We resolue and conclude therefore that the braine is the seate of all the Animall faculties as well Sensatiue as Principall.   

QVEST. II. Whether the Principall faculties haue distinct places in the Braine.  
_SEeing therefore the Principall faculties are there: Imagination, Reason 
What a principall faculty is.  and Memory; and that their seate or habitation is resolued to be the brain: let vs now enquire whether they haue distinct & particular mansions prouided for euery one of them. Galen in his booke de Arteparua defineth principall functions to be such as yssue onely from a principle: and in the second de locis affectis he addeth. Which are accomplished by no other part as by an Orgā and Instrument. And yet more plainely in the 7. book de placitis Hip. & Plat. Which are only in the braine and thence doe proceed, not receiuing their operation from any other Organs of sense or motion.  
The whole Schoole of the Arabians hath imagined certaine mansions in the braine, 
The opinion of the Arabians that they haue distinct seates.  and assigneth to euery particular faculty a particular seate; and this is Auicen his opinion, Fen. 1 primi, doctrina 6, Cap, 5. As also Auerrhoes in his Canticles, his book de memoria et reminiscentia and in Colliget.  
They place therefore the Phantasie in the forward ventricles, Reason in the middle, and Memory in the hinder ventricle: and this opinion may be established by many arguments on this manner. Almost all the sences are placed in the forepart of the head, wherefore 
The first argument.  because the Imagination is to receiue and apprehend the species and representations of sensible things it must be placed in the fore-part.  
By the Imagination the Intellectuall power is stirred vp and abstracteth the Images of things from those Imaginations, and therefore it must be scituated next vnto the Phansie; and because that is the most immediate Instrument of the reasonable Soule, it was fitte it should reside in the safest and most honourable place which is the middest, that is, the third ventricle.  
This Intellectuall faculty commendeth those abstracted formes of things vnto the Memory, which it layeth vp as it were in a Treasury, and therefore the seate of the Memory must be in the hindmost and dryest part of the Braine which is the fourth ventricle.  
Againe, the Imagination being a conception of Images, and accomplished only by 
The second argument.  reception and simple apprehension, requireth the softer substance of the braine wherein such sensation might be made. The Memory desireth the harder substance of the braine that it might be able the longer to retaine those Notions which it storeth vp. Ratiotination is best pleased with a substance of a middle nature betwixt the softer and the harder. Now the forepart of the braine is the softer, the hindpart the harder, and the middest of a middle constitution; and therefore the Imagination is in the forward ventricles, Ratiotination in the middle, and Memory in the hindmost.  

The third argument.  Thirdly, that these principall faculties are discluded or separated by their mansions these things doe demonstrate; because if one of them be offended yea or perish vtterly, yet the other may remaine vntainted or vnaffected. For it oftentimes happens that the Imagination is vitiated and yet the Intellectuall faculty not at all depraued. For the confirmation of this we haue many elegant Histories in Galen, as in the third chapter of his booke de Symtomatum 
Histories.  differentijs and the second chapter of his fourth booke de locis affectis. Theophylus being otherwise able to discourse very well, hadde yet an Imagination that there were Fidlers in the corner of his Chamber and continually cryed to haue them thrust out. Another being Phreniticall lockt the doores of his Chamber to him and carried all the vessels to the Windowes, where giuing euery vessell his proper name he asked those that passed by, whether they would command him to cast them out. Thucydides reporteth that when the plague was so hot throughout all Graecia and Peloponnesus that many did so vtterly forget what they had knowne before, that they did not remember their Parents or familiar friends. In these men therefore onely the Memory was offended; in Theophilus onely the Imagination, and in him that was Phreniticall onely the Intellectuall faculty or vnderstanding.  
Moreouer, vnlesse the principall faculties had seuerall seats, why were there diuers ventricles 
The 4. argument.  or cauities made in the braine? And why is one of them more noble then another, vnlesse it be because it is the seat of a more noble faculty.  
VVe will also adde an argument taken from the secrets of Phisiognomy. They that haue a large Nowle or backpart of the head are sayde to haue happy memories: but when the forepart and the forehead doth set outward, the Imagination is the stronger. On the 
The 5, argument,  contrary, those that want both these processes are euen by the common people esteemed foolish Idiots: and this is the Phylosophy of the Arabians concerning the seates of the faculties. Let vs now come vnto the Greek Family. Galen the Prince of this Sect conceiueth that the principall faculties are all established in one place, occupied about the same 
The opinon of Galen against the Arabians.  Images or Notions, do vse the same instrument, to wit, the brain; but their manner of working saith he is diuers. In the eight booke de vsu partium, vnder the name 〈◇〉, hee comprehendeth the three principall faculties and teacheth that they reside in the whole braine; and in the same booke he sayeth that the principall faculties haue their resience or residence not onely in the ventricles but also in the whole body of the braine.  
For to what other purpose should the substance of the braine haue beene made so large and ample. In his third Booke de Placitis Hippocratis & Platonis, hee sayeth, that if one of 
Authorities.  the ventricles be offended, all the principall faculties are therewith affected. And this is confirmed by daily experience and the euent of things. For in the Epilepsie or falling Sicknesse there is an interception of the minde and al the sences, and yet this obstruction doth 
Examples.  not occupy all the ventricles. The Phrensie is an inflamation of the braine and his membranes. Now we obserue in this disease that sometimes Reason alone is peruerted, sometimes the Imaginatiō, somtimes the Memory: yet who will euer say that in the phrēsie one ventricle onely is inflamed? In that kinde of melancholia which proceedeth immediately from the braine and is a cold and dry distemper of the whole substance thereof, yet sometimes I say in that disease onely one faculty is depraued, sometimes the Reason sometimes 
Inference vppon the examples.  the Imagination. VVherefore the principall faculties are diffused through all the ventricles and through the whole marrow of the braine. And though they are distinct one from the other, yet doe they exist together in the same particle of the subiect; for one and the same Soule performeth the offices of these different faculties by the vse of diuers meanes and a difference of Tempers. So in one and the same particle of a bone there are diuers faculties included, a drawing, a retayning, an assimulating and an expelling faculty. One of which, though it be affected when as oftentimes the rest are not taynted, yet a Physition will not therefore say that they are discluded in their seates and subiects. As therefore 
Comparison  in the stomacke diuers faculties are offended by diuers distempers, the retayning faculty especially by a moyst distemper & the assimulating by a dry, yet are not these faculties separated in diuers partes of the stomacke: so with Galen wee thinke and determine concerning the principall faculties, that the whole substance of the braine is the seat of them all promiscuously disposed therein, which substance if it bee somewhat dry a man shall haue a faster Memory, if somewhat moyst his Imagination or fantasie will be the better.  
They that follow the opinion of the Arabians doe obiect vnto vs that Galen is on their 
Obiection.  side, for in his Booke de oculis, he placeth the Fantasie in the forepart of the brain, Reason in the middest, and Memory in the hinderpart. VVe answere that we thinke that Booke is not Galens but a bastard falsly fathered vpon him. They adde further that when the imagination 
Answere.  is offended Galen applyed his remedies to the sinciput and forepart of the head; because there is the seate of the Fantasie. But they doe not consider that Galen doth the very same almost in all diseases of the head, as the Caros, the Apoplexie, the Phrensie & Melancholia in the twelfth of his Method and in the second Booke de Medicamentis secundum locos, and that not by the reason of the diuersity of seats, but that the force of the medicine might sooner penetrate into the inner parts of the brayne. For that which is applied to the forepart of the head pierceth deeper and sooner because of the thinnes of the skul in that place and the opennesse of the Coronall suture.  
That place of Galen in the second Chapter of his fourth Booke de locis affectis seemeth 
A 3 obiection made. Places of Gal. for the Arabians.  to make more for their purpose, where he writeth. If when the forepart of the braine is offended the third ventricle be affected by consent, then will the vnderstanding be depraued Hee seemeth therfore to say that the vnderstanding is not vitiated vnlesse the third ventricle be offended. Againe, in the 27. Commentary vpon the first Section Parrhet: If a humour bee fastned and stablished in any part of the braine those symptomes will follow which are agreeable as well to the nature of the part as to the humor, as for example. If the humor bee established in the forepart it will breede a Phrensie in which the Imagination is offended. Hee addeth further. When the matter is transported in the Brayne out of one part into another, the disease will continew to be of the same kinde, but the symptoms will alter according to the part affected, as sometimes the Imagination will be offended, sometimes the Reason. We answere, that we thinke 
Answere to those places.  all the principall faculties are contained in the whole braine, but we do not deny but that one faculty is more manifest in one ventricle then it is in another, as the spirits are in this cauity more thin, perfect and better laboured then they are in another.  
Finally they obiect, if the principall faculties be not seuered in their places and habitations, why is one ventricle more noble then another? For Galen in the 5. Chapter of his 
Obiection.  third booke de locis affectis, and in the 8. de vsu partium preferreth the hindmost ventricle to both the rest and the middle to the foremost. And againe in the sixt chapter of his seauenth booke de placitis Hip. et Platonis; he writeth, that the wounds of the fore ventricles are dangerous, of the middle more dangerous and of the hindmost most dangerous of al, which seemeth not to happen by reason of the structure, temperament or substance of the braine; because all these are in all places of the braine alike, but by reason of the faculties contained in the ventricles.  
Some answere that the third and fourth ventricles are more noble then the foreward, 
Answere.  not because there resideth in these more noble faculties, but because in them the Animall spirit attaineth a further perfection; so that by how much the Liuer is more noble then the stomacke, the heart then the Lungs and the left ventricle of the heart more excellent then the right, by so much and for the same respects the backward ventricles of the braine are more noble then the foreward.  
We conclude therefore with Galen: That all the principall faculties doe promiscuously in habite in the same part of the Braine together, that they vse the like corporeall Instrument, 
The conclusion of the question.  that is, the substance of the braine, yet they worke after a diuerse manner according to the variety of the Temperament and the Medium.   

QVEST. III. Whether the principall faculties doe depend vpon the Temperament of the braine or vpon the Confirmation, that is, whether they be similar or organicall actions.  
_IT is a most obscure quaestion whether the Braine do vse reason and apprehend phantasmes because it is of such a temper, or because of the admirable structure it hath. Some haue conceiued that these faculties are performed onely by the Conformation, which their opinion they confirme by authorities and by arguments. Galen writeth in his 7. Book deplacitis, 
That the faculties proceede from the conformation.  that the cause of wisedome in man is the variety of the structure of the Braine and the magnitude thereof. The figure of the head according to Hippocrates and Galen if it bee naturall, that is, sphericall or round, somewhat long, bunching somewhat out before and behind and depressed or flatted on the sides, is a signe of a wise man; and 
Authorities. The 1. reason.  contrariwise a sharpe and Turbinated head like a sugar loafe, which they call 〈◇〉 such as was Thyrsites head in Homer, is an argument of a dull or stollid foole. Againe, all the principall faculties perish when the conformation or structure is vitiated although the Temperament be not yet vitiated, as in the Apoplexy, the Epilepsie and in wounds of the head 
The second.  when the ventricles of the braine are eyther stuffed or compressed. For in the cracking of the Scull, how can the temperament of the braine in a moment be altered, or else in the oppletion or filling of the ventricles by any humor? It appeareth therefore that the principall functions are performed only by the structure and conformation onely of the brain, and that conformation being vitiated they are presently intercepted.  
On the contrary there are others who thinke that the next and immediate cause of these principall faculties is the temper of the marrowy substance and of the spirits of the braine. Let vs heere Hippocrates, Apollos eldest sonne and the pillar of the family of Physitians 
The contrary opinion.  in his first booke de diaeta teaching the same thing in plaine words. When in the body the dryest part that is the fier, and the moistest part that is the water, are aequally tempred, then 
Authorities. Hippocrates.  is a wise man borne.  
And these are the words of the diuine Plato in Theateto. The soule is not well disposed in a dense or muddy brain, neyther yet in a soft or hard brain; for softnes makes men of quicke apprehēsiō but then they are forgetful withal, hardnes makes better memories but dulnes of capacity and 
Plato.  density contayneth duskish and obscure phantasmes or images. Galen in his 8. booke de vsu 
Galen.  partium sayth, It is better to thinke that the vnderstanding followeth not the variety of composition, but a laudable Temper of that body wherewith we vnder stand: for the perfection of the vnderstanding is not so much to bee attributed to the quantity of the spirits as to the quality. The same Galen in his Booke de Arte parua, referreth the causes of wit or capacity to the thicke or thin substance of the braine.  
This wit hee calleth 〈◇〉, that is, a working capacity, which is defined 〈◇〉, that is, a promptitude or readines of lnuenting and coniecturing. In the same Booke 〈◇〉, that is, a facility of learning sheweth a soft and moyst substance of the brain, and 〈◇〉, that is a ineptitude to learne, a drie and a hard braine. Those that are light witted and inconstant in their opinions are for the most part of a hot braine, because heate is full of motion. But those that are obstinate are of a cold braine because cold is sluggish, to which if you adde drought then will such men become stubborne and refractary; and hence it is for the most part that the Authours and fautors or defenders of Schismes and Sects are Melancholy. Galen in his book intituled That the maners of the mind follow the temperature of the body, calleth the Soule a consent of qualites, & doth not distinguish it from the temperament  
In his Commentary vpon the 6. Booke Epidemiωn and vpon the sixt Aphorisme of tho second Section, as also in the 6. Chapter of his Booke de locis affectis, he styleth the Temperament of the braine the Minde. For so he expoundeth that Aphorisme of Hippocrates, Melancholy men become Epilepticall and Epileptical men Melancholy; as the humour ascendeth into this or that part so is there a transmutation made of these diseases. For if the humour be transfused into the body and ventricles of the braine then they become Epilepticall, 
Galen calleth the Soule a temper.  if into the minde they become Melancholicall; where-by Mind he vnderstandeth the Temperament. For the disease called Melancholy is a cold & dry distemper of the brain. But when Galen called the Soule a Temper, he doeth not conceiue that that Temper is the 
How & why.  forme of a reasonable man, but the forma medica, because that onely falleth into the Physitions consideration.  
For that which can neither bee preserued when it is present nor restored when it is absent, that doth not at all belong vnto the Physition: but the intellectuall Soule can neither bee preserued being present nor restored being absent; onely the Temperament may bee mantained when we haue it, or restored when it is lost. The Temperament therefore only is the Physicall forme of a man, because the Physition considereth a mans body not as it is Natural consisting of Matter and Forme, but as it is subiect to sicknesse, and againe lable to Physicke. And from hence some men doe imagine that it is sufficiently prooued that the principall faculties of the Soule are not excercised by the structure or conformation but by the Temper of the braine.  
Our opinion concerning this question is, that the efficient cause of all the simctions is neither the Temper alone, nor only the wonderful structure of the braine; but the intellectuall 
What we resolue of.  Soule which notwithstanding admitteth both these causes: one Organicall which is the amplitude or largenesse of the braine and of the ventricles and the plenty of the spirits: the other Similar which is the Temper of the marrowy substance and of the spirites. From hence wee gather that Ratisionation, that is, the vse of Reason is neither absolutely an Organicall action because it is impaired in those that are Melancholicall and Phreniticall, when the structure of the braine is not at all violated; neither yet purely Similar, because the brain is offended when his ventricles are cōpressed or stuffed vp, all be the Temperament be not offended.  
Furthermore this Ratiotiation is neither inchoated nor perfected by the Temperament alone, neither yet performed by any particle of the braine; but is an action mixed or compounded of an organicall and Similar, such as is the action of the heart & the stomack. For the heart indeed is moued and hath his pulsation from an ingenite faculty and proper Temper of his owne: But it could neither haue been contracted nor distended vnlesse it had beene excauated or hollowed into ventricles.   

QVEST. IIII. Of the vse of the Braine against Aristotle.  
_IF euer that great interpreter and inessenger of Nature Aristotle the Prince of the Peripateticks doe lesse sufficiently acquite himselfe it is in the matter of Anatomy, 
The vse of the braine after Aristotle.  & more especially in that he hath written concerning the vse of the brain in the seuenth Chapter of his second Booke de part. Animal. where he cannot be redeemed from palpable absurdity. The braine sayth he was onely made to resrigerate the heart. First, because it is without blood and without veines; and againe because a mans braine is of all other creatures the largest for that his heart is the hottest. This opinion of Aristotle, Galen in his 8. booke de vsu partium confuteth by these arguments. First, seeing the braine is actually more hot then the most soultery ayre in Summer, how shall it 
Aristotle confuted.  refrigerate or coole the hart? Shall it not rather be contempered by the inspiration of ayre which it draweth in and as it were swalloweth from a full streame? If the Peripateticks shal say that the externall ayre is not sufficient to refrigerate the heart but that there is alsorequired an inward bowell to asist it: I answere, that the braine is farre remoued from the heart and walled in on euery side with the bones of the Scull. But surely if Nature had intended it for that vse, she would eyther haue placed it in the Chest or at least not set so long a necke betweene them. The heele saith Galen hath more power to coole the heart then the braine: for when they are refrigerated or wet, the cold is presently communicated to the whole body, which hapneth not when men take cold on their heads. Beside, the braine is rather heated by the heart then the heart cooled by the braine, because from the heart and the vmbles about it, there continually arise very hot vapours, which beeing naturally light do ascend vpward. Adde heereto this strong Argument which vtterly subuerteth the opinion of Aristotle and the Peripateticks. If the braine had beene only made to coole 
A very strong Argument.  the heart, what need had there bin of so admirable a structure? what vse is there of the 4. ventricles, the Chambered or Arched body, of the webs and textures of the Arteries, of the pyne glandule, of the Tunnell, of the Testicles and Buttocks, of the spinal marrow and of the manifold propagations of the sinewes?  
Finally, if this were true that Aristotle affirmeth, then should the Lyon which is the hottest of all creatures( witnesse his continuall disposition to the Ague) haue had a larger braine then a man, and men because they are hotter should haue larger braines then woemen; which things because they abhorre from reason and sense, wee doubt not to affirme that the brain was created for more noble and diuine imployments then to refrigerate the heart. The body therefore of the braine was built for the performance of the Animall, Sensatiue, Motiue and Principall functions, and it is hollowed into so many ventricles & 
The true vse of the braine.  furnished with so many textures and complications of vessels; for the auoyding of his excrements, for the preparation and perfection of the Animall spirits; besides, the Nerues serue as Organs to lead out the same Animall spirit together with the faculties of motion and sense vnto the sences and the whole body. Auerrhoes( Aristotles Ape and where occasion is giuen a bitter detractor from Physitions) endeauoreth to excuse Aristotle and saith, 
What Auerrhos opinion is.  That the braine doth therefore refrigerate the heart because it tempers the extreame heat of the vitall spirits. But let vs grant that the braine tempers some spirits, yet it will hardly temper the spirits of the heart & of the large Arteries, if it at all temper those spirits which 
But confuted.  are contained in the substance and membranes of the brain; which spirits so tempered seeing they do not returne vnto the heart, how shal they temper the heat of the heart? Alexander Benedictus in the 20. Chapter of his fourth booke seemeth to follow the opinion of Auerrhoes. Albertus Magnus a man better stored with learning then honesty, although hee be a Peripatetick, yet in this point he falleth from his Maister Aristotle, and saith in his 12 booke de Animal. that the braine by his frigidity doth no more temper the heat of the hart then the siccity or drinesse of the heart doth temper the moysture of the braine.  


Whether the braine be the originall of the sinewes?  
Whether the Nerues be continued with the veines and Arteries?  
Whether the Nerues be the Organs of sense and motion?  
Whether the Nerues of motion differ from the Nerues of sense?  
Why the sense may perish, the motion being not hindered, or on the contrary?  
VVhether the faculty alone or a spirit therewith doe passe by the Nerues?  
By which part of the Nerue the inner or the vtter, the spirit is deriued.    
All these questions and difficulties with their resolutions you must seeke for in the third 
Where these questions are disputed.  part of our booke of the vessels. The rest of the questions we now prosecute.   

QVEST. V. VVhence it is, that when the right side of the Head or Brayne is wounded or enflamed, a Convulsion falleth into the opposite partes.  
_WEe haue a double Probleme heere to discusse. The first, how it commeth to passe, that when the right side of the Head is wounded or enflamed, it oftentimes falleth out that the lefte parts of the bodie suffer Convulsion. The second, why one part of the Braine beeing smitten or obstructed, it sometimes happeneth that the contrary side of the body is resolued or becommeth Paralyticall.  
Both these questions haue in them many difficulties. For the affections or diseases almost 
The affectiōs of the partes are communicated according to Rectitude,  of all the parts are communicated 〈◇〉, that is, by rectitude, not 〈◇〉, that is, by Contrariety, because the right side with the right and the left with the left are 〈◇〉, that is, haue a similitude of substance. And therefore when the Spleene is affected the left side is pained and when the Liuer is offended the right. And in the second Section of the sixt Booke Epidemi●n. The paines of the sides, as Pleurisies and such like are è directo, that is on the same side; so also is the Tension or swelling of the Hypochondria, the tumor of the spleene and the bleeding at the nose. Wee will first therefore entreate of Convulsion and then of the Palsie.  
That the opposite parts suffer Convulsion Hippocrates first of all men taught vs in his Booke De vuineribus Capitis. By opposite parts he vnderstandeth sometimes of the head 
That the opposite partes are conuelled Hip. authority  alone, sometimes of the whole body. Of the Head alone, whereas he writeth that the Veines which run through the Temples are not to be opened, because there is daunger of Convulsion, of the right side if the left Veine be opened, and on the contrary.  
Of that convulsion which affecteth the rest of the parts of the body, he maketh mention in the same Booke. If( saith hee) the Bone be purulent, then will Pustles arise in the tongue, then the patient wounded will dye idle-headed, and for the most part the other side of his 
Many Histories.  body suffereth Convulsion, for if the right side of the head be wounded then will the Convulsion occupy the left parts of the body, and on the contrary.  
In the fift Booke Epidemi●n he telleth of a wench whom he calleth Puella Omiloea, who had abruise on the right side of her head in the middle of Summer and suffered convulsion on the left parts. Antoninus had both his hands conuelled when he was stricken with a stone in the middle of the synciput or fore-part of the head about the mold.  
In the seuenth Epidemiωn. In the History of the sonnes of Phanius and Euergus who were wounded in their heads. In such( saith hee) it happeneth that they fall to vomiting and 
Two thinges gathered out of Hippocrates.  suffer Convulsions, and that in the left parts if the right side be wounded, and in the right if the left. Wherefore I gather out of Hippocrates these two things. First, that Convulsion doth not alwayes follow, but onely when there is suppuration made, or whilst it is suppurating, or when there is a great inflamation. Againe, that all that are wounded doe not suffer Convulsion but the most, so that it it not perpetually or vniuersally true, that if one part be wounded, the contrarie part is conuelled.  
To assigne the cause of the first Convulsion it is not hard; for if the right temporall 
Why one tēporall Muscle is convelled when the other is wounded.  Muscle be wounded or resolued, yet doth not a Convulsion properly so called primarily and of it selfe fall vpon the opposite Muscle, but onely by euent, because all the Muscles are either Antagonists that is aduersary, or Congeneres that is a Kin: if they bee Congeneres then the resolution or section of one causeth the Convulsion of the other: but if they be contrarie or aduersary so that their motions succede one the other, then one of them perishing the other is necessarily taken away. For if the muscle which extendeth a part bee cut, the part will indeede be bent, but it will so alwaies remaine; because it can no more be extended, and so the Convulsion is accidentary and improperly so called.  
But the Nature of the other convulsion which is of the rest of the parts of the body not of the head alone, is much more obscure, notwithstanding Hippocrates in the places before quoted seemeth to acknowledge the cause to bee the malignity of the pus or 
The cause of opposite convulsion is a malignant quality.  matter, which launcing the Membranes which are of an exquisite sense and pricking the originall of the sinnewes stirreth vp a depraued motion. Now there passeth from the wounded part into the sound part sometimes a breath alone, somtimes a portion of the malignant Ichor or humor. The breath vapoureth away thorough insensible passages, but how the Ichor or thin humor shoulde passe from the wounded part to the opposite side it is not easy to declare.  
It must needs be either transmitted, or must fall downe, or be Propagated or finally Expressed. 
How the Ichor is carried out of the scund part into the offended.  No man will say it is transmitted out of the wounded part into the sound, because the weaker part doth not vse to exonerate itself into the strōger; neither doth it fall down because all such sinking downward is perpendicular, that is, directly downeward, for it followeth the motion of the humour, which motion seeing it dependeth vpon the Elementary form, as Philosophers conclude it must be right and simple: wherefore it is either propagated or expressed, and both these I heere acknowledge. It is propagated if it abound in quantity, if the substance of it be very thin, if the quality bee very sharpe: so Choler which is of Temper exceeding hot and raging when it breedeth an Erisipylas or Saint Anthonies 
Instances.  fire in the inward parts, diffuseth itself sometimes euen to the outward parts also. So saith Hippocrates in a Squinsey of the Larynx or throttle, both the neck and top of the Chestare 
Hippocrates  very red, per 〈◇〉, that is, by consequence or succession. What therfore shal hinder the diffusion of a thin Ichor through the whole membrane if the inflamation bee come to his height? But if there be not that plenty of Ichor that it can be propagated, yet may there be made an Expression of it out of the right side into the left; and often there is from lower partes to the vpward a 〈◇〉, that is, a Compression. Nowe Expression is made by compression, Compression by suppuration, which whilest it is a making doeth distend the neighbour parts, because the woorking or boyling humour occupieth a greater place; and hence come paines and Agues in the time whilest the Pus or Matter is in confecting, and therefore Hippocrates sayeth that convulsion is especially then induced when suppuration is a making.  
In Puella Omilaea it is likely that the Ichor was not diffused, but expressed out of the wounded part into the part opposite. It may happen that a very little as it were a droppe 
Puella Omilaea.  of the Ichor may moue a convulsion, as also a venomous vapour, by goading the membranes of the nerues which are of most exquisite sence. VVherefore the humour which breedeth the convulsion is oftentimes expressed or propagated from the diseased into the sound part, neither is it necessary alwaies that an Ichor should be expressed or propagated it is sufficient if a malignant ayre breath out of it.  
But here we obserue two things very obscure and intangled. First, how the Ichor can 
Two obscure questions.  passe out of the wounded side into the contrary, seeing that the braine is distinguished into the right side and the left by a proper midriffe of his owne and that exceeding thick, which is a duplication of the Dura Meninx called the Sythe, because it is like a Mowing Sythe or Siccle? The other why when as the same Acrimony of the Pus or quitture pricketh the Membrane of the wounded part, it doth not stir vp convulsion in the same but in the opposite part.  
The dissolution of the former is fetched from Anatomy. The hard membrane which 
How the Ichor passeth into the opposite part.  toucheth the Skull in the vpper and exterior part is wholly continuated and lined as it were or smeared ouer with a watry humour; betwixt it and the bone of the Skull is the purulent matter gathered, which may be both Expressed and Propagated out of the right side into the lefte by the continuity of the membrane, and furthered by the orbicular figure of the head.  
A small portion of the Ichor expressed out of the affected into the sound side, sometimes by reason of the tenuity sweateth through the membranes into the marrow of the braine, and out of it into the nerues; whence comes their inflamation: sometimes by the outside of the membranes it falleth into the spinal marrow which is inuested with the same membrane, where goading the originall of the nerues it procureth a convulsion by sympathy or consent, so that when the membranes are vellicated or enflamed a convulsion sooner ensueth then if the internall or marrowey substance of the nerues were affected.  
But why is the convulsion not in the wounded but in the opposite part? It is obserued that sometimes when the right side of the head is wounded the right parts of the body are also conuelled, sometimes the opposite parts onely, oftentimes both together When( saith Galen) the Inflamation toucheth the originall. It is not therefore perpetually true, that when one part of the head is wounded the opposite part is conuelled, but because it hapneth so for the most part, let vs enquire the reason thereof.  
The convulsion is in the opposite not in the wounded part, because the purulent matter 
Why the woūded part is not conuelled  which is expressed or diffused out of the wounded into the sound part hath no issue but is there stabled or gathered and breedeth an inflamation; and from thence comes the convulsion: but the sanies or Matter which gathereth in the wounded part hath free egresse by the wound and by the section of the bone, and so the Membrane is not affected. And this haply Hippocrates meaneth when in the history of the wench he saide, that the left parts suffered 
Hippocrates.  convulsion because the contusion was on the right side. VVe may also assigne another reason of this convulsion and that very probable. The wounded part is not conuelled 
Another reason of it.  but the opposite, because the faculty of the wounded part is extinguished and dissolued, and the temperament which is the cause of all actions is notably depraued; wherefore though the faculty be prouoked yet it answereth not, neyther doth any motion follow such prouocation.  
Now that vpon a suppuration or notable inflamation the part is almost mortified Hippoc. is witnesse in his book de vulneribus Capitis: but the opposite part hauing a quick sense is presently contracted & draweth into consent with it all the nerues of the same side; and so convulsion followeth 〈◇〉 by a rectitude of vessels. And this our coniecture the place of Hippocrates aboue named maketh good. For when the convulsion falleth vpon 
Hippocrates.  the opposite part then the case is desperate, pustules arise in the tongue, and the patient dyeth in a delirium or light phrensie.   

QVEST. VI. Why when the right side of the head is wounded or obstructed the opposite part is resolued or becommeth Paralytical.  
_COncerning the Palsy the difficulty is greter, the knot harder to cleaue namely, why when one part of the head is wounded or one of the vētricles of the braine obstructed or compressed, the opposite parts are resolued or become Paralyticall? That it is most true the examples 
That the opposite parts are resolued, prooued by authorities.  are infinite, and all Physitions both ancient and moderne in their writings do agree vpon it. Hippocrates maketh mention of this kinde of Palsie in his booke de vulneribus capitis and in Coacis praenotionibus. Those( saith he) that becom impotent of wounds in their head do recouer if an Ague without horror ouertake them, otherwise they become apoplecticall in the right parts or in the left. That is paralyticall. For Hippocrates often saith Crus apoplecticum for the leg taken with the Palsie. In the history of the sonnes of Phanius and Euergus in his 7. booke Epidemiωn hee writeth 
A history out of Hippocrates.  that they become impotent( if the wound be in the right part) on the left side, and on the right side if the wound were on the left part. Aretaeus in the 7. chapter of his first booke de Causis et sigmis diutur norum morborum is of the same minde. If( saith he) the head be wounded at first on the right part the left side is resolued; if on the left the right side. Salicetus setteth this down for a Catholike or vniuersall Theoreme or Maxime. Whensoeuer any man is wounded in the head so that a Palsie happen thereupon, if the wound be in the right part of the head the left side will be paralytical and contrariwise. The same hath Iohannes de Vigo obserued: and Hollerius in his Commentaries in Coacas praenotiones Hippocratis. And wee also saith Laurentius 
Diuers opinions how this Palsie commeth.  our Author, haue obserued the same.  
Wherefore that it is so, there is no controuersie; all the question is, why and how it commeth so to passe, and that indeed is much disputed. Some imagine that the nerues in their originall are so implicated that the right nerues run along the left side and the left along the right side, intersecting themselues in manner of a S. Andrewes Crosse, which 
The first.  intersection is called 〈◇〉 and therfore it is, say they, that when the right part is obstructed or otherwise affected the left side is conuelled or resolued and on the contrary, because the originall is affected. And this is the opinion of Cassius and Aretaeus. Cassius thought that the nerues do so take their originall from the Basis of the Braine, that those 
Of Cassius and Aretaeus that the nerues crosse one another.  which arose from the right part were carried into the left, and those which arose from the left side into the right, crossing one another ouerthwart. Aretaeus is of the same opinion. The right nerues, saith he, do not proceede directly into the right parts vnto their terminations; but as soone as they spring vp they cut ouer to the other side crossing one another like the letter X which the Graecians call 〈◇〉. But the leuity of this opinion needeth no 
Consuted. 〈◇〉.  consuration. For ocular inspection which wee call 〈◇〉 teacheth vs that all the nerues which arise out of the marrow of the braine are altogether distinguished and seperated in their originall, progresse and insertion; excepting onely the opticks which in the middle of their iourney do meet & that necessarily, that they might passe directly to the apple of 
None but the opticks doe intersect.  the eye; that they might not grow flaccid or loose in their long iourny being very soft; that the simple & single obiect of the eye might not seeme double: and finally, that the formes and images of visible things might be vnited. Onely therefore the opticke nerues do meet, yet so that they neuer intersect or crosse one the other. VVee haue also of late obserued, saith Laurentius, that the nerues of the second coniugation haue beene continuall in their originall.  
As for the nerues of the spinall marrow, the right are separated from the left, neuer cutting one ouerthwart another. It is therefore absurd to referre the cause of the convulsion and Palsie which hapneth on the aduerse side to the intersection of the nerues & their Crosse permutation as Aretaeus would haue it, because it is a meere fable.  
Some conceiue that not the nerues, but the veines and small arteries of the braine are 
The 2. opinion that the spirits passe by the arteries which intersect.  implicated first in the basis of the braine, then in those two labarynthian textures, the one called Choroides, the other Rete mirabile, so that they are diuaricated out of the right side into the left, and our of the left side into the right. They thinke therefore that when the ventricle on the right side of the braine and the parts therof are obstructed or compressed, the left side is conuelled or resolued because the entercourse of the spirites is intercepted by the oppression or obstruction of their common fountaine, and at length by stopping of the way of the spirit which they perswade themselues is communicated to the whole body by the arteries not by the marrowey and inward substance of the nerues. I cannot but acknowledge this conceite to bee very ingenuous and seemingly true if it were not that it is 
Consuted.  contradicted by the principles of Anatomy. For to winde vp the matter in a few words, this opinion taketh these two positions for good. First, that the vessels doe intersect or crosse one another, and againe that the Animall spirites are conuayed by vesselles not by the marrow of the nerues; which, how dissonant they are from the trueth may thus be demonstrated by the two common and most competent iudges of all Controuersies, reason and sence.  
All the vessels which irrigate or water the whole body of the braine and his membranes 
The diuarication of the vessels of the braine.  are propagated from the internall Iugular veine and from the arteries called Carotides and Ceruicales: now we are taught by 〈◇〉 or ocular inspection, that the diuarication of these is on this manner.  
The right Iugular veine powreth the bloud into the right sinus of the dura mater as it were into a Cisterne, and the left into the left; out of the 〈◇〉 or Concourse of these two ariseth the third sinus, which running through the length of the sagittall suture is conuayed 
The sinus or duplication of the dura meninx.  to the top of the nose, and from this many small veines are diuersly dispersed into the pia mater: the fourth sinus concaued between the Braine and the After-brain determineth at the buttocks of the Braine.  
These sinus as it were riuerets substituted by Nature instead of vessels, doe disperse the bloud on al hands, and from them as out of a presse, the bloud ariving vnto them from the Iugular veines, is expressed into the whole body of the Braine. The Iugular veines therefore doe meete and vnite themselues in the third and fourth sinus of the dura mater, but yet are neuer so implicated that the right doe passe vnto the left side, or the left vnto the right; there is no intersection of these vessels no 〈◇〉. Neither is there any intersection of the right Carotidall or sleepy arteries with the left, because they doe not power vitall spirits into those sinus or duplications of the membrane as the veines doe the bloud, neyther are the right implicated with the left, but each artery maketh his owne texture, the right artery the right texture and the left the left.  
These textures or complications which are manifest in the vpper ventricles and called 
The arteries of the brayne do not intersect.  Plexus Choroides doe neuer so intersect themselues that the right should passe vnto the left, the left vnto the right parts, for the vpper ventricles are disseuered by their proper wall or distinction.  
And if they say that the Carotides are implicated in the Basis of the braine at the sides of the buttockes and there intersect themselues. I will indeede confesse that the arteries of the same side are implicated, that is, are contorted manifould like the tendrilles of a Vine crumpled vp together for the better preparation of the spirits: but that they intersect themselves and from the right side passe vnto the left, that I constantly deny. For the holes of the buttocks do stand off one from the other, through which the arteries ascend to the Basis of the braine and from them 〈◇〉 or by a right line to the vpper ventricles: which he that will not otherwise beleeue may thus proue by his owne experiēce. Put a hollow Probe 
Experience.  of Bugle into the right sleepy arterie and blow it, and you shall perceiue that the arteries of the right side will be distended more then the arteries of the left. Let vs therefore cleare our conceites of this mist and cloud of errour concerning the intersection of the vesselles which Autopsie itselfe conuinceth to be a forged conceite.  
Beside experience we haue good reason also against it: for if we admit this intersection 
Reason.  of the vessels, then it wil necessarily followe, that whensoeuer the right partes are stuffed or compressed the left parts shalbe resolued; because the course of the spirit is intercepted. But wee finde it often to fall out, that when the right Ventricle is obstructed the parts of the same side are resolued. But let vs for disputation sake admit( though wee 
The Art●●ies do not cōuty the Animall spirits.  do not grant it) that those smal arteries and complications of them do intersect one another, must it thervpon needes follow that when the vesselles are compressed the Palsye should seize vppon the contrary side? The arteries are onely conceptacles of the Vitall spirits. Those Vital spirits do onely conferre their helpe to the cherishing, rowzing vp, and restoring of the in-bred heate of the particular parts, but affoord no helpe at all to motion or sense. Now in the palsy the part liueth though the Motion and Sense be both of them quite intercepted. Wherefore by the Arteries the Animal spirit is not conueyed which is the author of all sense and motion.  
I know well that when the Iugular Veines and the Carotidall arteries are obstructed, the Caros Apoplexy and Lethargie do follow; whēce the Carotidal Artery is called Lethargical and Apoplectical, and Hippocrates vseth to call that kinde of Apoplexie, 
A light kinde of Apoplexie whence.  〈◇〉, the interception of the Veynes: but this Apoplexie hapneth but by accident and is cureable, wherein accesse is denied to the vitall spirite which ministereth matter to the Animall. But the Question in this place is of a true Palsy which happeneth vpon the exolution, madefaction, and( that I may vse the Arabians word) Mollification of the Nerues, or when the wayes of the Animall spirits are shut vppe or intercepted. These wayes are the Nerues, which albeit they haue no conspicuous cauity, yet is their inward substance altogether spongie, through which the Animal faculty and those impetuous spirits which Hippocrates calleth 〈◇〉 do easily finde their way.  
Many learned men there are, who will not admit of this trueth, and especiallie among 
Rondeletius opinion that the Animall spirits passed through the Arteries.  the late writers Rondeletius striueth to prooue that the Animal spirit is conueyed through the Arteries not through the marrowy substance of the Nerues: the onely vse of the Marrow he acknowledgeth to bee, that like flockes it may sustaine and strengthen the smal and slender vessels. Argenterius also thinketh that the spirits neuer forsake the Arteries.  
It was an old opinion of Praxagoras as Galen remembreth in the 7. chapter of his first Booke De Placitis Hippocratis & Platonis, that the Nerues were continuated with the 
Praxagoras opinion out of Galen.  Arteries, and that the Nerues were nothing else but Arteries become now slender and smal. But the weaknes and insufficiency of this opinion is hence conuinced, because the intercostal Arteries are smal & threddy, & the arteries of the brain which make the two 
Consuted.  textures therof as fine as haires, and yet no man euer durst call them Sinews. But of this we shall haue better occasion to dispute in our booke of the vessels. In this place it shal be sufficient to haue saide that the Animal spirits cannot passe by the Arteries because they were destined and ordained by Nature for the transportation of the Vital spirites: now two spirits distinct in forme and kinde as we vse to say, cannot be conueyed by the same Vessels. When the Opticke Nerue is obstructed the action of the sight perisheth, 
That the Animall spirites passe not by the Arteries.  are there then any small Arteries intercepted? Or is their interception the cause of blindnesse? Nothing lesse, for the part should be vtterly extinguished if it wer no more illustrated with the beames of the Vital spirits. Wherefore when the marrowy substance is affected, when the spondils or rack-bones are luxatedt he body is often resolued, because 
Diuers Arguments.  the Marrow of the Nerue is pressed, by reason of which compression the passage of the animal spirit is intercluded.  
In those that are afflicted with the Stone, the legge on the same side becommeth stupified, the Nerues and Muscles which are ordained to bend it being compressed by the Kidnie lying thereupon. As for those smal Arteries which run thorough the Membranes that couer the nerues they minister the spirit of life vnto the Nerues, not the faculty of Sense and Motion. Againe, the Arteries of the braine do not essentially differ from other arteries, but other where the Arteries neyther engender nor conteine Animall spirits, therefore not in the braine.  
Add heereto, that the forme of euery thing is stamped vpon the aliment and the spirit, onely by the substance of the part: now in those complications there is onelie a power to prepare and as it were to delineate the spirites, their forme they haue onely from the Marrowy substance of the braine. Finally, as the Braine by reason of this marrowy substance is called the braine, and this marrow is the principal part of this noble Organ the seate of the Memory; Reason and Discourse: so I thinke that the chiefe part of the nerue is the marrow thereof, which carrieth the commaundement of the Sensatiue and Motiue Faculty, not onely by irradiation but by a corporeal spirit. And therfore it is that Galen in his eight Bôoke de vsupartium calleth the braine Nervum amplissimum & molissimum, A soft and large Nerae; and againe he calleth a nerue Cerebrum durius & resiccatum, A hard and dryed Braine. But if( as Rondeletius conceited) the inwarde part of the nerue hadde beene onely ordained for the establishing and sustaining of the sinal Arteries ioyned to their Membranes, then certainely is the Marrowye part of the nerue the basest and most ignoble.  
Let therefore the opinion of Galen and of the Ancients remaine with vs as current and Cannonicall, to wit, that the Animall spirits passe through the marrow of the nerues not through the Arteries.  
These things being thus establisned, it remaineth that we discouer the cause of the palsie which happeneth on the contrary side to the wounded or affected part. When the 
The cause of the palsie in the opposite part.  right part of the Head is wounded a portion of the Ichor may fall 〈◇〉 by Rectitude into the right fore ventricle; now out of it into the third( which is common) there is a manifest passage,( this Ventricle Galen calleth the middle either because it is in the very center of the Braine, or else because it is scituated betwixt the two vppermost and the fourth Ventricle which is the lowest) and the humour conteyned in that Ventricle is as it were in the center of the Braine. Wherefore if it follow the Motion of the Elementary forme it must fall into a lower place: now the sound part is alwayes the lower, because the patient euer leaneth or lyeth vpon the sound side not vpon the sore side for auoyding of paine. VVhat therefore should hinder but that the humour may fall out of the thirde ventricle into the fourth, and from thence into the spinall marrowe on the opposite part vnto that which is wounded, and so that part become Paralyticall or resolued? The Braine is not as some haue dreampt diuided from the top to the very bottome; the vpper Ventricles determine into a common cauity into which they thrust downe their supersluities. This common cauity is directed into the fourth Ventricle which is common both to the After-braine and the spinall Marrow. It is not therefore against our Anatomicall Principles or groundes, that Matter, Flegme and Blood may be transmitted from the right Ventricle to the thirde, and from hence through; he fourth Ventricle into diuers parts of the spinal marrow, now into the right side and now into the left, as either of them is lower or weaker.  
Another reason also may be brought of the palsy in the sound part not in the affected, 
Another reason.  because Nature vseth to auoyd the excrementitious humour by the wound, as sometimes by a flux of blood, sometimes by quitture, sometimes by Medicines which draw away and exhaust the humour either sensibly or insensibly, so that the affected part is well purged by some or more of these meanes; but the opposite part which is not expurged is easily affected either by simpathy or when the matter is transmitted or falleth vpon it.  
Some thinke that almost all the spirits do flow to the part wherein the tumor or inflamation 
Another.  is, whence it is that the opposite part being defrauded of them is resolued.   

QVEST. VII. VVhat is the Nature of the animall spirit, what is the manner of his generation and the place thereof.  
_WEe haue sufficiently prooued by strong Arguments that to Motion & Sense is requited not onely an influence of a Faculty but also of a corporeall spirit. Now what name we shall giue this spirit, what his nature is, what is the maner and place of his generation we will breefely declare.  
Galen calleth this spirit euery where Animalem the Animall spirit, because 
What is the animall spirit Galen.  the Soule vseth it as her immediate Organ for the performance of all the animall functions of sense and motion and those which we commonly call Principall.  
This spirit in the 17. chapter of his sixt Booke de Vsu partium he desineth to bee an exhalation of pure blood. Some thinke it to be a part of the liuing Braine, yea both a Similar and an Organicall part: Similar as it hath a certaine and designed temper, Organical as it is thin, lucid, subtile, pure and moouable.  
This Spirit some haue thought doth not differ in kinde and nature from the Vital but onely in accidents, as in temperament, place, the originall à quo, and the manner of diffusion. For the Animall spirit is moyster and more temperate, the Vitall hotter. The Animall commeth from the braine, the Vitall from the heart; the Animall is dispersed through the nerues for Motion and Sence; the Vital through the arteries to maintayne the life.  
We are of opinion that these two spirits are of a diuerse forme and kinde, as Chylification is diuers from Sanguification. For the Organs are diuers, the faculties diuers, diuers 
The vital and animal spirits differ in form & kinde.  is the manner of Generation: and as the Aliment by a new concoction receiueth a newe forme and so a new denomination, so is it with the spirits. Galen in a thousand places distinguisheth this Animall from the Vitall spirit, whatsoeuer some new Writers say to the contrary. In the 5. Chapter of the 12. Booke of his Method. The Animal spirit( sayth he) ariseth out of the Braine as out of his fountaine.  
The demonstration of the Vitall spirit is not euident, but yet it is agreeable to reason that it is contayned in the heart and the arteries. And if there be any Naturall spirit that is included in the Liuer and the veines. In the 7. Chap of his 3. Book de locis affect is Gal. saith, 
Diuers places in Galen.  The Epilepsie hapneth in the braine when the humour hindreth the Animall spirit which is contayned in the ventricles thereof that it cannot haue yssue out. In the 10. Chapter of his 16. Booke de vsupartium. The complications of the arteries doe nourish the Animall spirit contayned in the braine, which differeth much in Nature from other spirits. In the third Chapter of his 7. Booke de placitis Hip. & Plat. The spirit which is contayned in the arteries is indeed Vitall and so is also called; that which is contayned in the braine is Animall, not that it is the substance of the Soule, but because it is the Soules first and most immediate instrument. The same also he writeth in the 4. Chapter of his 9. Book de vsupartium, In the 8. Chapter of the 9. Booke de placitis Hip. & Plat., and in the 5. Chapter of the ninth Booke de vtilitate respirationis.  
By all which places we may gather that Galen made a difference betweene the Vitall and the Animall spirits. And truely that there should be an Animall spirit it was very necessary; 
The necessity & vse of the animall spirit.  first to conuay vnto the partes the facultie of Motion and Sense which is not fixed in them; and againe that we might be more apprehensiue of outward accidents. For seeing that the Organs of the Sences ought to be affected on the sudden by sensible things, it was fit they should not be altogether solide, but houed and fulfilled with spirits that they might the sooner be altered. Moreouer these spirites doe transferre the species or formes of all outward things perceiued by the outward Sēces vnto the brain as vnto a Censor or Iudge. The same spirits doe conceiue in the braine the images of those outward thinges, so that the Animall spirit may bee called the place and promptuarie of the species or formes. So in the Vertigo or Giddinesse neither the thing itself, nor the Image of it, nor any thing beside 
The nature of the Vertigo.  the spirit is rowled about, and yet notwithstanding all things seeme to him that is so affected to runne round. VVherefore this spirite is necessary both for motion and sence. As for the principal faculties; to the performance of all their functions the braine vseth the ministery and helpe of this spirit; so that it worketh both within the braine and without the braine: within the braine it helpeth the principall faculties; without the braine it conferteth Motion and Sence. Nowe it is not onely abiding in the ventricles but also in the pores and in the whole marrowy substance of the braine, so that in the pores and substance it is communicated to the principall faculties: In the ventricles it serueth more immediately for Sence and Motion.  
Furthermore this spirit which is the immediate Organ of Sence and Motion and of the 
How the animall spirit is manifold.  principall faculties, is indeede of one kinde notwithstanding it is esteemed manifould according to the variety of the obiects and instruments where about it is imployed: which thing Arts̄totle elegantly hath taught vs in the last chapter of his 5. booke de generatione Animalium.  
The spirit sayth he in Naturall things is like the hammer in the Art of the Smith, that is to say, but one instrument, yet profitable for the performance of many offices. Actuarius compareth it to the beames of the Sunne, which though they bee all of one kinde yet they become vnlike when they light vpon different colours.  
It remayneth now that we should manifest vnto you the Matter of the Animall spirit, 
The matter of the animall spirit.  and the manner of his generation.  
The matter of it is double, Ayre and the Vitall spirit.  
The Ayre is drawne in by the nosethrils; the Vitall spirites are conuayed through the Arteries called Carotides and Ceruicales into the Basis of the braine. VVith this Ayre the spirit is nourished, and therefore Galen acknowledgeth a double vse of Respiration, to witte, the conseruation of Naturall heate and the Nutrition or Generation of the Animall spirites. Now if the passage of these two matters to the braine be intercepted, then will there be no generation of Animall spirits. If the sleepy arteries be bound an Apoplexy ensueth, if Respiration bee prohibited the Creature dyeth instantly and is depriued of Sence and Motion.  
Galen concerning this poynt seemeth to differ from himselfe, but we will reconcile those different places well enough. In the 5. Chapter of his book de vsu Respirationis he sayth, that in a liuing creature he tyed the Sleepy Arteries and yet the creature perished not: therefore it followeth his Animall spirit was nourished onely with Ayre not with the vitall spirit. In his third booke de placitis and in the 9 booke de vsu partium, hee writeth 
Certaine places of Galen concerning the Animall spirit reconciled.  that the Animall spirit may bee cherished and sustained with the vitall conueighed by the Arteries and maketh no mention at al of the Ayer.  
Wee answere, that the Animall spirit may be for a little time sustained if it be depriued of eyther of his Aliments: for there is stored vp a supply against time of need in those two complications or textures called Plexus Choroides & Rete mirabile, but long that supply will not maintaine them.  
The preparation of this spirit is made in those Labyrinths of the small Arteries, their 
Where the Animal spirit is prepared.  coction or elaboration( as some think) in the ventricles; and finally, their distribution into the whole body of the braine and into the sinewes.  
They therefore are in an error who do conceiue that this spirit attaineth his proper forme and specificall difference in those textures. For all the complications of vessels as well in the braine as in the testicles and other parts are ordained onely for preparation, but the forme and difference of a thing is supplied by the substance of the part, both to the Aliment and to the spirit.  
VVherefore we conclude, that in those complications the spirits are prepared, that in the ventricles they are boyled and labored, but receiue their vttermost perfection in the 
Where labored and perfitted.  substance of the Braine.   

QVEST. VIII. Argenterius his opinion concerning the Animall spirit confuted.  
_ARgenterius an accute Scholler indeed, but whose pen especially against Galē yeeldeth too much gall, in his booke de somno et vigilia, and in his Commentaries in artem medicinalem auoucheth, that there is but one spirit & that Vitall, neither will he bee brought to admit any Animall spirit at all. And first as his custome is, he inueigheth bitterly against his Maister Galen accusing him sometimes of leuity and inconstancy, sometimes of ignorance. Of inconstancy 
Argenterius accuseth Galen of inconstancy.  in his assignation of the matter and the place of generation of the Animall spirit. In the matter, because sometimes he writeth that it is made of the ayre we breathe in, sometimes of the vitall spirits, sometimes of bloud. In the place of generation, because hee assigneth it sometimes to bee generated in the Textures or complications of the Braine, sometimes in the forward ventricles, sometimes in the backward, sometimes that it is contained in the body and substance of the braine.  
But Argenterius wit was to nimble to fasten vpon the depth of Galens iudgement, which if he had well attended he should not haue found repugnancy in him. For the most remote 
He vnderstandeth not Galens meaning.  matter of the Animall spirit is bloud, the neerer matter is vitall spirit, the neerest of al is ayre inspired or breathed through the mammillary processes, & conuaighed not into the textures but into the vpper ventricle. And as the matter, so also the place of their generation is manifold; for they are prepared in the Textures & vpper ventricles, boyled in the third and perfitted in the fourth or in the substance of the braine. Finally, they are diffused into the nerues, and from them conueighed into the bodye.  
He accuseth Galen of ignorance, because from the Net-like texture he gathereth that ther is an Animall spirit, because saieth Argenterius, neyther is that Texture conspicuous in a 
Galen accused of ignorance.  man, neyther is there alwayes required a complication of vessels where there is any spirit generated. For in the heart where the vitall spirit is aboundantly generated there is no such admirable web of vessels.  
But Argenterius was so headily transported with a desire of contradiction, that he did not obserue the tenor of Galens Argument; for he neuer concludeth that therefore there 
But defended  is an Animall spirit because in the braine the vessels are intangled and interbrayded one with another, but he saith that this spirit is irrigated or watered & nourished by that which that Net-like web supplyeth vnto it as we haue read in the 5. chapter of the 12, booke of his Method, and in his 7. booke de placitis. Hip. et Plat. and the third chapter. But let vs yeelde that Galen meant as Argenterius vnderstandeth him: shall wee therefore conclude that he hath written absurdly? Nature is not wont to create any such texture vnlesse it be for a new elaboration, but in the braine there appeareth a notable texture which we call Choroides, therefore in the braine there is a preparation of a new spirit. Argenterius wil obiect that in the left ventricle of the heart the vitall spirit is generated, and 
Obiection.  yet in the heart there is no complication of vessels.  
Wee answere, that such Laberynths were not necessary in the heart, because the necessity of the vitall spirit is greater then that of the Animall. And therefore there is a greater 
Answere.  proportion of them required then can be confected in so narrow vessels. For the Animall functions are not perpctuall, and beside when a man sleepes they are also at rest. But the vitall, the sounder we sleepe the stronger they are.  
Furthermore, all the parts of the creature haue not sence, as bones, gristles and ligaments yet all of them do liue. VVherefore because there is a greater exhaustion of vitall spirits there restauration must be 〈◇〉 that is, sudden and plentifull. Adde heereto that the vitall spirit doth not onely serue for the accomplishment of the vitall functions, but also is the matter of the Animall spirits: and therefore it is necessary that their generation should be in great aboundance, which cannot be accomplished in small Arteries and narrow caulties. Finally, the heart which is the hottest of al the bowels doth suddenly boyle & generate spirits albeit there be not so precise a contaction in al the parts; which thing the braine being far colder cannot performe and therfore in the brain there was great vse and necessity of complications of vessels and not in the hart. Argenterius proceedeth to goade Galen farthet. Why are the Animall spirits generated in the complications of the Arteries of the brain, seeing the Arteries of the brain do not differ in kind from the arteries of the 
Obiection.  ther parts of the body? Now in the other parts the arteries do not generate Animal spirits; 
Answere.  therfore they shal not do it in the brain. I answer, that the Animal spirit doth not attain his forme & difference in the cōplications, but eyther in the ventricles or in the substance of the brain. In those straights and narrow passages it is only prepared, and attaineth a kind of rudiment or initiation by irradiation from the braine. So in the crooked rings of the preparing vessels the seed hath a delineation from the influce of the testicles. In the mesaraicks the blood is prepared by a vertue beaming from the Liuer: neyther did Galen euer acknoledge any other vse of those complications then the attenuation of the vitall spirit and the preparation of the animal. Fourthly, that there is no animal spirit he thus proueth. If in the brain a spirit wer cōtained, thē our sensations & cogitations should be perpetual, because 
Argenterius 4 Argument. Answere.  the faculties of the soule are euer prest and at hand. I answere, that the soule doth not alwayes worke though it haue an Organ; because the Organ is often hindred, as when the naturall heare is drawne inward, for example in sleepe. Againe, there is not alwayes a sufficient supply of Animall spirits, and thence it is that the functions doe not alwayes worke, but sometimes rest themselues as in the night, in which time the spirits are redintegrated and refreshed; and this according to Phisitians is the onely finall cause of sleepe or rest. Fiftly, he obiecteth that thogh it should be granted that there is an Animall spirit, yet it cannot descend to the feete because it is of a fiery and airy Nature. But this argument 
The fift answerd.  is already answered thus: That all the spirits by their proper motion are carried vpward and outward: but when they are directed by the soule they are diffused and dispersed into all the parts of the body. So the Arme being naturally heauy, is often times depressed by his Elementary forme, yet it is lifted vp againe by the soule; for our naturall heate is by diffusion communicated to all the parts. Sixtly, if there be more kindes of spirits, 
The sixt.  then( saith Argenterius) it will follow that they must be mingled & confounded, which confusion of the spirits will also induce eyther a confusion or nullity of the actions. But let vs grant( which yet is not true) that the spirits are confounded, will it thence follow that euery 
Answered.  spirit shall not performe his owne office? VVhy may not the vitall do the offices of life and the Animall supply sense and motion? For these spirits are not contrary, that in the permistion they should abate their power & force mutually. Seauenthly, he saith, that 
The seuenth.  the pupilla or apple of the eye is dilated by the spirit of the arteries which is vitall and not Animall. On the contrary, we thinke that when one eye is closed vp the apple of the other cannot in a moment be dilated by any spirits proceeding from the arteries, because the arteries of both the eyes doe not meete and vnite themselues as do the optick nerues.  
But there is a great distance betwixt them, and so great as that it is impossible that the Vitall spirit together with the arteriall blood should so instantly mooue itself from one eye to another.  
Eightly, hee obiecteth that the influence of an Animall spirite is not necessarie, a 
The eight.  quality onely or beaming light might be sufficient, for nothing that is corporeal is moued in an instant. But we know that the Muscles obey the Braine according as our will commandeth thē, for we are able in the twickling of an eye to moue our vtmost ioynts. We answere that the spirit which is the Organ of the soule dooth instantly accomplish 
Answered.  the commandement thereof and is euer addrest in the Nerues, and as it is spent repayred by new influence and succession; whence it is that before the exhaustion or expense of the olde a newe is ministred to supply the roome. Which Lucretius in an elegant Verse hath thus chanted. 
Ergo Animus cum sese ita commouet vt velitire  
Inque gredi, fert extemplo quae incorpore toto  
Per membra atque artus animali dissita vis est:  
Et facile est factu, quoniam coniunct a tenetur.  
When the Soule listeth herself to disport,  
The Powers throughout the bodie disioyned,  
Into the Ioynts and Members resort,  
For the Soule holdeth them alwaves conioyned.   
Finally, he concludeth that there is but one influent spirit because there is but one soul, 
Argenterius conclusion.  one influent heats, one nourishment of the parts, to wit, the blood and one aire that is inspired. These are Argenterius Darts which he casteth against Galen, which howe light they are and little sauouring of Physicke let the learned iudge. True it is that the soule is but one, but that one is furnished with diuers Faculties: there is but one Aliment, but by diuers concoction it receyueth a diuers forme, and that one according vnto the diuers substance of the parts is of diuers sorts.  
As therefore there are three Faculties of the Soule, the Naturall, Vitall and Animall; 
●ut c●ncluon.  three principles, the Braine, the Heart, and the Liuer; three Organs ministering vnto them Veines, Arteries and Nerues: so are we to thinke that there are three spirites distinct in forme and kinde, otherwise all thinges should bee one because the common matter of all is one and the same.  
There be other weapons farre keener then these of Argenterius, wherwith we may affront 
Other resons to prooue there is no Animal spirit.  the opinion of Galen concerning the Animall spirit, which for disputation sake and that the truth may be better cleared we will thus vrge. Whatsoeuer spirit is conteyned in the Cauity of the Arteries is to be accounted Vital. But all the spirits conteined in the Braine are included within the Arteries, neyther doe they euer yssue out of them, and therefore the spirits of the Braine are Vitall and not Animall.  
The Minor proposition or assumption is thus confirmed. If the spirites boult out of 
The first.  the Arteries then are they conueyed either into the Ventricles or into the substaunce of the Brain, which if we admit, then wil the spirit becom presently condensed. For the scalding Vapors which arise into the Braine from the bowels boyling with extraordinarie 
The answere.  heate are much thinner then the spirits and yet are instantly condensed or thickned.  
Now that the Vapor is thinner then the spirit may be prooued, because the vapour exhaleth outward, the spirits remaining within. To this argument wee answere, that the Nature of Spirits and Vapors is diuers. The spirits are retained by the Soule, beecause they are familiar and as it were of Kin vnto her, but the Vapors are straungers or rather Enemies, and therefore they exhale and are condensed or thickned.  

Another Reason.  
If the Spirits of the braine do forsake the Arteries and be transfused into the Ventricles, 
The second.  seeing in the third Ventricle there are two passages, one forward and another backward, why do they rather passe backward then forward? whereby shal it bee conducted after it fal out of the Arteries so that it mooue in a right line, and that without any violence 
Answered.  but with an easie and gentle motion into the fourth Ventricle. I answere, that it is the Soule that directeth the Instruments of the soul, and that it is diffused into this part rather then into the other, because it is the Soules good pleasure so to command.  
Thirdly, it seemeth not consonant to reason that a Spirit should be generated & conteyned in the Ventricles of the Braine, because those Ventricles were ordained for the 
The third.  expurgation of superfluities. I answere, that Nature vseth one part for diuers vses, for as 
Answered.  the Nose was primarily created for smelling and the inspiration of aer, and secondarily for the expurgation of the Braine; so it may be that the forward ventricles of the braine were primarily made for the preparation of the spirits, and secondarily to auoide excrements.  
Fourthly, that whereas one eye being shut, the apple of the other is dilated. It argueth 
The fourth.  that the spirits are not transported by the nerues but by the Arteries. For the optick nerues do not touch the apple of the eye, yea betwixt them are interposed many boddies 
Answered.  and those very thicke, to wit, the Christaline and the Waterish humors, through which the spirits in such a momēt cannot passe. For if it cānot pearce through a drop of phlegme in the oppilation or stopping of the optick, which maketh the disease we call Gutta Jaerena; how shall it passe the thicknesse of the Christaline humor? The spirit therefore yssueth through the small Arteries, which together with the grape-like coate are conuyghed to the Pupilla. This reason would vrge very much vnlesse Anatomy did teach vs that the opticke nerue when it commeth vnto the Christaline humor doeth not there determine but is diffused and amplified into that coate which is called Reticularis or the Net. Now the Net-like coate passeth euen vnto the apple.  
Finally, that there is no Animall spirit may thus be demonstrated. The spirits are 
The fift.  those that do conueigh and transport all the faculties, and serue onely for that vse. Now there is no Animall faculty transported from the braine into the body, and therefore there is no Animall spirit. That the Animall faculty is not transported from the braine into the body may thus be prooued.  
A faculty is a propriety of the soule, now euery propriety is inseparable from that thing whereof it is a propriety. Wherefore wheresoeuer the soule is, there also shall his faculties be. But we know that the soule is Tota in toto et tota in qualibet parte, that is, wholy in in the whole and wholy in euery part. Whence it will follow that the faculty is not only in the braine but also in euery part of the body, and that as absolute and perfect as it is in the braine itself, because the whole soule is absolute and perfect in the least part.  
The Philosopher makes answere, that the essence of the soule furnished with all her faculties is indeed euery where; but doth not worke euery where because euery where it 
Answered.  hath not Organs. For the Soule doth not moue neyther partaketh of sense without the Animall spirit, as it seeth not without an eye.  
VVe conclude therefore that there is an Animall spirit which receiueth an inchoation in the Textures, an elaboration in the ventricles, & a perfection in the substance of the braine, where also it is the vehicle of the principall faculties, and passing into the spinall marrow and the nerues is the immediate Organ of sense and motion.    

QVEST. IX Whether the braine be moued by a proper & In-bred faculty; or by the motion of the Arteries.  
_IT is a very hard and difficult question whether the brain be moued by a proper and ingenit power of his owne, or by some outward violence. That the braine is moued no man in his right wits will deny vnlesse he bee vtterly ignorant of Anatomy. For in great wounds of the head wherein the Scull is broken and the membranes are detected, there is a manifest motion to be seene. Againe, in children new borne the forepart which we call the mould of the head doth so conspicuously pant 
That the braine is moued voluntarily.  and beat, that the very bones of the Scull which at that time be exceeding soft are moued therewith.  
But because among the Philosophers there is a threefold kinde of motion, the first naturall, the second Animall, and the third violent. It is a great question to which of these kindes the motion of the braine is to be referred. It seemeth to some that the braine cannot be the originall of the Animall motion vnlesse itself be moued voluntarily; for it were absurd to say that there yssued from the braine into the whole body a power or faculty which doth not reside therein as in the fountaine and originall.  
But this opinion hauing no strength of argument to support it, hath also beene little ventilated by the Phisitions. For an Animall motion is proaireticall, or with choice being intended, remitted or intermitted according to the arbitriment of our will. Now wee know that the braine is not moued at our dispose, but according to it owne instinct, and therefore the motion thereof is not voluntary.  
No man will say that it is violent; for Aristotle in his second book De ortu, opposeth 
Disproued. That it is not violent.  that which is violent to that which is according to nature. It remaineth therefore that it is naturall By naturall I vnderstand not that which is only directed by Nature, but whatsoeuer is not voluntary although it be gouerned by the soule.  
Now whether this motion be of the whole braine or onely of the parts, and whether it be moued by an in-bred faculty or a power from without, that is, from the Arteries and the spirits it is greatly contrauerted. Galen in the second chapter of his fourth booke de differentijs pulsuum faith, that some thinke that the membranes onely do beate, others only the body of the braine, others both the membranes and the braine itself. Some are of opinion that the Animall spirits onely are moued not the bodye of the braine, which 
The first opinion.  they illustrate by the example of a Vertigo or giddinesse wherein all things seeme to runne round, because of an inordinate and Turbulent motion of the spirits. The vulgar opinion is that the braine is not moued by any proper motion of it owne, but by a motion from 
That the braine is moued according to the motion of the arteries Reason 1.  without, that is to say, from the Arteries. Neither do his ventricles breathe in aer,( as Galen would haue it) neyther are they distended and contracted.  
The reasons of this are: first it doth no more become a principle of motion to bee mooued, then it becommeth a principle of sense itself to haue sense, because as Aristotle saith, euery 〈◇〉 must be 〈◇〉 that is, euery instrumēt of sense must be destitute or void of al the obiects of that sense whereof it is an instrument: now the body of the braine hath not sense and therefore it hath no motion.  
Furthermore, if the braine doe breath by a proper power, it would follow that because the substance thereof is soft, and the membrane that compasseth the ventricles very fine & thinne, it followeth I say, that that membrane must in the dilatation & contraction be violently torne asunder.  
Thirdly, the third and fourth ventricles of the brain commonly so called, are of the same substance and temper that the vpper ventricles are of; for the vse of them all is one and the same; but it is granted that the latter ventricles doe not Respire, and therefore neyther shall the former be dilated or contracted.  
They vrge further and thinke that this weapon hath a further edge. In grieuous wounds of the head when the braine is vncouered, the motion of the braine and the arteries doeth not appeare to differ at all, but as one Pulse is answerable to another, so likewise the motion of the braine and the arteries doe accord. Now if the braine did beat by an in-bred power, then must it needes be that some time the braine and the arteries should not beat alike and at the same instant.  
Finally, there is no Attraction, no Expulsion without the helpe of fibres: so the heart hath his fibres, as also the stomacke, the guttes, the veines and the arteries; but in the brain there appeare no fibres at all; Ergo the Motion of the Diastole and Systole of the braine is not proper and peculiar vnto his substance.  
Verily these reasons are so strong that the time hath bin( saith Laurē. whē I was cōuinced by them & constrayned to subscribe vnto this opinion; but looking ouer with a little more diligence the works of Galen and considering some passages in his Booke de Odoratus Organo, de vsupartium, de Placitis Hippoc. & Platonis with better deliberation, at length I altered my minde, and am now resolued that the body of the braine doeth respire by a proper faculty and in-bred Motion.  
Let vs here Galen disputing in expresse words in the last Chapter of his Book de Odoratus Organo, Nature sayeth he hath not denyed motion to the braine whereby it might draw Ayre for 
That the braine doth respire by it owne force.  his refrigeration and returne the same backe againe for the expurgation of superfluityes. Againe in the 4. Chapter of the same Booke, It is not impossible that the brayne should yeeld vnto itself a kinde of Motion( though it be but small) sometimes into itself sometimes out of itself, 
The 〈…〉 Galne.  so that it should be lesse when it contracteth itself, and more spred when the parts of it are dilated. Thus farre Galen.  
But it shall behooue vs to establish his authority by reason also and waight of argument. 
Reason. 1.  It is most certaine that the Animall spirit is generated first in the vpper ventricles of the braine, which spirit being of it owne Nature ayrie and hot, stoode neede of the Inspiration of ayre which was familiar and of kin vnto it, as well for his nourishment as that by it it might be refrigerated: wherefore when we draw our breath inward, the ayre also is drawne into the braine, and when we breath outward a fumid or smoaky vapour which is the excrement of the Animall spirit is thrust out and auoyded.  
This Hippocrates elegantly expressed in his Booke de morbo sacro or of the Falling sicknesse. When( sayth he) a man drawes in ayre by his mouth & his nose is shut, first of all the breath 
Hippocrates.  commeth to the Brayne. Nowe this Inspiration of the ayre into the vpper ventricles of the braine and the Expiration of the same is not made by arteries, but by certaine protuberations or swelling productions of the braine much like the Nipples of a womans Pap, which also are the Organs of smelling. The Motion therefore of the braine which is accomplished by Inspiration and Expiration proceedeth from the braine itself not from the arteries. Againe, that the ayre is drawne in by these productions may thus be proued.  
The ayre and odours doe passe by one and the same way, for no smell can be felt although it be driuen violently into the nose vnlesse therewith ayre be drawne in: now odors do passe into the braine by those productions before named, not by Arteries: and therefore by the same productions ayre is inspirated and transported into the foreward ventricles.  
Furthermore, if the braine do beate by the Arteries and not by anin-bred power for 
Reason 2.  the generation of spirits; why then is not the spinall marrow also moued? You will say haply, that in the marrow of the backe there is not so great plenty of Arteries as are found in the braine itself. I answere, it may well be, for there is not the same quantity of matter or substance in the braine and the marrow. But if you compare both bodies together, then will the proportion of the Arteries be as great which runne through the membranes inuesting the marrow. Wherefore the spinall marrow is not therefore immoueable because it wanteth arteries, but because in it there is no generation of vitall spirits as there is in the Braine.  
The third argument is on this manner. There is a certaine distance betwixt the body 
Reason 3.  of the braine and the Dura meninx; not to giue way to the Systole and Dyastole of the Arteries for they are not so lifted vp; nor to auoid danger because the Pia mater or thin membrane is interposed betweene them: the distance therefore is left for the motion of the braine, and so we see that in the heart there is a distance betwixt it and the pericardium, least if they had touched one another they might haue beene interrupted.  
Fourthly, how is it possible that so great a waight and masse of moysture as the braine is, should be dilated by a few small arteries?( for so I worthily call them that are sprinckled 
Reason 4.  through the body of the Braine) seeing hat the large and notable Arteries of the spleene are not able to moue his rare and smal body? I answere, Anatomy teacheth vs that this bowel is wouen with infinite Arteries, and yet no man euer saide that the spleene was moued vnlesseit be in a tumor or inflamation, and then any part will be moued.  
Fiftly, if the motion of the braine bee the motion of the Arteries and not of the marrowy substance, then it was ridiculou● to say that the braine is moued because the Arteries 
Reason 5.  are onely moued. For so we might say that the stomack, the guts and the spleene were mooued because the Arteries do beate euery where. And therefore if wee imagine that the marrow of the braine is distended by the Dyastole of the Arteries, why should we not beleeue also that all the rest of the parts of the body do beate, because they haue all proportionably as many Arteries?  
Finally, the processe called vermi-formis, the Conarion and the buttocks of the braine do shew that there is a peculiar motion of the braine which differeth from the motion of 
Reason 6.  the Arteries. For the wormy processe being made shorter, openeth the way which is from the third vnto the fourth ventricle, and whilst the same processe is extended it shutteth the passage againe least the spirit should returne into the vpper ventricles: so that it seemeth there is the same vse thereof that there is of the values placed at the mouth of the great Artery: now the opening and shutting of this clift proceedeth not from the Arteries, but from an in bred power of the braine itself. It is therefore more probable to 
The Conclusion.  thinke with Galen that the braine is moued by a naturall motion and that proper to itself for the nutrition of Animall spirits, the tempering of them and their expurgation.  
The reason and nature of this motion is on this manner. When the braine enlargeth itself it draweth ayre out of the nostrils by the mammillary processes and spirits out of the 
The reason of he motion of the braine.  Textures or complications of the small Arteries. This ayre and these spirits it mingleth in that rest or interim which is between the two motions: but when in the Systole it contracteth itself the sides falling together, the inward ventricles are straightned and the Animall spirits powred out of the foremost into the hinder ventricles.  
But heere ariseth a scruple of no little moment, which is, whether the ayre is deriued to the braine when it is distended or when it is contracted? It should seeme that the ayre is 
A great question.  drawn in in the constriction, because when the brain is contracted it departeth a little from the Scull: the Scul because it is immoueable doth not follow the contraction of the brain. It is therefore necessary that there must bee a vacuitie betweene the Braine and the Scull, or else there must be aire drawne in, wherewith that place must be filled.  
But wee thinke that the aire is drawne in in the dilatation of the braine, neither doe we allow that there is any emptie place left in the contraction, because in the contraction 
What wee thinke.  there is an expression of aire and fumed vapours through the sutures. Now let vs giue answer to that which is obiected against this our opinion.  
They obiected first. That the braine is the beginning of motion, and therefore ought not to be moued. We answer, That indeed it must not be moued with the same Motion 
The reason of the contrary opinions are answered To the first.  wherewith it moueth the parts: It giueth to the parts of the body voluntary Motion, but itself is moued with a naturall Motion. The braine is moued after the same manner that it hath sense: Now the sense of it is naturall as is the sense of bones or the bowels, whereby it being prouoked, auoydeth that which is offensiue vnto it, as we may see in sneezing and in the falling sickenesse. It is moued for the generation of animall spirits.  
Their second argument was, that the ventricles of the braine did not respire, because 
To the second.  in that perpetuall distension the thin Membrane of the Braine would haue beene broken: But they do not remember that in sneezing and in the Epilepsie, the contraction of the Braine is more violent then in the ordinary Motion; & yet in neither of those is the Membrane broken. In Sternutation or sneezing, the Braine collecteth itself and is contracted the better to exclude that which is offensiue vnto it. For the same that the cough is in the chest, and the hickocke in the stomach, the same is sneezing in the Braine. In the Epilepsie the whole Braine is contracted and corrugated.  
Thirdly, they obtrude vnto vs: that the backeward ventricles do not respire, and therfore 
To the third.  that the forward ventricles doe not dilate or contract themselues. I answer, first that I know not by what slight or art they can perceiue that the backeward ventricles doe not mooue. But let vs grant that they doe not, yet is their consequence not good; for the formost ventricles doe stand in neede of more, at least of more conspicuous Motion then the other, because in the formost the spirit is prepared and purged, in the backeward they are contained when they are pure, sincere and alreadie purged.  
Fourthly, the motion of the braine and the arteries doth not appeare to bee vnlike 
To the fourth  the one vnto the other. I answer, that they are not indeede vnlike, because their vse is the same, there is the same finall cause of the generation of the spirits & of their expurgation.  
Fiftly, they doe not thinke it as moued with any proper motion, because there appeare in the braine no fibres at all. Wee answer, that the bones doe draw their nourishment, 
To the fifth.  and expell that which is superfluous without the helpe of Fibres. Lastly, there is not the same reason or nature of the heart and of the Braine: for the Heart stood neede of 
To the last.  Fibres not for the traction and expulsion of aire but of blood. In the Dyastole the Heart draweth blood by the right Fibres, and the same blood it expelleth in the Systole by the transuerse. But the Braine when it is mooued draweth onely aire with most thinne vitall spirits, for the traction whereof there is no neede of the helpe of Fibres. Hence we thinke it is sufficiently manifest, that the Braine is moued by an in bred facultie, and not onely by the motion of the arteries.   

QVEST. X. VVhether the Braine hath any sense.  
_IT is a notable Controuersie amongst Physitians, whether the Brain haue any sense or no. That it hath sense it may bee demonstrated by authoritie, experience and reason. Hippocrates in his Booke De vulneribus capitis, resolueth that it hath sense where he saith, That the braine about the sinciput doth soonest 
That the brain hath sense. The authority of Hyppocrates. Of Galen.  and especially feele any inconuenience that is either in the flesh or in the bone. Galen in his booke De plenitudine. The Braine( saith he) and the spinall marrow are accounted amongst those things which haue sense. And if in a frensie no paine be felt, it is because the mind is disquieted Againe in his book Odoratus organo he attributeth to the Brain manifest sense. Moreouer experience and sense do confirme the some. Galen in the 4. chapter of 
Experience.  the aforesaid book, telleth a storie of a certaine man whom hee commanded to snuffe vp into his nose, and to receiue at his mouth Nigella, Gith or Pepperwort finely beaten and 
Reason.  mingled with old oyle, who thereupon felt a great gnawing in his braine. Which( saith he) is a manifest argument that some of that Nigella went into the ventricles of the Brain, and cleauing to the Pia mater or thin Membrane, or else haply in the Braine itself, was the cause of that paine.  
Againe, reason seemeth to perswade the same. The Braine is the fountaine and originall of all sense, and therefore itself must need be sensible, because by it all other parts haue sense. For it is an axiome in Logicke, Propter quod vnumquodque est tale, & illud magis tale. That for which any thing is such or such, must needs itself be more such or such. Furthermore, vnlesse the Braine had sense, it could not rouse itself vp to the expulsion of that which is offensiue: for in sternutations or sneezings, and fits of the Epilepsie or fallingsicknes, how should the Braine bee moued and shaken to exclude and auoyde the humour or vapour by which it is vellicated or goaded vnlesse it felt the affluence thereof?  
Contrarily, the opinion of those who determine that the Braine hath no sense, may also be confirmed by authoritie, experience and reason. Aristotle in the 17. chapter of his 3 
The contrary opinion.  booke De historia Animalium; And in the 7. capter of his second booke de partibus Animal: writeth, that the Braine and the marrow haue not sensum tactus the sense of feeling. Galen in the 8. chapter of his first book De causis sympto. The Braine( saith he) was ordained by nature, not to haue sense but to communicate the faculty of sensation to the instruments of the senses. In his third booke De causis sympt hee calleth the Braine an Organe without sense.  
Experience, then which nothing is more certain, conuinceth the truth of this position. 
Experience.  For when the Braine is wounded the patient doth not feele although the substance therof be pressed with a sharpe probe, no not if some of it be taken away, which thing is very ordinary for Physitians and Chyrurgions to obserue.  
Finally, it may be demonstrated by reasons. Euery Organ( saith the Philospoher) 
Reasons.  must be 〈◇〉 that is, without any externall quality. So in the Christaline humor of the eye there is no colour, in the eare no sound, in the tongue no sauour; and the skin which is the Iudge of those qualities which moue the sense of touching is itself of a moderate temper. So the braine is the seate of the common sense and iudgeth of all sensation, and therefore must itself be without sense.  
Moreouer, the braine ought not to be sensible, for if it were hauing his scituation vppermost and like a cupping glasse drawing and supping vppe the exhalations of the lower parts it would by their affluence perpetually be payned.  
Finally, the substance well nigh of all the bowels is insensible, as of the liuer the spleene, the lungs, &c. and therefore the substance also of the braine is insensible.  
To this opinion we rather subscribe then to the former, following therein Galen in his first booke de causis Symp. where he is not of opinion that the braine hath sense, but onely that it can discerne the differences of sensible things.  
Those things which are brought to proue the contrary assertion, seeme to me now to 
Answere to the argumēts of the former opinion.  be very light. Hippocrates sayde that the braine did feele those iniurtes that were in the flesh and in the bone, that is to say, it is affected and altered by them. So the same Hippocrates saith in his Aphorismes that the bones do feele the power of cold, that is, they are altered by cold. Wherefore he vseth the word Sense in that place abusiuely. Galen attributeth sense to the braine. It is true, yet not to his marrowy substance which is the fountaine and originall of all the Animall faculties, but to the Pia mater or thin membrane which insinuateth itself deepely into the corners thereof. As for that logicall Axiome, it is only true in these causes which we call Homogeny, and those also conioyned. For the Sunne being of itself not hot yet heateth all sublunary things. And whereas they say that the brain is shaken in the exclusion of that which is hurtfull, and thence would prooue that it is sensible; wee answere, that there is seated in euery particular part a naturall power to expell that which is hurtfull; which power is sometime ioyned with Animall sense, sometimes 
How the braine apprehend that which is hurtfull.  also it is without the same. So the bones haue a power of excretion, and the flesh almost of all the bowels being insensible, is yet apprehensiue of those things that are hurtful, yea expell them also and driue them forth. There are in the nature of things certaine Sympathies and Antipathies.  
Fernelius in the tenth Chapter of the 5. booke of his Physiologia hath diuised a new and vncouth opinion concerning the motion and sense of the braine. He conceiueth that all 
Fernelius. new opinion.  motion is from the marrow of the braine, and all sense( saith hee) floweth from the Meninges or Membranes: because the body of the braine is perpetually mooued, & yet hath no sense at all; on the other side the membranes that incompasse it are of themselues immoueable, especially the Dura mater, and yet their sense is most exquisite. So in the diseases which we call Dilirium, that is, an aberration of the minde and in the Letargy which are affects of the Braine there is no paine at all: but if a sharpe humor or vapour be transported into the Membranes, then is the patient as it were on the racke.  
Furthermore, the spine and all the nerues haue their marrow from the braine and the same inuested with membranes: al which haue the same power and nature which they receiued from their originall. Therefore the fore-part of the braine is the originiall of sense, the backepart the beginning of motion and the menings or membranes are the beginning of touching. Those nerues that are fullest of marrow are the instruments of motion, but those are the instruments of touching which are for the most part deriued from the meninges.  
These are Fernelius words, wherein, saith my Author, by the fauor of so great a man, I finde some things that cannot be warranted. First he saith that all voluntarie motion 
Fernelius his first error.  floweth from the Marrow because the Marrow is perpetually mooued, as if the motion of the Braine and of the Nerues and Muscles were alike. The motion of the Braine is Naturall consisting of a Dyastole, a double rest and a Systole for the generation of Animall spirits, but the motion of the Muscles and the Nerues is voluntary.  
Furthermore, we are not to thinke that the Nerues are so much the fitter for motion 
Second.  by how much they haue more marrow; rather we beleeue the contrary, that the harder Nerues are fitter for motion and the softer for sense, because sensation is a passion but motion an action; we know also by experience that the Opticke Nerue which is the softest of all the Nerues hath more Marrowy substance then the Nerue of the seconde Coniugation, yet the Opticke is the Nerue of Sense, the other the nerue of Motion.  
Add heereto, that Motion should bee rather ascribed to the Membranes then to the Marrow, because the Marrow melteth away but the Membrane is stretched & contracted: so the Nerues of children are weake and soft and vnfit for motion. To all these let vs add the authority of Galen in the third chapter of his seuenth Book de Placitis Hip. & Platonis, where he saith, that the faculties of Motion and Sense are only conteined in 
The authority of Galen.  the Marrow of the Braine and that the Membranes were made to cloath and norish the Marrow & for no other vse.  
We conceiue therefore that this Paradox although it be witty, yet will not holde at the Touchstone, and therefore we determine that the Marrow of the Braine is without all sense and Animall motion, and yet is the fountaine and originall of all Animall 
The Braine hath neyther sense nor motion, and yet is the original of both.  Sense and motion. Of Sense, because it perceyueth the representations and receyueth the impressions of all sensible things. Of Motion, because it dispenseth and affoordeth al that power and command for the auoyding of that which is noxious, and prosecution of that which is profitable; from whence it commeth to passe that when the Braine is il affected the inferior parts haue neither Sense nor Motion.   

QVEST. XI. Of the Temperament of the Braine.  
_THE Physitians and the Peripatetikes in this do agree, that the brain in the Actiue qualities is cold, in the Passiue moyst. But heere in they differ, that Aristotle in the seuenth Chapter of his second booke De partib. Animalium and in the fift Chapter of his booke De Somno & Vigilia, determines that the braine is actually cold and ordained to refrigerate or coole the heart. Contrariwise, the Physitians say that it is Actually hot. For Galen in his eight booke De Placitis Hip. & Platonis saith, that the brain is hotter then the most soultry aer in summer. 
Reconciliatiō of Aristotle and Galen.  Some there are that do thus reconcile Galen and Aristotle; There is( say they) a double temperament of the braine, the one In-bred, the other Influent: by the In-bred temper, the proper composition and the marrowy substance, the braine is very cold; but by the influent temper it is hot, for it is full of spirits and intertexed with very many small Arteries.  
If you respect the in-bred temper, then is the temperament of the braine and the spinall marrow one and the same, because they haue the same marrowy substance. If you respect the Influent temper, then saith Galen in the ninthe chapter of his second booke De Temperam. the braine is hotter then the spinall marrow, as well because there passe vnto it more Arteries, as also because many fumid exhalations do ascend vnto it. Some say, that the braine is simply and obsolutely hot; but colde comparatiuely, because it is the coldest of all the bowels. And Galen in Arte medica writeth, That a hot braine is colder then the coldest heart. In which respect Hippocrates in his booke de Glandulis calleth the braine 〈◇〉 the Seate of Coldnesse. But I cannot approue this opinion. For if the brain be colder then the skinne which is in a meane betwixt the extremes, then it is simply cold and not hot. Now that it is colder then the skin Galen teacheth in his second booke de Temperamentis.  
It will be obiected, that if the braine be laide bare it will presently be refrigerated 
Obiection.  by the aer, whereas the skin is not affected therewith. I answer, that the braine is altered 
Solution.  by the aer, because it is not accustomed thereto as the skinne is; so the Teeth beecause they are accustomed to the aire do not grow blacke as other bones do if they bee layde bare. Or againe, that the braine is hotter to feele to then the skin, because it is couered with the scull and the membrane and hath many complications of the arteries therin. We determine therefore that the Braine of his in-bred temper is colder then the skin, but by his influent temper is hotter. That the Braine should be colde it was very necessary least a Member set a part for continuall cogitation or discourse should bee enflamed and set 
Why the braine ought to be cold.  on fire. Againe, that the animall spirits which are very fine and subtill might be retained and not vanish away.  
Finally, that our Motions and Sensations should not be rash or phanaticall as they are in such as are phreneticall, that is, haue their braines in flamed. It may be obiected, if the Braine be cold, how then doth it ingender animal and attenuate vitall spirits; for these are 
Obiection. Solution.  the workes of a vehement heare? I answer, that the spirits are attenuated in the textures of the small arteries, & in the strayghtes of those passages: & that the animall spirit is formed not so much by any manifest qualitie such as is heate, as by an in bred and hidden proprietie.  
But the reason why the spirits of the extreame hote Heart are thicker then those of the 
Why the spirits of the extreame hot heart are thicker then the Animall spirits.  very cold Braine must not be referred to the weaknes of the heate which is the worker, but to the disposition of the matter which is the sufferer. For the heart maketh vitall spirits of of thicke blood brought vnto it through the hollow veine: the Braine maketh Animall spirits of subtill and thin vital blood and spirits: so a weaker heate boyleth a thin and easily concocted aliment, whereas a very strong heate will hardly ouercome a thicke aliment. It remaineth therefore that in the actiue qualities the braine is cold.  
That in the passiue qualities it is moist both by the in-bred and influent temper no man I thinke is vnresolued: for it appeareth euen to the touch. Now it was by nature 
Why the braine was made moist.  created moist, as well for more perfect sensation,( for sensation is a passion; and those things that are moyst do more easily receiue the images and representations of things offered vnto them) as also for the originall and propagation of the nerues which would not haue beene so flexible if the braine had beene hard. Adde heereto that if the braine had beene hard it had also beene heauy and the waight and hardnesse thereof would haue bin offensiue to the sinewes.  
Finally, it was made moist least being a member destined to perpetuall motion sensation and cogitation it should haue beene inflamed if the moysture had not bin an impediment thereto. But if you compare the two qualities together, then we say that the braine is more moist then cold: for amongst the moist parts it hath a third place, among the cold parts almost the last.   

QVEST. XII. How many and what are the Excrements of the Braine, and by what wayes they are purged.  
_THE Braine being of a medullous or marrowy substance and by his 
Why the ●● brain aboundeth with excrements.  naturall temper colde and moist because it is nourished with flegmaticke blood, heapeth together a great aboundance of excrements.  
Moreouer, being as it were the Chimney of the whole body, or the head of a Still( whose figure also it representeth) it sucketh and draweth from the lower parts all kindes of expirations as Hippocrates teacheth in his booke de Glandulis wherevpon it beecommeth filled with vapors and as it were drunke with their continuall affluence and so sta. bleth in itself a masse of superfluity; so that it aboundeth with excrements as well of itself, that is, it of own nature because it is cold & moist, as also by euent for that it is seated in the vppermost place whether all vapors do resort.  
These excrements of the braine, if wee beleeue Hippocrates and Galen are of two sorts, 
Thicke.  some are thinne and some are thicke; the thinne like vapour or soote do expire or exhale vpward by insensible passages; the thicke are purged downeward by open and conspicuous 
Thinne.  wayes. VVith the thinne and vaporous exhalations the braine is cloyed onely by reason of his scituation, for all fumes doe arise vpward; and beside all vessels doe determine in the head. But it aboundeth with these crasse and thicke excrements aboue other bowelles by reason of the cold and moyst temper thereof.  
Of these thicke excrements some are phlegmaticke, waterish and scrous; some are bilious, some melancholy. The waterish is generated of the reliques of the phlegmatick and 
The kinds of thick excrements.  crue bloud: the bilious or melancholly out of the earthy portion of the Aliment torrified by the violence of heate, and therefore they grow bitter.  
Argenterius is of opinion that that watrish and mucous humour which is auoyded partly 
Argenterius his error concerning the flegmatick excrements of the braine.  by the nose partly by the mouth and pallat, is not the proper excrement of the brayne, because many men and women doe seldome or neuer spit, and as seldome auoyd any moisture by the nose; but sayth it is a humour ingendred in the liuer mixed with the bloud and contained in the veines, which is not generated in the braine vppon the concoction of the Aliment, but is thither deriued from below: and because through the weaknes of the concoction and cold distemper it cannot be assimilated by the braine, it returneth back again as a redundance or superfluitie and is cast out by the mouth & by the nose. VVhich assertion 
Confuted.  of his if it were true, what reason had nature to place in the saddle or seat of the wedgebone that kernelly and spongie flesh? was it not appoynted to receiue this very excrement? If this phlegmaticke humor were onely generated in an intemperate braine, what vse were there of the glandule which is found in all braines though most temperate? Nature is too wise and prouident so rashly to frame any part where there shal not be continuall vse therof. In this opinon therefore of Argenterius wee can finde no vse either for the Tunnell or the phlegmaticke Glandule if the braine be not distempered. Moreouer, it is not true that he sayeth, that those whose braines are temperate doe not spit phlegme or auoyde mucous matter by their nose: for Galen in the 13. Chap. Artis paruae teacheth, that in a brain which is most temperate the excrements that are purged by the nose and by the pallate( such as are watrish and mucous excrements) are in moderate quantity: neither are we to attribute it vnto perfect sanity when we finde those excrements by the passages not to bee auoyded. VVherefore we conclude against Argenterius that these phlegmatick and mucous humors are the proper excrements of the braine, because in the braine they haue peculiar conueyances and channels by which they are auoyded, framed by Nature onely for their euacuation.  
Hauing thus determined concerning the differences of the excrements of the braine, let vs now see by what passages euery of these excrements are auoyded.  
The thin and fuliginous excrements arising vpward because of their leuitie, doe expire 
By what waies the thin excrements breath out.  or breath out through the Meninges, the Skull and the Skin. Through the Meninges and the Skinne not by any sensible or conspicuous way but by insensible exhalation; for their bodies while a man is aliue are infinitely perforated or at least peruious with many small holes. But these sooty vapours because they could not passe the thicknes and density of the bones, therefore is the Skull distinguished with sutures or seames, so that it consisteth not of one bone but of diuers ioyned together by those sutures, through which as also through the holes which are thrilled betwixt the tables of the Skull these thin excrements and fuliginous vapors do exhale.  
But the thicker excrements descending downeward by their Naturall and Elementary 
The waies of the thick excrements.  forme, haue manifest and conspicuons passages, concerning which Physitions doe not so perfectly agree among themselues; Hippocrates in his Booke de locis in homine & de glandulis, acknowledgeth seauen wayes by which the humour passeth out of the braine, that is, 
Hippocrates.  through the nose, the eares, the eies, the pallat, into the throat & gullet through the veins, into the spinall marrow and into the bloud.  
Galen in his 13. Chapter Artis paruae, saith there are foure passages, the pallat, the nose, 
Galen.  the eares and the eies. The same also he saith in the third Chapter of his second Book de locis affectis, and in his first Booke de sanitate tuenda: but in his Commentary vpon the 21. Aphorisme of the first Section, hee nameth onely the pallate and the nose, as also in the first Chapter of his 9. Booke de vsu partium, where hee sayth, the passages of the braine which bend downward doe send out the thicke excrements as well by the pallate into the mouth, as also by the body of the Nosethrils, and these passages are large and conspicuous. In his first booke de symp. Causis and the 8 de vsu partium he saith, that the pallate alone is the fit way of expurgation when the creature hath good concoction, and that the nosethrils do onely serue for the inspiration of aer and odours.  
In his Commentary vpon the 24. Aphorisme of the third Section he writeth, That the expurgation which is made by the eares is not naturall vnlesse it be in litle children by whose eares we often obserue that their braines are purged.  
In his Commentary vpon the 20. Prognost. of the first Section he saith, that the expurgation 
Places in Galē reconciled.  by the eyes is not naturall. Thus Galen seemeth to be of a diuers opinion concerning these passages of the braines excrements. But that we may reconcile these different places and freely professe what truly we are to resolue of; wee thinke that the diuers excrements of the braine, Phlegmaticke, bilious and melancholicke are purged by diuers wayes, some of which are ordinary, familiar and accustomed to Nature; others extraordinary and not so conuenient.  
The ordinary passages prepared for the expurgation of Flegme are the pallate and 
Some passages ordinarie, some extraordinary.  the nosethrils; but the palate especially, because the Nostrils were primarily appointed for smelling. Anatomy teaches vs that out of the third Ventricle of the Braine there is a conspicuous passage to the inward basis thereof, in whose extremity there appeareth a small portion of the thin Membrane which is first broader then groweth narrower like a Tunnell which the Grecians call 〈◇〉. The Latines Peluis and infundibulum, The Bason or Tunnell, through which the Flegmatick humor is by litle and little transcolated as it were through an Hyppocras bagge. This waterish humor is receiued by a flegmaticke Glandule like a sponge, and afterward distilleth by degrees through the holes 
The wayes of the Phlegme.  of the Wedge-bone into the pallat and mouth. But if at any time( which is not vnvsuall) the vpper Ventricles of the Braine grow full of a mucous slime it droppeth through the processes which are like to the nipples of a womans paps into the Os Cribri forme, or spongy bone, and so into the Nosethrils.  
The bilious excrements are continually purged by the ears. Some say that therefore 
The Bilious by the eares.  the bilious excrements are throwne out by the eares that the heate and siccitie thereof might keepe the bones of the eares dry and so more fit to receiue and report the sound. But the Phlegmatick excrements are purged by the mouth and nosethrils, that those open passages by that humidity might be kept from drying vp. These therefore are the 
The extraordinary passages.  ordinary channels and most familiar to nature by which she purgeth the excrements of the Brain? There are also other extraordinarie waies by which the brain oppressed or surcharged with abundance of humor exonerateth itself. Such are the eyes, the Spinal Marrow and the Nerues from whence commeth the Palsie. There is also sometime a fall of humors through the Veines and arteries into the Parotidas that is the Glandules behinde the eares. But these are not the peculiar excrements of the brain, that is, of the Marrowy substance and of the Ventricles, but rather of the vessels as Veines and Arteries from whence proceed tumors of the glandules, inflammations likewise of the eyes and of the eares.  
Now these excrements in a temperate Braine are moderate in their substance, quantity, quality & time of excretion. In the substance, because they are neither to thick nor to fluid; in their quantity because they do not abound; in their quality because they are neither salt nor sharpe; in the time of excretion when they are auoyded after concoction.  
The remaineth one scruple to bee resolued, that is, by what wayes the superfluities of 
By what passages the superfluities of the after brain & the fourth ventricle are auoided.  the Cerebellum and of the fourth ventricle are purged. We say for answer that the excrements of the Cerebellum and of the fourth ventricle are very fewe; as well because of the hardnesse of the Cerebellum, as also beecause in the fourth ventricle are contained most subtle, pure and well purged spirits, and therefore those few superfluities are easily dissipated. But the braine itself being in quantity very great and of temper very moyste heapeth vp aboundance of superfluities which stand in neede of conspicuous passages by which they should be auoyded.   

QVEST. XIII. Of the number and vse of the Ventricles.  
_IN the History of the ventricles of the braine there are many things controuerted which offer themselues to our consideration; and first of all the 
Of the number of the ventricles.  Anatomists doe differ concerning their number. Galen determineth that there are foure, two superior which he calleth anterior ventricles; the middle which is a common cauity and the backward. Auicen numbreth but three; the vpper, the middle and the hindmost; esteeming the vpper two for one, because they haue the same figure, magnitude, scite, structure and vse. Arantius addeth two others vnder these which he nameth from the figure Hippochampi, but I thinke that they are parts of the vpper ventricles, which indeed are so large that in common dissections scarse their third part is shewne. Varolius cutting the braine after a newe manner sayth there are but two; but because we haue at large made mention of his opinion in the History foregoing, we will not here weary our Reader with itteration thereof, but referre him thither for further satisfaction.  
Concerning the vse of the ventricles, Vesalius taxeth Galen about the vse of the vppermost two; because hee sayth that they are the organs of smelling and that out of these by 
Of the vse of the ventricles  certain processes the phlegme is trāscolated into the spongie bones. VVe answere for Galen, that the anterior ventricles are therfore called the Organs of smelling, because vnto thē 
Galen redeemed.  are odours brought of which also they iudge. Beside, what should hinder that the flegme( if the brain abound therewith) should not be transported from them by those processes into the spongie bones, seeing we find that somtimes( as in the Apoplexie) the phlegme is diffused through the whole body of the braine; and sometimes falleth into the nerues and the spinall marrow as in the Palsie? It will bee obiected that the sence of smelling would 
Obiection.  be extinguished if the phlegme should bee transcolated by these processes: I answere, that sometimes when the Fluxe is continuall and the humour very aboundant the smelling is 
Solution.  lost, not so much by reason of the obstruction of the processes, as because the holes of the bone are intercluded.  
Some new writers there are who thinke that the anterior ventricles were not appoynted 
The opinion of some new writers.  for the preparation and concoction of the spirits, as well because they are the receptacles of excrements, as also because the Animal spirits did not stand in neede of any sensible cauity. But Galen answereth, that Nature hath prepared them to serue both turnes; like as through the spongie bone odours doe ascend and superfluities or excrements descend. As therefore those things which are auoyded euery day by the pallat and the nosthrils do neyther hinder the Taste nor the Smell if they bee moderate: so it is in the excrements of the braine.   

QVEST. XIIII. Which of the ventricles are most excellent.  
_COncerning the excellency or superiority of the ventricles of the brain some different places in Galen are to be reconciled. It is commonly receiued that among 
Of the preheminence of the ventricles of the braine.  all the partes of the braine the ventricles are most excellent, not because they are particular seates of the Principall faculties, but because in them the Animall spirits are generated. That teacheth Galen in the third Chapter of his 7. Booke de Placitis Hip: & Platon. If, sayth he, you cut the braine any way the creature will not loose sence and motion before the wound pierce vnto some of the ventricle. But whereas there are foure ventricles it may be demanded which of them is most noble.  
Galen teacheth that the vpper ventricles are the basest; In his 8. Booke de vsu partium & the 10. Chapter. In his 7. de placitis; and in his Commentary vppon the 18. Aphorisme of 
The vpper ventricles are the basest.  the seuenth Section, by the example of a young man of Smyrna a Citty of Ionia, who being wounded into one of the vpper ventricles yet escaped with life. Concerning the third and fourth ventricles Galen seemeth to differ from himselfe; for in the fift Chapter of his third Booke de locis affectis he yeeldeth the prerogatiue to the fourth ventricle. The Animall 
The 4. the noblest.  spirit sayth he, is contayned in the ventricles of the braine, especially in the hindermost, although the middlemost is not to be contemned: which is as much as if hee had sayed the middlemost is not the noblest. For wee are perswaded by many reasons to esteeme this aboue the two vpper. In the third Chapter of his 7. Book de placitis; A wound in the hindmost 
According to Galen.  ventricle doth most of all offend the creature; In the second place the wound of the middle ventricle; but least of all if it be in the two vpper: the same thing may bee sayed of sections or bruises of the head. And these authorities of Galen are seconded by reason; for it is a perpetuall truth in the body of a man, that by how much the cauity is greater, by so much it is the baser. The fourth ventricle is of all the rest the least and the narrowest, and containeth the Animall spirit sincere defoecated and exquisitely purged: the other do onely prepare the spirit, and therefore the hindmost ventricle is the most noble.  
Yet Galen in many places seemeth to say the contrary, as for instance in the 7 chapter of his third booke de locis affectis, and in the second chapter of his fourth booke, he preferreth 
Galen seemeth to say the contrary.  the third ventricle. If saith he, at any time the whole fore-part of the braine bee affected, those things which concerne the vpper ventricle are drawne into consent, and the action of discourse is vitiated; where, by the vpper ventricle he vnderstandeth the third or the middle: but why, I am not able to giue a reason. But if discourse bee seated in the middle ventricle, then is it the most noble. In the last chapter of his third booke de placitis expounding the fable which faineth Minerua to be borne out of the toppe of Iupiters head. Therfore, sayth he, they faigne her to be borne out of the top, because there vnder is seated the middle ventricle whichis the principall of the braine and the originall of wisedome.  
Moreouer the wonderfull structure of the third ventricle is an euident argument of the excellency thereof, as also because the wounds of the Occipitium are lesse dangerous 
The reason.  then those of the Sinciput or fore-part of the head. So saith Hippocrates in his booke de vulneribus capitis. More escape death that are wounded in the hinder parts of their heads then in the fore-part.  
You shall reconcile Galen if you say, that when he auoucheth the fourth ventricle to be the most noble, then he speaketh according to his owne iudgement: but when he preferreth 
Galen reconciled.  the third he speaketh according to the opinion of other men, especially of Herophylus. For Galen did not attribute or assigne to the principall faculties particular mansions or habitations in the braine as we haue heeretofore prooued.  
Againe, vpon a wound in the Occipitium or nowle of the head, the fourth ventricle is sildome offended, because there is much flesh and the thicknesse and hardnesse of the bone to resist the violence of the blow, whereas the bones of the Sinciput or fore-part are much more slender and weake.  
In the whole history of the head I do not finde that Galen seemeth so much to wander out of the way as in the description of the Rete mirabile or wonderfull Net, for this in a man is so small that a good eye can hardly discerne it. I like rather, saith my Author, to 
The error of Galen in the wonddrfull Net.  call the Plexus Choroides( which is manifest and obuious to euery eye in the vpper ventricles of the braine) Rete mirabile or the Wonderfull Net, as also some of the new Writers haue done: for in it the vitall spirit is attenuated and the Animall getteth a certaine rudiment. And thus are we come to an end of the Controuersies concerning the Braine especially the substance thereof. Now let vs proceed to the second part of the head which is called the Face and so to the Senses.   
The End of the seauenth Booke vvith the Controuersies thereto belonging.   

THE EIGHTH BOOKE, Of the Senses and their Instruments, as also of the Uoyce.  

The Praeface,  
_ALthough in the former Booke wee have made mention of the Instruments of the Senses when we described the Coniugations of the Sinnewes of the Brain, yet because there are many other parts in the Head set apart for their vse, wherein the glorious wisedome of our Creator dooth most manifestly shine and in the preseruation whereof wee are deepely interessed, I haue thought good to appropriate this Eight Booke vnto the History of the Senses. Now in euery Sense there is a Matter and a Forme. The Forme is the Faculty which is a thing yssuing from the Soule and differing in Name not in Nature as it informeth this or that Matter which is the Instrument. The first of the Senses is the Eye the most precious part of the body; and they are two, that if 
The eyes.  one should miscarry the other might supply the necessity of Nature. They are set like Centinels or Scout-watches in the top of the Towre, whence they may discerne the farther off if any thing approach either hurtfull or behoouefull that we may apply ourselues to it or auoyde it.  
Galen is of opinion that the Head was placed vppermost in the bodie for the Eyes sake, because the Opticke Nerues stood in neede to bee very short. For their security they are scituated in Caues and fenced about with diuers Muniments. Aboue them hang a round arched brow to beare off and cast ouer what might fall from the Head, and betwixt them runnes the Nose as a strong wal, vnder them the bones of the Cheeke stand out, and at their side the hard bones of the Temples.  
They are immediately couered with soft lids that they might not impeach the delicacy of the instrument; the vppermost are mooueable and verie nimble which do shut vp the pupils as well in rest to refresh them, as also when any outward iniury is ready to annoie them; the lowermost are immooueable or at least mooued insensibly. These liddes are againe bearded with haires whereby and wherein small bodies or Motes which happly in their approach are not discerned might be intercepted.  
The Eyes themselues haue many Muscles allowed them whereby they are mooued euery way, vpward and downward, to the right and to the lefte and round: they are also by a Muscle susteined and kept stable or firmed whereby the sense is more certaine. Diuers Coats they haue wherewith they are couered, the first called Adnata, the second Cornea, the third Vuea, the fourth Aranea. There are also three Humours, the first Watery, the second Glassy and the third Christalline which is the chiefe Organe of the sight, and is assisted by the other parts aboue mentioned. The eye indeede seeth with the Christalline humor, but it seeth perfectly and more accomplishedlye with the whole Organ or Instrumēt. The obiect of this sense are those colors which are in the superficies of other bodies.  
Next followeth the Eare, the Instrument whereby the Soule discerneth of all manner of sounds and voyces. The chiefe part of this Organ is a thin and subtle aire bredde in the ●are and seated within the cauity therof; to which aire the ends of the Nerues of hearing 
The Eares.  which come from the Braine doe attaine: and as the Opticke Nerue encompasseth the Cristalline humour, so this nerue of Hearing is thought to encompasse the In bred Ayre and spirit, and so the society growes betweene the instrument of the Sense and the inward principle of Sensation. Before this Aire is a Membrane stretched which we cal the Drum supported and established with three Bones, the smallest of the whole body, but none formed with more curious Art; the first is called the Hammer, the second the Anuile, the third the Stirrop. Many men haue laboured to assigne to each of these their proper vses and how they conferre to the sense of Hearing, but truth to say, their discourses do rather feed then fill the minds of their Readers.  
God hath reserued many secrets in mans body to himselfe, whereof wee iustlie thinke this is one; yet we know that they sustaine the Membrane of the Tympane agaynst which the representation of the sound or voice is beaten and communicated to the inbred Aire. These sounds are admitted to the Instrumēt by the hole of hearing, a hard & dry entrance full of embowed Meanders and Convolutions, lest the outward aer falling or rushing suddenly vpon the Drum should endanger the breaking therof. Without the Eare there standeth a gristly substance which partly defendeth the hole of Hearing that nothing fall into it, partly catcheth and staieth the sound that it passe not by.  
The third Sense is that of Smelling, whose Instrument doth not yssue out of the Scull in those creatures which do respire, but is conteined within the substance of the brain: whēce 
The Nose.  it followeth that these 5. are called outward senses, not so much because they appear outwardly, but rather because their proper organs doe receiue the species or representations of outward things. The instrument therefore of smelling is a paire of productions issuing out of the forward Ventricles of the Braine, in which the faculty of smelling residing doeth comprehend the odors of things which together with the aer are drawne in thorough the passages of the nose, which is raysed higher in the face of a man then of other creatures, as well for beauty, as because the Braine of a man being large and therfore yeelding, abundance of excrements might ther-through be better clensed. This nose is diuided in the middest by a gristly substance, aswell to breake and diuide the outward aire which in a great part is drawn in this way to be conueyed into the sharp arteries & so to the lungs; as also to disperse the parts of the obiect of this sense, that being so diuided it might equally insinuate itself through the small holes of the spongy bone to both the productions which determine on either side.  
The fourth Sense is the Tast, the Forme whereof is seated in those Nerues which attaine vnto the tongue and pallat assisted by the spongy flesh of the tongue itself. For 
The Tongue.  when any sauoury quality or affection imparted to a humor or iuice is applyed vnto the tongue; it stirreth vp the taste, and presently the image or species of that sauour is by the spirit residing in the Nerues conueied to the principall Sensator; and if it happen that the sauour be represented to the Instrument in a hard or congealed body as salt, pepper or such like, it cannot mooue the sense before it be melted by the heate, or at least haue communicated his affection vnto the moisture of the mouth, and therfore it is that nothing can affect the taste which cannot be dissolued, neither is he whose tongue is torrified or parched with extraordinary heate a competentiudge of sauors or Tasts.  
As for the Touch which is the fift and last sense; it is not conteined within any proper organ or instrument but equally diffused through the whole body, because the necessity 
The sense of Touching.  of Nature did euery where require the presence thereof for the security of the life of the creature; and yet notwithstanding it dooth not( as other senses) receiue the impression of all his owne proper obiects. For sensation is a passion: if therefore the Obiect bee of the same temper with the Instrument, the sense is not affected therewith, because it doth not suffer by that which is like vnto it; but all the other senses do apprehend all those qualities which do fall vnder them; for being all vnlike to the instruments they must needs be affected by them. But because this sense hath no particular instrument in the head, we shall only intreate of it by the way in this place; somwhat we haue spoken of it before in our discourse of the skin, and more we shal haue occasion to say in the booke of the Ioynts and the Vessels. Wherefore we descend vnto our History.   

CHAP. I. Of the other part of the head which is called the Face, together with the vessels and muscles thereof.  
_HAuing gone through that part of the Head which is couered with a hairy scalfe and therefore by Aristotle in the 7 chapter of his 1. book de historia Animalium called 〈◇〉; it remaineth that we proceed vnto the other part which is without hayre called in man 〈◇〉; which 
The names of the face.  name it seemeth to haue receiued from the thing itselfe, saith the Philosopher in the first chapter of his third book de partibus Animalium, because a man 〈◇〉, that is, looketh forward; for of all creatures onely man goeth vpright and looketh directly forward. The Latines call it Facies, in the comely conformation and Beauty whereof the elegancy of the humane nature doth most appeare. It is also called Vultus a voluntatis iudicio, because it bewraieth the disposition of the will, and is especially changed according to the variety thereof. We cal it the Face or the countenance.  
The parts therefore of the Face are two: the vpper is properly called 〈◇〉 Fro●s ● 
The parts of the face.  ferendo, because it beareth in it the Passions of the minde, wee call it the Forehead whose lowest parts are the eye browes. The second and lower part of the Face beginneth at the eye-browes and reacheth to the bottome of the Chinne, in which there are many parts. Both these parts of the face haue also some parts conteining & some conteined. The containing parts are common or proper: common as the cuticle or scarfe-skin & the skin itselfe; which in this face, in the fingers ends, in the Yarde and the Cod is most thin. This skin in the Cheekes for the most part looketh red because of the affluence of blood from the vtter branch of the externall Iugular veine; which is disseminated betwixt it and the 
The skinne.  fleshy membrane. This skin is furnished with hayres; about the eyes for their security; about the mouth in men as an argument of their virility and a peculiar beauty of that sex; for in a woman those hayres are an especiall deformity. Hence also( saith Galen in the 14 chap. of his 11 book de vsu partium) 
The hayres.  a man becommeth more venerable, especially if whē he be grown to a ripe age the haires also do plentifully compasse his mouth on euery side, for which cause also nature hath left the Cheekes and the Nose bare and without haire.  
This skin of the face is diuersly perforated for the eyes, the eares, the nosthrils and the mouth; partly that the sensible obiects might haue the freer accesse; partly to intromit ayre and nourishment and to auoide excrements. And these perforations if their actions bee 
The perforations of the face. Their vse.  alwayes required are alwayes open. As the nostrhils for respiration; the eares for hearing because these two were alwaies necessary. As for those whose functions were not so indesinent, especially in the time of sleepe and for the auoyding iminent dangers, those perforations I say, for more security may be shut as the eyes and the mouth.  
The fat of the face is very little and that that is, is about the Cheekes.  
The fleshy membrane which in the rest of the body is almost wholy neruous, in the forehead is fleshy and musculous; so close ioyned to the skin that it can hardly be separated 
The fat. The fleshy membrane.  there-from. And it is red because of the muscles of the face which grow vnto it. Betwixt this fleshy membrane and the skin the veines before spoken of do runne, where also are many glandules dispersed, as vnder the rootes of the eares in which the disease is bred 
The vessels and the glandules.  that we call Parotis, as also betwixt the lower Iaw & the inferior part of the Cheeks where those Tumors arise which we cal Scropuhlae or the Kings euill.  
The proper containing parts are muscles, bones and gristles which make the frame of the face itselfe. The muscles are, of the forehead, of the eye-browes, of the eye-lids, of the nosthrils, sometimes also of the eares, of the lips, of the lower Iaw, and of the Cheekes. 
The proper contayning parts.  The bones are, the forehead-bone, the sixe bones of the eyes, three of the Nose, sixe of the mouth, that is to say, two of the vpper Iaw, and two of the nether Iaw, and as many of the Palate. The Gristles are, of the eares & the nose which are diuersly ioyned with the bones.  
The parts contained in the face are the seates of the foure sences; whose organs either it containeth as it doth those which haue no place within the skull, or else it prepareth a way for them that lye hid within the Scull. 
The parts contained.   
These Organes of the senses are the Eyes, the Eares, the Nose and the Mouth, wherein are contained the Tongue and the Throttle which are the instruments of the taste & the voyce. And indeede because the Organs of the senses are placed in the face, it is truely called the Image of the minde, for as Laurentius faith truely, in the eye-browes dwels pride, in the Cheekes shamefastnesse, in the Chinne maiesty, in the Forehead wisedome, finally, in the whole countenance beauty and honesty. But to speake more like 
How the mind shineth in the Face.  a Physitian, in the Face doe appeare the manifest signes of life and death, and therefore Hippocrates in his Prognostiques commands the Physitian first of all to take viewe of the sickmans face, whither his countenance bee like that it was in his health, or whether it be much changed in colour, figure and magnitude.  
But before we come to the particulat handling of the Organes of the Senses, it shall not 
Prediction by the Face.  be amisse to giue you in this place a light view of the Vessels of the Face and of the Muscles which mooue the skin of the Head. The Vessels therefore which are deriued through the face are Veines and Arteries. The Veynes are called Iugulars, whereof one is internall,[ Tab. 6. lib. 6. SS] of whose distribution we haue spoken in the eight chapter of the precedent 
The vesselles of the same. The Veines.  Booke. Another externall[ Tab. 6. lib. 6. TT] which ariseth out of the vpper part of the Subclauian branch, and ascendeth on the sides of the neck vnder the chin yeelding surcles to all the outward parts of the Necke, the Head and the Face on his owne side. But for the most part vnder the roote of the eare,[ Tab. 6. lib. 6. V] it is diuided into an vtter braunch[ y] and an inner.[ x] The inner branch reacheth vnto the muscles of the mouth, the chops, and the bone Hyois as before is saide. The vtter creeping along the skin and the Muscles and skin of the head, beeing vnder the eare supported with Glandules, is parted into two branches, whereof one bending vnto the foreside of the face[ Tab. 6. lib. 6. Z] attaineth vnto the Nose and the Cheekes, and in the middle of the forehead is ioyned with a braunch of the other side, and maketh the fore-heade Veine which in some cases wee vse to open.[ Tab. 6. lib. 6. a] The other braunch passeth by the side and sprinkleth his branches partlie 
Table 6. sheweth the trunke and branches of the hollow veine as they are disseminated through all the three Regions of the body.  
TABVLA VI. Lib. VI.  

Q. The double Scapularie, or the veynes of the shoulder-blade.  
RR. The Lower Chest-veine.  
SS. The internall Iugular Veine.  
TT. The externall Iugular Veynes.  
V. The externall Iugular Veine diuided into two vnder the roote of the eare.  
X. The inner branch thereof.  
Y. The outer branch thereof.  
Z. A branch proceeding from the vtter Veyne nexte aboue named, to the Face.  
a. The forehead Veine.  
ae. A branch creeping vppe the Temples.  
* A surcle reaching to the Nowle or backeside of the head.   
Table 13. Fig. 1. sheweth the trunke of the great Artery, together with his branches as they are disseminated through the three bellies or Regions of the body.  
The second Figure sheweth a portion of the Arterie as it is on the backside, from whence it sendeth branches to the distances betwixt the lower ribbes.  
The third Figure sheweth a portion of the great artery; where it yssueth out of the heart it is here shewed open: & by that meanes we may better perceiue his Coates and Fibres.  
TABVLA. XIII.  
FIG. I.  
II  
III  

TT. The Artery called Humeraria.  
V V. the remainder of the Axillarie Artery reaching to the armes.  
X Y. the right and left Carotis or the sleepy Arteries.  
e e. The coniunction of the Māmary with the Epigastricke Arteries.  
f f. The diuision of the sleepy Arteries at the chops.  
g. The externall branch.  
h. The internall branch which is deriued to the throttle, the chops and the tongue.  
i. This at the Basis of the Skull is distributed into two branches.  
l. the distribution of the branch g vnto the Cheeks and the Muscles of the face.  
m. The distribution of the braunch g vnder the roote of the eare.  
n. The same branch creeping vp the Temples.  
o And the backside of the eare.   vnto the Temples[ Table 6. Lib. 6. a] partly vnto the occiput or Nowle of the head. Furthermore the branches of this exterior veine both in the face and in the crowne of the head are diuersly mingled, from which certaine small threddy stringes are distributed into the seames of the Skull and the manifold perforations thereof. And so much for the veines of the face.  
The arteries called Carotides or the sleepy arteries[ Table 13. Lib. 6. XY] being on each side one, ascendeth vp on the sides of the necke, togither with the Iugular veines, directly 
The arteries of the face  vnto the head, and when they come vnto the chops or Fauces they are deuided[ table 13. lib. 6. f f] into an exterior branch[ g] and an interior[ h].  
Of the distribution of the interior we haue spoken in the eight Chapter of the former Booke. Now concerning the exterior. The exterior which is lesse then the interior and is seated without the Fauces reacheth his surcles vnto the cheeks[ Table 13. Lib. 6. l] and the muscles of the face; afterward when it commeth to the roote of the eares[ m] it is parted in twaine. One of them creepeth to the backside of the eare at[ o] from which two arteries do vnder the eare passe into the lower iaw, and according to the length thereof are dispersed vnto the rootes of all the lower teeth: but another part yssueth at the hole which is in the chinne, and so creepeth along the neather lip. The other artery of the by-partition at[ p] creepeth vp the temples and the forehead and is consumed in the muscles of the Fcae. And so much of the vessels.  
The Skin of the head is in many men mouable, but of the forehead in all men; not onely 
The muscles of the forehead.  by the benefite of the fleshy membrane, which degenerateth into a musculous substance hauing right fibres, but also by the help of two muscles; assured so to be, both by the course of their fibres as also by their motions which appeare in these after the manner of other muscles and not like the motion of the fleshy membrane. These are scituated in the forehead[ Table 6. figure 1. A] and doe arise aboue where the hayre determines; sometimes as high as the crowny seame neare the Temporall muscles; the right at the right and the left at the left Temple,( where the fleshy membrane cleaueth so close to the Perteranium or skulskinne and the Skull itself, that it is altogether immouable: So that the forehead and the Eye-browes are mooued when the membrane is at rest) and toward the common seame which distinguisheth the bones of the head from those of the vpper iaw are implanted with right fibres aboue the eyes and the nose into the skinne at the browes as at the parts which are to be moued.  
I sayed these fibres were right and not oblique as some haue thought: and here Chyrurgions 
A good note for Chyrurgions.  must obserue that in opening Apostemations in that place they make not their incitions ouerthwart as the wrinckles of the skinne doe goe, but according to the right fibres.  
These two muscles are a little disioyned in the middest, and that is the reason why the top of the forehead is not moued. Vpon this coniunction some haue thought them to be 
Why the top of the forehead is not moued.  but one muscle. Against whome wee shall further dispute in the proper place where wee create of these in our book of muscles. There are also other muscles which draw the skinne of the head backward, but those belong not to this place.  
Now we proceed vnto the Organs of the Sences.   

CHAP. II. Of the Eye and parts thereof.  
_WEe sayd before that the habitations or residences of foure of the Sences were contayned in the face.  
The fift externall Sence, which is the Sence of Touching is dispersed 
Why 5. sences  through the whole body & hath no proper seat in the face, all the rest haue. For the head being the seat of the Animall faculties and the habitacle of the reasonable Soule; it was also necessary that the Sences, which as Hippocrates in his Booke de morbo sacro or of the Falling sicknesse, sayth, are the messengers and interpreters of the Soule, should also haue their residence in the head.  
These outward Sences are fiue as there are fiue simple bodies, the Heauen and the foure Elements. VVherefore according to the Platonists, the Sight answereth in proportion 
How the sences answere the elements.  to the Element of Starres whose obiect is shining. The obiect of the Smel is fiery, and therefore it is sayd that fragrantia are flagrantia. The obiect of the Hearing is ayrie: the obiect of the Taste is watery, and of the Touch earthy. But amongest these the Sight is the principall, which with hearing makes a mannes life much more happy, albeit without the Tast no man can be so well nourished. For those who either by Nature or by Accident are blinde do account themselues therein miserable; for as the Sunne( saith Galen in the tenth 
Galen.  Chapter of his third Booke de vsu partium) in the great world, so is the Eye in the body of a creature; and therefore Hesichius calleth them 〈◇〉 Solis portae, The dores of the Sun; 
Hesychius.  and therefore we will first intreat of the Eyes, as also because amongest all the nerues the Opticke nerues haue the first place.  
The Grecians call the Eye 〈◇〉 quasi 〈◇〉, because it is the couch or bed out of which the Sight shineth. And therefore the Eyes are called by others 〈◇〉, because from 
The names of the Eyes.  them 〈◇〉 that is the light proceedeth. The Latins as Varro and Lactantius call them oculi, ab●culendo vel occultando from hiding, because they are couered and hidden within their Liddes.  
These Eyes are the Organs of the faculty of Seeing, which we vse( sayth Galen in the fift Chapter of his 8. Book de vsu partium) as spies, not only to auoyd those things which wold offend vs, and to leade vs vnto that which is profitable, which vse is common to vs with bruite beasts, but especially that by those things which are visible we may take consideration of the omnipotency of the inuisible God. Hence it is that Plato said wel, that if we wanted our Eyes wee should bee ignorant of that excellent order which Nature hath established 
Their excellency.  in the frame of the world and of our own bodies. Aristotle addeth that the Science or exquisite knowledge of all things is exceeding much furthered by the eyes. And therfore Galen calleth them diuine members: Seeing therefore their necessity is so great it is no wonder that God the Creator made them after so excellent a manner as it were a curious modell to manifest his Maiesty and wisedome.  
They are scituated in the head as in the highest and best defensed place of the body, immediately vnder the forehead as Scoutwatches: for as watchmen are placed in high standings 
Their scituation.  and turrets that they may further of discerne whether any enemies be approching or lye in ambush, so the eyes are set aloft to foresee and giue warning of any danger that may be toward vs. Galen and Auicen haue conceiued that the head was especially made for the vse of the eyes, their reason is, because the optick nerues being very soft, could not safely 
The reason thereof.  be placed farre from them. They are seated in the forepart of the head, whereof Galen in the first chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium rendreth a reason, because saith hee the Instruments of this sense do require soft nerues which could not bee produced from the Cerebellum or After-braine as being much harder then the braine itself.  
Moreouer being placed before, they are directly opposed to their obiects, and we moue forward, neyther can we discerne eyther on the side, or behind vs, vnlesse wee turne our heads about. They are seated within bony cauities which Pollux calleth 〈◇〉 or Orbes, & that for security; haply also because the spirits might be lesse dissipated.  
They are in number two,( as also are the other instruments of the senses) mooued together and at once with the same motion, that the sight might be more perfect; for if 
Their number.  one of them had beene lifted vppe and the other depressed, then euery obiect howsoeuer would haue appeared double: for it was necessary that the axes or diameters that is, the imaginary lines of the pointed obiects should determine in one and the same place: and this ioynt action of the eyes is assisted by the coniūction of the motiue sinewes in their originall as we haue already declared. Obserue further with Aristotle in the 17 Probleme of the 10 Section. That amongst all Creatures a mans eies stand neerest together for his proportion. Their figure in a man is round and sphericall[ table 2, fig. 3, and 4] but in other 
Their figure.  creatures they are not perfectly round, but eyther oblique or depressed,[ tab. 2●fig. 5.] and no maruell seeing the whole figure and fashion of a mans body differs so much from other creatures. But if you consider them together with their muscles which grow to their back-sides, then is their figure turbinated like a sugar-loafe.[ tab. 1, fig. 4, and 9] The reason why they were made round, was partly that they might be more capatious because they were to containe many parts of great vse. Againe, that figure is the strongest and lesse 
The reason thereof.  subiect to offence by outward iniuries. Finally, their roundnes makes their motion more nimble, to which end also they are smooth & slippery that we might command our sight euery way at our pleasure and vpon the suddaine. Wherefore the Maisters of the Opticks say that because of the orbicular or round figure of the eye, the beames from which side soeuer they come are broken at the Perpendicular, that is to say, they arriue directly in the center of the eye. Their magnitude is proportionable to the magnitude of the body and their owne vse. And heere we are to consider two kindes of parts; the one of those 
Their magnitude.  which are disposed about the eyes for their defence: the other, whereof the eye is compounded. For defence Nature hath compassed them with bones which frame their Orbe, and beside these they are walled, aboue with eye browes, before which lids and in eyther place fenced with hayres and the skin. For first of all the brim of the eye-lids stand as a wall of defence with their hayres shot out that no smal motes or other annoyances might 
How they are defended.  fall into the eyes when they are open. Then the lids themselues, that closing together they might shut vp the eye if any greater body or more violent offence should be offered therunto. Furthermore, to defend them from violence, aboue they are secured by the eyebrowes, 
Their parts.  below by the Cheekes, at the great angle with the Nose, at the lesser by the production of the yoke bone, and so if any greater body do rush against the eye, it is receiued by one of these, the eye which is in the middest remaineth vnoffended The motion also of the skin as wel that of the forehead as also that of the cheeks is a great security vnto the eie, for the skin being contract the eye is as it were drawn inward, & the same again extēded openeth thē wide. The orbe of the eye is round,[ ta. 2, li. 7 fi. 6, at Q ta. 12, fi. 8, betwixt X and ●] that therein the eye might be better rowled: long, because of the muscles whereby the eye is mooued, and compassed with a Periostium or thin membrane. It is formed of the bones of the head and of the vpper iaw. But Aquapendens addeth also the spongy bone which we call Ethmoides. The bones of the head which make the orbe of the Eye, are the foreheade 
The bones of it.  bone and the wedge-bone, whence it is that in these dennes of the Eyes there be many sutures and holes to be found. The forehead bone whose outward seat or table is smooth, maketh the vpper Arch of this roofe: and where the tables are ioyned againe, there in the place of the Eye-browes it buncheth outward[ Table 3. lib. 7. figure 8. ARX] and so defendeth the Eye. The wedge-bone is in the backe part of the hollownesse or cauity of the orbe, where it is perforated with foure holes.[ table 3. lib. 7. figure 8. neare DG] The bones of the vpper iaw which help to make the orbe of the Eye are; the first which maketh his outward eminence below.[ table 3. lib. 7. figure 8. Γ] The second and the third[ table 3. lib. 7. figure 8. δθ] are in the inside, very thin bones, because the protuberation or swelling of the nose is also a defence in that place. The fourth bone of the vpper iaw lendeth a part to the framing of this orbe where the cheekes rise vp into a swelling prominence[ table 3. lib. 7. fig. 8. neare i.]  
The sutures or seames in the bones of the iaw are three; one at each angle or corner, 
The Sutures of it.  the third in the lower side of the orbe: the sutures of the spongie bone are two, both at the great angle. Finally, there are other sutures betwixt the wedge-bone and the foreheadbone. And vpon these sutures are the Pericranium, the lower oblique muscle and the pully suspended.  
The holes in the orbe are three and those very large; one in the hindmost part which 
The holes 3.  is round, made for the transmission of the opticke nerue: the second is in the lower part of the cauity of the orbe, and is a long rift through which the nerue which mooueth the eye together with some veines and arteries are deriued vnto the Eyes and their muscles. The third is at the inward angle & perforated into the bones of the nose, through which holes sometimes a part of the teares do yssue.  
In these orbs of the Eye doe arise on either side two sinus or circles, which Aristotle in 
The angles or corners,  his first Booke de Historia Animalium, calleth common parts of the vpper and neather Eyelid, because they are made of both the Liddes extended out in length. These circles the Grecians call 〈◇〉, that is, from a Sence of Itching, because in them oftentimes by reason of the teares or of some other humour we finde a notable itching.  
The Latines call them anguli oculorum, we the corners of the Eyes, wherein the teares & 
Their names.  whatsoeuer yssueth from the Eyes is gathered together. The outward angle or corner toward the Temples is called Canthus minor or externus. The other inward to the nose Canthus maior & internus.[ Table 1. figure 1. and 6. e sheweth the greater corner and d the lesse] Pollux calleth the greater angle 〈◇〉 the waterer, and Hesychius 〈◇〉 or the fountain, because from thence the teares doe yssue.  
But these names I take to be fitter for the orbe itself then for the corner of the Eye, for in each angle in the very extremities or ends of the ridge of the eye-lid both aboue and 
The holes of the eies.  below there are two holes[ Table 1. fig. 4. 7. 8. mn] which in the lesser corner can hardly be perceiued when a man is aliue, but after death they are not at all conspicuous; but in the inward and greater angle these holes are larger and easie to be perceiued if we marke them well especially in women; whence haply it is that they haue teares at command. But in the eye of an Oxe euen after he is dead they may easily be demonstrated[ tab. 1. fig. 4. mn fig. 7. and 8. they are only expressed in the greater corner at n.]  
These holes are called by Fallopius in his obseruations Puncta Lachrymalia, as also by 
Puncta lachrymalia.  Platerus, because thorough them the teares doe distill, especially by the greater, which Nature vseth rather and oftner then the lesse, because the scite thereof is more declining. Although there is a more open way for them through the nose, the bones of the vpper Iaw being notably perforated in the top of the nose, which holes haue certaine passages, which vnder the caruncle are vnited into a common bosome ending in the cauity of the nose, and this cauity is properly called 〈◇〉 that is, the fountaine.  
But this Bone because it is of itself thinne and hollowed, beside by the passage or canale 
The disease called Fistula Lachrymalis.  before spoken of is sometime exulcerated by the Acrimony either of other humours or of the teares; which sayeth the Philosopher in the 35. Probleme of the fift Section, are soft and like vnto sweate: and this kinde of Vlcer is called Fistula Lachrymalis, wherein if you presse the inner corner of the eie, you shal find a Sanious or mattery substance to issue.  
This matter is also oftentimes thinner, of which Hippocrates speaketh in his Booke De Prisca Medicina where he saith, that oftentimes there is a Flux of humors euen to the eie whose acrimony exulcerateth the eye-lids, and the partes vnder them it gnaweth assunder, yea sometimes it eateth thorough the coate that compasseth the Aple of the eye. 
The wisedom of Nature.  That therefore this exulceration might be preuented, Nature hath set at the inner angle a Caruncle or glandulous flesh which the Grecians call 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉, although Aegineta giueth it that name onely when it is growne aboue the due proportion. Galen in the eleuenth chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium, calleth it 〈◇〉, Corpus Carneum, The Fleshy body.[ Tab. 1. fig. 7. 8 r] This Caruncle was made to defend the bone from the sharpenesse of the humors. Moreouer, it serueth for a couering whereby the perforations which we saide before were made through the bone, are as it were stopped 
A Caution for Oculists.  with a sponge, through which the excrements of the eye may soke into the nose, but cānot returne againe to offend the face, or to make vs alwaies weepe. Wherefore, those whom we call Oculists, that is, such as professe and intend the cure of the eies; must take heed that they do not vse such sharp Medicines as may coliquate or dissolue this Caruncle. For we haue often seen that Medicines applied to the eyes haue through these holes past into the nose, and so haue beene cast out either by emunction or by the mouth. But because we are come to make mention of the teares, it shall not be amisse a litle to stand vpon the nature and manner of the auoyding of them.  
Plato, Aristotle, and Theophrastus do thinke the teares are a kinde of sweate, or at least much like thereto. Aquapendens his conceite how agreeable it is to reason let others 
Diuers opinions cōcerning teares.  iudge, sure it is very quaint and witty, his words are these. The Tears are an excrement of the third concoction in the eye, proceeding from the nourishment of the Glassye and Cristaline humors; which excrement is engendred of blood as of his proper matter, yet 
Aquapendens. opinion.  is that blood diuersly altred by the temper of the eye. For from these humors of the eies there is a double excrement separated; one thicke, another thin. The thicke excrement is that blacke slime which cleaueth to the Coats called Vuea and Choroides. Another thin which are the tears to which a whayie or serous humidity may be added. Thus far Aquapendens.  
But Bauhine is of opinion that these teares are the excrements of the Braine, whome 
Bauhines opinion.  happly it will be more safe to follow. Now whereas in euery concoction there is a double excrement separated, one thin another thicke. In this concoction which is celebrated in the Braine, the thicker excrement which is viscid and crasse Flegme is spit out of the mouth from the pallate or else descendeth by the nose. The thinner excrement is partly euaporated insensibly, partly it commeth away verie manifestly, and sometimes mixed also with a more crasse excrement: now it moysteneth the tongue & the mouth to make the speech freeer, and to helpe mastication or chawing of the meate. Sometimes it is transported to the whole face, but especially to the cheekes, to the temples and the eares; which may bee prooued by wounds inflicted vpon those places, which though they seeme to be healed, do yet notwithstanding for two or three moneths together euery day yeeld a great quantity of pure and waterish humour, issuing by the hole that is left in the woūd, which no art is able to consolidate or make vp, which obseruation we confesse we haue from that notable Anatomist & Chirurgion Aquapendens.  
That moisture which is transmitted to the muskles is the matter of the teares, to wit, that whay which together with the blood is transported vnto the braine to bee 〈◇〉. 
The matter of the teares.  The vehicle of the nourishment, that by the helpe thereof the blood might bee able to passe through the smal vessels which are dispersed through the substance of the brain, which whay beeing not fit for nourishment, in the nourishing of the braine is percolated 
The great capacity of the orb of the eie  through his thin substance, as the whay is separated from the milke. This moisture is gathered together in the bony orbe of the eye, which is indeede of so great capacity that the fourth part thereof is not filled by the muskles and nerues of the eye. It remaineth therefore after the manner of other excrements a conuenient time in that cauitie, and is sucked or drunk vp partly by the fat, partly by the Glandules which are of a rare 
The inconuenience of the moisture detained.  and spongy substance. The reason why Nature detained these excrements in the orb of the eie was to moisten the Muscles, which because of their continuall motion were not onely in danger to be ouer-heated, but also to be exiccated and dried vppe; vnlesse they had beene moistened and refrigerated by this matter of the teares which swimmeth in a manner about the fat and Muscles of the eye. And this vse hath the moisture if it bee 
Table 1. Fig. 1. Sheweth the whole eye, not at all dissected, his bones, together with the eye-lids and the hayres thereof.  
Fig. 2. sheweth the eye-lid hauing the skin taken away.  
Fig. 3, & 4. Exhibiteth the muscles of the eye-lids.  
Fig. 5. Sheweth the eye-lids separated and inuerted.  
Fig. 6, 7. Sheweth the figure of the whole eye with his muscles drawne out of the Scull and freed from the eye-lids.  
Fig. 8. The foreside of the globe of the eye.  
TABVLA. I.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
FIG. VI.  
FIG. VII  
FIG. IIX.  

A 1, The forehead bone.  
B 2, The bone of the vpper Iaw.  
C 1, The yoke bone.  
D 1, The Nose.  
E 1, 3, the vpper eye-lid.  
F 1, 3, the lower eye-lid.  
a a 1, the Tarsus or little gristle wherein the haires grow.  
b b 1, the haires of the eye-lid.  
c 1, 6, the greater Canthus or corner of the eye.  
d 1, 6, the lesser Canthus or corner of the eye.  
e 1, 5, 6, 7, 8. the membrane called Adnats which in the 6, 7, and 8, fig. is intertexed or wouen with veines.  
f 7, 8, The Rainebow called Iris.  
g 1, 2, The hollownes of the vpper eye-lid and in the 7 and 8 the apple of the eye.  
h 1, 2, the vnder cauity in the lower eye-lid.  
m n 4. 7, 8, Two holes in the greater angle or corner of the eye.  
o 7. the opticke nerue.  
p q 7, the Pia meninx at p and the thicke at q which do inuest the optick nerue.  
r 7, 8, A Caruncle or little flesh in the interior corner.  
G, The Cartilages or gristles of the eie-lids called Tarsi.  
H H 2, The orbicular or round muscle of the eye-lid without the skin.  
I 2, the hornie coate containing the Rainebow and the apple of the eye.  
K 3, 4, the orbicular muscle of the eye-lid set alone, but in the 4. it is described cōpassing the whole eye-lidde which Vesalius diuided into two.  
L 4, In this place Vesalius set the second.  
M 3, 4, the right muscle of the eye-lid set alone  
N 5, The outward part of the eye-lid.  
O O O 5, the concauous and interior face of the eye-lid.  
P 6, the interior portion of the wedgebone where-through the opticke nerue doth passe. Q Q, 6, A part of the thicke membrane or Meninx. R 6, the concurse or meeting of the opticke nerues. S 6, The mouing nerue of the eye. T 6, the sat betweene the muscles, V 6, 7, 8, A part of the coate called Adnata stretched vnder the eye-lids. X 6, Membranes going from the Scull-skin to the Tarsus or gristle of the eye-lids, Y 7, the muscles of the eye on the one side.   moderate, for if it be immoderate and detained in the eye, it hindereth the motion of the muscles: wherefore Nature being heerein very prouident and wise hath framed and prepared two wayes for the expurgation thereof. One by the corners of the eyes, another by perforations into the bones of the Nose as we saide euen now. For if the teares should perpetually drop out at the eyes they would haue deformed the face, as wee perceiue by those who are troubled with the disease before named caled Fistula lachrymalis or the dropping Fistule,  
Nature therefore studdying to preserue the beauty and comelinesse of the face as also 
The mouing of teares, how many wayes, by expression  the cleerenesse of the sight hath prouided meanes to moue them by expression or by dilatation and attraction. By expression the teares are mooued eyther when we rub our eyes, or by the coldnesse of the ayre, or by the winde, or by some griefe of minde and weeping fit; at which times they drop out like plentifull sweate, or rather like a bubling streame through those holes which we saide before were formed in the terminations of the brims of the eye-lids: for at such times the muscles of the face and of the adiacent parts doe contract themselues sometimes with wayling and mourning sometimes without; sometimes the Respiration being cut off in the middest with a sobbing stay and the voyce broken about the top of the Larynx, yea sometimes quite intercepted: and thus is this matter of the teares moued by Expression.  
By dilatation it is drawne out sometimes by heat, often by laughter, sometimes by the 
2 by dilatation. Hippocrates.  Sunne, for sayeth Hippocrates in his Booke de videndi acie, the Eye being not able to resist a bright obiect, calleth out the matter of the teares to succour it, which also in the conflict is heated. Anger also and a sharpe Ague doe by dilatation prouoke and cal out the matter of the teares.  
And in such an Ague sayth Hippocrates in his first Book Epidemiωn, if other signes be not mortall, teares so appearing doe foreshew a Fluxe of bloud by the nose. That these are the very causes of the profusion of Teares, we may gather out of Aristotle in the 13. Probleme 
Aristotle.  of the fift Section. Aquapendens is of opinion that Nature purgeth the teares by an expulsiue faculty giuen to the Eyes to auoyde offences; for sayeth he, by this meanes, not onely Nature is vnburdned but also the eyes are moystned and so defended from the contaction of cold and heate.  
But not to contend about this matter, it may further be obiected that we oftentimes see at once so great a quantity of teares as cannot possibly be imagined could be contayned in 
Obiection.  the orbe of the eye.  
I answere, that this serous humour followes by consequution, euen as phlegme doeth fall out of the braine. And thus much shall be sufficient to haue beene spoken of Teares 
Solution.  and the manner of their euacution.  
At either angle of the Eies, as also Galen hath obserued in the 11. Chapter of his tenth Booke de vsu partium, are placed certaine glandules or kernels, sometimes two sometimes 
The glādules of the eye.  more: that with their rare and laxe substance they might sucke vp that serous excrement of the braine, by which the outward superficies of the Eye is moystned, and which as wee sayed is the matter of the teares. And this moysture thus gathered in the glandules is at conuenient times euacuated by the corners of the Eye and by the terminations of the brimmes of the lids.  
Fallopius in his obseruations sayth, that there is but one Glandule in each corner, which is found in the vpper part of the Eye neare the vtter angle, the inuention of which he also 
Fallopius.  attributeth to himselfe. Moreouer these glandules do serue as soft pillowes that the Eye 
Their vse,  might not be offended in his motion at the hardnesse of the bone. And in men this is on this manner: But in bruite beastes it is otherwise; which it shall not be amisse to signifie in the fauour of young beginners and Practitioners in Anatomy, who doe often dissect the eyes of Oxen and Sheepe to make them more perfect when they doe come to the eyes of Men.  
In an Oxe Eye therefore is found another glandule in the inner corner, callous and harder then that in a man, which should seeme to be there scituated because of the membrāe 
the same in an Oxe.  with which they wincke, which membrane is most like to that we call the Naile of the eye, very thinne and like the horny coate, or something of the Nature of a gristle. This Nayle or membrane of which Aristotle speaketh in the 12. Chapter of his second Booke de Historia Animalium, is moued with voluntary motion to the outward angle and couereth the eie euen when the lids are open. For about the roote of this callous glandule there cleaueth a 
A membrane in the eye of an Oxe,  strong membrane, whose vse haply is, that while the Skin is drawne to the opposite angle that glandulous body should be streatched or bent like the horne of a bow, and when the skinne is remitted, returne backe and draw it into his proper angle. And truely this membrane is drawne to the opposite angle by a double cord, the one is aboue, the other below lurking vnder the coate of the eye which we call Adnata, and arising from a certaine muscle scituated in the vtter angle, which muscle Fallopius accounteth to bee a part of that muscle which draweth the whole eye outward. And thus much concerning the parts of the orbe of the Eye.   

CHAP. III. Of the Eye-browes and Eye-lids.  
_THe Eye-browes with Aristotle in the ninth Chapter of his first Booke de Historia Animalium we referre vnto the Eyes. They are called in Latine Supercilia 
the eie brows  because they be super cilium, that is, aboue the haires of the Eye-lids. Hippocrates in his Book de locis in homine, as also the rest of the Grecians after him call them 〈◇〉. They are, sayth Rufus, hayrie extremities of the forehead, or haires that grow aboue the eies which are distinguished vnder the forehead on either side. These eie-browes are compounded of skinne, fleshy fibres produced from the muscles of 
Whereof they are compounded. A fit comparison out of Galen.  the forehead, fat and haires. The skin is thick and hard, thick the better to defend the eyes, hard, that the haires might neither be too many, nor grow into too great a length, for euen as saith Galen in a marrish and weeping ground no grasse is brought forth neither yet in a squallid and hot soile, so when the skinne is either too dry or too moyste the haire cannot grow.  
These haires are called by the Physitians as Pollux witnesseth 〈◇〉, & are bred with vs whē we first come into the world, as also are the haires of the eie-lids, whence it was that the Egyptian Priests who vsed to shaue all their haire did notwithstanding suffer these to grow. And although these haires are of an equall length, number and thicknes, yet are they not right but grow crooked and oblique, bowing after the roundnes of the eie, that they might the better auert and turne aside whatsoeuer shall fall toward it. If they had bin too short, too few, or too thinne, they would not so well haue defended the eies. Againe, if they had been too long or too bristly they would haue bin an impediment to the sight. In some men 
Why they grow long in old men.  saith Aristotle when they grow old they encrease vnto such length that they stand in neede to be cut, the reason whereof he rendreth in the 15. Chapter of his 2. Booke de part. animalium; because they are placed in the coniuncton of the bones which in old age are loosed, and so a greater quantity of vapour yssueth from their disiunction. But howe the disposition of the minde may be obserued from these hayres according to Aristotle in the 9. Chapter of his first booke de Historia animalium, and how the antients( as Cicero reporteth in his oration for Roscius, and in the first booke of his Offices) placed a part of the Soule in the eie-browes Bauhine hath well declared in his booke de partibus externis, to whome we refer him that desireth further satisfaction.  
The middle place betwixt the eye-browes which for the most part is without hayres is called by Ruffus and Pollux 〈◇〉, in which place Straton the Philosopher as Plutarch reporteth placed the seat or principall residence of the Soule.  
These Eye-browes although they be drawne vp by the muscles of the forehead; yet in 
How they are moued,  some men( sayth Iulius Placentinus out of whome we haue taken their figure) there are two muscles sound in the occipitium or nowle of the head[ Table 4. fig. 1. C the other in the second figure at aa is retracted aboue the nose like the pannicle inuerted] which leading the skinne of the head backward doe also draw the eye-browes with it, as we shall shew in the fourth Table figu. 2. c, where also wee will exhibit the orbicular muscle which draweth the eye-browes downward.  
Concerning the vse of the Eie-browes, the Philosopher in the 15. Chapter of his second Booke de partibus Animal. sayeth; that as well these as the haires of the eye-lids were created for defēce. The eie-browes are as a penthouse to cast of the humors that fall from aboue: yea saith Galen in the 14. chap. of his 11. booke de vsu part: they are like a wall of defence which receiueth the first brunt of the irruption of any thing that would offend the eies: which vse also Cicero maketh mention of in his 2. booke de Natura Deorum.  
It was not sufficient that the eyes should be walled about with bones, and as it were induded or shut vp in bony dens, and defended by the eye-browes from those things which 
Of the eie-lids,  should fall from the forehead, because their forepart was exposed vnto many dangers. For being by nature made soft and tender for the more facile and easie reception of the species or formes of things outwardly directed vnto them, they must needes by diuers wayes be in danger of offence. Wherefore Nature very prouidently hath fenced them with ligaments 
What creatures want eie-lids.  and lids, wherewith as with leafe-dores not only the eies themselues but their whole orbes are shut vp, and thence it is that those creatures the outward skin or coate of whose eyes is notably hard, as Galen well obserued in his booke de instrumento olfactus, haue no eye-lids at all, because their eies were not so subiect to danger.  
These leafe-gates of the cies are called by the Grecians 〈◇〉 quasi 〈◇〉, that 
The names of the eie-lids,  is, The Coates of the Sight. Thence also they are not vnfitly called by a Poet 〈◇〉, that is, The leaues of the Eye. Cicero calleth them Palpebrae, either because in their sudden and frequent motions, they doe Palpitare that is tremble, or else because they are often subiect to a trembling weaknes, Pliny cals them Genae; Festus Cilia.  
The eie-lids are two in each eie, for it is cut through the middest and diuided into an vpper & a lower, for in both the corners they are manifestly cōtinuated, the vpper[ ta. 1 fi. 1. & 3. ●] in a man is much more moouable then the lower, which by some is thought to bee immoouable of itself and onely mooued by the motion of the cheeks as Archangelus conceiueth. So Galen seemeth to say in the ninth chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium, but more plainely in the tenth Chapter and in his fourth Booke De Locis Affectis, vvith 
Whither the lower lid bee mooueable.  whom also Vesalius consenteth & Lawrentius yeeldeth a reason, for, saith he, what neede was there that the lower eye-lid should bee mooueable seeing by the motion of the vpper downward the eye is closed to his bottome, and by the motion thereof vpward the eie againe is sufficiently opened? But Platerus thinketh that the lower eye-lid is mooued something vpward when we shut our eyes. And with him Bauhine is of opinion that the lower lid is mooued by a Muscle, although his motion be farre more weak and lesse conspicuous then that of the vpper. For if both the eye-lids were made for the vse of the eies then was it necessarie that either the vpper should mooue downward, or the lower vpward, or the one meete the other. Now wee finde by Dissection that in the lower lidde there is a semicircular Muscle as well as in the vpper, and in a creature aliue if we marke the eie well, we shall perceiue the lower lid to mooue though not so manifestlie as the 
The lower lid is onlie moue able in Birds.  vpper; but in Birds( as Aristotle obserued in the 13. chapter of his 2. booke De Partibus Animalium) the lower eie-lid is onely mooued.  
Neither could so sodaine and quick motions come from the vpper lid alone, because the motion downward would haue needed a longer time then was fit for so quicke dispatch, and therefore they sooner meete if they ioyne to assist one another. But the vpper lid in a man and in those creatures in whome the lower is not so swiftly mooued is larger, because it was to bee let downe much further then the lower was to be raised vp. On the contrary in birds the lower lid is larger then the vpper.  
The lower lid[ Tab. 1. fig. 1, 3. F] is much lesse then the vpper, and if it had not beene so little falling vpon itself it would haue beene corrugated, wrinckled or relaxed and 
The lower eie lid why lesse.  haue falne from the eye. And which is more, the eye would haue become bleared, waterish and ill affected. Beside many things might haue gathered therein which woulde haue hardly bene gotten out. Wherefore it was much fitter that this lower lid should be but little and sit close to the eye, that so whatsoeuer getteth within it might bee better pressed out. We therefore resolue according to our sense, that both lids are moued, the vpper downward and the lower vpwarde that they might meete one with another. But because the lower is by much the lesse, therfore is his motion weaker and more obscure, as the motion of the vpper is more euident because it is the larger.  
These eye-lids are compounded of skinne, the fleshie Membrane, a coat, Muscles, their brim, and the haire. Wherefore their substance is partly soft, partly harde. Soft as it is 
Whereof the eie-liddes are compounded.  Membranous and Musculous, hard as it is gristly: for if( saith Galen in the sixte chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium) it had beene onelie fleshie and soft, because they are first exposed to danger, they would haue beene sooner offended then the hornie coate of the eie, yea they would easily haue falne, become rugous and would not so equallie haue beene stretched ouer all the parts of the eie.  
On the contrary, if they had beene hard and bonie, they would not so easilye haue beene mooued, neither could the hornie Membrane or coate haue touched them without danger of offence. 
The reason of their composition   
It was therefore fit that the eie-lid should bee made of such a substance as should both easilie bee mooued and yet not offend the eie by contaction.  
The skinne of the eie-lid is the thinnest almost of the whole bodie altogether without 
The thinnes of their skin & membranes  fat, least thereby their motion should be hindred. Their fleshie Membrane is so thinne that together with their Muscles it is scarse so thicke as the Membrane alone which is vnder the skinne in other parts, so that the orbicular Muscles seeme to bee nothing else then the fleshie Membrane distinguished with small Fleshie Fibres, as Galen saith of it in the ninth chapter of his tenth booke De vsu partium. And by reason of this tenuitie or thinnesse of the Membrane and skinne of the eie-lids. Aristotle saith, that their skinne is without Flesh, and therefore if it bee wounded will not ioyne together againe as it happeneth in the Prepuce or fore-skinne of the yard. 
Aristotle.   
The inner Membrane[ Table 1. figure 5. cc] which is produced from the Pericranium is exceeding thinne and light. Thinner and lighter then the Pericranium itselfe, pollished also that it should not hurt the sight of the eye which moueth immediatly against it. This membrane being produced into a length answerable to the length of the eye-liddes as also into their skin, doth make in the vpper & lower part a round angle, and becommeth duplicated or doubled, to which duplication is ānexed a certaine gristly substance harder then a membrane, which they cal 〈◇〉, we called it before the brim of the eie-lid, & this substance shut teth vp & comprehendeth the duplication before spoken off. The vpper part of this membrane compasseth and as it were subdiuideth the inner superficies of both the lids. The other couereth the exterior roundnesse of the eye aboue the tendons of the muscles as farreas to the Iris, and produceth that coate of the eye which is called Adnata( for to it it is continued)[ table 1. fig. 7. vv] which louingly ioyneth the lid vnto the eye.  
Now the thinnesse and the lightnesse of the membranes was necessary to further the swiftnesse and suddennesse of the motion of the eye-liddes; for if they had beene heauy 
T●●●eason of the thinnes is of the lids.  they could neither haue been moued suddenly nor often, which two things were very necessary: the frequency of the motion to meet with whatsoeuer might affect the eye, the celerity to take away all impediments of the sight. It is no wonder therefore if Nature made the body of the eye-lids very thin, smooth and soft, that so they might be more nimble and prompt to moue at our pleasure.  
The motions of both the eye-lids are vpward and downward, there is also another motion 
The motions of the eie-lids  made by them both together which is circular, wherein both the eye-lids are gathered together. For it was necessary that the eyes should bee opened and shut, for if they had beene alwayes couered with the lid, they could neuer haue receiued the images of their obiects, and if they had alwayes remayned open, neither had they been free from outward iniuries, and beside they would soone haue grown weake by reason of the perpetuall dissipation of their inward light; wherefore it was of necessity they should bee opened and shut. And therefore Aristotle in the 13. Chapter of his 2. Booke de partibus Animalium, writeth 
The necessity thereof.  that this motion is by an instinct of Nature not after the guidance of our will, and that the Eyes by that instinct doe winke at any thing that falleth toward them; but this conceit Galen reprehendeth in the ninth chapter of his tenth Booke de vsu partium, where hee sayeth, There are some Sophisters when they could not finde out either the muscles which moue the Eye-lids or the reason of their motion, they became so impudent as to deny that their 
Galen.  motion depended vppon our will: but affirmed that it was Naturall like the motion of the arteries and of the heart, esteeming it better to teach a lye then to confesse their owne ignorance  
But this motion although it be voluntary yet it is partly free partly constrayned: the 
The motion double or of 2 kinds. Voluntarie.  free motion is for the couering and custody of the eyes, if haply any thing should bee troublesome vnto them, as too strong a light, smoake, dust, a blow or whatsoeuer might happen vnto them from without. That motion we call Constrayned which is stirred vp by a corporiall affection or serueth thereunto, and this motion is exceeding suddain and swift, and 
Constrained.  therefore for the most part we do not marke it; whence it was that Aristotle rather thought 
Aristotle excused.  it Naturall then voluntary; for example; when wee haue long time held our eyes open although there be nothing to offend them, yet we are constrained to close them vp or at lest to wincke, and that oftner and more suddainly in winter then in Summer, when the winde blowes then when the ayre is quiet. It may bee because the eye is not able to endure the touch of the externall ayre, because of the tendons of his muscles, which are of exquisite Sense and exposed almost naked to the aire, hauing nothing vpon them but the thin membrane called adnata; beside it hath beene often obserued that the Chrystaline humour it 
How cold offends the eye.  selfe hath bin condensed or thickned with cold to the great detriment of the sight. Wherfore that the eye might not be hindered at all from seeing, nor from preseruation of itself when neede doth require: the eye-lids were necessarily made with a sudden and swift motion to shut them and open them againe.  
Now these motions are performed by two muscles commonly called the muscles of 
The muscles of the eie-lids  the Eie-lids: but Archangelus calleth them musculi ocularii. Neither do others agree in the number of these muscles, for Galen and the ancients as also Vesalius and Siluius doe make two, diuiding the orbicular muscle of which wee shall speake anon into two, whereof one, say they, lifteth the eie-lid vp the other depresseth it or moueth it downward. But the truth is, there is onely one muscle which shutteth the vpper lid according to Columbus, Fallopius 
Diuers opinions concerning them.  and Archangelus. Platerus, Bauhine and Aquapenaens affirme that that muscle contracteth both the lids. Laurentius indeede maketh this muscle double, and yet hee saith that both of them shutte the vpper lid. Hence it followeth that Galen, Vesalius and Siluius were ignorant of the muscle that openeth the eye, which Fallopius, Platerus, Bauhine, Laurentius & Aquapendens will haue to be but one, but Columbus and Archangelus say there are two, the one of them we acknowledge, but that which they call the second wee say mooueth the eye round.  
The motions therefore of the eye-lids are performed by two muscles, the one right[ tab. 1, M tab. 2, β] of which Galen, Vesalius and Siluius were ignorant; and Fallopius ascribeth the inuention thereof to himselfe. This right muscle which lifteth vp the vpper lid is scituated within the cauity of the bones; in the vpper part of the Orbe, aboue but neare the muscle that lifteth vp the eye itself, to which also it is in figure very like and fleshy, but lesse and hath his originall from the same beginning with the other muscles that moue the eye: to witt backward at the hole of the opticke nerue. This muscle is extended directly to the vpper eye-lid, and is inserted with a broad tendon to the extremity of the lid, which we said was gristly and called Tarsus, and contracting his fibres inward draweth the lid vpward; the lower lid of his owne accord falleth downward into his owne place, and so the eye is opened.  
The second muscle which is semicircular[ tab. 6, fig. 1, C ● tab. 1, H] or orbicular is called by Columbus, Falopius, Platerus and Archangelus the first muscle of the eye lid, but Vesalius and Siluius following Galen haue diuided it into an vpper and a lower part. The vpper part, say they, li●teth the lid vpward, the lower mooueth it downeward. Fallopius in his obseruations confesseth that he was a long time of the same opinion with Galen and Vesalius; but in the yeare 1553, took knowledge of his own error being admonished partly by Oribasius in his booke de dissectione musculorum in what place he epitomiseth the 29 chap. of Galens booke; partly by dissecting the eye of a fish, called Pheca, which we call a Seale, which fish moueth both his eye-lids. Laurentius diuideth it into two, and calleth them the two muscles which shut the lids, whereof one, saith he, ariseth from the inward angle and compasseth the whole course of the hayres. The other ariseth from the same angle and the roote of the Nose, and is inserted into the Tarsus or brimme of the lid. But in the description hereof we will rather follow Bauhine who saith, That this orbicular muscle is seated betwixt the fleshye membrane and that which is produced from the Pericranium or 
Bauhines description of them.  Scull-skin. It is membranous and very thin or slender, yet a little increased by certaine circular and fleshy fibres which it borroweth from the fleshy membrane, and so standeth halfe round in eyther lid. It ariseth with a sharpe beginning at the roote of the Nose in the great and inward angle of the lower lid, where the common suture is betwixt the head & the vpper law, from thence it proceedeth all along the latitude or bredth of the lower lid and is instantly inlarged and returned to the outward angle toward the vpper part of the Orbe, and passing on by the vpper lid is inserted with a sharpe determination into the vpper side of the inner angle, and so maketh an exact circle compassing the outward circumference of both the lids; yet Falopius in his institutions excepteth the inner part at the great angle, from which it is prohibited that it might not be altogether circular.  
The vse of this orbicular muscle is that being drawne toward his originall, it might at one and the same time mooue the vpper eye-lid downeward, and the lower vpward, & 
The vse of the orbicular muscle.  so ioyne them and binde them both together. And that this is so it appeareth as well by the continuity of the fibres in the circumference and in the angle, as also by the motion of the same angle especially if it bee a little more constrayned, so as wee must needes winke some thing withall, for then it is perceiued manifestly both by the sight and by the touch. For nothing can be strictly drawne together and made to touch one another vnlesse some parts be drawne vpward and some downeward.  
This muscle in respect of his fibres which are continuall, is most truely saide to bee one, but in respect of the two lids may be called two semicircular muscles, for being separated 
How it is said to be double.  they make each of them a halfe circle, but being ioyned they make the circle perfect.  
This muscle Galen knew, and in the 9 chapter of his 10 booke de vsu partium writeth that all the motions of the eye-lids are accomplished thereby. Hee diuideth it also into two, whereof one seated at the great angle draweth toward the nose, the other( saith he) is seated at the lesse angle and draweth toward the temples.  
Moreouer in the traction of the first the lid is depressed; in the traction of the latter it is lifted vp, but because the fibres of this muscle are continuall through the whole lid it cannot be diuided.  
Now in the lower lid although it also be moued vpward and downeward, yet is there no Muscle which hath right motion, but onely this forenamed orbicular muscle which draweth it indeed vpward, but rather toward the inner angle or corner, as it wer to his beginning; 
How the lower Lid is moued vpward.  as any man may perceiue by touching that part in himselfe, and yet I know that some thinke this motion proceedeth from the motion of the cheekes.  
We determine therefore and conclude, that the motion of the eye-lids is accomplished by two muscles, one right, which being in the vpper lid eleuateth it, the other orbicular or round and is in both lids, which when it is stretched doth at the same time draw the 
The conclusion cōcerning the Muscles of the eielids  lower lid vpwards and the vpper lid downward, and when there is need of a stronger contraction or closer shutting together, then also the orbicular muscle of the eye-browes( of which we made mention before) is drawne in to be assistant, like as when we would open the eye more staringly the muscles of the forehead doe much helpe vs.  
He that would demonstrate these nice and curious Muscles must haue a very keene and small knife, wherewith he must separate the skin, in the meane time taking care that he doe not cut the Fibres of the Muscle, especially in the angles; then shall he separate the Muscle below at the Tarsus or brimme of the lidde, and aboue in the bottome of the eye-brow.  
Columbus & Archangelus add a third Muscle which proceedeth say they out of the same place with the muscle lifting vp the eyelid, which third muscle is assistant vnto the former, because there is required more helpe to lift a heauie thing vpward then to draw it downeward. But we say that this third muscle of Columbus & Archangelus is indeed the sixt muscle of the eye. 
Of the gristle of the eielids called Tarsus.   
We saide moreouer, that the substance of the eye-lids was cartilaginious or Gristlye, hauing respect vnto their extremities or brimmes into which certaine semi-circular cartilages[ Tab. 1. αα] like the hornes of a halfe-moone, round, small and softe are inserted betwixt the skinne and the small Membrane which compassed the lid. These the Grecians call 〈◇〉, but Plinie and the interpreter of Galen cal them Cilia. Hippocrates in his book 
Their Vses.  DeVidendicaie calleth this Cartilage 〈◇〉.  
Their Vse beside that which wee haue remembred before, is to helpe the motion of the eye-lids; for because they strengthen and firme the thin. Membranes and holde them distended that they are not corrugated or wrinkled in their motion, it becommeth that the shutting and opening of the eye is equall.  
Galen in the ninth chapter of his tenth Booke De vsu partium remembreth another vse of them which is also approoued by Vesalius and Falopius, to wit, that the muscle which is in the vpper lid might haue a more firme and strong insertion. The same vse also it hath in respect of the haires of the eye-lids, which being established in so firme a substance doe remaine right and immooueable which otherwise would haue falne vpon the eyes. And therefore Galen in the seauenth chapter of his tenth booke De vsu partium maketh this the second vse of the Tarsus, wher he also affirmeth that it is perforated with many smal holes which notwithstanding Platerus denieth. 
The haires of the Eie lids. Their names.   
The haires of the eye-lids[ Table. 1. fig. 1 bb] are called by Hippocrates in Coacis 〈◇〉, as also by Aristotle. Pliny calleth them Palpebrae a frequenti palpitatione, because they are often rubbed. The later Anatomists call them Cilia quod oculos celent, beecause they hide the eyes. They are borne with vs into the world, as are also the haires of the eye-browes and disposed in an elegant order, keeping an equall magnitude and number, I say an equal 
proportion.  magnitude: for sayeth Galen in the 14. chapter of his eleauenth Booke de vsu partium, if you add any thing to them, or take any thing from them you corrupt or vitiate their Vse, for if they bee fewer or slenderer there may some-thing fall thorough them to offend the Eye. 
The wisedom of God.   
Againe, if they bee thicker or grosser, they are no more a wall or defence to the eye, but a prison wherein the apple of the eye is hid and obscured, which of all the Instruments of our senses ha leastth neede of such an obstacle, and therefore saith Galen in the place before quoted, our wise Creator hath laide vpon them a lawe of necessity to keepe continually an equall magnitude, because hee sawe it was most fit so to bee for the vse of that member for which they were ordained. 
The maner of their position.   
But wheras( and this is Galens obseruation in the 7. chapter of his 10. book de vsu partium) it was most conuenient that the haires of the eye-browes should couch or fal one vppon another, because they were made to receyue that which fell from the Head before it could come vnto the eye: these haires of the eye-liddes hauing another vse were made to stand straight, because they should better hinder dust, flies, or any such like things from falling in to the eyes.  
Againe, they stand not streight vpward to the browes nor directly downward to the cheekes, neyther do they bend inward to the eye; for if they had stoode streight vpwarde their vse had beene forfeyted for which they were created, and if they had stoode directly downward or beene bent inwarde they would haue beene a great hinderance to the sight 
and reason thereof.  by breaking the continuity of the visible obiects. Notwithstanding as the haires of the vpper lid are bent a little vpward, so are those of the neather lid curued downward, for if they had stood straight out they would haue cast a shaddow vpon the eyes and hindered out looking vpward.  
In like manner there is a conuenient and as it were measured distance betwixt haire and haire: for if they had bin set one far from another many things might haue falne betweene 
Their distāce.  them which now are intercepted, and if they had touched one another they would haue cast too dull a shadow before the sight. All which the wisedome and prouidence of our great Creator hath by this excellent order and position auoyded. These haires doe neuer grow too long, neither do they euer fall, vnlesse it be in extreame diseases of that part, although Aristotle in the 11. chapter of his thirde Booke De Historia Animal. hath a conceite that the vse of Venus, especiallie if it bee to frequent will make them fall.  
Neither do these haires serue onely for ornament as some haue conceyued, but also to direct the visible spirites and the beames which shoote foorth from the inner parts of the 
Their vses.  eye, for if they be falne away or retorted, a man can neyther see so directly forward, nor so farre off.  
Againe, their often twinckling recreates the sight, and breaketh also somewhat the brightnesse of the obiect, as wel as they intercept those things which otherwise would fal into the eye, being placed as a Net to catch any thing that would rush into them.  
These eye-lids also haue veines from the Iugular veines; and Arteries from the soporary 
Their vessels.  or sleepy Arteies, Nerues also from the second coniugation, all which vessels do lead vnto them nourishment, heate and motion.  
That which hangeth ouer the vpper eye-lid[ Tab. 1. Fig. 1. 2. g.] Ruffus the Ephesian calleth 〈◇〉, that is, the hollow: and that which answereth thereto vnder the lower 
The bladders aboue and vnder the eyes.  lid is called 〈◇〉, or vnder the hollow. Tab. 1. fig. 1, 2. h.] And this vseth to swell in the Dropsie, the greene sickenesse, a long fluxe of the Haemorrhodes and of the courses, somtime also when the eyes begin to be bleared.  
It remaineth now that we add a word or two concerning the vse of the eye-lids Although Aristole in the thirteenth Chapter of his second Booke de partibus Animalium 
The vses of the eye-lids. Aristotle.  acknowledgeth no other vse of these eye-lids, but onely to couer the eyes, and intercept those things which would fall into them: and therefore saith that fishes haue no eye lids, because they are alwayes in the water: nor shelly creatures because the Mēbrane of their eye is very hard, and beside they stand deepe in their sockets, yet we haue learned many other vses of them which we will acquaint you with.  
The first and chiefe vse of the eye-lids therefore is, as Varolius well obserueth, to clenfe the hornie Mēbrane from drosse, for the sight requireth an exact puritie in medio diaph●● 
Varolius. The first vse.  that is in his tralucent meane, otherwise we cannot see, especially so distinctly, as appeareth in troubled water and smokie aire: wherefore because the hornie coate by reason of the moisture which sweateth out of the glandule, as also by reason of the contaction of the outward aire is easily obtenebrated or darkned: the eye-lid was made compassed, that at once it might touch the whole eye, and therefore in opening the eye when the lid is lift vp, it sweepeth and as it were polisheth the whole horny coate or Membrane; and this is the reason why when we desire to view a thing curiously we often winke with our eye-lids.  
The second vse of the lids is, that the visible vertue might sometimes be turned from the light, especially in sleepe that a man might take the better rest; and hence it is that in 
The second.  those creatures which want eye-lids, as Locusts, Lobsters, Crabs, & such like insectiles nature hath prouided certaine cauities, whereinto in the time of their repose as into certaine chambers they receiue their whole eies and shoote them out againe when they looke abroade, for shoe hath an especiall care of this, that euery sense should be kept fit to performe his owne action.  
And hence we may imagine the vnnaturall and cruell punishment which the Carthagenians inflicted vpon M. Atikus kegulus, whom in the first Punicke warre they had at vnawares surprized, who being by them sent to Rome( after he had before taken his Oath to returne) did in the Senate-house disswade them from making exchange of captiues, wherefore when he returned they cut off his eye-lids and set him in the sunne vntill the brightnesse of the obiect ouer-came not onely the spirites of his Eyes, but also of his life.  
A third vse of the eye-lids is to recreate the sight, least at one time too great a number 
The third vse  of spirits should be exhausted; for if the eyes should be so long open as wee are awake, they would be wearied, and many things falling vpon their coates would offend them. Againe, if they be not quite shut vp they direct our sight, if we desire to take a true ayme at any thing which is somewhat farre off.  
Finally, they serue to defend the soft eyes from the incursion of outward iniuries, because it is much better sometimes not to see at all, then by offering to see, suffer our eies to be offended. And thus much concerning the circumstances of the Eies. Now we proceede vnto the Eye itself.   

CHAP. IIII. Of the Fat & Muscles of the Eyes.  
_THE parts wherof the Eye consisteth, are fiue Fat, Muscles, Vessels, Coats 
The partes whereof the eie is compounded.  and Humors. The Fat which Anatomists do some of them call Adeps, som of them Pinguedo, is verie plentifull about the eyes[ Tab. 1. Fig. 6. T] especially it is found in those spaces which are betwixt the Muscles and the Nerues. It is also more plentifull at the vpper Muscle, because that is greater and ordained for more frequent & strong motions. In like manner toward the lower side of the Orbe there is plentie of fat, which like a pillowe is laide vnder the Eyes, 
In what places of the eye the fat is foūd  that with their weight they should not presse themselues vpon the bones. Againe, betwixt the Muscles and the globe of the eie there is aboūdant fat, that when the Muscles worke the eie should not suffer compression. Finally, there is also fat found neere the Veines and Arteries, whereby the vessels are smeared ouer and their distention preuented in the motion of the eies.  
The vse of the fat, in as much as it is warme, is to heate the eye which by nature is waterish and cold, and beside to defend it from the coldnesse of the outward aire. And that is 
The vses of the fat.  the reason why we neuer feele any manifest coldnesse or stiffenesse in our eyes. Againe, the humidity of the sat doth moysten the Muscles, that they becōe not exiccated or dried vp in their often motions. The softnesse of the fat keepeth the eyes from being offended by the bones about them. The vnctuosity or oyly fatnesse maketh their motion swift and facile, and beside, when the Muscles are somewhat dried, because of their motion and as it were consumed, it affoordoth Aliment vnto them.  
The Muscles of the Eyes, although they belong to another place, namely to the Booke 
Why the muscles of the eye are described in this place.  of the Muscles, yet because wee are desirous to absolue the History of the Senses in this present Booke wee will take liberty to varry something from our scope and set downe as perfect a description of them heere as we can. And that was the reason why before we were so large in describing the Muscles of the eye browes and eye-liddes, concerning all which we will spare our labour and yours when wee come to the History of the Muscles. Because therefore our eyes were giuen vs as spies and scout-watches that wee might pursue things profitable and eschew that that is hurtfull, Nature made not the eyes immouable, for then they shoulde haue discerned onely that which is opposite vnto them, for so saith Aristotle in his second booke Departibus Animalium and the tenth chapter Gerimnus 
We see by a right line.  per directum, that is, we see by a straight line; not in euery position saith Galen in the eight Chapter of his tenth booke de vsupartium, because oblique, side, backward, higher and lower Obiects do not fall in with the ball of the Eye. Nature therefore hath so disposed the Eyes that they may moue & turn themselues on euery side at their pleasure. But Galen addoth in the place before quoted, that not only the eyes are moued but also the neck and the head are made mooueable for the behoof of the eyes, because there are six positions of place vnto all which the eye ought to mooue; that is to say, vpward downeward, forward backward, on the right hand and on the left.  
It was therfore of necessity that the eyes shuld haue other helps beside their own motion, for the eyes are not mooued forward and backward, partly because there was no absolute necessity, and partly because it was impossible; it was not necessary they should moue forward sayth Aquapendens, because the eye doth not attaine vnto the light but the light vnto the eie, which in a moment enlightneth an infinite space euen vnto the eie, yea insinuateth itself thereinto.  
But the wise Creator hath made amends for the defect of this motion of the eyes by the help of the motion of the head, which out of hād conuerteth itself to see those things which the eie could not by his proper motions perceiue. Moreouer, that wee might see 
As also the motion of the thighes.  whatsoeuer is behind our backe( which could not be done onely by the circumuolutions of the head) Nature hath so prouided that the thighes can carry the body round. In like manner the motion of the eye vpward is assisted by the backeward motion of the head and of the whols spine, which they haue experience of that striue to take view of the pinnacle of a high Steeple: so also the motion of the eye downeward is furthered by that motion of the head and of the necke which is forward.  
Seeing therefore it was necessary that the eyes should bee moued with voluntary motion; and all voluntary motion is made by muscles, therefore our wise Creator hath giuen 
Why their muscles are many.  vnto them diuers muscles whereby their motions are very sudden and expedite. Hence it is that Aristotle in the 8. Probleme of the 7. Section calleth the Eye The most noble part of the body: yet sayth he, the left eie is more nimble then the right. Now whereas the motions of a mans eye are sixe according to Galen in the third Chapter of his first Booke de motu musculorum, it followeth necessarily that the eie must haue sixe muscles; but Galen, Vesalius and the rest of the Anatomists as Columbus sayth being accustomed only to describe the eies of beastes haue added a seauenth muscle, and those sixe also which they haue described they haue misplaced. But we are to describe the muscles of the eye of a man, that seauenth which belongeth to beastes is deuided into two, into three, and sometimes into foure.  
In men therefore as we haue said there are sixe muscles according vnto the sixe motions of a mans eie; foure of which motions are Right, that is to say vpward, downeward, 
Why sixe,  to the right hand and to the left; the two motions remayning are oblique, to which belong two oblique muscles whose vse is to rowle the eie about. Notwithstanding one of these is 
How many mo●●ons the eie hath.  exactly oblique, the other partly right partly oblique. All these muscles are seated on the backeside of the Eye within the cauity of the Scull, whether they accompany the opticke nerue and so remayning in their position, the eie and they together doe make a Pyramidal or turbinated figure.[ Table 1. figu. 6. 7.] Among these muscles the thicker and more corpolent are the Right which haue all the same structure, originall and insertion, and do passe 
The figure of the eie.  straight al along the length of the eie; the oblique muscles are lesse fleshy yet very like one another.  
All these muscles of the eie are small that they might be sooner mooued; but that which helpeth most the volubility of their motion is the round figure, which is the nimblest of all 
Why the muscle▪ 〈…〉  others, as we may perceiue by the roundnes of the heauens.  
The eie therefore being round as are also the muscles thereof, is euen in a moment conueyed 
Why round,  ouer the whole heauen, and the head itselfe is therefore mooued very suddanly and swiftly, because it toucheth vpon the bone whereon it resteth with a narrow point.  
The foure Right muscles meeting and touching one another toward the roote of the nerue optick, doe arise with a sharp beginning frō the lower part of the bony orbe which is 
The right muscles.  made by the wedge bone, hard by the passage through which the nerue of sight or the opticke nerue doth yssue. I know well that Vesalius is of opinion that they arise out of diuers parts and into diuers parts are inserted. Againe for their matter, he conceiueth they arise from a commixture of the Dura mater which compasseth the opticke nerue and a nerue of the second coniugation. Platerus thinkes that they arise from the membrane which compasseth the orbe of the eye, and that membrane which inuesteth the opticke nerue. Aquapendens imagineth they proceed from the Pericranium or Scull-skinne. Laurentius disputeth about their originall on this manner; They erre, saith he, which thinke the muscles of 
Diuers opinions about their original  the eie doe arise from the inner thicke membrane which compasseth the opticke nerue, for this is altogether against sence; they could not sayth hee arise from a membrane nor they ought not. They ought not, because a membrane of an exquisite sence compasseth the nerue, which nerue the muscles in their motions would compresse, and so the sight would be offended. They could not because they are not established vppon a firme foundation. It remayneth therefore, saith Laurentius, that they must arise from the inmost depth of the  

Table 2. Figure 1. sheweth many muscles of the Eye in their owne seate.  
Figure 2. sheweth the Eye rowled vpward whereby their muscles may be perceiued.  
Figure 3. and 4. sheweth the muscles of the Eye, separated before and behind with their nerues.  
Figure 5. Is the Eye of an Oxe, with his muscles seuered as Vesalius doth shew it.  
TABVLA. II.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  

A, The eie lid. B, The Tarsus or gristle where the haires grow.  
C, the muscle lifting vp the eye lid.  
D, 1, 3, 4, the right vpper muscle of the eie in 3, and 4, with the nerue.  
E, 2, 3, 4, the right lower muscle of the eye, in 3 and 4 with the nerue,  
F, 1, 2, 3, 4, the right externall muscle of the eye.  
G 1, 2, 3, 4, the right internall muscle of the eye.  
H, 1, 2, 3, 4, the oblique superior muscle or the pulley, whose tendon is marked with a and the pulley with b.  
I 2, 3, 4, The oblique inferior muscle of the eye.  
K 1, 3, the opticke nerue.  
a 1, 2, The tendon of the oblique superior muscle.  
b 1, 2, the sayd pulley, a small gristle where through the tendon doth passe, & in the 3 and 4 pulled from the bone.  
cccccc 3, 4, the mouing nerues of the eies.  
αβ, 5, the second muscle of the eye-lid lying in the cauity of the eye, whose broad tendon β is inserted into the eie-lid.  
γ 5, the haires of the eie-browes.  
♌ ● 5, two right muscle leading the eie vpward and downward.  
ζ n 5, Two right muscles moouing vnto the right and left side.  
B 1, 5, two oblique muscles lightly turning the eye.  
● 5, the seauenth muscle which may bee deuided into more.  
Λ 5, The Opticke nerue.   orbe or cauity. But we rest vpon Bauhines opinion for their originall.  
Their whole bodies throughout their whole course are fleshy, and their bellies beare out round as they come forward. But they determine a little aboue the middle of the eye 
Their inserrion,  into a broad thinne and membranous tendon wherewith they compasse the whole eye before, and grow very strongly to the horny Tunicle neare vnto the Iris or Raine-bow in the greater circle: and these tendons ioyned together doe make that nameles coate of Columbus and the white of the eie.  
For we conceiue that this whitenesse is caused rather by the tendons of these muscles 
Whence the whitenes of the eie proce●deth.  then that it properly belongeth to the coate which we call Adnata. And so much shal be sufficient to haue spoken in generall of the muscles of the Eie. Now we come to a more particular discription of them one by one.  
The first[ Table 2. figure 1, 3, 4. D fig. 5. ♌] which is the third according to Vessalius, and Galen also in the 8. Chapter of his 10. Booke de vsu partium, is seated aboue; fleshy it is & 
A more particular description of the seueral muscles.  round, thicker also then the rest, greater and stronger then the second, because it lifteth the eie vpward toward the brow. For there is greater strength required to lift a thing vp, then to pull it downe. The names of this muscle commonly giuen by Authours are, Attollens and Superbus, the Lifter and the Proud muscle.  
The second which according to Galen and Vesalius is the fourth[ Table 2. figure 2, 3, 4. E. figure 5. ●] is opposite vnto the former and placed in the Lower part; it draweth the eye downeward to the Cheeks, and therfore needed not be so great as the former, because the eye declineth easily with his owne waight. It is called Deprimens and Humilis; the Depressor and Humble Muscle.  
The third[ Ta. 2. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 G. fig. 5, ζ] according to Galen and Vesalius the first, is seated in the great angle and leadeth the eye inward toward the nose, and is called Adducens and Bibitorius we may call it the Gleeing Muscle.  
The fourth[ Tab. 2. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 F. fig. 5, n] which according to Galen and Vesalius is the second, is opposite to the third, seated on the outside of the eye which it draweth to the lesser angle or to the temples, and is called Abducens and Indignatorius, we may cal it the Scu-muscle or the Muscle of Disdaine.  
If all these foure worke together the eye is drawne inwarde, fixed, established and conteined, which kind of motion Physitians call Motus Tonicus, wee in our Language 
Their Vse.  cal it a Set or wist-looke. Archangelus is more distinct in the assignation of the motions of these Muscles, for( saith he) whē as at diuers times they are moued with any pause betwixt their motion, then the eye is mooued toward the originall of that Muscle which worketh. But when they are mooued at diuers times without any pause, that is, with immediate successiue motions, then they mooue the eye round: but when they all mooue in the same moment then do they set fixe and establish the Eye immooueable, wherein they are holpen by the fift Muscle, whether all foure doe mooue a part or do worke together.  
The fifth[ tab. 2. fig. 2, 3. 4. I fig. 5. ●] which is also according to Galen and Vessalius the fifth, but the sixth according to Fallopius, Platerus, and Laurentius; is seated in the outside at the depth of the cauity and ariseth betweene the eye and the Tendons of the second and fourth Muscles; which is the reason why some haue thought that it taketh his originall from the Eie and is againe inserted into the same. But the very place of his originall is at that cleft which appeareth like a suture or seame of that bone of the lower part of the Orbe which ioyneth the first bone of the iaw with the fourth. Sometimes it ariseth with a fleshy beginning from a bony scarfe. It is slender, round, short and exactly oblique, and passeth obliquely toward the outwarde angle as it were to embrace the eie, and is implanted with a short and round Tendon, degenerating into a thinne and Neruous termination neere vnto the Iris or Rain-bow but obliquely, hard by the insertion of the sixt Muscle, so that sometimes the Tendons of them both, serue one and the same.  
To recite heere the contentions and challenges of Anatomistes about this Muscle would rather entangle our Readers minde then giue him any great satisfaction, especially seeing those learned men to whom so nice disquisitions will not seem tedious, may repaire to those fountaines from whence we haue drawne our by-streame, and therefore we passe on to the vse which is by the contraction of his Fibres to rowle the eie oblique ly downward to the outward angle.  
The sixt[ Tab. 2. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4. H fig. 5 ●] which is the sixt also according to Galen & Vesalius, but the fift according to Falopius, Platerus and Laurentius, is seated on the inside 
His original.  and the vpper part, yet vnder the right Muscles, and is partly right and partly oblique. It ariseth from the same place with that Muscle which draweth the eye directly vnto the inner angle at the side of the Opticke Nerues passage, which is in the verie depth of the Orbe.  
It endeth as well in man as in bruite beastes into a round, small and long Tendone, 
His end or Tendon. [ Tab. 2. fig. 1, 2. ●] almost at the vtmost brimme or edge of the inward angle. This Tendon is reflected through a small gristle hollowed like a Caue and scituated in the greater angle, which Fallopius first of all men called Trochlea or the Pully, & thence proceeding obliquely to the right angle[ Ta. 2, fig. 2, b but in the thirde and fourth figure it is 
His progresse. Falopius his Trochlea or pully. His insertion.  sliuen from the bone] toward the vpper part of the eye, it is inserted betweene the first and the fifth Muscles with an oblique line, all which time the foresaid Tendon is compassed about with a certaine Ligament as it were with a sheath.  
This Muscle being drawne inward toward his originall with his Tendon he turneth the eye in a circular motion to the inward Angle. These two turning Muscles the one vpwarde the other lower are called Circulares & Amatorij, the rowling or glauncing Muscles, some also call the sixt Musculum Trochleae, or the Muscle of the pully.  
The seauenth Muscle which is for the most part found in brute beastes, excepting the Ape and Fishes, is placed[ Tab. 2. fig. 5. x] vnder the former sixe, and hath of itself that figure which the former sixe do together make. It is short and compasseth round about 
The 7. belonging to a beast.  the Opticke nerue,[ Tab. 2. fig. 5. Λ] yet is their some fat betweene them. Proceeding forward it is dilated and embraceth the whole globe of the eye euen to the roote. It maketh also a circle like as the foure first did at the Rainbow make a circle with their chords or Tendons: at his insertion, which is into the hard tunickle of the eye, it becometh fleshy and may be diuided into three or foure; so as Galen in the fourth chapter of his fift booke de dissectione Musculorum maketh a doubt whether it be one Muscle, or double or treble.  
The vse of this Muscle is to tie vppe and strengthen the eyes of brute beasts hanging alwayes downeward, that they should not fall with their own weight. It also incompasseth the nerue Opticke therby making his passage, not only straight but also warranteth it frō distention & frō leaning against the bone in violent concussions or suddain motions. Galen addeth in the booke before named, that in that motion which we called Tonicall or the fixing of the eye; it establisheth the same when we would accurately discerne any small body; for he supposed this Muscle also to be in men.  
But Nature or the God of Nature rather, did not see it needfull for mankinde, because 
Why a man hath not the 7. Muscle.  his countenance is erected vp to heauen, and if at any time hee bee constrained to looke downward, he hath all the foure right Muscles with their ioynt strength to sustaine his eye, because their Fibres grow to the Membrane which compasseth the Orbe.  
Falopius addeth an eight Muscle found in Oxen which draweth that gristly Membrane which Aristotle in the twelft chapter of his second booke de historia Animalum calleth the skin of the angle, with which Membrane brute beasts do blinke when they feare lest any thing should fall into their eyes: vnlesse any man shall thinke this is a part of that Muscle which draweth the eye to the outward angle.  
To finde out these Muscles of the eye, when the Braine is taken away you must cut 
How to make diffection best to find out these Muscles  the Orbe at each corner euen to the Opticke nerue with a saw, hauing a great care lest the Trochlea or pully which is in the inner angle be offended.  
Next you must separate the Pericranium from the bone, and bend the vpper part of the Orbe backeward, then take away the fat and so shall you perceiue the Muscles of the eye lids, and of the eyes themselues together with their vessels; and if you would obserue the proper and peculiar motion of euery Muscle, you must preserue them in their proper positions and tie to euery one of them a thred not farre from the Tendons, then draw the thred and the draught thereof will describe vnto you the vse of the Muscle to which it is tied.  
You may also take the eye whole out of his Orbe together with the Trochlea, which is in the inner angle and so demonstrate what you please. And thus much shall bee sufficient to haue spoken of the Muscles of the eyes. Now we proceede vnto their vessels.   

CHAP. V. Of the vessels of the Eyes.  
_FOr the same reason for which we intreated precisely of the Muscles of the eye in their Historie, we will also handle their vessels more districtly in this place, and passe them ouer more lightly in the booke of Vessels. 
The vessels are hete fully handled. Veines.   
The vessels therefore which are sent vnto the eye are veines and Arteries, to which are added Nerues, as being cōmon Organs no lesse then the other. The Veines which are sent vnto the eye proceed out of the iugular Veines & leade blood for their nourishment.  
The Arteries arise from the Carotides or sleepy Arteries, and are dispersed through the muscles to moderate the inward heate, and to sustaine their life; through which Muscles 
Arteries.  as also through the fat they are accompanyed with Nerues, and distributed through their Membranes, which is shewed in the third Table the second and third figures at h.  
The Nerues are of two sorts, Optici and Motorij, that is, seeing and moouing; they 
Nerues.  proceed out of the marrow of the braine yet remaining within the scull and making the spinall marrow.  
The Opticke Nerue[ tab. 2. fig. 1 and 3. x. fig. 5. Λ. tab. 3. fig. 2. 4. 8. α.] which is called Visorius or the Nerue of sight, is on each side one, and these are amongst all the nerues of 
Opticke.  sense the largest, the thickest, the softest, and Galen also saith the longest in the third chapter of the sixteenth book de vsu partium. They are of a rare texture cōpassed with both the Meninges.[ tab. 3. fig. 2. a b c.] They are the greatest and thickest of all the Synewes, that 
Why the greatest and thickest.  so aboundant faculty might be transported to the eye, that it might sooner haue sense of the light, and be manifold wayes affected.  
They are very soft saith Galen in the fifth chapter of his seuenth book de placitis, that they might be sooner affected because they are nerues of sense and of a sense so very necessary, for all sense is perfected by receiuing and suffering. They are softer then any other, 
Why softer.  because they are affected by the light alone, which they receiue also very much broken. They are the longest of all the rest, because the way is long from their originall to the Orbe of the eye. Their texture is rare and thin, and therefore Herophilus beleeued that they were perforated: and Galen thereupon called the 〈◇〉 and meatus visorios. For in the third chapter of his sixeteenth booke de vsu partium, hee noteth out of Herophilus, 
Galen out of Herophilus.  that they are in their inside perforated all along their passage, and that perforation was the reason why they were made so large.  
By these Galen thinketh not onely that the faculty of sense is transported, but also the Animall spirits in which the faculty is established, that so their sense might be more aboundant and strong: whereas through other Nerues he conceiueth that the vertue or faculty onely is carryed as we may perceiue in the 12. chapter of his tenth booke de vsu 
Where they are distinct. Where vnited.  partium, and in the fifth chapter of his seuenth booke de placitis. These Opticke nerues in their end and in their originall are distinct, but at the middle of their progresse aboue the saddle or seat of the wedge bone, before they fal out of the scul becoming a litle broader, the right is vnited with the left[ tab. 21. lib. 7. fig. 1. oo.] so that they make the forme of the Greekeχ, not by cleauing the one to the other, or by intercussation, or that one rideth ouer the other, but by perfect and absolute vnion and confusion of their marrowes they are so ioyned that one cannot be separated from the other,[ tab. 21. lib. 7. fig. 1. H] for it is a very rare thing in Anatomie to find them separated.  
The vse of this coniunction is, partly that the Pupilla or sight of the eye might look vppon the same plaine least otherwise the visible obiects should appeare double because 
The vses of their coniunction.  the eyes are double: partly that the Idea or formes of visible things might be vnited and so the faculty of sight be common to both sides, because the visible spirit may passe from one eye to another in a moment for the more certainty of the sight: And this is prooued if we presse or inforce one eye vpward or downward, for then all things appeare double: wherfore as it was conuenient that the eyes should be pararels; so also the nerues, which because of the motion of the eyes might decline from the right line, especially seeing the muscles do compasse them and cleaue vnto them: for when one muscle onely whether is be the vpper or the lower is moued, the eye also is rowled to one side. And therefore Nature hath worthily ioyned the Opticke nerues together, that euen in such motions the faculty might be wholly conuaied to either side. And this appeareth to be true because if you put your hand betwixt your eyes along the length of your Nose, so that you cannot see the obiect you intend with both eyes, you shall perceiue that you see more obscurely on either side, then if you lookt vpon the obiect with one eye shut vp, for then the faculty which was before dispersed vnto both, is vnited into one. Adde also this third profit of the coniunction, that the soft nerues hauing a long way to go, might thus be made strong ande stablished, because Nature could not sustaine them with any ties or knots of Membranes. After their coniunction they are instantly disioyned, and each nerue issueth through the proper hole which is framed in the depth of Orbe out of the scull[ Tab. 21. lib. 7. fig. 1. aboue H.] and so the right attaineth to the right, and the left vnto the left eye, and there are implanted.  
In a man they are inserted on the backeside into the center of horny coate[ see the third table fig. 2. 3. 4. 8.] because onely man can look directly forward. In brute beasts as in oxen and horses, whose eyes are much farther a sunder, they attain by a line notably oblique vnto the compasse of the eye and do not determine in the Center. Hence it is that the eyes of brute beasts doe see the earth on either sides to direct their gate and to finde out their nourishment. These Opticke nerus when they are come vnto the eies are dilated saith Galen in the 1. chap. of his 10. book de vsu partium and like a membrane each of them in cōpasse the glassie humor Galen also addeth in the same place that they are inserted into the Cristalline humour. 
The vse of the optick nerues   
The vse of these Opticke nerues is to leade the visible faculty from the braine which in the eies is gathered vnto the visible formes, where the Nerue is dilated into the Membrans of the eie. For if this Nerue be obstructed as it is in that disease which the Arabians call Gutta serena the cleare drop, the action of seeing is altogether taken away or intercepted. 
Gutta serena.  And so much concerning the Optick Nerues.  
The Nerues of Motion are on either side one, which sendeth a small surcle to eache Muscle by which it is mooued[ Tab. 2. fig. 3. 4. sheweth this]( as he may perceiue who diligently 
The Nerues of motion.  shall separate the beginning of the Muscles from the Nerue) which also is spred abroad into the Membranes. These moouing Muscles in their originall are continuall, that is, the right is ioyned with the left, whence it commeth to passe that when one eye 
Where they are continual  is mooued the other also followeth the same motion: for they proceede ioyntly out of one point as it were in the fore-part of the spinall Marrow, so that the same obiect and the same light, after the same manner and at the same time insinuateth itself into either eye, that the sense and discerning might be one and the same; and this maketh much to the perfection of the sense that one and the same thing might not appear double, which doubtlesse would happen if one eye might be mooued vpward and the other downward at the same time. That this is true you may easily learne if with your finger you either 
Demonstrations heereof.  depresse or lift vp one of your eyes, for then all obiects will appeare double, one higher another lower. But if you mooue your eye toward the side, because the pupilla or Sightes are in the same line, the obiects will not seeme double. Wherefore Galen in the thirteenth chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium writeth, that the Diameters of the visible Cones must be placed in one and the same plaine, least that which is one do appeare double.  
Hence it is, that in the palsye and convulsion of the Muscles of the eye the patient often seeth double Obiects, because the eyes do depart from the same plaine. So also when the Opticke Nerues are either conuelled or relaxed the pupilla or Sight not beeing in the same line, all thinges appeare double, which also for the same cause happeneth oftentimes to men when they are drunke.  
From these Instrumentes Veynes, Arteries and Nerues are deriued vnto the eye; aboundance of Spirits Natural, Vitall and Animall, which are properly called visible spirits: 
The spirits of the Eies.  wherfore acording to the plenty of the Spirits conteyned in the eyes, their magnitude as also their splendor or brightnes is greater or lesse. And hence it is that whē men are nere their death their eyes becom litle, languid & obscure, as also those that do too much follow venerial combats haue their eyes smal and extenuated, so also wee see that in liuing men the eyes are full and turgid, but when they are deade they become lesse as also laxe and rugous, for the presence and absence of the spirits maketh a difference betwixt a liuing and a dead eie.  
Againe, according to the diuers disposition of the spirites and of the eyes from them, 
Diuers argumentes to proue there are spirites in them.  we are able by our sight to distinguish and iudge oftentimes of the affections of the mind, which is a cleare argument and euen liable to our sense, that the body of a man is ful of spirits, which thing Galen also in the tenth booke de vsu partium prooueth by an elegant and demonstratiue argument. For( saith he) if vpon the closing of one eye you do attentiuelie marke the pupilla or sight of the other, you shall perceyue it in a verie moment to be dilated, because a greater quantity of spirits do fall into the Grapie coate which we call Vuea, through that coate which is called Reticularis or the Nette, where they dilate the hole of the Vuea, which hole is properly called Pupilla or the sight and Apple of the eye. Finallie, that the eyes are full of spirites is hence conuinced, because they are sometimes obscure, dull and languid or weake, sometimes bright or shining, quicke and apprehensiue. But least these spirites which are of an admirable finenesse and subtiltye might exhale or euaporate they are kept in and retained by a thick, thight and strong Membrane which is called the Horny coate.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Membranes of the Eyes.  
HAuing declared the Muscles & the vessels of the eies & now remoued them away, the eye itself round like a bowl appeareth[ Ta. 2. fig. 3 & 4. Ta. 1. fi. 2 & 3] which may be compared to the world & an egge, both for the figure & construction. To an Egge which consisteth of Membranes, the shel which is an indurated Membrane & a thin Membrane 
The eie compared to an Egge.  vnder it, & humors, the white & the yolke: So the globe of the eye hath membranes & humors. Membranes that being of a watery nature it might better be conteined in his positiō and the humors by them encompassed, which membranes had need to haue a more solid substance; beside they are a great furtherance to the sight: Humours onely for the sight.  
Concerning the number of the Membranes the authors are at great difference. Hippocrates 
The Membranes of the eie.  in his Booke De Locis in Homine acknowledgeth but three, the vppermost thick, the middlemost thinner, and the third thinnest of all which conteineth the humors; but in his booke De Carn. he saith they are manie. The later Grecians reckon four, Siluius fiue Vesalius sixe, Galen in the seuenth chapter of his tenth book De vsu part. seuen; vnto whō Fuchsius & Aquapendens do consent. We wil diuide them into two kinds, some are common to the whole eie, some are proper to the humors; the common Membranes are the 
Their number verie diuerse according to authors,  Cornea and the Vuea the horny and the grapie coates. The proper Membranes are the Cristaline and the glassye. But whereas there are commonly reckoned seauen, Adnata, Cornea, Dura, Vuea, Choroides, Aranea, and Retina, whereto some haue added those which are called Vitrea and Innominata, we wil runne thorough them al after our Anatomical order.  
The first is called Adnata which is the seauenth according to Galen in the second chapter 
First Adnata.  of his tenth booke De vsu partium, so called as it were Nata circa oculum, bred about the eye. Galen cals it 〈◇〉, because it cleaueth on the outside of the other mēbranes of the eye, whereupon it is also called Adherens or the cleauing Membrane. This is the vtmost. Aquapendens supposeth that it ariseth from the Periostium & tendons or chords of the Muscles. It first offereth itselfe before Dissection together with the transparant part of the horny Membrane lying vpon the white thereof.  
The Periostium is alwayes next vnto the bone, vnlesse it be wher it produceth the cyclid, for hauing therto attained it maketh an angle & so is doubled, one part of which duplication compasseth the lid of the eye, the other part[ Ta. 1. fig. 6, 7, 8, V] maketh this Adnata or adhering Membrane, which becomming thinner in the fore-part only where the 
Whence commeth the white of the eie.  white of the eye appeareth, couereth the same and determineth or endeth in the greater circle of the Iris or Rain-bow, where it is continued with the hornie Membrane.[ Tab. 1. fig. 7, 8. V. and Tab. 3. fig. 1 d]  
It is said to be white from the colour, although saith Aquapendens it be not indeed white but onely appeareth so, because the Tendons of the Muscles lying vnder it do represent a kind of whitenesse. But Hippocrates in Coacis calleth it 〈◇〉, the white of the eye. It is a smooth Membrane, and by the interposition thereof the eye is fastned to the orb and to the inner bones, and it serueth instead of a Ligament to all the bones about the 
Coniunctiua.  eye. Hence it is called commonly Coniunctiua a Coniungendo, because it ioyneth together all the Membranes of the eye, thereby making it firmer and stronger, or rather because at the Iris or Raynbow it is ioyned to the rest of the Membranes.  
In like manner it tieth the eie to eie-liddes and to the head, and in a worde it defendeth 
The vse of the Adnata.  the eie from the hardnesse of the bones. it ioyneth it with the bones, the liddes, and the rest of the coats, whereby it is so established that in violent motions it doth not fall out of his orbe, but is freely mooued; and besides it couereth the Muscles which mooue the eie and keepeth them in their proper seates but because it hath rather the vse of a Ligament then of a Membrane, we thinke it approacheth nearer to the nature of a Ligament.  
This coate or Membrane or Ligament whither you list to cal it, is sprinkled with manie smal Veines[ Tab. 1. fig. 6. 7. 8. V] and Arteries, which commonly when the eie is in perfect health do not appeare. Sometimes they grow verie red and being ful of bloode they strut therewith and so become more conspicuous as in the inflammation of the eie. 
The vessels of this coate.  For as Hippocrates hath it, sometime this white groweth red or blackish, or is ful of black Veines; this Membrane or coat it is which communicateth to the eie the sense of Touching, because neyther without nor within it hath any sense at al, and therefore the pain which proceedeth from the eye-liddes molesteth the Eye onely by reason of this Membrane.  
The second Coate of the Eye is called Innominata by some, as if it had bene but newly found out, whereas Galen knew it wel enough, and in the second chapter of his Tenth 
The 2. Coate Innominata.  booke De vsu partium reckons it for the sixte Membrane. It ariseth from the Neruous Tendons or Chords of the Muscles and determineth neere the Iris vnder the Adnata or Coniunctiue Membrane: and these Tendons do encrease the whitenesse of the eye, because they haue a bright Candor or whitenesse. But being nothing lesse then the Chords 
Table 3. Figure 1. sheweth the Membranes and humors of the eye by lines drawne after the manner of a true eye.  
Figure 2. Sheweth the horny coate with a portion of the Optick Nerue.  
Figure 3. sheweth the same diuided by a transuerse section.  
Figure 4. sheweth the Vuea or Grapy coate with a portion of the Opticke Nerue.  
Figure 5. The Grapie coate of a man.  
Figure 6. The Horny, Grapie, and the Choroides.  
Figure 7. The interior superficies of the Grapie coate.  
Figure 8. The Posterior part of the horny coate together with the saide Net separated from the Eye.  
Fig. 9. The coat of the vitreous or glassy humor cald Hyaloides.  
Figure 10. Three humors ioyned together.  
Figure 11. The forward part of the Cristalline.  
Figure 12. The Cristalline humor couered yet with his Coate.  
Figure 13. The Cristalline bared on the sides.  
Figure 14. The Cristalline of a man.  
Figure 15. His Coate.  
Fig. 16. The watery, disposed vpon the Cristaline round about.  
Fig. 17. The hairy processes beaminglie sprinkled through the foreside of the coate of the glassy humor.  
Figure 18. The foreside of the glassy humour.  
Figure 19. The place of the watery humour.  
Figu. 20. The glassy humour conteining or comprehending the Cristalline.  
TABVLA. III.  
FIG. 1.  
II.  
III.  
IV.  
V.  
VI.  
VII.  
VIII.  
IX.  
X.  
XI.  
XII.  
XIII.  
XIV.  
XVII.  
XIIX.  
XIX.  
XX.  

The explication of the first Figure by itself.  
a. The Cristalline humour.  
b. The Glassy humour.  
c. The watery humour.  
d. The vtmost coate called Adnata.  
e. the dark part of the horny Tunicle which is not transparant.  
f, the Grapy coate called Vuea.  
g, the Net-like coate called Retiformis.  
h. the coat of the glassy humor cald Hyaloides.  
i, the coate of the Cristalline.  
kk, the hairy processes cald Processus-ciliares  
l, the impression of the Grapy coate where it departeth from the thick coate.  
m, the horny coate, a part of the thick coate  
nn, the fat betwixt the Muscles,  
o, the Optick Nerue,  
p, the Dura Meninx.  
q, the Pia Mater or thin Meninx.  
rr, The Muscles, The explication of the other 19. figures togither  
a, 2, 4, 8. The Optick Nerue,  
b, 2, 4. The thin Meninx clothing the nerue  
c, 2, 3. the thick meninx clothing the Nerue.  
d 8, the posterior part of the horny Coate.  
e 8, the coate called Ret na gathered together on an heapt.  
f, 2, 3, the Raynbow of the eye.  
g, 2, 3, the lesser circle of the eie or the pupilla  
h, 2, 3. Vessels dispersed through the Dura Meninx.  
i, 3, 6. the Grapy coat, but i in the 3. Figure sheweth how the vessels doe ioyne the hard membrane with the Grapie coate.  
k, 6. the horny or hard membran turnd ouer  
ll, 3, 4. Certaine fibres & strings of vessels, wherby the grapy coat is tied to the horny.  
mm, 4, 5. the impression of the Grapie coate where it recedeth or departeth from the horny coate.  
nn, 4, 5, 6, 7, the pupilla or Apple of the eye.  
oo, 7, The Ciliar or hairy processes.  
p, 7. The beginning of the grapy coat made of a thin membrane dilated, but p in the 17. figure sheweth the Ciliar processes sprinckled through the fore-part of the glassy humour.  
r 9, the bosom or depression of the glassye humor receiuing the Cristaline.  
s, 12, 15, the bredth of the coat of the cristaline  
t, 12. 13, 14, 16, the posterior part of the cristaline humor which is spherical or round.  
u, 11, 14, 20, the fore-part of the same Cristalline depressed.  
x, 10, 20, the amplitude of the glassy humor  
y, 10, 16. 19, the amplit. of the watry humor  
z, 10, the place where the glassy humour is distinguished from the watry by the interposition of the Hyaloides or coate of the glassy humor.  
α, 10, 16, the place where the gropie Coate swimmeth in the watrie humour.  
β, 18, The Cauity or depression of the glassy humor which remaineth in the Cristalline is exempted or taken from it.  
♌, 19. The cauity or depressiō of the watry humor made by the same meanes.   of the muscles, it cannot bee properly called a membrane but a part of the muscles, which together with them must needs be demonstrated, notwithstanding if any man list to stand vpon it and call it a membrane we will not gainsay him.  
The vse of it is, that by the interposition thereof the muscles might bee more fitly inserted 
The vse of it,  into the horny membrane[ tab. 2. fig. 5. sheweth the same.  
The third coate of the eie is called Cornea, which is the first according to Hippocrates, and 
The 3, coate Cornea.  may well be called the thicke and hard coate both in respect of his substance and of his originall, because it is produced from the hard Meninxe or the Dura mater which inuesteth the opticke nerue. And here we may take knowledge of the admirable wisedome of our Creator, who( as Galen hath excellently obserued in the 2. Chapter of his tenth Booke de vsu partium) whereas in no other place hee hath separated the Meninges from any Nerue which are produced with them, but hath led them along with the nerue that they might be nourished & couered; only in this place after the nerue is inserted into the eie, hath separated both the thicke and the thinne from the nerue itself; yea made them thicker and harder then they were when they encompassed the braine. For when this membrane is implanted into the backpart of the eye[ Table 3. figure 3. c] it is dilated and maketh an orbicular 
How it is spred ouer the eie.  or round membrane[ Table 3. figu. 2 and 3. exhibite it] which compasseth the whole eie, although it bee not in euery place alike, neither haue one and the same name; for the forepart is translucid but the backepart is not so; wherfore some immitating the Arabians of this membrane how made two. For because the sight did stand in need of transparencie, this membrane, when it hath attayned vnto the middle of the forepart of the eie iustagainst the Cristaline humor, it is so condensed that it degenerateth into a horny substance, which forepart[ Table 3. fig. 1. cm] is called 〈◇〉 Cornicularis that is Horny, because in the middle as farre as the extent of the Rainebowe it is like a thinne and pollished home of a Lanthorn, not only in transparencie by which meanes it receiueth the light, but also in 
Why it is compared to a horne of a Lanthorne. Fallopius his opinion.  his substance, because it may be sliuen or deuided into diuers flawes. And that was the reason why Fallopius in his obseruations could not perswade himselfe that it was a part of the hard membrane because, saith he, it differeth from the Dura meninx of the braine, not onely in substance but also in thicknes and in figure. For by itself alone it maketh another spherical cauity arising beyond the superficies of the hard membrane, and both within and without is free from any connexion.  
This horny membrane is round, circular, hard, fast, thin, streatched, transparant, bright, 
The forme & disposition thereof. Why round & circular,  pollished and smooth. Round and circular in a man( for in Oxen it is of an ouall figure) bunching or bearing out in the middle of the eye: not onely that it might bee freer from being offended: but especially that the eie might discerne things greater then itself; that is, that it might receiue the Ideas or formes of great obiects and those whole & vnbroken, as also that the light which entreth in might be better vnited and contracted, and so attaine through the Pupilla or Apple vnto the Chrystaline humour. That this benefit commeth by the roundnesse and prominence of this membrane may be demonstrated by a Looking glasse, for if we desire to see our faces in a long fragment of a Looking glasse we cannot see them whole, because the figure is playne, and in a plain figure the perpendicular beames of the light are not vnited: whereas in a round figure they concutre and meete together into a poynt: for Galen sayth in the twelfth Chapter of his 10. Booke de vsu partium, that Vision or Sight is made by a Pyramis, and therefore let the glasse bee neuer so small, yet if it bee round wee may see our whole face therein: hence it appeareth that if this part had any figure sauing a circular, the images or formes of great obiects could not bee admitted into the eie at all.  
It is hard and in some Fishes sayth Aquapendens exactly carrieth the hardnesse and rigidity 
Why hard.  of a horne itself. This hardnes secureth not only the membrane but also the Christaline humour from outward iniuries: beside that, it resisteth any light occurrent violence.  
Fast and thight it is, not onely for resistance, but also for the better conseruation of the 
Why fast.  watery and glassie humours that they sweat not out, and that the thinne spirites might not penetrate through it and so exhale. VVherefore in a liuing creature because of the aboundance of spirites, it is notably streatched and shineth very cleare especially in the forepart. But when the creature is dead and the spirits extinguished, it falleth presently and growes loose and corrugated.  
Hence it followeth that sight cannot be by an emission or eiaculation of spirites out of the eies, because the tention or streatching of a liuing eie proceedeth from no other cause but from the aboundance of spirits concluded and contayned within this membrane. And although it be the first and next part of the eie which is exposed to all iniuries of cold, heat and whatsoeuer else might fall vppon or bruise the eye; yet by the wisedome of Nature it is defended by the lids, by the haires, by the bones and by the skinne. Moreouer it is not a simple or single membrane but made as it were of many shels or scales, vpon which sayth Ruffus in the first Chapter of his first book, there is a cuticle or curtaine spread which is far thinner then the rest of the scales, that if haply one of them should be gnawne asunder, the rest might suffice to contayne and defend the Chrystaline humour. Auicen maketh it foursould.  
It is very thinne, for, sayth Galen in the third Chapter of his tenth book de vsu partium, if it had been thicke it might indeede haue beene a defence vnto the eie, but it would haue 
Why thin.  cast a perpetuall darke shadow vpon it, and would haue hindered the passage of the light; whereas now being thinne it transmitteth any light or brightnes freely and without delay so that the chrystaline humour may discern the true purtraitures and representations of all visible obiects; wherefore also it is transparant, cleare and bright because it should be more fit for the transmission of illumination, for so we see that the thinner a horne is the better doth the light extend itself through it.  
It is also streatched, for if it had beene corrugated or wrinkled and so vnequall, it must 
Why stretched.  needes haue lost his roundnes, smoothnes and transparancie; and so the sight would haue beene much hindered. An experience whereof wee haue in old men in whome this membrane is sometimes so rugous and loose, that either they can see nothing at al or very confusedly, for, sayth Aquapendens, when one plight or fold falleth vpon another and the coat thereupon is duplicated, the membrane becomes thicker & the Apple contracteth itself because it is not distended by a sufficent afluence of spirits.  
It is transparant that it might giue way to all visible formes and representations, and also admit the light which beateth vpon it. But we must consider that this transparancie or 
Why transparant.  lucidity of the membrane differeth much from the lucidity of the aire, that so there might insue a refraction or breaking of the light. But howe the light passeth vnto the eye and how it is refracted, because it belongeth rather to the opticke Art then to Anatomy; him that listeth to be further satisfied therein, we wil send vnto the writers of the Opticks, such as are Vitellius and Alharen. Aquapendens also the Anatomist hath elegantly written of these things of the eie: but we proceed.  
This membrane is pollished and smooth that in it the formes of thinges might better 
Why polished and smooth.  shine and more fitly be receiued, and images represented to the chrystaline humour most like to the outward obiectes. For if it had beene rough and full of eminencies and cauities, the light would not haue equally attained vnto it; for where cauities are there doe the representations passe through more easily and brighter; where there is any eminencie ther doe they passe through with more difficulty, and beside are very obscure. Moreouer such an asperity or roughnesse would haue beene troublesome to the eie-lid, as wee see it hapneth when any small substance falleth betwixt the eye and the lid. But being fast, hard & thinne, it could not receiue any veines into it, neither yet arteries nor nerues: neither if it could had it beene behoofefull, for they would haue hindred the sight, & although it might haue defended the chrystaline humour from outward offences, yet it would haue been ofsensiue to the sight with his hardnesse: and finally it would haue abated the visible faculty communicated vnto the eies from aboue, and haue dimmed or dulled their brightnes. For 
That much light is an enimy to the sight.  that the eyes are offended with a bright and vehement light, euery man hath sufficient experience in himselfe. Beside, we read in histories that Zenophons souldiours were almost blinded by trauelling through the snow. And Dionisius that Tyrant of Cicilia aboue his prison built a very lightsome and bright chamber which he whitened ouer with lime, & when 
Dyonisius his cruelty.  he had a long time detained his prisoners in a darke dungeon, hee suddenly brought them into this light and bright place, where they instantly became blinde because their eies were not able to beare so sudden a change.  
In like manner those that doe labour of the ophthalmia or inflamation of the eye are 
The greater light extinguisheth the lesse.  offended with the light: but duskish or greene colours they are able to behold without offence.  
Hence it is that if in a bright light a man would looke on any thing that is a far off, he will hould his handes or some other thing ouer his browes to shadow his eies that they be not dazled. So also it hath bene obserued, that those that haue fixed their eyes vpon the Sunne to behold the Eclipses of the same, haue vtterly lost their sight. And this commeth to passe, euen as we see a torch or candle lighted and set in a bright Sun is instantly extinguished: In like maner if you light a candle and set it by a great flame, the candle will presently go out, because the lesse light is ouercome and dissipated by the greater.  
After the same manner in the eye, not onely the spendor of the Cristalline humour, but with it also the brightnesse of the glassie humour is dissipated: wherefore the wise and prouident Creator, saith Galen in the third chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium, hath interposed the coat called Choroides, which in many parts is black and duskish, and in oxen green; which coate nourisheth the horny coate that is next vnto it where they touch one 
The wisedom of our Creator acknowledged by Galen.  another, and hindereth it also from falling vpon the Cristalline humour, although that inconuenience is in part preuented by the roundnesse and prominence of the saide horny coate.  
Moreouer, the blacke colour of the Choroides in men, and the green colour in Oxen, is a medicinable curtaine or shadow for the ill affected eye; and this is the reason that euery man by a naturall instinct, when he is offended with the brightnesse of the light, will suddenly close his eye-lids, making haste thereby vnto the remedy which Nature hath prepared, euen within the eye. And this may be further exemplified by the custome of Painters, who when they paint vpon white tables would soone haue their eyes offended if they did not prepare against it, wherefore they place at their elbowes greene and duskish colours, vpon which euer and anon they turne their sight, whereby their eyes are recreated and refreshed.  
The posteror or backeward part of this coate which couereth the back part of the 
The backepart of the horny coate.  eye and the forepart also vnto the circle,[ Tab. 1. fig. 7. 8. f] is hard, thicke, darke, or obscure; differing as much from the colour or clearenesse of the horny membrane, as the white of an Egge when it is boyled differeth from the same white when it is raw. It is hard and thicke by reason of his originall, although it neither imitate the exterior coate of the nerue in thinnesse, nor the dura meninx or thicke membrane of the braine from which that ariseth in thickenesse; as being fourefold thicker then it, for when it formeth the coate of 
Why it is so thicke.  the eye it is thickened and hardned, for it was requisite it should be very hard and very thicke for more strength, because it maketh the whole globe and cauity of the eye wherein the humours are contained; for this membrane it is which fashioneth the figure of the eye into a globous roundnesse, and in that figure conserueth it: it is also made whole, for this coate aboue compasseth the whole eye so that nothing can issue therout.  
Add hereto that it receiueth the insertions of all the muscles & sustaineth their weight, as also the weight of the fat and is a Basis or foundation of the veines and arteries[ Tab. 3 fig. 3. h h.] which neare the nerue behinde the glassie humour attaine vnto this membrane and afterward run forward till they be distributed through the coate called Choroides. By the mediation of these vessels, as also by smalties, as it were by ligaments this membrane cleaueth so fast to the Choroides, that they hang one vpon another.[ Tab. 3. fig. 3. h i.] The profit of which connexion is, lest this coate alone should be mooued when the other parts of the eye are at rest, as we see a cloth wrapped about a smooth bowle will easily slippe, though the bowle be not moued.  
This membrane is also thicke and darke or obscure, that the species or formes of things which are receiued might shine more brightly, as we see in a looking glasse if it be 
Why it is thicke and darke.  leaded on the backe side we my easily see our faces therein, but not so if the lead be remoued. This part is white, and neither in nature nor in colour like vnto the forepart, and therefore some of the late writers as Fuchsius and Aquapendens haue distinguished it from 
Fuschius. Aquapendens.  the forpart, and say, that the limits and edges therof are continuated with the horny membrane. It is scituated vnder the Coniunctiue and Tendons of the muscles, and is generated out of the dura meninx which compasseth the Optick nerue, for with it it is continuall, as may be perceiued if you separate the coate of the nerue with a sharpe knife through his length whilest you come vnto this membrane. It is called by some 〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉 the hard membrane, Ruffus calleth it candida or the white membrane, although commonly 
Ruffus. The vse of this third membrane.  that name be giuen to the Adnata or Coniunctiue coate.  
By the helpe of this membrane is the eye established, as also the next membrane vnto it defended, which is sufficient indeed to defend that which is vnder it, but not to defend itself: this also is it which containeth the humors according to their due disposition; and whereby the Cristalline humour itself is preserued from the cold and heate of the Ambient aire.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Grapie Membrane, the Apple, Rainebow and the Ciliar Ligament.  
_THe fourth coate or Membrane of the eye is called by the Greekes 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉; in Latin Vuea or the Grapie Membrane, because the colour of it is 
The 4. coate of the eye.  like the peele of a Grape stone or kernell, or it is like the kernell itself which is on the outside smooth, but within sharpe and rough; in like manner this Membrane on the out side which is next the horny Membrane is smoth but on the inside which is next the Cristalline it is rough or rather vnequal because of the 
The reason of the name. His scituatiō.  scurles of veins and arteries which reach out of the hornie Membrane into it.[ Tab. 3. fig. 3 and 4. ll.] Again it resembleth the Grape kernell in the colour which is blacke, or rather because it containeth a whitish humour such as issueth from the grape when the stalke is pulled off.  
This Membrane is scituated betwixt the Cornea and Retina vppon which it lieth onely on the backeside, but forward it is betwixt the Cornea and Aranea and containeth the waterie humour of the eye.[ Tab. 3. fig. 1. c.] It is tyed backeward to the Opticke nerue, and the coate called Retina: to the hornie membrane it adhereth by certaine surcles of veines and arteries[ Tab. 3. fig. 3.] and to the ranibow by Fibrous ties which are not very strong. Before it is euery way free and loose, that it might be contracted and dilated.  
The figure of it is not exactly Globous as the former, because it doth not compasse the 
His figure.  whole eye, but in the forepart[ Tab. 3. fig. 4. m n. fig. 7. at n.] it is a litle pressed inward, where also it is perforated with a round hole.  
The originall of this coate Galen saith in the second chapter of his tenth booke de 
His originall.  vsu partium is frō the Pia mater;[ Tab. 3. fig. 1. f. fig. 4. and 5.] for when the Pia mater or thin Membrane hath inuested the Opticke nerue,[ Tab. 3. fig. 2. b.] it is presently dilated vnder the Cornea to make this Membrane: wherefore it creepeth forward and compasseth the whole eye, excepting the forepart where at the greater circle or rainebow of the eye, it is continued with the Cornea, & being reflected backeward is duplicated and in the mid perforated, which perforation is called Foramen vueae. the hole of the grapy membrane and by a proper name Pupilla which we may interpret the Apple of the eie. Notwithstanding it is farre thicker then the Pia mater, especially in the forepart where it is double as thicke as it is behind. Againe, it differeth from the Pia mater in colour, for the coate of the Nerue which it receiueth from the Pia mater is white, but this is blacke on both sides.  
Moreouer, because it proceedeth from the Pia mater or thin membrane, it is called 
Why it is called Choroides.  also 〈◇〉 especially, because through it there are many vessels disseminated, & because like the Chorion of the wombe it gathereth those many vessels and tieth them together; and this in oxen is easie to be discerned, for in them the vessels do run through the length of the eye in a conuenient distance one from another, from which vessels certaine threddy filaments or small strings do as it were weaue together this membrane like as it is in the Pia mater of the braine. From this membrane also the foresaid strings and threedy vessels are produced into that coate which wee call Retina as may easily bee perceiued when this Grapy membrane is separated therefrom.  
This Grapy coate therefore is full of veines, soft, black, and perforated.  
Full of Veines, that it might nourish the horny membrane: soft that it might not hurt 
His vessels. Why it is soft  the Crystaline humor, and beside might readily moue when the Pupilla or Apple moueth, which it would not so readily haue done if it had beene rigid or stiffe.  
It is blacke or rather duskish, the better to gather the brightnes of the Idea together, and to transmit it through the perforation. 
Why blacke.   
Finally, it is perforated iust against the Crystaline humour, that so the Images of visible 
Why perforated.  things passing through the horny membrane and waterish humour might at length ariue at the christaline. And although it be moyst and soft and neare neighbour to the chrystaline, yet is it not offensiue thereto; albeit on the outside it be something thicke or rather fast wrought: for as it was fit that this membrane should not offend the chrystaline humor, so likewise was it as fit that itself should not be offended by the horny membrane; betwixt the transparant part whereof and the chrystaline humour it is seated, and yet it toucheth neither of them.  
Furthermore, that the chrystaline humour might not bee offended or touched by the horny coate insinuating itself through this hole or perforation, by which the externall brightnes attayneth vnto, and is mingled with the internall; Nature hath set that part of the horny membrane outward, and beside hath disposed about the Chrystaline a thin and cleare humor like the white of an egge; and lastly hath filled the whole perforation with an ayery and bright spirit. And that this place hath such a thinne moysture and is ful of splrits is hence manifest, because in liuing creatures the cye is streatched & fulfilled on euery side, no part of the horny membrane remayning loose or corrugated.  
But if you looke into the eye of a dead man before you come to dissect it, you shal find it rugous, and when you haue cut the horny membrane presently a thinne humour wil offer 
What is contained betwixt the grapy membrane and the christaline humor.  itself( which also in compunctions of the eye doth vsually yssue from the wound) and so the whole eye will become rugous, contracted and loose. Againe, if you distend and streatch the coates when they are separated from the chrystaline humour, it will appeare that there is a great distance betwixt them emptie, which while the creature was aliue was vndoubtedly filled vp with spirits or humour or both  
The like also may be demonstrated in a liuing eye, for if one eye be shut the Pupilla or Apple of the other will bee dilated, inlarged and distended as a bladder that is blowne vp; what then should distend or inlarge this Pupilla or perforation, sayth Galen, but onely a spirit? And this indeed is his argument whereby he proueth that there is an Animall spirit. For, sayth he, this amplification or inlargement hapneth because al the spirits doe assemble 
The spirits of the eie.  themselues vnto the eye which is open, whereas when they are both open the spirits are equally diuided betwixt them. Galen also prooueth the same thing by dissection; for if you blow vp the grapy membrane on the backside you shall perceiue that the Pupilla or perforation will bee inlarged. VVherefore it followeth necessarily that all that space which is before the christaline humour is filled with spirits and a thinne humour. The thinne humour sheddeth itself in all the other parts but in the very Pupilla or perforation the spirits are gathered together.  
This Pupilla, is called 〈◇〉 by Hippocrates in his Booke de Carnibus; by Galen in the fourth 
The Pupilla or Apple of the eie.  Chapter of his tenth Booke de vsu partium 〈◇〉[ Table 3. figure 4. 5. 6. 7. n] In Latin Pupilla, oculi fenestra, the window of the eye, nigrū oculi & foramen oculi, we vse to call it in our language the Apple of the eye.  
It is a hole or perforation of the grapy membrane and is otherwise called the lesse circle of the eye( as the greater circle is called the Rainebow)[ Tab 3. figure 2. 3. g] because it appeareth in the center of the eye like a blacke poynt. Blacke( I say) as well because of the deepe scituation, as also because the coates which compasse it about are of a darke colour. This hole or perforation is not onely lesse then the compasse of the horne, but also there is some distance betwixt them, least otherwise the ingresse of visible images through the horne might be interrupted; wherefore when the grapy membrane commeth to the translucent part of the horny membrane, it is no more round but reflected backeward and inclineth toward the christaline humour, leauing a hole in the middest which is called Pupilla, as Varolius hath elegantly deliuered.  
This Pupilla or Apple of the eye is in man and some other creatures as Dogges very round: in many bruite beastes, as Oxen, Sheepe and Goates it is longer then round, of an 
The figure of it.  Ouall figure or like a circle compressed in the middest, which compression is dilated or contracted according to the motion, either proceeding from the Animall spirite, or from the light: so that the figure thereof is sometimes round, sometimes long, sometimes wide, sometimes very narrow, as in a Cat whose Pupilla is like a narrow and long cleft; Aquapendens sayeth, that in a Pike it is of the figure of a cone.  
The dilatation and contraction of this Pupilla or Apple of the eye, Galen ascribeth to the Animall spirits, but Aquapendens thinks that the hole of the vuea or grapy membrane, 
How the Pupilla is contracted & dilated. Galen. Aquapendens. ( which is al one with the Pupilla) is dilated or constringed acording to the strēgth or weaknesse of the light that beateth vpon it. For in a stronger light it is contracted the better to defend the chrystaline humour, which is oftentimes offended by a strong light. In a lesser or weaker light it is dilated to helpe the sight to discerne of many visible thinges, which otherwise would not appeare;( And therefore those that complaine of the weaknes of the eyes and sight must haue them viewed rather in an obscure and darke, then in a Lucide or bright place) and so it commeth to passe that a strong light doth not offend the eyes, because it is admitted to the chrystaline humour in a lesse quantity; nor a weake proue insufficient because it is receyued in a greater quantitie.  
That the motion of the Pupilla is not from the Animall spirite as from the efficient cause he prooueth, because a strong light attenuateth the spirits, diffuseth them, and so should consequently enlarge the Pupilla. On the contrary, a weake light doth dull & diminish 
Obiections against Aquapendens  the spirits and so the pupilla should be straitened, whereas, common experience teacheth vs the quite contrary: wherefore saith Aquapendens I conceiue that the dilatation and contraction of the Apple of the eye proceedeth from a proper faculty of the the Grapy coat, which Faculty notwithstanding is stirred vp by the external light which entreth into the eye, and yet we see that in Suffusions and Catarracts the pupilla is dilated and constringed when a strong light cannot offend such eyes because it hath no free passage, the Catarract or clowd being interposed betwixt the light and the sight: howbeit euen in such Suffusions if one eye bee shut the pupilla of the other is dilated, which can be from no other cause but onely from the spirits.  
The vse of this perforation or pupilla is to transmit the visible images to the Cristaline 
The vse of the Pupilla.  humour: for( saith Galen in the fourth chapter of his tenth booke De vsupartium,) vnlesse the Grapy coate had heere bene perforated all the parts of the eye had bin created in vaine, because the Cristalline humor hath no communion with his objects but onely by this perforation of the grapy Membrane, and therefore according as this apple of the eye is dilated or contracted, so do we see better or worse. And hence it was that Galen in the second Chapter of his first booke de symptomatum Causis hath well obserued that the dilatation of this Apple of the eye, whether it be an original fault in Nature or happen after by accident, is alwayes a great weakner of the sight. On the contrarie, the 
A narrow apple is the best sight. And why  coarctation or straightning of the pupills if it be naturall is the cause of the quickenesse and vigour of this sense, for when it is notably dilated the animall spirit which floweth into the eye cannot fill the whole space which is before the Cristalline humor; whereas on the contrary when the pupilla is contracted or gathered together the space is sooner fulfilled.  
Add heereto that for the perfection of sight it is very necessary that the visible species or Formes should flow vnto the eye by a right line and so passe vnto the Center of the Cristaline with a pointed angle; for so they make the better impression, and therefore the perforation or the pupilla is very narrow that the lines produced from the Circumference thereof as from a basis might touch the center of the Cristalline in an acute angle; for if the pupilla be so dilated that the lines produced from the circumference thereof do make a right or obtuse angle in the center of the Cristalline then is the sight not onely offended but abolished.  
Hence it appeareth that the naturall latitude or straightnesse of the pupilla maketh much for the strength or weakenesse of the sight, especially if the distance betwixte the visible obiect and the organ of the sense be proportionable. But to return vnto the grapie Membrane, of which this apple of the eye is but a perforation.  
This Membrance according to the difference of the parts thereof hath diuerse colours, for on the outside where it toucheth the horny Coate it is blacke; on the inside where it respecteth the watery and Cristalline humours it is black or duskisn. But where 
Diuers colors of the Grapie Membrane.  it maketh the greater circle which we call the Rain-bow( according to the diuers temper of the Braine and the eyes saith Laurentius) it is sometimes greenish, sometimes sky coloured, sometimes blacke. Finally, the backward part of this Membrane where it first ariseth from the Pia mater is whitish, presently it groweth greenish, then nearer vnto a blewe, all which colours may be best discerned in the eye of an oxe. This black colour 
What profite the eie hath by his blacke colour. ( as Galen in the third chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium, where hee speaketh of a sky colour because he described the eie of an Oxe) is very worthy of admiration, because there is no such colour found else-where in the whole body. And although in some eies it is lesse or more blacke then in others, yet in all it is eyther blacke or browne, that the cristalline humour being therewith couered might better collect and gather his brightnesse together. For as a small light in an obscure and darke place is better perceiued & shines brighter then in an open and light place, and maketh those thinges which are about it better to be perceyued; so the brightnes that is encluded within the eye becoms more bright, and the visible species do better appeare in the cristalline humour, because the inner circumference of the whole eye is inuested with this obscute and darke Membrane, by whose shadow the cristalline is compassed; so that his brightnesse returning backe from the blacknesse and obscurity of the membrane is vnited better into himselfe. 
How the colour of the infide differeth from the colour of the out side.  And so( as Aquapendens hath well obserued) that light which is but weake, or but moderately strong doth better appeare in the Christalline then that which is much stronger, as whereby the inbred light of the humour itself is ouercome.  
Againe, we say that the darkenesse of the colour of this membrane maketh much to the collection and refection of the spirits. For when the Cristalline is too much affected by a vehement light, then we close our eyes and the spirits turning themselues vpon those darke colours are refreshed, as before hath bene shewed in our Historie of the horny membrane. Wherefore also about the pupilla it is thicker, because it should cast a greater shadow vpon the Cristalline in that place where the light hath his accesse, for on the backeside it is compassed with the thicke and fast horny coate. And for this cause betwixt the horny membrane and the Cristalline humour this coate is blacke. But this blackenesse on the inside of the coate where it respecteth the humours, seemeth to bee bred with the coate itself, but on the outside where it respecteth the horny membrane, I conceiue it is but accidentary because it wold colour a mans finger that toucheth it, and may easily be washed of so that the membrane will remaine white; but the colour on the inside will not die or taint the finger, for if it were so those bright bodies which it respecteth and compasseth would be foyled by that blackenesse, and so loose their purity.  
Some are of opinion that this blacknesse is the thick excrement which is separated in the nourishment of the Cristalline humour, as also that the watery humor is the thin excrement of the same. Now as this blackenesse is perpetuall in all creatures on the outside of this coate; so on the inside, especially where it respecteth the glassie humour, the membrane is sometime browne, sometime purple or skie coloured( whence it was that Galen in the fourth chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium, called it a skie coloured coate) and sometimes greene as in oxen; but where it is perforated on the foreside and respecteth the shining or transparent part of the horny Membrane it is not in man of one and the same colour; yet so that it is alwayes of that colour which we see in the Rainbow of the eye, according wherto we say a man hath blacke or browne, or skie coloured, or a Goates eye, which saith the Phylosopher is an argument of a good disposition: so that the same Aristotle in the fifth booke de genaratione Animalium and the first chapter 
A mans eye is of diuers colours.  hath well obserued that among all creatures onely man hath eyes of diuers colours, for other creatures all of the same kind haue eyes alike, excepting horses, who somtimes haue wayle eyes.  
The Rainebow called in Greeke and Latine Iris, hath his name from the similitude of the Rainebow which appeareth in the clouds, because this greater circle of the eye 
The Rainbow of the eye. ] Tab. 1. fig. 7. 8. f. Tab. 3. fig. 2. 3. f.] is distinguished with diuers colours which shine through the horny Membrane. Galen in the second chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium, saith, that in this Rainebow there are seuen circles one within another, all differing 
A nicite in diffection.  in thickenesse and colour, which proceed from the Membranes. But how nice a peece of businesses it were in dissection to offer to shew all these circles distinctly without confusion, surely so hard a matter it were to accomplish as vaine whenit were performed. Some haue called this Iris 〈◇〉 a Crowne.  
There are many opinions of the causes of so great variety of colours in this circle of the 
Diuers opinions of the cause of the Rainbow.  eye, and if you will giue me leaue I will acquaint you with what other men haue conceiued, and then deliuer that opinion which I follow myself.  
First of all therefore Aristotle in the first chapter of his fifth booke de generatione animalium maketh mention of Empedocles his conceit, who compoundeth the eye of fire and water. The skie coloured eye saith he, is when the fire beareth the sway, and the blacke eye when the water exceedeth the fire. 
Empedocles. Aristotle.   
Aristotle in the place before quoted refers the variety of the colours to the plenty or scarsity of humours, and maketh demonstration of his opinion by the example of aire and water: for, saith he, if you looke vpon a deepe water, or a thicke aire they will seeme black and obscure. But if there be but a little of either, then will their colour appeare blewish & bright, This conceit of Aristotles, Columbus reprehendeth, but gratis; for he addeth no reason against him.  
Thirdly, Galen in Arte medicinali is of opinion that the plenty of splendor and scituation 
Galen.  the chrystaline and watery humors is the cause of this variety of colours. The eye saith he becommeth skye-coloured, either because of the plentie or splendour of the Chrystaline humour or by reason of his prominent scituation, whereto hee addeth the paucity and purity of the watery humour. The eye is blacke when the Chrystaline is little or scituated somewhat too deepe, or because it is not exquisitely bright, or because the watery humour is somewhat more plentifull and yet not pure. Vesalius reprehendeth Aristotle and Galen in these words, which indeed are but bare words. This colour, sayeth he, ariseth not from the plenty, defect or tenuity of the humours of the eye, neither yet from the collection or dilatation of the Apple, and finally not from the depth of the eye or the tenuity thereof.  
Fourthly Auicen referres the cause vnto the colour of the grapy coate, which as it is diuersly 
Auicen.  depainted so it bringeth forth in the eye diuers colours: if it be sky-coloured the eye is also sky-coloured, if blacke the eye is blacke. And him doth Vesalius follow.  
Fiftly, Auerhoes imagines that the whitenesse of the eye proceeded from cold, and the 
Auerhoes.  blacknes from heat.  
The sixt opinion is that of Varolius, who sayth, that the cause of the colour is to bee referred 
Varolius.  to the vnequall plenty of the spirit and of the watery humor, which as it falleth in diuers parts of that place so it representeth diuers colours. The colour sayth he which resulteth from the grapy membrane receding or giuing backe from the horny, is wont to be called the Rayne-bow from a certaine appearing variety: hee calleth it an appearing variety, because in very trueth there is not in that place any true diuersity of colours but only in apparition, because the horny membrane standeth vnequally aboue the grapy, and so an vnequall quantity of spirits and humour fall between them.  
The seauenth opinion is that of Archangelus, who writeth that the diuers colours in the 
Archangelus.  Raine-bow are caused by the inequality of the veines which are in the grapy coate( which veines are also communicated to the coate called Aranea or the cob-web) contayning in them blood diuersly prepared according to the variety of the partes that are to bee nourished, which are much vnlike other parts of the body. Hee imagineth also that the grapye membrane is not of one colour in men, that their eies being wearied might bee recreated, especially by greene, of which there is most in the world; and hence it is that we doe often shutte our eyes, that so the spirites that are spent or wearied may bee restored and refreshed.  
The eight opinion is that of Laurentius, who referreth the cause to the watery and chrystaline 
Laurentius which is also the truth. 〈…〉  humours, to the variegation or diuers colours of the grapy coate and to the spirits, which opinion also we will follow as seeming most reasonable. For the cause of the sky-coloured eye in respect of the chrystaline humour is the plenty thereof, the splendor and the 
The causes of the skie-coloured eie.  prominent scituation; in respect of the watery humour the splendour and the paucity, for when the watery humour is but little it doth lesse hinder the fulgent brightnes of the christaline.  
The blacke eye hath quite contrary causes, to wit the paucity of the Cristalline humor his impurity and deepe scituation, as also the impurity and plentie of the watery humour. 
The causes of the black eie.   
The colours betwixt these depend vpon intermediate causes.  
In respect of the grapy Membrane, the colours of the eye do differ, as when it is simply variegated or diuersly streyked then is the eye also of diuers colours, because in that place the Grapy membrane is diuersly discoulered.  
In respect of the spirits the colours of the Rainebow differ, for thinne, pure, bright and plentifull spirits make it skie-coloured, on the contrary crasse, impure, cloudy and few spirits may be the cause of this blacknesse.  
The vse of this variety of colour in the Rainebow some referre vnto beauty, or happely 
The vse of the colours of the Raine-bow.  by reason of this diuersity of colours the diuers colours of externall things are there better expressed and offered to the Cristalline humour. But in those creatures whicht see in the night, the Iris is only a bright place which if it happen in a man, as Suetonius reporteth of Tiberius Caesar, he also wil see in the night.  
Finally this grapy membrane some of the new writers, as Fucshius and Aquapendens imitating the Arabians haue deuided into two partes, the forepart they call vuea, and the backpart Choroides.  
From the circumference of the grapy coate[ Table 3. fig. 17.] doe directly proceed certaine small filaments or strings like black lines, which resemble the haires of the eye-lids. These strings reach vnto the margent or brimme of the chrystaline humour, and although they be placed in the cob-web yet they compasse the chrystaline humour round about. By the mediation of these hairy threds the grapy Membrane is ioyned to the circumference of the Membrane which immediately inuesteth the Cristalline humor[ Tab. 3. fig. 7. OO] and so the cristalline humor itself is tyed to the neighbour partes: wherefore because it doth the office not of a Membrane but of a Ligament or Tie; Follopius for the forme calleth 
Fallopius.  it Ligamentum Ciliare or the hairy Ligament, others call it Interstitium Ciliare, beecause it disseuereth the watry humour from the glassy.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Cobweb or Membrane of the Cristalline humor. Of the Membrane which compasseth the glassy humor, and that coat called Retina, or The Net.  
_THE Membrane which immediately compasseth the Cristalline humour is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, Aranei-formis, that is the Cobweb, most properly is it called Cristalloides from the humour whose proper coate it is, yea 
The Cobweb or coat of the cristalline humor.  the verie superficies of the same. Some call it the Looking-glasse, beecause it is bright and translucid. Some thinke it hath his originall from the Pia Mater, and of that opinion is Columbus. Others from the coate called Retina or the net as Aquapendens, but Archangelus conceiueth that it is made of the Opticke-Nerue dilated and drawne out into a wonderfull thinnesse. But wee are of opinion saith Bauhine, that it is engendred in the first conformation, together with the Cristaline humor which 
Diuers opinions of his Originall.  is framed of the purest and brightest portion of the seed. It is a Membrane most thinne( so saith Hippocrates in his Booke de Locis in homine) very fast, most light, white, bright and shining beyond measure, the better to admit the light and to be changed thereby,( for onely this Membrane dooth indeede receiue and apprehend the affections of the light) and least if it had bene thicke it should haue hindred the sight.  
The substance of it is much like the inward skinne of an Onion or rather like a spiders Cobweb, for the finenesse I meane, and not for the density or fastnesse thereof. This Membrane couereth the cristalline humor both on the foreside and the backside immediately 
The substance of it.  compassing and establishing the same. Although I know that Galen in the sixte chapter of his tenth booke De vsu partium writeth, that it inuesteth this humour onelie there where it toucheth the grapie Membrane, with whom Archangelus also agreeth. But that the whole cristalline humor might be more fit for sensation, it was necessary that it should be compassed round with this Membrane, which notwithstanding we acknowledge to bee thicker, faster and stronger on the fore-side. For because wee see before vs therefore the faculty and power of this sense ought there to bee more vigorous, 
Why ●●●cker before.  because in that place the light is more stronglye vnited by the roundnesse of the Cristalline and the refraction of the watery humors. And therefore Ruffus calleth it Visio & Pupilla, the sight or Apple of the eye. And because in this as it were in a glasse the Essigies or Image of the Pupilla doth consist, therfore Galen in the place next before quoated, calleth it the Idoll or Image of the sight. On the contrary the backpart of it is looser, thinner and more rare.  
If this Membrane be taken away, the figure of the Cristalline humor is destroyed; for 
The vse of it.  whereas before it was smooth, equall and polished; nowe it falleth assunder and becommeth vnequall not being able to stand togither when the bande which conteyned it is remooued. In a word, the cristalline humor receyueth from this Membrane not onelie his sensatiue power, nor the forme and figure of his substance, but also his efficacy and virtue. Veynes it hath none, but seemeth to be nourished by the Ciliar Ligament.  
The coate of the glassy humor is called 〈◇〉, which Columbus & Archangelus haue 
The coate of the glassy humor.  confounded with the cobweb before described. But the trueth is, that their substaunce is different, for this is thinner then the former and encircleth the glassy humor round about least it should either be diffluent or confounded with the watery humour. Other Anatomists haue altogether pretermitted the mention thereof, because they think that both humors are involued by the Cobweb Membrane. In the middest of this coate doth the Ciliar or hairy Ligament appeare.  
The last Membrane or coate of the eye is called Retina or Reti-formis,[ Tab. 3. fig. 8] in Greeke 〈◇〉, because it resembleth a little round casting Net. This Membrane 
The Net.  ariseth from a part of the Braine descending thorough the Opticke Nerue, or if you vvill, from the marrow of the Nerue itself as soone as the Nerue attaineth to the eye, and so hangeth at the very roote of the Nerue, from thence it passeth on to the middle of the eie eye, and within the cauity of the grapy membrane vpon which it immediatly lieth, but is not tied thereto. It is inlarged and like a net or caule compasseth the glassy humour, but without any connexion at all, Aquapendens saith, it is inserted into the vtmost circle of the Cristalline humour, and that by the meanes hereof the Cristalline swimmeth in the midst 
The substance thereof.  of the glassy humour as a peece of wood swimmeth in the water. It is soft, reddish, of a mucous substance, not solid and crasse as is the substance of the braine.  
Wherefore, neither in substance nor in colour is it like a Membrane, and therefore Galen in the second chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium saith, it neither deserueth the name of a membrane nor of a coate, for if you separate it from both the humours and lay it vpon a heape by itself,[ Tab. 3. fig. 8. l.] it will seeme to you to be a part of the brain dilated, and therefore Galen calleth it the net like body; Vessalius saith it can haue no fitter 
The vessels thereof.  name then the name of a coate, albeit Columbus and Platerus are not of his opinion. Veins and Arteries it hath very many and conspicuous; and indeed more( though they be small) 
The prouidence of nature.  then seeme conuenient for the proportion thereof: for all nerues being inuested with a portion of the Pia mater wherein veines and arteries doe run, this also receiueth a veine & an arterie diuersly branched, wherby Nature hath prouided and prepared aliment not onely for the Nerue, but also for the humours of the eye. In these vessels therefore is blood contained, not thicke not f●culent but thin and fluide, whereby the glassie and Cristalline humours might bee nourished, which because they are pure bodyes do also stand in need of pure blood.  
It is also darke and corpulent not translucent, that it might not bee affected or changed by the light.  
The first and greatest vse of this Net-like coate is, saith Galen in the second chapter of tenth booke de vsu partium, that when the Cristalline is altered, it might apprehend the 
The vses of it  Sensation; or rather to leade along the faculty of sensation to the Cristalline humour, because as we said euen now, it ariseth from the substance of the nerue.  
Another vse of it is, that the visiue spirits might bee diffused through the Cristalline humour and the whole eye; to perceiue the alterations of the Cristalline and to transport the images of visible things to the braine as to a iudge.  
Finally, whereas it intercedeth betweene the Grapy membrane and the glassy humor it keepeth the pure substance of the glassy humor from being defiled with the blackenesse of the Grapy membrane. And so much concerning the membranes or coates of the eye. Now we proceed vnto the humours.   

CHAP. IX. Of the humours of the Eye,  
_THe humors which are the most noble parts of the eye are contained within their coates, and are three; differing each from other in figure and consistence; 
The three humors of the eye.  yet all bright and perspicuous, distinct in their seates, filling the cauities of the eye, and helping the action of the sight. These three humors are called the Watery, the Cristalline, and the Glassy, amongst which the Cristalline excelleth in dignity and vse and therefore is called the soule, the center and an inner Spectacle of the eye.  
The watery humour[ Tab 3. fig. 10. and 16. y, and 19.] is called in respect of the other 
The watery humor.  humor tenuis the thin humour, and by some Aqueus, because it is fluide like water and also transparent. And hence haply it was that Aristotle maintained against Plato that the eye was not fiery but watery. It is also called humor Albugineus, because the colour and substance thereof is much like the white of an egge. This is the vtmost of all the humours 
What place it hath in the eye.  filling the whole space which is betwixt the foreside of the cristalline, the grapy membran which is there duplicated, and the horny membrane; sauing that it is accompanied with an aiery and bright spirit.  
It is disposed on each side the apple of the eye, stable and not moueable, because it hath in it a kinde of Lentor or sliminesse. It is but litle( wherein Vessalius was deceiued) filling 
Where cataracts are.  scarse the tenth part of the circumference of the eye. In this humour are those Suffusions made which they commonly call Cataracts.  
The vse of it is very notable, as we shall heare afterward, which hath mooued vs to doubt whether it be a part generated of the seede as the other humors of the eye are, or an excrement segregated or separated in the nourishment of the cristalline humour as Galen hath written in his booke de Anatomia viuorum in the chapter of the eyes, and after him 
Table 3. Figure 1. sheweth the Membranes and humors of the eye by lines drawne after the manner of a true eye.  
Figure 2. Sheweth the horny coate with a portion of the Optick Nerue.  
Figure 3. sheweth the same diuided by a transuerse section.  
Figure 4. sheweth the Vuea or Grapy coate with a portion of the Opticke Nerue.  
Figure 5. The Grapie coate of a man.  
Figure 6. The Horny, Grapie, and the Choroides.  
Figure 7. The interior superficies of the Grapie coate.  
Figure 8. The Posterior part of the horny coate together with the saide Net separated from the Eye.  
Fig. 9. The coat of the vitreous or glassy humor cald Hyaloides.  
Figure 10. Three humors ioyned together.  
Figure 11. The forward part of the Cristalline.  
Figure. 12. The Cristalline humor couered yet with his Coate.  
Figure 13. The Cristalline bared on the sides.  
Figure 14. The Cristalline of a man.  
Figure 15. His Coate.  
Fig. 16. The watery, disposed vpon the Cristaline round about.  
Fig. 17. The hairy processes beaminglie sprinkled through the foreside of the coate of the glassy humor.  
Figure 18. The foreside of the glassy humour.  
Figure 19. The place of the watery humour.  
Figu. 20. The glassy humour conteining or comprehending the Cristalline.  
TABVLA. III.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III.  
V.  
IV.  
VI.  
VIII.  
VII.  
X.  
IX.  
XIIX.  
XVII.  
XIX.  
XX.  
XI.  
XII.  
XIV.  
XIII.  

The explication of the first Figure by itselfe.  
a. The Cristalline humour.  
b. The Glassy humour.  
c. The watery humour.  
d. The vtmost coate called Adnata,  
e. the dark part of the horny Tunicle which is not transparant.  
f, the Grapy coate called Vuea.  
g, the Net-like coate called Retiformis.  
h. the coat of the glassy humor cald Hyaloides.  
i, the coate of the Cristalline.  
kk, the hairy processes cald Processus ciliares  
l, the impression of the Grapy coate where it departeth from the thick coate.  
m, the horny coate, a part of the thick coate  
nn, the fat betwixt the Muscles,  
o, the Optick Nerue,  
p, the Dura Meninx.  
q, the Pia Mater or thin Meninx.  
rr, The Muscles,  
The explication of the other 19. figures togither  
a, 2, 4, 8. The Optick Nerue,  
b, 2, 4. The thin Meninx clothing the nerue  
c, 2, 3. the thick meninx clothing the Nerue.  
d 8, the posterior part of the horny Coate.  
e 8, the coate called Retina gathered together on an heape.  
f, 2, 3, the Raynbow of the eye.  
g, 2, 3, the lesser circle of the eie or the pupilla  
h, 2, 3. Vessels dispersed through the Dura Meninx.  
i, 3, 6. the Grapy coat, but i in the 3. Figure sheweth how the vessels doe ioyne the hard membrane with the Grapie coate.  
k, 6. the horny or hard membran turnd ouer  
ll, 3, 4. Certaine fibres & strings of vessels, wherby the grapy coat is tied to the horny.  
mm, 4, 5. the impression of the Grapie coate where it recedeth or departeth from the horny coate.  
nn, 4, 5, 6, 7, the pupilla or Apple of the eye.  
oo, 7, The Ciliar or hairy processes.  
p, 7. The beginning of the grapy coat made of a thin membrane dilated, but p in the 17. figure sheweth the Ciliar processes sprinckled through the fore-part of the glassy humour.  
r 9, the bosom or depression of the glassye humor receiuing the Cristaline.  
s, 12, 15, the bredth of the coat of the cristaline  
t, 12. 13, 14, 16, the posterior part of the cristaline humor which is spherical or round.  
u, 11, 14, 20, the fore-part of the same Cristalline depressed,  
x, 10, 20, the amplitude of the glassy humor  
y, 10, 16. 19, the amplit, of the watry humor  
z, 10, the place where the glassy humour is distinguished from the watry by the interposition of the Hyaloides or coate of the glassy humor.  
α, 10, 16, the place where the grapie Coate swimmeth in the watrie humour.  
β, 18, The Cauity or depression of the glassy humor which remaineth in the Cristalline is exempted or taken from it.  
♌, 19. The cauity or depressiō of the watry humor made by the same meanes.   Columbus, Varolius and Aquapendens. Auicen also is of the same minde, sauing that he cals 
Whether it be a spermaticall part of an excremen●●  it the excrement of the glassy humour. And this doubt is further increased, because wee learne out of Anatomy that this watery humour is distinguished from the cristalline by the cobweb-like membrane, and therfore should seeme not to bee the excrement thereof but a part by itself.  
But because no spermaticall part being taken away can be regenerated, whereas wee know that in wounds of the eie this watery humor may be totally lost & yet regenerated again, we are in doubt vppon what we should resolue. Columbus saith, that twise he saw this watery humor lost and recouered againe so as the patient could see with the same eye. And Varolius affirmeth that he hath seene as much. These learned and curious Anatomists account it but an excrement, which in many diseases is much wasted as Platerus admonisheth vs. But Laurentius will haue it to bee a liuing and spermaticall part of the eye, not an excrement, because it perpetually keepeth the same figure, purity and quantity. Besides, it is a defence for the Cristalline, and like a spectacle carrieth the images thereto. If it issue out of the eye it can hardly be restored, it extinguisheth the sight, and finally betwixt it and the Cristalline nature hath interposed a membrane.  
The Cristalline humour[ Tab. 3. fig. 11. 13. 14.] lyeth vnder the former; so called because it is exceeding bright like pure Cristall in splendor and transparancie, but not in consistence and hardnesse: and therefore Hippocrates in his book de carnibus calleth it Diaphanum oculi, 
The cristalline humour.  Aristotle in the 9. chapter of the first booke de historia anim. and in the first chapter of the fifth booke de generatione animalium called it 〈◇〉 the Pupilla or Apple of the eye. This humour is a Similar part of the body and made of the most pure and lucide portion 
Whereof made.  of the seede and the sincerest or purest of the mothers blood. That it is a part may be proued as well by the authority of Galen as by reason: Galen in his sixt chapter of the first of his Method and in the first booke de causis Symptom. reckoneth it among the parts.  
Beside the definition of a part as well generall as speciall agreeth well thereto, for it is generated in the wombe together with the other parts. It hath a proper circumscription, It liueth. It is nourished and performeth an Act or an office: wherefore Galen accounteth both this and the glassy humour among the Similar parts. This humour in men is scituated right before,[ Tab. 3. fig. 1. a.] for the membrane which containeth it cutteth the eye into two vnequall parts, the forepart being foure-fold lesse then the backepart. Furthermore, it approches nearer to the inward angle of the eie then it doth to the outward.  
The reason of this position is, because it was necessary that some bodyes should be placed before it, others behinde it; some of them to be seruiceable vnto it, some of them to defend it, and some of them to lend it their assistance: but in Oxen it is nearer to the lower part of the eye.  
It is compassed by the cobweb-like membrane which, as we said, before is fast and polished but behind more laxe and rare: when this Membrane is taken of the substance of, the Cristalline humour offereth itself to our sight, which is waterish indeed, but not fluid much like water lightly frozen into a tender yce; and when the membrane wherby it is knit together is remoued, it falleth to the sides and slideth a little downe. This humour on the foreside is compassed with the watery humour,[ Tab. 3. fig. 10. & 16.] on the backside it sitteth or swimmeth rather in the glassie humour as a bowle swimmeth in the water.[ Tab. 3. fig. 10. and 12.  
It is deuoyde of all colour, for if it had bene red or yeallow all things that are seene would haue appeared red or yellow, as it happeneth with those that are troubled with the 
The position Why it hath no colour.  Iaundies: wherefore, that it might suddainely receiue all kindes of colours which are cast vpon it, itself is of noe colour at all but cleare bright and perspicuous that it might bee altered and changed by the light. For this is the onely cause why euery colour hath power to make alteration therein, yea this humour alone is altered by colours and receiueth the images of visible things. Yet is it not perspicuous or transparant after the same manner that the watery humour is perspicuous and transparant, because in it there is made a new refraction of the light: wherefore it is faster or more dense that the light in his superficies might bee broken ad perpendiculum or with a right line, for so the light is better vnited and strengthened. It is moderately hard that the images might be fastened herein, and thick yet so that it is translucide, that the light may passe through it. It is smo●●● and notable slippery and yet with the softnesse it hath a Lentor or sliminesse, so that if you 
The magnititude & figure.  presse it it will cleaue like Glue to your fingers. The magnitude of it is much like a lupine or small pease. The figure somewhat flat like a greater Lentile: whence Aetius calleth it 〈◇〉 Lenticularis.  
Before it is almost plain, yet a little rising like a Lentile the better to receiue the splendor or brightnesse of the light. Backeward it is sphericall or round that it might more safely reside in the glassy humour. At the sides it is something protuberated: but because it should not fall out of his seat but hang suspended as it weere in the chamber of the eye: it is ioyned to the grapy membrane by the Ciliar or hairy ligament, yet that onely in the greatest circumference of the chrystaline: but before and behinde it is free, that it might not intercept the continuity of the translucid bodies.  
The third and last humour of the eie is called vitreus,[ Table 3. fig. 1. b figu. 18. and 20] 
The 3. humor called vitreus.  or the glassy humour, because in consistence and thicknes it is like to melted glasse, in colour and brightnes to glasse when it is cold. It is scituated in the backepart of the eye especially: 
His scituatiō.  somewhat also before, insomuch that it filleth the parts of the cauity of the eie if it were diuided into foure[ Table 3. figure 10. and 20. x] and is foure times as much as is the chrystaline, the better to containe the spirits of the sight that they should not too soone be dissipated.  
The substaunce of it hath a kinde of consistence, establishment or firmitude in it; yet is it farre softer and thinner then is the chrystaline that it might better giue way thereunto, 
Consistence.  for the chrystaline is seated therein: notwithstanding it is not so fluide as the watery humour. The splendour or brightnes of it is equall to that of the chrystaline; for sayth Aquapendens they are both of a most exquisite purity, transparancy and brightnes.  
The figure as it is in the eye resembleth the better part of a bowle cut in sunder,[ tab. 3. figure 9. and 20.] 
And figure.  for the backeward surface is round or conuex: the forward is plaine, yet in the middest thereof hath it a bosome[ Table 3. figu. 9. r and 18. β] whereinto it receiueth the chrystaline humour. And although it be compassed about by the net-like coate called Amphiblestroides whereby it is nourished from the veines disseminated there through; yet notwithstanding it hath a proper coate of his owne called Vitrea, which if it be broken this humour presently melteth and resolueth into water.   

CHAP. X. Of the vse of the Humours of the Eye and of the Sight.  
_HAuing declared the admirable wisedome, prouidence and goodnes of God our Creator in the conformation of this diuine member which wee call the Eie: although we haue spoken somewhat in the History of euery particular part concerning their vse, yet there remaine many things worthy our obseruation 
A philosophicall discourse of the vse of the eie.  touching the humours, which being ioyned to that that hath bin sayd before will better absolue and accomplish this discourse of the vse of the eye and the true manner of sight. Which though I must confesse that they are more Philosophicall then Anatomicall, yet because they pertaine to the same subiect, I presume the Reader will not abhor from them.  
That the Eyes are the instruments of the sight by which it perceiueth all visible things as well Proper as Common there is no man ignorant; Proper as all colours, Common as the figure, magnitude, number, motion and scite, which are sensible qualities common 
The proper obiects of the sight, Common.  to all the Sences; so that it is truely sayed that the Eye seeth not a Man but those thinges which are visible in a Man, as colours together with the scite, figure, magnitude, number and motion of his partes, out of which afterward the Soule collecteth that that thing is a Man.  
The Eie is framed of many parts, all which were created for the vse of the sight. But because in euery organ which is compounded of many parts, there is one similar particle vppon 
Particular vses of the parts.  which the action of that organ doth especially depend, it would be knowne what this particle is in the eye: we answere that it is the Chrystaline humour which is the authour of the action, because in it the species or formes of visible thinges are receiued and by it iudged of.  
Beside this, there are some particles without which the action cannot be; as the optick nerue which leadeth along the faculty vnto the christaline; some also by whose helpe the action ●● made more perfect, as the membranes and the muscles: and finally, some particles a●● ordayned for the conseruation of all these, as the Eye-liddes and the partes about them.  
Seeing therefore the faculty is deriued from the braine by the opticke nerues vnto the eyes, which are set as scout-watches to take knowledge of the ariuall of outward thinges; that they may better apprehend the knowledge of such outward obiectes, it was necessary that whatsoeuer is to be perceiued should touch the nerue: for Aristotle sayeth in his third Booke de Anima, That euery action is made by contaction.  
This contaction is here made by a medium or meane; for the Sences doe perceiue 
All sense is by contaction.  their obiects through a meane. Wherefore seeing the nerue is separated from the visible obiect, that there may bee sight it is necessary there should bee a contaction either of the nerue to the obiect or of the obiect to the nerue, or else that either of them should be moued in a certaine proportion to the other.  
The two first wayes it cannot be, as euen Sense itself teacheth vs, and therfore it must 
How many wales contaction is made,  be done the third way. If vision be made the third way, then either something must proceed from the nerue to the visible obiects, or on the contrary something must be sent from the obiects to the nerue, or else both must be: that is, Sight must bee made either by an emission of spirites, or a reception of beames, or else by emission and reception both together.  
Now the spirit is not carried from the nerue to the thing that is to bee seene, for then it would follow that the nerue alone by which the faculty yssueth can absolue and perfect the action of sight, and the iudgement should be made without the eye. Againe, neither is there any corporeall thing transported from the body which is sent vnto our eyes; for then the obiects by continuall diffusion would be diminished. Neither is Vision made the third way, so that a spirite or a beame or a light should yssue out of the Eie vnto the obiect and againe something of the obiect should be moued vnto the spirite, that so the contaction might be made in the middle; for then the nerue alone would haue sufficed for the action, and the iudgement should haue beene made without the eie. VVherefore 
How sight is made.  we thinke with the Philosopher that this contaction is made by a medium, so that a certaine quality with some colour affecting and changing the ayre that is cleare and lucid betwixt the eie and the obiect, doeth transferre from the things themselues the visible species by one right line from the obiect to the eyes, yea to the center of the chrystaline humour. So the ayre which is in the middest betwixt the eye and the obiect leadeth along that which is perceiued, and first of all the colour; for the ayre is altered by colours which it receiueth by contaction; for euen as the Sun attayning by the brightnes of his light vnto the Element of the ayre illustrateth the same; so coulours when they touch the ayre make a kinde of impression therein, for the ayre is alwayes capable of colours when it is cleare, light and illustrated by the brightnes of the Sunne beames. Vision therefore or sight is made by the Reception of visible forms, when the light affected with those formes entreth into the eies through their translucid bodies; first of al with right beames, afterward diuersly refracted or broken and affecteth the chrystaline with some colour, which chrystaline as the primary instrument of sight doth in an instāt receiue those visible formes whereof refraction is made in the membranes, perfection in the coniunction of the Opticke nerues, and finally a perception in the braine. For the light is the 
Whether in mans eie ther be an ingenit light.  proper obiect of the sight whereby it is moued and affected; Light I say stayned with the formes of colours and externall light, for the eie of a man hath not in it any In-bredlight, for then he might see in the darke by sending out a light from his eye. Albeit Suetonius reporteth that Tiberius Caesar had such an eye, and that excellent Philosopher and Physitian 
Tiberius Caesar Cardanus. Ioh. ●ap. Porta.  Cardan, as also Iohn Babtista Porta of Naples do affirme the same thing of themselues. Some creatures there are we know which see worse in the day time then in the night, and therefore they seeke their food in the night season.  
Nowe because the light thus affected with the images of visible thinges must passe through a refraction of his beames, it is necessary there should bee diuers translucide bodies. First the ayre through which it attayneth to the eye, then water in the eye in which this refraction might be made. plato indeed( who thought that sight was made extramittendo, or by an emission of light out of the eye) thought that the nature of the eie was fiery, 
Plato thought the eie was firie.  yet not such a fire as would burne but onely illustrate; for, sayth he, there is a threefould fire: one shining and not burning, another shining and burning, and the third burning and not shining. But we are taught by Anatomy & by the whole composition of the eye, that the 
A threefold fire.  instrument of sight is watery, and therefore Hip. in his book de locis in homine, saith that the sight is nourished, that is increased by a moyst brayne. And hereto also may we adde reason, for it is the property of water to receiue; wherefore seeing the formes and images of outward obiects must be receiued it is necessary that there should be water in the eie.  
But because these visible formes should not onely bee receiued, but also retained in 
How the formes are retained.  the eie, it was necessary that the body of the eie should bee made not onely translucid but also dense and fastly compacted: wherefore Nature did not only make the eye watery that there might bee a refraction, but also that this refraction might bee manifould shee hath created translucid bodies of diuers consistences; for the watery humour is indeed translucid and admitteth the light yet the Diaphanum or transparancie thereof differs from the transparancie of the horny membrane that there might bee also a different refraction; this refraction is made from a perpendicular and is in the eie foure-foulde. The first is from the ayre into the horny membrane which is a faster Diaphanum. The second from the horny 
That there are 4. refractions of the light in the eie.  membrane into the watey humour which is a thinner Diaphanum; in this watery humour the light is vnited and made stronger, so that it is able to pierce through the third Diaphanum which is the christaline humour, wherein as in a faster substance the light is yet more strongly vnited and so passeth on to the last refraction at the glassy humour of which wee shall speake by and by. And as in the eye naturally disposed there are foure refractions, so in the spectacles which make the obiect both larger and brighter there are sixe. For first 
6. in a paire of spectacles,  of all the light entreth into the spectacle which is a thicker Diaphanum from the ayre which is a thinner, from the spectacle before it come to the eye it passeth through the ayre again which is a thinner Diaphanum into the horny membrane which is a thicker; from the horny membrane into the watery humour which is a thinner Diaphanum, from thence into the chrystaline which is a thicker, and finally into the glassy humour so that it proceedeth by course out of a thinner Diaphanum into a thicker.  
Another vse of the watery humour is to fill vp the empty space betwixt the christaline and the forward membranes, as also to keepe the horny membrane streatcht or tentered 
Another vse of the watery humour,  & moyst least if it should grow dry it might be corrugated or wrinkled, and so become thicker and hinder the reception of the visible formes.  
Thirdly, the watery humour sayth Galen in the sixt Chapter of his tenth Booke de vsu partium, keepeth the horny membrane, the grapy membrane and the chrystaline from exiccation: 
A third,  because the moysture thereof keepeth thē transparant without which there could be no vision at all, for we see that in compunctions or wounds of the eye; when this watery humour is let out and dryed vp, the horny membrane which before was turgide and full falleth into itself and becommeth darke and rugous.  
The fourth vse of the watery humour is to be a defence vnto the chrystaline, least the 
A fourth.  horny membrane should touch the chrystaline through the Pupilla and offend it with his hardnesse.  
The fift vse is to restraine the impetuous or violent occursion or confluence of externall colours vnto the chrystaline. 
A fift.   
And finally to eleuate or lift vp the formes of visible things as spectales doe, that they 
A sixt.  might be more fully and directly perceiued by the sence. For when the images of externall thinges are ariued at the narrow hole of the Pupilla they are lifted vp and so exhibited in the watery humour, wherein they are made more perspicuous; and this indeede was the chiefe reason why Nature placed so pure and neate a humour before the christaline, which is the prime instrument of the sight.  
The vse of the chrystaline humour is to be the first and chiefe instrument of the Sight, as wherein it is perfected, and therefore some haue called it the Idol or image of the sight, 
The vse of the christaline humour.  and Aristotle calleth it Pupilla, haply because we see especially right before vs. That it is the chiefe instrument of sight may thus bee demonstrated. The Philosophers say, That whatsoeuer is made to receiue any thing must be vtterly free from the Nature of that which it is to receiue, because the same thing can neither worke vpon itself, nor suffer from itself. VVherfore that which is the proper Organ or instrument of Sight must haue in it no colour at al, 
An axiome in philosophy.  because it is to receiue all colours. And indeed hereby may wee perceiue a thing to bee without colour, when if it bee placed against any colour it representeth the same, as it is in ayre, water, chrystall and such like: wherefore the instrument of sight must either bee ayrie or watery, or chrystaline.  
Ayrie it might not be, because the colours that are receiued in the ayre do flow through it, making to mutation at all therein; but we know that the instrument doth only then perceiue & apprehend the obiect when it so suffereth therefrom that it is made the very same; seeing therefore that the colours doe passe through the ayre and make no mutation therein, it could not be that the instrument of Sight should be airy  
In the second place it could not be watery, for though the species and formes of colours make a deeper impression in the Water then they do in the Ayre: yet are not the colours therein so imprinted that a man may behold them in it, but they flow through 
Nor watery.  it also. It remaineth therefore that the instrument of sight must be Cristalline, because that onely can receiue and retaine the visible formes. And this also may bee proued by Autopsie or ocular inspection, for if you take a beade of Cristall and set it opposite against a coloured body, which way soeuer you looke you shall see the colours in the cristall, as if the cristal were of the same colour, & did not receiue the impression thereof from those coloured bodyes. Wherefore in the cristalline humor colours are not onely receiued but 
But cristalline  also so retayned that the power thereof is changed into the colour which it receineth.  
And the reason hereof is, because there is in the cristalline not onely a watery moysture, but also a glutinous or sl●my, which with his lentor and tenacity retaineth the images or formes of the colours.  
The chiefe instrument therefore of Sight Nature hath placed within the eye, a round and glutinous humour most like vnto cristall to receiue and retayne the representations of all colours. This cristalline humour if you duely consider when it is taken out of the eye you shall perceiue it hath no colour in it, but will represent any colour layde neere it, as if it were of the same colour.  
Moreouer, if you cut this cristalline humour in sunder, you shall finde that it is made of a glutinous and slymy moysture. And because sensation is a kind of reception, therefore was the Cristalline made round.  
The action also of the Cristalline humour is assisted by the cobweb-like mēbrane which compasseth it about for if you take out the cristalline humour compassed with his Membrane and lay it vpon a written paper, the letters vnder it will appeare much greater then indeed they are, from whence haply came the inuention of Spectacles, and indeed this humour 
The cristalline humour is a spectacle to the nerue.  is a very spectacle to the Opticke nerue, gathering the species which fall vpon it and representing them in a larger forme vnto the nerue.  
Sight therefore is perfected and absolued, both by alteration & apprehention or discerning. The alteration is made in the Cristalline by reason of the transparencie therof; 
How sight is perfected,  yet is this transparancie of another kind then that of the watery humour, that it might bee both altered and also changed by the light. For that the impression might be more firme, it is thicker then the watery humour, that in the superficies thereof the light might bee broken ad perpendiculum: for so the light is stronger vnited and corroborated when the 
Why the cristalline is thicke.  beames are obliquely shed abroade and yet meete together againe into one because of their refraction; wherefore the Cristalline humour is thicker then the other translucide bodies that are in the eye, as the horny membrane, the watery and glassy humours; because it was made not onely to returne and giue way to light and colours, but also to deteine them, to suffer from them, and to receiue a sensation of visible things: for the thicknesse thereof prohibiteh the transition or vanishing away of the formes which are fixed in the superficies and body therof. For sense is not made without passion or suffring: now it could not suffer vnlesse the action of the Agent had bene receiued vnto it. Notwithstanding, 
Why soft:  it is not so thicke or hard that the species or formes could not be imprinted therein, but soft like vnto waxe and viscid that they might cleaue faster thereto. Hence it commeth to passe, that when a strong light, as that of the Sunne; beateth vpon the Cristalline it is pained and offended, because the image of the light maketh a kinde of abode therein. But naturally the image of visible things are no longer retained in the Cristalline then is necessary for their perception, but giue way to others: otherwise the sight wold be imperfect: for before the former images be vanished the succeeding cannot bee admitted, because the alteration remaineth in the Cristalline vntill the representation acquir the place when: that is gone the alteration vanisheth together with it, and so there is way made for a new alteration.  
The conformation also of the Cristalline helpeth much to make the sight perfect, for 
The reason of the conformation of the cristalline.  example. It is smooth and polished, that the formes therein mightbe most like to the bodyes from which they are diduced. It is round that the light and the perpendicular beames thereof might in it be better vnited, and againe, that the light might be gathered in his superficies where the sensatiue facultie is the strongest, for so the formes euen of the greatest obiects are conuayed whole vnto the Organ. Notwithstanding on the foreside this roundnesse is somewhat depressed, which depression helpeth much the reception of the formes. On the backeside it is rounder that the light beeing brought vnto the Cristalline might be vnited in itself and not disparkled but determine and subsist in the glassy humour.  
The Cristalline humour also before and behind is at liberty or free from connexion, 
The reason of his connexion.  that the light which entereth alway directly, might haue free passage through all the translucide bodyes of the eyes; for by this meanes whatsoeuer is betwixt the Cristalline humor and the thing seene is continuated by a continuity of transparancy. Yet ought it not to be on euery side loose, because then any extraordinary motion might haue violated the frame of the eye. Nature therefore hath tyed it in his circuite to the neighbour partes, and scituated it in the middest, that it might receiue the seruice & ministery of all the rest.  
The glassy humour is seated after the Cristalline, least if the light should haue passed 
The vse of the the glassy humour.  on to the Net-like and Grapie Membranes which are coloured, it should haue returned againe to the Cristalline defiled with those colours, and so the sight haue bene forstalled by those inward colours which are neerest vnto it. Againe, at this Diaphanum of the glassy humor there is a new refraction made of the light, not such a refraction as is in the Cristalline wherby the light is more vnited, but because the substance of the glassy humor is more rare and thin the light therein is dispersed and weakned, some say also vanisheth, others that it reacheth from thence into the cauity of the Opticke Nerue where the sight is perfected; and surely the finenesse of the net-like Membrane is not able to returne the light that beateth against it, but rather giueth way thereto.  
Another vse of the Glassy humour saith Galen is to nourish the Cristalline, which it 
Galens credit redeemed by a distinction.  doth per Diadosin or transumption; for he thought that the Cristalline humor could not be nourished by blood. But to saue Galens credit, we must heere distinguish, for al parts are nourished by blood; now the Cristalline is a part and therefore it is nourished with blood. We answere, that it is not immediately nourished with bloode but mediately, for because there are no Veines neither in the cristalline nor in the glassy humors( at lest that the sight of man is able to apprehend) blood cannot be conueyed vnto them; neyther 
How the cristalline is nourished.  indeede ought it, least it should haue infected the Cristalline with a redde colour, which woulde haue bene a great hindrance to the sight; for it behoued aboue al things that the cristalline should be free from all colour, because it was to receiue all. Wherefore it was necessary that his Aliment should be prepared and not conueyed vnto him before it were fitted for his vse.  
The blood therefore conteined in the Veines of the Grapy Membrane in which it is thicke and blackish, is powred foorth into lesser branches running through the Netlike Membrane, where it receiueth an alteration becomming very thin and of a cleare ruddinesse, which blood is receiued by the glassy humor therein prepared and made a fit Aliment both for itselfe and for the cristalline. Hence it is that Galen saith, The Glassy humor to the Cristalline is like the stomacke to the Liuer.  
But because Anatomistes are of diuers opinions concerning the nourishment of the Cristalline humour, it shall not bee amisse to giue you a taste of euery mans apprehension 
Diuers opinions concerning the nourishment of the Cristalline humour. Galens opinion.  in this matter, especially of those that are accounted Maisters in Anatomy.  
Galen therefore in the first chapter of his tenth Booke De vsupartium sayth, that the Cristalline humour is nourished by the glassy, and the glassy by that bodye which compasseth it about, to wit, the Net-like Membrane, and that per Diadosin or Transumption of matter, because( saith he) the cristalline humor which is white, cleare and resplendent ought not to be nourished by blood, as whose qualities doe differ much one from the other, whereas the aliment should be familiar to that which is nourished thereby. Nature therefore prepared for it a proportionable aliment, to witte, the glassye humour, which glassy humor by how much it is thicker and whiter then blood, by so much doth the cristalline humour exceede it in humidity and whitenesse, for this cristalline is exquisitely white and moderately hard.  
Varolius enclineth to Galens opinion, his wordes are these or at least to this purpose. Euery thing is nourished by such a substaunce as determineth nearest vnto that which it should nourish; and therefore the glassy humour is immediately placed behinde the cristaline, and is of a softer and a thinner consistence. Also because so noble a 
Varolius.  part which needeth such abundance of spirits by reason of their continual expense shold not at any time be defranded of nourishment▪ Nature made so great a quantitie of the glassy humour, in which nutrition the Chrystaline turneth into his owne nature the thicker parts of the glassy humour because it is farre thicker and faster then it. But the thinner part of the glassy humour she separateth as an vnprofitable excrement from the Chrystaline, and thereof maketh the watery humour. Thus far Varolius.  
But sayth Archangelus( who thinketh that the Chrystaline is so nourished with the glassie 
Archangelus.  humour as a bone is nourished with the marrow) if the chrystaline and glassy humours be parts of the body then one part shall nourish another? But it may bee answered, that there is a surplussage of the nourishment of the glassye humour which is a conuenient Aliment for the chrystaline. Another question may be asked, sayth he, how Galen sayth that in the glassy humour there is no veine? It is answered that there is no veine conspicuous, but yet there are very many which are so slender that the eye cannot discerne them, and hence it is that the glassy humour is not so white as the chrystaline, because it is sprinkled with many blinde veines. In like manner in the white of the eie which is called Tunica Adnata, there appeare no veins at al, but if the eye be inflamed then many veines which before lay hid doe rise vp and become conspicuous. If the braine of a man bee dissected, there appeare no veines therin, but if it be inflamed then, sayth Archangelus, may an infinite multitude be perceiued to run through his substance.  
Laurentius conceiueth that the glassy humour is nourished by bloud, and receiueth 
Laurentius.  small veines from the Ciliar or hayry crown; and that the glassy humour prepares the bloud for the chrystaline, which bloud it changeth least the purity of the chrystaline should be infected, but he doth not thinke that the substance of the glassy humour is conuerted into the chrystaline and assimilated thereto.  
Aquapendens his opinion is, that the christaline is nourished by bloud, and that as bones 
Aquapendens.  and membranes which are very white and farre remooued from the Nature of bloud by a propriety of their temperament doe change the bloud into their substance: so it commeth to passe in the chrystaline humour; and that the bloud is conuayed out of the veines of the grapy into the net-like coate and there depurated that it might better be conuerted into the nitid and pure substance of these bodies. The thicker part is thrust downe into the grapy coate and there collected. The thinner part maketh the watery humour. Neither doth he thinke it possble the Chrystaline should be nourished by the glassy humour, per Diadosin or Transumption, because the cobweb like membrane commeth betweene the two humours, which Galen was ignorant of, who thought that the forepart only of the Chrystaline was couered, and from that mistaking fell into that errour of nourishment by Transumption. And so much concerning the nourishment of the humours.  
Two other vses there remaine of the glassy humour, the one to retaine the spirites for 
Other vses of the glassy humour,  the illustration of the Chrystaline; the other to defend it from the hardnesse of the membranes, and to make it a seat wherein it might securely rest itself.   

CHAP. XI. Of the outward Eares.  
_HAuing thus absolued the History of the Eye, it followeth that wee come vnto the organ of Hearing, which Aristotle calleth Sensum disciplinae, because it was created for the vnderstanding of Arts and Sciences: for Speach, because it is audible, becommeth the Cause of that we learne therby as the Philosopher saith in the first Chapter of his Book de Sensu & sensili. This instrument of the Heating is the Eare, framed by Nature with no lesse Art then the former. Yea so full of intricate Meandersis it; that it will be very hard to be disciphered, so many & so smal are the particles therof, and couched so close in narrow distances or nookes betweene the bones. Notwithstanding we will endeuour ourselves for your satisfaction to acquaint you what wee haue learned, as well by dissections as out of the writings of learned men, especially Fallopius, Eustachius, Volcherus, Arantius, Aquapendens and Placentinus. But in the pursuite of this so 
The history of the eares very difficult to expresse.  difficult a taske, we stand in neede and doe implore the helpe of Almighty GOD, that hee would set an edge vpon my wit, saith Bauhine, to find out the myracles of his Creation, the Diuinity of his wisedome, and the infinite goodnesse wherewith he hath compassed vs on euery side. Moreouer, that he would giue me power perspicuously to propound and lay open to your capacities a thing so diuersly and quayntly folded vp, that the Eie is scarce able to follow the trayne thereof.  
These instruments are called in Greek, 〈◇〉, in Latin Aures ab hauriendis vocibus, as sayth Lactantius, in English Eares of hearing. 
The names of the eares.   
There are many parts of the Eares which serue as well for the reception of the sound into them, as also for the intension thereof. Some of them are such, as without which there is no reception of sounds, others are necessary for better reception and hearing; Finally, others were created for the conseruation of all the rest. Wee will diuide the Eare according to Hippocrates in Coacis into an outward and an inward Eare, and first we will entreate of the outward.  
The Eares saith Aristotle are parts of the head by which we heare, and therefore it may be immagined they are called Aures quasi audes, ab audiendo from hearing. Instruments 
The reasons of the name.  they are of Hearing indeede, as Galen confesseth in the second chapter of his Booke De Instrumento Odoratus, but not the principal organs, because if the Eares be cut off close by the heade, yet a man will heare notwithstanding, as if the nose bee cut off a man shall smell though imperfectly.  
The reason is, because the principal instrument both of Hearing and of Smelling lies hid within the scul. The outward Eares therefore are helping causes, and when they are sound and whol they are of as great vse for the Hearing, as the nosethrils are for the Smelling.  
These outward Eares properly called Auriculae are in men & beasts conspicuous, but in Birds and Fishes it is not so, for Birds haue onely holes whereby the sound entereth into their Brains, because their skinne being harder they want matter whereof this Eare should be framed; beside such eares as other creatures are furnished with would haue beene a hinderance vnto them in their flight, as wee see a contrary winde blowing vpon a saile staieth the course of a Ship: as for Fishes no man that I know hath yet found out the instruments of their Hearing. Those holes which are placed before their eyes we doubt whither they serue for Hearing or for Smelling.  
The outward Eares are placed in the same paralel or line with the eyes, yet not so 
What creatures want outward eares,  much for the better reception of sounds, which saith Cicero in his second booke De Natura Deorum, of their owne nature do ascend vpward because they haue their consistence in the aire; but rather from the commodity of those softe nerues within the scull which were to communicate the animall spirit dispersed through the substaunce of the Braine vnto the principal Organ of Hearing. Otherwise if the eares had their scituation onely for the apprehension of sounds, they might as well haue bene placed in any parte 
The reason of the situation of the Eares.  of the creature as where they are; because the sounds are equally communicated to the whole aire that compasseth vs about. But on the foreside they might not be placed, because that roome was to be taken vp for the eies and the instruments of other senses. For the Eies, because we see by a right line; but we may heare as wel on either side as directly forward, as Aristotle saith in the tenth chapter of his second booke de Part. Animalium; although I am not ignorant that Galen in the eight chapter of his tenth booke De Vsu partium is not altogether of Aristotles opinion.  
Againe for the Mouth, partly for the commoditie of receiuing meates and drinkes directly from the hand, partly also because it was fit we should turne, not our eies onely but our mouth also toward them with whom we discourse.  
Thirdly for the Nose, that the sauours of meates and drinks by which we iudge and discerne whither they be good or ill might more directly strike the sense of Smelling. Moreouer, the Eares were not placed in the backepatt of the head because there are no Nerues deriued thereunto; not in the top of the head least the couering of the Heade should hinder the ingresse of the sound. It remaineth therefore that it was most conuenient they should be placed in the sides of the head or the face iust against the region of the eies, and also be in man immooueable. In bruite beasts their scituation is somewhat otherwise, to wit, at the toppe of the Face, because their heades, hang alwayes downeward vnto the earth to seeke theyr Foode. In Beastes also the eares are mooueable.  
The Eares of Apes haue a middle position betwixt those of men and beastes, because it is a creature of a middle figure betwixt the erected frame of a man & the prone 
Apes Eares.  or bending posture of a beast. And as their position so likewise is their motion, not to bee immoouable as in Men, nor so mooueable as in other beasts but betwixt both.  
The figure of the outward eare is round or semi-circular[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. P. Tab. 5. fig. bb. Ta. 6. fig. 7, L.] because that which is rounde is best secured from iniuries, as also most 
Their Figure  capacious. On the outside they are conuexe or gibbous. On the inside excauated like a 
Table 4. Fig. 1. Sheweth the skin of the head together with the fat, and the glandules vnder the eares and the muscles of the hinder part of the head and the eares.  
Fig. 2. Sheweth the muscles of the eares, of the eyebrowes, and a few of the iawes.  
TABVLA. IIII.  
FIG. I.  

A A. The skin of the head together with the rootes of the eares.  
B B. The muscle of the eare springing from the pericranium or skull-kin.  
C. The triangular muscle mouing the skin of the nowle of the head.  
D D D. Branches of the externall iugular veine.  
E. The tip of the eare.  
F. The circumference of the eare called Helix in Greeke.  
G. The glandules of the eares, in which is the disease called Parotis.   
FIG. II.  
The second Figure.  

A. The semicircular muscle of the ear drawing the outward eare vpward, which was noted with B. in the first figure.  
B C D E F G. The muscle as it were diuided into 3. parts called Tripartitus.  
H. The hinder part of the outward eare, into which the foresaid muskle is fastened.  
I I I I. The circumference of the eare called the wing.  
K. The lap or tip of the eare.  
L. The little gristle on the outside of the hole of the hearing, which in ancient men is bearded, called Tragus because it is like a Goates beard.  
M M M. The skull as yet couered with the Pericranium or skul-kin.  
N N N, The circumference of the temporall muscle.  
O, The muskle yet couered with the Pericranium.  
P, The membrane, couering the said muskle drawne aside  
Q Q Q. The fleshy part of the temporall muskle.  
R R, The iugular or yoke bone.  
S S. A sharpe processe of the lower iaw.  
V. The muskle masseter or grinding muskle, remooued here from the yoke bone whence it hath his originall, that the implantation of the temporall muskle into the processe of the iaw might appeare.  
X, The musklesmaking the Cheeks.  
Y, Fleshy Fibres going vnto the lips.  
Z, A muskles of the lower lip.  
a a, The muskle of the eye-brow.  
b b, The vpper eye-lid hauing a muskle with transuerse Fibers.  
c, The eye brow hauing a circular muskle, wherby the external parts of the eye are exceeding constringed, as Placentinus saith.   den or cornered hole. Yet euen on the inside there are certaine swellings answerable to the cauityes, to breake the violent rushing of the aire or wind or whatsoeuer should vnawares be offered against them. For in these breaches of the eare as it were in hollow bodyes, not onely the sound of the ayre that rusheth in is readyly and exactly drawne and fully 
The reason thereof.  receiued: but also it is broken and boundeth or reboundeth as a ball against the sides of the inequalityes till the refraction get into the circular cauity and so the sound becomes more equall and harmoniacall. It attayneth also better vnto the Tympane or drum of the eare without trouble or molestation, and is imprinted vppon or into the inward ayre more strongly and more distinctly; and beside, by this meanes the sound continueth longer as we may haue experience if we apply any hollow shell to our eares, for by that meanes the ayre is better gathered and more directly offered to the auditory nerue. The Scythians that 
How the Scythians make amends for the rotting of their eares.  liue in the cold Northernly countryes haue often their eares rotted off with cold, whereby their hearing is much impaired, to amend which default they fasten about the hole some hollow shell; imagine it be of a great Cockle or Scallop wherein the ayre is concluded, gathered and directed vnto the head.  
The truth hereof may be diuersly demonstrated, first because all sounds are most exactly receiued in hollow and hard bodyes, as bels and such like. Againe, those men whose eares are cut away do receiue sounds and articulated voices after an obtule, dul or confused maner like the fall of water or chirping of a Grashopper, in somuch that the other eare which is not vitiated is notwithstanding impaired, vnlesse that which is wounded be quite stopt vppe.  
Finally, such as are halfe deafe that they may heare the better, do set their hands to their eare with the palmes forward to gather in the sound, as we reade that Adrian the Emperor 
Adrian the Emperour.  was wont to do. Another vse of this refraction of the aire is, least it should enter into the Eare too cold if it were not broken and beaten against the sides in the passage whereby it receiueth if not heate yet a mitigation of his coldnesse. And finally, if it were not for these breaches many violent sounds would suddenly rush into the eare to the great offence of the Hearing.  
These Eares are not alwayes of one magnitude, but in some greater in some lesse, but most-what proportionable to the magnitude of the body, and yet it hath beene obserued that where there is greater store of vitall heate there the eares are some-what the larger. 
The magnitude of the Eares.  Howsoeuer, they are small in man in respect of other creatures, as well for ornament as because the head of a man( saith Galen in the twelfth chapter of his eleauenth Booke De vsu partium) was to bee couered eyther with a hat or a head-peece or some other couering; wherefore if mens Eares had bene as bigge as beasts it would haue beene very inconuenient, yet they are large enough to couer the passage. 
Why they are two.   
They are made double, not so much that when one is vitiated wee might haue vse of the other( although this bee a great commoditie) as for the necessity and perfection of the Sense.  
The whole Eare which Vesalius not vnfitly compareth to a fanne wherewith they dresse 
The division of the outward Eare.  Corne, may fitly be diuided into an vpper and a lower part. The vpper which is hard & as it were stretched Aristotle in the eleuenth chapter of his first Booke De historia Animalium leaueth without a name, but Gaza his interpreter calleth it pinna[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. Tab. 5 bb] the Finne, as well because of the forme as also in respect of the vse: for the Forme, because that broad Gristle is not vnlike the Fin of a Fish: for the Vse, because as the fish guideth 
The wing or fin of the ears  herself in the water with her Finnes, so these gristly partes cleaning to the sides of the head do guide the sound that it passe not away before it is communicated to the Inward Aire, and for the same cause it is called by some 〈◇〉, that is, a wing; broade it is the better to entertaine or catch the sound which afterwarde descendeth by the inwarde compasse vnto the arched cauity that leadeth vnto the passage into the head.  
The lower part which is soft and depending[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. E Fig. 2. H Table 5. fig. 1. a] is called 〈◇〉, because we take hold of that when we wold admonish a man, 
The Lappe of the eare.  and thence haply it was that the eare is consecrated to Memory. The Latines cal it Pibra. Tully in his second Booke ad Quintum fratrem cals it Ansa Auriculae the handle of the ear, we call it the Lap of the eare, because it is a softe and flexible bodie, hauing in it neyther bone to stiffen it, nor gristle to harden it, nor Nerue to stretch it, and therefore it may bee perforated withour paine or with very little, as we may see in young folkes of both Sexes, who vsually hang Iewels at it. Laurentius well obserued, that it is a signe of modestye or shamefastnesse, because vpon such a passion this part will grow redde. But the naturall vse of it is to conduct the excrements downward which yssue out of the eare.  
The outward circumference of the eare is called 〈◇〉 Capreolus of the likenesse it hath to the writhen Tendrill of a Vine.[ Tab. 4. fig: 1, FF. Table: 5, fig: 1 bb] The inner compasse, 
The severall partes of the outward Eare and their denominations.  which is as it were opposite to the vtter, is called 〈◇〉. Pollux calleth it Scapha, beecause it is somewhat like a Lighter or Barge.[ Tab. 5. fig. 1. cc] The great cauity which is compassed almost round by this inward circumference[ Tab. 5. fig. 1] is called Concha, because it is like the shell of a Periwinkle and this is the principall part of the outwarde eare made so large that it might receiue all the sound which runnes within both Circumferences, but the cauity thereof groweth narrower toward the hole of hearing, that the sound being gathered into a narrower scantling might more suddainely and at once be offered vnto the Organ.  
But the Cauity which is next vnto the hole of Hearing wherein the eare-wax is, is cald 〈◇〉 Aluearium, and the bitter waxe itself Aphrodisaeus calles 〈◇〉. That eminence which is opposite to the hollownesse[ Tab. 4. fig. 2. L. Tab. 5. Figure 1, c] toward the temples which hangeth like a pent-house ouer the hole of the eare is called by Ruffus and Pollux 〈◇〉 Hyrcus the He-geate, because in this part there grow haires which in some men are so rigid and stiffe that they are like a Goats beard. 
Tab. 5. sheweth the eares and the diuers internal parts thereof.  
Figure 1. sheweth the whole externall eare, with a part of the Temple bone.  
Figure 2. sheweth the left bone of the Temple diuided in the middest by the instrument of hearing, where about on eieher side there are certaine passages heere particularly described.  
Fig. 3 & 4. Sheweth the three little Bones.  
Fig. 5. sheweth a portion of the bone of the temples which is seene nere the hole of Hearing diuided through the middest, whereby the Nerues, Bones & Membrans may appeare as Vesalius conceyueth of them.  
Fig. 6. sheweth the Vessels, Membranes, Bones & holes of the Organ of Hearing, as Platerus hath described thē.  
Fig. 7. and 8. sheweth the little bones of the hearing of a man and of a Calfe both ioyned and separated.  
Fig. 9. sheweth the Muscle found out by Aquapendens.  
TABVLA. X.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III.  
IIII.  
V.  
VI.  
VII.  
VIII.  
IX.  

a. The lower eare or the lap of the eare.  
bb. The circumference of the eare cald in Greeke Helix.  
cc, the interior protuberation or swelling of the eare called Anthelix.  
d, The boate of the outward eare.  
e, the Goates beard called Tragus, wherein are haires growing.  
f, The place against the Goats heard called Antitragus.   
Figure 2.  

A. A part of the yoke bone.  
B. The sinus or bosome whereinto the lower iaw is articulated.  
CC, the stony bone swelling within the Scull.  
D. The second hole of the bone of the Temples for the passage of the 〈…〉.  
E, A little scale or thin bone betwixte this hole and the first cauity.  
FFF, the porosity or spongines of the stony bone.  
aa, The externall hole of the eare.  
bb, The bony canale of that passage.  
c, the Tympane or Drumme is here placed at the passage.  
d, the interiour hole into which the nerue is inserted.  
ef. Heere also is the stony bone perforated.  
ggg. A canale of the auditory Nerue from e to g. in the bone of the Temple 's, yet this Canale is described by itselfe at the side of the bone aboue the fift Figure.  
α, β, Two holes in the beginning and ending of this Canale.  
γ, 〈◇〉. Two other holes in the externall and internall part.  
h. The first cauity, according to some the second, reaching from c to E.  
ii, two canals or pipes of the fyrst cauity.  
k, the higher hole which is shut with the stirropbone  
l. The lower hole alwayes open.  
mm, The second cauity in the bone.  
1, 2, 3. Three litle burrows or holes of the second cauity described apart.  
n, the third cauity lying vnder this superfycies.  
Fig: 3. 4. o 3. A long bone representing a pyramidal Figure  
p 3, 4. the membrane of the drum.  
q 3, 4. A bony ring at the Tympane described also by itself. r, 4. the Mallet or hammer.  
s, The Anuile. t. the Stirrop. Figure 5.  
A, A part of the hole of hearing.  
B. A membrane couering the hole ouerthwart.  
C. The bone of hearing likened to a hammer.  
D, the auditory Nerue.  
G, His distribution through the great hole of hearing.  
E. A branch of this nerue going through a darke hole vnto the Temples.  
F. Another branch falling through the hole wherby a veine doth enter in.  
H, I. A round cauity in the fore-part whereof is placed, the bone noted with I. Fig. 6.  
αα The fyrst hole of the Organ of hearing.    
β The auditory Nerue diuided into two partes, where it passeth through the fourth hole. γ the iugular vein with a part of a nerue passing through the first cauity. 〈◇〉, where it passeth through his second hole neere to 〈◇〉. 〈◇〉 An artery entring that cauitie thorough the third hole, and a nerue falling through the same hole. H, the same artery falling through the fyft hole. ●, the lower part of the 5. nerue reaching vnto the 2 & 3. cauity. θθ, A higher part of the 5. nerue broght through the scruing canale or pipe vnto ● where it falleth out. 〈◇〉, the Tympane or Drum shutting the first cauity. Λ, the three little bones of hearing ioyned together. μ, the third cauity or the Trumpet of the organ of hearing. V the second cauity or the mettall mine running out with three burroughs. ξ, 〈◇〉, The Canale or water course carrying a Nerue and an artery, opening itself with two holes. Figu: 7 & 8, 〈◇〉 The Hammer 〈◇〉, the Anuile, τ, The Stirrop.  
The part opposite hereto to which the lap grows somtimes is also haire,[ Tab. 5. fig. 1. f.] & called 〈◇〉. The vse of both these is to forme the cauity and to hinder the sweat or any such like excrement or outward thing from falling into the eare. Betwixt these two there is a hollowed furrow like halfe a circle, which Herophilus calleth 〈◇〉 and Pollux 〈◇〉 into which the excrement or whatsoeuer issueth out of the eare falleth before it get into the large cauity and so fall away by the lap.  
The vse of the whole outward Eare which like a Fanis dilated, was especially to intercept the species of sounds wandering through the aire, and to gather them as it were into 
The vse of the outward eare.  a bosome, or if you will, into a broade tunnell to be conuayed by manifold breaches or returnes to the hole of the Eare. Againe, the many oblique furrowes in the outward Eare doe breake the violence & force of the ayre, which otherwise might haply loosen or break the fine membrane of the Tympane or drumme. There are also certaine bunching protuberations where the gristle swels vp into a prominence, which prominence, if the aire doe passe the hole of hearing, beats it backe againe forward toward the cauity. For because the holes of the Ears are placed in the sides of the head the sound may easily slip by them; especially when it commeth from behind vs and we moue forward, if it were not caught in these conuolutions ●nd in the guttures of the grystly substance conueyed vnto the hole of hearing.  
And hence it is that euen by instinct of nature we see brute beasts, as Dogs and Horses will pricke vp their eares, and partly turne them toward any sound or noyse that is made. And because the Eare might be thus prominent, as well in the parts as in the whole( for the whole eare standeth of a certaine distance from the head,) Nature hath made them of a cartelaginious or gristly substance, which out of doubt wold grow farther from the head if Nurses or carefull mothers who haue more respect of comlinesse then of vse, did not bind them downe in our infancy.  
If you aske me how the sound of any thing farre off can ariue vnto the eare; I will answer by a pregnant example on this manner: If a stone be throwne into the midst of a 
A fit similitude expressing how the sounds come through the aire vnto the eare.  pond, it moueth the water in circles, one alwayes succeeding greater then another vntill the motion determine in the brinkes or bounds of the pond: so in like manner those bodyes which by their collision do make a sound, mooue the ayre into orbes or circles succeeding one another, so that the circles which are nearest to the body from whence the sound came are but small, the rest which follow them grow greater and greater vntill they come vnto the eare, whereat when they beate they are latched in those furrowes wee spake of, and by them directed vnto the hole of hearing.   

CHAP. XII. Of the parts of the outward Eares.  
_THis outward Eare is made of parts, some common, some proper: the common parts are the cuticle, the skin, the fleshy membrane, flesh itselfe and a little fat in the lobe or lap. The proper parts are muscles, veines, Arteries Nerues and a gristle.  
The cuticle or skarfe-skin we haue spoken of before in the second book, as also of all the other cōmon parts; only of the skin itselfe in this part we may say, that it is exceeding thin, yet somewhat thicker in the gibbous or backeside of the eare then it is in the concauous or foreside, and the nearer it comes to the hole of hearing, the thinner it is. This skin compasseth the eare round about, both without and within, and cleaueth very strongly and firmely to a little flesh and to the gristle, that the superficies of the eare, especially 
The skin of the outward eare.  the inner might be smooth and slicke, not corrugated or vnequall, as well for beauty and comelinesse as also for the better reception of sounds: for Aristotle in the seuerth 
Aristotle.  Probleme of the eleuenth section, enquiring why a house that is new plastered doth sound 
Why a new house sounds more then an old.  better then an old house? answereth, that the reason is, because the wals are smooth, which smoothnesse procedeth from density or fastnesse. It is reasonable therefore to thinke that the smoothnesse of the eare helpeth the sound, and therefore the very hole also of hearing is inuested with a thight, hard, thin and smooth skin, which cleaueth very closely to the mēbrane there vnder. But where the skin incompasseth the lobe or lap of the eare, it is so exquisitely mixed with the membrane and the flesh that it cannot be separated from them; and therefore we may call that part a fleshy, fatty and spongy skin.  
The vessels of the eare are these. Veines of the eare Hippocrates tooke knowledge of, in his first booke de natura haminis. Branches they are dispersed on either side[ Tab. 4. fig. 1. DDD] 
The veins of the eare.   

Table 6. Figure 1. Sheweth the fore-face of the outward Eare without the skin.  
Figure 2. sheweth a ligament of the outward Eare whereby it is tyed to the Skull.  
Figure 3. The stony processe being broken sheweth the first cauity and the holes thereof.  
Figure 4. & 5. shew the Labyrinth, the Snayly shell called Cochlea, two windowes and three semicircles.  
TABVLA. VI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
Fig. 1. & 2.  

AA, The outward eare depressed.  
B, The hind part of the outward eare.  
CCC, The circumscription of the whole ligamēt.  
D, a part of the yoke bone.  
EEE, parts of the scull.   
Fig. 3. 4. & 5.  

F 3, 4, 5, the Ouall hole or the window of the labyrinth, in the 4. figure it is broken.  
G 3, 4, The window of the snayly shell or the winding hole.  
H 3, The watercourse or darke hole betwixt the mammillary processe and appendix called Styloides.  
I 3, The Mammillary processe.  
K 3, The cauity going vnto the mammillary processe whose outward face is all spongy.  
L 3. The interior face.  
M 3, The knub of the nowle-bone inarticulated or ioyned to the first rack-bone of the necke.  
V 3, The hole of the first payre of nerues of the internall Iugular veine. &c.  
NNN 4, 5, The semicircles.  
O 4, 5, The inner face of the snayly shell called cochlea.   from the externall Iugular as also from the lesser braunch of the internall Iugular veine which entreth into the Basis of the scull through the fourth hole of the Temporallbones. There is a small branch also directed to the Organ of Hearing and into the first cauity[ Tab. 3. lib. 7. fig. 13. n] which bringeth bloud for the nourishment of the parts contayned, and haply also of the ingenite or in-bred ayre. And that there are veines deriued into this cauity, and vnto the membrane or drum, may be proued by the dissection of those bodies that die of an inflamatiō of the brain or of the eares For if the hole of hearing be featly opned, you shall find small veines conspicuous in the mēbrane or Tympane, which do not appeare when there is no inflamation, as wee said lately it hapneth in the white of the eye.  
Arteries it hath from the inner branch of the Carotis or sleepy Artery which passe to 
The arteries● of the eare.  the backeside of the Eare[ Tab. 13. Lib. 6. o] that those parts and the in-bred ayre also might be refreshed with vitall bloud and spirits.  
Two small nerues it hath from the backeward, and two from the sides of the second coniugation of the marrow of the necke; and these are very small, sayeth Galen in the sixth Chapter of his 16. Booke de vsu partium, in Men and Apes, because their temporall muscles bee very small, and the substance of their eares is immouable: but in other creatures sayth he whose temporall muscles and eares are very large, these nerues also are large, because of the strength required to those motions. The vse of them in men is to bring Sense to the eares and sometimes to mooue the muscles, for those muscles are not alwayes found.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the Muscles of the outward Eare.  
_MEns Eares are for the most part immouable, yet they may be moued, as appeareth as well by their muscles as also by the nerues which, as we said euen now, are founde in some bodies. But the muscles are so small and the nerues so threddy that their motion is hardly perceiued: and Nature made them small because too much motion would haue vitiated the hearing, and therefore the head is rather made to moue speedily on euery side toward the sound or voice, which is not so in beastes whose eares are mouable.  
Such as they are Falopius first found them out; and therefore the honour of their Inuention belongeth to him. They are of two sortes, Common and Proper.  
The first is Common to the Eare and both the Lippes, and is a portion of that muscle which is accounted the first of those which moue the cheeks and the skinne of the face, and is called Quadratus.[ Tabl 7. fig. 1 L] The square muscle, it is inserted with ascending fibres into the roote of the eare[ table 6. fig. 1. O.]  

Table 7. Fig. 1. Sheweth the muscles of the Forehead, the Eye-lids, and the Cheekes.  
Figure 2. sheweth the muscles of the Nose, Lips, the lower Iaw and of the bone Hyois.  
TABVLA. VII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

A 1, 2, The muscle of the forehead and the right fibres thereof.  
B 1, 2, The temporall muscle.  
〈◇〉 2, His semicircular originall.  
C E 1, the first muscle of the Eye-lidde compassing the whole lid.  
F D 1, the third muscle of the wing of the nose which endeth into the vpper lip.  
GH 1, the muscle of the vpper lip.  
G 2, The place of the yoke bone without flesh.  
Γ 1, the broad Mouse-muscle stretched ouer the cheeks and all the lower parts.  
〈◇〉 the circumscription or circumference of this muscle.  
I 1, the yoke-bone.  
I 2, The grinding muscle or the second muscle of the Iaw.  
The forward K in the second figure sheweth the higher gristle of the nose.  
L 2, the wing of the nose.  
M 2, a muscle forming the cheeks.  
N 2, the muscle of the lower lip.  
O 2, A part of the fift muscle of the lower iaw called Digastricus, that is, double bellied.  
P 2, the bone hyois is set in this place,  
Q R 2, The first muscle of the bone hyois growing to the Rough artery,  
S 2, the second muscle of the bone hyois vnder the chin  
The lower T in the second figure sheweth the third muscle of the bone hyois streatched to the iaw. The vpper T in the second figure sheweth the insertion of the seuenth muscle of the head.  
V V 2, two venters of the fourth muscle of the bone Hyois,  
The backward K( put in stead of X) sheweth the seauenth muscle of the head and his insertion at the vpper T,  
〈◇〉 2, The originall of the grinding muscle from the yoke-bone,    
μ 2 the insertion of this muscle into the lower iaw, ν 2 A small nerue running to the forehead out of the orbe of the eyes, π 2, a nerue propagated to the face, 〈◇〉 2, two beginnings of the seauenth muscle of the head. T 2, His insertion into the Mammillary processe. ● 2, The clauicle or the coller-bone. φ 2, A place where the vessels attayning to the head and the nerues of the arme do passe through.  
The second is a proper muscle[ Table 7. fig. 1. neare B Table 4. fig. 1. B B figu. 2. A] seated in the forepart vppon the temporall muscle, and ariseth from the vpper end of the muscle of the forehead, and is inserted into the vpper part of the eare.  
The third[ Table 7. fig. 1. neare O] ariseth from the nowle aboue the Mammillar processe, where the muscles that moue the head and the shoulder-blade do end, and is implanted on the backside of the eare.  
The fourth proceedeth from the same Mammillary processe vnder the ligament of the gristle of the eare, and is inserted into the whole roote of the eares gristle.[ Table 4 fig. 2. H.] One part of it aboue, another part in the middest, and the third below. The more exact description of these muscles we referre vnto the booke of muscles.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the Gristle of the Eare.  
THe substance of the outward Eare is neither bony nor fleshy[ the interior face of the Eare flayed is exhibited in the first Figure of the sixt Table] but of a middle nature betwixt both, for if it had bene bony it must haue bene of a thinne bone or of a thick. If it had bene made of a thin bone, saith Aristotle in the ninth chapter of his second booke.  

Table 6. Figure 1. Sheweth the fore-face of the outward Eare without the skin.  
Figure 2. sheweth a ligament of the outward Eare whereby it is tyed to the Skull.  
Figure 3. The stony processe being broken sheweth the first cauity and the holes thereof.  
Figure 4. & 5. shew the Labyrinth, the Snayly shell called Cochlea, two windowes and three semicircles.  
TABVLA. VIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
Fig. 1. & 2.  

AA, The outward eare depressed.  
B, The hind part of the outward eare.  
CCC, The circumscription of the whole ligamēt.  
D, a part of the yoke-bone.  
EEE, parts of the scull.   
Fig. 3. 4. & 5.  

F 3, 4, 5, the Ouall hole or the window of the labyrinth, in the 4. figure it is broken.  
G 3, 4, The window of the snayly shell or the winding hole.  
H 3, The watercourse or darke hole betwixt the mammillary processe and appendix called Styloides.  
I 3, The Mammillary processe.  
K 3, The cauity going vnto the mammillary processe whose outward face is all spongy.  
L 3. The interior face.  
M 3, The knub of the nowle-bone inarticulated or ioyned to the first rack-bone of the necke.  
V 3, The hole of the first payre of nerues of the internall Iugular veine. &c.  
NNN 4, 5, The semicircles.  
O 4, 5, The inner face of the snayly shell called cochlea.   de partibus Animalium, then would it easily haue bene broken. If it had beene made of a 
Why not bony,  thicke and solide bone it would haue beene a burthen to the head, and beside would not haue yeelded to outward occurrents. Againe, if it had beene as soft as flesh it would haue fallen into itselfe and haue beene vtterly vnfit to haue made those cauityes, protuberations, furrowes and such like which in the eare are very necessary: neither would it haue receiued the sound which must be returned from a hard body, and so the ingresse of the aire would haue bene hindered.  
It was made therefore of a substance moderately soft and moderately hard, that by reason of the softnesse it might be bent on euery side and giue way to the opposition of 
Why moderately soft.  whatsoeuer doth light against it, that so it might neither be subiect to contusion nor breaking. Againe, the moderate hardnesse thereof makes it fitter to be stretched, to stand vpright, & to be alwayes open, that the ayre together with the sound might euermore gather into it; for saith Cicero in his 2. booke de natura Deorum, when we are a sleep we haue need 
Cicero.  of this sense that we might be waked. Moreouer, the hardnesse makes it fit to receiue the cauities and furrowes which are therein, and whereby the sounds are retayned that they passe not the hole of hearing. Yea whilest the sound runneth through those cauityes, Aristotle saith, it gathereth strength, and by the refraction is after a sort modulated or tuned and so commeth more welcome to the Tympane.  
Finally, because it is moderately hard it yeeldeth also a sound and so the voyce or noyse 
Why moderatelie hard  is better receiued, and as it were, formed without any eccho or singing, or other noise like the fall of waters which happeneth to those Scythians of whom wee made mention euen now, who when their eares are rotted off doe apply hollow shels of Scallops or such like behind the holes of their eares.  
Wherefore it consisteth of one gristle[ Tab. 4. fig 1.] and that flexible, couered ouer with 
The originall of the cartilage.  a thin skin which cleaueth close vnto it. This gristle proceedeth as it were out of the temples and standeth a loofe from them more or lesse. For the first originall of this grystle is from the orbe[ Tab. 3. lib. 7. fig 9. y.] of the hole of hearing which is boared in the temple bone, and exasperated or made rough in the circumference that the gristle might better arise therfrom. At the very original it is thicker & harder; thicker that the root therof might be more firme; & harder because of the neighbourhood of the temple bone from whence it proceedeth; and by how much it standeth further of from the bone of the head by so much it becommeth the softer and the thinner.  
This gristle is also tyed to the stony bone by a strong ligament[ Tab. 8. fig. 2 CCC.] which arisieth with many propagations from the Pericranium where it tendeth toward the 
The ligament  mammillary processe. These propagations when they haue attained to the eare, doe all ioyne into one ligament, which is inserted into the vpper and gibbous part of the eare, to suspend or hang the gristle streight vpward. This gristle is opposed or set against the hole of hearing that the passage thereof might be larger and more extended into the hollownesse of the gristle, by which meanes the sound is as it were scouped vp.   

CHAP. XV. Of the inward Eare.  
_THe inward Eare hath many parts, fiue holes or passages, three small dennes, small bones as many; the Membrane or head of the drum called Tympanum; 
The parts of the inward care.  two Muskles; a Nerue from the fourth and fifth coniugations: a veine & an Artery and the Inbred Ayre. All which are contayned in one bone called Os petrosum, or the stony bone, whose description we will here prosecute at large, because of the bones of hearing therein contained, and make but slender mention thereof in our booke of Bones.  
This stony bone so called, saith Vessalius, because it is like a rugged rocke,[ Tab. 3. lib. 7. fig. 9. s. ae.] is the third and interior processe of the Temple bone running along obliquely forward from the hole of the eare, betwixt the Mammillary processe and the processe of 
The rockie or stony bone.  the yoke bone, and buncheth out in the inner basis of the skull,[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. from a. F toward C. and beyond] betwixt the wedge bone and the nowle bone, so that it is much more conspicuous in the inside of the skull then it is on the outside. This processe is somwear round, the better to containe a greater quantity of Inbred aire: long also somewhat like the ridge of a rocke, and that because the nerue of hearing( which is the softest of all nerues except the Opticks) might run his long course from the braine without danger of breaking.  
VVherefore the production of this bone is inward to receiue the nerue as soon as it yssueth out of the Cerebellum or After-brane. Another reason why this production is lengthned, is because it might make a fit channell or furrow wherein to carry a braunch of the Iugular veine or sleepy artery to the braine.  
But there where it yssueth out of the Temple-bone it is broader and thicker, that those turnings and cauities which were necessary for the Sense of Hearing might be better insculped or wrought therin; yet as it proceedeth forward it endeth by degrees into a sharp Cone or point where the veine or artery entreth into the brain, and so the whole processe is like a Pyramis or spire.[ Tab. 9. fig. 3. 0.  
This bone is exceeding hard for the security of the Organ of Hearing, and harder indeed 
The names of it.  then any bone of the body, whereupon it is called 〈◇〉 Petrosum or Lapidosum, the Rocky or Stonybone. Some vse to cal the temple-bones Lapidosa, & they call this bone the interior processe of the stony-bone. In Infants it is called Os labyrinthi, the bone of the Labyrinth, 
How it is found in children.  in whome it is separated from the temple bones( as also in a Calues head it will easily fall from them when it is sodden) and wanteth the halfe of that passage, which maketh the hole of Hearing in growne bodies. For this hole in Infants is altogither gristly and in dissections found distinct from the rocky bone: and therefore because it is without that passage we may in Infants perceiue without breaking the bone, the Timpane as wel the membrane or head of it, as also the bony circle to which the membrane is fastned: but as the body increaseth and the gristly parts grow drie, they turne into bones euen the hole of hearing itself; and so the rocky bone groweth very fast to the scaly part of the Temple bone vnder which it lieth, and becommeth as it were a processe thereof.  
In describing this bone, we must consider his outside and his inside. His outside as it appeareth either within the scull or without the scull. The outside within the cauity of 
The parts of it.  the scull is couered ouer with a hard & strong crust, as hard as is the substance of the teeth. 
The outside.  The superficies thereof is smooth, not rough as it is without the scull but yet vnequall; because in the middle of the length thereof it buncheth out by reason of the bones of Hearing which in that place are contained;[ Table 9. figure 2. betwixt n and the lower ●] so also in the vpper part there runneth a sharpe and rough line through his length, whereby it is diuided into two sides, and forward it endeth into a rough sharpnesse[ Table 9. figure 2. from F toward d.]  
It hath many perforations that the ayre hauing receiued as it were the stampe or impression 
The perforations of the rocky bone.  of sounds might passe through them vnto the instrument of Hearing. These perforations are of two sorts, some within the scull some without: within the scull there are two; one is a large and patent hole in the face of the processe which looketh backeward, 
Within the scul two. [ Table 4. lib. 7. fig. 10. a Tab. 9. fig. 2. from d to l] and this hole reacheth obliquely outward almost to the very middest of the processe: it is smooth and round in the ingresse, but dilated afterward by degrees as it were into two parts, whereinto the nerue of Hearing is implanted. 
The first.  This hole Platerus accounteth to be the sixt of the Temple bones, and the fourth hole of Hearing. But we shall account it for the seauenth hole of the Temples.  
This cauity in the bones of Children is shorter, and beareth the forme of a hollowed denne or of a porch. But in grown men when the bone is increased that forme perisheth and it receiueth the figure of a fistulated hole or winding burrough; presently after the ingresse of which burrough( as may be perceiued in the scul without dissection) may be foūd two holes in the bottome of the entrance which goe into two bosomes or pipes, the one vpward the other downward[ Tab 9. fig. 2. ef] into which the nerue is deuided and through them conuayed. The one hole or pipe is higher and runneth more manifestly toward the vpper part of the hole of Hearing, passing obliquely outward to the inner part of the processe, and so into that canale or pipe which is called Aquaeductus or the VVater-course.[ ta. 8. fig. 3. H]  
It is distinguished or parted from the second and third cauities onely by a thinne scale, and leadeth along the greater part of the nerue[ Table 9. fig. 2. e] of which we shall speake in the first cauity.  
The other hole or pipe is lower and lesser, sometimes single sometimes double, appearing in the inside of the passage, and leading a long smal surcles of the nerue into the second and third cauities.[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. f]  
The other hole of the Stony bone within the scull which Platerus calleth the seauenth 
The second,  hole of the Temples and the fift of Hearing,[ Table 9. figu. 2. Γ] is in the foreside of the processe, 
Tab. 10. sheweth the eares and the diuers internal parts thereof.  
Figure 1. sheweth the whole externall eare, with a part of the Temple bone.  
Figure 2. sheweth the left bone of the Temple diuided in the middest by the instrument of hearing, whereabout on eicher side there are certaine passages heere particularly described.  
Fig. 3 & 4. Sheweth the three little Bones.  
Fig. 5. sheweth a portion of the bone of the temples which is seene nere the hole of Hearing diuided through the middest, whereby the Nerues, Bones & Membrans may appeare as Vesalius conceyueth of them.  
Fig. 6. sheweth the Vessels, Membranes, Bones & holes of the Organ of Hearing, as Platerus hath described thē. Fig. 7, and 8. sheweth the little bones of the hearing of a man and of a Calfe both ioyned and separated.  
Fig. 9. v sheweth the Muscle found out by Aquapendens.  
TABVLA. X.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III.  
V.  
VI.  
VII.  
VIII.  
IX.  

a. The lower eare or the lap of the eare.  
bb. The circumference of the eare cald in Greeke Helix.  
cc, the interior protuberation or swelling of the eare called Anthelix.  
d, The boate of the outward eare.  
e, the Goates beard called Tragus, wherein are haires growing.  
f, The place against the Goats beard called Antitragus. Figure 2.  
A. A part of the yoke bone.  
B. The sinus or bosome whereinto the lower iaw is articulated.  
CC, the stony bone swelling within the Scull.  
D. The second hole of the bone of the Temples for the passage of the sleepy Artery.  
E, A little scale or thin bone betwixte this hole and the first cauity.  
FFF, the porosity or spongines of the stony bone.  
aa, The externall hole of the eare.  
bb, The bony canale of that passage.  
c, the Tympane or Drumme is here placed at the passage.  
d, the interiour hole into which the nerue is inserted.  
ef. Heere also is the stony bone perforated.  
ggg. A canale of the auditory Nerue from e to g. in the bone of the Temples, yet this Canale is described by itself at the side of the bone aboue the fift Figure.  
α, β, Two holes in the beginning and ending of this Canale.  
〈◇〉. Two other holes in the externall and internall part.  
h. The first cauity, according to some the second, reaching from c to E.  
ii, two canals or pipes of the fyrst cauity.  
k. the higher hole which is shut with the stirropbones  
l. The lower hole alwayes open.  
mm, The second cauity in the bone.  
1, 2, 3. Three litle burrows or holes of the second cauity described apart.  
n, the third cauity lying vnder this supersycies.  
Fig: 3. 4. o 3. A long bone representing a pyramidal Figure  
p 3, 4. the membrane of the drum.  
q 3, 4. A bony ring at the Tympane described also by itself. r, 4. the Mallet or hammer.  
s, The Anuile. t. the Stirrop. Figure 5.  
A, A part of the hole of hearing.  
B. A membrane couering the hole ouerthwart.  
C. The bone of hearing likened to a hammer.  
D, the auditory Nerue.  
G, His distribution through the great hole of hearing.  
E. A branch of this nerue going through a darke hole vnto the Temples.  
F. Another branch falling through the hole wher by a veine doth enter in.  
H, I. A round cauity in the fore-part whereof is placed, the bone noted with I. Fig. 6.  
αα The fyrst hole of the Organ of hearing.  
— β I he auditory Nerue diuided into two partes, where it passeth through the fourth hole. γ the iugular vein with a part of a nerue passing through the first cauity. ♌, where it passeth through his second hole neere to ♌. εε An artery entring that cauitie thorough the third hole, and a nerue falling through the same hole. H, the same artery falling through the syft hole. ●; the lower part of the 5. nerue reaching vnto the 2 & 3. cauity. θθ, A higher part of the 5. nerue broght through the scruing canale or pipe vnto ε where it falleth out. χ, the Tympane or Drum shutting the first cauity. Λ, the three little bones of hearing ioyned together. μ, the third cauity or the Trumper of the organ of hearing. V the second cauity or the mettall mine running out with three burroughs. 〈◇〉, The Canale or water course carrying a Nerue and an artery, opening itself with two holes. Figu: 7 〈◇〉 The Hammer σ, the Anuile, τ, The Stirrop.   narrow and rough like a ragged cleft through which a small artery passeth from the Organe of hearing vnto the scull: we will account this hole for the eight of the Temple bones.  
The holes of the stony bone without the scull are three. The first( which we account 
Without thēsull. The hole of hearing.  for the first hole of the Temples runs into the hole of hearing,[ Tab. 3. lib. 7. fig. 9. γ. Tab 9. fig. 2. aa.] which is called 〈◇〉 meatus auditorius. This hole, because of the gristle which is extended and stretched about the beginning thereof, hath a large and ample orifice resembling a caue or den, and it runneth betwixt the mammillarye processe, & a part of the Iugall or yoke bone.  
In yong children, saith Coiter, it is all gristly, in those that are growne it is but halfe gristly and halfe bony. The gristly part groweth out of the gristle of the eare: the bonie out the bony circle of the Temple bone. For in the first conformation it is like a bony ring distinguished from the Temple bone by a cartilage comming betweene them, from which cartilage ariseth the membrane of the Tympane or head of the drumme: and this may be perceiued in the skuls of infants new borne till they bee sixe or seuen months old if they be boyled; but afterwards this gristle is dryed vp & vtterly obliterated & the bony ring or circle, of which we shall speake in the next chapter, is no more distinguished from the hole of hearing but vnited to the rest of the bone and streigthned a little, making a long & round bony canal or pipe[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. ll.] wherein to receiue a greater quantity of ayre, & also that the passage might more patent and open vnto any sound: which canall runneth inward to the head of the drumme,[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. from e to c.] and that obliquely vpward, or if you will describe the progresse thereof from within foorth, then say, that it slopeth a little downeward, and from behind runneth something obliquely forward into the outward eare, where it becommeth somewhat more ample and large.  
This passage therefore is oblique and winding to breake the vehement appulsion, or rushing in of cold ayre, that it should not dissolue the harmony of the Tympane and nerue 
The forme of the hole of hearing.  of hearing. Againe, that a strong sound before it affect the Tympane might be comunicated to the internall ayre to & the nerue; or be broken and so touch the membrane gently & without violence, for a slope blow offendeth lesse then that which commeth in a streight line, and yet for all this we see often times that the noyse of great Ordinance or of Bels, if a man be in the steeple, yea an intollerable cold ayer doe affect the Eare with paine and dolour; somtimes also breake the Tympane from whence deafnesse followeth.  
This passage also runneth obliquely from behind forward and vpward, lest those things that fall outwardly vpon the eare should easily be admitted into the cauity, as also if any thing haue by chance insinuated itself that it might with greater facility fall forth againe. It is by degrees streigthned or becommeth narrow; first that the ayer being beaten might be gathered into a narrow compasse, by which our hearing is farre more distinct. Againe, that if any small creatures should get into the entrance of the cauity, yet the streightnesse thereof in the bottome might stay their course or returne them backe againe.  
The like also we may say of crummes, of pease, or of any such thing that should happen to fall into the eare. There is also in this place a bilious viscide and bitter humor wherwith, saith Cicero in 2. booke de natura Deorum, as with lime such creatures are intangled. Wherefore also there are haires growing in those particles of the eare which before we called Tragus and Antitragus resembling the beard of a Goate.  
This hole also is solide and hard, for by that meanes the sound in the passage beeing stronglyer beaten against the bony or hard sides of the passage is so much the more intentended 
The substance of it.  then if it had bene more membranous or soft. It is also inuested or couered with skin, partly to breake the sound which would haue bene more vehement if it had beaten against a naked bone: partly also lest the bone should haue bene corrupted or tainted by the ayer: wherefore it is hard, thicke, polished and strongly ioyned to the bone.  
Finally, this passage in the beginning and the end hath certaine circles, the outward of which is rough,[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. b.] because of the gristle of the eare which groweth therto: to the inner circle the small membrane of the Tympane or the drumme-head is stretched and tyed.[ Tab. 9. fig. 2. c.]  
The primary vse of this hole or passage is, that the ayer altered by the sound, might 
The first vse of it.  through it be deriued vnto the eare, and so through the concauity thereof might insinuate itself from the backepart obliquely forward to the membrane of the Tympane; for through narrow, concauous, smooth and hard passages sounds, are commonly carryed, not onely with more ease, but also do more exquisitely represent the nature of the sound. And this shall bee easily perceiue that will strike a trunke very gently at one end, so that he that standeth by him may not heare it; and yet if a man lay his eare to the back end of the trunk he shall easily heare how often the fore end is striken; because in the trunke as in a narrow place the ayre is condensed and by that meanes the sound vnited and sharpned: whereasif the ayre that is beaten by the sounding body shall passe thorough a large place, it will bee diffused and dissipated and loose much of his strength.  
The secondary vse of this hole of hearing is for the expurgation of the chollericke excrement 
The second.  of the brain,( for phlegme is rarely purged this way because of his thicknes) which through the veines attaineth to the membrane of the Tympane and thorough it sweateth into the hole of Hearing. In this hole also we finde a muscle of which we shall speake afterward.  
There is another hole which we account to be the third hole of the Temple-bone[ ta. 3. li. 7. fig. 9. V] 
Another perforation.  scituated neare the first hole of the wedge-bone, and is a great deale narrower then the former. It is oblique, short and double, and admitteth a braunch of the Iugular veine; emitteth also or sendeth out a small branch of the nerue of Hearing.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Canale out of the Eare into the mouth.  
_THe third outward hole of the Stony-bone which we account for the fift hole of the Temple-bone[ Table 3. lib. 7. fig. 9. ♌] is scituated betwixt the Mammillary processe and the appendixe called Styloides, and endeth into a hole of canale which passeth from the eare into the mouth. Of this passage Aristotle made mention, but Eustachius was the first that described it, and after him Volcherus Coiter. This hole or passage is like a round pipe or small quill, larger in the beginning and passeth obliquely to the inward and foreside of the Basis of the braine, and in the middest of foure holes it penetrateth the whole bone where it is encreased by a substaunce 
Where it perforateth the bone.  that is partly gristly and partly membranous. But before wee prosecute this passage further, we will shew you those foure holes in the middest of which this passage thorough the bone is.  
The first therefore is on the backeside where the sleepy artery entreth into the scull. The second is on the foreside through which the fourth coniugation of nerues yssueth out of the scull. The third at the outside making way for the artery which is to be distributed in to the Durameninx. The fourth at the inside is a fissure made of the extremities of the wedge and stony bones, passing obliquely downeward and forward. And in the very middest of these perforations doth this cauity pierce through the bone.  
Now to return vnto the substance. VVe sayd before that it was partly gristly partly membranous. 
The substance of it.  For at the last of the 4 holes or the fissure which is common to the wedge and the Tēplebones the substance of it is gristly and very thick. But on the opposite part it is not exactly gristly but as it were membranous & becommeth thinner. This canale thus encreased with substance of another kinde passeth between two muscles of the throate as the sorenamed fissure passeth & neare the root of those processes which we likened to Bats wings, on the inside, I say, of them it determineth into one of the cauities of the nostrils, & is inserted into the thicke coate of the Palat neare the roote of the Vuula. But the inward extremity or end of this passage where it respecteth the middle cauity of the nostrilles becommeth a strong gristle bunching or swelling much outward, which is couered with the mucous or slimy coate of the nose, and set as a Porter to keep the end or outlet of the passage.  
The figure of it is not round but a little depressed making 2 angles, the hollownes thereof is much about the proportion of a goose quill, yet so that it is twice as broad in the ende 
The figure of it.  as it is in the beginning, and is likewise couered with a mucous coate, but that thin.  
It was made gristly that the way might be alwayes open and that it should not hurt the 
Why gristly.  neighbour parts with his hardnesse, but easily yeeld without danger of breaking. Moreouer, it was couered with a mucous or slimy coate, which Laurentius compareth to a value such as groweth within the veines as we shall vnderstand hereafter: the vse of which coate is to couer the orifice of this passage within the mouth, that euill vapours might not exhale out of the mouth into the eares. The termination of this passage is on both sides common to the nosethrilles, the pallate and the canale itself, that by this meanes the 
Where it determines in the mouth.  mouth might be a fit receptacle for all the kindes of excrements of the braine; and( which sheweth the wonderfull prouidence and wisedome of Nature or rather of the God therof) the very end of it is where the muscle of the Chops is scituate; that so when vpon our swallowing the chops are dilated or opened by the muscle, this passage also is recluded or opened to giue way to the descending excrement.  
The chiefe vse therefore of this passage is for expurgation, to leade along the superfluities 
The chiefe vse of it.  that fall from the heade, by the eare into the mouth, as also to purge and depurate that aire which is implanted in the instrument of hearing; for it was necessary that many excrements should in this place be gathered together, because the Braine lyeth aboue it which yeeldeth much excrement: and we may well conceiue that many of those Excrements are gathered together about the eare, by the quantity that issueth sometimes outward through the hole of hearing.  
An honest man of good credit tolde me that hee had beene deafe three or foure 
A Storie  yeares, at length his eare was cleansed by one that professed some skill in curing deafenesse, and that in two daies he drew out of his eare the quantitie of two great Wall-nut shels ful of wax, and that therupon he instantly recouered his hearing againe. If therfore there were so manie thinne excrements which could sweate through the fast membrane of the Tympane, what a multitude shall wee imagine may lurke within, which for their thicknesse cannot possibly sweate through?  
Aquapendens also testifieth, that he hath often obserued these inward cauities especiallie in children to be full of a thicke humour, slimy and mucous, which ought to haue bene purged away by this canale or passage: otherwise if it stay within, either it altogether stoppeth vp the eare, or else being resolued by inward heat is conuerted into wind, from whence come those singing noises and murmurs of the eares and consequentlie the deprauation or vtter amission and losse of hearing.  
Hence therefore we may obserue, that in inward offences of the eares, it is a very reasonable 
The vse of Masticatories in deafenesse.  course for the Physitian to prescribe Masticatories, beecause the waies are open, either for nature to expell being prouoked, or for the medicine to draw euen crasse and thicke matter by this way into the mouth. Beside by this meanes the passage shalbe kept drie, and the drier it is the more fit to receiue sounds. And hence it is, that Hippocrates in the 17. Aphorisme of the third Section saith, that the North winde because it is drie makes a man heare the better, and on the contrarie, the South-winde which is moyst duls and offends the eare.  
Another vse of this Canale is for the behoofe of the In-bred aire of the eare: first, to 
The 2. vse of the Canale.  purge it and make it clearer, drier and thinner: againe to restore it and refresh it; for it is not to be doubted but that new aire is supplied out of the mouth by this passage. For considering that the Ingenit ayre is perpetuallie wasted by the inbred heate, it is agreeable to the wisedome of Nature that it shoulde bee supplied by a regeneration of newe aire which must be made of externall aire, because the ingenite aire was at the first made of externall. Furthermore, that the aire doth passe out of the mouth into the ears, we are taught both by Aristotle in the cleauenth chapter of the first booke of his Historie of Creatures and also by experience, because when a man yawneth wide hee cannot heare what is spoken, and beside he perceiueth a noise in his eares. In like manner, when a man blowes his nose or with anie force conteines his breath, hee shall euer perceiue that the aire entereth into his eares, and with a certaine perturbation whereby the implanted aire is disturbed, because it is a drift not without some violence or constraint; but vvhen the aire insinuateth itself of it owne accord for the refection of that which is bredde in the eare, then is the motion gentle so that we do not perceiue it. And beside the length of the passage prepareth and fitteth the newe aire for the refection and nourishment of the old. We may also imagine that by reason of this passage Alcmaeon of whome Aristotle maketh mention in the place aboue quoted, did thinke that Goates drew their breath not onely by their mouths and by their Nosethrils, but also by their eares, which we haue no great Reason to thinke strange, because we see that cunning Tobacconistes( a generation of new and addle Artists) can driue the smoake out of their mouthes thorough their eare.  
A third vse of this canale is, that if it happen the sound cannot directly passe vnto the Nerue of Hearing by the hole of the eare, that then at least some of it might this waie 
The third vse  through the mouth be conueyed vnto the organ of Hearing, and so those that are deafe by outward accident might receyue the sound or voice by their mouths. And this wee 
How a dease man may bee made to hear.  may verie well discerne by the receipt of the sound of a Musicall instrument. For if a man stoppe both his eares verie close and hold a wand in his mouth, the other end whereof doth touch any instrument that is plaide vpon, he that so holdeth the wand in his mouth shall be able to discerne the Musicke. In like manner if in the night time you be desirous to know whether any man be comming toward you, set a staffe vpon the ground or but a sword, and hold the end or pommell betwixt your teeth, and you shall heare a great way further off then your outward eare will bee able to discerne especially if the waie be stonie.  
A fourth vse of this canale is, that in a vehement and violent noyse such as the shooting of ordenance, thunder & such like is, the membrane of the Tympane or head of the drum 
The seurth vse.  might be secured from breaking, for surely it would be in great danger to breake if the Inbred aire had no passage out. For when this Inbred ayre is mooued if it could not retire backeward, it must presse the membrane outward toward the eare, and the outward ayre we know forceth it inward, by which two contrary inforcements it could not but be endangered, whereas now the inbred ayre hauing an out-let into which it may retyre, it leaueth the membrane scope and roome to yeeld to the impulsion of the outward ayre.  
He that would find this passage must take a dryed skull and put a hogs bristle into the hole of hearing, and he shall perceiue that it will issue out again in the palat of the mouth. 
How this passagei● found in a seull.  But in a greene head the holes of this canale are very conspicuous in the same palate. And thus much of the canale which runneth from the eare vnto the mouth, as also of the externall part of the stony bone within the skull with the processe and holes that belong vnto it.  
The other part of the exterior superficies of this stony processe or rocky bone without 
Of the superficies of this bone without the seull.  the skul is diuersly exasperated and made vnequall with knubs, bosoms or cauities, posrosities or small holes and lines running in it. So that the ancients did rightly compare it to a craggy rocke. The vse of which inequalities is that from them the muskles might better arise and into them be better inserted.  
This bone also hath belonging vnto it a processe and an Appendix. The processe is somewhat thicke, and because it resembleth the tears of a womans dug it is called 〈◇〉 
The mammillary processes of the stony bone.  mammillaris.[ Tab. 3. lib. 7. fig 8. M. fig. 9. K.] This processe is not found in infants, but ariseth afterward. The appendix is slender, long and sharpe, and therefore called 〈◇〉. Coi●● calleth it Os sagittale, os clauale, os acuale; from the resemblance it hath with an arrow, with a nayle, or with a needle. It is also called 〈◇〉, because it is like a spurre.[ Tab. 3. lib. 7. fig. 9. ii.] 
Of the appēdix Styloides.  This appendix in infants new borne is gristly, but afterward becommeth bony when the bones grow and the gristles are dryed; yet for the most part as it is in other appendices there remaineth in it some remembrance of a gristle. But of these we shall spea●e more at large in our discourse of the bones of the head. In the meane time thus much shal suffise to haue sayd concerning the externall superficies of this stony processe of the Temple bones or of the rocky bone whether you will, as well within the skull as without.  
On the inside this stony bone is not solide, the reason was, that it should not bee too 
The inside of the stony bone Three cauities.  heauy, but thrilled and perforated with infinite holes, dens and scrued passages,[ Tab. 18. lib. 7. fig. 2. ag, 3. 2. m n E i.] and in a word, the greatest part of it is a very sponge wherin the implanted or inbred ayre is laboured or perfected. But in the middest of it there are three notable cauities formed, especially to help our hearing; the smal partitions of which cauities, although they be very thin because the bone should be light, yet are they very fast and strong bones. But because the membrane of the Tympane or head of the drumme is interposed betwixt the hole of hearing and the first of these cauities, we will intreat of the Tympane before we come vnto the cauitie.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the Membrane of the Tympane or head of the Drumme.  
_THe Membrane of the Tympane which Hippocrates first of al men, in his book de earnibus, made mention of vnder the name of 〈◇〉, that is, of a skin in the hole of hearing, is called by Aristotle in the 83. text of his second booke de anima 〈◇〉. Galen in the sixth chapter of his eight booke de vsu partium, 
The names of the mēbrane of the Tympane.  calleth it 〈◇〉, a lid, and 〈◇〉, a couering. Some call it Tympanum, because it is stretched ouer the first cauity as a peece of Vellam ouer the head of a Drumme, or because as a Drumme being beaten with a sticke maketh a great sound, so this membrane being beaten vppon by the ayre, communicateth this sound vnto the nerue of sense. But it may most properly bee called not the Tympane or drumme, but the membrane or head of the drumme, because it is stretched vpon the bony circle wee shall speake of afterward and receiuing the impression of the sound returneth the same againe vnto the sense.[ Tab. 10. fig 3. and 4. p. Tab. 11. d.] It is scituated betwixt the hole of 
Situation.  hearing, at whose inward end it is set, and the first cauity of the inside of the stony bone, which cauity we properly call Tympanum. It is extended ouer the cauity obliquely forward 
The reason thereof. The second reason.  and vpward, as if a man should couer the sloping cut of a writing pen with a filme: and the reason of this scituation is, because it might more directly respect the first cauity which is somewhat higher then the hole of hearing. Againe, that the violence of the ayre, of water or of any such like that might by accident fall into the eare, should not directly or by a right line attaine vnto the membrane to offer it violence.  
The figure of it is round[ Tab. 10. fig, 6. 〈◇〉. Tab. 11. d:] curued a little inward in the midst 
The figure of it.  like that herbe which we call Pennigrasse or Venus nauell, the better to receiue the sound which commeth from without, because that which is concauous or hollow doth more perfectly, and fully receiue the sound.  
Concerning the substance and originall of this membrane, there are almost as many opinions 
Diuers opinions concerning his originall.  as there be writers. Some think it ariseth from the Brain, some frō the dura meninx, some from the periostium, some from the pericranium, some from the nerues of the fift coniugation, some from the Pia mater. But if it may bee lawfull for vs to interpose our opinion, we perswade ourselves, saith Bauhine, that it ariseth from the seede itself, as beeing generated in the first conformation as we sayd before the membrane of the Cristalline humour was generated; and the reason that perswadeth vs thereto, is, because the very substance of it differs from the substance of the other membranes in the body. But if this opinion should not please, we next of all incline to them who produce it from the periostium because if you dissect the head of an infant, you shall finde this membrane to cleaue to the periostium,[ Tab. 11. kk.] where it couereth the scaly bone and the neighbour parts: as also that at the hole of hearing the periostium is dilated, where there breaketh or riseth out of the stony bone a little oblique and round processe much like a quill, when the first oblique incision is made in it toward the framing of a pen, which processe was ordayned that this membrane might be connected with the stony bone.  
This processe is called the ring or the bony circle[ Tab. 10. fig. 3. *. Tab. 11. e.] out of 
The bony ring.  whose circumference the hole of hearing beginneth. This processe hath a double originall[ Tab. 11. n.] the lower groweth out of the scaly bone and resembleth a knub or knot, which bending a little obliquely inward is placed before the doore or entrance of the first cauity, where on the inside it hath a round furrow, or is lightly excauated in the middest round about the circumference with two bony brims or edges swelling out on either side, in which furrow the membrane groweth very fast round about, that it might bee secured frō the violent motions either of the external Ayre entring in, or the internal ayre beating outward, as it happeneth in oscitations or yawnings when wee hold our breath long, or when we blow our Noses.  
Wherefore it is most like that circle in a Drumme to which the Vellam is fastened.[ Tab. 10. fig. 3. & 4. q. Tab. 11. d.] And this bony ring in infants is easily separated from the Temple bone, but in growne bodyes it is so close ioyned on one side to the stony bone on the other side to the hole of hearing, that a man would not thinke it had beene euer separated from them: neither indeed can it bee separated in growne bodyes without breaking. Yet the furrow remaineth still to be seene. And thus the membrane of the Tympane seemeth to be separated in the circumference from the Pericranium. But let vs heare what Galen can say of this membrane.  
Galen inquiring into the substance of this membrane, and instituting a comparison betwixt the couering or coate of the Opticke and the first nerue of hearing, and afterward 
A passage out of Galen proouing that hee knew this membrane.  of the instrument of smelling, sheweth; That it was not fit these Nerues should be left naked, because then they would haue bene exposed to all outward iuiuries. Seeing then they needed a couering, either it must be crasse and thight as that of the eye; or rare & porous, or in a meane betwixt both. It behooued not it should bee crasse and thight, because such a couering would haue hindered the accesse of the Ayre when it was mooued, especially if the motion were but easie, as it is when we speake ordinarily one to another. Neither ought it to haue beene rare and porous, for then the Ayre would haue peirced through it and so the nerues should easily haue bene offended and the Braine itself refrigerated.  

Tab. 10. sheweth the eares and the diuers internal parts thereof.  
Figure 1. sheweth the whole externall eare, with a part of the Temple bone.  
Figure 2. sheweth the left bone of the Temple diuided in the middest by the instrument of hearing, where about on either side there are certaine passages heere particularly described.  
Fig. 3 & 4. Sheweth the three little Bones.  
Fig. 5. sheweth a portion of the bone of the temples which is seene nere the hole of Hearing diuided through the middest, whereby the Nerues, Bones & Membrans may appeare as Vesalius conceyueth of them.  
Fig. 6. sheweth the Vessels, Membranes, Bones & holes of the Organ of Hearing, as Platerus hath described thē.  
Fig. 7, and 8. sheweth the little bones of the hearing of a man and of a Calfe both ioyned and separated.  
Fig. 9. sheweth the Muscle found out by Aquapendens.  
TABVLA. X.  
FIG. I.  
III.  
II.  
V.  
VII.  
VI.  
IX.  
VIII.  

a. The lower eare or the lap of the eare.  
bb. The circumference of the eare cald in Greeke Helix.  
cc, the interior protuberation or swelling of the eare called Anthelix.  
d, The boate of the outward eare.  
e, the Goates beard called Tragus, wherein are haires growing.  
f, The place against the Goats beard called Antitragus. Figure 2.  
A. A part of the yoke bone.  
B. The sinus or bosome whereinto the lower iaw is articulated.  
CC, the stony bone swelling within the Scull.  
D. The second hole of the bone of the Temples for the passage of the sleepy Artery.  
E, A little scale or thin bone betwixt this hole and the first cauity.  
FFF, the porosity or spongines of the stony bone.  
aa, The externall hole of the eare.  
bb, The bony canale of that passage.  
c, the Tympane or Drumme is here placed at the passage.  
d, the interiour hole into which the nerue is inserted.  
ef. Heere also is the stony bone perforated.  
ggg. A canale of the auditory Nerue from e to g. in the bone of the Temples, yet this Canale is described by itself at the side of the bone aboue the fift Figure.  
α, β, Two holes in the beginning and ending of this Canale.  
γ, ♌. Two other holes in the externall and internall part.  
h. The first cauity, according to some the second, reaching from c to E.  
ii, two canals or pipes of the first cauity.  
k, the higher hole which is shut with the stirropbone  
l. The lower hole alwayes open.  
mm, The second cauity in the bone.  
1, 2, 3. Three litle burrows or holes of the second cauity described apart.  
n, the third cauity lying vnder this superficies.  
Fig: 3. 4. o 3. A long bone representing a pyramidal Figure  
p 3, 4. the membrane of the drum.  
q 3, 4. A bony ring at the Tympane described also by itself. r, 4. the Mallet or hammer.  
s, The Anuile. t. the Stirrop. Figure 5.  
A, A part of the hole of hearing.  
B. A membrane couering the hole ouerthwart.  
C. The bone of hearing likened to a hammer.  
D. the auditory Nerue.  
G, His distribution through the great hole of hearing.  
E. A branch of this nerue going through a darke hole vnto the Temples.  
F. Another branch falling through the hole wher by a veine doth enter in.  
H, I. A round cauity in the fore-part whereof is placed, the bone noted with I. Fig. 6.  
αα The fyrst hole of the Organ of hearing.    
β The auditory Nerue diuided into two partes, where it passeth through the fourth hole. γ the iugular vein with a part of a nerue passing through the first cauity. ♌, where it passeth through his second hole neere to ♌. εε An artery entring that cauitie thorough the third hole, and a nerue falling through the same hole. H, the same artery falling through the fift hole. u, the lower part of the 5. nerue reaching vnto the 2 & 3. cauity. θθ, A higher part of the 5. nerue broght through the scruing canale or pipe vnto θ where it falleth out. x, the Tympane or Drum shutting the first cauity. λ, the three little bones of hearing ioyned together. μ, the third cauity or the Trumpet of the organ of hearing. V the second cauity or the mettall mine running out with three burroughs. ξ, π, Th● Canale or watercourse carrying a Nerue and an artery, opening itself with two holes. Figu: 7 & 8, ● The Hammer σ, the Anuile, τ, The Stirrop.  
Wherefore Nature framed a Muniment or defence, to helpe the security of the Instrument, of a moderate Consistence. And thus hee concludeth: Nature therefore foreseeing that if shee had made the construction of that Nerue with a strong Maniment, it would indeede haue beene fitte to beare off offences: but the Instrument of the Sense must of necessity haue beene Deafe. Againe, if the construction of the Nerue had had no defence, it would haue beene very subiect to outward iniuries: and therefore shee tooke a way betwixt them both, and made for the construction of this Nerue a helpe, neither too stiffe to hinder the Sense of Hearing: nor too rare, that the ayre should penetrate through it, but of a moderate Consistence, which might not onely secure the Instrument from violence, but also receiue and returne the impressions of sounds.  
Againe, the same Galen writing of the couering of the Instrument of Smelling, sayeth, that it needed 〈◇〉 a Defence more rare then that of the Instrument of Hearing which is fast and thight, because the obiect of the Sense of Smelling is thicker then the obiect of the Sense of Hearing: for the obiect of Smelling is a vaporous substance wherein the odour doeth exhale, but the obiect of Hearing is ayre altered only by an impression of Sounds.  
By this wee may see that Galen was not vtterly ignorant of this membrane, and wee haue the rather inserted this passage out of him, because many late Anatomistes haue auouched that Galen made no mention thereof at all, but was vtterly ignorant of it. VVe returne now vnto the membrane.  
The substance therefore of this membrane is thinne, fast, dry, translucide and of exquisite sence: 
The substāce of the membrane.  so thinne and fine that Hipocrates compares it to a Spiders webbe, the better to transmit an easie voice or soft sound( for it was necessary vnto the act of Hearing or if you wil vnto the passion of Hearing, that the sound should be communicated with the In bred Ayre although the substances of the outward and inward ayres are not mingled) and yet so strong withall that it might be able to beare a pulsation which might affect the instrument of Hearing.  
Wherefore Bony it behoued not to be, for then the instrument of Sense would haue beene deafe, because the in bred Ayre would not haue receiued the Sound and alteration 
Why not bonie.  of the externall ayre, and if the bone had beene so thin that it could haue transmitted the affection of the ayre, then also would it haue bin in danger of breaking.  
It was not fit this couering or instrument should be fleshy, because if that which receiued 
Why not fleshie.  the sound had beene laxe or loose it would not so well haue transmitted the impression, for wee see that the strayter a drumme is braced the shriller sound it yeelds. Againe, if it had beene fleshy it would haue bin soft and full of moysture, and by that meanes would haue admitted of many things to cleaue or sticke vnto it which now doe fall away from it, because it is membranous.  
This partition therefore or muniment, or couering, call it what you will, is membranous and thinne withall: for if in the first conformation it bee produced a thicke and fast membrane then is the party deafe incurably, as Arantius and Laurentius haue well remembred.  
But wee finde sometimes before this membrane on the outside that there groweth a certaine thicke coate beside the intent of Nature, of which Aegineta maketh mention in 
How children become deafe and dumbe.  the 23. Chapter of his 2. booke, and Aquapendens saith he found it twice, but Aegineta teacheth also the way how to cure it; yet it is much to be doubted that if it grow from the Natiuity such children will become deafe and dumbe; Deafe because this coate hindreth the appulsion of the sound vnto the membrane; Dumbe because they are not able either to conceiue with their minds or to vtter with their voices, that they are altogither ignorāt of.  
And as such a coate or filme before the membrane doth cause deafnesse, so it sometime hapneth that immediatly behinde the membrane there is a collection of mucous matter, or an affluence of some humour from whence proceedeth a great difficulty of Hearing hard to be cured: but if the humour be thinne then the Hearing is not so much impeached as the patient is vexed with ringings, singings, whistlings and hissing murmures in his Eares. Furthermore this membrane is thight and fast, hauing in it no conspicuous pores but neruous & strong, the better to resist outward iniuries & violent incusions of the ayre.  
It is also very dry that it might more readily receiue the Sound, and more distinctly 
Why the mēbrane is dry.  make represetation of the same. For we imagine that the image of the Sound is receiued in this membrane without the matter, euen as the images of colours are receiued in the horny membrane of the eye. Beside Hippocrates sayth that drynesse is a great helpe to the conception or reception of Sounds, because that which soundeth shrillest is farthest hard, as we haue experience in small bells which are made of thin and fast Lattin plate.  
This membrane is also translucide and pollished like a Looking-glasse both within & without, sauing that on the inside the processe of the bone cald the Mallet or Hāmer is extended vpward vnto the middest thereof like as we see in the tayle of a drumme there is a chord stretched ouerthwart through the midst.  
The vse of this membrane is to close vp the hole of Hearing in a round compasse, & like a hedge or wall to distinguish it from the fourth cauity of the Stony-bone, and therefore 
The diuers vses of the membrane.  Laurentius calleth it septum, the partition. It serueth also to distinguish the externall from the internall parts of the care; but especially to separate the In-bred ayre, whose duty it is to receiue the impressions of Sounds from the externall or the ayre that cometh from without, for if these two ayres had beene mixed and confounded, the outward ayre being oftentimes foggy and thicke, must needes haue made the inward ayre also more vnfit for sensation. Neither doeth it only keep the inward ayre from permixtion with the outward but also containeth it that it should not vanish of it owne accord, or be dispersed and dissipated in vehement noyses or sounds. Adde hereto that it keepeth out the externall aire so that neither the cold nor heate thereof can offend the nerues of the braine. Finally it defendeth the inward parts from outward wrongs, so that if a man be ouer head and eates in the water, yet the water cannot passe beyond the Membrane: In like maner it keepeth out flies and other such busie creatures, dust and whatsoeuer else should happen to fall into the hole of hearing.  
But because the thinnesse of this membrane made it subiect to bee violated or indangered by such outward accidents, Nature for more security hath placed on the inside therof three bones, a chord or string and two muscles wherby this membrane is made better able to endure the force of the ayre when it is beaten against it.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the small bones of the Organe of hearing, and of the Chord.  
_THe three bones of the Organe of hearing were not knowne to Anatomists till the age wherein we liue. Those two which are knowne by the names of the Anuill or the Stithy, and the Mallet or Hammer were inuented or 
The finders out of these bones.  found out by that restorer of Anatomie, Iohannes Carpus of Bononia, and the third Iohannes Phillippus Ingrassias challengeth vnto himselfe, so doth also Columbus and Eustachius, and well it may be that all these being so oculate Anatomists did find it out by their industry. But now we haue them, it shall bee more expedient precisely to describe them vnto you then to determine who were the first inuenters of them.  
These bones therefore are scituated in the first cauity of the stony bone, which before we called the Tympane that is the drume or Taber, and because their figure is diuers they 
The scituatiō  haue also diuers names giuen them, partly from the similitude they haue with the things, whose names they beare, partly also from their vse. The first is called Malleus or Malleolus the Mallet or the Hammer. The second Incus the Anuill or the Stithy. The third Stapes 
Their nerues.  the Stirrop[ Tab. 10. fig. 6. 7. 8.]  
The Hammer or Mallet[ Tab. 10. fig. 4. r. fig. 5. C. fig. 8. q. Tab. 11. c. l.] is seated in 
The Mallet.  the beginning of the first cauitie of the stony bone[ Tab. 10. fig. 2. neere to c.] at the end of the hole of hearing. This bone saith Coiter hath his name rather from his vse then from his forme, because when the membrane is mooued, the Mallet also is mooued therewithall: or because like a hammer it lies vpon the Anuill, and in the motion beates vpon the membrane. Others doe liken it to the thigh-bone, as Vessalius on this manner. As the thigh neere the necke thereof hath two processes, so this small bone hath two proportionable processes in the necke thereof, whereby it groweth more strongly to his membrane. Againe as the necke of the thigh bending obliquely to the cauity of the hanch endeth in a round head; so this bone departing inward from the membrane and ending in a round smooth & plain head, is ioyned to the vpper part of the other bone by the interposition of the membrane, as if a hammer were loosely tyed to a Smiths Anuill. This first bone therefore is long and crooked, hauing a head, a necke, and a taile.  
The head is the vpper and thicker part, long and bunching out, for this head is not perfectly round, as hauing ingrauen in the outside of the top a smal and long cauity wherin 
His head.  it receiueth the head of the second bone which we called the Anuill, whereto being ioyned, it lifteth it vpward and forward to the side of the hole of hearing.  

Necke.  The necke of it is but narrow, yet on the backeside thereof do two small processes shoote out, which are very slender and sharpe. To the vppermost adhereth the ligament or chord & the lowermost resteth vpon the membrane that it might not be driuen too far inward or broken. But the vse of this processe I cannot better demonstrate then by those Chords which they vse to stretch vpon the bottome of a drumme whereby it is secured from the violence of the aire which is within it; which aire otherwise being so violentlie and so often beaten, would rend the bottome asunder. Betwixt these is a small cauity & right opposite against it a little knubbe into which one of the Tendons of the Muscle is implanted, as the other is into the necke.  
The taile of this bone which Fallopius calleth Pediculus as it were the Stalke is somwhat broad in the top, but endeth into a small knot which receyueth the insertion or tendon 
And Taile.  of the the Muscle; ( Columbus addeth, that into this sharpe processe there determineth a a small Nerue from the fift coniugation which affoordeth a hairy and crooked braunch which is inserted into the labyrinth of the eare) presently after it runneth backward and downward, and by degrees endeth into a slender and sharpe processe, somwhat rough and a little incurued or hooked, so that it cleaueth to the Membrane of the Tympane, not in the end or point of this processe but thoroughout his length, yet not in the verie middest of the Membranes bredth.[ Tab. 10. fig. 4. from r to P]  
The reason of this Connexion is partly to defend the Membrane from outward violence, that it should not be driuen beyonde his extent( wherein also it is assisted by the Chord of which we shall heare euen now) partly to draw it downward and inwarde for the processe we spake of is curued or hooked inward, and by this meanes the Membrane is made inward conuexe, and outward hollowe, in which figure it is also by this processe preserued, whence it commeth to passe that the outward aire which entereth into hole of Hearing slideth from the sides of the Membrane and gathereth itself togither in the center where the Mallet hangeth, and beeing so vnited and intended is a great furtherance for the communication of the sound to the inward partes.  
Againe, as this hammer groweth to the Membrane[ Tab. 10. fig. 6; ●] by his lower processe and the inferiour part of his taile, as also to the orbe of the hole of Hearing by 
The Cōnexion of the Hāmer.  the benefite of a Ligament which runneth ouerthwart from the prominence which is on one side the hole to the prominence on the other; so that it is no where at libertie, but on euery side fastned to the Membrane: in like maner the head therof is articulated to the Anuill vpon which it lyeth by that kinde of articulation or iuncture which we cal Ginglymos.[ Tab. 10. fig. 6, 7, 8] For in the Hammer and the Anuile there is a cauity and a head, and the Hammer is moued aboue the Anuile. Notwithstanding this Hammer & the Anuile after a man is dead are so closely ioyned( whither it be so in liuing bodies it is much doubted) that Nature seemeth to haue as much vse of their continuity & vnity as of their diuision and plurality: for being two they do better safegard and defend the Membrane, but their continuation auayleth no whit lesse for the better conueyance of the sound. Wherefore although the articulation of these two bones is worthily saide to be per Ginglymon because they mutually receiue and are receiued one of another, yet because of their straite and close copulation some are of opinion that their iuncture is rather to bee referred to that kinde which wee call Synarthrosis, the meaning of which words of Art shall be at full expounded in our last booke of the bones.  
Finally, the Hammer is a longer bone then the Anuile but withall more slender, because 
The forme of it.  it was to mooue aboue the Anuile, and wee know it is reasonable that that vvhich beareth should be greater then that which is borne. Notwithstanding both these bones in the place where they are articulated or ioyned, are much greater and thicker then in their other part, which thing to say true may bee obserued almost in the articulations of 
The Anuile.  all other bones of the body.  
The Anuile[ Tab. 10. fig. 4 s. Fig. 5. I. figure. 7 and 8. b. Tab. 11, m] is the second bone which is situated in the hinder side of the first cauity and lyeth nexte to the Hammer to which it is opposite and couereth( saith Coiter) that part of the Membrane which is not couered by the Hammer, yet so that his thicker part is toward the care and his legges( if we may so cal them) or his thinner parts toward the Tympane. Some are of opinion as Columbus and Archang. that this bone had his name from his action, because as an Anuile it receiueth the stroke of the Hammer which mooueth aboue it and beateth against it 
The reason of the name. . Others conceiue that it hath the name from the similitude it hath with a Smiths Stithy or Anuile, not that great one wheron they driue sledges of iron, but the little and moouable Anuiles which are partly plaine and partly round. And heereupon Vesalius, Eustaclius, Coiter, Platerus and Aquapendens, because it is not altogether plaine as a great Anuile is, 
Why called Dens.  but hath an vnequall cauity such as is to be seene in the top of the Grinding teeth, haue likened it to a tooth hauing two fangs or rootes, the one longer and smaller, the other thicker but shorter, insomuch as they call it not Incus or the Anvile, but Dens or the Tooth.  
This bone is shorter and thicker then the Hammer ( Aquapendens saith as thick againe) & 
The forme of it.  hath two legges; for in the vpper extreamity it is thicker and swelling, and in a smooth cauity receiueth the head of the Hammer: it hath engrauen in it a small sinus or bosom, which Aquap. calleth an vnequallcauity, in the midst whereof riseth a Line, as it is in the bone of the Cubue where it is articulated to the Arme, so that the articulation thereof is 
The articulation.  more truely sayde to bee made by Ginglymos, which for the motion is more expedite and ready. And as the head of this Anuile is articulated with the Hammer, so the productions or processes thereof doe grow to the orbe of the hole of Hearing, and to the toppe of the Stirrup or third bone. For the lower end thereof which is also the smaller, doth deuide itself into two slender and acute processes( which Fallopius and Laurentius with some 
The processes.  others doe call Legges) standing off one from another.  
The higher of these which is the shorter and the thicker, is somewhat broad, a little intorted or bent inward and leaneth vpon the Scaly bone of the Temples, & by a transuerse ligament cleaueth to the walles or sides of the orbe of the Tympane euen there where the VVatercourse slideth, & by this meanes it is tyed more strongly to the Hammer, that when the membrane hapneth to bee vehemently shaken, the two bones might not be separated one from the other.  
The other processe of this Anuill or roote of this Tooth is somewhat longer, slenderer and bending downward; yet sensibly intorted vpward it appeareth aboue the membrane and is tyed to the top of the stirrup by the mediation of a ligament and affixed thereto by that kinde of coniunction which we call Arthrodia, occupying that place of the membrane wherein the Hammer is not, whereby it might Perceiue or receiue the pulsion of that part, and communicate the Sound to the stirrop, from whence through small holes it is ledde a long vnto the nerue of Hearing.  
The Stirrop[ Table 10. fig. 4. tp fig. 8. T Table 11. s] called Stapes, is the third bone of the 
The stirrop.  Eare, which the first Inuenters did very aptly expresse by this resemblance. Many contend about the Inuētion of this bone; among the rest Columbus, Ingrassias, Fallopius & Eustachius, 
The Inuēters  all excellent Anatomists and haply all of them as fortunate in the finding it out as they haue been diligent to search into the secret corners of man; and therefore we wil not determine any thing in the preiudice of any of them. VVe finde it to be scituated as it were in the middest of the first cauity of the stony bone neare the Ouall window.  
In bruite beastes it is triangular, very like the greeke letter δ[ Table 10. figur. 8. sheweth the figure of it in bruite beastes] but in men it may bee sayde to bee formed of two partes, 
The figure. [ Table 10. fig. 7. sheweth the forme of it in men] the one superior which is bent like abowe hauing two smal legges somewhat sinuated, which becomming narrow are inserted into a transuerse Basis.  
The top thereof is not sharpe but hath a smal plaine and round head, wherewith like an 
The top.  Arch it sustaineth the longer processe of the Anuill, or if you will the Stirrop hangeth to this processe by the mediation of a ligament.  
The sides or Legges of this Stirrop are very small and depart but a little asunder, making a hole betwixt them more long then round. Some say it is Triangular, others of an 
The sides.  Ouall forme; but the Basis of the bone which is the part remaining is transuerse, somewhat broad and the edge thereof a little thicker then the other part.  
The Basis also shooteth out a little beyond the legges or side-bones thereof, whereby it 
The Basis.  is articulated to the bone at the Ouall window, and is firmly fastned to the membrane which shutteth the perforation, and that by the helpe of a Ligament arising from that side of the head which hath the cauity. Varolius called it very elegantly 〈◇〉 as it were the Pupilla of the Hearing. And on this manner it doeth exactly represent the forme of a Stirrope, 
The perforation.  not such a stirrop as is vsed now a dayes, but such as wee see grauen and figured in old pictures and tables, that is, triangular, and representing the fashion of the greeke letter δ.  
This bone is much lesse then either of the other two, for if it had been bigger or waighed 
Why lesse then the rest.  more, then being mooued together with the other two, it would haue drawn the membrane downeward. In the middest it is perforated or open like a stirrop, that it might be the lighter, and that hereunto the Inbred ayre might insinuate itself and be mooued. Againe the better to contray the sound which it receiueth communicated from the Anuill not only to the depth of the first cauity, but also beyond to the other cauity, & so through the Ouall window directly vnto the Labyrinth. Wherefore without this stirrop the sound could not haue beene transported into the whole cauity.  
For example, as the visible species or forme which is receiued within the horny coate 
Why perforated in the middest.  must first passe through the marrow and streight hole of the Pupilla or Apple of the eye before it can ariue at the Cristalline humour: so the species or forme of the sound which hath gotten into the concauity of the membrane, must passe vnto the chiefe Organe of hearing through the small hole of the stirrop bone: and thence it was that Varolius, as wee said euen now, called this hole of the stirrop Pupillam auditus the Apple of the eare. 
Varolius.   
Wherefore, as wee sayd, the formes of sounds passe through the emptie hole of the stirroppe into the cauities which are wrought by nature in the stony bone where they meete with the Inbred Ayre, which may also be compared to the Cristalline humor. For as the Cristalline is the chiefe instrument of the sight in respect of reception of Images or Formes; so is this In-bred aire of the Eare the chiefe instrument which receiueth the formes of sounds, although there bee another more noble Organ which iudgeth of them.  
Moreouer, least these three bones if they should haue mooued inconstantly, might haue indangered the membrane to which they are firmly tyed by drawing it too much this way 
The reason of their connexion.  or that way, it is fastened to the bone with a small ligament or chord, reaching ouerthwart from the sides vnto the top of the stirrop. Yea they are tyed together with slender and soft membranes which do the office of a ligament, and that by two ioynts which in their extremities are crusted ouer with a gristly substance after the same manner that it is in other bones, and so their articulation doth not differ from the Syntax or coniunction of other parts.  
They were made three in number( though some creatures haue but two as Placentinus 
Why more bones then one.  recordeth) for their better motion whereby the membrane is secured, which otherwise in violent concussions of the ayre might haue beene broken. For if it had bene but one bone, the membrane in impulsion could not haue giuen place because the bone would not haue bent therewith; or if the processe of the bone should haue yeelded, being necessarily so fine and thin, it might easily haue crackt a sunder. Wherefore the membrane of the Tympane is to fastened so the tayle of the Hammer that it might not breake when it is violently driuen inward: And againe the taile or handle of the Hammer cleaueth vnto the membrane that it might not be driuen too much outward. But that it might better resist any violent motion outward or inward there were two other bones added to the Hammer to helpe the flexion; and two muscles whereby the motion is restrayned when the hammer with the membrane is driuen with violence either inward or outward. 
The double motion of the hammer.  For the bone which we compare to a Hammer hath a double motion, as Arantius elegantly obserueth, pressing forward and recoyling backeward.  
Forward or inward according to the motion of the membrane whereto it is annexed, which membrane being shaken by the outward ayre is driuen inward, and vpward remaining so long gibbous on the inside til the Inbred ayre is affected with the sound, which 
Inward.  ayre wandring through the circles conuolutions and burroughs of the eare, maketh the repesentations of the sounds to be receiued by the branches or tendrils of the fifth payre of Synewes, by which they are conueyed in a moment of time vnto the Braine. But that this membrane should not be driuen too farre inward, the Hammer opposeth itself. The Hammer determineth at the small cauity of the Anuill whereinto the head of the Hammer is articulated; wherefore the Anuill being a firme and stable bone, stayeth the inclination of the membrane, euen as sayth Arantius, in clocks there are certaine points of iron which wil nor suffer the wheele to run beyond the number limited for the time of the day, And as the Anuill is assistant vnto the Hammer by laying a law vpon his motion;( and therefore hath two legs or processes whereby it is fixed to the stony bone and the stirrop) so also the stirrop standing vpon the cauity of the stony bone neere the circles as it were vpon a stable basis, doth elegantly sustaine vpon his head which is built in the maner of an arch, the longer processe or leg of the Anuill.  
The second motion of the hammer is outward, for the membrane of the Tympane 
Outward.  together with the Hāmer when the violence or constraint which before bare them inward is remitted do returne vnto their natural station; partly by a naturall motion whereby they recouer their former position when the violence is intermitted; partly by the muscle which is an instrument of arbitrarie motion; for that muscle is contracted toward his originall and so the head of the Hammer is separated from his iuncture with the Anuile, and the recurued processe of the Hammer beareth the membrane outward. But beside these twoe bones, the 2. muscles also of the inward eare doe assist the membrane, one of them against the inward impulsion, and the other against the outward expulsion.  
The substance of these bones is hard, dense and smooth. Hard for that helpeth the 
The substāce of these bones  hearing, as also addeth a greater strength and firmitude vnto the membrane. They are also dense and smooth for the better reception and transportation of the Sound; yet Columbus and Coiter are of opinion that the two first are within spongy and medullous. The third is so small that there can be no holes perceiued therein.  
And as these bones in forme and figure doe differ much from other bones of the body, so also and especially they haue two notable dissimilitudes or disproportions from 
How they differ from other bones.  the rest.  
The first is that they are not compassed about with the Periostium, least sayth Aquapendens and Placentinus, they should be vnfit for the reception of Sounds: for if you couer a hard body with a soft cloth and then strike vpon it, it will not yeeld so shrill a sound as it doth when it is bare or naked.  
Againe, herein they differ from other bones as all Anatomistes doe concurre, that they are perfect and accomplished at the very birth, hauing the same magnitude then that they haue in olde age; partly because man at all times euen from his Infancy hath greate neede of the Sense of Hearing, as wel to learne to speak as to gather knowledge: partly because the membrane of the Tympane is as much subiect to danger by outward violence in our Infancy as in any time of our life. Notwithstanding they are not so hard 
Why children do not heare so well as grown men.  in Infancy as in old folke, for children are full of moysture: whence it is that children do not heare so suddenly as grown men, because to the exact perfection of the Sence there is required a notable drinesse.  
Aquapendens addeth a third difference betwixt these bones and other bones of the body: for, sayeth hee, these bones of the Eare doe hang suspended from a membrane. Whence it commeth to passe that the externall aire together with the sound is moe easily communicated by the Hammer and the Anuill to the aire implanted in the eare: for Soundes are more liuely communicated to hard bodies, which hang loose as you may perceiue if you tie a peece of Iron to a string and strike vpon it, it wil yeeld a shriller soūd then it will if it be not suspended. But this conceit of Aquapendens sounds but harsh in Placentinus eares.  
These bones are also hollowe, as well to make them the lighter, as also to containe Marrow for their nourishment, whereto we may adde, that that which is hollow maketh 
Why they are hollow.  a better resonance.  
And albeit these three bones are of all others the least in quantitie, yet by that which hath beene saide, we may conceiue that they are of great vse and necessitie. In a word, their vses are first to establish and defend the membrane of the Tympane, least it should 
Their vses.  be torne either by inward windes gathered in the brain, or by the violent motion of the outward aire, as in thunder, shooting off Ordinance, or such like.  
Secondlie, they yeeld some assistance vnto the Sense of Hearing, for by their help the Sound is conuaide by a kinde of consequence or succession to the auditorie Nerue. For vpon their commotion the Chord is shaken, the implanted aire is moued to receiue the Sound. Now the Chord could not haue beene so vehemently moued by the membrane alone as by the membrane and the bones; and so these bones together with the Chord being shaken by the appulsion of outward aire, doe conferre vnto the distinction of Sounds as the Teeth doe to the explanation of the speach.  
I am not ignorant that many men haue busied themselues to finde out the particular vse of each of these bones, wherein what satisfaction they haue giuen themselues, I 
Anatomistes are here at a losse.  know not; certainely to vs that reade their writings they giue but little. Their conceites being meere speculations, & so intricate for the most part as if they did vnderstand what they would haue saide, yet they haue not beene able to expresse themselues vnto others. Coiter me thinks resolueth very well that their exact historieespecially, for the vse, is not so curiously to bee sought into, because it is impossible that wee shoulde attaine further then a bare coniecture, and beside something would be left by vs for admiration, especially where our vncertaine guesses cannot bring vs any great profite sauing the satisfaction of an ouer curious conceite.  
It remaineth that we speake of that flender and neruous Chord which is within the 
The Chord.  membrane. It doeth not indeed compasse the membrane round about, but running thorough the middest there of is fastned to that ioynte where the stirrop is articulated with one of the Legges of the Annuill. This Chord if it be drawn out is thrice or foure times as long as it appeareth before it be drawne. For the substance Eustachius taketh it to be 
Diuers appellations.  a branch of the fourth coniugation. Fallopius ingenuously confesseth that hee knowes not what to cal it, yet resolues to giue it the name of a Nerue, and with him Cower consenteth. Ingrassias calles it a thred or a chord: Aquapendens a slender rope of the Nature of a Ligament, or, sayth he, if it be not so nor any of the other aboue named, then is it a body of his owne kinde.  
Howsoeuer it be framed or of whatsoeuer, the vse of it seemeth to be for pulsation, for as in a Drumme the sound is made by the repercussion of the chord which is streatched ouer 
The vse of it.  the Vellam or the Skin, so in the eare sayeth Coiter this chord receiuing an impression by a beating made vpon it from the three bones, doth strike the inward ayre whereuppon Sensation is made.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the Muscles of the inward Eare  
_THE Hammer beeing articulated to the Anuill with that kinde of articulation which we call Ginglymos, it followeth that their motion must be very obscure, now they are moued together with the membrane at which the Hammer hangeth, vpward and downeward hauing one muscle appointed for this motion within the membrane, another seated without it.  
The internall muscle[ Table II. figu 2. 1] described first by Eustachius, and scituated in the stony bone, is exceeding small, there being in the whole body none lesser: and yet the 
The internall muscle.  frame thereof is so elegant as no muscle in the body may bee compared thereto. It ariseth in the Basis of the wedge-bone in that place where there is a hole made with a root of the processe of the stony bone, and an additament of the nowle-bone.  
It taketh his originall from a substaunce much like a Ligament. Afterward it becommeth fleshy, and groweth a little broader euen to the verie middest. Afterward it is againe 
His originall and progresse  angustated or straightned and produceth, Eustachius sayth but one Tendon. Whome Coiter and Aquapendens do follow. But Placentinus & according to him Bauhine say, they are two, very small,[ Table II. fig. 5. below i] one of which is inserted into the vpper processe of the Hammer, the other into the necke thereof. But in Dogges a little before the insertion it hath a fleshy and round glandule a little depressed, which is not fixed to the membrane lest if it were drawne by itself being very small it should be in danger of breaking.  
This muscle when it worketh draweth the head of the Hammer obliquely forward, and inward deduceth or inclineth it from the Anuill, and bending the processe of the Hammer driueth the membrane outward.  
That this is the vse of this muscle Arantius proueth by an experiment on this manner. 
The vse of it according to Arantius.  If, sayth he, in a greene head that is well dissected till you come to this part, you drawe this muscle with a sharpe hooke toward his originall you shall finde it hath a double vse: one that the head of the Hammer will manifestly recede or depart from the Anuil and be lifted vp, the other that the membrane will be driuen outward.  
Now this motion which is made in the eares although it seeme to bee voluntary, because it is accomplished by a muscle which is an instrument of voluntary motion; yet it can hardly be perceiued by ourselves, yea wee heare whether wee will or no, the reason is because the muscle is so very smal.  
Neither doe we want examples of many muscles which we know assuredly doe worke as well while we sleepe as while we wake, which yet wee cannot obserue in ourselves, but their motion seemes to be without our consent, as we may instance in the muscles of Respiration, of the eies, of the eie-lids, the bladder and the fundament. Yet in some men this motion is more euident, which also they can at their pleasure moue or containe. The truth of this Aquapendens proueth on this manner. The motion sayth he is Sensible, and with a 
Aquapendens his demonstration of the motion of the muscle.  kinde of noyse, as if a man should stretch three threds a little distant one from another, and strike them with a Cittern quill as we do strike an instrument; or as if a man should scratch ouerthwart the graine of a wansecoate, or imagine it to bee like the noise that the Steele makes when you strike fire out of the Flint. This motion is especially perceyued vvhen a man begins to yawne, but in the beginning of it we heare a kinde of obscure or dull sound from the commotion of the aire, much like the noise that a staffe makes when it is beaten against the aire. But this motion or noise in the aire many men do not obserue, neyther doth it seeme to me saith Placentinus, to haue any vse or to conferre at all to the Sense of Hearing; for if there be a noise in the aire and at the same time a man shall striue to stirre vp this motion, he shall heare the outward noise more imperfectly: And therefore this motion seemeth to happen either from the necessity of the matter, the Muscles necessarily following the attrition of the Hammer against the Anuile, or else it was ordained by nature for the auoyding of vapours. For in Agues wherein many vapors do arise vnto the head this noise is frequently heard, which wee conceiue to be when as the vapours which fill the cauity of the eares are by this motion dislodged, and yet we may vnderstande that this motion is not altogether at our owne disposition.  
In like manner saith Bauhine when the Eares are purged into the mouth by the passage 
Bauhines demonstration thereof out of the experiēce in himselfe.  that way opened, I am woont to perceiue in myself a kind of tickling within my mouth neere the roote of the Vuula, at which time if I often swallow my spittle, I doe manifestly perceiue by the noise that that motion is ordinarily stirred vppe in mine eares: and I perceiue likewise the foresaide tickling to bee appeased when the matter by that meanes is sooner purged into my mouth.  
But how commeth it to passe that this motion is perceiued in both the ears at once? It may bee answered, that it happeneth in the eare as it dooth in the eye: for vvhen one eye is mooued, the other also instantly accompanieth it, as wee haue shewed before. A man would imagine that in large bodyed creatures this Muscle might be better perceiued then in a man. But we find it farre otherwise; for although beasts haue it, yet for the most 
It is lesse in great Beastes then in men.  part it is in them lesse and harder to finde then in a man.  
Hee that is desirous to finde out this Muscle, must lightlie cut the Stonie process● thoroughout the length, guiding his Knife by a Line which runneth there through but not very high, beginning at that part of the processe which is next vnto the Wedgebone, for the muscle runnes length-wise and so determines into the membrane of the 
How to finde this Muscle.  Tympane.  
The other Muscle[ Table 11. figure 1 and whose insertion is at b] is situated without the membrane of the Tympane in the vpper part of the hole of Hearing about the middest thereof. Concerning the inuention thereof two excellent Anatomists of Padua 
The other Muscle without the membrane.  in Italy doe contend. For Hieronymus Fabritius ab Aquapendente, whome therefore we call Aquapendens affirmeth, that he found it in the yeare 1599. But Iulius Casserius Placentinus auoucheth, that he obserued it the seauenth day of March, in the yeare one thousand fiue hundred ninety three. But out of question they both haue deserued wonderous well of this Art which of them soeuer was the first inuenter thereof.  
And because, sayth Bauhine, I would haue the world know how much I esteem them 
Bauhins honorable remembrance of Aquapendens & Placentinus.  both, I will set downe both their descriptions thereof beginning with Aquapendens, beecause he is the Ancienter, not to derogate from the other, seeing I loue and honor them both. The one was my maister in the yeares one thousand fiue hundred seuenty seuen, one thousand fiue hundred seuenty eight, and one thousand fiue hundred seauentie nine: the other in the yeare one thousand fiue hundred seuenty nine was my friend and fellow-Studient, and this friendship to this day we maintaine by entercourse of Letters, and shall do I doubt not so long as we liue. Aquapendens therefore hath it thus.  
Furthermore, this yeare 1599. I found a muscle in the hole of hearing, cald 〈◇〉[ Tab. 10. fig. 9] which is without the membrane very small, fleshy and not without a tendon 
Aquapendens his descriptiō of this muscle.  which proceedeth directly from the midst of that hole or passage, till it be inserted into the very center almost of the membrane on the outside iust against the place where the Hammer on the inside is fastened to the membrane, which together with the Hammer it draweth outward. You shall finde this newe muscle if in a greene head you cut the vtter Shell of the Bone which maketh the Hole of Hearing on both sides, which you may best do with a Chizell and a Mallet and so remooue the bone carefully to the sides, for so the Muscle will appeare, and yet I haue not bene able to finde it in all my latter dissections, although I esteeme the necessity of it to be so great that I thinke it was rather the fault of my dilligence then a defect in Nature. Thus farre Aquapendens.  
Placentinus describeth it on this manner.  
In a man there is another Muscle situated in the vpper part of the hole of Hearing,[ Tab. 11. fig. 1, a b] about the middest whereof the skinne and the Membrane which being implicated or folded together do inuest the saide hole, do euidently degenerate for 
Placentinus description.  the forming of this Muscle into a fleshy body: but almost membranous, distinguished or lined through with Fibres, hauing also a Tendon. The Figure of the muscle is round and in the progresse groweth slenderer by degrees, and so passeth directly on vnto the Tympane. It is inserted not into the outside of the Membrane nere the center; but the Tendon( which it transmitteth with a double extremity or termination into the cauitie of the stony-bone betwixt the Tympane and that part of the temple-bone from vvhich the bonie ring proceedeth) is fastened on the inside into the heade of the Hammer, betwixt the vpper and the lower processes thereof. The inuention of this Muscle if I attribute to myself I shall not defraud any man of his due commendation, for I obserued it the seuenth of March in the yeare 1593. in the presence, &c. Thus far Placentinus.  
The vse as well of the Internall as of this externall Muscle Aquapendens thus expresseth. 
Aquapendens his opinion of the vse of the Muscles.   
The vse of these Muscles is for the securitie of the Membrane, for because it might haue bene broken or torne either on the inside or the out, Nature prouided a strength 
Table 11. Sheweth the Muscles placed in the cauity of the eares, with some other cauities and bones of the eares.  
TABVLA. XI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
III  
IV  
V  
VI  
VII.  
IIX  
IX  

a, b. The externall Muscle whose insertion is at b.  
c. The Hammer of the Tympane couered with the Membrane.  
d. The membrane of the Tympane.  
e. The bony Circle.  
f. The bone called Mastoides.  
g. The Temple bone.  
h. The circle of the first cauitie.  
i. The internal muscle whose bifurcated tendon is shewne in the fift figure.  
KK. A portion of the Pericranium or scul-skin going vnder the bony Circle, making the membrane of the Tympane or Drumme.  
l. The Hammer lying vnder the membrane.  
m. The Anuile.  
n. The breach of the bonye circle at e vvhere the beginning and termination of it is.  
o. A part of the yoake bone.  
p. A part of the bone called Basillare.  
q, r. The first cauity.  
s. The Stirrop.  
tt. The Circumference of the Shell called Concha.  
u. A protuberation or swelling in the middle of the Cauity.   or defence in both places. For on the outside the aire beeing violently mooued might haue broken the membrane by thrusting it inward, and on the inside by beating it outward; in the outside the externall aire which with violence togither with the sound rusheth into the eare; on the inside the aire which thorow the mouth getteth into the eare doth forcibly sometimes driue the membrane from within outwarde; and in this manner is the membrane stretched ordinarily in yawnings, blowings of the nose, retention of the breath, strong contentions, lowd voices, the excretion of excrements, and such like violent constraints. The externall Muscle therefore when the Membrane is driuen inward draweth it backe, and as it were recalleth it into the right place. In like manner, the internall Muscle retracteth it inward when it is turned or driuen outward. And these are the necessities for the satisfaction whereof Nature ordained these two elegant muscles, to wit, for the preseruation of the Membrane.  
The reason why the custodie of the Membrane was committed to a Muscle, that is, to an instrument of voluntary motion is rendred on this maner. If any other tie but that of a Muscle had bene made the Custos or Vindex of this Muscle, such a tie must haue held it alwayes stretched or tentred alike, and so the Membrane would rather haue bene more endangred then any whit secured. Besides, it was verie necessarie that as the impulsions of the aire vnto the Membrane are diuers, so there should be a varietie of power in that that was to curbe or limmit those diuers motions or impulsions. Such a varietie of power cannot bee imagined to bee in anie Ligament but onely in Muscles which make their operation with a certaine Analogie or proportion to the finall end which Nature entends, or according to measure; contracting and relaxing themselues more or lesse as neede shall be, accommodating their motion diuersly according to the diuers impulsions of the aire; for they suffer the Membrane onely so to receiue the offered violence, that neither the violence might be altogethet withstood but that the membrane might yeeld therto, nor yet the Membrane be outraged by such violence. In a word, these muscles partly by yeelding and giuing groūd, partly by obluctation or opposition do secure the Membrane from being torne and rent asunder. Thus far Aquapendens.  
Placentinus thus. The Muscles of the inward eare doe one of them assist the Hammer against internall impulsions, the other against externall. The outward muscle which I founde out, that sendeth his Tendon into the cauitie of the Stony bone and ioyneth it 
Placentinus opinion of the vse of the muscles.  selfe with the greater processe of the Hammer, draweth that part of the Hammer outward which inclineth inward, and so moderateth the compression thereof made vppon the Anuile, that it is a defence against the internall Muscle.  
The Internall which ariseth from the Wedge-bone and passeth into the cauity of the Stony-bone vnto the Head of the Hammer into which it is inserted, succoureth the same against the former when it is driuen inward, defining and limiting his introcession. For when the Tympane by an irruption of outward ayre, is together with the Hammer driuen inwarde, this muscle resisteth their motion that the Tympane and the Hammer should not be constrained beyond their Tether & so suffer laceration. Thus farre Placentinus.  
Varolius concerning this matter( for we account him also among our classicke authors, especially concerning the head) writeth on this manner.  

Varolius his vse of a muscle in the ear.  Although, saith he, the sound do mooue the Sense of Hearing whither wee will or no, yet there is in vs a kinde of voluntary Animadversion which wee exercise in all our senses at our owne pleasure when we would iudge curiously of any sensible thing. Wherefore as by the helpe of the muscles of the eye men do voluntarily direct the center of the Cristalline toward the obiect which they attentiuely behold, so within the organ of Hearing there is placed a small muscle, which arising from the fore-part is inserted into the articulation of the triangle( so he calleth the Stirrop) with the Anuil: when this muscle is contracted, the Triangle or Stirrop is drawne a little forwarde, the ioynt of the Anuile vvith the Hammer yeelding thereto, and approacheth more directly to the Center of the Tympane, and at that time we heare with more attention and better iudgement, like as wee are able to see the least visible obiect when we stedfastly beholde it by a line concentricall to the Horny Membrane, the Pupilla and the Cristalline humor. Some haue imagined that the small bones of the cares diuersly mooued by this muscle, doe make within the organe of Hearing many and different sorts of sounds, whose opinion we thinke sufficiently confuted by the former assignation which we made of the vse of the muscle. Thus farre Varolius.   

CHAP. XX. Of the Cauities of the Stony-bone.  
_ALbeit wee purpose in the Booke of Bones as particularly as wee can to follow their history; yet because this Stony bone and the dissection thereof is most 
Why we intreat of this bone he e.  necessary for the vnderstanding of the manner of the Sense of Hearing. VVee haue determined to make our particular description thereof in this place; and to passe it ouer with little more then bare mention in the booke of Bones.  
Although therefore( as before is sayd) the Stony bone is within altogether Canernous and spongy, and that the Antients haue made mention of one only Denne or Cauity there in: yet wee will reckon vnto you three notable ones and of great moment, which also the Neotericks or later Anatomistes haue called Dennes and Caues.  
These Dennes or Caues are formed in the middest of the stony-bone where it swelleth 
3. Cauities,  most, to contayne the Organs of Hearing, that is to say, the mēbrane, the three smal bones, the internall muscle, the chord, the auditory nerue and the in-bred ayre, which also is called the internal medium of this Sence. All which Caues may more distinctly and districtly bee demonstrated in children, then in growne men. Placentinus findes them also verie conspicuous in Birds. They haue each of them proper names borrowed from externall things: the first is called Concha or Tympanum; because it is like the shell of a winke or a Taber. 
Their names,  The second is called Labyrinthus, because of the turnings therein. And the third is called Cochlea, because it is like a Snailes shell.  
The first[ Table 10. fig. 2 h from c to ● Table 11. qr] cauity is layd open, when the membrane 
The first cauity.  of the Tympane is taken away. It is called Concha, as we sayd euen now, because it is like a VVinkle or Periwinkle, so acknowledged by Aquapendens, Placentinus, Arantius, & our Authour Bauhine, although I knowe there is great contention against Aristotle in this point, who seemeth first to haue giuen this name to this cauity. But wee stand not vppon names so much, so we know the thing signified by the name. The better appellation as 
The reason of the name.  me seemeth is a Tympane, because this cauity couered with his membrane resembleth a Drumme or Taber, for when the membrane is strucken by the Sound it resoundeth again as a Drumme if it bee beaten by reason of the ayre therein contayned rendreth a great sound.  
Coiter reprehends Fallopius and Platerus for this appellation, because, sayth hee, in this 
Coiters obiect.  cauity there are holes, & windowes, and diuers windings which a Drumme hath not. To whome we answere, that in men it hath the name of a Drumme or Tympane from the vse; 
Answered.  but in bruite beastes not onely from the vse but also from the figure because in those creatures that chaw the Cud it is very like to a Turkish Drumme. This cauity is also called by Coiter and Placentinus the Bason and the Denne. It is excauated or hollowed in the beginning of the stony-bone, betwixt the roots of the Mammillary processe, and the place where the head of the Iaw is inserted or fastned to his ioynt. The vtter part thereof regardeth the hole of Hearing from which it is onely separated by the membrane[ Table 10. figu. 2. from b toward c.]  
Hence it is that if the inside of the eare be inflamed or vlcerated, vppon the motion of 
Note.  the lower iaw the patient is payned in his eare.  
The inner part of the cauity is by a thin scale distinguished from the hole of the sleepy artery[ Table 10. fig. 2. from h to L.]  
This first is the greatest cauity of the three, and by a successiue ingresse or continuity of passage is ioyned with them, by which meanes it is able to containe a greater quantity of in-bred ayre, & also receiue at the same time diuers sounds comming from diuers quarters.  
But because the internall ayre must first be mooued by that which is without, and then transport the image of that sound wherewith it is moued to the Auditory nerue, it was very 
The organs in this cauity.  necessarie that it should be purged and kept pure from any stayn of corruption, that like aneate glasse it might represent the image offered vnto it. For this purification and expurgation of the inward ayre, Nature hath placed in this cauity diuers instruments: some seruing for Pulsation, some for Traiection, and some for Expurgation. For Pulsation serue the three bones, the chord and the muscles. For Traiection or conduction vnto the other cauities serue two perforations commonly called Fenestellae or the VVindowes. For Expurgation there is a passage which leadeth into these pallat. All the particles did require a large cauity; whence it was that Nature framed this stony bone long and round, that so it might containe the more. Furthermore, this cauity is but single, whence it comes to passe that though there be many noyses made together, yet they are at the same time receiued. 
Why this is single. A witty conceit of Aquapendens.  For if this first cauity had bene distinguished into many dens, neither would the sounds haue bene receiued at the same time nor after the same manner intertained and iudged of by the faculty, for the diuersity of reception would also haue induced a diuersity of apprehension, as Aquapendens very wittily hath obserued.  
The interior superficies or inner surface of this cauity is vnequall, being in some parts depressed and thrilled through, in others knotty and swelling. Immediatly behinde the 
The fashion of the cauity  membrane it runneth vpward toward the forepart, where also it becommeth narrower, afterward it is dilated and tendeth backeward toward the top; then as if it were another cauity it is produced or lengthened downeward; which part saith Coiter, in a man is like a bladder.[ Tab. 11. fig 8. and 9.] In a calfe like a waggeners budget, in a kid and lambe like a market womans pouch. It is also rough and spongy; rough, that it might receiue the sounds and not reflect, returne or double them, for if it had bene leuigated, that is, smooth and equall like the arch of a Church, it would haue returned an Eccho. Spongy also, that if at 
Why porous or spongy.  any time the noyse should happen to bee so strong that it might offend the hearing, the force thereof might be abated in those small holes. Moreouer, in that spongy porosity the Inbred Ayre is laboured and brought to perfection. But when I say, it is spongy, I would not haue you conceiue that it is soft as a sponge but porous, for otherwise it is exceeding hard and stony, thereby yeelding and returning a quicker sound.  
Againe some parts of this cauity are lined ouer with a membrane produced from the Pericranium: for after the pericranium hath framed the membrane of the Tympane, it is 
How lined.  duplicated and diuersly diuided, so as some of it doth inuest certaine parts of this cauity.  
But because this cauity was destined for the reception of the implanted or Inbred 
The necessity of the parts of this cauity.  Ayre, which was to receiue the outward Ayre altered by the sound, it was very necessary that it should receiue some kind of percussion: but being by the membrane distinguished or diuided from the hole of hearing, it could not receiue the alteration of the outward Ayre without some other helpe, which helpe is pulsation, and that pulsation is accomplished by the three bones, the chord and the muscles.  
Now that the internall Ayre being affected by the pulsation of the outward Ayre altered by the sound, might carry this affection vnto the sense, there was made certaine canales wherein the inward Ayre might be conuayed vnto the Auditory nerue, to wit, the two Windowes with a passage into the Labyrinth. Furthermore, it was also necessary that this implanted Ayre should be preserued pure, as also bee cherished and sustayned by the Ayre which we draw in at our mouthes, to which purpose Nature hath created a canale or passage out of this cauity into the pallate, by which it is purged and receiueth new Ayre for his perpetuall nourishment. Of the instruments seruing to pulsation, we haue entreated at large in the seuenteenth & eighteenth chapters; of those seruing for expurgation very particularly in the nineteenth chapter; and both we haue repeated in this. It remaineth now that we prosecute those Organes which serue for Traiection or transmission of the affected Ayre vnto the auditory nerue, and so to the first sensator.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the two windowes called Fenestellae, and the watercourse in the first cauitie.  
_IN this cauity there are two holes very small, which some men call Fenestra or Fenestellae the windowes. These regard the orbe of the hole of hearing as from a higher place. The first which is the foreward and the higher and looketh toward the face,[ Tab. 8. fig. 4. and 5. F. Tab. 10. fig. 2. k.] being as it were in the middest of the cauity, is of an Ouall figure or like an Egge, and 
The first.  therefore is it by some Anatomists called Fenestra oualis, the ouall window.  
It is somewhat long and flatted on the sides, and in the backe side it openeth itself into the Colchea or the last cauity with a large mouth and becommeth so like the forepart 
Fenestra oualis  of the Colchea that a man cannot tell whether that this Ouall window open into the Colchea, or the Colchea into it. This also ioyneth itself with the posterior hole, and passing inward is dilated, and maketh as it were a Market place or is like the cauitie of a mettall Mine,( for thus the Anatomists haue pleased to compare little things with great) from which many streets, wayes or burroughs do runne. Vpon this lieth the basis of the stirrop, and for the most part closeth it vp.  
The other hole or window is the posterior and lower.[ Tab. 8. fig. 3. 4. G. Tab. 10. fig. 2. l.] It is rounde and lesse then the former and somewhat narrower in a man; but in a Calfe and a Sheep sayth Placentinus it is somewhat larger, and a little extuberating or bunching out; alwaies open it is and declining toward the backeside of the cauity, and yssueth together with the former through the bone making a double canale.  
Betwixt these two windowes[ Table 10. figur. 2. k and l] aboue the lower hole is there a little knub or protuberation, which together with the round hole and the strutting bunch placed vnder the vpper part, may be compared to the little bosse( saith Placentinus and before him Vesalius, Coiter and Platerus) wherewith they vse to adorne the cheeks of a horses bit. In this knub lieth the chamber of the third cauity which is called Cochlea, of which wee shall heare more in the next Chapter.  
The vse of these windowes is, by pulsation to receiue the sound communicated to the implanted 
Their vse.  ayre, and to transmit the same to the other cauities that follow.  
The lower hole is cleaued into a double pipe which lie one vppon another[ Table 10. figu. 2. ii] and are deuided onely by a thinne bony scale, the one of them together with the Ouall window passeth to the Cochlea, the other goeth into the Labyrinth or the second cauity of the stony bone. The more forward of these admitteth a surcle of the Iugular veine, and sendeth out a braunch of the first coniugation. The posterior is compared to a Watercourse 
The watercourse. [ Table 8. fig. 3. H Table 10. figu. 2. g] because it is like the pipes wherein water is conuayed, imagine it to be in a Serpentine Still, some call it the Saylie pipe. The Auntients and Galen call it Caecum meatum the blinde passage, others Capreolaris, that is writhen or intorted, not because it is blinde, but because if you put a Hogges bristle into it, it will hardly finde an yssue. And truely in the dry skull of an Oxe you cannot finde way for a bristle by any meanes.  
It passeth writhen, first forward, then backward and obliquely aboue the hole of the first 
The passage of it.  cauity. From thence turning downewardes it determineth into the fift hole of Hearing,[ Table 10. figu. 2. 〈◇〉] it is full of holes. In the beginning is that which is marked with[ ae] common to it with the vpper part of the passage of the auditory nerue. Afterward in the middle of the passage on the outside in the forepart of this canale[ ♌] it maketh the fift hole of Hearing and letteth fall an arterie; so also in the inside[ γ] at the beginning of the second cauity it opneth itself. In the end also it hath another hole[ β] which determineth into the 3. bone of Hearing. Through this canale is the greater part of the auditory nerue as also an artery diuersly deduced and dilated. For because it was necessary that the branch of the nerue of the fift coniugation should grow hard, it was also fit it should be conuayed thorough the hardest, driest and most torted passage, especially seeing there was no other way where through it might be conuayed.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the Labyrinth and the Cochlea or Snaile-shell, that is, of the second and third Cauities of the Stony Bone  
_THe second Cauity because it is full of windings and turnings like a Connyburrough, 
The 2. cauity.  is called Labyrinthus and the Mine. It is insculped or excauated in the posterior and anterior sides of the stony bone or in the root of his processe, and is distinguished or deuided from the hole of the nerue of Hearing, onely by a thinne scale.[ Table 10. fig. 2. betwixt m and e] It is round and lesse then 
The forme.  the former: and when it hath( vnder the knub and behind the Oual window) ioyned itself to the following cauity; attayning inward it is dilated & maketh as it weere a Market place, or the broad floore of a Mettall Myne as before is sayde; from which many wayes run out, which proceeding thorough the hard substance of the bone like a hollowed circle, doe againe returne into a large Chamber.  
These wayes we call burroughes with Fallopius, Coiter and Platerus, or with Placentinus bony Semicircles.[ Table 8. fig. 4. and 5. NNN Table 10. fig. 2. m 1. 2. 3. and particularly m with 
Cuniculi.  the Characters 1. 2. 3. fig. 6. V] Of these we make three, which do so passe that two of them do twice intersect thēselues with right angles, but the more manifest intersection is made aboue the top of the third cauity where the hole endeth which receiueth and transmitteth 
The intersections.  the nerue of the fift coniugation.  
In their originall they are ample or large and become narrower by degrees, because it was not fit that the Sound should passe through a broad space; afterward running through the substance of the bone in circular reflections, they returne to their beginning, yet so that in their whole progresse they neuer manifestly open one into another.  
One of these is the lower which runneth from the forepart of the cauity diuerting of 
The first.  turning aside outward yet still in the same cauity, afterward it is reflected and runneth thorough the posterior angle.  
The second issueth out of the same anterior angle, and arising vpward after it hath made a semicircle, it returneth through the posterior angle.  

The second.  The third ariseth and determineth in the backeward angle of the cauity: for beginning 
The third.  there it perforateth the bone with a circular cauity tending outward, and so returneth thither againe. And all these in young Infants may be separated whole from the cauity and from the crust wherewith the bone is lined, but in time they grow stony & are vnited. These canals or burroughes could not be made long because of the shortnesse of the stony bone, although it had beene very profitable, because length maketh the sound bee better perceiued. VVherefore Nature recompenced their shortnes with circumuolutions, and indeed 
The ●eason of the meanders  the gyrations do better helpe the Hearing then length would haue done, because in them as it were by degrees the sound is by little and little laboured, and ascends broken and diuided into the braine. Furthermore, the burroughes in their inward superficies are inuested with a very soft and fine membrane.  
These burroughs by their egresse and regresse into this cauity make sixe holes: beside, 
Their persorations.  from the first cauity into this are two holes, and moreouer certaine small ones from the lower hole of the auditory nerue and from the common canale.[ Table 10. fig. 2. Γ] The cauities or holes, saith Aquapendens, are so innumerable and intricated one with another, that it may well be called a Labyrinth. For their number they are rather to be admired then numbred, neither can a man finde any order in them, and if any man shoulde attempt any such thing, it were a worke of a vaine and addle witte, albeit Placentinus thinketh it faesible. For cutte any parte of this bone, and beside the vtmost crust you shall finde the rest of the whole bone to be full of holes, pores and dennes, yea altogether spongy, as is touched partly before.  
The vse of the Conuolutions and Meanders is, that the sound being conuayed through 
The vse ef conuolutions.  so narrow passages might be more sharpe and not bee dissipated; and this wee may see in Instruments of musicke, for a Flute or Cornet by how much it is the longer and the narrower, by so much is their sound more shrill: the reason is, first because the ayre remayning quiet and at rest in the canale doth more easily receiue the alteration proceeding from the sound then it would doe if it had scope wherein it might be troubled and disturbed. Again, the aire concluded in a narrow roome is not dissipated but vnited, and so remayning yeeldeth a greater and quicker representation of the sound vnto the nerue, then it would do if it were dispersed.  
The third cauitie is called Cochlea or the Snaile-shell from the sinuing obliquitie of his 
The third cauitie.  passage; which elegantly resembleth the winding of a Snayle or Periwinke shell[ Table 8. fig. 4. and 5. O Table 10. figu. 2. vnder n] especially if you take off the vpper part of the shell till you come to the narrower part thereof where the scruing begins to be thick. Vesalius calleth it Antrum Buccinosum the Den like a Trumpet. The Antients called it the blinde 
The appellations.  hole or the blinde cauity, because they thought it had no through passage. But the truth is, that though it be much intorted and writhen, yet it hath an yssue in the middest, in that place where the gyrations are fastned from the beginning to the end, and this yssue is narrow and direct. For if this cauity had beene blinde without an out-let, the ayre being beaten could not haue attained to the nerue of Hearing.  
This is farre lesse then the former two, scituate in the forepart of the processe vnder the knub of the first cauity, that it might meet with the Soūd which proceedeth from behinde 
Where situated.  forward, and is distinguished from the canale, which wee sayd was like a watercourse( placed in the middest of the stony processe) by a thinne bone like a bridge[ Table 10. fig. 2. betwixt n and f.]  
It is long and crooked and hath three gyrations sometimes, sometimes foure, one of them receiuing another after the manner of the Coehlea or Snaile-shell, by which it is intorted 
The figure.  some what inward and downeward. But the broader scrue standing highest receiueth the nerue; the narrower standing lowest determineth in the cauity of the bone, and worketh itself also a passage. Into this endeth the hole of the first cauity called Fenestella cualis, which platerus calleth the lower hole and Placentinus the vpper[ Table 10. fig. 2. l] I meane into the greater gyre of this bone.  
This bone of the Cochlea or the Snaile shell consisteth of two kinds of circles, whereof one is made of a bony substance very thin and dry, which may easily be crumbled, and on euery side like a Snake rowled vp into boughts. The other was first propounded by Eustachius, which is made of a soft & mucous matter yet firme, and hath I know not what kind of sandy matter mingled therewith. It ariseth out of the middle space of the first conuolutions, 
Eustachius.  as it were out of a large basis, and being by degrees extenuated, endeth in a sharpe point; but it ascendeth not so high as that it toucheth the circumference of the bone wherinto the first gyrations doe determine.  
This wonderfull prouidence of our Creator, Empedocles as Galen witnesseth in his 
Empedocles,  booke de historia Philosophica, did first intimate, when hee saith that the sense of hearing is made by the impulsion of the ayre, or of a spirit which striketh & beateth the part like a Snailes shell, suspended within the eare like a bell. And with him agreeth Aristotle in the 
Aristetle.  eleuenth chapter of his first booke de historia Animalium, where he saith, that the inward eare which is like the contortions of a Snayles shell, endeth in a bone which is like the outward eare.  
This third cauity as also the second and the burroughs thereof, are inuested with a 
The mēbrane inuesting this cauitie. Vesalius  soft and thin membrane, after the same manner that the sockets of the teeth are. Vesalius saith it is a part of the nerue of the fifth coniugation, and that it doth inuest but some parts onely of the cauity, not all throughout. Into this cauity as well as into the former, do run three or foure holes so small that a haire will scarse passe through them, issuing out of that canale through which we sayd the auditory nerue doth passe; through which holes certain nerues of the fist coniugation, or at least their faculty is communicated to the forēsayde membrane. So differeth Bauhine from Vesalius.  
And although it is generally beleeued that the sense of hearing is especially made in 
Bauhine. The vse of these cauities.  the first cauity, yet it cannot be denyed but that it is also made in the others; seeing into them as is sayd, there are surcles of nerues deriued, and in them also Animall spirits and Inbred ayre is contained. Notwithstanding the two hindmost cauities were rather made to hinder an Eccho or reflexion of the sound to the first cauity. And whereas these cauities haue holes of diuers magnitude, length and figure, it is reasonable to thinke that they 
Why perforations are of diuers kinds.  were so framed for the difference of sounds. For a base sound and a great quantity of ayre iequire a large hole.  
The length prohibiteth the Eccho and the reflection of the sound, wherefore the greater sound required longer canales, and the lesser shorter, that the sound in them might as it were, be appeased, and an Eccho prohibited. The varietie of the figure maketh much either for the naturall delation or transmition of the sound and the ayre, which runneth for the most part through circled meanders; or that the sound in them might rest: now we may easily imagine that a sound will sooner ceasse or bee appeased when it runs through many turnings or gyrations then it would doe if it were conueyed by a streight line.  
But the vse of this third cauitie Coiter elegantly sheweth and confirmeth by an instance in a circled instrument, put case it bee a Sackebut. For if a man lay his eares to the 
The vse of the 3. cauitie after Coiter.  holes of such an instrument, hee shall here a wonderfull whistling and hissing noyse and murmure: where if a man blow into it with his mouth it will sound like a Trumpet. And thus much concerning the stony bone and the cauities thereof: now we proceed.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the Nerue which ariueth at the Eares.  
_AT length we are come to the Auditory Nerue which maketh that coniugation which is commonly called the fift,[ Tab. 21. lib. 7. fig. 1. 2. a. Tab. 15. lib. 7 fig. 20. M.] It issueth out of the tranuerse processe of the Cerebellum, and is 
Where it ariseth.  a thicke and large nerue; therefore neerest of all to the After-braine because it was to conuey a great quantity of Animall spirits. It insinuateth itself into the first hole of the stony bone, which a large perforation and made of purpose within the scull for the transmission of this nerue, which it hideth all the way it runneth forward, till in the middle almost of the stony processe it is diuided into two vnequall parts: the one large & ample, the other small but harder; harder I say then the other, not through out the length of it, but onely in that part which is longer then the former. For, that wee 
How many waies a nerue becomes hard and soft.  may say so much by the way, the softnes or hardnes of a nerue dependeth vpon 3. things. First, vpon the originall, so those nerues that arise out of the Braine itself are the softer, those that arise out of the After-braine or out of the spinal marrow are the harder. Secondly, vpon their distance, as they are farther from their originall, or neerer vnto it.  
So the Opticke nerues are the softest of the whole body, because they are neerest to their originall; the nerues of the hands and feete the hardest, because they are farthest off. Or, thirdly, it hangeth vpon their contaction: for frō their contactions with hard bodies as bones & gristles, or with soft as fat and vessels, they become harder and softer as Platentinus hath obserued, but this by the way. This slender production of the nerue through the vpper hole of the fore mentioned passage entereth into that secret bony canale which we called the Watercourse, and so creepeth toward the forepart of the head. Afterward it is reflected and entereth into the first cauitie, and falling downeward and backeward, it issueth out of the bone at the roote of the lap of the eare, and is subdiuided into three especiall branches. The larger and vpper runnes out into the foreside and the backeside of the roote of the outward eare. The lower deriued through the iaw, is distributed into the 
3 branches.  Masseter muscle and the first muscle that mooueth the cheeks. The third which is the middlemost is very small and Capillary, and is dissiminated into the glandulous and membranous parts about the roote of the eare. There are also other threedy surcles which are 
Small threds of the auditory nerue.  spent into the muscles of the larynx or throtle, and of the bone Hyois. And this is the cause of the consent betweene the eares, the tong and the larynx. Hence also it is that when the auditory nerue is originally and in the first conformation obstructed, those that are borne 
Why those that are born deafe are also dumbe.  deafe are also dumbe; and thus much of the lesser part of the nerue.  
The thicker part of the nerue which is soft, and is properly the Nerue of hearing, because it of itself is the cause of this sense; is led through the hole of the foresayd passage and runneth out into the dens or caues of the stony processe: yet the larger branches doe determine 
The very nerue of hearing.  in the first cauitie as being the largest and of most vse, where they are dilated like a membrane and make the chiefe instrument of hearing. Wherefore the receiued opinion is, that in this cauity the sense of hearing is especially administred, because into it the Animall spirit entreth through the nerue, & is there mixed with the Inbred ayre. Out of this 1. cauity through small proforations of the foresaid cauitie run certaine small threds into the other two cauities, which are communicated to the membrane wherewith they are compassed.  
The vse of this nerue is( according to Galen in the sixth chapter of his eight booke de vsu 
The vse of it.  partium & Auerrhoes 2. Collect.) to be the Organ of hearing, and to receiue the sensible obiect that commeth from without, and to leade the images of the sounds vnto the braine as vnto their competent Iudge and Censor saith Laurentius.  
But from a branch of the fourth coniugation of the braine, there departeth a very 
The Chord.  small surcle, which with a winding passage entereth into the cauity of the Eare neere the bony canale which goeth to the palate, then it cleaueth obliquely to the Tympane, and after to the Hammer aboue the insertion of the muscle, and proceeding on perforateth the stony bone in the backeside of the hole of the hearing: then, a little reflected, it creepeth 
Eustachius.  downeward till it meete and ioyne itself with a smaller and harder branch of the fift coniugation. This Eustachius calleth a Nerue, others call it the chord or thred which, say they, runneth through the middest of the membrane of the Tympane; but whence it ariseth and whither it would, or whether it be a nerue or an artery, they freely confesse that they are ignorant.   

CHAP. XXIV. Of the Implanted or Inbred Ayre.  
_GAlen in his seuenth booke de Placitis, speaking of the instruments of the senses determineth; that the instrument of sight is lucid or bright, that of the hearing acreall, that of the Smell vaporous, that of the Tast moist, and that of the Touch earthy. Wherefore when wee say that the instrument of the hearing is ayry, or like vnto ayre, we vnderstand that it is a part of mans body( taking the 
The obiects of all the senses. Plato. How this aire is generated.  word Part in a large signification) which imitateth the nature and condition of the ayre.  
This ayre of which Plato among the Phylosophers made first mention, is seated in the eares from the first originall of our generation in the wombe of our mothers. I meane as soone as there were emptie cauities hollowed in the bones, all which are filled with this ayre. And therefore the ancient Phylosophers and Physitians, yea Aristotle himselfe in the eight chapter of his second booke de Anima, and the 83 text called it 〈◇〉, 
The nam●s of it.  or Inbred. Others call it Congenit, implanted, complanted and inaedificated. It is made of the ayry part of the seede and that very pure, to which the purest ayry part of the mothers blood applyeth itself, as to a body most like vnto itself, saith Archangelus. This aire is conteined in the cauities of the ears; which may be proued, because all the dens 
Where conteined.  and cauities excepting the first in which are the small bones the Muscle & the Chord are empty, seeing therfore there is in Nature no vacuity, it is necessary that these empty cauities must be full of aire.  
This aire is thin, pure, without any sound at all, immoouable, plentifull & separated 
The nature of this aire.  from the externall aire. Thin & pure that it might more readily and more perfectlie admit any externall sound, for through a crasse and cloudy aire the sound is not so freelie caried, but heard with more difficulty; whence it is that a mans voice in winter is baser 
Pure. Arist. Problem.  then in Summer, because as saith the Philosopher in the 17. Probleme of the 11. Section both the inward and the outward aire is thicker in winter then in summer, now beeing thicker it is mooued more slowly.  
This aire is without any sound, and therefore in the night we may hear better because 
without sound Arist. Problem.  there is no noise stirring, as Aristotle teacheth in the 33. probleme of the 11. section. Ad hereto that which he in the same place addeth, that in the day time the aire is dense, because it is filled with light and the beames of the Sunne, but in the night more rare, because the fire and the beames are departed thereout.  
Wherefore the outward aire which is altred by sounds, and like a waue of the Sea boundeth to the eares is not admitted into the inward eare, neyther dooth it touch the implanted aire; for if it had, the sense of hearing would haue bene imperfect and the Instrument would soone haue bene vitiated, which Aristotle proueth by an instāce in those 
Aristotles instance.  that yawne, in the 29 probleme of the 11. section, and in his fift booke de generatione animalium and the second chapter. For when we yawne we cannot heare so distinctlie, because 
Why we cannot hear well when wee yawne.  much of the aire we breath forth getteth into the ears, insomuch that we may sensibly perceyue the motion thereof; for when the internall aire resisteth the occursation of the outward there ariseth a noyse in the eares, which noise as also the circumaction or disturbance of the spirit hindreth our hearing whilst it be agayne appeased.  
Againe, it was necessary that this implanted aire should be immoouable by itself or of it owne nature, that it might exactly receiue al the differences of sounds, of motions saith 
Immooueable  Aristotle in the eight chapter of his second booke De Aniwa. Others saie, it is immooueable because it is not mooued by any other but remaineth alwayes the same in the eares. Others because it hath no naturall sound but is fit to receiue all differences of sounds saith Laurentius. But that the inward aire ought to be quiet and immoouable may bee prooued by the indisposition we haue in our hearing when we are troubled with hissing or singing noyses in our heads. Yet is this aire mooueable not of it owne accord, but because it is moued 
How it is mouable.  with the least impulsion of the outward aire and is stirred with locall motion; for whē the outward aire mooueth the membrane of the Drum, the internall aire is also mooued, that it may receiue a forme like to the forme of the sound which is made.  
It is Plentifull, for plenty is required for the full reception of the sound; some say that it may be able to receiue many sounds offered vnto it at the same time, but Placentinus saith 
Plentifull.  it doth not receiue many sounds because of the multiplicity of the partes thereof, because each sound is receiued by euery little particle thereof.  
It is separated from the externall aire by the interposition of the membrane of the Tympane 
Separated from the outward aire.  least the instrument of hearing should be offended. For if the externall ayre shoulde haue gotten into the inward aire; if it had bene either too cold or too hot it would haue violated the auditory Nerue, and by continuity the After-braine also and the Braine itself. Moreouer, if the externall aire should haue bene imediately ioyned and commixed with the internall, seeing the externall is in perpetuall motion, thicke, impure, oftentimes also smoakie and full of small creatures, it could not haue bene auoyded but that the Hearing would thereby haue bene impaired if not perished; for the inbred aire also woulde haue become thicke, smoaky, and also filled with those small Animals. It would also haue somtimes happened in violent motions of the outward aire, that the in-bred aire and with it the Animal spirit must haue bene shouldred out of their proper place and the hole of hearing quite rammed vp. Furthermore, this benefite wee haue by the membrane that separateth the externall from the implanted aire, that if a man be vnder water the water cannot pierce into his head or take away his sense of hearing, as those Diuers find by experience, who for Fish or Pearle or any such like occasion do vse to Diue into the bottome of the water.  
Neyther is this implanted aire of the same nature that the outward aire is of, but hath onely a similitude therewith, which we may gather out of these words of Galen. Neyther 
The Nature of the implanted Aire.  is euery Instrument of sense changed, altered or affected by euery sensible obiect: but that which is bright and lightsome is altred by colours, that which is aiery by sounds, that which is vaporous by odours, and in a word that which is like is familiar to his like.  
Wherefore we esteeme the nature of this aire to bee the same with the Animal spirite which also is aiery, and that there is the same maner of the conseruation and refection of 
Like the Animall Spirite.  the one and of the other. For this implanted aire is successiuely generated and againe dissipated, as the Animall spirit is continually spent in the Animall actions, and againe euery day regenerated. In like manner this aire that is bred in the eare is( at least a parte of it) continually dissipated and generated againe; for if it should altogether bee exhausted 
How nourished and restored.  or spent we should vtterly loose our hearing. Now it is strengthned and hath his refection from the aire which we draw in by our nosethrils and through our mouthes, especially by that which entreth at the mouth, for there is a patent and open passage thorough the Canale which we haue before spoken of out of the mouth into the Eares, by which passage also we saide before that the eares were purged.  
Simplicius the Philosopher hath deliuered, not that this aire is like the animal spirit, 
Simplicius. Coyter.  but that it is a thing Animated or hauing a life of it owne, wherby it subsisteth. Coiter calleth it a part of the Soul, Archangelus conceiueth that it is norished by blood, whose opinion we will heere set downe, that those that list may iudge of it.  

A passage out of Archangelus.  The aiery bodie( saith he) is nourished by blood brought by the Veines, and that per Diadosin that is by Transumption, as the Cristalline humour of the eye is nourished by 
What Diadosis or transumption is.  the glassie humour, by this Diadosis or transumption. For there redoundeth out of the glassy humor as much as is sufficient for the nourishment of the Cristalline, like as the glassy humor transumeth from the Membrane called Aranea or the Cobweb an Aliment accommodated and proportionable to itself. And this commeth to passe after this manner. In the Coate called Aranea or the Cobweb there are Veines by whose bloud it is nourished. After the Cobweb is satisfied, that which redoundeth or is superfluous is transumed by the Glassy humor: when the Glassy humour is satisfied with norishment, that which remaineth is transumed by the Cristalline humor as a fit nourishment for it, so that the Cristalline is nourished by an Aliment, prepared by the vitrious humor, & the vitrious or glassy humor is nourished by an aliment prepared by the Cobweb, to wit, either of the others superfluities or leauings.  

How the Aire is nourished.  The same happeneth in the aiery instruments of Hearing. For the Membrane that inuesteth it receiueth Veines and is nourished with their blood: that which aboundeth beside the nourishment of the Membrane, being now far altred from the nature of blood is attracted and transumed by that aierie body into his proper nourishment. But that this instrument of Hearing might haue not onelie venall nourishment but Arteriall life also, and with it al the parts that are subordinate and ministering to it; there are certain Arteries which are deriued into the structure of the organ of Hearing. Thus far Archan.  
Concerning the vse of this implanted aire our Authors are full of diuersity. Aristotle 
The vse of this Aire.  in the 10. chapter of his second Booke De partibus Animalium and in the second chapter of his fift Booke De Generatione Animalium cals it audiendi sensorium, the verie Sense of 
Diuers opinions. Aristotle  Hearing itself. And truly the Ancients haue all deliuered that it is the chiefe and principall Organ of Hearing, and from hence it was that Aristotle saide that the Nature of Hearing was aiery.  
Mundinus saith, there is an audible spirit in the cauity of the Stony-bone which is the 
Mundinus.  instrument of Hearing.  
Carpus thus. The implanted aire receyueth the species or formes which are brought 
Carpus.  to the Sense of Hearing.  
Varolius. The included aiery spirit is the proper instrument of Hearing.  

Varolius. Coiter. Archangelus.  Coiter. This aire is the first and principall organ of Hearing, yea a part of the Soule.  
Archangelus. It is the most principall instrument of Hearing, which the Faculty vseth in the perception of sounds and voices, and in iudging of them.  
Aquapendens. The office of this aire is to receiue outward and externall sounds, & so it is the principall author of Hearing.  

Aquapendens.  Placentinus. It is the matter which receyueth the sound, the Medium where-through it is transported. For after it hath receyued a sound it doth not conceyue it or iudge of 
Placentinus.  it as being a thing inanimated, now no action of the soul can be performd by that which is not animated.  
Laurentius. This Aire is exceeding necessary to the Sense of Hearing, without which I can 
Laurentius.  scarcely conceiue how we should heare at all; but that it is the principal organ of Hearing I could neuer bee perswaded, especially because it is not Animated, but rather I beleeue it to be an internall Medium.  
Finally, our Authour Bauhine setteth downe the vse of it in these tearmes.  
This Aire the faculty of Hearing vseth as an internal Mediū for the susception and transvection 
Bauhine.  or transportation of Soundes and Voyces to the Auditorie nerue, by it to bee discerned, like as in all the instruments of the other Senses there is required a double Medium, the one outward the other inward. Inward, as in the Sight the watery humour, in the Taste the spittle, in the Smell the spongie bones, in the Touch the skinne is the internall 
An inward & an outward Medium.  Medium,( although I know Laurentius would haue it the Cuticle) in which the formes or Ideas of things are separated from the things themselues, and so naked are transported vnto the first Sensator.  
In like manner the implanted ayre is gathered in the inward eare, to receiue the abstracted formes of the Sounds, and to transport them or conuey them vnto the Sense.  
Againe, as in all the instruments of the Sences the internall Medium is distinct, and a 
That it is not the chiefe organ of hearing.  differing thing from the principall Organ to which the action particularly belongeth; as in the Organ of Sight the waterie humor is thought to be the internall Medium, but the chrystaline the principall part receiuing the representations, but not iudging of them: so in the Hearing the internall Medium is this implanted Aire; but the principall part is the Auditorie nerue, which yet doth not iudge of the Idea, but conducteth it to the braine, that is to the first Sensator.   

CHAP. XXV. Of the manner of Hearing and of the Nature of Soundes.  
_COnsidering that to intreate of the manner of Hearing belongeth rather to a Phylosopher then to Anatomists, wee will be but briefe herein, yet somthing we thinke good to say because the structure of the eare was for the most part vnknowne to the Ancients.  
The Eare is the instrument of Hearing, and the action of the Eare is the 
Three things required to Sensation. Obiect, Definition of a Sound. Medium.  Sense of Hearing; vnto this Sense there are three thinges required: an Obiect, a Medium and an Instrument. The Obiect is that which is audible, that is, all Sounds. A Sound is a quality yssuing out of the Aire ( Coiter addeth, or the Water) beaten by sudden and forcible collision or concurrence of hard and solid bodies, and those smooth, concauous and large. This definition we will labot to explaine in this following discourse. The Medium is eyther Externall or Internall. The Externall Medium according to Aristotle is Ayre or Water, but in water the Sound is but dull, as a man may perceiue when his head is vnder water: yet they say that Fishes can heare in the water very well, as they can assure vs that vse in the night time to fish for Mullets. And although the water going into the water doe make a Sound; yet this Sound is made in the Aire and by the interposition therof, though it be made by the water.  
The Internall Medium is the implanted Ayre concluded within the dennes or cauities of the Eares. The Instrument although we may say it is the whole inward eare furnished 
3 3. Instrument.  with his cauities and other particles aboue expressed, and although that generally the Philosophers and Physitians doe determine that the inbred Ayre is the especiall and proper Organ of Hearing; because as in the Eie the Chrystaline receiueth the Obiect, that is, the Light: so this in-bred ayre receiueth the Sound. Yet we are of opinion that not this ayre but the auditorie nerue is the principall instrument. For wee thinke with Galen, that not onely the alteration or Reception which is made by the in-bred ayre is the Sense of Hearing, but also the dignotion or iudgement of that alteration. VVherefore Soundes and Voyces are transferred by this ayre to the Auditory nerue as vnto the substance that is apprehensiue, and from thence to the common Sense where they are exquisitly iudged off. For if they must bee knowne and perceiued, then must they touch some substance indued with Sense, because all action is by contaction. Now the Sensatiue faculty is not transported out of the bodie, and therefore it was necessary that the Sound should apply itself to the Eare.  
The Sound is generated of hard bodies mutually striking one another, as of the Efficient cause,( for soft bodies doe easily yeeld, not resisting the force that is offered vnto them) 
How sound is made.  and is receiued in the ayre as in his matter this Aire accompanieth the Sound, and carryeth it as it were on his wings; for as the ayre is mooued so also is the Sound carried as wee may perceiue by a ring of Belles farre off from vs: for when the winde bloweth towards vs we shall heare them very lowd again when the ayre is whiffed another way, the sound also of the bels wil be taken from vs. So also when two hard bodyes are smitten the one against the other, we see the purcussion before we heare the sound, for we do not heare the sound before the ayre that was moued do bring the sound with it to our eares, neither is that motion made in a moment but in time, and is carryed swifter or slower as the percussion of of the resisting bodyes was more or lesse vehement and quicke;( for this the Phylosopher requireth in sounds) and consequently the repercussion or repulse of the ayre. So wee see in a Drumme if the skin or Vellam be moist and laxe, either they will not sound at all, or they make but a dull noyse.  
The Aer being affected with the quality of the sound driueth & altereth that ayre that is next it, and so by succession till the alterations come to the Ayre that is next to the 
How the scūd attainerh to the Eare. A fit compatision.  outward Eare: euen as when a stone is cast into the water it stirreth vp circles which driue one the other till the water moueagainst the brinke, or if the water bee broade doe of it owne accord determine. In like manner by the percussion of the Ayre there are generated certaine circles which mooue one another till by succession they come to the Organ of hearing: which continuation of the Ayre thus beaten Auicen and the antient Anatomists call vndam vocalem, the vocall waue.  

Vnda vocalis.  But if the stone be great and violently throwne into the water, so that it driueth the circles vehemently to the brimme of the pond, then will those circles be repelled againe and so runne doubled and hudling to the first circles. In like manner if we hallow or speake alowde against any arched place, or against a wood or a mountaine, the voyce will bee doubled and an eccho will answer vs.  
But all ayre doth not alike receiue a sound. For a pure thin and cleere ayre, which is 
What Ayre is fittest to receine a sound  vehemently and suddainly strucken by two hard bodyes whose superficies is broad, will sooner receiue the sound, and represent it more smartly then if the Ayre or the bodyes bee not so prepared. A Needle strucke against a Needle will not make a sound though they bee hard bodyes, because their superficies is narrow and not broad, and so in the rest. But aboue all that Ayre which is contained in a concauous or hollow place, doth best receiue the species of soundes; because in the reflexion there are many percussions besides the first; for the reuerberation of the Ayre maketh much for the increasing of the sound, which we may see in dens, caues, woods, hollow mountaines, wels, and such like; which will not only returne againe the sounds that they receiue, but sometimes also the very articulated words. And thus much concerning the nature and generation of sounds, which is a meere Phylosophicall disquisition, and therefore we passe it ouer more briefly. Now let vs come to shew how the outward Ayre that is beaten, is communicated with the implanted Ayre and the internall parts.  
But before we descend to this it shall not be amisse to let you take a view of the diuers opinions as well of the Antients as of the Moderne writers, concerning the manner how 
1 Diuets opinions of the manner of hearing. 1. Empedocles.  hearing is made, for vpon that very point we now are.  
The first is that of Empedocles, who thought that this sense of hearing is made because the Ayre offereth a kind of violence to the inward part of the Eare, for because the inward Eare is intorted like a winkle-shell, and hangeth as a bell in thee steeple of the body, it easily perceiueth all appulsions of the Ayre.  
The second is that of Alcmeon, who thought that wee therefore heare because our 
2 2. Alcmeon.  Eares are within empty, for all emptie things doe resound if the sound get into them.  
The third is that of Diogenes, who saith, that in the head there is an Ayre which is 
3 3. Diogenes.  smitten by the voyce and so mooued: against whom Hippocrates writeth in his booke de carnibus, where he saith, that there are some Authours of Naturall Phylosophy, who affirme that the Braine yeeldeth a sound, which cannot be. For the braine itself is moist, now no moist thing will resound, but that onely which is drie.  
The fourth is the opinion of Hippocrates in his booke de locis in homine. First of all 
4 4. Hippocrates.  saith he the care is perforated, and in that part we heare, yet the emptie places about the eares doe heare nothing but a confused noyse, but that which entereth through the membranes into the braine, that is distinctly heard; where there is a perforation through the membrane which inuesteth the Braine. And in his booke de carnibus, we heare because the holes of our Eares reach vnto the dry and stony bone to which is added a canale or fistulous cauity, against which hard bone the sounds do beate, and the hollow bone because of his hardnesse yeelds a reasonance. Now in the hole of Hearing neere that hard bone, there is a thin Filme like a Cobweb the driest of all the Membranes of the body: but that which is the driest is fittest to conceiue or receiue a sound as may be prooued by manie arguments. When this Membrane therefore yeeldes the greatest resonance then wee heare best.  
The fift is Platoes opinion. The aire that is implanted in the eare is beaten, that pulsation is transmitted into the principall seate of the soule and so we heare. 
5 5. Plato.   
The sixt is Aristotles. We heare( saith he) when the aire is mooued by two solid bodies, 
6 6. Aristotle.  that which is beaten hath a plaine superficies that from thence the aire might result; the concussion of these two bodyes must be vehement, that the aire between them may not diffuse itself, but bee apprehended and smitten before his dissipation, for so onely the sound resulteth and filleth the aire by continuation euen to the eare. Now in the organ of Hearing there is a certaine implanted Aire. Hence it commeth that when the externall aire is mooued the internall receyueth therefrom a motion and agitation( which otherwise of itself is immoouable) so as it exactly perceyueth al the differences of the motion of the externall aire. Thus is the Hearing begunne and perfected in the Ayre.  
Seauenthly, Galen in the sixt chapter of his eight Booke De vsu partium. It was necessarie 
7 7. Galen. ( saith he) that from the Braine a certaine surcle should be propagated downwarde to the eares, which might receiue the sensible obiect comming from without, whether it were a voice or a sound made by the percussion of the aire; for the motion that is caused by such a percussion diffuseth itself like a storme of winde or raine, or like a waue of the Sea till it ascend vnto the Braine.  
Thus far the Ancients, who most of them, if not all, were ignorant or at least much to seeke in the exact Anatomy of the Eye. Among the later writers Vesalius and his adherents haue it thus. 
8 8. Vesalius.   
A Nerue of the fift coniugation proceedeth through a torted and writhen passage, and extendeth itself into a Membrane where-with, the hoale of the eare is stopped, which Membrane being thin, dry, and well stretched & beaten by the outward aire maketh a sound, being assisted by the hardnes of the bone and his turning gyrations much like the shell of a Snaile or Periwinkle.  
Columbus. So also we heare by the help of a Nerue of the fift coniugation, which at the middle of the Labyrinth becommeth thicker, but yet maketh not the Membrane.  
Messa saith, that the sound is made by the motion of the small bones, and thence we heare. 
9 9. Messa.   
Volcherus Coiter. The outwarde Aire affected with the quality of the sounde runneth 
10 10. Coiter  vpon the Membrane or Head of the Drumme, which when it is beaten mooueth the small bones that are tyed to it. The bones strike the Nerue that runnes ouerthwart the Membrane. The same Nerue makes a repercussion vpon the Membrane, whence it is that the ayre included receyueth the alteration and the sound. The Sounds without any disturbance are carried through the contorted Meanders of the Eares to the Auditory Nerue, which receyueth the Image of the noise, and presenteth it to the principall Sensator.  
Laurentius hath almost the very same in substance. The outward aer( sayth he) being striken 
11 11. Laurentius.  by hard and solid bodies and affected with the quality of the sound, altreth the aire that is next vnto it, till by a continuation it come to the eares, where it first encountreth with the Membrane: the Membrane being strucken mooueth the three little bones and transmitteth in a moment the liuely Charracter of the sound, which Character is receyued by the implanted aire, and through the windows it sendeth it through these crooked and winding Labyrinths into the Snaile shel, from whence it arriueth at the auditory Nerue, and from thence is conueyghed to the common Sense as vnto an equal iudge or Censor.  
Archangelus hath it on this manner as neere as I can vnderstande him. The thing that 
11 11. Archangelus  maketh the sound sealeth or stampeth in the ayre the species or forme of the sound, and withall driueth it on vnto the Instrument of hearing which is also aiery that it might better receiue those species, and must likewise be mooued; wherefore the hole of the Eare standing alwayes open( and in his inside supporting the stretched membrane of the Tympane, behinde which the aiery instrument of Hearing is concluded or shut vp, and to which the Anuile cleaueth) when the outwarde aire attaineth to that membrane the Hammer beateth vppon the Anuile, and so it commeth to passe necessarily that the Instrument of Hearing( by which he vnderstandeth the implanted Ayre) it mooued vvith the same motion that the outward Aire is moued, whence it is that altogether the same species or similitude of sound mooueth the Faculty of hearing, which is brought thither by the outward aire. Nowe the Nerues of Hearing do determine into the same place where this aerie instrument of Hearing is concluded, and a membrane made of the amplification of these Nerues encompasseth that aery bodie, as the Opticke Nerues doe ariue at the Cristalline humour. And as the Opticke Nerues do conuay vpon the wings as it were of the Animall spirit from the place of the Common sense the Visiue Facultie to the Cristalline humor: so these Nerues from the same Common sense doe transport the Faculty of Hearing to the principal organ of Hearing, that there might be a perception made of audible things. And so the Hearing when it hath apprehended the sounde of an audible thing carrieth it to the Soule, and then the Reason or the intellectuall or sensatiue Soule comprehendeth and taketh knowledge of that which maketh the sound to be a Bell or a Drum, or any other thing.  
Finally, Bauhine my Authour( I call him so often my authour to stoppe their mouths 
13 13. Bauhine.  who would think that I should arragate too much to myself if I shoulde not acknowledge him from whom I haue taken most of this History) expresseth it on this manner. The outward Aire is an external Medium which being driuen and moued by the mutual percussion of two hard bodies and affected with the qualitie of the sound, carryeth the sound which resulteth from that percussion vnto the Eare. The sound passeth through the hole of hearing which is alwayes open vnto the Membrane of the Tympane which it mooueth.  
That Membrane being mooued, the implanted or in-bred aire is also moued and receiueth the sound, or at least his Caracter or impression, and transporteth it out of the first cauity of the stony-bone thorough the hole of the Stirrop and the Ouall window to the other two cauities which we called the Labyrinth and the Snayle-shel. From thence it is conueighed to the auditorie Nerue and to the originall thereof, that is the Afterbrain and so to the common sense as vnto a Iudge that is able to determine of the differences of sounds.  
And because the Auditory Nerues are ioyned in the Bridge of the After-brain from whence they proceed, therefore all sounds are apprehended in one comprehension, not in two though there be two eares, that is, two organes of Hearing. But least the Membrane before mentioned should be driuen too much inward by the violence of the outward aire when it is violently beaten, Nature prouided three small bones and Muscles as we haue shewed before to preuent that inconuenience.  
The vse of the Sense of Hearing according to Aristotle in his Booke De sensu & sensili is to acquire or get knowledge and wisedome. For speech being an audible thing is the verie Cause of Learning. Againe by the Hearing things are signifyed to ourselves, as by 
The vseof the Hearing Aristotle.  our voice and tongues we are able to signify any thing to another, as Aristotle hath well obserued in the end of his third booke De Anima.  
And so much shall haue beene sufficient to haue spoken concerning the Sense of Hearing, wherein I finde that I haue great cause to entreate my Reader fauourablie to 
A deprecatiō.  reade ouer this Discourse, and to pardon me if in some things I haue not so fully satisfied him; for there are some passages in my Author, wherein I haue bene intangled, partly by the difficultie of the matter, partly by the fault of the Printer, for in such a case as this the least error may prooue a sufficient remora or obstacle to interrupt the course of a Discourse, but as neere as I could I haue followed their words, at least their meaning, if they vnderstood themselues, as of some of them I make much doubt.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Nose which is the instrmment of Smelling.  
_HAuing absolued the Historie of those many particles which belong vnto the sense of hearing we will now come to the third outward sense which is the Smelling. As therefore wee sayd in the Eare that there was an outward Eare and an inward Eare, so must we also diuide the Nose into an outward and inward. The outward Nose carryeth with it, sayth Laurentius, a kind of beauty, yea of maiestie; and the Egyptians in their Hyeroglyphicks signified a wise and 
The outward vse.  prudent man by a nose: and Festus calleth such wise men Nasutos, as if they were able to sent or smell the politicke stratagems of other men. Besides man, onely those creatures 
Nasuti.  haue this outward Nose that haue foure feete and bring forth liuing ones, as for birds and serpents( saith Aristotle in the 16. chapter of of his second booke de partibus Animalium) & 
Aristotle.  and those foure footed beasts that lay egges, they haue onely 〈◇〉, holes of the Nose, which are not so compassed or formed that you may call them Noses; vnlesse it bee because they breathe and smell by them. As for those Creatures which doe not breathe, they haue no Nose or holes at all, but other instruments of this sence, some smell by their gills, some by their fistula or pipe or trunke, some otherwayes, as some of those wee call Insecta.  
This outward Nose is called 〈◇〉 by Aristotle in the 11. chapter of his first booke de historia 
The names.  Animalium, and in the 16. booke de partibus Animalium, as also by Galen in his booke de olfactus instrumento. The word seemeth to be deriued from 〈◇〉, because through the Nose the excrement and superfluities of the head doe fall away. Others call it 〈◇〉, because of the mucous matter or phlegmaticke excrement which distilleth through it. If we should describe the Nose, we must say that it is a protuberating or strutting part of the 
The reason of the figure.  face, making a way for the Ayre, for by it we receiue it in and auoyde it out againe: some say it is a defence forthe instruments of smelling, when as indeed they are not contained in the Nose, but remaine within the skull. Yet we will not deny but that it is an assistant to them, for if the Nose were away we should not smell without all question.  
It is scituated betwixt the Eyes, for the part whereby wee breathe ought to bee in 
And scituatiō.  the middest and before. Nature therefore placed it in the middest betweene three other senses, the Sight, the Hearing and the Tast, and in a straight line that the respiration might not be interrupted but passe freely to and fro.  
Moreouer it is placed saith Cicero in his second book de natura Deorum, aboue; because Odours flie vpward and therefore from aboue are more commodiously receiued. Add hereto it that standeth vs in good steed to smell our meats & drinks being so neere the mouth, which instinct Nature hath giuen also to bruite beasts, as we may see especially in Apes who first smell to a thing before they will eate it. In a man the chiefe vse of the position of the Nose is for beauty and elegancie.  
The Basis of the Nose aboue is broade and groweth into a blunt end downeward, or rather, saith Laurentius, it beginneth with a sharpe point from the inward Angles or corners of the eyes, and endeth at the beginning of the lips.  
It is diuided into an vpper part which is immoueable and bony, and a lower, which 
The diuision of the nose.  is moueable and gristly. The vpper part of the Nose called Dorsum or the barke is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 the spine or ridge of the Nose. The lower part where it inlargeth itself, into the Nosthrils is called 〈◇〉 by Ruffus and Pollux: the foote of the Nose, and the vtmost roundnesse 〈◇〉 the globe of the Nose or the tip as wee commonly speake,  
Within it is diuided into two cauities by a hedge or partition which they call 〈◇〉. 
And the names of the parts.  ●ares the Nosthrils, because in them the odors or odoriferous spirits or the Ayre doe in●are or swimme continually; others call them 〈◇〉 of the mucous matter that issueth from them, others 〈◇〉, the holes of the Nose as Galen hath it in his booke de instrumento Olfactus.  
The vse of the diuision is, that the action of the smelling might be more perfect, for 
The vse of the diuision.  in al the parts of sense( excepting the Touch) the sense is bypartite, because of the two sides of the body, the right and the left.  
In like manner saith the Phylosopher in the tenth chapter of his second booke de partibus Anim. the power of the Nosthrils is double or bipartite, but if they had bin disseuered or set aside as the eares they could not haue performed their office; because we smell euen in our breathing as also doe all other creatures which haue nostrils. Againe, by reason of this diuision one nosethrill remaines open when the other is obstructed, that thorough it wee might haue the benifit of Inspiration and Expiration, and when both of them are obstructed the mouth may be opened to supply their office, as we see often in our Patients whose noses are stopped with a cold, they sleepe with their mouths open, drawing and yeelding their breath thereby least the man should be strangled.  
It is further to bee noted that the holes of both the nostrilles( which is but one in one 
The diuision of each hole.  nostrill) about the middle of the Nose are deuided into two parts, as Galen obserued in his Book de Odoratus organo. The one part runneth aboue the palate into the vtmost part of the mouth and throate; whence it is that oftentimes we see that if a man laugh when he is a drinking the drinke will come out at his nosethrils: and those Irrhines which we cast into the nose sometimes for medicine, will fall into the mouth if the nose be close shut. The other part of the hole of the Nose ascendeth to the spongy bone. Finally, the outward parts of the Nose which compasse the holes are called 〈◇〉 alaepinnae, The wings of the Nose.  
The Nose consisteth of a Cuticle, a Skinne, Muscles, Bones, Gristles, and the inward Coate.  
The Skinne wherewith it is couered is thin, without any fatte that the quantity of the 
The skin.  Nose might not exceed, which would haue beene a great deformity; but vnder the partition in the middle of the Nosethrilles there is a rising or prominent fleshy particle neare the top of the lippe, called by Ruffus and Pollux 〈◇〉 Columna the Pillar, which in some men hangeth something outward; it is thicke and fungous so that it resembleth the Cartilage or Gristle,( from which notwithstanding we must learn to distinguish it) and in the compasse thereof stand many haires called properly Vibrissi, because when we twitch them out it maketh vs shake our heads and sneeze, which is called capitis vibratio. The vse of these haires 
The haires.  is, that those small Animals that flye about in the ayre should not be drawne into the nose in our Inspiration, but hang in those hairy springes.  
But because in deeper and sudden Inspirations and Expirations the motion of the nostrilles serueth to no smal purpose, therefore Nature made thē mouable, & because they 
The muscles  were to be moued according to our will and good pleasure, there are certaine muscles inserted into them, some seruing for dilatation, others for constriction; the first open the nosethrils, the other shut them. Those that dilate the nosethrilles are foure; two small ones arising from the cheeke-bones, two others arise from the seame of the fore-head. There are also other foure which constringe the Nose, two arising from the rootes of the wings, the other two are hidden in the cauity of the nose, vnder the coate which compasseth it about; but of these we shall heare more particularly in the booke of Muscles.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the Bones, Gristles, Vesselles, Coate and vse of the Nose.  
_THE Bones which make the cauity of the Nosethrils are of two sortes: some may bee sayed to be proper to the Nose although they be bones of the vpper 
The bones.  Iaw, others are common. The proper are three: two external and one internall, and these reach from the top but to the middle of the Nose, the rest is gristly.  
The common Bones are one fixed at the vpper roote of the nose within called 〈◇〉, by Hippocrates and Galen, and neare it wee finde two other fungous & spongy bones which fill the vpper cauity of the nostrils made for the voyce and the Reception of odours, which are vnited by the bone Cribri forme, so that some thinke them to bee partes thereof: but of these in the History of the Bones.  
The Gristles of the Nose are fiue: three are before tyed to the circumferences of the 
The gristles.  bones, and two make the wings, of which we shall intreat amongst the Gristles.  
The vesselles of the Nose are veines from the Iugular veines, arteries from the sleepy 
Vessels●  arteries, and nerues from the third coniugation of the braine on either side one.  
The Coate( which Galen in his booke de instrumento olfactus calleth sometimes a coat sometimes a membrane, but a membrane most Anatomists call it) which compasseth the 
The coat or membrane.  capacitie of the nostrils is, as Vesalius thinketh, an extension of a branch of the lesser roots of the third coniugation of sinewes. But Columbus and Bauhine take it to arise from the Durameninx, and it is the common coat of the mouth, the palate, the toung, the Larynx or 
Table xii. Fig. 8. sheweth the foreside of the Scull, as also the bones, the holes or perforations & the Sutures both of the scull and of the vpper Iaw: Figure 9. sheweth the Basis of the Scull, and many holes and Sutures therein.  
TABVLA. XII.  

AA. A hole in the forehead bone.  
BB. The hole of the fourth bone of the vpper iawe, which is in the cheeke.  
C. A hole of the second bone of the vpper Iawe in the inward angle of the eye.  
DD. The fourth hole of the Wedge-bone in the outward side of the eye. EE. the first hole of the same bone  
G. The second hole.  
H. the 3. hole of the same bone in the seate of the eye.  
II. The forehead bone.  
K. The left bone of the Synciput.  
L. The left bone of the temples.  
M. the Mammillarie processe of the temples.  
NN, the Wedge bone.  
ΓΓΓ. the first bone of the vpper Iaw,  
Δ, the second bone of the vpper iaw.  
Θ. The third. ΛΛ, the fourth in the left eye.  
ΞΞ, the fift bone of the vpper iaw in the Nose.  
OO, the bridge or partition of the nosethrils.  
P, the Suture in the yoake bone.  
Q, A part of the 2. common suture from the first N to S.  
R, S, T, V, X, Y, Z. The third common Suture drawn obliquely through the orbe of the eye.  
a D, the first externall suture of the vpper Iawe in the Cheeke, and from thence through the eye to Q.  
b, the third external suture of the vpper iaw from b to c.  
c, the second external suture of the vpper iaw in the eie  
e, the fourth externall suture reaching to Ξ.  
f, the sixt externall suture of the vpper iaw in the middle of the Nose.  
g, the second internall suture in the nose.  
h, the seauenth externall suture of the vpper iaw.  
i. A bastard suture of the vpper iaw at the eye.   
FIG. IIX.  
IX  
The Ninth Figure.  

A. The end of the Coronall Suture.  
CC, the lower additaments of the Lambdall suture on either side. D, the fourth hole of the wedge bone in the outside of the orbe of the eye.  
F, A part of the fourth proper Suture.  
H, the great hole of the occipitium made for the spinall marrow.  
K, A part of the bone called Synciput.    
LL. A part of the forhead bone. MM, the lower part of the nowle bone. N, A rift or cleft of the wedge bone which is common to the bones of the temple, drawn on the left side from n to o. OO, the wedge bone P. His foure processes marked 2, 3. 4, 5. A, R. the sixt hole of the wedgebone at the bottom of the throat. A. the seauenth hole of the same at R. Γ. the first bone of the vpper Iaw. S. Λ. the fourth. Π. The sixte, where the Cutter betwixt c and Π hath not well expressed the Suture. TT. the bones of the Temples on either side. V, the fourth hole of the bones of the temple made for the hearing. Ξ, the bridge or partition of the nose. X, the fyrst hole of the temple bone in his Basis. YY, the yoake bone. aa, the anterior part of the fourth proper Suture. b, the lower part of the Fift proper oblique Suture. c, the lower part of the bridge of the nose which is like a Coulter where 3 is placed. d, the vpper part of the second common Suture, f, the First externall Suture of the vpper iawe in the Cheeke. g, the first common Suture in the side of the brow, h, the cauity of the Temples whereto the lower Iaw is articulated. ii, the Appendix of the Temple bone called Styloides. k. the Mammillary processe of the same Temples. ll, the knub of the nowle bone. mm, the sixt proper oblique Suture of the scull. nn, the seauenth transuerse Suture. op, A Line beginning from the last named Suture which climbeth by the temples, and is more like a diuision then a line qq, the lower part of the second common Suture of the scul in the hollownesse of the nose. r, the line of the hole of hearing. s, a, the stony Bones. tv, the 5 externall transuerse suture of the vpper iaw. Xy, the seuenth externall right Suture. α, β, A Bastard Suture of the vpper iaw in the pallate. γ, the hole of the eare, ●, the Fift hole of the temples neere vnto his processe where Y should be blotted our. B, A hole of the nowle bone which is not alwayes found. E, the second hole of the nowle bone made for the sixt coniugatiō of the sinnewes, and for the iugular veine and artery, H, the First hole of the Occipitium or nowle bone for the passage of the marrow. 3, The third hole or the outgate of the seuenth coniugation. ●, λ, two holes of the nose. μν, two holes in the palat which is accounted the fourth of the wedge-bone. π, Fiue holes in the basis of the wedge-bone. ξ, the hole of the fourth Bone of the vpper iaw in the Pallate. Note that M, V, at the right side pointeth out the cauity which the yoke bone maketh for the passage of the temporall Muscles throttle, the gullet and the stomacke. This Membrane although it compasse the whole circumference of the mouth and the parts conteyned in the chops, yet is it one and continual, and of one and the same substance, but not alwayes of a like thicknesse. For in the Nosethrilles it is thinner, but in that part which is vnder the spongy bones it is thicker and full of small holes, through which the thicker Excrementes of the Braine do passe: which excrements as they descend doe part of them passe into the mouth through those hoales which are made out of the nosethrils thereinto; partyssueth at the Nose, yea, and sometimes with violent hawking wee fetch part out of the wayes of the Nosethrilles into the mouth.  
This Membrane is of exquisite Sense, so that if it bee irritated or prouoked, Sternutation or Sneezing will followe, because of the consent it hath with the Chest whereinto it 
Why wee sneeze when our nose is tickled.  insinuateth itself: but why were the nosethrils inuested with this Membrane? I answere, to hinder the growth of flesh in the nose which might make the nosethrilles narrow, as it happeneth in the disease called Polypus. Againe, to make the nosethrilles more slipperie that the mucous excrement might more easily descend. Finally, that they might be partakers of Sense.  
The vse of the outward nose is first for Respiration, that through it as through a canale or pipe the aire might be conueyed in to be distributed, partly vpward to the Braine to recreate and refresh the Animall spirit, partly downwards to the Lungs and the heart to refrigerate 
The vses of the outwarde Nose.  and coole the same. This is the first and especial vse of the outward nose: for although we respire also by the mouth, yet was not the mouth created for Respiration, because if the holes of the spongye bones or the nosethrils be obstructed( so that when wee sleepe we draw in our breath by our mouthes) the tongue becomes rough and the mouth dry( sometimes also it growes bitter) that when we wake we can scarse swallow our spitle, 
That the mouth was not made to breath by.  Hence it is, that Nature prouided the nose like a couer to defend the holes that go out of the nosethrils into the mouth through which we breath when we are asleep & our mouths shut vppe.  
The second vse of the outward nose is to serue the sense of Smelling. Hippocrates de Carn. saith. The moyst Braine smelleth the odours of dry things, drawing them together with the aire through gristly bodyes. For the nose leadeth the ayre, informed, as it were, with the formes of odours through the hole of the Spongie bone to the Mammillary processes as vnto the principall organs of smelling, from whence it is conueyed to the braine: for if a mans nose be cut off at the roote, either hee cannot smell at all, or at least but imperfectly.  
The third vse is, that through it the excrements of the Braine might distill, or by a vehement efflation be blowne out. And these two last vses Galen expresseth excellentlie in 
Galen.  the sixt chapter of his eight Booke de vsu partium on this manner. From within outwarde are the Excrements of the Braine deriued through the Nosethrilles. From without inwarde are the Obiects of the smelling Faculty transported this way. One Instrument serueth these two turnes of Nature; one of which is necessary for the preseruation of Life, the other for our better Life.  
Finally, the Nose serueth to forme the voyce, and addeth a great beauty to the Face.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the Inward Nose and the manner of Smelling.  
_THat the Nose is the Instrument of Smelling all men will confesse, but because it is compounded of many and diuers parts, it is a great question to which particle among all the rest the Action of Smelling is to bee attributed. Of these we haue already examined those parts which make the outward Nose, it remaineth therefore that we prosecute our Historie in the parts of the Inward Nose.  
The Inward Nose therefore consisteth of two parts, the bone called Ethmoeides or rather the Spongy bone and the Mammillarie processes. The Spongy bone is situated partly 
The inwarde nose made of two parts.  in the toppe of the Nosethrils, partly within the Scul. It is a couering of the Mammillarie processes thrilled full of holes or rare and Spongye, through which perforations the ayre is immediately conueyed to the Braine forrespiration, and vapors for the distinction 
The Spongye bone.  of odours: that way also the whole sourse of the excrements is conducted.  
The Mammillary processes which make the other part of the inward nose do proceede out of the Braine and haue their habitation within the Scul aboue the cauity or bosome of the spongy bone. Of this spongy Bone we haue sayd somewhat already in the 6. Chapter of the 7. Booke, and shall speake afterward more at large, and concerning the Mammillary processes we haue inteated of them sufficiently in the 16. Chapter of the 7. Booke, whether we referre the Reader, and proceede to discouer vnto you the manner of Smelling. And because I would not haue you think that Hippocrates was ignorant from whence this Sense 
2. passages out of Hippocrates.  came and where it was accomplished, you shall giue mee leaue to relate vnto you a short passage or twaine out of his works. The first is in his Booke de Carnibus, where hee speaketh to this purpose.  
The Braine hath in it a Faculty of Smelling though it be moyst, and draweth through gristly bodies which are drie, together with the ayre the odours of drie things. For the Braine reacheth euen vnto the cauity of the Nose, hauing no bone in his way but onely a soft gristle like a sponge, which you can call neither a Bone nor Flesh. If therefore the cauity of the Nostrils bee dry, then doeth the braine better and more exquisitly perceiue the odours of dry bodies. For it cannot smell water because it is moyster then the braine, vnlesse it bee corrupted. In like manner when the Nostrils are moyst we cannot smell, because at such times the braine doth not draw the Ayre into itselfe.  
Againe in his Booke de locis in Homine. There is no passage tending vnto the Nose( hee meaneth the Sense of Smelling) but a loose and spongy substance, and that is the reason why we heare further then wee smell, for if the Sent be far from the Sense it is dispersed before it attaine thereto.  
Galen more distinctly( as being better acquainted with Anatomy) on this manner in a 
Galen.  particular discourse of this subiect .. The Braine sendeth out two sprouts long and hollow, taking their original from the forward ventricles and determining at that part of the Scull where the Nose beginneth, where are placed certaine Bones called Ossa Ethmoidea, that is, like a Syue or Scarce. But we returne to the manner of Smelling.  
According to Aristotle the●e are three things required, to euery Sense; an Obiect, a Medium 
3. things required to sense The Obiect.  and an Instrument or Organ.  
The Obiect here are odours or vapours of a firie Nature.  
But what an odour is, is not so welknowne as what a Sound or a Light, or a Colour is: wherefore in men this Sense is the dullest of all the rest, as Aristotle sayeth in his Booke de Sensu & sensili, and many creatures Smell a great deale more exquisitly then we; we touch more exquisitly then any other creature, at least that Sence in vs is most perfect. Whence it is that a man receiueth no Smell without pleasure or discontentment, because the Instrument is not perfect.  
The Sense of Smelling is the middle Sence, for there are Fiue Senses, two that woorke 
Smelling the middle sense.  by contaction, as the Touch and the Taste; and two that apprehend their obiects by the interposition of an other, as Sight and Hearing.  
Now because Odours are not so manifest( saith Aristotle in the 9. Chapter of his second 
Whence odours haue their names,  Booke de Anima) as Sapours( for our Language vseth the worde Sauour promiscuously in both these Sences) therefore it is that the names of Odours are taken by a similitude from sapors, so that some odours are called sweete, as that of Saffron and Honny; others sharpe as Tyme and such like; there is also a sower Odour, an acute and a fatte. VVherefore Galen in the 22. Chapter of his 4. Booke de simpli medica. teacheth vs that Odors do moue 
The consent betweene the smell & the taste.  the Taste as sapors doe; for if our meates be corrupted the Taste is able to find the vnpleasing odour and we throw them away. Yea almost in euery thing the Smell and the Tast haue a mutuall consent; we say almost, because in those things that are most fragrant and sweete smelling as is a Rose, the Smelling and the Taste doe much differ. For the Smell is delighted with the Odour of the Rose, but the Sapor there of disturbeth the Taste. But as the Hearing is audible and inaudible, the Sight visible and inuisible, so also the Smelling is odorable( for it is no treason to Coyne words) or inodorable. That is inodorable, either that hath not nor can haue any odor, or that which hath but a little odor, or that which hath an euill or offensiue odor, and so much of the Obiect.  
The Medium by which wee Smell is the Aire or VVater. For those creatures which 
The medium, of the smell,  liue in the waters whether they haue bloud or no bloud, are yet apprehensiue of odours, as also those that liue in the Aire. For Fishes and Snayles and those we call insecta, do smel their nourishment a farre off, and approach thereupon vnto it, because of the Alimentarie species of the odour, as Bees will flock to Honny, and so in the like.  
But man neuer smelleth but when hee draweth in his breath, for if hee hould his breath, though you put odoriferous things into his Nose he cannot smell thē; the reason 
How a man smelleth.  is, because the instrument of his Smell is not placed in the superficies of the coat of his nostrils, but farre within, to which there are certaine perforations that leade. Againe, in inspiration the instruments themselues are dilated, which if they were not dilated the ayre could not passe through the pores nor ascend vnto the processes and so vnto the ventricles of the Braine. Other creatures, euen those that are without blood do smell, though they do not respire, and they smell because they are able to receiue and perceiue odours. And that they do perceiue odours, it is manifest, because they are stifled with those odors, 
That vnbloody creaturs do smell.  whereby men are also stifled. For, saith Aristotle in his booke de sensu & sensili, as men get a stuffing in their heads, yea are sometimes suffocated with the steame of Charcoales, so many insectile creatures are driuen away with the smell or vapour of Brimstone or other Bituminous matter, because they are annoyed, yea killed by them.  
Hence it followeth that the instrument of smelling in men differeth from the instrument of smelling in such creatures, as a mans eye differs from the eyes of those creatures 
A difference of this instrument.  which haue hard eyes. For those creatures that haue soft eyes haue also eye-lids to couer them, which lids, if they doe not moue and open they cannot see; but those that haue hard eyes haue no lids at all, nor any thing proportionable thereto, but they see immediately that which is to be seene.  
In like maner saith the Phylosopher, in those creatures which doe not respire the chiefe instrument or Organ of Smelling hath no couer at all no more then their eyes haue. But those creatures which draw in ayre haue their organs of sight and hearing couered; yet because in their breathing their veines and passages are distended, the instrument is vncouered, or it may bee their breath remooueth the couering away, but when they doe not respire they cannot smell, which is all otherwise in those creatures that doe not respire. Hence it is that those creatures that doe respire cannot smell when they are vnder water, for they must respire when they smell but in the water they cannot respire.  

Aristotles conceit of the couers refuted by Galen.  This conceit of Aristotles concerning the couers of the holes of the Nose, Galen in his booke de instrumento olfactus refuteth. For, saith he, it is an vncertaine thing which cannot be demonstrated nor made euident, that we should assurdly beleeue it to be true: beside, saith Galen, it is of no vse.  
But let vs grant that in the bottome of the Nose there is a couer which is opened by inspiration, that the way may be made open for the ayre and vapours to passe in; and that when the inspiration is ended, it againe closeth: It must needs be that the motion of this couer( saith Galen) must be Animall, or Naturall or Violent.  
That it is Animall or voluntary no man will say, because there is no neede of a couer or value for Animall motion; beside Animall motion followeth our wills, but this couer is neuer opened sauing when we draw our breath. Againe, the instrument of Animall motion is a muscle, but in the top of the nose on the inside there are no moscles.  
Neither is this motion Natural as is the motion of the values of the heart, because the motion of the Heart is perpetuall and not at our command.  
Violent we cannot say it is, for then( saith Galen) when the Ayre rusheth forcibly in 
An instance out of Galen.  the couers should be opened euen without attraction or drawing of our breath; but this we are able to disproue. For put a man into a chamber fulfilled with some strong odour, and moue the Ayre neuer so vehemently, or lead the smell into his nosthrils with a reede( for so doubtlesse those couers if there were any would bee reserated) yet hee will not sent the smell at all, vnlesse he draw in his breath. Concerning this matter, he that desireth further satisfaction, let him reade Galen diligently. We will proceede vnto the third thing required to sensation, which is the Iustrument.  
Concerning the instrument of Smelling we haue before related the opinion of Hippocrates, 
The instrument.  of Aristotle answered by Galen, and also of Galen himselfe. But the truth is saith Archangelus that all the antients were ignorant of this Mystery.  
Amongst the latter Anatomists Varolius hath wel described it, so hath our Authour Bauhine, you shall heare both their conceits.  
Varolius hath it thus: Two neruous productions proceed out of the very middest of 
Varolius.  the Braine, wrought as it were out of the substance thereof; these productions shooting forward doe determine at the top of the nostrils and make the chiefe instrument of Smelling, to which place when the odoriferous exhalations doe attaine, the instrument perceiueth the species of the odor without any matter and into this species is changed; the exhalation is dispersed or extended through the substance of the Braine.  
Bauhine hath it thus: As the Eye is the instrument of the Sight, and the Eare of hearing, both of them compounded of many particles: so the instrument of the Smell is the 
Bauhine.  Nose. But because in euery sense there is one principall part, it is a great question which is here the principall instrument by which the faculty taketh knowledge of the proper obiects of this sense. Some thinke is is the Nose, because if we shut our Nose and draw in the 
The principal instrument.  breath through the Mouth we doe not smell at all, but if we drawe our breath through the Nose, the odour presently striketh the sense. But because there are some creatures that smell without Noses, it followeth that the nose is not the principall Organ but helpeth the 
Not the Nose  perfection of the sense, and is an assistant onely to the principall organ. We must therefore finde out some other part, and that in the Nose or neere vnto it.  
The Bone it cannot be, saith Galen in his booke de instrumento olfactus, because bones are insensible euery way, much lesse can they distinguish of smels. It is not the coate or 
Galen. Not the bone  membrane of the nose that discerneth odours, for though you fill the nose with odorifferous things, yet we do not smell before we draw our breath. Againe this coate is verie 
Not the membrane of the nose.  like that membrane that inuesteth the vtmost part of the heade, which membrane partaketh not of this sense, and therefore not this coate of the nose. It is not the coate of the Palate, of the Chops, or the Rough Arterie; for if you stop your nosethrils & draw your breth through your mouth you shall not smell at all or feele any sense of an odor, neither about the Pallat, or the Chops, or the Rough Artery. Wherfore the nose as the way, or 
Nor the palat  the pathe or walke of odoriferous things, although to say truth it was ordained rather for Respiration, saith Galen, then to smel with.  
The bodie therefore that perceiueth or apprehendeth odours is placed higher, & 
Not the spongie bone  that is either the Spongie bone or the Mammillarie processes. Not the Spongye bone because, as is said, bones are insensible altogether. It remaineth therefore that it must be those processes which because they are somewhat like the nipples of a Dugge are called 
But the Mam millarie processes.  Mammillares, which proceeding out of the basis of the Braine are by the Piamater( saith Archangelus) ioyned to the braine and reposed in the vpper part of the Spongye bone called also Etnmoides( for wee will confound them) and because they are two, they are distinguished or separated by a production of the same bone carrying the Figure of a Spur-rowell.  
They are much of the nature of Nerues, as is before shewed in the 16. Chapter of the seuenth Book, and therefore are best able( saith Laurentius) to discerne of the qualities they receiue: yea( saith Archangelus) they seeme to haue their originall from Nerues of 
Their nature.  Smelling which do degenerate into them. For from the back part of the marrow of the Braine at the fourth Ventricle doth the Odoratorie Nerue arise vnder the Optickes, and pacing forwarde are thrust into the Mammillary processes betwixt the Braine end the 
Archangelus conceite of Nerues of Smelling.  Wedge-bone. And these Nerues of Smelling( saith he) were made as canales or pipes through which the Facultie of Smelling( residing in the Animal spirite drawne out of the fourth Ventricle) might be transported vnto the Mamillarie processe or the organs of Smelling; as the Faculty of Seeing through the Opticke nerues is transported vnto the eyes. The originall of these Nerues was vnknowne to Vesalius, Columbus & the rest, because haplie they vsed to Dissect onely putrid or stale heades. But wee returne vnto Bauhine.  
These Mammilarie processes( hauing a peculiar Nature, Figure and Composition of their own) are esteemed to be the principall organs of smelling, especiallie because 
Bauhine  there is no part in the nose which can so easily be altred by odours as these: for being ful of spirits they do soone receiue the species of odours. For whereas odours do consist in a kinde of exhalation( which is manifest because odoriferous things doe onely so farre 
Odors consist in exhalation  foorth smell as they exhale; whence it is that in Summer the sents of thinges are more fresh and fragrant then in Winter) and exhalations are naturally drie, it was fit that the organ of Smelling should proceede from a moyst principle, that by reason of the contrarietie betweene the Obiect and the Organ which is necessarie in al actions, the instrument might suffer and be mooued by the exhalation. And because the exhalation when it was come vnto that place might better be dilated or extended, this instrument dooth not arise from the Spinall Marrow, nor from out of any part compassed or constrained within narrow limits, but of the verie middest of the Braine where they are wrought out of the substance therof, & thence produced forward determine in the top of the nose & so become the Organs of Smelling.  
We conclude therefore that the Smell is made after this manner. The Aire altred with Odors or by an aierie exhalation of odorifferous thinges is receiued by the Nose, 
A briefe Collection of the manner of smelling  which like a Chimney is broad below and narrow aboue; but because the proper motion of the exhalation is but weake that it cannot make a sufficient impression; it is increased by traction. Wherefore when the mouth is shut and the Chest dilated( for vnlesse the Chest be dilated we can smell nothing) the exhalation that is dispersed through the aire is by inspiration drawne into the nosethrils: and because out of them there are two holes which go vnto the pallate the greatest part of that aire so drawne in entreth into the Lungs but without any sense of odours; the rest ascendeth vpward to the instrumēts of Smelling, but it is altred in the spongie bones euen as in the cauities of the eares the auditorie aire is prepared. This aire thus altred in the Labyrinths of the spongie bones together with the species or forme of the odour passeth thorough the holes of the Siu● into the Mammillary processes, or by them it is receiued and so conueyed to the common Sense which is in the Braine that it may iudge thereof. For the Brain is the common instrument of Sensation or the organ of all the senses, or it is the instrument by which the Sensatiue Soule perceiueth all sensible qualities, yea distinguisheth and iudgeth of them. And thus much of the vpper part of the Face, wherin three Senses are situated, of which we haue intreated.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of the Parts of the Face which are betwixt the Nose, the Eares and the Chinne.  
_THE parts of the Face which are onely in men and vnder the eies between the nose and the eares reach as farre as the Chin, the Ancients called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine Genae, because in them haires are generated. Wee call them the Cheeks. They are diuided into an vpper part & a lower. The vpper is next vnder the Eyes, a little rising between the nose and the Ears 
The particular parts, with their names.  & for the most part is red, in which place Plinie supposeth that modesty or shamefastnes hath her seate, because that part blusheth in those that are modest. Hippocrates called it 〈◇〉, the circle of the Face, and Pollux 〈◇〉 the Apple of the Face, beecause in forme and colour it is not vnlike an apple, besides their colour flourisheth most in the Summer of our age.  
The lower part is looser, and is all that which is without the closing of the two Iawes, reaching almost all along betweene the chin and the eyes: when your teeth are shut you may raise it vp with your finger on the inside, or make it strut when you fill your mouth with Aire, not suffering it to go into your Lungs or out of your mouth. This is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine Bueca the Puffe of the Cheeke: That part which is betwixte the nosethrils and the vpper lip is called Mystax. The cauity which parteth the vpper lip in two which is an impression therein like a valley, is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, as it were amiable or louely.  
The Lips are cald Labra by Cicero, by others Labia a lambendo of licking, for saith Archangelus, 
Archangelus.  men lick with their lips though other creatures, as Dogs and Cats and Oxen licke with their tongues. They are two, one vpper another lower, and are nothing else but Musculous extremities of the mouth. Aristotle in the 11. chapter of his first Book de Historia Animalium calleth them 〈◇〉, because they occupy the verie mouth. Homer also calleth them 〈◇〉, and Lycophron in that prouerbe vsed I thinke in all Languages.  
〈◇〉  
〈◇〉,  
Great Destinie twixt the Lippe and the sippe,  

A prouerbe out of Lycophron.  Causeth strange chances often to slippe.  
The vtmost and prominent parts of the lippes are called 〈◇〉, prolabra by Ruffus, and those parts that meete and looke redder then the rest because of the affluence of bloode are called 〈◇〉 by Pollux and Ruffus. The hole which the two lips make when they are diuided is called 〈◇〉, Os the mouth. Finally, the lower part of the Face vnder the neather lip which groweth sharp is called 〈◇〉 by Xenophon, by Cicero mentum a memorando because it should seeme there is some vse of it when we desire to remember any thing. No creature( saith Pliny) hath a chin but man, which if it be round( according to Pythagoras) is a signe of an effiminate minde. The doke or dimple in the middest of the chin and a great ornament too, is called 〈◇〉 the Nymph; the very sharp poynt of the chinne, bearing out in the lower Iaw is called 〈◇〉; the flesh vnder the Chinne is called 〈◇〉 in Latine Buccula we call it a double Chinne. To conclude, the hayres that breake out in the Cheekes, the Lippes and the Chinne make the Beard, of all which parts we might discourse at large out of our Authours, but that we hast to that which is more profitable.   

CHAP. XXX. Of the Mouth, Palate and Vuula.  
_THat which is in Greeke called 〈◇〉, in Latin Os, we call the Mouth, comprehending vnder that appellation not onely the Cleft which is made by the opening 
The mouth.  of the Lippes, but also all that voyde cauity which is betwixt the Lips and the rootes of the Choppes, which are called Fauces. It is situated in the fore and middle part of the Face, that the handes might equally reach the meate on either side vnto it.  
It is also immediatly vnder the Nostrils, that not onely the Sapors or Tastes of our meates might be offered to the Mouth; but the Sauours & Smels or Odours to the Nosethrils. 
The reason of the scituation.  For it is fit both the Sences should iudge of that we put into our bellies.  
The parts of the mouth are of two sortes: some are those whereof the Mouth is made, others such as are contayned within the Mouth. The partes whereof the Mouth is made 
The parts of the mouth. The fleshy.  are of two sorts, some fleshy, others bony. The fleshy partes are the Lippes; the Muscles of the Puffe of the Cheekes, of the Lippes and of the lower Iaw. For on the foreside the Mouth is compassed with the Lippes, as well to shut vp the Mouth when we would, as also the better to sup liquid things; on each side are the Puffes of the Cheek swelling out. These partes are couered with the Skinne hauing Fatte vnder it, which Skinne in the middest is slitte ouerthwart like the Eye-liddes to giue way for the reuiuing of Aliment.  
The Bones are the vpper and the neather Iawes, with the Teeth fixed into them both. All these parts as also the whole inward capacity of the Mouth is compassed with a thick 
The bones.  membrane which in the palate is somewhat rugous, spredeth ouer the Gummes, couereth 
The Pallate.  the vpper part of the Lippes, and being reduplicated maketh the Vuula.  
The chiefe vse of the mouth is double; first to giue way for the assumption of meates 
The chiefe vses of the mouth.  and drinkes, and that in the mouth they might bee Tasted. For the Taste is apprehensiue of that quality of the meat which is fit for our nourishment; wherefore in the very ingresse of the mouth is the Toung placed which is the proper instrument of the Tast, that nothing may be admitted into the mouth which doth not fir●●●●ke his quality manifest by the contaction of the Tongue: againe to breake the Aliment and to shred and mingle it before it be swallowed, that it may go prepared into the stomacke.  
The second principall vse of the mouth is for Respiration, that when the Nose is stopped the Ayre may yet be transported, some of it vpward to the top of the nostrilles, some of it downward to the Longues, for the nourishment and expurgation of the vitall spirits: especially for the framing of the voice, for we speake out of our mouths.  
The secundary or lesse principall vse of the mouth is, that thorough it by hauking wee 
The secondaly vses of the mouth.  might auoide the excrements of the head, by Coughing the excrements of the Chest and the Longues, and sometimes also by Vomiting those of the Stomacke.  
The Muscles common to the Puffe of the Cheekes and the Lippes are foure, twoe on 
The common muscles.  each side. The one called Quadratus or the square muscle, the other Buccinator or the Trūpeter; and these muscles beside the vses they haue in beastes do in men helpe the Speach, especially the Sounding of a Trumpet or winding of a Horne or Cornet.  
The Lippes which couer the mouth are two; one aboue, another below, whose substance 
The lips.  fayth Galen in his 4. Book De Anatom. Administrat. and the third chapter, are fleshy, fungous and moouable, and that after an vncouth manner: for the Skinne and the Muscles are throughout exactly mingled together, so that Galen in the 11. Book de vsu partium and the 15. chapter, calleth the conformation of their substance a Musculous Skinne, or a skinny Muscle.  
And as without they are couered with the Skin, so on the inside they are inuested with a membrane common to the stomacke and the mouth: whence it is that in those that are about to vomit the lower lip is often seene to tremble. These Lippes all creatures haue to eat and drinke with; but men make farther vse of them to helpe their speach, to auoyde their spittle, and moreouer they defend the Teeth from the coldnesse of the ayre, and are a 
Table 7. Fig. 1. Sheweth the muscles of the Forehead, the Eye-lids, and the Cheekes.  
Figure 2. sheweth the muscles of the Nose, Lips, the lower Iaw and of the bone Hyois.  
TABVLA. XIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

A 1, 2, The muscle of the forehead and the right fibres thereof.  
B 1, 2, The temporall muscle.  
αβγ 2, His semicircular originall.  
CE 1, the first muscle of the Eye-lidde compassing the whole lid.  
FD 1, the third muscle of the wing of the nose which endeth into the vpper lip.  
GH 1, the muscle of the vpper lip.  
G 2, The place of the yoke bone without flesh.  
T 1, the broad Mouse-muscle stretched ouer the cheeks and all the lower parts.  
〈◇〉 the circumscription or circumference of this muscle.  
I 1, the yoke-bone.  
I 2, The grinding muscle or the second muscle of the Iaw.  
The forward K in the second figure sheweth the higher gristle of the nose.  
L 2, the wing of the nose.  
M 2, a muscle forming the cheeks.  
N 2, the muscle of the lower lip.  
O 2, A part of the fift muscle of the lower iaw called Digastricus, that is, double bellied.  
P 2, the bone hyois is set in this place,  
QR 2, The first muscle of the bone hyois growing to the Rough artery,  
S 2, the second muscle of the bone hyois vnder the chin  
The lower T in the second figure sheweth the third muscle of the bone hyois streatched to the iaw. The vpper T in the second figure sheweth the insertion of the seuenth muscle of the head.  
VV 2, two venters of the fourth muscle of the bone Hyois,  
The backward K( put in stead of χ) sheweth the seauenth muscle of the head and his insertion at the vpper T,  
χ Λ 2, The originall of the grinding muscle from the yoke-bone,  
μ 2 the insertion of this muscle into the lower iaw,  
ν 2 A small nerue running to the forehead out of the orbe of the eyes, π 2, a nerue propagated to the face, 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉2, two beginnings of the seauenth muscle of the head. T 2, His insertion into the Mammiltary processe. ν 2, The cl●uicle or the coller-bone. φ 2, A place where the vessels attayning to the head and the nerues of the arme do passe through.   great beauty to the Face.  
For the performance of all these offices they stoode in need of Muscles, some of which are common with them and the Puffe of the Cheeke, of which we haue made mention before: 
The proper muscles of the Lips.  others are proper to the Lips onely, and they are sixe; two on either side belonging to the vpper Lip and one on either side belonging to the nether.  
The Iawes are two. The vpper which in men is immouable, and the lower which is moued 
The Iawes.  voluntarily with a double kinde of motion; one simple another compound: the simple motions are sixe, vpward, downward, to the right hand and to the left, forward and backeward.  
The compound motion is made of that which is to the right hand and to the left, and that which is forward and backward: and by this motion the Iaw is circumduced or led about. It is mooued vpward by the muscle called Temporalis: downward by Digastricus, to the right hand and the left by Mansorius primus: backeward by Mansorius alter: forward by the fift paire: of all which as also of the common Muscles we shal intreate in the book of Muscles and of the Bones in the booke of Bones.  
The parts contained in the mouth are diuers besides the teeth and the bone Hyois, of which we shall intreate among the bones. These are the Gums, the Palat, the Vuula, the Almonds, the Tongue, the Larynx or throtle, the Muscles of these parts, and the beginning of the Gullet.  
The Gummes are made of flesh, which Auerrhoes saith is glandulous, the Graecians call it 〈◇〉 which signifieth to inuolue: it is hard, saith Bauhine, and immoueable that so the teeth might be better fastened in their sockets, so hard the gums are that such as haue lost their teeth are able to breake their meate sometimes with them.  
The Palate is the vpper part of the mouth, wherefore the antients, as Hippocrates, 
The palate.  and Galen from him call it 〈◇〉; Aristotle 〈◇〉, as it were Caelum oris. The Latines call it Ialatum, because it is fenced in with teeth, as it were with Pales, as if one should say Paled in[ Tab. 13. fig. 4. *.] The extension of the Palate is from the backepart of the mouth to the teeth and is hollow like an Arch, but the roofe is not too high, hence we call it commonly the roofe of the mouth, but those whose heads are acuminated or like a Sugar loase haue high roofes or palates as Hyppocrates obserued in the first section of the sixth booke Epidemion. This is the soale or basis of the Braine established by the wedge bone, which therefore Galen calleth the bone of the palate, though saith he in his nineteenth chapter of his eleuenth booke de vsu partium, it scarce touch the palate.  
It is made partly of bony substance and partly of fleshy; the bone is hard and fast, lest 
Whereof framed.  it shold rot by the confluence of excrement vnto it, as we see it doth in the French disease. This bone is double on both sides, for it is compounded of the fourth bone of the vpper iaw into which the teeth are fastened, and the sixth bone which maketh the backeward 
The bones of it  amplitude thereof. It is also diuided in the middest by a Suture, in the end whereof are two holes through which the braine is purged into the mouth, and so there becomes a great society betweene the nosthrils and the palate. Through th●se holes when wee hold our mouths close we may exspire and inspire, breath in and out, and when the wayes of the 
The holes of it.  nostrils are obstructed, the excrements gathered together in the ventricles of the Braine are this way deriued into the mouth. But the backeward halfe of the palate whi● endeth into the Fauces or chops, & is stretched out from one side to another, consisteth of a thick and glandulous flesh.  
It is inuested with a thicke coate arising out of the dura mater, which hauing gotten 
The coate of the Palate.  out of the skull is enlarged, becommeth thicker and compasseth the whole mouth and palate or the inside, yea it is common also with the gullet and the stomach, Hence cometh the great consent betweene the Palate and stomach, for it was fit that the coate of the palate should haue the sēse of Tasting, that it might take the assay vnto the stomach. Wherefore the sense of it is more exquisite, as receiuing it into his back part certaine small nerues of the fourth coniugation, which coniugation is also distributed vnto the palate.  
This is also the cause why wee cannot euacuate the head with Masticatorie Medidicines, but the stomach also will bee euacuated by the palate: now the head is euacuated by the palate, because from the head certaine hairy threds of veynes doe descend vnto the palate.  
This coate of the palate in some places is rugous and rugged, which Plinie calleth Crenas, that the meate might be better mittigated. It is also hollow or concauous, that 
Plinie. Why it is hollow.  the voyce might be better formed when the ayre is reuerberated; in this concauity also as in a bosome the ayre we draw in is warmed, that it should not descend cold vnto the vitall parts to offend them.  
The Vuula hath many names: It is cald Gargareon, or Gargulio by Hippoc. by Aristotle 〈◇〉, 
The names of the Vuula.  but the proper name is Gargareon; 〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉, that is vuula, are the names of it when it is ill affected. The name Gargareon is a made word of the sound we make when we gargle, or else from Gargles which we vse in the diseases of this part. It is called also Columella & plectrum, It is a particle of the mouth or a certaine pocesse saith Ruffus, hanging directly downeward( from the inward part of the palate[ Tab. 13. fig. 4. E.] neare the holes of the nosthrils which looke into the backepart of the mouth) into the capacity of the mouth betweene the Almonds[ F F] aboue the slit of the larynx or throtle[ E] as will easily appeare if a man open his mouth wide and presse his tongue downeward.  
The substance of it is glandulous, red, and fungous hanging downe from the middest 
The substāce.  of the glandulous part of the palate. Some thinke it is made of the coate of the palate reduplicated at the end of the mouth and a little elongated, this was Columbus his conceyt,  
If it be diseased by a fall of humours it is no more called Gargereon but 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉. 
The names as they are properly giuen.   
For if it grow equally thicke from the Basis to the ende, and fall lowe, become redde, then it is called 〈◇〉, that is, a Piller; but if the vpper part be slender, & the lower part grow round and liuid or blackish, then is it called 〈◇〉 or the Vuula, because it is like a Grape both in colour and in magnitude, the stalke being the vpper part. It is called also 〈◇〉, and therefore Galen calleth them in whome it is ill affected 〈◇〉.  
The vse of it is to temperate and moderate the coldnesse of the aire we breath in, that 
The vse of the Vuula.  it fall not suddenly vppon the Longues, and so the bloud( sayth Aphrodisaeus) become condensed and thickned by the Inspiration of cold ayre, whereby the motion of the Longues might be made slower; whence it would follow that vpon so great a contention in the motion, the vessels might be broken and a consumption follow.  
Another vse of it is to moderate and Tune the voyce, for onely Men and a few Birdes 
Another.  haue it: hereuppon it is called plectrum vocis the quill of the Voyce. For hanging in the cauity of the Palate betwixt the Larynx and the cauity of the nosethrilles it maketh a repercussion of the ayre as it yssueth out of the Throttle. Hence also it is that it helpeth pronounciation 
Columbus.  very much as Columbus sayth; who also auoucheth that if it be eaten away by the French disease, or cutt off when it is inflamed, the voyce will neuer be shrill or cleere after.  
This Fallopius gainesayeth vpon his owne manifould experience, and Bauhine telleth a 
Gainsaide by Fallopius.  Storie of a Marchant whose Vuula( for I know no other name for it in English) had beene some yeares since consumed by a defluxion of sharpe humours, who yet found no decay or falt in his speach to follow vpon it, marry otherwise he grew Tabid, that is, into a consumption. VVherefore, sayth he, we conceiue that those that haue their voyces impayred by the French disease, doe not onely loose their Vuulas, but the Vlcers eate away a great part of that glandulous body which is betwixt the Bone and the coate of the Palate, or else the bone of the Palate and the membrane is perforated. The like conceit also hath Fallopius.  
Some adde a third vse of the Vuula to purge the Aire, for it licketh vp the dust which 
A third vse.  otherwise together with the ayre woulde descend into the Longues. But Vesalius doeth not approue of this vse, and hee rendereth this reason, because other creatures that drawe their breathes nearer the earth( and so more in danger of dust then men) haue not yet this Vuula.  
Finally( for I will not insist vpon euery mans conceit) Varolius concerning the vse of the 
Varolius his vse of the Vuula.  Vuula expresseth himselfe on such a manner.  
The Vuula receiueth the excrement of the braine conuayed vnto the Phlegmatick glandule through the Tunnell; this excrement it imparteth vnto of the Palat, the Tongue and other instruments of the Voice to moysten them, that which is ouerplus is cast out by spitting and hauking. For as in a Flute the Sound will not bee shrill and cleare vnlesse it bee wet, so it is in the voyce of a man: and therefore Nature placed the Vuula which receiueth the moysture of the braine directly ouer the slit of the Throttle or Larynx, that it together with the rough Artery might better be moystned.   

CHAP. XXXI. Of the end of the Mouth called Fauces or the Choppes, and their Glandules.  
_ALthough the word Fauces or the Choppes, doe among some Anaomistes, Vesalius and Laurentius especially, signifie al the capacity of the mouth; yet properly it signifieth the backeward and lower part of the mouth, or that 
The extent of the word.  space where the endes of the Gullet and the rough Artery doe meete, and may not be perceiued vnlesse the mouth be wide opened and the Tongue depressed.[ Table 13. figu. 4. betwixt F and I] The Grecians call it 〈◇〉. Yet this word 〈◇〉 hath diuers significations: sometimes it is taken for that we call Fauces or the Chops, sometimes for the Larynx or Throttle, because they are neare together, sometimes also for the whole rough Artery. Aristotle in diuers places giueth this name to the Gullet. Philoxenus Erixius sayeth a notable Gourmandizer wished his 〈◇〉( that is his Gullet) bigger then a Cranes. Some by this word vnderstand all the glandulous bodies about the Choppes. But in Hippocrates where wee haue this worde 〈◇〉 put by itself, it signifieth some disease of the Chops, as their roughnesse, as in the fift Aphorisme of the third Section, or their Inflamations, as in the 7. Section of the sixt Booke Epidime. and the first Aphorisme. This place also is called 〈◇〉 by Galen, and 〈◇〉 by Hippocrates by a Metaphor, because of the narrownesse of the place: for Isthmus signifieth properly a narrow 
Why it is called Isthmus.  tract of ground betwixt two Seas, and in the whole body there is no part so narrow and straight which conteineth so many instruments. For in these Fauces are contained, first, the holes of the nosthrils descending through the palate into the mouth[ Tab. 13. fig. 
What parts are contained therein.  4. after E.] of which we haue spoken in the historie of the Nose; againe, the muscles of the Fauces or Chops, the bone Hyois vnder the roote of the tongue, the tong itself, the Larinx together with the Epiglottis and the beginning of the gullet; beside the muscles of these parts and some of the loweriaw. Add hereto certaine propagations of the nerues of the third, sixt and seuenth coniugations, the iugular veines, the sleepy Arteries, and certaine glandules of which wee will intreate in the next place because they are best exhibited in the thirteenth Table.  
There are three sorts of Glandules in the region of the Chops.  
The first is vnder the roots of the Eares( which Vesalius accounteth for the third kind) 
Three sorts of glandules neere this place.  of which we will speake in the eleuenth booke. The 2. are those they call Tonsillae or the Almonds, of which we will intreate in this place. The third are those ( Vesalius calleth them the first) which grow at the roote of the Larinx on the sides of the rough Artery, of which we shal make mention when we come to the Lavinx, but discourse of in the 11. book  
The Almonds are commonly called Tonsillae[ Tab. 13. fig. 4. F.] Celsus calleth them simply Glandules. They are scituated in both sides of the Mouth at the rootes of the tongue 
The almonds  betwixt the holes of the nosthrils and the Larynx, or betweene the beginnings of the weazon and the gullet, on either side one, large, long, and compared to Almonds and therfore they are commonly called the Almonds of the throte. The Gracians call them 〈◇〉, because they are seated in the Istmus of which we spake euen now. For if you looke into the cauitie of the mouth when the lower iaw is remooued, you shall see the two holes of the nosthrils and the Vuula or Gargareon: the two holes like two seas, and the Gagareon like a narrow tract or necke of land running betweene them. By the same name of Paristhmia they vse also to call not onely a part of the Fauces or Chops, but also the inflammation 
The differēce betweene the swelling of the Almonds and the sqninsie.  thereof, yea the diseases of these glandules when they are inflamed, or when they swell or are resiccated when they hinder( saith Paulus) the free passage of the drinke or the breath. For their swellings seldome hinder the passage of the meate because being but lax or loose bodyes the weight of the meate beareth them downe before it, and by this we commonly distinguish betweene the inflamination of the Muscles of the Tongue, which we call an Angina or Squinsie, and the swelling of the Almonds; for in the Squinsie wee cannot swallow any thing without great difficultie, and the more solid thing the worse; in the swelling of the Almonds we can hardly draw our breath or take downe any liquour, but solid meate will goe downe much more easily.  
Sometimes also by the word Paristhmia is vnderstood the inflammation onely of the coate which we sayde was common to the Chops, the whole mouth and the stomach; 
Paristhmia.  sometimes the inflammation of those muscles which lie next vnder the saide coate, sometimes the inflammation of the bodyes which are within the Fauces.  
They be also called 〈◇〉 by Hippocrates in his second booke de morbis, because they 
Antiades.  are placed in opposition one vnto another; but this name is not giuen onely to the Glandules but also to their disease, so saith Hippocrates in the place before quoted; It will not bee amisse to thrust your finger into your mouth and to beare downe the Antiades, that is, the Almonds when they are swelled. Yet some put a difference betweene Antiades & Paristhmia, for they say, that the Almonds themselues inflamed are called Antiadas, and the inflāmation of the parts about the Almonds Paristhmia. So saith Celsus, the Graecians call the Almonds which are hard after their inflammation 〈◇〉.  
They are couered with the common coate of the mouth and the other parts of 
How couered  which we spake lately which is neruous and in many places perforated with large and ample holes, insomuch that some haue sayde it is fungous. These holes saith Fallopius, if the glandules be a little swelled, are wont to deceiue Chyrurgions, for they take them to bee Vlcers, whereas indeed there are no Vlcers at all; for when the glandules fall they become 
A good note for Chyrurgions.  againe according to their wonted nature. They also receiue veines from the iugulars. Their substance is like that of the glandules, but more rare, spongy and fungous, and therefore Hyppocrates in his fourth book Epidemiωn cals them 〈◇〉 Sponges, because after the manner of Sponges they drinke vp humidirie, yet Hippocrates also calleth their tumors by the name of 〈◇〉.  
The vse of these Almonds is saith Hippocrates in his booke de Glandulis, to receiue the moysture of the brayne: this moysture it conuerteth into spittle, whereby all the parts within 
The vse of the Almonds.  the mouth are moystned( the Tongue kept from drying, made more glib and nimble) euen the gullet and the weazon. It helpeth also the Sense of Tasting, for we cannot Tast without moysture; like as in the stomacke there is no concoction or mittigation without boyling, whereof they haue experience whose Tongues are rough and dry.   

CHAP. XXXII. Of the Tongue and his Muscles.  
_THE Tongue is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 in Latin Lingua, of licking, or because it is as it were tyed within the pale of the Teeth sayeth Varro. It is a notable 
The names.  instrument both of the Taste and of the Voyce; because in the Mouth it is placed next vnder the Palate[ Table 13. fig. 4. I] in the way, sayth Cicero 2. de Nat. Deorum, which Nature prepared for the passage of meats and drinks. The Basis 
The place.  of it resteth vppon the bone Hyois aboue which it is mooued, and neare the Epiglottis it maketh an angle or corner, and from thence hangeth and walketh freely in the mouth.  
It was fit( sayeth Galen in the fift chapter of his 8. Booke de vsu partium) that it should be placed neare the braine as are the rest of the instruments of the Senses, because it is the principall instrument of the Taste. Wherefore Nature for the Tongues sake placed the Mouth in the Head that it might haue a den or caue or chamber to moue in, that it might bee a conuenient instrument both of the Taste and of the Voice, as also might helpe the chewing and swallowing of the meat.  
The figure of the Tongue is not alike in all Creatures, in some it is Tri-fanged as in Serpents, in others Bi-fanged as in Lizards; some haue two Tongues as the Sea-Calfe. In 
The figure.  Fishes it is fastned all along, in Lions and Leopards it is rough and furrowed, but in man it is somewhat long, thicke at the roote for strength, and broade that it might bee fit both for Taste and Speach. In the end it becommeth by degrees sharpe for quicker motion sayeth Galen in the 10. chap. of the 11. book de vsu partium. Archangelus compareth it to a Pyramis.  
The vpper and rough part called 〈◇〉 is hollowed on either side, those they call 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉.  
It is soft, broade and loose or at liberty that it may be conuayed, produced, dilated and diuersly disposed; for in those that are tongue-tyed wee see a manifest defect of vtterance. We may also obserue out of Aristotle in the 17. chapter of his second Booke de partibus Animalium, that those Birds which can bee taught to prattle haue broade Tongues aboue other birds: and the reason why bruite beastes cannot deuide or articulate their voyce is because their Tongues are hard, thick and not at liberty.  
The magnitude of the Tongue is not all one in all creatures, but proportionable for the kinde whereof they are. Neither is the quantity of it all one in all men; but it is longer 
The magnitude.  then broade, and broader then thicke, and also proportionable for the amplitude of the Mouth, sayeth Galen in the tenth Chapter of his eleauenth booke de vsu partium, that it might reach into euery corner and nooke thereof, and not hinder the receiuing of meate. But it is faulty sometimes in magnitude, sometimes in the very substance together with his muscles. For if it be bigge it filleth vp the spaces of the mouth and the Chops, and then it cannot mooue so deliuerly or nimbly as otherwise it would, and such men are 
Blaesi Balbi.  called blaesi and balbutientes, that is Lispers and Stutters, especially if( as it happeneth most what) it bee also too soft or moyst. Hence it is that Infants and those children that are 
What childrē speak slowly.  moyster then ordinary doe speake slower then others, because of the softnesse and loosenes of their Tongues and the muscles thereof, till when their heate by their age encreasing the ouer aboundant moysture be consumed. The Tongue also sometimes is too short when the Bridle thereof is not enough cut, so then it is hindered that it cannot apply itself on euery side to the Mouth; or because the muscles being little it is mooued too swiftly and so implicateth or doubleth the speach and maketh the words come hudling together.  
It is tyed to the Larynx, to the bone Hyois vpon which the rootes thereof resteth as vppon 
The connexions of the tongue.  a Basis and by which it is supported, to the Choppes also, and on both sides to the Almonds; below it is fastned with a ligament.  
The Tongue is compounded of a proper flesh, a coate, nerues, veines, arteries, muscles 
Whereof cōpounded. The ligament  and a ligament.  
The ligament is[ Table 14. fig. 3. II] very strong, membranous and broade, and is vnder the middest of the body thereof.  
The vse of this ligament is manifould: for the solidity and strength thereof lifteth vp the Tongue, and not onely so but auaileth much to lill it foorth. For were it not for this 
Table 14. Figure 1. and 2. sheweth the tongue cut from the bodie, and the Muscles thereof. In the first the right side of it, & in the second his Muscles somewhat vncouered.  
Figure 3. steweth the bodie of the Tongue diuided according to the length of it and his Ligament.  
TABVLA. XIIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
Tab. 14. figure 1. sheweth the Larynx, hauing the Shielde Gristle cut into two parts, but one part of it together with the Epiglottis is inuerted as by the Letters may be perceiued.  
Figure 2. exhibiteth the Larynx shewing the Glottis.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

AAA. The Tongue inuested with a Coate common to the mouth.  
BB. A portion of the coat compassing the mouth cut frō the mouth according to the sides of the lower iaw.  
C A part of the same coat cut from the inner part of the Palat together with the tongue.  
D. The Muscles caled Basi-Glossi, acording to Vesalius the first, but in our account the fourth, or the sixt of the bone Hyois according to Falopius.  
E. The Muscles cald Ceratoglossi, or the second Muscle according to Vesalius, and in our account the fifte.  
F. The Muscles called Styloglossi or the third Muscle.  
G. The Muscles called Myloglossi, or the fourth Muscle according to Vesalius.  
H. The flesh consisting of the Glādules, or the ninth Muscle of the Tongue according to Vesalius.  
II. The Ligament of the Tongue.  
KK, LL. The Musculous substance of the tongue, & the fibres thereof.   
The Second Figure.  

a 1. The Shield-gristle Dissected.  
b 1. The Epiglottis or After-tongue.  
c, c. The Arytaenoides or the Ewregristle.  
1, 2. The glottis or small clefte of the Throttle.  
ee, 1. The internall Muscle forming this cleft or the internall Shieldgristle.  
f. 2. The opening Muscle or the latter Crycoarythaenoides.  
g. 2. The transuerse Muscle or the Arytaenoydes.   ligament the Tongue would be too much gathered backward, neither when it is shot out of the mouth could it bee easily retracted or drawne in againe. Moreouer, if it were on euerie side free and loose it had not beene so firmely established and fastened in his proper seate. This Ligament also receyueth the insertion, saith Vesalius, of the proper Muscles of the Tongue which otherwise would easily haue bene relaxed or loosened or else parted asunder. At the end of this Ligament toward the tip of the tongue there groweth a little Chord which Arantius and Lawrentius call the Bridle of the Tongue. For a mans Tongue in new borne infants is fastened euen vnto the end with a Tye which the Midwiues do vse to teare with their Nailes, sometimes it is faine to be cut, because it is a hinderance to their speech, yea to their sucking, because it cannot lappe itself so well about the nipple. The tongue therefore beeing naturally nimble and voluble least that it should bee alwayes importunately pratling, is restrayned by this Tye, as it were by a Bridle. Wherefore, by the helpe of the Ligament and the Bridle and of manie Muscles working together and contracted towards their originall, the Tongue becommeth narrow and pointed, lifted vp and diuerslie mooued, and withall restrained from moouing too farre on any hand.  
It is inuested with a coate common to it with the Mouth, the Pallate, the Gullet and 
The coate of the Tongue.  the Larynx[ Tab. 14. fig. 1. AA. BB. C] least the laxe and rare substance thereof shoulde part asunder. This Coate is all verie fine and thin, that the sapors might more easily pierce through it into the pulpe and substance of the tongue, into which coate as also into the flesh certaine Nerues of exquisite sense are disseminated.  
The substance of it is soft, loose, rare and like a Sponge that it might bee the sooner moistened with the humour which carrieth the Sapor in it, and so fitter to discerne of the diuersity of Tastes, for of them it is the competent iudge. Hence it is, that in diseases 
The substāce of the tongue  it is diuersly affected, for as the humour is that it imbibeth so is the sense of Tasting depraued, as we may see in those that are sick of the yellow Iaundise or of Agues. The flesh therefore of the Tongue is proper and peculiar to the Tongue, there being none such in the whole bodie: toward the Basis it commeth neerer to a Glandulous substance then to a Musculous, because it is much softer and looser; yet hath it all manner of fibres, but those so intertexed and wouen together that they cannot be separated one from another which may be done in Muscles.  
Againe, the Fibres runne through the length of the Muscles, which is not so in the 
That it is not Musculous.  Tongue; for it hath no Ligamentall Fibres to strengthen it as Muscles haue, vnlesse it be a middle one which runneth vnder the tongue. Finally, no Nerues from the Braine that should giue it the power of motion do runne through the substance thereof, wherefore it cannot be called Musculous, although I know some men are of opinion that it is made of two Muscles arising out of the bone Hyois, and determining in the tip of the Tongue seuered by a white line: some say also there are two other Muscles of which the pulp of the Tongue is compounded: but if it were made of Muscles it should onely mooue not taste, for what Muscle doth taste? Wee resolue therefore that the flesh of it is not Musculous.  
At the rootes of the Tongue, besides the Muscles inserted thereinto, there adhereth a 
The Fatte at the rootes.  great quantity of hard fat.  
The tongue receiueth two kinds of Nerues, one soft which carieth sense vnto it from the third and fourth coniugations, yet so that one branch is disseminated into the coate that inuesteth the tongue to be an instrument of Touching, for the Tongue is apprehensiue 
The Nerues of two kinds.  of all the Tactile qualities, as cold, heate and such like. The other Nerue is sprinckled into the flesh of the Tongue which is the instrument or organe of Taste, and by that meanes the Tongue is made apprehensiue of Sapors.  
The other kinde of Nerues is hard, that is, Nerues of motion, to witte, the seauenth coniugation, which with many surcles is disseminated into his muscles that the tongue 
A Caution.  might be mooued with voluntary motion; and because this Nerue is placed in the lower part of the Tongue, the Chyrurgion or Midwife must be verie carefull lest when they cut the Ligament they do not also cut the Nerue.  
It hath also two notable Veynes called Raninae, not because they are like Frogges, but because they are of the colour of a Frogge. They issue out of the inward braunch of the externall Iugular Veynes and runne vnder the Tongue, as it will appeare vnto anie 
The Veines.  man that lifteth it vp. These Veynes in the diseases of the mouth, the heate of the 〈◇〉 the Squinsie and such like, are opened for deriuation; after the blood is euacuated and reuelled by the opening of the Humerarie Veine of the Arme.  
It hath also two large Arteries on either side one from the sleepie Arteries which accompany the Veynes. These are allowed to the tongue to maintaine the life of it, as the 
The Arteries.  Veines were to supply it with nourishment.  
The body of the Tongue although it bee continuall not diuided by any partition, whereby it becommeth fitter to Taste with, to breake the meate, and to articulate the voyce: yet it is diuided or rather scored thorough the middest with a white line, which 
The bodie of it.  Hippocrates in Coacis first called 〈◇〉, that is, the Median, which Line runneth thorough the verie middest of the surface of the tongue diuiding it into a right side and a left, yet not as it is in Lizardes whose Tongues are forked; so that the Tongue as all other the Instruments of the Senses is double, and therefore Galen calleth it a Double Member.  
The Vses of the Tongue, although it be but a little Member yet it is of great vse because it expresseth all the conceites of the minde, wherefore our wise Creator hath defended 
The vses of the tongue.  it with many Teeth, with Lippes, and restrained it with a Bridle, that beeing so carefully attended it might not runne before the minde, which first ought to consulte and deliberate before the Tongue pronounce any thing.  
The vse therefore of the Tongue is either primary or secondary. The primarie vse is, that it might be a conuenient and fit organ or instrument both of the Sense of Tasting & 
The primarie vse. For Tasting.  of the Speech. Of the Taste( which vse of the Tongue is common to Man and beast) to distinguish betweene all the varieties of Sapors; wherefore Aristotle in the 11. chapter of his first booke de Historia Animalium saith, there is in the mouth 〈◇〉, A Tongue which is the Sensator of Tastes. The taste which the Tongue hath it receyueth especiallie from the Coate which inuesteth the mouth, and particularly from that part of it which couereth the tongue. For whilst wee chew our meate the Tongue rowleth itself on euerie side of the mouth and applyeth itself to the Viands to take a say or Taste of them.  
Moreouer, because we can thrust or lill out our Tongues, we are able to discerne of the Sapors of those things also which are without the mouth if the Tongue do but touch them, especially with the very tip, for there saith Aristotle the taste is most quicke in the 27 
The tip of the Tongue.  chapter of his second booke De partibus Animalium, and therefore saith he, in Fishes onely the very tippe of the tongue is loose, the rest is fastened downe vnto the Soale of the mouth.  
Concerning the vse of the Tongue in the voice, Hippocrates hath made mention in 
For Speech.  his Booke De Carnibus. As also Aristotle in the eight chapter of his second booke De Anima, for it is the very organ of Articulation, so we saide before that those Birdes which haue broad tongues may easiest be taught to prattle, as we see in Parrats. Euripides therefore calleth the Tongue 〈◇〉, The Messenger of the Speech. And therefore a mans Tongue which is the best proportioned and most at libertie, attaineth to the greatest perfection in the deliuery and variety of the voice. For although a Parrat, a Stare, and such like Birds can moderate their Tongues to a kinde of faigned distinction of Sounds, yet in man the sound is more expresse and better articulated. Beside, sayeth Hippocrates in his 
A mans toung the Messenger of the Braine.  Booke of the Epilepsie, the Tongue of a man is the messenger of the Braine, that is, as Bauhine well enterpreteth it of the Vnderstanding and the Wil; but in other Creatures it deliuereth onely the affections of the Sensatiue soule which Galen calles Rationem delite scentem, A silent shadow of reason, which he attributeth to all creatures deuoyde of reason. So we see euen in the tongue of a man, sometimes it expresseth onelie those things that fall vnder the Sense, as when wee crie for paine, or for Foode and succour; sometimes those things that fall vnder our vnderstanding as in Discourse.  
The Secondarie Vse of the Tongue is for mastication or chewing, or breaking of the meate, and for diglutition or Swallowing. 
The Secondarie vse Chewing.   
By this motion of the Tongue those Creatures that want Teeth doe swallow their meate whole, as Birdes; and those that haue Teeth doe with theyr Tongues mooue their Viandes vnto their Teeth whereby they are mittigated and broken, and so receyue in the mouth a good preparation for the Stomacke, which otherwise woulde not nor coulde not so easilie concoct them, for shredde meate is more easiler boyled then a vvhole Ioynt.  
Againe, the Tongue helpeth the Diglutition by turning the meate ouer it towards the Gullet. By the Tongue also wee can licke and whistle, or varrie the sounde of anie 
Swallowing.  Fife or Pipe, or such like. All these good offices the Tongue dooth in a man, in other Creatures but one or at least not all. For in the perfection of Creatures( sayeth Galen in the Fifte Chapter of his seconde Booke De Semine, Nature proceedeth by degrees 
Degrees of perfection in Creatures.  from a Plant. The first Degree, is of those Creatures which haue onelie the Sense of Touching; more perfect are those that Taste, yet more that Smell, then those that Heare: and finally, she addeth the Sense of Seeing which is the vtmost perfection of the sensatiue Soule.  
The Muscles of the Tongue are assistant vnto it in the performance of all his Functions 
The Muscles of the tongue  of Speaking, Tasting and Rowling of the Meate: and therefore there are three kinde of Muscles belonging vnto it which wee may call Locutorij, Gustatorij and Cibi reuolutores, the Speaking, the Tasting and the Rowling Muscles.  

Table 14. Figure 1. and 2. sheweth the tongue cut from the bodie, and the Muscles thereof. In the first the right side of it, & in the second his Muscles somewhat vncouered.  
Figure 3. steweth the bodie of the Tongue diuided according to the length of it and his Ligament.  
TABVLA. XIIII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
Tab. 14. figure 1. sheweth the Larynx, hauing the Shielde Gristle cut into two parts, but one part of it together with the Epiglottis is inuerted as by the Letters may be perceiued.  
Figure 2. exhibiteth the Larynx shewing the Glottis.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

AAA. The Tongue inuested with a Coate common to the mouth.  
BB. A portion of the coat compassing the mouth cut frō the mouth according to the sides of the lower iaw.  
C A part of the same coat cut from the inner parte of the Palate tother with the tongue.  
D. The Muscles cald Basi-Glossi, according to Vesalius the first, but in our account the fourth, or the sixt of the bone Hyois according to Falopius.  
E. The Muscles cald Ceratoglossi, or the second Muscle according to Vesalius, and in our account the fifte.  
F. The Muscles called Styloglossi or the third Muscle.  
G. The Muscles called Myloglossi, or the fourth Muscle according to Vesalius.  
H. The flesh consisting of the Glādules, or the ninth Muscle of the Tongue according to Vesalius.  
II. The Ligament of the Tongue.  
KK, LL. The Musculous substance of the tongue, & the fibres thereof.   
The Second Figure.  

a 1. The Shield-gristle Dissected.  
b 1. The Epiglottis or After-tongue.  
c, c. The Arytaenoides or the Ewregristle.  
d, 1, 2. The glottis or small clefte of the Throttle.  
ee, 1. The internall Muscle forming this cleft or the internall Shieldgristle.  
f. 2. The opening Muscle or the latter Crycoarythaenoides.  
g. 2. The transuerse Muscle or the Arytanoydes.    
The chiefe vse of it in man is speech, the chiefe vse in Beasts is tasting, because they want hands to gather and apply their meate vnto their mouthes as men haue: but both men and beasts when their meate is in their mouths doe rowle it with their tongue, or turne it ouer into their Gullets. The tongue must therefore be mooueable & haue Muscles, which Muscles are of two sorts, some Common, others Proper. Those are accounted common Muscles which belong vnto the bone Hyois, and those proper which haue their originall from other where, and do determine into the substance of the Tongue, & they are accounted siue paire called Styloglossi,[ Tab. 14. fig. 1, 2. F] Myloglossi,[ Tab. 14. fig. 1, 2. G] 
Fiue paire.  Geneoglossi,[ Tab. 14. fig. 1, 2. H] Basiglossi or Ypsiglossi,[ Ta. 14. fig. 1, 2. Do] & Ceratoglossi.[ Tab. 14. fig. 1. 2. L] But of these we shall entreat particularly in the Book of Muscles, heere it is enough to haue pointed them out.  
These Muscles being remooued, at the roote of the tongue there appeareth a kinde of 
The roote of the Tongue.  flesh made of many glandules and fat mixed together, which saith Archangelus doth not deserue the name of a Muscle, so saith also Columbus, yet hee reckons it for the 11. Muscle, because the Anatomists before him accoūted it for a muscle. But a muscle is not made of glandules but of fleshy fibres.  
This heape of Glandules[ Table 14. figur. 1. 2. H] groweth to the roote of the Tongue that it might continually be moistned, for without moisture there can be no Gustation. So 
The vse of the kernels.  in the stomacke there can be no concoction without Elixation or boyling, wherefore Nature ioyned to the Stomacke the Pancreas or Sweete-bread a glandulous body, that from thence might continually steame moyst vapours, that so the concoction of the stomacke might be made by Elixation or boyling. Beside, the moysture which the Tongue receiueth from these glandules makes it more glib and easily to be moued; for if it be dryed it wil not mooue so readily, as wee may see in those that are very drie, & in hot burning Agues when the humour or moysture of the Tongue is exhausted. Beside the Glandules, the Almonds also of the throat( as we remembred before) do continually moysten the Tongue and help his motion. And thus much of the Tongue.   

CHAP. XXXIII. Of the Sense of Tasting.  
_WEE sayd before that there were three things required in euery Sense; the Instrument, the Medium and the Obiect. Which three wee will shew in this fourth Sense of Tasting as far as we can gather out of Anatomy.  
The Physitians following Galen in his book de instrumento odoratus, and in 
The instrument of tasting.  the fift chapter of his 7. booke de Placitis, doe determine that the instrument of the Taste is the Tongue, and that it is affected to Sapors as the Eie is to colours. But as in the Eie there is one particle which is said to be the most principal instrument of Seeing, the other but assistant: so in the Tongue there is one similar part which is the most principall instrument of Tasting, and that is the rare and laxe substance thereof, which is therefore rare & spongy, that it might be better steeped with the moysture wherein the Sapors are conuayed. The other parts of the Tongue are but helpers and handmaids all contributing vnto the principall part. This substance, call it flesh, or pulpe, or what you will, 
The principal particle.  because it was made to receiue all Sapors was to be deuoyde of all Sapor, that is insiped or hauing no Taste at all as we vsually speake, and that it is so any man may perceiue if hee eat of the Tongue of any beast boyled fresh and without any sauce.  
The matter wherein the formes of Sapors do consist which wee call Natura subiecta, 
The matter in which tasts doe consist.  is moyst: for without moysture( sayth the Philosopher in the 10. chapter of his 2. booke de Anima) nothing can make an impression of a Sapot, and euery thing that maketh this kind of Sensation or moueth this Sense hath humidity in it, either Actu or potentia, that is, eyther Actually and Really or in Possibilitie; and by how much a thing is the moyster, by so much is it the more sauoury, because all things when they are moyst doe make a better impression of their Sauour then when they are hard.  
Hence it is that those things that are hard as Pepper and such like, do not make shew of the gustile qualities vnlesse their vpper & superficial parts do giue, or melt, or be moistned. The sweetnesse of Sugar we Taste better when it is melted, and a corne of Salt will strike the Sense much more after it is dissolued then before. An infusion of Rheubarbe is much bitterer then a peece Rheubarbe held in a mans mouth. Seeing then that Sapors are not perceiued but as they communicate their qualities to moyste substances, it followeth that the instrument of this Sense must neither be actually moyst, neither yet of such a substance as cannot be moystned: but it must be Potentially Moyste and Actually moystned; yet so that when it is moystned the Nature of it must be preserued.  
Hence it is that when the Tongue is either too dry or too moyst it doth not Taste well. For example, if a man Taste of any sharpe or vehement thing as Pepper, and then presently 
Why sick foll● thinke al things bitter.  Tast of an other thing, he is not able to iudge well of the latter; the reason is because the Tongue is already possessed and forestaled or taken vp with the former sharpe humour. So likewise we see that those that are sicke think all things bitter, the reason is because their Tongues are moystned with a bitter iuice.  
The Tongue therefore was made of an earthy and dry substance; for albeit because of the softnesse it may seeme to bee moyste, yet this moysture is not Innate but an acquired moysture distilling perpetually out of the braine which insinuateth itself into the Toung as water doeth into a sponge. That this is so it is euident, for if the distilation out of the head be stayed, the Tongue is presently exiccated, yea so parched by hot vapours eleuated from the Liuer, the Stomacke and the Lungs, that it becommeth rough, yea in Agues it cleaueth or choppeth and the marks or scarres of those fissures remaine many yeares to be seene; which thing( sayeth Bauhine) I haue experience of in myself, for 17. yeares since I had an Ague, and my Tongue claue or chopped in the middest, and yet the marke of it is 
Bauhine of himselfe Galen.  manifestly to be seene.  
Galen therefore in his Booke de Odoratus Organo, and in the sixt chapter of his seuenth Booke de Placitis, hath truely taught vs that the instrument of Tasting was made of a moyst substance, where hee intendeth to diliuer the qualities of the instruments which are most appropriate to the perticular Senses. For if the Tongue be too much exiccated, the Perceiuance or knowledge of Sapours must needes perish: and therefore Nature set the Almonds neare the Tongue least the ayre that is continually drawne and let out by Inspiration and Expiration should drie it too much. And so much of the Instrument.  

The Medium of the taste.  The Medium of this Sense wee take to bee the coate of the Tongue, as the Cuticle or Scarfe-skinne is the medium of the Touch. For( sayth the Philosopher in the 114. Text of the second Booke de Anima) all things that apprehend by any Sensation we apprehend by a Medium, there being no Sensation made by the immediat contaction of the Instrument and the Obiect, although afterward in the 10. chapter of the same booke( not so well aduised) he denyeth that either the Taste or the Touch haue any Medium, to which place we refer him that is desirous to know his reasons.  
The Obiect of the Taste are all thinges that haue any Sapour or Gustable qualities in 
The obiect.  them. But the qualities of Gustable things are of two sortes, some properly belonging to the Sense of Tasting as Sapours. For as the obiect of the Sight is Colour, so the obiect of the Tast is Sapor; yet nothing that is without moysture exhibiteth any Sapor to the Sense: others are Common to all the Senses as the Magnitude of that which is Gustable, the Nūber, the Situation &c. VVherefore we say that the Tong doth Taste the Sapor of wine, not the wine; yet from this Sapour the Soule gathereth that it is wine which wee Taste. For wine as it is wine, and sugar as it is sugar are not the Obiects of the Faculty of Gustation, but as they are indowed with Sapors or Gustable qualities. The Soule indeed by discourse of Reason distinguisheth betweene a sharp Taste and a bitter, but it is by the mediation of the Sense of Tasting; when the Sensible qualities of those sharpe or bitter things do moue and affect the Faculties of Sensation. But that a Sapor may be exactly iudged of or apprehended, the body wherin that Sapor is, must be broken between the Palate and the Tong, and therefore the Palate and the Tongue are compassed about or inuested with one and the same coate.  
Hence it is that euen the Palate helpeth the Taste, because also it receiueth the like distribution of the nerues of the same coniugation that the tongue hath.  
The kindes of Sapours as the Philosopher sayth, are accounted after the same manner with the kinds of Colours. For as white and blacke are contraries, and the other Colours 
The kinds of sapors.  leane to this or that Contrary; so Sweete and Bitter are the two simple contraries; to sweet adheareth that wee call Fattie: to Bitter that which is Salt: and betwixt these are Byting, as Pepper, Harsh as vnripe Sloes, Sowre and Sharpe as Vineger. For these are the differences of Sapors according to the Philosopher; concerning which he that will know more let him refort to Galen his first Book de simplie. Facultat. where also he shall finde what was Platoes Philosophy concerning the difference of Sapors.  
VVe conclude that the Tongue as the Instrument of the Taste being neither drye nor 
The conclusion.  too moyst, nor steeped or dewed with any ill iuyce, doeth through his coate as through the true Medium Receiue and Perceiue the Sapours that consist in a moyst body, and that by a Faculty or Power issuing from the braine by the nerues of the third and fourth coniugation, and penetrating into the Instrument of Tasting, that is the Flesh or Pulpe of the Tongue.  
For the Faculty( sayeth Plato in Theaeteto, and Galen in the 6. chapter of his 7. booke de Placitis) which issueth from the first Sensator, that is, the Braine, and through the Nerues penetrateth into the particular Organs of the Senses, and there Perceiueth and iudgeth of all their alterations; is a common Faculty: and therefore we call the brayne the Common Sensator, and the apprehension thereof the Common Sense. And thus much of the foure Senses( The first hauing beene discoursed of in the second booke. Now wee come vnto the Voyce.   

CHAP. XXXIV. Of the Larinx or Throtle, which is the Organ of the voyce.  
_THe Rough Arterie is diuided into the pipe which consisteth of Semicirculer gristles with a membrane, and the head of it which wee call the Larinx 
The names and reasons thereof.  it is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, which signifieth to cry with open throate: or of the particle 〈◇〉 which of itself signifieth nothing but in composition ad-signifieth a kinde of greatnesse, and the word 〈◇〉, because in the forming of the voyce we draw our breath deepe. Some call it 〈◇〉 but that is properly vsed for the Fauces or Chops; for the Pharinx is before the Larinx: others deriue it of 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 which signifieth to be lifted vp, because when wee swallow or rayse our voyce very high or vtter it very base, the Larinx is eleuated as any man may see with his eyes. Some call it the knot of the Throate.  
The Larinx therefore is the head or vpper end of the Rough Arterie ioyned in continuitie with the Fauces, compounded of great gristles( vnlike those that bee in the rest of 
What it is.  the weazon both in the figure and magnitude) Muscles, Membranes, and common Organs: to be the first and most principall Organ of the tuning of the voyce; for in it the voice is first formed.  
It is situated in the Necke, because it is the way of the Ayre, and in the very top of Rough Arterie that vnto it the breath which is the matter of the voyce might easily runne 
The situation.  vp from the lungs. Neere the Chops also, the mouth and the tongue that the voyce might instantly bee changed into speech. Moreouer, because it was necessary that it should be perpetually dilated and constringed together with the Organs of Respiration, therefore it 
And reasons. thereof.  was placed on the outside afore the Gullet, that it might not be pressed with the weight of any thing lying vpon it: yea and this position is a great furtherance to swallowing also. For when we swallow our meate the Gullet is drawne downeward, but the Larynx resulteth vpward and helpeth the swallow as well by giuing way therto and leauing scope and roome as also by depressing the meate when it starteth vp as that is falling. It is placed in the very middest of the necke because there is but one Throtle, as also other single Organes are placed in the middest, that the body might be equally ballanced. Now there was but one that the voyce might bee but one. For if we should haue vttered two voyces at one time, wee could not but haue confounded two acts or affects of the minde.  
The figure is round and circular but imperfect, bunching out before that it might bee more secure from outward iniuries, behind depressed that it might giue way to the 
The figure.  Gullet and leaue space to swallow. Againe it was round, that it might bee concauous or hollow, that so the voyce might be more perfect by a plentiful affluence of the breath thervnto out of the lungs. The lower orifice also of the throtle is larger then the vpper( saith Galen in the second chapter of his seuenth booke de vsu partium) that in expiration the ayre might ascend more plentifully thereunto to make a base voyce. Finally, it is most like a Quaile call of any thing in the world which indeede is made in imitation of this worke of Nature.  
The magnitude thereof is diuers according to the diuersitie of the age, which variety 
The magnitude.  the voyce also followeth. For in children when the Larinx is narrow the voyce is sharper, small, or treble because a little ayre is swiftly moued through a narrow passage; on the contrary in old or elder age the Larynx is wider, and receiueth from the Lungs a greater quantity of ayre, whence it is that the motion is not so swift and so the voyce becommeth base; moreouer the length or shortnesse of the Larynx beare a great sway in the basenes or shrilnes of the voyce.  
It is tyed to the rough Artery by the helpe of muscles of Membranes, as & also to the Gullet, the Chest, and the bone Hyois, moreouer to the principall parts by the meditation 
The connexion.  of common Organs.  
The parts whereof the Larinx is compounded are Gristles, Muscles, Membranes, Veines, Arterics and Nerues, together with the Glandules which grew thereto. And it was necessary it should be compounded of such a substance. Gristly, that it might be hard, dense and thicke, able to resist outward iniuries. Againe, because it is the way of the breath it was 
The parts. Why Gristle.  fit that the cauity should be made of a hard body that might alwayes stand open for egresse and ingresse of the Ayre. For( saith Galen) if it had beene made of flesh or a membrane, the hole of it would haue falne and the passage should not haue bene so free for the breath and so the body haue beene depriued, not of voyce onely, but of life also, because the respiration would haue bene intercepted.  
If it had bene bony the hardnesse thereof would haue pressed vpon the gullet and so haue hindred diglutition or swallowing, beside the very weight would haue drawne downe 
Why not bony.  the tongue and the bone Hyois, and hindered their actions; it would haue needed great muscles to haue moued so heauy a body which must haue taken vp a greater place then in so narrow a roome could be allotted to them. And if the bones had beene so fine and thinne that all these inconueniences had beene preuented, then it would haue easily bene broken being placed outward, for bones will not yeeld as gristles doe.  
I know well that Columbus is of opinion that it is bony in growne men, which hee auoucheth vpon his owne dissection of innumerable bodyes( those are his words) although 
Columbus opinion that it is bony.  he confesseth that in young children it is grystly as not hauing attained his hardnesse and soliditie. One argument also he addeth, which is, that the substance is medullous or marrowy as he hath often found, in which one thing bones differ from grystles. He also reprehendeth Galen for cutting vp Apes and not obseruing that their throtles were bony, and Vesalius for shewing the Throtles of beastes in his publike dissections. But Fallopius whom we esteem the more oculate Anatomist saith, that sometimes he hath found the first and second grystles bony in very old men, yea sometimes before extreme old age; but the third and the fourth grystles, saith he, I neuer saw bony, neither can I approue of their opinions that thinke the Larynx is bony and not grystly, vnlesse it be imperfect, because Nature intended it to be bony. For( saith Fallopius) if this were so, then we must confes 
Disproued by Fallopius.  that no man hath the instrument of his voyce perfect till he come to bee old or striken in yeares, which must not be granted. Of the same mind also is Laurentius.  
Bauhine proceedeth further to prooue it grystly on this manner. It is the instrument of the voyce, and therefore there must be a proportion betweene the ayre that is beaten, & 
Otherreasons why it must be gristly.  the body which beateth it, that so it may resound for the forming of the voyce; for the voyce is nothing else but a percussion of the Ayre. And although sounds doe arise from hard bodyes not from soft, as a sponge, a locke of wooll, or such like; for that the Ayre is not broken vnlesse it light against a solid, hard and smooth body; yet it must not bee perfectly hard, for such a one doth not readily cut the ayre, but ouerturns it. Nor too soft, for then it yeeldeth and maketh no resistance, and therefore cannot make any sound. Such a body therefore which yeeldeth moderately, and beateth the ayre gently, is the cause of the voyce, now such a body is a gristle. Finally, it was made gristly( saith Galen in the fourth chapter of his booke of the dissection of the instrument of the voyce) that it might be a fit foundation for the other parts whereof the Larynx is compounded: and that the Muscles might better arise therefrom and be implanted thereinto.  
But it was not fit it should be made of one entire gristle without any articulation, & 
Not of one gristle.  so immoueable, for then it could not haue bene either shut or opened, dilated or contracted. It was therefore made of many annexed one to another and hauing motion, not Naturall, such as is in the Arteries, but voluntary depending vpon the will. For the chiefe vse of it being in inspirations and exspirations; it was meete we should be able to moderate it at ourpleasures, add hereto, that being the instrument of the voyce to admit or expel our breath, it was more then necessary we should haue a voluntary command ouer it. To this purpose Nature also furnished it with muscles, and them with nerues for motion, veines for nourishment, arteries for life, and membranes for their strength. She added also glandules to keep them all moyst.  
It is made of 3. gristles( saith Galen:) we say 4, so doth Fallopius & diuers others. For the motions of the Larynx they are double, that is wherby it is dilated and constringed, shut & 
The number of the gristles  opened; and therefore there was neede but of two articulations, each of which serue each motion. So that the dilatation and constriction is made by that articulation which is betwixt the first gristle and the second. The opening and shutting by that which is betwene the second and the third.  
The Muscles of the Larinx are either common or proper, the common Muscles are sixe, that is three paire. The first paire are called Bronchij[ Tab. 15. fig. 7. xx.] because they 
The muscles.  cleaue to the rough Arterie. The second paire are called Hyoetdet, or rather Hyothyrocidei,[ Tab. 15. fig. 3. h.] The third paire are called Oesophagei[ Tab. 15. fig. 7. ll.] The proper Muscles are ten or fiue paire, of which sixe do dilate and foure do constringe. Some of these are placed forward, some backeward, some without, some within.  

Table 15. figure. 3. sheweth some Muscles of the Larynx with a part of the Nerue.  
Figure 4. sheweth all the proper Muscles, the Clefte, the Fpiglottis or After-Tengue and the Gristles.  
Figure 5. sheweth the backe part of the Larynxe with the Muscles separated, the Gristles and the Epiglottis  
Figure 6. The foreside of the Larynx with some muscles.  
Figure 7. The transuerse Muscle of the Gullet, also two Common Muscles, together with the Recurrent Nerues  
TABVLA. XV.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
FIG. VI.  
FIG. VII.  

b. 4, 5, 6, 7. Epiglottis or the After tongue.  
* 4. The beginning thereof.  
† 5. The roote and foundation thereof.  
cc. 5. The Gristle called Arytaenoides or the Ewre-gristle. d 4. the glottis cleft or whistle.  
e. 4. The internal muscles belonging to the shield-gristle or the 4. pair of proper muscles  
f, 4. the backward Rings-Ewre muscles, or the second paire of proper muscles.  
g, 4, 5. the Ewr-muscles or the fift paire of the proper muscles.  
h. 3. The muscles called Hyo-thyrojdes or the second paire of common muscles belonging to the bone Hyois & the Shield-gristle of the Larynx. i, 3, 7. the Gullet.  
k, 3, 6. The forepart of the rough Artery.  
l, 3, 7. The muscles of the Gullet called aesophogiaei or the third pair of common muscles.  
m. 3. A portion of the nerue descending into the second paire of common muscles.  
nn, 3, 4, 5. The Shielde-gristle, parted in the fourth Figure that the Glottis & the muscles might better be seene. In the fifte Figure is shewed the Hollowe side of the Shield-gristle, in the sixt the outward and the foreside.  
o. 4. The Cauitie or Ventricle.  
r. 4. The laterall Ring-Ewre muscles or the third paire of proper muscles.  
ss, 4, 6. the forward Ring-shield muscles or the first paire of proper muscles. In the sixt figure one of them is separated, the other remaineth in his owne place.  
t, 5. The spine or ridge of the Ring gristle.  
u, 6. A cauity in the middest of the Shielde-gristle, made for the Epiglottis or After-tongue.  
xx. 7. The muscles of the weazon or the first paire of common muscles.  
yy, 7. The recurrent Nerues.    
The first paire we cal the forward Crycothyroidei[ Tab. 15. fig. 4, s. but in the sixt figure the one is separated, the other remaineth in his proper seate.] The second paire we cal the backward Crycoarthenoidei.[ Tab. 15. fig. 5, I] The third paire are called the laterall Crycoarthenoidei[ Tab. 15. figure. 4, r] The fourth paire are called the Internal Thyroidei or Thyroarythenoidei[ Table 15. fig. 4. c] The fift paire are called Arytenoidei[ Tab. 15. fig. 4 and 5. g] The larger description and vse of these muscles looke for in the booke of muscles. We wil come to the gristles of the Larynx which we wil handle particularly in this place because they make this notable instrument of the voice, and touch them but by the way in the discourse of gristles.  
The Larynx therefore consisteth of three gristles say the Ancients, of four say manie of the latter Anatomists, and we may so esteem them: one called Thyroides, the other called Crycoeides and the third Arytenoides which is double. These gristles when the muscles 
The Names of the gristles.  are remooued from their outside are some-what rough or rugged, to yeelde to the muscles more commodious originall & implantation. But on the inside they are smooth as being inuested with a Membrane, and beside smeared ouer with a slimy moysture. Of these Gristles three are mooued in the modulation or tuning of the voice, that called Crycoides is immooueable. The first and the second when men grow old become so hard that some good Anatomists haue thought them bony. But we haue proued before that they must needs be Gristly not bonie.  
The first is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 the Shield-Gristle, or 〈◇〉, for 〈◇〉 signifyeth a Buckler or Shield. It hath his name from the forme,[ Tab. 16. fig. 2. and 3 whole] for 
The first Gristle.  it is like the Target that the Ancients were wont to vse that was not round but long the forme is yet kept by Herraldes and in Triumphes where painted Shieldes are vsed of this fashion, the belly a little hollowe and the backe gibbous. This Gristle lying vnder the bone Hyois couereth the forepart so as we can touch it, especially in men in whom it 
Pomum Adami  buncheth out more then in women, which bunch or knub they call Pomū Adami, Adams Apple, as if it stucke still in the throate of all his posterity, whereas the woman swallowed it well enough. But the true reason why it appeares in men and seldome in women, 
Why womens throttles doe not appeare as mens.  is because the Glandules which are placed at the Larynx do make their neckes equall & euen.  
It hath foure sides because of the foure processes it hath behinde, for on the back it is not ioynd by the sides. In an oxe( saith Placentinus) there are two most manifest perforations aboue, through which the proper muscles of the Larynx receiue propagations of the Recurrent sinnewes.  
It is but one Gristle, although oftentimes there runne a line through the middest.[ Tab. 16. fig. 2 and 3 betweene G and H] Vesalius esteemeth it two, in men particularly, Laurentius especially in women; howsoeuer, it is the largest and broadest of all the rest, as 
But one Gristle.  taking vp the one halfe of the whole Larynx: it is therefore threefold as bigge as any of the other compassing the Larynx and the whistle or pipe thereof which we call Glottis. Moreouer in a man it is larger aboue then below.  
It is tyed to the bone Hyois by his vpper processes, and by the lower to the second 
Connexion.  Gristle.  
The substance of it is Gristly, thinne yet hard, the better to defend the Glottis or 
Substance.  whistle, and to helpe the breaking of the aire in the forming of the voice. In olde men this Gristle is sometimes so hard that being exceedingly dried it becommeth Bony, yea sometimes a very bone. It beginneth to grow harde at the sides, the middle Line remaining gristly for the most part, yet euen that also now and then groweth to be a bone. The exterior superficies of this gristle is conuex or gibbous, and toward the ends of the sides it is rough, into which place the first paire of the Common Muscles of the Larynx are inserted, as also those take their originall which we account for the thirde payre of Common muscles of the Gullet. On the inside it is hollow to forme the long cauity of the Larynx, by which meanes the voice becommeth ful and elegant, for we see that hollow things do sound better then plaine, as it is in bels.  
It hath foure processes,[ Ta. 16. fig. 2 and 3. IKLM] two aboue and two below, on each 
4. Processes.  hand of the sides one. With the two vppermost[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. IK] it is tyed by a Ligament somewhat long to the lower sides of the bone Hyois;[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. BB] which by certaine distances is strengthned with little, long, round and gristly bodies,[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. aboue K, I] especially it hath vse of them when the Tongue is put out or drawne in again.  
The two lower processes in men are shorter then the vpper,( but in Sheepe quite contrarie)[ Tab. 16. fig. 2 and 3. LM] and are articulated by Arthrodia[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. from L to I] with a flat head to a shallow cauity in the second gristle, that the Shield-gristle might be mooued vpward and downward.  
On either side neere the processes it hath certaine recurued or bowed cauities. The vpper of which being in the middest[ Tab. 16. fig. 2 and 3. G] is the lesser, made for the Epiglottis 
The Cauities  to raise it vp easily and suddenly. The lower are on each side one[ on both sides at H] whereinto the anterior Muscles are implanted.[ Tab. 15. fig. 6. s] Finally, this shieldgristle is mooueable, partly by articulation, partly by Flexion. The Articulation may be called Arthrodia, by which it is drawne length-waies vpward and downeward, and these ioynts are at the lower processes which are ioyned to the second gristle, the draught is made by the first and second paire of the common Muscles. It is also drawne in length without a Muscle being compressed by the 3 paire and loosened by the flexible substance of the gristle. It is also mouable by flexion, for because it is thin it is also flexible, whence it stretcheth in breadth, it yeeldeth downeward and againe returneth vpward, and so the cauity of the Larynx is lifted vp and depressed, straightned and relaxed.  
The vse of this gristle is foure-fould, the first to make the cauity of the Larynx, the second to establish the glottis or whistle, the third to affoord an implantation or seate of rest 
The vse of the Shield-gristle.  for the muscles. And finally, to fashion out the articulations necessarily required in the motion of the Throttle.  
The second and lower gristle is called 〈◇〉, the Ring-gristle,[ Table 16 fig. 4. and 
The seco●● gristle.  5. and 6.] for so Galen and Orthasius his Epitomizer call it because it is like a Ring: and inceed it is very like that bony ring which the Turkes weare vpon their right thumbes when they shoot, that they may drawe the bow string with greater strength. It is commonly called Innominata, the Gristle without a name, because the Antients before Galen gaue it 
Why cald innominata  no name the reason hee giues de dissectione musculorum, because they coulde liken it to nothing in the whole world; haply saith Bauhine because the actions of the Larynx are performed by motion, now the other three doe moue, but this being as it were the Basis and foūdation of the rest is altogether immouable.  
It lyeth vnder the Shield-gristle and is the Basis of the other gristles which it sustaineth. 
The situation  It lyeth vpon the first gristle of the Rough arterie to which it is ioyned by a Ligament, and the greatest part of it is in the backpart of the Larynx, yet it compasseth it round about like a ●ing establishing it by his hardnes. And it was very necessary it should be like a Ring or perfect Circle, partly that the pipe might be alwaies open, and so way made for the ingresse & 
And reason thereof.  egresse of the Ayre, otherwise in the motion of the Larynx the semicircular gristles of the weazon would haue beene compressed: partly least when the Gullet is dilated or stretched by the swallowing of an hard and thicke substance, the pipe or weazon which is the way of the breath should be compressed, whence suffocation or strangling must needs follow. On 
The figure.  the outside and foreside it is gibbous, narrowe, slender and round like the other gristles of the weazon.[ Table 16. figu. 4. and 5. R] Gibbous the better to defend itself, to helpe the shield-gristle to make the cauity, to help the sound and to dulcifie it. Thinner that it might not hinder the ayre that was to bee driuen into the shield-gristle; for if it had in this place beene broader, then had the shield-gristle wanted place to moue itself in. But behinde where it doth not compasse the shield-gristle it was fitte it should bee broader, and so well might be;[ Table. 16. figu. 4. 5. and 6. S] broad I say like the head of a ring whereon the seale is grauen, and flat: otherwise the roundnesse of it together with the hardnesse would haue hindred the swallow.  
Moreouer it is also thicker, especially towards the vpper part, and that because of the articulation; 
The 〈◇〉  and that the slit and the whistle might bee on euery side defended and established: adde hereto another reason why it was thicke, to wit, that from thence some muscles might take their originall. For in the very middest which is the broadest part there standeth vp a rough lyne[ Table 16. fig. 6. T] which Galen in the 7. chapter of his booke ae dissectione vocal. Instrum. calleth the Spine or the ridge of the Gristle without a name. By this lyne is made a shallow cauity on each side[ Table 16. fig. 6. VX] wherein the second payre of proper Muscles are commodiously situated. But in the vpper and backward part it hath on each side a long knub[ Tab 16. fig. 6. Y Z] or if you had rather call them bunching processes ( Galen calleth them Shoulders) with which the Ewre-gristle[ Ta. 16. fig. 9. εε] is articulated; in which place it is alwaies harder and thicker; so that that which seemed in childhood gristly in the middle or growne age becommeth or at least seemeth to bee bony. In the middest it also swelleth a little on both hands and becommeth thicker[ Table 16. figu. 6. N O] and excauated, in which cauity the lower processes of the Shield-gristle whose heades are slatted, are strongly ioyned to this Ring gristle by a plaine articulation. Finally, in the lower part[ tab 16. fig. 4. 5. 6. S] there runneth downward a kinde of processe, from whence the third paire of proper muscles do arise.  
This Ring gristle by how much it is lesser then the Shield-gristle, by so much it is greater then the Ewre-gristle: it is also somewhat narrower then the lower Basis of the wezon, 
The quantity.  wherfore the lower part of the Larynx is larger then the vpper orifice which is in the chops. It is the hardest and the thickest of all the rest( although it be not all of an equall thicknes) because the others rest vpon this as vpon a Basis; wherefore also it is immouable that vppon this the other gristles might be both mooued and articulated, and the muscles which belong vnto the others herein also firmed and established.  
It is tyed to the Shield-gristle by the help of membranes or tyes produced from the first 
The connexion.  to the second; these ties are double, as also are those which couple the second with the third as Galen teacheth in his booke de voce & anhelitu, and th●se membranes doe inuest not only the middle part of this Ring-gristle but also the whole basis of this shield-gristle.  
The third Gristle of the Larinx is in the sides[ Tab. 16 fig. 7. 8. 9.] and is called 〈◇〉 
The third gristle. It is indeed double.  that is, the Ewre, because it is like an Ewre out of which water is poured if you marke the two vpper processes couered yet with their Membrane; or because it is like the spout of a wine pot. This is commonly esteemed and receyued for one gristle, because they are not wholly separated, and perform their action together not a sunder. VVhilst it is yet couered with his coate it is like an imperfect Triangle: but if you take of the membranes wherewith it is couered, you shall perceiue that it is made of two gristles[ Tab. 16. fig. 7. 8. 9. β γ.] which aboue and belowe, are loosely ioyned by the mediation of ligaments and of 
Table 16. Figure 1. Sheweth the whole Larynx composed of his grystles with the bone Hyois, and a part of the weazon or pipe.  
Fig. 2. and 3. Sheweth the Sheild-gristle. But 4. 5. and 6. Figures shew the Ring-gristle or that which is without name.  
Fig. 7. 8. and 9. Sheweth the Ewre-gristle. The 10. the Epiglottis, the 16. sheweth the gristles of the weazon.  
TABLE XVI.  
FIG. I.  
. II.  
. III.  
. IIII.  
. V.  
. VI.  
. VII.  
. VIII.  
. IX.  
. X.  
. XI.  

A. 1. The bone hyois.  
B B, 1. His processes.  
C. 1. Gristly swellings and membranous ligaments let by course to which the shield-gristle is ioyned by processes.  
D. 1, The laterall shield-gristle.  
F, 2. and 3. Sheweth either face of this gristle.  
From G, to H, 2. 3. A line in the midst of the first gristle.  
I, K. 1, 2, 3, 4. The vpper processes of the shield-gristle articulated to the bone Hyois.  
L, M. 2, and 3. The inferior processes of the same shield gristle, which in the first figure are articulated to the crycoides or Ring-gristle.  
N, O. 6 The seat of the crycoides, or ring gristle where these processes grow into one.  
P, 1, 5, The backe part of the Ring-gristle.  
Q, 4, 5. The inside of the Ring-gristle  
R, 4, 5. The lower circular region of the Ring-gristle.  
S, 4, 5, 6. The hinder part of this circle  
T, 5, 6. A hinder line of this gristle.  
V, X 6. A bosome on both sides this gristle called also ventricles.  
Y, Z. 4, 5, 6. Two swellings of the ring-gristle which goe into the bosome of the Ewre-gristle.  
α. 1, The Arytenoides or Ewre-gristle.  
β γ 7, 8, 9. Two parts of the ewregristle  
♌ ♌, 8, 9. The empty space of this gristle which is couered with membranes,  
ε ε, 8. 9, The sides of this gristle by which it is ioyned to the ring gristle  
33, 8, 9. A processe of this gristle ●aing a little tongue.  
η 9, The vpper part of the third gristle like a spoutpot or an Ewre.  
θ 10, The basis of the Epiglottis regarding the Larinx continued with the Shield-gristle.  
● 10, The tip of the After-tongue regarding the palate.  
κ λ 10, The basis and top of the Epiglottis regarding the palate. μγ, Both sides of the gristles which make the Pipe of the Rough-Arterie much like the Latine C. Ε 1, The Rough-Arterie. Π 1, The Membrane which on the backeside, tieth together the gristles of the Weazon.   the membrane that compasseth the Larinx, but in the middest they cleaue asunder or stand separated. In the middest where it is thicker it hath a ioynt wherby it is ioyned to the top of the ring-gristle where it regardeth the Gullet: and because the gristle is double the articulation also is double, which doe on each side receiue into their cauities[ Tab. 16. fig. 8. 9. ●●.] the swelling of the Ring-gristle[ Tab. 16. fig. 6. Y. Z.] that so it might the fitter bee straightned and dilated.  
The substance of this 3. Gristle differs, from the other two, or being softer, that it might 
The substance  not need the greater Muscles to moue it; it is also slenderer, fatter & moyster that it might not be dryed vp by the ayre, much lesse also then the rest that the passage should not bee angustated or streightned.  
It hath processes aboue & below. The vpper[ Tab. 16. fig. 7. 8. 9. Z.] which being ioyned do 
The processes vpper.  cary the fashion of an Ewre or spout pot, are recurued outward, that they shold not incline inward and so fill vp the cauitie, whereby the free passage of the breath would haue beene interrupted. They are lax, soft, fat and flexible, that they might follow the motion of the whole glottis or whistle. These vpper processes are not altogether separated asunder, least one should haue beene drawne from the other, and therefore in a man they are aboue ioyned with a Membrane; but in Hogs it seemeth to be indeede but one processe. This part is so soft and flexible that when a man vomits it is reclined forward into the Larynx, and soe shutteth the Arterie exquisitely, that no thing might happen to fal downe into the Lungs in our vomiting.  
The lower processes made the glottis, or slit, or whistle by which the voyce is tuned. 
Lower.  In that part they are wholly diuided[ Tab. 16. fig. 7. and 9. 〈◇〉.] because it was fit that the slit or glottis should be moueable and free. For vnlesse the egresse of the breath bee narrow the voyce cannot be formed. These processes also in the middle of the cauitie of the Larynx are couered ouer with a fat membrane, wherby the slit is made the more firme. This Ewre-gristle is made moueable, because without motion the Larinx cannot bee streightned, and againe dilated; and therefore on either side in the lower end there is a muscle inserted.  
The motion proceeding of the Articulation of the Ewre-gristle with the Ring-gristle 
The motion of the gristles to what vse they serue.  is fourefold. Flexion, Extension, and Motion to both sides; and so it is mooued vpward, downeward to the right hand and to the left. By Flexion the Ewre-gristle is driuen into the cauitie by the fourth paire of proper muscles to shut the slit. By extension it is reuelled outward by the second paire of proper muscles to open the slit. Againe, by the motion to the sides they are conioyned by the fifth paire of muscles to constringe it, as by the third paire they are separated to dilate it.  
Now betwixt the Flexion and extension of the Ewre-gristle and of the rest, there is this difference, that in the others one motion is made for the behoofe of an other, but in the Ewre-gristle both motions are of themselues profitable: the Flexion, to constringe the slit that so the breath might be kept in; and the voyce made at our pleasure, the extension to dilate it againe that the ayre might be plentifully receiued in.  
The membranes which tie the gristles together do make certaine bosomes or cauities betwixt the Ewre and the Sheild gristles, into which, if in eating or drinking any thing 
The sinus or cauities betwixt the first and third gristles.  fall, be it but a little beare, which often hapeneth when the Epiglottis or ouer-tongue by laughter or speech when wee are eating is opened, because whatsoeuer it is that passeth against the wind causeth a coughing. Of these bosomes or sinus, Galen seemes to make mention in the eleuenth chapter of his seuenth booke de vsu partium, but since Galen( saith Seuerinus Pinaeus) neuer any man made mention of them but Gasper Bauhine our Authour: but whether Laurentius had them from him I know not. Placentinus hauing got the hint of 
Bauhine first made mentiō of them.  them, as should seeme from Bauhine, hath examined them very diligently in brute beastes, and findes them seldome saue in Swine, Horses and Dogs. Aquapendens professeth that he finds them in all creatures vsed to the earth, but in some lesser, in some bigger; yea, so bigge as a man may put his finger downe them: Swine and Horses haue the largest, those of men are not so deepe.  
The vse of these Sinus is to alter the attracted ayre that it fall not with violence as the deafe eares of the heart doe. They helpe( saith Aquapendens) to retaine the breath when the whole glottis is shut vp. In Dogs these sinus are like ventricles. 
Their vse.    

CHAP. XXXV. Of the Glottis and Cleft of the Larynx.  
_THat which is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 is that body which maketh the Cleft or Fissure in the Larynx, which is the chiefe instrument whereby the voyce 
The Glottis.  is formed and vttered.[ Table 15. figu. 4. d] It hath the name from the likenesse that is betweene it and the tongue of a flute or other pipe. The Latines all so call it the Little Tongue. For as the Sound is made by the Tong of a pipe, so the voyce is made by the Linguet of the Larynx, and as a man speaketh by his Tongue, so the pipe is sayde to speake as it were by this Glottis; therefore wee call it the Whistle.  
It is situated within for the better generation of the voyce, and because the instrument 
Situation.  might be freer from outward iniuries.  
The figure of it is Ouall, sharpned at either side, yet more toward the Shield-gristle, then 
Figure.  toward the Ewer-gristle. It is as long as the Larynx, as well that the gristles thereof might establish it, as also that a man might vary with his voyce high, low, or in a middle key, or as we say Treble, Base or Tenor: adde hereto that being so long it is able to admit a sufficient quantity of ayre. Moreouer as there is but one Larynx so there is but one Whistle, or cleft which beginneth from the Ewer-gristle and endeth into the Shield-gristle that so it might be moued with voluntary motion, for wee sayde before that onely these two gristles were mouable, the middle which is the Ring-gristle is immouable.  
Notwithstanding it may be deuided into that which in the vpper part is made especially 
How it is diuided.  of the parts of the Ewer-gristle, and that which in the lower part is formed of the membrane duplicated. This Glottis and cleft runneth in the middle of the Larynx directly from the foreside backward, that the ayre yssuing out of the cleft and formed into a voyce might instantly touch vpon the top of the Palate and the tip of the Tongue by them to be articulated. And as the slit or cleft of a pipe is sometimes broade and long, sometimes narrow and long or short, so is it in this. For if it be long and broade the voyce is base, if it be narrowe it is treble or shrill: yet the magnitude is proportionable to the body; large bodies haue large slits, and little bodies narrow, from whence comes the differences of Voices.  
The composition of it is very artificiall that the Ayre which is the matter of the Voyce 
The composition of it.  might easile ascend and descend, and might beside receiue a fit repercussion. For it is made of both the processes of the Ewer-gristle[ Table 16. fig. 7. 33.] or of the double Ewer-gristle and a portion of that muscle of the Shield-gristle inserted into the processe of the Ewregristle, which two are inuested with a membrane( making the Inner Cleft, of which we shall 
How moystned.  speake by & by) which is not only thight to defend it but also moyst which moysture is not only slimy but also fatty: and yet this Glottis is moystned with a proper moysture of it own, least our voyce should soone faile in discourse or other vse of it, if the glottis and the parts belonging to the Larynx should be exiccated. For being of a membranous substance, the frequent motion thereof in our speech or vocifiration, the perpetuall ingresse of ayre and egresse of the breath which is hot, might haue dryed it if Nature had not prepared a proper moysture to keepe it in Temper: for as we see whistles and pipes doe need euer and anon to be moystned or else they will not sound so well; so if this Whistle of the Larynx had not had a naturall moysture, the voyce must needs haue fayled, as wee see it doeth in those that are sicke of burning Agues, or trauell in hot weather, who cannot speake before they haue moystned their throttles, or if they speake their voyce is stridulous or whining, which kind 
Vox clangesa.  Hippocrates calleth voces clangosas in Prorrhet.  
This moysture makes the surface of the Glottis or whistle to be slippery, yet is it beside smooth & glib least the ayre lighting vpon vnequall parts and so yssuing vnequally should make the voyce harsh and vnpleasant. Notwithstanding it was fit this moysture should be moderate, because those bodies that are too wette doe sound woorse then those that are dry. VVhence it is that in Rheumes and Murrhes the Voyce is hoarse, because the Larynx is dewed with too much moysture, but when the moysture thereof is Naturall it maintayneth 
How the voice becommeth hoarse.  the Voyce a long time without helpe, the rather because as wee sayde the moysture is not thinne that it should soone be spent, but viscid and fatty. And haply this made Galen say that the glottis was not onely membranous but also fatty and glandulous. The Glottis 
Galen.  also by this meanes being soft and supple is more easily dilated and contracted, for it was necessary it should open and shutte as might serue best for the different Expiration of the breath.  
For the glottis is either at rest or is mooued, when it is at rest it serueth for the inspiration of ayre; when it is mooued it is the instrument of the voyce, for the forming whereof 
The rest of the Glottis. The motion thereof.  it hath a double motion, one of dilatation another of constriction. The dilation is the cause of deepe and bases voyces; the constriction is double, either to make the slit narrow and then the voyce is treble and soft; or altogether to shut it vp, whereby the breath is violently reteined with in, as when wee striue to lift great weights, when women are in the pinch of trauell, and in such like violent actions. Wherefore as it is musculous it maketh the motions of dilation and compression; as it is gristly it affordeth the ioynts whereon the motion is made, and strength to support the motion that it should not bee ouerturned by the breath; as it is membranous it is more fit to be dilated and constringed, the slit is formed the better and the muscle is defended.  
But beside the slit made by the Ewre-gristle, in the inner cauity( and that in man onely) 
The inner slit  there is formed another slit of the concourse of two membranes. For from the fore and middle part of the shield-gristle, the membrane wherewith it is inuested on the inside in the middle iust against the glottis becometh double and more solid, and attaining ouer to the backeside of the Larinx is tyed to the inside of the Ring-gristle not farre from the Ewre gristle that so it might be kept stret hed. Betweene these duplicated membranes there remaineth a long cleft running from the backeside forward[ Tab. 16. fig. 7. 8. 9.] which is made broader when the shield-gristle is dilated by the muscles, and so the voyce becometh base: as on the other side it is treble if it be angustated or streightned. And this is holpen by the diuision of the glottis, for both slits are at the same time dilated and at the same time constringed. Arantius maketh mention of this internall slit, and is of opinion that it is 
Arantius  the chiefe place wherein the voyce is tuned, and that the diuision of the glottis is but assistant thereunto.  
The vse of the Glottis is, to be the chiefe instrument of the voyce, or principall part in 
The vse of the Glottis. The chiefe instrument of the voyce. Galen.  the Larynx which performeth the action, that is, the voyce; for that is the proper action of this instrument. For the ayre passing is restrayned & broken, & so produceth the voice neither can any voyce be made vnlesse the passage be straightned( and therefore Galen said well, that the Larinx without the Glottis cannot frame or forme a voyce, no more then the eye can see without the Cristalline) now it is straightned when it is mooued, that is, when it is dilated or contracted, for it is in our power, saith Galen in the ninth chapter of his eight booke de placitis, to shut or open the mouth of the Larinx when wee will, and as wee list to 
Wee may breath without a voyce.  close or loosen it, so we make our voyce base or treble; for if wee let our breath passe out lightly and gently, no sound accompanieth our exspiration, but if the breath be powred forth suddenly and vehemently, then with the expiration there issueth a voyce also.   

CHAP. XXXVI. Of the Epiglottis or Aftertongue, and his Muscles.  
_THat which the Grecians call 〈◇〉. because it is set aboue the glottis or whistle of the Larinx, the Latines cal minor Lingua or Lingula fistulae, but because he glottis is also called Lingula, we haue rather called it the Aftertong. It is a gristle and a couer of the cleft of the Larinx made to fall vpon it when 
Hippocrates calleth it cla strum the lock or baspe. What it is.  we swallow, that no thing should slip aside into the weazon[ Tab. 17. it is placed betweene the first and second figure, but inuerted and was cut away from figure 1. at aa. but Tab. 15. fig. 4. 5. 6. b.]  
Aristotle in the twelfth chapter of his second booke de Historia animalium, thinketh that all creatures which lay Egges doe want this Epiglottis, but doe close exquisitely or dilate againe the top of the Larinx as they please to keepe any thing out of their longues without any vse of such a couer as is necessary in other creatures. Placentinus addeth that Frogs haue none of it.  
It is seated betweene the Larinx and the tongue, and if you looke vpon the superficies of the membrane that compasseth the tongue which is continuall with this Epiglottis, it may be esteemed to be as it were a part of the tongue: whereupon some haue thought that it hath his originall from the roote of the tongue, whereas it is more likely that it arises 
The situation Connexion.  from the shield-gristle. For it ariseth vpward with a large basis recurued forward from the inward and higher part of the shield gristle,[ Tab. 15. fig. 4. *. fig. 5. †] afterward it grows broder a little and a little, and becommeth like a round Arch, but in brute beasts it is by degrees angustated and determineth into a broade and sharpe edge. In the basis thereof it is tyed to the shield-gristle, all the rest of it is loose and hangs at libertie.  
The forme as sayth Hippocrates in his 4. booke de morbis, is like the Iuy leaue, for the 
The forme.  Basis is broad and arched forward into a roundnesse; or it is like a little tongue as Pliny and Celsus write. Vesalius compares it to a triangle. Columbus to a litle shield curued & straightned toward the edge. Aquapendens to a triangle which hath crooked sides.  
The vpper part called the backe which is next vnto the Palate, is a little conuex and buncheth outward, the lower side which is next to the cleft or whistle is hollow or a little concauous. The bredth of it is not only enough to couer the cleft but to spare.  
It is also of it owne Nature rigid and stiffe standing, that the pipe of the rough arterie 
Rigid or stiffe.  might remaine open, least the heart should bee suffocated; yet is it flexible that it might perfectly shut vp the cleft ouer which it is disposed: beside, if it had not beene flexible the waight of the meat and drinke would not haue depressed it in the swallowing: againe, if it had not beene stiffe and rigid, when it is once borne downe vpon the cleft in the swallowing of meate, it woulde not haue started vp againe to giue way for the yssue of the breath. Wherefore the substance of it is gristly and thinne, somwhat softer then the other gristles, 
Yet soft too.  yet so, that it is softer, thinner and more flexible on that side that respecteth the Palate, especially in the very end neare the gullet it is very soft, and couered with a fatte membrane. For when the creature breatheth it is lift vp of it own accord to make way for the ayre, but when hee swalloweth it coucheth vppon the Larynx least the meate should fall into the Lungs.  
For that which is swallowed( as Galen well hath written in the 16. chapter of his seuenth booke de vsu partium) falleth first vppon the rootes of this After-tongue, after it is carried 
The reason thereof.  vpon the backe of it which maketh it to couch or incline. These motions this Epiglottis could not haue had if it had bin either mēbranous or fleshy, because it would haue alwayes lien depressed, or being once depressed it would hardly haue been raysed vp againe, neuer erected vp right. Neither could it haue beene bony, for then it would alwayes haue bin rigid, neither could it haue bin depressed with the swallowing of meats and drinks. Wherfore with Galen we think that the motion of the Epiglottis or After-tongue in a man is Naturall, 
The motion of it in men Natural.  and that the cleft is couered and againe vncouered, not by the helpe of muscles but by the waight of those things which we eat and drinke.  
But in beastes that chew the Cud there are some muscles found, as wee shall say in the 
Insome beasts voluntary.  History of the Muscles & shew them somewhat particularly, because it is an ordinary thing for young practitioners in Anatomy, to exercise themselues in dissecting of the Throttles of Oxen and such like: But in the meane time we must remember that the Epiglottis is couered ouer with a fat membrane much like to the nature of a ligament, which at the shield gristle is full of fat.  
The vse of the Epiglottis is to couer the Glottis or whistle when we swallow our meate; 
The vse of the Epiglottis.  for if at vnawares any of the meate do slip into the wezon, we presently keake and are near strangling till by coughing it be gotten vp again, the reason is, because that which descendeth taketh away Respiration. So Anacreon the Poet was strāgled with the stone of a Reyson. And Fabius the Senator drinking a cup of Milke was choaked with a haire that was therein.  
Alexander Benedictus tels of a woman who would haue giuen her Sonne a Pill and was constrayned to thrust it downe his throate with her finger, she thrust it into his wezon and hee died instantly. Because therefore a man cannot liue without Respiration, when that Respiration is interrupted Nature rowseth vp herself to make resistance, and so we straine at the least crumme that fals the wrong way. Yet we must not imagine that the cleft is so exquisitly closed but that some part of the drinke slippeth into the rough artery, gliding downe by the side of the Glottis though it be not felt. And this way we thinke distilations doe yssue out of the head into the Lungs, which though they bee very aboundant yet hee 
Part of the drink g●ts into the wezon. An instance.  that is sicke cannot feele them, especially in sleepe they gather very fast together. Howe Hippocrates proued that a part of the drinke is conuayed vnto the Lungs, wee haue before shewed by the cutting of a Hogs throate instantly after he hath drunk water coloured with Vermilion or any such like, for you shall finde the very colour in his weazon. Againe, if some of the drinke did not slip downe by the sides of the rough Artery, it were in vaine to prescribe Ecclegmes, Syrups or Lozenges in affects of the Chest. But we finde by experience 
The vse of pectoral medicines.  that all these doe helpe expectoration and make the spittle come vp more roundly, if they be taken by little and little the head reclined backeward, licked off a knife, a Liquerize stick or such like, or if the Lozenges be conteyned in the mouth til they melt of themselues 
Table 17. Figure 1. and 2. sheweth the tongue cut from the bodie, and the Muscles thereof. In the first the right side of it, & in the second his Muscles somewhat vncouered.  
Figure 3. steweth the bodie of the Tongue diuided according to the length of it and his Ligament.  
TABVLA. XVII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG II.  
FIG. III.  
Tab. 17. figure 1. sheweth the Larynx, hauing the Shielde Gristle cut into two parts, but one part of it together with the Epiglottis is inuerted as by the Letters may be perceiued.  
Figure 2. exhibiteth the Larynx shewing the Glottis.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

AAA. The Tongue inuested with a Coate common to the mouth.  
BB. A portion of the coat compassing the mouth cut frō the mouth according to the sides of the lower iaw.  
C A part of the same coat cut from the inner part of the Palat together with the tongue.  
D. The Muscles caled Basi-Glossi, acording to Vesalius the first, but in our account the fourth, or the sixt of the bone Hyois according to Falopius.  
E. The Muscles cald Ceratoglossi, or the second Muscle according to Vesalius, and in our account the fifte.  
F. The Muscles called Styloglossi or the third Muscle.  
G. The Muscles called Myloglossi, or the fourth Muscle according to Vesalius.  
H. The flesh consisting of the Glādules, or the ninth Muscle of the Tongue according to Vesalius.  
II. The Ligament of the Tongue.  
KK, LL. The Musculous substance of the tongue, & the fibres thereof.   
The Second Figure.  

a 1. The Shield-gristle Dissected.  
b 1. The Epig ottis or After-tongue.  
c, c. The Arytaenoides or the Ewregristle.  
1, 2. The glottis or small clefte of the Throttle.  
ee, 1. The internall Muscle forming this cleft or the internall Shieldgristle.  
f. 2. The opening Muscle or the latter Crycoaryth enoides.  
g. 2. The transuerse Muscle or the Arytaenoydes.   and passe insensiblie into the Larynx. And heerein we imitate Galen in the seuenth chapter of the fourth Booke of his method, where being to cure one that had an Vlcer on the inside of the Rough Arterie, caused the Patient to lye vpon his backe, and a moyst Medicine that was fit for the Vlcer to bee giuen and to be held in the mouth as long as hee could, and to relax and remit the Muscles of the place, for so saith Galen by little and little some of the Medicine wil distil into the Arterie.  
But the reason why water or drinke when it falleth into the Weazon causeth a cough 
Why wee cough when anie thing fals into the weazon.  is, because as Hippocrates saith it maketh a disturbance for that it opposeth the Respiration. For the Liquor that falleth downe by the sides of the Arterie, doth not withstand the egresse of the aer, rather it furthereth it by making the way moyst & slippery. Hence we may see how ignorant the Ancients were in Anatomy, as Plato, Philistones, Dioxippus, and such like, who conceiued that the drinke went into the Arterie or Weazon, and so into the Lungs, and the meate through the gullet into the stomacke. Against this opinion Hippocrates disputeth in his fourth Booke De Morbis, that is, against those that think the drinke falleth into the Lunges, yet hee doth not denie but some drinke sipeth that way as we haue saide before. Wherefore( saith Galen in the ninth Chapter of his eight booke De Placitis) if Plato thought that all the drinke was conueyed into the Lunges he cannot be excused because his ignorance is euen palpable: but if he thinke that a part of the drinke is deriued into them he is not altogether deceiued.  
The like we may say of Aristotle, who thought it an error to say that the drinke passed into the Arterie because there is no thorough passage for it, as there is out of the 
Aristotle.  Stomacke into the draught. For verily if that be auouched of all the drinke it is a verie absurd conceite: but if it be meant of a little it seemeth to be true.  
Another vse of the Epiglottis or After-tongue is to strike the aer which ariseth from 
Another vse.  the Lungs into a tuneablenesse, especially if it arise with a force or impetuous violence thereunto. And this vse we haue out of Laurentius.   

CHAP. XXXVII. Of the Membrane of the Larynx or Throttle which is the Ligament thereof.  
_THE Larynx is bound about with a Membrane which is common with 
The mēbrane of the Larynx  the Membrane of the mouth, to be a defence to it both outwardlie and inwardly, and whereby the aire being gently and easily strucken, might make the voice pleasant and moderate. First inwardly, the whole cauitie is compassed & so it is led ouerthwartly to the vpper part of the Larynx, being diuided in the middest of his length it maketh a little cleft. But outwardly it doth partly encompasse the external superficies, and partly it inuesteth inwardly the Gristles and Muscles.  
They are steeped in a certaine slimie humidity, partly least the Respiration being 
Why the membranes of the Larynx are moyst.  warme, smoky and drie, should make the parts drie also, partly that the Epiglottis might be closely ioyned to the glottis and so his exccation might bee hindred, which humidity is more aboundant within, yet so that in those which are sound it is neither more copious nor more scarse then the instrument of the voice doth require; by it also it is polished and so the voice is made pleasant and equal, for being moistened with a kinde of humidity it doth familiarly beate the aire, whence the sweetenesse of the voice proceedeth. 
Whence a pleasant voice proceedeth.  This may be prooued by the example of Musitians, who going about to sounde longer Pipes or Trumpets whether they be of Brasse or wood, will somewhat moysten them( haply with their Spittle) whereby the voice may bee made more delectable, else because of too much siccitie the sounde is not onely vnpleasant and harsh, but is made with more difficultie and labour; like as if it be 100 moyst the sound is obtuse, wherefore we saide before the voice is made hoarse by the humours which come out of the Braine into the Choppes.  
These Membranes of the Larynx are for the most part thicker and stronger then all the rest. The outward is verie crasse and laxe and as it were rough and rugous; for aboue 
Why they are 〈◇〉 & thick.  the Epiglottis it is lax and crasse, where it is bound to the sides of the third gristle, and betwixt it and the gristle, especially at the basis, there is a little Fat growing. It is lax, that it may more easily be incurued and turned vpon the Larynx and be mooued in deglutition or swallowing, in an acute and graue voice vpward and downward. And it is 
Why they are laxe.  crasse, somewhat hard also and dense, because by that way meate sometimes halfe chewed, hard and in great gobbits must passe of necessity.  
Some there be which thinke that this Membrane is increased with fleshy fibres, and that it becommeth a musculous membrane both in men and beasts to help the lifting vp of the Epiglottis, which Fibres are compassed with a little skin both outward and aboue, least it should be hurt in the passage of the meate.  
The internal Coate or Membrane which is more crasse in the cauitie of the Larynx 
The Inner coate.  or Throttle then it is in the pipe of the Artery, is soft, stretched and slipperie, beecause the cauitie was to be made polished and smooth; but where the cleft of the Larynx doth close, this Membrane on both sides is by often compressing of it when wee holde our breath, made more hard and callous, and with the substance doth change the colour & waxeth more white. But of this Membrane we haue spoken somwhat before in our History of the Rough Artery. Concerning the vessels also and the Glandules of the Larynx we shall speake in their proper places.   

CHAP. XXXVIII. Of the sound and the voyce.  
_IT is sufficiently manifest by that which we haue said, that the voyce is an action of the Larinx, and that it is the instrument of the voyce, and that 
How a voice is made.  the glottis or whistle is the first and immediate cause of the voyce and this is Galens opinion, wherefore we will discourse a little of the voyce.  
The voyce therefore according to Aristotle is a certaine significatiue sound of a liuing creature, or as Galen defines it, the voyce is the Ayre 
The definitiō of a voyce.  strucken, and a sound is the percussion of one body against another in some other. There be therefore three things required to the effecting of a sound, to wit, two seuerall bodyes which doe mutually strike one another, & the ayre in which the purcussion is made, which ayre is beaten and broken betwixt the two bodies.  
But that these bodyes thus mutually knocking one another, may effect a sound, first, 
What things āre required to a sound. The bodyes must be hard.  it is required that they be stretched, by which tension or stretching they are somewhat hardened, therefore Aristotle supposed that they ought to be hard, for a sponge & wooll may mutually strike one another and yet no sound be made. But if you say that sounds are oftener made by hard bodyes, yet it is true also that sometimes they are made by soft bodyes, for if you ioyne your lips together a kind of whistling may be heard, but this proceedeth from their tension whereby they thrust out the Ayre by compressing each other.  
Moreouer, they ought to haue a broade and plaine superficies, for two needles striking 
Broade and plaine.  one another doe make no sound. Againe, the percussion ought to be vehement and quicke, for if you gently put your hand to any thing no sound is heard. But if besides, these 
And polished for the better sound.  bodyes be polished and concauous or hollow, and of a solid and ayry matter, such as brasse and glasse is, then the sound will be greater, more plaine and delightsome, which may bee shewed in bels and musical instruments for such bodyes containe a great deale of ayre in them, which airy when it is moued and seeketh a vent, doth euery way strike about the sides and euery way causeth a resonance or resounding.  
Now seeing a voyce is the sound of a liuing creature, or a certaine species or kind of 
What is required to a voyce.  sound; there must be euen so many things required to it as a sound. Namely, the aire for the matter, the bodyes which by compressing the ayre doe as it were breake it for the efficient cause; & we may adde the place which is the head of the rough Arterie. 
The ayre expired.   
The ayre which is required for the forming of a voyce is that which we returne by expiration, and this is the matter for the generating of a voyce; for that which is inspired is prepared for the refreshing and nourishment of the heart and Inbred heate. Wherefore a mans voce is so long continued as the expiration endureth, and when it fayleth the voyce vtterly ceaseth. Now this expired aire is broken by by the ayry instrument and so the voyce is formed at this breaking, and where it is broken there percussion doth forthwith follow. But it may be demanded which of the ayry instruments can strike and presse this ayre.  
The Chest and the lungs do not make this voyce, because their motions be Diastole 
By which of the spirituall instruments the ayre is broken.  and Systole or dilatation and constriction which make no voyce. Neither is it the pipe of the Rough Arterie or the greatest part of the weazon because it wanteth muscles: wherefore it cannot perfect the voyce which is a voluntary worke.  
Moreouer, if you cut the weazon below the Larinx or head, the creature will yet expire 
It is broken by the throtle and why.  freely, but he will not vtter any voyce: and if againe you bind this incision the voyce will returne. Neither is it the nosthrils which is the cause of the voyce, because they are onely passage, nor the mouth because it is onely a receptacle, nor the tong because they which be dumbe haue their tongs and respiration sound; so they which haue their tongue cut out doe yet vtter some kind of voyce. It remaineth therfore that amongst the ayry instruments onely the Larinx or throtle is it which is as it were, the shop or worke-house wherein the percussion is made, which the fabricke and structure of it do sufficiently shew.  
For it hath Muscles which are necessarily required to the effecting of a voyce which is a voluntary action: It hath also nerues which affoord the motion, Gristles also which are hard bodyes, broade, smooth, polished and concauous or hollow, vpon which the ayre may easily be broken, constringed and compressed and therwithall resound. It hath also a cleft which is requisite vnto the breaking of the ayre that so a sound may be made. For this breaking of the ayre cannot be done vnles it passe through by some straight & narrow way 
How this aire is broken.   
This Elision or breaking is made through the cleft when it is constringed and angustated or straightned by the articulation of the Arytaenoides or Ewre-gristle and the Muscles. Wherefore Galen writeth that a voice cannot be made vnlesse the passage be straite, neyther can that passage be well called straight, vnlesse it tendeth by little and little from a large passage vnto a straighter and is againe amplified or enlarged from that straightnes. After this breaking doth a percussion presently follow, either against the aire or against a solid bodie, and therefore Galen supposeth that the Vuula is like the quill of a Citterne in the forming of the voyce, because the aer being blown out is forced against the Vuula.  
But not onely the straitnesse of the cleft is necessary vnto the voice that the passage of 
Vehement impusilō of the aire is required vnto the sound.  the aire be narrow, but also the vehement impulsion of the breath, so that it suddainlie and at once breake forth: for when either of these faile the voice cannot be made; which sudden and vehement expiration Galen calleth 〈◇〉 or efflation. The other cause therefore of the Voice is efflation without which it cannot be made though there maie be efflation without any voice.  
This exsufflation or strong breathing out is made by the Muscles, binding the Chest & the Abdomen or panch, by which constriction the Lungs are depressed and constringed, the Midriffe is incurued towards the cauity of the Chest, whereby his cauity is made 
How exsufflation is made.  straiter and the breath carried vpward out of the Lunges thorough the rough Artery,( wherefore Galen saide, that the voice was prepared in the Rough Arterie when the aire being shut vp and compressed there, doth after a sort attaine the state and condition of a solid bodie before it yssue through the cleft) and beeing extruded or thrust out with violence and force through the straite cleft, yeeldeth that sound which we call a Voice.  
Galen expresseth the vse of the Voice in these wordes, that it is the Messenger of the Thought of the mind, and therefore worthily is accounted the principall of all the actions 
The vse of the voice.  of the Soule.  
And thus are we arriued at the end of this Booke of the Senses wherein we haue omitted the Sense of Touching because it is already handled in the second Booke. Now we come vnto the Controuersies.    

¶ A Dilucidation or Exposition of the Controuersies belonging to the Senses and their Instruments, as also of the Uoyce.  

Placentinus his Praeface.  
Of the Excellency of the Senses.  
_WHen I compare Diuine things with Humane and in like maner Humane with Diuine, and with a through examination do diligentlie view the properties of them both; I can finde no man so nere a kin to the mysticall Nature of God, as those which make good vse of that Oracle of Apollo, 〈◇〉, Know thy Selfe. For seeing that 
The contemplation of ourselves dooth further vs in the knowledg of God.  admirable Architector and Maker of all things did make the bodie of man according to his owne Image, it cannot be but he which is well skilled in the Fabricke and VVorkemanshippe of himselfe, vnto him I say will the Nature of the Creatour and Arche-tipe more plainely appeare, because hee which is well read in his owne body, shall see in all euen the least operations of his minde or actions of his bodie a liuely Impression and infallible markes of Diuinity. And hence it was that they which vsed no diligence to prye into the structure of their owne bodies, were worthily reproached by the Ancient with the ignomious Title of Epicurean Hogges. for such men beeing ensnared with the allurements of their Senses, were onely carried thither whether they like Beasts they were transported by the force & rage of their Senses measuring the chiefe felicity of man by the narrow scantling of the soule, & naked pleasure of the body. But Outd doth manifestly shew how farre a man differs from a beast where he singeth.  
Prona{que} cum spectant animalia coetera terram,  
Os homini sublime dedit coelumque tueri  
Iussit, et erectos ad sydera tollere vultus.  
VVhen other creatures on the earth doe pore,  
Nature gaue man a high crected looke:  
The heauens to view, and Dieties to adore,  
And reade the Characters in that faire Booke.  
Surely a hidden mysterie of a Poet, and words truly beseeming a man, wherein hee 
Why beasts looke downe, and men vpward.  would beate vpon nothing but this, that man being mindfull of his diuine originall, may by the contemplation of himselfe ascend higher into the mysticall knowledge of his diuine Creator. Seeing therefore it is a matter of so great moment to know ourselves: It seemed to me not onely commodious, but of absolute necessity to compose some small Treatise( though a taske of hard labour) wherein as in a most cleare glasse a man may take view of himselfe, and see his owne nature as it were deciphered with Apelles Pencil. VVherefore I will here exhibite both the essentiall parts of man, to wit, his Matter and Forme, together with their functions and proprieties, as well particular as common, obseruing the order of Nature, because wee cannot come perfectly vnto the knowledge of man, vnlesse first wee doe well see into the Essence both of the body and the soule. Now the knowledge of the soule cannot be made manifest but onely by her operations, which also seeing she doth not performe without the helpe of corporall organs, there is a necessity imposed, that wee also vnderstand the exact composition of the body. But because in the deliuerie of the method of Arts we ought alwayes to proceede from vniuersals and such as are better knowne 
Why he first treateth of the Senses.  vnto vs, vnto particulars, and that the faculty of sensation is as it were an vniuersall thing, as being dispersed through the whole Systeme and frame of the body, the order of Nature requireth that I treate of it in the first place.  
Moreouer, amongst all the offices of the soule this faculty of sensation seemeth to challēge the chiefe place, neither that faculty only which is lodged within and receiueth the images of things, and after deliberation or discourse doth iudge of them; but much more that whole sett of senses which doe outwardly perceiue all sensible obiects, and perceiued, doe carie them to the Tribunall of the Internall sense and doe so enforme it, that it is able to pronounce a true iudgement concerning them. For without these externall senses, wee must needes acknowledge the Internall imperfect and vnprofitable. For if wee conceiue any thing in our minds, & nourish that conceit by discourse, againe and againe ventilating it to and fro, wee shall obserue that all things had their originall from the outward senses; for neither could colours, odours, nor sauours be knowne, neither could the Internall sense discourse of sounds, or of any Tactile qualities without the message as it were, and information of the outward senses, by which the Images of thinges are imprinted in it. And with this doth that Philosophicall axiome agree. Nihil est in intellectu quod non prins suerit in sensu. Nothing is in the vnderstanding which was not before in the sense. The Prince of Philosophers esteemeth this the fountaine of all Artes and Sciences. And surely if any man setting aside the assurance and the authority of senses, shall seek for the grounds and euidences of Arts and other Obiects else-where then from the senses, hee shall not onely entertaine into his minde a dissolute and vaine confusion, tossed hither and 
All Arts haue their beginning from Sense.  thither without any stedfastnesse, but also calling in question the most sure foundations of Nature, shall cast himselfe headlong into a dungeonof perpetuall and intricate obscurity.  
Quid referemus enim quod nobis certius ipsis  
Sensibus esse potest; quo vera et falsa notamus.  
For what more certaine euidence of things can be obtayned,  
Then that which true or false we iudge by outward sense vnstayned.  
VVhence shall hee haue the grounds of Demonstration which endeauoureth to derogate from the credit which is due vnto the senses, which are the foundations of al Sciences? For Demonstration is from vniuersall things, and such vniuersals doe arise and spring out 
Demōstration from Sense.  of singulars: but the externall senses doe perceiue all singular things. Now there is none so ignorant which doth not see what will follow hence. The same thing Lucretius confirmes in these verses.  
Inuenies primis a sensibus esse creatam  
Notitiam veri, nec sensus posse refelli,  
Quinisi sunt veri, ratio quo{que} falsa sit omnis.  
The knowledge of all truth who seekes, must hold  
From outward senses first to haue proceeded  
Those Demonstrations cannot be controld,  
Or could they, Reasons selfe should be deceiued.  
Hence it is, saith Aristotle, that such men are vnfit for some Arts and Sciences, to whom Nature hath from their birth denied any of these senses.  
VVhosoeuer therefore doth not content himselfe with the infallible credit of the senses, is worthy with Anaxagoras, who called into question the whitenesse of the snow, as Aristotle remembreth of him, to be giuen ouer vnto the doubtfull and suspended vncertainty of the Pirrhonij or Scepticks, & to waite till the things themselues shall tell him what their seuerall natures are. But we in the mean time admiring this maiestie & certainty of the senses, will make entrance into so faire & pleasant a field of discourse, and handle euery one of them in particular, beginning with the sense of Touching, which as it is more common 
The dignity of the sense of Touching.  then the rest, so without doubt deserues the first place: For this is the ground of all the rest, and doth consist in the 〈◇〉, or moderation and temperament of the foure Primarie qualities. And hence it was that Aristotle, and with him all other Philosophers haue iudged this sense worthy that honour to bee called 〈◇〉 or by a certaine eminencie or excellencie without adding thereto any Epithite The Sense, as if they should haue said the onely Sense of all Senses. And that not vnworthily; seeing( as the same Aristotle affirmeth) euery sense is a kinde of Touching, as whereof the whole company and set of the other Senses doe stand in neede for the better perception of their obiects. As for example. The Tast neuer should discerne of sapours except the gustible 
No sense without Touching.  matter were touched by the spongie body or pulpe of the Tongue; neither could the Organ of smelling receiue any odours vnlesse the perfume of odoriferous things should touch the same. The same are we to thinke of the other Senses, to which in like manner is required, though not a Mathematicall yet a Physicall Touching: what neede we adde more? It is the Sense of Touching, which perfecteth the operations of all the other Senses, and yet itself needeth not the helpe of any. Yet this I adde moreouer, that this sense is capable of the Nature of many more contraries then the other Senses, for it iudgeth of Heate and Colde, Moyst and Dry, Soft and Hard, Light and Heauy, Slender and Grosse, Rare and Dense, Smooth and Rough, and an infinite number of that kinde. On the contrary, the Sight doth perceiue nothing but white and blacke; for Red, Yellow, Skycoloured, and other such like, are not contrary but intermediate colours, and so of the rest: that I may also lightly passe by this, that al other Senses are restrained within some small organ about the brayne, but the Touching is diffused through the whole body. These arguments doe sufficiently commend the preheminence of this sense of Touching. Yet if ●ou please to attend, and more accurately consider these which follow, you shall see the maiestie thereof to shine more plainely vnto you. For first, it is by the benefit of Touching that we are conceiued and formed in the fertile Garden of our Mothers wombe. For 〈◇〉 wise and prouident Nature ayming at Eternity, hath endued the partes of generation with a most exquisite sense of Touching, for the conseruation of the Species or kindes of creatures, so that the creatures beeing rauished with an incredible kinde of pleasure, doe more readily apply themselues to venereall embracements,( otherwise a thing filthy and abhominable) and endeauour the procreation of their owne kindes. VVhen the Infant in the wombe yet liueth onely a vegetatiue life, hee is first of all endued with the sense 
The touch 〈◇〉 first exist of all Senses.  of Touching; whereby hee is cherished, nourished, and encreased, and is at length perfected; for so long as he is in the prison of the wombe, hee neither seeth, nor heareth, nor smelleth, nor tasteth any thing, but yet hath absolute necessity of the sense of Touching, that he may be able to auoyde imminent dangers.  
Moreouer, this Sense is not only borne together with vs, but also which is more woorthy of admiration, when all the other Senses perishing euen for the least perturbation of the minde and leauing vs vngarded and prostituted vnto death, yet this like vnseparable and faithful Athates doth attend vs vnto the last breath: whence Aristotle in the third Book De Anima, cha. 13. Text. 67 writeth, That if any Creature be depriued of this Sense of touching 
Touch is of necessitie the rest for commodity.  death will of necessity ensue. For neyther is it possible, fayth he, that any creature should want this Sense, neyther if hee b●e a creature is it of absolute necessitie that hee haue any Sense besides this,( as if he should say) that this Sense is of the verie essence of the creature; and therefore other sensible obiects by their immoderate extreames, doe onely corrupt their proper organ; but the excessiue qualities of tactile things do take away the life itself. Againe, things euen without life cannot subsist without Touching, as Aristotle sayeth, who 
Plants cānot bee without Touch.  thought that neyther action nor passion nor any mixtion can bee without Touch, and therefore neyther, can the mixt bodie be without it. For though these things without life do draw their nourishment out of the earth, yet they do it not indifferentlie and without choice of that which is more or lesse pleasant vnto them, if at least this kinde of natural accord may be called a pleasure; when as indeede they haue not power to separate or distinguish that which is conuenient from that which is inconuenient.  
Furthermore, if we will stand to Aristotles determination, that there can no other sense subsist without Touching, then will it follow that this being taken away no sense can remaine. Now if the Senses be taken away, the whole family of Arts( which we said before did depend vpon their credit) must needs decay, nay you shall remooue the Sunne itself out of the world. If any man doubt of this let him seriously suruey all the Artes both Liberall and Mecanicall.  
If you further demaund what vse this Sense doth affoord vnto Physicke, know that 
The Vse of Touching for Physick.  without it this Art would be verie defectiue, yea woulde so darken the eyes of Physitians, that they shall not be able to determine any thing certainly concerning the temperature of their Patients, of their Faculties or strength; but must of necessity grope vncertainlie in darke and palpable ignorance.  
If you respect Morall Philosophie, this Sense will stand vs in great stead. For perceiuing 
His profite in moral Philosophie.  and feeling the euils which ensue of vices it doth leade and encline vs vnto the way of vertue; yea it causeth vs to take pleasure therein, which pleasure the Epicures doubted not to account the Summum bonum. The like we might say of other Artes( which least our Discourse should be without end, we will with silence passe by, in all which Touching is not without his excellent vse.  
To conclude, if it be lawfull to transcend from these Earthly things vnto Celestiall, 
The profite of Touching in Diuinity. Luke 17 Luke 18  we will a little consider what vse this Touching hath in diuinity. Did not this Sense reduce S. Thomas wandring in by-wayes out of the heauenly light into the true way when he wold try the presence of our Sauiour by this Sense, as it were contemning the vse of the rest? Did not the woman only by the Touch of the Hemme of Christs garment become sound and cured of her twelue yeares Flux of blood? And do not wee reade that eternall Prince 
Math. ●.  of Physitians restored sight vnto the blind onely by the Touch of their eyes? And did hee not heale the woman sicke of a Feauer by Touching of her? Yea, and that which is beyond all admiration and farre exceedeth the vnderstanding and capacity of man, did hee 
Luke 7  not bring again from death vnto life the daughter of Iairus by taking her by the hand? And the Sonne of the widdowe ready to bee committed to the Earth onely by Touching the Coffin? O healthfull and sauing Touch, O searching Sense. But wee holde our handes, both Time & the Matter requires that we prosecute the remaining Senses in as few words as we can.  
After the Sense of Touching we place the Taste in the second ranke. For besides, that one kinde of obiect, to wit, Earthy, is by Philosophers assigned as common to them 
The praise of Tasting.  both, it is as wel as the Touch not only commodious( for so are the other subsequent Senses) but also necessarie vnto the conseruation of the Indiuiduum, whence it is that manie commendations of the Touch do not vnfitly agree vnto this Taste. For seeing that Taste is the chiefe Sense in discerning of Sapors, as all men of vnderstanding acknowledge & experience 
It is necessary for the Conseruatiō of the Indiuiduum.  itself confirmeth, it must needes followe that by the helpe thereof the bodye is nourished without danger, but when it failes the bodye perisheth and the whole Nature thereof goeth to nothing. For without it we cannot discerne of Sapours, nor iudge betwixt hurtfull things and healthfull, neyther betweene that which is pleasant and vnpleasant, but become inferiour not onely to brute beasts but also to plants, which do not confusedly and without choyce, attract any Aliment but that which is most agreeable to their Nature, and so conuert it into their owne substance.  
But because the sense of Tasting doth participate with the Touch in the perception of sweetnesse and pleasantnesse as in many other things it doth: therefore I suppose the worth or exellency thereof is sufficiently declared in the commendation of the sense of Touching, so that we thinke it vnnecessary to vse any longer discourse thereof.  
We will now proceede to the sense of Smelling, the organ whereof seeing Nature hath placed in the middle of the other senses, we will therefore ascribe vnto it the middle 
The prayse of Smelling.  place of honor betwin the other senses This Sense doth not only receiue the fragrant breath vapouring from odoriferous obiects and abiding in the ayre; but is besides a faithful Taster of meats, it gouernes the mouth lest sometimes at vnawares we should swallow that which is hurtfull and distasting and so pollute the sweete Balsame of our life. And this instinct wee see in Dogs and Apes, who neuer snatch any thing into their mouths before they haue first made try all thereof with their Nose.  
Againe, by the strength of this sense many creatures do hunt out their liuing, and therfore the Kites follow after karkasses; hounds after Hares onely by their sauours: I say nothing of that excellent profit which it affords to the art of physick: for among other predictions in our art that is not the least which is taken from the Sauor of the patients excrements, whereby oftentimes we find out the cause, the kinde and the issue of the disease. Chirurgions also by the sauor or smell of a wound are able to iudge whether it be Cacoelicū, that is, of and ill an vntoward disposition or no. Adde hereto that by the smell wee artaine vnto the knowledg of simples, yea and of compositions, with what faculties and vertues they are endowed. From hence some haue concluded that all oderiserous things are hot and such like propositions.  
The beauty that is added to the face of man by this organ of smelling( wee meane the Nose) is very great, I will giue you a pregnant instance therof in an example or two worth our remembrance. First, of a yong man who being adiudged to be hanged and the executioner at hand, a certaine maide suborned by his friends and quaintly dressed and set 
The nosedoth much beautifie the face.  out, goes vnto the Iudges and makes supplication for his life, requiring him for her husband, well; she ouercame the Iudges: This done, the guilty yong man being set at liberty and comming from the gallowes vnto the maide attired and dressed in such costly ornaments, he presently cast his eye vppon her Nose which indeed was very deformed, and instantly cries out that he had rather haue beene hanged then freed vppon condition of vndergoing so deformed a choyce in his Matrimony. To this is that of Horace very answerable in arte Poctica.  
Hunc ego me, siquid componere curem,  
Non magis esse velim, quam prauo viuere Naso.  
Should I indite, I had as liefe my Nose should stand awry.  
As fairely to begin my worke, and patcht vp bungerly.  
It also a very memorable example,( for we may mingle things thus holy with prophane) which we reade in our English Chronicles concerning one Ebba an Abbesse in a certaine Nunry, who cut of her own Nose & the Noses of her Nuns, that being so deformed they 
A History.  might auoyd the hateful lust of the Danes; taking it for granted that the Nose was the chief ornament of the face. And hence it was that in antient time, when they would put any man to great disgrace and ignominy, or disappoint them of all hope of attaining to any degree of honour, or the gouernement of a State; they cut off their Eares and Noses. Yea those which had such deformed Noses were neither admitted to any Priestly function nor Imperiall office.  
So farre was it from them to account them worthy honour, who were destitute of this honorable Organ. Hence it was that the Prince of Poets, Virgil in the 6. of his Aeneads doth call the cutting of the Nose, vulnus inhonestum, a wound full of shame and reproch. To these we may add that the Nose it necessary for our very life: in so much as Nature hath made it the instrument of Respiration, without which wee cannot liue one moment; 
The Nose is necessary to life.  for when the lungs needs more ayre then ordinary, wee perceiue the sides of the nosthrills to be moued sometimes not without violence.  
But cutting short a whole troope of commendations wee will proceede vnto the Hearing, which no voyce, no not a riuer of eloquence is able to extoll with due prayses, if we doe but contemplate the cunning, skill and diligence, which Nature hath vsed in the fabricke of this Organ, & more accuratly intend how many winding inuolutions, burrows, 
The wōnd ful worke of the Eare.  holes, shels, dennes and darke caues like labyrinths shee hath prepared and furnished therein.  
I add further, that by the benefit hereof we attaine vnto the knowledge of all kindes of Sciences: in respect of which Tully doth equallize vs with the Gods. For these Arts are not ingrafted in vs by Nature, but to be obtayned otherwhere; for saith Lactantius, it is the propertie of God and not of man to haue proper knowledge, that is, arising out of himselfe. 
Hearing is the gate of the mind.  For this cause Nature hath by a diuine skill, made the eares open, that we might alwayes heare when learned men should teech & discourse learnedly, and lay vp in the Register of our minds that which we haue heard. And hence it was that Constantinus called Hearing the doore of the minde, because hereby we enter into the knowledge of other mens conceit, and whatsoeuer is concluded within, is as it were, vnlocked and layde open by this sense of hearing. But some will haply say that we may attaine vnto knowledge by reading without any helpe of hearing. We answer thus, that no man knowes how to reade which hath not first learned it by the meanes of Hearing. I will omit that which is sound by experience, that a liuing and audible voyce doth better instruct then the silent reading of bookes, and that thing heard take a deeper impression in the minde then those which bee only read, and hence haply was Plinte brought to beleeue the Memory had his place in the 
Hearing is the sense of memory.  lowest part of the Eare. Others there are who doe call Hearing the Sense of Memory, whence in their Hyerogliphickes they were woont to decipher and paynt Memory a hand holding an Eare; I also passe this by, that Hearing is after a sort the spy of the life and Manners, whereupon Isocrates desirous to try the towardnesse of a young man whom hee saw: Speake, saith he, that I may see, And in holy Writ, Iob commaunds that they bend their Eares and see, accounting for certaine that the Hearing is the very meanes of discerning & iudging of mens minds.  
But the desire I haue of breuity commands me to abridge my discourse. There remaines now of the externall senses onely Sight, which if it be not superiour and aboue the 
The prayse of Sight.  precedent senses, in dignity and honour, yet it is not a whit inferior to any of them. I say in dignity not in necessity: for if thereby we esteeme their prerogatiue, Sight must come behind, but if you respect the situation the conformation and the vse of this Organ, you may pronounce it more worthy by many degrees then any of the other.  
For their situation and place, it is in the most erected region and diuinest part; beside 
From their place Figure.  prouident Nature, hath on euery side bounded them with a concauous valley. They haue asphericall or round figure, which is no smal argument of their excellency. Seeing Nature is neuer wont to vse this noble figure, but when she endeuoures to effect some difficult or excellent worke. And for their vse we may thence easily inferre their preheminence, for beside that they watche for the safety of the creature, detecting things hurtfull, manifesting things profitable and laying open the differences of all things which are contained in this large Vniuerse, they bring vs vnto the knowledge of all things, so that they alone are fit and sufficient for inuention and discouery of arts, and which is the most all they do make manifest the great Creator of all things by those things which are visible, in the 
And vse. The miserable condition of the blind  knowledge of whom doth our chiefe happinesse consist. They therefore which be destitute of these most diuine Organs may truly professe themselues miserable, seeing they remaining in perpetuall darkenesse cannot admire and contemplate the workes of Almighty God, nor behold the infinite variety of the kinds of things, neither yet dare euer affirme that they know any thing certainely, because of force they must beleeue that which the Heare related to them from others.  
That spirituall and most noble obiect of the Eye( I meane the light which is they Queene of all qualities) who doth not admire? and hence also concludes the supremacy of this Sense; for the Eyes by the fruition of light doe distinguish life from death. Doth 
The obiect of the Eye most noble.  not Hippocrates the piller of Physicke, propound vnto vs most certaine signes of the passions of the mind by the Eyes? By these as by windowes we may pry into, and penetrate the deepest and most secret conuayances in the soule; and therefore Alexander not vnaduisedly sayd, that the Eyes were the looking-glasse of the sou●e whereupon some famous Phylosophers have placed the chiefe seate of the soule in the Eyes. For these Eyes doe burne and shine, they twinckle, they winke, they are sorrowfull, they laugh, they admire, they loue, they lust, they flatter, and in one word they decipher and paint the image of the Mind with so artificiall a pencill, that they seeme to be a second soule; what should we say more? doth not Galen himselfe so highly extoll this Organ that hee thought the Braine was onely framed 
The Braine was made for the eye.  for their sake, a part so necessary and excellent that it makes vs verie much resemble the verie diuine Nature? And doth he not moreouer write, that the whole Head had the highest place in the body, onely because of the Eyes?  
A commendation doubtlesse wonderful, yet not more admyrable then competent & worthily deserued. For being a man of great and profound knowledge, he considered 
That it is a little world  that the Eye was the true Microcosme or Little world in respect of their exact roundnesse and reuolutions: wherein besides the Membranes which I dare boldly call the seauen Spheres of Heauen, there be also the foure Elements found.  

The foure Elements in the eie.  That Fire is there we will prooue in a conuenient time and place. That there is Aire who will denie which vnderstands with what plenty of spirits they do abound? As for Water, who doth not see it in the Eye doth prooue himselfe more blind then a beetle, all the other parts we will liken to the Earth.  
If you looke vpon the Pupilla or Apple, shall not you see shining Starres, yea rather a 
The Apple & Rainbowe of the eie.  beaming Sun? Wherefore thou maist not vnfitly call the eies with the Poet, 〈◇〉 The Gates of the Sunne. Shall you not perceiue heere the diuers-coloured Rainbow framed with a seuen-fold circle? Shall ye not also obserue Haile and infinite other things, which do most fully declare the excellencie of this Sense by themselues without any additament of our Oration?  

Agellius.  But seeing as Agellius saith, it is more blame-worthy to praise a thing slightly & coldlie, then earnestly to dispraise it, lest we should seeme to preiudice the worth of so excellent workes of Nature, we will heere make stay and addresse the small portion of our capacities vnto a more abstruse contemplation concerning the Nature, Manner, Number, Order, Medium, Obiect and Organs of all the Senses in Generall: afterward we wil descend vnto particulars.   

QVEST. I. What Sense is.  
_HAuing by way of Praeface set foorth the Excellencie of the Senses, we are to proceede vnto a more full discourse of thē, which that we may the better accomplish, before we assay their particular handling, we will take a Taste of them in general, which may 
The definitiō of Sense by Aristotle.  make way to the particulars, and may serue instead of a preamble, for the better vnderstanding of the Reader. First of all therefore, it is to be considered what Sense is. Aristotle in the 2. de Anima Texte. 12. saieth, That Sense is that which can receiue sensible Formes without any matter. But he seemeth to define sense in potentia only or power, which haply he would insinuate by the word potest or Can, especially because this cannot bee a true definition of Sense as it doth indeed and really perceiue; for a glasse also dooth receiue 
Iohn. Grammaticus.  sensible formes without any materiall substance, & yet that perception is no sense. Whence Iohan. Grami. vpon the 127 Text of the second Booke De Anima saith, To bee able to perceiue is not onely to receiue species or formes without the matter, but there is also requisite an Animall faculty which is not in all things that receiue the formes of sensible things without 
Alex. Aphrodis.  the matter; as if he had saide, euen as it is in glasses.  
But the Philosopher would shew what manner of perception was necessary to Sense that it haue the acte of perception, and how the obiect ought to be disposed, except by the word Perceiue hee vnderstood Discerning, which Philosophers doe sometimes promiscuously vse, as we may gather out of Alexander Aphrodisaeus, who vpon the 3. Booke of the Metaphysicks saith, That Sense is an apprehension or discerning of present sensible things which are without the Sensorium or Organ, and this is Sense in deede and acte, for wee 
Simplicius definition.  are then saide to perceiue when we discerne the Obiects, which Simplicius vppon the 155. Text of the third Booke De Anima hath wel noted, defining Sense to be Aknowledge or discerning stirred vppe in the Organ, first receyuing his acte from the sensible obiect: so that Aristotle by receyuing vnderstood nothing but the knowledge or discerning of the obiect. And the same definition he doth accurately and dist●nctly declare in the second Chapter and 138 Text of the third Booke De Anima where hee saith, That the Instrument of euerte Sense doth receiue the sensible obiect without any matter, and therfore the Obiects being remooued, there are in the Instruments of the Senses, Sensations and Imaginations. VVhat can be more euident? For how can the Sense of that obiect remaine in the Organ when 
Al Sense is made with the knowledge of the Ob●ect.  the obiect is set aside, if it should onely receiue it without any acte of discerning? Are we not taught the contrarie in glasses? which because they onely receiue but knowe or discerne nothing, therefore presently as the obiect is remooued, they loose the Image. We will therefore out of this which hath bene saide gather a most cleare and absolute definition of Sense on this manner, That Sense is a knowledge or discerning of the obiect receyued formally in the Organ.   

QUEST. II. What Action is, and how Action and vse do differ.  
_AVerrhoes verie worthily saieth in the first Booke De Anima and the 51. Text, that the first and chiefe consideration of Sense is, Whether it bee to be accounted amongest the Actiue or Passiue vertues or Faculties of the soule, that is, whether it be accomplished by action or passion, for he which is ignorant of this can neuer attaine to the perfect knowledge of the manner of Sensation. Considering therefore of this matter by the counsell of Auerrhoes, I haue heere determined for the more euident clearing of this question to declare what Action is, and also what Passion is.  
Action therefore( which the Greekes call 〈◇〉) is a certaine actiue motion, proceeding 
what action is  from any thing fit for action for the obtaining of some thing. It is called an Actiue motion by Galen in the first chapter of his 17 Booke De vsu partium and in manie other places, and that not without good reason, seeing that there is as well an Actiue motion as a Passiue motion. Manie call that an Actiue motion which is performed by the proper Nature of 
Why action is called an Actiue Motion.  the thing, and of itself alone: and that Passiue which is caused by some externall agent. As for example: the walking of a creature is an Actiue motion in regard that it proceedeth from the proper & internall Facultie of the creature. But the casting of a Stone vpward 
What actiue internall motion is.  is a Passiue motion, because it is performed by another & not by the proper internal principle. But because al motion made either by an internal or external agent, in relation to the patient is Passiue, and in relation to the Agent cause is Actiue, therfore certainly the casting of a Stone ought no lesse to be iudged an actiue motion then the walking of a creature, neither dooth this deserue lesse the name of a Passiue motion then that; for a creature in walking doth suffer, else wee must determine( which is more absurd) that there may be an action without passion.  
But in my opinion the Logitians distinguishing actiue motion from passiue onelie 
Action is relatiue.  in some respects and not indeed; haue more truly said, that Actiue motion is that which proceedeth from the agent for the effecting of some thing; and Passiue that which 
How Action and Passion do differ.  is receiued of the patient to make alteration in it: wherfore both action and passion being indeed one motion, as it commeth from the agent is an Action, and it is receiued of both Patient is a Passion.  
It is added in the aboue-named definition, from any thing fit to performe action, beecause euery thing doth not produce an action but that which hath a disposition and fitnesse for the performance of that action. This fitnesse or habitude vnto Action, called in Greeke 〈◇〉 or an agility of vsing, Galen in the first chapter of his 17. Booke De vsu part: calleth Vse, which signification doeth much differ from the word Vse taken for the 
Diuers acceptions of vse.  acte of vsing or for the handling and exercising of an action, whereof Cicero speaketh in his Topickes. For Galen vnderstandeth by Vse an aptitude and disposition of the partes to performe an action, which parts if they were composed by Nature without this fitnes they could neuer performe any action, and so they should haue bene made in vaine.  
This fitnesse in liuing Creatures consisteth in the temperature of the similar parts 
Wherein this vse consisteth.  and the Legittimate conformation of the dissimilar which dooth comprehend the Figure, Magnitude, Site and Number of them. Therefore this due Temperament and conformation, as it is fit for operation is vnderstood by the word Vse.  
Moreouer, this Vse is two-fold, Principall and Assistant. I call that Principall, by the helpe whereof the Agent doth principally performe and exercise his operation. The Assistant I call that which is as a Handmayde, to helpe and further that the function be the better performed. Againe, this Principall is also two-folde. Not subordinate and subordinate. 
Vse is twofold  The Assisting vse is three-folde, first that which doth truly helpe, and that which doth conserue or keepe; and thirdly, that which addeth some ornament or beauty to the Action.  
That which is not subordinate, doth accomplish a principall Action which is not inferiour 
The vse not subordinate. The vse subordinate.  to any other: But that is subordinate, for whose sake the Agent vndertakes an action which is subordinate and preparatorie only. That Vse or aptitude which doth only helpe and conserue, may be seen in the lids and haires of the eye. And Gal. in the 13. Chap. of the 11. booke de vsu partium, doth plainely affirme, that the ornament and beauty of the action is to be referred vnto this helping or assisting Aptitude.  
But here ariseth a difficulty, which is not slightly to be ouer-passed; for if those things 
Obiection.  be true which we haue saide as we professe them to be, it will necessarily follow that in liuing creatures euery organ shall haue some vse, in as much as there is no part in the whole liuing body which is not fit and disposed to operation after some of the fore-saide wayes, as it is taught in the first Chap. of the 17. booke de vsu partium. But Galen seemeth to differ from himselfe and to contradict this doctrine in the 8. Chap. of his booke de morb. diff. Where he sayeth, that some parts haue vse onely and not action. Some haue both vse and action, and others haue action onely and not vse.  
But this knot may thus be vnloosed and this contradiction reconciled, if we say; that to 
Solution.  haue action and vse is affirmed as well of that which doth helpe, as of that which doth principally apply itselfe vnto the performance of the action: So euery part of the body shall haue both action and vse; but so, as to haue action doth signifie that aptitude by which the action is especially performed, and to haue vse that for whose sake or by whose means the vse and action is holpen and assisted. The action therfore is principally from the parts, and the vse they haue ouerplus, that is, that aptitude & disposition whereby the principall action is either perfected or conserued, or receiueth some additament of beautie and ornament.   

QVEST. III. Of the end of Action.  
_THE last part of the definition was, for the obtayning of any thing, that the 
What is the end of Action.  profit & end of the action might be intimated, which is the fruition of that where-vnto the action is directed. This is after the action in generation 
The Action is lesse worthy then his end.  and constitution; but it is the first in dignity and excellencie, as Galen declareth in the 13. Chap. of the 11. booke de vsu partium. And as the fruition of any thing is the profit of the action, so the action is the profit of the vse: so that( as Galen saith in the 1. chap. of his 17. de vsu partium) Those things which haue an vse for action, haue a double profit propounded to themselues: that is, the action itselfe which is the profit of the vse, and the fruition which is the profit of the action.  
Here doth arise a most intricate difficulty to be resolued, for because( saith Galen in the 8. and 16. Chapters of his first booke de vsu partium) 
Question.  There is required vnto the knowledge of the profit of the particulars, a procognition or fore-knowledge of the action, I thinke we must distinguish betwixt the action of the parts and the profit of them, and so it is false, that the action is the profit of the parts or of their aptitude.  
The action of the organs may be knowne two wayes, either vniuersally and abstracted 
Solution. To know the Action is two wayes vnderstoode.  from their organ, so that the production of the action may be made manifest without any consideration of the organ: Or it may be knowne as it hath relation to the organ, that so it may be manifest by what meanes it proceeded from the organ, and what euery part did performe which is found in that organ. Now Galen affirming that the Profit of particular things cannot be vnderstoode vnlesse we accurately fore-know the action, doth vnderstand by the name of profit the Action, and so would signifie, that the particular action ought to be vniuersally & abstractedly fore-knowne, that it may appeare by what meanes it comes from his organ, and that the function of euery particle which is found in that organ( though neuer so small) may be known. And so it is not absurd, that the action should minister knowledge to itselfe, and should be both more knowne and more obscure then itself.  
The vse therefore of the parts and their profit, doe differ as the words of cause and effect, 
The difference betwixt vse & profit.  though Vse doe also signifie Profit, whereby it is manifest that the one is more large in his signification then the other.  
Moreouer, that thing vnto the fruition of which the action doth ayme, is either seperated from the action so that the action ceasing it is abandoned; or else it doeth only consist and hath his being in Fieri, that is, whilst it is in motion, & this is called in Latine opus, in Greeke 〈◇〉 actionis, the worke of the action. Galen therefore in the 1. de nat. fac. saith 
The difference of the worke and action.  well, that the worke is distinguished from the action and is an effect thereof as blood, flesh, a nerue or such like are the effects of the action of the Liuer and of the Seed.  
Sometimes by the name of worke we vnderstand the Action, for concoction, sanguification and distribution, are certaine actions and yet the workes of Nature also; but wee must beware least we call all the workes of Nature Actions; for flesh, a nerue and bones are the workes of Nature, and yet no actions of Nature.   

QVEST. IIII. How manifold Action is.  
_GAlen in the first Chapter of his Booke de vtilitate respirat. deuideth the action 
What is an vniuersall Action.  of a liuing body into an vniuersall and a particular. I call that an vniuersall action which is perfected by the whole body as by his proper instrument, as are the life, which life Aristotle in the 10. of his Ethicks chapter third, and Galen in the place aboue quoted saye; is a kinde of action of the creature, as also are those foure which doe attend it: Retention, Concoction, Attraction and Expulsion. And a particular action I call that, which belongeth to some one part or organ, 
What a particular Action is.  for the profite and behoofe of the whole body. But they are almost infinite, yet all allotted to their own proper parts, and so mutually conioyned and with such concord that they do all serue and helpe the operations of the whole, and do all conspire and as it were with one consent suffer together. For great organs as the Head, the Breast, the Abdomen or Panch & the ioynts do with all their functions immediatly serue the whole body. And 
The consent of the parts.  the lesser which are parts of these are also referred to the action of the whole. As the Eye whose action being wholly destinated to the safety of the creature is Sight, which Nature by the chrystaline humor doth exercise; all the other parts doe concur vnto the constitution thereof, and serue either as causes without which vision cannot be made as the opticke nerues doe; or as a cause of the better performance of this Sense as the muscles and coates; or lastly as conseruing and defending causes, as the Eye-lids and the Eye-browes.  
Some doe subdiuide a particular action into a common or publique and into a proper or priuate action; & they call that common which is referred vnto the vse of the whole 
What a common Action is  and not of any priuate part onely, as are those operations called Animal, to wit, going, apprehension, Vision, Hearing, Smelling, Tasting, Touching, Imagination, Ratiocination & Memory. Amongst the Natural operations, Chylification or the action of the stomack changing the meate into Chylus, Sangnification, Expulsion of the excrements, the sucking of the Vrine out of the veines, attraction of seede, the conformation of the Infant, with many other. They call that a proper action, which is addicted vnto one onely part, 
What a proper Action is.  such as they affirme to be Retention, Concoction, Attraction & Expulsion, which I haue comprehended in the number of vniuersall actions, but they say they belong vnto the proper vse of the part.  
But this manner of distinguishing is not to be in euery respect admitted in my opinion, because it doth much rather ingender a confusion then further our vnderstanding, in that they confound a proper and particular action with an vniuersall. For why should that action which pertaines to the whole and is vniuersall and common to all the parts, be called proper and priuate? How shall it bee allotted to one onely part? If that which they call common be assigned to one organ, how is it said to be common? Yet if any man shall say, that it is called common by accident because it tendes to a publique and common good, him I will not gaine say. But it will be obiected, that that which is called by them a proper and priuate action, will by the Physitians neuer be admitted to be vniuersall and an action of the whole body, and of all the parts thereof. For although attraction, 
Obiection.  retention, concoction, expulsion, do agree to the whole and to all the parts, yet they be so appropriated to their seuerall parts, that they seeme to be proper vnto euery particular, because that the seuerall parts doe conueniently exercise them by their owne nature. But I thinke, that attraction being restrayned to some certaine humour, doth not enduce the propriety of attraction, but of that which is attracted by it. 
Solution.   
Now that which is drawne, and the attraction itself doe differ. So a bone doth attract, yet not as it is a bone, but as it doth participate of life and the function of the whole, yet it doth attract a proper iuyce as it is such a part and no other. But be it so, that attraction and other Naturall functions doe belong and be ascribed to a bone, a gristle, a Membrane & other such like parts as proper vnto them, in regard that they all do properly and in their owne nature conueniently exercise them: yet shall it follow that euery part of the bone and portion of a gristle or ligament shall performe a proper action. One and the same iuyce is common to all the particles of the same similar part. Wherefore this subdiuision of a particular action in my opinion is not allowable.  
But I conclude from that which hath bene sayd, that some parts do performe a double 
Some parts haue a double action some onely one.  office, namely one common to all other parts, another proper which is committed to them and to no other parts; and yet tending to the vse of the whole. And this office or function is three fold, to wit, Animall, Vitall and Naturall. But what euery one of these is and how manifold we haue before declared, and therefore they are here onely presupposed.  
Moreouer some actions be manifest by themselues yet their Organ is obscure and hidden, others be cleare and manifest both of themselues and in respect of their Organ, others be obscure both in themselues and in their Organ. I call that action manifest of itself 
What action is manifest of itself and obscure of itself.  which is sensible and may be iudged of by the Sense; and that obscure of itself which doth not appeare but from those workes which proceed from it. I call also that manifest by the means of his Orgā, whose organ doth presently appeare, & in this without all doubt do al consent: but I account that obscure in regard of his organ, when the action doth appeare, yet the Organ doth not presently be wray itself without much study, & discorse of the mind which is held of some only for probable where about many do dissent. Those which be manifest both in thēselues & by their Organs be these; vociferation, pulsation, respiration, the locall motion of the parts, expulsion of excrements, the expulsion of vrine the emission of the seed, &c. In respect of both, with Galen in the 8. & 16. chap. of his 1. book de vsu partiū are the apprehension of the hand, the walking of thee feete, chewing, vision, hearing, &c.  
Finally, these are esteemed obscure in respect of both; the transmission of the blood, the carrying and recarryinge of the spirits, the generations of animall spirits, he preduction of vitall, the sucking of vrine out of blood, chylification, sanguification, and the generation of seede.   

QVEST. V. That Sense is not apure passion.  
Eeing therefore that vnto an action there doe necessarily concurre an agent and a patient; the agent for to worke, and the patient to be a fit subiect for the agent and to receiue the action; it may now be demanded whether the action proceede from the Organ vnto the sensible obiect, or from the 
Whether the obiect or the organ doe worke in the sense.  obiect vnto the Organ, and whether this be to bee accounted an agent the other a patient, or on the contrary. Concerning this poynt there bee diuers opinions of Authours, for some maintaine Sense to bepassiue, others actiue, others both actiue & passiue. Aristotle doth contend for those which would haue Sense to bee passiue, especially in the 118. text of his 2. book de Anima, wherein expresse termes he affirmeth that to perceiue is a kind of suffering, & also calleth the obiect an agent: again in the 51. text of the same booke, he saith, that Sensation hapneth in that which is moued and suffereth. And he seemes most 
Their reason which say sense doth suffer.  exactly to demonstrate it in the 12. text of his 7. booke of Physicks, saying, That the senses are altered: for they suffer, and their action is a motion througha body which suffers in the Sensation So that it may be gathered out of these places of Aristotle that Sense is made passiuely, that is, that the act of Sensation is not made by the Sense, but by the sensible obiect, and that the sense doth nothing else but receiue the species from the thing obiected and suffer from it: but this opinion though it be approued of many and be held for Aristotles, yet it is neither agreeable to Aristotle nor to the truth. That the places cited out of Aristotle doe not confirme this we will proue by and by, when as by many reasons we shall haue demonstrated how farre distant it is from the truth. For first, if the Sense should onely concurre passiuely vnto sensation, that is, if sensation were onely a reception of the sensible species, then we must needes euen when we are asleepe heare, smell, & see, seeing therfore; that although 
That opinion disproued. 1. Reason.  when we are a sleepe some certaine noyses or sounds be carryed to our eares, and some odors do strike the nosthrils and colours( if so be we sleep with our eyes open as some doe) bee presented to our eyes, yet we doe not heare or smell, or see; it will follow necessarily that something else must concurre vnto sensation beside a simple reception of the sensible species. Add further, that though wee receiue a visible thing into our Eyes, 
2. Reason.  and a sound into our Eares, yet we neither see nor heare when wee are intent another way, or haue our vnderstanding exercised in greater matters. Wherefore there must be some part of the mind present in sensation; and hence it is that wee sometimes seeke a very small thing and yet see it not though we be very neare it, and though it be already receiued into the eye: Surely this is an argument most euident that the mind must be applied to that thing which we would see, and that something more is required to Sense then the bare reception of the species, for else a glasse might also perceiue in as much as it doth receiue the images. Moreouer, if onely the reception of species were a sensation, all action should proceede from the sensible species, & that species should be so prompt vnto action that it would worke euery where and vpon euery subiect, and so would make sense; euen as heate doth make hot euery where and euery thing; but this is impossible, for who euer affirmed that sense was made out of his proper Organ.  
Sensation is not therefore an action onely of the sensible species, neither was it Aristotles opinion, for in the 37. text of his second booke de Anima, hee teacheth the plaine 
Arist. thought the contrary.  contrary, and affirmeth manifestly, that the soule is the efficient cause of sensation, and therefore not the sensible thing, and in the ninth chapter of the ninthbooke of his Metaph. he prooues that vision is an action of the sight. And what can be more manifest then that which he expresseth in the second chapter of his book de sensu & sensili where he reprooueth Democritus for saying that vision was an operation of the obiect: and propounding the conformity of the similitude which the sensible thing hath with the Organ, hee saith, the sensible thing causeth the sense to worke, as if he should say, the obiect doth excite and prouoke the sense vnto action. The poynt is as cleare as the light, but yet what shall wee answer to those contrary places, quoted euen now out of Aristotle, for it seemeth by them to bee plainly affirmed that sense is passiue. But I deferre the reconciliation of this contradiction till the seuenth Question, where you shall haue also Placentinus his resolution.   

QVEST. VI. That Sense is not a simple action.  
_THat Sensation is not a meere passion, is plaine from that which hath beene said. Now it is to bee considered, whether it ought to bee called an Action, 
Passion is necessary to Sense.  that is, whether Sense doe perceiue onely by doing or acting. And that setting aside all digressions, I may come to the matter; I say. Seeing euery Agent in doing and acting doth also suffer againe, it followes necessarily, that the Sense doth continualle suffer something from the sensible Obiect: for there is no man ignorant that to the effecting of Sensation it is necessary that the 
The sense & the obiect be vnlike.  Sense be conuerted into the nature of the sensible thing, but it cannot be conuerted but by alteration, because things of an vnlike nature cannot be made of one nature, except the one of them be changed, but the Sense and Obiect be of an vnlike condition. And this is it where-vpon Aristotle so oft beateth, that the Sense is potentially that which the sensible thing is actually and really, and except the Sense doe passe into the nature of the organ Sensation cannot be performed. Whence it followeth, that the 
The obiect must alter the sense.  sensible thing doth alter the Sense and turnes it into it owne nature, and therefore Aristotle often times calls Sense an alteration, for so Sense is made. Now if the Sense be altered and changed by the Obiect, it is necessary that it must suffer, because the sensible thing when it altereth the Sense worketh vpon it. Hence it is more then manifest that Sense is not perfected by a simple Action.   

QVEST. VII. Placentinus his opinion.  
_IF therefore Sense be perfected, neither by action nor passion, how shall wee 
Sense is absolued by action and passion together  say that it is performed? I answere, that it is absolued and perfected, neither by action onely nor by passion onely but by both together, that is both by action and passion. That action is requisite vnto Sense, is prooued by the Negatiue part before refuted. We will adde some arguments wherewith we are purposed 
That action is requisite. Reason.  for the present to confirme the affirmatiue. And first, if Sense should be made without acting, it would follow, that the vegetatiue faculty should be more noble then the sensatiue, because that to doe is more noble then to suffer, but no mā doubts that the faculties of the vegetatiue soule are Actiue, wherefore least we should fall into an absurdity vnheard of and monstrous, wee must graunt that the faculties of the sensatiue soule are also Actiue. Furthermore, if the Senses should not worke, they were in vaine giuen vs by nature, because the organ onely would haue sufficed vs for passion. Againe, if the Sense were onely passiue, neither could the sight see, nor the hearing heare, nor the smell performe his owne function, neither were any such like predications true of the other Senses, because these predications doe intimate that the Sense doth produce out of itself an act of Sensation. Fourthly, Sensation is an operation of life, and therefore proceedeth from an internall and actiue originall of motion, for life is an internall motion, 
What life is.  performed by that which liueth. Vnlesse therefore you graunt that Sensation is an Action, 
Sense is an operation of the sensatiue Soule.  it cannot be an operation of life. Lastly, Sensation is a second act, and the sensatiue soule is a first act: for to perceiue is an operation of the sensatiue soule, and therefore Aristotle beside many other places, affirmeth in the 7. Chapter, and the 127. Text of the 2. booke de anima, that to perceiue is something more then the suffering of the Sense, whereby it is manifest that Sense is an Action.  
How it is a Passion hath beene before declared. But it may here be doubted by what 
Question.  meanes two Agents can concur vnto one Act of Sensation, and this doubt is worthy the noting: for if the sensible Species doe make Sensation, and the sensatiue faculty doe together there-with perfect the same Action, there must needes bee two immediate effectiue or operatiue Principles of one and the same Action; which is impossible: because that Sense( witnesse Aristotle in the 9. Chap. of the 9. booke of his Metaph) is an issuing Action, now an issuing & simple Action cannot proceede from two immediate Agents really distinct. Againe, it is impossible that an issuing Action should proceede from 
Sense is an immanent Action. Solution.  an outward originall, but from that where-out it ought to arise and to bee perfected. For the enodation and resolution of these difficulties, and the explication of a double truth, we must know that Sense is many wayes to be vnderstood.  
First as it is a reception of the Species, and so it is a Passion, for in that respect it suffers of the Obiect. And of this did Aristotle vnderstand that where he saith, that to perceiue is a kinde of passion or suffering.  
Secondly, as it is a discerning and knowing of the Obiect by the Species, receiued into the Sense, and so it is an Action, for so the faculty doth worke vpon the Species, and so the sight doth see, and the hearing heare, and so of the rest; and so is Aristotle to be vnderstood, when he saith that the Senses be Actiue.  
Thirdly and lastly, Sense is taken for both together; to wit, for an Action and Passion, when as the whole Sensation that is the perfect act of Sense is vnderstoode: for first, vnto the perfection of Sensation, there is neede of Passion or an alteration of the Organ, from whence afterward followes the Action of the faculty, which Aristotle did excellently note, where he saith, that Sensation begins at the Instrument and body, and is determined in the Soule: as if he should say the alteration of the Organ and the discerning of the sensatiue 
Sense begins in the Body, and ends in the Soule.  faculty doe accomplish a perfect Sensation. The same also must wee vnderstand when he saith, that to perceiue is a second Act, & the sensitiue Soule a first Act, because to perceiue is the operation of the sensatiue Soule. Thus therefore may the difficulties propounded be easily resolued, and so Aristotle redeemed from contradiction.   

QVEST. VIII. How the faculty is wrought in the Sense.  
_SEeing that( as Galen in the 6. Chapter of his second booke de Placitis witnesseth) 
Question. Sense is no alteration, but a knowledge of the alteration.  Sense is not an alteration, but a discerning or knowing of the alteration; because the sensatiue faculty is not affected with the Obiect, but onely the Organ: it may therefore heere worthily be doubted, how the faculty can attayne to the knowledge of the Obiect, seeing it suffereth nothing from it, neither doth the Obiect Act before the faculty perceiue. For the Action of the sensatiue faculty is a knowing and diiudication of the sensible thing: but it seemeth not to be possible, that the sensatiue faculty can come to the knowledge of the Obiect, except that either the faculty be some way affected by the Obiect, or the Obiect by the faculty, but neither of these can be. For first, the Obiect cannot work vpon the faculty, because an incorporeall thing, is not affected 
The Obiect cannot worke vpon the faculty.  by that which is corporeall. But the faculty is incorporeall, and the Obiect corporeall. Beside, the Soule is not capable of Passion, and therefore neither are her faculties capable. Neither can the sensatiue faculty alter or change the Obiect. And this is playne, as 
The faculty cānot change the Obiect. Solution.  by many other reasons, so also because her sole and onely Action is Sensation. I say therefore, how comes it to the knowledge of his Obiect? And what is the efficient cause of the diiudication or iudgement, which the faculty giues of the sensible Obiect, which we perceiue to arise from the motion of the Organ.  
I answere: that the sensatiue faculty doth suffer, and is changed by the Obiect, not by 
The Organ is changed by itself, the faculty as it is in the Organ.  itself but by accident, to wit, as the organ whose formall part & Essence the faculty is, is changed by it. For seeing the faculty is as it were the 〈◇〉 or forme from whence the Action of the organ doth proceede, when this corporeall Instrument is changed by the sensible obiect, it remaineth that the Faculty itselfe( which together with his sensible instrument doth grow vp into one bodie, and do both conspire vnto the same action) is altred by accident and doth perceiue the alteration of his Organ. For all Organs of sensation do suffer by reason of their bodye, but in respect of their Sensatiue Faculty they performe an Acte.  
Passion doth affect the Facultie as it depends vpon the organ; Action is the diiudication of iudgement, which is the office of the sensitiue Facultie, or of the whole organ in respect of that Faculty wherewith it is endowed: not that the Faculty itselfe is altered or doth suffer, but because it Perceyueth the alteration of the organ.   

QVEST. IX. Whether the knowledge of the sensible thing be perfected in the Organ.  
_ALthough it be made manifest by that which hath beene saide, that the proper action of the Sensatiue Faculty is the diiudication of the sensible thing, yet there seemeth to be some difficulty behinde, for, if the Facultie doe make this iudgement of the obiect in the sensorium or Organ, then those which sleepe with open eies should also see because the colour doth alter the Organ. In like manner a sound might be heard, odours smelt, and any tactile quality might be felt by vs; seeing that the Organ is altred by the Obiect, and yet when wee are asleepe we neither do see, nor heare, nor Perceyue with anie other Sense except the Obiects be verie vehement. Haue therefore the Poets truly faigned that sleepe is the brother of death, because it dooth depriue vs of all our 
The poets say sleepe is the brother of death. Disprooued.  sense yea of our verie Touch; insomuch that it seemeth to extinguish the creature & be●eaue it not of Sense onely but of life also? Or else do we perceyue while we sleepe, and know not that we haue Sense? The first cannot be, for although sleepe haue a great correspondencie and affinitie with death, yet it doth not depriue the creature of sense. For 
What things do concur to Sense.  these things do concurre vnto Sense: a conuenient obiect, an organ fitly disposed, the alteration of the same organ and a sensitiue Facultie, al which things we haue euen when we sleepe.  
First, the Obiect is present, for colour though we be asleepe, yet is it the Obiect of fight, and continueth to be actuallie an obiect as long as it is illuminated with the light of a Candle or with the daylight; so also it is with sounds, odours and other obiects of the Senses. The Organ is also present and so is the alteration of the same; seeing there is nothing which can hinder the operation of the sensible species vpon the organ, or the alteration of the same. Neither is the Faculty wanting: for if the Facultie of one sense should faile all the Senses would be forfeited, and so of a liuing creature should be made a Plant depriued of sense and motion.  
Moreouer, though we sleepe, yet our organs liue and they liue by the Soule. If 
The soul with her Faculty is wholie in the whole.  therefore the soule with all her powers and faculties be wholy in the whole, and wholie in euerie part, it must needs be that if the creature liue the Faculties of Sense must bee present in euerie place where the Soule is. But the soule is found in the organs of senses, yea euen when we are asleepe; except you will say that the Soule dies when wee fall asleepe. Wherefore it necessarily followes that the Faculty of Sense is there also present in the organ.  
Seeing therefore in sleepe we haue the obiect actuallie prepared vnto sensation, seeing 
Wee haue sence in sleep but knowe it not.  also the organ fitly disposed is not wanting, and the iudging Faculty at hande, and that nothing more is required vnto perfect sense; it is not to be doubted but that Sensation may be absolued in the organ and iudgement also giuen of the obiect euen vvhen we are fast asleepe. But the reason why we do not perceyue this Sensation, is, not because we haue no sense at all, but because we know not that we haue Sense.   

QVEST. X. That by our outward Senses we doe not know that wee haue Sense.  
_THat wee doe perceiue by the Organs of our Senses is euident enough by that which hath bene saide, but it is doubtfull and vncertaine how wee shall know that we haue Sense, seeing that this knowledge is not gathered from the externall Senses: for whatsoeuer is perceiued by them must be their proper obiect, but Sensation is the obiect of no externall Sense.  
Moreouer the externall Senses know nothing but externall thinges: but the acknowledgement of Sensation is no externall but an internall thing: wherefore it cannot be perceiued by the externall Senses. Thirdly, if together and with the same Sense we should perceiue and take knowledge of this perception, it woulde then necessarilie followe, that the acte of perceyuing, and the obiect of Sense should bee one and the same thing, which how absurd it is I referre me to any man to esteeme. Lastly, we do not at the same time Perceiue and Iudge of that which we haue perceiued, but somwhat after the acte of Sensation we know that we did Perceiue: a manifest argument that the one is a diuers act from the other, and that with one Sense we do perceiue, and with another know that we did perceiue. But this may especially hence be conuinced, that blinde men though they do not see, yet they perceiue that they do not See: seeing therefore the Organes of their sight are vnfit for vision, it doth necessarily follow that it is by another Sense that they perceiue themselues not to see. Now if it be by another Sense that we know that we do not perceiue, surely it is another Sense also by which we know that we do perceiue.   

QVEST. XI. Whence it is that we perceiue that we haue Sense.  
_IF therefore none of the external Senses do performe this function, what may 
We know not that we perceiue by Vnderstāding nor reason.  it be? Is it the worke of our vnderstanding or of our Reason? No: for this action is common to brute Beasts which be destitute of reason. For they know when they do not See, or Heare, or Smell and so in the rest. And that they know so much may easily bee gathered by their opening of their eies vvhen they be shut, and pricking vp their Eares when they would See or Heare. Neither neede we wonder heereat, for they are enriched with some Functions that come nerer vnto reason itself, as I might easily prooue by many instances of diuers creatures out of Aristotle and Pliny and other Historians if I thought it pertinent to this place. Seeing therefore vnreasonable creatures do know when they perceiue, that is haue vse of their Sences, it followeth necessarilie, that that knowledge is not a worke of Reason.  
Neyther is it any worke of the Phantasie, in regard that it worketh after the act of perceiuing when the obiect is not present; but this Sence ought to iudge, at least then when 
It is no worke of the phātisy  we haue vse of Sense, that we doe vse it, and after Sensation to doe nothing, whence Aristotle in the 136 Text of the third Booke de anima handling this matter affirmeth, that this is done continually in the first Sense. And this Sense is the common Sense, so called because it is proper to no one Sense, but is equally common to all; for Nature hath 
We know that we perceyue by the Common Sense.  alwayes endeuoured that shee may bring a multitude into an vnity so much as possibly may be: wherefore she hath ioyned in one common sence al the outward Senses, wherinto as lines going from the circumference into the center they may determine: & this hath the Philosopher verie elegantly declared in the 30. Text of his third Booke De Anima, and calleth this Common Sence the meane or middle betweene the external Senses, considering them as the Circumference and this as the Center. This is that Sence by which we know that we Heare & See and perform the functions of the other Senses: this is it which being bound in our sleep maketh vs ignorant of our Sensation: this is it which except it be present all the other Senses are vnprofitable: this is it which offereth to the Phansie the species which the outward Senses haue perceiued, and the phantasmes to the vnderstanding. In a word, this is it without which neither the externall nor internall Senses, nor the principall Faculties of the Soule could consist entire and absolute.   

QVEST. XII. Of the Number of the Senses.  
_IT is receiued of all men that the Senses be fiue in number, but especially of Aristotle in the first chapter and 128 Text of his first Book De Anima, who sayth, 
That there be fiue Senses.  that beside Sight, Hearing, Smelling, Tasting and Touching there can bee no other Sense assigned. And this is also confirmed by reason, beecause there be onely fiue Obiects; Colours, Sounds, Odors, Sapors and Tactile qualities: if therefore there can be found no other proper obiect beside these fiue( I meane of externall 
That there be fiue propper Obiects of the Senses.  obiects) it doth necessarily follow that there is no other Sence beside these; so also because these fiue mentioned seuerall Obiects are so proper vnto their seuerall Sences, that none of them is iudged of but by his owne proper Sence: I say it followes hence that there are no fewer Sences then fiue, because the Obiects are full out fiue.  
Furthermore, this number of fiue Sences is also confirmed by the number of the Elements, for Aristotle in the end of the second Chapter of his Booke De Sensu & Sensili saith, 
The number of the Senses.  that euerie organ is assigned to a particular Element, namely, the Eye to the water, the Hearing to the Aire, the Smelling to the Fire, the Touching to the Earth, and Tasting, because of his neere affinitie to Touching is resembled vnto the same Element.  
Neither doth that which may be obiected any way infringe or impeach this opinion, to 
Obiection Solution  wit, because there is one onely Sensatiue Faculty therefore that there should bee but one sense: for the reason why the eie discerneth colours, the Eare iudgeth of soundes, the Nose perceiueth sauours, is not from the Facultie but from the temperature of the Organ; for the Foote also would see if it were endued with a temperament conuenient for the discerning of colours. That they haue Sense, the Organs haue it from the Faculty; but that the perceiue rather this then that Obiect, they obtaine it not from the Faculty but from the temperament of their Organ. Wherefore, whereas the Eye doth discerne of Colours, the Eare of Sounde and the Nose of odours, it is not because there is a certaine Visiue, an Auditory and odoratorie or Smelling Faculty, but because one and the same faculty carrying itself in euerie Organ after the same manner, doth diuerslie proceede into acte, according to the diuers temper of the diuers Organs.   

QVEST. XIII. Of the order of the Senses.  
_HAuing thus determined the number of the Senses: it followeth in the next place that we speake something of the order of them, to wit, whether wee ought to begin with the sight as Aristotle and almost all Philosophers do, or with the Touch which is a contrarie way wherein Physitians & Anatomists do walke, and these be the two contrary Sects concerning this matter of order, for none euer made doubt about the interruption or breaking off the order; but how manie Authors soeuer there be they haue either placed Sight in the first place, Hearing in the Second, Smelling in the third, Tasting in the fourth, and Touching in the Fift: or else on the contrarie haue put Touching in the first ranke, Tasting in the second, Smelling in the third, Hearing in the fourth, and Seeing in the fift and last place.  
As concerning the first, it is the opinion of the Philosophers and of Aristotle especially, 
Senses to bee placed according to the order of the Elements.  who, both in the second Booke de Anima and in the 2. 3. and 5. chapters of his Booke De Sens. & Sens. doth ranke them in this order. Moreouer this assertion seemeth to bee grounded vpon reason, because this is the order of the Elements which do concurre for a Meane, or other helpe to the Senses; so that euerie sense in respect of that Element vnto which it is appropriated, ought thus to be placed, and according thereto should their order and frame arise.  
Sight is then the first of all the Senses, because Fire hath the first place among the Elements, 
The sight is fierie.  for sight is fiery, both in regard of the Sense; for it hath an ingenite or inbred fire, as also by reason of the sensible thing, for except there were light which proceedeth from afiery bodie, there would be no vision.  
The Hearing is the second because it is aiery, for aire occupieth the second place: and the 
The Hearing is aiery.  Hearing is airy both in respect of the Sense because it hath an inbred aire, and in respect of the Obiect, because the Sound is formed in the aire, so that it is of the Essence thereof. 
Smelling is vaporous.   
Smelling is put in the third place, because as it is the middle betweene the other Sences, so it is appropriated to an Element( if I may so say) disposed in the middest of the rest. For that which is a Meane betweene the Nature of Water and aire as Galen doth well witnesse in the second chapter of his Booke De Odor. Instrum. falleth vnder the Sence of Smelling; because that which is neyther so thin or rare as aire, nor so crasse and thicke as water may well be concluded vnder the name of a Vapour. Now that Smelling is vaporous both in respect of the Sence itself and of the thing sensible, wee may haue occasion to prooue heereafter. 
The Tast waterie.   
The Taste deserues the fourth place, because Water succeedeth Aire, and to water this Sence is referred, as wel because of the Communion of the Sences, as also in regard of the essence of the obiect. 
The Touch earthy.   
The last place belongs to the Touch, because the earth is in the last and lowest place, of whose nature and quality this sense of Touching doth participate.   

QVEST. XIIII. A conformation of the order of the Senses.  
_THat the Senses ought to be thus continuated among themselues and propounded in this order, the constitution and conformation of the Organs 
The order of the senses proued by the constitutions of the organs.  doe giue vs sufficient proofe: for the proper Instrument of sight is vayled with a very dense and thicke couer, that of the Hearing is more rare, that of the Smell yet thinner then them both, which Galen in the 6. Chapter of his 8. booke de vsu partium, hath very well obserued, where speaking of this Sense, hee saith, If the couer were so framed, that it might be no hinderance to the Sense, then it ought to be so much more rare then that of hearing, by how much the obiect hereof is of more crasse parts 
Parts.  then that of the eare. The couer of the Taste is not onely more rare, but it is altogether spongie, as we haue shewed before in the membrane of the Tongue. Lastly, the couer of the Touch is most rare of all.  
This order is moreouer confirmed by the qualities of the Obiects, for the Obiect of the 
And by the tenuity & crassenes of the obiects.  Sight is the thinnest & finest of all the rest, yea after a sort spiritual & not corporeal. That of the hearing is more crasse, and the Obiect of Smell yet more crasse and thicke then either of them: where-vpon Galen in the aboue-named place witnesseth, that the Obiect of the Smell is of more grosse parts then that of the Hearing: for saith hee, by how much the ayre is exceeded by the light in the tenuity of their parts, by so much is the vapour surpassed by the Ayre. The Obiect of Taste is much more crasse then the former. But the Touch 
And by the necessity of the medium or meane.  being earthie, must needes bee the most crasse of all. Finally, this must needes bee the order of the Senses, in respect of the medium or meane; for the Sight aboue all hath neede of a meane, but Hearing hath lesse neede, and the Smell lesse then it. Tasting is as some thinke without any meane at all, but especially the Touch as wee haue partly prooued already, and haply it will againe fall vnder our discourse.  
Lastly, the Position of the Instruments are a confirmation of this order: for the organ of Sight is placed without, but the organ of the Eare is a little more inner, and the instrument of Smelling more inward then them both, that of the Taste is yet more hidden, and the Instrument of Touching is called by Aristotle 〈◇〉, that is, existing within. By these demonstrations therefore is this continuation and order of the Senses sufficiently confirmed, to wit, because euery one ought to be placed in this assigned rank. The Sight and Touch be the extremes because they are most distant one from another, by reason that the obiect of Touch is corporeall and materiall, and the obiect of the Sight incorporall and spirituall; the Organ of Touch is placed within, but the Organ of Sight without; the Organ of Touch is couered with a most rare and thin vaile that of the Sight with a most dense and thicke couer, because Sight vseth a Meane, but Touch none at all. Lastly, the Touch is earthy and the Sight is fiery. The Hearing and Tasting are lesse distant one from another, and the Smell is equally affected to all, and therefore by good right challengeth the middle place.   

QVEST. XV. The arguments of the Philosophers.  
_ALthough those things which are alleadged in the precedent Chapters, seeme to proue nothing else but the rank or following order of the Senses, and if any thing doe inferre a conclusion, it is onely probably, yet there be which doe contend for the primacie of the sight with strong arguments.  
And first, they say that Sight is the first by Nature, as Aristotle witnesseth in the 7. Text of his 2. booke de Gener. et Corrupt. Wherefore if wee will obserue the order 
Sight is by nature before the other senses.  of Nature, we must begin with the Sight.  
Secondly, that which is more noble then the rest, doth deserue the first place. But Sight not only in respect of the Sense, but of the Organ also, yea of the meane and obiect 
And more noble.  doth excell all the other in dignity. To these we adde, that sight is more liable to our vnderstanding, and therefore we are to treate of it in the first place, because many things are found in it more facile and easie which also may prepare the minde vnto the knowledge of the other Senses: for the Organ thereof is very conspicuous; the meane is manifest, the obiect is cleare and other things which in the rest of the Senses bee very obscure are perspicuous and knowne in this: neither is it a sufficient obiection to say, that in respect of the act of perceiuing, this Sense is most hard and difficult to be vnderstoode.   

QVEST. XVI. The Arguments of the Physitians.  
_WE come now vnto the reasons which are brought for the confirmation of this opinion both of Plato, of Galen and of the Anatomists, and they are taken partly out of Aristotle and partly out of the propriety of order. For 
Why we must begin with those which be most common.  Aristotle in the 37. Text of his 1. Booke of Physicks: teacheth that we must begin with those which bee most common; both because( as Auerhoes expounds it) those things which be most common are best knowne, and also because the affections which are to bee declared doe primarily agree vnto them: and lastly, least wee should too often fall into Tautalogies, or vaine repetitions. And Aristotle himselfe giues an excellent reason of this his owne Position, to wit, because without the knowledge of those things which be more common, the lesse common cannot be knowne.  
Now who will denie that the Sense of Touching is more common then the rest of the 
Touch is the common sense  Senses? vvho knowes not that this Sense is common to all liuing creatures? yea it is so common in all, that without it no Sense can bee performed; in so much that the same Aristotle confesseth that euery Sense is a kinde of Touching. Beside, Art being the Ape or imitatour of Nature, we therefore in the tradition of our Arts should follow the order of Nature, in which order we must begin with those which are first( not in intention 
Touch according to the order of nature is the first.  as the former Sect affirmeth) but in originall and generation: wherefore according to the order of Nature Touch seemeth to be put in the first place. To these wee may adde, that this Sense is more knowne then the rest, for a man hath this sense more exquisite then any of the rest; and it doth of necessity follow, that that Sense which we enioy most exquisitely, thereof we should also haue most certaine knowledge.   

QVEST. XVII. The Authors owne opinion.  
_THough both these Sects haue some shew of difference, yet in my opinion they may be reconciled, so that neither of both may seeme any whit blame worthy, in regard that they contend about a matter which is of no great moment, their strife being not about demonstratiue grounds. But because the Schoole of Physitians hath alleadged the more waighty arguments, I will more willingly cast in my lot with them. Yet may any man draw a reconciliation betweene them from the diuers consideration of the order. Some follow the order of 
A diuers consideration of order.  Nature in their writings, which order may be vnderstoode to be double, to wit, either the order of originall, or of intention, that is, either by what order Nature doth worke, or what end she presenteth to herself in her worke. According to the former consideration the end is the last, but according to the latter it is the first.  
Againe, some in their deliuerie of Arts follow that order whereby the Art is more easily taught, as for example, some things that come behinde cannot be vnderstoode vnlesse some other things bee praemised before. Others obserue the order of dignity; so that by this diuersity of order being conferred with that which we haue said before, it may easily be gathered what we ought to conclude of either sect.   

QVEST. XVIII. Whether the Senses doe neede a Medium or Meane.  
_IT seemeth to be no hard question to determine whether the Senses need a Medium or Meane; because out of Aristotles Philosophy wee haue as it vere an Oracle, 1000. times repeated that The Obiect placed vpon the Sense 
An axiome questioned.  doeth make no Sensation: especially seeing hitherto it is receiued for such an vniuersall principle and ground, that hee which denyes it deserues not to bee confuted. But weighing this as all other Theormes in the equall ballance of Reason, I am bolde to demaund whether this position deserue the Title of a Principle? As for Aristotle he acknowledgeth it indeede for a principle, and in many places resolueth vppon it for an infallible and vndoubted axiome without adding any reason thereto: but whether herein he hath well done, and whether it be such a ground and principle or no, it will appeare by the due consideration of the conditions required in a princiciple.  
The first condition therefore of a Principle is( as it appeareth ex posterioribus Analyticis) that it may be truely affirmed of euery particular of the same kinde, and in my iudgement sayeth Placentinus this axiome transgresseth this condition, because it agrees not to 
Touching and Tasting without Medium.  euery Sense to haue a Medium, for that Tasting and Touching are absolued without.  
But some may haply doubt how these two Senses can be perfourmed immediatly, and yet a Medium be required to the rest. The answere is at hand; because the organs of some Senses are so sensible that they would easily bee offended with the contaction of their obiects. 
The reason why the other are not.  So the Sight will not admit of the Touch of any thing, and a vehement motion whereby the sound is generated would offend the organ of Hearing, if it should come immediatly vnto it.  
Againe, a fumid exhalation which falleth in with the Sence of Smelling would hinder Respiration, and except it were transported through a Medium or Meane, it would bee offensiue and hurtfull to the Organ.  
Lastly, some Senses doe Perceiue their obiects not Materially but Spiritually. Now 
Some Senses perceiue materially others spiritually, as Sight.  the species must be drawne from the obiect through a Medium. Some also receiue them Materially, and those haue neuer a Medium. For a colour cannot really attaine to the organ, because an accident out of his subiect is nothing: whereupon it followeth that not the Colour placed aboue the eye doeth offend it, but the coloured or subiect of the colour. But put case that Colour could really without any dammage bee imposed vpon the Eye, 
Not the colour, but the coloured offends the eye.  yet it would not moue the Sence; because it would condense and thicken the eye: for by this immediate contaction the colour doeth worke vppon the Daphanum or that which is translucent.  
The Touch therefore and the Taste haue no neede of a Medium, because they doe not receiue Intentional or abstracted species but reall qualities; for if they should receiue Spirituall 
The Taste and Touch receiue reall qualities.  formes then they must discerne of them a farre off without the contaction of the obiects; for the species are diffused into an ample distance; but the Tast and the Touch are not perfected without contaction.  
We see moreouer in these Senses reall affects of the obiects, which could not be vnlesse they should be perceiued really: but these thinges shall bee more at large discussed in their proper places.  
For a playner dilucidation of the trueth, wee must obserue that all Senses haue not alike neede of a Medium; but there is a certaine order and degree of this necessity. For the Sight doeth especially neede a Medium, because it is most of all Spirituall, and there is no 
The Sight doth especially neede a Medium. The Hearing lesse.  Sensation at all of a reall colour immediatly placed vpon the eye.  
A Meane is also requisite to the Hearing, yet it hath lesse neede thereof then the Sight, for a sound imposed vppon the Hearing maketh a kinde of Sensation, but very imperfect, namely such an one as is offensiue to the organ.  
The Smell in like manner hath vse of a Medium if the smoaky exhalation be vehement; 
The Smelling yet lesse.  for so it may hinder the Respiration and hurt the organ: yet an odour may bee perceiued without a Meane. VVhereupon when we would smell any thing perfectly we hould our noses close to it: so that the Smell seemeth to be in the middle betwixt those Senses which neede a Meane and those which are performed without it.  
Taste also though it bee made by contaction yet requireth necessarily an humidity, 
Tasting and Touching none.  which may bring the Sapors out of Power into act. But Touching hath need of nothing saue the contiguity of the tactile body, beeing performed without the helpe of any other Meane. And thus I thinke it is plaine what we may determine of this question.   

QVEST. XIX. What the Medium ought to be and of what kinde.  
_AFter we know which of the Senses doe need a Medium it followeth that wee make inquiry to find out what this Medium is & how it ought to be affected. And herein we must first obserue that the Medium ought alwayes to be present; least when all thinges else requisite for Sense bee fitly disposed, yet for fault of a Medium we bee made lesse able to performe this act of Sensation. VVherefore the Medium by whose interposition wee Perceiue is not Fire, for this is not alwayes 
Fire is not the Medium, but Ayre.  at hand but Ayre, for this doeth alwayes encompasse vs about, it is alwayes present, in it we leade our liues.  
Secondly, this medium should alwayes consist in a middle place betwixt the Organ 
2. Reason why the Ayre is the Medium  and the obiect, for hence it hath the name of a medium, yet so, that it touch both the Organ and the obiect, for otherwise it could not performe his office. But there is no Element which is continually contiguous with our Organs but the Ayre. Thirdly, it is necessary that this medium be voyde of all sensible qualities, for otherwise it would bring the obiect adulterated or defiled to the Organ and affect the Sense with a proper quality of 
The conditiō of a Medium.  his owne: VVherefore no compounded body is fit for this function, because all compounded things are sensible of themselues.  
If you obiect that there be no Elements exquisitely pure, and that therefore none of them can be a fit medium being themselues sensible. I grant indeede that no Element 
agreeth with no element except Ayre.  that is neere vs is perfectly pure, yet that Ayre that is neere vs wherein we liue doth exceed the rest in puritie, and is cleare from all qualities except Tactile, so that it may be accounted for a medium to all the rest of the Sense except the Touch.  
And is there then one medium seruing to all the Senses?  
Yea, for this is the conclusion which is inferred from the former premises, to wit, because this alone is most pure, and is alwayes present with vs, this alone is continually in the middest betweene the Organ and the obiect, this is alwayes close adioyning and touching both the Organ and the obiect. The Ayre therefore alone serueth for a medium to the Sight as it is Traculent; to the Hearing as it is sounding; to the Smell as it is capable of odours.  
But it may be obiected, that if the Ayre be the onely meane of the Senses, then would it follow that Fishes which liue in the water haue no Sense.  
I answer, that for their sight the water serueth for a medium, but other Senses they haue none( saith Placentinus) sauing their Tast and Touch, and these two haue neede of a medium, yet they haue these Senses also but imperfect; but if any man will yet more instantly vrge, that they haue the Sense of hearing, we grant they may heare but most imperfectly, and for such imperfect sensation the water serues in steed of a medium; but we speak here of perfect Sensation, where as the Sensation of Fishes is not simply perfect, but only in their owne kind, to wit, so farre foorth as they haue need of it.  
Lastly, this condition of the medium is required to the perfect performance of Sense, namely, that it bee not too spatious or ample, and also that it bee not too narrow or little. But what is the limit or extent of this medium, that is, how farre or wide it ought to extend 
The termination of the medium is diuers.  itself, is impossible to be determined, for this limit or extent must almost infinitely be varyed according to the magnitude, paruity and vehemency, as also according to the vigor & strength, or imbecillity and weakenesse of the Sense: For we doe not discerne Mountains, Cities and whole Countryes but a farre off, and lesser things wee do not see except they be neere at hand. So we doe not perfectly and without offence to the Organ heare a vehement sound, except there bee a great distance betwixt the Sence and the obiect; nor a low voyce except we be neare vnto it. And the same reason is of the rest.   

QVEST. XX. What an Obiect is.  
_AN obiect or that which is sensible, is a quality which mooueth the Organ, and is iudged of by the sensatiue facultie. And although that which is sensible bee 
An obiect is twofold.  two fold, proper or common, yet I conceiue this definition to be peculiar to the proper obiect; vnlesse haply it may agree to some of the common, & therfore we will seuerally define them both. Proper obiects, therefore as Aristotle witnesseth in the 63. text of his second booke de Anima, are those which cannot bee 
What a proper obiect is.  perceiued with any other sense, and about which the senses in discerning are not deceiued. And this definition by itself agreeth to the thing defined. For in that sometimes the Senses erre about their proper obiects, it hapneth not of themselues but from some accident; to wit, from the deprauation of such things as doe concurre to this sensation; as for example, when all things appeare yellow to those that are sick of the Iaundies, this hapneth because the Eye is tainted with the yellow colour of choller; and when aguish men do iudge sweet things to be bitter, it comes also from choller where with the Tong is affected, and that is 
The Sense is not deceiued about his obiect.  from euent & accident, not from the proper condition of the Sense. VVherfore seeing that when such impediments or lets are remooued and the obiect medium and Organ are naturally disposed, the sense cannot bee deceiued about his proper obiect, it is by good right thus absolutely defined.  
For the number of these obiects, they are as many as are the Senses, for colour is the obiect of Sight, Sound of Hearing, Odours of Smelling, Sapours of Tasting, and Tactile qualities 
How many proper obiects there be.  of Touching.  
Common obiects are those, which are perceiued, not of all the Sences as some would haue them, but of more sences then one. Which Aristotle teacheth very well in his booke de sensu et 
What a common obiect is  sensili where he affirmeth, that they are therefore called common obiects, because they are common though not to all the senses yet at least to the sight and touching, for by these two are all things perceiued, though not after the same manner as their proper obiects, to wit, by sending a species from them, or by attaining really to the Organ; but as it 
When the cōmon obiects moue the sense.  were certaine manners and conditions ioyned with the proper obiects in order vnto the motion of the sences: so that they doe not absolutely and primarily mooue and affect the sence, but onely together with their proper obiects. And because the second doe not worke without the first, therefore the common obiects are not perceiued by the externall sence without the proper. And these common obiects are fiue in number according to Aristotle, Motion, Rest, Figure, Magnitude, and Number.   

QVEST. XXI. Of the Organs of the Sences.  
_THE Organ or Instrument of the Sence as Aristotle witnesseth in the 122. text of his second booke de Anima, is that wherein the power and force of perceiuing 
What an Organ is.  is seated. And this Instrument is the eye in the sight, in the hearing the eares, in the smelling the nosthrils, in the taste the tongue; and for the touch, though all the skin yet especially that of the hand. But yet the vertue or faculty of sensation doth not reside in the whole Organ, but in some certaine similar particle, of which kinde is the Cristaline humor in the eye, the nerue of hearing dilated in the Eare, the mamillary processes in the Smell, the proper flesh or pulpe of the Tongue in the Taste, and in the Touch the true skin; the other parts of the Organs assist this particle, keeping it as it were in tune, or preseruing the harmony thereof from the offence and incursion of outward iniuries; for otherwise this sweete musicke, consent and proportion, would by the ouer-vehement force and change wrought by excessiue obiects be destroyed, which concordance being broken there can be no sensation.  
And thus much shall suffice to be spoken of the Sences in generall; we will entreate more at large of the particular Sences in their proper places, where also wee will note some things concerning their Organs which will be worthy your obseruation. And first of the Sight according to the order we before obserued in our Anatomicall History.   

QVEST. XXII. Whether sight be made by Emission or Reception, where the nature of the sight is accurately explaned.  
_OVR particular controuersies concerning the Sight shal begin with that notable question cōcerning the nature & maner of vision or sight, which is indeed rather Philosophicall then belonging to the art of Anatomy; notwithstanding because Galen hath elegantly ventilated it in his books de vsu partium & de Placitis Hip. et Plat. it shall not bee altogether impertinent to insert some collections in this place which yet wee must fetch out of the secret mysteries of Philosophy.  
There are three especiall or most notable opinions of the Philosophers concerning 
Three different opinions concerning the nature of sight  the manner of sight. Some thinke it is made onely by emission of something out of the eye: others only by Intromission or Reception of something into the eye: and the third sort contend, that it is made partly by Emission, partly by Reception or Intromission.  
Of the first sect there be diuers Authors but all of them disagreeing among themselues. The maysters of the opticks thinke that certaine beames do issue from the Eyes and reach vnto that which is to be seene: the figure of which beames they conceiue to bee pyramidall, 
The first opinion of emission The masters of the Optick Arts. Pythagoras.  the Cone or point whereof is in the eyes the Basis in the thing to bee seene. Pythagoras thought that sight was made by an emission of light out of the eye vnto the obiect; which light is reflected againe vnto the eye, euen as a hand-bal strucken against a wal doth rebound backe from the wall vnto the hand with an equall force.  
Empedocles, Hippocrates and Niceus thinke that sight is made not by Emission of light 
Empedocles.  onely, but of beames also. Plato thinkes that the eye sendeth not any beames foorth of it but onely light, and that it also reacheth not vnto the thing seene, but vnto a certaine or proportionable space of the Medium. Democritus, Lucipp. and the Arhenian Epicurus conceiued that certaine Images or formes did flow from al things through the Motes which be in the ay●r. Chrysippus and the whole Schoole of the Stoicks, thought that a certain spirit 
Democritus. Chrysippus.  spirit ascended from the heart vnto the Aple of the Eye, which spirit was extended as farre as the obiect. And these are the different conceits of the Authours of the first opinion whereby it is supposed that some thing is sent out of the Eye vnto the visible obiect, which opinion the Platonists confirme by these reasons. 
The Platonists Arguments.   
First, they say that witches doe falcinate or bewitch onely by beholding one with their Eyes, whence it is that the Poet sayth:  
Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.  
I wot not well what witching eye, My tender Lambs hath done to die.  
Secondly, they say that a Basiliske doth infect a man, onely by seeing him.  
Thirdly, that a menstruous woman doth infect a looking glasse as it were with some materiall corruption.  
Fourthly, that if a Wolfe behold a man he will become hoarse.  
Fifthly, that Tiberius Caesar is reported to haue astonished a souldior onely by casting his Eye vpon him.  
Sixthly, that Antipho( as Aristotle reports in the third booke of his Meteors) had his owne image euermore before his eyes.  
Seuenthly, if we did not see by emission how it comes to passe, that when wee would see more exactly wee draw the Aple of our Eye into as narrow a roome as wee can, Is it not to this end that the beames and spirits going out of our eyes may be more vnited.  
Eightly, if no thing were sent foorth of the Eye, how could the Eye be so weary with continuall looking.  
Ninthly, if vision were made by reception and not by emission, wee needed not to conuert our Eye directly to the visible obiect, for wee should see whether wee beheld the thing or no.  
Tenthly, we could not see the magnitude or figure of many things, for the Eye being so little a body cannot receiue such great obiects into itself.  
Eleuently, if it were by reception, then would it follow that the more we dilated, the Aple of our Eye, the better we should see, because our reception would be large.  
Twelftly, diuers or contrary species or formes would together and at the same time be receiued into the same Eye, because at once it doth behold two contrary obiects, as blacke and white.  
Lastly, the least thing should bee as easily perceiued as the greatest, the contrary whereof is manifest, for the sharpe point of a needle held vpward to the skie is not perceiued, because the beames being separated cannot meete in one, by reason of the paruity of the obiect. But if wee would see it, we must of necessity withdraw ourselves to the one side.  
To conclude, the Eyes are of a fiery nature, for they are both pyramidall and continually 
The opinion of the Peripateticks that sight is by reception onely Their arguments.  mooueable and neuer stiffe, but it is the property of fire, alwayes to send some thing from it, as light, beames or heate. These be the principall reasons of the Platonists, and of the maisters of the Opticks.  
Let vs now lend our eares vnto the fautors of the other sect. The prince of which company and opinion is Aristotle in his second booke de anima, and in his booke de sensu & sensili, and his steps haue all the Peripateticks followed as Alexander, Themistius, Auerrhoes. And these thinke that Sight is made onely by reception of some thing into the Eye, and not by emission of any thing forth. And that for these reasons.  
First of all, because that seeing Sense is a passion it ought only to bee made by reception. So Hearing is made onely by the reception of sounds. The Smell by reception of odours. The tast of sapours and the Touch of tactile qualities.  
Moreouer, they that haue more moyst and humide eyes do alwayes conceiue the obiects to be greater then they are, because the species are represented in a greater shape, by reason of the humiditie.  
Thirdly, an ouer vehement obiect doth hurt the Sense.  
Fourthly, we see in a looking glasse the image of the thing opposite vnto it, which we could not doe vnlesse the image of the thing were carryed from the obiect vnto the medium and so vnto the glasse.  
Againe Aristotle in the third section of his Problemes asks the question why the right eye should with more agility performe his function then the left, and yet the Eyes and Eares do both of them see and heare alike. He answers, that those Faculties are performed by doing, these by suffering, and that Both the Senses and their Organs do equally suffer.  
Sixthly, Oldmen discern better of such obiects as be a farr off then of those which bee neere and that not because of the light, or the beames or spirits sent forth of their Eyes, for they are very small, impure and darkeish; but because the species or forme comming from a remote obiect is made more slender and spirituall and more apt to be receiued into the Organ.  
Seuenthly, The smallest Starres in the cleare Winter may bee discerned and not in Summer, because their species or formes beeing receiued into a crasse and thicke Ayre are there terminated and multiplicated: but in Summer by reason of the raritie and thinnesse of the Ayre they cannot be receiued terminatiuely or definitely( for of necessity we must vse our Schoole terms to expresse these matters of Art) neither yet be sufficiently multiplyed that they should attaine vnto our sight.  
Galen in the seuenth Chapter de placitis, and in the tenth, de vsu partium, to the end that hee might reconcile the Platonists with the Peripatetickes determineth that Sight is 
Galens opiniō. Our opinion that sight is made by reception.  made partly by Emission partly by Reception. Truely for my owne part I reuerence Galen as a Master, and hee stands in no neede of my patronage or approbation hee is sufficient of himselfe, yet as he was often wont to say, vincat vtilitas, let profit preuaile; so wee say also, vincat veritas, let Truth preuayle. I had rather therefore thinke with Aristotle( whom I esteeme and respect as another Nature, but an Eloquent Nature) that vision is only made by Reception of species and that nothing is sent foorth of the Eye vnto the thing seene which may helpe the Sight, that is neither beames, nor light, nor spirit. The truth of this opinion may be strengthned with these reasons.  
First, the Organ of Sight is watery; now it is the property of water to receiue: that it 
The 1. reason That the Organ of sight is watry & why.  is watery may bee thus demonstrated. The Organ of Sight ought to bee Tralucent that there may bee a kinde of Analogie or proportion betweene the obiect, the meane, and Organ, that is, betwixt the Agent and Patient. But of shining and cleare bodyes some are rare and thinne, others more dense or thicke. The rare bodyes doe easily receiue the species or images but they doe not retaine and hold then; so the Ayre is full of species, but they presently vanish away and are not perceiued by reason of the rarity therof nay and I say, that such species cannot be discerned in a glasse except they be retayned by lead or some such like dense and thicke body. That therefore these formes of visible things may be held and retained in the Eye, there is required both a translucent and thicke body; and of this kind is water, for fire and ayre be cleare indeed but rare. The Organ therefore of Sight is watery, of which nature also are the principall parts of the Eye.  
I will now produce a very elegant argument of Alexanders, which is on this manner. 
The 2. reason which is Alexanders.  That which is sent forth of the Eye is either corporeall or incorporeall. But it is not incorporeall, because incorporeall things can neither issue foorth of the Eye, nor change their place, nor be in the Eye as in a place. It is not corporeall because then the Eye in one day would vtterly be destroyed, neither could it in a moment bee carryed as farre as the skie because that no corporeall substance is mooued in an instant.  
To these we adde, that when the winde doth blow it would bee dissipated, and so there would be a Penetration of bodyes which is against Nature. Now if you should thinke that the Ayre would giue place to that corporeal substance going out of the Eye, there could be no Sight at all, because there would bee no continuation of those beames with the Eye but some body would interpose itself betwixt them.  
As for those arguments which the Masters of the Optickes and Platonists oppose against 
The solution of the Platonists reasons.  this truth, we will thus in order answer and repell them.  
First we deny that fascination or bewitchiing is done onely by sight: except it be by magicke Art.  
For the second and third, we also deny that a Basilisk or menstruous woman do by their lookes infect any thing, but it is by reason of a certain corrupt and poysoned vapor which breatheth out of their mouth, eyes, nosthrils and from their whole body, which by continuation and succession doth infect thr Ayre.  
Fourthly, that which they obiect concerning VVolues, ie more worthy of derision then of confutation.  
As for Tiberius, he did not astonish his souldiour by any beames proceeding from his Eyes, but by his horrid and fearefull looke and countenance.  
Sixtly, as for Antiphon it is well knowne he was a foole, and therefore the fault of the occursation of his image or resemblance alwaies before him was in his braine not in his eies.  
Seauenthly, we doe angustate or strayten the apple of our eyes, least by the external light our internall spirits should be dissipated.  
Eightly, the Eye is wearied with looking, by reason of that force and endeuour which the faculty vseth to administer for the establishment or fixing of the eye.  
Ninthly, the Eye must bee conuerted or turned toward the visible obiect, because there can be no vision but by a right line.  
Tenthly, the magnitude of a thing is not receiued into the eye, but onely the species or forme of it, which because it is a thing immateriall, may be wholly receiued into the eye.  
To the eleauenth wee say, that the dilatation of the apple of the Eye doeth exolue or spend the spirits which are of absolute necessity for the reception of species.  
To the twelfth thus; both white and blacke colours may at one and the same time be receiued into the Eye because they are receiued onely by an intentionall and incorporeall species or forme.  
Lastly, the poynt of a needle is therefore not perceiued, because it is not a proportioned obiect to the Organ. By these it is plaine and manifest, euen to the dullest apprehension, that vision is performed not by emission or sending forth any thing from the Eye but onely by reception of the species into it.  
But the Nature of this reception is most obscure and folded vp in many secret difficulties; for the enodation whereof, that this secret may appeare euident, foure things are to 
Foure things to be obserued in this reception.  be discussed of vs. First what it is that is receiued. Secondly, where or into what part of the Eye this reception is made. Thirdly, when it is made. Fourthly, how it is made.  
As concerning the first question Democritus and Lucippus thinke that corporeall 
What it is that is receiued.  obiects are receiued. Epicurus supposeth onely the beames of the visible obiect are receiued. Alexander that the image onely of the thing is receiued, not as 
That onely the species are receiued.  it were in a subiect, but like as in a glasse. We agreeing with Aristotle, thinke that onely the species or images are receiued, and that the quality of these species is incorporeall, immateriall, indiuiduall, the Phylosophers call it Intentionall; which is produced in the medium or meane and Organ, and so multiplyed by a simple effluence or emanation as light proceedeth from the Sunne and a shadow from a body. This species, I say, is not itself seene; but it is that whereby we see, for onely the obiect is seene. 
The Eye is like a looking glasse.   
The Eye therefore may very well bee compared to a looking glasse receiuing into it the Images of such things as are obiected and set before it. For a glasse doth receiue all the species, not sending any thing forth: yet in this doth the Eye differ from a glasse, that there is no vertue of the Soule in a glasse which can referre and transmit the image receiued vnto any other thing as it were vnto a Iudge.  
But some will haply demand here, if the species or image receiued be immateriall how can it affect the sight by seuering or gathering together of the spirits?  
I answer, that the Eye is not affected by the species, but by the colour, according as it is more or lesse splendent or enlightned, for all enlightned things do dissipate, by reason that our ayry and splendent spirits do vanish into that light which is like vnto them: So white things, because they haue much light doe dissipate the spirits, but blacke doe gather them because they are contrary to the spirits. So when night comes the heate is recalled from without inward, and as Galen teacheth in his Commentary vpon the 15. Aphorisme of the first section, we sleepe longer in winter because the nights are then the longest.  
VVherefore lucide and white obiects doe hurt the Sight, yea sometimes they make a man blinde, because the visiue spirits being drawne out, and as it were intised by that which is like vnto them, doe breake foorth of the Eye with so great a violence and force that by such irruption, either the substance of the Cristalline humour or the coate thereof or something else in the Eye( which hath many tender parts) is either broken, or at least suffers some alteration.  
It will be againe obiected, if the reception of the species be immateriall, why should the Eye be wearyed with continuall seeing? why do not prominent and goggle Eyes see better then other, because they are more apt for reception.  
I answer, that the Eye is wearyed, not by the impression of species, but by the force and endeauours which the facultie vseth to doe his worke, which is especially to firme the Eye or hold it stedfast and to containe the spirits; but those that are goggle eyed haue not so good sight, because their animall spirits are dissipated, which are especially necessary vnto the Sense of Seeing, that being ioyned with externall light they might transmitte the species vnto the interiour sense.  
The second proposition was concerning the place of this reception, to wit, into what part of the eye the species be receyued. And heere it will not bee in vaine to examine 
Of the place of this reception.  the different opinions of Physitians and Philosophers. Some thinke that they are receiued into the substance of the Braine, grownding vpon the doctrine of Galen, who teacheth that all sense is from the Brain. Aristotle saith, they are receyued into the Pupilla or Apple of the Eye, vnderstanding by the Apple the Cristalline humor. Galen saith sometime into the Cristalline, sometime into the Cobweb-coate, which he saith is smoother 
Aristotle. Galen.  and more pollished then any Looking-glasse.  
Auicen sayes, they are receiued in the meeting of the Opticke Nerues, and hence it is( saith he) that the obiect appeareth single, because the visible formes are vnited in that 
Auicen.  coition or coniunction of the Optickes. We determine that they are receiued into the Cristaline, because it is the principall and primary Organ of Sight, placed in the very center of the eye, and differing from all the other parts in substance, figure and qualities. But if you would reconcile all these, then say, that the reception is made in the Cristalline, the refraction in the coates, the perfection in the coition or meeting of the Optickes, the perception and iudging in the Braine.  
Concerning the time of this reception which was the third question; all do agree in 
Of the time of reception.  one, that vision is made together with the perception of the species; but this perception is made in an instant, for the heauen is seene all at once, because the light which produceth or bringeth foorth these visible species doth diffuse itself, and transporting them together through the aire placeth them in the extreme superficies thereof that is next of all to the eye-lid, so that when the lid opens presently the species is offered to the pupilla or Apple, and in a moment of time is ioyned therewith.  
Lastly, the manner of vision is thus, It is made by the reception of sensible species not 
Of the maner of reception.  of bodies, which species although they seeme to haue some tast of the condition of their owne matter, notwithstanding they are not carried materially and as bodies are carried, but like the shapes or Images of bodyes, brought from the aspectible obiect vnto the pupilla through the aire as a meane by right lines vnto an acute angle. Hee that desires to heare more of the manner of vision, let him reade Alexander and Simon Simonius, a man both for Physicke and Philosophy very excellent, Commenting vpon Aristotle his booke De sensu & sensili.   

QVEST. XXIII. Whether any thing within the Eye may be seene, and whether it may be seene by it owne proper forme or by another, where also are explained some things concerning the nature of Suffusion and of visions or Apparitions.  
_HAuing resolued that ancient question concerning the manner of Vision, we will proceed to the resolution of two other doubts, that so there may 
Whither aniething within the eye may be seene.  be nothing wanting that can be desired to the perfect nature of this sense of sight. The first therefore is whether any thing which is within the Eye may bee seene: then whither that which is seene, is seene by his proper Species or by another.  
That nothing within the Eye is visible may bee thus demonstrated. Aristotle in his second Booke De anima writeth, Sensile positum supra sensorium sensationem non facere, 
The 1. reason  A Sensible Obiect placed aboue the sensorium or organe doeth not perfourme anie Sensation.  
Secondlie, if anie thing should bee seene within the Eye, then woulde it follow that the Obiect and the instrument receyuing the Obiect should bee the same.  
Thirdlie, the Philosopher teacheth, that there be three things requisite and necessarie vnto the Sense of Sight, the Obiest, the Medium or Meane and the Instrument.  
Lastly, Vision is made by the reception of such species as are produced and multiplyed in the aire; but if any thing within the eye should bee seene, the sight would not bee made by the species, but by a reall obiect.  
To these we will adde that it would also follow that the grapy membrane which is diuersly coloured would be seene, but that is not seen: wherefore we conclude that nothing within the eie can be seen.  
Now on the contrary, that something within the eye may be seene, is proued by Authority 
That something within the eie may be seen.  and Experience. First the authority of Aristotle in the second Chapter of his booke de Sensu & Sensili and in the fourth of his Meteors seemeth thus to perswade vs; for( saith he) when the eie is rowled or moued in the dark somthing may be seen within the eie. This Authority is also backed and confirmed by Experience; for in visions or phantisines 
Authority. Experience.  which doe vsually goe before Suffusions, there do appeare certaine figures, magnitudes, positions and diuers colours, all which are resident in the eie and not in the ayre; for then 
Of visions or Images.  they would bee equally perceiued of all men, and when a criticall euacuation of blood by the nose is ready to follow, there are seene afore the eies certain red shadowes which they call marmarygae. But that these things may appeare more plaine and euident, it will bee behoosefull to note a few things concerning the Nature of Visions or Imaginations. 
2. kinds of visions.   
Concerning such visions, some are( according to Galen in his 4. booke de locis affectis) of idle headed men, by reason of the wandring and vncertaine motion of the images, and so franticke men doe hunt after flies, catch at a flocke or feather, pickle at strawes and are 
Visions by the falt of the braine.  terrified, yea start and fly from vaine and false images. These visions are not diseases of the eye, but they are symptomes of the brayne and of the imagination.  
There are also other Visions and representations which are proper to the eyes 
Visions proper to the eies  and the externall Sensitiue faculty; when false imaginations doe obtrude and offer themselues to the eye. For as Auicen writeth, there may appeare some small bodies in the ayre and diuers mingled colours which indeede are nothing. This Vision is tearmed by the Arabians Imagination. But Galen defines it to be an external apparition hapning by reason of a darke or cloudy vapor which is betwixt the Christaline and the horny coat. 
What vision is.  It is a symptome or signe of a depraued sight, because certaine outward coloured things doe appeare which indeede are not, the eye iudging that to bee without which indeede is within it.  
The cause of this Symptome is acknowledged of all to bee that shaddowe or cloudy 
The cause of such apparitions.  and darke vapour which doth interpose itself betweene the horny coate and the chrystaline humour: I called it darke or shaddowy, that is, imperuious, as the Barbarians say, they meane not bright or translucent. For if that body which is betweene the horny coat and the chrystaline were translucent, these visions would not runne before the Sight, but the species of visible things that are pure and not mixed, would haue been carried to the chrystaline.  
The place of this small bodie or vapour is the whole space from the horny membrane 
The place of this vapour.  vnto the chrystaline: for if this vapour had beene contayned betwixt the Chrystaline and the coition or meeting of the Opticke nerues, it would not haue raised any such representation, in regarde that the whole reception of the species is made in the christaline alone. But if peraduenture this vapor be mingled with the glassie humor which doth hinder the ariuall of the internall light, it would either diminish and weaken this action of Seeing, or else vtterly extinguish it.  
It is manifest therefore, that in the beginnings of suffusions, and in criticall euacuations of blood by the Nose, in the peripneumonia or inflammation of the Lungs, in the vertigo or giddinesse, in the loathing of meate or vomiting; there are gnats and flies & certaine red shadows called marmarygae before the Eyes; all which are not in the externall Ayre, for then they should be seene of all men, but are contained within the Eye. We will 
What we hold.  therfore thus determine the propounded question. That some thing within the eye may be seene, because the obiect is present, that is to say, an interposed body, a medium translucide which is the waterish humour and the principall Organ of Sight which is the Cristalline humour. Yet we affirme that this vision is not perfect. The reasons which are alledged for the contrary opinion and the authorities of Aristotle are to bee vnderstood of perfect vision.  
But there is another more obscure question, yet to be resolued, namely, whether that 
Question.  which is within the Eye when it seemeth to bee in the outward Ayre be seene by a proper species of it owne or by a strange species.  
I answer, that it is by a strange species; for the vapour which is contained betwixt the horny membrane and Cristalline, is not perceiued in the shape and species of a vapour, but 
Solution.  vnder another shape conteined in the aire; yet this strange species, when it is receyued into the eye, it followes the Nature, colour, figure and magnitude of that vapor which is already existent in the eye, so if the internall vapor be greenish or yellow it represents the species of the externall obiects( as of a wall or booke) yellow and greenish. If the vapour be small and diffused, there do appeare as it were flying Gnats: if it be stretched out in length haires do appeare.  
Now if that which is in the Eye should be seene by a proper species of it owne, the inner 
Why that which is within doth apear  Grapie coate which is diuers coloured would be seene. Finally, the last knot which remaineth to be vntied is this, why that which is within the eye seemeth to bee out of it? I answere, that the Cristaline humour being accustomed to the vision of external things 
Solution  doth iudge whatsoeuer is within to be without.   

QVEST. XXIIII. Whether the Organ of Sight be Fiery or Watery.  
_COncerning the Nature of the Eyes the Platonists & Peripatetiks are at great strife. Plato in Timaeo, because he is perswaded that vision is performed by 
Plato saith it is fierie.  emission of light from the eyes, doth therefore thinke that the eie is of a fierie Nature. The eies( saith he) do participate of that fire which dooth not burn, but by illumination doth cheerfully drawe the day out of the Dungeon of the night. Now Fire according to the Platonists is threefold. First, that which doth both shine and burne: secondly, that which shineth but burneth not. Thirdly, that which burneth but doth not shine. And this opinion of Plato Galen seemeth to follow in his 10. Booke De vsu partium, and in the seuenth De Placitis Hippo. & Platonis. For he calleth the eye a bright organ and the Sun-like part of the creature.  
The Reasons of the Platonists be these. First, the eyes of some creatures do shine & glitter in the night, as of Night-Owles and of Cats. Againe, some in vehement fittes of 
The Platonists reasons.  anger haue their eyes as it were burning and enflamed. Moreouer, when the eie is shot at one side, we see a kinde of fierie glaunce like Lightning, and the Eye being rubbed in the darke doth yeelde a bright glimpse vnder the finger. Aristotle affirmeth, that Antiphon had his owne shape and Image continually before his eies. And Pliny reports many things of Tiberius Caesar in the 11. booke of his Naturall Historie. Galen also in the seuenth Booke De Placitis Hippocratis & Platonis maketh mention how it hapned vnto one many nights before he vtterly lost his Sight, that he perceiued a great quantity of light to yssue foorth of his eyes. Furthermore that the eyes be fiery may be thus demonstrated, because they are verie agile, plyable and mooueable: now facility of motion is from heate. They are also translucid of a pyramidall Figure and full of spirits, because they performe their functions in a moment. To these we adde, that to the most noble sensoriū or organ is due the noblest element, which is the fire. Againe, the senses are of the same Nature with the things which are subiected to them: but colours are of a fierie Nature, for so Plato defines colour to be a flame yssuing from the bodie coloured.  
Lastly, the eyes neuer grow stiffe as do other parts of the bodie, whence it followeth that they are of a fierie nature. On the contrarie part, Aristotle and all the Peripatetiks do 
The opinion of Aristotle that the eie is watery.  contend that the eye is waterie, but he that desires more satisfaction heerein may reade those things which the same Aristotle writ against the Platonists in his Booke De Sensu & Sensili.  
We will subscribe rather to this latter opinion, and the same doth Diuine Hippocrates affirme in his Booke de locis in homine, The Sight is nourished by the humiditie of the Braine. 
The authority of Hippocrates. Democritus. Reasons.  Of the same minde also was Democritus as Aristotle reports in his Booke of Sense. Las● Anatomie and the whole composition of the eies doth conuince this. For the principall parte of the eye which first of all causeth vision is all ycy, which part being drowned in the glassy humor, hath in the forepart a watery humor so disposed for a defence. And if the eye be hurt or wounded, whatsoeuer doth flowe from it is watery.  
Some haue laboured to reconcile Plato with Aristotle after this manner: There be two 
Carpentarius reconciling Aristotle & Plato is reprooued.  things to be considered in the eyes which concurre to this act of vision: first a most clear Visiue spirit flowing from the Braine through the Optick Nerues, and secondlie the Cristalline humor. Now according to this distinction they say, that in regard of the spirits & the internall light, as also of the enlightned obiect the eye is fierie, but in regarde of the Cristalline it is watery. But this distinction seemeth not to be altogether tollerable, for so euery organ should be fiery, because the organes of all Senses haue their animall spirites of the same Nature, tenuity and brightnesse. For there are not diuers kindes of the Animall spirits; that some should be appointed to the sight, others to Hearing: I therefore hold it better to affirme simply according to Aristotle and indeed the truth itself, that the Organ of sight is watery.  
Concerning those reasons which are produced in defence of the Platonistes, 
The reasons of the Platoinst● answered  they be of small moment; for the eyes doe shine indeede, and oftentimes a bright splendour doth proceed from them, but not by reason of the fire, but because of the tralucencie, playnnes and smoothnes of the chrystaline and the coates; for whatsoeuer things are 
Why the eye doth shine.  smooth and neate do shine in the dark, as horne. Againe, it hapneth because the externall light receiued of the chrystaline doth not presently vanish. They are mouable & for this cause called by the Poet faciles, yet this is not from the fire but from an aboundant and slipry humidity, from the spirits and the sixe strong muscles, by which it is an easie matter for a small member to be moued.  
They are called spirituall by reason of their action, for they perfourme their function 
Why they are called spirituall.  in an instant, and because they receiue incorporeall and immateriall species or formes produced & brought thorough the ayre and continually offering themselues to the Pupilla or Apple. They are not stiffe, yet this is not because they are firy, but as Aristotle teacheth in his Problemes, because they are inuironed with aboundance of fat; which fat though it 
Why not stiffe  haue for his efficient cause a defect or weakenesse of heate; yet not withstanding by his reflexion it doth augment the heate, and by his sliminesse doth hinder the ingresse of the ayre which beateth vpon them. To these wee ioyne the plenty of animall spirits, and the perpetuall motions of the eyes.   

QVEST. XXV. Wherefore the Eyes be diuersly coloured.  
_ARistotle in the second book de Anima saith, 〈◇〉 omne 〈◇〉. Euery Organ must be deuoyde of any quality, least all things should sauour of that same quality which is in the Organ: but the Eyes are the Organs of Sight, they therefore ought not to bee coloured, for if they were, all things would appeare to bee of the same colour; for all things appeare red to those that labour of an inflamation of the Eye, or haue the blood collected in them by a blowe, or stripe, or otherwise.  
In like manner, those that are troubled with the Iaundise, because their Eyes are coloured with yellow choller, doe see all things as if they were yellow. On the other side, that the Eyes are coloured, euen our owne Sense doth teach vs; for some men are Walleyed, some mens eyes blacke, some mens skie-coloured and others greenish, and so in the rest. We answere according to Aristotle, that the name of Colour is sometimes 
A double acceptation of colours.  vsed more largely, sometimes more strictly. In this large signification all things which may be seene are sayed to be coloured. So translucent things though that cannot limit or determine the sight yet are they coloured. Aristotle in his booke of colours cals the ayre white and the fire red. But there is another acception of colours more strict whereby it is defined thus. A colour is the extremity of a terminated pellucide body.  
In the first signification the whole eye is coloured, all his partes are coloured, because they are aspectible and may bee seene, but in the latter signification onely the coniunctiue 
How the eie may be said to be coloured.  and grapy coat are truly coloured, for the Adnata is white, the grapy is diuersly coloured, blacke, blew and grasse-greene, to recollect the spirites that were before dissipated or dispersed, that it might breake the splendor of the externallight, and that the chrystaline humor might be as it were refreshed with that colour as with a Looking-glasse. But the principall part of Vision which receiueth the species of visible thinges and is changed by the colours is not at all coloured but bright and lucide only. Now light and perspicuity or natures common to all visible species which helpe the reception of these species. Aristotle hath obserued in lib. 5. chap. 1. de generat. Animal. which also Pliny repeateth in lib. 2. cap. ●7. of his Natural histories, that onely the eyes of a man are of manifold & diuers colours: in other creatures the eies are all alike according to their kind: so the eies of all Oxen are blacke, the eyes of Sheepe watery, of other creatures redde, excepting a Horses which are sometime wall eyed, but the eye of a man is diuersly coloured.  
Of the colours of the eye some be extreame some of a middle nature. The extreame colours are according to Aristotle, Galen, and Auicen two, namely the whitish or wall coloure 
The differences of the colours of the eye.  and the black. This wall-colour is somewhat whitish, and Aristotle in his 5. book de gener. Animal. and Galen cap. 27. Artis paruae seeme to oppose this wall-colour to blacke.  
This Caesius or wall-coloured the Grecians call 〈◇〉 from a Night-Owle which is called 〈◇〉, whose eyes shine with a greenish whitenesse. Some do confound 〈◇〉, and yet they are to be distinguished, for though either colour do somewhat tend to greene, yet this 〈◇〉 or wal-coloured doth approch neerer to white, & 〈◇〉 or tawny vnto Red. Aristotle in his Phisiognomy of the eyes affirmeth this wall-colour in the eie to be a signe of a fearfull man but this Tawny colour of a bold and stout courage; therefore the Eyes of Lyons and Eagles are properly said to be 〈◇〉 or Tawny, but the eyes of old men and children to be wall coloured. Either colour doth shine, but that brightnesse which is in wall eyes is more white like that which is in the scales of Fishes, in tawny eies the splendor is fierie as it is in burning coales. The intermediate or mixt colours of the eies are diuers, according to the diuers mixture of the extreames.  
Concerning the causes of this varietie of colors there are diuers opinions according 
The cause of the variety of colours. Empedocles.  to the diuersity of men. Empedocles composed the eie of Fire and water, wherefore hee supposed that the wall-colour proceeded from the predominance of the fire, & the blacke from the aboundance of water.  
Aristotle in his fift Booke Degeneratione animalium referres the cause of these Colours vnto the plentie or scarsity of humors which he doth illustrate by this example of Aire and water. For( saith he) if we looke into a deepe water or into thick aire, they wil both seeme 
Aristotle.  blacke and obscure; but if either of them be rare and thin the colour will appeare Tawnie and splendent. The blacknesse therefore of the eye is from the plentie and aboundance of humors, the wall eie is from the paucitie and scarsenesse.  
Auerrhoes thinkes that the whitenesse of the eye proceedes from coldnesse, because 
Auerrhoes.  for the most part all white things are cold, as the Braine, the Fat, the Marrow, the Bones, the Membranes; and blacknesse from heate.  
Galen in the 27 chapter Artis paruae referres the cause of colours vnto the plenty, splendor 
Galens opiniō  and situation of the Cristalline and watry humors. For( saith he) a wall eie commeth by reason of the plenty or splendor of the Cristalline, or because of the prominent & bunching situation, and also the paucity and purity of the thin and waterie humor. But a blacke eye comes either from the scarsitie of the Cristalline, or from the ouer-deepe situation of it, or because it is not exquisitely splendid and cleare, or because the waterie humor is too aboundant, and yet not altogether pure. Thus farre Galen.  
Auicen referres the cause of the variety of these colours vnto the Grapie coate, which as 
Auicens opinion.  it is diuersly coloured itself so it doth produce diuers colours in the eie, a black coat causeth blacke colour, as a blewish coate a colour of the same kinde, and his opinion dooth Vesalius follow.  
But to the end that we may reconcile the different opinions of so graue Authours wee do acknowledge three causes of this variety, the Humors, the Coats and the Spirits. The Humors of the Eye are three: first the watery, secondly the Cristalline, thirdly the Glassy. This last because it cannot be perceiued and is placed in the hindmost part of the eie doth 
The first cause referred to the humours.  conferre nothing or verie little vnto the diuersitie of colours: but this vertue of alteration and changing the colour of the eye dependeth most vppon the watery and Glassy or Cristal humor. In these humors also three things are to be considred, their Substance, Quantity & Situation. By the name of Substance I vnderstand the purity or impurity, the splendor, darknesse, teuuity and density. The Quantity doth note the plentie or scarsity of the 
In humors 3 things to bee obserued.  humour. The Site is either more hollow and profound or more prominent and bearing out.  
There be therefore three causes in respect of the Cristalline, of a wally and white colour in the eie. First, the plenty of the Cristalline, secondly the purity and splendor thereof and his prominent Situation, for so the Cristalline humor by his own & proper brightnesse illuminateth the watery humor and the whole eie. By reason of the waterie humour there bee two causes of this wallinesse, the splendor and the paucity or scarsity of it, for a small and pure watery humor doth lesse hinder the fulgor or brightnesse of the cristalline Humour.  
The causes of blacknesse are quite contrary, as in the behalfe of the Cristaline the paucitie or smalnesse of it, his impurity and deep situation; and in respect of the watery the impurity 
The cause of blacknesse.  and plenty is the cause thereof. But haply that which Aristotle writeth in the 14 Probleme and the 14. Section may seeme to contradict our assertion, where hee saith the Ethyopians haue blacke eies, and those that inhabit the North white, but in the Ethyopians 
Obiection.  there is lesse plenty of the watery humour, by reason of that ambient Ayre exicating or drying vp all things, in those of the North it is more aboundant.  
I answer, that the Eyes of the Ethiopians be blacke, by reason of the paucity of their Visiue spirits( for they are resolued and dissipated by the heate) whereby it happens that 
Solution.  the light of the spirits failing, the Eye appeares as it were darke or ouershadowed. But the Northerne people doe abound with many spirits. The intermediate colours doe depend vpon intermediate causes.  
The second cause of the diuersitie of colours in the Eye may be referred to the Coate called 〈◇〉, that is, vueam or the Grapy coate, for this onely because it is diuersly coloured, 
The second cause of the diuersity of colours.  causeth a variegated or diuers coloured Eye. So in the circle of the Eye which they call the Iris or Rainebow, diuers colours doe appeare because in that part the Grapy coate is diuers coloured.  
Lastly, we thinke that the Visiue spirits doe also conferre something to the varietie of these colours, for thin, pure, cleare and copious spirits cause whitenesse, but crasse, impure, 
The 3. cause.  foggy, and few are the cause of blackenes. Now that there be spirits in the Eye may be manifest by these arguments. First, because while the creature is a liue, the Eye seems to be exceedingly stretched, neither is any part thereof loose and corrugated, and the one of thē being shut the pupilla or Aple of the other is presently dilated, to wit, because the spirits passe more plentifully through the Netlike-coat into the Grapy. Lastly, because sometimes the Eyes appeare languide and obscure, sometime chearefull and splendide or bright.   

QVEST. XXVI. Of the Muscles of the Eyes and their motion.  
_SEeing the Eyes be as scoutwatches, night and day watching for our good it is of necessity that they ought readily to bee mooued euery way, that with facility they might be conuerted whither soeuer we would; and to this motion a Nerue of the second coniugation and six Muscles do serue. The first whereof lifts vp, the second doth depresse, the 3. doeth draw forward, the fourth draweth backeward, and two doe leade the Eye about. By all these performing their functions together and stretching their Fibers, is the Eye stayed and fixed. For it is not( as Galen would haue it, and almost all Anatomists following his steps) established or fixed by a seuenth Muscle compassing the Opticke Nerue, because this Muscle is onely found in foure-footed beasts which looke prone toward the earth lest their Eyes should fall out of their Orbes: which Muscle in a man is neuer to be found. This motion whereby the Eye is thus firmed, the Physitians call it Tonicum or a set Motion, and it is twofold, the one 〈◇〉 or according to Nature when the Fibres of all the Muscles are equally intended or stretched, so that the Muscles seeme then to be at rest; the other 〈◇〉, beside Nature when the Eyes remain fixt & immouable whether we wil or no. Which position Hippocraetes in his book de victus ratione in morbis acutis cals 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 that is, a Congelation and Immobility or Setting and fixing of the Eye. This fixednes or immobility hapneth when the facultie of the Muscles which moue the Eye is resolued, weakned or wholly extinguished, or because these muscles are al equally gathered or contracted into their heads. This posture of the Eye they call 〈◇〉, that is, a ballanced or equall fixing of the Eye, which affect or disease is contrary to that they call 〈◇〉, where in the eyes haue a wandring & vnconstant staring, as a horse looks that is full fed; whence also the disease tooke his name.  
There are therfore only sixe Muscles of the eie not seuen, and of these, foure haue the gouernmēt of the right motions, two do obliquely lead the eye about. And thus may certain differing places in Galen be reconciled, for in his tenth booke de vsu partium, hee saith, that there are onely foure motions of the Eyes; but in the fourth de locis affectis, he determines that there be sixe.  
Concerning the originall of these Muscles, Anatomists are not al of one minde. Some of them suppose that they spring from the hard meninx within the scull, but wee are of opinion that the foure right Muscles together with that oblique whose Tendons is compassed about with the pully, doe arise from that inside of the Orbe which is made by a portiō of the wedge bone; & this we are taught, saith my Author, both by experience & by Autopsie or ocular inspection. But from the membrane they neither ought nor can haue their originall. They ought not because a membrane of an exquisite sense doth compasse the Optick nerue; and therefore the muscles in their motions would compresse this nerue, and so offer violence to the Sight; they could not, because they should not haue adhaered to a firme basis or foundation.   

QVEST. XXVII. Two obscure and intricate questions concerning the motion of the Eyes are resolued.  
_WE will now proceede to discusse a very hard probleme concerning the motion of the Eyes, the enodation of which knots( for ought I know) hath 
First question  not as yet beene performed of any man. And it is this: wherefore the eyes considering they haue seuerall distinct muscles by themselues, are yet 
Why the Eies are moued together with the same motion.  not moued with diuers motions, but are guided together and at the same time with one and the same motion. Neither can it be that the right eye should be moued and the left stand still; neither can the right be lift vp and the left depressed, which identitie of motion is not to bee found in any other part of the body. For I haue free liberty at the same moment to mooue my right hand vpward and my left downward. Aristotle propounds this question in his Problemes, which thus hee endeauoureth to resolue. 
The Solution of Aristotle.  Though, saith he, the eyes be double, yet there is but one beginning of their motion and the same originall, to wit, in the Coition or meeting of the Optick nerues. Hee therefore referres the cause vnto that Coition.  
Auicen the Prince of the Arabians seemeth to bee of the same minde and Galen in his bookes of the vse of parts, where he thinketh the Opticks doe therefore meete in one, that one Obiect should not appeare double. These things haue some shew of probability, but they doe not giue vs full satisfaction: For the meeting of the Opticks doth conferre nothing to the motion of the eyes: the Opticke nerue doth onely see and carie the visiue spirits vnto the Christialine, neither is it inserted into the muscles of the eye.  
It is onely the second coniugation which mooues the eies; in that oppilation or stopping 
Arist. answere disallowed our reasons.  of the opticke nerue and in the disease which the Arabians call Gutta serena the action of Sight doeth wholly perish and yet the motion of the eies is not a whit hindred; the meeting therefore of the optick nerues doth nothing further the motion of the eyes. Some haue obserued that in many men who all their life long neuer complayned of their Sight, the Opticke nerues were so framed, that they were continually seperated and did neuer meete together. It is therefore very fond and absurd to thinke that both the eyes are moued with the same motion, because there is one onely beginning of motion in the meeting of the Opticks; seeing neither that Coition nor yet the Opticks themselues doe any whit further the motion, but onely the Sense of the Eyes.  
We doe acknowledge a double cause of this motion, the Finall and Instrumentall. The Finall cause is the perfection of the Sense. And this is the perfection of the Sense, that 
The true resolution of the question.  the Obiect appeare euen such as it is; but if the Eyes were moued with diuers motions, that one might be caried downeward the other vpward, surely euery Obiect though in it owne nature one and the same, yet would continually appeare double; and so the most noble Sense would be deceiued and the action of Sight would bee imperfect. If this seeme harsh to be beleeued you may thus make triall of it. If you either lift vp the one eye, or depresse it with your finger you shall see all Obiects double, and discerne the one to be higher and the other lower, because the one eye is moued vpward the other downward. But if you shut either of them, this double apparition of the Obiect will vanish, although you presse that eye with your finger: Also if you mooue your eye to the right hand or to the left, the Obiect will not appeare double, because the Aples of the eyes remaine both in one line.  
But wherefore vpon the diuers motion of the eyes the Obiects are doubled, is a thing 
Question. Solution.  worthy to be vnderstoode. Galen in the thirteenth Chapter of his 10. booke de vsu partium writeth, that the Diameters of visible Cones or turbinated formes must be placed in one and the same plaine; least that which is but one should appeare double. But if one of the eyes be moued downward, the Aples of them both will not be in the same plaine and the same superficies; and so the Obiect would appeare double. For then because the beame of the one eye doth not equally reach the Obiect, as neither doth the beame of the other, that which the Sense perceiueth twise, it perceiueth as if it were double or two seuerall things; which also happeneth in the Sense of Touching, for if one finger be so folded with the other, that it be layed aboue it, and therewith a man touch a stone, the Touch will iudge that to bee double which is but one. In the Palsie or the conuulsion of the muscles of the eye, it hapneth that the Obiects present themselues in a double forme, because the eyes depart from the same superficies: so also the Opticks being either loosened or conuelled, the pupilla or Aple doth not reteine his equality, whence it commeth to passe that all things appeare double, and so sometimes a drunken man will thinke all thinges that he seeth double. In like manner, some that are Strabones, that is Squinteyed, doe see things double, because one of the Pupillaes is either raised vp or depressed. But if the eyes be in the same plaine, though they be two, yet the visible thing is presented simple before them, because the same Species and the same magnitude at the same time is receiued of both the eyes, and are together offered to the Common Sense, which doth not discerne any thing but that which is present.  
We conclude therefore, that first in respect of the finall cause,( which as wee haue often 
The conclusion.  repeated out of Aristotle, is the first and chiefe cause in the works of Nature) it is that the two eyes bee together and at once mooued. I say, this is because it doth much tend to the perfection of the Sense. And Nature doth continually fit her Instruments as they may best further the finall cause, which whither you call the vse of the necessity it is no great matter. And therefore she hath so disposed the nerues of the second coniugation which doe carie the commaund of motion and the animall spirit into the muscles, which are therefore termed Porters and Cadgers, that in their beginning they are continuall, making as it were on chord, whence it is that the right cannot be moued but the other will follow his motion. And this is a new and a most elegant obseruation.  
The other question we shall discouer out of Cassius, to wit, wherefore the disease of 
The second question why the disease of the one eye onely doth more prouoke vs. Solution.  one eye doth more vexe vs then if both were diseased? Whether it is because when the one eye is sound and according to Nature and therefore is diuersly moued, the sore eye is also mooued therewith? Hence it is that the mutuall and equall motion doth exasperate the payned eye. For when a member is affected it would haue rest. But if both the eyes be effected together, the paine becomes more tollerable, for they both rest together, and from that rest they sooner attaine vnto their former naturall disposition.   

QVEST. XXVIII. Of the Humours of the Eyes, whether they be animated parts.  
_THe Humours of the Eye are three, the Cristalline, the VVaterie, and the Glassie. Of these the Cristalline is the principall Organ of Sight, as Galen 
The Cristalline is the principall Organ of Sight.  teacheth in the 2. booke of his Methode, in his 8. booke de Instrum. Odoratus, the 8. and 10. de vsu partium, and the first de Symptom. causis. And these arguments amongst the rest doe euince it. That this Humour is the most cleare and shining of all the rest; that it is seated in the middle of the Eye; that it alone receiueth the Species and Images of things; that it onely is altered by colours; and that in it is made the concourse and meeting both of the Externall & Internall light. And therefore when the beating of both the lights vpon the Cristalline is hindered by suffusions and obstruction of the Opticks, the Action of Seeing doth quite perish as if a Candle should be exstinguished or put out.  
Now concerning this Cristalline humour, there may three questions be demaunded. First, whether it be a part. Secondly, whether it bee a Similar or Organicall part. Lastly, whether it perfourme the Action of Seeing by his temperature or by his conformation.  
That it is an animated and liuing part of the body may be confirmed by authority and also by reasons. For authority we haue Galen in the 6. Chapter of the first booke of his 
That the Cristalline is a part. Authority.  Methode, and also in the first booke de Sympe. causis, accounting the Christalline among the parts. Reason also perswadeth vs no lesse: for it doth primarily & principally performe the Action of Seeing; and Actions are not but of parts only. Againe, it is nourished and liueth and is generated in the wombe together with the other partes. It hath moreouer his proper circumscription: and lastly, it is a body adhaering to the whole, and ioyned in the Societie of a common life, framed also and made for the vse & office of the whole. 
Whether it be a Similar part.   
But whether it bee a Similar or Organicall part, it is greatly controuerted. Some doe contend that it is not a Similart part, because, say they, it is neither bone, nor gristle, nor ligament, nor membrane, nor yet any of those tenne which Galen describeth in his booke de Inaequali intemp. de Elementis & de Temp.  
Contrariwise it is prooued to bee a Similar part in the sixth chapter of the 1. booke of his Methode, for those, sayth he, are called Similar parts which may be cut and diuided into parts like themselues, as the Cristalline and the glassy humours in the eye. And in another place he sayth. That in euery perfect Organ that is a Similar part which is the beginning and cause of the action; as in the eye is the crystalline; and that it is an Organicall part the situation thereof in the middle of the other humour, his figure like a Lentile or Fitch, and the magnitude of it doe demonstrate which three are of the essence of an Organ.  
I answer, that a Similar & Organicall part are not opposed one to another. It is no matter therefore whether you call this Cristalline a Similar or an Organicall part. For it is Similar, both by reason of his substance and temperament, because it is wholly watry, pellucide or bright and like itself in all parts. It is also Organicall by reason of the figure, whereupon Galen in first booke de Symptomatum causis, determines that some of the affects of the Cristalline be Similar, as his dry distemper which maketh the disease called Glaucoma, & the moyst which makes that affect which they call 〈◇〉: other affects are Organicall, as when it is mooued from the naturall situation, vpward downeward, to the sides, inward & outward; add hereto the greatnesse, littlenesse, and the solution of continuitie. And whereas Galen doth make mention only of ten Similar parts he meaneth onely Common parts, which are found almost through the whole body: for the marrow of the braine and of the backe, and the humours of the Eye are parts, and yet may not bee referred to any of those Ten.  
But it is a poynt of deeper contemplation and requires more diligent inquisition to know whether the Cristalline performe this act of sensation as it is a Similar part, or as it 
Whether the Cristalline performe his functiō by his conformation or by his proper temper.  is Organicall, that is, whether by vertue of his temper or by the meanes of his figure; yet Galen in the sixth chapter of his first booke of Method seemeth to referre it to the temper; for, saith he, the Cristalline is the principall Organ of Sight, because it is altered by colours, and this alteration is from the purity and brightnes of it; now the purity and brightnesse come from the temperament. Indeede the magnitude, vnity, lentil-like figure of it, and his situation in the middest of the humours are not without vse, but they affoord the same helpe vnto vision that the other humours and the Membranes doe, that is, they make it more perfect: It is therefore manifest enough by this that hath beene sayde, that the Cristalline humour is a part.  
But the question is more ambiguous concerning the glassie and watery humours. All the Antients thought that the glassie was the nourishment of the Cristalline, and the 
Whether the glassy humor be a part.  watery the excrement of it. Galen in the 10. book de vsu partium, writeth that the glassy humour turneth into the Aliment of the Cristalline; for saith hee, it could not bee that the Cristalline humour which is white, cleare and splendent should be nourished by pure & meere blood, because it doth much differ there from in qualities; it therefore required an Aliment more familiar and nearer to it owne nature, and this proximity and familiarity is in the glassy humour which is composed by Nature fit to make the Aliment of the Cristalline. For this glassy humour by how much it is thicker then blood and more white, by so much doth the Cristalline exceede it in humidity and whitenesse. But if the Cristalline be nourished with the glassy humour, then cannot the glassy be an animated part, because no part doth nourish another.  
Yet Galen in the sixth chapter of the first booke of his Methode, nameth the glassie humour in the Catalogue of the Similar part, and in the first chapter of his ●en●h booke 
That it is a true part.  de vsu partium, he thinkes that it is nourished by 〈◇〉 or Transumption by the coate which compasseth it about. If then it be nourished it is a part.  
We suppose the glassy humour to bee no lesse an animated part of the eye then the Cristalline, for it hath a proper circumscription, it is generated in the wombe of the purest part of the seed, it is augmented as the other parts of the body, it is nourished with blood, it receiueth veyns from the hairie crowne it is couered with a proper coate, and being once effused or spent it will neuer be recouered.  
They which say that the Cristalline is nourished with the glassy humour doe speake improperly: indeede it prepareth the blood for the Cristalline by changing it, least the 
How the glassie humour doth nourish the cristalline.  pure Cristalline should be infected with a red colour and with veynes; for it behooued that the Cristalline should be deuoyde of all colours; yet the substance of the glassy humour doth not transforme itself into the cristalline, nor is assimilated into it. And( saith Galen in his booke of the eyes) the glassy humour is affected to the cristalline as the stomach is vnto the Liuer; but the Stomacke doeth prepare and minister meate to the Liuer as a Cooke, and so doth the glassy humour to the chrystaline.  
Auicen thinks that the vvatery humour is an excrement of the chrystalline, and therefore denies it to bee a part. Adde moreouer, that it is fluide like bloud and hath no proper 
Auicens opinion.  circumscription. But vvee call it a part because it continually keepeth the same proprieties of figure, purity and quantity; because it performeth some vse vnto the chrystalline, and is as it were a defence vnto it, and like a spectacle to carry the images vnto the chrystaline: wherefore Aristotle cals it the Porter or Cadger of Images. This humour also if 
Auicen refuted.  it should flow out cannot be recouered, & such effluxion doth wholy extingush the sight. But all these properties doe not agree with an excrement. Moreouer it is heereby demonstrated that it is not an excrement of the chrystaline, because the coate called Arachnoides or the Cobweb doth intercede or come betweene these two humours.  
If they obiect and say that it flowes vp and downe like blood and doth not adhere to the whole. I ansvvere that it flovveth vvhen it is out of the eye, but not at all vvithin the eye, neither doth it change his place but is continually contayned in a certayne and proper seate.   

QVEST. XXIX. Of the originall of the Opticks, their meeting and insertion.  
_SOme thinke that this Opticke nerue is not a whit inferiour to the Chrystalline humour in dignity, vse and necessity. For Auicen is of opinion that the species and images of visible thinges are hereinto receiued. Wee haue already taught( with Galen) that the chrystaline humour is the principall organ of Sight, and that the Opticke nerue is the conuayer of the visiue faculty and the internall light, to wit, of the visiue spirit.  
But that the history of the Opticks may be made more manifest, there are foure things to be inquired into.  
First, what is their originall. Secondly, what is their insertion. Thirdly, how they meete or are conioyned. And fourthly, whether they be hollow.  
Concerning their originall and beginning there bee diuers opinions. Auicen thinkes they arise out of the forwarde ventricles of the braine; others out of the Center of the 
Diuers opinions of the originall of the opticks.  brayne, and some out of the After braine. We haue obserued, sayth Laurentius, that out of the lower and hinder part of the brayn neare vnto the spinall marrow, yea out of a part of the spinall marrow itself within the Scull two of the most large and soft nerues of all the braīne doe arise.  
They could not arise from the forward ventricles of the braine, because there weere 
The true opinion.  the Mammillary processes, nor from the middle Basis of the brayne, because this place was appoynted for the purging thereof; nor yet from the After-braine because the Sight requireth a very soft nerue, but the After-braine is very hard and not white. The Optickes therefore must arise from the lower and hinder part of the brayne; out of each side one, which being obliquely streatched out and separated, do meete in one almost in the middest of their progresse.  
Concerning this their meeting two questions are to be resolued, to witte, howe they 
Of the meeting ●f the opticks.  meet, and secondly why they meet.  
The manner of their meeting hath not beene knowne till of late dayes. For almost all the ancient Physitians hold, that in their contaction they thwart one another like a crosse,( which thwarting or intersection is called 〈◇〉 and so the right nerue is carried to the left eye, and the left to the right eye. Others doe not thinke that they thus crosse and intersect one another but onely obliquely touch themselues.  
But we, saith Laurentius, something more accuratly and diligently contemplating the manner of this coition or meeting of the Opticks, do thinke that the marrow is mingled 
The manner of their coition.  and confused in the middle of either nerue. For if they were only contiguous touching one another and not mixed and confused, the Pupilla or Apple of the one eye woulde not so in a moment be dilated when the other is shut. The Opticks therefore doe meet and are so mixed in the middle of their passage or iourney, that the one cannot by any Art be seuered from the other: this is the manner of the coition of the Opticke nerues.  
Now it behoueth that we looke vnto the finall cause, namely, wherefore the Opticks doe meete. First it was necessary that they should meete for strength, to wit, that by this coniunction or embracing one of another they might not suffer any violēce in the whole length or tract of their iourney. For being of all the nerues the most soft, and creeping so long a iourney they would haue been loose and flaccid, nor carried in a right line into the Pupilla or Apple, vnlesse they had beene vnited in the middle of their passage.  
So Nature is wont to strengthen those things which are more soft and weake as it were vvith knottes in the middest, as may appeare in the right muscles of the Abdomen or Paunch. 
2. Reason.   
Secondly, it behoued that they should meete that they might keepe the same plaine and superficies in the Apple: for vnlesse they had thus met they vvould haue departed from one and the same plaine. So the eyes being deceiued would haue iudged a simple obiect to be double: for it behooued( as we haue declared euen now out of Galen in the 13 chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium) that the Axes of the Visiue Cones should be placed in one and the same plaine, least the obiect which is simple and single should appeare double.  
Galen in the 14. chapter of his tenth book de vsu part. acknowledgeth a third cause of this their meeting,( to wit) that the formes & Images of visible things may be vnited. For 
The third.  though the species be carried through two organs, yet they appeare single and not double. And this was Aristotles minde in the first booke of his Problemes and the third Section, where he demandeth why the eyes are together and at once mooued? because( saith he) they haue one beginning of motion( to wit) the meeting of the Opticke Nerues. And Auicen is of the same opinion.  
But I( sayth Laurentius) doe not altogether approoue of this cause of theyr coition. For Vesalius writeth, that he obserued in a young man that these Opticke Nerues did no where meete, and yet he neuer in the whole course of his life complained of any deprauation or infirmity of Sight. Aristotle writeth in his second Booke De anima and in the 4. of his Metaphysicks, that the Sense is neuer deceyued about his proper obiects. What need is there then of this coniunction? Againe, if wee obtained this by the coition of these Nerues, that the species and formes of either eie be vnited into one, then why should not those many things which are seene together appeare but one?  
In like manner, though there be two eares and two nosethrils, yet the obiect doth not appeare manifold to the sense. It is not therefore from this coition of the Opticks that the obiect appeareth simple, but because the Apples of the eyes are in the same plain, and are turned toward the visible obiect at the same moment. Fourthly, some would haue the Optickes to meete, to the end they might more fitly proceed out of the perforation in the Scull, and so might be carried directly to the eies. 
The 4. reason   
Lastly, Galen in the 14. chapter of his tenth booke de vsu partium conceiueth that they meete, that so the visiue spirit might passe from the one eye into the other in a moment 
The 5. reason  for the perfection of the Sight, so the one eye being shut wee doe see more accuratelie with the other. And these are all the causes of this coition or meeting of the Opticke Nerues.  
Let vs now follow on and declare the manner of their insertion. The Opticke Nerue 
The insertion of the opticke Nerues.  dooth consist of a double substance, an internall which is Marrowye, and an externall which is membranous. The inner Marrow when it attaineth to the Cristalline humour is dilated and so diffuseth Visiue spirits through the whole eye. Out of this dilatation ariseth a coate which they cal 〈◇〉 or the Net-like coate, which( as Galen teacheth in the second chapter of his tenth Booke de vsu partium) doth neither in colour nor substance deserue the name of a Coate, but if you cast it into water you shal see it resemble the soft, white and marrowy substance of the Braine.  
But the outward part of the Opticke Nerue doth consist of two coates, the one whereof is propagated from the thin Meninx the other from the hard, the one is spent into the grapie coate the other into the horny membrane; whence it is, that by the continuitie of this Opticke nerue the Animall spirit is carried euen in a moment vnto the Apple of the eye.  
Concerning the last question which is of the inner cauity of the Opticke nerue, Galen 
Of the cauitie of the opticke Nerue.  writeth in the tenth Booke de vsu partium that they are manifestly hollow, and therefore Herophilus called these nerues 〈◇〉, because they are perforated or holed through. But we do not admit this sensible cauity in Nerues, yet we would haue them to be the most softe of all the Nerues, and more spongie that they might receiue and transport a more copious and abundant sourse of Animall spirirs.   

QVEST. XXX. Whether the light be the obiect of the Sight.  
_THere be some which do determine that light is the obiect of Sight, grounding their opinion vpon this foundation, because euerie thing which is seen 
Their reasons which say light is the Obiect of Sight.  either is light, or it is seene by the light, or as Simplicius saith, that vvhich is seene is either light or nere a Kin vnto it, concluding hence, that light is visible by itself, but colours and other things onely by the meanes of light, insomuch as light is the cause wherefore they are seene. But none of these are true, & first of all that proposition may not be granted, to wit, that whatsoeuer is seene is either light or is seene by the light, or is very like to it. For if they take Seeing in so large a sense as to perceiue a thing with the Eyes( as it is necessary that they must grant, for else we will denie that the light itself may be seene) then would also darknesse itself be seene, which neyther is nor may be seene by the light, neyther is it of a nature like vnto it.  
Again, all things are not seene by light, for there are somethings which are made conspicuous 
Some things are seene in the darke.  onely by darknesse, but in too cleere and splendide a light they flye from the Sense, as the Scales and eyes of Fishes, olde rotten wood, yea I say the Stars themselues, which therefore the vulgar imagine do fall because they be obscured by the light of the Sunne and so taken from our sight, but at the returne of the Euening twylight,( to wit) 
How the Starres are seene.  vvhen the light goeth avvay and the night approcheth they are by degrees restored to our sight again, as in the morning tvvylight they after the same manner doe vvithdravv themselues by little and little from vs. Therfore euery thing vvhich is seen is not light or seen by the light.  
Reason and Aristotles doctrine doe contradict this opinion: for vvee are taught by both these that the Eye should be free from his owne obiect, that so it may receiue it more 
Light is not the obiect of the Sight, because it is in the eie.  sincerely, but the Eye both in regard of his whole frame and composition and especially in respect of the cristalline humour, where the reception of the obiect is properly made is especially light and cleare, light therefore cannot be the obiect of the Sight.  
Moreouer, to see, is not onely to know a thing with the Eyes( for this is too large a a signification, and agreeth to many things beside the proper obiect) but wee doe properly see that in which( when it is perceiued with the Eye) the sight is determined and stayeth itself. But the sight is not terminated in the light, though the Eyes doe perceiue it but reacheth alwayes beyond it. Seeing therefore the light cannot be truely seene, it canot bee the true obiect of Sight.  
Furthermore, an incorporeall obiect cannot alter a corporeal. Organ, except it proceede 
The alteration of the Organ is requisite to vision.  from a body, that is, be a quality thereof, and then that alteration is attributed to the body by the meanes of the quality; but that vision be made it is necessary that the Organ be altered by the obiect; the light therfore because it is a bare quality( though they deny this) is not to be thought the obiect of Sight, but some other corporeall body wherein there is a visible quality.  
Lastly, the Organ ought to bee potentially that which the Obiect is actually, but the 
The Organ ought to be potentially the Obiect.  light is actually incorporeall, and no corporeall body is potentially incoporeall, vnlesse by the means of some actiue qualities, but no such actiue powes proceedeth from the light but illuminatiue and enlightning, which they think hath the Nature of an Obiect. But they stil obiect that al visible things must be reduced vnto som primary genus, which may be called an obiect. Seeing therefore light is the first of all, because by the helpe thereof others things are seen, but light needeth no other helpe, therefore worthily all other visible things ought to bee referred vnto light as vnto their primary and chiefe genus, and so it remaineth that light is the first and proper obiect of Sight.  
But besides that it is denyed that all visible things are seene by the helpe of Sight, as 
Whether all Obiect be restra●ned to the ●ight as to the generall.  we sayd before, yet though we should grant so much it would not follow that all obiects are to be referred vnto the light as to their first and chiefe Genus. For visible things are not therefore seene, because they are illustrated and made bright by the light, but because they haue another affection which can alter the Visiue faculty. Wee grant therefore that light doth necessarily concurre vnto vision, but we deny that it is the immediate cause therof. Moreouer, it is true that those things which mooue the visiue Faculty ought to 
After what manner visible things beseene.  be reduced to some one principall genus which is called an Obiect. Yet all visible things both proper and inproper with all which do any wayes fall vnder the Sight cannot be reserued vnto any one genus and therefore not vnto light.   

QVEST. XXXI. Of the Nature of Light and what it is.  
_BVt there are some make opposition; when wee say that the Light cannot mooue the Sight because an incorporeall thing cannot change a corporeall 
Their reasons which proue light to be a body.  Organ vnlesse it be disposed and fitted by certain media or meanes vnto that alteration, but light hath no actiue power beside illumination. I say against this some oppose and would proue that Light is a body: first therefore they 
That light doth alter the eie.  retort our owne argument vpopn vs. For as wee conclude that the Light cannot alter the visiue faculty; so they inferre on the contrary that it is therefore abody because it doth alter the eye; and that it doth alter the eye they conuince by experience, to wit, because the light doth trouble the eyes by moouing and tossing their spirites and so causeth some payne and griefe in them, which things cannot bee done without alteration which is proper vnto bodies; they therefore by good right conclude that the Light is a body. I answere( sayth Placentinus) that though a body be continually requisite vnto alteration, 
Answere.  yet that alteration is not of the body as it is a body, but as it is such or such a body and so qualified; as for example; the fire doth heate not as it is fire but as it is hot: and as the heat itself doeth proceede from the fire and doeth alter cold things which are a good way distant from it, that is, make them hotte: so also the Light yssuing out of a lucide and cleare body doth trouble the eyes and produceth other effects aboue named. But as the heate of that fire is not a body but a quality of the body; so also it is not necessary that this Light be a body. VVe confesse therefore that alteration indeede cannot be made without bodies, yet this alteration is not to bee ascribed to the bodies but to the qualities of the bodies. In that therefore the Light doth alter the eye, it is not because it is a body, but because it is a quality of a body.  
This therefore maketh nothing for them which would haue the Light to bee the obiect of Sight: for the Light alters the Sight as it is a Light, that is, by illuminating, but this 
How light doth alter the organ of sight  is not sufficient vnto Sight; for then heate, colde, humidity, siccity and other qualities should bee the obiects of Sight, because that all these doe alter the eye.  
But beside these reasons there be almost innumerable others which doe conuince sufficiently 
First reason of the contrary.  that Light is not a body, and they are especially drawn from the conditions of bodies which doe continually and necessarily agree vnto them. For first of al, euery body is moued in a certaine time and successiuely, because of the resistance of another body; for one body cannot be mooued vnlesse it driue and force another which did before exist in the place to which it is moued: for because Nature doth aboue all things abhorre vacuity 
But the light is not so moued.  or emptinesse, it must needs be that in euery place there must be a body. But the light not in any distaunce of time nor successiuely, but in a very moment doeth replenish the whole Hemisphere and Horrizon by a sodaine diffusion, and doth go through the whole space from the East vnto the VVest with out any progression of time; whence it doth necessarily follow that it is no body.  
Secondly, euery body hath his proper circumscription and treble dimension, but this circumscription and these dimensions are not at all competent to Light, vnlesse you will attribute them to the light in regard of the body wherein it is, but then it doth agree therto onely by accident.  
To this we will adde that there is no body in Nature which is not diuisible into infinit parts; but who could euer deuide the Light.  
Moreouer if it were a body some motion which bodies haue would agree vnto it; for all bodies are either mooued vpward or downward or circularly: but no such motion can be ascribed to the Light. It followes therefore that it is no body.  
Againe, if it were a body it should bee either coruptible or incorruptible. But corruptible it cannot be, for then some thing should bee generated of his corruption, because the corruption of one thing is the generation of another, but nothing is generated of the corruption of the light, for if there were it would appeare seeing the light is so vast & immēse. Neither yet is it incorruptible, for we see that when a Candle is put forth, the light is extinguished. But if we should graunt it to be a body, how would our aduersaries auoyde those absurdities which would follow there-from? Should not there bee a penetration 
Penetration of bodies impossible.  of bodies? For the light doth penetrate all the parts of the perspicuous body, and yet the nature both of the light and of the body is preserued whole and entire. Seeing therefore that nothing is more impossible then this penetration of Diameters, as the Mathematicians auouch, it is also altogether impossible that light should be a body.  
Now that we know what this light is not it followeth that wee make inquiry what it is, which that wee may obtaine wee will make a reduction into the highest genera or kindes which are two. For whatsoeuer doth exist in the whole Vniuerse is either a substance or an accident.  
A substance this light cannot be, for it doth not subsist by itself, but if the lucide or 
What light is Euery thing is either a substance or accident.  bright body be remooued the light is also taken away: neither can it be sparated from the lucide body. Moreouer, no substance of itself is vnder the perception of sense, but light is by itself perceiued by the sight: and this no man can deny, because it is neither knowne by Touching nor Tasting nor Smelling, nor yet by Hearing, notwithstanding it is knowne; it remayneth therefore that the sight doth iudge of it, and yet it is not therefore the obiect of Sight as we haue before shewed.  
Seeing therefore the conditions of a substance doe in no sort agree to light, it is necessarily inferred that it is an accident; which notwithstanding many vncertain wits and ignorant do deny, grounding themselus vpon this argument. That if it were an accident, then light would mingle itself with light in the same subiect, but it is not mingled, for there 
Obiection,  doth some distinction appeare betwixt the light of the Sunne and of a candle when they are both together.  
Secondly, they produce an example of two candles which make two shadowes out 
Second argument.  of one darke body; but if the light of the one should be mingled with the other and so bee made as it were one, they would also make onely one shadow of one body.  
But it is not so as they say. For, that the light of the Sun is not mingled with the light of a candle, doth not happen because it is no accident, but because these two lights are not 
Answer to the first The light of the Sun is not ioy ned with the light of a candle.  of the same kinde, for the one proceedeth from a body more pure and simple, the other from a more impure and materiall substance so that it seemeth after a sort mingled with smoke; and as a pure thing vpon an impure rideth aboue and remaineth distinct, least that which is immaterial should be mingled with that which is materiall; so it is impossible that that the accidents of an immateriall thing should bee mixed and confounded with those which belong to a materiall body, and this is the reason why the light of the Sunne is not mixed with the light of a candle.  
That which they add of two candles doth require another Solution; for the light of 
Answer to the second.  two candles is of the same kinde, but I vtterly deny that they are not at all mingled if this word mingled be rightly vnderstood for any mixture or confusion; for the light of one candle cannot be discerned from the light of another but onely by their shadowes; and for this I referre you to your senses for the triall, because we treate of a sensible matter; for take two candles and shew me the light of the one and of the other, thou shewest the shadowes, and why? because thou canst not discerne the lights one from another.  
But the reason why two shadowes do appeare, is, because that the lucide bodyes doe 
Why there be two shadowes of two candles together.  send foorth their lights by right lines, and though their light bee mingled, yet they keepe the rectitude and streightnesse of their ownelines. When therefore a darke place is opposite to two lucide bodyes, it is of necessity that it send foorth two shadowes, not that the shadow is formed of the light, but because the darke place is illustrated onely in that part 
The shadow is not from the light from the darke body.  where against the lucid body doth directly shine, otherwise hindring the light that it cannot reach vnto the backe thereof, which therefore casts an obscure shadow. So in the time of the Eclipse when the Moone for want of light seemeth to faint away, this hapneth because the light of the Sunne cannot attayne vnto her according to his wonted manner, be reason of the interposition of the earth betwixt them. For that obscurity which is perceiued in the Moone is the shadow of the earth; for if the shadow itself should proceed frō the light; then at noone day when the horrizon is perfectly illuminated there could bee no shadow at all, because there is no reason why it should be made, rather on the one part of the obscure body then on the other; nor why the light should obscure or cast a shadow from one part of the darke body rather then from the other.  
But to the matter; I say that the cause why there remayne two shadowes, although the lights do mixe together, is the streightnesse of the lines whereby the light is sent from a 
The streightnes of the lines is the cause why there be two shadowes.  lucide or bright body into a darke, so that it alwayes leaueth the hindpart thereof darke whence the shadow commeth. And that this is true it is hereby manifest, because the shadow is mooued according to the motion of the lucide body, as also after the motion of the darke body which casteth the shadow. So that alwayes there is a shadow at the backe part and that which lieth opposite by a right line against the lucid body is alwaies enlightened. Yet these two shadowes will not be so obscure as if there were but one, because either of them is much illustrated by the light of the other lucid body by which it is not produced. And so much of the nature of Light.   

QVEST. XXXI. Of the difference betwixt Lux or Light itself, and Lumen or Illumination.  
_THose which do peremptorily persist in the defence of the intentionall or 
That they differ in kinde.  imaginary essence of light, hold that Lumen or the Illumination and enlightning is a species or kinde of that we call Lux or the Light. For, as the colour and the species do differ in kinde, so in like manner dooth the light itself differ from the Lumen or enlightning, because as colours by their species becomme sensible, so the light is seene by the illumination of it as by his species or forme. But we consent not with them: for if light were seene by illumination, then this illumination would not fall vnder the Sense; for the species of sensible thinges are not themselues perceiued but they are that whereby the obiects do moue the Sense; 
This opinion improoued.  seeing then the Lumen is seen by itself it cannot be that the Light should through it attaine vnto the Sense.  
But they further obiect, that the Lumen or enlightning is in a tralucent bodie, and the light or Lux in a darke bodie, and that therefore they differ in specie or in kinde one from 
Obiection.  another. But I answere that it is not so; indeede we grant that the Lumen is in a tralucent or bright bodie, but we confidently denie that the light is in a darke bodie, for it is also 
Solution  in a tralucent body, yet in a subiect more dense and darke then that of the Lumen, for the light itself is more darke then the illumination: therefore saith Arist. it doth determine or limit the sight, whence it hath the name of a colour. For hee calleth light white in the booke De sensu & sensili, and also in the fourth chapter of his first booke of Meteors hee calleth the Sun white. But the matter is cleere of itself, for we perceiue that our sight is terminated in a flame, in the Sun, or in the Moon, neither are any other colours brought vnto vs through them.  
But it may be obiected that light seemeth to be permanent and abiding in the subiect, but the Lumen is not except in some cleare, bright body. I aunswere it is true, but 
Obiection. Answer.  yet this doth not argue a specificall difference: for as the heate being proper vnto the fire doth abide therein, and the other heate which is produced from this dooth vanish when the fire is remooued from it, yet they differ not in kinde, so neither doth Lumen or enlightening differ from Lux or the fountaine of this Illumination.  
But there be many reasons why they do not differ in kind one from another. For sometime the Lumen or illumination dooth assume to itself the nature of Lux or Light. So the Moone hath light which is manifestlye nothing else but the very enlightning of 
That Lux and Lumen do not differ in kind  the Sun. But do they not at all then differ? I say they differ, yet in the Planets not truely but onely in respect. For example, the Moone as it doth enlighten the earth hath Light, but as it receyueth this light from the Sun it is onely an illumination; and hence it is that some illumination hauing a conuenient dark body opposed to it will becom light & send an illumination out of itself: But if you let it bee without a darke body it will be onely an illumination. Euen as the Elementary fire in his proper place is commonlye called Lumen and yet is not seene because it hath no darke body, that so it may transmit her illumination to vs, so that light is no other thing but a condensed illumination, yet not so 
Why the elementarie fire is not seene.  that it doth degenerate into a colour.  
Moreouer, they differ in the subiect. For this Lumen or illumination in his proper subiect is Lux, that is, a Light; but being without it, it is a meere illumination, that is, Light is properly called that which is in a lucide or bright bodie, as in the Sunne and in other Starres; but illumination is that which is produced from the light, so that in the sun there is not illumination but light, and in the aire there is no light but Lumen or illumination onely.   

QVEST. XXXII. That colour is the Obiect of Sight.  
_ALL the Authors which euer writ of the Sight, haue determined with one consent, that colour is the proper Obiect thereof, herein following 
Colour is the proper obiect of Sight.  the steps of Aristotle who hath beene their leader and guide. For in the beginning of the seuenth Chapter of the second book de Anima, he writeth on this manner. That which is visible is colour, and this colour is that which is in it that is visible. And it is visible per se, or by itself: 
Arist. authority.  that is to say, it hath the cause within itself which makes it visible. Where he not onely describeth the common Obiect of Sight: but doth presently after restraine it vnto a proper Obiect; to wit, that which hath the cause of visibility( if I may so say) in itself: but the cause of visibility is to bee able to mooue the perspicuum or tralucent body, that is to imprint his Species in the perspicuum, by the meanes whereof the Sight is moued, and therfore he addeth immediatly these words. All colour is motiue, or able to mooue that which is actually tralucent, and this is the Nature thereof. If therefore the colour doe by itself moue the translucet body, which is the proper cause of visibility, it must also bee accounted necessarily for the proper Obiect of Sight. For neither illumination, nor light, nor any other thing by itself can moue this Sence, vnlesse in some part it be answerable vnto colours, and then the effect is neuerthelesse due vnto the colour.  
Adde hereto, that the proper Obiect of Sight must be of that nature, that in it the Sight may be determined; and may rest to forme the visiue faculty; and wherein if neede 
Another reason to proue it.  require more accurate inspection, it may stay and rest itself. But no such thing can bee found in the whole frame of Nature besides colours.  
Againe, by the Obiect of Sight all mixt bodies doe become visible, but this is accomplished neither by illumination nor light, nor by any other thing, but onely by colours, and therefore they are the proper Obiect of Sight. It is true indeede that things are made visible in the light, yet not by the light, that is, light is no sufficient cause of vision, because it is not able, nor apt to moue the tralucent body, but onely the forme of the perspicuum, for when we say that colour is able to moue the perspicuum, we doe not vnderstand that it is the Act of it, but that it affects and moues it by a visiue species, and this is peculiar to colours alone.  
Lastly, all things which be visible do fall vnder the sight of the Eyes, by the accidents 
3. Reason.  which are in them; after the same manner whereby wee attaine to the knowledge of any thing by another quality; but neither illumination, nor light, nor any thing before mentioned is in visible things but onely colour, therefore wee knowe not thinges by them but by the colour.  
Seeing then that the obiect of Sight ought to be such, that thereby we may come vnto the knowledge of visible things, none of these but onely colour is to be accounted the obiect of Sight, for this is in all things and doth immediately follow the miston of Elements.  
I might adde that in euery obiect there are diuers species to be required, as contrary, intermediate 
The variety of kinds is required in euery thing.  and some alike, because there is no election, choyce or dignotion of one simple thing. But there are no differences of Illumination nor Light nor of other thinges which wee haue rehearsed, much lesse are there contrarieties. For illumination doeth not truely differ from illumination, nor Light from Light; neyther is illumination contrary to illumination, nor Light to Light; but there are diuers differences of colours and one colour is contrary to another; not those therfore but this, to wit, colour is the obiect of sight.   

QVEST. XXXIII. Whether Colour be Light.  
_BEcause Light as wel as Colour doth determine the Sight, and hath in itself 
Of one faculty must there be one obiect  a cause of visibility, hence some thinking that there ought to be but one obiect of one knowing and discerning faculty, haue esteemed Colour & Light to be of the same Nature. But this cannot bee, for all Colour is not Light, neither is all Light Colour; whereas if they had beene of the same Nature, they might haue beene conuerted reciprocally.  
But they vrge thus. Euery thing which is seene is colour, but Light is seene therefore Light is colour. I answere, to bee seene may bee vnderstoode two wayes: first commonly and improperly, so as euery thing both colour and that which is proportionable thereunto is sayde to be seene. And so Aristotle taketh it in the 2. Booke de anima, and his Chapter de visu, where in the beginning he sayeth That which is visible is colour, and that which is without name: as if he should say, That which is proportionable vnto colour: and after this manner Light is seene and yet is not therefore a colour, because that on this manner many things may be seene which are not colour, but onely proportionable vnto colour.  
Secondly, this word Seeing is taken properly, and according to this acception nothing can be seene besides colours.  
But they add yet further that the same effect belongeth to the same cause; but whitenesse 
Obiection.  and light do performe the same effect, for a white colour doeth dissipate the sight and weary the Eyes, and the same effect doth the light worke, wherefore light and a white colour doe not differ.  
But we deny this argument. For though there be great affinitie and likenesse between whitnesse and the light, as also betwixt blacknesse and darkenesse, yet no Identity nor vnity of the species or kind doth hence ensue; for if the case were so, two lucid bodyes would produce colours of two kinds in one and the same darke body; because they can neuer shine equally and alike: but to shine were to send forth a colour. Againe, when the light faileth, that is, when darknesse begins to come; first a greene colour, then a purple and so other intermixed colours must bee induced vppon the darke body till at length it attaine vnto the quite contrary colour, to wit, blackenesse; euen as the light doth mediatly and by degrees degenerate into darkenesse. But nothing can be more ●bsurd then this; for wee see that a white colour remaineth white, vntill the least part of it may bee seene, yea it abideth white til it be so dark that we can see nothing, & all colours are taken away from our eyes. Others with more shew of truth haue vndertaken to perswade that colour is Lumen or an 
That colour is an illumination.  illumination, which opinion they strengthen with no small arguments. First, because when this illumination is absent colours cannot be present, and againe, at his arriuall or returne they are generated in the bodyes.  
But this argument is of small force, for Lumen or illumination doeth not generate colours in bodies; neither when it departeth doeth it take them away, but is onely the cause wherefore they are rather sensible when it is present, and being absent they are not seene. The reason is because without this splendour colours cannot mooue the tralucent bodie, and so the night doth not take away the colour but the images of it which are as it were the deputies or instead of the colours: but the reall colours which are by themselues visible doe remaine, if not actually yet potentially.  
Yet they vrge further: that we see by experience that the cloudes by the diuers irtadiation or glittering of the Sunne sometime are of a white and sometime of a red colour: as also is the Rainebow: for which cause also we see the Sea sometime to waxe purple coloured, sometime to become gray, and a farre off to shew white, and at hand blacke. Finally, the necks of Doues and the tayles of Peacocks doe wonderfully varry their colours by the diuers aspect of the Light. But none of these are thus indeede and in trueth, but doe so appeare by reason of the vehement splendor of the Sunne or of the leuity of the coloured bodie; whereuppon the Sight is somewhat hindered that it cannot discenrne off and know the reall colours as they are.  
Againe, this hapneth not only from the direct or indirect irradiation of the Sunne, but also from our beholding of the coloured thing from on the right hand or from on the left, forward or backward. For it is greatly to be respected whether the shadow of the coloured thing bee on our side or on the opposite: and therfore according to the motion of the Peacocke so the colour of her trayne seemeth to be varried: which thing Painters when they goe about to Limne any picture doe diligently obserue, marking the place wherein the life is placed: to wit, in what part it doeth receiue the light. Moreouer, they consider the entraunce into the place where it is, that they may resolue on what part they may best behould it: well knowing that both our eye and the light should bee well disposed vnto the 
A good obseruation of Painters.  right perception and discerning of the reall colour. For if a well painted picture be placed in an inconuenient place his forme will not appeare artificial but deformed and disordred, not that it is so indeed, but that it onely appeareth so by reason of the inconuenience of the place. And thus also it is with the colours of Peacocks, so that hence wee are taught that the illumination doeth not alter the colours, but the disordered scituation of the coloured body and of him which beholdeth it, are a great cause of the variation thereof.   

QVEST. XXXIIII. That the pure Elements are not coloured of themselues.  
_APerspicuum or Tralucent bodie being without all darknesse can neuer be so condensed that a colour should arise therefrom, and therefore the simple Elements, yea and the heauen itself haue absolutely no true colour: for though the aire may be so condensed that it may degenerate into Water, 
The pure Elements are not truly coloured  yet it will neuer attaine vnto a colour, no nor the earth itself, nor yet that which is more condensed then the earth, They therefore bee in an error which ascribe whitenesse vnto three Elements and blacknesse vnto the Earth: Indeed perspicuitie and transparencie may be allowed to these three and a kinde of darknesse to the earth, but no colour at all. Notwithstanding they prooue that colours do agree vnto the Elements, & 
Obiection.  especially simple colours as white and blacke; because they be simple, and as a mixt bodie is made of the mixture of the Elements, so say they from the mixtion of white and black mixt colours are generated. And this is their argument: That which agreeth to any thing by participation, doth also agree to it by essence; but both extreme colours and those which be intermixed do agree vnto mixt bodies by the participation of the Elements: whence they conclude 
Resolution.  that it is necessary that simple colours, that is, white and blacke do essentially agree vnto the Elements. To which we will answere by denying the maior proposition, for many things do belong to a bodie by the participation of another, which may not bee attributed to that body as it is absolutely considered. So to the Elements which are here with vs very turbulent and confused many thinges doe agree, which no man of vnderstanding dare assigne vnto the simple and sincere Elements.  
As for example, Our fire which is nothing else but a certain kindled and flaming smoke, is coloured perspicuous and bright, yet the elementary fire we imagine to be pure & most subtle, from which as from a Fountaine ours dooth flowe, yet hath none of these grosse qualities which our fire hath. For being exceeding subtle & fine it hath no solid substance admixed with it, and therfore is not affected with any colour, neither is it lucid and transparant. For colour consisteth in such a bodie as doth determine the sight, but light doth not shine in a subtile and thin body, but in a dense or thicke body: we grant therefore for the present, that in mixt bodies colours do result or arise out of the concursion of the Elements, yet it doth not thence follow that elements being pure and not defiled with the staine of other compounded matters should be tainted with such colours as are saide to 
How the Elements generate colours.  be in the extremities of bodies, as accidents are in the subiects; because the second qualities arise from the first which to ascribe to these simple bodies wer very eroneous: Wherfore the Elements do not primarily generate colours in mixt bodies but secondarily, that is, not as they reteine their proper Nature but as they lay it aside, and so do conspire into the nature of the mixt bodie. For the Elements cannot concurre in one and so make a mixt body vnlesse they suffer an alteration both according to their substance and according to their quality, & so they do as it were put off their proper being or essence, that by this mutuall embracing and coniunction they may produce a compound body. If therefore they neither reteine their substance nor their first qualities( which the ancients esteemed as their essential forms) how should they reserue entire to themselues those colours which are their second qualities that the colour of the mixt bodie should proceede from a confluence of the colours of the simple Elements: wherefore colours do belong to mixt bodies primarily and by themselues, that is, essentially and not by participation, and so we will passe by this argument, not medling with the sophistry of their Sylogisme, which euery one that runneth may perceiue.   

QVEST. XXXVI. Of the generation of Colours and of their forme.  
_WEe haue determined already that true colours are produced from the Elements mixt among themselues and not from their first qualities, to wit, the 
The originall of Colours.  heate, cold, humidity and siccity as some haue thought, though indeed almost all second qualities do consist of these; but colours doe arise from the essentiall forme of the Elements, from which forme( as it were a proper accident) they are deriued, that is, colour dooth arise out of the perspicuity and opacitie of the elements proportioned together. For three of the Elements be perspicuous, the Fire, the Aire and the Water, yet so that the Fire is more transparant then the Aire, and the Aire then Water, onely the Earth is darke: when therfore the Earth is mingled with the three other, it doth determine their perspicuity and so induceth a colour into the mixt body, for their transparency and perspicuity is condensed and made more crasse and thicke, so that they cease to be tralucent and do determine the sight, and then colour necessarily 
That which determines the sight is coloured.  followeth. For to terminate the sight in his superficies is to be coloured, because nothing can determine the sight but by some colour: A colour therefore ariseth from the condensation of a transparant bodie by that which is darke in the mistion of the Elements; for when the transparant body by reason of the darke body ceaseth to be transparant, it becommeth coloured and in his superficies doth mooue the sight.  

Colour is generated of the mistion of the darke bodie.  Hence appeareth their errour who suppose a double nature of colour is signified in that definition which we haue giuen, seeing Aristotle cals it The extremity or outside of the transparant body; for the extremity of the tralucent body is not a color, but that which like an accident doth inhere in the extremity or superficies; or if you will, the extreame outside of the perspicuum or splendent bodie is not the cause of the colour, but the colour produced from elswhere doth by his adumbration or circumscription determine the transparant body. For the perspicuum or transparant body is that, which by reason of the tenuitie 
VVhat perspicuum is.  of his parts doth transmit the light and so appear, yet doth not determine the sight; where therefore the Sight is determined, there the perspicuum must end: for except it were so the sight would yet proceede further beyond it; but the Sight is terminated onely by colour and therefore colour is rightly called the tearme or bond and extreamitie of the Perspicuum.  
Many are of opinion, that there be no colours in the darke but onely a kinde of faculty 
Of the Forme of Colours.  and beginning where of colours do arise as it were out of a matter illustrated by illumination which serueth in steade of the forme: Of which Sect Epicurus was as Lucretius sayth.  
Praterea quoniam nequeunt sine luce colores  
Esse, nisi in luce existunt primor dia rerum.  
Scire licet, quo sunt quaeuis velata colore;  
Qualis enim coecis poterit color esse tenebris?  
Lumine qui mutatur in ipso: propterea quod  
Recta out obliqua percussus Luce refulget.  
Againe, because no Colour can without the Light appeare,  
VVho shall discerne what coloured maskes the Elements do weare  
Vnlesse the Light do vnto him their seuerall hewes bewray?  
And what man can the colours blaze which in blinde darkenesse stay?  
Because in Light all colours change, and shine as they are smit  
With the Oblique or direct Rayes which from the Light do flit.  
And hee maintaineth his opinion by this, that as the coloured bodie is illuminated eyther rightly or obliquely, euen so are the colours thereof changed. But hauing disputed this before I now passe it ouer, so that it remaineth that we demonstrate and shew that the 
The Epicures reasons that Light is the forme of Colours.  Lumen or splendencie cannot be the forme of a colour. But first let vs heare the Argument which the Epicures bring in defence of their opinion. They say therefore that Seeing the Faculty of Seeing is one and simple, therefore all thinges which are iudged there by properlie and by themselues ought to bee referred vnto One primarie genus, and beecause Light cannot bee reduced vnto colour, it is necessary that colour be reduced vnto light.  
But this reason is so absurd, that it seemeth not worthy the time and labour of confutation, especially because it no whit aduanceth the certainty of that which is in controuersie. For they were to conclude, that lumen was the forme of colours, yet neuerthelesse their argument will not stand; for we graunt indeede that that which is seene, ought properly and by itself to be reduced vnto one genus or head, because the faculty iudging of them is one, as we haue proued before; but wee denie that illumination can properly be seene, or that colour may be referred there-vnto. Haue we not conuinced by that which 
All the Obiects of Sight ought to bee reduced to one head.  goeth before, that whatsoeuer is seene by itself is a colour? Are not light and translucencie perceiued improperly, to wit, onely as they are proportioned vnto a colour, as wee haue proued sufficiently? And haue we not demonstrated that neither light nor splendēcie can be a colour? How then shall colour bee brought vnto the nature of light? Yea, I maintaine the contrary, to wit, that illumination may and ought to bee reduced vnto colour, 
The light is referred to the colour.  because it becommeth visible no other way then as it obtayneth some proportion with colour.  
But in the meane time some doe obiect, that Colour is said to be actually the extremitie of the transparant body, that is, not of the transparant body as it is transparant, but as it is an illuminated transparant body; because without light both the colour and transparant body are only in potentia and possibility. Seeing therefore that the light doth enduce an actuall being vpon the colour, it will follow that light is the forme of colour, because the act of a thing is the forme of it.  
How that of Aristotle, namely that colour is the extremity of the transparant body, is to be vnderstoode, wee haue shewed before, but where it is said that light doth actuate colour, I answere, that light doth not actuate the colour as it is considered in it owne 
Light is not the forme.  Nature as a colour, for a colour remaineth a colour euen in the darke: it is true indeede that it maketh the colour actually visible, neither doe we denie it; but if it were the forme of the colour it shoulde not onely make it visible, but what Effence so euer colour hath it should of necessity haue receiued it from the light: but we haue taught already that the whole Essence of colour proceedeth from the foure Elements.  
Moreouer, it cannot be that this Light should be the forme of colours. First, because the forme ioyned with the matter doe constitute one compounded body: but light and 
The reason thereof.  colours are in diuers subiects.  
Againe, who euer said that one accident was the forme of another? but light though it be something more then a meere accident, yet it sauours most of an Accident, and therefore cannot be the forme of a colour.  
Lastly, if Illumination were the forme of colour, then colours should not differ in Specie, for whether the light be strong or remisse, whether it be direct or refract and broken it is alwayes of the same Species, but we see that colours be not onely diuers but also contrary, therefore light cannot be the forme of colours.  
But the Epicures would make vs beleeue, that this variety of colours proceedeth from their different originals and beginnings which they esteeme to be their matter. Surely, an opinion vnbeseeming one which carieth but the name of a Philosopher, for can you take 
All difference is taken from the forme.  the differences of things from their matter? Know you not that the specificall difference of things doth flow from the forme? Is it any matter which distinguisheth a man from a beast? No: but the vnderstanding or reason. Now reason is the forme of a man, not his matter. And this wee may learne by mechanicall Arts, for the same workman out of the same matter doth forme both an Altar and an Image, and these differ one from the other, not because they consist of a diuers matter, but because a diuers forme is giuen to either of them.  
To these we will add, that Colours are another thing then the light. For colours work vpon the light touching the illuminated aire; as may appeare in a Looking-glasse receyuing colour brought vnto it through enlightned aire; so also the greennesse of Trees and Medowes doth appeare in such bodies as are opposite vnto them, which could not be except 
How a glasse receiueth Images.  the colour should worke vpon the Light; but who euer saide that the things formed did worke vpon the Forme?   

QVEST. XXXVI. Of the Medium or Meane of the Sight.  
_NO man euer doubted whether the Sight stoode neede of a Meane, but all rest vpon experience, which no man well in his wits will contradict: For 
A visible Object imposed to the Eyes is not seene.  if you lay any colour vpon the Eye it will not bee perceiued, and if that saying of Aristotle be true in any Sense, it is especially true in this Sense of Sight, to wit, that the sensible thing being laide vpon the Sense doth make no Sensation. Therefore wee ought not to doubt that the Sight hath 
The reasons why it needeth a Medium.  neede of a Medium, especially being here-vnto perswaded by reasons besides experience. For Sight is a spirituall Sense, and therefore cannot perceiue materiall things as they are materiall, but it discerneth their species receiued in the Meane, and how could materiall things send forth these species if there were no meane betweene the Obiect and the Organ: I say if there were not a Medium which might draw out and receiue the species or formes.  
It remaineth therefore that we make inquiry what that is which is a competent medium in the Sense of Seeing. First, it cannot be a body; for euery bodye is either Simple or 
No bodi● is the Meane of Sighr. Neither compound  Compound. A compound body it cannot be, because all compound bodies bee coloured and by consequent are an Obiect and not a Meane; neither can any of the simple bodies be accounted for a Meane, for they bee the foure Elements, Fire, Aire, Water and Earth.  
Fire is no Medium for we can see without it, nor yet the Aire because we can see Obiects which are in the water, and this is the reason why the other Elements are not fit for this function, for a true meane must be in the middest betweene all visible thinges, but the Elements are not so, no nor the heauen itself. It followes therefore that none of these may be accounted for the meane of sight. 
Nor Simple. Perspicuity is the true mean of Vision.   
It is therefore some accident which we must resolue vpon to be this Medium, as appeareth by that which we haue saide; and all men do with one consent acknowledge this accident to be Perspicuity or Transparancy, so that we need not to doubt thereof. But because this Transparancie as it is an abstracte and an accident is not sufficient for the performance of this function, for that the obiects doe require a certaine definite affection in 
Not perspicuity but the perspicuous body is the Obiect of Sight.  the medium, that so they may be carried to the Instrument, whereby the consent and agreement may bee preserued, and that there may bee a Connexion and knitting of the extreames, to wit, of the Obiect and Organ by the Meane. We must therefore finde out what it is that doth assist and helpe this perspicuity. And this is nothing but the subiect of it, so that we do not admit simply the perspicuity but the perspicuous bodie as it is transparant for the true Meane of the Sight, that is, not the abstract onely but the whole concrete as it hath perspicuity in it, so that wee are to consider in it both his Matter and his Forme.  
The matter of the transparant body is not one and the same but diuers and manifolde, 
The Etimon of perspicuum.  I say, euery thing which is peruious and may be perceiued without obstacle or resistance, for the perspicuum seemeth to be deriued a perspiciendo or perceiuing, as a transparant body a transparendo because all things do transpare and appeare through it. It is therefore nothing else but a kinde of substance, not crasse nor dense, but thinne, rare and subtle, and especially apt and fit to receiue the Ilumination and the colours of other things, as are the Aire and Water and also many other solide bodies, as Glasse, Ice and such like, as the Philosopher witnesseth in the 68. Text of his 2. booke De Anima.   

QVEST. XXXVII. Whether Light be the Forme of that which is perspicuous.  
_WE haue taught before that Illumination is the Forme of the perspicuous body, 
Whether the perspicuum perish with the light.  but because the light doth very easily recede and goe away so that darkenesse doth succeed and easily returne, it may worthily be called in question, whether at the departure of the light the perspicuous body doth also perish and cease to be, and is againe generated with the returne of the Light or Illumination.  
For my owne part that I may speake ingeniously, I am perswaded that it is not corrupted wholy, but onely after a sort seemeth to perish, for whatsoeuer is depriued of his essentiall forme is saide to perish. It seemeth therefore that the perspicuous body may bee saide to perish when at the receding of the light darknesse doth ensue: which darknesse is 
The perspicuum is potential in the darke.  a priuation of that light which was the essentiall forme of the perspicuum, I speake of a body actually perspicuous, beecause the action, or if I may so say, the actuality of it ceaseth when the light fadeth, yet notwithstanding it remaineth in potentia or in possibility: for the enlightning dooth not induce any subtilty or tenuity of the substance: and whatsoeuer is thus perspicuous is also potentially perspicuous in the very darke, for sometimes darkenesse sometimes light are in perspicuous bodies, as Aristotle saith in the 69. Text of the 2. Booke De Anima, where he defineth a potentiall perspicuous body.  
But there is yet another doubt of greater waight. For because the Light is an accident, to witte, a quality proceeding from the lucide body, how can it bee the forme of the perspicuous body, in regard that to bee a Forme of any thing is peculiar to a Substance? 
A Doubt resolued.  How then can that giue any essence or being to another which hath no essence at all of it owne, for the Light hath no beeing of itself but doth perpetually depend vpon the Lucid bodie, and therefore how should it giue an essence to the perspicuum? I grant indeede that 
Answere.  the light may bee called a quality of a lucide body, yet I denie that it is nothing but a meere accident. For all accidents haue their being in some subiect, and out of the same are nothing: but Illumination, though it doe depend perpetually vpon some lucide body, 
The essence of an accident is in another.  yet it doth exist out of it, and doth onely in respect differ from that Lux, which is as it were the fountaine of it as before we haue shewed, and wee see that this Illumination is diffused through the whole Hemisphere, which could not be if it were a mere accident, & 
Light is not a meere accident.  had no proper Essence of it owne; for no accident doth spread so farre from his Originall or Subiect.  
VVe say therefore that Lumen out of the lucide body hath a certaine proper being of his owne, and in that regard is sayd to be the forme of the perspicuum or transparant body, for which cause some call it The imitation or resemblance of a lucide body in a perspicuous medium. 
How the light is a quality.  But as it is in the lucide body and doth depend vpon it as vppon his originall, it is not without some reason called a quality of the same lucide body.  
But some argue against this on this manner: That the light cannot be the forme of the perspicuum, because it also receiueth the darknesse into it: if therefore illumination be the 
Obiection.  forme of it, then that which is contrary to it, to wit darknes, would in like manner supply the place of a forme, and so one thing would haue two formes.  
But the consequence is false; for though the perspicuous body doeth receiue as well darknes as light, yet not after the same manner, for it receiues the one as his forme, he other 
Solution.  as the priuation of that forme; Light as his Act, and darknes as the priuation of that Act.  
For darknesse is not contrary to light but a priuation of it, and indeede no other thing 
What darknes is.  but an absence of Light from a subiect which is fit for illumination.  
But Auicen sayth that the Light is not receiued in a perspicuous but in a darke body and 
Auicens opinion.  coloured, which body when it is outwardly illustrated, then hee thinks that the perspicuous body is illuminated, and hee would haue this perspicuity to note nothing else but a priuation of that which hinders the Light, & then that perspicuū is present when there is nothing to hinder the colour that it might not be illuminated. If then the Light bee not receiued in the perspicuous body, it cannot by any meanes be the forme thereof.  
But though there bee many learned men of this opinion, yet I cannot stay my iudgement 
Refuted.  vpon it for some perswasible reasons which mooue mee to thinke contrary. For nothing can passe from one extreame vnto another, vnlesse it passe by the mean which is betwixt them; and it cannot passe through the Medium vnlesse it be first receiued into it. Moreouer in a perspicuous Meane there appeare diuers effects of Light; for it is attenuated and heated, which could not be if the Light were not first receiued into it. And by this we may easily gather the insufficiency of Auicens conceite. Thus much concerning the difficulties about the Eyes. Now let vs come to the Sense of Hearing.   

QVEST. XXXVIII. Of the Production of a Sound.  
_ARistotle in the first Chapter of the fourth booke, and in the sixt Chapter of the sixt booke of his Topicks saith, that the knowledge we haue of any species dependeth vpon the knowledge of the Genus. Seeing therefore that 
Why the production of a Sound must goe before the definition.  the voice is a certaine species of Sound, and as it were an ofspring propagated there from, it must needes bee that it sauour much of his originall and beginning. Wherefore before we come vnto the knowledge of a voyce, which is the most particular Obiect of the Sense of Hearing, it is very necessary that we praemise somewhat concerning the production of a Sound in generall, for by that meanes our knowledge of this Action of the Soule, I meane the Sense of Hearing will bee better guided and perfected.  
Wherefore we will first shew you the manner of the production of a Sound. Secondly, the definition of a Sound. Thirdly, the differences of Sounds. And lastly, we will vnfolde some difficulties which may otherwise breede scruple in vs. I know well that in other things the playnest way of teaching is to beginne with a definition, but because a Sound, is as wee say eus fluxum, that is, such a being as is then onely existent while it is a doing and in the time of his generation; it must needes follow, that when the generation or manner of production is sufficiently knowne, the nature and definition will bee better vnderstoode.  
Hence it was that Aristotle, when hee would deliuer the Nature of a Sound, began his treatise at the maner of production, & so will we, insisting in his footsteps, which although we cannot attaine vnto yet we will a farre off adore.  
As therefore no sound is made without two bodyes mutually impeaching or offending one against another, as euen our Sight and Hearing doe sufficiently teach vs, so our 
3. Things required to the production of a sound. Two bodyes. A medium.  minds also may conceiue that without the mediation of a third thing which should be not onely the medium wherein a concussion is made, but also the materiall cause hauing in it a power of sounding materially, there can no sound at all by the concussion of those bodyes be produced.  
The necessitie of this medium or third body which must come betweene in the collission of 2. hard bodies which make a sound may be thus demonstrated. If two bodies meet one of them must mooue and apply vnto the other. Now wee know that motion cannot be made without a medium. Againe, that this medium or third body must haue the faculty of sounding materially therein, is prooued, because though two bodyes offend one against another, yet if they be sharpe or soft they make little or no sound at all, so a Needle against a Needle, wooll against wooll doe not sound. The reason of the first is, because there is no quantity of this intermediate matter to make an impression off; the second, because though there be a collission yet there is no resistance.  
Moreouer, things that are vnequall or rugged doe not sound well, neither doth a 
Many instances to proue that there must be a medium.  plaine thing make a full sound, for the more cauity there is in the body that is beaten( so it be proportionable to the violence that is offered) the more resonant is the sound. Add hereto, that sometimes though the collision be with greater violence, yet the sound is not so loude, for two blockes beaten together will not make so loude a sound as a little bell; and when a new peece of cloth is torne a sunder, the rash is louder then if two harder bodyes should enterfaire one against another. All these instances doe manifestly prooue that there is a third thing requisite vnto the production of a sound, which is also the matter thereof.  
This third intermediate body is that wherein the concussion is made, be it Ayre or Water, or Fire, for those three bee not onely fit for the transuection of sound, but haue also in them the matter whereof it is formed, although not in an equall degree.  
In concussions therefore the faculty of the medium or power of the matter is actuated when it is intercepted and broken betweene two bodyes offending one against another.  
The manner of this interception or fraction is thus; when two bodyes strike one against another, that which is betwixt them is so vehemently driuen, that one part of it cannot orderly 
The manner of the fraction  mooue by succession after another, but rather one part preuents another, and before the first part hath parted from the place another is driuen vpon the necke of it, and so the motion which when it is successiuely made, is gentle and easie, becommeth now byreason of this inordinate violence tumultuary and troublesome. Hence it is that soft & acute bodyes make no sound in their collision, because the stroke that is betwixt them doth not so disparkle or diuide the intermediate body that there should follow vpō it any interception or fraction, whereby the successiue dissipation may be preuented. Vnequall bodyes because 
According to the differences of the former instances  in their hollow and depressed parts they diuide the Ayre as it were into parcels doe yeeld a lesser sound. Those that are hollow because they gather and close more Ayre which is confusedly shuffled and beaten part vpon part, do yeeld a greater and stronger resonance? Two blocks beaten one against another do not sound so loud, the reasonis because the fraction is not so smart; a bell and a clapper because of their hardnesse and polished superficies doe breake the Ayre more suddainly and throughly, and so beget a louder and brisker sound. A new cloth when it is torne a sunder rasheth louder then the percussion of a harder body, because the Ayre which is about it is diuersly distracted into many parts where the manie threds are torne a sunder.  
It remaineth therefore that a sound is made when as two bodyes offending or iustling one against another, the medium wherein they are mooued endureth betwixt them a compression, that compression endeth in attrition, that attrition in fraction, and that fraction kindleth as it were at resonance.  
VVherefore, Aristotle sayde well in the 78. text of his second booke de Anima that a sound is alwayes actuated when one thing moues against another in a third. 
That the fraction is not the found.   
But although the ayre thus beaten and broken makes a found, yet the very fraction of the ayre is not the sound neither the next and immediate generation thereof, and herein all Philosophers doe agree, particularly Auicen. But what shall wee stand vpon authorities, we prooue it thus.  
The fraction of the ayre is a motion but the sound is not a motion; First, because a Sound is the proper obiect of the Sense of Hearing, but Motion is a common obiect not discerned by the sense of Hearing, and therefore a Sound is not a Motion.  
Secondly Motion is no quality but reduced vnto other Predicaments as wee say in Schooles, that is, to Action, Passion or Place. But Sound is a quality, to witte, one of the 
Nor the motion.  third kind to which the obiects of the Senses are referred.  
Thirdly, Sound is made by Motion; so we see by experience, so wee are taught by all Philosophy; the same Philosophy teacheth vs That nothing produceth itself. Seeing then that motion produceth Sound, certainly Sound can be no Motion.  
It may be obiected that Aristotle in the 58. Text of his Booke de sensu & sensili and the 
Obiection. Solution.  sixt Chapter, sayth that Sound is a Motion; but we answere that he speaketh not in a formall sense but in a casuall, that is, not indeuouring to giue the definition of a Sound but a casuall production, as if he should say; when some motion is made with such and such circumstances, a Sound will result therefrom.  
VVe will also add another Reason and that very strong which is on this maner. Those things which haue a particular existence or being one without the other, are in themselues seuerally distinct and diuers. Now the sound and the breaking motion of the ayre haue seuerall and particular beings, because the sound is diffused and attaineth to those parts of the Aire or water, to which parts the motion cannot reach. And this Aristotle in his fourth Booke De Historia Animalium prooueth by the example of Anglers, who in the time of their disport are as silent as may be, and yet the Fishes heare them. Now saith Aristotle 
Aristotles instance.  it is not like that their whisperings can produce so vehement a motion that the partes of the Aire broken thereby should by succession mooue thorough the whole masse of water vnto the Sense of the Fish.  
Againe, that this fraction of the Aire is not the next and immediat generation of the sound may thus be euicted. Locall motion of itself contendeth or striueth onelie vnto 
That sound is not imediately generated by motion.  Place, neither of itself doth it make impression of any other reall Being vpon that which is mooued, as Aristotle teacheth in the eight Booke of his Physicks the 7 chapter and the 59 Text. It followeth therefore that the generation of Sound is another action besides the motion, which action I know not how to name; yet we may wel conceiue a difference betweene the locall impulsion and the Sound, as we may also perceiue that besides locall motion sometimes heate is engendred, yet no man will say that motion is the immediate cause of heate.  
After this manner also we may well conceiue how the influences of the Stars may be dispensed in this inferiour would. To conclude therefore it is manifest that there must concurre three actions to the production of any Sound, and these three do each accompany and succeede other. The first action is the affront which is betwixt the two bodies which offend one against another. The second is the fraction or breaking of the Medium. The third and last is the sounding of the Medium, for so you shall giue vs leaue to call it, beecause wee can deuise no other name. Immediately after this followeth the Sound.   

QVEST. XXXIX. The definition of a Sound.  
_HAuing as plainly as wee could deliuered the manner of the generation and production of a Sound we will now briefely set downe the definition of it. Aristotle in the 65 Text of his second Booke de Anima, defines a sound to bee A motion of that which may bee mooued with that motion wherewith those things are mooued which do rebound from the mutual percussion of two bodies. Others do define it to be A sensatiue quality striking the hearing and the proper obiect of that Sense. But we will thus define it, A Sound is a passiue and successiue quality produced from the interception and breaking of the Aire or Water which followeth vpon the 
The definitiō of a Sound. Obiection.  collision or striking of two sounding bodyes, & so fit to moue the Sense of Hearing. If any should obiect, that there is but one onely Nature of one thing, as Arist. saieth in the 4 chapter of his first Booke of Topickes, and that a definition is an oration expressing the nature of a thing, as the same Aristotle in the 5 chapter of his first Booke and the sixt chapter of his 5. Booke of Topicks saith, There can be but one definition giuen of one and the same thing, and therefore a Sound should not consist of one simple but of a threefolde Nature, because we haue set downe three definitions one differing from another, whereas wee promised but one definition in the Title of this Chapter. It is therefore to be considered that three 
A threefolde definition of Accidents.  things may be obserued in all Accidents, and from the knowledge of these their Nature may be better manifested: these are the subiect, the genus and the Cause. By which three according to the diuers intention and end of the definer such accidentes are defined eyther with the mention of them all, or of the subiect and genus onely the cause being lefte out, or of the cause alone omitting the other two. The first manner of defining satisfies the vnderstanding best, the other affoords but a lame & defectiue vnderstanding of that which is defined.  
So in this definition of the Ecclipse, that It is a priuation of the Light in the Moone by 
By the ecclips  reason of the interposition of the Earth betwixt the Moone and the Sunne; all three are contained. Likewise the Thunder defined to be a Sound in a Clowd made by the extinction of Fire, is a definition consisting of all three. But this Thunder is onely defined by the subiect and 
Aud thunder.  the Genus, if we say, that Thunder is a Sound in a Cloud, and by the cause alone when we say It is an extinction of the fire. Now if the Nature of Accidents be such, and so great variety be in their definitions, there is no reason but that a sound may be described sometimes one way and sometimes another, to wit, either perfectly or imperfectly.  
Againe, what hindreth that one and the same thing may not sometimes bee defined 
One absolute definition of one accident.  absolutely, sometime relatiuely, the nature of it being as it were changed vnder the same name or appellation, as it happeneth to a sound heere. It remaineth therefore that there is but one definition of one thing, but if there be more, there is but one perfect and absolute, or else they be all imperfect and defectiue.  
Againe, one definition is conceiued or written absolutely, another relatiuely. Let it not then seeme strange to any man that one and the same thing according to a diuers acception thereof, is by Aristotle diuersly defined; as also in the first Booke de anima hee defines anger to be an appetite of reuenge, and presently after; that it is a Feruour or boyling of the blood about the heart.  
Againe, hee describes a house to bee a couer and shelter to defend vs from the violence of windes and showres, and also hee defines it to be a worke or building made of Clay, stone and wood: euen so heere when he describes a sound to be a percussion of one body against another, it is not formally defined but by the efficient cause: so wee say the Ecclipse is an interposition of the earth, that is, caused by the interposition of the Earth.  
Others defining a Sound say it is a passiue quality striking the Sense of Hearing. But we haue added a third( saith Placentinus) which notwithstanding I will not Discourse of so fully as he hath done, because many things will fall into the following Controuersies.   

QVEST. XL. Of the differences of Sounds.  
_WEe are to know when we treate of any subiect, first what it is, and then how manifold it is, wherefore hauing set downe the true definition of a Sounde, we will now speake of the differences thereof, which differences because they be drawne from diuers Fountaines and Originals, they are therefore as 
The diffrence of a Sounde from the Essence. Graue.  diuers and manifold.  
First in respect of their essence they are thus distinguished: Some Soundes continue long, others endure but a while. Both of these may be thus subdiuided: the first dooth either by his long continuance much mooue the Sense, or else but a little; and this is called a graue, base or an obtuse sound. But that which is of a smal continuance is diuided into that which either in this short continuance doth greatly mooue the Sense, or in the 
Acure.  same time doth mooue it verie little, and this is called an acute or trebble sound, & it is opposite to a graue or base Sound. And both these haue borrowed their Names from tactile qualities which do properly challenge these names to themselues. An acute sound hath his name from a sharpe or acute heate or cold; for as these qualities do easily penetrate 
Obtuse.  any body, so this the Sense, which in a short time causeth much Sensation. An obtuse sound hath his name from obtuse or dull heate and cold, because it dooth much resemble them.  
And by these may be gathered a manifest difference betwixt a Sound and the obiects of other Senses, for they all doe remaine in the sensible things when the Sensation is past, in which things they actually exist both before and after Sensation, but the Sound doeth vanish and goe to nothing, together with the perception thereof. And hence it was that Aristotle sayd some sounding things were onely in potentia or in power, and others in Act, &c.  
Againe in respect of the Essence some Sounds are Direct, others Reflected which is called an Eccho. 
The Eccho.   
According to their existence some Sounds be in power and possibility, others in act. The formall and inhesiue subiect of potential Sounds is the Aire and Water, but the subiect 
Different sounds from the essence.  of an actuall Sound is Iron, Brasse, Siluer, Gold, Stones, VVood and other hard and smooth bodies. And hence doth arise another especiall difference betwixt a Sound and the obiects of other Senses, for these doe inhere in the sensible thinges actually and subiectiuely, both before, in, and after Sensation: but a Sound doth not exist in any sensible thing actually and subiectiuely, neither before nor after, nor yet in the very perception of the same.  
Againe, in respect of the manner of their production. Some Soundes are made by 
Manner of production.  the fraction of the ayre caused by two solide bodies, and these bodies because they concurre vnto the making of a Sound, being distinct either indeed or in some respect; according to their diuers and manifoulde concursion this kinde of Sound is againe distinguished.  
Some are made by allision, as when the ayre moued by a vehement winde doth beate against a solide body, and of this kinde is the sound when the Lungs doe deliuer ouer the ayre or breath vnto the hard parts of the rought artery which maketh a kinde of wheezing or whistling. There ariseth also another kinde of Sound when the ayre beateth against 
The sound of winde  other ayre, as it is when the winde is high, for at such time in the open fieldes a man shall heare a whistling noyse.  
There is another kinde of Sound rising from coition, coition I meane or coniunction of the ayre as when cloath or paper is torne, for then to auoyde vacuity the partes of 
Of cloath.  the ayre do sodainly conioyne at the sides of the cloth or paper, where the first parts that are driuen are broken by those which follow and so make a sound.  
There is another kinde of Sound made by extention of the ayre, as when in hissing it is driuen thorough the teeth. Finally, another by constriction as in a pipe or a payre 
Hissing.  of bellowes, or in holes or caues of the earth whereinto the winde driueth the ayre, and when it is in, shouldreth it as it were into a corner.  
The differences of Sound in respect of the resonant bodies are double according to the difference of those bodies, to wit, one Naturall the other Violent. I call that Naturall which is made by such bodies as are able from a principle within themselues to make an impression, or to giue a stroke. And this Sound is againe double, the first belongeth to 
Naturall sounds.  animated bodies, the second to those that haue no life. That of animated bodies is a sound produced willingly by the moouing faculty of the Soule. And it is againe double, that is, made by such organs as are by Nature principally deputed for the production of sounds, or by such organs as are not to that end appointed. The first kinde is yet again double, One formed by the Glottis of exspirated aire and is called a voyce, the other is made of aire which is not receyued by Respiration, nor formed by the Glottis, but by the action of som 
The voice.  other body. And of this kinde is the sound of those creatures which we call Insecta and of most Fishes. The Sound that proceedeth from such organs as are not thereto by Nature deputed is also double. First, as when two creatures or two hands do strike one against another, the second when one body hath life the other hath none, as when a man strikes his hand vpon a Table.  
Furthermore, the naturall Sound of bodies without life, is that which is made by the action of the first qualities, as that of the Fire, of the Aire, of the Water, of the Earth or of these mixed: for example, the thundering of Aire when it is concluded or shut vp in water and violently breaketh foorth through a narrow outlet. And thus much of Naturall Sounds. I call that Violent which is made by bodies beaten one against another by an 
Violent sounds.  extrinsecall or outward principle, all which might be nicely parted into seuerall Sections if we did not thinke that any man might out of the order we haue before insisted vppon frame vnto himselfe a multitude of distinctions or differences of Sounds.   

QVEST. XLI. Of the manner of Hearing.  
_COncerning the manner of Hearing the Phylosophers doe diuersly dissent in their opinions.  
Alcmaeon thought that we doe therefore Heare because our Eares are empty 
Diuers opinions of hearing Alcmaeon.  and hollow within, for all empty things doe make a resonance.  
Diogenes thought that there was a kind of Ayre within the Braine, and that this Ayre was strucken with the voyce, & this conceit was controuerted in Hippocrates times, & therfore 
Diogenes.  in his booke 〈◇〉, he inueigheth against it; There are( saith he) some which writing of the Nature of things haue affirmed that the braine doth make a sound, which cannot be, for the Braine is humide and moyst, but no moyst body can cause a sound. Plato writeth that Hearing is 
Hippocrates.  made by the pulsation and beating of an internall Ayre.  
But we passing by these slippery wayes of opinions will insist vpon the true manner of 
Plato.  Hearing, and in a short and familiar discourse display the whole Nature thereof. For because the Organ of Hearing was vnknowne to the antient Phylosophers and Physitions, particularly to Aristotle and Galen in whose dayes Anatomy was but in the infancie and therefore the many small and curious parts of that Organ not found out; we cannot therefore collect the perfect nature of Hearing out of their writings, and therefore in this disquisition we must trust more vnto our owne experience.  
Aristotle in his second booke de anima and in his booke de sensu & sensili, saith, that three things are required vnto sense. 
How hearing is made. The obiect of it.   
The obiect, medium and instrument or Organ, the obiect of the Hearing is Sound, as colour is the obiect of the light, but of the Nature of a sound, wee haue intreated already as much as is necessary for this place. Onely I will call to your remembrance by the way, that a Sound is a quality arising from the fraction and breaking of the Ayre which is 
What sound is  made by the percussion of two hard and solide bodyes, for soft things doe easily yeeld, neither doe they resist the force of that which beates against them.  
The medium or meane of Hearing is the externall Ayre, for Aristotle doubted whether 
The medium of it. The Organ of it.  a voyce could be heard in the water or no, and yet he knows very well that Fishes do heare who was euer present at the fishing for Mullets in the night.  
The instrumtnt of the Hearing is not the external Eare, but the internall, which consisteth of foure cauities and many other particles vnknowne to the Antients.  
The manner therefore of Hearing is thus. The externall Ayre beeing strucken by two hard and solid bodyes, and affected with the qualitie of a sound doth alter that Ayre 
The manner of hearing.  which adioyneth next vnto it, and this Ayre mooueth the next to that, vntill by this continuation and successiue motion it ariue at the Eare. For euen as if you cast a stone into a pond there will circles bubble vp one ouertaking and moouing another: so it is in the percussion of the Ayre; there are as it were certaine circles generated, vntil by succession they attaine vnto the Organ of Hearing. Auicen very wittily calleth this continuation of the strucken Ayre vndam vocalem, a vocall waue.  
But this kind of motion is not made in a moment but in succession of Time, wherevpon it is that the sound is not presently after the stroke, heard from afarre. The Ayre endowed with the quality of a sound is through the auditory passage, which outwardly is alwayes open, first striken against the most drie and sounding membrane, which is therefore called Tympanum or the Drumme. The membrane being strucken doth mooue the three little bones, and in a moment maketh impression of the character of the sound. This sound is presently receiued of the inbred Ayre, which it carryeth through the windowes of the stony stone before described, into the winding burroughs, and so into the Labyrinth, after into the Snaile-shell, and lastly into the Auditory Nerue which conueyeth it thence vnto the common Sense as vnto his Censor and Iudge. And this is the true manner of hearing.   

QVEST. XLII. Whether the proper and inbred Ayre contayned within the Eare be the primary and principall Instrument of Hearing.  
_THE proper and ingenit ayre which the Barbarians call Implanted, and Aristotle inaedificated and immoneable, is contayned in the second cauity of the Eares, which the same Aristotle calleth the Snayle-shell. Some doe 
The names of it.  call it Immoueable, because it is not mooued by any other, but alwayes remaines the same in the Eares. Others call it immoueable, because it hath no naturall sound, but can receiue all the differences of Sounds. The auntients thought that this ayre was the chiefe and principall organ of Hearing, and in respect of this ayre Aristotle in his second booke de Anima, and in his booke de Sensu et Sensil. saith, the nature of the Hearing is ayrie.  
Indeede I esteeme this Ayre to be very necessary vnto Hearing, yea so necessary that Hearing can scarsly bee performed without it: but I can neuer perswade myself that it is the principall organ of Hearing. It is an vniuersall Theoreme and generally true, that in euery perfect organ there is some certaine particle to which as to the chiefe cause the Action is to be attributed; so in the Liuer the 〈◇〉 maketh Sanguification. In the Eye 
The inbred ayre is not the principall organ of Hearing.  the Cristalline humor causeth Sight, in the Muscles, flesh effecteth motion and the Mamillary processes doe make the Smell. But it will be obiected, that this inbred ayre is not a Similar part, therefore no such Action is due to it.  
Now that it is no part may be thus demonstrated. Euery Similar part is either Spermaticall or fleshie, but this ayre neither deriued his Originall from the seede nor from 
The inbred is no part.  the blood; therefore it is no part. If it be answered, that it is not indeede a simple ayre but a kinde of spirit. I againe reply, that it cannot be a spirit; for if you conceiue it to be a vitall spirit, it should not forsake the Arteries. If you say it is Animall, then should it follow that an animall spirit should be accounted the chiefe Instrument in the organs of the other Senses.  
Againe, a spirit is the most common organ of the Soule, which that noble forme vseth vnto the performance of all her functions. But as there is a peculiar part in the eye which doth primarily cause vision, to wit, the Cristaline humor; a Similar and Spermaticall part generated of the purest portion of the seede: so there must be such a Similar part found in the Eare. But such is not that ingenit or inbred ayre, because it differeth nothing from the outward ayre, but onely in purity and rest. It is generated of the 
How it is generated.  outward ayre, not indeed by coction and elaboration, as are the spirits; nor yet by any action of the Soule, but by the continuall arriuall of new ayre, which partly is brought thorough the hole of the Eares, being alwayes open and winding, vnto this Cochlea or Snaile-shell; partly deriued thither, by inspiration thorough a certaine little hole or pipe like a water-course opening into the palate.  
Moreouer, wee may out of Aristotle in the second booke de Anima, prooue that nothing without life can be the instrument of any Sense: but the inbred ayre is without life 
It is not animated.  or soule, because the Soule is not an act of a simple body. Neither hath this inbred ayre any organs of a soule, for why should this ayre which is onely generated by the outward ayre, not concocted by any faculty of the Soule, be rather animated then that ayre which is in the other cauities of the body. But this ayre doth rest in the Eare, and not in other cauities; because it is concluded in a straite hole, and by reason of the windings of these darke laborinths cannot easily passe forth.  
It is not therefore the organ of Hearing, but rather an internall Medium. For as the 
It is an internall Medium.  outward ayre is strucken by the beating of two bodies together, so is this internall struc●●en by the externall, & that by the interiection of the Tympane, or Drume, of the Chord or String, and of the three little bones. The same ayre being altered, doth carie the bare Character and species of the Sound seperated from the matter, to a nerue of the fift coniugation, led a long and dilated in each Eare. And this Nerue is the chiefe organ of Hea●ing as the mammillary processes are of the Smell.  
Now that this internall Medium is required in euery Sense, may bee demonstrated by 
The internall meanes of all the Senses.  example, for the watery humor is the internall Medium of the Sight, the spittle of the ●ast, the cuticle or scarfe-skin of the Touch, and the spongie bones of the Smell. In all ●hich the formes are seperated from their matter, and being so seperated are conuayed to the principall 〈◇〉 or Organ: that is the Christalline, for the Sight, the Pulpe of the Tongue for the Tast, the Mamillarie processes for the Smell, the true skin for the Touch, and so the Auditorie nerue for the Hearing.   

QVEST. XLIII. An explication of certaine hard Problemes about the Eares.  
_IT remaineth that wee proceede vnto the dilucidation of some difficult questions concerning the Eares, which knots we will vntye and explane for a conclusion of these controuersies. The first thing propounded is, How it comes to passe that wee are more recreated with Hearing then with Reading: 
Why Hearing is more delightfull then reading  For we are wonderfully delighted in the hearing of fables and playes acted vpon a Stage, much more then if wee learned them out of written bookes. Cardan as Scaliger saith in his 308 Exercitation, contents himselfe with 
Cardanus.  this onely reason, because, saith he, those things which are published in bookes are made vulgar and common, and therefore are not so curiously nor with so much delight read ouer; but good Actors are more rare.  
Scaliger refuteth this argument, both because good bookes are as rare as good Actors, as also because it is not the part of a humane ingenuous disposition but of a liuid and 
Disproued by Scaliger.  malicious minde, to esteeme those things most precious or more pleasant which are vnknowne to others.  
Scaliger therefore presenteth many other reasons of this Probleme. First, because we learne those things which we heare with lesse labour then those things which we reade. 
His Reasons.   
Secondly, because a voyce doth more affect vs by reason of his inflexion and insinuation into our Sense, whereas reading is onely a dumbe Actor.  
Thirdly, because those things which be heard, take a deeper impression in our minds, which is made by the appulsion or ariuall of a reall voyce. But those things which are seene are alwayes intentionally imprinted, & therfore the Act of Seeing is sooner ended and passeth more lightly by the Sense then the Act of Hearing. Whence it followes necessarily that things seene do not sticke so fast vnto vs. And this the Apostle insinuateth when he saith, He beholdeth his face in a glasse and goeth away, and presently forgetteth what manner of one hee was. Neither is that of the Lyrick Poet any sufficient contradiction or this where he saith:  
Segnius irritant animos demissaper aures,  
Quam quae sunt oculis subiect a fidelibus.  
The voyce that sinkes in by the eare doth not so soone offend  
Or gall the minde; as when the eyes more faithfull message send.  
For that is true of those things which we doe onely beleeue by heare-say, which indeed doe not so neerely affect vs as those things we see done before our eyes.  
The fourth reason is, because there is a kinde of society in narration and acting, which is very agreeable to the nature of man, but reading is more solitary.  
Fiftly, because a certaine shamefastnesse and obseruancie doth cause vs to apply our eares to him that vttereth any thing by voyce, but in reading there is a kinde of remission in the minde and security from any blame of not profiting. Now wee conceiue more pleasure in a diligent and curious acting, then in a negligent and carelesse.  
Sixtly, wee haue opportunity to demaund a reason of some doubts from him which speaketh to vs; and thence we receiue more profit then by bare reading, from which profit a certaine delight doth arise. Againe, because Bookes cannot digresse from their discourse for the better explication of a thing, as those may which teach by their voyce. For in changing of words or mutuall conference, many pleasant passages are brought in by accident, as the Interlocuters list to aduance themselues; as we see in Comedies it is very ordinary. And by these sauces, as it were, of discourse, is the Hearing more sumptuoutly feasted, but the vniformity of the stile in things written and the continuity of the sentences causeth the Reader to loathe it.  
The second question is, why a mans voyce which is sweeter then the sound of a Pipe, is yet not iudged sweeter by the Eare if a man imitate the sound of a Pipe with his voyce▪ for when a man sings his voyce is sweeter then a Pipe, but a Pipe is more pleasant then ● mans voyce when he whistleth.  
Some resolue this probleme thus, that it so hapneth because that which is naturall is more pleasant then that which is counterfeited and fained. And therefore when a man sings he addeth an articulation to his voyce aboue the sound of the Pipe; wherefore it is not strange that it is iudged to be sweeter; but when he imitateth a pipe or whistleth, hee doth not so sound pleasantly as a pipe, because he doth counterfeit it.  
The third question is why we do conceiue a song to be more pleasant in consort with a pipe then with a harpe. I answer, because both the sounds are heard distinctly by themselues 
3. Quastion.  and better mingled together, for both a mans voyce and the sound of a pipe are accomplished by a breath within, but the sound of a harpe is not so. Againe, it may be thus answered, because a pipe, whose sound is somewhat a kin to the voyce, doth drowne many faults in the song, which the sound of a harpe doth not being fine & vnfit to consort with the voyce but is heard distinctly by itself carrying his owne tune simple & pure & so discouers all the slips and errours of the song by his owne iust and proportionable harmony. Now seeing that in singing many things happen out of order that sound which doth most of all bewray the confusion that is betwixt harmony and discord must needs be more harsh in the Eare.  
The fourth question shall be, why children when they heare musicke doe first ceasse their crying and after fall asleepe. Alexander in the 121. Probleme of the first booke, rendreth 
4. Question.  this reason of it: because there is a kinde of harmony in the sould by instinct, as other sciences be; neither doe we obtaine any thing by doctrine as Plato affirmeth, but onely by recalling to mind. As often therefore as the soule perceiueth any pleasant melody, she as it were, repeating and calling to mind her owne Nature, causeth the infant to ceasse crying, and luls it asleepe by drawing itself from the trouble of outward obiects.  
These are the Platonists arguments.  
But Aristotle more truely resolueth this probleme in the 39. probleme and 19. section where he demandeth why all men are wont to be delighted with numbers, tunes and all kindes 
Aristotle.  of musique. Is it because euery thing according to Nature is done by number and measure, that so it might tickle and delight our Senses or our minds? Surely a great argument of the exact and curious disposition of Nature we may finde in ourselves, for when we labour, drinke & eate ordinately, that is, according to our proportion( the scantling whereof is most commonly taken by experience) wee doe not onely conserue the naturall disposition and frame of our bodyes, but also increase our strength and perpetuate the vigour both of body and 
Example in ourselves.  minde: on the contrary, when when we liue dissolutely, that is, inordinately all things succeed and runne headlong into detriment. In like manner the resonance or consonance which we speake of, is, nothing else but an ordinate or proportionable mixtion or temper of contraryes amongst themselues; which contraryes if they keepe quarter and make, as it were; faire warre, there is a kinde of military order or consent in disagreeing. Aristotle therefore conceiueth that the consent of words doth therfore refresh, please and delight the Eares, because it is compounded according to certaine lawes deriued or taken from the nature of the thing. Neither is this onely true in the Sense of Hearing, but also in the obiects of the other Senses, for in a picture onely those colours doe delight the Eyes, and in afeast those sapours the Tast, which are tempered after a certaine maner and proportion. Aristotle addeth further, that not onely Musicall sounds, such I meane as are made according to art, but those which they call modi ●diectitij, that is, extrauagants, such as wee call the blacke, Santas doe oft times delight vs, especially if we be accustomed vnto them. The reason is because custome is another Nature. Wherefore that which is by custome made proportionable is as well musicall as that which is naturally melodious.  
A fifth question may be why he that singeth the Base is sooner discouered if he make 
5. Probleme.  any iarre then he that singeth the Treble: the like happeneth in numbers, for in that which is greater, the error is more euident; but let vs giue the reason. VVe say therefore, it is because the base sound consumeth more time, and by that meanes is better perceiued by the Eares; but the Treble sound is swift and doth easily and suddainly passe away.  
A sixth question is, why we doe not heare well when wee yawne. I answer, that in 
6. Probleme. Why yawning hinders our hearing.  the act of yawning,( which the Latines call Oscitation) wee shake out and disquiet a dull and sluggish winde which lurketh in the cranies and chinkes of the throate, which winde attaining vnto the Eares by those perforations which are made from them into the palate stoppeth, and fulfilleth the Organ of Hearing, and withall causeth a kinde of disturbing noyse which darkeneth the brightnesse or dulleth the edge, or adulterates the puritie which commeth from without: so also we see, that if two men talke together & at once, they cannot heare one another, at least not distinctly, because the Sounde of eithers voice is repelled by the other, and that is the reason that he that would listen & heare distinctly holdeth his breath.  
Add heereto, that the holes of the Eares are compressed when the mandibles or iawes are distracted or drawne asunder by oscitation or yawning. If then the hole of hearing be compressed, the aire which carrieth the Sound cannot so freely arriue vnto it.  
The seauenth question is, why if a man be within a house he will sooner heare a noyse that is made without: and on the contrary he that is without the house shall not perceiue a Sound made within the house? The Reason is thus rendred, He that is without dooth 
7. Probleme.  not so well perceiue the sound that is made within the house, because the aire breaking foorth is dissipated or diuided in a greater roomth or more capacious place and so the sound becommeth dull and looseth his vigour being parted with the aire into so manie parts, or stretched into so wide an extent. Againe on the contrary, he that is within the house doth easily heare a noise that is made without, because the sound entering into the house is contracted, gathered or vnited, and therefore it must needes mooue the Sense more fully. The very same reason seemeth to bee in the acte of Sight, for beeing within doores we see better that which is done without, then if we were without doores we shold discerne what is done within, for the species comming from without into the house are gathered and vnited. Againe, the visiue vertue of the eye within the house which vndertaketh to view that which is without is easily dissipated or disvnited.  
The eight and last question shall bee, whether when manie men talke together they can be heard further then if one man onely spake, imagining the voyces to be equall. This 

8. Probleme A preti● question.  
Aristotle.   question made Aristotle at a stand, yet hee resolueth it thus in the second probleme of the 19 Section. It is( saith hee) because it is more easie to worke with vnited powers then with single and separate, for all compound thinges are of greater force then Singulares. VVherefore when many mens voices go together, the Sound must needs be constant and vnited, and so driue the aire much farther then otherwise it would bee driuen by a single Voice in the same Key.  
To Aristotle we adde Experience and Example. Experience, because you may heare the tumult of an Armie further then the vociferation or crie of one Souldiour. 
Experience.   
Againe, in Markets and Fayres where many people are assembled, the murmur of the multitude is heard further then the voice of one man though he be lowder then his Fellowes. The noise of a Frogge is not great Iwis, yet what time they breede they may bee heard many miles out of the Isle of Elie. Neither are we to wonder at this, for wee haue 
Examples.  examples of the like in the obiects of other Senses, as many Candles of an equall bignes wil enlighten the aire further then one Candle though it be bigger then any of the other. A heap of sand may be seen a great way off on the Seashore, but a moat of sand can scarsly be discerned vnder the eye. If therefore it be so in the visible obiect, why should we not acknowledge it in the audible? For although the species of particular voices are not vnited, yet where there is a totall aggregation or heaping vp of many species together, they may produce one that a may attaine to a further limit then any of them could doe in particular.  
I knowe well that Aristotle in another place, that is to say the 52 Probleme of the 11 Section seemeth to contradict that we haue before alledged out of him, which was the 
Aristotle contradicteth himselfe.  reason that I saide before Aristocle was doubtfull in the resolution of this question, but because that which we haue quoted is the last, and after-thoughts( they say) are the Wisest, we will rest ourselves therein: for if we should take occasion to dispute with Aristotle too and fro alwayes when we haue occasion offered, we should wearie ourselves, and forget that our Philosophie is not of the maine, but by the Bye. Wherefore wee returne againe to our Anatomie.   

QVEST. XLIIII. Of the wonderfull simpathy and Consent of the Eaeres, the Palate, the Tongue, and the Throttle.  
_THere be many things which do manifest this wonderfull 〈◇〉 or communion of the eares with the instruments of the Voice, which that Genius of Nature 
The simpathy of the Ears & instruments of the voice.  Aristotle in the 32. Section of his Problemes hath declared. For when wee would heare any thing attentiuely we hold our breath, when wee yawne we do not heare so exquisitely. And if you goade the Tympane of the eare with a Pen-knife it will presently cause a drie Cough. Those which be halfe deafe do speak but stutteringly and their voyce is made through their Nose. Againe, those who from their Birth are deafe, are in like manner 〈◇〉, that is, are dumbe.  
Lastly, if you holde an Instrument in your mouth or betwixt your teeth and stop your eares, you shall heare more perfectly; whence it is that deafe men do heare best by theyr mouths. All these are certaine and plaine arguments of that communion and sympathy 
Whence this cōmunion is.  which is betwixt the eares and the vocall instruments, to witte, the Mouth, the Tongue, and the Throttle.  
But the reason of this communion is not knowne to all. Some thinke, that the Auditory nerue, or the Nerue of the fifte Coniugation and that of the seauenth which mooueth the Tongue are couered with the same coate from their beginning, and therfore the affects of those parts are easily communicated. But ocular inspection doth perswade the contrary, for the passages and wayes of either coniugation are diuers, and there is a great distance betweene them. VVe( saith Laurentius) will acknowledge a double cause of this communion, the one is referred vnto the auditory Nerue, the other vnto a little Canale or pipe which was vnknowne to the Ancients.  
The Nerue of the first Coniugation brancheth out into many surcles, the larger is dilated into the Eare and the Membrane of most exquisite Sense, and carrieth the species or formes of all Sounds vnto the Braine; the lesser runnes vnto the Tongue and the 
A double cause of this communion.  Throttle. The affects therefore of the Eares and the Tongue are easily communicated by reason of the communion of the vessels, which according to Hippocrates and Galen is the onely cause of this sympathy. Hence it is that the Membrane of the eare being prouoked or goaded doth cause a drie cough, whereof Auicen maketh mention. Hence also it is, that almost all deafe men be dumbe, or at least haue but an imperfect speech, the auditorie 
Hippocrates his community of vessels.  Nerue being affected, which is complicated or folded with the seuenth coniugation. For I do not approoue of that common position, that deafe men be therefore dumbe because they can learne no Language, and because Hearing is the Sense of knowledge. For if they were onely dumbe for this cause, wherefore should they then sigh & mourne with so great difficultie which are Naturall passions? VVhy shoulde they not; as well as those which were the first inuenters of things, faigne Language and words whereby they might expresse the thoughts and Discourse of their mindes if they could vtter them? For Nature hath armed a Man although hee bee deafe with Reason and Vnderstanding for Inuention.  
It remaineth that wee proceede vnto the second cause of this consent which is by a 
The second cause of the sympathy.  gristly Canale like a water-pipe which is conueighed from the second hole of the Eare vnto the Mouth & Pallate. This course or pipe was appointed for the purging of the inbred aire, for the auoyding of the excrements of the eares, as also that the in-bred ayre might bee recreated by the arriuall of new aire inspired by the mouth; and lastly, that by this way a passage may bee open for the externall aire rushing forcibly through the hole 
Reasons of the former instances.  of the Eares, as it is in the noyse made by Ordinance when wee are neere it. The Ayre therefore doth passe freelie out of the mouth into the Eare, and againe retireth from the Eare into the mouth. VVhence it is, that when wee would heare more attentiuelie weeholde our Breath, least the Cochlea or Snaile-shell should bee filled with aboundance of inspired Aire and so the Tympane bee stretched. But such as yawne doe not heare so well, because in this yawning or gaping the Tympane is so stretched and puffed vp, that it cannot receyue outward Sounds.  
Lastly, by scratching the Eare wee prouoke Spittle, because by that compressing there is an expression of Excrements into the Cartilagineous or gristlie passage, and so from thence vnto the Tongue. And thus much of the Sense of Hearing, now we come vnto the Smell.   

QVEST. XLV. What Smelling is,  
_THat the Nose was by Nature made as well for Respiration as for the Sense of Smelling, we haue before declared. But what is the Sense of Smelling, 
The desfinitiof smelling.  that we doe vndertake in this place more precisely to vnfould. Smelling therfore is the middle Sense of fiue, which perceiueth the odours of thinges drawne in by the Nosthrils for the vse and behoofe of the Creature.  
It is a great question( which also we haue a little touched before) whether to the action of this Sense the Inspiration of aire together with the odour be of absolute necessity; and yet the streame and current of mens opinions as well Philosophers as Physitians run vpon the affirmatiue part. For if we desire or bee willing to endeuour ourselues to Smell 
Whether inspiration be necessary to smelling.  any thing more curiously, we draw the ayre in at our Nostrilles, and that is the reason why we cannot smell in the water, because the water that is drawne filleth the passages of the Organ. Placentinus is of the contrary opinion and alledgeth Aristotle for his authour in the fift Chapter of his Book de Sensu & sensili where he sayth that Nature doth but collaterally vse Respiration in the Attraction of odours, which Respiration, sayth he, she destinated primarily to another end.  
If therefore Respiration be necessary to the Smell, then it followeth that Nature ordayned it primarily for that end. For, sayth he, this is a rule in Nature, that whatsoeuer in our bodies doeth necessarily belong to any function that is primarily appoynted for that function, and doth not sort vnto it by error, chance or accident.  
Seeing therefore the primary and chiefe vse of Respiration is to refresh and cherish the heart and his spirites, it followeth that it is not altogether necessary for Smelling.  
Indeede one and the same thing may haue diuers vses, but the principall and primary vse is but one, for which onely it is necessary and to the rest accommodated onely secondarily or by accident Againe, if an odour of itself be fit to ascend vnto his own Organ why should we thinke that Respiration should be so absolutely necessary? Now an odout is nothing else but a hot and dry exhalation as we shall proue afterwards and exhalation; of their owne Nature doe tend or moue vpward. If then they ascend naturally, why may it not be that a sweet and pleasing breath may rise into the Nostrilles and passe on vnto the Organ of smelling without any attraction of the ayre.  
Placentinus addeth another argument which hee calleth Inuincible, taken from those women that are Hystericall, that is, haue fits of the Mother. For such woemen although they haue no Respiration at all, doe yet receiue and perceiue odours, and not onely so but 
Fits of the mother are holpen by smels.  are almost miraculously redeemed or recouered by them: what shall wee say vnto the wombe itself, doth it not smell? yet no man did euer say that the wombe did respire, but dayly experience teacheth vs that it taketh so great pleasure in sweete Smels and is so offended 
The wombe followes sweet sauours.  with that which is noysome and abhominable, that it mooueth and applyeth itself manifestly vnto the one and auoydeth the other, euen with Locall and Methematicall motion.  
But it may be obiected that if we hold our breath we cannot smell, and therefore this 
Obiection.  Sense is not accomplished without Inspiration. Placentinus answereth, that it is not true, that if an odour be applyed to the Nose and the breath retayned, no Sense will bee made; 
Solution.  and those who vrge experience are deceiued in their experimenting. For the breath cannot bee so retayned that nothing at all should either get in or out. If then any thing enter in it helpeth the attraction of the odour: if any thing get out it hindreth the same, yea it repelleth or driueth it from the Organ. And that the breath cannot be so immouably retayned, may be conuinced by reason and experience.  
Reason sayth, that because such retention of the breath is violent and against nature, Nature will likewise with all his force and vigour resist and oppose that violence, and beside that all the Organs of Respiration doe by a proper instinct hasten to their Naturall Action.  
Hence it followeth that the Muscles staggering as it were in their worke of sustentation, and the Lungs declining downeward by their waight, doe betwixt them perpetually expell some small quantity of ayre, which is a subtle and fluide Element, and wil finde way through insensible passages. Now that there is such an instinct in the muscles seruing to Respitation & that this instinct may doe much, we may easily coniecture, because though a muscle is otherwise an instrument of voluntary motion; yet euen in sleepe when all election is absent, and the wil, especially vnto motion, is at rest as well as the body; yet euen then the intercostall muscles, and the midriffe which serue for Respiration doe follow the necessity of Nature, and mooue as freely as when we are awake. Shall wee therefore conceiue that vpon the same necessity or a greater, when wee ourselues doe voluntarily seeke to oppose and frustate the end of Nature, shee shall not bee able without our knowledge and against our wills to let out so small a quantity of Ayre as may suffice for this her purpose; of Ayre I say, which is so subtle & fluid a body that it will issue at the least crannie and yeeld vnto the least impulsion or violence?  
Experience confirmeth the same thing, for if you burne any thing that is odoriferous vnder the Nose and retaine your breath, you shall finde, nay you shall see, that that fume will be mooued on this side and on that side, which no doubt commeth to passe by reason of the Ayre which passeth and repasseth outward and inward: but if it get within the nosthrils then it is presently smelt as any man that list to try may perceiue in himselfe. Indeed some men of no smal estimation haue affirmed that we cannot smell if we retain our breath, but the true reason is, because the odour doth not attaine vnto the Organ, nay it doth not enter into the nosthrils, for therein they are deceiued. They thinke they canne hold their breath immooueable, whereas indeede the naturall instinct driuing their breath foorth, doth also driue the odorable obiect from the Organ, but let them proue that though a fume doe of it own accord ascend into the cauities of the nosthrils, yet it is not perceiued by the Sense of smelling vnlesse they adde respiration thereto, and then I will yeeld them the bucklers.  
You will demand, if Respiration be not necessary why doe we purposely draw our breath when we would smell. 
Question. Answer.   
The answer is at hand, to wit, that the obiect may sooner and more plentifully attaine vnto the Organ. VVe grant therefore that Inspiration helpeth the Smell m●ch, but it 
Conclusion.  doth not thence follow that it is necessary. Againe, to the maintenance of life Inspiration is absolutely necessary, but for better life, not so, but onely by accident or secondarily. In like manner we confesse that the Sense of smelling is not ordinarily without Respiration but yet it may be; and Respiration is not necessary to the being, but to the better beeing of the Sense. And if nature had prepared the way of Respiration through some other member, and not through the Nose; yet vndoubtedly the Nose would haue smelt, as we may see in those creatures, which do not respire. And this is Placentinus his opinion.   

QVEST. XLVI. Why Man doth not Smell so well as many other Creatures.  
_PLato in Timaeo, and Theophrastus in the sixth chapter of his sixth book de causis plantarum together with many other who haue written of this subiect, all of them, I say, with one consent doe acknowledge that the Sense of Smelling is more dull in men then in many other Creatures.  
The same doth Aristotle auouch in the fourth chapter of his booke de sensu & sensili, where hee also addeth that of all the senses this Sense of Smelling in man is most sluggish and dull, which also he confirmeth in the 92. text of his 2. book de Anima.  
The truth of this opinion is very euident by the example of other creatures as Dogges, 
What creatures smell better then men.  Hogs, Crowes, Bees and other birds and beasts which are able a farre off to wind, as wee say, the sent of any thing. But man is constrayned to moue the obiect euen vnto the Nose and yet he is not able to discerne or perceiue any smels but those, that are so strong that they alter the Sense either into pleasure or paine. Add hereto, that many brute beastes doe know more by their smels then man can attaine to by all his senses, as the Hound that 
Beasts smell many things that men cannot.  hunts vpon the cold foote of a Hare or a Deare, yea they can in the night follow a man, steps and worke out his way through a thousand difficulties and intanglements or permixtion of other Smels. So we see also that in the darke a Dogge will know his owne master from a great many other men onely by his smell. A Tyger being robbed of her whelps will finde them out againe by her smell. Now none of these odours can the Sense of smelling in man apprehend.  
The reason hereof, Aristotle in the place before quoted referreth vnto the fault, not of the faculty, but of the Organ. For this Organ is cold and very moyst, but the obiect hot and 
The reason of it.  dry: now it is necessary that the Organ should potentially bee such as the subiect is actually. So that when sensation is made the obiect may worke vpon the instrument and conuert it into his Nature. But in this Sense of Smelling such conuersion cannot be made without great difficulty, for that which is moyst doth hardly become dry, and by reason of this difficulty a man smelleth but remisly or dully, that is, not without either pleasure or paine. The reason is, because the Obiect must be very vehement before it can turne the moysture of the Organ into his owne Nature, that is, make it hot and dry.  
Beside, this proper & natiue vnfitnesse of the Organ, there is also another ineptitude added, and that is the vicinity or neighbourhoode of the braine, which is in man much 
Other reasons.  greater in respect of his magnitude then in other creatures. Seeing therefore the braine aboundeth with moisture, which moisture is also imparted vnto the Instrument of Smelling; it commeth to passe that that Instrument by this coniunction of the braine becommeth more vnapt. Whence it is that the same Aristotle in the 33. Probleme of the tenth Section, hath obserued that the Instrument of Smelling is much incommodated by the moyst superfluities of the brame. The power therefore of Smelling being as it were steeped in this moisture groweth dull and sleepy, which in that which is hote and dry would bee awaked and shew itself; and therefore in bruite beasts whose braines are not either so moist, or at least yield not so much moisture because they are lesse, this Faculty or Sense is more pregnant and apprehensiue.  
Some arguments are neuerthelesse made to the contrary, for thus they say: Where 
Obiection.  the forme is more excellent, there also the faculty is proportionably excellent. Now wee know that the forme of a man which is his Reasonable soule, is farre more excellent then the Sensatiue forme of a bruite beast, wherefore the faculties also of his forme are more perfect, and among the rest that of Smelling.  
We answere, that albeit the Soule of a man is much more excellent and diuine then the Soule of a beast, yet so long as it is chained in the prison of this body of Earth, it 
Solution.  cannot performe his functions but by the helpe of corporeall Organs, and therefore as the Temperature and conformation of the Organs is more or lesse conuenient, so are the functions more perfect or imperfect. Seeing therefore that the Organ of Smelling by which as by a hand the Soule reacheth odours vnto itself, is as we said in men somewhat to moyst, and therefore vnfit for the sodaine and quicke reception of odours: it followeth that by reason of this fault of the Instrument the faculty of the Sould is as it were abated or allayed that it cannot so perfectly and freely manifest itself.  
It may be obiected againe, that because the Organ of a mans Smell is colde & moyst, hee should Smell the better not more dully, for that which is hote and dry as odours are, 
Obiection.  doth worke more powerfully vpon that which is the coldest and the moystest.  
True it is, that the odour will worke better vpon the Organ, but as I said before, cannot so easily conuert it into his owne Nature, for the qualities of the Organ are in a great 
Solution.  degree contrary & repugnāt to the nature of the Obiect, but when sensation is made they must grow to be alike. Wherefore if the Organ be so disposed that there is not so great a difference betwixt it & the nature of his obiect, it cōmeth to passe that they consent better together, and the Organ yeeldeth more easily toward the Nature of that which doth importune it: But we proceede vnto the Nature of an Odour.   

QVEST. XLVII. Of the Essence of an Odour.  
_HEraclitus, as Aristotle remembreth in the fift Chapter of his Booke de Sensu●t 
Heraclitus opinion of Odours.  Sensili, conceiuing that Odours are a fumide exhalation, sayeth, that if all Beings had beene fumide the Nose would haue discerned of all. Aristotle replies vpon him on this manner. If that were true which Heraclitus collecteth, it would follow that those creatures which liue in the water do not Smell, for in the water there can be no fumide or smoaky exhalation generated. But that Fishes doe smell may bee proued by the choise of their meate, which Aristotle perswades himselfe they make by Smelling.  
We, saith Placentinus, haue other Reasons against this opinion: First, because a fumide exhalation is a substance, for it subsisteth by itself and sustaineth accidents, and therefore naturally and by his owne motion we perceiue that it mounteth vpward. Now then if an Odour were a fumide exhalation, it could not be by it sselfe sensible, for no substance doth by itself fall vnder any Sense. Yet no man will denie but that an Odour doth by itself and immediately worke vpon the Organ of Smelling.  
It is true indeede that a fumide exhalation attayning to the nosethrils mooues the 
Placentinus refutation of Heraclitus.  Sense of Smelling, but it doth not follow that therefore such an exhalation is an odour: rather wee should say that the Odour hath his subsistence in the exhalation as in her subiect: for accidents neither are, nor can be without their subiects.  
Notwithstanding there is a place in Galen neare the end of the second chapter of his booke de edoratus organo which seemeth to prooue this opinion of Heraclitus to bee true; 
A place of Galen expounded.  the words are these; That falleth into the Sense of smelling which is betwixt the Nature of ayre and water, to wit, such a thing as is neither so thin as ayre nor so thicke as water, for that which exhaleth or vapoureth from the hodies of things is the substance of odours, which wee may perceiue by roses and the like tender plants whose bodyes doe quickely become lesse crumple, and dry vpwhence we may certainely gather that the more humide part of their substance is resolued in toexhalation. Thus farre Galen. 
Andanswered   
We answer that Galen saith that the substance of an odour is an exhalation, by substance there meaning the subiect wherein the odour doth consist, for it had beene a grosse thing in Galen, and vnworthy the edge of so keene a Phylosopher, if hee had attributed substance to an odour which hath no existence of itself.  
And if any man shall insist vpon the example of Roses, we will giue him this satisfaction, that Galen doth not conclude that Roses therefore doe become lesser and dryer, because their moystest parts are exhaled into odours, but he saith that their moyster part turneth into an exhalation: and he saith true. for an exhalation which is a substance absumeth the humiditie of the body out of which it issueth, and diminisheth the same; for how can it be but diminished when a substantiall part is taken from the whole. But an odour is not a substantial part, neither is it made of a part, but subsisteth in the whole subiect, and is nothing else but an accident or an incorporeall qualitie. So that out of these words of Galen wee may gather this excellent point of learning. That where he saith, That which exhaleth from the bodyes of things is the substance of an odour, hee doth wisely signifie the matter out of which the odour doth arise which is the body, and the subiect wherein it doth inhere which is the exhalation; whereas therefore he saith that the exhalation is the substance of the odour, he doth not meane that the odour is a substance, but being an accident that it doth subsist in this substane as in his subiect.  
But for the confirmation of this opinion of Heraclitus there are some obiections made to prooue that the odour itself is a fumide substance, because it performeth many things 
A story out of Plinie.  which cannot be done, but onely by a substance. And first, a creature may thereby bee nourished, for which they alledge Plinie in the 2. chapter of his seuenth booke where hee saith, that in the Easterne India about the fountaine or head of the Riuer Ganges, there is a nation without mouths, whom he calleth Astomy hairie, all ouer ther bodyes and cloathed 
The Astomy.  with the leaues of trees. They liue of nothing but exhalations and odours which they draw in through their Noses; meate they haue none nor drinke: onely they vse to smell vppon certaine rootes and flowers and wilde Apples which they carry with them when they traueil farre, that they might not want something to smell to. These men are easily stifled with a strong odour.  
The like we reade of Democritus who they say sustained his life foure dayes with the smell of honey or hot bread. VVe answer with Aristotle in the fifth chapter of his book 
Democritus.  desensu & sensili, where he ascribeth this opinion to the Pythagorians that such strange reports are mere fables vnworthy the credite of a hystory, because they abhor so much from reason. For those things which do nourish must be conuerted into the substance of the liuing 
Reasons against Plinie.  body. Now that which is incorporeall cannot possible be conuerted into a corporeall substance; wherefore odour being of itself an incorporeall accident and therefore not changed into the substance of the creature cānot become a nourishment therto. Beside all creatures haue some place in their bellies which receiueth their meate, and from whence the body draweth that which sustaineth it. But the Organ of odours is seated in the head from whence no member of the creature seeketh for nourishment.  
They vrge further the example Cookes, who because they are busie in boyling and roasting viands for other men, doe receiue so many odours from them that they scarse 
Why Cookes haue no good stomackes.  euer are a hungry or desire meate, but rather being satisfied with the smell doe loath the substance, and therefore it is commonly thought that these smels doe satisfie and cloy thē. But we deny that this commeth to passe by reason of the odours of meates, but the reason why they desire not meate as other men, is, either because as it is in the prouerbe, they can licke their owne fingers, that is, tasting a little of euery thing they insensibly fill their stomackes, or being alwayes about the fire their pores are opened and the inward heate dissipated which is wont to mooue and solicite the appetite, which also is the reason why euery man in winter eats more then he doth in Summer; Or we may say, that they are dried by the heate of the Fire and so become thirsty and drinke often, insomuch that the stomacke being relaxed or loosened by the moysture of drinke becomes languide and so the appetite is broken: or we may say further, that being very dry they cannot be hungry, because Aristotle sayeth it is impossible that at one and the same time a man shoulde vehemently desire both meat and drinke.  
It is further obiected that as Aristotle sayth in the fift Chapter of his Booke de Sens. & 
Obiection.  Sensi, which also is prooued true by experience, that when we are full wee loath the Smell of meates, but delight in the smels of Spices and Roses. If therefore the odour of meate did not nourish, a full stomacke would no more abhorre the odours of meate then of Roses or Spices. 
Solution.   
But we answere that this saciety hapneth not because of the odours, but because of the steame or exhalation wherein the odour is; for wee grant that such a steame may in some sort nourish: but the odour of Roses which hath for his subiect a more subtle exhalation is better pleasing vnto vs, especially because their smell is very fragrant and acceptable, whereas the Smell of meates is neuer pleasing but when wee are an hungry. VVee conclude therefore with Aristotle in the place before quoted. That odours doe not at all nourish. Others disputing more probably doe make according to Galen two kindes of nourishments; one which is taken by the mouth and nourisheth the solide partes of the body; another which is drawne through the Nosthrils which nourisheth the thin & ayry 
Some say that odours nourish the spirits Their reasōs.  parts, as the spirites, for Galen affirmeth that the spirites doe feede vppon ayre and odors.  
VVherefore the nourishment of the spirits they attribute vnto odours, and the rather are they induced so to think because nasty and abhominable smelles doe make men oftentimes swound, yea and such exhalations arising from dead Carkasses or muddy fens doe infect the ayre and breede a pestilence. Adde hereto that in the Low Countries the odour that ariseth from the flowers of beanes as they grow in the fieldes, doe often driue trauellers into a deliration or light madnesses as Leuinus Lemnius hath obserued. And Plutarch sayeth that by the smell of oyntments Cats doe grow mad. Moreouer, Physitians doe consent that the smell of spices doeth breede 〈◇〉, that is, a payne or dull 
Answere.  stupidity and fulnesse in the head.  
Adde hereto that many odours or smels are able to refresh a man when he is ready to swound or faint away; they exhilerate or cheare the heart, and if we may beleeue Aristotle in the place before quoted, they correct the distemper of the brayne. All these thinges we confesse are true if they be vnderstoode of that vaporous or aerie exhalation or substance wherein the odour is transported, for by that meanes or in that respect onely the odour is sayde to nourish the spirites, and Galen in his 8. Booke de compositione medicamentorum secundum locos and the 4. chapter writeth, that if with the odours there are also many vapours associated, then, sayth he, such odours haue some faculty to nourish. But if we vnderstand by odours the simple obiect of the smell, naked and separated from exhalations it is vtterly false that they say; for although that vaporous substance wherein the odor is conuayed doe by the helpe of other qualities concommitating or accompanying the odours cherish and refresh the spirites and performe those other good offices which wee haue remembred, yet it followeth not from hence that an odour is a substance: rather that it is an accident of a substance, because it doth inhere in the forenamed qualified vapour. But we will come vnto the definition of an odour.   

QVEST. XLVIII. The definition of an Odour.  
_AN Odour is a quality moouing the smell arising out of a fit mixtion of the foure Elements wherein heate and moysture haue the predominance. For wee conceiue 
What an odour is.  with Aristotle in the fift Chapter of his Booke de sensu & sensili, that in the pure and sincere Elements there is no odour at all. Aristotle in the beginning of the chapter rendreth the reason, because they can haue no Tast vnlesse they be mingled: for the Taste and the Smell, that is, the sapour and the sauour or odour doe arise out of the same matter; yet so that in sapours there is more moysture, in odours more siccity: notwithstanding in odors the siccity is not at any time without some humour, for those things that wither and are torrified do loose their odours, as may appeare in the ashes of Iuniper, for as soone as all the humour is consumed, the odour or smell vanisheth also therewithall. Againe, some that are ouer-dryed recouer their smels by the permixtion of moysture.  
But that in odoriferous things the siccity is predominant, may be prooued, because such sweete smelling flowres or what else you shall name, become without smel if they be too 
That drought is predomināt in odours  much moistened: hence it is, that Roses gathered in the raine do smell verie litle, nothing at all in comparison of the fragrancie of those that are gathered in faire and dry weather. That also is the reason why in Egypt the flowers are not sweete because the aire is moyst and cloudy by reason of the waters of Nylus. On the contrary the hot Climats of the East as Arabia, Syria & the Indies do bring forth Spices and other plants of excellent and delicate 
Why in Egipt the Flowers do not smell. Obiection.  Smels. It may be obiected ther are many waters which are verie odoriferous, now no man will denie but that in water the moisture exceeds the drought. VVee answere that in water the odour is onely potentiall and that the heate eleuateth or raiseth vp from out of them a vapour or exhalation wherein the siccity preuailes ouer the humidity, and in this vapour is there an Actuall odour. The Reason is, because this mooueth the Sense, but the other odour which is in the water cannot mooue the sense vnlesse it exhale together 
Solution.  with the vapour and attaine vnto the organ.  
The truth of this we may easily admit if we draw into our Nosethrils a little sweete water, for so we shall not smell the odour thereof, because of necessity a vapour is required to actuate the odour.  
Moreouer, that all that odour is potentiall which consisteth not in a vapor but lurketh as yet in mixt bodies, may be conuinced by inuincible argument. For Aristotle in the 5 chapter of his Booke de sensu et sensili saith, the subiect of Sapors and sauours is one and the same. If therefore in odours or sauours siccity be predominant, in Sapors or Tasts humidity, it would follow that two contraries should bee predominant in one and the same subiect, then which what can be more absurd?  
VVe must say therefore, that these qualities are in mixte bodies not actually but potentially, and that they arise out of the mixture as out of their matter: so that when wee 
Potentialli Odor what it is.  say that siccity hath the predominance in odours we speake of that odour which exhaleth into acte out of the mixed bodies, and so there shall be no contrarietie in that we affirme: neither let any man thinke it absurd, that we say two contraries may be potentially in the same subiect, for water that is tepide or warme, that is, in a middle temper betwixt colde and hot is potentially both colde and hot at one and the same time, for it hath an equall disposition to them both, and the reason is, because Potentiall contrarietie breedeth no strife in a Real subiect.   

QVEST. XLIX. Of the Causes of Odours.  
_ALthough the Nature of an odour doth consist in siccity, yet it cannot be at 
He are is the efficient cause of Odours.  any time without humidity, yea it is generated out of humidity, eleuated or raised vp into vapours by heate, so that there can bee no odour vnlesse the force and efficacie of heate do boile, raise vp and attenuate the humiditie. And this all Herbalists acknowledge for a rule,( to wit) that all thinges that Smell strongly are hot, so that from the vehemencie or remisnesse of the odour they do in Hearbs distinguish the degrees of heate. So saith Aristotle in the 12 probleme of the 12 
A Rule for Herbalistes. Galan.  Section, strong and ●anke-smelling seedes are hotte because the odour proceedeth from Heate. The like also Galen affirmeth in the 22. chapter of his fourth Booke de Simplicium Medicamētorum facultatibus.  
Experience also manifesteth the same, for perfumes are more fragrant when they are 
Sweet things smell most when they are hottest.  Hot then when they are Colde, and in hotter seasons yeelde a sweeter smel; which is an Argument that the moisture is better boiled away, and that there is greater plentie of Odour raised vp in the aboundance of exhalations which cannot bee loosened and freed from the bonds of the matter wherein they are vnlesse it be by heate, for cold doth binde and shut them vp, neither suffering them to yssue out of their substances, nor giuing them way to attaine vnto the organ of sense. And after this manner Plutarch in the 25 Chapter 
Why Hounds cannot hunt in frost.  of his Booke de Causis Naturalibus assoyleth the question, why in a frostie morning Hounds cannot hunt so truly as in open weather.  
But it will be obiected, if the odour bee not a fumide exhalation what neede hath it of moisture and heate which are the causes thereof? VVe must remember that whereof wee 
Obiection.  were admonished before, That Odours in mixt bodies are onely potentially & cannot 
Solution  be produced into an acte vnlesse they yssue out of them: wherefore being an accident it cannot yssue out of his subiect wherein it was potentially, vnlesse some other subiect doe accompany it: for saith the Philosopher the Being of an accident is to bee in. For out of their subiect they are nothing. This subiect therefore which produceth the odours into acte is an exhalation. An exhalation cannot be raised but by heate out of moysture. It followeth therefore that both heate and moisture are necessarie in the production of odors. Necessary, I say not perse as they are odours but per accidens, because they cannot actually exist without an exhalation.  
They vrge further, if an odour be of and by itselfe nothing, then there can be no knowledge 
Obiection.  thereof, for there is no knowledge of that which is Non ens or without being. Againe, a substance perse or by itself cannot be knowne, and therefore( say they) we take away euen out of the vniuersall Nature all Science, for whatsoeuer is, is either a substance 
Solution  or an accident, third thing there is none. Indeede we grant, that of an odour considered by itself and separatedly there is no knowledge, for so considered it is nothing, neither 
No knowledg of an accident without the substance  doth it fall vnder Sense, but as it is ioyned with the exhalation it mooueth the Sense and also falleth vnder Science or knowledge. In like manner Accidents separated from their substances, and substances separated from the Accidents doe not fall vnder Science but each by other is mutually knowne and demonstrated.   

QVEST. L. Concluding that Fishes do not Smell.  
_SOme Peripatetian( saith Placentinus) may obiect on this manner. If an Odour haue Actuall existence onely in exhalation, so that without it it cannot mooue the sense, then what shall wee say to Fishes which liue in the 
An obiection of the Peripatetiks.  water where there are no exhalations to be found? For Aristotle in the beginning of the fift chapter of his Booke de Sensu & sensili saith, that there can be no fumid exhalation made in water. The reason is, because as soone as ayre is engendred in water it riseth vp out of it in a bubble. VVe may answere, that the Fishes do not liue in the pure and neate element of water, but in a water compounded of foure 
Water consisteth of foure Elements.  Elements: being therefore compounded there is some fire in it, Fire alwayes woorketh, that worke consumeth moysture, and such consumption is absolued by exhalation or eleuation into vapors.  
Seeing therefore, that in water there may be found such euaporation, it may be haply imagined that by it the Fishes do apprehend Odours.  
But( saith my Author) it may be this thredde is too hard twisted, or too finely spun, because first wee must acknowledge that the Fishes smell is wonderfull dull because of the predominance of moysture and colde in the VVater. Againe, I doubt it is ridiculous to ioyne Fire and Water, two contraries in the same subiect, which is against the law of contrariety.  
And surely this blame we should worthily deserue if we should make the Fire & water equall in their degrees. But wee giue the preheminence vnto the water, and say that the Fire as also the other Elements do put their qualities vnder his girdle. I doe not say that 
The fire is remitted not lost in the water.  the qualities of the Fire are extinguished or quenched out by the water, but they are remitted or abated, for fire worketh perpetually wheresoeuer it is, and raiseth vapours although they be neuer so small, for this action necessarily followeth the essentiall forme of Fire, so that if you separate it from the Fire, you take away his whole substance.  
Some Philosophers are of opinion, that the foure Elements are onely potentiallie in compound bodyes, and therefore haue onely potentiall vertues, so that Fire which is 
Obiection.  onely potentially in water cannot actually worke vpon it. But wee Answere, that if the VVater being actually compounded of foure Elements, those Elements must necessarilie bee in it Actually, for that vvhich is potentially cannot make an Actuall Beeing or Existence.  
But we will say, if the water be mixed with fire, why doth not the fire warme it? Surely it doth warme it although it bee not able to remooue all the coldnesse of the water that it 
Solution.  should appeare warme vnto the Touchf: or if the water were pure and sincere, it is certain that it would bee much more cold then our water is.  
And this may bee proued by well water which is somewhat deepe within the Earth, for they are hotter in winter then they are in Summer; the reason is, because in winter the 
Why Wellwater is warm in Winter.  surface of the earth is condensed or closed vp so that the internall and elementary heate is preserued within the earth, which in Sommer when the face of the earth is loosned and relaxed issueth into the Ayre. Hence also it is that water after it is once heated ouer the fire, would sooner freeze then other which is newly taken out of a Riuer, because in boyling ouer the fire the inbred heat of the water vanisheth because the parts are relaxed or disunited, but in fresh spring water the natiue heat remaineth which preserueth it from freezing. Now these things could not be thus, except that fire were actually in the water, and did also actually heate it; notwithstanding the Phylosophers may in some sort be held excused, because 
The Phylosophets excused  the pure elements distinguished seuerally one from another are in compoūd bodies potētially, for actually pure elements are not in them. But you will say, that because of the fire which is naturally mixed with the water, there is in the water some litle odour, and that litle odor Fishes do perceiue. But this canot be, for man cannot smell in the water, if fishes therefore could, it would follow that the Sense of Smelling was more perfect in Fishes then in men which is vtterly false. Neither is it any answer to say that the water hath odors therein: or is odorated in respect of of the Siccity, because this Siccity is only potential and vnlesse the humidity which is actually and predominant there be consumed it shall neuer be able to mooue the Sense, for actuall odour requireth an actuall Siccity, and that actuaally predominant. But some man may obiect that the fire which is in the water, rayseth vp exhalations aud so odours.  
I grant indeede that in water exhalations may be generated: but none such as Aristotle 
The difference betwixt moyst and dry exhalations.  vnderstandeth, that is odoriferous, because those exhalations are meerely vaparous wherein the Siccity is yet actually ouercome by the humiditie. But humide exhalations which are the subiects of actuall odours are neuer found in water, which also Aristotle confesseth. Notwithstanding the same Aristotle prooueth that fishes doe smell, because they make choyce of their meat, as if he should say, that they choose their meate by their Smels,  
But to returne to that wherefrom wee are digressed, and at length to determine this controuersie, wee say, that Fishes may so far foorth Smell as the water wherein they liue doth communicate with the Ayre and Fire: for seeing nothing can either bee generated or nourished by a simple element, it must needes follow that Fishes being ingendered and 
Fishes cannot smell in pure water.  nourished in the water, that water partaketh of the vigour and substance of the rest of the Elements. And this is also manifested by the reciprocall transmutation or change of one Element into another, for no man will deny but that rarified water turneth into Ayre, and Ayre rarified into Fire, which could not possibly bee if the water were pure and vnmixed, for it cannot be imagined how it should receiue or put on, a diuers, yea a contrary nature wherewith it hath no affinity or familiaritie.  
But if any man shall persist and say that the Sea which is the habitation of Fishes, is the pure and sincere Element of water, free from the commixtion of other Elements, then I say, saith Placentinus, that Fishes cannot Smell at all. My reasons are, first, because no Sense is mooued but by obiects, but in water which is not adulterated with mixture of any heterogeny body cannot produce an obiect of smelling, for odours are in that which is dry, now what is more moyst and freer from Siccity, then pure and simple water. Againe. if odoriferous things by too plentifull effusion of moysture doe loose their odour, how can pure and sincere water haue any odour therein. If therefore Fishes doe smell as Aristotle and other classicke authours doe testifie, it must needes bee in reguard of the Siccity which commeth from the permixtion of Ayre and Fre.  
If any man shall obiect that water hath no smell in it, because a man cannot perceiue the odour thereof, though hee snuffe it into his Nose, hauing notwithstanding a greater perfection of this Sense the Fishes haue. I answer, that Fishes and those creatures 
Fishes smell without resspiration.  that liue in the water doe smell without respiration or breathing, and without those many helpes of the Organ which are in men.  
Moreouer, the water being to Fishes a familiar Element, a little odour mixed therewith may mooue and stirre vp their senses, whereas in men there must bee a hot steame raysed from that which is odoriferous, there must be also Respiration through the Nose to conuay the same steame through the spongie bone vnto the mammillary processes before this Sense in them can be mooued.  
But whereas Aristotle absolutely concludeth that Fishes doe smell, because they make choyce of their meate, that consequence we cannot so well approue, for the choyce or election of their meat may proceede from another cause. When wee are to buy any victuals which we may not Ta●ste, weemake choyce by our eyes, beleeuing that that which is best coloured is also best tasted; why should we not therefore think that Fishes may make choyce of their meat by their sight.  
Againe, all creatures by an instinct of Nature doe desire and seeke after that Aliment which is proportionable vnto them, for what teacheth the Infant in the wombe to drawe vnto it the mothers blood rather then the rest of her humors. Is it the smell of blood? Nothing 
How Fishes choose their meat by their sight. By instinct as the infant.  lesse, for the Infant doeth not smell at all; yea it draweth the nourishment into the Liuer through the vmbilicall veine by a naturall instinct. After the child is borne what maketh it to choose the mothers milke before all other nourishment. Is it the odour or smell of the milke? No, for we see that when an Infant is layde to the breast, hee suddenly with a kinde of Naturall force laps his tongue about the head of the breast and suckes very strongly. Shall we attribute this work of the Infant to the Smell rather then to an instinct of Nature? By no meanes, for if you deceiue a childe with a suckling bottle or any such thing like the nipple of the mothers breast, as soone as euer hee tastes that which is therein to differ from the Aliment which he naturally desireth he will presently cry and not be appeased till he haue his mothers breast againe. And thus much shall be sufficient to haue spoken of the causes of odours and some difficulties coincident with them. Now wee proceed to the differences.   

QVEST. LI. Of the differences of Odours.  
_TO distinguish the particular kinds and differences of Odours, & to giue their proper names is altogether impossible, partly because the Sense is but dull, and partly because of our owne ignorance, which the best Philosophers haue 
Differences of odours very nice.  not beene ashamed to confesse.  
Wherefore those that haue written of this part of Philosophy considering how imperfect our Sense is, to make fitte distinctions of this obiect; seeing wee can smell nothing but that which doeth vehemently goade and affect the Sense: they haue thought good to distinguish the kindes of odours improperly and by way of translation by the differences of Sapours and Tastes: neither haue they done this without good ground; for between Sapours and Sauors, as in the name, so in the nature there is a great affinity, analogy and proportion, insomuch that the odour or sauour dependeth vpon the sapour or Taste. So sayth Aristotle in the fift chapter of his Booke de sensu & sensili, there 
Therefore referred to tast.  is no bode odoriferous which hath not also a strong taste, defining that to be odoriferous or able to moue the sense of smelling, which hath in it power to diffuse a sapide siccity, & a while after he sayth, If therefore any man shall esteeme both( to wit, ayre and water) moyst, it woulde followe that odour will bee nothing else but the Nature of sapide siccity reciding in moysture.  
The kinds therefore of Odours which fall vnder our Sense are these. Biting, Sweete, Sowre, Tart and Fat. As for rotten smelles, these sayth Aristotle in the place before quoted, 
The kinds of odours.  are proportionable with bitter Tasts, because as bitter things are hardly swallowed. so rotten or stinking smels are not receiued into the Sense without a kind of regret and loathing. There are two other differences of odours: the first is common to bruite beasts and by accident doeth mooue pleasure or paine, as those odours which together with the steame do arise from meat, which are pleasant to those that are hungry, and vnplesant and offensiue to such as are satisfied.  
The other kinde is of itself pleasant or vnpleasant, as the smell that breatheth from flowers, and this is proper to men alone, for they doe not prouoke the appetite more or lesse, but rather by another kinde of satisfaction doe dull and appease it. Yet wee must not beleeue that all the differences of Tastes may be applyed to odours, for who euer said that he felt a salt smell.  
Finally, Odours are either Naturall or Artificiall; Naturall odours are those which are naturally in the bodies; Artificiall are such as Apothecaries vse to make for pleasure or for Physicke of the commixtion of many spices, and these we call compound odours, the other simple.   

QVEST. LII. Of the Medium or Meane of Smelling.  
_IT hath not yet been called into question whether the smell standeth in need of a Medium or no. All men taking it for granted, that a Medium is required, partly 
The Philosopher, opinions.  subscribing to that Axiome so often before itterated by vs. That the obiect immediatly touching the Instrument maketh no Sensation; partly because in the 97j. Text of his second booke de anima, Aristotle speaking particularly of the Smell, hath assigned thereto a determinate Medium or Meane, for in that place hee doth not onely take away the doubt whether this Sense be made by a Medium, but withall he declareth by what Medium it is absolued and perfected. With him therefore as there is great reason we also consent. For Odour hauing his residence in a fumide exhalation, with which exhalation the Odour exhaleth out of the bodies: that vapour cannot accompany the Odour vnto the 
Confirmed. What is the Medium of Smelling.  Organ, especially where the distance is any thing great betwixt the body, out of which the odour issueth, and the organ of Sense, but it must be dissipated vnlesse it were preserued by some Medium, yet euen that Med●um doth not so preserue it, but by degrees it is dissipated and vanisheth away. Wee conclude therefore that the Sense of Smelling standeth in neede of a Medium. But what this Mediū should be, that saith Plancentinus, I am not resolued of although I am not ignorant, that all Philosophers with one consent doe agree herein with Aristotle, who saith, this Medium is double, to wit, Ayre and Water.  
Concerning the ayre, it is without controuersie the Medium of Smelling because when we draw our breath, we do at the same time also Smell, & beside the Odour that exhaleth 
The ayre approued.  out of the mixt body, is not diffused into all dimentions, but only that way which the ayre is diffused. A certaine signe that the ayre is both the Medium and the vehickle of Smels.  
Concerning the water Placentinus maketh some doubte, although Arist. in his 2 Booke de Anima, & especially in the 8 chap. of his 4. Booke de Historia animalium, doth striue earnestly to proue that to fishes, the water is the true Medium of Smelling. His foundation is, that those creatures which liue in the water do Smell, which if it be so, it is necessary that there must be also a Medium, wherein the Obiect should be transported. That Medium 
The water questioned. Aristotle for it.  cannot be Ayre, for ayre as soone as it is generated in water, doth exhale or bubble vp, as the same Arist. teacheth in the 5 chap. of his Booke de Sens. et Sensil. from whence he concludeth, that for Fishes the water must needs be the Medium. And truly the consequence were certainely and vndoubtedly good, if the foundation and ground where-vpon he raiseth it be true. But we haue called that into question before. Now I will adde only one argument, and that taken from the Nature of a Medium on this manner. All Odom hath his 
Placentinus against it.  existence in siccity, & therefore requireth also a Medium that is dry, least the Obiect should loose his odour, for it is the office of the Medium to conserue the Obiect, but water being moyst is no way fit to conserue the dry Odour, in respect of the contrariety betwixt them, vnlesse a man will be so debased as to say that one contrary can be the Medium vnto the other, which is as much as if he should affirme that contraries doe not mutually impugne, but cherish and foster one another. Seeing therefore water which is moyst must needes extinguish or dissolue the Odour which is dry, it cannot possibly be a competent Medium for it. Hence appeareth the inualidity of Aristotles foundation, to wit, that Fishes doe Smell. It remaineth therefore that the ayre onely is the Medium of Smelling.   

QVEST. LIII After what manner an Odour affecteth or changeth the Medium.  
_IT is a great controuersie amongst the Masters of Philosophy, how the odorable Obiect doth change the Medium, that is, whether that alteration be Reall or Intentionall. Auerhoes impugning Auicen, saith, it is done Intentionally as a colour is made of that which is coloured, and hee reasoneth on this manner. If the Odour should bee transported through the ayre together with a body, then would there be a penetration of bodies which is impossible to be and absurd to say. But Auerhoes is deceiued, because an Intentionall Obiect cannot really moue the Sense; Now it is manifest that we Smell really. That which he obiecteth concerning colour, wee haue disputed already in the precedent controuersies. Adde hereto that Intentionall Beings are produced from the Soule, and doe depend thereon, and therefore they are called Entia rationis Notions of Reason. By this concession therefore it would follow, that the Obiect is in the vnderstanding before it is in the Sense, if it were true that a Reall obiect did make an impression of an Intentionall Odour in the Medium.  
Did not Auerhoes remember that ruled Axiom, Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in Sensu? That there is nothing in the mind which is not first in the Sense? And to what purpose should any thing that is in the vnderstanding be remitted or returned vnto the Sense, seeing things are therefore receiued into the Sense, that they might attaine vnto the vnderstanding. And whereas Auerhoes saith, that there would be penetration of bodies, if the odorable Obiect did really alter the Medium. I answer the consequence is not good: for the ayre being a most liquid Element, doth easily yield to any body. Adde beside, that afumid exhalation being mingled with the ayre, may be caried and recaried with it hither and thither. After this manner also, the opinion of Philoponus and Iandunus, may bee refuted, who doe affirme that the Odour may really together with the exhalation be caried 
Philoponus & Iandunus refuted.  a good space through the Medium, marry the rest of the Medium which attayneth vnto the organ of Sense, is altered onely intentionally by the Odour, for a reall Being doth alwayes worke really, and that which is Intentionall dependeth vpon our vnderstanding. But if some part of the Medium were really changed, and other parts intentionally. What is the reason why in remote distances a great tract of the medium is really affected; and in little distances( as when we moue the obiect to our Noses) but a little.  
Aegidius was of opinion that the odour was really produced in the Medium as is the Sound, which sayth Placentinus is vtterly false, for not so much as colour, which is simply 
As also Aegidius.  and immediately made out of the mixtion of the first qualities, can possibly after any manner be receiued in the ayre. How then shall odour which is a second quality bee generated in the ayre. Furthermore second qualities cannot mutually worke one vpon another: for one white cannot produce another white, no more can one odour which expireth or breatheth out of a body beget another odour in the Medium.  
And for this cause we also most disclaime Ammonius and Boetius, who say that an odour may passe out of one subiect into another; for although it proceede together with the exhalation 
With Ammonius & Boetius.  out of the bodies into the ayre, yet it doth not change his subiect nor flit into another. But the ayre being made vapoury sustayneth the exhalation together with the odour, conserueth it and is a vehickle vnto it: yet when the vapour is dissipated the odour vanisheth together therewith, which would not happen if it were fit to flit or mooue out of one subiect into another.  
Wee therefore with Auicen doe resolue that the Medium is really changed: for that the odour doth really yssue out of the mixed body we haue proued before: from whence 
Auicen redeemed.  it followeth necessarily that some part of the Medium, to wit, that vppon which the odoriferous exhalation doth immediatly worke is really affected. Againe, Odours doe really 
The Medium is really affected.  attaine euen vnto the braine, and therefore there is no question but that the Medium is really affected. Those therefore that say it is affected intentionally, as also those that confesse some part of it be affected really, but other parts intentionally, haue sit downe beside the Cushion.  
But although the odour proceede really out of the subiect and reach really vnto the braine, yet no man must conceiue that the odour is diffused through the whole Medium from the obiect euen vnto the organ, but it is wafted vpon the wings of the wind or transported by the motion of the ayre. That an odour attayneth really vnto the braine may 
For they really affect the braine.  be proued; because such odours do sometimes helpe and sometime hurt. The detriment seemeth not to proceed from the odour but from the quality of the subiect which accompanieth the odour, that is, the exhalation. For the odour being a quality cannot haue in it that hurtfull quality vnlesse you will graunt that a quality can bee in a quality. Neither doeth the quality onely of exhalation affect the braine, but sometimes some seedes of the 
Confirmed by a strange instance.  very substance of bodies that are of subtle partes are transported in the exhalation, which setling in the braine brings foorth fearefull accidents and strange effects, as it did in him who smelling oft vpon Basill had a Scorpion bred in his braine. It is therefore necessary 
Science is from the Senses.  we should beleeue that the odour is really perceiued by the organ. For confirmation wherof wee may also adde this argument, because all knowledge or science hath his originall from the Senses. Now science is of a reall not of an intentionall Being. How then shall science which hath a reall subiect take his beginning from the Senses if they receiue nothing but that which is Intentionall.  
It is therefore manifest that the Senses doe not perceiue their obiects intentionally but really; and by consequent that the Medium is also really affected.  
But it may be obiected if the odour be really imprinted in the Organ, then there is no 
Obiection.  neede of an externall Medium, and beside, that axiome will be false, That the obiect vpon the Sense doth not make Sensation.  
We grant indeed that there is no neede of a Medium which should be betwixt the reall odour and organ, but the vse of the Medium is for the conseruation, preparation and 
Solution.  transportation of the odour.   

QVEST. LIIII, What is the true and principall Organ of smelling where Aristotle is confuted.  
_GAlen hath often testified that in euery perfect Organ, there may be obserued diuers kinds of parts. Of these parts some bee principall, to which the action is primarily to be attributed. Some againe bee such which make the action more excellent, and others doe conserue the action.  
Now that the Nose is the Organ of Smelling no man will deny, but because diuers parts doe concurre vnto the constitution of the Nose, to wit, bones, gristles, muscles, small nerues, membranes, and the mammillary processes; it is therefore controuerted betwixt the Physitians and Peripateticks to which of these parts, as to the chiefe cause, the action is to be ascribed. 
A difference betweene the Peripateticks & Physitions.   
Aristotle in his second booke de Anima, and in his booke de sensu & sensili doth affirme that the externall Nose which is conspicuous in the face, is the chiefe Organ of Smelling; wherein he conceiueth there is a couer like a value which is neuer opened, but by inspiration, whence it is that we haue no Sense or preception of odours but when wee inspire.  
Galen in his booke de odoratus Organo doth in the three and foure whole chapters vehemently inueighe against Aristotle, where hee teacheth that indeede the externall Nose doth something conferre vnto this sense of smelling, but the chiefe Organ thereof is within 
Galens demonstration.  the scull; And for the confirmation of this conceite, he vseth an elegant and inuincible demonstration from the enumeration of the seuerall pars of the Nose. For, neither saith he, can the bones, nor the grystles, nor the membran, nor the nerue dilated through the membrane be the true organ of the Smell, and therefore no externall part of the Nose can bee. As for the bones and grystles they are so farre from hauing the Sense of smelling that they haue not so much as the faculty of Touching allotted vnto them: they therefore are farre vnfit for the performance of this function. Againe, euery 〈◇〉 or Organ ought to communicate in nature and conformation with the sensible thing, that so the Organ might bee more easily altered by it. But nothing is agreeable to the nature of Odours, but that which is vaporous: betwixt the nature whereof and that of bones and grystles, there is very great distance.  
As for the membrane which inuesteth the Nose; it is indeed endowed with most exquisite Sense of Touching, yet it is to crasse and thicke, for the reception of such subtle obects as odours are. And beside this membrane or coate is also common to the Tongue and the Palate and mouth, but in those parts it hath no Sense of odors. Again if this membrane 
The membrane is not the instrumēt of smelling.  were the true instrument of Smelling, then it should continually perceiue the appulsion or beating of the odours, but there is no preception of odours, except when we do inspire; for though you fill the Nose full with Muscke or Ambergreese or other odoriferous bodyes; yea though you should annoynt the whole membrane with sweet oyles, yet you shal haue no preception of odors except you draw in the Ayre by inspiration; wherfore we conclude that the principall Organ of Smelling is not placed in the bone or grystle or membrane, or any other part of the externall Nose.  
As concerning that couer or value( whereof this great Phylosopher dreamed) which 
That there is no value. Reason.  is open when we draw in our breath, and shutetth when we hold our breath, Galen doth in no sort acknowledge it in the aboue named places, neither will any well skilled in Anotomy admit of it. But yet put the case that there be such a value in the interiour part of the nosthrils and that it doth sometimes open itself to make a passage for the ayre and vapors which we draw in, and that it shuts againe when we cease our inspiration, then surely the motion of this couer must either be animall or naturall, or violent. That it is voluntary, no man will say, because there is no neede of such a value vnto animall motion. And beside all animall motion is at the command and in the gouernement of the soule, and obedient vnto our will and appetite, but this value is neuer opened but when wee draw in the Ayre. Moreouer, the immediate instrument of voluntary motion is is a muscle, but there are no muscles to be found in the depth of the cauity of the nosthrils.  
Neither is this motion Naturall as is the motion of the values of the heart. For the heart is perpetually mooued and performed by it owne instinct and not by our will.  
If you thinke it be violent because it is forced by the inspired Ayre, then giue eare vnto Galens obseruation ouerthrowing this conceite. For, saith he, i● you shall force either 
Obiection. Solution.  much ayre or any liquour into the nose through a pipe and hold your breath, why is not the value opened if there be any such extant, and why should there not be a perception of those odours in the Nose. If ●he Perepatetickes shall insist, & retort our owne argument, and sight against vs with our owne weapons, and say, if the Mammillary processes bee the principall Organ of Smelling, why doth not sweete Ayre being driuen with force and violence through a pipe moue the Sense.  
Galen answereth, that the aire being blowne and forced through a pipe, if we hold our breath doth neuer reach vnto the Braine, because all partes of the Braine are full of Ayre when the Braine is contracted by expiration, but when the Braine is dilated by his inbred power all the spaces are enlarged, and so for the auoiding of vacuitie are filled with inspired aire. The aire therefore cannot attaine vnto the processes and Ventricles of the Braine but onely by inspiration, because except the Organs be dilated, how shall the aire passe through those pores which be already full of aire? Now if aire cannot bee brought but by Inspiration vnto the Mamillary processes, then surely cannot the species or kindes of odours: for as the character and quality of the sound cannot bee carried vnto the Organ of hearing but by the meanes of the intermediate aire, no more can the qualitie of odours attaine vnto the organ of Smelling. Let Aristotle therefore patronize his owne opinion himselfe.  
VVe with Galen and the Physitians do resolue that the principall organ of the smell is 
The true Organ of smelling.  seated within the Scull and a portion of the Braine, namely, those processes & two bunching productions which are like to the Nipples of a womans pap, and doe reside or rest vpon the highest bone of the Nosethrils.  
And this hath Hippocrates bewrayed in his Booke 〈◇〉, where he saith. That the Braine doth smell the odour of dry things together with the aire, drawing the same thorough 
The Mammillary processes Authoritie.  two cartilagineous or gristly bodies. And to him doth Galen beare witnesse in his booke De Odoratus Organo, in his eight booke de vsupartium, and in his first booke De Sympt. Causis. And lastly sound reasons doe also euince this our opinion. First, that part is to be accounted the principall which hath a peculiar substance, figure & composition. VVitnesse Galen in his sixt booke de Placitis Hippocratis & Platonis. But the processes amongest 
Reasons prouing this first  all the partes of the nose haue a peculiar nature, figure and composition, which you cannot finde in any of the other. But the Bones, Gristles and Membranes are euery where alike. Wherfore the principall cause of this action of Smelling is to be ascribed to the Mammillary processes.  
Againe, there is no part in the nose which can be altred by odors, but these processes 
a Reason  being full of spirits and vapours doe with facility receiue the species of odours, and because they are of neere a kin to the Nerues, they haue a kinde of Notion of that qualitie which they perceiue.  
Auerrhoes being a bitter enemy to Physitians in the defence of Aristotle endeauoureth 
Auerrhoes. disproouing Galen. First reason  to ouerthrow this opinion of Galen but with verie easie Engines. If( saith hee) the Mammillary processes were the organs of Smelling, then the odor of those things which are bruised in the mouth would be smelt when the Nosethrils were obstructed and shut, because there is a manifest passage for the aire open from the mouth & palate vnto those processes.  
Moreouer, the odour of those meats which are contained in the Stomack would be 
Second.  perceiued, for there do certaine vapours exspire therefrom vnto the Braine, during the whole time of the concoction. And lastly, such creatures as wanted these processes would also want the sense of Smelling. But I thinke we may fully satisfie these obiections on this manner. First, although there bee a way open out of the mouth into these processes, yet 
Third. Galens answer  notwithstanding there is not any perception when the nosethrils are shut, because the odours should first be offered vnto the Nosethrils and there be prepared, without the nosethrils therefore there can be no perception of odours, and yet it dooth not follow that the Nosethrils therfore are the principall organ of this Sense. Euen as without the watery humour no vision can be made, and yet no man will say that it is the principall Organ of Sight.  
But besides this, there is another reason why when our noses bee shut, those thinges 
Why we doe not feele that which is in our mouth & Stomacke  which are chawed in the mouth and are contained in the stomacke are not smelt, to wit, because the odour being as it were drowned and strangled with the excessiue humiditie of the mouth cannot make shew of itself, nor imprint his natiue species and forme in the Sense of Smelling. For Odour is( as Aristotle himselfe in the second Booke de anima affirmeth) of a drie thing, as a Sapor of a moist thing. So those which are troubled with the Coryza or a distillation out of the head into the nose which we call the pose, doe not perceiue the formes of odours.  
Moreouer, that vapour which is brought from the Stomacke vnto the Braine is not perceiued by the Smell, because such vapours are too familiar and too well acquainted with the Braine, so that no alteration can be made by them. In like maner those which vse to eate much garlicke haue no sense of their owne stinking breath.  
As for Auerrhoes his last obiection, that many creatures wanting these processes, yet do perceiue the sauour of odours, is not any whit repugnant vnto Galen. For he speaketh onely of perfect creatures, and not of imperfect, which as they can stand without bones and liue without Lungs, so there is no reason but they may respire and breath without 
The conclusion.  nosthrils or these Mammillary processes.  
We conclude therefore that those two swelling mammillary processes are by good right accounted the principall organs of smelling, yet notwithstanding wee affirme that there canne bee no perception of odo●rs without the help of the nosthrils and the spongy bone. And thus much of the Sense of Smelling. Now we proceede vnto the Tast.   

QVEST. LV. Whether Taste be the chiefe action of the Tongue.  
_ALbe it be commonly knowne that the Taste is an action of the Tongue, yet it shall not bee amisse to make this truth somewhat more manifest, for the Tongue is ordayned for many vses. First to articulate the voyce. Secondly, for mastication or chewing, because it contayneth the meate within the 
The diuers actions of the tongue.  mouth, and rowleth it vnder the mill-stones of the Teeth. Thirdly, for the Taste and dignotion or perception of sapours. The question therefore shall bee, which of all these is the principall action for which Nature ordayned this instrument, because we assigne vnto one part but one principall action. That therefore is the principall action, for which the Tongue was primarily instituted by Nature. And that Action is primary 
Which action is principall.  which is most necessary, the rule of Nature being first of all to prouide for the necessity of the creature. The action therefore which is most necessary is also the principall action.  
I know well what great vse we haue of speech, and how miserable the life of a dumbe man is, vet because other actions are more necessary, therefore wee cannot beleeue that 
Speech is not the principal action of the tongue.  speech was the principall end for which Nature ordayned this Organ. Now that other fūctions are more necessary then speech we need not to doubt, because those are absolutly necessary to life, this onely to better tife. That the other functions are absolutely necessary, for the conseruation of life is hence manifest, because brute beasts cannot liue without them as they doe without speech.  
But amongst those other functions, which is the most necessary, is harder to discerne, yet to say truly mastication is not an action of the Tongue, and therefore wee will not 
Nor Masticacation.  stand in this place to dispute the necessity of it. For it is an instrument of mastication 
Reasons why  but by accident, as it rowleth the meate vnder the Teeth that chew it. But a principall action belongeth not to a part by accidēt, but by & of itself. Again, it were absurd, to say that the principall action of so noble a member, did but helpe the Teeth to chaw the meate. Adde hereto that mastication or chewing is not so necessary to life as Tasting is for Infants doe swallow their meate without chewing, and so doe most Fishes, as Aristotle remembreth in the eleauenth chapter of his booke de partibus Animalium, but without Taste the creature cannot liue. Not that if their Taste be lost, they must presently perish, 
The necessity of the Tast. An old kind of punishment of Blasphemy. ( for it was a custome among the Ancients for blasphemie to cut out mens Tongues and yet they died not) but because all creatures taking delight in some one kinde of food or other when the Sense of pleasure is taken away, they abstaine from those meates, or take but little and so pine away to death. And this is the opinion of other men concerning the necessity of the Taste. I, saith Placentinus, doe rather thinke it therefore necessary, because when it is lost the creature taketh all meates indifferently, & by that meanes 
The reason of the necessitie of the Tast.  is often extinguished by poyson in steede of nourishment. Seeing therefore that perpetuall nutrition is absolutely necessary vnto life, therefore Nature ordayned this Sense, to take the assay, which was fit should be very exquisite, because the Lord it serueth, which is Nutrition, was the principall act for which the creature was ordained.  
We conclude therefore that of all the actions of the Tongue the Taste is the chiefe, and that the rest are but seruants and attendants there-vnto, especially Mastication.   

QVEST. XLVI. Whether the Taste differ from the Touch.  
_THE Taste is one of the fiue external Senses, whereby we discerne the differences of sapours. This Sense hath great affinity with the Sense of Touching, 
What Tast is and how nere a kin to touch  in so much that some haue made no distinction betweene them, but haue placed the Taste vnder the Touch, as the species vnder the Genus, for which they haue not onely Aristotles authority, but very strong reason. The authorities they produce are these. Arist. In the second Chapter of his booke de Sensu et sensilt saith, that the Taste is a kinde of Touching. Againe, in many places he affirmeth that Taste is a kinde of Touching, as in the 4. chap. of the Booke before named. In the 64 Text of his third Booke de anima. In the 17 chap. of his 2 Booke de partibus animalium & in 
Aristotles authorities.  infinite other places. But these authorities seeme not to bee of any great consequence, because the same Aristotle doth oftentimes affirme that all sense is a kinde of Touching; from whence it would as well follow that there is but one Sense, that is, the Touch, then which nothing can be more absurd. Wee must not therefore conclude that the Taste and 
Called into question  the Touch are all one, because Aristotle saith, that the Taste is a kinde of Touch.  
It seemeth to me notwithstanding that there is something in it, why particularly intreating in diuers places concerning the Tast, he calleth it rather a Touch, then the other Senses, especially in his propper Tractate of this Sense, whereas he giueth no such attribute to any other of the Senses. For in his chapter de visu he doth not say that Seeing is a kinde of Touch, nor shall you finde in the Chapters of Hearing and of Smelling any such matter. Further, this opinion is confirmed by Aristotles argument, because he ascribeth 
And expounded.  the same obiect to both these Senses; for in the very beginning of his Chapter de Gustu, that which is Gustable or fit to be Tasted, is also Tangible and fit to be Touched. And comparing the Tast with the Touch that there is the very same reason and nature of them both Yea, that they differ nothing one from another. But in the 28. Text of his 2 booke de Anima, hee speaking of set purpose auoucheth the very same, for hee sayth not onely that that which is Gustable is also Tangible, but also that the Touch is the Sense of Aliment. And about, the end of the same text expressely naming the obiect of Tast, hee sayth, that a Sapor is one of those which are perceiued by Touching. And in the 63. text of the same booke more playnly thus; Wherefore the Tast itself is a kinde of Touching, for it is the Sense of aliment, now aliment is a body which is perceiued by the Touch.  
If therefore Tasting and Touching haue one and the same obiect, surely they are one and the same Sense. As from the plurality and diuersity of obiects, the plurality and diuersity of the Senses is gathered, so from an vnity and Identity of the obiect it must needes be there should follow also a vnity and Identity of the Sense.  
They adde also an argument gathered out of Aristotle in the beginning of his Chapter de Gustu, on this manner Tast and Touching doe equally perceiue that which is moyst, yea moysture though it be insipide some say may be discerned by the Tast. Seeing therefore the obiect of the Touch may be perceiued by the Tast. And the obiect of the Tast reciprocally by the Touch, they must not be esteemed distinct Senses.  
Finally, they adde out of Aristotle that in the 23. text of his second booke De anima and in the 68. text of the third booke he saith, that the Touch onely is necessary for the creature. And againe, in the fourth chapter of his booke de sensu & sensili, as also in the last chapter saue one of the third booke de anima, he saith, that a creature cannot bee without the Tast; wherefore say they, Aristotle thought that the Tast and the Touch were both one, otherwise there should be a repugnancie betwixt these two places.  
All these particular instances out of Aristotle doe at the first blush seeme to prooue that he was of their mind. But if we looke somewhat more narrowly into them we shal finde that there can bee no such thing gathered from Aristotle by good and lawfull consequence.  
For first whereas he saith that the Tast is a kinde of Touch, it is nothing else but to demonstrate the affinity betwixt these two Senses; for if hee had meant that the Tast and 
Answer to Aristotles authorities.  the Touch did not differ in Specie, hee would neuer haue sayd that Gustus was Tactus quidam, but simply and plainly Gustus is Tactus, hee would not haue sayde that Tast is a kinde of Touch, but that Tast is a Touch. Neither are wee to wonder why Aristotle speakes in 
To the first instance.  this maner rather of this Sense then of any other. Is it not because none of the other Senses haue any such acquaintance or familiarity with the Touch as the Tast hath?  
Consider first that the Tast as also the Touch is made without a medium so are not the rest of the Senses. The reason is, because as well in the Tast as in the Touch the obiect must touch the Organ, so that theire extreme parts are contiguous one vnto another. 
The affi●●ity betwixt the Tast and the Touch.  Hence it is that the Gustable obiect being aboue that which Tasteth, maketh Gustation, whereas in other Senses there is no comprehension of the obiect by the Organ sauing by the interposition or mediation of a medium or middle body.  
Finally the obiect of the Tast is more endowed with Tactile qualities then the obiects of the rest of the Senses as being more corporeall, materiall, earthy, and to speake in a word correspondent or answerable to the Tactile obiect, so that Aristotle might well say, that that which was Gustable was a kind of Tangible. Seeing therefore this Sense of Tasting hath so many more conditions concurring with the Touch then the other Senses, it was not without cause that Aristotle so often compared the Tast and the Touch, and in a manner of speech confounded them, but was more sparing in the collation of the Touch with the other Senses. And hence we may shape an answer to the second authority, for 
Answer to the second instance.  he doth not say simply Gustabile est Tangibile but Gustabile est quoddam Tangibile, adding a conditional particle wherby he would intimate that there was a great vicinity or neighborhood betwixt these two kinds of obiects, yet notwithstanding that they did so differ that they do not fall vnder one and the same Sense.  
The third argument is weighty and difficult, for without any condition or limitation he saith, that a Sapor is perceiued by the Touch, and that the Touch is the sense of Aliment; 
To the third.  notwithstanding we answere that Aristotle doth not take a Sapor as it is a qualitie 
First Answere  properly Gustable, but as it is in a gustable body. For this body is indeede perceyued by the Touch not as it is Gustable, but in respect that beside the Sapour it hath also many Tangible or Tactile qualities.  
Add moreouer, that the word 〈◇〉 which Aristotle vseth, doth not onely signify a Sapor but also a iuice and humor indued with a Sapour, whence the Physitians call those meates 〈◇〉, not which are well-tasted but which yeelde a profitable and Alimentarie 
The 2. answer  blood v●to the bodie: againe on the contrary they call those meates 〈◇〉 which yeeld a bad and vicious iuice, and that disease is called 〈◇〉, when the body aboundeth with ●ull and victous no rishment. VVe are therefore to beleeue that Aristotle is thus to be vnderstood, because so oftentimes hee testifies that Sapor hath his residence or beeing in humidity, or that which is humid and moyst.  
I might also say that Aristotle speaketh in that place of that Sapour which nourisheth. Now a Sapour as it is a Gustable quality doth not nourish, because that which is incorporeall 
Third answer.  cannot be turned into a body, but that which nourisheth must of necessity bee conuerted into the body that is nourished. It is therefore no question but that when Aristotle spake of a Sopor he meant it de corpore Sapido, that is, of a body which was not without Sapors or Tastes. And indeede a Sapid body may nourish. So saith Auicen, that vvhich 
Auicen.  hath a good Taste doth also nourish, not that the Sapor or Taste dooth nourish, but the substance wherein the Sapor doth consist.  
On this manner also is Aristotle to be expounded, where hee saith, that the Touch 
To the fourth  is the Sense of aliment, for he doth not meane that it falleth vnder the Touch and vnder the Taste after the same manner and in the same respect but vnder the Touch in regarde of the Tactile qualities, vnder the Taste in regard of the Sapor. It is as much therefore as if he saide, Because the Aliment as it is a body cannot be found without Tactile qualities; the Touch indeede perceiueth these qualities, but it perceyueth not the Sapor as it is a Sapour. And therefore in the 63 Text of his third Booke de anima, after he hath saide that the Touch is the Sense of Aliment he explaineth himselfe after this manner, But the aliment is a Bodie which is perceiued by the Touch.  
Seeing therefore the Aliment is a bodie, it must haue both Tactile and gustale qualities, and therefore may be truely called the obiect both of the Taste and of the Touch, yet is it the obiect of neither Sense as it is an Aliment, but of the touch as it is moyst and dry, hard and soft: of the Taste, as it is sweete, bitter, Salt and the like.  
As for the reason which they alledge out of Aristotle, I hold it to be of no weight, because Aristotle had no such intention; yet we may grant that moysture is perceiued by the 
To the Fifte.  Taste not as it is moisture, but as it is sapid: and that insapide moisture or moisture without Taste may be discerned by the Sense of Tasting, that I vtterly deny.  
Concerning the necessity; that which they vrge is meerely friuolous, for Aristotle supponeth that the Touch is simply necessary so that the creature without it cannot subsist: 
To the Sixt.  but the Taste is necessary for the Touch, because it is a kind of Touching: yet we do not denie but that the Taste also is necessary Secundum quid, as we say in Schooles, that is not of itself, but because the creature wanteth nourishment. It dooth not therefore follow that either the Tast and the Touch should be both one, or else that an imputation should be cast vpon Aristotle for contradicting himselfe.  
It may be also obiected, that because both the Taste and the Touch are both in one & 
Obiection.  the same Tongue, that therefore they should be one and the same Sense. But the consequence is not good, for there is no organe of Sense, which beside his proper Facultie of 
Solution.  Sensation is not also furnished with the Sense of Touching. But because the Sēse of Tasting is not alwaies found where Touching is, and where it is found there is no other Faculty of Sensation. I conclude that not onely all the other Senses but the Taste also is a distinct and different Sense from the Touch.   

QVEST. LVII. Of the obiect of Tasting.  
_THe obiect of the Taste sayth Aristotle in the fourth Chapter of his Booke de Sensu & sensili, is not onely more euident and manifest vnto vs then the Odours 
The obiect of Tast is more euident then other senses and why.  are, but also then all other Sensible Obiects. The reason we may giue out of the same place of Aristotle, because the Taste is a kinde of Touching, which Sense in a man is more perfect then all the rest.  
Now the Obiect of the Taste is that which is Gustabile or Gustile, which wordesignifieth two things, to wit, a Sapour or quality and affection seated in a sapide body, and the body itself wherein the Sapour is. But the Sapour is the proper and adequated or proportionable 
2. significations of Gustabile.  obiect of the Taste, and therefore Aristotle appropriateth the word Gustabile to a Sapour. As sayth he visible est color, sic Gustabile est sapor, as that which is visible is a Colour, so that which is Gustile is a Sapour: as if he should say, that a Gustable body is no way Gustile or to be Tasted, but onely in respect of his Sapour. Yet hee oftentimes puts Gustabile for Sapor; the reason is, because a Sapour hath no existence of itself, neyther can it moue the Sense but hath all his being and essence in the mixt body. That therfore which he calleth Gustabile is a mixt body, which in respect of that quality which is called a Sapour is Gustile or may be Tasted. Not but that a Sapour doeth by itself mooue the Sense, but because it cannot subsist without the mixt body, for considered euen without the mixt body it may be sayd to be the obiect of Tast, because it is it alone in the mixt body which moueth that Sense.   

QVEST. LVIII. Of the matter of Sapours.  
_A Sapour is a quality arising out of the first qualities, which alone by itself is able to mooue the Taste. Now the first qualities are of two sortes: some 
What a sapor is. 2. kindes of first qualities.  Actiue, as heate and cold; others Passiue, as moysture and drought. Out of the Actiue qualities the Sapour hath his Efficient cause, to wit, heate; out of the Passiue his Materiall cause, to wit, Moysture. But least any man should wonder why wee make moysture which is nothing else but an incorporeall quality to bee the matter of Sapours. We answere, that wee vnderstand humidity not in the abstract but in the concrete. So that haply it were more proper to say humidum then humiditas, for to say trueth, a Sapour is not made onely of humidity, but of humidity ioyned with siccity, yet so that the humidity is predominant.  
Wherefore Aristotle sayth that a Sapour dwelleth in that which is moist, as an odour 
Sapours are not made of simple humidity.  doth in that which is dry; yet he doth not name humidity alōe, nor simple siccity but both conioyned, and therefore hee rather expresseth himselfe by humidum and Siccum then by hamiditas and siccitas: so that in the one the moysture preuaileth ouer siccity, in the other the siccity ouer moysture.  
For thus much doth Aristotle intimate in his Booke de sensu & sensili, where he sayth that the vniuersall nature of Sapour is, that it is a passion of the Sense of Tasting made by that which is earthy, dry, in that which is moyst. Wherefore humidity being predominant in an earthy siccity is properly the matter of Sapors.  
It may bee obiected if in Sapours the humidity must preuaile ouer the siccity, then 
1. Obiection  those bodies wherein the siccity preuailes ouer the humidity should be insipide and without Tast. Now there are many in which the siccity is predominant, as ashes, Pepper, Ginger and such like, which yet notwithstanding haue a very sharpe and quicke Taste. Adde moreouer that if that were true, then Sapors should not properly belong vnto Aliments; 
2. Obiection.  for Aristotle sayeth in the 28. Text of his third Booke de anima, that hunger is an appetite of that which is hot and dry. An Aliment therefore is not moyst but hotte and dry, because it appeaseth hunger. Seeing therefore all men confesse that Sapours doe properly belong to Aliments, it should seeme also that Sapors haue their residence not in moystur but in siccity.  
VVe answere, that an Actuall Sapour, that is, such a Sapour which is instantly fitte to mooue the Taste must necessarily bee in moysture. That which they obiect of Pepper, Ashes and such like, we answere on this manner. VVee grant that of themselues they are insipide and haue no Sapour but that which is potentiall, for they doe not Taste till they be chewed, and that is by accident: when as that humour which perpetually remayneth in the mouth and the tongue, prouoketh or produceth their potentiall vertue into Act, but because siccity is in them predominant, therefore they yeeld a sharpe and quicke Tast.  
That which they add concerning Aliment is easily answered, For there are two kinds of Aliments; one which satisfieth hunger, another which satisfieth thirst. That which satisfieth 
Solution 2. 2. kinds of Aliments.  thirst is exceeding moyst, and in respect of it that which satisfieth hunger may bee called dry, although it doe not follow that it should simply be dry, yea it is necessary that it should haue so much moysture as the Sense of Tasting doth require otherwise it could not satisfie hunger.  
Finally, wahtsoeuer mooueth the Tast must of necessitie haue an inward moysture wherein it is steeped, although it hath no outward, the reason is that it may melt and diffuse itself through the organ of the Sense, for those things that are hard and cannot bee dissolued cannot mooue the Sense of Tasting, as wee may conceiue by a rough and torrified tongue such as we see is chopped and blacke in violent Agues, which cannot make any certaine estimation of the difference of Sapors.   

QVEST. LIX. Of the efficient cause of Sapours.  
_OF the passiue qualities therefore moysture preuailing ouer Siccity is the matter 
Heate is the efficient cause of Sapor.  of Sapors. Of the actiue qualityes they haue heate for their efficient cause. For as the simple and pure Elements are of themselues without sapor or odor, so also in the mixt body no such thing would result out of them if euery Element should reserue his owne quality to himselfe; and therefore there is neede of heate to draw out the Sapors out of the concoction of the humidity and Siccity, by which concoction these two are fitly mixed one with the other, neither is it reason that 
How that is. Cold cannot be.  any man should substitute cold to this office, for dayly experience teacheth vs that fruites when they are frozen, as Apples, doe vtterly loose their tast; yea although they be thawed 
Why frozen fruits loose their Tast.  and resume their former heate yet their tasts doe not returne. So that cold is so farre from being the efficient cause of Tast, that rather it doth vtterly destroy them. Adde hereto that no fruite attaineth his natiue Tast till it grow ripe, now this ripening is made by heat. It remaineth therfore that heate in as much as it concocteth humidity, and accomplisheth perfect mixtion is the true and onely efficient cause of Sapors.   

QVEST. LX. Of the number and order of Sapors.  
_ARistotle in the 4. chapter of his book de sensu & sensili going about to recite the diuers kinds of Tasts compareth them with colours not because there is any great affinty betwixt them, but because there is iust as many of the one kinde as of the other, and he concludeth them both vnder the number of seuen. Some say there are eight kindes of Sapours, and Plinie in the 21. chapter 
How many kinds of Sapors.  of his 15. booke, reckons vp thirteene. VVe with Aristotle will rather reduce them vnto the number of seauen; because, as there may be, and indeede there are infinite varieties of mixtion, so we should draw out of them infinite differences of Sapors, if it were possible 
As many as of mixtures.  accurately to number them; for nothing is so sure as that the differences of Sapors doe arise from the multiplicity of mixtion; for example, out of that wherein heate and moysture are aboundant, a sweete Sapour; out of that that is hote and dry, a bitter and salt Sapor, and so in the rest, as this or that qualitie hath greater or lesse rule in the mixt body, yet alwayes moysture must haue the first place.  
An instance of this we haue in a place of Galen, in the sixth, seuenth and eight chapters of his fourth booke de simplicium medicamentorum facultatibus. The fruites of trees 
An elegant place of Galen concerning Sapors. ( saith hee) that appeare to vs to be sweete when they be ripe, are soure when they are young, and any of consistence, but in processe of time they become moyst, and their sowrnes turnes into sharpenesse, which sharpenesse they loose by degrees as they grow ripe and at length become sweete.  
Among these Sapors, Salt and Bitter are contrary to sweete, because being vnder the 
Salt and bitter are contrary to sweet  same kind there is the greatest distance betwixt them. Aristotle hauing a respect to white & blacke calleth them priuatiues, and that not without good cause, for although beeing vnder the same kinde they differ most one from another, yet they cannot bee truely sayde to bee contraryes: for sweetnesse is generated in a subiect that is fulfilled with heate and moisture, but salt and bitter are in a subiect which is hot yet very dry, and therefore the sweete Sapor nourisheth more then the rest, yea we thinke that all other Sapors doe nourish onely 
Sweet nourisheth but no other.  by reason of their sweetnesse which lurketh in the secret bowels of the sapide body, although by the Tast it cannot be so manifestly perceiued. For all nourishment must bee conuerted into bloode that so it may become a fit nourishment vnto parts, but laudable and good blood is hot and moyst and sweete to Taste to. That Sapor therefore vvhich hath the greatest Analogy and affinity with bloode is fittest to nourish, and such is the sweete Taste.  
Other Sapors which haue no sweetnesse at al in them are altogether vnfit for nourishment.  
There are some which thinke that sweete and bitter are not the extreme Sapors; grounding themselues vpon Plato in Timaeo, because( say they) those Sapors are to bee accounted extreames which come neerest vnto the first qualities. But neyther sweete nor bitter 
That sweete and bitter are not extreame Sapors. Arguments.  are such, but Styptick or binding and keene, for the keene taste or byting, such as is in Pepper resulteth out of a high degree of heate. The other which bindeth and contracteth the Tongue ariseth from extreme cold.  
Againe, those obiects that are extreme do hurt and offend the instrument; now sweet doth not hurt but refresheth it, yea it conserueth the temper thereof by an acceptable pleasure and delight. Another Reason may bee, why sweete is not an extreme Taste, because from sowre to keene the passage is by sweete. So that whatsoeuer is keene or biting when it is ripe, and sowre when it is greene, will haue a kinde of sweetenesse in it before it come to his perfection. Now in qualities the transition is by the mediate or meane qualities not by the extreame. It is therefore to bee concluded, that not sweete and bitter but sowre and keene are the extreame Sapors.  
But although we must needs confesse that these Arguments haue some life & strength in them, yet we presume that Aristotles opinion may well bee maintained. It is true indeede, 
Refuced.  that if you consider Sapors according to their originall, that is, as they result out of the first qualities our aduersaries haue concluded well. But if you regard Sapor without respect vnto their originall and simply as they are Sapours, that is, naked qualities which mooue the Taste, then our Aduersaries are in the wrong.  
It may well be, that Plato vnderstood the matter on this manner, because he doth especially attend to the temper of the body in which the Sapors are, but this is not the proper contemplation of Sapours. Aristotle who of purpose disputed concerning Sapours 
Plato expounded. Aristotle defended.  vnderstood them according to their proper Nature, to wit, as they mooue the Taste for a sweete and a bitter Sapor do mooue and affect the Sense after the most contrary manner. So colours are not to be considered as they are nearer or further off, too or from 
Why Sapors are called extreame.  the first qualities, but as they affect the Sight, and in this respect white and blacke are called extreame and contrary colours, because they affect the sight after a most contrarie manner, for white dissipateth the Sight. Black congregateth and vniteth it.  
VVhereas they say that the keene and Stipticke Sapors do hurt the organ they are deceiued if they meane it in respect that they are Sapours; for the truth is, that the Offence 
Answer to the second reason  commeth from the first qualities, to which those Tastes are too neere Neighbours. And this is the reason also why the passage is from sowre to keen by sweet, because those qualities are so changed in the mixt bodie, that after sweete, sowre doth succeed, & after sowre 
To the third.  keene or hot. Their consequence would follow, if the sowre Tast should engender sweet, and sweete should engender that that is keene and hot, but there is no such matter: for 
Second quality arise not one from another.  who did euer say that the second qualities did arise one out of another? For they proceed not so much from their first qualities as from the condition of the matter. VVe conclude therefore, that because the sweete and bitter Tastes as they are Tastes or Sapors do after a most contrary manner affect the Sense of Tasting, that therefore these are the extreame Sapors.  
Hauing thus resolued which Sapors are extreame, let vs now a little consider what are the intermediate, which with Aristotle we reckon six, Fatt, Salt, Keene, Sowre, Sharpe and 
How many intermediate Sapors.  Tart, which in Latine are called Pinguis, Salsus, Acris, Acerbus, Acutus & Acidus.  
I list not to oppose Pliny or any man else that hath bene pleased to make more differences of Sapors, these are those that are most manifest, and therefore Aristotle contented himselfe with them, the rest being very obscure or at least not knowne to such as this our labour shall concerne. Thus much onely we will admonish you of, that all the varietie of Tasts beside those we haue accoūted, do arise from the innumerable variety of mixtions, from the different constitutions of the orgā, as also from some secret & vnknown instincts 
Why they are infinite.  which do recide in particular bodies, whereof to say truth we can giue no reason at all.  
VVherefore because the Sapours themselues are infinite, their proportion very diuers, and their causes so transcendent, it is not possible to make any definition or description of them to any purpose, who can deny but that some creatures, yea some men doe vehemently desire bitter things and abhorte that which is sweete? are bitter things therefore sweete to the one and sweet things bitter to the other? You will say no, because the difference ariseth from the diuersity of his Temperament that Tastes it. I confesse it, but seeing 
All Sapors cannot he defined.  there are almost so many diuers Temperaments as there are indiudidua or particular creatures in the world. I would aske the question whether it bee possible that so many different kinds of Sapours may be reckoned or deduced from them? By no meanes: no more is it possible to define them.  
VVherefore if you looke into the vulgar discriptions of Sapours you shall finde them 
A definition of sweet and bitter.  full of errours. That( say they) is sweete that doth affect the Sense best, that is bitter which affects it worst.  
Neither is true for if that which is bitter did affect the Sense worst, no man would desire it, no man woulde take pleasure in it; for that which peruerteth the harmony of the Sense, can in that respect atleast bee pleasaunt vnto him, but that which doeth affect the 
Refuted.  Sense woorste must needes make the instrument to iarre, and yet wee knowe that many men( not to speake of other creatures) do wonderfully delight and vehemently long after those things which are bitter.  
Againe, if sweete were that which affecteth the Sense best, then should it please all men, yea all creatures, for that which affecteth the Sense best wee should most reioyce in, which notwithstanding we finde to be contrary often times in ourselves, when nothing is more irke some vnto vs then that which is sweete and lushious.  
But some men may aske me if I do not like these definitions, how I would haue sweet and bitter defined. I answere as I a sayd before that they cannot bee defined; for accidents 
Obiection.  doe not fall vnder definition, especially second qualities which are more accidentary then the first: and therefore I thinke they cannot bee so much as described, vnlesse you will take that for a description which is most common, and when there happeneth any exception it shall be sayde( and that more truely then they are aware) that it happens by accident, that is to say, not because the Taste doth not agree with a discription, but because there is some Salt in the Organ which doth not perceiue the Sapour as it is.  
Well, wee will confesse that these Sapors being the extreames, may fall vnder some such rude discription as is before exhibited; but whose pensill can drawe so fine a line as 
Answere.  to describe the intermediate Tastes? Shall wee make one for all, and say that those are intermediate Sapors which affect the Taste after a middle mannner?  
Surely this definition had not neede to bee scanned in the Schooles, being made at random or at large without any causes or signes of causes therein.  
Much better it is in my opinion to note them out by examples or instances, as Galen 
Sapors are best declared by examples.  hath wisely done in the eight and ninth Chapters of his fourth Booke de simpto. medicam. facult. A sweet Sapour therefore doeth consist in a matter aboundantly moyst and moderatly hotte: as are Figges, Hony, ripe Grapes, sweete and mellow Apples and such like. 
Sweete.  The bitter Sapour recideth in a very crasse and thick matter; hot indeed but easily moyst, 
Bitter. Fat.  yea rather dry as VVormwood, Gall, Aloes and such like. A fat Sapor consisteth in a thin matter and ayrie, which also is temperate in the first qualities as in Seame, Marrow, Oyle, ●●●ke, Butter & such like. A salt Sapor consisteth in a dry matter, as in Salt, Ashes, Gunpowder 
Salt. Keene.  and the like. A keene Sapour is in a substance whose parts are thin and subtle, yet moyst and the temper hot; such a tast in Garlick, Onions, Raddish and the like. A sowre ●●st which also they cal stipticke and Sapor pontieus, but I knowe not why, is in a crasse and 
Sowre.  cold matter, as in vnripe Apples & Berries or such like. An acute or byting Sapor is when 
Acute.  ●he parts are thin, dry and hot, as Pepper and Ginger. The sharpe is in thin parts but cold, ●● in Vineger, Lemons, oyle of Vitreall and such like. Finally, you may with me obserue 
Sharpe.  that no man for ought I know hath hitherto sufficiently described these maister Sapours, ●ay not so much as giuen them apt and fit names.  
The confusion, whereof do make the discourse of them tedious to the Reader. Onely Galen hath chalked out a faire way, wherein if we carefully insist, haply this labyrinth may 
The confusiō of our authors about the Sapor.  at length be troden out. VVe conclude therefore, that if it be impossible rightlie to define these heads, hard to describe them, very difficult to giue them proper names; what an infinite taske were it to vndertake an exact discourse concerning all the particular differences of Sapors?   

QVEST. LXI. Of the Medium or Meane of Tasting.  
_WE are againe falne into a harde and intricate way wherein none of the Ancients or of the new writers haue beaten out a pathe vnto vs, and that is concerning the medium of Tasting. Aristotle was in a great suspence concerning 
The difficulty of this Quest.  the medium of Touching, neither did he determine any thing thereof. In like manner concerning this of Tasting he hath vtterly forsaken vs. And I wonder much( saith Placentinus) that amongst all the Philosophers there is not one that hath insisted in this disquisition to finde out the trueth; but those that haue particularlie made Tractates of this Sense haue notwithstanding balked this argument, not considering that in euery Sense there be three things especially to be stood vpon, the Obiect, the Medium and the Organ.  
Concerning the obiect and the Organ all men do agree, and the crie is vniforme and current. But for the Mediū there all the whole field is at a losse. Haply the difficultie of the 
Philosophers faile therein.  Disquisition did affright them, for otherwise the contemplation is not vnpleasant. Anstotle toucht vpon it in the 101. Text of his second Booke de anima where he saith, That 
Arist. toucht vpon it.  the Taste hath no externall Medium because it is a kinde of Touching which itself hath no such Medium. Beside this, he hath nothing of this matter, notwithstanding we wil aduenture to put forth ourselves vnder the censure of this carping age, which if we shall not satisfie, yet  
Si non datur vltraest, aliquid prodire tenus.  
If further foorth we cannot go,  
Yet something 'tis the way to show.  
And haply he that comes after, as it is in new discoueries, may not repent him that wee haue sounded the Shore.  
First therefore we enquire whether this Sense do needed Medium or no. To speake in genuously and as I thinke( saith Placentinus) it hath no absolute neede, neither shal it be 
The tast needeth no medium  materiall to distinguish betweene an externall and an internall medium, because we thinke that neither is necessary seeing the Taste which is a kinde of Touch is immediately absolued or perfected as the Touch is. That which we Taste we immediately touch with our Tongues, neither is there Sensation made till the obiect light vpon the Organe. If anie man shall imagine that there must be a Medium, I aske the question what he will assigne. One of the foure Elements? Or some body compounded of them? Surely neyther these nor that. For if it be an Element it must be Fire, or Aire, or Water, or Earth. But not 
No Element can bee the Medium. Not Fire  Fire, for that is hot and dry, which would not conserue but consume the moisture where in especially the obiect of Taste is seated. Now the office of a medium is to conserue the Obiect not to destroy it.  
Add heereto, that the efficient cause of Sapours is heate, but one and the same cannot be the efficient cause and Medium of the same thing. Againe, if Fire were the Medi●● we might like a Salamander liue in the Fire or champe burning coales and not bee hurt  
The Aire is not fit for this function, for the Sapor recideth in the mixt bodie out o● which it neuer yssueth, wherefore the Medium that must leade the Sapor vnto the Organ 
Not Ayre  must also transport vnto the organ the mixt body wherein the Sapor is, but the Aire being a simple and liquid Element is not fit to carry a solid matter.  
The VVater cannot be the Medium, because we do not liue in it, and therefore it not contiguous with the Obiect and the Organ. 
Not Water.   
Much lesse the Earth, for that is cold and dry, both which qualities are contrarie vnto 
Not Earth.  Sapors, and therefore will rather vtterly destroy them then conserue and maintain the●  
One word might haue serued all, There are no pure or simple Elements, & that which is not cannot be a Medium? Is it any compound body? No, for a compound body wo●● 
There are no pure elements  disturbe and hinder the Taste. Beside, euery mixt body if it haue neuer so little humid● in it is of itself gustable, that is, the obiect not the medium of Tast. We conclude therefore that tast is made without any outward medium. Yet we doe not say that Tast is made without any intermediate Body adioyning or growing to the organ of Tast. For as in touching we haue already said in the second Booke that the scarf skin was made by nature to come betweene the obiect and the skin itself which was the organ, not to be a medium 
What kind of medium is necessary.  for that office it doth not performe, but a little to dull the quality of the obiect; so likewise in Tast which we haue often said is a kind of Touching we holde that the membrance which inuesteth the tongue doth performe the same office to the organ, which therefore we may say is as it were a medium, though indeed and in truth it be not so.   

QVEST. LXII. Of the organ of Tasting.  
_HAuing thus said what we could for this present concerning the medium of Tasting, we now come vnto the organ. Concerning which there is no doubt made, all men herein beleeuing their sense that the tongue is it which discerneth the differences of Sapors. For not onely reasonable but all vnreasonable creatures, when they would taste any thing, doe lay it to their tongues: or if they cannot doe so they lay their tongues vnto it to distinguish the tast therof. Some haue thought that the pallet is the instrument of this sense, which wee find false, because those men whose pallets are eaten out with the French disease, doe yet taste their 
That the palate is not the organ of Tasting. Nor the teeth.  meate well enough. It must therefore be the tongue though I am not ignorant that some haue attributed this faculty to the teeth, whose arguments happily we may answer in another place, if in the meane time we shall not thinke them vnworthy our resolution.  
But there are some who haue conceiued with better reason that the membrane which inuesteth the tongue is the true organ of Tasting: Among whom is Valesius in the foure 
Nor the membrane of the Tongue. Valesius refuted.  and twentith Chapter of the second booke of his controuersies. But he affirmes it onely confirmes it not, yet because so worthy a schollar hath affirmed it, we will endeauour to make the contrary appeare.  
First therefore the temperament which is common to it which other membrances doth 
The first argument.  denie it this priuiledge, for it is cold and drie, both which qualities are contrary vnto Sapors. Now the qualities of the organ must not be at daggers drawing with the qualities of the obiect, but rather friends, and liue neighbourly together, so as the organ may be potentially that which the obiect is indeed and act.  
Againe, the same membrane which incompasseth the tongue, doth also inuest the nostrills, 
The second argument.  the pallet and 〈…〉 llet. If therefore the membrane were the organ, this sense should be made in all these parts, which we find by experience not to be so. Valesius very vnaduisedly resolueth that this very membrane incompassing the nostrills is the organ of smelling, and saith, that it 〈◇〉 ●he diuersity of the temperament which maketh it in the tongue the organ of the tasting and in the nose the organ of smelling. But he is fowlly deceiued, for suppose it had in these places a different temperature, we must not thinke that onely the temper is sufficient to distinguish the organs of senses; But beside to diuers actions there is required a diuers substance; diuerse I say, and such as is not else where to be found. Now this membrane although the temper doe somewhat differ in seuerall places, yet in qualities and substance it is like itself appearing so, both to the sight and to the touch.  
Finally that is the principall part of the instrument into which a soft nerue doth determine, but into this coate no man will say the nerue doth determine who hath but touched 
The third argument.  Anotomy with his vpper lip, yet Galen in the second Chap, of his 16. booke de vsu partium seemeth to affirme the same in these words. As the hard nerues are inserted into the muskles, 
Obiection out of Galen.  so are the soft into their proper Organ, as into the membrane of the tongue. So that hence it might seem to follow that his membran is the proper instrument of Tasting. But this place of Galen is no whit against our opinion. For we thinke and confesse that that into which the 
Galen expounded.  nerue determines is the true organ. But Galen doth not say the nerue determines in the membrane, or coate of the tongue, he saith it is inserted into it; whence we may rather gather yea therefrom it is conuinced that the substance of the tongue is the organ we treat of, because into it the nerues do determine: for being inserted into the mēbarne the extremity therof reacheth vnto the substance of the tongue to defer and confer the faculty thereunto. 
Obiection. Answer.   
But it will be obiected that if this coate or membrane be ill affected the Tast is therewithall depraued. VVee yeeld it to be true, yet not because the Taste is perfected in that part, but because this membrane concurreth to the action of Sensation, without which in deed we cannot Taste; so in the eye, if the Horny membrane bee violated the sight is then depraued: and yet it doeth not follow that the Horny membrane is the chiefe Organ of Sight. And thus we must vnderstand Galen in the second Chapter of his 4. Booke de locis 
Galen expounded.  affectis, where he sayth that the Taste is vitiated if the membrane of the Tongue be distempered. Or we may say that this membrane is as it were the Taster to the Taste, which office it hath partly from his own proper temperament, partly from the soft nerues which are inserted therinto, vnlesse you will say that these nerues were allowed to the membrane by Nature to giue it an exquisite sense of Touching, whereof the Tongue stood in neede for the defence of his substance, which assertion will not be against reason.  
VVe conclude therefore that the membrane of the Tongue hath an exact Sense of Touching, nor altogether deuoyde of Tasting, not that it tasteth at all of itself but being 
The conclusion.  contiguous, yea continuall and growing to the substance of the Tongue, it concurreth withall to the perfection of the action, so as without it the Sense of Tasting cannot be perfected nor accomplished.  
Notwithstanding, we finde another principall part to which, as this membrane, so all the other adiacent parts are substituted by Nature as helpers and handmaides, and that is the proper and spongy flesh or pulpe of the Tongue. For beside that, it hath a substance such as you can no where finde the like in the whole body, the Temperament also therof 
That the body of the toung is the true organ.  is apt and to entertaine and receiue Sapours; for it is moyst and hot neare of kinne vnto the Nature of a Sapour, that it might more easily bee altered thereby. And indeede for the making of this Sensation, it is necessary that the Organ should put on the nature of 
Arguments.  the obiect which Aristotle meaneth, when he sayth that the Organ must potentially be the same thing which the obiect is actually, that so it might be altered & actually receiue the nature of the obiect; for how shall it iudge of the obiect vnlesse it doe put on the qualities thereof.  
Adde hereto that it hath an ingenite humidity, that those obiects which are potentially moyste, as Salt is, being by this organ actually made moyst might become sapide, that freely and frankly exhibite his Sapours.  
Againe, what greater argument can there bee, that this flesh should bee the organ of Tasting then because it is spongy, for Taste is neuer made vnlesse the moysture that carrieth the Sapour bee imbibed by the organ of Tasting, to which purpose nothing is so fit as the spongy pulpe of the Tongue. Moreouer, all the other Senses are double, and therefore Nature, though she had great reason to make the Tongue single for the commodity of the voyce, and such other circumstances as wee haue particularized in our History: yet that it might be after a sort double, she hath drawne a line through the middest whereby it is diuided into a right side and a left. On that manner there is no part in the mouth diuided, but in the mouth is the Sense of Taste, and therefore it must belong onely to the Toung.   

QVEST. LXIII. Whether the Tongue alone do Taste.  
_WEe hauce prooued that the Flesh or Pulp of the Tongue is the true instrument of Tasting. Notwithstanding it is doubted whether this Action belong onely to this part or may also be communicated vnto others. That it may be communicated to other parts: some arguments are vrged. First, 
That it may be communicated.  the Taste is a kinde of Touching, but Touching is diffused thorough all the body. It may seeme therefore that the Taste is also diffused thorough more parts then one, especially so farre as the meate doeth attayne, that is, into the Mouth, the Gullet and Stomacke.  
Againe, there yssueth out of the Braine a soft nerue which is simple and single in his originall, but when it hath paced a little forward, from the skull it is diuided into two branches: whereof one is inserted into the Tongue, the other into the lower parts.  
Thirdly, we see that the Stomacke doeth reiect and cast vp some meates by vomit, other it embraceth and contayneth.  
In like manner the Gullet swallowes some meates well and freely, others not without loathing and much difficulty, yea some meates because of the enmity betwixt the stomack and their Taste, euen after they are downe are cast vp againe.  
It may therefore be demaunded how this choyce can bee made this loathing or liking stirred vp, vnlesse we say that the Stomacke and the Gullet do Tast and distinguish the differences of Sapors.  
Add hereto the authority of Aristotle, who in the 11 chapter of his fourth Booke Departibus animalium saith, that Fishes in their swallowing do take pleasure and haue a sense of the meate that passeth into their Mawes. Without doubt these arguments are not to be contemned, and yet we will make answere vnto them.  
To the first we say, that though the Taste be a kinde of Touch, yet it is not necessary 
Answer to the first.  that it should in all conditions answere or be proportionable to the Touch.  
To the second, that although the Nerue which is inserted into the tongue do transmit 
To the second  another branch to the Gullet and the Stomacke, yet it doth not follow that the gullet and the stomacke must taste, for the soft nerues do transport the faculty of sensation; yet that the Eye sees colours, the Eare heares sounds, the Nose perceiues odours or sauours, is not by reason of the Nerue, but because of the disposition and temperament of 
The differences of the senses depend on the diuersitie of the organs.  the organs. For the faculty of sensation is euery where one and the same, neither is there any difference in the faculty whereby wee heare, nor in the faculty whereby wee smell, from the faculty whereby wee taste; but all the difference ariseth from the disposition of the organ. The Foote would see, and the Elbow would heare, and the sides would smel, and the crowne would Tast, if in these parts there wer a disposition to receiue the obiects of these Senses.  
In like manner, although the Gullet and the Stomack do receiue a soft Nerue, yet the Gullet and the Stomacke do not Taste because they are not disposed thereto. But the Reason why Nature hath giuen them this soft Nerue wee may finde in Galens 2 chapter of his 16. Booke de vsu partium, to wit, because they stood in neede of an exactnesse of sensation. Now( saith Galen) those parts which had need of exact Sense, haue all of them receyued soft Nerues.  
From this that hath bene saide, we may shape answers vnto the rest of the arguments. 
To the third.  That the Gullet swallowes some meates, and loaths others: that the Stomacke reteines some meates and casts vp others, wee ascribe vnto the pleasure or paine which they feele from the tactile qualities: for of the parts of the body of man none hath the Sense of touching so exquisite as the Stomacke. For beside that it is membranous it hath an infinite number of branches of Nerues inserted thereinto, that it is no wonder if it kicke against the least offence. So if we thrust our fingers into our throats wee can procure a Vomit, 
Why the stomack casts vp some meat & reteins other.  not that wee make our Stomacke loath any thing, but because the Tactile qualities doe vrge and prouoke a sensible part. VVee also may say, that because of the contiguity of parts the Stomacke is fore-warned by the Tongue, so that the Tongue perceiuing anie horrid or vnpleasant sauour communicateth the Sensation to the stomacke, forewarning it of an approaching enemy which thereupon stirring vp itself as it were to battell, yerketh against it and casteth it forth. And to say true, there is such an instinct in Nature bred 
Another answere to the argument.  and setled in those parts. For wee may not attribute the sense of Tasting to the Gullet or Stomacke, because if these partes had Taste, the sicke man that takes a pill or Bole wrapt vp in Sugar wuold neuer retaine it, which if he take without Sugar hee presently casts vp again: and the reason is, because when they are not rowled in Sugar or otherwise made sweete, their bitter or vnpleasant Sapor is perceyued by the Tongue, & warning thereof 
Of the swallowing of Pils  giuen to the Stomacke. They are reteyned being sweetened because that ill Taste is obscured and so the Tongue deceyued. Being now arriued into the Gullet or the Stomack, although the Sugar melt from them yet they are not cast vp againe, because the stomack doth not perceiue their Sapor. And this is the reason why when we would let down any vnsauoury thing into the stomacke we endeuour not to touch the Tongue more then of necessity, least it should be prouoked thereby. VVee conclude therefore, that neyther the Gullet nor the Stomacke do perceyue Tasts or Sapors but onely the Tongue.   

QVEST. LXIIII. In what part of the Tongue the Taste is most exacte.  
_HAuing found out the Organe of Tasting, it remaineth in the last place to search in what part of the Tongue the sense is most exacte, for there is no question but there is a great difference. 
That the backpart tasteth best.   
There are some reasons to perswade vs that the backpart of the toung doth taste better then the forepart. First, because at the back-part of the Tongue the Almonds are seated on either side which doe receiue the spittle and a great quantity of moysture: wherefore because the spittle doth helpe this sense very much, it is to be imagined that where there is most spittle there is best Tasting. Againe, the Nerues which are inserted into the backside of the Tongue are greater then those which are inserted into the foreside. Yet Aristotle holdeth the contrary and prooues his part better, for what can be more certaine then experience.  
If therefore we desire to Taste any thing more curiously we apply it to the tip of our tongues, and if it fall toward the roote we call it backe againe. Againe, when wee are to swallow any thing whose taste is displeasing to vs we hasten it to the roots of our tongue 
The contrarie opinion. Aristotle. Reasons  as soone as we can. The reason is, because the sense of Tasting is not there so exquisite. Moreouer, it is very reasonable that the Taste should be more perfect in the fore-part, because this sense was allowed to the creature to discerne hurtfull Tasts and to auoid them. But if the perfection of the Taste had beene at the rootes, that which is offensiue might haue slipped downe before we were aware, whereas the tippe of the Tongue discerning the difference best, is also best able to free itself from that wherewith it is offended. Add heereto, that the forepart of the Tongue is softer, more spongie and better disposed to imbibe the humidity wherein the Sapor is conteined.  
VVe conclude therefore, that the perfection of the Taste is not in the rootes but in the tip of the Tongue.  
The arguments that were brought to prooue the contrary may easily bee answered. 
Answer to the former arguments.  For because there is so great a plenty of moisture at the roots of the Tongue, therfore the best Taste should not be there: for superfluous humidity doth not quicken the Taste but dulles it.  
Neither do we deny but that the Nerue is larger at the roote of the Tongue, but it doth not follow that therefore the Taste is there more perfect, because in the fore-part though the Nerues be lesse, yet they be more plentifull and aboundant, and therefore do cause the Taste to be more perfect.  
And thus we are come vnto an end of these Labyrinths concerning the Senses, wherein we haue beene somewhat the more prolixe, that those which loue the contemplatiue part of Philosophy might haue something wherewith to please their appetites. It is true indeede that there are many passages in these Controuersies, which for the most part we haue taken out of Iulius Casserius Placentinus which might wel haue befitted the Schooles themselues, but wee imagine that these our Labours may happily fall into some mens hands who will be willing to recognize those Studies which for better employments they haue intermitted. A very few of which kinde if I shall giue contentment vnto, I vvill not thinke my labour ill bestowed. Other men vvho do not vnderstand them, or else are better able then myself to satisfie themselues, may turne ouer to that vvhich shall be more fitting for their Dispositions. And so we will leaue the Head and Senses, and come vnto the Ioynts.   
The End of the Eight Booke of the Senses, and the Controuersies thereunto belonging.   

THE NINTH BOOKE, Wherein the Ioyntes are briefely Described.  

The Praeface.  
_IN the whole body of Man there is nothing more wonderfull then the structure and position of the Ioynts, nor any thing wherein a man doth so much differ from all other creatures. The bowels are most what a like in all, both for Nutrition, Generation Life and Sense, because all creatures haue like vse of all those parts as well reasonable as vnreasonable. The onely thing which makes the difference is the Reasonable Soule which is inuisible, a Nature transcendent and aboue the Nature of the body. But the fashion and position of the Ioynts whereby the body is lifted vp from the earth, vppon which the other creatures doe grouell, maketh the greatest difference betweene man and beast. It were a world of wonder to enter into discourse of the particular Reasons of this position, and wee haue partly handled them before in the first Booke, but especially wee purpose to prosecute them in this ninth Booke destined to that purpose.  
Galen hath taken especiall paines in this argument appropriating therunto his three first Bookes de vsu partium, wherein he hath preuented any man that should take paines after him. Wee shall thinke wee haue quit ourselves well if we can in some sort abbreuiate those large Volumes in this place wherein we haue laboured so much the more to be as concise as the subiect matter will giue vs leaue, because all the particulars will fall vnder our discourse in our bookes of the Muscles the Vessels and the Bones. The Reader therefore is to be intreated to content himselfe with this bare ouerture, where in wee will but muster the parts close together, because we shall haue time and scope to draw out our troopes and to marshiall them in better order when we come into the large fields of the Bookes which follow.   

CHAP. I. A breefe description of the Ioynts.  
_WEe before deuided the body of Man into three Regions or Venters, and the outward parts or the Ioynts. Through the three Regions, Naturall, Vitall & Animal, we haue carried our Story with as great breuity and perspicuity as we could, it followeth now that we prosecute our History vnto the Limmes. The Ioints therfore which grow vnto the body as boughes vnto the trunke of the tree are called in Greeke 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉, in Latine artus ab artando, in English wee will call them Limmes or Ioynts, because there are most ioynts in them.  
There are therefore two kinds of Ioynts, the vpper and the lower; the vpper ioyntes 
2 kinds of ioynts.  are called by the common name of the Hand, for the Ancients accoūted the whole member from the shoulder to the fingers ends to bee all the Hand. The lower Ioynts as likewise called Pedes, that is, the Feete, of which we shall speake afterward. The whole Hand 
The diuision of the hand  Hippocrates and Galen doe deuide into three parts in Brachium, Cubitum, and summā or extremā manum, that is, the Arme, the Cubit and the Hand as we call it.  
The Arme Celsus calleth humerus, Festus calleth it Armus, whence our word came. The Head which is inserted into the broade bone or blade of the shoulder is called by Pollux 
The arme.  〈◇〉, by Euripides 〈◇〉, the end is called 〈◇〉.  
The cauity vnder the ioynt of the shoulder Aristotle calleth axilla, commonly ala, because in it do grow hayres as feathers in a wing which is called ala, and we call it the armehole.  
The second or middle part is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉, in Latine Cubitus or Vlna, 
The Cubite  we will call it the Cubite to distinguish it from the vpper part which we call the Arme.  
The third part is called Manus, from manare to flow, because it floweth as it were out 
The hand.  of the Cubit: this we call properly the Hand, and it hath three parts, the wrest called brachiale, the After-wrest called post-brachiale, and the fingers called digiti, of which wee shall speake in their due place. And this is the common diuision of this ioynt. VVee now will follow the particular parts of the diuision.   

CHAP. II. Of the parts of this Ioynt in generall.  
_THE proper parts of the whole Hand taking it in the large acception of the Ancients, are beside the common parts which we pretermit, the Vessels, the Muscles and the Bones. By the Vessels I vnderstand the Veines, the Arteries 
The veines of the whole hand.  and the Nerues. The Veines which are deriued through this whole member doe arise all from the Axillary branch: and there are two; the first passeth along on the inside, the other on the out side of the arme. That on the inside is called Basilica, that on the out side is called Cephalica. The Basilica Hippocrates calleth Venam internam the inward voine, Others call it Hepatica & Iecoraria, that is, the Liuer-veine. 
Basilica. The Liuer veine.  And it is ordinarily deuided into a deeper and a shallower. The deeper climing ouer the axillary Artery and the third paire of sinnewes passeth along to the bought of the Arme which we commonly call the Elbow, and so bestoweth his branches vpon both the bones of the Cubite.  
The shallower runneth vnder the skinne to the ioyning of the Cubite with the Arme 
Medianae.  where it is clouen into two boughes, one of which passeth to the inside of the Cubite, and there is vnited with a branch of the humerary veine, and from that coniunction ariseth the Common veine which they commonly call Mediana or the middle veine; the Arabians cal it the blacke veine. The other bough descendeth along the lower side of the Cubite sprinkling 
The blacke veine.  the skinne and partes by which it passeth with diuers small branches.  
The Cephalica or Head-veine so called, because it is opened in diseases of the Head; 
Cephalica or the head vein  Hippocrates calleth externa or the outward veine, because it creepeth along the outside of the arme: others call it Humeraria,( because it passeth thorough the shoulder betwixt the Muscle called Deltoides & the Tēdon or chord of the Pectoral muscle) which falling down vnder the surface of the skin, when it commeth vnto the bought of the Cubite is diuided into two branches: the one borne along obliquely into the inside of the Cubite coupleth itself with the braunch of the Liuer-veine, and betwixt them beget the common or middle veine; the other which is larger descendeth by the Radius almost to the middest thereof and hence running oblikely to the wrist, it watereth almost all the backe of the hand, and endeth in a notable and manifest branch, betwixt the little and the ring fingers: where it is called salua tella, and is opened, as authors say, with good successe in spleniticke persons. 
Salua tella.   
The arteries which belong to this hand doe proceede in one bough from the axillary artery, and this bough is called Basilica. It hath two branches one setled deepely, the other 
The arteries of the hand.  eminent betweene the skin and the flesh. Both of them doe affoord many deriuations out of themselues, but that of the shallower is most notable which is often times to be seene 
The pulse.  in the inside of the wrist a little aboue the roote of the thumbe, at which place and by which artery we vse to feele the pulse to find out the differences thereof.  
And for sinewes there are six paire disseminated through the whole hand, the first commeth out of the first racke bone of the necke and is spent in the Deltoides muskle and the 
Six paire of sinewes of the hand  skin neere vnto it. The second arising from the sixt racke bone of the necke first passeth into the double headed muskle; then it casteth of a small branch to the long muskle of the 
The first. The second. The third.  Cubit, and at length when it attaineth to the elbow it is diuided into branches The third being mingled with the second, reacheth his helpe to the muskle of the arme, which lieth vnder that with a double head. The fourth which is the largest of all the rest falling vnto 
The fourth.  the same muskle together with the deepe liuer-vaine and the inward artery is deuided into diuers branches The fift passeth along betwixt the muskles, which bend and extend the 
The fift.  cubit and hauing gotten ouer behind the inward processe of the arme, and being mixed with the third coniugatiō, is consumed in the fingers, giuing to the little finger two nerues, to the ring finger likewise two and to the middle finger one. The sixt paire sliding downe 
The sixt.  betweene the skin & the neruous membrane by the inward processe of the arme determineth into the skin of the Cubit And these are the vessels of the whole hand whose description we shall more exactly set downe in a fitter place hereafter. The muskles of the whole hand are very many, some moue the Arme, some the Cubit some the Radius, some the 
The muscles of the hand. The bones of the hand.  wrist and some the fingers, of which also we shall speake in their proper place. The bones of the hand are diuers, the arme hath one bone, the cubite two, the wrist eight, the afterwrest fower, the fingers fifteene, to which we may adde if we please the small seede bones called Sesamoidea all which we will as curiously and accurately as we are able describe in our booke of the bones, whether at this time we refer the reader.   

CHAP. III. Of the excellency of the hands.  
_MAn, who is the crowne and pride of Nature, that bold and confident worke-Mistrisse, 
Man is the glory of Natures workemanship.  him I say, God on his birth day, did cast out vpon the dust of the earth, naked, vnarmed, and wel●ring in his bloud, to enioy or rather to deplore an inheritance of sorrow and misery. Yet notwithstanding because he is sent into the world to be a combetant and not a sluggard, he hath armed him with two wondrous weapons, which he hath denied to all other liuing creatures, Reason and the Hand. His reason is the storehouse of all arts and sciences, the first groundworke 
The weapons which man hath more then other creatures. What a man can doe with his hand.  and foundation of whatsoeuer the immortall soule is naturally capeable or apprehensiue of; an arte it is, as before all arts, so hath it all arts for his subiect or matter whereabout it is occupied. The hand is an instrument, but as it is the first instrument so it is the framer, yea and imployer of all other instruments. For not being framed for any one particular vse it was capeable of all: so as it may iustly be compared to the soule, which as the Philosopher saith is, though not in deed yet in power and ability all things. By the helpe of the hand Lawes are written, Temples built for the seruice of the maker, Ships, houses, instruments, and all kind of weapons are formed. I list not to stand vpon the nice skill of painting, drawing, caruing, and such like right noble Artes, whereby many of the Ancients haue made their names honorable vnto vs, yea and eternized them to the worlds end. By our hands we promise; we call, we dismisse, we threaten, we intreate, we abhorre, we feare, yea and by our hands we can aske a question. By the helpe of the hand although a man be borne vnarmed, yet is he able to safegard himselfe from all other creatures: and all those creatures which come strong and armed at point into the world, how fierce soeuer they be, how able to abide the violence of heauen itself, yet are they not safe from the hands of men. For doth not the industry of mens hands preuaile against the hornes of the Bull, the teeth of the Lyon, and the paw of the Beare, yea whatsoeuer is comprehended vnder the cope of heauen, by the skill of the hand is brought vnder our subiection and made tributary vnto vs.  
And therefore Anaxagoras as Plutarch reporteth, marking diligently the curious fabrick of the hands, the postures of the fingers, as they moue either together or apart, the mighty 
Anaxagoras.  strength, the cleane nimblenesse and the soft delicacy thereof, ascribed vnto them the cause and originall of mans wisedome. How much wiser was Galen who in those melodious Hymnes which he wrote to the praise of his Creator, I meane his Bookes of the Vse 
Galen.  of Parts discoursing very curiously concerning this curious instrument concludeth, That man is not therefore the wisest of all creatures because he hath Hands, but because hee is the wisest of all creatures, therfore Nature furnished him with this excellent instrument. It was not the Hand that taught men Arts but Reason, yet the seruant and minister of this reason and wisedome is the Hand: they are the Vicars or Substitutes and Suffraganes of 
The Handes consecrated to Faith.  the speech, the interpreters of the secret Language of our silent conceits, signifying to all men in a few Letters as it were by Hieroglyphicks what the very thoughts of our Heartes are.  
Numa Pompilius consecrated the Hands to Faith, and therefore all Compacts, Couenants, Truces & enter-courses whatsoeuer are held inuiolably ratified by the very touch of the Hand, and at this day in our neighbor-countries the Principall Nobility do sweare their allegiance into the Handes of their Prince or his Substitute.  
That very Touch was also among the Persians, the most sacred pledge of fidelity: and therefore the most Ancient did vse to salute one another on this manner, giuing and receyuing honor by this part. Likewise they which adore Princes or great Potentates are accustomed to kisse their Hand and incline their head. In the Egyptian Hieroglyphicks 
The Hands Emblemes of Fortitude.  the Hand was the Embleme of Fortitude and therefore they which seeke for helpe doe call for the right hand, for so it is in our common Prouerbe, Lend mee your helping Hand. I list not to commend the Hand from that superstitious Art or Imposture, rather of such as call themselues Chyromantickes, whose idle speculations are not fit to bee mingled with our serious discourse, which we will now transferre from the excellency and commendation 
The vanity of Chyromātiks.  of so curious an Instrument to a more Anatomicall consideration of the Vse, Figure and Structure of the same.   

CHAP. IIII. Of the Vse, Figure and Structure of the Hand, properlie so called.  
_THE true office of the Hand is to apprehend or to holde, and his proper action is apprehension( for Hand and Holde are Coniugates as we term them 
The seuerall vses of the Hand.  in Schooles) from whence it is called Organum 〈◇〉. The First vse therefore of the Hand is to take hold. Another vse of it is to bee the iudge and discerner of the Touch. For albeit this touching vertue or tactiue quality be diffused through the whole body both within and without, as being the foundation of the Animall Being, which may be called Animality, yet we do more curiouslie and 
The hand the instrument of touching.  exquisitely feele and discerne both the first and second qualities which strike the Sense in the Hand then in other parts. It is also an Instrument well fitted to ease our paynes, to propulse or driue backe iniuries and to defend the fore-parts of the body. Wherefore for these vses and for the performance of all his functions it hath that figure which we fee, and that admirable structure which as well as we can we shall vnfold vnto you. The Figure is 
The figure of the Hande.  long and diuided into many parts that it might comprehend in one all kinde of Figures, the round or Spherick, the right and the hollow, for all figures are made of three lines, a crooked, a hollow, and a straight. Beside, this figure doth equally apprehend both greater bodies and lesse; for small things it holdeth with the ends of two fingers, the great finger or the thumbe and the forefinger.  
If the body bee a little bigger, it conteyneth it with the same fingers but not with the ends. If it be yet bigger, we vse three fingers, the thumbe, the fore and the middle fingers. 
Why diuided.  If it be larger then we can containe with three we vse foure, and so fiue, and at length the whole hand. Now if the Hand had bene made of one continuall peece, it would onelie haue apprehended a body of one magnitude. Neyther was it sufficient that the Hande should be diuided into fingers, vnlesse the same fingers had beene placed in a diuers order and not in the same right line, so as one was to be set or opposed to the other four, which beeing bowed with a small flection might meete and agree with the action of the other 
The structure of the Hand.  foure opposite vnto it. And this is the manner and proportion of the figure. For the structure if it be diligently attended, it will imprint in vs an admiration of the wonderfull skill and workemanship of Nature and it is on this manner. Because the Hand was the most noble and perfect organ or instrument of the body: God the Creator moulded it vp of diuers particles, all which for our better vnderstanding we will referre vnto foure kindes.  
The first kinde is of those which originally and by themselues doe performe an action: the secōd of those without which an action is not performed: the third of such as do more perfectly accomplish an action, and the last of such particles as do preserue an action.  
The first and principall part of the hand is a Muscle, because there is no apprehension 
The principall part of the hand is the muscle.  without motion; now wee know that a Muscle is the immediate organ of voluntary motion.  
The second part without which there is no apprehension is a Nerue; for the Muscle moueth not vnlesse it be commaunded, this commandement the nerue bringeth together with a subtle spirit, and therefore it is called Lator or the poast.  
The third which accomplish the Action are the Bones and the Nayles: the Bones doe 
The bones & nailes doe make the action perfect.  make the action strong and stable, without which the Fingers might indeede be extended and bent againe, but because of their softnesse they would euer haue beene trembling, and not able to haue holden any thing straight or firmely.  
The Nayles further apprehension. The particles which do preserue the Action are the Veines, the Arteries, the Skinne and the Fat. The Veines water it with bloud; the Arteries quicken it with vitall spirits; the Skinne and the Fat make a Colligation or tying together of all the rest.   

CHAP. V. Wherein is declared the reason of the framing of all the similar parts whereof the Hind is compounded.  
_THe Muscle therefore is the principall part of the Hand by which immediatly apprehension is made. But because there are two especiall partes of a Muscle, 
Why the fingers haue little flesh.  the Flesh and the Tendon or Chord, Nature placed many Tendons and little Flesh vpon the Fingers, because the end of the Hand should be light & thinne, not heauy and thicke.  
These Tendons from their originall euen to their insertion are round, that they might bee lesse subiect to outward affects, but in the very insertion they growe broader that the motion may be more nimble. But because there are many motions of the fingers, to wit, right, as Simple; flection or extention; & oblique whē they are brought together or parted asunder; it was necessary that there should be Tendons both without and within and 
The tendons of the fingers.  on the sides of the fingers. But how many Muscles there bee of the hand, whence euery one of them ariseth and where they are inserted together with their structure, we shall declare in the next Booke, wherein wee handle of sette purpose the Historie of all the Muscles.  
Nerues they haue dispersed into their Muscles and Flesh, and those very many from 
Their nerues.  the fourth and fift payre of the Arme which yeelde vnto them the faculties of Sense and Motion. The Bones of the Hand are eight of the Wrest, foure of the After-wrest which are tyed together with a strict and immouable articulation or iuncture. The Bones of the Fingers are ioyned by Diarthrosis, for it behooued that they should so mooue as they 
Their bones.  might be able to apprehend or take hold of all figures or fashions of things. These Bones are onely three neither more nor lesse, for more would haue hindered perfect extention, and fewer would not haue admitted so many and diuers particular figures. And all these that the motion might bee more facile and easie, are knit together by Ginglymos. Nowe the variety of the motions is furthered both by the gristle which compasseth their extreamities and by the fatte and oyhe humour which like a slime doth line the ioynts. But because when the creature according to his pleasure shall bend and bow these ioynts, they should not be disseuered or fall out of their seates, Nature hath knitte them together with 
The ties or bands.  tyes and bands, and wedged them in also with small bones like Sesamum seedes. For these small bones which are in the inner ioynts of the Hand doe not suffer the ioynts to Luxe or 
The seede bones and their vse.  shoote inward when we streatch out our hands strongly; and those that are placed in the outward ioyntes keepe them from leaping outward when wee bend our handes with violence.  
The further discourse of the Bones of the Hand you shall find hereafter in the last Book which is of the Bones: for to transcribe euery particular here, were to abuse my owne time and your patience.  
The bones therefore doe make the action more perfect. For if the fingers were without them, we should be able to performe those actions only wherein it behoued vs to draw the fingers into a circular forme. The Nayles also were made to further the vse of the Hand; for hard and small bodies would easily flie from the fingers, vnlesse there had beene set to 
The vse of the nailes.  their ends a hard body, both to strengthen and establish the flesh, as also to keepe in and retaine such small and slipery things. Finally the veines, arteries, skin, and fat, doe preserue or conserue the action.   

CHAP. VI. Of the distincter parts of the hand, of the Wrest and of the After-wrest.  
_THe Handproperly so called, hath three dissimilar parts: the Wrest, the After-wrest, and the Fingers. The Wrest called Carpus, the Latines more vsually 
The wrist.  call Brachiale, the Arabians Raseta or Roseta, because it was a custome to adorne that part with roses, and diuers flowers. It consisteth of eight bones set in two rankes, which haue no proper names belonging vnto them. The After-wrest called by the Latines post-brachiale and by Celsus Palma, is deuided into two 
The after-wrest.  parts, the internall and the externall: the internall part which makes the hand hollow when it is stretched foorth, hath his name in Hippocrates from a word which signifieth a stroke, because with the palme we vse to strike. The Latines call it properly Palma, and so doe we the Palme of the hand: whichwhen it is crooked & hollowed is called vola manus. 
The palme.  The outward part which is the backe of the hand is called manus auersa or dorsummanus. In the Palme of the hand there are many particles obserued. For the beginning of it which 
The backe of the hand.  riseth a little toward the inside of the wrist is called Radix manus the roote of the hand. The middle part is called Interstitium or the partition. The fleshy swellings which the Chyromanticks call hyllockes or Monticles do make the brawne or pulpe of the hand and 
The hillockes of the hand  are called properly 〈◇〉 of a word which signifieth to smite. That hillocke which is vnder the thumbe is called mons martis, that vnder the fourth finger, mons Iouis, that vnder the middle finger, Saturni, that vnder the Ring finger Solis, that vnder the little finger is dedicated to Venus. The Thenar that is the space which is betwixt the thumbe and the fore-finger is called the hill of Mercurie: and the Hypothenar which is the brawne betweene the roote of the thumbe and the little finger is called the Moone hill. Beside these, there are also in the Vola or cup of the hand many lynes, by the sight and obseruation whereof, the 
The Lines,  Chiromantickes doe promise and take vpon them, to foretell the length or shortnesse of the life, good or euill fortune, Naturall inclinations, and in a word the euents of all accidents: with how great reason or from what cause or ground either in Nature or in Diuinity, ipsi viderit: we will onely for distinction sake, and because it is rather lookt for at our hands then that we approue any such impostures, name them vnto you. They are said to be fourteene, but three are principall: the first which compasseth in the thumbe is called Vitafera 
The line of life.  the lyne of life by others temporalis, or the lyne of Tyme. The second which runnes ouerthwart through the middest of the Vola or Cup is stretched to the moone hill, and is called ilcoraria the Lyuer lyne or the Naturall lyne. The third beginneth from the Hypothinar 
The naturall Line. The table line or line of Venus.  or moone hill, and reacheth to the mount of Iupiter and is called the table or bed lyne of Venus.  
When the hand is shut it is called Pugnus, or the fist; when it is halfe bent it is called condylus. Further we must obserue that Nature hath made two hands, one to helpe and 
Why two hands.  assist the other, the right and the left. Some there be which can as well vse this as that, and are called Ambidextri. A woman saith Hipocrates cannot be an ambidexter, that is she cannot vse both hands alike.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Fingers of the Hand.  
_THe last part of the hand containes the Fingers, called digiti, whose order and ranke is called Phallaux; the internall articulations or ioynts; are called internodia, the knots of the fingers. The fingers ends which are round and fleshy 
The parts of the fingers.  are called Vuia or the grapes. The outer part of the fingers haue knubbie or knotty ioynts called in Latine Nodi, we call them knuckles, and there are three in euery finger. Each hand hath fiue fingers, neither more nor lesse, that the apprehension 
Why fiue fingers and no more.  might be more perfect. For take away the thumbe, and you take away the power and strength of all the rest: if you take away the little finger you canot incompasse anything circularly. Now these fingers vvere made vnequall in length and magnitude that wee might the better comprehend all figures and all quantities both greater and lesse. The first, because 
The Thumbe  in strength it is equipolent or equiualent to al the rest is called pollex or the Thumb and hath onely two ioynts. And this finger hath peculiar muscles, bending, extending and leading it too and fro, because it hath something peculiar in his motions. The second is 
The forfinger The middlefinger.  called Index from his vse, because we vse it when we would shew any thing. Suetonius calleth it Salutaris, it hath a Greeke name also from a word which signifieth to licke, because with it we vse to taste or licke any thing. The third is called Medius or Famosus the middle 
The Ring finger.  from his situation, Famosus because by stretching this finger foorth we vse to deride or disgrace when we list.  
The fourth is called Medicus, because therewith in old time they vsed to mingle or stir medicines; tis also called Annularis or the ring-finger, because the Ringes are there most 
The little finger,  commonly worne. The fift, because it is the least is called Mintmus, and Auricularis beecause with it we picke our eares. Euery finger hath three bones ioyned by Ginglymos, as we shall say heereafter. Finally, for more steddy apprehension there are nailes set vnto the Fingers ends engendred of the more crasse and thicke excrements of the third concoction, 
The nature of the Nailes.  and therefore they grow continually only in length as do the haires. But their growth is not by nourishment but by an imperfect acruing of the matter, for there is no traction or assimulation of aliment, but onely an apposition of excrement.  
They are moderately hard that they might not be hurt with outward things rushing against them and also round fot their further security: the Latines call them Vngues, their 
The partes of the Nailes.  roote which is like a white moon is called Radix or Ortus: the tops which we pare off Extremitas, the white spottes in the Naile Mendacia, so many spots so many lyes. And this shal suffice for the description of the vpper Ioynts, now follow the lower.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Foote in Generall, his Excellencie, Figure, Structure and Vse.  
_AS man alone, because he was the wisest creature had Hands giuen vnto him the first and originall Instruments of the world, so he alone of all creatures 
Why a man hath but two feete.  which dwell vpon the earth and vse feete onely, hath two feete answereable to his two hands; for if he stood groueling on foure stiltes, how could hee ride, write, build, throw a weapon, or exercise any of those Arts wherewith he is furnished. The Figure and posture of bruite beasts had beene altogether vnprofitable and incommodious for this diuine creature, for neither could he haue looked vppe to heauen, for which cause euen Anaxagoras could say that he was created; nor sit him down to meditate, for they say, that the sitting soule is the wisest, neither could he passe through sharpe vnequall or sloping places, climbe Turrets, builde houses, or any such thing. It is true, that the more feete the swifter is the creature( other things being equall,) but what neede had man of such footemanship to ouertake, when by his industry hee is able to circumuent all other creatures? He was therefore made Bipes that is, with two feet, & therefore he standeth vpright or sitteth at his pleasure.  
The proper vse of the foote is to walke and the action is walking, and therefore the 
The Office of the Foote.  foot is called Instrumentum ambulatorium or a walking Instrument. This walking is vvhen one Legge resteth vpon the ground, and the other is brought about forward. The resting is the action of the foote properly so called: the reach forwarde the action of the legge: and therefore seeing ambulation is made by station and motion, that is, standing & proceeding, the foote itself is the instrument of the former, and the whole legge of the 
How ambulation is made.  latter.  
Now for assured and constant or firme station, as also for the accomplishment of those many motions whereof we stand in neede, the structure and figure of the foot and legge is such as we see. For it is diuided into diuers ioynts, and the toes are made long & broad not so long as in the Hands, but only as was necessary to fasten the feete when we would 
The figure of the Foote.  striue to run. For if the Toes be pressed vnto the ground, it is straunge with howe much strength and security the body is driuen forward.  
Moreouer, the feete were made hollow in the midst that they might better passe thorough all places: for the hollow soal encompasseth that which is round or gibbous wheron we tread, and the Toes do hold vs fast in right, oblique, sloping and ascending progressions. 
The likenesse betwixte the Feet and the Hands.  There is a great similitude betwixt the feete and the hands, so as wee haue seene some who had no hands, to do all the offices of the hands with the feete.   

CHAP. IX. The similer parts of the Foote in the large acception.  
_ALl that by the ancients is called the Foote which reacheth from the hip ioynt euen to the end of the Toes. It may be diuided into similar and dissimilar parts. The similar parts as in the hand so here are containing or contained; 
The similar parts of the foote.  containing, as the scarfe-skin, the true skin, the fat, and the fleshy membrane. The parts contained are the vessells, the flesh and the bones. The vessels are of three sorts, veines, arteries, and sinewes. The vaines doe all deriue their pedegree from 
The veines of the foote.  the Crurall branch. This crurall branch shooteth out of himselfe many sprayes through the thigh, the leg and the feete, deuided into many twigs. Six of them are among the rest most conspicuous and are called by these names. Saphena, Ischias minor, Muscula, Poplitea, Suralis, and Ischia maior. The Saphena or anckle vaine arising from the kernells in the groine 
Saphena.  passeth downe on the inside of the thigh betwixt the skin and the fleshy membrane, and reacheth ouer to the outward anckle and is after diuersly consumed or spent into the skin 
The lesser Ischias  of the top of the foote. The lesser Ischias opposite to the Saphena is distributed into the fore skinne of the hippe and the muscles of that part. The muscula is diuided into two branches, the lesse of which watereth the muscles which extend or stretch foorth the 
Muscula.  legs. The greater lies deepe in the flesh, and is diuersified almost into all the muscles of the thigh.  
The Poplitea is made of two branches of the crurall vaine ioyning together, and after it hath sent some small sciences into the backe skin of the thigh, it falleth downe through the 
The Popletea  middest of the ham, and is sometimes spent into the skin of the calfe, sometime it passeth to the very heele, and sometime turneth aside vnto the outward anckle.  
The Surall vaine is disseminated into the muscles of the Sura or calfe, and vnto the skin which is on the inside of the leg: and being reflected about the inner anckle, it attaineth vnto 
The Surall  the inside of the foote, and the skin of the great toe, very rarely to any of the other toes. The greater Ischias hath two parts, one greater which passing through the muscles of the 
The greater Ischias,  calfe spendeth itself into ten shoots allowing two to each toe. The lesser which endeth betwixt the Perone and the heele sometimes preforating the ligament in the middest is dispersed into the muscle which draweth the toe backward and into the skin. The crurall artery brancheth itself like the vaine, so that euery vaine hath an artery accompaniyng it. The nerues which are disseminated through the whole leg are fowre and those very notable, 
The arteries of the foote. The 4 nerues of the whole foote.  which arise from the three lower paires of the loynes, and from the fowre vpper of the holy or great bone. The first and the vppermost falling vnder the Peretoneum to the little Trochanter is consumed into the muscles of the thigh, and into the skin, both on the out and on the inside, before it touch the knee. The second and the lower, descendeth through the lesk together with the crural veine and artery into the thigh, and sendeth a notable branch to accompany the anckle vaine through the inside of the thigh, euen vnto the foot, in the meane time bestowing small tendrills vpon the neighbor skin: but the greater part of it together with the vaine and artery is dispersed into the inner muscles of the thigh. The third lower then the former disperseth his fauours to the muscles of the yard, and to some of the muscles also of the thigh, not forgetting the skin of the lesk, and afterward it determineth in the neighbour muscles aboue the middle of the thigh. The fourth which is the thickest, driest and strongest of all the nerues hauing his originall from the fowre vpper spondells of the Os sacrum or the holy bone, gliding along betwixt it and the hanche bone, affordeth certaine branches vnto the neighbor parts, as vnto the skin of the buttockes and of the thighe, and to the muscles contained vnder them. Afterward departing into two branches, the lesser falleth by the Perone and giueth two shootes vnto each toe, the greater stretching along the leg and the foote, giueth likewise two branches to each toe, but both these boughs by the way as they passe doe touch at the heads of the muscles and at the skin of the leg and the foote, and doe tye them together. And this shall serue for a short description of the vessells.  
The muscles of the foote are diuers: some Bend the thigh, Extend it, bring it to the body lead it from the body and turne it about: others doe moue the leg with the selfe same kinds of motions, others bend and extend the foote itself. Finally, there are others, which 
The muscles of the feete. The bones of the feete.  moue the toes of the feete, the particular history of all which you may require in the next booke of the muscles. The bones of the feete are very many: one of the thigh, two of the legge called perone and Tibia, together with the whirle bone of the Knee: the wrest of the feete called peatum hath seauen bones: the after-wrest called Metapedium hath fiue, and there be 14 of the Toes to which may be added seed-bones like to those which we found in the hand. Of all which we will giue you satisfaction in our Booke of the Bones.   

CHAP. X. An explication of the dissimilar parts of the whole foote.  
_THE great foote is diuided as the hand into three dissimilar parts, the Femur or Thigh, the Tibia or Legge, and the pes or Foot. The Thigh is called Femur 
The partes of the foote in the large acceptation.  a ferendo, because the creature is therewith sustained or held vppe. The fleshy parts are called by Hippocrates 〈◇〉, the fore-partes 〈◇〉. The Pulpie or fleshy part about the ioynt belowe is( on the backeside into which the Knee is bent) called Poples the Ham, because it is folded Post, that is, backward: the fore-parte is called Genu, that is, the Knee. The second part of the foote from the Knee to the Heele is called 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉, in Latine Tibia, we call it the Leg: the forepart whereof Antetibiale the Shinne, the hinder and fleshy part Sura the Calfe: the two processes without flesh neere the bottome Maleoli or the Ancles. The last part of the foote is called pes paruus & properly the Foote, because it is the basis or pedistall wherupon the whole body resteth and it is the true organ or Instrument of progression: & as the hand is diuided into three parts, the Wrest the After-wrest and the Toes. The Wrest is called pedium, and consisteth of seuen bones, foure of which haue proper names, the other three none. The forepart of this pedium is called the instep. The backe part is round and is called Calx or the Heele, the lower part of it is called Calcaneum, because with it wee do calcare Terram tread vpon the Earth, and we call it the pitch of the heele.  
The second part of the foote consisteth of fiue bones and answereth to the After-wrest of the hand, in Latine it is called Tarsus, the lower part of it is called the plant or the soale of the foote, the vpper part betwixt the Instep and the Toes is called pectus or dorsum pedis the brest or backe of the foote. Finally, the Toes are fiue answering to the fingers of the Hand, and haue their owne orders, making three ranks called 〈◇〉, excepting the great toe. These bones are ioyned by Ginglymos, and haue seede-bones for theyr firmer 
The Vse of the seed-bons in the foote.  articulation: for these small bones make the foote stronger when we stand stil or walk on; especially if our way be through sharpe places, where otherwise the toes might easilie be luxed if they could be turned backe with stones or any other higher or vnequall substance whereupon we should tread.  
And this is the true and succinct description of the Ioynts, wherewith wee desire the Reader to rest contented at this time, because he shall finde a more accurate delineation of all the parts of them in their seuerall places in the Tractes following, beginning with the most compounded parts, and so proceeding till wee come vnto the most Simple and Similar.   
The End of the Ninth Booke of the Ioynts.   

THE TENTH BOOKE, Of Flesh, that is, of the Muscles, the Bovvels and the Glandules.  

The Praeface.  
_AS our ability, time & auocatiōs haue giuen vs leaue, we haue gone through our first diuision of the body of Man into the three Regions, Naturall, Vitall and Animall and the Ioynts. It remayneth now that we dissolue euery one of these into those parts whereof they are compounded, laying each apart by themselues that their Natures and differences may better appeare. In this Analysis or Resolution wee will first begin with the Flesh, which beside that it maketh the greatest part of the bulk of the Body, is also somewhat more compounded then the rest of the Similar parts. Next wee will entreat of the Vessels, that is to say, of the Veines, Arteries and Sinewes; for these are the Riuers or Brookes which conuay the Bloud, the Spirits, the Heate, the Life, the Motion and the Sense, into all the parts and corners of this Little world. Afterward we will descend vnto the Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes and Fibres: Parts, not onely Spermaticall and Similar, but also Simple, that is not Organicall. Last of all wee will come vnto the Bones, that is, to the foundation of this goodly Structure; the Pedestall or Columns vpon which the frame of the body of Man is reared and whereby it is strengthened and supported. I know well that some Anatomistes of the best note, haue in their deliuery of this Art quite inuerted this order which we haue proposed vnto ourselves, beginning first with the Bones, and so ascending by the Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes, Vessels and Flesh, vnto the three Regions and the Ioynts: which Methode being Geneticall, we conceiue to be rather the way of Nature then of Art; for Nature first lineth out of the masse of Seede, the warp of the body, and after with the woofe filleth vp the empty distances: first she layeth the foundation, rayseth the stories, bindeth the ioyntes and plastereth the walles, till it come vnto a perfect building. Art on the contrary takes it asunder peece and peece, proceeding from that which is more to that which is lesse compounded, till at length it come vnto the very ground-worke or foundation. This Method we haue followed till we are come vnto the Flesh: Of which there are three kindes; one of the Muscles, another of the Bowels, and the third of the Glandules. To the declaration of these three we haue destined this Booke, but begin with the Muscles, because they are more compounded then the rest.   

CHAP. I. What Flesh is, and how manie sorts of Flesh there bee.  
_FLesh in Latine Caro, in Greeke 〈◇〉, hath diuers acceptions amongst the Ancients. Sometime in a strict and proper acceptation it is taken for the flesh of a Muscle, as if a Muscle and Flesh 
The diuers acceptations of Flesh.  wer both one thing: so Hippocrates vnderstandeth it in the 16 Aphorisme of the fift Section where he saith, That bathes of hot Water will loosen the Flesh, that is, dissolue the strength of a Muscle: & in the second Section of his Booke de Fracturis he calleth the Muscles 
Flesh and a Muscle al one.  absolutely flesh, because their cheefe part is flesh. But most plainly of all in his Booke de Arte, where he saith, All those members which are compassed about with flesh, which flesh they call a Muscle, all those parts I say haue bellies.  
Sometime by flesh we vnderstand that simple part which is peculiar and proper to ech part of a mans body, and compasseth, gathereth together, and couereth the Stamina or 
The particular Flesh of euery part.  fibres defending them against the rage of the naturall heate which would consume & depopulate their very substance, as also against the heate and colde, and other outward occurrents.  
Concerning this flesh Hippocrates in his Booke de Ossium Natura hath this saying, The Flesh is that which tyeth together and buildeth or reareth vp all the parts of this frame. VVee 
4. Kinds of Flesh.  out of Galen and the late VVriters doe take knowledge of foure distinct differences of Flesh; one is flesh properly so called, another is the flesh of the bowelles, the thirde is the peculiar flesh of euery part, and the fourth the flesh of the Glandules or Kernelles. The flesh properly so called is a soft and ruddy part made of blood moderately dried, & 
What is flesh properly so called.  is therefore called a bloody part and a hot part: such is the flesh of the Muscles which is truly and absolutely called Flesh, such is also the flesh of the Gums and that in the nut of the yard.  
The flesh of the bowels Erasistratus calleth parenchyma, as it were an affusion or gathering together of blood. For he thought that the substance of the bowels did accrue or gather of blood yssuing out of the Veines. But wee thinke that the bowelles haue a proper substance of their owne which is the principall and chiefe part of the bowell to which his action doth properly belong. There is also another flesh peculiar vnto euery solide part, 
The flesh of the solid parts  which flesh hath no proper name, but Galen calleth it Carnosam substantiam, the Fleshye substance: for in the tenth Booke of his Method he acknowledgeth a double substance in the solid parts, the one exquisitely solide and fibrous altogether without blood, another which stuffeth the fibres and filleth vp their distances, and is called the proper flesh of euery 
A twofolde substance of the solid parts  part▪ this he thinketh is neuer restored if it be lost but only moistned and cherished when it is present. Such is the flesh which is to be seene in the stomacke, the Guttes, the Gullet, the Bladders and the wombe. And such a kinde of flesh Theophrastus attributeth vnto plants growing about their woody, and as it were sinnowy fibres.  
The common vses of this three-fold flesh Galen hath described in his twelfth Booke De 
The common vses of Flesh.  vsupartium, to wit, that it should defend the partes from heate and colde and other outward occurrences. For all flesh is a soft pillowe for the creature when it either lyeth or falleth downe; when it is wounded it yeeldeth to the hardnesse of the weapon; when it is bruised or beaten it filleth vp the breach as it were a boulster of Lint: in the sweltering heate of the Sunne it serueth for a shadow, and in the violence of cold it keepeth warme. And these vses I haue called Common, because there are other peculiar to each kinde of flesh: for the flesh of the Muscles both mooueth voluntarily and also by his stuffing it hindreth the Chord or Tendon of the Muscle, least when it is contracted or drawne together 
The particular vses of the flesh.  it should depart from the bodye, as also it easeth and moisteneth the drowth of the Nerues and Ligaments, which they continuallie acquire by theyr perpetuall motion.  
The flesh of the bowelles as it were a certaine stuffing or concretion, first confirmeth the vessels of the bowels, next it filleth vp the empty places betwixt the vessels; and lastly 
The Flesh of the Glandules  it performeth a similer and officiall action as we shall say anon. Finally there is a glandulus flesh such is the Pancreas a kernally body placed in the belly neere to the gate of the liuer: for some haue defined a Glandule to be a masse of flesh rowled vp in itself. And these in my iudgemeut are all the differences and distinctions of flesh. The particular history whereof, we wil as accurately and briefly as we may describe vnto you in this following discourse, beginning with the flesh of the muscles, as being a more compound and organicall 
The order of this booke.  part, and so proceeding to that of the bowells and glandules, which are more simple and similar, originally deriued from the first conformation of the body.   

CHAP. II. Of the flesh of the Muscles, and what a Muscle is.  
_THe first and chiefe kind of flesh, is that of the Muscle, in the description whereof because of the variety and difficulty of the subiect, we must craue a little leaue somewhat to inlarge ourselves. For it is far and wide spred ouer the whole body, and maketh indeed the greater part thereof. This is that which giueth strength, proportion, and beauty to all the other parts, whereof if the body be dispoiled, as it happeneth in the melting and dissoluing heate of a hecticke ague, there remaineth nothing else but the image of a dead creature, nay of a dried and parched carkasse: which may seeme to be the reason that moued Hipocrates to call his booke wherein he treateth of the principles of the body and the nature of the particular parts( a worke which he composed in his olde age, as appeareth by the experienced certainty, maiesty and weight of 
Hippocrates conuerteth the names flesh & muscles.  the sentences therein contained) de carnibus a booke of flesh. The flesh therefore when it is gathered together on a heape Hipocrates calleth a Muscle in his booke de arte as we haue saide before, and againe the muscles he calleth absolutely Flesh, because the principall part of them is the flesh. And in his prognostickes from the laudable and commendable habit or proportion of this musculous flesh he gathereth the perfect health of the whole body. And in the fourth Section of his Aphorismes and the sixteenth, when he would describe a haile bodie, he maketh mention onely of this flesh, where hee sayeth, Ellebor is dangerous to such as haue sound flesh, that is, such as are in perfect health. For the muscles are a kinde of of part both gouerning and being gouerned: they gouerne those members for whose motion they were ordayned, and are gouerned by the Brain through the Nerues, by the Heart through the Arteries, and by the Liuer through the Veines: wherefore 
Wherein the laudable habit of a muscle consisteth  if these be in good plight( which is easie to bee knowne by the naturall figure, fresh and flowry colour, and their iust and due extent) they show that the principall parts are in a good and commendable constitution. The Nature therefore, differences and actions of these Muscles we haue taken for our present taske; wherein how fairely soeuer we shal acquite ourselues, yet wee make account as in all other parts of this labour, so especially herein, by reason of the difficulty to finde the trueth and diuersity of mens opinions; we shall expose ourselues to manifould censure and exception, vnlesse wee light vppon the more equall Auditors. But to the matter.  
A Muscle is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, that is, a Mouse, either because it is like vnto a fleyne Mouse, or vnto the Fish which they call Musculus. It hath also diuers Latine 
The names of a muscle.  names, one from the Greeke, which is, Musculus, and that we will incorporate or infranchise into our English, although the next Latine name, which is, Lacertus, in English a Brawne, might reasonably wel be retained, had not vse made this other more common. For we call an Arme full of sound flesh, a brawny Arme: but to hold the name of Muscle. There is a double consideration to be had of a Muscle; the first is, of the structure or composition 
A double consideration of a muscle.  of it, the other of the office and vse: and therefore there may be a double definition giuen of it.  
If you regard the structure, it is defined by Galen in arteparua. A flesh wouen of simple flesh and similar fibres. And in the Booke of Phisicall definitions it is called A sinowey body mingled with flesh. It may more fully be defined thus: It is an organicall and dissimilar part wrought together of Nerues, Flesh, Fibres, Veines and Arteries, all couered or inuested with a proper coate of his own.  
That it is Organicall, Galen teacheth in his Booke de differentijs morborum, in which 
That a muscle is an organ.  place he reckoneth it amongst those Organs which are most simple and of the first kinde, because it is not made of dissimilar particles but of simple.  
That it is Dissimilar, the structure of the parts being of diuers kindes doe euidently proue. The Nerues are the conuayers of the spirites and the faculties; the flesh stuffeth the distances betweene the fibres that they should not be mingled, tempereth the drynes 
The partes of a muscle and their vse.  of the Nerues and Tendons, preserueth the threds or fibres that they bee not bruised or broken, and maketh the Animall spirites more apt to mooue by his heate. The Fibres which are wouen of small particles of the ligaments diuersly disheueled doe strengthen the flesh, establish and preserue it that it bee not dissolued: the veines like small riuerets are prouided onely for nutrition; the Arteries doe conserue the heate; the Coate inuesteth the Muscle, contayneth his substance, separateth and distinguisheth it from the adioyning parts and giueth it the sence of feeling. This is the structure of a muscle according to them all, to them alone and at all times.  
There is another definition of a Muscle taken from his office which Galen deliuereth in his first Booke de motu musculorum. A muscle, sayeth hee, is the instrument of that motion which is performed with violence, or a Muscle is the immediate organ of voluntary motion. By violence Galen vnderstandeth that which Aristotle calleth Spontaneum, or voluntary which 
The explication of the definition.  proceedeth from an inward principle, to wit, from a desiring or mouing faculty. Galen calleth that which is Voluntary often times Animall to distinguish it from that which is Naturall: and in his Booke de tremor: palp. he calleth Muscles Organs which are moued at our discretion.  
Now that motion is Voluntary which at pleasure we can appease, and againe excite or stirre vp when it is appeased, and make it swifter or slower, rarer or quicker as wee list.  
This will or pleasure of man is double; one from Election, another from Instinct: the first we exercise when we are awake, the latter when we are asleepe or minde some other 
What is voluntary motion A double will from election and from instinct.  matter more. The first is a streatching or Tention not without strife or contention: the second is in remission or rather the remission itself of that contention or strife; & therfore they that are a sleepe do neyther moue their bodies into extreame & violent figures or postures, neither doe they accomplish the perfect Tonicall motion, that is, the stedfast holding of the member, as those that are awake.  
Of this Voluntary motion there are diuers instruments, the Braine, a Sinew and a 
Three organs of motion.  Muscle, but one is immediate. The Brayne commandeth, the Sinew or Nerue carrieth the commaundement, and the Muscle obeyeth. The Brayne determineth of the obiect which is to be desired, whether it be profitable or noctious and hurtfull, to be followed or auoided: from hence therefore is the beginning and originall of the motion. When the 
How these 3. doe worke.  action is agreed vpon by the Brayne, the Nerue which is the spirits vehicle carrieth down the faculty of mouing: the Muscle being illustrated or enlightned with the beames of the spirit is presently contracted and immediately moueth the part according to the diuersity of the commandement which it receiueth from the will. And as a horseman hauing 
An apt comparison from a man on horsebacke.  the reynes in his hand dryueth forward or reyneth in the horse, so the fantasticke power of the Soule sitting in the Braine, by the Nerues as by a reyne or brydle moueth the muscles.  
These things therefore are necessarily required to locall and voluntary motion, which in order doe follow one another. An obiect appetible or to be desired, The faculty desiring, and a power to moue locally The Brayne, the Animall spirites, the Nerues and the Muscles.  
Wee conclude therefore that a muscle is the immediate instrument of voluntary or willing motion, whatsoeuer can be obiected against the trueth of this definition shall be heard, and receiue satisfaction in our discourse of the Controuersies annexed to this Booke.   

CHAP. III. How many and what are the parts of a Muscle.  
_THe parts of a Muscle we will distinguish into similar of which the whole body of the Muscle is composed; and dissimilar into which the same body according to his length is deuided. 
The parts of a muscle.   
The similar parts are Nerues, Fibres, Tendons or Chords, Flesh, Veines and Arteries. The dissimilar are three, the beginning, the middle, and the end; or the Head, the Belly, and the Taile. Out of these similar partes ioyned together and diuersly intangled with an admirable arte, resulteth an organ ordained for voluntary motion. But in this composition there is not the like worth or vse of all the particles, neither doe they meete together in the same degree or efficacy of operation.  
Wherefore as before in euery perfect organ we obserued foure kindes of partes; the 
In all organs 4. kinds of parts are to be obserued.  first of those by which the action is made originally and essentially; and to these Galen attributeth the preheminence or superiority: the second of those without which the action goeth not forward; the third by which it is better performed; the last of those which doe conserue the action or keepe it as wee say in tune: so all these foure differences of partes a diligent Anatomist may obserue in a muscle. The fibrous flesh is the prime and principall part of a muscle, and as Hippocrates and Galen doe beleeue the proper substance of the 
The flesh is the principall part of the muscle.  same: for if you reuiew the whole body you shall finde none like it; when that is wanting or decayed the motion also is weake or none at all, and where it is there also is alwayes voluntary motion: this onely is prepared and fitted by Nature to receiue the influence of the mouing quality: this alone doth easily collect, contract and gather vp itself together, and loosneth and remitteth the part which it hath drawne: so also the chiefe part of all the bowels is sayd to be their flesh or parenchyma.  
The Nerues which are diuersly dispersed into the Muscles, are those without which the motion cannot be: for they are the conuayers of the Animall spirits, and bring down from the throne or tribunall of the Soule, which is the Braine, the warrant and commandement to mooue: which if they bee cut, obstructed, refrigerated, inflamed, or any other way affected, the motion perisheth instantly. The Ligaments and Tendons doe make 
The tendons make the action more perfect.  the action more perfect; for the Tendon is not as we say in Schooles simpliciter, that is, originally and by itself ordayned for motion, but secundum quid, that is, for the performance only of vehement, strong and continuall motions, and therefore there be very many Muscles without Tendons.  
The Veines, the Arteries, and the Membranes, are they which conserue the action; for the Veines and Arteries doe restore the wasting and decaying substance of the Muscles, which by reason of continuall expence are washey and fleeting: and therefore they are in great aboudance dispersed through the flesh, because as Hippocrates sayth Flesh is a drawer, and the bloud ought to be in greater quantity then the rest of the humors because 
Hippocrates.  the mountenance of the Muscle ariseth thereby. The Membrane as it were a garment or couering inuesteth and closeth the Muscle and giueth it the sence of feeling. And thus much concerning the Nature of the similar parts of which the Muscle is formed.  
Now the whole body of the Muscle is deuided into three dissimular parts, the Head, 
3 dissimilar parts of a muscle.  the Belly and the Taile.  
The Head is most commonly neruous, sometimes but rarely flecty: for it is made of Ligaments arising from the bone, yet is it not altogether insensible because of the insertion 
The Head,  and interposition of the sinewes, for it is couered with a peculiar membrane.  
The Belly is the middle part of the Muscle almost all fleshy, and maketh the bulke of 
The Belly.  the same: and for that reason in the Legge they call the pulpe, that is, the brawne of the Calfe wherein the middest of all the Muscles of that part doe so meete that they seeme to make but one Muscle, they call it I say 〈◇〉 as it were the belly of the Legge, wee call it the Calfe.  
The last part of the Muscle is the End, the Taile or the Tendon, it is called 〈◇〉, 
The Taile, whereof the tendon is made.  because it is almost altogether neruous. Galen thinketh that the Tendon is framed of the fibres of the nerues and Ligaments confounded and mingled together, yet so that there are more fibres or strings of the Ligaments then of the Nerues, whence it is that the tendon is sixe yea ten fould thicker then a nerue.  
And the reason of this mixture is because the ligament of itself and by his own Nature immoouable and insensible, could not alone performe a voluntary motion: and againe 
The reason of the composition.  the nerue because of his softnesse and slight or thinne texture was not able to draw the vast bulke or magnitude of the members: and therefore it behoued to make of them both a mixt organ which should be harder and stiffer then the nerue for strength, and softer and more pliable then the Ligament for motion: and such is a Tendon partaking of the Nature of them both, so becomming of a middle disposition betweene them; more sensible and weaker then a ligament, stronger and lesse sensible then a nerue.  
Furthermore, we must remember that all muscles haue not Tendons or Chords, as the Muscles of the Tongue, the Testicles, the Lippes, the Fore-head, the Yarde and the 2. Sphincters: but onely those which are mooued either strongly, or vehemently, or continually. Those that are ordayned for the motion of bodies doe alwayes end and determine into Tendons either greater or lesse, and are inserted not into the iuncture or very ioynt of the bones, nor into the ends of that bone from which they arise, but for the most 
Why the smal muscles of the eies haue tendons.  part into the head of the bone which is to be mooued wrapping it about. The Muscles also which moue continually though their motion bee neither strong nor vehement, yet they stand in neede of a Tendon: and therefore the muscles of the eyes are not without them.   

CHAP. IIII. What is the action of a Muscle, and the differences of the motions thereof.  
_A Muscle as it is an Animall Organ hath one and but one action to wit, Motion: the Nature of which Motion is not obuious or easily knowne of all. Galen in the eight Chapter of his first Booke de motu musculorum acknowledgeth foure differences of motions in these wordes: The Muscles are eyther 
There are 4. motions of the muscles.  contracted or extended, or sinke of themselues, or else remaine streatched or distended.  
Contraction is the proper and ingenit action of the Muscle; for whilest it moueth any part whether it houldeth it stedfast when it is bent, or bendeth it being before stretched or distended, it is alwaies contracted or drawne vnto his owne originall, that is, towards his head. Now that contraction is the proper action of euery muscle, hence it appeareth that if the muscle bee cut a two in the middest ouerthwart his body, you shall see the one part contracted vpward and the other part contracted downwards.  
The second motion of the Muscle is Extention, which is not proper but aduentitious 
Extention the 2. motion of the Muscle  or accidentall: for when the contracted Muscle is extended it is loosened by another and not by itself: and therefore almost euery muscle hath ioyned vnto him a companion, nay rather an Emulus Concurrent or aduersary, because it is the author of a motion contrary to his: As for example, euery flexor or bending muscle hath a tensor or extending muscle; euery adductor, that is, which moueth toward hath an abductor which moueth froward; 
Note this.  euery leuator or lifting muscle hath a depressor or sinking muscle. VVhen as therfore a muscle which is contracted is also extended, in this extention it followeth the motion of his Antagonist or Aduersary, so that the extētion is not the proper motion of the muscle that was contracted, but rather his passion then his action.  
There is a third motion of a Muscle which is yet more improper, in which it is neither contracted nor relaxed but falleth with his own weight, and this is called translation or decidence and sinking: this motion is not from the Soule but from the Elementary fourme, for the part not illustrated with the beames of the Animall spirite falleth with his owne weight, and so the part is moued the mouing faculty being at rest. So Galen sayth that the 
How trembling commeth,  tremor or trembling, which the common people cal the shaking Palsey, commeth to passe by an equal contention or strife betweene the moouing facultie and the moued member; for the faculty lifteth the member vp, and the waight of the member sinketh itself again, and so from that vicissitude or enterchange of lifting vp and falling down commeth the trembling.  
The last motion of the Muscle we call Tonicall, wherein the fibres of the Muscles are 
The last motion which is Tonicall.  streatched and so remaine; so that the part seemeth indeed to bee immouable but yet in trueth is really moued. This motion is most euident in Birds when they flye or glide in the ayre with their wings stiffe streatched and seeming immouable; a man also standeth 
Examples of Tonicall motion.  by this motion, and so a Pismire moueth vpward vpon a staffe as fast as the staffe descendeth downward.  
Of this motion Galen speaketh when hee sayeth, that euen in sleepe the Muscles doe moue. There are therefore in all foure motions of the Muscles, two performed by themselues, and those are contraction and the conseruation of that which is contracted which 
2. motions perse.  second motion is that we cal Tonicall: for such is the Nature of successiues or succeeding motions, that they are no lesse accomplished when they are conserued then when they are first made.  
The two other contrary to the former are by accident, to wit, Extention and Decidense; Contraction, Extention and the Tonical motion haue sometimes extream sometimes 
2. other per accidens.  middle figures or postures. All extreame positions are painefull, those that are meane are easie or pleasant: the extreame wee cannot long endure vnlesse wee bend our minde and power vnto it: the meane we easily endure when wee thinke not of it. And therefore whilest we sleepe we very rarely suffer any extreame flections or extentions of the Muscles, and then onely when the fancy worketh exceeding strongly: otherwise the Muscles are inclined rather then bent to either side, as Hippocrates obserueth in Prognostico: They lye( sayth hee) when they sleepe with their Thighes, Handes and Feete moderately reflected or inclined, because at that time the strength of the Animall actions is not ceased but only abated.  
Men also in their sleepe haue not so strong Tonnical motions as when they are awake, as we may perceiue in the sphincter muscles which shut vp the waies of the excrements, which perfourme indeede their Tonnicall motion in a good sound sleepe, but if the violence of the excrement be great they either cease their motion and so the excrement auoydeth, or else the faculty being distressed calleth for more helpe, and so the party awaketh and becommeth more able to hould his owne. But it is worthy obseruation that all muscles when they moue are crooked, and when they rest are stretcht: and the reason 
What the figure of the muscle is when it worketh & when it playeth.  is, because being contracted they become broader and shorter, and longer when they are relaxed: but from this generall rule, the muscles of the Abdomen & the Intercostall muscles or those betweene the ribbes are to be exempted, for when they are relaxed and the contention remitted they grow crooked, which I thinke happeneth by reason of the laxe and yeilding emptinesse of the chest and the lower belly.   

CHAP. V. Wherein all the differences of Muscles are showne.  
_THE Muscles doe differ among themselues in their substance, quantity, figure, site, originall, insertion, fibres, parts, vse and action. If you consider the substance, some are fleshy all ouer as the sphincters and muscles of the 
All the differences of muscles. The first.  tongue others are almost all neruous or membranous, as that abductor or fro-ward muscle of the Legge which is called Membranosus or fascia●ata, the broad Rowler.  
The quantity considereth the dimensions; now dimension is threefould. Length, and 
The second,  hence some Muscles are long, as the right muscles of the abdomen and the abductor of the Legge, and some short. Bredth and hence some are broad as the oblique and transuerse muscles of the abdomen, and the broade muscle which beareth down the arme, and others narrow: the last dimension is altitude whence some are thicke, as the two large muscles called Vasti, and some are thinne or slender; so much for the quantity.  
The figures of the Muscles are manifould, some like a Mouse, some like a Snake, some like a Plaice. Againe, some are triangle, some quadrangle, some fiue cornerd, some pyramidall 
The third,  or spiry, and some orbicular or round. To this kinde we may referre the Muscles called Deltoides, Rhomboides, Scalenus, Trapezius and such like.  
From the situation, the diuision or difference of Muscles is very elegant: this site 
The fourth.  wee consider in the position of the fibres and in the differences of place: from the position or tract of the fibres some muscles are right, some oblique and some transuerse. The oblique are are most fitte for oblique or side motions, the right for more exact flexion or extention.  
The differences of the place according to the length doe make the muscles higher or lower: according to the breadth, right and left: according to the height, forward, backeward, internall and external. Those occupy the inside which bend the part and those the out side which doe extend it: and so much for the site.  
In respect of the originall some arise from Bones, and these now from their heads or 
The fift.  extuberations when they behoued to be greater; now a little lower or from the cauities; sometimes from one bone sometimes from more; others from Gristles, as the proper muscles of the Larynx or throttle; others from a membrane incompassing the Tendons or Chords, as those which are called Vermiculares or the wormy muscles; others from other parts, as the sphincters.  
The difference from the insertion is; that some are inserted into a bone, some into a Gristle, as those of the throttle and the eye-lids; others into a membrane, as those which 
The sixt.  mooue the eye; others into the skinne, as those of the lippes; others into other bodies: some also there are which hauing distinct originals doe yet end and determine into one part: and some againe hauing but one originall are inserted into diuers parts. And so much of the insertion.  
Now if you marke the texture of the Fibres, they are of one kinde almost in all Muscles: and yet there want not some which haue two or three kinde of fibres manifestly appearing 
The seuenth.  in them, as that which is called Pectoralis and Trapezius, as also the Muscles of the Lippes, from whence come their diuers and different motions.  
The eight difference of Muscles, is from the diuersitie of three parts; now by parts in this place I meane both the especiall parts of the Muscle itself, and those parts or places 
The eight.  wherein such Muscles are seated. The parts of the Muscles are three as we haue sayd, the Head the Belly and the Tayle. Most Muscles haue but one Head, some two, and some three, from whence they are called Bicipites and Tricipites. The Belly sometimes is one and sometimes two as in the Muscle which shutteth the lower Iaw and that of the bone Hyois which is at the roote of the Tongue, which Muscles from their double bellies are called Digastrici. The Tendon is in some broade and membranous, in others round, in some short, in others long, in some perforated, in others there is none at all, in others but one, and in others many Tendons: sometimes also you shall perceiue diuers Muscles to determine into one Tendon, as in the leg of the Twins & the Soale is made one Chord or Tendon.  
From the parts in which the Muscles are seated they haue also names to distinguish them from others, as Crotaphitae or temporall Muscles, Rachitae or Spinati, that is, Thorny 
Of their place.  Muscles, and Iliaci, that is, Muscles of the Ilia or Flankes. Finally the most necessary difference of Muscles, as I thinke, is taken from their vse and action. The action of a Muscle is voluntary motion: therefore according to the variety of their actions shall be the differences 
The ●. from their vse and action. From the variety of action three differences. What muscles are a kinne. What are Antagonists.  of the Muscles; which I am wont to referre to three especiall ones. The first shall be this. Muscles are either of a kindered, or of an aduerse faction. I call those a kin which do conspire and agree into one and the same worke, as the two Flexors, and the two extensors, the one of which vseth to occupie the right, the other the left side. Those of the aduerse faction are called Antagonists opposites or Concurrents, which performe actions contrary or succeeding one to another. For euery Muscle almost hath set vnto him another, whose action is contrary to his, as to a flexor is set a tensor, to a leuator is set a depressor to an adductor is set an abductor onely we must except the two spincters, and the Cremasters or hanging Muscles.  
Those that are a kinne are almost alwayes alike in magnitude number and strength, but the opposites are not alwayes so equall, but vary much according to the weight of the part which is to be mooued, or the vehemency of the action. So they are but two which bow the head, but to stretch it out and lift it vp there are twelue. Againe, there are many which close the neather Iaw, and but onely two that open it: for heauy things or parts do easily fall with their owne weight.  
Of these Muscles which are of a kinne Galen hath left this rule. As often as those muscles which are of a kinne are in opposite parts equall in number, magnitude and strength, the resolution 
A rule concerning muscles that are a kinne. Another concerning opposites.  of one makes the conuulsion of the other. And of the opposites or Antagonists he writeth thus in his first booke de motu Musculorum. Of those motions that succeeed one another if one perish the other must needs be taken away. For if that which extendeth bee cut a sunder, the part indeed shall be contracted or bent, but it shall alwayes so remaine because the muscle that should extend is cut asunder.  
The second difference of Muscles taken from the variety of their motion or action shall be this. Some Muscles moue themselues, others other bodyes. They which mooue 
The 2. difference of the muscles taken from the actions.  themselues are the spincters of the fundament and the bladder: they which moue another body beside their owne mooue a bone, or some other thing then a bone. Those which moue a bone doe end in Tendons either greater or lesse: they which moue another thing beside a bone, some of them haue Tendons, and some haue none. They which moue such parts as are easily moued haue none, because their motion is not vehement as the Muscles of the Tongue and of the Testicles; but the Muscles of the Eyes haue Tendons, because being continently and perpetually mooued, though it bee but a small part yet it needes a strong moouer.  
The third difference of the Muscles taken from the varietie of their actions respecteth their peculiar motions which are diuers; from whence they are called Flexores, Tensores, 
The third difference.  Attollentes, Deprimentes. Adductores, Abductores, Rotatorii, Circumagentes, Masseteres, Cremasteres, Spincteres. That is, Benders, Stretchers, Heauers, Sinkers, Too-ward, Fro-ward, Rowlers, Compassers, Mangers, Hangers and Binders.   

CHAP. VI. Of the number of Muscles.  
_THE Authours of Anatomie haue not agreed vpon their verdict concerning the number of the Muscles, neither to say trueth is the euidence so pregnant as to ingage a mans faith; some doe acknowledge more, and some fewer, some there are which looking with spectacles make many of one, and these increase the number, happily beyond the stint of Nature; some againe are so thicke sighted that of many they make one.  
Wee in this one Chapter will comprise the whole forrest and confusion of Muscles into a briefe summe. Siluius hath giuen them almost all proper names, either from their action, vse, figure, or the similitude of some outward thing, which because they seeme to 
The number of the muscles is vncertaine. Siluius his names. The muscles are 405.  represent the matter with more life, and are beside a great helpe to memory, wee will retaine them in our History.  
The Muscles therefore in the whole summe are foure hundred and fiue. First 2. of the forehead, 6. of the eye-lids, on each side 3; two doe open them, and foure shut them. The Eye is rowled after a strange volubility by 12. Muscles, 6. in each eye, the heauer, the sinker, the too-ward, the fro-ward, and 2. rowlers.  
The outward Eare is moued by sixe, 3. the right and 3. the left: two dilate the Nostrils and 2. contract them. The Lippes haue nine, 4. moue vpward and as many downward, and the ninth is called Buccinator or the Puffer, Winder, Sounder or Trumpeter. The lower Iaw hath tenne which moue it vpward, downward, forward, backeward and on both sides. The bone of the Tongue called Hyois( if at least it may bee called a bone) 8. muscles doe suspend and establish. The Tongue is moued like an Ecle, vpward downward, forward backward and to the sides, by 10. muscles. The Choppes haue eight, 4. on eyther side which helpe the swallowing. The Larynx or Throttle is dilated, constringed, opened and shut by 14: foure common and ten proper. The Head hath likewise 14: sixe greater and 8. small ones. The Necke hath eight, 4. to bend it and as many to extend it. 
A briefe innumeration of all the particular muscles.  The Shoulder-blade hath all his motions performed by 8. peculiar muscles, foure in each shoulder-blade, Trapezius, Leuator Proprius, Serratus minor & Rhomboides, that is, the Table, the proper Heauer, the lesser Saw and the Plaice. The Armes are each of them moued with 8. their names are Deltoides, supra-spinatus, latissimus, rotundus maior, pectoralls, Infra-spinatus, rotundus minor & subscapularis, that is, the halfe Lozenge or triangle; the Ridge-blade or blade-ridge muscle, the broad muscle or Pruritane or claw-backe, the great Bowle, the Pectorall, the Snaile, the lesser Bowle and the Lurker. The Cubit hath foure, in each 2. benders and 2. stretchers: the 2. benders are called Biceps & Brachiaeus: the 2. stretchers are called the Long and the Short. The Radij haue each of them foure, two fore-bowers, the round and the square muscles, and as many backe-bowers. The VVrest is bent by two, and extended by other two. The Fingers( excepting the thumbe) haue 3. benders, Palmaris, Sublimis and Profundus, the Palme muscle, the Floating muscle and the Deep muscle, and foure stretchers; 4. too-ward which are called Vetmiculares or the wormes, and 6. fro-ward called also Interossei, because they lye among the bones; in all 17. The thumbe hath nine, 1. bender, 2. stretchers, 3. too-wards, and as many fro-wards. There is also in the little finger a peculiar muscle which moueth it froward the rest, so that in each hand there are 27.  
The Muscles seruing for Respiration are in all 65. of which 32. doe distend or dilate the Chest, and as many contract it. Valuable to all which for both vses is the odde Midriffe. As for those 11. internall and externall, which are fancied to bee betweene the gristles of the ribbes we doe not acknowledge them sayeth Laurentius. The Abdomen hath 10. muscles, 4. oblique, 2. right, 2. transuerse and 2. small or pyramidall muscles. The back is moued by ten, 5. on each side. The Fundament hath foure, 2. sphincters and 2. heauers. The Bladder hath 1. sphincter. The Testicles haue 2 muscles called Cremasteres or hangers and suspendors. The Yarde hath 4. The Thighes are each of them bent by two called Psoas and Iliacus, and three stretchers, which are they that make the substance of the Buttocks, there also are too-ward muscles and 6. froward, 2. obturatores, and 4. twinnes called quadrigemini, wherefore the muscles of the thigh are in all 28.  
The Legge hath foure benders called postici or the posterne muscles, and so many stretchers, the right, the 2. Vast & the Crureus; two are too-ward, the Long and the Ham muscles, and 1. is fro-ward called membranosus, so that the muscles of the Legges are two and twenty.  
The Foote hath 2. that bend it, that is altogether in the in-step called Tibiaeus anticus & Peroneus, and 4. which stretch it, 2. twinnes Soleus and Plantaris.  
The Toes haue 2. benders, Sublimis & Profundus and 2. stretchers, 4. too-wards called the VVormes, 8. frowards called Interossei. The great Toe hath 1. bender, 1. proper stretcher, 1 too-ward and another fro-ward. There is also one peculiar fro-ward muscle of the little Toe, so that in each foote there be 21. muscles for the mouing of the Toes. The totall summe of all these in the whole body is foure hundred and fiue: whether thou wilt add more or make these fewer, for my own part saith Laurentius I do not greatly care, no more doe wee but haste on to our peculiar Historie of the Muscles of each part, beginning with those of the Head.   

CHAP. VII. Of the muscles which moue the skinne of the Head.  
_WE haue saide before that the skinne of the Head is moued according to our good pleasures, in some men all of it round about, but in most onely the skin 
Galen.  of the forehead and the face. The Antients, as Galen for example in his 11. Booke de vsu partium and the fifteenth chapter, thought that this motion came from a thinne and musculous substance which is subiected or lyeth vnder the skinne of the forehead and is vnited thereto as the palmes of the hands and Soales of the foote are vnited with their Tendon. But the late writers with more euidence of truth by curious obseruation haue found out and allotted to euery part of the face his peculiar muscles, for we call all that the face that may be seene outwardly. Some of these are 
What wee meane by the Face.  in the forepart of the face, as the forehead, the Eyelids, and the nose: others in the backe part of the head called occipitium; some on both sides, as in the eares the lippes and the cheekes.  
The skinne of the forehead( which by his tension and corrugation, that is, smoothnesse 
The skin of the forehead sheweth the affections of the mind.  or wrinkling demonstrateth the manifold affections of the mind) is mooued not onely by the helpe of the fleshy membrane, growne more fleshy as Vesalius thought, and so being vnited to the flesh vnder it, passeth into a musculous substance furnished with right fibres, but also by two muscles, as appeareth both by the course of their fibres and by their motions; the fibres appeare in these after the maner of other muscles, and their motions is not like the motion of the fleshy membrane.  
Falopius also and Platerus haue giuen them names. Fallopius calleth them the first paire moouing the skinne of the head, and Platerus, the muscles of the affections. These are seated in the forehead, and doe arise aboue where the haire determines sometime as high as the crowny seame neare the temporall muscles, the right at the right and the left at the left temple( where the fleshy membrane cleaueth so close to the scull-skinne and the scull itselfe, that it is altogether immooueable, that the forehead and the eye brows might be mooued when their membrane is at rest) and toward the common seame which distinguisheth the bones of the head from those of the vpper iaw are implanted with right fibres aboue the eyes and the nose into the skinne at the browes, as at the parts which are 
A good note for Chirurgions in opening Apostumations in the forehead.  to be mooued: for when the browes are mooued they draw in a straight line together with them the skinne of the forehead. I said right fibres and not oblique as some haue thought and therfore Chirurgions must obserue that in opening apostemations in that place, they make not their insitions ouerthwart as the wrinkles of the skin doe goe, but according to those right fibres.  
Wee must also obserue that these two muscles are a little disioyned in the middest toward the top of the forehead, and that is the reason why the vpper part of the forehead is not mooued; but at the toppe of the nose, where also they become more fleshy they are so ioyned that they seeme to be but one muscle. But that they are two, not onely Anatom●e but also reason and experience do teach; reason, because Nature hath made all members 
That there are 2. muscles.  double that the body might be equally ballanced: Experience, because we finde that if one of them be either taken with the palsey or wounded ouerthwart, the affected onely looseth his motion and not the other, whereas if there were but one, there should be no motion at all. And Columbus maketh mention of a Cardinall whose left muscle suffering 
A Cardinall.  convultion by reason of a wound he receiued aboue his brow, did notwithstanding moue the halfe of his forehead. Againe, when we are mooued to displeasure, wee contract and wrinkle the skinne in the middle of the forehead, so that the browes doe almost touch one another: which contraction of the skinne could not bee made if there were but one muscle.  
The vse of these muscles is by the contraction of their fibres to lift vp the browes together with the skinne of the forehead, and vpon their relaxation to settle them againe. 
The vse of these muscles.  For the forehead is mooued as Galen elegantly discourseth in his 11. Booke de vsu partium and the fourteenth Chapter because of the eyes: for when the forehead is lifted vppe the browes also flie vpward and the eyes are better opened to fee more at once. And againe, when the eyes are shut for feare of any thing which should rush vpon them, they are better and more strongly closed by the falling of the browes and the forehead. The muscles 
The muscles which draw the skin of the head backward.  which draw the sinne of the head backeward are two, one either side one, arising verie slender from the transuerse line of the occiput or nowle of the head, into which line the second muscle of the shoulder-blade called cuculiaris or the Cowle doth determine: from this line doe runne fibres directly vpward and make these muscles, which are very short & not aboue an inch, but yet so broade that either of them toucheth the eare of his owne side, and they end into a thinne and broad Tendon, which seemeth to be made of the fleshy membrane, and occupyeth or compasseth the whole head and the fore-muscles of the eare, and ioyneth also together the muscles of the forehead. The vse of these 2. muscles is to draw the Skinne of the Head backeward; and therefore Columbus thought that 
Why some men can moue the skin of their head.  they drewe also the eye-browes and instanceth in the example of one Iohannes Antenius Platus, who could moue the whole skinne of his head very strongly as also could Columbus himselfe. But as the muscles of the forehead are neuer wanting, so these of the nowle and the fore-muscles of the eares( as Falopius and Platerus haue also obserued) are but seldome sound.  
Beside these Aquapendens ascribeth to the eye-browes a round muscle differing from the circular muscle of the eye-lids, because that of the browes hath thicker and more fleshy 
Aquapendens his muscle of the eie brows.  fibres, and beside is somewhat larger; drawing the brow especially downeward to the eye, and being like vnto a Ring attracteth also the lower lid very strongly.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Muscles of the Eye lids.  
_WHat the Motions of the Eye-lids are and their necessities, as also of what kind Voluntary or Naturall with other circumstāces thereto belonging, we haue declared before in their History. Nowe concerning the number of 
Great differences amōg Anatomists concerning these muscles  these muscles whereby these motions are effected, I finde great difference betweene Galen and the late Writers, and amongest the late writers themselues.  
Galen and the ancients with whome Vesalius and Syluius doe agree do make two, deuiding the orbicular muscle of which we shall treate anon into two: one lifting vp the Lid, the other bearing it downe. Laurentius is of the same mind for the deuision of this muscle but not for the Vse, for he thinketh that they both serue to shut the vpper Lid: so that it should seem that Galen and those that side with him did not know of any muscle which should open the eie. Falopius, Platerus, Bauhine, Laurentius and Aquapendes affirme, that for the opning of the eye there is but one muscle. Columbus and Archangelus say there are two; the first wee admit, the second wee say serueth to rowle the eye. But to passe by these contentions you shall giue me leaue to resolue the matter thus.  
The motions of the Eye-lids are performed by two muscles, one right in the vpper Lid which lifteth it vp, and the other round. The right muscle( which Galen knew not, neither Vesalius nor Syluius, but Falopius challēgeth the inuention of) which lifteth vp the 
The place of the right muscle.  vpper Lid[ ta. 1. M] is seated within the concauity of the bones in the vpper part of the or be aboue and neare the muscle which lifteth vp the eye to which in figure it is very like, and fleshy but lesse, and ariseth backeward at the in-let of the opticke nerue from the same originall with the other muscles which mooue the eye, and being directly stretched to the vpper Lid is inserted with a broade tendon into his end or cartilage. His vse is by contracting his fibres inward to draw the vpper Lidde vpward( for the lower setleth into his place of his owne accord) and so vncouering the eye it openeth it.  
The semicircular or round Muscle[ ta. 1. ●] is seated betwixt the fleshy membrane & that which is produced from the Pericranium or Scull-skinne, and is membranous and very 
The orbicular or round muscle. His position.  thinne or slender, yet a little increased by certaine circular and fleshy fibres which he borroweth from the fleshy membrane, and so standeth halfe round in either Lid.  
It ariseth with a sharpe beginning at the roote of the nose in the great and inward angle of the lower Lidde where the common suture is betweene the heade and the vpper iaw, 
His original.  from thence it proceedeth all along the latitude or breadth of the same Lid, and is instantly inlarged and returned to the outward angle toward the vpper part of the orb, 
Progresse.  and passing on by the vpper Lid is inserted with a sharp end into the vpper side of the inner 
And insertion  angle, and so maketh an exact circle, compassing the outward circumference of both the Liddes. Yet Falopius excepteth the inner part of the great angle, from which it is prohibited that it might not be altogether circular.  
His vse is, that being drawne toward his originall, it might at one and the same time moue the vpward eyelid downeward and the lower vpward, thereby ioyning and binding them together. And that this is so, it appeareth as well by the continuitie of the fibres 
The vse of this circula muscle.  in the circumference and in the angle, as also by the motion in the same angle, especially if it be a little more constrained so as wee must needs winke something withall: and this may be manifestly perceiued both by the sight and by the touch. For nothing ioyned can be strictly drawne together so as they touch one another, vnlesse some parts be drawn vpward and some downeward. This muscle in respect of his fibres which are continuall is most truely said to be one, but in respect of the two lids may bee called two semicircular 
How this muscle may be said to be two.  muscles: for being separated they make a halfe circle, but ioyned together, they make it perfect. This muscle Galen knew, and in his tenth booke de vsu partium at the ninth chapter, he prooueth how all the motions of the eye lids are absolued by it, hee deuideth it also and addeth, that one of them draweth too the great angle toward the Nose, and the other vnto the lesse toward the Eare, and that when the first draweth the lid is depressed, but lifted vppe with the latter. But because the fibres of this muscle are continuall 
Why it can be but one.  through the whole lid, although it also bee mooued vpward and downeward, yet is there no muscle which hath right motion but onely this forenamed circular muscle which draweth it vpward, indeed but rather toward the inward angle or corner, as it were to his beginning, as euery man may perceiue by touching that part in himselfe; and yet I know that some thinke this motion proceedeth from the motion of the cheekes.  
Wee conclude therefore that the motion of the lids is accomplished by two muscles, one right, which being in the vpper lid eleuateth it; the other orbicular or round and is in 
Conclusion.  both the lids, which when it is stretched doth at the same time draw the lower lid vpwards and the vpper lid downewards: and when there is need of a stronger contraction or closer shutting together, then also the orbicular muscle of the eye browes whereof we made mention before is drawne into bee assistant, like as when wee would open the eye more staringly, the muscles of the forehead do much helpe vs.  
Hee that would demonstrate these nice and curious muscles, must haue a very small knife and very keene, wherewith he must first separate the skinne in the meane time taking 
How these muscles may be diffected. How Fallopius came to learn the right muscle.  care that he doe not cut the fibres of the muscle, especially in the angles: then shall he separate the muscle below at the Tarsus or edge of the lid, and aboue at the eye brow. Falopius in his obseruations confesseth that he was a long time of the same opinion with Galen and Vesalius, but in the yeare 1553. tooke knowledge of his error, being admonished partly by Oribasius in his booke de dissectione musculorum, and the 29. chapter, and partly by diffecting the eye of a fish called Phoca, which is the Sea-calfe, which fish mooueth both his Eye lids. But we proceed vnto the muscles of the Eyes.   

CHAP IX. Of the muscles of the Eyes.  
_BEcause our Eyes were giuen vs as spies and scout-watches that wee might pursue profitable things and auoyde whatsoeuer is hurtfull, Nature made not them immoueable, for then they should haue discerned only that which was opposite vnto them, for so saith Aristotle in his second booke de partibus Animal & in the tenth chapter. We see per directum, that is, by a streight line not in euery position saith Galen, because oblique, side, backward, higher and lower obiects do not fall in with the ball of the Eye. Wherefore it behooued they should be so disposed that they might moue and turne themselves on euery side at their pleasure. These motions according to Galen in the third chapter of his first book de motu musculorum are sixe 
How many motions in a mans eye.  in number, and therfore each eye must haue sixe muscles, in beasts there are seauen, especially such as goe on all foure, which deceiued Galen and some late writers, who were accustomed onely to dissect the Eyes of brute beasts, yet hath the Ape but sixe: The seuenth where it is, may be deuided into two three or foure in men, as I sayd, they are sixe according to the sixe motions of a mans Eye, fower of which motions are right, vpward, downward to the right hand & to the left: two motions are oblique, to which belong 2. oblique muscles, whose vse is to rowle the Eye about: notwithstanding one of these is exactly oblique, the other partly right and partly oblique.  
All these muscles are seated on the backeside of the Eye within the cauitie of the 
The figure of the Eye.  Scull whither they accompany the Opticke nerue: and so remaining in their position the eye, and they together do make a pyramidall figure.[ Tab. 1. fig. 6 and 7] Among these the thicker and more corpulent are the right Muscles, which haue all the same structure, original and insertion, and do passe straight all along the length of the eye, the oblique are lesse fleshy. These Muscles are all small, that they might bee sooner mooued, but that 
The quantitie of the Muscles.  which helpeth most the volubility of their motion is the round figure( which is the swiftest of all other motions as we may perceyue by the roundnesse of the heauens) for by it euen in a moment they are conueyed ouer the one halfe of the sky.  
The foure right Muscles meeting towards the roote of the Nerue Opticke, doe arise with a sharpe beginning from the lower part of the Orbe which is made by the Wedgebone, 
Diuers opinions.  hard by the passage through which the Nerue of Sight doth yssue.  
I know there be some who imagine that they arise from a mixture of the Dura Mater, and a Nerue of the second paire. Others, from the Membrane which compasseth the Orbe of the eye, and that other Membrane which inuesteth the Nerue Opticke: some 
Vesalius. Platerus Bauhine.  from the Pericranium as Aquapendens, but we will rest vpon Bauhines opinion for their originall. Their whole bodies are fleshy, and they beare out their bellies rounde when they come forward, and a little aboue the middle of the eye they determine into abroad thin and Membranous Tendon, where-with they compasse the whole eye before, and grow very strongly to the horny tunicle neere vnder the Rain-bow in the great Circle: 
Whence proceedeth the white of the eye.  and these tendons ioyned together do make that namelesse coate of Columbus, and the halfe-transparent white of the eye: for I thinke that this whitenesse is caused rather by the Tendons of these Muscles then by the coate which they call Adnata or the cleauing coate.  
But we will giue you a more particular description of them seuerally. The first[ tab. 2. fig. 1. 3. 4. D fig. 5. ♌] which is the third( according to Galen and Vesalius) is placed aboue, fleshy and round, thicker then the rest, and greater and stronger it is then the second, lifting vp the eye toward the browes: for there is more strength required to lift any thing vp then to pull it downe; it is called the proud Muscle, because the motion thereof lifteth 
TABVLA. II.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
Table 2 figu. 1. sheweth many Muscles of the eye in their owne seats. Figu. 2. sheweth the eye rowled vpwarde whereby his Muscles may be perceiued. Figur: & 4. sheweth the Muscles of the eie separated before and behinde with theyr Nerues. Figu. 5. Is the eie of an O●●, with his Muscles seuered at Vesalius doth shew it.  

C, the Muscle lifting vp the eyelid.  
D. 1, 3, 4. The right vpper muscle of the eie in 3 & 4 with the Nerue.  
E, 2. 3, 4. the right lower Muscle of the eie in 3 and 4 with the Nerue.  
F, 1, 2, 3, 4. the right external Muscle of the eye.  
G 1, 2, 3, 4, the right internal Muscle of the eye.  
H, 1, 2. 3, 4. the oblique superior muscle of the pulley, whose tendon is marked with a and the pulley with b.  
1, 2, 3, 4. the oblique inferiour muscle of the eye.  
a 1, 2, the tendon of the oblicke superiour Muscle.  
α, β, the second Muscle of the eyelid lying in the cauitie of the eye, whose broade Tendon β is inserted into the eielid.  
γ, 5, the haires of the eyebrowes.  
♌ ●, two right Muscles leading the eye vpward and downward.  
ζ, n. 5. Two right Muscles mouing vnto the right and left side.  
B 1, 5. two oblique muscles lightly turning the eye.  
μ, Λ. The seauenth Muscle which may be diuided into more.   vp the eye with a kinde of disdaine.  
The second[ tab. 2. f. 2, 3, 4. ● f. 5. ●] is placed in the lower part opposite to the first, and 
The second,  according to Galen and Vesalius it is the fourth: it draweth the eye downeward towardes the Cheekes, and therefore needed not to be so great as the former; for the eye declineth with his owne weight: it is called the depressor and the humble Muscle, because in bashfulnesse we draw our eyes downward toward the lower lid.  
The third[ tab. 2. f. 1, 2, 3, 4, G. f. 5. ζ] according to Galen and Vesalius the first, is seated 
The third.  in the greater angle, and leadeth the eye inward toward the nose, and is called the To-leader and Bibitorius, we may call it the squinting Muscle.  
The fourth[ Tab. 2. fig. 1. 2. 3. 4. F fig. 5. n] the second according to Galen and Vesalius, 
The fourth.  is opposite to the third, seated on the outside of the eye which it draweth outward to the lesser angle or to the temples, & is called the Fro-leader or the muscle of Indignation or the VVayward muscle.  
By these foure if they moue together the eye is drawne inward, stablished and conteyned, which kinde of looke we in our language call a wiste-looke, the motion the Latins call Tonicall.  
The fift[ tab. 2. fig. 2. 3. 4. I fig. 5. B] is the fift also according to Galen and Vesalius, but the sixt according to Falopius, Platerus and Laurentius. It is seated on the outside in the 
The fift.  lower cauity, and ariseth betweene the eye and the tendons of the second and fourth muscles( which is the reason why some haue thought that it taketh his beginning from the eie and is againe inserted into the same) from that cleft which appeareth like a suture of the bone of the lower orbe where the first bone of the Iawe is ioyned with the fourth: sometimes it ariseth with a fleshy beginning from a bony scale.  
It is slender, round, short and exactly oblique, and passeth obliquely toward the outward 
His figure.  angle, as it were to embrace the eye with a short and somewhat round tendon, and is implanted with a thin and sinnowy end in an oblique line by the Rainbowes side nere 
His implantation.  the insertion of the sixt muscle: so that sometimes the tendons of them both seeme one and the same.  
To recite here the altercations of Anatomists about this muscle would rather intangle our Readers then giue them any great satisfaction; especially seeing such learned men to whome so curious disquisitions will not seeme tedious, may repaire to those fountains from whence we haue deriued these riuerets: we passe vnto the vse, which is by the contraction of his fibres to rowle the eye obliquely downward toward the outward angle.  
The sixt[ Tab. 2. fig. 1. 2. 3. 4. H fig. 5. ●] so also according to Galen and Vesalius, but the 
The sixt.  fift according to Fallopius, Platerus and Laurentius is seated on the inside and the vpper part yet vnder the right muscles, and is partly right and partly oblique. It ariseth from 
H●s originall.  the same place with that which draweth the eie directly to the inner angle at the side of the opticke nerues passage on the backe of the orbe.  
It determineth as well in man as in beastes into a round small and long[ tab. 2. fig. 1, and 2. a] tendon almost at the vtmost skirt or edge of the inward angle. 
His end   
This Tendon is reflected through a small gristle hollowed like a cane or pipe, and 
His progresse  placed in the greater angle which Falopius first of all found out, and called it Trochlea or the pulley, and thence proceeding obliquely to the right angle[ tab. 2. fig. 1. and 2. B but in the 3. and 4. fig. it is sliuen from the bone] toward the vpper part of the eye, it is inferted betweene the first and the fift muscles somewhat oblique; all which time the foresayde 
His insertion,  Tendon is compassed about with a certaine Ligament as it were with a sheath. This Muscle being drawne inward to his originall with his tendon, he turneth the eye in a circular motion to the inward angle. These two the one aboue the other below, are called the Rowlers or the Muscles of Loue: the sixt also some call musculum trochleae, or the Muscle of the Pulley.  
The seauenth Muscle which is for the most part found in bruite beastes[ tab. 2. figu. 5. 
The 7. muscle  χ] is set vnder the former sixe, and hath of itself that figure which the former sixe doe together make: it is short and compasseth round the opticke nerue[ table 2. fig. 5. Λ] yet is 
His figure.  there some fatte betweene them; proceeding forward it is dilated, imbracing the whole globe of the eye at the roote; it maketh also a circle euen as the foure first neare the Rainbow 
His insertion.  did make a circle with their Chordes: at his insertion which is into the hard tunicle of the eye, it becommeth fleshy and may be deuided into 3. or 4. so as Galen doubteth whither it be one, or double, or treble.  
The vse of this muscle is to tye vp and strengthen the eies of bruite beastes hanging alwaies downeward that they should not fall with their owne waight; it also encompasseth 
His vse.  the nerue opticke making his passage more straight, so as in violent concussions or motions it may neither leane against the bone nor be indangered by distention.  
This Muscle, Nature or the God of Nature rather did not see needfull for man; because 
Why a man hath not the 7. muscle.  he hath a countenance erected vp to heauen; and if at any time he be constrayned to looke downeward, hee hath all the right muscles with their ioynt strength to sustaine the Eye, because they growe with their fibres to the membrane which compasseth the orbe.  
To finde out the Muscles of the eye, when the braine is taken away you must cut the 
How to make dissection to shew the muscles best.  orbe at each corner euen to the nerue opticke with a Saw, hauing a great care least the Trochlea or Pully which is in the inner angle bee offended. Then you must separate the Pericranium from the bone, and breake the vpper part of the orbe backeward, then take away the fat, and so shall you perceiue the muscles of the eye-liddes and of the eyes themselues together with their vessels: and if you would obserue the proper and peculiar motion of euery muscle; you must preserue them in their proper position, and tye to euery one of them a thred not far from their tendons and then draw the thred. You may also take the eye whole out of the orbe together with the Trochlea which is in the inner angle, and so demonstrate what you please. And thus much of the Muscles of the Eye.   

CHAP. X. Of the Muscles of the outward Eare.  
_ALthough most commonly mens Eares are immouable, and few there bee who haue any sensible motion of them; yet that the moouing faculty may flow into them is manifest as well by their muscles whose action is motion, as also by the nerues which thereabouts are commonly seene. Now the reason why this motion is so rare and so hardly perceiued is three-fould.  


A 1, 2, The muscle of the forehead and the right fibres thereof.  
B 1, 2. The temporall muscle. αβγ 2, His semicircular originall,  
CE 1, the first muscle of the eye-lidde compassing the whole lid.  
FD 1, the third muscle of the wing of the nose which endeth into the vpper lip.  
GH 1, the muscle of the vpper lip.  
●1, the broad Mouse-muscle stretched ouer the cheeks and all the lower parts.  
〈◇〉 the circumscription or circumference of this muscle.  
I 2. The grinding muscle or the second muscle of the Iaw.  
M 2, a muscle forming the cheekes.  
N 2, the muscle of the lower lip,  
O 2, a part of the fift muscle of the lower iawe called Digastricus, that is, double bellied.  
QR 2, The first muscle of the bone hyois growing to the Rough artery.  
S 2, the second muscle of the bone hyois vnder the chin  
The lower T in the second figure sheweth the third muscle of the bone hyois streatched to the iaw, The vpper T in the second figure sheweth the insertion of the seauenth muscle of the head.  
VV 2, two veniers of the fourth muscle of the bone Hyois.  
The backeward K( put instead of X) sheweth the seauenth muscle of the head and his insertion at the vpper T.  
● Λ 2, The originall of the grinding muscle from the yoke-bone.  
μ 2, the insertion of this muscle into the lower iaw,  
ρ σ 2, two beginnings of the seauenth muscle of the head.  
● 2, his insertion into the Mammillary processe.   
Table 3. Fig. 1. Sheweth the muscles of the Fore-head, the Eye-lids and the Cheekes.  
Figure 2. sheweth the Muscles of the Nose, Lips, the lower Iaw and of the bone Hyois.  
TABVLA. III.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.   
The first, because the muscles of the Eares are so small ( Galen in the 6. Chapter of his 
The first reason.  16. Book de vsu partium, calleth them but delinations of muscles) and the nerues so thredy that a sufficient quantity of mouing spirits cannot be conuayed through them.  
The second, because if they should be moued, the hearing would be depraued or vitiated, especially mens eares being smal, and therefore Nature hath made recompence by 
Second reason  the easie and speedy motions of the Head whereby we turne on euery side to receiue the soundes; whereas in foure-footed beastes their eares being greater and the motions of their heades not so nimble, they are alwaies moouable to receiue the sounds from euery side; with them also they driue away Flies which men can doe with their hands.  
The third reason is because mens eares are short and gristly, so as the muscles and branches of the sinnewes cannot be dilated in them. But such as they are we owe the honour 
Third reason  of their inuention to Fallopius. They are of two sortes, Common and proper, and conspicuous enough in those men whose eares we can perceiue to mooue.  
The first is common to the eare and to both the lippes, and is a small portion of that Muscle which is accounted the first of them which mooue the Cheekes, and the skin of the face called Quadratus,[ tab. 3. fig. 1, γ] or the square Muscle. This sometimes becommeth fleshy and ascending with his Fibres to the roote of the eare[ tab. 3. fig. 1 o] is inserted vnder the lap, and draweth it downward to this or that side. This Muscle is broade, thin and foure sided.  
The second, which is a proper muscle[ tab. 3. fig. 1. neere to B Tab. 4. fig. 1. ●●. fig. 2. ●] is seated in the fore-part, and lyeth vpon the temporall muscle, arising from the vpper end 
His originall  and extremity of the muscle of the forehead, where it toucheth with the temporall: this descending towarde the eare becommeth narrower, and at his insertion into the vpper part of the eare very tendinous; it is thin being produced out of the fleshy Membrane, 
His insertion.  which is but sprinkled with fleshy fibres, as also are the other Muscles of the eares: it is much lesse then the temporall, and from roundnesse becommeth long. His vse is to 
Table 4. Fig. 1. sheweth the skinne of the Head togetogether with the Fat and the glandules vnder the eares, and the Muscles of the hinder part of the head and the Eares.  
Figure 2. sheweth the Muscles of the eares, of the Eyebrowes, and a few of the iawes.  

BB. The Muscle of the eare springing from the pericraenium or Scul-skin.  
C. The triangular muscle mouing the skin of the nowl of the head.   
The second Figure.  

A. The semicircular Muscle of the eare, drawing the outward eare vpward, which was noted with B in the first figure.  
B, C, D, E, F, G. the Muscle as it were diuided into three parts, called Tripartitus.  
H, the hinder part of the outward eare into which the foresaid Muscle is fastned.  
NNN, the circumference of the temporall Muscle.  
O, the Muscle yet couered with the pericraenium.  
P, the Membran couering the said muscle drawn aside  
QQQ. The fleshy part of the temporall Muscle.  
V. The Muscle masseter or grinding Muscle, remooued here from the yoake-bone, whence it hath his originall, that the implantation of the temporal muscle into the processe of the iaw might appeare.  
X, the Muscles making the cheekes.  
Z, A Muscle of the lower lip.  
a a, the Muscle of the eyebrow.  
bb, the vpper eyelid hauing a Muscle with transuerse Fibres.  
c, the eyebrow hauing a circular Muscle, whereby the external parts of the eye are exceedinglie constringed, as Placentinus saith.   
FIG. I.  
FIG. II  draw the eare vpward and foreward.  
The third[ tab. 3. fig. 1 neere to O] ariseth from the nowle or Occipitium, and from the couerings of his Muscles aboue the Mammillary processe or teat-like extuberation, wher the Muscles that mooue the head and the shoulder-blade do end. In his beginning hee 
The thirde.  ariseth narrow but passing downeward ouerthwart becomes some-what broader, as if it were diuided into two or three fingers, and is so implanted on the backe side of the eare to draw it backward and something vpward.  
The fourth proceeding from the same Teate-like extuberation or Mamillary processe, vnder the Ligament of the gristle of the eare, is of a broad, fleshy and fibrous substance, 
The fourth,  but in his progresse becommeth narrower till it end in a Tendon, which tendon is fastned into the whole roote of the eares gristle[ Table 4. fig. 2 H] one part of it aboue another part in the middest, and the third below. And hence it was that Placentinus a studious 
Placentinus his conceite.  and painfull Anatomist, out of this masse maketh three[ Tab. 4. fig. 2 B C D E F G] muscles led hereunto by his insertion; all which notwithstanding he saith do arise confusedly out of one place.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Muscles within the Eares.  
_BEcause these Muscles are very small, euen the smallest in the whole bodye, and beside their position depending vpon the curious parts of the eare, we 
The motion within the eare,  haue described them more at large before in the nineteenth chapter of the eight Booke, wherefore heere wee will onely make a little mention of them and trouble you no further in this place. The Hammer and the Anuile haue but a verie obscure motion, yet are they mooued, together with that Membrane whereto the Hammer is tied, vpward and downward by one Muscle within the membran & another without it. The inner muscle[ tab. 5. fig: 2. i] was first described by Eustachius, & is seated in the Rock-bone. It is the lest in the whole body, so also it is of the most elegant 
The smalnes and elegancie of it.  and dainty composition. It ariseth in the basis of the bone called Sphenoides or the wedgbone in that place where with the roote of the processe of the Rocke bone and an additament of the Nowle-bone, it maketh a broken hole. His beginning is like a Ligament, afterwarde it becommeth fleshy, and by degrees euen vnto the middest groweth a little broader, after becomming narrower againe, it endeth into two exceeding smal tendons,[ tab. 5. fig. 5 belowe i] whereof one is infixed in the higher processe of the Hammer, and the other vpon his necke. This Muscle draweth the head of the Hammer obliquely forward and inward, leadeth it from the Anuile, and driueth the Membrane outward from the crooked processe of the Hammer.  

This fift Table is all one with the eleuenth Table of the eight Booke.  
The other Muscle, is seated about the middest in the vpper part of the Hole of Hearing, 
The second Muscle.  called Meatus auditorius without the Membran of the Tympane or Drumme. And about the inuention of this Muscle, two of the best Anatomistes of Padua in Italy dooe contend.  
For Hieronimus Fabricius ab Aquapendente affirmeth, that he found it in the yeare, one 
The first inuenters therof.  thousand fiue hundred ninety nine. Also Iulius Casserius Placentinus saith, that hee obserued it first the seauenth day of March, in the yeare one thousand fiue hundred ninetie three. Which of them was the first inuenter I cannot say, but both their diligences deserue great commendations.  
The vse both of the former internall, and also of this externall Muscle Aquapendens expresseth on this manner.  
The vse of these Muscles is to preserue the Membrane, which being in danger to bee broken or stretched in two places, both within and without; Nature hath prouided a defence 
The vse.  on either side. For on the outside the externall aire being violently mooued together with the sound, might driue the Membrane inward: and within the Included spirit or the aire passing from the mouth into the passages of Hearing, might offer violence vnto the same membrane by driuing it outward, as in of citations or yawning gapings, in 
The prouidence of Nature.  blowing of the Nose, in retention of the breath, in strayning of the Voyce, in emptytying the belly, and such like: and therefore the outwarde Muscle beeing drawne inward together with the membrane by the violence of the aire doth with his owne motion retract it outward againe, and contrarywise the inner muscle when the membrane is thrust outward retracteth it backe againe inward: and thus these two muscles keepe the membrane from breaking. And truely it is very necessary that this office of the custody 
Why these must needes be muscles not ligaments  of the membrane should be committed to a muscle and not vnto a ligament: that as the impulsions or motions of the aire against the membrane be diuers, so the cohibition or restraint and retraction of the membrane toward his owne seate should also bee diuers. Now we know that a ligament worketh alwayes after the same tenour or manner, but the muscles as being more voluntary doe worke with a kinde of proportion and measure contracting or relaxing more or lesse as neede requires, and with a diuers motion resisting, yeelding to or amending the impulsions and agitations of the aire: thus farre Aquapendens. He that desires further satisfaction about these muscles let him looke backe to the 19 Chapter of the eight Booke.    

CHAP. XII. Of the muscles of the Nose.  
_BEcause the motion of the wings of the Nose is very requisite in sodaine & large 
Why the nosthrils haue motion.  inspirations and expirations, therefore Nature hath made them mooueable with voluntarie motion, for which cause there are certaine muscles inserted into them. For albeit the dilatation and constriction of those wings might bee done by the muscles of the lips which also touch them( as also the first muscle of the cheeks which is made of the fleshy membrane[ tab. 5. fig. 1. γ] & inserted into the root of the nose) yet we haue obserued in them that haue large noses called Nasuti, some muscles peculiar vnto the nose itself, and these are of two sorts: some seruing for dilatation, others for constriction. I am not ignorant what a medly of opinions there is amongst Anatomist concerning 
They are of two sorts.  the number vse and scituation of these muscles: but I will content myself in this place to follow Bauhinus onely.  
The muscles therefore which serue for dilatation of the wings of the nose are foure, two very small ones which arise one either side one from the cheeke bone 
Muscles of dilatation. ( neare vnto the third muscle of the lips) & the bony canale or pipe which is neare the nosthrils. These are more fleshy then sinowy, and proceede ouer the ridge of the Nose & are inserted partly into the outward wing, partly into that part of the vpper lippe which they call Filtrum.  
The vse of it is to draw that part of the lip together with the wing of the nose outward and vpward whereby it also openeth the nosthrils.( Tab. 5. fig. 1. F.] For as saith Varolius 
The vse.  because we smell by a kinde of Traction, together with the wings of the nose the nosthrils also doe close and are somewhat obstructed; and therefore in smelling the holes of the nose which wee properly call the nostrils are by these dilating muscles opened and so kept.  
The two other muscles doe arise with a sharpe and fleshy beginning from the suture or seame of the forehead where they are mingled with the ends of the forehead muscles 
The 2. other muscles of dilation.  vnto the middle of the distance between the eys and the spine of the nose: their form is almost Triangular, and they descend downeward obliquely aboue the bones of the Nose, where becomming broader they are implanted into the wings, and with their right fibres do draw them vpward and dilate them.  
There are also foure muscles which doe constring or contract the Nose, two of 
The foure muscles of contraction.  which doe arise fleshy about the rootes of the wings, but they are very small: these passe ouerthwart aboue the wing and imbrace it, and are inserted at the corner of the nosthrils. The vse of these is that being contracted to their originall they presse downe the wing, & so shut the Nose,[ tab. 5. fig. 2. neere K.] The other two are hid within the cauity of the Nose vnder the coate wherewith the hole is compassed: these are very thin and membranous, and doe arise from the extremity or end of the bone of the nose, and are inserted into the wings; which wings by drawing them inward they constringe or streighten, and these muscles as also all the rest in this chapter described are not found in all, but in such onely as haue large noses, as we said before.[ Tab. 5. fig. 2. vnder. K.]   

CHAP. XIII. Of the common muscles of the Cheekes and the Lips.  
_THE muscles which are common to the Cheekes and the Lippes are foure, two on either side called Quadratus and Buccinator, the square muscle and 
Foure common muscles. The squaae muscles.  the Trumpeter. The square muscle[ tab. 6. fig. 1. 〈◇〉. make the circumscription,] or as Galen calleth it, the musculous dilatation, or the broade or thin muscle, because it is large and membranous lyeth vnder the skinne of the necke, and also is spred ouer the lower part of the whole face from vnder the mouth. It is a membrane encreased with fleshy fibres which yet doe not arise from any bone: these fibres do assend vpward to the middle of the face, creeping by degrees with a variable course from the regions of the racke-bone of the necke, on the outside of the same where it swelleth most, of the shoulder blades, of the cannell bones and of the brest bones, and so make abroade and thin muscle.  
Wherefore if any man shall deny it the name of a muscle, and say it is but a membrane of musculous Nature and substance, or whether he list to call it a muscle, hee shall haue my good will, for it is so thin and so membranous that the ancients did not separate it from the skin but fleyed it off therewith; not accounting it in the number of the muscles, as Galen saith who himselfe was the first that described it, as appeareth in his fourth booke of 
The antients before Galen knew it not.  Anatomical administrations, and in his first book of the dissection of muscles, although he knew it not when he wrote his books de vsu partium. To this membrane many small branches of nerues are sent from the sinews of the neck & mingle themselues with the fibres; & that is the reason why the membrane in this place is more strongly vnited to the parts then in any place almost of the whole body, and the same dissemination of the nerues causeth thosediuers fiberous passages which are seen in it. For from the breast bone and the middle 
Galen found it The reason of the many & diuers fibres in in it.  of the clauicle his fibres run right in the length of the necke,[ from ♌ to ζ] and those which beginne from the other parts of the clauicle, from the toppe of the shoulder and from the rest of the parts before named, doe trend obliquely vpward,[ from θ to O and H.] and the nearer they are to the spines of the racke bones of the necke the more oblique do they appeare: so that when they come neare the occipitium or nowle of the head they are almost tranuerse: and yet for all that these fibres make no intersections in the neck at all, especially that are visible: but when they come vnto the Chin where the vpper lip is ioyned with the neather,[ betweene H. and ζ.] especially at the lower lip they are so confounded together that they can bee no more distinguished. VVe call it the square muscle because it paseth 
Why it is called the square muscle.  from the vpper part of the necke by the sides of the nowle bone away, toward the eare, & is somtime implanted with fleshy fibres into the root therof, by the help of which [ Table 6. is the same with that in the Folio 750.] fibres in those men who haue this position of this muscle their eares, as we haue said, are moued. Sometime vnder the roote of the eare[ O] it passeth into the face, and couereth the Masseter muscle of the Iaw, and withall groweth more strongly to the Cheeke bone then other where, insomuch as some haue taken this part of it to be the fifth muscle of the Iaw: and from hence it is inserted into the roots of the Nose. The other side of it is ouerthwart the face.[ from o by u to ζ.] The third side from the top of the shoulder to the brest bone;[ from θ by ε to ♌] and this side is very vnequall and as is it were indented. The fourth side to make the quadrature, is from the top of the chinne to the 
Their vse.  brest bone.[ from ζ to.] These muscles doe moue the skinne of the face which is not moued by the musculous substance of the forehead, the nowle, the eares and the nose, or by any of their muscles or by the muscles of the eye lids: But rather as the right square muscle draweth and mooueth both the vpper and the lower lippe vnto the right side: so the lest drawes both the lippes obliquely downeward to the left side: and because they cleaue fast vnto the chinne, therefore they helpe much the opening of the mouth. This is that muscle saith Galen in his 1. book de dissect anusculorum, which first of al in those that begin to be afflicted with conuulsions is intended or stretched, from whence come those conuulsions which we call Cynicke or Dogge-spasmes, because by the contraction of these, men are 
The doggespasme.  constrained to writh and grinne like Dogges.  
The fibres of this muscle Galen in his first booke de Anatom. Administ. counselleth the Chirurgion to be well aduised of, because of their incisions which sometimes are very necessary in this part. For ignorant Chyrurgions not knowing their course haue by large transuerse sections deuided them so farre that the cheekes haue flowne upward from the skin vnderneath them.  
The Muscle called Buccinator( either because it maketh the Cheeke which is called Bucca, 
The Trumpeter. [ ta. 6. fig. 2. M] or else because it strutteth in blowing or sounding of the Trūpet which is called Buccina, & therfore we call it the Trumpeter) lyeth vnder the former and comprehendeth 
His scite. His originall.  all that part which is blowne vp when we sound a Trumpet. It is round and ariseth almost from the whole length of the vpper law and is inserted into the length likewise of the lower law at the rootes of the Gummes; or if you list to thinke with Columbus & Laurentius 
His insertion,  it ariseth from the top of the Gummes, and like a circle doth againe determine into the top of the Gummes. For it being like a circle wherein the beginning, the middle and the end are all one, it skilles not much whether you say it proceedeth from below vpwards, or from aboue downewards.  
Thinne it is and membranous wouen with many fibres, from whence come the variety of the motions which it performeth, within and without, aboue and below. To this 
The substāce of it.  Muscle on the inside, the coat which compasseth the mouth groweth so fast that they cannot be disseuered but one of them must be broken.  
The vse of this Muscle is whilest the Iaw resteth to moue the Cheekes and the Lips, 
The vse.  and yet euen in eating when the meate is fallen into the Cheekes, it serueth as a hand to reach it againe vnto the Teeth and to driue it hither and thither amongst them, that the Aliment might be better broken and s●red, and so prepared to bee boyled into Chylus in the Stomacke.  
Besides these there is a double vse of the Cheekes and of their cauities as Archangelus 
A double vse of the cheeks.  hath well obserued. The first, that if any thing in eating doe fall from the Teeth outward it should not be lost but be kept within the Cheekes: the other vse is that they might be places of receite to contayne the meate while the teeth bee ready for it; as wee see in Apes which fill the puffes of their cheeks with meate which afterward they chew. Moreouer, in man they help much for pronounciation and in winding of a Horne or Corner and sounding of a Trumpet; for if these cheekes be puft vp a man may obserue the diuers motions of this Muscle by rowling his mouth outward, vpward, downeward, forward and backward.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the proper Muscles of the Lippes.  
_THE vse of the Lippes in all creatures is for Eating and Drinking, and therfore Nature hath prouided their Lippes according to their Dyet. The Asse can mumble a Thistle as well as a Man can eate Lettice, whence the prouerbe is, Similes habent Labra a Lactucas, Like Lettice like Lippes. But 
The proper vse of the lips in men.  because there is another vse of the Lippes in men, for forming of wordes, for casting forth of spittle and to preserue the Teeth from the coldnesse of the Ayre( that I speak not of the ornament which they are to the mouth yea to the whole face) for these reasons I say, it was necessary that the Lippes should haue voluntary motion, and so the instruments of the same, that is, muscles.  
Many of the Ancients and late writers also thought that both Lippes were mooued 
The opinion of the ancients.  by the onely helpe of the broade Muscle before spoken off, because the great variety of his fibres they thought sufficient for the accomplishment of all necessary motions in that part. But the more diligent Anatomists, beside those aboue named common to the Lippes and the Cheekes haue found out other proper muscles belonging to the Lippes alone, about the number whereof they doe not agree. Wee for this time will conclude 
6. proper muscles of the Lipps.  that they are sixe, on each side two belonging to the vpper Lip, and on each side one belonging to the neather.  
The first paire of the vpper Lip[ table 6, fig, 1, G ●] ariseth from the vtter seame of the Iugall or yoke-bone, and that which separateth the first bone of the vpper Iaw from the third and from the cheek-bone. In their beginning they are broad and fleshy, and discend obliquely forward, inserting themselues into the sides of the vpper Lippes, which they moue vpward and downward, inward and outward: and that by reason of their diuers fibres diuersly commixed among themselues and wouen with the skinne: from which notwithstanding if the body be musculous or fleshy and not fat and the workeman diligent, it may be after a sort separated.  
The second paire[ ta 6, fig, 1, vnder H] arising fleshy, round and couered with much 
The second paire of muscles.  fat, from the cauity vnder the cheekes; is inserted into the bridle where the Lips do meet, and they say it turneth the vpper Lip downward.  

Table 7. figure 3. sheweth some muscles of the iaw, the Larynx and the bone Hyois.  
Figure 4. sheweth someparts lying in the mouth.  
TABVLA. VII.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IIII.  

A, A hole in the forehead bone, sending a small Nerue into the brim of the seate of the eye.  
B. the temporall Muscle.  
C, A fungous substance of the lip, together with the nerues stretched on both sides vnto it.  
E A hole in the cheeke bending a nerue vnto the face.  
G, A part of the yokebone here taken away.  
I, the Massater or grinding Muscle.  
K, A portion of the vii, muscle of the head cut away.  
L, the bone Hyois bared from a few muscles.  
M, the Buccinator or Trumpeter.  
m, the vi. muscle of the bone hyois according to Falopius  
O P, the double bellied muscle of the Iaw.  
Q, the 2 of the common muscles of the Larynx.  
R, the first of the common muscles of the Larynx.  
S, A portion of the second muscle of the head.  
V, V, 2. Venters or bellies of the 4 muscle of the hyois.  
X, the fourth Leuator or heauer of the shoulder-blade  
Y, the first muscle of the Chest vnder the Coller bone.   
Fig. 4.  

A, A portion of the Temporall muscle.  
B, A sharpe processe of the lower Iawe into which the temporall muscle is inserted. * The palate.  
C, the left part of the lower iaw.  
D, the 4 muscle of the lower iaw lying in the mouth.  
E, the Gargareon or Vuula.  
F, the vpper Glandules at the Uuula.  
G, the lower Glandules at the Larynx.  
H, the muscles of the head and the necke mingled.  
I, the tongue with the Epiglottis or ouer-tongue,  
K, the rough artery bared from the muscles.  
L, the bed of vesselles neere the Larynx, and the first muscle of the backe.  
N, O. The fift muscle of the lower iaw called Digastricus hanging from his originall.  
X, the 4 muscle of the shoulderblade arising from the necke.    
The lower lip hath one paire[ Tab. 4. fig. 2. Z. and ta. 6. fig. 2 X] which ariseth fleshy from the lower part of the vpper iaw, where there is a kinde of asperity or roughnesse at the sides of the chin: thence bending obliquely vpward and becomming broad( for it is broder and shorter then the former paire) are implanted into the middle of the lips, with whose skin as the former they are so mingled, that the Fibers do in a kinde of finger-fold cut betwixt one another. 
Their vse.   
By the helpe of these Fibres the motions of the lippes become verie Diuers, so that Galen writeth in his 11. booke de vsupartium. and the second de Dissec. Mus. that by these muscles( which yet he would haue to be foure) there are eight seuerall motions effected, foure oblique two in each lip: and beside them foure other right, two altogether right, 
Eight seuerall motions by these muscles  either when the lips are furthest asunder, the one yeelding vpward to the nose the other downward to the chin: or when the lips are close ioyned, the vpper being drawn downward, and the lower vpward.  
For as in the wrest of the arme right motions are made by the confluence or concurrence of oblique motions, so is it also in the lips: for if the muscle of either side do alone work, that motion is made side-long, but if both of them bee at once stretched, then shall the same lip be after one and the same manner drawne vpward by the vpper muscles & downward by the lower. Thus Galen exemplifieth the vse of these muscles in the places last aboue named, to which he that desires more satisfaction may haue recourse, wee will follow our story.  
To these muscles before described that fleshy and rude lumpe[ Ta. 7. fig: 3, C] and yet 
The Corrall of the Lippes  musculous may be added, which in the circumference of the mouth maketh the lips both aboue and below, which by some is made a peculiar paire of muscles of the face: we call it if you please the Corral of the lip. Falopius diuideth them into two muscles, wherof one garnisheth the vpper lip, the other the lower: and he ascribeth to them as to other muscles 
The Vse of the Corrall.  their seuerall motions, gathering and wrinkling themselues vp, and with them the flesh of the lippes when we would make our mouthes little.   

CHAP. XV. Of the Muscles of the lower Iaw.  
_OF the two Iawes, the vpper as well in man as in all other creatures is immooueable, excepting the Parrot and the Crocodile, the lower is necessarily mooued for the breaking and preparing of our meate, and the articulation of the voyce. 
Only the Parot and the Crocadile moueth the vpper iaw.  The motions of this lower iaw are of two kindes, simple and compound, the simple motions are sixe, and the compound but one. The sixe simple motions are vpward and downeward, to the right hand and to the left, foreward and backewards. The compound motion is made of the right and the left the forward and the backeward, whereby the iawes seemeth to bee carryed round. The motion vpward 
Sixe similar motions and what they are  is performed by the temporall muscle, downeward by the Digastricke; to the right hand and to the left by the first grinder called Mansorius primus: backeward by the other mansorius or the muscle that lurketh in the mouth: forward by the fifth paire.  
The motion vpward and downeward is to bite, or to share or cut: the motion to the sides whether it be to the right hand or to the left, forward or backeward is to grind: for 
The vse of these motions  the meate falleth vpon the teeth of the lower iaw, as vppon the moouing stone of a Mill. For as in a Mill the weight of the vpper stone breaketh the corne vppon the lower: so the meate is ground betweene the vpper teeth which resemble the fixed or immoueable stone of the Mill, and the lower teeth set in the lower iaw which resemble the moueable stone. And therefore these. Muscles are called Molares, that is, the grinders, and because their act is called Mastication or chewing, therefore they are called Masticatorij or Mansorij, that is, the chewers. VVherefore the Mouth is opened, shut and drawne in compasse by fiue muscles on either side. The first is called Temporalis, Galen de dissect muscularum 6. cals it Crotaphita[ tab 6. fig. 1. and 2. ●. tab. 4. fig. 2. his circumference is noted by NNN his fleshy part by QQQ, couered yet with the pericranium at ● & the Membrane retracted 
Fiue muscles  or drawne backe at P] we call it the Temple Muscle, because it is seated in the temples that is in the side of the head at the vpper and forepart of the Eare. This muscle is strong and stiffe; and the largest of all the rest; filling all the cauity of the temple bones. If ariseth[ tab. ●. fig. 2. α. β. γ.] with a broade fleshy and semicircular beginning or originall from the first bone of the vpper iaw, of the forehead, of the forepart of the scull, of the temples and the Sphenoides or wedge bone, and becomes by degrees more fleshy, & growes narrow vnder the voke bone called Iugale which runneth vpon it and about it ouerthwart[ tab. 6. fig ●. ●] and to which it groweth a litle for better defence, and is inserted with a short neruous and exceeding strong Tendon to the sharpe[ tab. 7. fig. 4. b.] processe of the lower iaw imbracing it very firmely with his large armes.  
The strength of this muscle( by which sometimes a man is able to bite a strong naile in sunder, and we haue known a man therwith to guide a great bell being rung to the height) 
A strange strength of a mans iaw.  is caused by his fibres: for all of them as it were from three parts of a circle runne vnto his center, which is to be obserued in the dilatation of the wounds of this part and must sometimes necessarily be made, as also because of the appostemations of these Muscles that the 
A good obseruation for Chirurgions.  Chirurgion may know how to make incision according to the rectitude of his fibres, lest if he wound them ouerthwart, their vse and action should perish, and the life saith Columbus with it.  
The vse of this Muscle together with his fellow is, if they draw directly vpward to lift vp the lower iaw to bind it strongly and to shut the mouth. But if one of them draw alone, then is the traction of the iaw oblique, although Vesalius thinketh that this oblique traction is made by three muscles, the temple muscle, the masseter or chewer and that that lies 
Vesalius his opinion of the oblique traction of the iaw.  hid in the mouth; whence it is that some make three masseters, but Hippocrates in his book de Arte, mentioned but two. This Muscle the Ancients and amongst them Hippocrates and Galen haue preferred before many others and admired in his composition the wisedome and prouidence of the Creator in making it diuersly according to the diuers vse of the creature.  
Galen also in his eleuenth booke of the vse of parts and the third chapter, sheweth ●ow these muscles if they be wounded do especially bring conuultions, feauers, deepe and dangerous sleepines, and light frenzies. And Hippocrates saith, that the wounds of the tem●les are mortall. The reason of these accidents may be because they are neare neighbours ●nto the braine, there being onely the scull betweene, and that parted by the coronall suture 
Hyppocrates.  or crown seame: as also because of the many and large Nerues which are disseminated ●rought it as Galen hath obserued in the former Booke and the seuenth Chapter. This muscle hath 3. nerues on either side inserted into him: two from the third coniugation, and the third harder from the fift coniugation to giue him the greater strength, for the more nerues and the harder a muscle hath, the stronger it is to performe his action. No maruell therefore if vpon the wounding or concussion, convultion yea death itself doe follow.  
And hence it is that Hippocrates thought the luxation of the neather Iaw was oftentimes deadly, because thereby this Muscle is distended, and in his Booke de artic●●●● hee sayth, that vnlesse the bones of the neather Iaw be ioynted againe after their luxation the life wil be in great ieopardy, by reason of the continuall Feuers and dull and drowsie sleepinesses which follow thereupon: for these muscles if they be altered from their naturall 
The dangers of the falling of the iaw.  disposition, and intended or streatched are soporiserous: Wherefore Nature for their better defence hath couered them first with a strong, thicke and hard membrane, which is 
How nature hath defended these muscles.  the Pericranium or scull-skinne, by reason whereof the muscle on the outside looketh liuid, for his inner part which cleaueth to the bone is altogether fleshy, because the bone in that place is not couered with the Periostion. And because a part of the Pericranion runneth ouer this Muscle, some haue described it with two tendons, one inward and another outward.  
Another defence it hath is this; that the lower part which is neruous is walled with 
The 2. defēce  the Iugall or yoake-bone, that the nerues( sayth Galen in the 8. Chapter of his 9. Booke de vsu partium) should not be hurt, so as this bone seemeth to haue been made onely for the behoofe of this muscle.  
Thirdly, the Tendon of this Muscle is defended aboue and below with flesh that it 
The third.  might be better secured from outward iniuries. The difference of these Muscles according to the variety of creatures is after this manner: First of all in men they are the least 
In what creatures these muscles are greatest.  and least neruous ordinarily; among beastes they are the least in Apes, I meane according to their proportion. They are greatest and largest, as also most neruous in such beasts as haue their teeth set like a Saw, as Lyons, VVolues, Dogges and such like. There 
In what creatures least.  are other creatures wherein they are very large but not so neruous; large not so much for the strength of the action, because those great creatures doe feede mostwhat vppon the earth, but that they might bee proportionable to the magnitude of the lower Iaw, such are Asses, Horses, Oxen, Cammels and such like, as we may reade at large in Galens eleauenth Booke de vsu partium and the 2. Chapter.  
They are least in men both because our neather Iaw in respect of other creatures is the very least, and beside, because our teeth are giuen vs only to breake our meate and for 
Why least in men.  no other vse: for a mans fortitude consisteth not in the strēgth of his Iawes, neither doth hee thereby curbe and keepe in awe the other creatures but by reason and by his handes. Notwithstanding they are the greatest of all the muscles of the Iaw, because they almost sustaine it and lift it vp as if it hung and depended only vpon them.  
The second Muscle of the lower Iaw is called Mansorius primus, Masseter & moliter, 
The 2. muscle of the lower iaw called the grinders  names all taken from the vse of the Muscle which is called Manducation or chewing, and therefore wee may well call it in our English the Chewing or the grinding muscle. His position is in the Cheeke[ tab. 6. fig. 2. and tab. 7. fig. 3. I ta. 4. fig. 2. V] and it hath a double head, one neruous proceeding from the ball of the cheeke[ tab. 6. fig. 2. Λ] vnto the suture where the Iaw-bone meeteth with a part of the Iugall or yoake-bone, and passeth along vnto the vtmost angle or the Iaw which wee call his acute or sharpe processe; the other head is fleshy and passeth from the yoake-bone[ ta, 6, fig, 2, x and ta, 7. fig, 3, at ●] toward the chinne, and is implanted very strongly[ table 6, figu, 2, μ] with a broad insertion to the whole latitude of the lower Iaw, so as it representeth, saith Galen in the 4. chapter of his 11. Booke de vsu partium, the corner of a blunt or obtuse triangle, the top whereof is neare the ball of the cheek,[ Λ] one side toward the end of the yoake-bone[ from Λ to ●] another side toward the lower Iaw[ from χ to μ], and the third and last as it were a Basis ioyneth both the forenamed sides to all the parts of the lower Iaw, being extended or streatched according to his length.  
The Fibres of these heads do intersect themselues like this figure χ; and thence it is that 
His fibres.  they moue the Iaw as well on both sides as also forward and backeward( for there is a diuers motion required in chewing or grinding the meate) and in compasse: for as the vse and action of the temporall muscles was vehemently to ioyne the teeth & the two iawes together, and so to breake whatsoeuer should light between them: so the action of these chewing or grinding muscles is to leuigate or shred small the meate that is before broken by the temporall muscles. To this action the tongue doth not a little helpe, which like a hand turneth and returneth the meate in the mouth that all his partes may come vnder the Breake; which motion of the tongue is performed by a muscle of the Tongue called Linguae Masticator or the Tongues Chewer, and not onely so, but also the muscles of the cheekes are of great vse toward the performance of the foresaid worke.  
The third payre of muscles[ Tab. 7, fig. 4. neere to B] is situate vnder the temporal muscle in the lower part of the cauity of the Temple bones, and taketh his beginning partlie 
The 3. paire of muscles of the lower iaw  from the vpper and vtter parts of the processes called Allformes or like vnto wings which are sharpe and vnequall; and partly from the roofe and sharpe top or height of the bone called Sphenoides or the wedg-bone, which in the cauity of the temples looketh directlie against the yoke-bone, where it hangeth ouer a large rift made by the same Sphenoides & the greatest cheeke-bone.  
The originall or head of this muscle is partly neruous and partly fleshy, and hauing gotten this fleshinesse it is led obliquely backeward and is inserted into the necke of the lower iaw, and into the inside of his head. His vse is to mooue and lift forward the Iaw, as the next that followeth mooueth it backeward.  
The fourth muscle is another Mansorius which Galen in his fourth Booke of Anatomicall 
The 4. muscle of the lower Iaw.  administrations the fourth Chapter and diuers other places, calleth the muscle lurking in the mouth,[ Tab. 7. fig. 4 O] because it lyeth hid in the great bosome of the inside of the Iaw. This muscle is thicke and short, and ariseth very neruous from the inward cauity or hollow pipe of the wingy processes of the wedge-bone called Sphenoides; afterward becomming fleshy, large and thicke it descendeth with right fibres, and is inserted with a strong neruous and broad tendon to the inner and backe-part of the lower Iawe where the roughnesse is, and where the bosome or hollownes is fashioned that it might not take vp too much roome about the Almonds of the throate. And this muscle( sayth Galen) helpeth the temporall muscle to which it groweth strongly neere the production and insertion of his tendon; for it draweth the Iaw inward and vpward, and shutteth the mouth, because it is a matter of labour to draw a heauy thing vpward, and to breake and grinde a hard substance: besides when the Iaw is brought forward it draweth it backward againe. The fift Muscle called Graphioides or Digastricus, double bellied[ Table 7 figure 3, OP and figure 3, NO Table 6. figure 2 O] is thinne and small; arising membranous and very broade from the Apendixe called Styloides( from whence Galen called it 
The Fyfre and last muscle of the lower iaw His variable substance.  Graphioides, because the Ancients vsed to write vpon waxen Tables with a Probe which they called Stylus) and immediately becommeth fleshy and round and passeth vnder the lower part of the vpper Iaw and the eare, and in the middest where it is curued or crooked at the turning of the lower iaw it looseth his flesh and becommeth Neruous: and againe reconering his flesh is inserted into the middle of the iaw fast by the lower part of the chin, where the inner bone becommeth a little rugged for his better insertion, and where both the Muscles of each side do meete; albeit about his middest it cleaueth to the bone called Hyoides. There is also in this place a kinde of forme of a Pulley; for because these Muscles do not arise from the lower parts of the necke but rather from the vpper, they could not mooue the Iaw downward vnlesse they had bene wound about the lower angle of the lower Iaw, as it were about a Pulley.  
The vse of this paire of Muscles is to draw the Iaw downward, & so to open the mouth and by consequence to draw the tongue toward the throate: but if one of them onely do 
The vse of these muscles together.  mooue, it leadeth the Iaw obliquely to his owne side. It was called Digastricus because it hath two Venters or Bellies, being fleshy in the beginning and in the end, and in the middle[ Tab. 7. fig. 3 betweene O & P fig. ●. between N and O] neruous or tendinous( which is peculiar to this and to the second paire of muscles of the bone Hyoides[ tab. 7. fig: 3, V, 
What muscles haue 2 bellies  V] and to the fift proper paire of the Larynx or throttle) partly for more strength, partly that it might not take vp too much roome because the place is but narrow, and there are many Instruments to fill it vp, especially the muscles of the tongue and of the Hyois: and therefore also they were made small and thin, round and long, their motion beeing but easie. for the Iaw fals downward with his owne weight, and therefore needed no strong retractor.  
Finally, because a part of the square muscle( which with Galen we reckoned among the muscles of the cheekes) groweth more strongly to the bone of the lower Iawe, the right 
The reason of Arantius his opinion.  and the left meeting at the middle of the chinne to draw the same downward; therefore Arantius( who did not acknowledge the third paire aboue named) maketh it the fift paire 
The vse that Arantius limitteth.  of the Iaw, and sayeth, that this portion or part of the square muscle together with the 4. paire called the Digastricks, do open the mouth and draw the Iaw downwards, yet so, that it is more directly drawne( without the motion of the cheekes) by the fourth paire; but by this fift paire as he accoūteth them, the iaw is wrested obliquely together with the cheeks and the lovver lip side-vvard if but one of them moue; if they mooue together, then it inclineth it to neither part but leeadeth it tovvard the throttle.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Muscles of the Choppes which serue for Diglutition or Swallowing.  
_GAlen first of all men described the muscles of the Choppes, whome after Oribasius his Epitomizer and Auicen followed, making one on each side. Among the later Anatomists Falopius was the first who described three paires; which are seated in the Mouth betweene the coat of the palate & the bredth 
4. paire of muscles of the chops.  of the Nosethrils. VVe will reckon vnto you 4. paire, whereof two doe dilate and tvvo contract; and therefore they helpe the Svvallow because the Chops vvere of necessity to bee dilated or straightned vvhen the meate and the drinke should passe by them.  
The first paire ariseth thinne and neruous from the toppe of the vvedge-bone called 
The first.  sphaenoides neare the articulation of the lovver iavv vvith the bone of the temple, and descendeth very small and slender by the invvard cauity of the Pterygoides, and endeth in a neruous thinne and broad tendon vvhich passeth ouer the cleft vvhich is in the end of the Pterygoides, and being reflected is inserted into the skinny part of the palate at vvhich the Vuula hangeth. If both these muscles moue together they dravv the bottom of the chops, together vvith the Vuula vpvvard and forvvard; if but one of them moue, then it dravveth vnto that side vvherein it is seated.  
The second paire ariseth neruous from the same beginning vvith the former, and declining 
The second.  dovvnevvards it is inserted into the sides of the choppes vvhere the Tonsils or Almonds doe reside and taketh vppe or at least embraceth all the side and backepart of the Choppes This payre draweth the Tonsils vpward and sidelong, and dilateth the whole cauity of the Chops by parting them asunder. These two paires serue to dilate or open the Choppes, and some say they hinder the liquid matter that comes vp in vomiting that it passeth not through or into the nose.  
The third paire compasseth the backeward and side cauitie of the Choppes, and ariseth 
The third.  very thinne where the head is ioyned with the necke, whence it descendeth and is inserted in the sides of the bone Hyois and the first gristle of the Throttle, sometimes also into the roote of the Tongue but obscurely; and it constringeth the Choppes when a man swalloweth; and as Falopius perswades himselfe it helpeth to swallow a great morsell; because in diglutition or swallowing of meat it raiseth vp the throttle.  
The fourth paire ariseth very slender from the inside of the appendix called Styloides, declineth forward, and is inserted with a membranous Tendon to the first Gristle of the 
The fourth.  Larynx or Throttle, to the sides of the bone Hyois, and the extremity of the rootes of the Tongue: and therfore( sayth Platerus) it may be sayd to be a paire common to the chops and to the Tongue, because it draweth the tongue and the foresayde parts backwards and vpward, and constringeth the choppes as wee swallow. These two latter paire doe contract the choppes and somewhat lift vp the throttle that the swallow might bee the more facile and easie.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the Muscles of the Bone called Hyois.  
_BEcause the meate when it is broken by both the Iawes and their Teeth, by the helpe of the Muscles of the Cheekes, the lower Iaw and the Tongue, must bee swallowed and transmitted into the Stomack; and that this diglutition or swallowing is a voluntary motion, it had neede of Muscles appropriated thereunto and distinct from the muscles of the Tongue, because wee can swallow and yet hould our tongues still and stedfast: and beside, the muscles of the Tongue doe accomplish other priuate motions of their owne.  
These Muscles which serue for diglutition they make to be proper to the bone Hyois, both because they are annexed vnto it, and do also mooue it vpward and downward, and to both sides; for the bone itself was necessarily to be mouable, because it was ordained to be helpeful to deglutition. But there are two kinds of muscles which are ioyned to this bone: som haue their original frō it but do serue other parts, as the tongue & the Larynx. Others that take their originall from other bones, and yet are inserted into this Hyois and 
Foure paire of Muscles.  are proper to it, and of these we will intreate at this time, reckoning vp vnto you 4 payre although there be some who account sixe.  
Of these two, paire are numbred with the muscles of the tongue, because the motions of the tongue and of the bone Hyois are very nere a kin, and therefore it is no wonder if their muscles be mixed and connected together.  
The first paire run betweene the brest-bone and the bone Hyois, and are therefore called Sternohyoidei[ Tab. 6. fig. 2 Q ●] and appeare outwardly vnder the skin lying vppon the 
The 1. paire.  sharpe artery and the gristle of the throttle called Thyroeides. It ariseth with a broad and fleshy beginning from the vpper and inner side of the brest-bone, and runnes directly vpward, and is implanted very fleshy without a tendon( saith Columbus) into the foreside of the basis of the bone Hyois. All along their passage they are fleshy and broad, and are diuided in the middest by a line which passeth according to their length. Their vse is to draw the bone straight downward and backward, and by accident also they defend the throtle and the gristle Thyroesdes.  
The second paire called Genio-hyoides[ Tab. 6. fig. 2 S] are vnder the chinne, and the fift 
The 2. payre.  paire of the lower iaw.[ Tab. 6. fig. 2 O] They are large and short and fleshy all ouer, and do arise with Fibres of a diuers course from the inner part of the lower iawe, and are inserted with the same breadth into the middle part of the bone Hyois, into which also the first paire was implanted. They draw directly vpward and somewhat forward.  
The third paire called Styloceratoeides[ Tab. 7. fig. 2 T] is seated obliquely and vnder the Chin as the former, and are outwardly stretched vppon the fifte paire of the neather Iaw. They are slender and round, and arise from the roote of the Appendixe Styloides 
The 3, paire.  aboue the originall of the fift muscle of the Iaw, and end into the hornes of the Hyois, that is, into the laterall or side parts thereof, and they are sometimes perforated in the middest to giue way to the muscle which openeth the Iaw. They moue the bone toward the sides and somewhat vpward.  
The fourth paire is called Coracohyoeidei.[ Tab. 6. fig. 2. V, V. Tab. 7, fig. 3, V, V] They ly lurking vnder the fourth muscle of the shoulder-blade, as Vesalius and Platerus haue noted. 
The 4. paire.  They are slender and long, and do arise out of the processe called Carocoeides at the vpper end of the shoulder-blade nere his necke, and do run obliquely vpwarde vnder the seuenth muscle of the head, and are implanted where the third paire is, into the beginning of the lower processe of the bone Hyois, and these draw downward vnto the sides. This is a long paire on eyther side fleshy and hath a double belly, and therefore Galen cald them Digastricks, but in the middle they are slender and neruous as is the fourth muscle of the Iaw and the fift proper muscle of the Larynx, and extenuated into the forme almost of a Tendon, haply to giue way to the seuenth muscle of the head, which heere runneth ouer him[ K] as to his better.  
Concerning the vse of these muscles, we craue leaue to add yet a little more: some thinke they were not ordained for motion but rather for tension, to tye, establish & suspend 
An addition concerning the Vse of these muscles Laurentius. Archangelus. Arantius.  the bone Hyoides, so saith Laurentius: others as Archangelus thinke, they serue for diglutition, and that they are the proper muscles of the Hyois. Others as Arantius, because this bone is the basis of the Tongue, and because the basis of any thing can by no meanes be mooued, but that also must be moued which is established vpon that basis, do thence determine that these muscles do mooue the Tongue, and so much the rather because the manifold and frequent motions of the Tongue can hardly be imagined to be accomplished by so few and so small muscles as determine or end in the substance of the Tongue. Wherefore these may be called the common Muscles of the tongue and the Hyois, into which certaine Nerues are distributed from the sixt Coniugation.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Muscles of the Tongue.  
THe tongue hath three ends in Nature; to speake, to taste, and to rowle the meate in the mouth, which cannot bee performed without motion, and therefore Nature hath allotted vnto it Muscles, which from those three actions may bee called, the 
Three vses of the tongue.  Talkers, the Tasters, and the Rowlers of meate. In man the especiall end of the creation of the tong and of the motion of the same is for speech, as in beasts for tast.  
For because they want hands wherwith to reach their meat or ●other vnto their tast, it was necessary they should be able with their tongues to lick and gather it of the earth but man 
The especially vse in man.  is able to tast without the motion of the tong, because he hath hands wherewith to bring that he would tast vnto the instrument or organ of the sence: but both of them haue necessary vse of it in rowling and returning the meat againe vnto the teeth which falleth from them into the space of the mouth.  
VVherefore that it might answer those intentions, it was made moueable and had therfore muscles, and not muscles onely, but also a figure fit for motion, some parts being thinner then other: yet because it should not moue beyond his teather, Nature hath restrained it with a ligament, that the body of it which by reason of the diuers fibres it had 
The bridle of the tongue.  was infinitely disposed to motion and agitation, might rowle vpon that axletree, or turne vpon those hinges onely: but of those things we haue spoken sufficiently heretofore, excepting of the muscles whose proper place this is.  
The Muscles therefore of the Tongue are double, some are common, others proper. Those are esteemed to be common, which haue already bene said to belong to the bone 
Muscles of the tong double.  Hyois, vnto which the third paire also now to be mentioned may happily be referred: and those proper which hauing their original other where, do determine and end in the substance of the Tongue.  
The first paire are called Styloglossi or the Auger-tongue Muscles[ Tab, 8. fig: 1 & 2 P] Galen dissect. muscul. 14 calleththem 〈◇〉, that is transuerse. They haue slender originals 
The 1. paire.  from the vtter face of the Appendix Styloeides( as the fourth paire of the throat from the inside of it) and are implanted with transuerse fibres into both sides of the Tongue about the middle thereof, yea they proceede forward and attaine vnto the top of the Tongue; and when the Tongue is lilled out they draw it in againe. But because their. Fibres are so wouen one within another, when both of them are at once contracted toward their originall they lift the tongue directly vpward, but when one of them onely worketh then is the tongue lead vpward to one side onely.  
[ Tab. 8. is the same with that in lib. 8. Fol. 643.]  
The second paire are called Myloglossi or the grinder-tongue Muscles[ tab. 8. fig. 1. and 2. G.] They arise with abroad and inuerted originall and transuerfe fibres from the sides 
The 2. paire  of the lower iaw neare the roots of the grinding teeth called molares; and are inserted on both sides into the length of the ligament which is vnder the basis or foundation of the tongue, and degenerateth into the bridle by which the tong is tyed to the Chops. When one of these workes we turne the tongue vpward and obliquely, but when both of them mooue, then the tip is directly lifted vpward to the palate and vpper teeth. Sometimes this paire doubleth the tongue or maketh it hollow like a gutter, and sustaineth it so in forme of a compassed bow to the palate with the assistance of the ligament and bridle becoming somewhat rigide or stiffe. And if the second paire belonging to the bone Hyois doe worke with them, then the tongue becommeth more narrow and solid and is exerted or thrusted forth to his extent beyond the lips.  
The third paire are called Genuoglossi or the chin-tongue Muscles[ tab. 8. fig. 1. and 2 H.] They arise with a narrow beginning from an asperitie or roughnes in the inside of the 
The 3. paire.  middest of the Chin; afterward they become broader and replenished with right fibres, & are implanted into the middle of the tong the greatest part of them at the roote, yet some part of them runs out toward the tip, so that the diuers parts of the same Muscle do worke 
Their contrarie vses.  contrarily. For the greatest part of their fibres beeing drawne toward their origin all thrust the tongue beyond the teeth and the lippes,( although Auerrhoes thought that a proper motion of the tongue) the lesser part in their action draw it againe inward. Sometimes they communicate some fibres to the bone Hyois which they so draw vnto the chin. They haue also certaine lines in them which Anatomists call inscriptions as if they were many Muscles.  
The fourth paire are called Basiglossi or Ypsiglossi or bone-tongue Muscles.[ tab. 8. fig. 1. and 2. D, O.] These doe arise straight fleshy from the vpper and middle part of the bone Hyois 
The 4 paire.  and in some places are obscurely diuided asunder, as if they were many muscles, and so run a long the length of the tongue, and are inserted in the middest of it. Their vse is when they are contracted to draw the tongue directly inward or backward toward his roots.  
The fifth paire are called Ceratoglossi or horne-tongue Muscles[ tab. 8. fig. 1. and 2. E.] and arise from the vpper hornes( if they be there) of the bone Hyois from whence passing 
The 5. paire.  somewhat obliquely or sloping they are inserted into the sides of the tongue neare vnto his root; sometimes they arise from the neather hornes when the vpper are wanting, or are not very bony, but rather like ligaments; which as wee haue sayd is most commonly in women which haply makes their tongues more plyable. If one of these onely be contracted the tongue, especially the roote of it, is drawne side-long downeward, and so it may bee sayd to mooue to the right side or to the left: but if both of them be contracted then is it mooued right downeward toward the throate; this paire in Oxen is double, in men it is but single.  
These fiue paire of Muscles therefore do moue the tongue vpward, downeward, foreward, backeward, on the right hand and on the left hand, or to the sides; but if they 
The substance of the Toung.  worke successiuely, that is, one vpon another, then they turne the tongue round; & all these motions the muscles of the boue Hyois do not a little further which some do rather ascribe to the fibrous substance of the Tongue, which hath indeed all three kindes of fibres.  
At the roote of the Tongue when these Muscles are remooued there appeareth a 
The glardulous flesh at the roote.  certaine flesh compounded of many Glandules mingled with fat, which flesh doeth not merrit the name of a muscle, because a Muscle doeth not consist of glandules or kernelles but of fleshy fibres.[ tab, 8, fig, 1, and 2, H.] This knot of glandules groweth at the roote of the Tongue that with their liquor it might alwaies bee kept moyste, because without moysture there can be no perfect taste, no more then there can be any concoction in the Stomack without Elixation or boyling, for the concoction of the Stomacke is not a roasting but a boyling or elixation; & therefore Nature hath ordained the Glandulous Pancreas or Sweet-bread to touch the Stomacke, that thence there might continually ascend moyst vapours that the concoction of the stomacke might be accomplished by a moyste boyling, not by a dry roasting.  
Moreouer, this moysture of the kernelly flesh maketh the motion of the Toung more glib and glad as wee say; or nimble; for when the Tongue is dry( as vvee may perceiue in those that are exceedingly a thirst) his motions are more slovv; the same also vvee haue experience of in those that labour of burning Agues, in vvhome all the moysture of the Tongue is exhausted and dryed vp. Moreouer, the Almonds of the Throate which we call Tonsilla, as is before obserued by yeilding a perpetuall moysture, doe moisten the Tongue and so further his motion.   

CHAP. XIX. of the Muscles of the Larynx or Throttle.  
_BEcause the actions of the Throttle or Larynx are perfourmed with voluntary 
The action of a muscle is Contraction.  motion, Nature hath giuen it muscles, which by their action which is Contraction might bend, extend and moue sidelong the ioynts of the gristles, that so the glottis or Toung-let might become mouable and his cleft might be made broader or narrower as need should require: for so it behoued to be, because it was conuenient that our voice as well as our speach should be at our commaund. The Throttle therefore hath two kindes of Muscles, Common and Proper. The Common are sixe,( or three paire) of which foure doe constringe and two do dilate it. The Common are 
3. paire of common.  so called because they arise from other partes, and are but implanted into the Throttle; and of these wee will treate first, because they first fall vnder our view and so come first to be shewen.  
The first paire of the common Muscles[ tab. 9. fig. 7. xx] which Vesalius and diuers others 
The first paire.  do make the second, is situated in the forepart of the Throttle, one on each side, and we call them Bronchios or the weazon Muscles, because they cleaue to the rough artery all along, which is called 〈◇〉 by Hippocrates. For they arise with a fleshy and broade beginning from the vpper and inner part of the Breast-bone at the very Iugulum aboue the clauicles, and with right sibres doe runne vp along the weazon fleshy and a little broader then where they arose, & are inserted into the sides of the shield gristle called Thyroeis, below neare the Glandules with a broade and fleshy Tendon; which in man is but one, but in beasts it is deuided in the middest, & in most of them one part is fastned into the throttle, the other into the bone Hyois. Yet Galen is of opinion that this is their originall, and that they are inserted into the brest-bone.  
They are very long, because not the snield-gristle or the Thyroides only, but the whole Larynx is moued especially in a base voice, where the throttle mooueth downeward, and the whole weazon is contracted in his membranous distances, and therefore it was, that this paire cleaueth to the whole length of it.  
They are moreouer very slender, because the throttle easily descending with his own waight did not require any great strength: yet notwithstanding they haue certaine inscriptions or neruous distinctions, such as are in the right muscles of the paunch, by which their length and tenuity is secured from danger.  
Their vse is to draw down the shield-gristle called Thyroides, and below to constringe or contract it, and so to dilate the cleft or fissure of the glottis or toung-let in a base voice; they also doe somewhat contract the weazon, that it be not doubled when wee speake, or the throttle too much dilated aboue.  
The second paire of Common muscles[ ta. 9. fig. 3. h] which Vesalius cals the first paire 
The 2. paire,  as also doth Falopius and some others; is situated likewise in the forepart of the Larynx or throttle, and are called Hyoeides, or rather Hyothyroeides or the shield-bone muscles, these are opposed to the former and are farre shorter. They arise broad and fleshy almost from all the lower part of the bone Hyois, to whose inward sides they seeme to be continuated; and with right fibres they creepe downeward together, sauing that their inner sides doe depart one from another, and are each of them implanted with a broad and oblique end into the lower part of the Gristle Thyroeides which they wholly couer. Their vse is to dilate the lower part of the shield-gristle and to contract his vpper, & by drawing the throttle vpward to make the cleft shorter and narrower; so we may perceiue that in an acute or shrill voice the throttle moueth vpward; but if this muscie doe proceede obliquely backward as often it doth, then it mooueth the shield-gristle or Thyroeis vpward and forward. I can giue no better reason of their shortnesse, but because the Larynx hath other helpes to draw it vpward beside these: for the bone Hyois being mooued vpward by other Muscles, draweth the whole throttle vpward with it.  
Tab. 9. The same with the xv. Lib. 8. Fol. 635.  
The third paire of common Muscles[ Tabl. 9. fig, 7 ll] are seated in the backe part of the Larynx, they are called oesophagaei or the Gullet muscles, and truely some thinke they 
The 3 paire.  are muscles of the oesophagus or Gullet and not of the Throttle or Larynx, because they encompasse the gullet on euery side and are thought to helpe much indiglutition. They are altogether fleshy and large, and do especially lye vpon the vpper part of the Gullet, 
Laurentius.  which they encompasse saith Galen like a sphincter, three fingers bredth ouerthwart, and do almost cleaue vnto it.  
They arise from the sides of the Shield-gristle or Thyrois all along, where there appeareth a rough line, and passe aboue the gullet with their Fibres almost transuerse, and there in their extremities or ends they meet, yet so that they are distinguished by a white line running through their length, especially in beastes, for in a man it is oftentimes not visible, & beside the Fibres do not seeme to be diuided, so as they may easily be taken for one muscle. Their vse is, as they contract the sides of the Shield-gristle or of the Thyrois, so to compresse it to binde and streighten the cleft; but as they encompasse the gullet & are drawne into themselues, so by a voluntary motion they helpe the swallowe, and are somewhat assistant to the naturall Faculty as we haue partly opened before. And thus much of the common muscles of the throttle, now follow his proper.  
Of proper muscles there are ten( or fiue paire) sixe of them do dilate, and foure contract; they are called Proper, because they both arise from the Larinx to which they grow, 
Proper Muscles.  and againe are inserted into it, imploying all their seruice to it alone, opening the cleft in inspirations or when we take in breath, and shutting it when we breath out; besides they fasten together the two Cartilages or gristles, which do originally and of themselues helpe the forming of the voyce. Of these muscles some are before, some behinde, others without others are placed within.  
The first paire of the proper[ tab. 9. fig 4. s but in the sixth figure one of them is separated, the other remaineth in his place,] which are forward and vttermost we cal Antici Crycothyroidei 
The 1. paire  or the forward Ring-shield muscles: their situation is in the lower and forepart of the Larynx, they arise from the Cartilage cald Crycois or the Ring fleshy( but small and hauing 
Originall.  oblique fibres) & proceed obliquly til they be implanted into the Basis of the shield-gristle or Thyroeides withinward, & in their whol progresse( their middle part only excepted) they fleshy and broade: and if you seperate the lower processe of the shield-gristle or Thyroides from Crycoides or the Ring and follow it with a section, you shal perceiue that there is one in each part.  
The vse of these is to moue the Thyroides from aboue downward, to ioyn it to the Crycoides, to constringe the lower part of Thyroides and to dilate the vpper part, and by that meanes to open the glottis or cleft of the Larynx.  
The second paire are called Crycoarythenoidei postici, the backeward Ring-Ewer muscles. 
The 2 paire. [ tab. 9. fig. 5. f] Their situation is in the backside of the Ring-gristle and they arise narrow and fleshy from the lower and backe partes of the same gristle, and running vpward[ ta. 9. fig. 5. f] do fill a smooth cauity made for their sake in the backside of the Ring-gristle which looketh toward the Gullet or Ocsophagus; and at length becomming more large & strong with fibres somewhat sloping or oblique, they fall from the spine or rough line of the Ring-gristle, and are inserted on both sides neruous into the lower part of the Ewergristle where it is articulated with the Ring-gristle.  
The vse of these is to turne the third Gristle backeward to the outside of the Larinx, 
The vse of their double fibres.  to open the cleft and dilate it to the sides, and so they further the base voice. But as they haue both right and oblique fibres, so they serue for diuers and mixed motions; with the right they draw the cleft backeward and so open it; with the oblique they helpe to moue toward the sides; so that they open and enlarge the cleft both in the length and in the bredth of it.  
The third paire are called Crycoarthenoidei laterales or the side Ring-ewer muscles.[ tab 9. fig. 4. r.] Their originall is fleshy from the Ring-gristle where it is brodest, from whence they proceede directly vpward, and become larger and more fleshy, & are inserted to the 
The 3. paire  sides of the Ewer-gristle at the articulation or ioynt, and do occupy all the roote of the third gristle which the former paire do not touch.  
Their office is outwardly to sunder the double Ewer-gristles, and to separate them one from another so much as the fifth paire drawes them together, and by that meanes they driue out the sides of the cleft and open the throtle. But because these muscles are seated, partly without, and partly within the capacitie, happily on the outside they binde or contract the Larinx.  
The fourth paire called Thyroidei interni, the inward shield-gristle, or Thyroar thenoidei, that is, the shield-ewer muscles,[ tab. 9. fig. 4. c. tab. 8. fig. 1. cc.] are broade, fleshy, and 
The 4. paire.  haue diuers fibres mingled and vnited together, and in their beginning three inscriptions or distinctions as if they were three seuerall muscles, and are seated ouerthwartwise, in the capacitie of the Larinx or throtle. They arise close one to the other from the inner, hollow and middle part of the shield-gristle( whose inward cauity they fil) along the whole length of it, and with oblique fibres they ascend vpward, growing narrower in the ascent, and are inserted into the sides of the ewer-gristle which forme the rongue-let or glottis following the sides of the cleft.  
These are the largest and strongest of all the proper Muscles and almost equall all the Muscles of the throttle put together, and that for good reason, namely because in the retaining of the breath they were to resist all the Muscles of the Chest. For in drawing the parts of the Ewre-gristle vnto the Shield-gristle, and in constringing them or gathering them together and thrusting the tongue-let forward, they shut it vp and are said to close the throtle. If in these Muscles there happen an inflāmation it bringeth a mortal squinnasy there appearing no rednesse neyther in the chops, nor in the mouth, nor in the necke. 
The true and dangerous squinasie.  For in the squinsie sometimes the brest-bone, sometimes the necke looke red; the brestbone because of the continuity of the weazon muscles, which wee saide did arise fleshy from the vpper and inner side of the brest-bone and ran all along the weazon, and were inserted into the Shield-gristle.  
The sides of the necke become red, because of the Gullet Muscles which arising from the sides of the Shield-gristle doe encompasse the whole gullet like a sphincter: also the fore and vpper part of the neck looketh red, because of the continuity of the Shield-bone Muscles which arising from the bone Hyois are inserted into the lower part of the Shieldgristle couering the same wholie.  
The fift and last paire called Arytenoidei or the Ewre-Muscles[ Tab. 9. fig. 4 and 5 g] are scituated outward and backeward aboue the gristle where it resembleth the figure of an 
The 5. paire.  Ewre or Water-spout, and where the gullet is ioyned to the throttle, and the third gristle is articulated with the second. They arise from the backe line or spine of the Ewergristle, and doe runne vp with oblique fibres to the middle thereof, and where the two parts of the gristle are tyed together they also are ioyned and inserted. These are small, Columbus and Archangelus say they be the least in the whole body: on the one side they bunch out like peares, but within they grow to the gristle, in the midst where they ioyne they are broader and thicker, as also where the white line appeareth, and seeme to grow into one in a common Tendon, then they become neruous for more strength that they might not be indangered in their perpetuall motion, especially when we hold our winde vpon occasion long; and therefore some haue accounted them for one muscle, some for two; and because they are on either side fleshy they are to be numbred among those that haue their Tendon in the middest, as is the fifth muscle of the lower iaw called therefore Digastricus or double bellied, and also the fourth paire of the bone Hyois.  
The vse of these muscles is to moue the ewer-gristle sidelong to the right hand and to the left; yea to constringe or knit the basis or foundation of the same, to draw both his parts together, to presse them one to the other, and so to straighten and close the cleft; whereby it is manifest that this third gristle was necessarily made double, for if it had bene 
Why the Ewer-gristle must be double.  single it could not haue beene straightned by these muscles nor shut by the fourth paire, nor opened by the second and the the third paires. Moreouer these inward muscles being inflamed the most acute and sharpe Squinasie is ingendred: for when they swell, by reason of the aboundance of the matter the outgate of the breath is hindered, and so 
The most acute squinasie  the patient instantly suffocated, which wee haue knowne in the hundreds of Essex to happen within twelue houres after the disease began.  
The vse of the muscles of the Larinx or throttle as well common as proper, is to moue the gristles thereof with voluntary motion to the infinite modulations or diuers accents of the voyce: so that when part thereof, especially the vpper, is fitly dilated & straightned, 
The vse of all the muscles of the throttle.  or opened and shut; the cleft of it( which is the proper and immediate organ of the voyce) might be either dilated for a base, or streightned for making an acute or shril found which verily the common muscles doe more manifestly, and the proper more obscurely. These muscles are altogether diuers from the muscles of the bone Hyois, and of the tongue: for if when they be at rest, you put your hand to your Larynx and offer to 
How they differ from the muscles of Hyois and the tongue.  sing in base tunes, you shall perceiue the throttle to descend downeward, and in shrill and treble you shall manifestly perceiue it to ascend vpwards.   

CHAP. XX. Of the muscles of the Epyglottis or the ouer-tongue.  
_GAlen is of opinion that the motion of the Epyglottis or ouer-tongue is in a man not voluntary but naturall, or at least hee leaueth it doubtfull whether it haue any muscles or no Vesalius, Platerus, Columbus and Laurentius thinke and resolue there are none, yet Platerus maketh question whether they be not 
Diuers opinions of the Epiglottis.  found in such men as doe easily vomit. Of the same opinion also is Bauhinus, Aquapendens thinketh the motion of it voluntary & performed by membranous muscles. For my owne part I dare not stickle in so nice a question. In beasts that chew the cud they all acknowledge that it hath muscles, those we will briefly describe for the helpe of young Anatomists who do often in the want of mens bodyes dissect the throttles of Oxen or Sheepe to practise themselues.  
There are therefore in beasts 2. paire of muscles belonging to the Epyglottis or ouertong, the first are called Hyoglotti, or the bone-tong, the second the Ewer-tongue muscles. 
In beasts two paire. The 1. paire.   
The Hyoglotti or bone-tongue muscles are seated in the backe of the ouer-tong, they arise from the middest of the inner part of the bone Hyois, and are inserted on either side into the Basis of the Epiglottis neare his middle. They raise vp the ouer tongue after it is depressed in the swallowing of meate and drinke, to make free passage for expiration which otherwise would by it be intercepted.  
The Ewer-tongue muscles because of the largnesse of the Larinx or throttle are most euident in oxen. They arise fleshy from the vpper part of the Ewer-gristle at his articulation. 
The 2. paire  At their originall they are contiguous or touch one another, and for a great space seeme vnited and mingled, and runne a long course keeping their proportion through the inside of the Shield-gristle, & at length retaining their vnition or coniunction are inserted into the inner Basis of the Epyglottis or ouer-tongue.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Muscles which mooue the head.  
_THe head is mooued primarily or secondarily. Primarily aboue the second rack-bone of the Necke or aboue the first: aboue the second either bending forward or extending backward, aboue the first it is moued as a Naue 
Nine paire of Muscles.  vppon an Axletree, or rather as the Poyse of a Watch vpon his Bridge. All these motions are performed by seuen or rather by nine proper paire, ( Falopius in his Obseruations acounteth ten) 7 of which are Extenders and Compassers & are situated on the back part in the neck; & two Benders which are placed in the forepart of the necke. The head is mooued secondarily and by accident when it followeth the motion of the necke: the muscles therefore of the necke mooue the head but onely vnto the sides. For if the necke be not mooued, wee cannot incline the heade at all to the Shoulders.  
The first paire are called Splenij or the splintes, because they are very like the rowled 
The 1 paire.  splints which Chyrurgeons vse when bones are broken.[ ta. 10. δ δ, their original is marked with 8. their insertion is with 9] They are long and thicke, and on both sides rest vpon the rack-bones, and albeit they are very fleshy yet at their original from the fiue vpper 
Originall double.  rack-bones of the Chest( for they rarely reach vnto the fixt) they are sinewy. From thence they ascend vpward and grow fleshy receiuing a new original from the Ligaments of the rack-bones of the necke; some thinke they arise onely from hence, some from both places; howsoeuer their ascent to the head is not direct but somewhat oblique, & from that part of them which proceedeth out of the spines of the chest are produced two membrations Tendons which are inserted into the transuerse processes of the first and third Vertebrae 
TABVLAX.  
Table x. Wherein some Muscles of the heade, the chest, the arm, & the shoulder blade are described.  

I, The processe of the shoulder-blade, called the top of the shoulder.  
O, the fourth Muscle of the arme or the greater round Muscle to which Fallopius his right muscle is adioyned, which some cal the lesser round muscle.  
QQ, the sixt muscle of the arme or the vper bladerider. X, the 2 muscle of the shoulderblade or the Leuator or beauer.  
Z, the second muscle of the Chest or the greater Saw muscle.  
r, the fift muscle of the chest or the muscle called Sacrolumbus.  
α, β. His place wherein it cleaueth fast to the longest muscle of the backe.  
γγ, the tendons of this muscle obliquely inserted into the ribs.  
ΔΔ, the first paire of the muscles of the heade or of the Splinters.  
Ch. 8, 9. their lēgth whose beginning at 8 & insertion at 9.  
10, 11, the sides of this Muscle.  
12, that distance where they depart one from the other.  
13, the two muscles called Complexi, neare theyr insertion.  
Φ, the second muscle of the backe or the Longest muscle.  
Ω, the fourth muscle of the backe or the Semispinatus.  
♌, the shoulder blade bare.  
p, A part of the transuerse muscle of the Ahdomen.   of the necke, or sometimes of the second, third and fourth, Laurentius will haue them to haue a double insertion; one part of them into the transuerse processes of the second Racke-bone, another part into the Occipitium of the head toward the sides of the Labdall suture, and thither I am sure their fleshy part reacheth. For they are neruous in the Chest, and fleshy from thence forward, their fibres running obliquely vpward from the spine of the lower to the transuerse processes of the vpper racke-bones, all of them al length determining in the Nowle: yet Columbus sayeth they are right as long as the two muscles ioyne, and become oblique but after their diuision. For where they arise at the spine of the Chest they make a sharpe nooke or angle which is dilated as they ascend, and about the third Racke-bone of the necke the right is seuered from the left with a notable distance[ tab. 10. character 12.] so as the space betweene them resembleth a triangle[ tab. 10. char. 9. 10. 12.]  
Their Implantation is broade and fleshy into the Nowle[ tab. 10. from 11. to 9.] and so they haue three sides: one from their beginning to their parting asunder; the second from thence to the Nowle; the third from the nowle backe to their originall. Falopius hath obserued that sometimes they are inserted with a neruous particle into the processe called Mammillaris or the Teat-like processe.  
The vse of this paire is when they both mooue, to draw and extend the head directly backeward: but when one of them onely worketh then they turne the head to the sides, and the right moueth somewhat backward saith Archangelus.  
The second paire are called Complexi[ ta. 11. ABCDEF] or the brayded Muscles, because 
The ●. paire.  they are wouen and brayed together with the third and fourth Muscles of the necke like a flat poynt wouen of diuers threds, or else because of the diuers formes. For their originals 
TABVLA. XI.  
Table 11. sheweth some Muscles of the Head, the Backe, the Ghost, the Shoulder-blade and the Arme.  

AD, the second paire of the Muscles of the head or the two Complexi, the first part is at AD.  
BC the second part, EF, the third part rising vp vnder G and inserted at F.  
G, the fourth part of this muscle or the right muscle of the heade according to Falopius, which Vesalius made the fourth part of the second.  
GG,( Betwixt the ribs) the externall Intercostall muscles.  
L, the originall of the second muscle of the back.  
M, His tendons at the rack-bone of the necke.  
The vpper O the fourth muscle of the arme or the greater round muscle.  
OO, the lower, the sixt muscle of the Chest or the Sacrolumbus hanging from his originall.  
Q the sixt muscle of the arme or the vpper Bladerider inuerted.  
V, the third ligament of the ioynt of the arme.  
X, the fourth muscle of the shoulder-blade or the heauer.  
Z, the second muscle of the Chest or the greater Saw-muscle.  
Ξ, the third muscle of the neck called trāsuersalis.  
Π, the fourth muscle of the necke called Spinatus.  
Σ, the first muscle of the back or the Square muscle  
Φ, The second muscle of the backe or the Longest whose originall is at L and his tendons at the vertebrae at MM.  
Ω the fourth muscle of the backe called Spinatus.  
♌, the backe of the shoulder-blade flayed.   of diuers fashions, and they are diuersly also inserted into the Nowle or occiput. They haue many tendinous parts, and many also fleshy, so that each of them seemes to be compounded as it were of three seuerall Muscles, or rather hath three Originals. The first ariseth farre off with a sharpe originall euen out of the Transuerse processe of the fourth and fift rack-bones of the Chest, this immediately after his springing appeareth fleshy[ at A] and of the fashion of a Mouse, when it atteyneth vnto the beginning of the Necke[ at B] it ceaseth to be fleshy and endeth as it were in a round Tendon, and hauing ouercome the roote of the necke at[ C] it groweth fleshy againe( as the Muscle of the bone Hyois called Digastricus or double-bellied) and so is inserted in the middle of the Nowle-bone.[ at D]  
The second originall or beginning of this Muscle is shorter, growing round and neruous out of the spine of the seuenth racke bone of the necke.[ at C] Platerus addeth somtimes 
The second.  of the first, and sometimes of the second, as it ascendeth it becommeth fleshie and is mingled with the former before his insertion is implanted into the nowle. The third[ Ta. 11 from E to F] is situated in the side and springeth partly fleshy, partly neruous from the transuerse or ouerthwart processes of the second and first racke-bones of the Chest. 
The third.  Platerus addeth from the fiue lower of the necke. From thence it proceedeth obliquely outward and becommeth fleshy and broad and is inserted into the Nowle at the root of the Mammillary processe, but it is not of the same forme in Dogs and Apes. These muscles if they worke together, they extend the head directly drawing it backward, if eyther of them mooue alone the head is drawne round to one side. Archangelus addeth a little also backward by the right and forward by the left.  
The third paire( which Vesalius reckoneth for the fourth part of the second Muscle beeing 
The 3 paire  deceyued saith Falopius by certaine fibres of one of the muscles of the backe vvhich grow to the beginning of it)[ Tab. 11, GG] is not very great or thicke and is situated vnder the second paire. They arise Neruous from the transuerse processes of the six first rack-bones of the necke; sometimes also but rarely from the fiue vppermost of the chest; then it becommeth fleshy and stretcheth obliquely vpward and inward, their Fibres reaching to the spines of the bones, and at their insertion which is to the backewarde roote of the Mammillary processe they end Neruous, receyuing an additament or encrease by two small portions arising from the transuerse processe of the first rack-bone of the Necke. Their vse is when they moue together to lead the head lightly backward; if either of them worke alone it draweth it backward to one side.  
The fourth paire which are called Recti maiores the greater right Muscles[ Tab. 12, A B] 
The 4. paire  are yet small, fleshy and slender, arising from the top or height of the spine of the second bone of the necke at[ E] where they touch one another, but presently part againe & ascend both vpward and end round in the middle of the Nowle or Occipitium.  
The fift paire called Recti Minores, the lesser right muscles[ Tab. 12, FG] are situated vnder 
The 5. payre  the former and are like them in substance, forme and progresse. They arise close together from the back part of the first Vertebra where the bone should haue ended in a spine but that spine is wanting, because it would haue offended those muscles: presently after their originall they part and ascend vpward, and on either side are implanted round into the middle of the Nowle. The two last paires haue one and the same vse, which is if they 
The vse of the two last pairs.  mooue together directly to extend the head drawing it backewarde, but if one of them mooue alone, it mooueth it circularly to one side. Nowe the reason why there are so many muscles appointed to draw the head backward, is because the forpart of the head by reason of the face and the neather Iaw is very heauy and weighty, and therefore needed more helpe to retract it, whereas it noddeth forward very easily.  
The sixt paire, according to Vesalius the fift, are called Oliqui superiores the Vpper oblique 
The 6 paire.  muscles,[ Tab. 12, H I] they are seated vnder the right, and are like them in forme & substance: small they are and arise out of the middle of the Nowle at the vtter side of the fourth paire, thence they descend downward, and are ouerthwartly inserted into the top[ at D.] of the transuerse processes of the first rackbone of the Necke, the right muscle into the right processe, and the left into the left. Their vse is, if they both mooue to nodde gently and directly backward, if one alone then the head enclineth backward to that side the muscle is on which mooueth.  
The seauenth paire, according to Vesalius the sixt, according to Columbus the fifte, are 
The 7. paire  called Obliqui inferiores, the lower oblique muscles.[ Tab. 12, K L] They arise from the spine 
TABVLA XII. Sheweth the Muscles of the Head and the Necke.  

A, B. The third paire of the Muscles of the head called Recti Maiores. C. the Mamillary processe.  
D. The transuerse processe of the first rackbone of the necke.  
E. The processe of the second rackebone of the necke  
F, G. the fourth paire of muscles of the head called Recti minores.  
H, I. the fift paire of muscles of the head called Obliqui Superiores.  
K, L. the sixt paire of muscles of the head called obliqui Inferiores.  
X. the fourth paire of Muscles of the shoulder blade.  
Λ, the second muscle of the necke cald Scalenus which Falopius maketh the right muscle of the Chest.  
Π, the fourth muscle of the necke called spinatus.  
Σ, the first muscle of the backe called Quadratus.  
Φ, the second muscle of the backe called Longissimus.  
a, The sinus or bosome of this Muscle, whereby it giueth way vnto the third muscle of the backe, called Sacer.  
b, His Originall.  
Ψ, the third muscle of the backe called Sacer.  
γ, His originall.  
♌. His end.  
Ω, The fourth muscle of the backe called Semispinatus.  
● His vpper end vnder the fourth Muscle of the necke.   of the second rack-bone of the necke[ from ● to D] and passing obliquely vpward are implanted into the transuerse processes of the first Vertebra. These, is also the oblique superiors, are longish, round and fleshy( farre larger in Dogs and Apes then in men) and do make a triangle of equall sides.  
The vse of this seuenth paire is semicircularly to mooue the head( for it hath not perfect circular motion) with the second Vertebra vpon the first when one mooueth alone. If they both mooue, either they keepe the head steddy as Fallopius in his obseruations conceiueth, or else do draw it backward a very little, euen so much as may rather giue rest to the second racke-bone then motion; for the motion and rest of the head followeth the motion or rest of that second vertebra or rack-bone.  
The eight paire which is the seuenth according to Vesalius are called Mastoidei[ Tab. 6 
The 8. paire.  fig. 2 R the latter, ta. 7. fig. 2 K] They are seated forward toward the face next vnder a membranous and broad muscle in the necke;[ Tab. 6. fig. 1 r] strong they are, long and round, and do appeare in leane carkasses vnder the skin before it bee dissected, yea in liuing bodies, and these are they which the Ancients so diligently obserued in their Coynes. They 
Situation.  arise from the middest of the top of the brest-bone[ at 〈◇〉] and from a part of the Clauicle where it approacheth neere the brest-bone[ at σ] to be articulated with it: at which their originall they are Neruous and broad, but more neruous where they arise from the brest 
Originall.  bone, and from thence ascend obliquely vpward and become fleshy and thicke, and are obliquely inserted with a fleshy and thicke end into the Mamillary processe( which they compasse with their largenesse) and into the backpart of the Nowle.[ Tab. 6. fig. 2 the vpper T] And this muscle by reason of his double originall betweene which there is a kinde 
Insertion  of hollownes[ between ρ & σ. f. 2] because it seemeth as if it might be diuided into two, som do diuide it into many. Their vse is if they moue together to bend the head forwarde into the bosome as when we nodde, either carrying the necke stiffe or inclining it: if one of 
Vse.  them onely worke then the head is mooued forward to the left side if it be the right Muscle, and to the right side if it be the left, which motion we may plainly perceiue in guiding a horses necke with the reines. This paire with the second paire of the bone Hyois[ Tab. 6. fig. 2 γ γ] make a crosse in the Necke.  
The ninth paire[ taq. 13. at the side of A B] is added by Falopius, described in some sort by Galen, and is situated vnder the gullet in the forepart of the necke: it is a diuerse muscle from the first paire of the necke[ ta. 13. A B] to which it adioyneth. It ariseth neruous from the Ligaments of the racke-bones of the necke, which Ligaments or Chordes doe arise from all the transuerse processes of the racke-bones of the necke, especally from the 7. 6. 5. 4. and third.  
After his originall this Muscle groweth somewhat fleshy, and ascending vpward is inserted with a fleshy end into the Basis of the head betwixt the two processes where the head is articulated with the first vertebra. His vse is when we nodde to bend the head somewhat forward. And thus much of the Muscles of the Head.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the Muscles of the Necke.  
_THE Muscles which mooue the Necke primarily, and secundarily or by accident the Head, are on either side three, or foure if you adde the Scaleni, which we account rather among the muscles of the Chest: these are situated vnder the Muscles of the Head, some of them before at the sides of the necke, some of them behinde.  
These motions of the Necke are to bend forward to extend backeward to incline to 
The motions of the necke.  the sides and to turne round as it were: but there are more Muscles to draw it backward then forward, because the labour is greater by reason of the waight of the Necke and the Head.  
The first paire are the two Long Muscles[ ta: 13. A B] which are seated in the forepart of the Neck vnder the Gullet, wherefore they are also called the vnder Gallet-lurkers. These  

Tab. 13. sheweth the cauities of the middle & the lower Bellies, all the Bowels being taken out where the Bones and Muscles do remaine, excepting the Breast bone.  
TABVLA. XIII.  

A B, The first muscle bending the necke called Longus.  
C C, The second bender of the necke call●● Scalenus.  
DDDD, the outward intercostall muscles.  
EEEE, The inner intercostall muscles,  
FFF, The second muscle of the chest called Serratus maior.  
G, the first muscle of the shoulder-blade called Serratus minor separated from his originall.  
H, the first muscle of the arme called Pectorales separated from his originall.  
I, The 2. muscle of the arme called Deltoides.  
K, the bone of the arme without flesh.  
L, the first muscle of the cubite called Biceps.  
M, the 2. muscle of the cubit called Brachiaeus  
N, the clauicle or coller-bone bent backward  
O, the first muscle of the chest cald Subclanius  
P, the vpper processe of the shoulder-blade.  
Q the first muscle of the head called obliquus inferior.  
R, the 2. muscle of the head called Complexus.  
S, the fourth muscle of the shoulder blade callled 〈…〉.  
T V, The two bellies of the fourth muscle of the bone Hyois.  
X X aa. The fift muscle of the back whose originall is at aa.  
Y Y bb cc, The sixt muscle of the thigh called Pfoae, whose original is at cc & tendon at bb.  
Z Z, the seauenth muscle of the thigh.  
d, The holy bone. ooo, The holes of the holy bone out of which the nerues do yssue.  
e, A portion of the fift muscle of the thigh arising from the share-bone.  
f, The sharebone bared.  
k, The ninth muscle of the thigh or the first circumacter.   arise with a fleshy thin and sharpe beginning from the body of the fifth racke bone of the chest where the rib is articulated to it, and ascending broader doe grow to the fiue vpper vertebra of the chest and all of the necke. They also as they ascend by degrees do approch or incline one to the other, yet so as they leaue the middle part where the gullet descendeth vncouered, but at their determination they ioyne in a neruous and sharpe Tendon, and are implanted into the bunching processe of the first racke bone: sometimes but rarely they are implanted & that obscurely into the nowle, euen at the great perforation therof; so that it may seeme the nowle is turned by them. Their vse is by their propper motion when they work together to bend the necke directly foreward and withall to incline the head, but if one of them moue alone, then is the necke inclined forward into that side which is contracted, or on which the muscle moueth.  
The second paire make those which are called Scaleni and are accounted as the 8. 
The 2. paire  muscle of the Chest.[ tab. 13. cc. tab. 12. λ.] Their situation is on the sides of the necke rather before then behinde. They are esteemed to arise fleshy and large from the first rib, and to be inserted into all the transuerse processes of the racke-bones of the necke, excepting sometimes the first and the second; from which we thinke with Falopius they haue their originall. Their vse is also thought to be, to bend the necke foreward as doth the first paire: this one thing is peculier to them saith Vesalius, and Platerus consenteth, that they haue a through-passage by which the veines and arteries do run into the arme. 
The 3. paire.   
The third paire( which Vesalius maketh the third paire of the back, but Platerus the third paire of the necke) are called Transuersales, or the two ouerthwart muscles.[ Tab. 11. 〈◇〉.] Their seate is in the backe, and they arise from the rootes of the transuerse processes of the sixe vppermost rackebones of the Chest, from whence by degrees they become stronger and thicker, and are inserted into the outside of the transuerse processes of all the bones of the necke, but more rarely into the first. Sometimes they haue two other originals, one from the second paire of muscles of the backe, the other from the fift paire of the chest, which together make vp these muscles. Their vse is, if they worke together to extend directly backeward, if one of them alone the motion is not direct but oblique. Also betweene these do passe those nerues of the marrow of the backe which come out of the rackebones of the necke.  
The fourth paire called Spinati because they are seated among the spines of the vertebra 
The 4. paire. [ tab. 12. π.] do occupy or take vp the whole necke. They arise from the rootes of the spines of the seuen vppermost bones of the chest; and after they haue attained the lowermost vertebra of the necke, they gather a broader originall therefrom, and yet with the fibres which they receiued frō the vertebra of the chest they indeuour an obscure insertiō in 
Their quaint passages.  to the spine of the lowermost vertebra: but they grow more strongly to the rest of the spines of the necke bones, and draw new beginnings from the rootes of their tranuerse processes euen to the second vertebra, and insert the fibres they receiue from them into the spine of the racke bone next aboue, till they haue implanted themselues ouer all the spine of that second racke bone of the necke, where the right is ioyned with the left: and indeede they ioyne all along their progresse vp the necke sauing where the spines of the bones peepe vp betweene them and seuer them a little asunder. Their fibres at their originall are outward, but as they ascend they incline inward.  
Their vse is if they worke together, to extend the necke, drawing it directly backward, but if one of them moue alone then is their motion not direct but oblique to the side contracted, or on which the muscle moueth. And so much of the muscles of the necke.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the muscles of the Shoulder-blade called Omoplata or Scapula.  
_THe Shoulder-blade hath foure right motions, forward, backeward, vpward downeward: for which it is prouided of foure muscles, Galen saith seuen, & Syluius reckons fiue, but al the rest agree in foure, for it is not moued round, 

Why the shoulderblade doth not moue round  
The 1. muscle   for then it could not so firmele hold the shoulder bone; and besides the clauicles being fastened vnto it do keepe it from turning.  
The first muscle of the Shoulder-blade is called Serratus minor the lesser Saw muscle,[ tab. 14. S.] it lieth vnder the pectoral muscle. His original is broad, and as it were, finger-fanged from the 4 vpper ribs( excepting the first, and very rarely from the sixth) a little before they end into their gristles, that his originall might be the firmer: & ascending oblikely vpward, it groweth fleshy and neare the ioynt narrow, and hauing fashioned the figure 
Table 14. sheweth the body, such as it appeareth after the Bowelles of the Lower and Middle Bellies are taken away. The right Arme with his Muscles remoyncth in his naturall situation, except the Pectorall and the lesser Saw-muscles, which were necessarily to bee separated and taken away with the Breast-bone. The left Arme is remoued from the side, that the blade of the shoulder and the Clauicle, and those things which lye vnder them might better appeare.  
TABVLA. XIIII.  

AA, the first muscle of the cubit called Biceps.  
B, the second muscle of the cubit in the left arme called Brachiaus.  
DE, the first paire of muscles of the necke vnder the gullet.  
F, the 2. of the neck arising from the first rib.  
GGG, the outward intereostall muscles.  
HHH, Letters set vppon the ribbes which should haue been placed vpon the inner intercostall muscles.  
I, the left clauicle or coller-bone remoued from his place and bared.  
K, the right clauicle or coller-bone in his owne place.  
L, the first muscle of the arme called Pectoralis, remoued from his originall.  
αβ γ, The circumscription of this muscle.  
♌, His tendon and insertion.  
M, The second muscle of the arme called Deltois.  
ζ H, his originall and insertion.  
N, the same muscle separated and reclined from his originall.  
O, The fourth muscle of the Arme called Rotundus maior.  
Q the 3. muscle of the cubite or the first extender.  
R, The seauenth of the arme called Subscapularis.  
〈◇〉, his insertion into the arme.  
ξ, The tendon of the third muscle of the arme called Latissimus.  
S, The first muscle of the shoulderblade called Serratus minor, eleuated from his implantation.  
TT, the 7. muscle of the thigh called Iliacus internus.  
Y, the first muscle of the chest called subclauius.  
ZZ, the 2. muscle of the Chest called Serratus maior. ΣΣ, the first muscle of the back called quadratus, Ω, the round Pronator or incliner of the Radius or wand. αα, the first bender of the Leg. ββ, the 2. bender of the Leg. 〈◇〉, the first paire of benders of the thigh called Lumbales, whose head is marked with a and his tendon with b, υυ, the third paire of benders of the thigh. φφ, Paires of nerues which goe vnto the thigh, ω, the Holy-bone.   of a Triangle is inserted with a Tendon partly fleshy partly neruous, into the shoulderblade neare the inner processe called 〈◇〉. His vse is to bend the shoulder-blade forward to the Chest; for if his vpper fibres be contracted it moueth it to the brest higher, if his lower, lower; if his middle fibres, then directly or in a straight line.  
The second is called Cucullaris or the Monkes-hood[ tab. 15. T] because with his other 
The 2. muscle.  companion it couereth the backe as that doeth, or as a countrey wiues broade white kerchiefe, Galen calleth it Trapezius or the Table-muscle. His originall is fleshy and thinne, and transuerse or rather oblique from the Nowle;[ from 〈◇〉 to 〈◇〉] but membranous & broad from the toppe of the spines of the necke euen vnto the height of the Chest:[ from 〈◇〉 to 〈◇〉] from thence it is straightned as it passeth toward the shoulder-blade, and is implanted fleshy and sinnewy into the spine of the blade, the top of the shoulder-bone and the middle almost of his Basis, and into the broader part of the Clauicle.[ 〈◇〉] VVhere it looketh toward the necke of the blade, you shall meete with a membranous and nerous semicircle[ 〈◇〉] ordained haply least it should too straightly presse the muscle which sitteth vppon the gibbous part of the shoulder-blade[ M].  

TABVLA XV. Sheweth the muscles on the backeside of the body.  

A, A part of the muscle of the cubit cald bicep●.  
B, The vpper and vtter part of the second muscle of the cubite called Brachiaeus.  
C, The third muscle of the cubite.  
D, The fourth muscle of the cubite.  
K, The insertion of the seuenth muscle of the head called Mastoides into the mammillary processe.  
M, M, the second muscle of the arme called Deltois  
N, N, The third muscle of the arme called Latissimus circumscribed with κ λ μ, a part of whose tendon at the insertion in the former table is noted with ξ.  
τ, The vpper part of the Cowle muscle.  
O, O, The fourth muscle of the arme called Rotundus maior.  
P, P, The fifth of the arme called super-scapularis inferior.  
Π, The first part of the supinator of the Radius or wand.  
*, A portion of the oblique descendent muscle of the Abdomen.  
Γ, the second muscle of the shoulder blade called Cucullaris.  
● π. the originall of this muscle from the nowle.  
ζ σ, From the spines of eight rack bones of the chest  
From ● to π, from the spines of the necke.  
τ υ, His insertion into the spine of the blade, into the arme and clauicle.  
φ, His membranous semicircle.  
β, the fift muscle of the leg called Semimembraneus  
γ, the fourth muscle of the leg called biceps.  
♌ ●, the 3. muscle of the leg called Semineruosus.  
ζ, the fleshy part of the first muscle of the leg or of the first extender.  
κ, the seuenth muscle of the leg, or the second extender couered ouer with the membranous tēdon of the fixt.  
μμ, the first muscle of the thigh, or the first authour of the buttockes.  
i k l m n, His originall at i k l, his insertion at mn.  
r, the second muscle of the thigh hiddē almost by the former.  
ρ, A part of the 5 muscle of the thigh called. tricept    
It is circumscribed or limited with fiue lines; the first is ouerthwart at the nowle,[ from o to π,] the second runneth straight along the spines,[ from σ to ρ,] two are oblique, one of them from the eare to the canell bone, the other from the ende of the straight line which I sayd did runne along the spines.[ tab. 15. from τ to ρ.] The fifth and last is tranuerse in the 
The 5 lines of this muscle  middle of the muscle wher it is inserted into the spine of the blade, the top of the shoulder and the broade part of the cannell bone or clauicle. Wherefore this second muscle as well by reason of his diuers originall as also his seuerall kindes of fibres, mooueth the shoulder-blade diuersly. For when the fibres which run along obliquely downeward from the nowle and the spine of the neck are retracted, that is, when the vpper part of the muscle is retracted[ at τ ν] then is the shoulder blade lift obliquely vpward, but when the fibres which proceede from the spines of the chest obliquely vpward are gathered into themselues, that is, when the lower part is crumpled together[ tab. 15. Δ.] then the blade is drawne downeward, but if the middle or the transuerse fibres be contracted[ at σ.] then the blade is directly led to the backe.  
The third muscle is called Rhomboides, that is, the square muscle,[ tab. 16. ν.] It is situated vnder the former, thin it is, broad & four cornered, and groweth fleshy from the spine of the three lower rackebones of the necke and the three vpper of the chest, and his fibres run 
The third muscle.  oblique from the backe to the bottome or foundation of the blade, into which basis of the blade it is also beingbroade, fleshily inserted after the length of it, and draweth it vpward somewhat and backeward, and coucheth it to the backe.  

TABVLA XVI. Sheweth some Muscles of the Head and the Chest, the Cowle-Muscle being taken away, as also of the Blade and of the Ar●●e.  

A. The prominent part of the fourth muscle of the Chest, called sorratus posticus superior.  
δ, the first muscle of the head called splenius.  
E, E. The insertion of the second muscle of the head called Complexus.  
I. The coller bone bared.  
M, The backpart of the second muscle of the arme called Deltois.  
ζ. H. His backward originall.  
θ. His implantation into the arme.  
NN. the 4 muscle of the arm cald Latissimus  
S, μ. His originall from the spines of the rack bones, and from the holy bone.  
τ, The connexion of this muscle with the hanchbone which is led in the inside from μ to π.  
ν, the place where it lieth vpon the lower angle of the Basis of the shoulderblade.  
O, the 4. muscle of the arme called Rotundus maior. e, Some muscles of the backe do here offer themselues.  
P, the fift muscle of the arme called superscapularis Inferior.  
Q. The 6. muscle of the arme called Super Scapularis Superior.  
S, The beginning of the third muscle of the arme called Latissmus.  
V, the third muscle of the Blade cald Rhomboides.  
φ, X, His originall from the spines of the rack bones.  
ψ, ω. His insertion into the Basis of the shoulder blade.  
●. The 4. muscle of the Blade called Leuator.  
●. A part of the oblique descendent muscle of the Abdomen.  
The other Letters in the thigh haue the same reference which they had in the former Table.    
The fourth Muscle is called Leuator or the Heauer[ Tab. 16 at X] and is situated aboue the clauicle. His originall is very diuorse( whence it is that some haue made diuerse Muscles of it) 
The 4 muscle.  from the transuerse processes of the racke-bones of the necke, and commonlie from the 1, 3, 4, 5. but rarely from the second. But these diuers originals do soone grow into one; and passing downe do make a strong and fleshy muscle, which is inserted with abroad and fleshy tendon( his Fibres being all of them almost right, few oblique) to the vpper and inner angle of the shoulder-blade. His vse is to draw the blade vpward toward the fore-part and to the sides of the necke.  
These are the Muscles by which the blade is moued originally, the arme by accident, as also the blade is mooued by accident by the Muscles of the arme, for when they draw the arme, they draw the blade also by consecution which is annexed thereto.   

CHAP. XXIIII. Of the Muscles of the arme.  
_THE Ancients called all that the Hand which is betwixt the toppe of the Slioulder and the Fingers. The first part therefore of the whole Hand is called in Latine Humerus, which we translate the Arme, and it reacheth from the top of the shoulder to the next Ioynt or bending of the Cubit, 
The particular partes of the arme.  which we call the Elbow. The Graecians call this part 〈◇〉, and the cauity which is vnder the Ioynt at the shoulder is called Ala the Arme-pit. The toppe iust against the pitte is properly called the Shoulder. This member that it may more easily be moued euery way is articulated with the shoulder blade by Enarthrosis( which kind of articulation wee shall make plaine in the Booke of Bones) and mooued by Muscles.  
The voluntary motions of the Arme are fiue: forward to the Breast, backeward toward the backe, vpward toward the necke and the head, downeward to the sides of the chest, and finally, it is moued in compasse or circumuerted. For all these motions there are seauen Muscles: some of which as the first and the third are fastned to the Chest, the rest grow vnto the shoulder-blade.  
All these we will describe according to the order of dissection: yet first we giue you to vnderstand that Galen in his Booke de dissectione Musculorum and the 18. Chapter, reckoneth eleuen, three ascending from the Breast vnto the Arme, two from the regions of the handes, and fiue from the shoulder-blade, the eleauenth seaseth vppon the Eopmis. Vessalius, Columbus, Archangelus and Falopius in his institutions reckon seauen: the same Falopius in his obseruations and Laurentius account eight. But wee hold vs to seauen according to the Authours aboue named and Bauhine with them.  
The first is called Pectoralis the Pectorall Muscle[ ta. 17. L] so named from his situation, 
The first,  because it occupieth the forepart of the Chest. It is a large muscle and fleshy, and because of his originall it consisteth of vnequall sides: whence it was that it is called by Laurentius Pentagonus or quinquelaterus as hauing fiue sides. It groweth almost to the whole Breast-bone and the gristle thereto annexed, to the middle of the clauicle where it is nearest to the Breast-bone and to the gristles of the 6. 7. and 8. ribs: so as it may seeme to him that takes but an ouert view thereof, to be compounded of many muscles.[ ta. 17. 〈◇〉 doe circumscribe it, and ta. 18. fig. 1.] Yea Galen himselfe in the 18. chap. of his Booke de dissectione Musculorum, and the 13. of the 13. de vsu partium, thinketh it may be deuided into 3. or foure, but Columbus reprehendeth him for it. Notwithstanding for Galen wee may 
His original diuers.  say; that from the clauicles it ariseth with a fleshy originall, and from the middle of the Breast-bone and the gristles of the ribs which are membranous and neruous. Afterward by degrees it becommeth thicker and more fleshy, and is againe by degrees straightned & gathered narrow, reseruing in the vpper part by reason of the short course of his fibres a fleshy body, but below long before his insertion it appeareth liuid and neruous, and the depth and bottome thereof is much slenderer then the vpper part.  
[ Table 17. is the same with Table 14. Folio 773.]  
At length it is Implanted with a short but broad sinnewy and strong tendon[ tab. 17. 
Implantation  and ta. 18. fig. 1. and 2. ♌ ●.] to the bone of the arme lengthwise a little below the inner head thereof, betwixt the muscle called Deltoides and that which is called Biceps.[ ta. 1●. and ta. 18. fig. 1. H ●] But at his implantation hee bendeth forwards as if his tendon were reduplicated. And truely in some men a portion of it is found to grow into a kind of point, immitating a peculiar muscle, whereas indeed it is a part of this muscle wee now entreat of. Albeit Columbus thinketh that Galen in the 18. chapter of his Booke de dissect musc. describeth this production for a particular muscle.  
This Pectoroll muscle by reason of his diuers originall hath also diuers fibres: some runne obliquely downward from aboue, others obliquely vpward from below insomuch 
His vse.  that a little before the muscle produceth his tendon these fibres seeme to intersect one another in a decussation, and yet all of them concur together into one angle to forme the tendon. This variety of fibres maketh the different motions which this muscle performeth.  
This office of this muscle is when it contracteth equally all his fibres, especially the middlemost in euery part of his body, to moue the arme equally and directly forward, inclining on neither hand, and to leade it to the breast. But if all the fibres be not equally contracted, then is it ledde indeed to the Breast but obliquely, more vpward or more downeward as the different fibres are contracted.  
The second Muscle of the arme is called Deltoides, from the forme of the Letter Δ:[ ta. 17. ta. 18. fig. 1. 2. 4. H] some call it Epomis, because it lyeth vnder the lesser head of the arme 
The second  which is properly called Epomis by Hippocrates, Galen, Ruffus and Oribasius, as Falopius in 
his name. What Epomis i●.  his obseruations hath very well obserued, thereby clearing no small Controuersie in our Art about the acception of the word Epomis in Hippocrates and the Ancients. Some call it Humeralis or the Arme muscle by a kinde of excelencie.  
It is fleshy and triangular, or tetragonall sayeth Archangelus, arising from the middest of the clauicle where it regardeth the shoulder-blade, from the top of the arme where it is ioyned to the clauicle, and from the whole spine of the shoulder-blade[ ta. 16. & ta. 18. fig. 1, ζ ●] But you must not conceyue that it taketh his Originall from the ground of soale of these bones, but from a certaine prominence or thicke line bearing out from them.  
Note moreouer, that in the originall this Muscle is broade( as being compounded of diuers yet continued beginnings like so many seuerall muscles) & Neruous:( tendinous 
Originall.  sayth Columbus) but presently becommeth fleshy and thicke, and so remaineth till by degrees it be angustated or straightned into the toppe or corner of the triangle, and so at length endeth into a strong Tendon which is partly fleshy, to wit, on the outside, and partly Neruous, to wit, on the inside, appearing in our dissections to lye not perfectlie ouerthwart 
Insertion.  yet more then oblique. It embraceth or compasseth the middle thickenesse of the arme, and is inserted in the middest thereof vnder the necke of it.[ Table 18. fig. 2, Θ]  
This Muscle also hath Fibres somewhat diuers, those of the fore part run obliquelie downward and backward, those of the backe part runne obliquely forward. And some of these do appeare to be a little implicated or entangled one within another: but the middle 
Vse.  Fibres tend directly downward. Wherefore when the anterior Fibres are contracted the arme is lifted vpward and forward towards the face, when the backeward Fibres are contracted, then is the arme lifted backeward toward the Nowle, but when the middle Fibres are equally contracted then is the arme eleuated directly vpward.  
The third muscle of the arme is called Latissimus, that is, the broad muscle, and Aniscalptor 
The 3. muscle  the Pruritan muscle,[ Tab. 15 & 16 N. Ta. 25 sheweth it separated] because it reacheth neere to the buttockes, for together with his fellowe it couereth almost the vvhole backe, and therefore may well bee called( saith Bauhine) Dor salis Maximus, the Greatest 
Originall.  Muscle of the backe. It ariseth with a membranous and broad beginning from the tops of the spines of the Rack-bones which are betwixt the sixt vertebra of the Chest, and the middle of the Holy-bone,[ Tab. 16 S, μ] as also from the vpper part of the haunch-bone: thence ascending, when it attaineth to that part of the back where the ribs swell out backward it becommeth more fleshy, and climbing ouer the lower angle of the basis of the shoulder-blade it groweth narrower, and is inserted belowe the vpper head of the arme lengthwise on the inside betwixt the Pectorall and the Round Muscles; his tendon being 
Insertion.  strong and short, yet broad and as it were reflected. For betwixt the tendons of those two forenamed muscles there is a distance left for this insertion, in which place also is the cauity of the arme-pit made by this Muscle and the Pectorall.  
The figure of it is Triangular, for it hath three vnequall Angles, two long and one short. The sharpest is that which groweth from the Holy-bone: the nexte is at the Chest where the Muscle yssueth from the Ridge of the Rackes. The third is at the arme and endeth into the tendon. Moreouer, this Muscle when it attaineth to the lower angle of the shoulder-blade, receyueth sometimes therefrom many fleshy Fibres, as Galen well obserued in his Anatomicall Administrations and in the 12 chap. of his 13 Booke de vsu part. 
Galen redeemed from Vesalius.  which Fibres do represent a newe but small Originall. Vesalius denies this and holdeth it not to touch the shoulder-blade, but by the interuening of Muscles which arise therefrom, and that it groweth not at all to the bone; but as he reproueth Galen, so Falopius in his Institutions reprooueth him, affirming that in all the bodies that euer hee made dissection of he found this Muscle fastened to the blade.  
Bauhine reudreth a reason. It groweth( saith he) with certain Fibres to the basis of the shoulder-blade, least when the blade is mooued it should ride ouer the muscle, for these Fibres as it were Ligaments do hold the Muscle and the blade together. Galen also in the filt chap. of his 13 booke de vsu part. saith, that by the benefit of this adhesion or cleauing the blade also is mooued downward by this thirde muscle. Notwithstanding, Falopius da●es not for certaine affirme that it doth mooue the blade, but that it conferreth something to his motion he is very confident against Vesalius.  
The Fibres also of this Muscle do differ according to the inequality of the ribbes; for some are long and lesse oblique, others are short and more transuerse. Wherefore, as these fibres are contracted into themselues, the arme is more or lesse retracted downeward and depressed toward the backe, sometimes higher, sometimes lower.  
The fourth Muscle is called Rotundus mator, almost by common consent of all Anatomists, 
The 4 muscle  The greater round Muscle.[ Tab. 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 25 and Tab. 12. fig. 4 O] Platerus 
His name.  also calleth in the Longer transuerse Muscle because it is seated obliquely on the backe side vnder the arme-hole. It is fleshy, thicke and rounder then all the rest. His Originall 
Tab. 18. Sheweth in foure figures the muscles of the arme, the cubit the wrist, the wand and the fingers of the hand.  
TABVLA XVIII.  
FIG. II  
FIG. III  
FIG. IV.  

A, 1, 2, 3. The first muscle of the cubit called Biceps.  
B B, 2. 3, 4. The second muscle of the cubite called Brachaeus.  
C. 2, 3, 4. The third muscle of the cubit called Longus or a part therof  
D. 4, The fourth muscle of the cubit or the short muscle.  
E, 1, 2. The muscle in the palme of the hand.  
F, 3. The first muscle of those which bend the foure fingers.  
G, 3, A portiō of the second of those which bend the foure fingers.  
H, 3, The first of those which bend the thumbe.  
I, 3, The clauicle or coller-bone remoued from his seate and bored  
K, 1, The coller bone in his owne place.  
L. 1, The pectorall muscle or the first of the Arme.  
α β γ. His circumscription and originall.  
♌ ●, 1. and 2. His insertion.  
μ, 1, 2, & 4, The muscle called Deltois or the second muscle of the arme.  
ζ μ, His broade originall.  
θ, His insertion.  
ν ζ, The muscle called Deltois separated and the inner part of it.  
O, 4, The greater round muscle, or the fourth muscle of the arme.  
P, 4, The lower Superscapularis, or blade rider, or the fourth muscle of the arme.  
P, 4, the lower. The first of those muscles which extend the 4. fingers.  
Q, 4. The second muscle of the extenders of the foure fingers.  
S, 1, 3, The fourth of the extenders of the foure fingers.  
V, 4, The second muscle of those which extend the thumbe. Y, 3, The subclauian muscle or the first muscle of chest. Z, 2, 4, The fourth muscle of the extenders of the thumbe. a, b, 3. The higher processe of the shoulder at a, the lower at b. c, 3, The brode ligament of the ioynt of the sholder blade with the arme. d, 3, The lower round ligament. e, The vpper round ligament. f, 3, The coniunction of these two ligaments. g, 3, The bone of the arme fleade. h, i, 1, 2, Portions of the muscles of the fingers from the vtter seat of the cubite propogated vnto the Tendons of the hands. l, 2, Tendons in the hand reached vnto the outward seat of the forefinger of the Char. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. in the 2. and 4. figure: the tranuerse ligament of the wrist diuided into so many small circles. n. The originall of the first muscle bending the fingers vnder the muscle noted with Ω. o, 3, Fleshy portions of this muscle perforating the foure Tendons at r, r, r, r, p, q, The transuerse ligament of the wrist diuided and led on both sides. r, r, r, r, 3, Foure tendons carryed vnto the fingers. s, 3, The vpper munks hood or cowle muscle, t, His lower seate. u, y, The coniunction of the third & fifth muscle of the cubit which Vesalius doth diuide. x, 4, His insertion and a portion of the Ell fleade δ, 1, 3, 4, The first muscle bending the wrist. θ, 1, The second bending the wrist. Λ, 4, The first muscle extending the wrist. Ε, 2, 4, The 2, extending the wrist. Π. 2, 3, 4, The first supinator of the wand which turnes the hand vpward. Ω, 1, 2, 3, The other pronator of the wand which turns the hand do wneward a. 3. The insertion of the superscapularis, or blade rider.   is but small yet continuall and fleshy which it taketh from the lower ribbe or ridge of the blade at that part which is neare to the basis, thence passing along when it cometh to the middle of that ridge or rib it departeth from the Blade-bone, and arising a litle vpward is inserted into the vpper and inner part of the Arme with a shortbut broad, strong, membranous & neruous Tendon, where also it finds the 1. muscle couched & their Tendons a like. The vse of this Muscle( sayeth Bauhine) is to retract the arme downeward, and so it is contrary to the second muscle called Deltoides. Galen reckons it among the Turners of the arme, for( sayth he) it turneth the arme outward: Vesalius reprehends him and sayeth that it applyeth the arme directly to the backe. But Archangelus beside that direct motion, ascribeth vnto it an outward motion and a little inward. Laurentius would haue his motion to be onely oblique.  
At the lower part of this Muscle or at the lower rib or ridge of the blade we finde a distinct portion implanted with a neruous termination neare the insertion of the 5. muscle which Falopius maketh the eight muscle of the arme, which( sayth hee) is manifestly separated 
The eight muscle after Falopius.  from all the rest, as I haue found in all my Dissections, and I wonder much( sayeth he) that our late Anatomists haue ouer-skipt this muscle, which is of great moment as being together with the seauenth the authour of the same motion, especially because Galen obserued it in Apes in the 18. chapter of his Booke de dissect. muscul. and in the first chapter of the 5. Booke of his Anatomicall Administrations.  
The fift Muscle of the Arme is called Super scapularis inferior, the lower Blade-rider, 
The 5. muscle [ tab. 15, 16. 25. P tab. 18. fig. 4. p.] It couereth all the outward and gibbous part of the blade which is vnder his spine and beareth the forme thereof. It ariseth fleshy from the Basis of the blade below the spine, becomming narrow as the blade-bone groweth narrow, & is inserted obscurely semicircular wise to the outside of the Ligament of the arme which holdeth the ioynt.  
The vse of it is( sayth Bauhine) to leade the arme in compasse outward, Archangelus addeth vpward also, Laurentius saith it retracteth it backward.  
The sixt Muscle called Super scapularis superior or the vpper Blade-rider, is also called Rotundus 
The sixt muscle.  minor the Lesser round Muscle.[ table. 10. 11. 15. 16. 25. Q] It is seated aboue the the Arme-hole and filleth all the cauity which is betwixt the vpper ribbe or ridge of the blade and the spine of the same; from which it ariseth fleshy, long and hauing long fibres, for it proceedeth from that Basis of the blade-bone to which it groweth very strongly, and when it attayneth to the vpper part of the neck of the Blade, it runneth vnder a transuerse Ligament which coupleth the arme to the inner processe of the blade, and with a broade and strong Tendon riding ouer the ioynt is obliquely inserted to the Ligament thereof.  
The vse of this Muscle saith Bauhine is the same with that which went before and which followeth after, Archangelus sayth it leadeth the Arme vpward and backward, Laurentius backward onely, Vessalius doeth not thinke that Galen makes any mention of this Muscle, vnlesse haply it bee reckoned among the Heauers of the Arme, for none of his descriptions agree thereto, although he make light mention of a muscle riding ouer the vpper rib of the blade.  
The seauenth muscle called Subscapularis the Blade-lurker, or Immersus the drowned 
The 7. muscle.  Muscle,[ tab. 7. R] is seated betwixt the Blade-bone and the ribs. Very fleshy it is and continual with the former on the vpper side, occupying the inner hollow part of the Blade-bone, from whence it ariseth. It is like the Blade triangular, straightned by degrees at the inside of the ioynt, and with a broad Tendon is Semicircularly inserted into the inside of the arme, ( Laurentius sayth into the necke and head of the arme) so that the Tendons of the 3. muscles which leade the arme about do orbicularly incompasse the whole ligament of the ioynt.  
His vse is to leade about the Arme inward, Galen in the 18. chapter of his Booke de dissect. muscul. sayeth that it circumuerteth the head of the arme backeward: Archangelus that it moueth the arme vpward and inward, Laurentius that this together with the lesser round muscle and that which is called Infra-spinatus doe moue the arme semicircularly backward, for( sayth he) a perfect circular motion the arme hath not from any peculiar muscle, but by the successiue working of them all, for that which is circular is compoūded of all the right and all the oblique.  
That notable musculous portion arising from the processe of the Blade-bone which is like an Anchor, and inserted into the arme; Arantius and Placentinus doe esteeme to 
The musculous portion.  bee a muscle of the arme; others account it for the first muscle of the cubit. His vse say they is to leade the arme to the processe of the Blade-bone, and indeede the motions of the arme and cubit are neare of kinne, for when the cubit is bent in the Elbow, it is most what necessary that the arme also should be lifted vp, as we may obserue in ourselves, and so much of the muscles of the Arme.   

CHAP. XXV. Of the Muscles of the Cubit.  
_THe Cubit which is the second part of the Hande in the large acceptation, consisteth of two bones, the first is called Cubitus or Vlna, the Cubite or 
The bones of the Cubite.  the Ell, and we retaine that name when we call the place where it is bent the Elbow. The second bone is called Radius or the Wand. These bones haue diuers motions, and therefore the Muscles of the Ell and the Wand are diuers. The Cubit or Ell hath two motions, for it is bent and extended directly. Galen attributeth also to it an oblique motion, which Columbus saith is neuer to bee founde in a manithe Radius or wand being mooued turnes the hand vpward and downward. First we will speake of the motions of the Cubite which are perfourmed by the helpe of foure Muscles, some say fiue, and these are called the muscles of the Cubite, not because they are seated in the Cubit, but because they mooue it. For they arise from the arme and the blade, and take vp the roome along the arme; The two Benders, the inside or fore-side, and the two or three extenders the outside or the backeside. But these Muscles which are seated in the cubit itself do serue to mooue eyther the Wand, or the VVrest, or the fingers.  
The first Bender is called Biceps[ Tab. 18. fig. 1, 2, 3. and Tabl. 10. fig. 1, and 2 A] or the 
The 1 Bender  double-headed muscle, because it hath a double beginning and these very strong standing off one from another to giue way to the Nerue of the arme and the insertion of the muscles of the same. These originals doe arise from the shoulder-blade, but are couered by the second muscle of the arme called Deltoides.[ tab. 18. fig: 1 M at fig: 3, N they are vncouered]  
The situation of this Muscle is on the inside of the arme, and in those bodies that are fleshy or brawny it may be perceiued vnder the skin before dissection. Of these two originals the one is outward[ Tab. 19. fig: 1 n] which is neruous and round, arising out of the vpper brow of the cup of the shoulder blade, and is deriued vnder the Ligaments of the ioynt of the arme and aboue the head of the same through a fissure or clefte made of purpose for this vse.  
The other originall[ tab. 19 fig: 1 o] is partly Neruous, partly fleshy, broader also then the other arising from the processe of the blade-bone which is like vnto an Anchor, and led aboue the head of the arme a little vnder which head it is vnited with the former[ tab 19. fig: 1 & 2 p] and so they make one thicke, strong liuid muscle almost rounde and furnished with right fibres.  
A fleshy portion of this muscle is inserted into the middle of the Hande, where the bone hath a priuate asperity by which it is lift vp. This portion( sayth Columbus] to a 
A fleshy portion accoūted for a particular muscle.  man that is not sharpe sighted seemeth a distinct muscle drawing the arme to the brest, of which portion also Vesalius and Laurentius haue made mention, but not Falopius or Archangelus, but Arantius somwhat boldly propoundeth it for the eight muscle of the arme and indeede departing from the arme and climbing ouer another muscle it beareth the forme of a round and fleshy muscle, and a little aboue the ioynt of the cubit becomming more sinnewy it endeth into a strong, thicke, round and neruous Tendon, and being moderately dilated is inserted into an inwarde eminence and protuberation of the Radius or wand, created onely for the insertion thereof. It groweth also somewhat to the ligament of the Ioynt.[ Tab. 19. fig. 1, g] This Muscle as also the second hath right fibers, wherfore with the second it bendeth the cubit straight inward.  
The second Bender is called Brachiaeus the muscle of the arme[ Tab. 18. fig: 2, 3, 4. tab. 19. fig. 1, 2, 3 ●] 
The 2 Bendes  It lyeth vnder the former is shorter then it and wholy fleshy, and embraceth very closely the lower and middle part of the length of the arme vnto which also it groweth. It ariseth from the bone of the arme in that place where the Muscles of the arme are inserted about the middle of the length thereof on the outside. His beginning is fleshy and twofold,[ Tab: 21, fig: 2, 3, V] and in the middle resembleth an obtuse angle. Presently after it becommeth thicker and groweth strongly to the arme, and descending downeward fleshily couereth the foreside of the Elbow representing a little hillocke, and is strangely infixed or inserted larger and more fleshy into the forepart of the Cubite or Ell, and the Radius or Wande, and the Ligament of the ioynt,[ tab. 21. fig. 2 G fig: 3, o] to bend the cubit in a streight line.  
The third muscle of the cubit or the first Extender called also the long muscle[ tab. 28 
The third.  
Table 19. sheweth the Muscles of the Cubit, the Wand and the Fingers.  
TABVLA. XIX.  
FIG. I.  
II  
III.  
IV.  

C, The insertion of the wormy muscles into the first bone of the Fingers.  
d e f 3, portions of the tendons cut of neare vnto their insertion, wherof d is the insertion of the Muscle growing to the Tendons, e the insertion of the first muscle bending the Fingers, and f of the second.  
h 2, the corner of the shoulder blade whereinto the fourth Muscle of the blade called Leuator or the heauer, noted in the tenne precedent tables is inserted.  
i 2, the higher processe of the shoulder or the top of the shoulder.  
k 2, the insertion of the vpper blade rider.  
l 2, the lower processe of the shoulder blade.  
n 1, 2, The outward neruous head of the muscle called Biceps.  
o 1, 2, his neruous head.  
p 1, 2, the coition or meeting of these two nerues  
q 1, 2, the tendon of this muscle.  
s 2, A part of the Supinator or the muscle which bendeth the hand vpward where it goeth from the arme vnto the cubit.  
t 2, his broade tendon inserted into the appendix of the wand.  
u 2, the beginning of the second muscle bending the foure Fingers.  
A 1, 2, the Biceps or the first muscle of the cubite which hangeth vppon the fourth from his insertion.  
B 1, 2, 3, the 2. muscle of the cubit called Brachiaus.  
C 1, 2, 3, the 3 muscle of the cubite called longus.  
E 1, the muscle in the palme of the hand whose broad tendon is at μ.  
F 1, 2, the first muscle bending the foure Fingers hanging down in the second Figure.  
G 2, 4, the second muscle bending the foure Fingers hanging in the fourth Figure, β sheweth his tendons.  
HH 2, the muscles called Lumbricales, their insertion at o in the 4. Figure.  
s 2, 4, the first of those that bend the thumbe, in the 4. it dependeth from his insertion, and his tendon is at ε.  
K 1, 2, the second bender of the thumbe. L 2, 4, the 3. bender of the thumbe. N 1, the muscle Deltois inuerted, the vpper N in the third Figure, the muscle called Latissimus, the tendon of the third muscle of the arme. The lower N in the 3. and 4. Figure; the Vlna or Ell without flesh. O, the vpper in the third Figure, the fourth greater round muscle of the arme. o, the lower 3, 4, the wand bared. Q 3, the vpper Blade rider whose insertion is at f; 2, K. R 3, the Blade-lurker whose insertion is at a. S the vpper 1, the lesser Saw, n θ his amplitude whereby it groweth to the ribbs. 1, the place where it groweth to the shoulder blade. S the lower 1, 2, the thicke muscle of the little Finger, or the fourth muscle of the extenders. X 1, the third extending muscle of the thumbe. X 2, the place where the muscle noted with G is diuided into foure fleshy parts. β 4, the tendons of the second muscle bending the foure Fingers. γ 2, the place where the tendons of the second muscle doe abide. 〈◇〉 2, the place where the tendons of the first muscle remaine. e 2, the tendon of the first muscle bending the thumbe inuerted with the muscles in the hand. n θ 1, 1, the amplitude of the greater Saw wherby it is ioyned to the ribs. n n 2, the muscles of the Fingers growing to the foure tendons of the second muscle in the hand which are called Lumbricales or the worme muscles. ●, 3, where it groweth to the angle of the shoulder blade. Λ 1, the beginning and insertion of the bender of the wrist. μ 1, the tendon of the muscle of the palme of the hand. V 1, the transuerse ligament. T 1, the muscle called Interosseus or the slender muscle of the little Finger in the palme of the hand. Δ 1, The first muscle bending the wrist. Θ 1, The second muscle bending the wrist here hangeth downe. Π 1, 2, 3, the first Supinator of the Radius or wand, in the 3. Figure hanging from his implantation. Φ 3 4, the first pronator of the wand or the square muscle. Ω 1, 2, 3, 4, The round Pronator of the wand. Character 1, 2, 3, in the fourth Figure, the fourth 5. and 6. muscles bending the thumbe. * a ligament going betweene the Ell and the Wand.   fig. 3, 3, 4. Tab. 19, fig. 1, 2, 3. and in the other figures at c] runneth fleshy and with right fibres through the backside of the arme. It ariseth with a strong and broade originall, partly 
His originall.  neruous and partly fleshy from the lower rib of the blade bone a little vnder his necke, where it hath a particular bosome or cauity to couch itself in, and descending directly downeward, it groweth very fleshy to the inside of the arme, or rather it is increased with 
Augmentatiō  a fleshy portion[ Tab. 21, fig. 1, Λ] bred out of the arme as it were with another originall, which is mixed therewith to giue it strength: with which portion being augmented it descendeth directly downeward,( that fleshy portion euen to his end growing to the arme) and becomming partly neruous on the outside, partly fleshy on the inside, is inserted into the inner side of the backe-ward processe of the Cubit called Olecranon; Archangelus saith it is inserted into the exterior part of the Radius where it hath a cauity insculped for it.  

Insertion and vse.  The vse of of this muscle is together with that that followeth directly to extend the Cubit; Archangelus addeth that it lifteth it also vpward.  
The fourth muscle or the second extender called also the short muscle,[ Tab. 18, fig. 4. Tab. 20, fig. 1, and 2, D] 
The fourth.  occupieth the outward part of the back-side of the arme. It ariseth with a neruous originall,( and double saith Columbus) from the backside of the neck 
His originall.  of the arme and becomming fleshy before it hath ouercome the middest of the length of 
Progresse.  the arme it is so mingled with the former that euen vnto the insertion it can by no means be separated therefrom, so that it may seeme to be but one muscle or one body compacted of three muscles, whereas notwithstanding in truth they are two; for this fourth muscle is very strongly inserted[ Tab. 18, fig. 4, X Tab. 20, fig. 1, and 2, X] into the outside 
Insertion.  of the posterior processe of the Cubit, where it is partly fleshy, partly neruous, especially about the point wheron we leane with our elbowes, which sinewes haply is the reason why at some times leaning hard vpon the pitch of the elbow, we find a kind of benummednes or painefull sensation like the sleepines of the legge to run along our arme both vpwarde and downeward.  
This fourth muscle as the third, hath right fibres, wherefore also it extendeth or stretcheth 
Fibres & vse.  out the Cubit directly, Archangelus addeth also downeward. But in dogges and Munkies and other Creatures which rest themselues much vpon their forefeet, there are 
Munkies.  three very conspicuous extending muscles, beside one very small, found in Munkies( but by Galen pretermitted saith Vesalius) which runneth from the shoulder-blade to the Cubite or Ell.  
So then in these muscles of the Cubit the primary action is euident, which is contraction, 
The actions of the muscles of the cubit.  and the secondary which is relaxation: when the bending muscles are contracted, the extenders are relaxed, that so the Cubite might be inflected with more ease: againe, when the extenders are contracted, the benders are relaxed that the Cubite might be better stretched out, and both these actions are performed by right motion. By accident also they follow the motion of the arme. Moreouer, the Cubite is moued sidelong and round.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Muscles of the Radius or Wand.  
_THE motion of the Radius or Wand is double, for either it is moued perse, of it 
The motions of the Radius double.  selfe( the Cubit or Ell being vnmoued) by reason of the ioynt eyther aboue with the arme, or below with the wrist, or both aboue and below with the articulation of the Ell; and so the whole hand is mooued eyther downeward or vpward,( for the whole hand being sustained almost alone by the Radius, hath one and the same motion, and therefore is turned vpward by the assistance of two externall muscles; and downeward by two internall, by which also it is turned about.) Or it is moued by accident with the Ell in a right line when the whole Cubit is bent and extended. There are therefore foure muscles of the Radius, two called Supinatores which turne the palme of the hand vpward, and two called Pronatores which turne the palme downeward.  
The first Supinator which is the second of the Wand according to Vesalius( who calleth it also the exterior) Fallopius and Platerus, is also by Laurentius called Supinator longior, 
The first Supinator. [ Tab. 18, fig. 1, 2, 3, and Tab. 19, fig. 1, 2, 3. and Tab. 20, fig. 1, 2, 4, π] because in respect of his belly it is the longest of all those muscles which run along the Cubit. It ariseth fleshly from the edge of the outward and vpper protuberation of the arme,[ Tab. 19, fig. 2, s, Tab. 20, fig. 4, α] afterward being dilated it is bedded obliquely vppon the Wand, and is inserted, growing broade at his Tendon into the membranous appendix of the Radius toward 

A, 1, 2. A part of the muscle called Biceps, or the double-headed muscle.  
B, 1, 2. 4, The higher and outward part of the muscle called Braechiaeus.  
C, 1, 2. 4, the muscle extending the Cubite from the lower part of the shoulderblade, others call it the fifte muscle of the Cubit.  
D. 1, 2. The short muscle extending the cubit arising from the neck of the arme.  
E, 1. The second or the two-horned muscle bending the wrist.  
M 1, 2, 3. the muscle Deltois or the second of the arme.  
N 3. 4. The Ell without flesh.  
O, 1, 2. the fourth muscle of the arme called Rotundius maior.  
O 3, 4, the Wand bared a great way.  
P 1, 2, 3, the lower blade rider or the fift muscle of the arme.  
The lower P in the 1 and 2 figure. the first extender of the foure-fingers, in the second figure hanging downe, whose originall is at a and tendons at b.  
Q 1, 2, the 2 muscle extending the foure fingers, in the 2 Figure hanging downe.  
R 2, 3. the thirde extender of the forefingers in the third Figure hanging down clouen into 2 parts at o p in the 2 Fig.  
S, I, the 4 muscle extending the forfingers  
T, I the vpper, the fyrst muscle extending the thumbe.  
V, 2, 3. the 2 extending the thumb.  
Y, 3, the originall of the 2 muscle extending the wrist.  
Z, 1, 2, 3, 4. the 4 extender of the Thumbe a, b, 1, 2. the originall of the first extender of the foure Fingers from the protuberation of the arm at a and his tendons at b. a 4, the originall of the shorter supinator of the Wand. C 1, the originall of the fyrst extender of the wrist from the vpper protuberation of the arme. C 1, Another part of the long extender of the cubit. d 1, His insertion at the little Finger. e 2, the spine of the blade & the top of the shoulder. f, g. the originall of the Cowle muscle in the hinder part from the spine of the blade. h 2, His insertion. i 2, the membranous Ligament of the Wand, tying the vpper part to the arme. i, k, l, m, n, 2, 3. The vpper part of the second muscle extending the thumb marked with V. inserted into the bone of the wrist at k, l, the lower part diuided into two at l, the one vnder the wrist bone that sustaineth the thumbe at m, the other inserted into the thumb at n. o p 2, The thirde extending muscle noted with R cut into two parts. q 4, the backe of the shoulder blade bare. r 2, the originall of the second extender of the wrist. s, t 3, the original of his horned tendon s, the insertion t, x, 1, 2 A place of the Ell without flesh. δ 1, 2, the first bender of the wrist. Λ 1, 2, the first extender of the wrist. m in the 2 Figure hanging, whose originall is at c and insertion at d. π. 1, 2, 4. the fyrst supinator of the wand whose beginning is at α insertion at β in the 4 Figure. σ 2 3, 4. the shorter supinator of the Radius, whose beginning at α his insertion at γ. ε 2, 3, 4, the second muscle extending the wrist. α, β4, the beginning of the fyrst supinator of the wand from the arme at α, whose insertion at β. γ4, the insertion of the shorter supinator of the wand. δ, t 4. A place where certaine bosoms are prepared for the transporting of the tendons, and containing a gristle of that place. ζ, 4, Ligaments ioyning the bones of the Wriste together. ● 3. 4, A Ligament in the middest betwixt the Ell and the Wand.   
TABVLA. XX. Sheweth the extending Muscles of the Arme, the Cubit, the Wand and the Fingers.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III.  
IV.  the inside.[ Tab. 19, fig. 2 t and Tab. 20, fig. 4 β] This Muscle ouer-turnes the lower part of the wand, and so lifts the palm of the hand vpward.  
The second supinator which is the shorter[ Tab. 20, fig. 1. 3, 4. and tab. 21, fig: 1 σ] ariseth 
The second  fleshy. Platerus and Archangelus say from a strong Ligament which bindeth the cubit to the arme and from the vpper part of the Radius. Bauhine from the ioynt which articulateth the cubit to the arme, and from the backward processe of the Ell[ Tab. 20, fig. 4 a] which is called Olecranon: from thence it paceth obliquely and is implanted almost into the middest of the wand, to which also it adhereth[ Tab. 20 fig: 4 γ] and it is on the outside membranous and on the inside fleshy. This muscle turneth the vpper parte of the wand obliquely outward and turneth vp the backpart of the hand.  

Table 21. Sheweth some muscles of the Cubite, the Wand, the Thumbe, and those we call interossei or bone-bound Muscles.  
TABVLA XXI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  

q 1, 2, The shoulder blade bare, & in the second figure is his interior part.  
b 1, 2, 3, The second muscle of the Cubit called Brachiaeus, whose double originall in the third figure is noted with v and his insertion at o.  
C 1 Muscles extending the Cubite which are accounted by Vesalius three, The third at i the fift at n & the fourth at Λ.  
G 2, The insertion of the muscle called Brachiaus.  
N 1, 2, 3, The Ell bared from the flesh.  
O 1, 2, 3, the Radius also with flesh.  
Q 1. the vpper bladerider inuerted.  
R 2, the same superscapularis hanging downe.  
X 2, Two muscles bending the second ioynt of the thumbe.  
Γ 2. 3, One of the muscles called Interossei applyed to the roote of the second ioynt of the thumbe, but in the thirde fi●ure are the Interossei in the palme of the hand, which fill the distances betwixt the bones of the Wrist.  
Σ 1, The short Supinator of the Wand bending downeward.  
Φ 3, The square muscle of the Wand bending downe.  
Ω 1, 2, the round muscle of the Wand called Pronator, whose insertion is noted with G. This in the second figure is hung from his insertion.  
θ 1, the bone of the arme altogether with out flesh.  
〈◇〉 λ 1, The first muscle of the cubit at ●, the fourth at λ, the fift at n: or the three extending muscles.  
μ 1, The insertion of the muscle of the Wand called Pronater at Ω.    
ν ζ 0, 2, 3, V, the originall of the second muscle of the arme called Brachiaeus, on either side his insertion in the second figure at G, in the third at O, 1. 2, 3, char. 1, The fourth fift and sixt benders of the thumbe, * Heere a ligament commeth betweene the Ell and the Wand.  
The first Pronator which Vesalius, Falopius, and Platerus reckon for the first of the Wand, is called also by Laurentius, Quadratus,[ Tab. 19. fig. 3, 4, and Tab, 21, fig. 3, Φ] because 
The first Pronator.  it ariseth fleshy, broade and square, from the lower and inner part of the Ell neare the wrest, and lying ouerthwart on the foreside is inserted with a membranous tendon, ( Columbus and Archangelus say fleshy) into the inner & lower part of the Wand. His fibres are transuerse and clime vp ouertwhart from the Ell vnto the VVand. It is a large 
His fibres.  muscle, and incompasseth al that part of the Ell and the VVand which lies directly against the inside of the Cubit. It is square and so long as the inner Region of the whole Cubit made of the Ell and the VVand. It is also euery way fleshy, and in the middle thicke & bunching, seruing in stead of a soft pillow vnder the tendons that runne vnto the fingers. 
Figure.  This muscle drawing the lower part of the VVand which is next vnto the wrest inwarde, 
Vse.  beareth downe the VVand and the hand fastened thereto into a prone position.  
The second, Pronator which is the third muscle of the VVand according to Vesalius, 
The second Pronator. His originall progresse.  Fallopius and Platerus, is by Laurentius called Rotundus.[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, 2, 3, and Tab. 19, fig. 1, 2, 3, 4. and Tab. 21, fig. 1, 2, Ω] It ariseth fleshy from the inner protuberation of the arme and the inner side of the El where it is articulated to the arme, or as Fallopius hath it, from the inner ligament of that ioynt: thence it climeth obliquely ouer the inside of the VVand and is implanted with a fleshy insertion about the middle thereof,[ Tab. 20, fig. 4. γ] from this insertion it runneth out neruous to the very middest of the VVand, and is 
Insertion.  infixed very strongly with a neruous Tendon to a certaine roughnes that is in the vpper part thereof.[ Tab. 21. fig. 1. μ] As often as this muscle is contracted it leadeth the vpper part of the wand inward, and so wresteth the VVand and the whole Hand into a proane and downward position.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the Muscles of the Hand in generall.  
_GAlen considering the admirable frame and structure of the Hand, because it is as he sayth the Instrument of Instruments, intreateth of it in his first Bookes de vsupartium. Columbus in the last place, because( sayth he) the wonderfull and miraculous frame thereof might remaine infixed in our memories, but we will discourse of the Muscles thereof in this place, because we will follow the order of dissection.  
Seeing therefore that the proper action of the Hand is Apprehention, and Apprehention a Motion depending vpon our will, it was also necessary that the hand should 
The muscles of the hand double.  haue muscles which are the instruments of voluntary motion whereby it might be mooued altogether and euery finger apart.  
The muscles therefore which moue the hand are of two sortes, some haue the guide of the motion of the whole Hand, others moue the Fingers onely. The former are likewise of two sortes; for some doe either bend or extend the VVrist, and consequently the Hand with the same motion, others mouing the Radius or VVand do together also turne the Hand downward or vpward.  
These Muscles are seated vpon the cubit either on the outside or on the inside. Hither also may we referre that Muscle that moueth the skin which is in the palme of the Hand. These that moue the Fingers doe either bend them or extend them or moue them sidelong, that is, ioyning them together or parting them asunder.  
But because the thumbe which is called Pollex, for that it is aequipolent or aequiualent 
The reasons of the motions from the articulations.  to the whole Hand, hath in his bending and extending something peculiar to himselfe, differing from the same motions in the other foure Fingers, therefore it hath his peculiar Muscles, as also the rest of the Fingers haue theirs, whereof some are seated in the cubit, others in the After-wrist and others in the ball or palme of the Hand.  
Againe, because the articulation is diuers in the first ioynts of the fiue Fingers and in the second of the Thumb, from that it is in the second and third ioynts of the foure Fingers and the third of the Thumbe, because the latter are ioyned by ginglymos the vpper bone receiuing into his bosome the protuberation or swelling of the lower, and the lower bone into his cauity the heads of the vpper: hence it commeth to passe that their motion is onely simple, absolued by extention and flexion without any inclination to either side: but the first bones of the foure fingers and the first of the thumbe being fastned by a firme articlation to the bones with which they are sustayned, are not onely bent and extended, but inclined also to the sides as they are led to-ward or fro-ward the thumb.  
I could busie myself and you too in setting downe each Authors diuision of the muscles of the Hand, for euery one almost differs from another, but because the History that followeth dependeth most what vpon Bauhines relation, therefore we will remit him that is desirous to know each mans minde vnto their proper discourses, & content ourselves with Bauhine alone.  
In the whole summe therefore the Muscles which mooue the Hand are forty; foure of 
40. muscles of the hand. How seated.  the wrist, foure of the wand, of the palme of the hand three sometimes foure, and 29. of the fingers.  
Some of these Muscles were seated in the cubite because it was very necessary they should be large, and their tendons onely are transmitted vnto the fingers. For if they had beene placed in the Hand they must needs haue increased the bulke thereof to that quantity which would haue been preiudiciall to the vse of so excelent an organ. Notwithstanding some are situated in the Hand.  
Of these Muscles there are nine benders, two bend the foure fingers and seauen the 
The vse of the 40. muscles.  Thumbe. The extenders are 20. sixeteene extend the 4. fingers, in which number are those foure called Lumbricales the VVormy muscles, and those eight called Interossei, because they lurke betweene the bones. The other foure extenders doe serue the thumbe which they doe either simply extend or leade to the fingers or from the fingers: the tendons of which foure muscles as Galen obserued in the 17. chapter of his sixt Booke de vsu portium, are infixed in the ioynt of the bone that is to be moued. But because in dissection wee meete first with the muscle which is called Palmaris, therefore in the first place we will intreat of it.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the Muscle of the Palme, and 2. or 3 other, yssuing from the fleshy Membrane.  
_THE Muscle of the palme so called by Laurentius and Bauhine lyeth vppon all the interior Muscles of the Hand.[ Ta. 22. fig. 1. 2. Ta. 23. fig. 1. ●] It is seated in the cubit and is neruous and round, arising with a neruous beginning from the sharpe poynte of the inner protuberation of the Arme; leaneth vppon and groweth to the middest of two muscles which bend the wrist,[ Ta. 22. fig. 1. δ θ] and proceede out of the same protuberation with it. Presently 
His original  after his originall it becommeth fleshy, yet is the belly of it but small, and before it attaine vnto the middle of the cubit it paceth somewhat obliquely, afterward it is againe attenuated 
progresse.  and groweth small or slender and determineth into a round, narrow, and long tendon[ Ta. 23. fig. 1. μ] which riding ouer the inner Ligament of the wrest, passeth vnder the skinne, and his tendon in the ball or palme of the Hand is dilated, attenuated and groweth to the skinne, yet so that it lyeth not vnder that part of the skinne which couereth the muscles in the hillocke of the thumbe[ Ta. 22. fig. 3. vnder p] and those which leade the little finger from the rest.[ Tab. 22. fig. 1. and 3. S] Finally, it is ioyned with so strong and fibrous tyes to the rootes of the Fingers, that although there be a certain fat, or substance 
Insertion.  like vnto it,( of which Galen maketh mention) comming betweene, yet you can scarce separate the skin of the hand from the sinewy thinnesse of this Tendon.  
The vse of this muscle is firmely to corrugate or contract the skinne of the palme when 
Vse.  we would hold any thing fast, for by that meanes the skinne becommeth immoueable, which if it should moue, we could not hold a thing so steddily or so safely. Haply also this Tendon is the cause why the skin of the palme hath more exact sense then the skin of the whole body: not that so quicke sence is giuen to the hand by this Tendon, but because of the foure nerues which run vnto the foure fingers.  
[ Table 22. is the same with Table 18. Folio 778.  
Fallopius thrice or foure times found this muscle arising out of the same place in each arme double, whereof one did end into abroade Tendon, the other was inserted into the 
Fallopius his obseruation.  transuerse ligament of the wrest, on the contrary Vesalius saith that hee found more then once the fleshy part thereof wanting, and then the broade Tendon was made of a portiō of those Tendons that bend the wrest,[ Tab. 22, fig. 1, δ θ] before they ascend vnto the same. Sometimes also( saith Bauhine) the broade Tendon is produced from an interall transuerse ligament which runneth ouer the Tendons of the wrist, which also Columbus obserued in the dissection of some theeues.  
Beside this muscle of the palme in the beginning of the inside of the hand at the lower 
A musculous substance arising from the fleshy pannicle. The formes of it. The fibres.  part of the hillocke called by some Mons Lunae, by some Mons Martis, by others Veneris, but we will cal it the Mountaine of the Moone, where the eight bone of the wrist is seated, there is found a certaine flesh. It proceedeth out of the fleshy pannicle, or from the membrane of that muscle which frameth the foresaide Mountaine of the Moone. This flesh carrieth the forme sometimes of two, seldome of three slender and short muscles. It hath transuerse fibres and runneth to the middle and inner part of the ball of the hand, and is implanted at the broade Tendon of the palme muscle, where it receiueth a complication with the fleshy panicle which in that place is fatty. The vse of this flesh is in great contractions of the palme to draw the Mountaine of the Moone to the middle of the hand, 
His vse.  when wee would make it as hollow as wee can, or else to binde in the two hillocks at the thumbe and the little finger for the same vse. Of this muscle, if so you will call it, none of the Ancients made mention, but it was first found by Iohannes Baptista Conanus & first described in print by Valuerda who yet mistaketh the vse, for he saith it was made for extention.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of the substance which commeth betweene the skinne of the palme and of the fingers and their Tendons.  
_BEtwixt the Tendon and skinne of the Palme and the inner side of the fingers there appeareth a certaine fleshy substance like vnto far, of which it shall not be amisse a little to discourse. Although the whitish colour it hath and the hardnes do more resemble fat then flesh, yet we conceiue that it may more fitly be referred to a kinde of flesh, as well because it is full of sinewy fibres, as also because there are many small and threddy Veines disseminated there-through. Add also that though a man be neuer so much extenuated or consumed yet there alwaies remaines some part of this substance, whereupon it is that Galen cals it flesh, and the Arabians thought it to be a kinde of simple flesh different from the body of a muscle. It may 
That it is flesh not Fat.  be obiected how then comes it to be so hard? I answere, by the contaction of the bones and of the Neruous parts which lie vpon it, and therefore it is like the fat which ioyneth vpon the ioynts of the bones. The vse of this substance is to be as it were a pillow or bed whereon the many propagations of sinews might lie soft which were deriued from greater Nerues to make the hand of exquisite sense. Such a substance also is found betwixte the Tendons that bend the fingers and their skin, least when we are constrained rudely to take hold of any hard substance the tendons should be pressed or otherwise offended, for which cause also it is very plentifull vnder the skin of the soale of the foote, yet it is to bee noted that there is lesse store of it about the Ioynts least it should hinder their Motion, especially when they bend into an acute Angle.  
In like manner in the sides of the Fingers, there is some of this flesh to fill vp the spaces 
In what parts of the Finger this substance is.  betwixt the Ioynts which otherwise would haue bene hollow, because the side knuckles at each bone doe stand somewhat out from the length of the bone, which equalitie was not onely made for ornament but rather and more especially to make the Hande as we say thight, that is able to holde a liquid substance when we gather our Fingers toward the Palme to make Diogenes cup. Finally, this substance is very profitable in the toppes of the fingers for better apprehension, for if nothing had bene placed vpon the extremities of the bones which might yeelde a little when wee offer to take holde; surely the bones would haue bene in danger of breaking, and beside wee could not haue gotten holde of many things which now we do by the helpe of this substance and the Nailes.   

CHAP. XXX. Of the Muscles which bend and extend the forefingers.  
_WE saide before that there were two Muscles which did bend the forefingers 
The 1 Bender of the forefingers.  and 16 that did extend them. The first Bender[ tab. 22. Fig. 4, B] ariseth with a round[ n] beginning and large; mixed of a fleshy and Neruous substance, from the internall protuberation of the arme vnder the heads of the Palme-muscle[ tab. 22 Fig. 1 and 2 ●] and those two which bend the VVrist,[ Tab. 22 fig: 1, δ, θ] Afterward becomming broader, it passeth thorough the middle and anterior part of the Ell and the VV and, and becommeth fleshy and round, yet before it attaine vnto the roote of the VVriste his Venter or Belly is angustated or straightned,[ tab. 22. Fig. 3 o] and diuided into four fleshy parts, all which do determine into tendons exquisitely neruous and transparant: and being together involued in one common, thin and mucous membrane; for their more safe progression doe passe along vnder the annular or round Ligament[ tab. 23 Fig. 1 V] which is seated ouerthwart the wrist; and at the second bone of the forefingers nere the middest of the Ioynt are diuided with a long Section or slit through which the tendons of the next muscle to be described( which lyeth vnder them) which were to reach vnto the third Ioynt are transmitted. There they become broader that they might mooue more easily and apprehend or take holde the better, 
An admirable worke of Nature.  and a little after the diuision or section they are inserted into the second bones of the foure Fingers. And truly this progresse and insertion of these muscles is an admirable and strange worke of Nature: for they are so seuered, that the fingers in their motion might orderly follow one another, and each of them alone bend inward.  
Moreouer, as they creepe vp the first bones of the Fingers they are rowled about againe with a transuerse Ligament, which Ligament ariseth out of the inner parte of the bone and maketh a kinde of Trough, wherein the tendon of this first bending muscle, together with that of the second muscle vnder it, might securely passe along the length of the Finger and holdeth it fast least it should depart from his owne seate and so decline 
The transuerse Ligament.  from his owne finger againe; that when it is contracted it should not strut or arise vp, especially when we bend the second or third ioynt of the fingers. For were it not for this transuerse Ligament which streightneth or bindeth the tendons in the place before named, they would not in their contraction bee curued backward but would arise vppe like right Chords, lift vp the skin and fill the ball of the hand, whereas the Ligaments although the tendons be contracted do yet keepe them close vppon the bones into which they are not infixed, and so the way ouer the Ligament is smooth and euen.  
The vse of this Muscle is primarily to bend the second ioynt, secundarily also the first, because in the passage they are firmely fastened together by the interposition of membranes and fibres, and indeed the first ioynt hath no other Muscle allotted for his flexion sauing this onely.  
The second Bender which Laurentius calleth Musculum profundum, the Deep Muscle, lyeth behinde the former[ Ta. 23. fig. 2. 4. G] being in his whole course, body and Tendons 
the 2. Bender.  subiected vnder it euen to his insertion. It ariseth a little lower then the former from the processe of the Ell on the foreside thereof,[ Ta. 23. fig. 2. u] and is stronger then it, because his motion is greater and of more moment. It is exactly fleshy and broade, occupying the middle part of the cubite and groweth both to the Ell from which it taketh strength, and also to the Ligament which ioyneth the Ell to the Wand, and separateth the interior muscles from the exterior; but when it is descended lower thē the middle of the cubit, it is angustated or groweth narrower[ Ta. 23. fig. 2. x fig. 4. β] and diuided into foure fleshy partes which are couered with a neruous coate and by degrees bring forth neruous and round tendons which perforate or make way through the Tendons of the former muscle. All these Tendons passing vnder the transuerse and membranous Ligament of the wrist, are euery one of them in the ball of the hand inuested with proper membranes which are ioyned to the Tendons by neruous tyes. Afterward they creepe vnder the foure Ligaments of the fingers, and passe thorough the holes or diuisions of the Tendons of the first Muscle,[ Ta. 23. fig. 2. γ ♌] that so they may bee implanted into the third ioynt, yet a little before their insertion they become broader, and in olde men there is found a little bone like the Sesamum Seede, or like that wherwith we feed Canary Birds, which hath the same vse and forme that the Patell bone or whirle bone of the knee, for as these small bones do grow to the tendons of the first muscle, so they also growe to the Tendons of the second muscle before they are inserted into the third bones of the fingers.  
The vse of this Muscle is to bend the third ioynt of the foure fingers, yea which is more as Arantius hath obserued, it seemeth to contract twelue ioyntes, because in his passage his tendons are affixed to the first and second ioyntes by their membranous Ligaments. And indeed if we obserue the motions of our hands well, when we would moue the third ioynt, the two former are curued whether we wil or no, whereas the third and the second may be bent when the first is immoouable and extended: and thus much of the Muscles which bend the foure fingers.  
The extending Muscles are 8. beside the Interossei of which wee shall intreat afterward: 
The extending muscles of the fingers. called Vermiculares.  of these the first, second, third and fourth[ Ta. 23. fig. 2 n n] are called Lumbricales or Vermiculares, that is, the wormy Muscles, and doe cleaue to the ball or palme of the hand. They are fleshy, small, round and long, and doe lie vnder the tendons of the second muscle which bend the third bone of the foure fingers. They arise at the inside from those membranes of the Fingers which we sayd euen now did inuest the foure tendons: neither let it seeme hard that I say they arise from membranes, because the muscles also of the eie take their beginning from membranes. Afterward they runne along the finger on the inside, and with a neruous and small tendon they do adhere to the tendons of the Muscle next to be described, which extendeth the foure fingers. Their insertion is made about the middle of the first ioynt into the second. Wherefore when these muscles are contracted to their originals, the second and third ioynts of the fingers, together with the help of the Muscles called Interossei, are primarily extended, although the Fingers also are extended by accident, that in great constraynts they might serue to assist oblique motions. For because the Tendons of these Muscles in their passage to their exterior part of the Fingers are tyed to the laterall or side-ligament of the first ioynt, they are able also with a slender motion to leade the first knuckle vnto the thumbe: and because the tendons of the next muscle to bee described are seated on the outside and therefore obnoxious to outward iniuries, Nature placed these on the inside that if by mishap the outward Tendons were violated or wounded, yet the fingers by the helpe of these might bee extended, and this is the manner of the position of the first foure extending muscles.  
[ Table 23. is the same with Table 19. Folio 781.]  
The fift Extender[ Tab. 24. fig. 1. and 2. at the lower p which in the second figure hangeth downe] ariseth with an originall mixed of a fleshy and neruous substance[ b] from 
The 5. extender.  the outward protuberation of the arme. Afterward it becommeth more fleshy, and descending in the hinder part betwixt the Ell and the Wand, is neere the wrest aboue [ b] much narrower, and for the most part clouen into three, rarely into foure fleshy partes, which presently degenerate into neruous Tendons exquisitely round for their better security; which Tendons are tyed together by a membranous ligament arising from the appendix of the VVand & so are together conueyed through a cauity exsculped or wroght in the externall part of the VVand into the wrest. And least these Tendons should at any time fall out of that cauity, or when the muscle is contracted, strut vp as we see a broken veine doth, they are inuolued with an annular or round ligament.[ Tab. 22, fig. 2, and 4, charact. 3]. Presently after vnder the wrest they recede or depart one from another, remaining 
Insertion.  no more round, but becomming broad because the bone on the outside is round of itself: and one runneth vnto the second and third ioynt of the fore-finger, another of 
The cause of peine vnder the naile.  the middle finger, and the third of the Ring-finger. And hence it is that we feele so great paine if any thing get betwixt the nayles and the flesh. Sometimes it is diuided into two Tendons onely, which are inserted into the fore and middle fingers.  
The vse of this muscle is to extend the second and third ioynts of those three fingers. And the Tendons of it are long, for the bellies do not reach vnto the wrist, that the hand 
The vse.  might be lighter and more slender for agility in his motion.  
The sixt extender[ Tab. 24, fig. 1, and 2, Q] is slender and long, hauing a sharpe and 
The sixt extender.  neruous originall, which it taketh from the same protoberation of the arme with the former, afterward becomming fleshy it is mingled with the former vnto the middle of his 
His originall.  belly, so that in their originall they seeme to be but one muscle. It passeth along the Cubit through a cauity common to the Ell and the VVand, and running vnder the transuerse ligament is sometimes diuided into two neruous and round Tendons, sometime it remaineth single. If double, one is implanted into the posterior part of three bones of the 
Implantation.  Ring-finger, the other becomming broader is fastened into the backepart of the 3 bones of the little finger.  
His vse is to extend these fingers and to leade them a little outward, especially the little 
Vse.  finger.  
The seauenth extender[ Ta. 24, fi. 2, and 3, R] lyeth vnder the two former, & ariseth exactly 
The seuenth extender. His originall.  fleshy from the middle of the Ell where you shall meete with a long and rough line made of purpose for the rise of this muscle: thence it descendeth obliquely vnto the Wand and climing ouer the appendix of the wrest is diuided into two tendons,[ ta. 24, fig, 2, o p.] which are transported through a proper cauity in the appendix of the Wand and vnder the transuerse ligament.[ Tab. 22, fig. 2, 3. charact. 4.] The vpper of these Tendons is inserted at the roote of the forefinger for the most part, more rarely at the roote of the thumb, the lower is inserted at the roote of the middle finger, sometimes onely saith Fallopius of the 
Implantation.  fore-finger: both their insertions are oblique, and indeed the whole course of the muscle is oblique. Their vse is to extend those fingers into which they are inserted: beside, that 
Vse.  in extending the fore-finger, it also leadeth it from the Thumbe. 
The eight extender.   
The eight extender which is also the last,( not accounting the Interossei in this place)[ Tab. 22 fig. 1, t and Tab. 24, fig. 1, ●] is seated within the hand. It ariseth short, strong, 
His originall. Implantation.  and fleshy from the fourth bone of the wrest, and passeth by the lower part of the After-wrist, so ascending vnto the roote of the little finger to the outward side of the first bone, in which it is inserted slender and neruous. His vse is to extend the little finger, & withall 
Vse.  to leade it from the rest of the fingers when we desire to comprehend any round forme as a Ball or a Globe in our hands. This muscle resembleth the fashion of a Mouse, because in the beginning and the end it is slender, but in the middest round and thicke.  
And these are all the eight extending muscles. There are also eight more extenders 
The interossei. ( for we reckoned sixteene in the end of the 27 chapter) called interossei, of which we will intreate in the next chapter saue one, because the method and order of dissection requires that we should first speak of those muscles that bend and extend the thumbe.   

CHAP. XXXI. Of the Muscles that bend and extend the Thumbe.  
WEe saide before that there were seauen muscles which did bend the Thumbe, & foure that did extend it.  
The first bender of the Thumbe,[ Tab. 23, fig. 2, and 4. L] is seated in the Cubit 
The 1 bender  and beareth vpon the second bending muscle of the foure fingers,[ Tab. 23, G] to which it is a little continuated at the ioynt betwixt the arme and the Cubit, but they cleaue together in their whole progresse.  
It ariseth with a round and fleshy originall out of that part of the Ell which is nexte the ioynt of the Cubit where it receyueth the head of the Radius or wand, and so it runneth along the wand to which it groweth throughout as if the whole length of the wande did minister vnto it a continuated originall.  
Moreouer, it getteth an additament or encrease by a portion it receyueth from the Membranous Ligament[ tab. 2. 3. fig. 4 *] & then running on to the wrist it determineth into a round and neruous tendon which together with the two benders of the foure Fingers 
Progresse.  creepeth vnder the annular Ligament of the wrist to whose side also it is fastened: In that place it is couered with a propper mucous or slimy membrane and is hidden betweene the muscles which bend the first and second bone of the Thumbe in a cauitie of a bone of the wrist which sustained the thumbe and hollowed onely for this tendons sake. Afterward it is receiued vnder the transuerse ligament of the second bone of the thumbe and dilated into his third ioynt where it is very strongly inserted and serueth 
Munchies.  to bend it. This muscle is thicker then that which bendeth the second finger, because the thumbe is of greater strength and magnitude then the rest of the fingers. In Munkeyes( sayth Bauhine) this Muscle is not found, yet Vesalius describeth a Substitute for it.  
The second Bender of the thumbe[ tab. 23. fig. 1 and 2 K] ariseth fleshy from the vpper 
The 2. Bender  part of the annular or transuerse Ligament which is in the wrist,[ tab. 23. fig. 1 V] and is fastened to all the inner region of the first bone of the thumb, to which also it is fleshily inserted, yet obsourely; it toucheth also the second bone. 
The 3. bender   
The third Bender[ tab. 23. fig. 24. LL] lyeth vnder the second and is farre lesse then it. It ariseth partly out of the same place with the former, partly from that bone of the wrist which lyeth vnder the thumbe and is inserted into the root of the first bone of the thumb as farre as his middle. These two last described muscles doe bend the first ioynt of the 
The vse. of 2 and 3.  thumbe and together with the third extender of the thumbe do make that mountainet or hillocke of flesh which is seated at the roote of the thumbe.  
The fourth Bender[ tab. 23. f. 4. char. 1, 2, 3. do note this muscle with those that follow next] ariseth with a slender and broad originall from that bone of the After-wrist which 
The 4. bender  lyeth before the fore-finger, from thence it proceedeth fleshy yet somewhat narrower, & is inserted with a membranous tendon into that side of the second bone of the thumb which is next the fore finger.  
The fift Bender toucheth the former: is answerable to it in his originall, and being fleshy 
The fifth.  proceedeth out of the middle part of that bone of the After-wrist which lyeth vnder the middle finger. Some part of it also toucheth that bone which lyeth vnder the Ringfinger, and becomming fleshy is inserted with a small tendon into the middle of the second bone of the thumb on the inside.  
The sixt Bender ariseth somewhat broad from that bone of the After-wrist which sustaineth 
The sixth.  the ring-finger, and is inserted into the same place with the former: sometimes also it proceedeth with a neruous original from the bone of the After-wrist which is vnder the little finger where it is ioyned with the wrist.  
[ Table 24. Is the same with Tab. 20. in fol. 783]  
These three muscles seated vnder the line of life, haue a semicircular and distinct original 
The position of the 4. 5 6.  but yet do all determine into one and the same tendon which is tyed to the inner Seedebone which also is the greatest of all the seede-bones in the fingers, and is inserted into the side of the second bone of the same finger. And as those muscles which heereafter we shall call interosses, seated in the after-wrest are carried directly or with a straight line, so those which bend the first bone of the thumbe run somewhat obliquely, and those that bend the second ioynt of the thumbe do run almost transuerse or ouerthwart.  
These Muscles if they be contracted together doe mooue the second ioynt of the 
Their vse.  Thumbe toward the ball of the Hand. If the first of the three mooue alone, the thumb is led vpward toward the fore-finger: if the second it is led vnto the middle finger, if the third then is the thumbe bent downward and toward the little finger.  
The seauenth Bender of the thumbe lyeth vnder these three last, and is fleshy arising 
The seuenth.  from the bone of the After-wrist which sustaineth the fore-finger below the middle, euen at the iuncture thereof with the wrist. It is also ioyned as the three last mentioned, to the second bone of the thumbe hauing a transuerse position, and occupieth the space which is betwixt the thumbe and the fore-finger. The vse of it is to draw the thumbe toward the fore-finger and to lay it thereuppon. And so much of the Bending Muscles of the thumbe.  
The extenders of the Thumbe are foure. The first[ Tab. 24, fig. 1, the lower T] ariseth 
The extenders of the thumbe The first His originall. Insertion.  fleshy from the outside of the cubit at his rough line neare the membranous ligament[ tab. 24. fig. 4, *] which ioyneth the cubit to the Radius, and passing obliquely toward the Wand, before it touch his appendix determineth into a round and neruous Tendon which attaineth vnto the hand through the cauity by which the by-horned muscle of the wrest doth descend vnto the ligament: and is inserted into the whole length of the thumbe on that side which is next the fore-finger as farre as to the third ioynt. His vse is, to extend the thumbe toward the fore finger, and to leade it from the wrist, and therefore moueth it 
and vse.  side-long.  
The second extender[ Tab. 24, fig. 2, 3, V] ariseth fleshy from the same line of the cubit after his length, and climing obliquely ouer the VVand, is diuided into two vnequal parts 
The second. His original.  which cleaue one to another, and is seated in a proper cauity insculped or ingrauen into the appendix of the VVand, and is inuested with a peculiar ligament.[ Tab. 22, fig. 2, and 4. charact. 6.] The vpper part remaining a while fleshy, determineth into a Tendon almost round, and is implanted into the vtter side of that bone of the wrest which lieth vnder the thumbe.[ k] The lower[ l] is subdiuided into two fleshy portions, both which doe end into a Tendon: one of them groweth very strongly to the roote of the first ioynt of 
Implantation.  the thumbe:[ m] the other with a membranous tie cleaueth close to his second and third 
Vse.  bones.[ n] His vse is to extend the thumbe inward.  
The third extender[ Tab. 22, fig. 4. P. Tab. 23, fig. 1, X.] ariseth with a neruous original, 
The third originall.  which presently after becomes fleshy, from the inner part of the bone of the wrest which sustaineth the thumbe. After being carried downward, it is inserted with a membranous 
Insertion. Vse.  Tendon into the first ioynt of the thumbe which it leadeth from the foure-fingers. This muscle with the second and third benders of the thumb maketh that fleshy portion of the palme which is at the roote of the thumbe, wee commonly call it the brawne of the hand.  
The fourth extender[ Tab. 24, fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, Z.] occupies the space which is betwixt the 
The fourth originall.  the thumbe and the fore-finger. It ariseth fleshy, partly also sinewy from the inner and backer part of the bone of the After-wrest which lies vnder the fore-finger, and is fleshily 
Insertion.  inserted on the whole outside into the first ioynt of the thumbe. Moreouer it transmitteth a membranous Tendon to the second, which Fallopius in his Institutions acknowledgeth he hath found, but in his obseruations he saith he could neuer meete with it. This muscle serueth for the laterall motions of the thumbe. It leadeth it also to, and layeth 
His vse.  it vppon the fore-finger. And so much for the muscles of the thumbe as wel benders as extenders. Now we proceede to the muscles of the After-wrest and wrest.   

CHAP. XXXII. Of the Muscles of the After-wrest and the wrest.  
_THE After-wrest called Metacarpium or Postbrachiale, is a part of the hād seated betweene the wrest and the fingers. It hath eight muscles, for in euery 
The After-wrest.  distance betwixt bone and bone, there are two muscles which are fastened to the sides of the bones and therefore are called interossei. Those that arise from the bones to which they grow, are throughout fleshy and run directly 
The muscles called interossei, that is, bone-bound. Their originall Vnion with the woormy muscles.  according to the length of the bones, creepe on the backsides of their fingers, and their tendons are mixed with the tendons of the foure first extending muscles of the fingers which we called the VVorme-muscles. Sometime this mixture is made before their Insertion, so that the wormy and bone-bound Muscles do seeme to make but one broad tendon.  
They are a little gathered or bound together by the Ligament of the first ioynt, and run by the sides to the outward tendons of the fift muscle that distendeth the fingers, into which also they are inserted and with them are the authors of the extension of the second 
Insertion▪ Vse.  and third ioynt of all the Fingers; and because they cleaue to the sides of the fingers, it should seeme they were ordained to part the fingers asunder, and to leade them againe together.  
Hence it is, that if a man be wounded on the outside of the After-wrist, he looseth the motion of the first Ioynts of the fingers, because the muscle which extendeth the finger is cut asunder, yet the second and third ioynts are strongly and quickly extended because these small muscles do remaine sound. These muscles doe make the inward cauitie in 
A note for Surgeons.  the After-wrist so plaine and equall( like as others do the same in the foote) that the particular tendons of these muscles may run directly to the performance of their offices vpon a smooth and soft bed. They are also by this meanes secured from the offence which they could not otherwise but receiue by the hardnesse of the bones vnder them. Finally, they do not suffer those muscles, together with the fat placed aboue them, to bee exiccated or dryed but maintaine and cherish their moysture.  
The next part of the Hand is the wrist called Carpus or Brachiale, and is in the midst betwixt the Cubit and the After-wrist. The motions of the wrist are to be bent, to be extended 
The muscles of the wrest  and to be enclined to eyther side, wherewith also the rest of the hand is mooued with one and the same motion, and all this is performed by the helpe of foure Muscles, whereof two seated within do bend, and two extend which are seated without.  
The first bender which is also the lower,[ tab. 22. f. 1, 3, ●. and tab. 23. f. 1, & tab. 24. f. 1, and 2 Δ] ariseth with an acute originall mixed of a fleshy and neruous substance from the 
The first bender.  inner or lower protuberation of the arme, and being fleshy strengthneth himselfe by adhering vnto the length of the Ell euen vnto the wriste, and for retribution serueth the bone for a pillow, which vse we especially make of it when wee write, for then wee leane vpon this muscle. Presently after, that is to say at the very wrist, it degenerateth into a fleshy and neruous tendon which is implanted into the fourth bone of the wrist called by Galen Os Cartilaginosum, and to the Ligaments of that Ioynt it is connected and compassed about with a common Membrane.[ ν is his beginning and λ his insertion]  
The second Bender or the vpper[ tab. 22 f. 1 and 2. and ta. 23. f. 1 and Θ] ariseth from the 
The second bender.  same protuberation and descendeth obliquely after the length of the wand, but before it come to the roote of the wrist it endeth in a strong tendon which hauing ouer-paste the inside of the wrist becommeth broader and is inserted into the roote of the bone of the After-wrist which sustaineth the forefinger. It groweth also vnto the transuerse Ligament.  
These two Muscles if they worke together do bend the Wrist forward, and secondarily 
The vse of the two Benders.  the hand also: but when one of them onely worketh it moueth obliquely now vpward now downward that part of the wrist into which it is infixed, yet it giueth some ayde to the two Muscles which are seated without.  
The first Extender or the lower[ Tab. 22. f. 4. and tab. 24. f, 1 & 2 A] seated betwixte the first muscle of the wrist and the fift extender of the Fingers, taketh his original aswell 
The first Extender.  from the roote of the externall or vpper protuberation of the arme, as also from the top of the cubite which it embraceth; it runneth through his length, and when it attaineth to the wrist, it is infixed with a round, neruous and strong tendon aboue the appendix of the Cubite into the bone of the After-wrist which lyeth vnder the little Finger, and not farre from the VVrist. Sometimes also before his Insertion, it hath a Seed-bone growing to it.  
The second Extender or the vpper which is also called Bicornis or the two-horned Muscle[ tab. 22, f. 2, 4. c and tab. 21 f. 2. 3, Ξ] ariseth fleshy with a broade beginning from the bony edge which is in the arme aboue the exterior protuberation[ ta. 24. f. 3 Y]. It runneth 
The second Extender.  vpon the wand and aboue the middest of it determineth into a thicke, strong, and double horned tendon, whence it hath his name saith Columbus and Archangelus, and when it hath directly ridden ouer the wrist, the one of them is inserted into the first bone of the After-wrist, which sustaineth the fore-finger and into the extremity or ende of the VV and: the other is infixed into the second bone of the After-wrist, vppon which the middle finger leaneth. Archangelus saith that he hath often sound this two-horned muscle double, that is to say, two muscles; one greater whose originall was neruous, & whose tendon ended below the ioynt of the arme into foure fingers. The other lesse, whose originall was neruous also, but his tendon ended in the middest of the VV and. He addeth also that his tendons are first broade, afterward round.  
These two extending muscles if they worke together, do bend the wrist outward & 
The vse of the ●. extenders.  extend it primarily, secondarily also the band; and are holpen by a portion of the thirde muscle which extendeth the thumbe. Secondarily also they leade the wrist about when one in his motion immediately followeth another. But when one of them onely worketh, then diuers motions are produced: for if eyther they worke asunder, or one of the benders worke together with an extender, it moueth the wrist obliquely and to the side. And thus much of the muscles of the After-wrist and the wrist, now we proceed vnto the muscles of the Chest.   

CHAP. XXXIII. Of the Muscles of Respiration.  
_THE Chest contayneth the Instruments or Organs of life: Life cannot bee maintayned without Respiration, neither can Respiration bee performed 
Why the chest moueth.  without motion; it followeth therefore that the Chest must needs be moued for Respiration sake. If it be demanded why Respiration is so necessary, we answere, because of the high and great heat of the Heart, which by the ayre attracted in Respiration is refrigerated and cooled, euen as a mans face in Summer is cooled by a fan that wafteth fresh ayre vnto it.  
Now the Chest is moued either by itself or by accident when it followeth the motion of the spine or Rackbones of the backe, for when the backe is bent the Chest is also bent with it.  
It is moued by itself and with a proper and peculiar motion for Respiration sake, 
His different motions.  which Respiration is accomplished by a double motion of the Chest: which is dilated when Inspiration is made, that is, when we draw the ayre into our Longues and so coole the heat of our Hearts; or contracted in Expiration, that is, when the ayre is driuen back through the Rough artery for the generation of the voyce, and the sooty excrements are blowne away least the heart should be suffocaced by them.  
In these motions of the chest wee must consider notwithstanding, that in Inspiration the lower parts of the chest are dilated and the vpper angustated or straytned: on the contrary in Expiration the lower are constringed or straytned, the vpper dilated. And 
Why not bony.  this was the reason why the Chest was not made of one bone as was the Scull, But of many, which also are ioyned together by gristles that their motion might be more pliant and easie.  
But as the heart is moued with Naturall motion, so the Chest is moued partly with Naturall partly with Voluntary motion: with Natural; because in our sleepe it is moued 
The kinde of motion.  Naturally not according to our Will. VVith Voluntary, for wee haue read of some that by reteining their breath haue hastned death vpon themselues. As for the Longues they follow the motion of the Chest especially to auoyde vacuity, as well in those that sleepe as in those that are awake.  
Philosophers doe differ much concerning these motions, but because we haue already touched vppon their disputation in the tenth question of the sixt Booke, wee will not here Tautoligize though haply we might say something now, because this Volume groweth far beyond that extent which was first limitted for it.  
The Chest therefore needed Muscles for Respiration, Respiration is absolued by his Diastole or dilatation when we breath in, & by his Systole or contraction when we breath out. 
How respiration is made The number of the muscles of respiration.  These Muscles are in all 65. on each side 32. that is to say, 22. Intercostal Muscles, 11. internall and as many externall, and one which is common to both sides called septum transuersum or the Midriffe. Of these we haue spoken before in the fourth and fift Chapters of the sixt Booke.  
There remaine yet the proper Muscles of the Chest, sixe on either side, vnlesse it please you to adde three more according to Falopius: Finally, the Muscles of the Abdomen( which helpe also our Respiration) are on each side foure beside the Pyramidals or Spirie Muscles, so that the whole summe will now amount to 7●.  
Of these some are Common, as the Muscles of the Abdomen which beside Respiration 
2. kinds of respiration.  doe serue also for other purposes, others are Proper and serue for Respiration alone. But Respiration is double, one free or naturall, the other constrayned or violent.  
That we call Free which is done gently and easily, that is, when in Inspiration there is 
Free.  without constraint so much ayre drawne in as may suffice for the generation of vitall spyrits, and in Expiration when a part of the attracted ayre is againe gently returned for the generation of the voyce, and both these are wrought by the motion of the Midriffe alone.  
The first by the Contraction of the Midriffe wherein the end of the bastard ribs are gathered a little vpward, the lower and forward part of the Chest angustated or straitned and the backepart inlarged to the Racke-bones, the seauen lower ribbes parted as it were asunder and so the Chest dilated.  
The second, when the Midriffe is relaxed or loosened, for then the Chest doeth easily 
Violent.  fall with his owne waight. We call that Respiration constrained, when the Dilatation or contraction of the chest is euident, that is, when in Inspiration the breath is drawne with violence or vehemencie, as it happeneth when the heart is too much heated: and in Expiration when the ayre is forcibly blowne out, as when wee would speake or hallow aloude, when we would cough or sneese, or else when vpon expulsion it is retained when we would make vse of the midrife in euacuation of excrements or such like.  
This respiration is absolued by sixtie foure muscles assisted by the midriffe, yet so that in Inspiration fewer muscles do labour them in Expiration. In Inspiration, that which is 
How the muscles moue.  called Subclauius, Serratus maior, Serratus posticus superior & inferior, and Falopius his 3. muscles. The Intercostall muscles doe also conferre to this businesse; but that by accident onely. In Expiration more muscles are required, because we breath out with greater strength then we breathe in; these are called Sacrolumbus, triangularis, and all the Intercostalls; for the exteriour doe leade the lower ribs upward, and the interior the vpward ribs downeward. The eight muscles of the Abdomen, and haply in great necessities the muscles of the arm and the shoulder blades do lend their helping hands. The Intercostal muscles we wil here altogether passe ouer, as also the midriff, because we haue spoken of them at large before. The muscles of the Abdomen we referre vnto the next chapter, here we will onely handle the proper muscles of the chest, which grow thereto. These are accounted by Galen eight, and so many they are indeed in Apes; but in men there are but sixe in either side commonly receiued, to which Falopius addes three.  
Two of these muscles are seated before, the one called Subclauius, the other Triangularis, 
The position of the muscles.  one occupieth the sides called Serratus maior, the rest lie vpon the back part, three in the backe, two called Serrati postici, and the third Sacrolumbus; three in the necke, and 
Tab. 2 Sheweth the muscles especially of the chest, the head, and of the shoulder ●●de.  
TABVLA XXV.  

A, The fourth muscle of the Chest or the vpper & hinder Saw-muscle.  
B, the 5 muscle of the chest or the lower and hinder Saw muscle.  
a, b, A membranous beginning of the muscle of the Abdomen, descending obliquely downe from the spine of the backe.  
C, the 1 muscle extending the Cubit at c his original is from the necke of the arme, and from the lower basis of the blade at d.  
E, the originall of the fourth muscle of the Bone hyois from the blade.  
G, G, the outward intercostal muscles.  
I. the Clauicle or Collerbone bared.  
N the vpper, the 2 muscle of the arme cald Deltois  
Char, 4, 5, the beginning of this muscle.  
N, the third muscle of the arme or the broad muscle separated.  
O, the fourth muscle of the arme or the lower Super Scapularis or bladerider.  
1, 2, 3 char: His originall at the basis of the shoulder blade at 12 and his insertion into the ioynt of the arme at 3.  
Q, the sixt muscle of the arme or the vpper Super-Scapularis.  
X, The fourth muscle of the blade called Leuator or the heauer.  
Z, The second muscle of the chest or the greater sawe muscle.  
7. 7. Char. The ribs.  
Γ, The sixt muscle of the chest, or the muscle caled Sacrolumbus.  
Λ, The first muscle of the head or the splinter.  
EE, the second muscle of the head or the insertion of the muscles called complex.  
Φ, The 2. muscle of the back or the longest muscle  
Ω. The fourth muscle of the backe called Semispinatus.   these are they which we said before were propounded by Fallopius. But by Vesalius are esteemed to be parts of those muscles which occupy the necke and the back, but we come to the particulars.  
The first proper muscle of the chest is called Subclauius.[ tab. 17, Y. tab. 22, fig. 3, Y. The 
1. subclauius.  reason of the name is, because it is seated vnder the coller-bone which is called Clauicula, for it filleth that space which is betwixt the clauickle and the first rib.  
This muscle ariseth fleshy from the inner and lower part of the clauickle which is next to the rib, runneth obliquely forward, and is fleshily implanted into the vpper part of the first rib which is ioyned to the brest bone. His fibres are very oblique, yea almost transuerse. The vse of it is to draw the first rib vpward and outward, and so the cauity of the chest is dilated.  
The second muscle is called Serratus maior or the greater saw-muscle.[ tab. 10, 17, 25. ●.] It is a large muscle, situated in the side of the chest, broade also and euery way fleshy. 
2 Serratus maior.  His originall is large and fleshy from all the inner basis of the blade, and towards the ribs it is dilated, coucheth vpon them, is tyed to the by fibres, and is inserted as it were diuided into fingers into the eight vpper, sometimes also into the ninth rib, before they do determine into their gristles. And these insertions of thes muscles are acute or sharp because of the tendons which descend obliquely with points like the teeth of 2 Saw, to meet with the teeth of the oblique descendent muscles of Abdomen, with which they are finger-fanged as also is the lower and backeward Saw.  
The vse of this muscle is by the collection of his fibres in great and violent constraintes or endeuours to draw the eight ribbes outward, and so to dilate the chest. But in dogs and Apes it is not onely inserted into the eight ribs, but implanted also in the transuerse processes of the fourth, fifth, sixt and seauenth rackbones of the necke, or if you please it ariseth therefrom.  
The third proper muscle of the chest is called Serratus posticus superior[ tab. 25, A] the vpper backe-saw. It lyeth in the backe vnder the muscle called Rhomboides or the thirde 
3. Serratus posticus sup.  muscle of the blade, betwixt both the blades and aboue the first muscle of the head. A little muscle it is, and ariseth broade and membranous from the spines of the three lower rack-bones of the necke and the first of the chest. Afterward it passeth a little obliquely vnder the blade, becommeth fleshy, and being diuided into three parts is inserted into the three distances of the foure vpper ribs.  
The vse of it is to draw the ribs vpward, to which it is implanted by contracting his fibres, and so the chest is dilated and the hinder cauity thereof inlarged.  
The fourth is called serraetus posticus inferior, the lower backe saw[ tab. 25, B] and seated 
4. Serratus posti. infer.  almost in the middle of the backe vnder the broade muscle that is the third muscle of the arme. It ariseth membranous, neruous, broade and almost quadrangular like a combe as the other, but broader then it from the spines of the two lower rack-bones of the chest, sometimes of the three, sometimes also from the vpper rackes of the loynes. Afterward it passeth ouerthwart and lyeth vpon the muscles of the backe, and beeing increased with fleshy fibres is inserted at the distances of the foure lower ribs before they determine into gristles. The insertion is made into the ribs themselues, and the muscle at the insertion diuided as it were into fingers. It is much broader in men then in apes and dogs and in dogs larger then in apes.  
The vse of this muscle is to draw the three or foure lower ribs outward, and so doth dilate the lower part of the chest as we saide the second muscle did dilate the vpper part.  
The fift muscle is called Sacrolumbus[ Tab. 10,[ 〈◇〉] sayeth Laurentius it ariseth from 
5. Sacrolumbus.  the Oss sacrum and the spines of the Lumbi or loynes. This muscle may be thought to be common as well to the chest as to the backe. It lyeth vnder the former, and ariseth fleshy from the backe part of the holy-bone, and the vpper and inner part of the haunch bone. Afterward it creepeth vpward fastening itself to the transuerse processes of the rackes of the loynes, and as farre as to the lower racke of the chest, is mixed with the long muscle of the backe,[ tab. 10, at φ] so that a skilfull hand can very hardly separate them, and therfore it is esteemed but a portion thereof.[ tab. 10, α, β.] A little aboue the lower rack-bone of the chest it departeth from the other muscles to which it did grow, and becomming by degrees more slender, is inserted obliquely with round tendons not altogether fleshy produced from the outward side[ ta. 10, yy.] into sixe protuberations of the lower ribs which are their rootes. From thence as Fallopius rightly obserued, are produced sixe new fleshy 
Fallopius his 6. new muscles.  muscles neruous both in their originall and insertion, and are implanted into the sixe vpper ribs: so that from the twelfth rib where this muscle is inserted there ariseth a certaine tendon, which becomming fleshy and climing vpward looseth his flesh againe and is infixed into the sixt rib, carrying the resemblance of a slender muscle. In like manner from the eleuenth rib proceedeth another Tendon which is inserted into the fift rib, and one also from the tenth which is inserted into the fourth, one from the ninth into the third; finally, from the eight and the seauenth which are implanted into the first ribs.  
All these Tendons doe resemble distinct Muscles, yet they are so commixed together and with the Sacrolumbus in the surface that they seeme to bee partes thereof whereas indeed they are not, so sayth Falopius in his obseruations. VVherefore when as the Sacrolumbus draweth the sixe inferior ribs backward and therewith downward, it moueth also together with them the sixe vpper foresayde additaments which are called ansulae or the handles, and so constringeth the Chest.  
The sixt proper Muscle of the Chest hath his name from the forme and is called Triangularis or the triangular Muscle, because it consisteth of two long sides & one short. 
The 6 proper muscle.  It is seated within the cauity of the Chest vnder the breast-bone: little it is and slender, & in some men especially if they bee leane, there appeareth nothing fleshy in it. In some parts it is like a neruous Membrane stuffed with flesh.  
It ariseth from the lower part of the Breast-bone and passeth obliquely vpward and 
His originall.  outward, growing to the gristles of the true ribs euen vnto the second: and this is the reason why the Intercostall Muscles and those which are called Intercartilaginei, that is, betwixt the gristles doe appeare diuers, because of their diuers fibres. The vse of this muscle is to leade the gristles of the ribs together, and so to constringe the Chest or to presse down the forepart therof so much as is necessary for Respiration, but in Dogs it is wholly fleshy and occupyeth the whole side of the Breast-bone.  
Falopius is of opinion that the first and third Muscle are too weake to suffice for the eleuation 
Falopius his 3. muscles.  of the Chest, for hee esteemeth the second rather to bee a moouer of the blade; and therefore he sayth that there are three other muscles which performe this office placed in the necke, which Vessalius in his Apology accounteth for partes of these Muscles which occupy the necke and the backe.  
The first of these three ariseth with a neruous beginning from the inside of the transuerse processes of the 3. 4. 5. and sixt Racke-bones of the necke; then becomming more fleshy it is infixed into the first ribbe which it lifteth vp, and together with it the whole Chest.  
The second is called Scalenus, because his figure is vnequally triangular,[ Ta. 29. Λ Table 13. CC.] It ariseth fleshy from the transuerse processes of all the racke-bones of the neck, the first and the second being sometimes excepted, and hath a fleshy insertion into the first rib, sometimes also into the second. This also serues to lift vp the chest.  
The third and last ariseth from the transuerse processes of the fourth and fifth racks of the necke, and is implanted with a fleshy termination into the second ribbe sometimes into the third, and lifteth vp the rib into which it is implanted.  
By these three Muscles therefore and the vpper back saw, Falopius conceiueth that the chest is eleuated. And thus much shall suffice to haue sayde concerning the muscles of chest. Now follow the Muscles of the Abdomen.   

CHAP. XXXIIII. Of the Muscles of the Abdomen or Paunch.  
_THere bee tenne Muscles which couer the nether Belly, on either side fiue called the Muscles of the Abdomen which are placed in this order. First do 
The order of the muscles of the Abdomen.  appeare two obliquely or sidelong Descending and as many Ascending, which haply may more rightly bee distinguished if they bee called the oblique externall and oblique internall, for they all ascend or descend equally as a mans eye please. Next two Pyramidall, after them two Right Muscles, and last of all two Transuerse or ouerthwart, so called according to the leading of the fibres which doe mutually deuide themselues, as rightly so obliquely and sidelong.  
The oblique or sidelong descending, or oblique externall Muscles[ Tab. 26. A B] so called of their oblique fibres[ Ta. 26. H] are placed in the sides: they are of a Triangle Figure, and amongst all the Muscles of the Abdomen the greatest and the broadest. These where they are more fleshy proceede from the top of the haunch-bone,[ Table 26. f] and from thence haue their strength and firmenesse; more neruous they proceede from the share-bone[ Ta. 26. g] where they are perforated, and membranous from the membrane 
Their situatiō  springing out of the Ligaments of the spondels or racke-bones of the loynes: and so rise vpward and ending somewhat fleshily do cleaue to seauen, sometimes to eight of the lower ribs before they determine or end into their gristles.  
That they doe arise from below it is manifest, because by all mens consent they serue to dilate the Breast and so helpe Inspiration; and therefore they must end in the Breast and not arise thence from, because it is a ruled Axiom that euery Muscle draweth toward his owne originall not toward his insertion. They are therefore inserted into the great Saw-muscle[ Tab. 26. ee Ta. 27. p Ta. 28. ooo] at the 6. 7. 8. and 9. ribs as it were with[ Ta. 26. bb] a Finger-fould, as also into the lower backe-Saw at the three lowest ribbes: sometimes they are ioyned to the Pectorall muscle with a thin neruous Tendon. Forward they[ Ta. 26. cc] are carried with a broad neruous and membranous Tendon, and in the middle of the Abdomen doe so mingle themselues at the white Line[ Ta. 26. ddd] that they make as it were a coate which spreadeth ouer all the Abdomen. These Muscles are ioyned also to those vnder them by the interposition of a slimy substance like fast glew.  
This white Line[ Tab. 26. ddd. Ta. 27. cc Ta. 28. ●●] is in the middle of the abdomen, bred out of the concourse or meeting of all the Tendons of these muscles except the right. For 
The white line.  the Tendons of the oblique muscles are so closely vnited, that it seemeth but one tendon, and the Tendons of the inferior oblique do grow to the tendons of the transuerse where the right Muscles doe separate themselues, and so meete in one line, into which also the Pyramidall or spiry Muscles are implanted.  
This Line beginning at the Sword-like Cartilage or the Brest-blade neruous, passeth vnto the commissure or ioyning together of the share-bones: aboue the Nauell it spreadeth itself broader, but below it is narrower and is therfore white, because there is no flesh or red foyle vnder it. It serueth to hould together all the Muscles as in a common 
The vse.  end or termination, that so the right Muscles might remaine in the right side and the left in the left, and neither bee halled ouer his limits. It hath also sometimes Fatte lying vppon it.  
The oblique ascendent[ Tab. 26. D Ta. 27. i reflected from the abdomen] or oblique internall 
The oblique internall.  muscles which doe intersect the former with their oblique ascendent fibres like S. Andrewes Crosse, or in the manner of the Greeke Letter χ[ Table 26. IH] doe occupy the middle part of the abdomen, and are of a Triangular Figure. They arise fleshy from the appendixe of the haunch-bone, and membranous from the membrane before named, & 
Their original  the spines of the Holy-bone, and being increased with fleshy fibres and couering the hanches doe ascend vpward, and becomming fleshy are knit vnto the gristles of the foure lower ribbes, and so are brought to the forepart of the abdomen, and end in a broad neruous and membranous Tendon: which when it meeteth with the right[ Tab. 27. h] Muscles is 
Their tendōs.  diuided into two tendons, one of which passeth aboue the right Muscle, the other creepeth vnder it( for which cause Galen writeth that the right muscles are not couered with any externall muscle, meaning there by muscle flesh, for that that couers them is indeede but a Tendon:) so that by this imbracement the length of the right Muscles is fortified and kept safe from solution or breaking, and as it were hemmed in the middest of three muscles; where they do not as before couer the muscle after the manner of a membrane, but doe so adhere to the intersections and partitions of the right Muscles, that their tendon can be very hardly seuered from them.  
Being passed the right Muscles, they againe mingle themselues, are firmely and closly knit and vnited, and so goe hence away to the white Line[ Ta. 27. ee] framing as it were another membrane, and aboue doe meete with the sword-like Cartilage or Gristle of the Chest. Below they meete a little vnder the Nauel, but the vpper Tendon is inserted into the share-bones.  
These foure Muscles haue Veines and Arteries from the Muscle-veine and Artery, 
Their vessels.  springing about the Loynes which are disseminated through all the region of the Abdomen and the Peritoneum or Rimme of the Belly: they receiue nerues also from the last spondels or racke bones of the Chest, which are inserted according as the leadings of the fibres are.  
The proper vse of the externall oblique Muscles is, when they worke together obliquely, to compresse the vpper and side parts of the lower belly on either side, and of the 
Table 26. Sheweth all the muscles of the lower belly, on the left side the oblique muscles, and on the right side the Piramidall, the right and the transuerse.  
TABVLA. XXVI.  

A, The vpper part of the oblique externall or descending muscle not separated, wherein his connexion at b b, with the Saw-muscle at e e is declared, and his implantation at C C into the white line at d d.  
B B, The lower part of the oblique descending muscle separated from the white line at d.  
C C, His tendon.  
D, The oblique descending muscle.  
E E, the right muscle on the right side, from which both the oblique muscles are remoued, 1, 2, 3, The intersections of the right muscles.  
F, the Piramidal muscle on the right hād, for both the left & the right pyramidal muscles are vnder the oblique.  
f, The fleshy originall of the oblique externall muscles from the haunch bone.  
g, Their beginning from the share-bone as also the Piramidall muscles original.  
G G, The transuerse muscle.  
H H, The fibres of the oblique ascending muscle.  
I, The fibres of the oblique descending muscle that so the decussation may appeare.  
K K, The fibres of the transuerse muscle.   oblique Internall in like manner to compresse the lower and side parts: but wee must not conceiue that all the lower belly is by these muscles compressed, because their Tendons reach but a little below the Nauill. The compression is therefore made on either side but to the top of the groyne, for they are inserted into the gristly and moouable partes of the Ribbes.  
The Pyramidall Muscles, so called from their forme like a Pyramis or Broch, arising from the outside of the sharebone[ Ta. 26. F Ta. 27, g] with a fleshy and narrow beginning 
The Pyramidal muscles  siding together like two parts of a spire,( for they are seldome so vnited that they make but one muscle) doe clime with oblique fibres ouer the heads of the right muscles from whom they are distinguished by a peculiar membrane and different fibres; and do end in the white line( neuer in the right muscles) with an acute tendon of their owne, but one longer then another; neyther in length exceeding the breadth of foure fingers: but these 
They are oftē wanting.  though they be most commonly seene in dissections, yet in many bodies they are wanting, although Fallopius neuer dissected body but he found them.  
The vse of these spiry muscles is to compresse the bladder, for if one of them work alone, it draweth the white line obliquely downeward. If they worke together, they 
The vse of the spiry muscles.  draw it directly downeward, and so compresse a part of the groine and the bladder therevnder, when we make water at leysure. For if wee force our water with any violence, then the other muscles of the Abdomen doe also helpe, pressing the whole paunch & with it the bladder. And if we marke ourselves in such strainings we shall manifestly perceiue, that the Abdomen is contracted downeward; and hence it is that they are also called Succenturiati the assistant muscles because they helpe all the rest.  
And if at any time( as it happeneth but seldome) these pyramidall muscles bee wanting, then the oblique ascendents doe not take their first originall from the appendix of the haunch-bone, but lower from a strong ligament which runneth from the aforesaid appendix vnto the share-bone, and then they vrge obliquely downeward what soeuer is vnder the groyne as is the bladder of vrine. They also adde strength to the heads of the right muscles to which also they serue as a defence. Whereuppon some haue imagined them( though fasly) to be another originall of the right muscles. For if wee gently auoide our vrine neyther the inspiration nor expiration is interrupted, which it certainely would be if they were parts of the right muscles, because when the right muscles are contracted, the chest also is compressed, whence it would follow that when by the contraction of these muscles we would exclude our vrine, we cannot draw in breath till wee remit or loosen the intention of the muscles.  
The Right muscles[ Tab. 26, ●●. Tab. 27, a. Tab. 28, they hang downe and are marked with II.] haue their name both from their right fibres, and because they are placed according 
The right muscles.  to the straight length of the body: they are situated vnder the neruous thinnesse of the oblique, and in some places ioyned vnto them: they occupy the higher place, wherevpon 
Their tumors how knowne.  their tumors being longer then round, may easily be distinguished from the tumors of other parts by their position. Their originall is neruous from the fore and vpper[ ta. 27, bb, Tab. 28, charact. 1 2.] part of the share-bone,( not from the brest because the bones 
Their original  of the share, hips and haunches are not moued) but presently they become more fleshie, 
and insertion.  and climing ouer the belly about the nauill do seeme as it were to bee vnited[ Tab. 27, f] which yet is but the vicinity of their originall: but by how much they ascend higher by so much are they more seuered[ Tab. 27, c c] and grow broader, and doe at length grow to the Cartilages or gristles of the lowest true ribs at the sides of the brest-bone with a fleshy and ample insertion.[ Tab. 27, cc.] They are fleshy and strong the better to compresse 
Their intersections.  the foreside of the Abdomen, and haue three seldome foure intersections or partitions very neruous and transuerse or ouerthwart[ Tab. 26, charact. 1, 2, 3, Tab. 27, ddd] as it were banked or knotted asunder, so that they seeme to be not one, but many paire of right muscles, diuided and distinguished by the tendring or oblique bending of their fibres to these surfled intersections.  
These intersections are firme and solid membranes, whereof one is vnder the Nauill, two and sometimes three aboue it; all which are ordained eyther to strengthen the muscle which is appointed for especiall hard imployment, perticularly in deepe expirations; or else that being obliquated or shelued after the round figure of the Abdomen and fastened with the tendons of the oblique ascendents they might more closely presse the Peritonaeū.  

Table 27. Sheweth the Right, the Transuerse, and the Pyramidall Muscles.  
TABVLA. XXVII.  

A A, The right muscles of the Abdomen.  
b b, Their neruous originall.  
c c, their implantation.  
d d d d d d, their intersections.  
e e, the white line where the right muscles doe depart one from another.  
f, the coniunction of the right muscles vnder the Nauill.  
g, The Piramidall muscles.  
h, the membrane of the oblique ascending muscle which cleaueth fast vnto the tendon of the trāsuerse muscle & so attaineth vnto the right muscle.  
i, the oblique ascending muscle here reflected from the Abdomen.  
k k, the production of the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly with the seede vessels.  
l l l, the transuerse muscles:  
m, the groynes.  
n, the circles which shew the bodies of the yard cut away.  
o, the share-bone without flesh.  
p p, the greater Saw-muscle.  
q, the lesser Saw-muscle.  
r s, t, His amplitude and fastening to the ribs.   um. They haue veines which we call Recurrents, and arteries from the Epigastricke[ tab. 28. 11. fig. 2. b]( from which also branches are sent to the neck of the womb) diuided into many surcles or tendrils for their nourishment and life. VVhich being led vpward vnder their bodyes are about the nauell,[ tab. 28. fig. 2. cc.] ioyned with the internall māmary or pap[ tab. 28. fig. K● fig. a.] veynes( which descend vnder the brest bone) by Anastomosis, that is, inoculation of their extremities.  
VVhich Anastomosis or kinde of vnion is the reason of the great consent betweene the 
Anastomosis what it is.  wombe and the paps, the Abdomen and the nosthrils. This consent of the wombe with the paps, is also increased by certaine internal veins, one called the Axillarie which goeth vnto the paps, and by the branches of the Hypogastricall, which are distributed vnto the wombe. [ Tab. 28. is the same with Tab. 5. in the 2. Booke, fol. 78.]  
They haue sometimes foure nerues most what proceeding out of the middest of the last spondels or rackbones of the chest and so reaching to their hanked or surfled intersections or distinctions. Their proper vse is to driue the highest and middle part of 
The vse of the right muscle.  the lower belly not downeward but directly to the spine, to compresse it and to presse downe the lower parts of the chest by drawing them directly downeward. They helpe vs also in violent Expirations.  
The transuerse or ouerthwart muscle,[ Tab. 26. G G. tab. 27. 111. and tab. 28. M. a part of 
The transuers muscles.  it is reflected,] is placed ouerthwart the belly, and so named from the transuerse[ tab. 26. K K.] fibres which run through the bredth of their bodyes. These are vndermost and doe arise neruous from the inward endes of the bastard ribs, and the membrane twice before spoken of, and are inserted, being become more fleshy to the hanch bones,[ Tab. 28. N. where the hanche bones is bared, at which the transuerse and oblique muscles do meete and are implanted,] which after they haue inuested and attained to the vtmost sides of the right muscles toward the middle of the Abdomen they couer all the rest of it with a brode neruous and membranous tendon like that of the oblique muscle, and tend vpward to the swordlike cartilage or brest blade, forward to the right line and downeward to the groyne, and doe so closely adhere or cleaue to the peritonaeum, that in a man they can scarse be cleanly separated from it, but in the groyne this Aponeurosis or brode tendon forsaketh the peritonaeum or rime, and leaueth it bare.  
Their vessels they receiue like their oblique muscles. Their proper vse is to compresouerthwart the middle and laterall partof the lower belly, and especially the collicke gut. The tendons of these as also of the oblique muscles are perforated at the exiture of the nauell to giue way to the vmbilical or nauel vessels, & again, on both sides neare the share bone, that the preparing vessels of seede may descend through them to the testicles, and the eiaculatory may ascend to the prostates which are annexed to the necke of the bladder. Through these perforations[ tab. 28. **.] the inward coate of the peritonaum being broken, or by stretching being dilated, the guts or the Kell slipping downe, cause the Hernia or Rupture. Beside those perforations common to both sexes, they are also bored in women for the passage of those sinewy processes which are called Cremasteres, which doe reach vnto the vtter part of the lappe, whereupon women are troubled with the Bubonocele, and of it are cured by section.  
That the transuerse haue an inward situation, the right a middle, and the oblique an externall; a reason may be giuen from the Chyrurgicall deligations or ligatures, because ouerthwart bandes doe presse or constraine more then right, and right more then oblique 
The reason of their situation from their vse  or side bands.  
All these muscles of the Abdomen whose substance is partly membranous partly fleshy that they might be stronger for motion haue this common vse with other muscles, that whilest they are at rest they serue for a muniment or defence vnto the parts subiected vnder them, beside they contayne or hold the inward parts within their precinct, and 
The vse of the muscles of the Abdomen, in generall  keepe the body warme.  
Particularly when they are together contracted toward their originals, and curued inward, the soft entrals giuing way vnto them, and are helped by the midriffe, depressed vpon the retention of the breath, then doe they equally and all ouer compresse the lower belly,( for if they worke seuerall, they presse sometimes one part, sometimes another) by which compression the excrements which are violently thrust downe into the great guts and there retayned at the fundament by the sphincter muscle are thrust out by a reclusion or opening of the passage and a relaxation of that sphincter, and there thereupon they be called the instruments of Excretion by Galen in the 15. chapter of his fifth booke de vsu partium. But because the compression is equall from euery part, these excrements should as well be pressed vp to the stomach, as downe to the fundament, sauing that the midriffe by his oblique situation and the breath retayned, doth driue them downward and helpe Excretion. They assist the Mother also in the time of the birth, by constringing or binding the Hypochondria and by drawing downe the ribs. They help also the motions of the Chest, for sayeth Galen in the 14. chapter of the fift booke de vsu partium, they forme the voyce, serue to Inspiration and Expiration and in strong Efflations, as when a man windeth a Horne: yea sayeth Galen they helpe vs also to hould our breath.  
Wherefore because these Muscles doe night and day assist the breast in Respiration and the lower belly but at sometimes when wee would vnburthen it, therefore they may be thought to be principally ordayned for the motion of the Chest. Againe, because the Chest hath many other Muscles which doe distend and contract it, but the lower belly these alone; it may therefore bee imagined that their primary vse is to bee referred to the lower belly, their secondary to the Chest.  
Finally, if each Muscle worke by itself, then the oblique descendent drawes the haunch obliquely to his owne side, the right to the right side, the left to the left: the oblique 
The worke of each muscle alone,  ascendent leadeth the chest obliquely to the haunches; the transuerse drawes the paunch, the right into the right side, the left into the left.  
It is also worthy obseruation that the figure of these Muscles whether they labour or rest at quiet, is other and different from the figure of other muscles: for these of the abdomen 
Their figure why differing from other muscles.  before they worke are crooked, & in their contraction hauing soft bodies vnder them they are bended or crooked inwarde: all other muscles whilest they are at rest are right, when they labour they are curued and bent outward, because of the bones a amst which otherwise they should offend. And thus much of the Muscles of the Abdomen: now we proceed vnto the backe.   

CHAP. XXXV. Of the Muscles of the Backe.  
_THe Muscles of the Backe as also of the whole Spine are so diuers, so mixed and knit together, that some Anatomists daue deuided them into more, others 
Why the muscles of the backe are so wouen together.  into fewer muscles, being led thereunto by reason of the infinite originals of the fibres and the multitude of their insertions. All this variety Arantius doth very wisely ascribe to the admirable wisedome of Nature, who hath therefore intertexed and wouen one within another these Muscles of the Backe, yea rather allowed them continual and indiuisible particles, that they might the better sustain and accomplish those strong and violent actions ouer which they haue the commaund. For if power vnited be the stronger, then certainly if many muscles doe conspire together into one motion they will bee better able to absolue it. The Muscles therefore of the Backe together with the racke-bones were made to rayse vp and there to hold the whole bulke of the body, which is established vpon the holy-bone as vpon his foundation. We 
They haue no antagonists.  say therefore with Galen in the 24. chapter of his Book de dissect. muscul. that because these muscles cannot by any meanes be truely separated, either there must bee so many payres as there be racke-bones, or else we must say that there is one only paire offering tedinous distributions to all the vertebrae. And of this payre if one Muscle worke, the spine is extended and inclined into his side; when they both woorke equally, the Spine bending on neither hand by reason of their intention or remission is recurued backward.  
But whereas almost all Muscles haue their Antagonists, that is, the authours of a contrary action to theirs( and therefore haue experience of their mutuall action and passion with an interposition of rest in the middle figure) yet notwithstanding these muscles of the Spine( if you except the bending muscles of the necke) haue no Antagonists or contraries.  
For because the inner Region of the Chest and the Loynes are destinated to those most noble entralles which serue for Respiration or Nourishment, it seemed not good to Nature to aduenture to impeach their actions by any instruments of voluntary motion. Whence it is that when these Muscles are relaxed( as they are in old men as well by reason of the waight and weaknesse of the body, as also because they abound with Phlegmatick humors) they are not able to containe or hold the body vpright. Notwithstanding Anatomists, because they haue obserued especially in Dancers and Tumblers, that the back is moued forward, backeward, to the sides, and almost semicircularly, they haue resolued 
Foure paires of the backe.  that for the performance of these motions there are on either side foure muscles, Laurentius maketh ten. Siluius but sixe.  
The first payre are called Quadrati the square muscles,[ Tab. 17, ΣΣ, Tab. 11, & 29. Σ.] they arise broad, thicke and fleshy from the backward and vpward cauity of the haunchbone, and from the inner and vpper of the holy-bone, and lye as it were square vpon the rackes of the loynes, vp which they climbe on the inside of the Abdomen. There they are a little streightened and cleauing to the transuerse processes of the rackes of the loines are fleshily inserted in the lower part of the twelfth rib.  
The fibres of this muscle do ascend from without inward and obliquely vpward, and those which proceede from the holy-bone are inserted into the lowest rack of the loines: the rest of the fibres which succeede these toward the haunch-bone, doe by degrees determine into the vpper rackes, so that in the whole course of this muscle the fibres are inserted to the transuerse processes of the rackes of the loynes, and to their sides.  
Their vse is to bend the rackes of the loynes or the lower part of the backe with the right motion forward, but if one of them worke alone, then is the flexion oblique and the backe drawne to one side and together forward. The forme of this muscle in dogs and apes differeth much from his forme in men.  
[ Table 29. is the same with Table 12. folio 770.]  
The second payre called Longissimi,[ Tab. 10, 11, 35] are indeed the longest muscles in the whol body of man, for they reach from the lower end of the holy-bone vnto the first racke-bone of the chest, sometime to the mamillary processe of the temple-bones. They are like the fift paire of muscles of the chest called Sacrolumbi,[ Tab. 11, Γ] to which in 
Position.  their originall and their processe thorow the loynes, they do grow as if they were a part of that paire. They are also the largest of all the muscles of the backe.  
They arise with a very neruous, strong, and acute originall[ Tab. 12,] from the top of the spine of the holy-bone[ Tab. 11, L] passing through his length and from the spines of the fiue racke-bones of the loynes.  
In the inside of the haunch-bone[ tab. 29, Φ] where they are ioyned to the holy-bone they produce a neruous originall, saith Fallopius: a fleshy, saith Vesalius, vnder which neruous originall as vnder a certaine ligament or couering lurketh another originall very fleshy.  
From hence ascending at the outer-side they become fleshy and are inserted in the transuerse processes of the racke-bones of the loynes: as also into all the transuerse processes of the racke-bones of the chest, growing by degrees narrower from the eleuenth into the first, where they offer one neruous tendon on the inside like a neruous handle,[ Tab. 11, MM] which is spread vpward obliquely toward the outside, like as the muscles called Sacrolumbi did from the out-side offer a tendon along all the ribs. Sometime also they 
Termination.  determine into the first vertebra of the chest: sometime departing frō the processes they ascend vnto the mammillary processe of the temple-bone and there end.  
On their inside because of the thicknesse of the fleshy part and the tenuity or slendernesse of the neruous, there is grauen through their length a certaine Sinus or bosome,[ ta. 29, betwivt φ and a] 
A sinus in thē.  to giue way to the third muscle of the backe which is called Sacer.  
Their vse is directly to extend the backe and the loynes if they be contracted together Columbus and Archangelus thinke that they bend the whole backe & head also backward, so that our body thereby may be compassed into a halfe circle, which kind of Posture we may see in Tumblers when they play their feates. But if one of them onely be contracted, the spine is extended on one side, for their fibres are oblique.  
The third paire are called Sacri, or the holy muscles,[ Tab. 29, Ψ] They lye vnder the former.  
They arise both touching one another,[ Tab. 29, Y] with an acute originall from the vtter part of the holy-bone where the spine is fastened with the haunch-bones; as also frō the trāsuers processes & the roots of the spines of the rack-bones of the loines,[ ta. 29, ♌] or if you please say with Fallop. that they ascend frō these processes & are increast with diuers originals; as also from the racks of the chest, and that with a threefold originall, one higher from the end of each transuerse processe; another lower, as it were from the roote of the same processe, the third from the spines of each racke bone: so that they seeme to bee three kinds of muscles mixed together; one outward hauing long fibres, another inward hauing short, a third hauing yet shorter which ariseth from the spines. After their originall they grow brode by degrees, but before the intermination which is acute and made into the spine of the twelfth, sometimes of the eleuenth sponder of the chest, they become 
Termination and vse.  slenderer. Their fibres run obliquely vpward and inward. Their vse is, if they worke together and contract their fibres to extend that part of the spine to which they are fastened. But if one of them alone worke, it extendeth a part of the backe obliquely, and putteth the body on the one side into a semicircular forme.  
The fourth paire are called Semispinati,[ Tab. 10. 11. 29. 25. Ω] they arise with an acute 
Originall.  originall from the spine of the twelfth rackebone, sometimes of the eleuenth of the chest; and arising vpward by degrees they grow thicke and fleshy, especially at the spine of the fifth racke of the chest being intertexed or wouen with neruous fibres: they imbrace all the spines of the rackes of the same. Presently after they become attenuated and 
Termination Fibres.  doe determine with an acute end into the spine of the first rackebone of the chest. Their fibres are most what right. These muscles as also the former paire do fill vp the distances betwixt the spines, where they are contigual, that is, touch one another. And nothing beside a membranous ligament issuing from the vpper spine into the lower commeth betweene them.  
Their vse is to gather together the spines whereinto they are inserted, and to extend or lift vp that part of the backe to which they grow; or the backe properly called Dorsum, 
Their vse.  together with other muscles the loynes being vnmoued. VVhen one of them onely worketh it mooueth the backe to the side; but when all eight muscles conspire together, the whole backe is bowed directly downeward. If foure worke together so as one follow another, they mooue it into a semicircle: but if the muscles that be on the one side do work alone, the body is inclined to that side. And thus much of the muscles of the backe.   

CHAP. XXXVI. Of the muscles of the Fundament, the Bladder, the Testicles and the Yard.  
_BEcause Man was a politique creature, made for Action and contemplation, it was not fit that he should either receiue his nourishment, or auoyde his excrements perpetually as plants doe, but at his owne choyce. As therefore in the Chops there are muscles seruing for diglutition or swallowing, so in the end of the guts and the outlet of the vrine, there are muscles set as porters to interclude the passage vnlesse we list to open it.  
The muscles therfore of the Fundament are foure, two Sphincters, and two Leuators 
The spincters  one of the spincters is fleshy[ ta. 30. fig. 1. ●.] arising from the lower racks of the holy bone, and like a ring is so implicated with transuerse fibres to the extremity of the right gut, that it altogether shutteth the fundament. The other spincter is fleshy, and in my iudgment, saith Laurentius, seemes to be nothing else but hardened skinne wouen with fleshy fibres, therein following Galen in the thirtieth chapter of his booke de dissectione musculorum: Falopius also is of the same mind, yet Bauhine maketh but one muscle of these two, which saith he, is tyed on the backe side to the rumpe bone, on the foreside with fibrous tyes to the outlet of the bladder and to the yard, to whose muscles it affordeth an original as also to the necke of the wombe. At the sides it is tyed with round ligaments produced out of the holy bone vnto the haunch bone, and is strangely commixed with the insertions of the leuators.  
The two leuators[ tab. 30. fig. 1. ●. C.] doe lie vnder the bladder, they are small muscles, 
Two leuators.  but neruous and broade arising from the ligaments of the share, hanch and holy bones, thence descending they reach vnto each side of the seate where they compasse the gut, &  
[ Table ●0. Is the same with Tab. 12. in the 3. Booke fol. 126.]  
are inserted into the vtter coate thereof, and the vpper part of the spincter,[ tab. 30. fig. 1. E.] a portion of them also groweth to the roote[ tab. 30. fig. 1. D.] of the yard, and the necke of the wombe. VVhence it is that some haue made them three muscles. 
Their vse   
Their vse is after excretion to retract the fundament, and if these muscles be weake or resolued, then followeth that disease which they cal Aniprocidentiam, or the falling of the fundament.  
The bladder also hath a sphincter muscle seated in the beginning of his necke, from 
Of the bladder.  which it cannot be distinguished, and indeede it is nothing else but a more fleshy substance of the sayd necke wouen with many transuerse fibres, by which it is constringed. If this Muscle bee either relaxed or refrigerated or wounded, the Vrine followes against our willes. In women it is thicker then in men, because there be no prostate Glandules.  
Of the Muscles of the Yarde we haue spoken before in the 8. chapter of the 4. Booke, which it shall not neede to repeate. Onely we remember that they are foure, two collaterall, and two called Inferiores or the lower Muscles.  
Of the Muscles also of the Testicles we haue spoken before in the 4. chapter of the 4 Booke. Remember onely that they are two and called Cremasteres or the suspending Muscles. Now we descend vnto the Muscles of the Legge.   

CHAP. XXXVII. Of the Muscles of the Legge.  
_BEcause the Muscles of the Thigh cannot bee demonstrated before the Muscles of the Legge are viewed, wee will first speake of the Muscles of the Leg following therein the order of Dissection. The Legge therefore is that part of the Foote in the large acception, which is betwixt the knee and the foote properly so called. 
What the leg is.   
It consisteth like the cubit of two bones: the one beareth the name of the whole and is called Tibia the Legge; the other is called Fibula, we may call it the Brace-bone. Now the Legge is moued either by itself or by accident with three motions, for it is bent or extended 
His motions And number of his muscles  directly, and it seemeth also to be mooued obliquely outward. It is bent by fiue Muscles, extended by foure, one onely moueth obliquely. By accident the Leg is moued after the Thigh, and that is either to one side or about. First we will entreate of the Benders.  
The first Bender or the longest[ Table 31. and those that follow, fig. 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, α] with 
The first.  which we meete on the foreside presently vnder the skinne; ariseth with an acute[ fig. 1, 3 7, a] neruous and fleshy originall from the inner appendix of the haunch-bone, presently becomming fleshy it runneth with a decussation like a slope swathe thorough the inside of the Thigh, being very slender and lying vpon the other Muscles. Neare the bone it is yet narrower[ fig. 1, 2, 7, 8, β] and endeth in a neruous Tendon, which is inserted in the fore and inside of a sharpe line which is in the bone of the Legge[ Tab. 7. c is the insertion of the first second and third muscles of the Leg].  
His vse is the same with the two following, that is, to bend the Legge inward, and withall to lift it vpward.  
The second muscle of the Legge which is also called gracilis or the slender muscle, 
The 2 muscle. [ Ta. 31. and those that follow, fig. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, ●] is situated, especially the belly of it, in respect of the former inward and so lyeth close vnto it.  
It ariseth with a neruous and large originall[ fig. 2. de] at the meeting of the share-bones to which also it groweth, and is as big and large as that commissure or meeting is: Afterward it becommeth narrower but more fleshy, attayning through the inside of the thigh vnto the knee, determineth into a Tendon exactly round at the inner head of the Thigh, not farre from the knee; where also the muscle becommeth rounde before the Tendon grow from it. VVhen the Tendon is a little dilated it is inserted into the Leg neare the first Muscle but a little more inward, and it is of the same vse with the former.  
The third bending Muscle which is called Semi-neruosus halfe sinewy,[ Tab. 31. and those that follow, fig. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, γ] 
The third.  is seated on the backdside, and ariseth from the vpper part of the protuberation of the haunch-bone[ fig. 5, 6, f] where it is neruous and slender, but aboue the middle of the Thigh it becommeth fleshy and maketh a rounde Muscle, which descendeth a little obliquely by the backside and inside of the Thigh, at whose inner head it is reflected and attenuated[ fig. 5. g] and inserted with a round tendon in a man( in Apes sometimes it is broade) into the forepart of the Legge, where also the two former were inserted, but the tendon of this third descendeth vnto the middle of the Legge.  
The fourth bender is called Biceps or the double headed Muscle.[ Table 31. and those that follow, fig. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13, ♌] It ariseth with a neruous acute and slender original, 
The fourth. [ fig. 6. h] out of the lower part of the haunch-bone or out of his protuberation. Presently after it becommeth fleshy, and descending through the vtter and backside of the thigh in the inside thereof about the middle( where it appeareth neruous) it receiueth a fleshy portion[ fig. 6. k] as it were a new muscle arising out of the middle of the Thigh whereby this muscle is strengthned, for the outward part there is onely this one muscle, but on the 
A portion increasing it.  inside there are foure. This portion is so mixed with the muscle when it produceth his Tendon, as if another muscle did there arise.[ fig. 6. k ♌] Wherefore it may be numbred for one or for two muscles.  
Both these descending and on the outside neruous, do end in a notable Tendon which is implanted into the acute processe of the fibula or the Brace.[ fig. 10. i] For the behoofe also of this Tendon, the head of the Thigh hath a long externall sinus or cauity crusted ouer with a smooth and slippery Ligament wherin it is securely conueyed, and beside, least bending obliquely that way it should go out of his tract.  
The fift bender is called semi-membraneus that is, the halfe membranous Muscle.[ ta 31. and those that follow, fig. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, ε ε] 
The fift.  It runneth through the backeside of the Thigh, and ariseth with a neruous and acute originall from the appendixe or protuberation[ fig. 6. m] of the haunch-bone neare the head of the third Muscle.[ figu. 6. f] It continueth neruous longer then any Muscle of the body, but at the middle of the Thigh it beginneth to be fleshy, and in his lower part thick, and neare the knee endeth into a round Tendon,[ figu. 6.] wherewith a little dilated it is inserted into the inner side of the Legge, with the first second and third Muscles.  
This Muscle also being very liuid in the backpart beyond the middest hath a bosome or cauity in it,[ fig. 6. n] VVhereuppon the forepart of the third Muscle leaneth, and in his whole course applyeth itself thereto, so that they appeare to be but one muscle.  
The sixt Muscle of the Legge or the first extender which is called the membranous-Muscle, 
The sixt or the first extender. [ Ta. 31. and those that follow fig, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, I] occupyeth the outward and middle part of the Thigh, & ariseth[ fig, 1, 4, 7, P] fleshy and sharpe from the Spine of the hanch-bone: and being conuayed to the ioynte of the hip( at which place onely it is fleshy) and becomming narrower it departeth neare the outside of the greater processe of the thigh, into a very long and broad[ fig. 7. *] membrane of the nature of a tendon, then which ther is no greater in the whole body, for like a skinne or a transuerse Ligament it compasseth almost all the Muscles of the Thigh( but it is not in all places alike thicke) and holdeth them in their proper seates( as we said before the Muscles in the cubit were inuested) and incloseth also the ioynt of the knee.  
This Tendon at his insertion is mixed with the Tendons of the following Muscles, and is infixed into the forepart and vtter side of the Legge. His vse is to extend it directly and to moue straight forward.  
The seauenth or the second Extender, which is also because of his greatnesse called Vastus externus, The Vast Externall Muscle, is wholly liuid[ Ta. 31. and those that follow fig 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, H] and occupieth the outside of the Thigh, as also a great part of 
The seauenth  the foreside and the backeside.  
It ariseth[ fig. 9. t] with a broade large and neruous originall from the outside of the Thigh, and compasseth round about the root of his great processe growing thereto. Presently after the originall it becommeth thicke and fleshy, and lying vppon a part of the eight, it is wholly fleshy, and a little aboue the whirle bone of the knee[ figu. 9. X] it endeth into a large and membranous Tendon, which being mixed with the Tendon of the two following muscles, descendeth at the outward side of the same whirle bone which it doth encompasse: and is inserted[ fig, 9, u] into the foreside of the Leg immediately vnder the ioynt.  
The eight or the third Extender which is called Vastus internus, The Internall Vast-Muscle,[ Ta, 31, and those that follow, fig, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, θ] compasseth on the inside almost all the circumference of the Thigh-bone. 
The eight.   
It ariseth fleshy from the necke[ figu, 10, y] of the Thigh, and presently becomming fleshy, a portion of it groweth out of the roote of his great processe as if it had a double originall. This latter originall, if you list so to call it, descendeth large and oblique, and becomming by degrees more fleshy it buncheth or beareth out at the inside of the Thigh neare the whirle-bone into a thicke and fleshy semicircle, out of which groweth a strong Tendon which occupyeth the whirle-bone also.[ fig, 9, u] This portion some doe make a distinct muscle and call it Crureum.[ figu, 2, 7, 8, 9, Z] This Muscle with the former maketh a sinus or bosome very liuid,[ fig, 9, char. 1] that the subsequent muscle might lye vppon it throughout his length.  

Table 31 With those that follow, shew the sixe muscles of the Legge, the Thigh, and of the foote. Fig. 1. sheweth the fore and musculous part of the left Thigh. Fig. 2. sheweth the internall and laterall part of it. And fig. 3. sheweth the externall laterall part of it.  
TABVLA XXXI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  

A A, The holy-bone.  
B 2, A ligament drawne from the holybone vnto the hip.  
G 1, 2, the seate of the holy-bone.  
H 2, the third muscle extending the soale called Plantaris.  
I 1, the fourth muscle extending the foot or the soale muscle.  
K 2, the fift muscle extending the foote, called Tibiaeus Posticus.  
L 1, the first muscle bending the foot called Tibaeus anticus.  
M 1, 3, the second bender of the foote called Peronaeus primus.  
N 3, the third bender of the foote called Peronaeus secundus.  
P 1, 3, the second extender of the toes, or the stretchers.  
R, the second bender of the toes, or the great bender.  
T 1 2, the lower abductor of the great toe  
V 3, the abductor of the little toe,  
* 2, Tendons carried vnto the toes of the foote.  
X 2, the internall part of the fourth muscle of the thigh as it were three-fold, at a, c. f.  
Y 1, the vpper abductor of the toes.  
a c f, A part of the tenth muscle of the thigh as it were three-fold at a c f, and carried vnto the great processe of the thigh.  
† 2, A great nerue lying vppon the teath muscle betweene x and a.  
α 1, 2. the muscle of the leg, or the first bēder which is the longest muscle.  
a 1, 3, His originall. b 1 2. His tendon.  
β 1 2, the muscle of the leg or the second bender which is the slender muscle.  
d e 2, His originall. d His tendon.  
γ 2, 3, the third muscle bending the tibi● called Semineruosus.  
♌ 1, 3, the fourth muscle bending the leg, called Biceps or the double headed muscle.  
ε ε 2, 3, the fift muscle bending the legge called Semimembraneus.  
ζ 1, 2, the first muscle extending the legge called membranosus.    
n 1, 3. the second muscle extending the leg called Vastus externus. θ 1 2, the third muscle extending the leg called Vastus internus. χ 1, 2, 3, the fourth extender of the leg, or the Right muscle. μ 3, the first extender of the thigh, called Glutteus maior. ● 2. the inner anckle. o 1, 3, the vtter anckle, 〈◇〉 1, A fleshy part of the first extender of the leg. 〈◇〉 2, the fift extender of the thigh called Triceps or the three headed muscle. σ 2, the first bender of the thigh called Lumbalis. τ 2, the second bender of the thigh called Illiacus. u 1, the third bender of the thigh. 〈◇〉 1, 2, the first extender of the foote, or the internall Gastrocnimius. ω 1, 2, 3, the third extender of the foote, or the external Gastrocnimius. p 1, A portion of the second extender of the toes, which Vesalius maketh the ninth muscle of the foote. q 3, the greater processe of the thigh called Rotator. r 3. the transuerse ligament reaching from the brace to the heele. t 2, A portion of the 5. muscle of the thigh. x 2, the bone of the legge bare. y 1, 3, the tendon of the first extender of the toes. z 1 3, A transuerse ligament aboue the foote.  
The ninth or the fourth extender called also the right muscle,[ Tab. 3 1, and those that follow fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, x] lyeth on the outside vppon the first bender, and is seated on the middest of the forepart.  
It ariseth with a neruous and acute originall[ figure 8, character 1] from the internall protuberation of the haunch bone on tbe fore-side aboue the Cuppe of the Coxendix.  
From thence it is deriued directly through the length and forepart of the thigh betweene the seuenth and the eight muscles, and being by degrees increased with a fleshly substance it becommeth againe by degrees more slender aboue the middle of the thigh,[ fig. 8. char. 2.] and determineth into a very long and exceeding strong tendon aboue the whirle, where it is a little narrower and more slender.  
But in the forepart of the whirle it is againe dilated, and being mixed with the tendons of the two forenamed muscles is very strongly inserted to the leg on the foreside immediatly vnder the ioynt. But in Munkies it is most what membranous and inserted into the leg much lower. Neither this onely, but also the tendons of the other muscles are more membranous and broder in men then in Apes. And with this tendon of the 
Munkies.  three muscles is the whirle bone couered, yea it groweth to his forepart, and serueth the knee for a ligament.  
This is the muscle which is like a Snake or the fish( because of his broade tayle) which is called Mus or the Mouse, which vshereth the ●hall that he offend not against the rockes, from which fish the muscles of the whole body haue their denomination.  
The tenth and last muscle of the leg is called the oblique moouer, and from his situation 
The tenth.  poplitaeus the muscle of the Ham,[ tab. 34. 38. fig. 14. 16. 28. ΛΛ,] for it linkes in the ham vnder that muscle of the foote whichis called Gastrocnimius, and Plat●ris next of al to the bones, and therefore we canot meete with it before these bee remoued. It is a short and slender muscle and issueth with a neruous[ fig. ● 16. char. ●.] and round originall from the externall head of the thigh, after it is increased with fleshy fibres and running vnder the ligament, climing obliquely ouer the bone Tibia or the leg, determineth brode and fleshy and is inserted into the backe and inner part of the legge at his appendix.[ Tab. 31. char. 5.  
His vse is to mooue the leg obliquely outward, and therewith also to turne the foote somewhat inword toward the other, for the foote is specially articulated with the legbone, and therefore Galen sayd that it was the principall author of the bending of the leg.   

CHAP. XXXVIII. Of the muscles of the Thigh.  
_THE Thigh is that part which is betwixt the ioynt of the huckle bone and the knee, and consisteth of one bone as doth the arme. This part because it is moued according to our good pleasure by reason of his round head, and that with all kind of motion, it stood in neede to haue muscles and those very many.  
These muscles doe mooue the thigh either directly or in compasse. Directly, either lengthwise or ouerthwart, and that either by extention or by flexion. It is extended either 
The motións of the thigh.  when we stand vpright and make( as we say) a curtesie, bending the thigh moderately inward and downeward toward the earth. Or backeward into the posterior part when wee lift our thighs vpward, especially toward the outside, which kinde of position may bee seene in that they call a Backe caper. This extention is made by the helpe of fiue muscles, which most what doe occupie the posterior part. And the first foure of these doe lie vpon the huckle bone, and the fifth vpon the thigh.  
The thigh is bent when we lift it vpward and forward, and especially toward the inside;( in extension it is toward the outside) as it is in Anticke dances, and this motion is 
II, muscles of the thigh.  performed by three muscles situated before; two of them are seated in the cauity of the belly, and the third in the thigh.  
The circumaction or compassing of the thigh is either inward or outward, and performed by three muscles placed in the coxendix. VVee conclude therefore that there are eleuen muscles of the thigh, although I know many more may be named if we diuide the fifth muscle into foure; make two of the fleshy pouch which compasseth the tendon of the tenth muscle, & adde the twelfth muscle described by Arantius: for then each thigh shall haue seuenteen muscles which shall extend it, bend it, leade it in compas, draw one thigh two another, diuide them asunder, or lift one thigh ouer another, as Taylers vse to sit at their worke. Of all which motions we will speak in order.  
The first extender is called Glutaeus maior the greater buttecke muscle, because it maketh almost all the buttocke on one side;[ tab. 31. and those that follow fig. 3. 4. 8. μ.] for it is thicke and fleshy and lyeth iust vnder the skin, being appointed with the two following to make the quishion of the seate.  
It ariseth with a fleshy broade and semi-circular originall, from the whole circumference of the haunch bones, from the lower part of the holy bone where it is contiguous with his opposite, and from the beginning of the rumpe bone.[ tab. 32. fig. 4. a b c.] Afterward descending a little obliquely and riding ouer the ioynt of the huckle-bone which it strengthneth, as it were, with a couering it becommeth narrower and more slender, and so endeth into a strong and brode tendon, which is partly inserted into the roote of the greater processe, partly below it into the outside of the thigh bone, and that obliquely.  
The vse of this muscle is when it worketh all together to settle the backeward and 
Table 32. Sheweth especially the Muscles of the Thigh and the Legge.  
TABVLA XXXII.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
FIG. VI.  

α 4, The first muscle of the leg called Lon. gissimus.  
β 4 5, the second muscle of the leg called Gracilis.  
γ 4, 5, 6, the third bender of the leg called Sermineruosus.  
〈◇〉 4, 5, 6. the fourth bender of the leg called Biceps.  
ε 4, 5, 6. the fift bender of the leg called Semimembraneus.  
ζ 4, The first extender of the leg called Membranosus.  
η 4, 5, 6. the second extender of the legge or the muscle called Vastus externus.  
θ 4, 5, 6. the third extender of the legge called Vastus internus.  
〈◇〉 4, the fourth extender of the leg called Rectus or the Right muscle.  
μ 4, 5, the first muscle extēding the thigh called Gluttaeus maior.  
ν 4, 5, the second extender of the thigh called Gluttaeus medius.  
ζ 6, the third extender of the thigh called Gluttaeus minor.  
π 5, the fourth extender of the thigh called Illiacus externus.  
〈◇〉 4, 6, the fift extender of the thigh called Triceps or rather Quadriceps.  
● 6, the hinder part of this muscle.  
χ 5, 6, the first circumactor or the muscle leading the thigh about called Obturator internus, together with fleshy portions both aboue and below, and growing vnto it.  
〈◇〉 4, the first extender of the foote called Gastrocnimius internus.  
〈◇〉 4, the second extender of the foote called Gastrocnimius externus.  
a b c, 4, the originall of the first extender of the thigh.  
d e, His insertion.  
f g, 5, 6, the originall of the third bender of the leg called Semineruosus at f, the beginning of his tendon at g. i k, 5, the semicircular originall of the second extender of the thigh at h, His insertion into a processe of the thigh. b 6, the head of the muscle called Biceps, or the fourth bender of the leg. k 6, A fleshy portion whereby it is increased. H 4, the fourth extender of the foote called Plantaris. l 5, A portion of the fift muscle extending the leg, or of the muscle called Semimēbraneus. m n o 6, His head m. The beginning of his tendon o. A bosome or cauity in which the third extender of the leg doth rest, n. r 4, A fleshy part of the extender of the leg, called membranosus at p His originall. p 6, the backe of the haunch-bone bare. s x 6, the circumscription of the third bender of the thigh, s 6, the insertion of the third and fourth extenders of the thigh, t 5, 6, the great and vtter processe of the thigh. u 5, 6. A ligament going from the holy-bone into the acute processe of the hip, x 5, A ligament going from the holy-bone into the back-part of the hip. y 5, the fourth nerue which is the greatest nerue of the whole legge, wherein is the tumor collected which causeth the hipgowte. * A sinus or cauity wherein the great veyne of the legge and the artery together, with the nerue are conueyed. 12, char. 6, the fourth nerue parted into two in the ham, the greater branch 1, the lesser 2. 34, charact 6, the membranous beginning of the oblique ascendent muscle of the Abdomen from the spine of the backe. 8, 9, charact, 6, Two fleshy portions, or the fleshy pouch, and heauing to the second Circumactor, or compassing muscle of the thigh.   to extend it directly; for if but one part of the muscle bee contracted, then the motion is not equall but more outward to this or that side.  
The second extender which is called gluttaeus medius, the middle buttocke muscle[ tab. 32. and those that follow fig. 4. 5. 8. 9. ξ.] lyeth for the most part vnder the first. The rest 
The second.  of it is couered with a membrane. It is also like the first in forme, but lesse and very liuide, as also is the third in leane bodyes, but in those that are fat especially in women we often find neruous fibres running through them to which fat groweth, to make the seate the softer.  
It ariseth with a fleshy, broad and semicircular originall,[ Tab. 32, fig. 5, h i,]( a little lower then the first to whose originall it giueth way) from the rib of the haunch-bone on the fore-part and from the backe of the same haunch, and indeede it occupieth almost all the circumference of that bone: thence descending obliquely it groweth narrower by degrees, runneth vnder the forward muscle, couereth the ioynt of the hippe, and determineth into a broade, strong, and membranous tendon,[ fig. 5. k.] which is implanted into the fore and vpper part of the great Trochanter or processe of the necke of the thigh, which it compasseth on euery side but ouerthwart.  
His vse is to extend the thigh and to draw it vpward and forward into one side, and that more manifestly then the former muscle. The fibres also of this muscle make a decussation with the fibres of the former,[ Tab. 5, μ with ν.]  
The third Extender called Glutteus minor, the lesser buttocke muscle[ tab. 32. and those 
The third.  that follow fig. 6. 10. ξ.] lyeth wholy vnder the second, and is so much lesse then it, as the second is lesse then the first. It ariseth from the backe of the hanch bone, and from his backward and lower part where the bone of the coxendix beginneth; and his original,( as the two former) is fleshy, thick and semicircular.[ fig. 6. q s x.] Then declining downward and forward, it cleaueth easily with fibrous tyes to the ligament of the ioynt of the hippe and becomming narrower determineth into a brode and strong tendon, which climing ouer the greater trochanter or processe of the thigh, is implanted to the very top of his forepart, where it is a little inuerted.[ fig. 6. s.]  
His vse is to drawe the thigh moderately vpward and backeward, and so to extend it.  
The fourth extender called Iliacus externus pyriformis, the outward hanch peare muscle[ tab. 32. fig. 5. 6. and tab. 34. fig. 13. π.] because it filleth the outward and lower cauity of the 
The fourth.  hanch bone with his oblique position, and is like a round peare. This muscle is liuide, and ariseth with a fleshy and round originall from the three lower rackes of the holy bone, or from the inner part of the sides, where somtimes it is continual with his opposite: thence it runneth downeward but fleshy and ouerthwart to the great trochanter, but before it touch the thigh it becommeth narrower and endeth in a round tendon, which is obliquely implanted into the great trochanter or head of the thigh on the backeside neare his appendix. His vse is to draw the thigh moderately vpward and backeward, and so to extend it. It is also some litle helpe to leade the thigh round but forward, yet more then the third muscle. The fifth extender is comonly called Triceps because it hath a threefold originall, 
The fifth.  but may better be called Quadriceps, for his originall is fourefold.[ Tab. 31. and those that follow fig. 2. 4. 6. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. ●●.] This is the thickest muscle in the whole body of man, and stuffed with a wonderfull variety of fibres, insomuch that because the parts 
The thickest muscle of the body.  thereof doe differ among themselues in their originall, fibres, insertion, coates, and in some sort in their vse likewise, Falopius saith, and so may we also, that there are so many muscles as there are parts of this muscle, to which also the right muscle which seemeth to be a part thereof must be referred, whose originall is seated vnder the three heads of the muscles which make the bulke of the leg.[ Tab. 32. fig. 6. f h m.] But we wil here vnder exhibite his discription according to Falopius.  
The first part[ Tab. 35. fig. 12. a part of the muscle is at ●.] ariseth with a neruous originall from the vpper line of the share bone, and descending is inserted into a rough line of the thigh vnder the middle. Notwithstanding from his tendon proceedeth a slender portion which is vnited with the tendon of the fourth part and is inserted into the lower head of the thigh, and the inside of the knee.  
The second part[ Tab. 35. and 34. fig. 13. and 14. char. 6.] ariseth from the lower parts of the commissure of the share bones where they ioyne together. It is fleshy and broade and hath oblique fibres, descending also downeward, it is implanted into the line of the thigh in the vpper part thereof.  
Third part[ ta. 34. fig. 13. char. 6. fig. 14. char. 7. confered fig. 13. β σ μ, among themselues] ariseth with a fleshy, sometimes a neruous originall from the apendix of the Coxa yea from the whole coxendix round about the circumference of his brode hole, his fibres are very diuers, so that it seemeth to be a double muscle, for the vpper fibres are as it were, transuerse, but many of the lower oblique. This part descending is inserted into a rough line vnder the little trochanter or head of the thigh.  
The fourth part,[ Tab. 34. fig. 12. and 13. ζ u x y, ariseth with a neruous fig. 13. u.] and then fleshy[ x] originall from the the appendix of the coxa, which two originals forme a muscle whose belly is dilated into a strange breadth[ fig. 13. p] afterward running along the backeside of the thigh, it endeth into a round tendon[ fig. 13. vnder z] which with a slender portion of the tendon of the first part is inserted into the inner and lower protuberation of the thigh[ three parts of this muscle are demonstrated, tab. 36. 12. ζ σ μ. where they hang downe also. Tab. 34. fig. 14. ζ. 6. 7.]  

Table 33. sheweth some Muscles of the Leg and the Foote.  
TABVLA. XXXIII.  
FIG. VII.  
FIG. VIII.  
FIG. IX.  

α 7, 8. The first bending muscle of the Leg called Longissmus.  
β 7, 9, the second bender of the Leg called Gracilis.  
ζ 7, 8, The first extender of the Leg called Membanosus.  
η 8, 9, the second extender of the leg called Vastus externus.  
θ 7, 8, 9, the 3. extender of the Leg call Uastus internus.  
● 6, A sinus or cauity vpon which the ninth muscle of the thigh lyeth.  
x 7, 8, 9, the fourth extender of the Leg called Rectus.  
1, 2, 3. char. 8. The originall, 2. The tendon, 2. the place where the tendon groweth to the tendons vnder it.  
μ 8, the first extending muscle of the thigh.  
● 8, 9, the second extender of the thigh.  
P 9, A portion of the 5. muscle of the thigh called Triceps.  
σ 8, the first bender of the thigh called lum balis.  
τ 8, The second bender of the thigh called Iliacus internus.  
1, 2, 3, char. 8, His original, 1, tendon 2 the place where the tendon groweth to the tendons vnder it.  
ν 7, 8, 9, The third bender of the thigh cald Glutaeus minor.  
ω 8, The second externall extender of the Foote.  
b 7, 8, the tendon of the first muscle of the Leg neare the knee.  
c 7, The insetions of the 1 2 and 3 muscles of the Leg.  
o 8, the inner ankle.  
p q 7, the fleshy part of the first extender of the leg, his large membrane at q.    
r 7, his originall. s 8, his insertion. t u x 9, the beginning of the 2 extender of the Leg. t. his insertion, u. his tendon x. y 8, the tendon of the first extender of the toes at the great toe. C 7. 8. 9. the place of the sharebone. H 7, the third extender of the foote called plantaris. 17, The fourth extender of the foote called Soleus. K 8, the fift extender of the foote called Tibiaeus posticus. L 7, 8, the first bender of the foote called Tibiaeus anticus. M 8. 9, the 2 bender of the foote called Peroneus primus. N 8, 9, the third bender of the foot called Peroneus secundus. O 8, 9. the first extender of the toes called Pollicis tensor. P 7, 8, 9. the 2 extender of the toes. p 8, 9. A portion of that muscle which Uesalius maketh ths 9. muscle of the foot. 10. 11 12 char. 8. the originall thereof 10, his diuision into tendors 11, the insertion of the 9 muscle 12. R 9 the 2 bender of the toes called Flexormagnus. T 7: the lower abducter of the great toe. X 8: 9: the bone of the leg b●●e. Y 8, 9, the vpper abducter of the toes. Z 7, 8: the muscle called Crureus. † 7. the first extender of the foote called Gastrocnimius internus.  
The vse of this Muscle although it be to liftvp the Thigh and leade it to the body: yet 
The vse of the 5. muscle.  according to the diuersity of his partes it hath diuers particular offices: for the backeparte which hath right fibres, establisheth the thigh and fastneth it vppon the ground being extended, as when a man settes his foote to pase forward. The backe portion also of the anterior part performeth the same; but it leadeth the thigh moderately inward as it were to the other thigh, so the first part of the anterior leadeth the thigh inward and crosseth one thigh ouer another. And thus much concerning the extending Muscles, which primarily extend the thigh, and these also doe helpe it when it is moued sidelong or ledde about.  
The Bending Muscles are three: The first is called Lumbalis[ Table 31. and those that follow fig. 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, char●. 6] the Muscle of the Loynes which Hippocrates and 
The first bending muscle.  Galen called 〈◇〉. They are placed a little obliquely in the cauity of the Abdomen, and when the entrals are taken forth they presently appeare in the Loines. It is a roūd, fleshy, thicke and strong Muscle, and altogether liuid.  
It ariseth fleshy[ Ta. 35. fig, 12. a] from the two lower racks of the chest, and the three vpper of the loynes: presently after it climbeth ouer the rest of the rackes of the Loynes, and descending fleshy by the haunch-bone[ from a to b] it runneth a little obliquely and something outward aboue the share-bone, and so determineth into a strong and round Tendon which is inserted on the foreside at the vpper part of the lesser head of the thigh. His vse is strongly to drawe the Thigh vpward and to bend it inward. And because the tendon of this Muscle should be securely conuayed, not hurt by the hardnes of the bone, nor yet erre or wander out of his way, there is a sinus or cauity insculped in the sharebone which is couered ouer with a membranous, smooth and slippery Ligament arising out of the bone. And because the kidneis lie vpon this muscle ouer which a notable nerue is disseminated. Hence it commeth to passe that those that are troubled with the stone in the Kidneyes doe find a stupor or sleepinesse on the Thigh on that side the stone is on.  
The second Bender is called Iliacus internus the inward haunch. Muscle.[ Ta. 31. fig 2. 
The 2 Bender.  〈◇〉 Ta, 33. fig. 10, 11, 12, 16, T] At the lower part it toucheth the former Muscle[ tab, 35, fig, 11, 12, T as farre as σ] and occupyeth all the inner cauity of the haunch-bone. From thence as it were out of a semicircle it ariseth fleshy and broade and by degrees becommeth narrower and thicker, and desending forward aboue the vpper part of the Coxendix: it is implanted with a round tendon[ Ta, 34, fig, 14 'T] into the lesser head of the thigh like as the former but somewhat lower then the first bender.  
His vse is together with the first Bender to lift the Thigh vpward and so to bend it, but this Muscle mooueth it lesse inward. And whereas it is carried aboue the Coxendix, the bone hath in it a smooth and slippery cauity for the better conuaying thereof, which cauity where the muscle bendeth it is liuid, neruous and strong, the better to defend itself against the hardnes of the bone.  
The third Bender[ Tab. 31. and those that follow, fig, 1, 7, 10, 11, 12 ●] is also liuid, and 
The 3. bender.  ariseth broade and fleshy from the Line of the share-bone, hard at his gristle and runneth obliquely within the fift extender, so that some haue accoūted it for a fift part of the same fift muscle, and so determineth into a short, broade and large tendon which is inserted at the inside of the Thigh ouer against the lesser heade and runneth out vnto the backeside. His vse is to leade the thigh vpward and inward very strongly and so to crosse one Thigh ouer another. And so much for the benders of the Thigh.  
The first compasser which is called Obturator externus the outward filler[ Tab, 35. fig. 
The first compasser.  12, 14, 16, ●] lyeth vnder the former & filleth vp on the outside all the hole which is before in the share and the haunch-bones. The forme of it is like a Peare as was the fourth extender. It ariseth fleshy and broade from the circumference of the foresaid hole, and on the foreside is liuid. It runneth ouerthwart and behinde by the hip ioynt away and the necke of the thigh, is by degrees angustated and determineth into a strong and large tendon, which is implanted into a cauity of the great trochander or the head of the thigh. His vse is to turne the thigh inward, Laurentius sayth outward.  
The second compasser Obturator internus the inward filler[ Ta, 31, and those that follow, fig. 2, 〈…〉 fig, 5, 6, aboue char, 9 f. 13, 14, χ] lurketh in the bowle of the hanch-bone, 
The 2. compasser.  occupyeth the inside of the forenamed perforation, is stronger then the former, and distinguisheth therefrom by a Membrane to which it groweth. It ariseth fleshy & broad from the circumference of the perforation on the inside and appeareth notably liuid hauing 

α 14, A tendon made of three muscles of the foot & inserted into the heele  
β 14, The beginning of the tendon of the first Peronaeus out of the middle of his body.  
γ 14 The tendon of the second Peronoeus reflected to the outward ankle.  
♌ 13, The fourth bending muscle of the leg called biceps, hanging downe.  
ε 13, The fifth bender of the leg called semimembraneus hanging downe.  
ζ 15, A ligament in the sole of the foot seruing in stead of the brode tendon.  
η 13, The second extender of the legge called vastus externus.  
θ 13, 14. The third extender of the leg called vastus internus.  
● 13. 14. An acute ligament going from the holy bone into the processe of the hip bone,  
Λ 14, The muscle called poplitaeus mouing the leg obliquely.  
ξ 13. A portion of the third muscle extending the thigh.  
π 13, The fourth extender of the thigh or a portion of the Illiack muscle.  
ζ 13, 14, the fifth extender of the thigh called triceps.  
e 13. Another part of the fifth muscle.  
σ 13, the first bender of the thigh called Lumbalis.  
τ, The 2 bender of the thigh or a tendon of the internall Illiacke muscle.  
φ 14, the first compasser of the thigh called obturator externus.  
χ 13, 14, the second compasser of the thigh called obturator internus.  
〈◇〉 13, 14, the second extender of the foot called Gastrocinimius externus.  
a b, 13, the beginning of the two extenders of the feete. c c 13, their fleshy beginning. d 13, Their contiguity or meeting together. e e 13, the swelling of both the calues. f 13, The beginning of the tendon of these muscles. g 13, 14, The backe of the share bone without flesh, h 13, 14, The head of the thigh bone compassed and defended with a membranous ligament. k 13, The place of the thigh bone without flesh. l 14, The rumpe bone without flesh m 13, 14, The exterior and great processe of the thigh. n 14, A rough line of the thigh whereinto is inserted the fifth muscle of the thigh called triceps. o 14, The bone of the legge and the outward head of the thigh bored. p 14, The tendon of the third extender of the foote. q 14, The beginning of the fourth extender of the foote, r 14, The insertion of the tendon of the first and second muscles of the foote. stu, The tendons of the tenth muscles of the thigh reflected to the hanch bone. u 13. The neruous head of the backe part of the fifth extender of the thigh. x 13, The fleshy head of the same muscle. y 13. Carrying the proportion of a mouse. z 13, the tendon of the first part inserted into the inner tendon of the thigh. 6. Char. 13. the third part of the fifth muscle. 7. Cha. 14. another part of the fifth muscle. 8 9. Char. 13. two fleshy portions or the fleshy pouch which adheereth to the second compasser of the thigh. H, 13, 14, the third extender of the foote called Plantaris. I 14, 15, the fourth extender of the foote called Soleus 〈◇〉 15, a cauity betwixt the tendon of the forenamed muscle & the other. * 15, the place of the bone of the leg without the flesh, T 15, the lower abductor of the great toe. V 15, the abductor of the little toe   
Tab. 14. Sheweth the muscles of the thigh and of the foote.  
TABVLA XXXIV.  
FIG. XIII.  
FIG. XV.  
FIG. XIV  three lines, or inscriptions. Afterward it is by degrees contracted or straightned,[ tab. 31. fig. 2. a c. vnto f] and runneth cuerthwart aboue the coxendix outward[ tab. 34. fig. 13. x.] and aboue the▪ cauity which is formed like a pully, it hasteneth to the great trochanter where it is reflected: the reflected part being fleshy, and that which toucheth the cauity neruous. At which cauity it is increased with three round tendons[ Tab. 34. fig. 14. stu.] in the very reflection, which tendons beeing a little separated one from the other doe passe forward, and when they are past the cauity on the backe side they are againe collected and make one neruous tendon[ tab. 43. fig. 13. X. 8. 9.] which tendon is led ouerthwart and together with the first compasser is inserted into the hinder cauity or sinus of great Trochanter or head of the thigh, and into his roote. And this was Natures counsell determining to adde strength to this muscle; for if it had bene wholy fleshy in his reflection and motion it would haue beene hurt by the hardnes of the bone. Wherefore also there groweth to the Sinus a strong membranous ligament which is smooth and lined ouer with a viscide humor for the more easie circumaction of the muscle. But this Sinus hath appearing in it two lines lightly eleuated, which running ouerthwart doe diuide the three forenamed tendons into three cauities; so that in this one cauity euery tēdon hath a peculiar Sinus.  
And least these tendons should slip out of the cauity of the bone after they are reflected, Nature created a fleshy pursse wherein the tendon of this muscle is placed, which pursse resembleth two muscles,[ Tab. 38, fig. 16. xx] one vpper and another lower. The 
The pursse.  vpper[ Ta. 32, fig. 6, char. 8. as also the lower[ ta. 31, fig. 6, 13, 14, char. 9, fig. 16, x] do arise 
like two muscles.  fleshy and slender, from the acute processe of the haunch-bone the vpper, the lower from his appendix & both of them do accompany the second compasser euen to his insertion and are together inserted into the cauity of the great Trochanter.  
Their vse is together with the second compasser to helpe the circumaction or compassing of the thigh. 
Their vse.   
There is also another muscle first described by Fallopius, which lyeth vnder the foresayde 
Fallopius his 11. muscle.  pursse,[ Tab. 34, fig. 14, *] which ariseth short and very fleshy from the backe-part of the coxendix and being led about to the outside of the thigh, is with a strong and roūd tendon inserted into the backside of the great Trochanter, or into that space which is betwixt the two Trochanters or heads of the thigh.  
His vse is to lead the thigh in compasse backeward. And this muscle haply may be diuided into two.  
Arantius after he hath described this muscle found out by Fallopius, he addeth another 
Arantius his 12. muscle.  so making the number of the muscles of the thigh to be a full Iury in these words.  
When you haue cut away the muscles which bend the legge from their originals, if you diligently marke the place, you shal finde vnder the eleuenth muscle a twelfth, which is much stronger then the former, but lyeth very deepe. It hath an originall opposite vnto the eleuenth, beginning from the forepart of the share-bone where it is perforated & it is distinguished with a membrane of the nature of a Ligament. This originall sayeth hee, is fleshy and almost orbiculer or round. It degenerateth into a strong and round tendon.  
This muscle being ledde about like a semicircle to the outside of the thigh, together with the second compasser and the pursse, that is, with the tenth and eleuenth muscles to guide the sphericall or round motion of the thigh.   

CHAP. XXXIX. Of the Muscles of the foote.  
_THE Foote is moued two wayes directly and to the sides; directly also or in 
The motions of the foote.  length two wayes: for it is eyther extended backward when it is led out of his transuerse position, a little obliquely toward the earth( and that by the helpe of fiue muscles placed in the back part, together with the second and third benders of the toes) as when we walke or dance: or it is bent forwarde by three muscles to which may be added that portion of the muscle which some make the ninth, but we account it for a part of the second muscle which stretcheth the toes: and these are placed together with the first and second extenders of the toes on the foreparte, but the outward side of the legge, for the inside of the legge euen vnto the calfe is without flesh. This motion is not so strong as the former, and therefore doth not stand in need of so great muscles.  
The foote is also moued to the sides, and so a little compassed, which motion because 
His muscles.  it is very weake, hath not any particular or priuate muscles allotted thereto, but is ledde to the outside by the anterior muscles and to the inside by the posterior. The extending muscles therefore of the foote are fiue, and the benders three.  
The first extender is called Gastrocnemius internus[ Tab. 31, and those that follow fig. 
The first extender.  1, 2, 3, 4, 13, 14, Ψ] the internall Calfe-muscle, ariseth from the inner head of the thigh about the knee as it were with a double originall. The one vpper[ fig 13, b] which is fleshy and broade: the other lower and vtter which is neruous and liuid.[ fig. 13, c.] The first a descending a little vnder the ioynt of the knee is confounded with the second, and both together make a fleshy and thicke muscle which about the middle part of the legge after it hath formed the inner part of the Calfe[ fig. 13, aboue e] becommeth narrower and endeth into a broad[ fig. 13, f] and neruous tendon, in the middest whereof notwithstanding a fleshy portion sheweth itselfe running a little way therein, which being vnited with the tendon of the next muscle following,[ fig. 13, and 14, ω] is in Apes inserted into the heele but in men it groweth to the 4 extender of the foot,[ fig. 14, ●] in somuch that euen to the very heele it cannot be separated there-from. And these three muscles doe draw the heele vpward and backeward, and doe fasten the foote vpon the earth, or reflect it downeward and backward.  
The second extender is called Gastrocnemius externus, the outward Calfe-muscle[ ta. 31, and those that follow. fig. 3, 4, 10, 13, 14, Ψ]. 
The second extender.  It proceedeth from the vtter head of the thigh, & is in all parts like the former, fauing that the first descendeth fleshy lower, which 
Table 35. Sheweth some Muscles of the Thigh, the Legge, the Foote and the Toes.  
TABVLA XXXV.  
FIG. X  
FIG. XI  
FIG. XII  

a 10, the spine of the haunch-bone bared from the muscles.  
b 10, the greater exterior processe of the thigh.  
a b, 12, the originall of the first extender of the thigh at a, his tendon at b.  
e 12, the share-bone bared.  
f 12, the thigh-bone without flesh.  
g 12, the backpart of the whirle-bone regarding the ioynt, the tendons grow to the foreside.  
h 12, the tendon of the second extender of the leg called Vastus externus.  
i 12, The insertion of the fourth bender of the leg called Biceps.  
k 12, The connexion into one of the tendons of the 7, 8, and 9. muscles.  
l 12, The tendon of the ninth muscle of the legge called Rectus.  
m 12, the forepart of the leg bone without flesh.  
n 10, the original of the second bender of the foote.  
n 12, the forepart of the Brace bared,  
o 12, A ligament placed betweene the bone of the leg and the brace.  
o 10, the outward anckle.  
p q 10, the body of the second bender of the foot before and behind.  
r 10, the beginning of the tendon of this muscle arising out of the middest of his body.  
s 10, The tendon of the third bender of the foot reflected to the outward ankle.  
γ 10, the originall of the third extender of the leg called Vastus internus.  
♌ 10, the fourth bender of the leg called Biceps.  
θ 10, 11, 12, the third extender of the leg called Vastus internus. ζ 10, the third extender of the thigh called Gluttaeus minor. ρ 10, 11, 12, the first muscle of the thigh called Triceps. σ 10, 11, 12, the sixt muscle of the thigh called Lumbalis. σ char. 12, the forepart of the fift muscle of the thigh. τ 10, 11, 12, the seuenth muscle of the thigh called Iliacus internus. ν, 10, 11, 12. the eighth muscle of the thigh. φ, 12. The first Compasser of the thigh called Obturator externus. ● 10, the second extender of the foote called Gastrocnimius externus. A 11, 12, the holy-bone. H 10, the second extender of the leg called Vastus externus. M 10, 12, the second bender of the foot called Peroneus primus. N 10, 12, the third bender of the foot called Peroneus secundus. O 10, the first extender of the toes called 〈◇〉 tens●r. T 11, the lower abductor of the great toe. V 10, the abductor of the little toe. X 10, the bone of the leg without flesh, with the ligament which runneth betwixt it and the ●race. Y 10, 11, the vpper abductor of the toes. Z 10, m●kes the muscle called Crureus. σ 11, 12, the first muscle of the backe called Quadratus.   also may bee perceiued before Dissection in those bodies that are musculous or fleshy. This Muscle not farre from his originall is ioyned with the first with fibrous tyes and groweth thereto at the middle of the Leg:[ Tab. 13. d] and therefore Syluius and Laurentius call them Gemelli or the Twinus.  
This Muscle when it hath formed the outward part of the calfe endeth in a tendon which is so mixed with a Tendon of the former that it seemeth to bee but one Muscle to Columbus and Archangelus, for they haue but one tendon and one implantation, and these two together with the fourth doe make the pulpe or calfe of the Leg.  
But because in the direction of the Leg those heades are returned backward and so compressed; least any offence should thereby proceede, each originall hath a small sidebone 
The seede hones.  ioyned to it to receiue the violence and abate it in their smooth and slippery Surface which standeth vp from the substance of the Muscles, and doeth regard the smooth superficies of the heades of the thigh whereuppon they leane. These Seede-bones also doe keepe the Muscles from attrition and laceration and adde strength vnto them.  
The third Extender is called Plantaris or the Muscle of the palme or treade[ Ta. 13. and those that follow, fig. 7, 14, 16, H] 
The 3. extender.  It lurketh in the hamme vnder the former and is very slender. It ariseth with a fleshy and narrow originall from the outward head of the thigh neare the ioynt, but descending obliquely from the externall toward the internall part it is dilated: yet the fleshy part thereof is small, for presently vnder the knee it determineth into a very slender neruous and exceeding long tendon[ fig. 14. 15. 16. p Ta. 31. fig 2. and 4. H] so long that among all the round Tendons of the body there is none longer. This Tendon is spread ouer the muscle following, whereto in his progresse it is strongly tyed and implanted into the inside of the heele behinde. Sometimes it groweth broade and by the sides of the heele is spent into the whole skinne of the palme or p●ant of the foote, as the palme muscle in the hand. But when this muscle( as it is with the muscle of the palme of the hand) is wanting, then his tendon is substituted by the second bender of the toes. His vse is to writhe and turne the foote inward.  
The fourth Extender is called Soleus or the Muscle of the Soale.[ Tab. 31. and those that follow, fig, 2, 7, 14 16, I] 
The 4. extender.  It is the greatest and the thickest Muscle of the foote and lyeth vnder the former Muscles, and where the two first leane vppon it, it is liuid like them. It ariseth neruous and strong from the backepart of the Fibula or Brace, where it is articulated with the Tibia or Leg-bone, and becomming thicker it exceedeth in bredth both the bones of the Leg, but about the middle it is by degrees angustated or straytned, and a little aboue the heele degenerateth into a thicke and very strong Tendon, which on the foreside is nourished or encreased with a substance like flesh farther then it is on the backside, and being vnited with the Tendon of the first and second Muscles[ Ta. 38. fig. 16 Ψ ω I] is implanted very strongly into the backpart of the heele, where for this Muscles sake it is depressed and rough. His vse is to extend the foote and firme it vpon the ground.  
But because the bone of the heele standeth out beyond the rectitude of the bone of the Leg, this tendon a little before his insertion departeth from the legge[ fig. 15. *] and maketh an empty cauity, through which the Butchers peirce their Cammockes to hang the beast vpon in the shambles; for in the whole body there is no Tendon stronger then it. Hippocrates calleth it Chorda, where he saith that vppon the fracture of the heele there follow dangerous Agues full of Hiccocks and convulsions. 
The 5. extender.   
The fift and last Extender is called Tibiaeus posticus, the hinder Leg-muscle.[ Ta. 31. fig. 2, 7, 18, 19, K] It lyeth next to the bone betwixt the Brace and the Legge vnder two Muscles which bend the Toes.  
It ariseth from the two foresaid bones[ fig. 18, l] and presently becommeth fleshy and broade, descending fleshy vnto the extreame appendix of the Legge, vppon which bone for the most part it lyeth through his length: it cleaueth also to a Ligament which lyeth betwixt these two bones, from whence haply his originall gathereth strength; and in the middle of the Leg-bone from the inside only it produceth a round neruous and strong Tendon which tooke his beginning a little within the substance of the Muscle. This tendon creepeth through a cauity grauen in the Leg-bone neare the inner ankle; vnder the transuerse Ligament and obliquely attayneth vnto the soale of the Foote vnder the Muscles which occupy the plant[ Ta. 36, fig, 18, 19. m] or Treade, and is strongly inserted into the processe which is on the lower side of the bone of the Tarsus or After-wrest of the foote which is neare the Cube-bone, which processe was onely created for his insertion. His vse is to draw the foot inward, it helpeth also the motions of the first, second & fourth Muscles, and therefore moueth the foot to the earth, and sometimes leadeth it backward, when we would stand vpon our tip-toes as we say. And thus much concerning the extending Muscles of the foote on the backpart thereof. It followeth that we should intreat of his bending or anterior muscles which we sayd are three.  
The first Benderis called Tibiaeus anticus, the foreward Leg-muscle,[ Ta. 31. and those that follow, fig. 1, 7, 8, L] because it cleaueth to the forpart of the Leg-bone at his outside. 
The 1 bender   
It is the larger of the Benders and very nearly resembleth a Snake and lyeth vppon the Muscles of the Toes. It ariseth acute or sharpe neare to the Brace where it is articulated with the Leg-bone. Presently it is dilated, and on the inside of the Leg-bone it is ioyned to an acute line and becōing streighter by degrees vnto the middle of the leg-bone determineth farre aboue the foote into a round, neruous and strong tendon[ fig. 2. and 18. n] which tendon also sometime riseth vp vnder the skinne, and growing from the lower appendix of the leg and the brace vnder the transuerse ligament attaineth to the inside of the foot, and conuayed in a reasonable open cauity aboue the vpper part of the After-wrist or the Tarsus, is wholly inserted into the inner processe of tha, bone of the wrest of the foote which sustayneth the great toe. His vse is to bend the foote itself, and to draw it forward and vpward. This muscle as also that that went before, especially in that part where they are reflected vnder the wrist and After-wrist of the foote, haue a gristle and seede bone allowed them by Nature to preuent their attrition.  
The second bender called Peronaeus primus, or the first brace muscle,[ tab. 31. and those that follow fig. 1. 3. 8. 9. 10. 12. 16. 18. 19. M.] is in his whole progresse ioyned with the outside of the precedent musckle, and by itself is repressed in the outtside of the 
The 2. bender  leg. It ariseth fleshy and neruous[ fig. 10. n.] from the vpper and outward part of the appendix of the fibula or brace, and becomming fleshy it paceth along the same, cleauing som part to his side: departing from the brace it is on the outside liuid, but on the inside fleshy and ruddy, and being conuayed a litle below the middle of the brace between two fleshy sides[ fig. 10. pq.] out of the very middle of his body produceth an exceeding strong tendon[ fig. 10. r.] which is increased in the inside on either hand with flesh; which tendon becomming by degrees without flesh, and reflected obliquely toward the backeside of the appendix of the brace, and leauing the outward ankle naked[ fig. 10. o.] beeing inuolued in a transuerse ligament which proceedeth from the brace into the heel and the bone called the cockall or the talus, it passeth the fissure of the same outward ankle, and being very much reflected vnder the plant[ tab. 36. fig. 19. tu.] is inserted brode into the root of that bone of the wrist of the foote which lyeth vnder the great toe. I say into the processe which is on the outside of that bone: sometime into that bone vpon which the middle toe resteth.  
His vse is to leade and bend the foote upward and outward. But this tendon passeth in the middest betwixt the bones and the muscles of the plant or sole of the foote[ fig. 19. tu.] least if it should walke onely vnder the skinne when it is contracted vpward it might compresse the muscles seated in the soale and hinder their functions. So also in the lower part of the cube-bone, there is a cauity somewhat brode but not deepe, sineared ouer with a viscide humor and compassed with a slippery ligament, at which the tendon is compassed not round lest it should fall thereout, but dilated[ tab. 26. fig. 19, t] that so it might more firmely be reuolued at the shallow cauity. Againe the tendon in the same place is so hardened that it is like a grystle, yea sometime so bony as if it were a seede bone, that it might better and more readily auoyde the violence of the bending or flexion at an acute angle.  
The third and last bender called Peroneus secundus, the second brace muscle,[ Tab. 31. and those that follow fig. 3, 8, 9, 10, 18, 19. N] is hid vnder the former( his tendon excepted) 
The third.  and is like thereto. It ariseth also with a long originall from the same appendix of the brace, and being fleshy descendeth downe the same brace to which it is tyed, and when it hath ouercome the middest thereof, it departeth into a round tendon which is reflected toward the backeside of the brace and is fastened to the foreside of the tendon of the second bender, and lying vpon a cauity ingrauen in the backeside of the appendix of the brace and compassed with the transuerse ligament it descendeth forward: but at the vtter and lower part of the ankle it is againe reflected, deuided, and becommeth forked,[ tab. 35. fig. 10. s.] lest it should bunch vp too high and is implanted[ tab. 36. fig. 19. x.] very strongly with a double and broad insertion into the processe of that maner bone of the wrist of the foot which sustains the litle toe. His vse is to leade and bend the foot outward.  
To these eight muscles of the foote Vesalius and Falopius add a ninth[ Tab. 33. fig. 8. 9. p.] which Bauhine taketh rather to be a part of the second extender of the toes[ ta. 33 fig. 7, 8, 9. p.] 
Falopius ninth muscle.  then a particular muscle of itself. And thus much of the muscles of the foot.   

CHAP. XL. Of the muscles of the Toos.  
THe foure toes of the foote are moued almost with the same motions that the fingers of the hands are mooued with. But the great or thumbe-toe is not led after the same maner with the thumb of the hand, that is, with a flexion opposit to the other fingers but his first ioynt is bent after the same manner with the first ioynts of the rest of the toes, because his position is in the same order. The toes therefore are moued directly or sidelong. If directly, then either they are bent toward the earth, euery ioynt being mooued 
The motion of the toes.  apart, and that either directly onely, as the second and third ioynts of the foure toes, and the second of the thumbe or great toe; or directly & obliquely together, as the first ioynts of all the fiue toes. If they be extended, the extention is made directly or in a right line, and so all the ioynts are moued together. If they moue to one side that motion is eyther outward, as when the foure greater are led to the little toe, and the little toe led from the 
Their muscles 23.  rest: or inwarde when the thumbe-toe is ledde from the rest and the foure lesser toes moued toward it. All these motions are absolued by three and twenty muscles, whereof some are seated in the leg, that is to say part in his fore part & part in his backpart. Others are placed in the foote itself, properly so called.  
The first muscle of the toes is called Pollicis tensor, the extender of the great toe or the 
First.  first extender,[ Tab. 33, fig. 8, 9, o] It is seated in the foreside of the legge, together with that which next followeth at whose inner side it lyeth.  
It ariseth fleshy from the outside of the legge where the bone of the leg or the Tibia departeth from the Brace or the Eibula. After it descendeth and groweth in his whole passage to a membranous ligament which commeth betwixt the leg & the Brace bones and so attaineth vnto the foreside of the leg; thence creeping vnder the transuerse ligament[ Tab. 31, fig. 1, char. 2] and ouer the foote, it is inserted into the vpper part of the whole length of the great toe to extend it. Sometimes the tendon is diuided into two, one of which is inserted into the last ioynt of the great toe, the other into the wrist of the soote to bend it. And this latter tendon in some bodies seemeth to be a distinct muscle. But that saith Columbus is very rare.  
The second extender[ Tab. 31, and those that follow fig. 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, P] is placed in the 
Second.  forepart of the leg, but lurkerh vnder the sixt muscle of the foote. It ariseth with an acute and neruous originall[ Tab. 33, fig. 8, char. 10.] which presently becommeth fleshy, from the top or extremity of the appendix of the leg, where vnder the knee it is fastened to the Brace; thence it descendeth directly along the Brace and about the middle thereof it 
Fleshy parts.  casteth off from his outside a fleshy portion,[ tab. 31, & those that follow fig. 8, 9, P] which portion descending downeward, maketh that muscle which Fallopius calleth the ninth muscle of the foote: presently falling yet lower vnder the transuerse ligament which is on the foreside of the leg,[ tab. 31, fig. 1, char. 2,] to which it adhereth; at the end of the Fibula or Brace it degenerateth into a tendon,[ tab. 33, fig. 8, charact. 12,] which tendon before it passe the transuerse ligament is diuided into foure round tendons separated & conueyed through the backe of the soale vnto the foure toes,( beside the great toe) which run through their whole length, and becomming broader are inserted into their vpper parts. Their vse is to extend the three ioynts of the foure toes together.  
The third muscle of the toes is called Pollicis Flexor, the bender of the great toe, or the 
Third.  first bender,[ ta. 31, and those that follow, fig. 2, 7, 16, 17, Q] and is seated with that which next followeth in the backpart of the leg vnder the muscles, which make the Pulp or Calfe, and it is almost altogether fleshy.  
It ariseth[ figure 16, character 13,] from the backe-part at the connexion or coniunction of the Brace with the Legge-bone, and growing for a time to the Brace, it approcheth to the ende of the Legge-bone, where from his inside there issueth a rounde Tendon,[ figure 16, 17, character 14,] which may bee seene manifestly to haue his originall out of the flesh,[ Table 36, figure 16, ω] which tendon passeth obliquely vnder the Ankle at the inside of the heele, where a cauity is engrauen for it, and where also it is couered with a transuerse ligament: thence it inclineth vnder the plant or treade of the foote, at which place sometimes it transmitteth certaine small portions into the tendons of the third muscle with which it is commixed,[ fig. 16, cha. 19] and when his especiall tendon is receiued by the transuerse ligament, it is inserted with a broade implantation into the second bone of the great toe after it hath passed the length of the first, which second bone it bendeth. Sometime vnder the soale it is diuided into two tendons the larger wherof it transmitteth to the great toe, the lesser vnto the next, and then the second bender is diuided onely into three tendons and no more. This tendon before it is inserted into the second bone of the great toe hath a great seede-bone set before it with a slippery and smooth surface.  
The fourth Muscle of the Toes or the second Bender which is called Digitorumflex, or magnus, the great Bender of the Toes[ tab. 36. fig. 16, 17, 18, R] lyeth neare the formet 
The fourth.  and leaneth rather vpon the Legge then vpon the Brace-bone[ table. 36. fig. 18, rather A then B,]  
It ariseth fleshy from the Leg-bone vnder the hamme[ fig, 16. cha. 8] and descending almost to the heele, it produceth from the inside a round tendon[ fig, 16. char. 7.] which passing along vnder the inner ankle, and in a peculiar cauity of the heele[ fig, 19, ●●] and vnder the transuerse Ligament which groweth from the appendixe of the Legge, it runneth vnder the tendon of the third Muscle in the soale of the Foote with which it maketh a decussation[ fig. 17. betwixt the 17, and the 15, characters] and in the middle of the foot is deuided into foure tendons,[ fig. 17, char. 18.] which being bound with Ligaments and passing through the Section or diuision of the Tendons of the subsequent muscle are inserted broade according to the length of the bone into the third ioynt of the foure Toes. The vse of this Muscle is to bend those foure toes, to contract them strongly and to lead them one to another.  
The fift Muscle is also the third bender.[ ta. 36. fig, 16, 17. S] it is seated vnder the middle of the soale and ariseth with an originall mixed betwixt a neruous and a fleshy from 
The fift.  the lower part of the heele-bone, and the forepart of his protuberation. Presently after his originall it becommeth fleshy and passeth toward the Toes, being by degrees dilated or spread abroad according to the forme of the foote. At the middest whereof it is deuided into foure fleshy parts;[ ta. 36. fig. 16. char. 21.] which parts being separated doe each of them produce a round tendon which are receiued at the roote of the first ioynt by the transuerse Ligament, and being deuided( as it is in the hand) with a long section each of them growing broade, are inserted into the second bone of the foure Toes.  
The vse of this Muscle is to bend the second ioynt of the foure Toes. There also groweth very strongly a broade tendon[ ta. 34. fig. 15. ζ] vnder all the fleshy substance of this Muscle, which serueth insteade of the broade tendon of the hand, and sometimes is the tendon of the third muscle of the Foote which is called Plantaris. This tendon is of exquisite sense the better to forwarne vs vppon the instant of externall iniuries.  
[ Table 36. is the same with 31. Folio 806.]  
The sixt Muscle is called Abductor pollicis inferior, the lower backe-leader of the great 
The sixt or  Toe.[ tab. 31. and those that follow, fig, 1, 2. 7, 11, 16, g] It lyeth to the inside of the Foote throughout the length thereof, and resembleth the fashion of a Mouse. His originall is neruous from the heele on the inside neare the muscle foregoing, and becomming fleshy it is fastned to that bone of the wrest of the Foote which supporteth the great Toe, & degenerateth into a round tendon which is implanted on the outside into the first bone of the said great Toe to lead it from the rest.  
The seauenth Muscle is called Abductor minimi digiti inferior, the lower back-leader of the Little Toe.[ tab. 31. and those that follow, fig. 3, 4, 15, 16. V] It is situated in the externall 
The seauenth  part of the Foote and ariseth with a neruous originall from the vtter part of the Heele where there is a protuberation, and becomming fleshy it expresseth the forme of a perfect Muscle, and is affixed to that processe of the wrest-bone which sustaineth the little Toe, and determineth into a round Tendon which is infixed into the outside of the first bone of the little Toe to lead it from the rest.  
These three are couered or inuested by a thicke and broade tendon as it was in the palme of the hand.  
The 8. 9. 10. and 11. Muscles, or the 3. 4. 5. and 6. Extenders, called also Lumbricales, 
The 8. 9. 10. & 11.   
Table 38. sheweth the Muscles of the Foote and the Toes thereof. But the 18. the 19. Figures shew the right Foote as did those two in the 34. Table, but here it is more bared from the Muscles.  

TABVLA XXXVIII.  
FIG. XVI  
FIG. XVII.  
FIG. XX.  
FIG. XIIX.  
FIG. XIX.  

a 16, The backe of the hanch bone bate.  
b 16. A membranous ligament occupying the greate perforation of the share bone.  
l m 18. The beginning of the fift extender of the Foote at l, his tendon at m 18, & 19.  
n 18. A portion of the Tendon of the first bender of the foot.  
p 16, The tendon of the 3. muscle extending the foote.  
● u 19. the 2. bender of the foot or the first Peroneus reflected in the foote.  
x x 16. two fleshy partes compassing the Tendons of the tenth muscle of the thigh.  
x 19. The insertion of the 3. bender of the foote.  
A 18, 19, The bone of the leg.  
B 18, 19. the Brace.  
C D 18, The bosome or cauity of the tendons othe 2, and 3, muscle ●f the toes  
E 18, Small bones neare the first ioynt of the great toe.  
F 19. a. igamēt going betwixt the bones of the leg and the Brace.    
H 16, the 3, extender of the Foote called Plantaris. I 16. the 4. extender of the foote called Soleus. K 18, 19, the fift extender of the foote called Tibiaeus posticus. M 16, 18, 19. the 2, bender of the foote or the first Peroneus. N 18, 19. the 3, bender of the foot or the second Peroneus. Q 16, 17, 18, the first muscle bending the toes of the foote or the bender of the great toe. R 16, 17, the second bender of the toes or their great bender. S 16, 17, the 3 muscle bending the toes or their other bender. T 16. the lower abductor of the great toe. V 16, the abductor of the little toe. X 17, 18, the foure muscles called Lumbricales. Z 16, the muscles called Interossei or the bone bound muscles. Λ 16, the muscle mouing the Leg obliquely called Popliteus. 〈◇〉 16, the first bender of the thigh called Lumbalis descendens. τ 16, the 2, bender of the thigh called Illiacus internus. φ 16, a portion of the first compasser of the thigh. ψ 16, the first extender of the foot called Gastrocnimius internus. ω 16, the second extender of the foote called Gastrocnimius externus. * 16, the thigh bone bare. 1, 2, 3, Char. 19, three Sinns or bosomes made to carry three tendons. 3, char. 16, a ligament hanging from the ioynts of the Toes, doing the office of the broad tendon. 4, 5, char. 16, the originall of the muscle of the ham called Poplitaeus at 4, his insertion at 5. 13, char, 16, the originall of the first bender of the toes. 14, 15, char, 16, 17, the tendon of that muscle at 14, his insertion at the great Toe 15. 16, char, 16, the beginning of the second bender of the toes. 17, cha, 16, 17, the tendon of the same arising there. 18, char, 17, the tendon deuided into foure parts. 19, char, 18, the commixtion of the tendons. 20, 21, char, 16, the third bender of the toes, his originall from the heele at 20, his diuision into foure tendons at 21. 22, char, 16, 17, 18, a fleshy portion growing to the bones of the foote at the great toe,  

Figure 20, sheweth the Ligaments growing to the ioynts and the Bones of the Leg & the Thigh.   
A B, The thigh bone at A his vpper head at B. C D, the 2 lower heads thereof. E, the bone of the leg. F, his vpper protuberation. G, the lower sinus or cauity. H, the inner ankle. I, the Bracebone called Fibula. K, the vtter ankle. L the vpper, a round ligament of the head of the thtgh. L the lower, a muscle in the calfe or the fourth of the foote. M M, a ligament compassing the vpper ioynt of the thing. N, A ligament growing to the greater processe of the thigh. O, A Ligament affixed to the lesser processe of the thigh. P P, a ligament involuing the ioynt of the knee. Q R, a ligament set to the vtter and inner side of the knee. S, a ligament coupling the protuberation of the leg-bone marked with F and the thigh together. T V, a ligament binding the leg-bone and the Brace together aboue and below. X, a membranous ligament sastning together the Leg and the Brace. Y Z, a transuerse ligament gathering the nerues. 〈◇〉 a tendon made of three muscles of the foote and inserted into the heele. a, b, ligaments ioyning the heele to the Leg and the Brace: from the bone of the leg to the heele at a from the Brace to the heele at b. c d, A gristly Ligament running from the inner Ankle into the inside of the Talus at c: another ioyning the Brace to the Talus. the wormy Muscles[ tab. ●6. figu. 17, 18, x] are seated vnder the soale of the Foote, and arising from the Ligament which compasseth the foure tendons of the perforating Muscle or the second Bender, are implanted round and small into the Tendons of the Muscle extending the Toes, to extend or streatch forth their second or third ioynts. These Muscles for their farther strength receiue a fleshy portion from the heele, which lyeth vnder the three forenamed Muscles.  
The twelfth Muscle called Abductor digitorum superior, the vpper backe-leader of the Toes,[ tab. 31. fig. 1, 8, 9, 10, 11, TY] is seated in the vpper and gibbous part of the Foote. 
The twelfth  It is a broade and slender muscle, and ariseth fleshy from the Ligaments which are at the heele and the bone called Cubiforme or the Dye aboue the wrist and After-wrist of the Foote, and running obliquely toward the toes is diuided into foure fleshy parts euery one of which make a round tendon. The greatest of which is inserted in the vtter side of the great toe toward the height thereof. The second of the next toe. The third of the middle toe, and the fourth of the fourth toe. Sometimes also but rarely a small part is lent vnto the little toe.  
The vse of this muscle is to moue the toes to the sides and to leade them backward & outward. But when it hath onely foure tendons, then the tendon belonging to the little toe ariseth from the third externall muscle of the foote although the lower backe-leader of the little toe of the seauenth muscle will serue that turne.  
The thirteenth muscle ariseth with a broade and neruoue original from the ligament of the first ioynt of the little toe, sometime of the toe next vnto it, afterward becomming 
The thirteen:  fleshy, it passeth thwart ouer the first ioynts of the toes and determineth in a broade but short tendon which is inserted a little inward into the first ioynt of the great toe.  
The vse of this muscle is double, first that when it worketh wee may better hold our feete as we say in vnequall places, for it maketh a kinde of apprehension. The second that when it worketh not, it might serue the foote in stead of a ligament, least when wee walke vppon euen ground, the soale of the foote should be enlarged beyond that that is fit, and so the toes led one from another. Concerning this muscle saith Bauhine, Iulius Casserius first writ vnto me.  
Vnder this muscle lye the ten muscles called Interossei or the bone-bound muscles( for 
Casserius. The ten muscles betwixt the bones.  you must giue vs leaue to make english words as our Authors haue done in greeke and latine)[ tab. 36, fig. 18, 19, ●.] which are to be referred to the benders of the toes. These haue their situation in the soale of the foote where they make a rude and indigested lump of flesh diuersified with right fibres, which lumpe proceedeth from the beginning of the after-wrest, and passing throughout his length fill vp the spaces betweene the bones and are inserted two and two into the rootes of all fiue toes or at the ligament of the first ioynt toward the inside, that so when two worke together, they may bend the first ioynt, but when one alone worketh, it leadeth the same ioynt to the side eyther outward or inward as the site and originall of the muscle is. To the short and broade tendons of these muscles do grow for their further strength seed-bones, such as are in the hands, but greater. And thus haue we brought to an end this crooked and crabbed history of the muscles cōcerning which, I know not whether I should rather craue pardon or pitty, pardon I presume 
The conclusion of the muscles.  I shall not neede to craue of them that vnderstand through what a laborinth I haue led my pen: pitty also will do me little good now the paine is past. Acceptance shall bee better welcome then eyther, and an ingenious mind that measureth my foote by his own Last. One other passage remaineth in this booke, and that is concerning those other kindes of flesh which are found in the body of man, to wit, the flesh of the viscera or Entrals and that of the Glandules, which two when we haue lightly passed ouer, we will proceede vnto the booke of the Vessels.   

CHAP. XLI. Of the flesh of the Entrales or Bowels.  
_GAlen esteemed the flesh of the Bowels to be similar and simple, not onely in respect of the mistion, because all euen their least particles are of one and the like nature, whence some Arabians haue called it Confusa. Erasistratus called it first of al men 〈◇〉 as it were an affusion or cocretion of blood. 
Parenchyma what it is.  This flesh Erasistratus esteemed to haue no other vse but only to separate the vessels and to serue as a soft cushion or pillow for them to rest on, and to strengthen and establish their passage, but we esteeme it to be of a great deale more excellent vse, for wee thinke that it is the chiefe part of the bowell to which the officiall or common action thereof primarily appertaineth. So Sanguification primarily and of itself belongeth to 
His excelencie.  the Flesh of the Liuer; to the veines secondarily onely and by influence.  
The Flesh of the Longues prepareth the aire for the Heart, the Flesh of the Spleene purgeth the Lees or foeculencie of the bloud, the Flesh of the Kidneies draweth and separateth the whey or vrine. Wherefore this Flesh maketh the proper substance of the bowell or entrall. Onely this among all sorts of Flesh is insensible, and according to Galens testimony in Arte parua is of the number of those partes which haue their faculties seated and established in them not influent or deriued from other parts.  
The Flesh of the Liuer is red and moderately thicke, neither doeth the heate thereof alone further the sanguification of the veines, as the Kell, the Spleen and the parts thereabouts 
Of the Liuer.  doe assist the concoction of a Stomacke: But by an in-bred and proper power it scaleth or imprinteth vpon the bloud his stampe or forme his temper and colour.  
The Flesh of the Spleene is a rare spongy or funguous Parenchyma, loose like the 
Of the spleen  faster sort of sponges, and fit to draw and receiue muddie and melancholique humors.  
The Flesh of the Kidneies is red, fast and solid, differing not much from the substance 
Of the Kidneies.  of the Heart, sauing that it is not intertexed or wouen with fibres. It was made solid, least if it had beene loose and flaccid it should not haue beene able to containe the vrine that it receiued. It draweth by an inbred power whey or vrine from the whole body, separateth it being mingled with the bloud, and transfuseth it drop by droppe into membranous cauities.  
The Flesh of the Longues is light, rare and like vnto a sponge, made as it were of the froth of bloud congealed together. It is light that it might easily be lifted vp, and fall againe 
Of the Lungs  without violence, and so readily obey or follow the motions of the Chest. It is rare and spongy that like a paire of bellowes it might presently be filled with the ayre we breath in, as also to make the way fit for the breathing out of sooty and smoaky vapours. This Flesh prepareth for the Heart one of the materials of the vitall spirit, that is ayre, for the outward ayre which hath much impurity mixed therewith, could not at the first hand be made a fit nourishment for the inward spirit, & therefore it was necessary that it should be altered by little and little, and by some stay made in the Lungs, acquire or attaine a quality familiar to the inbred spirit.  
Concerning the flesh of the heart, it may be doubted whether it ought to be referred 
Of the heart.  to the flesh of the bowels or to the flesh of the Muscles: Galen holdeth on neither side; for a Parenchyma hath no fibres, the Heart is wouen with them after a strange and admirable manner. Againe, the motions of the Muscles are Voluntary, so is not the motion of the Heart. The Flesh therefore of the Heart is peculiar to itself alone, such as you cannot finde in the whole body againe.  
There is no lesse scruple also concerning the Flesh of the Tongue, for it is as nimble as an Ecle; turning itself into a thousand motions, yet are there no fibres running therethrough, and therefore the Flesh thereof cannot be sayde to bee musculous, rather if all things be considered it inclineth to the nature of a Parenchyma. And so much shall be sufficient to haue said concerning the Flesh of the Bowels or Entrals.   

CHAP. XLII. What a Glandule is, and how many kinds there be of them.  
_BEcause many of the Ancients haue defined a Glandule to bee a Flesh rowled vp into itself: I haue thought sit sayth Laurentius for order sake to refer the 
What a glandule is.  whole kinde or kin of Glandules vnto Flesh.  
A Glandule therefore which the Graecians call 〈◇〉 is a simple part, Rare and f●yable soft like a sponge, appoynted by Nature to firme and establish the vesselles, to sucke or drinke vp superfluous humours, and to water or dew some partes that stoode need of moysture.  
The Authour of the Booke de Glandulis, whether it were Hippocrates or Polybius, hath elegantly expressed the nature of a Glandule, where hee sayeth Their Nature is spongy for they are rare and fat. That they are of such a nature you shall easily find if you presse them hard betwixt your Fingers, for they will yeilde an oylie humour and bloud, white like phlegme. Now it is consonant to reason that they haue such a substance, not for nought but for some particular and especiall vse. That vse is three-fold.  
The first vse of Glandules is to firme or establish the diuarications or diuisions of the vessels. For it was to be feared least the vessels running through large and ample cauities, 
The first vse of glandules.  if they had no other muniment or defence sauing their owne membranes, would in violent motions be broken off, as in great windes boughes are torne from a tree; vnlesse these glandulous bodies did lye soft vnder them and establish and sustaine them. And therefore where the vessells are forcked or deuided, there Nature hath euer placed Glandules vnder them.  
So in the diuision of the Gate-veine there is a notable Glandule called Pancreas or the Sweete-bread. In the diuarications of the veines of the Mesentery there are Glandules almost infinite. In the distribution of the ascending trunke of the hollow veine is the glandule called Thymus which is the sweetebread in calues. In the vessels of the braine the glandule called Conarium or the pine-glandule. In the the necke, in the arme pits and in the groynes where the Iugular axillary and crurall veins are diuided there are glandules placed to support their diuisions. VVherefore they were made soft and rare, that neyther their hardnesse might offend the vessels, and by yeelding they might giue way to the distentions when they strut with blood.  
The second vse of the glandules is like sponges to sucke and drinke vp fleame, whey 
Their second vse.  and other superuacuous humours, that they should not rush vpon the more noble parts. In which respect their forme is round, somewhat long, and their substance rare and open; so fitted to receiue the greater quantity of any kind of influxion. This vse the authour of the booke de glandulis openeth vnto vs in these words. They beare away the redundancie or surplussage of the rest of the body, and that indeede is their familiar Alement. It may also by reason be demonstrated that they were ordayned by nature to purge away moyst superfluities; for those parts that are hollow, and especially if they bee moyst and full of blood, haue more and larger glandules then those that are solide and lesse succulent, as are the ioynts. So behind the eares about the necke where the iugular veines run, about the arme pit where the axillary branch is, and about the groynes where the crurall veine appeareth, there are notable glandules which receiue the superfluities of the principall parts, the Brayne, the Heart and the Liuer, which glandules are commonly called Emunctories, and if they swell or bee otherwise affected, they betoken the distemper of their owne bowell or some ill disposition therein. Hippocrates in the second section of his 6. booke Epidemion, saith Abscesses or Apostemes( as for example the tumors of the glandules) are produced as fruitelesse water shootes of those places, out of which they grow. They also bewray the condition of other places and parts, and especially of the bowels. Galen also in the thirteenth booke of his Methode saith, that when an Apostemation ariseth neare any notable artery or vein sudainly do spring vp Bubones, that is, inflammations of the glandules.  
Thirdly we added in the definition, that the vse of the glandules was to irrigate or 
The thire vse.  water some parts lest they should too easily bee exiccated and dryed or made vnfit for motion. Such are some of the glandules of the Mesentery, which with their moysture do dew the guts. Such are also the glandules of the Throttle or the Tongue, which ingender or gather spittle. The glandules in the corners of the Eyes doe make much toward the celerity and ease their motions, and finally those prostate glandules in the neck of the bladder doe water and moysten the Vreter with an oyly humidity, lest it should bee offended by the Acrimony of the vrine. And this is the nature of glandules properly so called.  
There is also another kinde of glandules which may more truly be called Glandulous bodyes. Their substance indeed is like vnto a glandule that is rare and lax, but it is ordayned 
Glandulous bodyes.  by Nature for the generation of humours or iuyces which are profitable for the creature. Proper or simple glandules haue neither peculiar veines, nor arteries, nor nerues And according to Galen, they are in the last of those parts which haue faculties inbred & seated in them, not flowing from otherwhere: but these glandulous bodyes haue manifest and conspicuous vessels, and are also of exquisite sense. The former haue onely an vse in the body: these latter haue not onely an vse, but doe also performe an action. So in Galen the Testicles are called glandulous bodyes: for their substance is soft and hollow, in which the seede is boyled and perfected. So the dugs are glandulous bodyes and haue a power or faculty in them for the generation of milke. Notwithstanding these glandulous bodyes doe sometimes affoord the same vse that the other glandules doe, that is, to sucke or sup vp the recrements or excrements of the whole body: for Nature doth often abuse one and the same part to diuers vses. So Hippocrates reckoneth the Kidneyes in the number of the Glandules, yea and the braine itself is like vnto a Glandule, for it is white and friable and performeth the offices of a Glandule to the head.   

CHAP. XLIII. A briefe enumeration of the Glandules in the whole body.  
_THE number of the Glandules is almost infinite, we will onely run ouer the most notable, and of them giue you but a light view, because you haue heard their particular descriptions in their proper places.  
In the braine there are 2 Glandules not very great indeed but very notable. 
The glādules in the braine.   
The first is of a turbinated figure commonly compared to a pine-kernell and called Conarium; of which you shall reade in the twelfth chap. of our seauenth booke. It is thought to be ordained for an establishment vnto the veines and arteries which are dispersed into the braine, and maketh the way open for the Animall spirit out of the thirde into the fourth ventricle. The other is called Glans Pituitaria, the phlegmaticke Glandule; of which you shall reade in the thirteenth chapter of our seauenth booke.  
His porous or open flesh like a sponge receiueth the superfluities of the vpper ventricles of the braine, and distilleth them into the Pallate through the holes of the wedgebone. Vnder the eares and behind them there are many glandules called Parotides appointed to establish the diuisions of the vessels, and to drink vp the humors of the braine, whose Emunctories they are commonly stiled. Betwixt the skinne and the fleshy membrane of the Face there are many glandules, sayth Platerus, which they call Animelles, as also betwixt the lower side of the puffe of the cheeke, and the beginning of the necke, where the Kings euill doth often arise.  
In the inside of the chops which from the narrownes is called Isthmus, there do appeare two glandules like blanched Almonds, and therefore they are called the Almonds 
The glādules of the Larinx.  of the throate and Tonsillae, and these do perpetually moysten the chops, the mouth, and the tongue with spittle. There are also two at the roote of the Larinx or throttle, and two vnder the gullet, which often-times do so swell that they interclude the way both of meate and drinke: but of drinke especially, for the solid meate makes itself a way by cōpression, wheras that which is liquid doth rather fil the fungous substance of the glandule.  
Vnder the top of the brest-bone, in the very diuision of the ascending trunke of the hollow veine there is a glandule called Thymus a lecker or sweete-bit for nice pallats, made to establish the vessels.  
There are also many others in the cauity of the chest, in the arme-pits, in the groynes, in the armes and in the legs. All which want proper names.  
Vnder the Stomacke and the Gut called Duodenum, there is a glandulous body, which because it resembleth a simple flesh, they call Pancreas, whose vse is to sustaine, imbrace and comprehend the branches of the Gate-veine, which are to be distributed into the stomacke, the gut Duodenum and the Spleene, which are onely supported by the lower membrane of the Kell.  
In the Messentery there are many Glandules as well to distinguish the vessels as to keepe them from compression, when the guts are ouer-filled or when the Abdomen is too much strained, for otherwise the transcolation of the chylus would be hindered. These Glandules also do moysten the guts, and tye as it were the vessels together that in violent motions they might not bee broken. In the necke of the bladder neare the sphincter muscle are those glandules which are called Prostatae, of whose vse we haue spoken partly in the fourth booke, and partly in the former chapter.  
The Glandulous bodies we neede not in this place so much as to rehearse for their descriptions are large enough in their proper places; whereto we referre the Reader, and heere put an end to our booke of Flesh: and proceede vnto the Vessels.   
The end of the tenth booke.   

THE ELEAVENTH BOOKE, Of the Vessels vvhich hath three parts:  

The first of the Veines.  
The second of the Arteries.  
The third of the Sinewes.   

The Praeface.  
_AS in the Heauens the Angels are the Messengers of God, carrying down his commandements vnto men whome also they guard and defend; so in this Microcosme the dull Flesh being of too flow a kind to ensue the noble motions of the Soule, which with his counterpoise it oftner doth oppresse, our wise Creator ordained spirites of a middle Nature betweene the Soule and the Body, which like quicke Postes, like Purseuants or Heralds might trauell betweene them, and communicate their commission to the particular partes which they receiue either at the first hand from the Soule itself in the Brayne, or haue it sealed in the Heart or the Liuer, as in her subordinate offices.  
These Spirits Galen calleth 〈◇〉 Impetuous bodies, because their motion is sudden & momentanie like the lightning, which in the twinkling of an eye shooteth through the whole cope of Heauen; yea so much more subtle are they then the Lightning, as that the one is visible the other inuisible: or they are like the winde which whiskes about in euery corner and turnes the heauy saile of a Wind-mill, yet can we not see that which transports it. How necessary therefore was it that such subtle and vndertaking or actiue Creatures should be confined as well to guide their motion which otherwise would be inordinate, as also to keepe them from exhaling or vanishing away. Nature therefore because the Spirites are of three forts, Naturall, Vitall and Animall, hath prepared three kindes of Vesselles for their transportation, Veines, Arteries and Sinewes. The Veines because their guest is not so subtile but a more cloudy and thick spirit, generated immediately out of the purer substance of the bloud, haue but a single coate, as being sufficient to conteine a more quiet spirit. The Arteries because their spirits are more sprightfull and impetuous, mouing alwayes with a subsultation, and perpetually playing vp & down, are made as some thinke sixe fould as thicke as the Veines, the safer to immure the vnruly Inmate. The Nerues are nothing else but productions of the marrowy and slimy substance of the Brayne, through which the Animall spirits do rather Beame then are transported, inuested with the two Membranes wherein the Braine itself is inuested, commonly called the Pia and Dura mater. And this substance was indeede more fit for Irradiation then a conspicuous or open cauity, which would haue made our motions & Sensations more sudden, commotiue, violent and disturbed, whereas now the members receiuing a gentle and successiue illumination are better commaunded by our Will and moderated by our Reason.  
The Natures of these three kindes of Spirites wee haue partly handled before in the third, the sixt and the seauenth Books: & therefore we will no longer detaine the Reader by way of Introduction, but descend vnto their particular Histories.  

CHAP. I. What a Veine is.  
_HAuing wrought our way through the darke and shady groue of the muscles Nulli penetrabilis astro; into the secret whereof I thinke no wit of man is able to reach.( And therefore it shall be no wonder if we bring some scratches out of so thorny a copse) we are now ariued in these medows, where the vessels like so many brooks do water and refresh this pleasant Paradise or modell of heauen and earth; I mean the body of man. And surely by these streames doe grow many pleasant flowers of learning to entertaine and delight our mindes beside the maine profit arising therefrom vnto the perfection of that art we haue in hand.  
Vnder the name of vessels we vnderstand three kinds veines, arteries and sinewes, because out of these as out of riuers, doe flow into all the parts of the body Blood, Heat, 
Three kindes of vessels.  Spirits, Life, Motion and Sense.  
Wherefore Hippocrates in his booke de Corde calleth them, 〈◇〉, the riuers of the body of man. Neither let any man taxe vs for inuerting our order when wee first begin with the history of the veines, then descend vnto the arteries, and lastly vnto the nerues; because the veines are most simple as hauing but one proper coate and that thin; the arteries two and those thicker; but the substance of nerues is manifold, as being within soft and marrowy without membranous. For they must remember that the maine guide of our labour is the order of dissection. Now the originall of the veines is in the lower region, at which we began our discourse. The originall of the arteries in the middle region, and that of the nerues in the vpper.  
A veine therefore is by the later Greeke writers absolutely called 〈◇〉, Eudox calleth it 〈◇〉, Hesychius 〈◇〉, because it is the canale of the blood. The Antient Physitions, 
The names of veines.  as Hippocrates vsed 〈◇〉 as a common name to veines and arteries, so in his booke de carnibus, There are two 〈◇〉, saith he, two hollow veines issuing from the heart: the one is called a veine, the other an arterie. Sometimes Hippocrates distinguisheth betwixt these two veines by adding the word 〈◇〉, which signifieth to beate, as if he should say arteries are beating veines, veines those that doe not beate. Many places might be alledged to prooue this distinction if wee thought it needfull: Auicen cals the arteris beating and bold veines. Cicero venas micontes which doe sometimes lift vp themselues, and sometimes sinke againe. Celsus calleth them veines fitted for the spirits, and the true veines he cals quietas, still veines. Hippocrates in his boooke de morbo sacro, to distinguish the veines from the arteries which are the conceptacles of the spirits calleth them 〈◇〉 bloody, because they conuey the blood.  
The latter Grecians haue included this name within narrower bounds and restrained it onely to quiet or still veines which haue but one simple coate, in whose footesteps we also doe insist calling the arteries not 〈◇〉 but 〈◇〉, so the vessels beeing distinct their names also are distinct.  
Furthermore, the vessels are distinguished in their structure motion and vse. In the 
How veines & arteries differ.  structure, because a veine hath a thin coate, whereas the coate of the artery is very thicke. In their motion, because an artery is mooued perpetually and conspicuously with a diastloe and systole, that is, a dilation and contraction, whereas the veine is altogether immooueable. In vse because the artery transporteth the vitall spirit together with exceeding thin blood. The veines carry a thicker blood and a more cloudy spirit: the veins haue an inbred faculty to alter and boyle the blood; the arteries haue no such faculty, because their blood attaineth his vtmost elaboration and perfection in the heart. But let vs come to the definition of a veine.  
A veine may be considered two manner of wayes, either as it is a Similar, or as it is an originall part. Galen in his 2. booke de Elementis, accounts it Similar, if not indeed, 
Two considerations of a veine.  yet at least according to the iudgement of the sense; againe, in his booke de morborum differentiis, he proueth that it is organical, for hee calleth veines arteries and muscles organs of the first kinde and most simple organs.  
If you regard a veine as it is a Similar part, then must you define it by his temper,( for the temper is the forme of the similarity, that I may so speake) to be A cold and drie part generated out of a slimy and following portion of the seed. I sayde it was cold. In respect of his naturall temper for otherwise by the contaction of the blood and the perfusion of the spirits it is very hot. And in Galens first booke de temperamentis It is sayd to be hotter then the skin.  
If you consider a vein as it is an organicall part, then shall you define it to be A vessell long, round, excauated or hollowed like a reede hauing but one and that a thin coate wouen with all kindes of fibres, arising from the liuer and appointed or set a part by a Nature to contain boyle and distribute the blood. In this definition you haue the figure, compositton, originall, vse and action of the organ elegantly described. The roundnesse and cauity of the vessel expresseth the figure of the organ whereby a veine is distinguished from a nerue, for nerues haue onely pores but no sensible cauities. Praxagoras therefore was in an error and so are those that follow him, who call nerues venas continuatas continued veines. 
The explication of the definition.   
The simple and thin coate noteth the structure of the vessell, and discriminateth or putteth a difference betwixt a veine and an artery, for an artery hath a double coate, one outward and another inward, and if we may beleeue Erophilus it is fiue-fold thicker then a veine, because it containeth thinner and more spryghtfull blood, which if it were not concluded or shut vp within thicke wals would easily breake prison and vanish away.  
This simple coate hath fibres of all kindes, right, oblique and transuerse, if not for his owne priuate nourishment, to which the attracting, retayning, and expelling faculties are seruiceable; yet for a cōmon vse to retayn and draw the blood which is the treasure of Nature from the neighbour veynes to transmit the same from one to another and so to make distribution: finaly to separate the pure from that which is impure. I thinke also sayth Laurentius that the fibres were ordayned ad 〈◇〉, that is to auoyde an inconuenience, for because oftentimes the blood aboundeth in quantity and offereth a kinde of violence to the veynes. Sometime by right, sometime by oblique, sometime by transuerse extentions; he veynes stood in neede of all kindes of fibres, that they might bee so extended according to all the violent occursions and impressions made by the blood, for otherwise they would certaynly be broken. These fibres are the first most simple and truly solyd particles of the veine, but that substance which filleth vppe or stuffeth out the spaces betwixt the fibre. is called fleshy by Analogy or proportion.  
The fibres of the veyne sayth Galen in his second booke de temperamentis, are colder then the skin, but the flesh that commeth betwixt them is hotter. Hence it appeareth, that the coate of the veyne differs much from the nature of other membranes, as of the peritoneum or rimme of the bell, the pleura which compasseth the ribs and the periosteon which immedyatly inuesteth the bones: for these are indeed simple hauing no separated fibres, and may be borne or diuided euery way as paper may. But the coate of the veynes is dissimilar because it hath both fibres and flesh.  
This proper coate of the Veines is inuested oftentimes with another called a Common 
The common coate of the veines.  coate which it borroweth from the neighbour partes, from the Pleura the Veines of the Chest doe borrow, and from the Rimme those in the lower belly. I said they haue often a Common coate, for all veines haue it not, for example, those that are spinkled thorough some bowell, those that wander through the bodies of Muscles, and finally those which are inserted into the parts & in them are propagated or encreased: for such a membrane would hinder the bloud that it should not so readily sweat through. Those Veines onely haue this common coate, which either doe runne a long iourney, or lye vpon some hard body, or at some place are suspēded or hung to any particular part: & such is the struc▪ a Veine.  
The beginning of the Veines the Definition sayeth is the Liuer, not a beginning of generation or original( for that is the common worde though the first I thinke bee 
The common vse of the veines.  better) for all the parts are formed together, but of Radication and Dispensation. Of Radication, be cause the roots of the gate and hollow veines are sprinkled through the whole Parenchyma or flesh of the Liuer according to that of Hippocrates in his Booke de Alimento, 〈◇〉 the Radication of the Veines is the Liuer. Of Dispensation, that is, of distribution and office, because from it a common matter, to wit the bloud which is the common Aliment of all the partes, is deriued into the Veines; wherefore by Hippocrates it is called 〈◇〉 the fountaine and originall of pleasant and benigne humour.  
The last particle of the Definition designeth the common vse and action of the Veines, for they are set a part to leade or transport, to distribute or apportion & to boyle the bloud. But why this is so and how it commeth to passe, I wil now addresse myself to declare.   

CHAP. II. Of the Vse and Action of the Veines.  
_BEcause the threefold substance which is in euery particular part issuing from 
The necessity of the veines.  the originals or principles of our generation, doth continually wast and suffer detriment; Nature who is studious of her owne conseruation by a perpetuall affluence of Aliment, laboureth to restore and make good that which is so necessarily spent and depopulated. The common Aliment of the parts is the bloud, which all the Veines do draw from the Liuer as out of a common magazine or store-house: Now the bloud could not be transported from the Liuer to those parts which are most distant and remote from it, vnlesse those parts had some continuity with the fountaine.  
It was therefore necessary that there should be made and formed certaine canals as it were water-pipes, bored to containe, conserue and conduct the bloud throughout the whole body. Such are the Veines which Aristotle cals the vesselles or conceptacles of bloud. The bloud therefore is contayned in the veine as in his proper place, and as the 
Their first vse  Elemēts in their proper places receiue no alteration;( for the place is the conseruer of the thing placed) so the bloud within the veines retaineth his benigne nature, but out of the veines it presently either putrifieth or caketh.  
There is therefore in the Veines an inbred power to contayne and preserue the bloud, which also is their primary vse. Another vse that the veines haue is to distribute the bloud; which distribution is performed by an action that is, by attraction or drawing from the 
The second.  neighbour veines, and by transmission or transportation vnto others, and for this action sake were the right and circular fibres of the veines ordayned.  
Hippocrates in his Booke de Alimento maketh mention of a third vse of the Veines, & that is to leade along heat and spirits into the particular parts. And thēce it is that though 
The third.  the Arteries bee tyed the partes doe not presently sphacelate or mortifie, because by the veines there is an influence of a double heate and spirit, that is to say, Vitall and Naturall. The Vitall they receiue from the Heart by the wonderfull Anastomoses or innoculations of the Arteries; the Naturall they drawe directly from the Liuer. By this influent spirite the Inbred Genius of euery part is roused vp and quickned, and by it as by a good Manciple is the nourishment conuayed into the whole body.  
The last vse of the Veines which must bee referred also to their common action, is 
The fourth.  the alteration of the bloud, for they are qualified to coyne and change the bloud, some to prepare it as the Mesentery, others to perfect it as the great branches of the hollow veine. And this faculty or qualification they haue from the Liuer by Irradiation, as the Seminary vessels haue from the Testicles that power which they call 〈◇〉  
There are also other particular vses of priuate veines; as of the Emulgents to conuay 
Peculiar vses of priuate veines.  the Serous or wheyie humor; of the seede vessels to giue a rudiment vnto seed: of the Mesaraicks to alter the Chylus and to transport it to the liuer; of the venall or short vessell to belch out melancholy iuyce into the cauity of the stomacke for the prouoking of appetite; of the veynes of the wombe to exclude the surplusage of blood at certaine and determinate periods, of the veynes of the splene to purge faeculent or drossy blood, and so of the rest: for particulars we shall better handle in the following discourse.  
Hippocrates the Oracle of Physicke from the habite and structure of the veynes, drewe many and those notable signs of the state of the whole body. Those that haue broade veines, sayth hee, haue also broade bellyes and broade bones, for, because the blood through the veines is diuided into the whole body, we may well make estimation of the plenty and temper of the bloode by the amplitude or straytnesse of the veynes. They that haue much blood are esteemed hot for their veynes are large. If the veynes be narrow and slender, Aristotle accounteth them cold. They that haue much flesh haue small veynes, red blood, and little bellyes and bowels: on the contrary, they that haue litle flesh haue large veynes, blacke blood, great bowels, and side wambes or bellyes. Finally by the veynes the whole body hath a kind of connexion or coherence, whence it is that they are called common ligaments.   

CHAP. III. The differences of veynes.  
_THere are of the veynes innumerable & almost infinite surcles, yet al of them are saide to flow from fiue trunkes or bowes. For Anatomists doe account fiue especiall veynes. The hollow veyne, the Gate veyne, the vmbilicall veine, the arteriall veine and the venall artery. The Caua or hollow veyne is the largest of all the rest. It issueth out of the gibbous part of the Liuer, and is 
Fiue vessels called veines.  diuaricated or diuided into the stomacke, the spleene, the guts, and the Omentum or Kell. The vmbilical veine which is the Nursse of the infant runneth from the fissure or partition of the liuer vnto the Nauill, and whilest the infant is in the wombe it leadeth nourishment vnto it, but after the birth it looseth that vse altogether and degenerateth into a ligament. The arteriall veine hath both the name and office of a veyne, but is indeed an artery, and is all spent into the Lungs. The venall artery hath the coate and structure of a veyne, and might better be called a veine then an artery. The branches of this vessell are diuersly diuided and dispersed through the flesh of the whole Lungs. There are therfore fiue vessels commonly called veynes, which we( because we endeuour to deliuer nothing but truth) will referre to two: the Hollow and the Gate veynes. For the vmbilicall 
Two veines onely.  veyne is a propagation of the Gate veyne, and is so continuated thereto that I cannot perswade myself but it is a branch thereof. The venall artery is a shoote of the hollow veine, as may bee prooued by that wonderfull inoculation in the heart of the infant before the birth, of which we spake in the 25 question of the fift booke, and the 15 chapter of the 6. The arterial veyne hath his continuity with the great artery, by the Arterial vessel in those places mentioned, and may rather be saide to be an artery then a veine, because it hath a double and thick coate. There remain therfore but two notable veynes, the Hollow and the Gate veynes. The rootes of both these veynes are confusedly sprinkled through the flesh of the Liuer, yet so that there are many moe rootes of the Gate veyne in the hollow side of the liuer, and fewer in the gibbous or conuex: on the contrary, there are many moe rootes of the hollow veyne which runne through the gibbous part of the liuer, and fewer through the hollow part: so that it seemeth sanguification is made rather in the hollow of the liuer, distribution and perfection in the gibbous or embowed part. The rootes of these two vessels( which hath beene obserued but of late yeares) are wonderfully inoculated one with another, for the extremities or ends of the rootes of the Gate veyne are 
Their inoculations.  fastened into the middle of the rootes of the hollow veynes, and the ends of the hollow veyne into the middle of the rootes of the Gate veyne, that so the bloud might flow and reflow out of one into another of them. Aristotle therefore in his second booke de partibus Animalium saide true,( truer it may bee then hee wist, for haply hee had a Genius at his elbow) that all the veynes were continuall, yet Hippocrates before him hath the same thing in his booke de locis in homine; All the veynes saith he, doe communicate and flow mutually 
Hippocrates.  one with and into another.  
And this saith Lauren. I haue somtimes proued to be true in childrē new born, for if you put a hollow bugle into the vmbilicall veine and blow it, you shal perceiue that the guts, 
Laurentius his obseruation.  the branches of the hollow veyne, the heart and the very flesh of the Lungs will be distended because the vmbilicall veine endeth into the Gate veine. Now in the parenchyma or flesh of the liuer there are many inoculations of the gate and hollow veines. The hollow veine also hath a continuity with the venall artery, which is the proper vessell of the Lungs by a large hole. This therefore shall be the first and most generall diuision of the veines.  
The peculiar differences of veynes are taken from their magnitude, number, site, office, and the name of the parts to which they are deriued. In regard of the magnitude 
The peculiar difference of veynes from the magnitude.  some are great, some middle, some small. Great and large veines Hippocrates calleth 〈◇〉 hollow and sanguifluent because they yeelde aboundance of bloud if they be eyther wounded, or broken or opened. The lesser veynes are called Capillares, hairy or threddy veines because when they be diuided they yeeld, but slender and small streames of blood, and are easily stanched. Those parts that neede aboundance of nourishment or which are moued continually haue greater veynes. So the Lungs haue notable vessels, so the flesh and all hot and moyst parts haue great veynes; but bones, gristles, & ligaments very small veines.  
From the number; some veynes are without companions, as that in the Chest called 
Number.  
Table 1. Sheweth the hollow veine, whole and freed from the whole Body.  
TABVLA I.  

A, The trunke of the hollow veine. the lower A A, At this place of the Liuer; is seated the left part of the veyne, and distributeth branches to the left side.  
B, Sheweth how the trunke of the hollow veine in the chest, to giue way to the heart, is curued or bowed to the right hand.  
Betwixt A and B; that part of the hollow veine which is betwixt the ●ibbous side of the Liuer and the Midriffe.  
C, the left midriffe veine called Phrenica finistra, from which surcles doe run in a man vnto the pursse of the heart, for the midriffe and it do grow together.  
D, the orifice of the hollow veine which groweth vnto the heart.  
E, the crown-veine called coronaria, which like a crowne compasseth the basis of the heart, and sprinkleth his surcles on the outside thereof as farre as to the cone or point.  
F F, the trunke of the veine, Azygos or non parill descending along the right side of the racke-bones vnto the loynes.  
G G, the lower intercostall veines, or the branches of the veine Azygos, which go vnto the distances betwixt the ribs, and affoord surcles vnto the muscles which lye vppon the ribs and the racke-bones, and the membranes of the chest.  
H, the diuision of the hollow veine into 2 subclauian trunkes neare the Iugulum vnder the brest-bone.  
I I, the subclauian branch tending on eyther side vnto the arme, called by some Axillaris.  
K, the vpper intercostall veine which commonly sendeth three slips vnto the distances of the vpper ribs, vnto which the first intercostall veine sent no branches.    
L L, the descending mammary veine: this descendeth vnder the brest-bone vnto the right muscles of the Abdomen, and affoordeth surcles to the distances of the gristles of the true ribs, to the Mediastinum, the muscles that lye vppon the breast and the skinne of the Abdomen. M, the coniunction of the mammary with the Epigastricke veine ascending about the Nauill vnder the right muscles. N, the veine of the necke called Ceruicalis, ascending toward the Scull which alloweth surcles to those muscles that lye vppon the necke. O, the veine called Muscula, which is propagated with many surcles into the muscles that occupy the lower parts of the necke and the vpper parts of the chest. P, Thoracica superior, the vpper chest veyne which goeth to the muscles lying vpyon the chest, to the skinne of that place and to the dugges. Q, the double Scapularis distributed into the hollow part of the shoulderblade and the neighbour muscles: so also betwixt P and R, sometimes small veines do reach vnto the glandules that are in the arme-holes. R, Thoracica inferior running downeward along the sides of the chest & especially distributed into the muscle of the arme called Latissimus. S, the inner Iugular veine which entreth into the Scull after it hath bestowed some surcles vppon the rough artery. T, the externall Iugular veine. V. The diuision of this veine vnder the roote of the eare. X. A branch of the externall Iugular which goeth into the inside of the mouth, and is diuersly diuided into the parts therein contained. Y, the exterior branch distributed neare the Fances into the muscles of the chops and the whole skin of the head. Z, A portion of the branch, y, reaching vnto the Face. α α the veyne of the fore-head, α, Aportion of it creeping through the temples α, * A propagation that goeth vnto the skinne of the Nowle or Occiput. a a The veine called Cephalica, or the externall veyne of the arme which others call Humeraria. b Muscula superior, A propagation of the Cephalica veyne which goeth vnto the backward muscles of the neck. Betwixt b and d on the backeside issueth a branch from the Cephalica which passeth vnto the outside of the blade, and a portion thereof runneth betwixt the flesh and the skinne. d d A veyne from the Cephalica which attaineth vnto the top of the shoulder, and is consumed into the muscle that eleuateth or lifteth vp the arme & ●nto his skinne. e e A small veine from the Cephalica dispersed through the skinne and the muscles of the arme. f, The diuision of the Cephalica into three parts. g, The first branch runneth deepe vnto the muscles which arise out of the externall protuberation of the arme. h The second branch which goeth to make the median veine. i i, The third branch running obliquely aboue the wand and the outside of the arme. k, From this branch certaine surcles are diuided into the skin, the chiefe whereof is marked with k. l, The third branch at the wrist which is ioyned at l, with the branch of the Basilica marked with x. m, The Basilica which or the right hand is called Hepatica, on the left hand Lienaris. n, o, A branch of the Basilica going to the heads of the muscles of the cubit at n, and to the muscles themselues at o. p, A notable branch of the Basilica running obliquely, and bestowing surcles to the muscles that issue from the externall protuberation. This branch descendeth together with the fourth nerue. q, The diuision of the Basilica into two branches, and that that is noted with q, is ouer accompanyed with an arterie. s, A branch of this veine bestowed vppon the skin of the arme. t A branch of the Basilica which together with the branch of the Cephalica marked with h, makes the mediana or middle veine marked with a. n, A branch of the Basilica going to the inner head of the arme. x x, A branch issuing out of the former that creepeth along vnto the wrest and toward the little finger conioyneth itself with a branch of the Cephalica. y, A veine running out vnto the skin at the outside of the cubit. Vpper z, a propagation issuing out of a branch of the Basilica marked with t. Lower z, A branch of the Basilica x, going to the inside of the arme. α, The Median or common veine. β, The partition of the median veine aboue the wrest, this diuision should haue beene made aboue γ. γ, The externall branch of the partition which goeth to the outside of the hand. ♌, From which issueth a small branch to the inside. ε, The internall branch vnder ε, which toward the middle and the ring finger is especially disposed. {que}, The veine of the thumb dispersed into his mountenet or hillock which is conioyned with the branch noted with ♌. ζ, The trunke of the hollow veine from which issue branches vnto the parts seated vnder the liuer. n, The farty veine called Adiposa sinistra which goeth vnto the fat of the kidnies. θ ●, The two Emulgents which leade wheyey blood vnto the kidnies. Λ μ, The two spermaticall veines leading the matter of the seede vnto the tessicles. V, The beginning of the bodden vessell called vas varicosum. ξ, The veines of the loynes called Lumbares which are sent in knots or knees to the rackebones, to the marrow of the backe, to muscles that he vppon the loynes, and to the Peritonaum. o, The bifurcation of the hollow veine into the Illiack branches, which bifurcation is not vnlike Λ. π, Muscula superior, a transuerse branch going to the muscles of the Abdomen and to the Peritonaeum. p ●, The diuision of the left Illiacke veine into an inner branch a p, and an vtter at σ. τ, Muscula media the vtter propagation of the branch 〈◇〉 distributed through the muscles of the coxa and the skin of the but tockes. ν, An inner propagation of the same branch 〈◇〉 which goeth vnto the holes of the holy bone. φ, The veine called Sacra which goeth to the vpper holes of the holy bone. χ 〈◇〉, The veine Hypogasirica distributed to the bladder, to the muscles of the fundament, and the necke of the wombe. ω, A veine arising from the vtter branch marked with σ which is ioyned with some branches of the internall veine, neare the holes or perforations of the share bone, ε●, A veyn which when it hath passed the share bone distirbuteth one branch into the cup of the coxendix & to the muscles of that place. x, Another small branch which runneth vnder the skin at the inside of the thigh. χ, The congresse or meeting of the foresaid veine with a branch marked with char. 2, and distributed into the leg. Γ, The Epigastricke veine, a propagation of the vtter branch σ perforating the Peritonaeum, whereto as also to the muscles of the Abdomen and the skin it offereth branches, the chiefe branch of this veine is ioyned with the descending mammarie about the nauell at M. Δ, Pudenda an inner propagation of the branch σ, running ouerthwart vnto the priuities. Θ, Saphaena or the ankle vein or the inner branch of the crurall trunke, which creepeth through the inside of the leg vnder the skinne vnto the tops of the toes. Λ, The first interior propagation of the Saphaena offered to the groine. Ξ, The vtter propagation thereof diuided to the foreside or outside of the thigh. Π. The second propagation of the Saphena going to the first muscle of the leg. Σ, The third propagation of the Saphena going to the skinne of the whirle bone, and vnto the Hamme. Φ, The fourth propagation of the Saphena dispersing his surcles forward and backeward. ψ, Branches from this vnto the foreside of the inner ankle, to the vpper part of the foote, and to all the toes. Ω, Ischias minor called also muscula interior, the vtter branch of the crurall trunk diuided into the muscles of the conxendix, and to the skin of that place. 1, 2, And this also may be called muscula. 1, the exterior and lesser which passeth into some muscles of the leg: 2, the interior greater and deeper vnto the muscles of the thigh. 3, 4, The veine called Poplitea, made of two crurall veines diuided vnder the knee. 5, From this a surcle is reached vpward vnto the skinne of the thigh. 6, But the greater part runs by the bent of the knee vnder the skinne as farre as to the heele. 7, Also to the skin of the outward ankle. 8, The veine called Suralis or calfe veine, because it runneth vnto the muscles that make the calfe of the leg. 9, The diuision of the Surall veine into an exterior trunk 9 and an interior 14. 10 11, The diuision of the exterior trunke vnder the knee into an externall branch, which along the brace attayneth vnto the muscles of the foot 11, and in internall, 12, 13. 12, 13, Which descending a long the outside of the legge to the vpper part of the fotte is clouen into diuers branches, and in the backe of the foote mixeth itself with Poplitea, or hamme veine 20. 14, The interior branch of the Surall veine which runneth into the backeside of the leg. 15, A branch hereof descending to the inside of the heele and the great toe and is diuided into diuers surcles. 17, Isch as maior issuing out of the internall trunke at 14, and running through the muscles of the calfe. 18. A propagation hereof deriued vnto the vpper part of the foot, and affording two surcles to euery toe. 19, The remainder of the inner trunke 14, behinde the inner ankle, approcheth to the bottome of the foote and is consumed into all the toes. 20, the commixtion of the Veine Poplitea with the surall or Calfe-branch at 13. Azygos or the nomparell. Others haue companions, as almost all the rest. Others againe are solitary, that is, haue no artery accompanying them, as the veine of the arme which is called Humeraria, others haue arteries bearing them company.  
This by the way we must obserue, that the veines are more and greater then the arteries, because they containe a thicker Aliment and more cloudy spirit,  
From the situation a veine is sayd to bee vpper and lower, ascendent, descendent; right, left; externall, internall, so the splenicke branch is called sinister the left, the mesentericke dexter the right. So Hyppocrates in his booke de victus ratione in acutis, calleth the Basilica venam internam, the internall veine, because it runneth through the inside of the cubit, and the Humerarta he calleth externam, because it runneth on the outside.  
In respect of their office or function, some veines are called Emulgentes the suckers because they sucke and separate wheyie humours; others spermaticae, because they giue the seede a rudiment.  
In respect of the parts through which they run, the veins haue diuers names, Iugulares, Phrenicae, Renales, Iliacae, Hypogastricae, Epigastricae, Axillares, Humerariae, Crurales, Popliteae, Malleoli, &c. because they run through the sticking place, the midriffe, the kidneyes, the hanches, the watercourse, the lower belly, the arme pits, the armes, the legs, the hammes and the ankles.  
But because you might haue, as it were, in one view all the veines of the body, to know their deriuations, we haue to this chapter annexed a table which exhibiteth the course of the hollow veine from the crown of the head to the soale of the foote, and the description adioyned thereto, which wil poynt out euery particular. As for the skin veines how they appeare on the surface of the whole body, you haue also a general view of them in the eight chapter of the second booke, and therefore we will not repeate their Tables in this place, but descend vnto the particular hystory, beginning with the gate veine.   

CHAP. IIII. The description of the Gate veine and his branches.  
_I Gaue you( because the order of dissection so required) a briefe compend of the distribution of the Gate veine in the third chapter of the thirdbooke, reseruing there the more exact discourse vnto this place, which therefore we will now attend as carefully as we may.  
That which they call the Gate veine[ Tab. 2.] some thinke is a propagation from the vmbilicall veine, to which as we sayde it is continued. It issueth out of the hollow part of the liuer, which part or rather the very ingresse of the vessell( betwixt the 
The names of the gate vein and the reason there of.  2. small Eminencies of the liuer) Hippocrates and Galen and the whole family of the Ascleptads doe call 〈◇〉 the Gate. It is the greatest of all the veines next the hollow veine, and therefore Galen in the twentyeth chapter of his fourth booke de vsu partium calleth it 〈◇〉, or the great veine. The hollow veine he calleth 〈◇〉, or the greatest veine, but commonly he cals it the veine which is at the Gate, because by the roots hereof, that is to say, the Mesaraicke branches the Chylus is suckt away from the stomacke and the guts, and through the trunke hereof as through an open gate is let into the liuer. Whereupon the Mesuraicks are called manus hepatis, the hand of the liner. The Physitions call it commonly vena portae, the gatevein; the Arabians venam lacteam, or the milky vein, because it draweth the Chylus which is like vnto milke.  
For order sake we will diuide this Gate veine into rootes, branches, and the trunke itself. The roots are small and aboundant, desseminated[ tab. 2. ch. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.] through the substance of the liuer from whence as from a principle of distribution( saith Galen in the fourth chapter of his booke de formatione foetus, and in the third of the seuenth de placit is) and of Radication( saith Hippocrates in his booke de Alimento) they doe arise. These small 
The diuision the gate vein  rootes by degrees grow into greater, and those yet into greater, till all of them about the middle of the liuer on his hollow side neare vnto the backe are vnited, and make one notable trunke[ Tab. 2. B.] which issueth out of the liuer. These rootes whilest they remaine in the liuer, are ioyned by inoculation into the middle of the rootes of the hollow veine as wee haue shewed in the thirteenth chapter of the third booke and the fourteenth table.  
In dogs there are so many bowes of the gate veine as there be lobes of the liuer, euery one of which is diuided into his owne lobe, and yet all of them meete into one common trunke. Notwithstanding they may be called Rootes and Branches. Rootes, because this veine is sayd to be the sprout of the Liuer, and because they leade blood vnto other parts. They may also bee called braunches because the mesaraicks( which Galen likening it to a tree, calleth the Rootes) when they haue suckt the Chylus doe send it vnto the Trunke, from whence by these branches it is distributed into the Liuer.  
Sometimes from the rootes of the Gate-veine from the very top of the left part of Liuer neare his Ligament, yssueth a braunch which is communicated to the Midriffe, and descending on the backeside is ioyned vnder the Pancreas or Sweete-breade with other braunches which arise out of the trunke of the gate-veine. Sometime also a few branches arising out of the same place doe attaine vnto the Spleene and are disseminated into his substance.  
The trunke[ Table 2. B] descending from the Liuer runneth a little obliquely downewarde 
The trunke.  vnder the Gutte called Duodenum, hauing gotten a firme seate aboue the Rackebones.  
It maketh his distribution betwixt the Stomacke and the Guts as in the fittest place, because it is the middest of the organs of nourishment where it was fit that distribution should be, that the veines might be equally deuided amongst them. For if it had descended lower it had departed too farre from the Stomacke. If it had ascended higher, first it 
Where deuided & why.  would haue beene too far from the Guts; and againe, could not haue had so easie accesse vnto the stomacke, which sometimes strutteth with aboundance, and againe falleth when it is empty. From this Trunke therefore diuers propagations are distributed in the lower belly into the Stomacke, the Guts, the Kell and the Spleene.  
The Trunke[ Ta. 2. B] before it is deuided parteth with two small braunches from his 
The trunke. Cysticae Gemelae  foreside. The first are called Cysticae Gemellae the Twinne-veines of the Gall[ Tab. 2. CC] which yssuing from toward the left side of the trunk are reflected vpward and toward the right side vnto the neck of the bladder of Gall and the body thereof, through which they are distributed in hayrie braunches as are the small vessels through the white of the Eye. The second is called Gastrica dextra[ Ta. 2. D] the right stomacke veine. It ariseth much 
Gastrica dextra  lower then the twins and rather from the right side of the Trunke on which side it passeth onely vnto the backepart of the stomack and the Pylorus or lower mouth thereof, and affordeth them small branches.  
Afterward the Trunke inclining to the left hand is deuided into two notable bowes[ Ta. 2. E] the vpper or the left, and the lower or the right. The vpper[ Ta. 2. F] although it be altogether spent into the Stomacke and the Kell; yet from the vse it is called Splenicus or the Spleene-braunch, because it draweth to itself out of the Chylus altered in the 
Ramus splenicus  Meseraicke veines the thick part of the iuyce before it be gotten to the Liuer, and leadeth it to the Spleene as we haue sayde before in the History of the Spleene, wherefore also it is placed aboue the trunke of the Meseraicks.[ Ta. 2. G] The lower bow is called Mesentericus 
Mesentericus.  the mesentericall braunch[ Ta. 2. G] because almost all of it is diuided into the Mesenterie.  
The Splenicke braunch being supported with the Membrane of the Kell and a glandulous body, runneth ouerthwart to the Spleene, and before it bee consumed thereinto, there proceede braunches out of it, some before some after the deuision. Before the diuision some yssue from the vpper part some from the lower. From the vpper part two veines spring.  
The first is called Gastrica minor the lesser Stomacke veine, and[ Table 2. K] the left is deuided into the gibbous and backepart of the stomacke with a few branches. 
Gastrica minor.   
The second is called Gastrica maior[ tab. 2. N] the greate stomacke veine, because it is 
Gastrica maior.  the largest of all the veines that come vnto the stomacke. It runneth obliquely vnder the Stomack to his vpper orifice or mouth, & is deuided thereinto, sending out of the trunke three boughes; of which, one on either side is conuayed to the Stomacke,[ Ta. 2. OO] the middle runneth vpward and compasseth the vpper mouth of the stomacke like a crowne, and maketh that veine which thereuppon they call Coronariam stomachicam the Crowne veine of the stomacke,[ tab. 2. Q] which in dogges is very conspicuous. From this veine 
Coronaria stom.  some small ones are offered vpward vnto the end of the Gullet, some downeward to the Stomacke.  
Sometimes also another braunch arising from the other propagation runneth downward, and on the foreside passeth the Pylorus or lower mouth of the stomacke with many Surcles. From the lower part yssue three branches.  
The first is called Epiplois dextra[ Ta. 2. L] the right Kell veine. It is but a slender vessell, 
Epiplois dextra.  and deriueth his Surcles downeward to the right side of the lower membrane of the Kell, and to the Collicke Gut which is thereto annexed.  
The second is called Epiplois postica[ Tab. 2. S] the hinder Kell veine. It is larger then the former and is deuided into 2. branches which are very much separated, out of which 
Epiplois postica.  surcles doe runne downeward to the lower membrane of the Kell,( wherewith the Collicke Gut is tyed to the backe as it were with a Mesentery) and to some part also of the Colon itselfe. In Dogges there is no veine from the spleenicke braunch vnto the Collicke Gut.  
The third called Pancreae[ Table 2. M] are many small and capillary veines which run 
Pancrea.  betwixt the two Kell veines as well aboue as below, and are disseminated into the Sweetbread which is called Pancreas from whence they haue their name.  
When these branches are produced, the Splenicke[ tab. 2. F] Trunke is cleft into an vpper and a lower brance,[ ta. 2 T] and these into others.  
From the vpper braunch doe arise sometimes three, sometimes more, sometimes one from the top of the branch neare the Spleene which they call Vas breue[ Ta. 2. the vpper Z] 
Vas breue.  or Vas venosū, the Short or the Venall vessell, which is in some men greater, in some men lesser, and these latter doe easily indure hunger, the former with great difficulty. And hence it is that some men if they bee neuer so little a while without meate, or betweene their refections they fall into a Syncope or swounding; by this braunch also come oftentimes blacke vomits.  
[ Table 2. is the same with Table 3. lib. 3. Folio 100]  
These Veines being sustayned with the vpper membrane of the Kell, are inserted into the left side of the bottome of the Stomacke, and sometime higher that they might belch that naturall melancholly bloud which could not bee chaunged into the Aliment of the Spleene, into the bottome of the stomacke sometimes into his mouth( which Vessalius witnesseth that he hath seene) to stirre vp the drowsie appetite with his tartnesse, before the mouth of the stomacke be corrugated for too much want, for that sowre thinges doe prouoke appetite, we are taught by the sharpe Sallets that are vsed in the beginning of our Suppers. Beside the adstriction or binding property of this humour strengthneth the mouth and helpeth the concoction of the body of the stomack. Sometime also from another propagation of this braunch, veines are transmitted to the stomacke, and these tye the stomacke and the Spleene fast together.  
From the lower braunch of the Splenicke bough proceede two veines. The first is called Epiplois sinistra or the Left Kell veine[ Ta. 2. V] which in one or two surcles is distributed 
Epiplois sinistra  into the left part of the lower membrane of the Omentum or Kell, especially when the hinder Kell veine is narrow, wherefore this veine is not alwayes found.  
The second is called Gastro-epiplois sinistra[ Ta. 2. X] the left Stomacke and Kell veine. 
Gastro epiplois sinistra.  It is a notable braunch, and reflected to the right hand compasseth on that side the bottome of the stomack where the smal branches of this veine are intangled with the slender surcles of the right, and touch either the others extremities. It affordeth also small branches, but very plentifull to the left side of the vpper membrane of the Omentum.  
The remaynder of both braunches being diuersly wouen together, are implanted in great aboundance[ Ta. 2. YZ] into the hollow and middle line of the Spleen, and are distributed through his whole body to purge the foeculent iuyce, & to lead it to the spleen, and thus much of the left or vpper branch of the gate-veine.  
From the lower and Right branch[ Ta. 2. G] which is also the larger, before it be deuided, two veines do yssue.  
The first is called Gastro-epiplois dextra[ Ta. 2. H] the right stomacke or Kell veine. It yssueth from the side of the braunch before it be deuided into the mesenterical branches. 
Brāches from the right bow of the gate-veine.  Sometime it ariseth out of the Trunke itself, sometimes also but very rarely out of the left braunch, and on the right side watereth the bottome of the stomack both before and behind with many small surcles which insinuate themselues euen into his cauity. It creepeth also through the vpper membrane of the Kell, and at the middle of the stomacke it ioyneth his small surcles with the left stomacke and kell veine.[ Ta. 2. X] In Dogges sometime 
Gastro-epiplois dextra.  it yssueth from the Gut-veine. Sometime it is wanting and then the left supplyeth the place of both.  
The second is called Intestinalis,[ Tab. 2, I] or the gut-veyne. It issueth sometimes out of the branch, sometimes out of the trunke at the middle of the Duodenum or the beginning 
Intestinalis.  of the Ieiunum, and running directly downeward through their length, it disperseth certain small branches as fine as hayres through the vpper Omentum and through the Pancreas.  
Afterward the whole branch[ Tab. 2, c] where it ioyneth with the mesentery, departeth into three mesentericall branches, two on the right hand and two on the left.  
The right mesentericall branch is double,[ Tab. 26,] and is implanted into the Ieiunum, the Illion, the Caecum, and the right part of the Colon on the backe or hollow side, and being diuided into inumerable surcles, as the rootes of a Tree are diuided into slender strings( whereto also Galen compareth these) they make the meseraicke veines[ Tab. 2. dddd] 
The meseraicke veynes  which run obliquely betwixt the two membranes of the mesentery, and amongst which there are many small glandules placed to serue their passage and determine in the Guts; not into their cauity, for that is compassed about with a crust, but their little mouths do open into the coate of the gut, from whence they sucke the Chylus as the tendrils of a roote sucke the Iuice out of the earth. Wherefore in the guts called Ieiunum and Ileon they are more aboundant, because they contain a greater quantity of Iuice then the great guts doe.  
But they were not onely created to leade away this Iuice, but also to attract it and prepare it for the Liuer, after a manner, saith Galen, most like vnto itself, because their nature is alike, and they draw their first originall therefrom; wherefore after they haue giuen vnto it the beginning or rude forme of blood, and out of them and from the blood the thicker part is drawne by the Spleene through the splenicke branch,[ Tab. 2, F] they lead it vnto the Liuer. For as Porters doe carry the dressed Corne into the Garner or common Store-house of a Citty where it is prepared for nourishment, so the meseraick veines doe conuey the aliment laboured in the stomacke to the common place of the creatures concoction, that is, vnto the Liuer, not to poure it into his substance there to be changed into blood, but to be reserued and laboured in the rootes of the Gate-veine, which are most what on the inside and hollow part of the Liuer, for vnto these rootes the Liuer giueth the power of sangufication as we haue saide before in the tenth Chapter of the third booke.  
Moreouer, the same meseraicks by which the distribution is made of the Chylus from 
The double worke of the meseraicks.  the guts to the Liuer, do also carry blood from the Liuer to the nourishment of the guts, yet not at the same time, but when they are empty and want nourishment, and if it happen that both workes concurre together, which Galen yeeldeth to bee so in the ninteenth chapter of his fourth booke de vsu partium, then according to the diuers nature, desire, & strength of the drawing parts, the veynes of the Liuer snatch the Chylus and the guttes blood. For if you make Iron and Strawes in powder together and mingle them, heated Amber will draw away the strawes, and a Load-stone wil draw away the Iron by reason of their diuers natures and diuers desires of attraction.  
Now this double attraction could not be performed if the extreame orifices of the veines had values set vnto them as Columbus dreamed, but Archangelus refuteth by many 
Why there be no values at their ends. Against Columbus.  arguments, who saith Columbus was deceiued by that crust which is ingendered of the excrements of the third concoction, and compasseth the guts no otherwise then the Scarfeskinne closeth the extremities or ends of the cutany veynes.  
Beside, if there were any such values they would hinder the confluence of the humors from the whole body into the guttes, which is made eyther by the want of Nature or of medicine, for saith Galen 3 naturall: facult: the purgations of the whole body are made by the meseraick veynes, especially by the lower of them, and so much of the right mesentericke branch.  
The left mesentericke veyne[ Tab. 2, c] is disseminated into the left and middle part of 
The left mesentericke.  the mesentery, and attaineth that Region of the collicke gut,[ Tab. 2, cc] which reacheth from the ●eft side of the stomack euen vnto the right gut.  
From this descendeth a notable branch called Haemorrhoidalis interna,[ Tab. 2, gg] the inward emrod veyne( for the externall proceedeth from the hyppogastricall branch of the hollow veyne) and it runneth by the end of the collicke gut vnder the right gut,[ Tab. 2, ff] 
The internall Hemrodveynes.  whose extremity( which they call the Fundament) it compasseth about with a fewe small surcles, by which expurgation is made oftentimes in obstructions of the spleene, of foeculent blood when it is too aboundant, and that in many bodies at certaine and determinate times.  
This veyne taketh his originall sometimes from the splenicke branch, from which also the Short or Venall vessell issueth: and thus much concerning the branches of the Gate-veine.  
Now the difference betwixt the Gate and the Hollow veynes is, that the Gate-veyne is more lax and soft, the Hollow-veyne faster and harder, because the Gate veyne serues 
The diference betwixt the Gate and the hollow veyne.  rather from attraction then for expulsion, for by it the spleene and the Liuer draw more then they do expell.  
On the contrary, the gate veine serueth rather for expulsion then for attraction, for by it the blood is expelled into the whole body although it is not a little assisted by the attraction of the members.  
The vse of the gate-veyne is to distribute branches which may eyther serue for nourishment 
The vse of the gate-veyne and of his branches.  as those that leade blood into the naturall parts destituted and forsaken by the hollow veyne, or for the expurgation of some excrement as the splenicke branch which draweth vnto itself out of the trunke of the gate-veyne, before the Chylus attaine to the Liuer, a thicke and foeculent humor yet mingled with much laudable Iuice, and the vas Breue and the Hemorrhoid-veyne. Other branches make for the distribution of the Chylus into the gate of the Liuer, in which also it receiueth an alteration & preparation of blood as the meseraicks and those veynes which we saide attained vnto the stomacke to draw a part of the Chylus euen from thence.  
Finally, others perfect the blood as those small veynes disseminated through the flesh of the Liuer, which we called the rootes of the Gate-veyne.  
Note moreouer that all the gate-veyne lyeth within the body, neuer attaining vnto the 
Note.  skinne, and therefore his branches are not opened vnlesse haply about the Fundament, where they make the Emrods,( to which we do more often apply Horsse-leaches) and in women at the necke of the wombe: and so much of the Gate-veyne.   

CHAP. V. Of the descending tranke of the hollow veine.  
_THE hollow veine called caua, because of his large cauity, is by the Grecians 
The name of the hollow veyne.  called 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉 the great veine, Galen sometimes, as in the fifth chapter of his fourth booke de vsu partium calleth it 〈◇〉, the greatest veine. 
His begining  Hippocrates callet it 〈◇〉 Iecorariam the liuer veine. This is the common mother of all the veines, except the vmbilicall and the gate veines. It hath one beginning of Originall, that is, the seede, for it is made at the same time with the other spermaticall parts which are made or generated together, though some of them bee perfected and absolued before others.  
Another beginning it hath of dispensation and radication, and that is, the Liuer, and therefore it is said to issue out of the gibbous part of the Liuer, where his substance is greter and thicker. For although the orifice of the hollow veine at the right ventricle of the heart be much larger then his capacity is in any other place; yet it doth not thence folow that it must arise from that right ventricle as Aristotle imagined, and after him Vesalius rather to carpe at Galen then that he was mooued thereto by any waighty reason. 
Whereof it is made.   
For the making and framing of this hollow veine,[ tab. 3. fig. 2. and 3. and Tab. 4. shew it,] out of the vtmost circumference of the Liuer in the gibbous part thereof,[ Tab. 2. fig. 2. C C.] do arise innumerable propagations of small veines[ tab, 3. fig. 4. C C c. Ta. 4. E E E E.[ which creeping by degrees toward the middle of the backside of the liuer,[ tab. 4. C. C.] doe meete together, or vnite themselues into larger veines, & these againe into greater, till at length they all passe in the vpper part of the liuer where it regardeth the right side of the backe into two very notable branches[ tab. 3. fig. 3. M, N.] the one dispersed into the right, the other into the left part of the Liuer: both which doe determine into one stalke,] Tab. 3. fig. 2. F. fig. 4. A. tab 4.] which is called cōmonly the trunke of the hollow veine. VVherefore this trunke applyeth itself, or inclineth from the right side of the liuer to the backe side where it entreth, as it were into a sinus or cauity, and with a short passage groweth to his substance.  
This trunke is seated according to the length of the backe, and runs with a streight course throgh both bellyes that so it might conuay vnto the whole length of the creatures blood ( which is the common Aliment of all the parts) laboured in the Liuer in the rootes[ Tab. 3, fig. 4. F F, tab. 4 K K K K] of the Gate-veyne; which rootes are implicated or intangled with the rootes of the hollow veyne,[ Tab. 3, fig. 4, C C, Tab. 4, E E E E] dispersed confusedly through the flesh of the Liuer touching one another in many places ouerthwart,[ ta. 3, fig. 4, and tab. 4 shew this.] 
The inoculations of the gate and hollow veine.  Many rootes also of the Gate-veyne do infix or fasten their extremities or terminations into the middle of the rootes of the hollow veyne,[ tab. 3, fig. 4, G G G G Ta. 4, L L L] as on the contrary many ends of the rootes of the hollow veine are fastened into the middle of the rootes of the gate-veine. By which Anastomoses or inoculations the blood is transmitted out of one veyne into another, and so conueyed into the whole body. For the hollow veyne is like a water-pipe full of blood which hath many riuerets some greater and some lesse issuing therefrom and distributed into all the parts. For Nature in this administration is not onely very prouident but also equall & indifferent, and therefore diuideth this veyne into many small parts, that each mēber might haue his due proportion, that is to say, Aliment answerable to the substance that wasteth away. So hot and soft parts and those that are much exercised do suffer great expence as the Lungs, and therefore their veyne is very large: but colder and harder parts which are moderately exercised, are not so easily dissolued, as the bones which therefore haue very small & slender veines. Betwixt these are all the other parts whereof some haue more euacuation and some lesse, and therefore they want more or lesse nourishment.  
Table 4 is the same with Table 14. Lib. 3. folio 132.  
The hollow veyne for order sake, and perspicuity we diuide into an vpper trunk[ ta. 3, fig. 3, D fig. 4, A ta. 4, aboue A] and a lower,[ ta. 3, fig. 2, at c fig. 4, B ta. 4, DD] the vpper piercing through the midriffe and climing vpward distributeth very many branches into al the supior parts, of which we shall speake in the next chapter.  
The discending trunke[ ta. 5, K] is lesser then that which ascendeth, because the vpper parts do require more blood; for that many parts in the lower belly contained receiue 
The descending trunke of the hollow veine.  branches frō the Gate-veine. It adhereth on the right hand to the bodies of the rackbones( for on the left side[ ta. 5, L] the trunk of the great Artery lyeth vpon them) and before it depart altogether from the Liuer, it disperseth certaine small branches into his substance which are not in all men of the same number. After it leaueth the Liuer, it discendeth inclining something obliquely inward and disposeth from itself many branches of which we will now intreat.  
The lower trunke of the hollow veyne[ tab. 5, ●] is diuided into a trunke and branches. From the trunke which runneth vnto the great rack bone as Hippocrates cals it, or to the holy-bone,[ tab. 5, n] commonly there issue foure veynes on each side.  
The first is called Adiposa sinistra the left fatty veine.[ Tab. 5. g.] It issueth out of the left side of the trunke( although Eustachius be of the contrary minde) and presently being diuided 
Adiposa sinistra  sendeth one part to the fat, and to the vpper part of the vtter membrane of the kidneyes for their nourishment as farre as to the middle of the kidneys. It sendeth also to the glandule which groweth aboue the kidney and to the midriffe itself[ Tab. 5. A.] which veines on the inside are very conspicuous and vnited with the veines of the midriffe.  
The other part it distributeth into the lower part of the foresayde membrane.  
The right branch ariseth rarely from the trunke, most what from the vpper part of the middle passage of the emulgent[ ta. 5. f.] because the liuer which in this place is somwhat 
Dextra.  thicke[ tab. 5. B C.] & stoppeth vp or intercepteth the way vnto the hollow vein, and therefore the left is for the most part aboue the right, yet it is distributed after the same manner that the left was. And sometimes perforateth the glandule which groweth vpon the kidney with a surcle, which afterward is consumed into the vtter membrane of the 
Their originall diuers.  kidney. It is very rare if both of them be produced from the Emulgent; more rarely do the two veins issue from the hollow vein aboue and neere the original of the Emulgent. The vpper of them reacheth a small branch vnto the glandule, the lower is by another surcle ioyned to the branch which runneth from the seede veine of the same side.  
But if the left Emulgent be the higher, then sometime out of it the left fatty veine taketh his originall and the right from the trunke. So sometimes on the right hand betwixt the fatty veine and the Emulgent there issueth another veine which sprinkleth his branches vp into the midriffe, into the vpper part of the substance of the kidny and into the glandule of the same side.  
Afterward when the trunke of the hollow veine hath attayned vnto the twelfth Rackbone of the Chest, and the first of the Loynes, then yssueth out of it the Emulgent.  
The Emulgent which is the second of the foure we before made mention of, is so called 
The Emulgents.  from his office or function. In like manner because it is inserted into the Kidney, it is called Renalis the Kidney-veine.  
[ Table 5 is the same with Table 8. Lib. 3. Folio 115.]  
It is the largest of all the veines that yssue out of the Trunke[ Ta. 9. d] for it is very thick yet short because they are as it were drawing stomackes and seruiceable to the Kidneyes. In Men and Apes they are on either side commonly but one,[ Tabl. 5. vnder d e] notwithstanding sometimes the right Emulgent is double, euen from his originall as appeareth in the third Table of the fourth Booke the first Figure Char. 1. and 2. Sometimes it is treble, rarely double on either side, and this variety is not onely found in diuers bodies, but also in one and the same, so as the vesselles of the right side differ much from those on the left.  
Their originall is seldome directly opposite one vnto the other, least the function or office of one should be interrupted. But the left is higher then the right in men but not 
their original  in Dogges, because the left Kidney by reason of the smalnes of the Spleen, standeth higher, whereas the right is borne downe into a lower place by the magnitude of the Liuer.[ Tab. 5.] The left Emulgent also is larger then the right, because of the Spermatical veine which was to arise therefrom. Sometimes also from the lower part of the left Emulgent where it is implanted into the Kidney, there yssueth a small braunch which is transmitted vnto the lower part of the fat membrane, and is oftentimes ioyned with the Spermaticall. The iourneyes of both the Emulgents is short and oblique, as appeareth in the third Tab. of the fourth booke; and about the middle and concauous Region of the Kidney before 
Their progresse & diuision.  they get into their cauity, oftentimes in the very middle of their passage they are deuided into two or three, more seldome into foure or fiue equall braunches, which Hippocrates in his booke de ossium Natura, compareth to Anchors fastned in the cauity of the Kidney. These braunches of the Veine and the like of the Artery are implanted into deuided parts of the Kidneyes not ascending, which is rare and then only when it yssueth out of a lower place, but descending, and those braunches are in great numbers subdiuided into the substance of the Kidneyes till they become as small as hayres.  
The vse of these Emulgents is to suck and draw the whaey or serous moysture from the blood and to drayne it, they conuay also therewith a part of the bloud itself for the 
Their vse.  nourishment of the Kidneyes, but least this bloud and whay should returne backe into the hollow veine, Nature hath placed values or flood-gates, as it is also in the Veines of the Spleene.  
The third veine that yssueth from the descending trunke, is called Spermatica, or Seminalis the Seed-veyne.  
The right of these[ tab. 5 h] which is sometimes double, ariseth with a swelling originall from the vpper side of the Trunke below the Emulgent rarely close to it, from which notwithstanding somtime it receiueth a small branch. The left ariseth[ tab. 5, i] almost alwayes from the middest on the lower side. The reason whereof is because if it should haue stradled ouer the great Artery,[ tab. 5, L] so small a veyne would haue beene indangered by his pulsation: for eyther the continuall motion must haue broken it, or at least haue interrupted his office.  
There is also somtime ioyned to this left Seed-veyne, a branch issuing from the trunk itself. The reason was, because the blood of the Emulgent being waterish, might bee assisted by the purity of the blood of the hollow veyne.  
These Seed-veynes descending obliquely, and passing through the productions of the Peritonaeum or rimme of the belly aboue the share-bone, at the head of the Testicles are diuersly contorted and so attaine vnto that which they call Varicosum corpus or the Bodden body leading thether from the whole body the matter of the seede, as we haue shewed before in the fourth booke,  
But in women although their originall be the same, yet they fall not out of the Peritonaeum, neyther do they reach so farre as to the share-bones, but beeing supported with fat membranes are disseminated part of them vnto the Testicles, part vnto the bottome or soale of the wombe.  
Moreouer they affoord slender surcles to the Rimme of the belly and to the coats which inuest the Testicles.  
The fourth vessell that departeth from the lower trunke, is called Lumbaris or the Loyneveyne. They are two[ tab. 5, mmm] or three arising from the lower part of the trunk, which 
Lumbares.  is next vnto the spondels betweene foure rack bones of the Loynes, & they passe through the holes made for the out-gate of the nerues in the sides of the racke-bones. Their vse 
Their vse.  is to water and nourish the spinall marrow.  
From these two veynes on each side one ascends into the braine at the side of the spinall marrow which haply are those whereof Hippocrates maketh mention in his booke de 
Hippocrates.  Genitura, and it may be they bring a portion of the matter of the seed down frō the brain, whereof Aristotle in his Problemes was so confident that he sayth it hath beene seene.  
After the departure of these foure veynes the Trunke descending vnto the holy-bone[ Tab. 5, u] at the fourth rackebone of the loynes inclineth vnder the great artery,[ Tab. 5, charact. 14,] that it might neyther be hurt by the hardnes of the bone, nor offended by the continuall motion of the Arterie, and is diuided into two equall branches called Rami Iliaci or the Illiack branches which resemble the letter Λ or γ inuerted, which run obliquely 
The Iliacke branch.  aboue the haunch and the share-bones vnto the legge. Out of these on eyther side before the diuision do issue two veynes. The first is called Muscula superior[ Tab. 5 npnp] the 
Muscula superior.  vpper muscle veyne, which ariseth euen in the very diuision frō the vtter side of the branch, sometime it issueth out of the trunke of the hollow veyne before the partition, and is transuersly or ouerthwart disseminated through the muscles of the Loynes of the Abdomen and through the rim of the belly; but their originall is not the same on both sides; & in dogs it is more manifest then in men. The second is called Sacra:[ tab. 5, OO] or the 
Sacra.  holy veyne. It is but small, somtimes single, somtimes double, and it is conuayed through the vpper and forward holes of the hollye bone to nourish his marrow.  
Afterward the Illiacke trunke on eyther side in his progresse[ Tab. 5, I] is bifarcated into a vtter branch,[ Tab. 5, S] and an inner,[ Tab. 5, p] and the latter is smaller then the former: from the inner branch proceed two veynes.  
The first is called Muscula media[ Tab. 5, sss] the middle muscle veyne. It is the outward propagation of the inner branch, and is deriued transuersly[ Tab. 5, P] with many 
Muscula media  surcles into the muscles of the thigh which occupy the vtter part of the hips, into the skin of the buttocks, and into the neighbour parts.  
The second is called Hypogastrica,[ tab. 5, uu] the veyne of the water-course. It is the 
Hypogastrica.  inner propagation of the interior branch. A notable veyne it is and sometimes double, & is diuided manifold, because it was to be distributed for the nourishment of al the parts almost in the Hypogastrium or Water-house. One part of it runneth vnto the muscles of the right gut, and maketh the outward Hemrod veynes by which somtimes an abundance of thinne blood, falling hether out of the hollow veyne, is auoyded without payne or 
The outward Hemrod.  torments of the belly; sometime also without paine in the Fundament, wheras the blood that issueth from the internall Hemrods made by the branch of the Gate-veyne is alwaies paineful in the auoyding. Another part runneth out in men vnto the bladder with great & large surcles, into the neck, I say, of the bladder and into the yard. But in women it is but a little lengthened, & beeing sustained with a fat membrane it disperseth some surcles into the bladder but many more into the lower part of the wombe and the necke thereof, by which oftentimes in womē with child, & as some say in Virgins the courses are auoided.  
That which remaineth of his interior branch passeth on vnto the share-bone and assumeth vnto itself a little rillet from the external branch, which together make a veine[ Tab. 5, y] which perforateth the Rim of the belly, and after also the tenth muscle of the thigh, and goeth through the hole of the share-bone.  
From the vtter branch of the byfurcation of the Illiack trunke.[ ta. 5, p] which attaineth obliquely vnto the thigh do issue three veynes: two before it fail through the Peritonaeum, 
From the outward.  and one after.  
The first is called Epigastrica.[ ta. 5, char. 1 & 2] It issueth from the vpper part of the vtter branch: somtimes also but more rarely from the Crurall, and offereth branches to 
Epigastrica.  the rim of the belly and to the muscles and skin of the Abdomen. The chiefe branch of this veyne piercing through the Peritonaeum runneth vpward on both sides vnder the right Muscle distributing diuers small branches into the transuerse and oblique muscles and about the Nauill is ioyned by some surcles to the Mammary veyne that descendeth thether, by which Bauhine thinketh that notable consent is made betwixt the breast and the wombe, for those Veines haue their originall from the same deuision, from whence those other haue it which attaine vnto the wombe and the bosome thereof. For their endes or extremities ioyne with the extremities of the Mammary veines which descend through the capacity of the chest, and runne as farre as to the middle of the right Muscles, and in their descent doe send branches through the distances of the gristles vnto the roots of the Pappes.  
The second is called Pudenda.[ Tab. 5. char. 15.] It ariseth from the inside of the outward 
Pudenda.  bow after it hath gotten ouer the Coxa, and fallen into the thigh, and perforated the Peritoneum or Rim of the belly. It reacheth ouerthwart to the middle of the share bones, and is distributed with a wonderfull increase, in men into the Scrotum or Cod, and into the skinne of the yard, in women into the place of modestie, and the neighbour parts.  
The third and last is called muscula inferior[ Tab. 5 char. 1 ●.] the lower muscle veine. It issueth from the outside of the vtter branch Tab. 5. c.] and running through the ioynt of 
Muscula inferior.  the hip, is disseminated into the muscles and skin of that place.  
The rest of the propagations which issue from both the trunkes[ Taq. 5. p s] because they bee no longer called Iliacke but Crurall veines, wee will intermit till the tenth Chapter.   

CHAP. VI. Of the ascending Trunke of the hollow veine.  
_WE diuided the hollow veine into a Descending and an Ascending trunke; the Descending we haue prosecuted in the former chapter, the Ascending we take now for our taske.  
The hollow veine therfore after it hath passed through the neruous part of the midriffe, on his right side by a hole of purpose for it paceth on through the Chest with his trunk vndiuided[ Ta. 6. fig. 1. from A to D. Ta. 7. from B to H.] euen 
The Ascending trunke.  to the Iugulum, that is, the hollownesse aboue the coller bone. It is a larger trunke then the Descending, for it was to leade blood vnto more parts, and for more security is ioyned to the midriffe, and to the right deafe eare of the heart. Laurentius saith it toucheth the Mediastinum likewise. In men there is question whether it do or no; Vesalius is against it, but in Dogges and Apes, sayth Bauhine, it doth without doubt. And least in the Iugulum it should be hurt by the hardnesse of the bone, and also that it might more safely be diuided into notable branches; there is a glandulous body couched vnder it called Thymus, in calues it is called the Sweete-bread. In Dogges and Apes ( Galen saith also in men) a lobe of the Lungs is layde vnder it betweene the Purse of the heart and the midriffe, for their chests are longer then is a mans.  
Before the diuision there issue out of the trunke foure branches.  
The first is called Phrenica[ Tab. 7. c.] or the veine of the midriffe, one either side one, 
Phrenica.  which is disseminated through the midriffe in many surcles, and sendeth small branches to the Pericardium or purse of the heart, and to the Mediastinum or partition of the chest. The right of these issueth sometimes within the cauity of the chest; the left ariseth out of the trunke vnder the midriffe, wherewith also sometimes the Fatty veine called Adiposa is ioyned. Presently the trunke of the hollow veine pacing one and perforating the pericardium, and inclining a little to the left hand[ Tab. 7. aboue ●.] maketh a brode sinus or 
His fastning to the heart.  bosome before the hart ouer against the 8 rackbone of the chest or the top of the ninth; sometimes in the middle space which is between the seuenth and the eight racks. VVhere changing almost his substance and his roundnesse it degenerateth in the right deafe eare,[ Tab. ●. D.] of the heart; or if you will it is on euery side fastened to the right eare which it superficially embraceth. There it is infixed into the right ventricle of the heart, not penetrating very deepe, to the end it might poure blood into it as into a Cysterne.  
Eustachius saith that there is a certaine membrane set to the fore and inner side of the hollow veine, which at the middle of the perforation determineth into many fibres, 
Eustachius his value.  which being diuersly complicated doe make vp or fulfill the rest of the semi-circle, and without coniunction are spread ouer the whole perforation, that so the same membrane might be put forward and repelled backeward by the matter that rusheth in or out. But this membrane sometime wanteth that texture or fibres, and resembleth the forme of the Mitred or horned Moone, as it is in the crowne veine. It is also sometime so small and narrow that, as if it were not all, it is vndescryed; which haply, saith Bauhine, is the reason that I haue not yet obserued it.  
The second branch which issueth from the thumbe before the diuision is called Coronaria 
Coronaria cordis.  Cordis[ Tab. 6. fig. 2. B. tab. 7. ●.] the crowne veine of the heart, for, because it compasseth the basis of the heart, like a crowne or garland, the Grecians call it 〈◇〉. It sendeth many brāches through the vtter surface of the heart all ouer the bowell from the basis downeward vnto the Macro or poynt, especially through his left side, for, because the substance of the heart is there the thickest it stood in need of more plentiful Aliment, and because it required a thicke nourishment conuenable or agreable to his substance, therefore it receiueth bloud by this veine before it get into the ventricle, where the bloud becomming thinner is destined for the nourishment of the Lungs.  
At the originall of this Crowne-veine there is placed a value or flood-gate like a halfe Moone, resembling that which in the heart of the Infant is set before the first Anastomosis 
His value.  or inoculation. This Value keepeth the bloud that is once allowed to the Surface of the heart that it flow not back into the hollow veine, being shaken by the continuall motion of the heart. This Crowne-veine( sayth Galen) is sometimes double; one on the backside, another arising from the foreside.  
When the hollow veine hath allowed this garland to the heart it persorateth the purse thereof againe, and againe resumeth his round figure and becomming much lesser forsaketh the Rack-bones, because vpon them the Gullet and the rough artery doe leaue, and runneth through the middest of the lungs where the right part is separated from the left, vpward vnto the Iugulum aboue the Thymus.  
But that the Racke-bones and the spaces betwixt the ribs might not be destituted of Veines; it yeildeth forth a trunke or notable veine aboue the heart as it were in the verie middest of the body.  
This veine which is the third before the diuision of the Trunk is called vena 〈◇〉, or sine 
The veine Azygos.  pari, the Veine without a companion, which we haue before called the non-parill.[ Ta. 6. fig. 1. C fig. 2. B fig. 4. B] The reason is because commonly in a man it is but one as also in a Dogge hauing no mate on the other side. It ariseth aboue the heart betwixt the fourth and fift Racke-bones of the Chest, out of the hinder[ Tab. 6. fig. 4. A] and lower part of the hollow veine as it regardeth the Rackes, but rather to the right hand then to the left.  
Vesalius taxeth Galen very deeply for inconstancy and irresolution concerning the originall of this veine, to all whose obiections Bauhine maketh answere, wherwith we could willingly make you acquainted, if we did not thinke that such altercations are fitter for other palats then we desire to be Cook vnto.  
In Dogges after the originall it sinketh directly downward to the sides of the Rackes, but in men it goeth not directly, but is reflected a little to the right hand and backeward toward the spine aboue the right trunke of the rough Artery. When it hath touched the rootes of the Rack-bones it is lifted vp, and passing on to the midst of them it descendeth downward, so that aboue the eight or ninth Rack-bone of the Chest it is in the very middest, and runneth downeward vnder the Artery, which beareth vppon it as farre as to the end of the Chest( but deuided before) and with the great Artery peirceth thorough the Midriffe. In most creatures, in which I woulde haue young men exercise themselues, it taketh his originall from the left side of the hollow veine, and descendeth( sayeth hee) through the cauity of the Chest on the left side; which indeede in Sheep is alwayes true, but in those creatures which chew the Cud in whome it is double,( which in men is very rare, vnlesse you will say it may bee so in those that bee Ambidexters, that is, can vse both hands alike,) the right occupyeth the rootes of the ribbes on the right side, and the lefte the rootes of the ribbes on the left side.  
In like manner sometimes as we are taught by Falopius[ ta. 8. i] there is found in men on the left side another veine[ Ta. 8. i] which performeth the office of the Azygos, & then 
The veine described by Falopius.  the other on the right side paceth neare the roots of the ribbes, but ariseth not aboue the middle of the racke-bones.  
[ Table 7. is the same with Table 6. lib. 7. Folio 445.]  
This last Veine taketh his originall from the subclauian branch, and affoordeth small surcles to some of the spaces betwixt the ribs, & sometimes at the fift rib is vnited with the branch which from the Trunke of the non parill is sent ouerthwart[ Ta. 8. cc] to the left side ouer against the sixt Racke of the Chest, from which also a small braunch ariseth vpward. Sometimes it ariseth not from the subclauian branch, but out of the Trunke of the hollow veine before his deuision against the third Racke-bone of the Chest, and sendeth small branches vpward to the two first spaces betwixt the ribs. His other surcles it affordeth to the lower spaces of his owne side, as farre as to the sixt Rackbone, whether when it hath attayned, it is ioyned with the foresaide transuerse branch, from which surcles are sprinkled into the rest of the distances betwixt the ribs.  
Commonly from the trunke of the veine Azygos([ Ta. 6. fig. 4. ● tab. 7. FF ta. 8. d] which 
The Intercostall veines.  is seated as it were in the middle of the body; out of the backward Region, I say thereof, as well on the right hand as on the left but from the right especially, branches are distributed to the distances of the ten lower ribs,[ Ta. 6. fig. 4.] sometimes but rarely to all the distances of the ribs, and those branches are called Intercostales[ tab. 7. GG] passing along in the distances of the true ribs as farre as to their gristles: but in the distances of the bastard ribs they run out to the muscles of the Abdomen.  
It distributeth also an aboundance of small branches to the Gullet; sometimes and that not seldome, when it ariseth from against the fourth racke-bone of the Chest, it sendeth a branch vpward,[ tab. 8. at the vpper d] from which surcles are deriued with a wandring passage to the foure vpper ribs.  
The propagations of the Intercostall veines doe fall also out of the Chest,[ Ta. 8. xxx] and on both sides in some places are vnited by inocculation[ Tab. 8. yyy] with the surcles of the lower Chest-veine. Whence it is that in the Pluresie we doe not alwayes vse, as Vesalius, to open the veine on the right side, but finde it profitable to Phlebotomize the inner veine of the cubite on the same side the paine is. But because of this vnion, revulsion is made more commodiously and more easily.  
When the Trunke of the Veine Azygos hath attayned to the eight and ninth ribbe, 
2. boughes of the Azygos.  sometimes to the tenth sayth Hippocrates in his book de natura ossium, it is deuided aboue the Spine into two boughes: a right and left, which Falopius and Eustachius did first obserue,[ Ta, 6. c o] both which doe creepe downeward and passe through vnder the diuision of the Midriffe. 
The left.   
The one of these, and for the most part the greater, on the right hand determineth most what with one branch into the backeside of the hollow veine, neare the beginning of the Emulgent. Sometimes into the middle of the Emulgent,[ Ta. 8. ef] where it bringeth forth the Seede-veine. Sometimes againe it is reflected in the cauity of the backe, and vnited againe with a small branch yssuing from the Emulgent. Sometimes also this left branch is deuided into 2. branches, one of which runneth vpward[ ta. 6. fi. 4. ● ●] the other downward by the roots of the ribs, & affordeth branches to the distances betwixt thē.  
The right bough approaching to the hollow veine, is sometime ioyned thereto aboue 
The right.  the Emulgent, sometimes it is ioyned to the Emulgent itself, but that rarely: Sometime to the first veine of the Loynes, but most commonly it is implanted into the last[ Ta. 8. *] of the Loynes. VVe also finde in some bodies a small branch running obliquely by the Racke-bones, and penetrating or making way into their cauity. VVhereupon wee conclude, that in the beginning of a Pleuresie the Veine of the Hamme or that of the Foote called Saphena may be opened.  
Hence also it is that many Pleuriticke Patients are critically purged, Nature anoyding an aboundant quantity of Pus and Matter by the vrine. Moreouer it hath beene obserued 
How the chest is purged by vrine.  that in those which we call Empyici, the Matter hath beene conuayed through the venall Artery of the Lungs into the left ventricle of the Heart, thence into the great Artery, and so into the Kidneyes, and continually auoyded by the vrine. VVherefore this distribution of the Veine Azygos and his vnion sheweth howe the Chest may commodiously be purged by the vrine. The Rackbones also along which it runneth and the Mediastinum receiues surcles herefrom.  
Nowe whereas Amatus Lusitanus in his Centuries, and with him Hollerius affirme that the beginning of this veine hath Membranes or Flood-gates, such as are found in the orifices of the vesselles of the heart which admitte the ingresse of the bloud out of the hollow veine into this Azygos but hinder the egresse; they are much deceiued sayeth Banhine: for I could neuer obserue any such eyther in men or in bruite beastes. Adde hereto that if you open this non-parill below, presse it out and put a bugle thereinto, when you blow the bugle, not onely this veine but the hollow veine also will swell. Their opinion 
No values in the Azygos.  therfore falleth to the ground, who think that when a veine is opened in the arme, thogh the hollow veine be emptyed, yet there is no depletion made out of the Azygos, because though those values do hinder the egresse of the blood into the hollow veyne.  
The fourth veine that ariseth out of the trunke before the diuision is called Intercostalis 
Intercostalis superior.  superior, the vpper Intercostall veine.[ Tab. 6. fig. 1 F Tab. 7, K] There is one of them on each side arising from the subclauian branch neare the beginning of the Iugular veyne.[ Tab. 7, S T.]  
Sometime the right veyne ariseth from the trunke, and the left from the branch. It is reflected vnder the Artery of the arme, and for the most part especially on the right side is diuided into two branches which are distributed somtimes into two, sometimes into three distances of the vpper ribs which are ioyned with the mammary branches[ Tab. 7, LL] which creepe through the gristles▪ This veyne is then wanting when the Azygos affoordeth branches vnto all the distances of the ribs.  
In like manner from all the Intercostall veynes there issue certaine small surcles which insinuate themselues into those holes of the rack-bones, out of which the nerues do issue for the nourishment of the bones and the spinall marrow.  
The trunke of the hollow veyne beeing deliuered of these vessels[ table. 7, H] ascendeth 
The diuision of the trunke.  directly vnder the brest-bone aboue the great artery at the Iugulum, where it is supported by the Mediastinum and the Thymus, and is diuided into two notable bowes,[ Tab. 7, II tab. 8, CC] one of which runneth to the right side, the other to the left, and as long as it remaineth in the Chest it is called Subclauius. Columbus and Falopius call it Axilaris.  
Table 8 is the same with Table 7, Lib. 6, folio 363.  
From each subclauian branch some veynes issue from the lower part, some from the 
The subclauian branches. Mammaria descendens,  vpper. From below before the subclauian is diuided do arise foure veynes or branches. The first is called Mammaria descendens[ tab. 6, fig. 1, II tab. 7, LL tab. 8, l] The descending māmary veine whose originall is diuers, for sometime it ariseth frow the fore and middle part of the by furcation, sometime from the roote of the subclauian, sometime the left ariseth from the subclauian and the right from the by furcation. Sometime there is but one which ariseth out of the middle of the trunke of the hollow veyne before the diuision, which when it hath attained vnto the brest bone is diuided into a right and a left.  
This mammary veine inclining forward and running vnder the brest-bone, getteth out againe at the sides of the gristle, which we called the breast-blade, and creepeth along the vpper part of the Abdomen, allowing surcles thereto, and in his descent affoordeth small branches to all the gristly distances of the ribs( for the bony distances are supplied by the Azygos) which are ioyned with the extremities or end of all the intercostall veynes. A part of this mammary veine getteth out of the Chest and to the muscles that lye therupon and when it hath distributed his surcles part vnto the paps, part vnto the rest of the brest, it is led downeward vnder the right muscles of the Abdomen, to which his branches are tyed and the extremities of his diuisions do vnite[ Tab. 7, ●] with a small Epigastrick veine[ ta. 7, g] which ascends vpward. Other small vessels also run vnder the skin to the Hypocondria, which vessels are made partly of the commixtion of the Intercostall veynes with the mammary, partly of those which nourish the Intercostall muscles, with which also others are vnited which ascend from the groyne vpward.  
The second veyne issuing from the subclauian before his diuision is called Mediastina 
Mediastina. [ Tab. 2, lib. 6, Q] which ariseth from the trunke, sometimes from the left subclauian against the internall Iugular. Sometime it is but one veyne and that large deriued downeward aboue the hollow part of the Lungs and aboue the pursse of the hart, and is disseminated thorow the Thymus and the Mediastinum. Sometime they are two surcles which runne through the Mediastinum; one of which is ioyned with the ascending veynes of the Midriffe, the other passing downeward with the left nerue of the midriffe, is inserted into his fleshy substance, and this insertion is better perceiued in young bodyes then in Auncient.  
The third veyne is called Ceruicalis,[ Tab. 6, O O. Tab. 7, N N] or the necke-veine. It is not very large, and runneth obliquely vpward and backeward by the laterall processes of 
Ceruicalis.  the racke bones of the necke, and passeth the holes made in them, affoording surcles to the muscles that lye next vppon the bones. It sendeth also others through the holes made for the nerues to nourish the marrow of the necke, and ther is consumed. Laurentius thinketh it ascendeth vnto the braine.  
The fourth is called Muscula inferior,[ Tab. 7, O] the lower Muscle- veyne which 
Muscula inferior.  sometime yssueth out of the externall Iugular, and is distributed through the vpper muscles of the breast and the lower of the necke. And these foure issue from the subclauian branch before it get out of the cauity of the Chest. Afterwards when it is gotten out of the Chest[ tab. 8 P] it changeth his name and is called Axillaris. From the axillary veyne before it be diuided, two veines are propagated.  
The first is called Scapularis interna[ Tab. 7. Q.] the inner blade veine and is distributed through the muscles on the inside of the blade, and those that are neare them, where 
Scapularis. interna.  also those small branches doe appeare which passe through the glandules that are vnder the arme pits.  
The second is called Scapularis externa[ tab. 7. d.] the vtter blade veine, because it passeth into his gibbous and vtter part: the other part of it runneth betweene the flesh 
Scapularis externa.  and the skin.  
Afterward the axillary branch is diuided into two veines,[ tab. 6. H I. tab. 7. a m.] one superior which is called Cephalica,[ Tab. 7. a. tab. 8. q.] or the head veine. The other inferior[ tab. 7. m. Tab. 8. r.] called Basilica of both which we shall speake in the ninth chapter. In 
Cephalica. Basilica.  the meane time you shall know that from the trunke of the Basilica two veines doe issue.  
The first is called Thoracica superior[ Tab. 7. P P. Tab. 8. s.] the vpper chest veine, which applyeth itself to the brest, and is distributed into the skin and the muscles which couer 
Thoracica superior.  the brest: in women it yeeldeth a great number of veines vnto the dugs.  
The second is called Thoracica inferior[ Tab. 7. R R. tab. 8. t t.] the lower chest veine. It runneth all along the side of the chest and his branches are inoculated[ Tab. 8. yy] with the branches of the veine Azygos[ tab. 8. x x] which issue out of the chest( wherefore we 
Thoracica inferior.  may draw blood in a pleurisie out of the axillary veine of the payned side) and are distributed through the broade muscle of the arme. This lower chest veine ariseth sometimes out of the vpper, sometime out of the Basilica. And thus much for the veines arising from the lower part of the subclauian branch.  
From the vpper part of the subclauian branch arise three veines on each side. The vpper muscle veine and the two Iugulars, one externall another internall, which ascend vnto the sides of the necke, and at whose orifices there are two values which hinder the relapse of the blood, for otherwise the vpper parts should haue beene defrauded of Aliment.  
The first I sayde was called Muscula superior,[ tab. 7. b b, tab, 8. o] the vpper muscle veine. It ariseth neare the externall Iugular[ Tab. 8. n] and is diuersly dispersed into the 
Muscula superior.  skin and muscles that are on the backe side of the necke.  
The second is called Iugularis externa[ tab. 6. fig. 1, L L tab. 7. T T. tab. 8. n] the externall Iugular veine. It is one commonly on each side, yet sometimes double from the originall sometime it groweth double in the middest of his passage. It runneth vpward vnder the 
Iugularis externa.  skin affoording surcles to all the outward parts of the necke, of the head and of the face on his owne side, and for the most part vnder the roote of the eare it is diuided into an vtter and inner branch, as we shall say in the next chapter when wee speake of the veines of the face.  
The third and last is called Iugularis interna[ tab. 6, fig. 1, X X tab. 7. T T tab. 8. m] the internall Iugular veine. In man because of the aboundance of his braine it is greater then the 
Iugularis interna.  externall, but in Dogs lesse. At the side of the rough artery; it sendeth small surcles therto and to the neighbour membranes, thence it climeth vnto the chops, and hard at the head is byfurcated or diuided, and there we leaue it.   

CHAP. VII. Of the veines of the Face the Eyes, the Nose, the Teeth and the Throttle  
_WE sayd euen now that the externall Iugular veyne was vnder the roote of the Eare diuided into an vtter[ tab. 7. y] and an inner branch.[ X] The inner runneth to the muscles of the mouth, the chops, and the bone Hyois. In the mouth it maketh those two notable veins vnder the tong[ tab. 7, t] which from 
Raminae.  their colour rather then from their figure are called Ramnae the brog-veines which veins in diseases of the mouth, the heate of the throate and the squinsie are opened for deriuation after euacuation and reuulsion made by the vaine of the arme. From it also are many surcles deliuered ouer to the Larynx or throttle, to the glandules thereto growing and to all the parts of the chops for their nourishment. Afterward approaching to the skull it entreth thereinto through a hole of the temple bone neare the mammillary processe and so goeth into the sinus of the dura mater. There also passeth a vein on the outside of the orbe of the eye, by the hole of the wedge bone which is likewise disseminated into the dura mater.  
The vtter branch creeping vp the skin, and the muscles of the head vnder the eare 
The vtter branch.  is supported with Glandules, and diuided with two propagations. One of which runneth to the foreside of the face[ tab. 7 z] and is allowed to the nose and the puffe of the cheeke and in the middle of the forehead it is ioyned with the branch of the other side, and maketh the veine of the forehead[ tab. 7 ae] which in some cases is wont to be opened. Another propagation thereof runneth by the side of the head, and sprinkleth veines partly to 
Vena Frontis.  the temples[ tab. 7, ae] partly to the Nowle of the head.[ tab. 7 *] The branches of this exterior veine are diuersly mixed in the face and the sides of the heade: from which some small surcles are distributed into the sutures of the scull and the small holes or perforations thereof. And so much of the externall Iugular, now we come vnto the internal, where we left it at his bifurcation hard at the Head, in the end of the chapter going before.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Veynes disseminated through the Braine.  
_THE inner Iugular veine when it attaineth on the backside to the Basis of 
The inner Iugular.  the Scul, is diuided into two branches wherof the one which being the larger is carried backward, the other which is the smaller is carried forward,  
The first is led along the basis of the Scull with the lesser branch of the sleepy artery, and when it hath affoorded surcles to the Muscles which lie 
The first of the Braine.  vnder the gullet, it getteth into the scull and so into the sinus of the Dura mater, through the first hole of the Nowle-bone which was prepared for the sixt paire of sinewes.  
The second which leaueth the sleepy Artery, runneth forwarde after it hath sent a surcle to the organ of Hearing through the fourth hole of the Temple bone, it entreth into the scull by the seuenth hole of the Wedge-bone and walketh through the basis and the 
The second.  sides of the Dura mater or thicke membrane leading them Aliment, because they are far distant from the third sinus: from these also do yssue some surcles which creepe vppe the Pia Mater.  
Bauhine accounteth the third veine of the braine to bee the inner branch of the externall Iugular which diuideth itself into three surcles, and entereth into the scul by the 
The third.  hole of the temple-bone which is neere the Mammillary processe, of which wee spake in the former chapter.  
The fourth and the fift Veynes of the Braine he saith do proceede from the same interiour 
The 4 and 5,  branch of the externall iugular, the fourth entreth into the scull out of the orb of the eye by the second hole of the VVedge-bone, the fift out of the capacity of the Nosethrils by the hole of the sciue or spongy bone. The vse of these two latter Veins is to nourish the fore-part of the Braine, because vnto it the third sinus dooth not reach but determineth neere the distinction of the Mammillary processes. These Veynes also because they are small haue no Arteries ioyned with them, yet there is a surcle sent thither from the first artery of the Braine.  
Beside these fiue Veines Vesalius and platerus affirme, that there is another which they call The first Veine of the Braine, which is the end of the Neck-veine. For when the Neck-veine commeth vnto the top of the necke that which remaineth of it, together with the 
Vesalius and Platerus add a fixt.  Artery his companion, passeth through the third hole of the Nowle-bone, which postern was particularly made for this priuat vse: or if that be wanting through the second, which was made for the seuenth paire of sinewes, and determineth on both sides into the sinus of the Dura Mater.  
Bauhine ingenuously confesseth, that he could neuer finde this passage & yet makes mention of it, because other men should not want occasion to enquire after it. For saith he, the Necke-veine is partly consumed or taken vp in the perforations of the rackbones of the necke, yet so that it touch not the first racke: partly his braunches are disseminated into the backside of the neck, hauing first transmitted somevnto the Muscles in that place as we are taught by Falopius, which Veynes are vnited together among themselues, and together also with others which are sent out of the sinus of the Dura mater, through the 
Falopius.  large hole of the scull, for there are many veines which from the Dura Meninx are propagated to the outside of the head through the Sutures comming from without: which saith Falopius gaue occasion to some to thinke that they were outwarde veines which went in through the holes of the Scull into the sinus of the Dura Mater, whereas they are rather internall Veines which get out at those holes and are ioyned with the externall.  
The vse of the veines of the Braine which are in innumerable multitudes disseminated into both parts thereof and into his marrow( and although some of them be so smal, that 
The vse of the Veynes of the Braine.  he which is not quick-sighted cannot perceiue them, som of them conspicuous enough) the vse I say of them all is three-fold. The first to minister vnto the Braine his Aliment, that is Blood, and that in great aboundance, because the quantity of the Braine is great. And truly that there is abundance of Blood in the head dooth easily appeare in dissections after inflammations of the Braine.  
Their second vse is to transmit vnto the braine naturall spirite from the Liuer for the nourishment of the Naturall spirit which is in the Braine.  
The third, that together with the naturall spirit the naturall soule, which is called also Vegitatiua or the growing faculty, might be conducted into the braine, for because in the braine there is a faculty to draw, retaine, concoct and expell the Aliment or superfluities thereof, it is very necessary that it also should haue in it the Naturall Soule either of itself or deriued from other where. But because the seate of the naturall soule is concluded to be in the Liuer, it must needs follow, that it can no otherwise be conueyed to the braine but through the veines. 
Archangelus.   
Archangelus addeth a foutth vse of these veines of the Braine, and that is, that by the veines as also by the Arteries, the seede might be made fruitfull. For Hippocrates sayth in his booke de Genitura, that those are barren and vnfruitfull whose Veines behinde their eares are cut or diuided, and his reason was because he thought that a great parte of the feede fell neere the eares from the head into the spinall marrow. But if the passage bee stopped vp by a Cicatrice growing vpon the wound of the vessell, then shall the current of the seede be interrupted.  
Concerning which difficulty and the interpretation of Hippocrates meaning, wee haue disputed at large in the fourth question of the fift booke, and therefore we will not trouble the reader heere with fruitelesse repition, but send him thither if he desire to bee further satisfied concerning that matter.  
Beside the veines and other vessels of the braine. It hath a priuate vessell which is called 
The sinus of the Braine.  the sinus of the hard membrane; full of blood, but beating like an Artery, into which three Veynes and two Arteries do powre their matter, which sinus according to the diuers course and inclination thereof is diuided into foure sinus: greater indeede then the veines that attaine vnto the scull and more capacious, not round but triangular. The whole sinus consisteth of three ribbes all of equall longitude, and of the fourth part of a circle incurued. From these do arise branches or passages like vnto veines, and doe distribute blood as well Vitall as naturall into the substance of the braine. But because wee haue entreated sufficiently hereof in our chapter of the membranes of the braine which is the seauenth of the seuenth Booke, where also we haue exhibited the figure therof vnto you, wee will heere put an end to the veines of the Brain, and passe on vnto the veines of the Arme.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Veynes o the whole Hand in the large Acceptation.  
_WE sayde before that the Trunke of the Hollow-veine vnder the breast-bone at the very Iugulum or sticking-place[ Ta. 9. fig. 1 H] is diuided into two notable branches,[ II] one of which runneth to the right hand, the other vnto the left, and as long as it is within the Chest it is called Subclanius, but after 
The trunk of the Holloweveine.  it is gotten out because it runneth to the arme-holes it changeth his name and is called Axillaris, from which diuers Veynes do yssue, of which we haue spoken before: but the Axillary veine departeth into two branches, one vpper which is called Cephalica[ a] or the Head-veine, the other lower which is called Basilica,[ m] so that both of them haue the same Original, and of both of them will we intreat in this chapter.  
The Cephalica or head-veyne [ a] is the vpper branch of the Axillary, but it issueth from 
Axillaris. Cephalica.  the externall Iugular veyne. It is called Cephalica because it is wont to be diuided or opened in diseases of the head. It is also called Humeralis or the veine of the arme, because by the arme it discendeth vnto the hand. It is also called the Outward veine, because it runneth on the outside of the Cubit. For passing along by the top of the arme it runneth vnto the cubit and the hand betwixt the fleshy membrane and the coate of the muscles, and before it hide it hide itself vnder the arme it sendeth out sometimes one, sometimes two little branches[ dd] which are distributed through the muscle of the arme called Deltoides and the skinne wherewith it is couered: then it passeth to the outside of the Cubit in which very place some make the beginning of the Cephalica veine, and call that part aboue it the Humerary veine. There also it is very conspicuous euen without section, except the man be eyther too fat or haue small veynes. But in the descent, there issue from it small veynes as far as to the ioynt of the Cubit or the elbow, partly directly, partly creeping obliquely into the muscles of the arme and into the outside of the skin, so that sometimes it seemeth to vnite itself[ f] with the branch of the Basilica, which is distributed likewise in the skin.  
Sometimes a branch is sent to the inner muscles of the Cubit, which branch in men 
The diuision of the Cephalica.  is most commonly wanting: but when it commeth vnto the ioynt or bow of the Cubit,[ f] it is diuided neare the externall protuberation of the arme into an inner and an outward branch.  
The inner at[ h] being led along vnto the middest of the bent of the Cubit vnder the skinne ioyneth or vniteth itself with a branch of the Basilica at[ t] & so maketh that veine which is called Mediana or the middle veyne at[ a]. But sometimes this branch is scarce 〈◇〉, 
The inner branch.  whereas the veyne opposite proceeding from the Basilica is very manifest, and sometimes it is quite contrary.  
The veyne called Mediana[ a] hath his name from his situation, and it is also called Communis or the Common veyne, because it is formed of branches of the Cephalica and 
Mediana.  Basilica running both into one [ h] This coniunction is made commonly in the verye bought of the arme, sometimes much lower not far from the middle of the length of the Cubit, and by Auicen is called The blacke-veyne. It runneth obliquely downward through the middle Region of the arme, and aboue the Wand sprinkleth surcles on eyther hand, sometimes also it assumeth others from those which runne through the inside of the Cubit. But aboue the Radius or Wande[ below β] it is diuided into two[ γ ε] branches. The vtter[ γ] sendeth a surcle marked with[ 〈◇〉] to the inside of the wrest toward the Thumbes, and is mingled with others.[ q z] The remainder runneth out toward the Region of the thumbe and forefinger which some call Saluatella; but commonly the Chyrurgions call it Cephalica by others ocularia. The inner branch[ ε] is spent in many surcles betweene the the fore and middle fingers, and some deale into the ring finger.  
Some thinke this to be that which Auicen calleth Syele. But the truth is, that the distribution of the veynes which run vnder the skin of the hand is so diuers, yea in the Cubit itself, that the same mans right arme doth scarce agree with his left, but two men alike you shall not finde among a great many, and therefore their declination is harder to score out.  
The vtter branch of the Cephalica by Auicen called Funis Brachij, the Chord of the arme[ i] goeth obliquely by the Wand into the length of the Cubit on the outside, sprinkling 
The vtter branch. Funis Brachij  small veines as he goeth[ k] into the skin. But when it hath attained vnto the middle of the wrest on th● inside neere to the vlna or Ell[ l] there is ioyned to it a smal branch of the Basilica[ 〈◇〉] wherewith being increased it climbeth ouer the outside of the wrest, & with a small branch entangleth that part of the hand which lyeth before the ring and the little fingers, and maketh that veyne which the Arabians call Syele, we commonly Saluatella, 
Saluatella.  which in the backe of the hand appeareth before the fingers. The section of this veyne in the left hand is held by the Arabians and by many other Practitioners in phisicke to be of great auaile in melancholy diseases. Sometime this branch of the Cephalica is wanting & his stead is supplied by a brāch of the Basilica[ χ] which runneth throughout the length of the Ell, sometime it is supplied by branches issuing from the Mediana into the skinne.  
The lower branch of the Axillary veine is called Basilica.[ Ta. 9. m m] It is greater and 
Basilica.  larger then the Cephalica, and deuided into more surcles, many call it Axillaris, the veine of the Arme-hole, some the inner veine of the cubit, because it descendeth by the in-side of the cubit. 
Hepatica.   
Amongst practitioners it changeth his name in respect of the Arme, for in the right arme it is called Hepatica or the Liuer-veine, because it is opened in diseases of the Liuer. In the left Arme it is called Lienaris or the Spleene-veine, because it is opened in diseases of the Spleene. It passeth along the inside of the arme among the muscles which 
Lienaris.  compasse the bone, and at the Arme pit is entertayned by many Glandules, where also it  

Table 9. Figure 1. sheweth the Cephalica and Basilica Veins & their branches.  
TABVLA IX.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

H The by-partition of the hollow veyne vnder the breast-bone nere the Iugulum.  
I, The subclauian veine, on either hand, aboue I the vtter and inner Iugular veine, with that which is called Ceruicalts or the Neck-veine.  
K, the vpper intercostall veine.  
LL, the Mammary veine.  
O. Muscula, which goeth to the lower muscles of the neck and the vpper of the Chest.  
P, A vein which reacheth vnto the muscles that lie vpon the Chest vnto the skin of that place, and vnto the dugges.  
Q. A veine that goeth vnto the backside of the chest to the hollow part of the blade & to the neighbor mus●●●.  
* Small veins to the glandules vnder the Arme-pits.  
R, A branch distributed along the sides of the Chest, especially into the broad muscle.  
a, the Humerary veine called Cephalica.  
b, A branch vnto the backewarde muscles of the necke.  
dd, Branches from the Cephalica to the muscle that lifteth vp the arme.  
ee, Small veines out of the Cephalica dispersed through the skin of the arme, & the muscles that leade the arme backward.  
f, A threefold diuision of the Cephalica. g, The first branch to the muscles arising out of the externall protuberation of the arme. h, A branch of the Cephalica which helpeth the Median veine. i, the third branch of the Cephalica running obliquely aboue the Wand. k, Surcles that run vnto the skin from this 3 branch. l, The third branch at the wrest ioyned with the branch of the Basilica noted with x, their coniunction is at l. m, The veine called Basilica. n, o. A branch running by the heads of the muscles of the cubite at n, also branches to the muscles themselues at o. p, A notable branch of the Basilica carried obliquely and accompanied with the fourth nerue. q, The diuision of the Basilica into two branches, and that which is noted with q is alwayes accompanied with an artery. 〈◇〉, The deepe branch of the Basilica b●partited or diuided into two. r, The other branch that goeth to the flesh and the skin. s, A branch of this to the skin of the arme. t, That branch of the Basilica which with the Cephalicall branch h maketh the Median veine at cc. u. A branch of the Basilica going to the inner head of the arme. xx, A braunch out of the former going to the wrest, and toward the little finger ioyning itself with the Cephalica. y, A branch nourishing the skin at the outside of the cubit. zz, The vpper z sheweth a propagation out of the branch of the Basilica marked with t. the lower z another out of the Basilica branch at x running to the inside of the arme. cc, The Common veine called Mediana. β, the partition of the Median veine aboue the wrest, but the β is set a litle too low. γ, ♌, The outward branch heereof going to the outside of the hand at γ, 〈◇〉 which yssueth a small branch vnto the inside of the hand at 〈◇〉. Z, Another branch towardes the middle and ring fingers. {que}, The veyne of the Thumbe which nourisheth the Hillocke or mountenent which ioyneth with the veyne noted with ♌.   is diuided into diuers propagations: the most noble whereof is disseminated into the muscles which lye vpon the chest, and of these againe the largest called Thoracica inferior,[ Ta. 9. k] the lower chest veine, runneth neare the ribs and receiueth the rootes of those veines which yssue out of the chest, and whereby wee sayde before the distances betwixt the ribs were nourished: or to speake playner, the mouth of the veine Azygos doe ioyne in three branches sometime in foure on each side with the mouth of the chest-veine. Ta. 8. xxxx with yyyy.]  
Hence any man may gather what veine is to bee opened in a Pleurisie, that is to say, whether the veine on the side inflamed or on the contrary side.  
It sendeth also a small branch vnto the Muscles which extend or streatch the cubit, Tabl. 9. n] against which another veine is dispersed from his opposite into the Glandules. From the same backeside another veine[ Tab. 9. o] is sent to the same muscles, from which some surcles are sprinkled into the skinne of the Arme on the outside. Vnder this a notable propagation[ Ta. 9. p] runneth obliquely downeward vnder the bone of the Arme toward the outward protuberation together with the fourth nerue of the arme.  
Afterward this Basilica not farre from his egresse out of the cauity of the Chest, is diuided into two trunkes[ Tab. 9. fig. 1. q r] and those almost equall, one of them is called the 
The diuision of the Basilica  Deep veine, the other the Cutany or Skinne veine. The Deepe veine because it lyeth or lurketh in the bottome is called Profundus[ q] or the trunke which lyeth low. It is fastned 
Profundus.  to the Axillary Artery which runneth into the arme[ ta. 9. fig. 2. N] and their distributions are almost alike. It is also accompanied with the fourth branch of the third nerue of the arme, and descendeth through the middest thereof vnder the Median or common veine, and when it hath ouercome the ioynt of the cubit;[ t. 9. *] it is diuided into an vtter and an 
His diuision.  inner brāch, which receding or departing a litle one from another, & sprinkling surcles in to the muscles, do descend together with the tendons of the muscles of the fingers vnder the transuerse ligament, and are distributed into the inside of the fingers. The vtter, which d●●endeth along the Radius or wand lendeth 2. smal branches to the thumbe & the forefinger, and one to the middle finger. The inner is tyed to the bone of the cubit and is deuided also into two; and from these one branch is afforded to the middle finger and 2. to the Ring & little fingers. The first to the muscles of the outside of the hand the 2. to those on the inside.  
The other trunke of the Basilica[ ta. 9. r] is called subcutaneus or the skin-veine, because it 
Subcutaneus.  runneth immediately vnder the skin throughout the length of the arme on the inside, and in his passage disperseth many branches; afterward a little aboue the inner protuberation of the arme where it is no lesse conspicuous before dissection thē the cephalica is aboue the cubit; it is diuided into a forebranch[ ta. 9. t] and a hinder branch.[ t. 9. a little aboue u] The 
His diuision.  fore branch running obliquely through the middle of the bought of the cubit, maketh together with the inner branch of the Cephalica[ ta. 9. h] vnder the bent, the Common veine.[ ta. 9. a] Yet sometimes this branch which runneth vnto that common-veine is farre larger or lesser then the branch of the Cephalica, sometimes also either of them are double. The posterior branch of the Skin-veine[ ta. 9. u] is diuided into two neare the inner protuberation of the arme,[ vnder u] and the vtter and greater of these[ x x] descendeth along the vlna or Ell vnto the wrest, and sendeth a branch downward[ xx] neare the wrest vnto the little finger, and againe meeteth and ioyneth[ l] with another branch of the Cephalica[ i] passing that way, and this after the manner we haue before spoken of is distributed into the outside of the hand. From this branch also a surcle is disseminated vnto the skin[ y] and the backparts. There are also other branches[ the lower z] yssuing out of this propagation[ u] disseminated into the skin of the inside, which branches are diuersly mixed now vniting themselues, againe departing one from another, assuming surcles from the propagation noted with[ x] and communicating others vnto it.  
Finally, from that branch of the Basilica[ Ta. 9. t] which maketh the Mediana or common veine, out of the lower and middle part thereof yssueth another notable veine[ at the vpper z] which descendeth sometimes directly sometimes with a crooked passage vnto the wrest, and is diuersly vnited with other neighbour veines. Hence it is, sayth Vesalius, 
Bursten veins in the arme. ( and the obseruation was worthy of the Authour) that sometimes the inside of the cubit is troubled with broken or bodden veines as the calfe of the Leg is. The surcles of that notable veine sometimes directly or in a right line, sometimes ouerthwart, sometimes obliquely, sometimes againe vnited and sometimes diuided, doe growe vnto the skin of the inside of the hand.  
From these so diuers coniunctions of veines, especially when the beginnings of the Cephalica and the Basilica is one and the same[ Ta. 9. m n out of I] we may easily gather how 
An idle curiositie.  vnprofitable a thing it is to be so scrupuluos and anxious in the choice of veines in one & the same side of the arme: wherefore when wee are resolued to open a veine, and a veine of the arme, as also on which side it shall be performed, it will be out of doubt the best to strike that veine which vpon the binding of the arme will bee most turgid and full. For there are three places to let bloud in the arme, according to Galen in his Booke de curatione per sanguinis missionem, the interior, the exterior and the middle. VVherefore when we come to open a veine we finde all three places equall or two only, or all vnequal: sometime also one of them is hidden and sometimes two. The section of the inner veine he 
Galen.  esteemeth profitable for those that haue any affection in the lower parts of the neck. The section of the vtter veine when the superior partes as the face and the head are diseased. The section of the middle veine communicateth with both, for it is compoūded of veines yssuing on both sides.  
To conclude, there are found in the Cephalica and Basilica certaine values, but I containe myself, for because we shall meet with them also in the Foote, I thinke it best to 
The Values.  referre their description vnto the end of our discourse of the veines.   

CHAP. X. Of the Veines of the whole Foote in the large acception.  
_THE hollow veine in the lower Belly descending vnto the Holy-bone, when it commeth vnto the fourth racke-bone of the Loynes, where it lyeth vnder the great Artery[ Table. 10. O] is deuided into two equall trunkes: one of which goeth to the right Legge, the other to the left, which trunkes before they get out of the Peritoneum are called Iliaci, Ta. 10. betwixt O and G] and presently both the right and the left bones are subdiuided into two branches,[ Ta. 10. p s] an interior and an exterior, from which diuers propagations are dispersed, as we haue ●●fore touched in the eight chapter of the third booke.  
From thence it beginneth to be called Cruralis or the veine of the Leg,[ Table 10. g] 
Cruralis.  and after the externall braunch[ ●] hath attayned with two boughes vnto the bone of the Legge. It passeth the share-bone[ ε] and sendeth a surcle vnto the Cup of the Hippe to be disseminated into the Muscles of that place which compasse the inside of the Thigh, and so a branch of it runneth vnder the skinne of the Thigh on the same side. Presently after it is ioyned[ χ] with the internall crurall branch[ char. 2.] and so ceaseth. But because in that place toward the lower part of the bought of the Thigh, there is a cauity wherein the braunch of the hollow veine was to bee deuided into many propagations, that those propagations might be more firmely secured, there are many Glandules disposed round about, which also are a defence to the Nerue and the Artery that descend that way with the Veine.  
From the Crurall branch[ tab. 10 o] which is the trunke of al the rest of the Veins that 
Diuision of the crurall veine into six branches. 1 Saphenae.  run into the Legge and yssueth from the outward branch[ tab. 10, c] of the trunke of the Hollow veine, there yssue on either side six branches.  
The first is called Saphaena or the branch of the Ankle[ θ] which is a notable and verie long Veyne. It runneth together with a Nerue fastned vnto it through the inside of the legge betwixt the skin and the fleshy panicle vnto the knee and so on towarde the inner ankle, and is diuersly diuided into the top of the foote towarde the Toes, especially toward the great Toe where it is mingled with other Surcles sent from other Veynes into that place.  
From this branch commonly there are foure propagations sprinkled through the skin. The first is double, one interiour[ Λ] which being yet in the groyne sendeth on either 
4 propagations.  side branches to the inside of the Thigh, to the groine itself and to the rim of the belly. The other exterior[ ξ] and larger then the former, determining into surcles which are sent into the foreside and outside of the Thigh.  
The second propagation at the middle of the legge[ Π] reacheth to the first muscle of the Tibia.  
The third is rowled orbicularly backward at the knee, and one part of it goeth to the skin of the whirle-bone.[ σ] the other into the Ham: and this branch is altogether vvanting when the Veine of the Ham is a little larger then ordinary[ Char. 6] or if it bee not wanting it is exceeding small and slender.  
The fourth departeth with surcles forward and backward at the middest of the Tibia[ Tab. 10 from φ to Ψ] which surcles do diuersly vnite themselues with the Veines that are next ●nto them, & are againe parted asunder. Sometimes from the inner part of the Tibia vnder the foreside of the Ankle it is reflected and runneth vnto the vpper side of the foote[ Ψ] and is distributed almost into all the Toes of the foote; but the surcles aboue the foote and at the Toes doe differ much. For in some bodies it is mixed with other braunches, and runneth out vnto the little finger: sometimes it runneth towardes the Thumbe and the forefinger; wherefore scarse any man hath the same distribution of the 
Table 10 Sheweth the distribution of the hollow veyne into both the feete.  
TABVLA X.  

O, The diuision of the hollow veyn at the fourth spondell of the loynes aboue the holy-bone into two Iliack trunkes, which diuision is like the greeke letter A.  
● Muscula superior disseminated throgh the muscles of the loynes, of the Abdomen and the Peritonaeum or Rim of the belly.  
●●, the byfurcation of the left Iliack trunke into an exterior branch at τ, and an interior at ρ.  
τ Muscula media, a propagation of the branch ρ into the outward muscles of the thighes and the skinne of the Buttoeks.  
χ, the meeting of the branch ρ with the veyne of the second branch.  
〈◇〉, the passage of the branch ρ through the hole of the share-bone.  
G, the Crurall veyne which is the stocke of the veynes that go into the leg.  
Γ, Epigastrica, A propagation of the branch σ, carried vpward to the muscles of the Abdomen.  
Δ Δ, Pudenda, A propagation of the branch σ, which runneth ouerthwart to the Genitals.  
Θ, the veyne of the Ankle called Saphaena.  
Λ, The interior branch of the Saphaena going to the inside of the thigh, to the groynes & the Peritonaeum.  
κ, the vtter and greater branch of the Saphaena going into the fore-side and outside of the thigh.  
Π, the second branch of the Saphaena to the first muscle of the leg.  
Σ, the third branch of the Saphaena rowled orbicularly to the backside of the knee.  
Φ, the fourth branch of the Saphena which runneth vnder the skin through the inside of the leg and is distributed into diuers surcles. And this branch may heere be opened.  
Ψ, this branch should haue gone downe as far as char. 7.  
Ω, Ischias minor, A propagation of the exterior branch σ vnto the muscles that fit vppon the ioynt of the hippe and to the skinne of that place.  
1, Muscula, the vtter and lesser branch heereof runneth vnto the 2 and 4 muscles of the leg. 2, the inner and greater branch of the Muscula distributed through the muscles of the thigh, especially the fift & the third of the leg. 3, 4, 5, Two crurall branches 3, 4, meeting together; surcles passe at 5 backward to the skin of the thigh, and descende through the middle of the Hamme. 6, Poplitea, the hamme-veyne, which veyne the Antients did often open. 7, Small branches from the hamme veyne which runne through the skin of the Calfe vnto the heele. 8, Suralis or the Calfe-veyne. It is diuided at the lower side of the thigh into an exterior trunke, 9, and an interior, 14. 9, 10, The vtter branch of the sural veyne at 9, distributing a smal branch outward into the skin of the knee. 11, the diuision of the externall surall branch vnder the knee into an inner brāch 11 going betwixt the muscles of the foot. 12, 13, And an vtter which runneth throgh the outside of the leg vnto the outward ankle & the vpper part of the foot in diuers surcles. 14, 15, 16, the inner sural branch 14 running through the backside of the leg, a branch of the same through the inside of the leg at 15, which descendeth to the heele and the great toe at 16. 17, 18, Ischias maier issuing from the inner branch of the surall veine at 14, and passing vnto the muscles of the Calfe. From this a great branch 18 is distributed into the vpper side of the foot and the toes passing downeward betwixt the muscles of the leg. 19, The remainder of the inner trunk, 14 which runneth behind the inner ankle, and is consumed into the toes. 20, The coniunction of the externall surall branch with the branches of the Poplitaea or the hamme veine.   veynes in both his feet, the same number and the same magnitude.  
This veyne Physitions vse to diuide in the diseases of the wombe, especially in the retention of the courses about the ankle.  
The second branch of the Crurall veyne is called Ischias minor[ Tab. 10, Ω] and is opposite to the former, for as that is the inner branch of the Crurall trunke, so is this the exterior. It is but a short veyne and is disseminated outward and ouerthwart into the foreskinne of the ioynt of the hip and to the muscles of that place.  
Afterward the trunke itself passing from the groyne is drenched among the muscles which compasse the bone of the thigh, and shooteth out of itself the third veyne  
The third veyne is called Muscula,[ Tab. 10, char. 1.] and is double, sometimes they answere 
Muscula.  one another. The vtter and lesser of these[ char. 1,] parteth with surcles to the seconde and fourth extending muscles of the Tibia and into the skin. The inner and the greater[ char. 2,] which also lyeth deeper, is diuaricated or diuersified through all the muscles almost of the thigh, especially the fift and the third extender of the leg, and at length assumeth the end of that veyne[ 〈◇〉] which runneth through the hole of the share bone into the thigh, wherewith being increased, but lurking stil betwixt the muscles it descendeth vnto the knee. But the greatest veyne called Cruralis[ G] in the middle of the thigh, is by degrees writhen backe-ward and offers small surcles to the membranes of the nerues that descend vnto the leg. Afterward it parteth with the fourth veine.  
The fourth veyne is called Poplitaea or the Hamme-veyne, which is made of two crurall 
Poplitaea.  branches vnited.[ char. 3, 4,] From this in his originall, certaine surcles are sent backward and vpward into the skin of the thigh,[ char. 5,] afterward it falleth directly vnder the skin through the middest of the bent of the hamme[ char. 6,] as farre as to the heele.[ char. 7, the lower] sometimes it descendeth to the skinne of the outward ankle, sometimes also of the inner, from which in his progresse he sprinkleth many small branches vnto the skin of the Calfe, some right, some oblique and some transuerse vnequally commixed & vnited together. Sometimes wee meete with it simple and single, and sometimes this hamme-veyne[ char. 3,] assumeth vnto itself a branch from the veyne which is sent to the fift muscle of the thigh,[ char. 2,] and being ioyned therewith it runneth out into the skin on the back side of the thigh, and sendeth some surcles vpward. And this is the veyne which the Ancients vsed to open vnder the knee. The fift veyne of the Crurall branch is called Suralis or the Calfe-veyne. The great veyne of the legge at the lower end of the thigh, after it hath sent small branches back-ward on eyther side,[ at char. 8,] into the originall 
Suralis.  of the three muscles which make the Calfe, it is in the hamme diuided into an exterior 
His diuision.  and an interior trunke. The exterior[ character 9] after it hath distributed a branch[ character 10,] obliquely outward toward the connexion of the Brace with the Leg- bone 
The exterior diuision.  into the skinne on the fore-side of the knee, is presently vnder the knee diuided into two branches; an interior[ character 11,] which descendeth with the Brace among the muscles of the foote, and it endeth where their fleshy part determineth, for it attaineth not to the skinne: and an exterior,[ character 12, 13,] which running along the out-side of the legge to the outward ankle and the vpper part of the foote attaineth to the skinne, but the skin on the outside.  
It distributeth also( as did the Poplitaea)[ char. 7,] diuers surcles, and mingling itself[ character 20,] with the surcles of the Poplitaea, especially in the toppe of the foote which they call the Backe, it maketh that knarle of veynes which is seene in the vpper part of the foote vnder the skinne.  
The Interior[ character 14,] descending directly through the backside of the legge looseth a branch[ character 15,] from his inside, which passing along by the inside of the 
The interior.  Tibta, is disseminated vnder the skin vnto the inside of the heele and the great toe,[ char. 16,] and is vnited to the surcles that are there-about, and afterward againe diuided from them as we haue saide before that other veynes do.  
And this surely is the reason why in this part so often there are Varices, that is, bursten or bodden veynes. But this vnion and diuision or distraction afterward of the veynes was necessary, least when the skinne is offended and some veynes cut ouerthwart the skin that bordereth vpon it should be destituted of nourishment. Wherefore because in the legge in three or foure places the internall veynes are vnited with the cutany veynes or veynes of the skinne, especially in the foote if you purpose to open one of them that lye 
Note this.  next vnder the skinne there is no reason you should be very scrupulous in your choice, as if they were peculiar veynes deriued from diuers parts or bowels of the body, for they are all propagated from one and the same trunke.  
The Interior trunke[ char. 14,] when it hath sent foorth the fore-saide branch,[ char. 15.] runneth deepe and produceth the sixt veyne.  
The sixt and last veine is called Ischias maior,[ char. 17,] the greatest part wherof descending 
Ischias maior.  through the Muscles of the Calfe casteth on each side small surcles, and when it attaineth to the separation of the bones of the leg from the Brace-bone, it shooteth out a great propagation[ ch. 18] from his forepart, which hauing perforated the membranous Ligament runneth among the Muscles which occupy the forepart of the Tibia, and in his descent affoordeth surcles to the neighbor-muscles; and when it is past vnder the transuerse ligament is distributed in the vpper part of the foote, but so as it is diuided into his Musculous substance, and so giueth to each toe two smal branches. And this veine in the Sciatica and other affections of the Hip is vsually opened about the outward ankle; and Falopius giueth vs his word, that it is of great auaile though he relye more vppon experience then vpon any great reason.  
That which remaineth of the interior branch[ char. 14] runneth into the backeside of the foresaid muscles and so attaineth to the sole of the foote, where it is consumed into many small branches which run by courses. Two of them creepe along the inside of each toe; sometimes the little toe hath fiue, the next to it two, the middle toe one.  
And thus haue we brought to an end the History of the veines thoroughout the vvhole body. Now we should passe on vnto the arteries, sauing that wee promised in the end of the last chapter to say somewhat of the values which are found in the veines, which promise I will now acquite myself of.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Values or Flood-gates of the Veynes.  
_OF these Values Auicen the Arabian seemeth to haue made the first mention, 
Auicen.  calling them Cels in the Veynes. Hieronimus Fabritius ab Aquapendente an excellent Anatomist of Padua in Italy made publique demonstration of them 
Aquapendeus.  in the yeare of Grace 1574. and wrote a Tractate of them in the year 1603. Salomon also Albertus shewed them in the yeare 1579. and wrote of them 
Salomon Albertus.  in the yeare, 1584.  

FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
Tab. xi. Figure. 1. sheweth the arme bound ready for blood-letting.  
Fig. 2 & 3. sheweth two Veines of the legs turned the inside outward.  

A. A branch of the Cephalica Veine making the Median veine.  
B, C. The Basilica B and a braunch of it making the Median at C.  
D. The Median Veine made of the branches of the Cephalica and basilica.  
E. The Median Veine being caried through the middest of the Cubit diuided aboue the Radius.  
F. A deepe trunke of the Basilica or the trunke lying very low.  
G. The trunke of the Basilica lying vnder the skin.  
HHH. Values in the veines of the arme.  
I, K. The first veine of the Leg.  
L, M. The second veine of the leg.  
NNN. The values filled with bumbast.  
OOO. The values empty.    
The Values are found in the Veines of the ioynts, and are nothing else but small portions of the coate of the veines starting in their cauity, and intercepting the one halfe 
What a value is.  thereof, making in them as it were an angle or corner: wherefore the body of the veine is no where so thin as where these small membranes do depart from it. Some men had rather call them Ostiolae then Valuulae, which word we do not better know howe to English then to call them Floodgates which stoppe and intercept the currents of waters.  
They are seated in the veines of the armes and the legges aboue and below after the 
Their situatiō  Glandules of the arme-pits and the groine. Presently vnder the originals or out shootings of the branches which are disseminated from the sides of the veins into the neighbor parts for their nourishment. And the reason why they were created was, that the blood which is to be distributed to other partes, might in that place make a stay and not 
And vse.  be carried in a full streame along the large or direct Canale or pipe, and from the lesser branches, and those that are propagated obliquely be defrauded.  
They reach from the sides of the veynes vnto the middle of their capacity: neither do they shut vp the orifices of the braunches where they take their beginning out of the hollow veine, but are rather disposed in the branches themselues, for otherwise there could haue bene no regurgitation of humors which is very necessary as wee are taught by revulsions. 
Where they are found.  But in the orifice of the Iugular veine there are found two Values, least when the head is reclined too much backward the blood should violently rush into the braine.  
The Trunke of the Hollow-veine in the lower and middle Region, as also that of the Artery hath no Values, that without any obstacle or opposition the blood might bee euery way distributed as well for the restauration of the substance that vanisheth or wasteth away, as also for the generation of spirits. In like manner an innumerable number of small externall veynes are all together without them.  

TABVLA. XII. sheweth the values almost in the middle of the arme at the originall of the Inner Iugular veyne.  

a. The subclauian veyne.  
bb, The orifice of the veyne betwixt the inner Iugular and the Axillary veyne.  
c, Two values at the originall of the internall Iugular. d, The internall Iugular opened.  
e, The diuision thereof nere the head.  
f, The Glandule vnder the eare.  
ggggg, fiue ribs cut off.  
h, Values at the Axillary veine.  
i. The axillary veine produced from the Subclauian.  
k. The diuision of the axillary vein into the Cephalica and the Basilica.  
ll, The Cephalica called also Humeraria.  
m, m Two values in the Cephalica fiue fingers almost asunder.  
n. The muscle of the arme called Deltois.  
oo, The Basilica veine called also Hepatica.  
p, q, r, s. Foure values, the first is foure fingers of the second, the second three from the third, the third two fingers off the fourth.  
t, Two values ioyned together in the Basilica.  
u, The Arme-pit or the hole vnder the arme.    
The number of these Values is vncertain and the distances betweene them very vnequal, yet commonly they are double or two together, vnlesse it be little aboue the Transuerse Ligaments which containe the Tendons of the hands, the feete, the fingers & the toes. Also when a large veine beginneth to be contracted there most commonly they begin to be fewer till at length they vanish quite away. For where it is fit that more blood should be stopped and stopped longer there are two Values; where lesse and for a shorter time there one wil serue the turne especially there is but one where a lesse vessel is obliquely produced out of a greater.  
For the distance betweene them, although they runne throughout the length of the 
Their distāce.  vessell, yet in some places there is two fingers, in some three, in some foure, in som fiue fingers distance between them. As for example, in the Cephalica vnder the Muscle called Deltoides, there are two Values about fiue fingers distant one from another. In the Basilica 
In the Cephalica.  as it runneth through the inside of the arme there are foure large Values. The first is foure fingers distant from the second, the second three from the third, the third two from 
In the Basilica  the fourth, after which follow two small Values ioyned together.  
So in the foote( I meane the foote in the large acceptation) in the Hollow veyne before it be subdiuided in the groine there are two great values set, afterwards when it is diuided into a greater and a lesser trunke, the greater in two places hath two values foure 
In the Veines of the Foote.  fingers distant one from another. Thence downeward at the Ham one, at the calfe two, then one, and finally two other. But in the lesser trunke there are more, for in the beginning of the byfurcation there are values; within the distance of two fingers two more; 
TABVLA. XIII. sheweth the Crural veine and Artery, as also all the lesser branches of the Crural veyne opened.  

a, b, c, d. The Crural arterie diuided through the midst which hath no values.  
e, f, g. The crural veine opened.  
h. two values in the crurall veine  
i, the diuision of the crurall vein into a deeper or greater brāch and an vtter or lesser.  
k, the deeper or greater branch.  
l, The exterior branch or the lesser which maketh the Saphaena.  
m, m, Two values in two places distant one from another about foure fingers.  
nnn, Two values in three places, the first in the beginning of the bifurcation, the 2 at two fingers distance, the 3 at three  
o, one value foure fingers distant from the two last.  
p, 2 values at the Ham branch.  
q, two values vnder the Ham at the distance of foure fingers, where there is no branch.  
r, One value, three fingers distāt from the former.  
s, One other value foure Fingers distant from that.  
t, u. The veine Saphaena.  
x, A value 5 fingers distant from the former.  
y, 2 values at the wrist of the foot  
z, A value three fingers distant from the former.  
a, The last value of the Saphaena, for that which remaynes hath no Values at all.   others three fingers off; likewise in the same veine making the Saphena there is one value; foure fingers off of that two, and vnder the hamme foure fingers off likewise two more; three fingers off these there is one, and another foure fingers off it; fiue fingers off that another, two vnder the wrest of the Foote; three fingers out them one single one, and after the same distance appeareth the last; the remainder of the Saphena runs without values vnto the top of the great Toe.  
But because the stronger current and course of the bloud might bee better abated, 
Their position  these values are not placed in a right line or alwayes on the same side, for then the whole streame of bloud would haue flowed downe that side of the vessell that is free: Wherefore they vary their seate very artificially, as if in the vpper part of the veine there be two values, then after the distance which wee sayde was betweene them, other two values appeare in the lower part of the veine, so that the hornes of the following membranes doe regard the middle and embowed part of those that went before and on the contrary, yet so that in the middest they doe not touch one another, but leaue a tract or path whereby the bloud may passe downward and fall as well into the lower values as into those aboue. So then the lower values stay that bloud which escapeth from the vpper, & yet the course of the bloud is not intercepted.  
The figure of a Value sayeth Aquapendens, is like the nayle of a mans finger, or they 
Their figure.  be like a horned Moone, on their outside they represent the knottes that are in the branches of plants, for when a mans arme is tyed to let him bloud, there appeare within certaine distances as it were knots on the outside, and in clownish bodies sayth Bauhine, they may be seene to swell in the outside of the Legges like a Varix or a bursten veine. And truely a varix is nothing else but a veine and his value dilated by thick bloud which is detayned in the value, for without these the veines would bee dilated and swell equally in euery place.  
Vpward toward the rootes of the veines these values are open, but below and at the sides they grow to the veines, for they are portions of their coate. And if you put a quill 
Table 14. sheweth the values of the Crurall veine and his deep branch which walketh along with the Arterie, and these values may here be seene as far as the bifurcation.  
TABVLA XIIII.  

β, The deeper braunch of the Crurall veine which must bee tyed with the branch marked with K in the former Table about, d, which noteth the artery.  
γ ♌, The Crurall artery which must bee ioyned with d of the former table.  
〈◇〉, Two values with a propagation out of the veine.  
ζ The hamme.  
O, one great value with a propagation.  
〈◇〉 The Calfe.  
〈◇〉, Two values without any branch.  
Λ, One value with one propagation on either side.  
〈◇〉, Two values without propagations.  
〈◇〉, The Crurall veines, and the subdiuision of his deeper branch into 2, which also haue their values though wee cannot nowe follow them.   into a veine and lightly blow, then will the value swell out like a little bladder, or rather if we may compare little things with great, like the sayle of a shippe when it runneth freshly before the winde.  
Their substance is exceeding thinne that they might take vp the lesse roome, yet very 
Their substance.  thight and fast for more strength that they might not be broken by the violent incursion of the bloud.  
Their vse is to stay the bloud from falling too hastily into the lower parts, otherwise 
Their vse.  because the ioyntes doe hang downewarde the bloud would haue falne into them like a streame, and so the lower parts should haue beene oppessed by too great an affluence of Aliment, and burdened with a weight of humour, but the vpper parts should haue been defrauded. Nowe by reason of these values the Aliment doeth subsist or make stay in the greater vesselles as it were in a fountaine, that the smaller veines might alwayes haue nourishment at hand to conuay vnto their particular parts.  
Againe, because the veines were created not onely to deriue or transport the bloud into the parts, but also to adde something vnto the perfection of his concoction, there is no doubt but these values were ordayned to stay the course and violence of the bloud that the veines might haue time to bestow their trauell vpon it.  
Thirdly they adde strength vnto the veines, for were it not for these, it is likely that where a varix hapneth, there either the veine would breake, or at least the dilatation be much more offensiue. For because the veine is of a membranous, simple and thinne substance it may easily be streatched or broken.  
Fourthly, when we exercise our ioynts vehemently and often, the heat of the parts is stirred vp and the bloud partly disturbed partly called into the ioints, where the values do breake the force of it and so keepe it from mischiefe.  
Finally, if it were not for them in those violent motions of the ioynts, the whole masse almost of bloud would be called into the armes and the Legs, and so the principall parts or bowelles of the body bee defrauded of their allowance; and thus much of the Values. Onely, because they are not so well knowne nor so ordinarily demonstrated as the other particles of the body, we haue exhibited in this Chap. 4. tables. Two of the Hand and 2. of the Foote, wherein the values of the veines are very liuely described; and so we proceed vnto the second part of this Booke which is concerning the Arteries.    

The second part of the Eleauenth Booke concerning Arteries.  

CHAP. XII. Of the Arteries in generall.  
_AS the Liuer is the beginning of Radication and Dispensation to the Veines, so is the Heart to the Arteries. This Artery the Grecians call 〈◇〉, because it is as an Arke or Conceptacle of arterial bloud. Aristotle in his third Booke de histori 〈…〉 thinketh 
The names of an artery.  it was called aorta, because his neruous part 〈…〉 euen in a dead body; others thinke it was calle● 〈…〉, 〈◇〉, that is, to draw ayre. Others 〈…〉 which signifieth to lift vp, for in their dilatation th● 〈…〉 themselues, Hippocrates cals Arteries 〈◇〉, but micantes, that is, beating 〈…〉 manner did the Arabians stile them, and Auicen calleth them venas audac● 〈…〉 Pliny calles them spiritus semita, the path or walke of the spirites. Wher 〈…〉 of the Ancients which wrote before Galen you meet with the word 〈…〉 must you vnderstand it of the Rough Artery: for so Hippocrates, Plato 〈…〉 call that pipe which descendeth out of the mouth into the Longues, and 〈…〉 ●nspirated ayre into them and by which wee returne our breath out. But Galen and th●se after him called it aspera arteria, and if they speake of an Artery simply, we must vnderstand it of the smooth Arteries.  
There are three forts of Arteries: the first is called the Rough Arterie, of which wee 
3. sorts of arteries.  spake in the sixt Booke. The other is called the Venall arterie, of which also wee spake in the history of the heart. The third is called the great artery which is the subiect of our discourse at this time.  
Wee consider it therefore as it is Similar and as it is Organicall. As it is similar in 
An arterie as it is similar.  may bee defined A Colde and dry part engendred of the slimy part of the Seede. Colde it is of his owne Nature, for by euent it is most hot in respect of the bloode and spirits therein contayned. It is drie, lesse drie then a Tendon, and more dry then a Nerue.  
But against this it may bee Obiected, that Galen in his second Booke ad Glauconem sayth, That Neruous parts require more drying then Arteriall and therfore are dryer then they. 
Obiection. Solution.   
I answer, that by neruous parts in that place he doth not vnderstand nerues properlie so called, but neruous bodies as Ligaments and Tendons.  
If wee consider an Artery as it is an organicall part, it may be sayde to be a common instrument of the bodie, long, rounde and fistulated compounded of two peculiar Coates, intertexed or wouen with Fibres, receyuing and contayning Bloode and Vitall 
As Organical  Spirits laboured of a permixtion of Blood and Aire in the left ventricle of the hart, which also it conueyeth vnto all the parts of the bodie, together with heat to sustayne their life.  
The substance thereof is membranous or neruous that it might better be distended or 
The substauee  compressed which conformation was more necessary for Arteries then for veins because of their motion.  
The coats are one outward which is thin, rare and soft like the coate of a veyne, wouen with many right fibres and some oblique, but none transuerse. Another inward fiuefolde 
Coats.  thicker then the former, fast and hard, partly that the arterial and spirituous blood which is thin, pure and vaporous, and the vitall spirit might not exhale or vanish away, partlie that by reason of his continuall Diastole add Systole which it receiueth from the Heart as from a beginning of dispensation it might not be broken. It is also full of transuerse fibres the better to distribute the blood and vitall spirit to the whole body in his action & motion, for the inner coate onely of the arteries hath these transuerse fibres. To these two coats Galen addeth a third in the fift chapter of his seauenth booke, De administrationibus Anatom. which some say is produced from the coate of the heart. It is in the inner surface of the vessell much like a Cobweb and most conspicuous about the productions of the greatest arteries.  
Moreouer, they receyue a common and fine membrane in the lower belly from the Rim, in the Chest from the Pleura which couereth them, firmeth them, or tyeth them to the neighbour-parts, yet those arteries, which run through the bowels haue not this coat.  
The great artery is sometime called simply great, sometime the greatest, sometimes the thicke artery, sometime Aorta and is indeed the mother of all the rest of the Arteries, 
The great artery. ( except the Rough artery and the venall and vmbilicall arteries) being like a trunk or body of a tree, out of which all the branches do yssue. It was engendred, saith Bauhine out of Galen de formatione foetus, before the Heart was formed and hath one principle of Originall, that is, the seede out of which it is immediately made as beeing engendred at the 
His originals  same time with other spermaticall parts; Another of Dispensation and Radication which is the heart or the left ventricle thereof, out of which it yssueth with a patent or open Orifice, whereby it receyueth from the heart in his contraction Blood and vitall spirites together 
Values.  with heate to be transported to the body. But because in the dilatation of the hart this blood and these spirits should not returne againe into the ventricle, there are placed in his orifice three values yssuing from within outwarde, as also there are in the arteriall veine. But these of the artery are stronger and greater, because the body of the arterie is harder then that of the arteriall veine.  
These values also doo hinder the aliment which is drawne by the Meseraicke arteries from the guts, that is the Chylus, which Hippocrates in his Booke De Corde cals Alimentum 
Hippocrates.  non principale as if he shold say an aliment at the second hand, lest I say, this Chylus shold get into the Heart. The Orifice also of this artery is established with a hard substance which is sometimes gristly, in some greater creatures a bony gristle, for it is very rare if it be found a true bone, notwithstanding that Galen saith it is a bone in an Elephant, but in man there is no such thing found.  
The branches of this great Arterie are distributed into the whole body, as may appeare by this Table which we haue heereto annexed.  
In this distribution of the branches of the great Artery they accompany the branches of the Gate and the Hollow-veynes, yet are their propagations not so frequent, because  

Tab. xv. sheweth the great Artery whole, and separated from all the parts of the body together with his diuisions and subdiuisions.  
TABVLA XV.  

A. The orifice of the great Artery, or the beginning thereof, where it yssueth out of the heart  
B. Coronaria, so called because like a crowne it compasseth the basis of the heart.  
C. The diuision of the great Artery into 2 trunks V i.  
D. The left subclauian climbing obliquelie vpward vnto the ribs.  
E. the vpper intercostal artery, or a branch which bestoweth foure propagations vnto the distances of the lower ribs.  
F, the necke artery which through the transuerse processes of the racbones of the neck, ataineth to the scul bestowing surcles vnto the marrow and his neighbour muscles.  
G, the left Mammary artery running vnder the brest-bone, and to the nauell. It distributeth surcles to the Mediastinum, the muscles of the brest, and of the Abdomen.  
H, Muscula, or a branch attaining to the backward muscles of the necke.  
I, The Scapular arteries which goe vnto the hollownesse of the blade and the muscles that lie thereon.  
K, Humeraria which climbeth ouer the toppe of the shoulder.  
L, Thoracica superior sprinkled vnto the forward-muscles of the Chest.  
M, Thoracica inferiour, which passing along the sides of the Chest, attaineth to the broad muscle of the arme.  
N, the Axillary artery running out into the arme and affo ording braunches vnto the muscles thereof.  
O, A branch reaching to the outside of the cube and lying deepe.  
PP, Branches to the ioynt of the cubite with the arme.  
Q. The vpper branch of the artery running along the Radius and offering surcles to the thumbe, the fore-finger and the middle finger.  
k. A surcle creeping vnto the outside of the hand and led betwixt the first bone of the thumb & that of the After-wrist supporteth the forefinger where we vse to feele the pulse.  
S, The lower branch of the Artery running along the Vlna and communicating surcles to the litle finger, the ring finger and the middle finger. A little branch vnto the muscles about the little finger. T, the distribution of the vpper and lower branches into the hand and the fingers. V, the trunk of the great artery ascending to the Iugulum and the diuision thereof in that place into X, Y. Z. X, the lefte Carotis or sleepy Arterie. Y Subclauia dextra is diuided into branches as the right is diuided. Z, Carotis dextra called also Apoplectica and Lethargica. a, The diuision of the left Carotis in the chops. b. the exterior branch of that diuision going into the face the temples and behinde the eares. c, the inner braunch going to the throttle, the chops and the tongue. d, the diuision hereof at the basis of the scull into two braunches which enter into the sinus of the Duramater. c, A propagation of the branch b vnto the muscles of the face. f, the distribution of the branch b vnder the roote of eare. g, the fore-branch hereof creeping vp the Temples. h, the backbranch running on the backside of the eare vnder the skin. i, the trunke of the great Artery descending vnto the spondels of the backe. kkk. The lower Intercostall arteries which go vnto the distances of the eight lower ribs, from which are offered surcles to the marrow, and to the muscles that growe to the backe and to the Chest. l, the artery of the midriffe called Pbrenica or Diaphragmatica. ζ, Mesenterica Superior. but you must note that aboue ζ, the trunk of the Caeliacal artery is taken away, least the multitude of Letters in so smal a table should breede obscurity. n, θ, The right and left emulgents running from the Aorta or great Artery vnto the kidneyes. u, xx, The spermaticall arteries on either side going to the testicles. Λ, the lower Mesenterical artery on the left hand below μ running especially into the Collicke gut on that side. μ, μ. The arteries called Lumbares which run ouerthwart and like knees affoording surcles to the muscles that grow to the Loynes and to the Peritoneum. μ the lower; Muscula Superior running into the sides of the Abdomen and the muscles.  
The bifurcation of the great artery into two Iliacke trunks, and at the sides but somewhat inward are branches which make those that are called Sacra. T the diuision of the left Iliacke trunke into an inner branch at ξ and an vtter at φ. ξ The inner Iliacke branch. ● Muscula inferior, the vtter propagation of the inner branch going vnto the muscles which couer the hanch bone and the Coxendix. π Hipogastrica, the inner propagation of the inner branch going to the bladder, the yarde and the necke of the wombe. ρρ The vmbilicall artery. ● The remainder of the branch ξ assuming an addition from the vtter branch neare φ and so falling through the hole of the share bone into the Leg. τ Epigastrica, it ascendeth vpward vnto the right muscle of the abdomen, and about the nauell is ioyned with the mammary artery. ν Pudenda, it creepeth ouerthwart the share bone. φ The Crurall trunke without the Peritoneum. χ Muscula cruralis exterior going into the fore muscles of the thigh. ψ Muscula cruralis interior going vnto the muscles of the inside of the thigh. ω the coniunction of this artery with the branches. τ Poplitaea, going to the muscles on the backside of the Thigh, ΔΔ which communicateth small branches to the ioynt of the knee and the muscles that make the calfe of the Leg. θ the diuision of the Crurall artery vnder the hamme into three braunches. Λ Tibiaea exterior, it accompanieth the Brace bone and is consumed into the muscles. Ξ the chiefe part of the crurall artery. σ the vpper and backer Tibiaea. Π Φ The lower and backer Tibiea running vnto the vpper side of the foote at Φ, Ψ A propagation of the crurall artery going to the inner and vpper side of the foot and sprinkling a branch vnto the ankle. Ω A propagation vnto the lower part of the foote which affoordeth surcles to each Toe.   the Artery doeth not alwayes accompany the veine, for those veines that goe vnto the skin haue no arteries with them, at least that are conspicuous. Againe they are very 
The arteries why fewer th●n the veines.  rarely disseminated into the muscles, but creepe onely on their outsides, because the thin bloud of the arteries and their subtle spirites when they yssue from them, are able to insinuate themselues farre into the substance of the part without the helpe of a vessell.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the vse of Arteries.  
_THE vse of the great Artery and of his branches may bee considered two wayes; eyther as they are Canales or Pipes, or as they mooue and beate 
A double consideration of their vse.  perpetually. As they are Canales or Pipes they haue three vses or ends. First to contayne spirituous and vitall bloud, and to distribute it vnto the whole body, partly for the perfect nourishment of the particular parts, 
3. vses as Canales,  for the parts, sayth Galen in the tenth chapter of his sixt Booke de vsu partium, which are neare vnto the Arteries doe draw out of thē vaporous bloud though it be but little; partly for the nourishment and generation of the animall spirits.  
The second vse is to leade vnto the parts vital spirits, to cherish and sustaine those vitall spirits which are seated in the parts. Thirdly, with the same spirit to transmit heate and the vitall faculty perpetually into the whole body, to cherish the in-bred heat of the particular parts, to moderate and gouerne their vitall functions and to defend their life.  
As the Arteries doe beate, so haue they also a treble vse. The first is to preserue the in-bred heat of all the members which they do by ventilation or wafting ayre vnto them. 
3. vses in respect of their motion.  For if it were not breathed it would by degrees languish and be extinguished. Their second vse is by their motion to make a kinde of commotion in the bloud( for the arteries accompany the veines) which if it were at rest would putrifie like standing waters, for bloud sayeth Hippocrates is water. The third vse is to solliciate and to compell the bloud to fall out of the veines into the substance of the parts for more speedy nourishment.  
This motion of the Arteries is called pulsus or pulsation( of the worde Hippocrates 
Pulsation.  as Galen witnesseth was the first authour) which is absolued by dilatation and contraction: qualities not bred with the artery or seated in their substance, but flowing into them from the heart, which may be demonstrated if you intercept a part of an arterie with a tie, for the part that is vnder the tye will haue no motion, but as soone as the tye is taken away the motion will returne.  
Erasistratus conceiued that the Arteries mooued quite contrary vnto the motion of the heart: but wee agree rather with Herophilus, Aristotle and Galen, who thinke they are dilated and constringed in the Diastole and Systole of the heart: onely we must remember, that the motion of the heart is swifter and more vehement then that of the arteries, which you may thus make experience off. Lay your right hand vpon your heart, and with your left hand touch the wrest of the right hand, and then you shall perceiue whether the motion of both bee the same or contrary, but the more certaine knowledge of this poynt is taken from the dissection of liuing creatures.  
In the contraction of the Arteries they strongly driue vital spirits into the whole body and expel by expression sooty and smokie excrements arising from the humors which otherwise would suffocate the head. When they are dilated they snatch from the heart spirits as a new matter which in their contraction they communicate to the particular parts to be a vehikle of the heat, and do assume out of the neighbour veynes natural blood for their proper nourishment by the inoculations which are betwixt them and the veines; and that is the reason especially why the veines & the arteries do walke together throughout the whole body vnlesse some great obstacle be in the way. But the arteries lye vnder the veynes vnlesse it be at the holy-bone, not so much for defence as because by their motion 
Why they lye-vnder the veines.  they might constraine the veynes to powre out their blood, as also to make a conspiration or consent betwixt the vessels, and a communion of their matters that the arteries might affoord vnto the veynes spirit and life, and the veynes vnto the Arteries naturall blood.  
Againe, by this vicinity of the vessels the membranes which couer the veynes & tye them vnto the parts by which they passe, are also of great vse vnto the Arteries.  
It is also thought that these Arteries by the pores of the skin do draw Aier whereby the heate which is within is breathed, which breathing is called Transperation. But concerning the motions of the Arteries and by what faculty they are mooued, whether they moue as the heart mooueth, or contrary vnto it, wee haue intreated in the second, third, fourth, and fift Questions of the Controuersies of the sixt booke, to which place we referre the Reader.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the ascending Trunke of the great Artery.  
_THE great artery at the left ventricle of the heart from whence it ariseth is exceeding large, whence Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Galen haue al agreed 
The great Artery.  that the heart is the fountaine and originall of Arteries,[ Tab. 16, fig. 1 A] and before it fall out of the Pericardium or purse of the heart aboue the values,[ Tab. 16, fig. 3, char. 1, 2, 3,] it affoordeth sometimes one sometimes two coronary arteries,[ Tab. 16, fig. 1, BB] which like a Crowne do compasse the Basis of the heart, and through the length thereof together with the veyne dismisseth branches which 
The coronary Arteries.  are more and larger in the left side, and those make the substance of the heart viuide or liuely. Presently after, a little vnder the trunke of the Arteriall veyne, it ariseth vpward & pierceth through the Pericardium, & is diuided into two vnequal parts, one of which ascendeth vpward[ Tab, 16, fig. 1, E] vnto the head which is the lesser, the other and the greater by much runneth downward[ Tab. 16, fig. 1, D] because the parts of the creature which are vnder the hart are more a great many & greater thē those that are vnder it. This trunk is proportionably answerable to the stocke or body of the tree, and inclineth vnto the fift rackebone of the chest, and declining a little to the left hand to giue away vnto the hollow veine, it descendeth vpon the rack-bones vndiuided, which part Aristotle properly called Aorta, because euen in dead bodies the neruous part thereof was conspicuous, haply because it is like to a Macedonian sheath which is called 〈◇〉. Praxagor as vsed to call it Crassa or the thicke Artery. From this trunke, branches are dispersed which accompany the branches of the gate and hollow veynes into the whole body.  
From the greater trunke therefore[ Tab. 16, fig. 1, n] which in the chest is largest and thickest, do issue these branches following. 
The greater Trunke.   
The lower intercostall Arteries[ Tab. 16, fig. 1. HHH] which proceeding in order from his hinder side, are sent on eyther hand to the distances of the eight lower ribs, as far 
Intercostales Inferiores.  as to their gristles: and these againe do distribute surcles to the muscles which grow vnto the backe and chest, and to the spinall marrow through the holes which are made in the rack-bones for the out-lets of the nerues, after the same manner that the veyne Azygos distributeth his branches: for it is very rare to find the veyne Azygos accompanied with an artery issuing from the Aorta, and then it may well bee called Intercostalis maior, or the great intercostall artery.  
Secondly issueth the artery called Phrenica on eyther side one,[ Tab. 16, fig. 1, KK] which 
Phrenica.  is disseminated through the midriffe, and from these are small branches sprinkled also to the Pericardium where it groweth to the midriffe. Sometime this Phrenica ariseth from the trunke vnder the midriffe. The rest of the trunke that remaineth passeth through the fissure of the midriffe[ Tab. 15, fig. 1, *] cleaning to the bodies of the rack-bones and from it are many propagations distributed throughout the lower belly, of which we shal speak in the next chap. and in in the 16.  
From the lesser and ascending trunke[ tab. 16. fig. 1 ●] which amongst the separating membranes lieth vnder the hollow veine and resteth vpon the rough artery are branches communicated to all the parts aboue the heart.  
First of all it sendeth on either side a notable branch which vnder the coller bone attaineth vnto the first rib of his owne side, and therefore it is called the Subclauian artery. Afterward the whole trunke departeth into the two sleepy arteries.  
The right subclauian artery[ tab. 16. fig. 1 ● whose original is at a] issueth out of the Aorta 
The right subclauian artery.  where it is diuided into the sleepy arteries: and this is the higher and larger branch, and runneth more ouerthwart then the left which ariseth much lower where the Aorta is retorted downward and attaineth more obliquely vnto the arme.  
From either subclauian before it fal out of the cauity of the Chest( for when it is out of the Chest it is no more called subclauia but Axillaris)[ tab. 16. fig. 1 PP] as soone as it toucheth the first rib and not before, are propagations deriued from the lower part; first.  
Table 16. Is the same with Table 13. in follio 382.  
The vpper intercostall[ Tab. 16. fig. 1, II] which being fastned to the roots of the ribs communicateth particular branches to three or foure distances of the vpper ribs on his 
Intercostalis superior.  owne side;( But not alwayes after the same manner) from which surcles are distributed to the marrowe of the backe and to the Neighbour-muscles. From the vpper part doe yssue.  
First, the Mammaria or the Artery of the paps[ Tab. 16 fig. 1 LL] which being reflected vnder the brest-bone descendeth accompanied with a Veine vnto the pappes and the 
Mammaria.  muscles[ Tab. 16. fig. 1 ccc] which occupy the distances of the gristles of the true ribbes. It sprinkleth also surcles into the Glandules and the parting or diuiding membranes vnto which it adhereth, and at the side of the gristle called the brest-blade yssueth out of the Chest and runneth vnder the right muscles of the Abdomen dispersing his fauors into the sides. At the Nauell it is diuided into many surcles,[ Tab. 16. fig. 1 dd] and is ioyned with the Epigastricke Artery which plyeth vpward.[ Tab. 16. fig. 1. ee]  
The next artery which ariseth from the vpper part of the Subclauian trunke is called 
Ceruicalis.  Ceruicalis or the artery of the necke.[ Tab. 16. fig. 1 MM] It issueth more backward towarde the bodies of the racke bones, sometimes from the sleepy artery, and ascending vpwarde when it hath attained vnto the seuenth rackbone of the neck, it passeth through the holes in the transuerse processes of the saide rackbones, for which cause also Nature made thē perforated; and distributeth his surcles to the muscles, the marrow of the necke, and to the Rack-bones. These surcles go in where the nerues get out. There this artery perforating the membrane of the marrow betwixt the first racke and the Nowle-bone[ tab. 16. f. 1 NN] entreth on both sides into the scull, ioyneth with his opposite & runneth along the basis of the Braine.  
The third is called Muscula[ tab. 16. fig. 1. OO] It sendeth branches vnto the Muscles which lye vpon the necke as farre as the nowle: sometimes also to the Muscles of the 
Muscula.  Arme.  
After this trunke hath gotten out of the cauity of the Chest, wee saide before that it getteth a new name and is called Axillaris. From the axillary Artery therefore[ tab. 16. fig 1 PP] before it attaine vnto the arme there yssue three Arteries.  
The first is called Thoracica superier[ tab. 16. figu. 1, QQ] which runneth on eyther side with aboundant surcles vnto the Muscles which lye vpon the brest, and next vnto these 
Axilaris art cria Thoracica superior.  are those small shootes which are allowed to the little glandules vnder the Arme-pits.  
The second is called Thoracica inferior[ tab. 16. f. 1 RR] which runneth downward all along the side of the chest, especially into that muscle which is called Latissimus or the Broade 
Thoracica inferior.  Muscle.  
The third is called Scapularis[ Tab. 16. fig. 1S] which is disseminated into the Muscles 
Scapularis.  reposed in the hollowe side of the shoulder-blade. From the vpper part of the Axillarie branch ariseth one artery called Humeraria[ tab. 16. fig. 1 TT] which climbeth to the top of the shoulder, and is distributed to the Muscles which occupy the arme and the gibbous side of the blade. That which remaineth of the axillary artery[ tab. 16. figu. 1 YY] runneth 
Humeraria.  away vnto the arme being accompanied with the axillary veine whose diuisions we shall finde in the 19 chapter.  
The remainder of the ascending trunke[ tab. 16. fig. 1 ●] resting itself vpon the rough artery toward the vpper part of the brest-bone being yet in the cauity of the chest is supported with the Thymus, and diuided into two vnequall branches which they call Carotides[ tab. 16. fig. 1 X Y] or soporales the sleepy Arteries. These tend directly vpward, so that 
Carotides  the right as also the left run through the sides of the neck vnto the basis of the scull being tied to the rough Artery and the internall Iugular veines with a membrane,( for the Externall Iugulars are without arteries) and so reach vnto the heade where wee shall finde them in the 17 chapter.   

CHAP. XV. Of the descending trunke of the great Artery accompanying the Hollow Veine.  
_THE Trunke of the great Artery[ Tab. 17 L] at the eleuenth racke-bone of the Chest passing through the Midriffe[ Tab. 17. char. 4] runneth through the lower belly leaning vpon the left side of the bodies of the racks, and lying 
7 braunches before the diuision.  vnder the left side[ tab. 17, L] of the hollow veine[ Tab. 17, K] declining somewhat to giue roome thereunto, and before it come to the last Racke saue one of the Loines, in some bodies at the Holy-bone[ tab. 17, char. 14] where it is diuided into two trunkes, it affoordeth seuen branches, whereof some do accompany the branches of the Gate-veine, as that called Coeliaca and the double Mesontericall branch which depart vnto the Stomacke, the Mesentery and the Guts, of which we shall speake particularly in the next chapter.  
Others accompany the branches of the Hollow-veine couered with the Peritonaeum or Rim of the belly, of which we shall intreat in this chapter. For Nature almost alwaies diuideth the Arteries where she diuideth the Veynes, partly that the membranes wherewith she couereth the Veines and fastneth them to the neighbour parts might bee of vse likewise vnto the Arteries, partly also that there might be a conspiration between the vessels and a communion of matters, for there are few Veines without arteries ioyned vnto them vnlesse it be those that run immediately vnder the skin. Now the order of the branches as they arise out of the trunke is on this manner.  
The first is called Coeliaca[ Tab. 17, char. 6]  
The second Mesenterica superior.[ Tab. 17, char. 10]  

Caeliaca. Mesenterica superior. Emulgens  The third Emulgens or Renalis the artery of the Kidneyes[ Tab. 17, d e] one left and another Right, sometimes but rarely we finde three or foure or more. This is a notable branch and well nie the greatest of all that arise from out of the great artery. It issueth oue of either side of the trunke where the first and second rack-bone of the Loins are coupled with a Ligament, and pacing obliquely at the cauity of the Kidneyes it is diuided as the Veines are, and so implanted thereinto and therein consumed, imitating for the most part the distribution of the Veines.  
Their vse is not so much to leade vitall blood as to purge away the whey from the vital 
Their Vse.  blood of which there is aboundance in the great artery. Notwithstanding the far Membrane of the Kidnies though they be neere at hand, doe not scarse at all partake of these arteries.  
The fourth is called Spermatica, the seede artery.[ Tab. 17, char. 11] Both of them issue 
Spermatica,  together( for their originals do touch) out of the forepart of the trunke, and descending the right rideth ouer the trunke of the hollow veine, is fastned vnto the spermaticall veine of his owne side( as the left is to the left) by the mediation of the Peritonaeum. Afterwarde in men they passe the productions of the same peritoneum and are applyed with a winding passage to the Testicles, whereto as also to their coats they affoord surcles. The vse of which application is to leade vnto them venall and arteriall bloode and vitall spirits. But in women the one halfe goeth to the Testicles, the other vnto the bodye of the wombe. And from these Columbus thought the vmbilicall arteries had their original, but what reason he had for his conceite there I leaue him.  
The fift is called Mesenterica inferior.[ Tab. 17, Char. 12] 
Mesenterica inferiour. Lumbaris   
Table xvij. Is the same with the eight of the third Booke in folio 115.  
The sixt is called Lumbaris[ Tab. 17 the vpper mmmm] These are two arising out of the backside of the Trunke where it ioyneth to the rackbones and run crookedly through the holes of the rackes of the Loynes and are distributed vnto the spinall marrow, as also the Neighbor-muscles & to the Peritoneum. These also at the sides of the marrow together with the veines run vpward to the braine. Columbus maketh mention of no more braunches before the diuision of the great artery, but Laurentius whom Bauhine also followeth addeth a seuenth.  
The seauenth therefore is called Muscula superior[ Ta. 17. the lower mm] which also is 
muscula superior  referred to the Lumbares but larger then the rest and runneth out vnto the sides of the Abdomen, and blesseth his muscles with aboundant surcles.  
After these branches are distributed, the great artery at the beginning of the Holybone[ Ta. 17. char. 14.] climeth ouer the hollow veine, not as challenging the superiority, but because being perpetually mooued it might haue beene offended if it had beaten against the bare bone.  
At this place by reason of the parts through which it passeth it is called Iliaca,[ Tab. 15. r] and as the hollow veine so is it deuided aboue the body of the fourth Racke of the Loynes into two trunkes after the manner of ● inuerted or turned vpside downe. Vnder this bifurcation yssueth the artery called Sacra[ Tab. 17. o o] whose surcles runne through 
The bifurcation of the trunke.  the holes of the holy bone vnto his marrow. Not far from the deuision each trunke[ Tab 17. p] is deuided into an interior or slender branch[ Tab. 17. p] and an exterior or greater[ Ta. 17. 5] which falleth vnto the Leg. From the interior branch yssue two propagations, one vtter the other inner.  
The vtter is called Muscula inferior[ Ta. 17. ss] and runneth transuersly[ Ta. 17. f] outward 
Muscula infer.  betwixt the holy-bone and the bone of the hip, and is distributed with many surcles into the muscles which couer the haunch-bones and the hippe-ioynt. In like manner at the groyne from one of the trunkes ariseth a notable branch which runneth vnto the skin and cherisheth the Cutany parts which appertayne vnto the share, to the hanches and to the abdomen.  
The inner is called Hypogasirica[ Ta. 17. u u] which is the largest of all the rest, and runneth directly downward to the lower part of the Os sacrum, to the bladder and his necke, 
Hypogastrica. ( some say also to the fundament, and may there be called the Hemeroidall arteries) and finally to the muscles which couer the share-bone, into all which parts his surcles are distributed.  
In women this Hypogastrica is yet larger, and is distributed aboundantly into the bottom of the wombe. It sprinkleth also the necke thereof and the bladder with small surcles. It sendeth foorth also a branch which vnder the bifurcated originall of the yarde 
Arteria vmbilicali.  runneth strangely intangled to his two hollow bodies, so making a kinde of web or complication and then passeth vnto the nut The remaynder of the interior branch[ ta. 17. ●] creepeth downward, and admitteth vnto it the vmbilicall artery[ ta. 17. at x] which passeth throughout the length of the great artery, & at the sides of the bladder for more strength is tyed with strong membranes, by which vmbilicall artery the Infant in the womb liueth and enioyeth Transpiration, but after the Infant is born it turneth into a tye or ligament of which we haue spoken sufficiently before.  
Presently after when it hath assumed a propagation which is sent obliquely downward from the external branch[ ta. 17. ●] where it is about to fall into the Leg;[ ta. 17. y] it passeth through the hole of the share-bone, and is dispersed into the muscles which occupy that hole, and into those that neighbour about it.  
The Exterior branch of the byfurcation sendeth out two branches, one before it hath passed the Peritoneum, another after.  
The first is called Epigastrica,[ Tab. 17. char. 22.] and reflected vpward, climeth ouer the right muscle, and his especiall branches about the Region of the Nauell are ioyned with 
Epigastrica.  the mammary; the rest of his surcles hee disperseth transuersly into the lower side of the abdomen.  
The second is called Pudenda[ Ta. 17. char. 15.] a little branch not deuided into so many 
Pudenda.  surcles as is the veine. It runneth transuersly and inward a long the commissure or ioyning together of the share-bones vnto the Priuities, and is consumed in the skinne of the yard. Sometime also small arteries are sent vnto the glandules of the groyne: againe often from one side a reasonable braunch is produced vnto the groyne, which cherisheth not onely the skinne about the share, but also those partes which pertaine or reach vnto the haunches or to the abdomen. The remaynder of the artery[ Ta. 17. char. 18. runneth into the Leg and maketh the Crurall arteries, of which we shall speake in the 20. Chapter: 
Cruralis.  and thus much of the braunches of the great Artery which accompany the hollow veine in the lower belly. Now we come vnto those that accompany the Gate veine.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Arteries accompaning the branches of the Gate-veyne 
Caeliaca.  through the lower Belly.  
_THE arteries which accompany the branches of the Gate-veyne are three. The first is called Coeliaca[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, m. Tab. 17, char. 6,] the second Mesenterica superior,[ Tab. 17, char. 10,] The third mesenterica inferior,[ Tab. 17, char. 12.] The Coeliaca[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, m l Tab. 17, char. 6.] is so callled because it sendeth many branches vnto the stomacke, and therefore wee may call it the stomacke artery. It is a notable vessell and because like the gate-veyne it offers his branches to the stomacke, the kell, the Duodenum, the beginning of the Ieiunum, a part 
Coeliaca.  of the collicke gut, to the Liuer, the bladder of gall, the Pancraeas and the spleene, wee will fit his names vnto the names of the gate-veyne.  
It ariseth from the forepart of the body of the great artery at the spine of the backe. And the vpper part thereof is sustained in his course by the lower membrane of the Omētum or kell. Afterward it is diuided into two branches, a right[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, u] which is the lesser; and a left[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, u] which is somewhat greater. Both of them spring 
The diuision thereof.  as it were out of one roote, and vnder the back-side of the stomacke are fastened to the gate-veyne in the Pancraeas.  
The right[ Tab. 18, figure 1, n] ascendeth vpward into the hollow part of the Liuer, hauing some part of his way sprinkled branches, some from his vpper part some from his lower. From his vpper part two.  
The first is called Gastrica dextra, the right stomacke artery.[ Tab. 18, fig 1, p] It issueth 
Gastrica dextra.  out of the middle of the passage and distributeth his surcles into the backe-side of the right orifice of the stomacke.  
The second are two small twin-branches called Cysticae gemellae,[ Tab. 17, char. 8, Tab. 18, fig. 1, s fig. 2, x] 
Cysticae gemellae.  because they go vnto the bladder of gall. From the lower branch issue three branches.  
The first is called Epiplois dextra the right Kell artery,[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, o. fig. 2, h] and is 
Epiplois dextra.  offered to the right side of the lower kell, and to the collicke gut which is fastened thereto.  
The second is called Intestinalis the gut artery,[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, q. fig. 2, d] and is sent vnto 
Intestinalis.  the Duodenum and the beginning of the Ieiunum.  
The third is called Gastro-Epiplois dextra, the right stomacke and kell-artery.[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, r] 
Gastro epiplois dextra.  It is larger then the former, and is retorted or bent backward to the right side of the bottome of the stomack, and leaning vppon the vpper membrane of the Kell, sprinkleth very plentifull sureles into the foreside and hindside of the bottome of the stomacke; as farre as vnto the middle thereof. That which remaineth of the right branch determineth into the hollow part of the Liuer,[ Tab. 17, char. 7, Tab. 18, fig. 1, r. fig. 2, y] yet not deepe, to conuay vnto it vitall spirit.  
The left branch[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, u] which is also called Arteria splenica, the Artery of 
Arteria splenica  the spleene passeth with an oblique and crooked course through the Pancraeas[ Tab. 18, fig. 2, i] vnto the Spleene.[ Tab. 18, fig. 2, m] It is larger then the right branch that it might not easily be obstructed, for it doth not onely suggest into the Spleene plenty of vital spirits, but also vomitteth out and purgeth into the same the thicker and more foeculent matter of the spirituous blood contained in the great Artery. It is fastened to the splenicke 
〈…〉.  veyne and is distributed like vnto it, for from it before the diuision there issue from the vpper part two Arteries, and as many from the lower.  
The first that issueth from the vpper part is called Gastrica maior, the greater stomacke 
Gastrica maior.  Artery,[ Tab. 18, fig. 13 x] which offereth to the stomacke a propagation in the backe and vpper part; wherefrom a surcle[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, y] runneth vnto the middest of the stomack. Another also called Coronaria stomachica, the Crowne artery of the stomacke,[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, ch. 2, fig. 2, g] which reacheth to the vpper orifice compassing it about like a crowne, 
Coronaria stomachica.  and it alloweth small surcles to the body of the stomacke and to the gullet.  
The second is called Gastrica sinistra, the left stomacke artery.[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, α] It is 
Gastrica sinistra  a propagation of the former Gastrica maior running on the right hand into the vpper parts of the stomacke, and distributing surcles on both hands which attayne vnto the Pylorus or lower mouth of the stomacke.  
From the lower part of the left branch issue likewise two arteries. The first is called 
Epiplois postica.  Epiplois postica,[ tab. 18, fig. 1, β fig. 2, c] the hinder kell-artery, which presently is diuided into two surcles separated farre one from another, and those into others which are propagated into the lower membrane of the kell and the collick-gut which is tyed thereto.  
Table 18 is the same with Table 4. Lib. 3. folio 102.  
The second is called Epiplois sinistra, the left kell-artery.[ Tab. 18, fig. 1,] It is also 
Epiplois sinistra  sent to the lower membrane of the kell and runneth out into his left side. That which remaineth of this branch[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, u] attaineth to the spleene, and is diuided into an vpper and a lower branch, and these againe are diuided into others vntill many branches doe touch the hollow part of the spleene,[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, ♌] and are dispersed through his substance. Table 19 is the same with Table 7. Lib. 7. folio 448.  
Out of the lower part of this remainder issueth that artery which is called Gastro-epiplois 
Gastro-epiplois sinistra.  sinistra,[ Tab. 18, fig. 1, ε] which is supported by the vpper membrane of the Omentum, writhen toward the right hand that it might creepe vp the left part of the bottom of the stomacke, and sendeth crooked and bent branches to the fore side and back-side therof, and to the vpper membrane of the kell.  
Out of the vpper part of the remainder issueth that which is called Vas breue arteriosum, 
Vas breue arteriosum.  The short arteriall vessell, which is inserted into the vpper part of the left side of the bottome of the stomacke.  
And this is the diuision of the Coeliacall Artery in the lower belly which is the first of the three that accompany the branches of the Gate-veine. The second and third are the two Mesenterick Arteries both which yssue from the foreside of the trunke, the vpper below the Coeliacal, the lower below the Spermaticall.  
The vpper Mesentericall artery[ Tab. 17, char. 10, Tab. 18, fig. 1. ζ fig. 2, p] is propagated into the vpper part of the Mesentery, yea almost into all of it, and sprinkleth abundant surcles 
Mesenterica superier.  into the Ieiunum, the Ilion, and the Collick guts at the right kidney.  
The lower mesentericall artery,[ Tab. 17, char. 12, Tab. 18, fig. 2, q] runneth vnder the lower side of the mesentery and is especially distributed into the left side of the collick 
Inferier.  and into the right gut, and descending together with the veynes vnto the fundament, maketh the Hemorrhoidall Arteries.[ Tab. 18, fig. *]  
The vse of these mesentericall branches is not so much to conuay heate vnto the parts, 
Hemorrhoidales The vse of the mosenterical artery. Varolius his conceite  as by their motion and vitall spirit to preserue the mesentery and the guts from corruption and putrifaction.  
Some are of opinion that these branches do sucke out of the guts the purest part of the chylus for the generation of arteriall blood and conuay it to the left ventricle of the heart: but the values which are set at the beginning of the great artery, and shutte vp the 
Refuted.  passage from the artery into the heart onely, & not out of it againe, do contradict strongly that conceite.  
Hauing thus brought the great artery through the middle and lower regions of the body, we wil now returne vnto it again, where we left it in the end of the 14 chapter diuided into two Soporary Arteries and climing vnto the Head.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the Arteries of the Braine.  
_THE artery called Carotis or the sleepy artery, and by Archangelus Arteria Iugularis because it is accompanied on the inside with the internall Iugular 
The sleepy artery.  veyne, ascendeth vnto the chops on eyther hand by the sides of the rough artery, and there is diuided into two branches. One externall, of which we shal speake in the chapter following. Another internall, which is also the larger conuayed to the Chops, which hauing affoorded certaine surcles to the tongue & the Larinx is diuided at the basis of the braine[ Tab. 19, fig. 13, B] into two vnequall branches. 
His diuision.   
The first artery of the brain according to Bauhine, according to Vesalius the 3,[ ta. 19, fi. 
The first artery of the Braine.  13. L. fi. 15, cc] is little lesser then the Trunk itself, & runneth vp whole & ful til it come vnto a proper hole bored for it in the temple-bone, & through it attaineth into the cauity of the Scull at the saddle of the wedge-bone, and being yet vnder the Dura mater, first of al it affoordeth a branch on each hand into the side of the same Meninx.[ Tab. 19, fig. 15, D] Afterward in brute beasts it parteth with an infinite number of surcles, and maketh that texture which is called Rete miraebile, the wonderfull Net; of which Galen wrote so curiously that Vesalius followeth him to a haire, and that figure is the 14 of this 19 Table, but 
Rete mirabile.  the 16 fig. of the same table exhibiteth the forme thereof, as it appeareth in brute beasts especially in Oxen, Calues, and Sheepe.  
In men though there be indeed such a knot or texture, yet it is not so notable, and but a very shadow in respect of that in bruite beasts, and yet notwithstanding the Artery is not consumed into these propagations but remaineth alwayes sound.[ Table. 19. fig, 16, BC] Presently after it perforateth the dura meninx and runneth sometimes single, sometimes double,[ tab. 19. fig. 15 F] yet so that it presently vniteth again, and when it hath transmitted the lesser branch[ K] through the second hole of the VVedge-bone, it creepeth out of the scull vnto the eye and the temporall Muscle[ tab. 19. figu. 11 H] together with the Opticke nerue to giue it and his Muscles life, & sendeth the greater branch vpwarde, which presently at the side of the Flegmaticke Glandule is diuided into two branches. The inner wherof is vnited with the inner arterie of the opposite side, and so being vnited they are consumed into many smal arteries which at the original of the optick nerues are disseminated through the pia Mater and the substance of the Braine.[ Tab. 19. fig. 13 e] The other being reflected[ tab. 19. fig. 13. at the vppermost A fig. 15 G] and entangled in the Pia Mater, runneth into the forward ventricle diuided into many small braunches, some of which are vnited with those small arteries which attained hither from the Ceruicalis or artery of the necke through the basis of the Head vnder the Braine. Some others run disioyned through the pia mater or thin membrane and through the substance of the Braine itself, which with other surcles make that complication of vessels which they call Plexus Choroides, so that this complication is compounded of foure arteries. 
Plexus Choroides.   
The second Artery of the Braine[ ta. 19. fig. 13 q] is a branch of the former which runneth obliquely, and when it hath attained into the scull through the second hole of 
The 2 Artery.  the Temple-bone, it is diuided into two branches; whereof one runneth outward and the other inward. The vtter which Vesalius calleth the second small branch of the third artery[ tab. 19. fig. 13 f] endeth through the eight hole of the Wedge-bone into the cauity of the Nosethrilles[ Tab. 19. figure. 15 ●] where the Pulse is felt, and offers a little surcle 
The pulse of the Nose.  to the end of the Nose[ Tab. 19. fig. 13, t] but the interiour branch is diuided into two at the first Hand[ tab. 19. fig. 13 uu] which Vesalius calleth two great branches of the third artery. Afterward it sendeth out of his vtter part another small braunch,[ Tab. 19. fig. 13 r] which Vesalius calleth the first small branch of the third Artery, this branch togither with the second Veine,[ F] and after the same manner and for the same vse is distributed into the dura meninx or thicke Membrane.  
The third Artery of the Braine which according to Vesalius and Platerus is the second, 
The 3. arterie of the Braine. [ Tab. 19. fig. 13, I] is lesse then the first and runneth together with the branch of the internall Iugular veine[ tab. 19. fig. 13, C] vnto the backeside of the Scull, and hauing affoorded a surcle vnto the Muscles which occupy the inside of the necke[ Φ] it entreth in at the first hole of the Nowl-bone, and so passeth into the sinus of the dura Meninx.  
The fourth Artery( which according to Vesalius, Falopius and Platerus is the first) is a propagation of that axillary artery being yet within the Chest which is called Ceruicalis. This arising vpward through the holes of the transuerse processes of the neck, after it hath 
The fourth.  giuen some surcles to the muscles thereabout, betwixt the head and the first Racke of the necke it perforateth the thicke membrane which inuesteth the spinall marrowe in the side thereof: to which after it hath giuen some propagations it entreth into the cauity of the Scull through the great hole. Afterward vnder the marrow it is ioyned with his companion of the opposite side, which being so vnited do passe along vnder the middle of the basis of the Braine till it come vnto the saddle of the Wedgebone wherein the Phlegmaticke Glandule is contained. There againe it is diuided into two braunches. The right runneth to the right side of the saddle, the left creepeth on his owne side as farre as to the second paire of sinewes, where on both hands it is diuided into infinite surcles and disseminated betwixt the first and second paire of sinews, and complicated or intangled with the Pia Mater which afterward do make the Plexus Choroides. And thus much of the distribution of the arteries within the braine.  
Moreouer, we must imagine that from these sleepy arteries an innumerable number of surcles or propagations are sprinkled heere and there throughout the whole substance of the Braine.  
The Vse of the arteries of the Braine is to bee considred either as they are Canalesor 
The vse of the arteries of the Braine.  pipes running through the Braine, or as they are perpetually mooued.  
In the first consideration they were made to conuey vitall Bloode from the Heart vnto the Braine, as also vitall spirits to sustaine the vitall spirits that are bred and seated in the substance thereof; neyther do they carrie vitall spirits onely, but also the vitall faculty furnished with all his indowments.  
As they beat continually their vse is perpetually to ventilate the ingenite heare of the Braine, which otherwise would quickly languish and be extinguished. Againe, this pulsation moueth and worketh the bloud in the veines, which if it stood stil and at rest would like standing water sooner putrifie and corrupt. Finally, to sollicite the Alimentary bloud which is thicker, to yssue out of the veines through small pores and vents or breathing passages into the substance of the braine( which also doeth somewhat drawe it) for his nourishment and refection.  
Now we proceede vnto the exterior branch of the Sleepy Artery.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Arteries of the Face, the Eyes, the Nose, the Teeth, and the Larynx.  
_THE Carotides or sleepy Arteries[ Tab. 16. X Y] being on both sides one, doe accompany the Iugular veines by the sides of the neck, and cleaning to the 
The diuision of the sleepy artery.  Rough artery ascend vnto the head, and when they come vnto the Chops they are deuided[ Tab. 16. ss] into an vtter branch[ g] and an inner,[ h] the distribution of the inner we had in the former Chapter.  
The vtter which is smaller then the inner and consisteth without the Choppes, lendeth surcles to the Cheeks[ l] and to the muscles of the Face, afterward when it commeth vnto the roote of the Eare[ m] it is deuided into twaine, one of which runneth to the backside of the Eare,[ o] from which two arteries vnder the Eare doe passe into the neather Iaw, & throughout the length thereof are dispersed vnto the roots of all the lower teeth, another part of it breaking out through a hole at the Chinne runneth along the Lip; another yet[ n] creepeth vp the Temples and the forehead, and is consumed into the muscles of the Face. Of the Arteries of the Eyes we haue spoken before in the former Chapter, as also of the Nose; of the Teeth a little before, whence it is that wee often finde pulsing or beating paines in them, such as wee feele in inflamations of fleshy partes, and this was 
Galen.  Galens obseruation in the 8. chapter of his fift Book de compositione medicamentorum secundam loca, who found in himselfe not onely the paine of his Teeth, but also their beating or pulsation, wherefore he affirmeth confidently that there is one kinde of paine in the gums and another in the substance of the Tooth, and without the inflamation of the Gummes 
That there are arteries in the teeth.  sometime in the proper body of the Tooth, sometimes in the Nerue paines doe perplex vs. And truely if there were no Artery at the roote of the Teeth, how could it bee that when a Tooth is perforated, so much cleare and perfect bloud should yssue out from it? 
Eustachius his obseruation.  Which as Eustachius sayth he obserued in a man who had so great a fluxe of bloud from his tooth that almost powred out his life therewith.  
Finally, which wee also partly remembred before, from the greater and inner bough of the sleepy artery which runneth vnder the Choppes, some surcles are communicated to the Throttle and Tongue to conuay vnto them life and heat: and thus much of the diuarication of the Soporary or sleepy arteries both without the Scull and within: it remayneth that we should entreat of the Axillary and Crurall arteries, as they are distributed into the ioynts, but we will begin with the Axillarie.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the arteries of the Hand in the large acception.  
_THE great Artery after it is out of the Chest distributeth foure branches from each side of the Axillary; the first from the backeside to the Muscles 
4 branches from the axillarie.  situated vpon the shoulder blade;[ table 20. fig. 2. I] another from aboue from the ioynte of the Arme with the blade, which the Humerarie veine accompanyeth for a time,[ K] the third to the Muscles that lye vpon the forepart of the Chest,[ L] the fourth runneth downeward along the sides of the Chest[ M] and communicateth smal branches to the glandules vnder the arm-pits betwixt the third branch and the fourth, of these we haue spoken before: the remaynder is conuayed vnto the hand[ from N.]  
For this branch[ N] descending through the inside of the Arme together with the Basilica veine[ tab. 20. fig. 1. m] betwixt the muscle called Biceps or the two headed muscle, distributeth small surcles on either side to the muscles which take vp the inside of the arme.[ vnder M] Afterward being accompanyed with the Deepe-veine[ tab. 20. fig. 1. q] or the inner branch of the Basilica( whereto it is fastned in his whole course) as also with the fourth 
Table 20. Fig. 2. sheweth the branches of the great Artery running thorough the whole Hand.  
TABVLA XX.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

G. The Mammary artery fastued on the outside into the breastbone.  
H, The Artery of the neck called Ceruicalis going to the backeward muscles of the neck.  
I, Scapularis going to the muscles of the shoulder-blade.  
K, The Artery climbing vnto the top of the shoulder.  
L, Thoracica superior going to the muscles that ly vpon the brest  
M, Thoracica inferior, creeping along the sides of the Chest.  
N, The axillary arterie attayning vnto the arme, and bestowing small branches to the muscles.  
O. It attaineth to the outside of the cubit.  
PP. Vnto the ioynt of the cubit.  
● The by-partition of the Arterie vnder the bought of the Cubite.  
Q An vpper branch of the artery carried along the Wand.  
R. A surcle going vnto the vtter sides of the Hande, where wee vse to feele the pulse.  
S. The lower branch of the Artery running along the Ulua.  
* A small branch to the muscles about the little finger.  
T. The distribution of the vpper and inner braunches into the hand and into the fingers.   Nerue of the arme it runneth through the backside into the outside of the cubit vnder the heads of the muscles thence arising, and shooteth foorth small branches aboue and below[ O] and neere the bent of the elbow it affoordeth on either side two branches to the ioynt[ PP] where the pulse may be oftentimes euidently felt.  
VVe saide that the Artery runneth with the veine, For it is certaine( saith Galen in the 
Galen. The Anastomosis of the vessels.  10 and 17 chapters of his sixt Booke de vsu partium) that in the whole body there is a mutual Anastomosis or inoculation betweene them, that is, their mouths open one into another, & so a Conspiration and Communion of their matters. For the arteries doe impart vnto the bloode spirites and vitall heate, and for retribution the arteries draw out of the veynes blood which is the nourishment not onely of their spirits but of the arteries themselues; and these coniunctions of the vessels made by their orifices or mouthes are found especially in the armes and the legges, and therefore it hapneth sometimes that one only vein being wounded, not onely all the naturall blood of the bodye but together with it the vital also issueth, & so the wounded man perisheth. And this Galē also intimateth, for going 
Galen.  about to demonstrate the vnions of the vessels, he saith, that if the greater veins be wounded, if the blood be suffered to flow foorth, the Arteries also will bee euacuated by conseqution: and this apeareth true by experience. For if you open a man that dieth of bleeding, you shall finde not onely the veines but the arteries also empty. But I return from whence I haue digressed.  
The Axillarie Artery vnder the bent of the Cubit when it hath run a little way thorough 
The Axillary Arteries descent.  the inside of the Cubit, descendeth into two bending muscles of the fingers, and is diuided into two notable branches; Columbus addeth oftentimes into three. The one is the vpper and passeth along the Radius or wand[ Q] till it come in a straight line vnto the wrest, at which place the Physitians commonly feele the pulse, making estimation of the disposition of the hart from the Dilatation, Contraction, and intermediat Rest of the artery. Yet saith Columbus this is not alwayes seated in the inside of the wrest, but runneth sometimes outward, so that if a Physition be ignorant of Anatomy, and search for the 
The pulse in the wrest. Note this.  sicke mans pulse only in the vsuall place which is in the inside of the wrest a little aboue the roote of the thumbe, not finding it, hee will determine that the Patient is neere his death, when haply the artery beateth well on the vpper side against that place.  
Before the artery of the pulse get vnto the fingers it sendeth a shoote toward the outside of the hand[ Tab. 20, R] betwixt the first bone of the thumbe and that of the Afterwrest whereby the fore-finger is supported, & distributeth it into the muscles of that place. Afterward it goeth vnder the Annular or transuerse ligament, & the tendon of the muscle of the Palme( as also do the veyne and the nerue fastened therto) and is diuided into three branches. The first of these offers two surcles to the inside of the thumb, the second to the inside of the fore finger, the third is vndiuided and attaineth to the middle finger,[ Ta. 20, 
Three branches to the fingers.  betweene R and T.]  
The other and inferior branch( of which Columbus maketh no mention)[ Tab. 20, S] 
The lower branch of the Axil●ary.  runneth directly along the Vlna or Ell, and attaineth likewise to the wrest, at which place also we may feele the pulse to beate, especially if the party be leane, or haue a great pulse, and this is the reason why we rather touch the other artery then this, for the other is lesse couered by the tendons and offereth itself more manifestly that we may giue the better iudgement by it.  
This branch also runneth vnder the fore-saide transuerse ligament into the palme of the hand, and before it reach vnto the fingers affoordeth a small branch[ Tab. 20, *] to the muscles that are seated neere the little finger. The remainder accompanied with a veyne and an artery is communicated to the fingers; the middle finger hath one surcle, 
His diuision  the ring-finger and the little finger each of them two. The outside of the hand as it wanteth muscles so it wanteth arteries also, vnlesse it be that branch which is marked with R. And thus much of the Arteries of the Hand.   

CHAP. XX. Of the Arteries of the Foote in the large Acception.  
_WEe saide before that the great Artery about the lower spondels or rack-bones of the Loynes, or aboue the beginning of the Os sacrum or holy-bone is diuided 
The diuision of the Iliack Arteries.  into two notable Iliacke branches.[ Tab. 21, νν] Each of these is againe subdiuided on eyther side into two others, one exterior the other interior.[ Tab. 21, ζ 〈◇〉.]  
The interior[ ζ and Tab. 17, 〈◇〉] shooteth out two scions, one externall[ o and tab. 17, ss] called Muscula inferior, the lower Muscle artery which runneth ouerthwart and is consumed into the muscles that couer the outside of the haunch-bones and the ioynt of the hip, The other internall,[ 〈◇〉 and tab. 17, uu] called Hypogastrica, which runneth directly downward and sendeth his surcles to the parts of the Hypogastrium or Water-course, as the bladder, the wombe, &c. The remainder of this branch[ Tab. 21. ζ] descending[ vnder 〈◇〉] first admitteth the vmbilicall artery of his own side; after it assumeth a portion from the outward branch of the first diuision[ neere ●;] and so increased it passeth through the hole of the share bone into the leg, and is distributed into the muscles which occupy the sharebone; thirdly in the end it ioyneth[ tab. 21, ω] with another artery.[ 〈◇〉.] The vtter branch or the stocke itself running downeward accompanied with his veyne whilest it is yet in the belly[ aboue ●] sendeth one branch vpward and outward through the cauity of the Abdomen called Epigastrica,[ tab. 21, ●, tab. 17, char. 12,] vnto the muscles thereof, and another inward called Pudenda[ tab. 21, ν tab. 17, char. 15,] which issueth from the Artery somtime within the Peritonaeum, sometimes without, and runneth along the share-bone, but of these we haue spoken before in the 15 chapter, and repeated them briefly heere to make better way vnto that which followeth.  
The Iliacke trunke of the great artery when it hath passed through the Peritonaeum and the cauity of the belly into the thigh, is called Cruralis,[ tab. 21, 〈◇〉 tab. 17, char. 16.] & from it branches on eyther side are propagated and disseminated into the whole foot, eight in number.  
The first is called Muscula Cruralis exterior, the vtter crurall muscle Artery.[ tab. 21, 〈◇〉,] 
Mus. Cru. exter.  Itissueth out of the outside of the crural trunke, and running downeward is consumed into the foure muscles that compasse the bone of the thigh.  
The second is called Muscula cruralis interna,[ tab. 21, ψ] because it riseth out of the inside 
Mus. Cru inter.  
Table 21 Sheweth the distribution of the great Artery into both the feete.  
TABVLA XXI.  

λ, The lower mesentericall artery.  
μμ, Lumbares which run in knots or knees into the spondels of the loynes.  
νν, The diuision of the great Artery into Iliack branches aboue the holy-bone.  
ξ, the diuisiō of the right Iliack into an inner branch at ξ, and an vtter at φ.  
〈◇〉, Muscula inferior, An vtter propagation of the inner branch going into the muscles couering the ioynt of the Coxendix.  
π, Hypogastrica, An inner propagation of the inner branch at ξ, going to the bladder, the yard, and the wombe, &c.  
ρσ the coniunction at ρ, of the vmbilicall veyne σ, with the branch, ξ.  
ττ, Epigastrica, which is sent vpward into the right muscles of the Abdomen.  
υ, Pudenda, which creepeth transuersly along the share-bone vnto the priuities.  
φ, the externall Iliack branch.  
χ, the outward crurall Muscle-Artery.  
ψ, the internall crurall Muscle-Artery, which is sent to the muscles of the thigh on the inside.  
ω, the coniunction of this Artery with a branch of the Epigastricke.  
Γ, Poplitaea, or the artery of the hamme.  
ΔΔ, Propagations of the surall Artery on eyther side going vnto the ioynt of the knee and three muscles of the foote.  
Θ, Suralis, the artery of the Calfe which descendeth with the inner veine, and is diuided into three branches, 〈◇〉.  
Λ, Tibiaea exterior going vnto the muscles of the foot.  
Π Φ, the lower & backer Tibiaea hidden within the muscles attaineth vnder the transuerse ligament to the vpper part of the foot at Φ, and is consumed into the muscles of the toes.  
Ξ Ψ, the lower, the trunke of the crurall artery betwixt the heele and the inner artery, to which it offereth a branch marked with 〈◇〉, which runneth to the vpper side of the foot.  
Ω, the remainder of the Crurall artery going to the toes themselues betwixt the tendons of their muscles. a b; the diuision of the branch Ω, into an inner and vtter branch, a b. c the diuision of the interior branch into 5 to the great toe, fore-toe, and the middle toe. d the diuision of the exterior branch vnto the middle toe, the little toe, and the next vnto it.   side of the foresaide trunke sometime answering in opposition to the former, and is distributed into the muscles which occupy the inside of the thigh, and falling downe vnto the knee, a smal branch thereof is mixed[ ω] with the last branch of the Hypogastrick artery.  
The third is called Poplitaea,[ Tab. 21. ●] the crurall trunke creeping downeward vnder 
Poplitaea  the hamme being accompanied with ● large veine maketh this propagation: some surcles thereof run out into the back-ward muscles of the thigh, the rest descendeth a good way to the ham-veyne.  
The fourth is called Suralis; the trunke lurking in the hamme or a little vnder it, shooteth 
Suralis  out on each side a deepe propagation,[ tab. 21, ΔΔ] which are consumed, partly in the ioynt of the knee, partly into three muscles of the foote which make the Calfe and take their originall there abouts. And these are the foure veynes which arise from the trunke in the region of the thigh, from hence it descendeth to the hamme[ tab. 21, Θ] together with the interior veyne, partly to the leg, and partly to the foot; when it is drenched within the muscles of the leg it is diuided into three notable branches.[ tab. 21, Λ Σ Π.]  
The fift which is the first of these three[ Δ] is called Tibiaea exterior, the outward leg artery. It is a notable branch arising from the outside of the trunke beeing accompanied 
Tibiaea exterior  with the larger branch of the vtter veine, and so descendeth along the Fibula or Brace, & is consumed into the muscles which occupy the leg as far as they are fleshy.  
The sixt Crurall Artery is the second of the forenamed branches[ ta. 21. σ] and is called Tibiaea posterior elatior, the vpper and backer Leg artery. It yssueth a little below the 
Tibiaea posterior elatior.  former out of the backer and lower part of the trunk, and descendeth as far as to the commixtion of the tendons of the muscles that make the Calfe, being accompanied with the hinder branch of the interior veine.  
The seauenth which is the third and last of the aforesayde branches[ Ta. 21. Π] is called 
Tibiaea posterior & humilior.  Tibiaea posterior et humilior, the lower and backer Leg Artery. It ariseth out of the backeward and exterior part of the trunke, and being accompanyed through the membranous Ligament( with the fore-branch of the inner veine) which ioyneth the Brace vnto the Leg, it is hidde within the muscles, and runneth forward and downward further then the other two till it passe the transuerse Ligament and attayne to the top of the foote,[ Table. 21. q] from whence it is disseminated into the muscles that leade the Toes backeward, at which place Vessalius and Platerus say that the pulse may be easily felt.  
The eight Artery of the Leg is nothing else but the remaynder of the Crurall trunke 
What the eight artery is  descending along the backeside of the Tibea or Leg,[ tab. 21. the lower Ξ] betwixt the 2. and 3. muscles of the Toes, and so it passeth betwixt the heele & the inner ankle vnto the soale of the foot, but at the inner ankle it offers a branch to the foote,[ ta. 21. ψ] which reacheth to the muscle of the great Toe, and creepeth a good way vpon the top of the foot.  
That which is left[ Ta. 21. Ω] amongst the tendons of the muscles of the Toes, is deuided into two branches[ ab] each of which departeth into 5. surcles: for the inner branch[ c] affordeth two to the great Toe, two to that next it, and one to the middle. The exterior[ b] offereth two to the little Toe, two to that next it, and one to the middle Toe[ d] and the lower side thereof.  
And thus much concerning the distribution of the great Artery throughout the whole body. It remayneth that wee come vnto the third sort of vesselles which are the nerues, for whose prosecution we haue set aside the third part of this Booke.    

The third part of the Eleauenth Booke concerning the Nerues.  

CHAP. XXI. Of Nerues in Generall.  
_AS the Naturall Faculty together with the Bloud and the thicker Spirit is deriued through the Veines; the Vitall with Bloud and a thinner Spirite through the Arteries as through Canales and Water-courses into all the partes of the body: so the Animall Faculties, that is, of Sense and Motion are conuayed into those parts which are capable thereof with a subtle and fine Spirite along by the Nerues as it were by the strings of an Instrument.  
The Natures, Vses and Diuisions of the Veines and Arteries wee haue vnfoulded in the two former parts of this Booke, and are come in this place to the structure, differences and diuarications of the Nerues.  
The Grecians call Nerues 〈◇〉, the acception of which words among the Phisitians 
The names of Nerues and their kinds.  is manifould. Erotianus thinketh that Hippocrates vsed the word 〈◇〉 for all sortes of vessels, Veines, Arteries and Nerues. Galen in his first Booke de motu musculorum, in the beginning of his Booke de ossibus and in many other places, maketh three kindes of Nerues which appeare without bloud and without any hollownes.  
Of these Nerues some proceede out of Bones, others out of Muscles, others are deriued from the Brayne and the spinall Marrow. Those which yssue out of the Bones & their protuberations are called 〈◇〉, Vincula, Tyes, Bands or Ligaments. Of these we shall heare particularly in the next Booke. Those Nerues that yssue out of Muscles are parts of the Muscles, and are called 〈◇〉, that is, neruous propagations and Tendons.  
Now a Tendon is nothing else but an excressence or out-growing of the Fibres of a Ligament and a Nerue, which being sprinkled through the flesh doe meete together as it were in one Chord, by which chord the loynts are ledde according to the good pleasure of our will. The third kinde of Nerues are those which the Phisitians doe properly call 〈◇〉, and that from their office; 〈◇〉 because they doe nutare siue flectere, that is incline or bend, and 〈◇〉 because they doe Tendere, that is, stretch. These Nerues do arise from the Brayne and the spinall Marrow, and are called by Galen organa 〈◇〉, Instruments of Sense and voluntary Motion, because by them the animal Faculty and those that mooue within, that is, the impetuous spirites, are conuayed as it were by strings or chords into the particular parts. Auicen cals them Latores, cadgers in our language. Of these Hippocrates wrote in his Booke de locis in homine, The whole body is full of Nerues, that is, throughout the whole body the Nerues doe run from the Braine and the Spinall Marrow, and in his Book de arte he calleth them meteors in the flesh, because they are sprinkled through the flesh, that is, through the Muscles.  
Galen in his first Book de motu musculorum, compareth these three kinde of Nerues among themselues on this manner, A Ligament is insensible, a voluntary nerue of most 
Compared together.  exquisite Sense, and a Tendon of a middle nature, not altogether insensible, because it hath some filaments or strings of Nerues therein, neyther yet of so quicke a Sense as is a Nerue.  
There are also many other parts in the body, which because of the similitude betwixt them and Nerues are called neruous, although they cannot bee referred to any of these three kinds: so we say the wombe, the bladder and the guts are neruous, as also the vreters, the passages of the choller, and the eiaculatory vesselles. In this place we take the 
The description of anerue  name of a Nerue properly for an organ by which the animall spirit and the faculty floweth into the whole body. The nature of this organ may thus be described.  
It is a common Instrument of the body like a Chord, white, round and long without any cauity which our sense can discerne( vnlesse it bee the Optickes) but porous, in some vnited, in the greater nerue made vp of many small strings, & carrying as a Canale and motion which are conducted by the animall spirit from the Braine and the Marrow thereof vnto those parts of the body which are capeable of sense and motion.  
Their substance is white and marrowy, much like the marrow of the braine, from which 
Their substāce  they take their originall( for I account the marrow of the Braine and the backe to bee of one and the same substance) but more compact and faster, for it was necessary the braine should be very soft because it was to receiue the species or formes of sensible things. So that by how much the nerue descendeth lower or is more separated from the brain, by so much doth it become the harder, that it might be better able to endure outward iniuries.  
They are inuested with a double membrane, produced from the two Meninges or 
Membranes.  Membranes of the braine, the vtter whereof is the thicker produced from the dura mater whose office is to safegard and defend the marrow of the Nerue, and if it consist of many small chords or threds it ioyneth them altogether, and when it hath encompassed them about it receiueth into it branches from the neighbour-veines.  
The inner membrane is thinner by much, and lyeth next vnto the marrowe or substance of the Nerue. It ariseth from the pia Mater and hath the exquisite sense of touching, which saith Fernelius it communicateth to the parts whereinto the nerue is inserted; 
Fernelius.  for as the Braine is couered with these two membranes, so also are the nerues throughout the whole body, a nerue being nothing else indeede but a production of the Braine. But this threefold substance of a nerue, as Falopius hath it in his obseruations and out of him Bauhine, may better be distinguished by reason then by sense, for Anatomy is not able to shew the difference betwixt the harde and soft membranes of any nerue except it be the optickes.  
The substaunce which is in the middest or in the center of the nerue is the principall part thereof and performeth the action, for the sensatiue and motiue faculty is conuayed from the Braine vnto the parts, not by the coates but by the marrow. Hence it is saith 
Which is their chiefe part.  Galen that if you cut asunder the marrow of a nerue, presently the part into which that nerue is inserted is depriued of sense and motion; as for the membranes they do the same office vnto the nerue which they did to the Braine, for the nerues are not properlie the instruments of sense and motion( for the immediate organ of motion is a Muscle) but they are like pipes by which the whole sensatiue soule and the faculties thereof both of sense and motion are led by the guidance of the Animall spirit from the Brayne vnto the parts of the body as they stand in neede either of sense and motion, or therefore the Physitians do vse to call them the organs of sense and motion. For they communicate vnto those parts into which they are inserted either sense alone, or onely motion, or both together, for no part hath sense or voluntary motion without a nerue; & if the nerue that belongeth to any part be compressed, or intercepted, or cut asunder, or corrupted, the sense and motion of that part doth sodainly perish.  
Hence it is as Aristotle also remembreth in his third Booke de Historia Animalium, that 
How a Nerue is the Organ of Sense.  no part of the body hath any stupor or dulnesse, any palsie or resolution, any spasme or convulsion that hath not a Nerue in it. Now stupor is a diminution of sense, the palsie a priuation of sense and motion, and a Convulsion is a motion involuntary or against our willes.  
Galen in the third and fift chapters of his sixteenth Booke de vsu partium sayeth, that 
The reason of the softnes or hardress. of a nerue.  those nerues which were made for voluntary motion are hard, and those that were made for sense are soft: and that the softe nerues do make for sensation and the hard for motion, nay he goeth further in the eight chapter of his 7 booke de Administrationib. Anatom. and affirmeth that the soft Nerues are onely fit for sense but vnfit for motion. Some again conceiue and not without great reason that the softnesse or hardnes of a Nerue is diuersly occasioned, first from the substance whereout they yssue, and so the first nerues which are saide to arise out of the Braine are the softest, those harder that arise from the spinall marrow, and those hardest of all which arise from the marrow contained in the racke-bones of the Loines and the Holy-bone: Secondly in respect of their production, so those Nerues are soft which run but a little way, as if their iourney be not out of the scul, wheras those that are led further off as vnto the muscles are harder then they were at their Originall.  
In like manner those that run anfractuously, that is, with turnings and windings are very hard, as a branch of the third paire of the Braine. Againe, those are hard which p●sse thorough a hard body; as that surcle of the fift coniugation which creepeth through the hole 
Galens opiniō.  of the Temple-bone which the Ancients called Coecum or the blinde-hole is made harder by the contaction of the bone then his beginning was. Galen attributeth the cause of hardnesse and softnesse to the counsell of Nature, because, saith he, the instrument of Sense needed a soft nerue; A nerue as a Canale to leade along the Animall and sensatiue spirit, and a soft nerue because it was to be affected and to suffer somwhat from the sensible obiect applying vnto it from without.  
Nowe, because that which is soft is fitter for passion, that which is hard for action, therefore, saith he, it was necessary that the instruments of the senses should haue softe nerues communicated vnto them, and the parts which were to be mooued by voluntary motion should haue harder nerues. And this hee prooueth because vnto those Instruments of sense which haue not only sensation but motion there is a double kind of nerue communicated, one for Sense, anotehr for Motion; as wee see in the eye vnto which the first coniugation is allowed for Sense and the second for Motion, so in the tongue which receiueth the third and fourth coniugations( so Anatomists do vsually distinguish them) for Tasting and the seuenth for Motion.  
By the way hence it appeareth, that Nerues beside their vse haue also an animall action 
Bauhines opinion. His reasons.  because they are affected by the obiect, and therefore the softer nerues are fitter for Sense and the harder for Motion. Notwithstanding all this saith Bauhine yet wee conceiue that the nerues of their owne nature are indifferently disposed both to sense and to motion, so that they may be called Sentientes or Motores, perceiuers or mouers from the instruments or parts vnto which they are conducted and in which they are disseminated, for if they be inserted into the instruments of motion, that is, into the muscles, then are they called Motorij or moouing nerues. If into the instruments of Sense then are they called Sensorij or perceyuing nerues; yea we see that one and the same nerue doth conuey 
An Instance.  motion and sense according to the diuersity of the instruments, for example; the seuenth Coniugation of the Braine conueyeth vnto the Membranes of the bowels which are in the middle and lower belly the Sense of Touching, and yet the same paire being on eyther side reflected makes the recurrent nerue which distributeth surcles into euerie muscle of the Larynx or Throttle to mooue the same. And if the same nerues shoulde meete with the instruments of Seeing, of Hearing and of Tasting, the same perceiuing & moouing nerues would also become seeing, hearing and tasting nerues.  
In like manner the nerues which are conueyed to the muscles to affoorde vnto them voluntary motion, do together with that power affoord vnto the membranes of the muscles, into which their fibres do determine, the sense of Touching, and so it commeth to passe that by the mediation of the nerues, the braine is to bee found in euery part of the body, because the animall faculty which is seated onely in the braine, doth notwithstanding transfuse itself through the nerues.  
Although out of that which hath been said we may easily collect the vse of the nerues, yet it shall not be amisse to remember that Galen in the ninth chapter of his fift booke de vsu partium, and out of him Vesalius in the first chapter of his fourth book makes a threefold 
The vses of the Nerues.  vse of them.  
The first to conuay sense vnto the instruments of sensation, to the eyes, to the tongue, to the eares, and beside these to the palmes of the hands and the insides of the fingers yea to the vppermost mouth of the stomack also, for these after a sence are organs of sensation. For the best iudge by touching is the hand, and the mouth of the stomacke hath an exquisite sense of the want of aliment which wee commonly call Hunger.  
The second vse is to affoord motion to the moueable parts, so the muscles which are the instruments of voluntary motion haue nerues conuayed vnto them, and because they were made to moue the whole members therefore their nerues are great and large, and because the same muscles stood in need of the faculty of discerning Tactile qualities for the security and preseruation of our liues, therefore also they had nerues by which nerues they haue this faculty of sensation.  
The third vse is that for which all other parts haue nerues, to wit, that they might perceiue those things which would be grecuous vnto them:( although this vse may wel be referred to the former) for so wise, so iust, so skilfull is Nature saith Hippocrates( wee say the great God of Nature) and so prouident for the behoofe of the creatures, that she hath distributed nerues to all the parts although not in the same measure, but to some more liberally to other with a strayter hand, and that according to the proportion of their magnitude, of the dignity of their actions, of the intention or remission of their motions, of the assiduity or intermission of their vses. So making an exquisite estimate of the neede of the dignity and of the vse of euery part, to some she hath allowed greater nerues, to some lesser, but to euery one that is fittest for it.  
For there is great difference betwixt the magnitude of nerues; the thickest are those which are distributed vnto the remorest places, and into the most parts, such are they that 
The magnitude of nerus.  are sent vnto the ioynts, which because they needed greater aboundance of spirits haue a greater proportion of originals of sinewes granted them out of the stocke of the spinall marrow which is in the rack-bones of the necke and of the loines, that from their marrow they might receiue a competency of spirits as it were by many rootes, which yet being gathered together do make one thicke nerue, but are againe though almost insensibly distributed into lesser branches. Those nerues are Meane which are conuayed to the organs of the senses in the head: for being neare vnto the braine and very soft, they could not be very small. Those nerues are small which are distributed into the next parts, as into the muscles of the face. We will also say something concerning the originall of nerues.  
The originall of the nerues is not from the heart though Aristotle so conceiued in the fift chapter of his third buoke de historia Animali: and in the fourth of his third de partibus 
Their originall.  Animalium, for in dissection we meete with no nerue produced therefrom, and those that are led vnto it from the sixt coniugation of the braine are so small, that Vesalius witnesseth that he could finde but one, and that with great difficulty.  
Neyther haue they their originall as Erasistratus thought in his youth out of the Dura mater or thicke membrane of the braine as their substance already declared doth sufficiently witnes. But as Hippocrates, Erasistratus when he was wiser, Herophilus, Galen, and most Anatomists do agree from the braine, from which also the spinall marrow draweth his original. From the brain I say, which is manifested as wel by sense in the dissection therof, where we see many riuers of nerues in the braine, to which those of the body are continuated: as also because their substances are marrowy alike and cloathed each of them with two membranes.  
Moreouer the affects or diseases of the head doe manifestly proue that all Sense and motion doe flow from the Brayne. So in the Apoplexy which is caused by an obstruction of the passages of the Brayne, the Animall Faculty is instantly intercepted, albeit the heart be altogether indempnified. So in the Epilepsie or Falling sicknes where the marrow of the brayne from whence the nerues do yssue is affected, the whole body is drawn into Convulsion, which is nothing so when the heart is affected.  
But we sayde before that a beginning is double, one of Generation another of Dispensation. 
An original double.  In respect of their Generation their beginning is Seede, of which as of their immediate matter they are framed. In respect of their Dispensation their beginning is in the brayne, together I meane with the After-brayne, which is the originall à quo from which. Those Pipes if so you list to call them, which receiue Sense and Motion are distributed into the body, as the part standeth in need of the one, or the other, or both.  
Againe, the Nerues are sayde to be of two sorts, some proceeding from the brayne, 
The differences of nerues.  some from the spinall marrow, and of these againe some from the beginning of the Spinall marrow, that is, being yet contayned in the scull, others in the Spinall marrow which is in the Rack-bones of the Chine. Againe, of these some belong to the marrow of the Necke, some of the Chest, some of the Loynes and some of the Os sacrum or Holy-bone, to which also we may adioyne the nerues of the Ioynts.  
Bauhine in this place interposeth his owne opinion, which is, that all Nerues doe yssue 
Bauhines opinion of the originall of nerues. 8. seueral opinions quoted by him.  from the marrow of the brayne oblongated or lengthned out, some whilest it remayneth yet in the Scull and some after. But withall hee maketh mention of diuers opinions both of the Ancient and late Writers concerning the originall of the Nerues, which discourse of his we will here transcribe but contract it as briefly as we can. Hee reckoneth therefore eight opinions, for the ninth we thinke not worthy to be remembred.  
The first is of Hippocrates in his booke de natura ossium in the very beginning, where 
Hippocrates.  he sayth that the original of the nerues is from the Nowle vnto the Spine, the Hippe, the Share, the Thighes, the Armes, the Legs and the Foote.  
The second is Aristotles, who in many places deliuereth that they arise from the heart, because in it there are aboundance of nerues( for which hee mistooke the fibres) and because 
Aristotle.  from thence motions doe arise, and vnder his Ensigne Alexander, Auicen and the whole schoole of the Peripateticks doe merrit or band themselues. This opinion of Aristotle, Auerhoes and Aponensis with some others doe maintayne indeede, but with a distinction, affirming that they issue from the hart, mediante cerebro, by the mediation of the brayne, or that they arise from the heart and are multiplyed and propagated in the brain.  
The third is that of Praxagoras, who thought that the Nerues were nothing else but 
Praxagoras.  extenuated Arteries.  
The fourth of Erasistratus, who thought they yssued from the Dura meninx, but in his 
Erasistratus.  age he changed his mind as Galen witnesseth of him.  
The fift is Galens, who determineth that the Nerues and the Spinal marrow doe proceede 
Galen.  from the brayne.  
The sixt is that of Vesalius, who saith that some Nerues issue out of the Scull, others 
Vessalius.  out of the Racks of the Spine; those that proceede out of the Scull doe arise from the basis of the forepart of the braine or from the beginning of the Spinal Marrow before it enter into the spondelles. The rest from the Spinall marrow remayning within the Rackebones.  
The seauenth is Falopius his opinion in his obseruations, where hee sayeth, that some 
Falopius.  Nerues( as those that are soft) doe arise from the brayne or the marrow within the Scul, others from the Spinall marrow.  
The eight is Varolius opinion, who sayth that all Nerues doe take their original from the Spinall marrow which proceedeth from the brayne and the After-brayne, and with 
Varolius.  him doe Platerus, Archangelus and Laurentius vpon the matter consent, as also doeth Bauhine as you haue heard before.  
The Nerues therefore which yssue from the Marrow of the Brayne contayned yet within the Scull are commonly accounted 7 paires according to Galen, some make nine coniugations which are called Nerui cerebri The Nerues of the Brayne, which may be expressed in this disticke.  
Optica prima, oculos mouit altera, tertia gustat  
Quartaque, quinta audit, vaga sexta, septima linguae est.  
The Opticks first, Eye Mouers next, the third and fourth doe Tast:  
The fift doth Heare, the sixt doth gad, the Tongue claymes seuenth and last.  
To which also we may adde the organs of Smelling.  
Other Nerues do arise from the same marrow after it is falne through the great hole of the Nowle-bone and runneth thorough the holes bored in the racke-bones of the spine where it is properly called Spinalis medulla the Spinal Marrow. And these are thirty paires or Coniugations, that is to say; seuen of the Neck, of the Chest or backe twelue, fiue of 
30. pair of the spinall marow  the Loines and six of the Holy-bone from which the nerues of the ioynts do arise. For the hand receiueth sometimes fiue, some sixe propagations from the fift, sixt and seuenth paires of the necke, and from the first and second paires of the Chest: the foot receiueth foure Nerues from the three lower paires of the Loines and from the foure, sometimes the fiue vppermost of the Holy-bone which are called nerues of the spinall marrow.  
These nerues do yssue on either side after the same manner, for no nerue is produced without his companion, and therefore the Grecians called them 〈◇〉, the Latines Neruorum paria, or Coniugia paires or Coniugations of nerues. All these Coniugations as they do arise alike, one from the right hand, the other from the left; so are they also distributed after one and the same manner, except onely the sixt paire of the Braine, whose right nerue is not diuided as is the left, as we shall heare afterward.  
And thus much shall haue bene sufficient to haue said in generall concerning the nature, differences, vse and originall of the nerues. Now we descend vnto their particular Historie beginning with those of the Braine, because thence all nerues take their Originall.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the Nerues of the Eyes, or of the first and second Coniugations.  
_THose two processes of the Braine called Mammillares which are the Instruments 
The Mamillary processes.  of Smelling, do come to be handled in the first place, but beecause we haue related their History and exhibited the Table which belongeth to them in the sixteenth chapter of the seuenth Booke, we will referre the reader for his satisfaction vnto that place and proceede vnto the nerues of the eyes, whereof indeede we made some mention before, but that briefely and by the way, as also we haue done of the rest of the nerues, because they tooke their Original from the diuers parts of the substance of the Braine which was then the mayne subiect of our discourse.  
The nerues therefore of the eyes are of two sorts: the first are called Opticks or nerui visorij, because by them we See. The second are called Oculorum motorij, the moouing nerues of the eyes, for by them the eyes are wonderfully and sodainly moued.  
The Optickes are the first Coniugation of the Nerues of the Braine[ Tab. 22. figure. 1 and 2 G] which are the thickest of all the Coniugations of the Braine, yea of all the rest 
The Opticke Nerues.  if they be not compounded of diuers filaments. And so much the thicker they were, because saith Galen in the third chapter of his sixteene booke de vsu partium, they haue sensible cauities, beside of all the others they are the softest.  
They arise vnder the middle of the basis of the Braine, where the marrow beginneth 
Their original  to be lengthned. Galen in the third chapter of his sixteenth booke de vsu partium sayeth, they arise from both sides of the forward ventricles to whose ends they are ioyned. Howsoeuer after their originall they run obliquely inward and forward, and when they haue gone a little distance, and as it were in the middest of their iourny, they are vnited aboue the saddle of the Wedge-bone[ Tab. 22. figure. 1 H] not onely by intersection or simple contaction, but by a confusion of their marrowes, beeing so mingled as they make one common body wherein the two nerues cannot be separated one from another. Presently 
Their confusion.  after this confusion they are againe separated[ Tab. 22. figu. 1 aboue H] running each of them obliquely outwarde by a hole of the wedge-bone, which was made of purpose, commonly accounted for the first hole of the same, and so getting out of the Scull, the right runs vnto the center of the right eye on the hinder part, and the left vnto the center of the left, as if they were the roots of the eyes. Notwithstanding Vesalius and Platerus do not thinke that their implantation is into the center, but to the right side warde. In bruite beastes indeede they are not implanted into the center but much lower, for they 
Separation.  looke not so much forward as sideward. These nerues are not dissolued into Fibres as other nerues are, but are spred abroad within the eye, notwithstanding Vesalius saith, that he hath obserued them in Swine to consist of many Filaments, as doe the Nerues of the Legges.  
The substance of the Opticke Nerue is double, Marrowey and Membranous, for the 
Their substance.  inner part is soft, which you shall perceiue will squeeze out if you presse the nerue hard whilest it is yet compassed with his membranes.  
Of this Marrowey substance diffused in the orbe of the Eye, is made that coate which is called Amphiblestroides or Retina tunica, from the resemblance it hath with a Net;[ tab. 
Retina tunica.  22. fig. 1. and 2. I] which notwithstanding to say trueth, is nothing lesse then a coate, because it differeth nothing at all from the substance of the brayne, compassing the vitrious humour round about and the middle part of the Eye, that so the visiue spirites might bee diffused through the cauity thereof.  
The membranes of the Optick Nerues are two: one from the Pia mater and another 
Their membranes.  from the Dura mater, notwithstanding from their originall to the hole which is in the orb of the Eye and wherethrough they passe they are inuested onely with the Pia mater, from thence to the eye itself they assume another inuolution or vestment from the Dura Meninx which also is consumed into the horny coate as the membrane they haue from the Pia mater is spent into the grapie. Hence it is that by the continuation of this nerue in a very moment of time the Animal spirit is conuayed vnto the Pupilla or apple of the Eie, which is nothing else but the perforation or hole of the grapy coate. And therefore when one eye is shut we may easily discerne that the Pupilla of the other will be suddenly dilated, because of the affluence of the spirits. And by this demonstration Galen in the 4. chapter of his 7. booke de placitis maketh it manifest euen to the very Sense, that there is not onely a spirit but an Animall spirit in the body of man.  
If it be demanded why Nature did so prouide, that when one Eye is shut the spirites should all accrew vnto the other. I answere, it was to accomplish the perfection of that Sense; for the concourse of spirites doe better receiue the impression of the obiect and conuay it to the Sense with more speede and certainty.  
Concerning the counsell of Nature in vniting the Opticke Nerues, many men haue disputed diuersly. Galen thought it was, that one obiect might not appeare double, 
Diuers reasons why the opticks are vnited. Answered.  which conceite Vessalius dislikes and so doth Archangelus, who addeth, that if that had bin the reason, the Nerues of Hearing, of Smelling and of the rest of the Senses should haue beene vnited in the middle of their iorney, that one audible or odorable thing might not appeare double.  
The second reason, giuen for the vnition of the Opticks is, that one Eie being put out the creature might see with the other; but it is more reasonable to say that Natures first intention was, that both the eyes should alwayes remayne sound.  
The third reason that when one Eye is shut all the visiue Spirites should hasten vnto the other to make the sight more acute or sharp. But it may be answered that one Nerue cannot contayne so much spirits as was in both. He that shoots at a marke in a Crossebow or in a Peece, thinks haply that he sees more sharply when he blinks of one eye then when he seeth his marke with both, but therein hee is deceiued, for indeede he seeth not his marke so well, yet is able to lay his leuell better, because hee seeth more directly when he lookes through a narrow hole.  
The fourth reason some conceiue to be, that when we are constrayned to look through a narrow hole, or by the same right line by which both the eyes cannot discerne; in such a case the sight of both eyes might be vnited into one: But I doe not thinke( sayth Archangelus) that Nature had any such scope in her first intention.  
The fift and last reason giuen of the vnition is the most probable, and that is, that these soft nerues might not be put to distres in the middle of their passage, wherto say the trueth they are in most danger, as well because of their notable cauities as also because of 
Archangelus.  their softnes for they walke through the moister part of the brayne, that is, the lower; and the faculty of seeing requires such a cauity and such a softnes. Thus far Archangelus.  
They are called Opticke Nerues, that is, visiue from their action, because they communicate 
The names of the opticks.  the visiue faculty or the sense of Seeing vnto the Eye. They are called also by Herophilus meatus visorij, because( sayth he) they onely are sensibly bored, which also Galen approueth, who sayth that they are manifestly perforated at each end. Many Dissectors are able to perceiue their perforation in the lower part where they touch the Eyes; but sayth Galen in the fourth chapter of the 7. booke de placitis, he that would descern the other perforation that is at their originall, must obserue three things. First that the creature which hee dissects bee great: secondly, that the dissection bee made presently after death. Thirdly, that the ayer be cleare and lucide where he makes his dissection. Hee addeth also in the same place a reason why it was necessary that these nerues should rather be perforated then any other, and that is because these nerues do leade along the animall faculty by animall spirits or by a spirituall substance. For the rest they needed onely bee 
Whether the opticks be perforared.  porous without any hole or perforation, because the faculty in them is conuayed no by animall spirits but onely by a beaming irradiation. But the latter Anatomists with one consent do deny any such conspicuous perforation. Vesalius, I neuer met with it although I haue cut vp dogs aliue and other large creatures onely for this purpose, yea saith hee I haue opened the head of a man within lesse then a quarter of an houre after it was cut off, 
Opinions of Anatomists.  and haue carefully kept it warme with hot water, and yet could neuer find any such perforation. Falopius in his obseruations. The optickes are not manifestly perforated. Columbus, No pore or hole may bee seene in them neyther in an Oxe nor any greater creature. Laurentius, I neuer obserued any conspicuous cauity. Volcher, The opticke nerue is not made of a solid and perforated body, but of many neruous fibres bound and vnited by Membranes.  
Thus you see that the streame of Anatomists runs directly against this opinion of Galen, and they render a reason, for say they, their substance being rare and soft, the spirit may easily passe through them vnto the eyes; yea all the sinewes although they haue no visible holes yet are they full of spirits, for the sense is hindred both by compression and by obstruction. So if a nerue be intercepted with a band or tye, the part below looseth 
Questions concerning the s●●rits in the nerues.  sense, for the spirits of the vpper part being separated from the lower, there is no communion betweene them, but if the tye be taken away the sense returneth. And hence it is, that when the opticks are obstructed in that disease which the Arabians call Gutta serena, the action of seeing is vtterly taken away.  
But whether we are to beleeue that in euery nerue there is a spirit as there is a spirite in the braine, which being perished the whole creature becommeth stupid, and beeing strong or plentifull serueth for the sense and motion of the parts; and whether if there bee any such spirits they be inbred and seated in the nerue of the part, and onely awaked by a message from the braine, or whether at such time as we would moue any member, the motiue spirit falleth from the braine into the nerue, we confesse with Galen in the place before quoted, that we are not able absolutely to determine.  
Bauhine concludeth that these Nerues are not onely thicke and of a rare texture inuested by both the membranes of the braine, and fit to giue way for the transportation of the 
Bauhines determination.  spirits, but also saith he, wee beleeue with Galen that they are porous as will especially appeare if they bee sodden, and Archangelus saith, that in the coition of the opticke nerues there is a common cauity insculped out of one into another. We say also with Galen in the eight chapter of his ninth booke de vsu partium, that the opticks in dignity are preferred worthily before the moouing Nerues of the eyes, because the principall part of vision or sight consisteth in them.  
Moreouer saith Bauhine whilest they are yet in the Scul, certaine branches of the sleepy arteries do on eyther side touch them, which obseruation he tooke out of Galen in the place before quoted.  
The vse of the opticke nerues is one and the same according to all Anatomists, who heerein do accord with Galen, that through them the sensatiue soule and the visiue spirits 
The vse of the opticks.  are conuayed out of the marrow of the braine into the eyes.  
The second coniugation of the braine is of the Nerues that mooue the eyes[ Tab. 22, fig. 1 and 2. K] distinguished from the former coniugation onely by a thin bone. This 
The second coniugation of the eyemoouers, their original.  coniugation is small and fine, much lesse then the former, and harder because it is to bee inserted into muscles. It ariseth out of the basis of the marrow of the braine, and so runneth forward vnto the cauity of the eye, where it falleth out of the Scull through a proper hole accounted for the second perforation of the wedge bone.  
This hole is not round, as that which was bored for the optickes, but somewhat long, saith Galen in the eight chap. of his 9. booke de vsu partium, because three nerues were to 
Where they passe the scul.  passe through it: This, the third coniugation or the second branch of the third paire cōmonly so called, and the eight coniugation or the lesser roote of the fift paire, and therefore Columbus and Archangelus call it Fissuram orbitae, a cleft or chinke of the Orbe of the eye.  
This moouing Nerue hauing perforated the bone, is fastned to the Opticke, and diuided 
The diuision 〈◇〉, p●ire.  into good large braunches which are conueyed to the seauen muscles of the eie, saith Vesalius and Platerus to flue muscles of the eye, and to two of the eye-lid saieth Columbus and Archangelus; to foure onely of the eye, and that that lifteth vp the eye lidde, saith Falopius and Laurentius.  
Bauhine particularizeth concerning their insertion on this manner.  
The first branch climbeth ouer the Opticke, and is disseminated into the muscle that lifteth vp the eye-lid, and the Muscle that lifteth vp the eye. The second, is very conspicuous vnder the Optick and is diuided into many surcles and dispersed into the Muscle which leadeth the eye to the inner angle. The third is bifurcated and inserted in manie strings into that Muscle which draweth the eye directly downeward. The fourth is conuayed into the sixt Muscle which leadeth the eye round, or rowleth it vnto the vtter Angle.  
There are also saith Falopius, and with him Laurentius and Bauhine, certaine smal and 
A consent betwixt the 2. coniugation and the temporal muscle.  threddy Fibres, which accompanying the Opticke Nerue are disseminated into the externall Membranes of the eye. In some men, though it be not very ordinary saith Columbus and Archangelus( but Falopius and Laurentius deny it) some branches are sent from this second Coniugation to the temporall muscle, whence it is that when that muscle is offended the eye partaketh with it, and on the contrary.  
The vse of this Coniugation is to conferre the Moouing faculty vnto the muscles & the tractiue faculty vnto the membrans of the eyes. Now the reason why when one eye is 
The vse.  moued to one side, the other eye also followeth his motion necessarily, is to be ascribed to the Nerues themselues, which in their originall are continuall, that is, doe imediately ioyne together. And so much of the first and second Coniugations which are the Opticke and moouing Nerues of the Eyes. Now we proceede.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the third and fourth Coniugations of the Braine.  
_THE third Coniugation[ Tab. 22. fig. 1 and 2 L] is sent vnto the muscles of the face and is commonly called the lesser roote of the third payre. But 
The 3. coniugation.  saith Bauhine, because it is neuer ioyned with the Coniugation following[ Tab. 22. fig. 1 and 2 L with H] neither in the beginning nor in the progresse yet hath nothing common therewith, and because it groweth out of order in respect of all the rest, therefore saith he, it may worthily be called a peculiar Coniugation. 
His originall.  It is saide to arise from that side of the basis of the Braine where the spinall marrow takes his originall therefrom.[ Tab. 22. fig. 1 D] But Falopius in his Obseruations hath it thus and better. It ariseth from the lower and backward part of the marrow of the Braine, or those processes thereof which are called the Buttockes. Bauhine addeth, that 
Diuision.  their originall is very small, and runneth directly vnder the basis of the braine to the side outward, and perforateth alone the Dura meninx on either hand. Then being fastned to the second paire[ Tab. 22. fig. 1 X] it entreth into the orbe of the eye together with it by a perforation common to them both. And is diuided into four branches according to Vesalius, Columbus, Platerus and Bauhine. But Falopius ascribeth these braunches to the two subsequent coniugations which we haue reckoned but for one.  
The first of these[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 N] runneth vpward thorough the fat of the eyes and affoordeth a branch to the fift muscle placed in the inner angle which compasseth it vnto the pulley. Falopius is of opinion in his Obseruations that this whole Coniugation is bestowed vpon this muscle. But presently after the branch wee made mention of before is bestowed, it falleth through a peculiar hole of the forehead bone to the skin of the forehead to giue it and the vpper eye-lid motion.  
The second branch of this coniugation[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 O] is lower then the former & running downward passeth through a proper hole grauen for him in the fourth bone of the Iaw, at whose forepart it is diuided into many propagations distributed into the muscles that mooue the vpper lip, the Wing of the nose outward into the lip itself, and the gums of those teeth that are called Incisorij or the shredders.  
The third branch[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 P] issuing thorough the second hole of the vpper iawe, behinde the Caruncle seated in the angle of the eye, attaineth the cauity of the nosthrils where it is consumed into their coate,[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 the lower P] and affordeth a branch to the Membranous muscle of the nose which contracteth the wing thereof.  
The fourth branch[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 Q] passing through the fissure which is betwixt the 
Table 17. Figure 1 sheweth the basis of the Braine and After-brane freed from theyr Membrane, that the originall of the Nerues of the Brayne might be better perceyued.  
Figure 2 sheweth one side of the Braine, the Afterbraine, the spinall marrow, and the Nerues.  
TABVLA XXII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  

GG 1, 2. The Opticke Nerues.  
H 1, The coition or vnion of the opticke nerues.  
II, 1, 2. The coate of the eye whereinto the Opticke nerue is extended.  
KK 1, 2. the second paire of sinews ordaind for the motion of the eyes.  
LL 1, 2, the third paire of sinews, or according to most Anatomists the lesser root of the third paire.  
MM 1, 2. the fourth paire of sinews, or the greater root of the third paire.  
N 2. A branch of the third coniugation deriued to the musculous skin of the forehead.  
O 2, A branch of the same to the vpper iaw.  
PP, 2 Another into the coate of the nosethrils.  
Q 2. Another into the temporall muscle.  
R 2 A branch of the fourth coniugation crumpled like the tendrill of a vine.  
S 2, A branch of the same reaching vnto the vper teeth and the gummes.  
T 2, Another of the same to the lower iaw.  
V 2, a Surcle of the branch T to the lower lip.  
XX, 2. other surcles from the branch T to the roots of the lower teeth.  
YY 2, the affumption of the nerue of the fourth coniugation vnto the coate of the tongue.  
Z, 1, 2. the 4 paire vulgarly so called which are spent into the coate of the pallat.  
a 1, 2. The fift paire of sinewes which belong vnto the hearing.  
φ, The Auditory nerue spred abroade into the cauity of the stony-bone.  
* A hard part of the fift coniugation aboue the * which may be accounted for a distinct nerue.  
b 1, 2. A small branch deriued from this harder part of the fift paire.  
c 1, 2. A lower branch from the same originall.  
d 1, 2. this nerue is commonly ascribed to the fift paire, but indeede is a distinct coniugation which we will call the Eight, because wee would not interrupt the order of other mens accounts.  
e 1, 2. The sixt paire of sinewes.  
f, 2 A branch from them deriued to the necke, and the muscles couched thereupon.  
g 2, another braunch to the muscles of the larynx or throttle. h, 1, 2 the seuenth paire of sinewes.  
i 1, the vnion of the seuenth paire with the sixt.  
l 2 A propagation of the seuenth paire to those muscles which arise from the appendix called Styloides.  
m 2, Surcles from the 7 coniugation to the muscles of the tongue, the bone Hyois and the Larynx.   bone of the vpper iaw and the wedge-bone is consumed into the temporall muscle. And thus much of the third coniugation.  
The fourth coniugation belongeth to the tongue and are called Netui gust aterij, because by them the sense of gustation or tasting is made. [ t. 22. fi. 2 M] This coniugation lieth 
The fourth. Coniugation.  close to the former in the progresse but not in the originall, and is called by them that thinke it hath his beginning from a double roote, it is called I say the thicker root of the third coniugation. It doth not proceed saith Galen in the eight chapter of his ninth book de vsu part. out of the backe parts of the Braine because those are harde, nor out of the 
His Original.  sides because the way had not bene safe; but out of the basis of the Braine where the forepart is tyed to the hind part, yea out of the marrow of the braine. And the reason of this originall is double: first, because it was most secure, and againe because it was the readiest to answere the position of the tongue; from thence it falleth directly downward thorough the sixt hole of the wedge bone which is common to this and the following Coniugation,[ Tab. 22. fig. 2, Z] and from this presently after the outgate yssueth a propagation twisted or wrethed like the tendrils of a Vine,[ tab. 22, fig. 1, a] that so, say some, it might by degrees become harder; or rather that the Animal spirit might haue a little stop or stay; and is vnited by two branches[ Tab. 22, fig. 1, and 2, bc] with the auditory nerue. So giuing surcles to the muscles, of the face to the temporall muscles to the grinding muscles of the cheekes and to the skinne of the face.  
When it hath allowed this wrinkled branch, it descendeth more downeward and sendeth forth a shoote[ Tab. 22, fig. 2, S] which affoordeth surcles forward to the gums of the grinding teeth, and to the teeth themselues in their order, yet some doubte whither they passe as farre as the rootes of the teeth.  
At the same time also there buddeth out of the backside a third propagation which Falopius calleth the fourth nerue of the third payre,[ tab. 22, fig. 2, T] which is inserted into the muscle that lurketh in the mouth, and passing through the inner hole of the lower Iaw offereth surcles to the rootes of the lower teeth of his owne side,[ Tab. 22, fig, 2, xx] and by the helpe of these nerues the teeth, whereas other bones haue no sense, do feele the occursation of things that are offensiue. The remainder of this coniugation[ Ta. 22, fig. 2, v] neare the skinne, issuing through a hole bored in the foreside of the Iaw is communicated to the lower lip and to the skin thereof in many surcles.  
From this nerue also before it get into the Iaw, there ariseth often a small sinew, slender indeede but strong and long which runneth vnder the Iaw till it come to the muscle which openeth the mouth, and to those which are placed vnder the Chin, and is inserted partly into the bone Hyois and partly into the tongue. 
The remainder.   
Finally, the trunke itself[ Tab. 21, fig. 2, Y] which Falopius in his Obseruations calleth the fift nerue of the third coniugatiō, passeth through the muscles that lurke in the mouth, and beeing accompanied with the trunke of the other hand passeth vnto the side of the tongue and is consumed into the coate thereof to make it a fit organ to discerne the differences of sapors or Tastes, and from it certaine smal surcles are fixed into the substance of the tongue.  
From this coniugation that which is commonly numbred for the fourth, by Galen, Vesalius, Columbus, Platerus, and Laurentius[ Tab. 2, fig. 1, and 2, Z] seemeth not to bee distinguished, not because it is nearest to that before named, but because it taketh his original, though his surcles be many out of one place, and in one place onely perforateth the Dura 
How to count the coniugations of the sinewes.  meninx. For those paires or coniugations which are commonly numbred for the sixt & the seauenth although they arise from many propagations, yet because the surcles are vnited together and so vnited do fall through one perforation of the Dura meninx, are not accounted for double or manifold paires, for we thinke with Falopius that in the distinguishing of the coniugations of the nerues the holes of the Scul are not to be considered; for if this were to be obserued, then because the second and the third payres and the eight do passe through one and the same hole they should bee accounted all for one coniugation, which were yet neuer so accounted by any Anatomist.  
The originall of this nerue is lesser then the former neare vnto it and a little harder, & 
The originall of it.  therefore Galen saith, that it springeth more out of the Basis of the braine as from a part thereof which is the harder.  
Presently after the original, it passeth a little forward and is mingled with the third, with which it issueth at a common hole, and at the pallate is diuided into diuers branches into whose whole coate it is inserted,[ tab. 22, fig. 2, the lower Z] and giueth vnto it the sense of Tasting. Galen sayth it is somewhat hard because the coate which compasseth the mouth is harder then the tongue and other parts of the mouth; and in this respect his sense is the duller. Sometime two small branches, which descend neare the Almonds and the Appendix called Styloides vnto the roote of the tongue are distributed through his coate. And thus much of the fourth coniugation.   

CHAP. XXIIII. Of the Auditory Nerue or the fift Coniugation.  
_THE fift Coniugation[ Tab. 22, fig. 1, and 2. a] at the sides of the basis of the 
The fift coniugation.  braine acording to Galen, ariseth out of the marrow of the braine elongated, and is made of two surcles or nerues. The one softer( and indeed the softest except the opticks) and nearest to the Eare, the other harder. These two do together issue through the membrane & run into the stonybone, & many thinke they are ioyned, accounting them for one nerue, for they say the fift Coniugation consisteth of a soft and a hard part, but indeede and trueth they are distinguished.[ ta. 22. fig. 2. It appeareth vnder a] which also Galen and Falopius did obserue.  
This Nerue therefore runneth through a large but writhen hole in the stony-bone, 
His double originall.  appoynted properly for it, which is numbred for the fift perforation of the Temple-bone into the cauity which is like a Cony-burrough prepared for the Organ of Hearing. Presently 
His out-gate  after, the harder part runneth forward through a proper Canale or Pipe, being accompanied with an artery arising from that artery which is disseminated through the dura 
Progresse.  meninx, and through the same bone it returneth obliquely backeward, and falleth into that cauity wherein that Timpanum or Drum is, yet so that it alwayes buts vpon his owne bony Canale: from thence being more reflected it sendeth forth two shoots, one aboue and another below, both which do passe through by their proper holes. The vpper[ ta. 22. fig. 1. and 2. b] runneth ouerthwart through the hole, through which likewise a small veine passeth vnto the Organ of Hearing. And this shoote is mixed[ ta. 22. fig. 2. R] with that branch of the fourth paire, or of the third according to common Anatomists, which we sayd was like the tendrill of a vine: but the lower[ tab. 22. fig. 2. c] passeth out at a hole which is very streight and writhen, and being carried ouerthwart ouer the masseter muscle, is instantly mixed with the branch of the third payre that is like the tendrill of a vine, or to the propagation of the sinew that goeth vnto the Tongue, and from the Tongue is led along to the muscles of the Cheekes, and to the skinne about the roote of the outward eare; and haply this. Nerue assisteth the Tast as well as the Hearing, and the reason may hence be deriued why those that are borne deafe are also borne dumbe. Sometimes when this Nerue hath gotten through the Blind hole it runneth downward as if it would accompany the sixt coniugation,[ ta. 21. fig. 1. and 2. c] and sendeth small branches to the 
His branches vnto the ioynts.  proper muscles of the Larinx, whence it is that because of the consent betwixt the Eares, the Tongue and the Larinx, a dry cough ariseth if we picke our Eares to deep. Sometime also it sendeth small braunches into the whole arme, with the fourth, fift and sixt nerues of the arme, yea oftentimes it accompanieth the spinal marrow, and sendeth his branches together with the nerues of the marrow into the whole foote. But the soft part of this 
The true auditory nerue  nerue[ table. 22. fig. 2. a] which is indeede Neruus auditorius the true Auditory Nerue accompanyeth the hard part, and when it hath attayned vnto the end of the forenamed, cauity it is dilated after the manner of a membrane,[ Ta. 22. figu. 1. and 2. Φ] becommeth the chiefe instrument of Hearing, and there remayneth after the same manner that we mentioned before in the expansion of the Organ of Smelling.   

CHAP. XXV. Of the sixt, seauenth and eight Coniugations.  
_THE sixt Coniugation[ ta. 22. fig. 2 c] taketh his beginning from a few fibres a little below the originall of the fift payre or of the Auditory Nerue. But 
The sixt coniugation.  these fibres are presently and mutually vnited, and are thought to make one great nerue, whereas indeede they are not so vnited but that they remayne a good while two distinct Nerues contayned in one membrane which was the cause of the errour. They get out of the Scull at the second hole of the Nowle-bone by which the greater branch of the internall Iugular veine did ascend into the braine. The one of these Nerues is the anterior and the lesse, the other is the posterior or the greater. The lesser when it hath gotten out of the Scull descendeth directly vnto the muscles of 
His egresse.  the Tongue( to whose roote it affoordeth a branch) and to those muscles which occupy the Fauces or chops, and into them most part of it is consumed.  
The greater Nerue not farre from his egresse sendeth a branch backward,[ tab. 22. fig. 2. f] which is distributed with many surcles into the muscles that occupy the necke, especially into the Cowle muscle which is the second of the shoulder-blade.  
The Trunke itself descending is connected or tyed to the seauenth Coniugation,[ tab. 22. fig. 2. ●] to the Sleepy artery and to the internall Iugular veine, by the interuening 
His descending trunke.  or interposition of a membrane, and at the sides of the Larinx or Throttle it is increased by a branch from the seauenth Coniugation[ tabl. 22. fig. 2. i] with which branch notwithstanding it is not mixed( for Platerus in this mixtion mist his marke) but colligated or tyed thereto. Presently after it sendeth surcles ouerthwart[ ta. 22. fig. 2. g] vnto the muscles of the Larinx, especially those on the inside thereof. It affordeth also a few small branches distinct from the former to the muscles of the Fauces or chops. From thence it descendeth vnto the Chest and runneth quite through his capacity, as also thorough the capacitie of the lower belly, and distributeth many branches vnto the bowels of both bellies, as wee haue partly declared already and shall do heereafter towards the end of this booke. And because it runneth almost through all the bowels of the body it is therefore called Coniugatio vaga, the gadding or wandering coniugation.  
Falopius tels vs, that the Membrane wherewith this sixt nerue is inuested, as it falleth through the perforation assumeth vnto itself sometime manifestly, sometime secretly, a 
Falopius his conceit of the Oliue-like bodies.  few small and capillary fibres of the nerue, and when it is out of the scul, produceth a certaine long bodie resembling an Oliue, which is sometimes single, sometimes double in both sides, and the colour fleshy, although the substance be neruous and hard.  
This Oliue-like body endeth into a certaine neruous fibre, which falling down the neck, together with some propagations of nerues coupled together which yssue from the first and second, and fourth and fift and sixt, or from the first and second, and fift and sixte and seuenth paires of the necke, doth make a texture or complication of vesselles like a little net which descendeth on either hand downe the forepart of the whole necke; and in that complication, saith he, other new Oliue-like bodies do sometimes grow togither, whose number is vncertaine, consisting of no other substance but as it were a heape of nerues growing together into a callous or fast body like a scarre. And this coniunction of nerues he calleth sexti paris plexum, the texture or complication of the sixt coniugation; from which texture many nerues, saith he, do descend vnto the basis of the heart. Here from also very often doth a nerue take his originall which on both sides is conueyed vnto the midriffe, although it receiue a further increment or encrease from the fourth and fift coniugations of the necke. Hee affirmeth further, that from this complication there yssueth a nerue which descending through the Chest along the rootes of the ribs is conueyed to the roots of the Mesentery. Thus farre Falopius.  
Now that from this sixt coniugation, nerues are sent vnto the bowelles and not from 
Why the bowelles haue nerues from this coniugation and not from the spinall Marrow.  the marrow contained in the rack-bones this reason may be giuen, because hauing not voluntary motion they did not stand in neede of so hard Nerues as doe arise out of the spinall marrow properly so called; yet that they might not be altogether without Sense, they receiue Nerues of Sense, that is, soft nerues issuing out of the marrow of the Braine whilst it is yet contained in the scull, and the rather saith Galen in the 11 chap. of his ninth Booke de vsu partium, because the substance itself of the bowels is but soft; but because these Nerues were to go a long iourney, least they should be offended they are inuested with strong membranes, and besides fastned to the bodies by which they passe.  
It is also worth the obseruation that the nerues which are disseminated from the sixt 
A notable obseruation.  coniugation into the trunke of the bodye, are as large almost at their terminations after they haue bene diuersly diuided and subdiuided as they are in their originall, which cannot be saide of any other vessell. It hath bene also publickly deliuered, I thinke from no other warrant but speculatiue Learning, that this nerue descendeth into the ioynts, and 
A nouell conceite.  in the feete is the cause of the great consent betwixt the feet and the head. For mine own part, I could neuer haue light of any such diuarications out of Classicke Anatomists: beside, what neede we search for an imaginary way of consent, when we know that which is direct and agreed vpon by all, which is the branches of the nerues of the spinal marrow, wonderfully vniting themselues in the Tendons of the Muscles of the foote; by which any annoyance may at the first hand be conueyed vnto the marrow of the backe and so vnto the Braine.  
Moreouer, Galens reason of the allowance of these Nerues of the sixte coniugation to the bowels in the place last before quoted were but of small moment if the feet also had nerues deriued therefrom. But this onely by the way.  
The seauenth Coniugation, which Archangelus accounteth for the eight, because he maketh the organs of smelling a coniugation of nerues: the seauenth coniugation I say 
The seauenth coniugation. [ Tab. 22. fig. 1 h fig. 2 H] mooueth the tongue and is the hardest of all those that yssue out of the Braine within the scull, and indeede it taketh his originall from a harder beginning that is to say in the bindpart of the Nowle-bone where the marrow of the Braine endeth saith Galen in the twelfth of his ninth Booke de vsu partium. From the beginning of the 
His originall.  spinall marrow, saith Vesalius, but before it yssue out of the scull. From the Braine, not from the After-braine, saith Columbus. Archangelus saith from the backpart of the marrow where the cauity is that is compared to a writing pen. From the marrow of the Braine, saith Bauhine, when it is ready to fall out of the scull[ Tab. 22. fig. 1 & 2 E] that is to say, at the very beginning of the spinall marrow properly so called. Thence therefore it ariseth with more rootes then one, and those somewhat distant one from another. But they vnite themselues and passe out of the scull by an oblique and proper perforation in the Nowle-bone, and for more security this Coniugation( saith Galen in the eleuenth of the ninth de vsu partium) is ioyned by strong membranes with the sixt coniugation, but not commixed therewith saith Falopius in his Obseruations. For Retribution it communicateth to the sixt paire a portion of itself,[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 m] that is to say, sometimes one fibre or string and sometimes two, but the coniugation itself keepeth stil his owne body, and with a round and full thred runneth downward vnto the tongue, whose roote when it attaineth the greater part thereof[ Table. 22. fig. 22] is dissolued or as it were vntwisted and parted into many fibres, which as so many surcles are imparted into all the muscles of the tongue.  
The lesser part sendeth some braunches vnto the muscles of the bone Hyois and the Throttle to assist their motion. It affoordeth also some surcles[ Tab. 22. fig. 2 l] vnto the 
His implantation.  muscles which take their originall from the appendix which is called Stylotdes. Finally, the Fibers of the greater branch doe seeme to be commixed with the Fibres of the fifte Coniugation.  
The eight coniugation( if we may so call them, which others do ascribe vnto the fift) 
The eight Coniugation [ Tab. 22. fig. 1 & 2 d] yssueth out of the marrow of the Braine aboue the Auditory nerue,( and is much slenderer and harder then it) betwixt the second and third coniugations. It runneth vpward and forward vnder the sides of the basis of the Braine, and hauing perforated the Dura Meninx betwixt the second and thirde coniugations, it getteth into the orbe of the eye through the hole of the second coniugation, saith Bauhine, according to Falopius, although Vesalius and Platerus thinke it passeth through a proper perforation in the wedge-bone, and so goeth vnto the temporall muscle and that which lurketh in the 
Implantation  mouth; but the truth is, that it is almost wholy consumed in that muscle of the eie which draweth it to the vtter angle.  
This coniugation, saith Bauhine, in regard of his originall should haue bene acounted before the fift and those that follow, but least in changing the number resolued vpon by Anatomists we should breede confusion, wee haue rather thought good to reckon it in the last place. Columbus addeth a ninth paire, of which hee challengeth the inuention, and for ought I know no man is desirous to take that prize out of his hande, which 
Columbus his 9 Coniugation.  when they haue they shall not be able to hold; but he saith that they be very smal nerues arising from the two processes of the Braine which are called Nates or the Buttockes, neere the Testicles; they bend their course toward the face, and passe out by the third & fourth coniugations and are inserted into the third muscle of the eye-lid, but allow a branch also to the fift muscle of the eye. Thus farre Columbus.  
And so much concerning the coniugations of nerues seauen, or eight if you will, or nine if you beleeue Columbus, which yssue from the marrow of the Braine contained yet within the Scull. Now we proceede vnto those that yssue from the spinall marrow when it is falne out of the Scull.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Nerues which yssue from the spinall Marrow in the Necke.  
_THE coniugations before mentioned are called productions of the Braine, and Nerues of the Braine, albeit they yssue from the lengthened Marrowe thereof, but yet contained within the Scull. Now we come vnto those sinewes which draw their originall from the same marrow indeed, but that contained in the rack-bones of the spine, and therefore are called Nerues of the Spinall marrow. For from this marrow all the parts which are vnder the face, excepting the bowels and the instruments of the voyce, do receiue Nerues; the bowels and the instruments of the voyce do not, partly because it was necessary that some of them shold bee immediately ioyned with the Braine, as the Heart and the Liuer,( for it behooued that all the principles of those faculties whereby the creature is gouerned should be conioyned) partly because their situation is neere vnto the Braine, and they stande in neede onely of Sense.  
The Nerues of the spinall Marrow are accounted thirty Coniugations yssuing out of distinct parts and seates, as out of the marrow of the Necke, the Chest, the Loynes, and the Holy-bone contained within their vertebrae or rack-bones, and issuing out of their perforations or holes thrilled in them. These holes are eyther double before and behind, as in the two first of the neck and fiue of the Holy-bone, or single in each side of the racks, as in the rest.  
The coniugations of the necke some account seauen, as Galen, Vesalius, Platerus, and 
7 of the neck.  Laurentius, yet Galen in the fift of the 13 de vsu partium reckons 8, and so doth Archangelus; Columbus but fiue. These are dispersed into the outside of the whole head and his Muscles.  
The first and second coniugation do not arise after the manner of other Nerues out of 
The first.  the sides of the spondels, one out of the right side, the other out of the left; but one falleth through the hole on the foreside, the other through the hole on the backside, which happeneth 
His diuision.  because of the different articulation of these two rackes which is so made for the more security of the motion.  
The first Coniugation issueth betweene the Nowle and the first racke-bone, which that it might more easily be, there is a certaine small cauity in the nowle-bone and in the first vertebra,( yet in dogs in whom the spondell is greater, the cauity is onely in it) but before it issue it is reflected aboue the spinall marrow and presently is diuided into two small branches, one antertor which is very small,[ Tab. 23 H] and so small that Vesalius saith it is not alwayes visible, but Columbus maketh no mention of it at all.  
This nerue is inserted into the muscles which lye vpon the necke and vnder the gullet, which bend the neck, accounted by Vesalius and Platerus for the first payre that moue the 
Subdiuision.  backe, but Bauhine reckoneth it for the first bender of the necke, and calleth it Longus or the Long-muscle.  
Table 23 is the same with Table 22. Lib. 7. folio 490.  
The other posterior[ Tab. 24, F] which is subdiuided into a double surcle, one lesser which are disseminated into the smal muscles of the head seated in the Occipitiū or nowle, the right branch into the muscles on the right side, and the left into the muscles of the left side, which also we must vnderstand of the nerues that follow. The other surcle of the posterior branch[ Tab. 24, G] goeth into the beginning of the muscle that draweth the shoulder blade vpward, for being but small they do not run beyond the muscles.  
The second coniugation issueth with two beginnings, the fore branch[ Tab. 23, N] is 
The second coniugation. His double originall.  very small and slippeth out betwixt the first and the second rack-bone at the sides of the tooth, and is distributed into the muscles that sit vppon the neck, as that branch of the first coniugation is of which we spake ere while, with which branch it is implicated, and so consumed into the whole skin almost of the face.  
The posterior branch which is the greater[ tab. 24, l] when it is issued by the side of the backward processe of the second rack-bone is presently diuided into two vnequal brāches: the thicker[ Ta. 24, K] runneth ouerthwart toward the middle of the spine where the muscles do meete that occupy the necke, and is increased with a surcle[ tab. 24, L] of the third coniugation,[ tab. 23, S] and from the back-part tendeth vpwarde vnto the fore-part of the head, and disperseth propagations into the skinne of the whole head euen to the top of the whole crowne, yea and vnto the cares;[ tab. 23, and 24, MM] but the lesser branch[ ta. 24, aboue R] is distributed into the beginnings of the third and sixt payres of muscles of the Head.  
The third coniugation[ Tab. 23, char. 3.] breaketh out of a common hole which is betwixt 
The third coniugation. His diuision.  the second and third spondell, and is diuided into two branches. The anterior whereof[ Tab. 23, P] is subdiuided into foure surcles, the first goeth to the first paire of muscles that bend the necke, the second[ tab. 23, and 24, R groweth with Y] runneth downward, and being commixed with a surcle of the fourth coniugation is distributed into the muscles that lye vnder the Gullet.  
The third surcle[ tab. 21, S tab. 24, from ● to t] runneth vpward and meeteth with a branch of the second coniugation, and is spent into the skin on the sides and top of the 
and subdiuisiō  head. The fourth[ tab. 23, and 24, T] is dispersed into the muscles that incline the neck to the sides, as also vnto the muscle that lifteth vp the blade.  
Finally, into that quadrangular muscle arising from the fleshy Membrane which draweth the lip obliquely downeward. The posterior branch of the third coniugation[ ta. 23, 24, O] is disseminated into the muscles that are common to the head and the necke, and lift it vp which are called Sacer and semispinalis. The first Vesalius accounteth for the seauenth mouer of the backe, and the second for the eight.  
The fourth Coniugation[ ta. 23. char. 4.] yssueth out of the common hole of the third and 4. Rack-bones, and is diuided sayth Columbus into many surcles. Bauhine sayth into 2. 
The 4 coniugation.  branches, an anterior & a posterior: the anterior which is the greater, is deuided into three propagations.[ ta. 23. & 24. X.]  
The first[ ta. 23. Y] is mixed with a branch of the third payre[ ta. 23. R] and goeth to the muscles that lye vnder the Gullet, which make the first payre of Benders of the Necke. 
Diuision.   
The second[ ta. 23. a] departeth into the muscles that bend the neck into the sides, that is, into the second payre and to the second muscle of the shoulder-blade called Cucullaris or the Cowle muscle.  
The third[ ta. 23. b] which is lesser, being accompanyed with a branch of the fift Coniugation,[ ta. 23. c] and vnited with a propagation of the sixt[ table. 23. m] descendeth neare the Mediastinum( where it letteth slip a small branch on each side) and aboue the Pericardium, that of these originalles, that is to say, the fourth mixed with the fift and the sixt, the nerue of the Midriffe[ ta. 23. & 24. n] might be compounded which is inserted into his neruous tendon called by others his Head. Sometime this branch of the fourth Coniugation is wanting, and then a surcle of the seauenth Coniugation supplyeth the place, but howsoeuer the chiefe part or mountenance of the Nerue is from the fift Coniugation. The posterior branch of the fourth Coniugation which is also the lesse[ tab. 23. and 24. v] at the spine of the third Racke-bone bestoweth his blessing vpon the muscles of the neck, which lye vpon that spondell, and from thence is consumed into the membranous muscle of the cheekes.  
The fift Coniugation[ ta. 23. char. 3.] falling out vnder the fourth spondell, is deuided into two branches, one anterior another posterior. The first surcle[ ta. 23. a d vnto char. 6.] 
The 5 Coniugation. his diuision.  of the anterior branch[ ta. 23, and 24. d] goeth to the muscles which bend the necke. The second[ ta. 23. e] together with the propagations of the fourth and the sixt Coniugations[ ta, 23, out of bem] maketh the nerue of the Midriffe. The third[ t. 23. and 24, f] runneth vnto the muscle called Deltois which is the second of the arme, from which final branches[ ta. 24. T T] are afforded to the muscles that lift vp the shoulder-blade called Cucullaris and Leuator.  
From the same surcles also ariseth another Nerue[ tab. 23. and 24. g] which with many small fibres is implicated in the skinne that couereth the Deltois; another lying deepe at the necke of the shoulder-blade is deuided into two branches, the anterior[ ta 23. & 24. h] and the smaller affoordeth small surcles to the Deltois, where it taketh his originall from the clauicle, sometimes also to the skinne, accompanying the humerarie veine.  
Table 24. is the same with Tab. 23. Lib. 7. Folio 490.  
The posterior which is the thicker[ table. 23. 24. i] first sendeth a surcle into the second payre of muscles of the bone Hyois called Coracohyoides: afterward being accompanied with a veine and an artery, it sendeth another to the vpper superscapular muscle or the vpper Blade-rider, againe vnto the Deltois where it ariseth from the spine of the blade, and finally it sendeth surcles[ ta. 23. 24. π] to the outside of the skin of the arme: and so much of the anterior branch of the fift Coniugation. The posterior[ ta. 24. c] at the tops of the spines is reflected and distributed like the posterior branch of the fourth Coniugation.  
The sixt Coniugation which Columbus calleth the first paire of sinewes of the hand[ ta. 23. char. 6.] vnder the fift spondell where it yssueth is deuided into an anterior and posterior 
The sixt coniugation.  branch.  
The anterior[ ta, 23, l] after it hath ioyned a propagation[ tab. 23, m] to the branch of the fift Coniugation to make the nerue of the Midriffe, is vnited with the seauenth of the necke, and the first Coniugation of the Chest.[ ta, 23, and 24, q] Afterward it is diuersly deuide, and with those that follow furnisheth out nerues to be transported to the Arm. It sendeth also a peculiar surcle[ ta, 24, p] vnto the hollow part of the shoulder-blade into the muscles that lift it vp.  
The posterior branch[ ta, 24, k] is dispersed after the manner of the rest vnto the muscles which moue the head and the neck, as also into the heads of the muscles which serue for Respiration, which from the necke doe attaine vnto the Chest: those muscles also receiue nerues from the seauenth Coniugation and from the first of the chest.  
The seauenth Coniugation[ Tab, 23, chara, 7,] yssueth vnder the sixt spondell of the necke, and for more security is ioyned with the sixt coniugation of the necke and the first 
The seauenth coniugation. His diuision.  of the chest,[ ta, 23, s] the chiefe part whereof runneth into the arme, for the nerues of the arme are produced from the fift, sixt and seauenth coniugations of the necke, and from the first and second of the chest.  
Somtime also there proceedeth from this coniugation a branch to the making of the nerue of the midriffe. Wherefore seeing that from the marrow of the necke many nerues do concur to the making of the midriffe-nerue, it is no wonder that in the Apoplexy the motion of the midriffe is for a while naturall, for although because of the obstruction of the ventricles of the braine, as it is commonly beleeued, the animall spirit cannot bee conuayed vnto the midriffe, yet seeing that the cauity of the spinall marrow containeth some 
How a man breeths in an Apoplexy.  deale of animall spirits, which by these nerues may be transported vnto the midriffe, and giue it a little motion, thence Respiration remaineth, & though it be but very little, yet the life is thereby sustained as long as the animall spirit shal remaine in the cauity of the spinal marrow, and if the obstruction of the ventricles can be freed, then he that is apopleticall, returneth to himselfe, if not there he determines his life.  
This is Bauhines physicke concerning the apoplexy and the cause therof, wherto though I can in no sort agree, yet because he handleth it but by the way, and we are now in another argument I will not reason the case with him.  
The posterior branch of the seauenth coniugation[ tab. 24, r] which is also the lesse & neuer missing, affordeth surcles to the muscles which lye vpon the neck & vnto the square muscles of the cheekes; into which also surcles are sent from the fift coniugation of the braine, and from all seauen of the necke excepting onely the first, which surcles runne according to the course of the fibres of the muscle: they attaine also vnto the skinne. It is no wonder therefore if the Dog-spasme be a greeuous disease, seeing that this muscle in it 
The dog spasme  doth at the first hand suffer conuulsion.  
Galen in the fift chap. of his 13 book de vsu partium, and after him Archangelus do adde 
The 8 coniugation after Galen & Vesal.  an eight coniugation issuing betwixt the seauenth and the eight spondell and distributed especially into the Cubit and the Ell but passeth no further.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the Nerues of the Chest.  
_THE nerues disseminated through the chest are double as well as those that 
Of the nerues of the chest.  passe through the necke, for some take their originall from the braine, or rather from the marrow thereof contained in the Scull, others from his marrow passing through the rack-bones of the backe.  
From the marrow of the braine proceedeth the sixt coniugation of the braine which runneth through the chest, of which we haue partly spoken before, but will say more afterward in this booke.  
From the spinall marrow contained in the rackes of the backe do issue eleuen coniugations 
Twelue coniugations.  saith Vesalius, but Bauhine reckoneth twelue, all which after their egresse are diuided into two branches, one greater and another lesse, one running forward and another reflected backward.  
The first coniugation[ Tab. 23, char. 8.] which Vesalius accounteth the eight of the spinall 
The first coniugation. His diuision.  marrow, issueth betwixt the seauenth rack-bone of the neck and the first of the chest on eyther side and is diuided into two branches, one anterior and another posterior.  
The anterior which is the greater, after it hath receiued an augmentation[ Ta. 23, & 24. ●] from the seauenth coniugation, somtime also from the second of the chest, & is diuersly commixed with the neighbour sinewes; attaining vnto the arme-pits, distributeth propagations[ tab. 24, αα] out of his back-side into the hollow part of the blade, and so runneth away into the arme whose distribution we shall meete withall in that place.  
Besides this, it sendeth also another branch[ tab. 23, y] vnto the arme, which running forward along the first ribbe, and so to the top of the brest bone bestoweth his blessing vppon the first muscle of the chest called Subclauius, and then is consumed or spent into the muscles which take their originall from the toppe of the brest-bone, as the muscle called Mostoides Sternohyoidei and Oesophagaei.  
The posterior branch[ ta, 24, u] which is the lesser, is reflected vnder the muscles which grow vnto the Rack-bones, and in his transition affordeth small shoots to the second muscle of the necke and those that moue the necke and the head backeward; but when it hath attayned the spine of the seauenth Racke-bone it departeth therefrom and offers surcles ouerthwart to the lower part of the Cowl-muscle, the Rhomboides and the vpper & backward spine.  
The second Coniugation[ tab, 24, char, 9,] yssueth betwixt the first and second rack 
The 2. coniugation.  of the Chest, and as the former it transmitteth and distributeth a branch backeward[ tab 24. β.] Afterward a good part is ioyned with a branch of the first coniugation[ tab, 24. ♌] and runneth into the arme. The remaynder proceedeth according to the length of the first rib vnto the Chest and maketh the Intercostall nerue, from which certaine small surcles are distributed vnto the muscles that lye vpon the Chest.  
The third and the other nine Coniugations[ tab, 23, from char, 10. to char. 20,] of the chest are distributed after the same manner, for after they are issued out of the sides of the 
The 3. and the nine following.  Rack-bones, they are deuided into two branches. The anterior branches which are called the Intercost all sinewes[ tab, 23, nn] in their passage doe offer a surcle to the Costall nerue, which is sayde to be a branch of the sixt coniugation of the braine, and runneth vnder the 
Their fore branches.  Pleura vnto the rootes of the ribs: yea throughout his whole iourney they increase it with a small branch. For the branches themselues runne directly after the bent of the ribbes through the distances betwixt them in a proper sinus or cauity insculped or grauen in the inner and lower side of euery rib for the transportation of these branches, together with a branch of the veine Azygos and the great artery which accompany them; and their course is forward vnder the Pleura neare the Intercostall muscles: so that the Intercostall veines of the true ribbes do reach as farre as to the breast-bone, those of the bastard ribbs do attain vnto the foreside of the abdomen aboue the Peritoneum.  
From these, diuers branches[ ta, 23, θθθ and the characters of the left side] are disseminated into the Intercostall muscles as well internall as externall, into the muscles that lye vpon the chest,[ tab, 23, θθ●●χχ] as the greater and lesser Saw, the Pectorall muscle and that which is called Latissimus,[ tab, 23, μμ] moreouer into the oblique descendent muscle of the Abdomen; all which branches immitate the fibres of these muscles. They offer also small shootes sprinklingly vnto the skin of the chest.  
These Nerues as also the rest, of course should haue beene inserted directly into the heades of the muscles, but nature hath reflected them backeward into the veines, arteries and ligaments of that place. From the lower Intercostall nerues, some shootes also are communicated[ tab, 23, λλ] to the muscles of the abdomen.  
Finally, from that Intercostal Nerue which creepeth through the fourth distance of the ribs are certain propagations[ ta. 23, ν] disseminated into the Pectoral muscles, from which there yssue some fine and smal shootes vnto the paps and giuing them a very exact sense. And so much for the anterior branches.  
The posterior which are the lesser are reflected backward vnto the spines of the rackbones, 
Their hinder branches.  and lurke amongst the muscles that grow vnto them, and are appoynted to moue the Backe and the Chest: yet are they not wholly consumed in these muscles; for when they haue touched the tops of the spines, they fall betweene the congresse or coniunction of the muscles of both sides, and are distributed into the muscles which arise from those heights of the Spines, as those that are called Splenij, Rhombodies, Cucullaris, Latissimus, Serratus, Posticus inferior; and some are distributed into the skinne. But the distribution of Nerues into the skinne is not one and the same in all bodies, and therefore can neither their order nor their number be certainly defined, for the trunkes are deuided throughout the skin, sometime into more sometime into fewer branches.  
To conclude, the two last coniugations of the chest doe offer surcles, Columbus sayth to the fleshy part of the Midriffe: Bauhine[ ta, 23, at the sides char. 18, 19] to the head of the muscle called Lumbalis or the sixt muscle of the Thigh.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the Nerues of the Loines.  
_THE common & receiued opinion is, that frō the spinal marrow contained in rack-bones of the Loines doe arise fiue Coniugations of sinnewes which are greater then the coniugations of the chest and yssue out of the holes of the 
The nerues of the loynes.  rackes of the Loines; heerein agreeing with the nerues of the chest, that euerie coniugation is diuided into an anterior and a posterior branch, and that from the posterior 
5. coniugatiōs  branches[ Tab. 24. char. 52, 53] propagations are distributed into the muscles that grow vnto the rackes of the Loines. Among themselues they haue this also common saith Galen, that they are disseminated into the spinall muscles, the Abdomen and the flesh of the Loines.  
The first coniugation[ Tab. 2●. char. 20] as also the rest issuing at the hole of the spondell 
The first coniugation.  vnder the Rim is diuided into two branches, one anterior and greater, from vvhich surcles are sent into the fleshy parts of the Midriffe, others vnto the head of the Muscle called Lumbalis, others vnto the muscles of the Abdomen. The posterior braunch is the lesser and reflected into the muscles which lye vpon the rackes of the Loines whereinto it is consumed as are the Surcles of the following coniugations. Such are the muscles called Sacrolumbus, Longissimus and Sacer. But where they yssue from the tops of the spines they run into the sides and are disseminated into the skin of the arme and the broade Muscle called Latissinus.  
The second coniugation[ tab. 23. char. 21] runneth vnder the sixt muscle of the thigh called Lumbalis vpon which it bestoweth small branches afterward: arising vppe vnto the 
The second.  top of the hanchbone the posterior propagation therof passing the Abdomen doth afford Sense and Motion to the first muscles of the thigh which make the buttockes, and to the first extender of the Legge called Membranosus. But the anterior branch is distributed into the seuenth muscle of the thigh according to Vesalius and Falopius, but the sixt according to Bauhine and Columbus called Iliacus internus; into the first bender of the legge and vnto the skin of the thigh. From this coniugation also yssueth a small and long Nerue,[ Tab. 23. char. 49] which together with the spermaticall vesselles of his owne side is conuayed vnto the Testicle, whicht Testicles also receiue surcles frō the Costal or rib-branch of the sixt coniugation of the Braine.  
The third coniugation[ tab. 23. char. 22] yssueth also vnder the Lumbal Muscle. His anterior braunch passeth neere the haunch-bone and is diuided into two propagations; One of which goeth vnto the knee and the skin thereof, the other accompanieth the vein 
The third.  called Saphena. But the posterior branch is reflected and disseminated into the Muscles that lie vpon the Loines and into the skin. In like manner from the anterior branches of the three first coniugations certaine surcles[ tab. 23 at the sides, charact. 20, 21, 22] apply themselues vnto the costall nerue and are ioyned therewith.  
The fourth coniugation[ Tab. 23. char. 23] which is the greatest of all the paires of the Loines, runneth vnder the Lumbal- muscle and the share-bone accompanying the vein and artery vnto the groine. Columbus obserueth, that it sendeth some propagations into the cod and the skin of the yard: but we, suith Bauhine, haue obserued that those partes do receiue sinal sinewes from the marrow of the holy-bone as Galen noted in his seuenteenth Booke de dissectione Musculorum, and after him Archangelus. It distributeth also other propagations, Columbus reckoneth seauen, vnto the anterior muscles of the thigh and the legge, from which some surcles do descend as farre as to the knee.  
The fift coniugation[ tab. 23. char. 24] like the rest is diuided into two. The anterior and greater branch passeth through a hole betwixt the bone of the Coxendix, of the share and of the hanches, and distributeth propagations sometimes to both the muscles that compasse or bend the Thigh about; sometimes vnto the seuenth and eight benders of the Thigh, sometimes vnto the muscles of the yard, though commonly they receiue nerues from the marrow of the Holy-bone. Item, branches vnto the neck of the bladder & of the wombe which also receyued nerues from the marrow of the Holy-bone. But the posterior branch is reflected and consumed into the muscles that sit vpon the rackes of the Loines and into the skin of that place. Finally, from the three lower coniugations no smal number of branches do reach vnto the Leg, as in that place wee shall not forget to remember.  
Moreouer, these coniugations are hard and fastned one with another, the first with 
The connexion of these coniugations.  the second, the second with the third, the third with the fourth, the fourth with the fift, as it is demonstrated in the first figure of the 23 Table; after the same manner altogether as the Nerues of the arme are implicated one within another.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of the nerues of the Holy-bone.  
_OVt of the marrow concluded within the rackes of the Holy-bone doe yssue sixe coniugations of Nerues. Galen reckoneth three of the Holy-bone, and 
Sixe coniugations of the Holy-bone.  three of the rumpe-bone. But Vesalius and Columbus do heerein reprooue Galen, with what euidence of truth I cannot say, it appeareth manifestly that he was not ignorant of these bones euen in the bodies of men.  
The first Coniugation[ Tab. 23. char. 25] yssueth betwixt the last racke-bone of the 
The first.  loynes and the first of the Holy-bone after the same manner as it was in the coniugations of the loynes, and is diuided into an anterior and a posterior branch. The Anterior branch, although the greatest part thereof be mixed with the Nerues which are conueyed vnto the legge, yet notwithstanding it sendeth a propagation[ Table. 23. char. 53] vnto the inside of the hanch-bones from whence surcles are offered to the Muscles of the Abdomen and the seuenth muscle of the thigh which is called Iliacus internus. The posterior branch runneth after the same manner as do the other Coniugations, and shooteth a propagation[ Tab. 24. char. 54] into the muscles produced from the haunch-bone, especially into the first moouer of the Thigh from whence issue surcles consumed into the skin of the buttockes.  
The fiue subsequent Coniugations[ Tab. 23. from char. 26 to 30] are produced after one and the same manner: for before their egresse they are on both sides double and on 
The fiue last.  either side one Nerue falleth forward, and on either side one Nerue backward. The three vpper Anteriors or forward nerues, as also that of the first coniugation, doe run vnto the legge: the two lower vnto the muscles of the fundament and the bladder, haply also to the priuie parts, in some bodyes vnto the Necke of the Wombe, of the bladder, and of 
Their anterior branches.  the yard. Finally, others are conueyed vnto the Perinaeum, that is, the place betwixte the Cods and the Fundament, and vnto the cods themselues.  
The Posterior branches[ Tab. 24. char. 54, 55] are distributed into the muscles which take vp the posterior part of the hanch and holy bones; into the muscle of the backe called 
Their posterior branches.  Longissimus; into that which is called Sacer or the holy Muscle; into the Membranous beginning of the broad muscle of the Arme and the sixt of the Chest called Sacrolumbus: finally into the foure extenders of the thigh, and into the skin of the buttockes.  
But the termination or end of the spinall Marrow[ Tab. 23 and 24. ch. 56] yssuing out of the Holy-bone doth on either side part with a propagation which sometimes is distributed into many surcles on the right hand and on the left, which is disseminated through the fourth muscle of the thigh through the skin which is betwixt the buttockes euen vnto the fundament: yet some say that it is distributed as other nerues are, and call it N●ruum sine coniuge the Nerue without a companion: and thus it is in man. But in Apes & Dogs there are three Coniugations of which the two lower onely are produced forwarde and backward; the rest of the Coniugations yssue out at the sides of the rumpe bone, as they do out of the rackbones of the Chest and of the Loynes.  
From this History of the Nerues of the spinall marrow we conclude that it hath thirty 
The sum of al  coniugations or paires of Nerues, seauen of the marrow of the necke, twelue of the marrow of the backe or of the Chest, fiue of the marrow of the Loynes, six of the marrow of the Holy-bone. And all these with their seuerall originals, places of egresse and distributions, not onely Physitians but Surgeons also ought necessarily to knowe that they may 
How necessary the knowledge of this is for Chirurgeons.  be able to apply their Vnguents and Cataplasmes vnto the right places of the spine or ridge when either the Nowle, or the face, or the necke, or the hands, or the partes of the chest, or the muscles of the Abdomen, or the wombe, or bladder, or the fundament, or the yard, or the legs shall be depriued of motion or sense, or both together. Thus much concerning the nerues of the spinall marrow, and the parts thereof.   

CHAP. XXX. Of the Nerues of the Hand in the large acception.  
_THE Hand is the Instrument of Instruments, that is to say, the Instrument of the minde or Soule whereby she frameth and fashioneth all Instruments 
The Hand,  which consist of any matter whatsoeuer, or haue respect vnto any commodity or profit of man. And therfore that it might more freely do the seruice it was ordayned for; it hath in allowance not only muscles the instruments of voluntary motion, and veines which conuay bloud and nourishment vnto it, and arteries to giue it vigour and viuacity: but also it hath nerues as wel to conuay the motiue vertue vnto the muscles, as also to furnish it with the most exact sense of touching. There are 
Hath 5 paire of sinewes.  therefore disposed vnto the Hand sometimes fiue payres of sinnewes, sometimes sixe, arising from the spinall Marrow contained in the racke-bones of the Necke and Chest, that is to say out of the fift, sixt and seuenth of the Necke, and the first and second rackes of the chest. These Nerues do yssue out of the common perforations of the aforesaid rackbones, and presently after their egresse are vnited at the sides of the spondils: afterward, they are separated, againe conioyned, and finally separated, so seeming to make the meish of a net,[ tab. 25, fig. 3,] or saith Columbus and that out of Vesalius, it is like the strings of a Cardinals hatte. This implication was made for more security that the nerues which were to walke a longer iourney might become harder, and so stronger to propulse or endure any iniury that might be offered vnto them.  
These nerues run vnder the clauicle or cannell bone vnto the inner processe of the 
Why wounds about the clauicles are dangerous, and the luxation of the shoulder.  shoulder-blade, where the Basilica veyne and the Axillary artery keepe their way, and hence it is that wounds in this place are so very dangerous, and luxations of the shoulder do easily bring a consumption vppon the Patient.  
From this fore-saide implication or complication of the sinewes do the nerues of the hand or of the arme arise, and creepe betwixt the skinne and the fleshy membrane deeply drenched in fatte in the bodies of men, and by their mediation that fleshy membrane is indissoluebly fastened to the skinne, but they do not alwayes retaine the same magnitude, position and number; alwayes they are distributed into many backward branches, but the greater nerues Nature hath worthily distributed into the insides of the hand because by them it performeth all his actions.  
The first nerue of the hand is a surcle of a branch of the fift nerue of the necke[ tab. 25. 
The first nerue of the hand.  fig. 1,] which runneth through the vpper and external part of the arme,[ tab. 25, fig. 1 & 2. f] and is diuided into two branches. The one vpper, which is sent vnto the muscle called Deltois,[ Tab. 25, fig. 1, and 2, h] from which a branch[ tab. 25, fig. 1, and 2, g] is communicated to the skinne that lyeth vppon the same muscle being accompanied with the humerary veyne. The other being accompanied with a veine and an artery, at the sinus or bosome of the blade passeth on vnto the second muscle of the bone Hyois called Coracohyoideus which occupieth the vpper part of the shoulder-blade, and to a part of the Deltois & the skinne of the middle of the arme on the vpper side,[ tab. 25, fig. 1, and 2. i] and maketh the first nerue of the arme.[ tab. 2●, fig. 1, ππ] It determineth a little vnder the middest of the length of the arme.  
The second nerue of the hand[ Tab. 25, fig. 1, ρ] is bigger, and taketh his beginning from the complication which the nerues that are to goe vnto the arme doe make at the sides of 
The second  the rackbones. Thence it falleth by the anterior and middle part of the Cubit, and first of all communicateth a small branch to the muscle called Biceps which is the first of the Cubit:[ tab. 25, fig. 1, 〈◇〉] afterward it ioyneth with the the third nerue,[ Tab. 25, fig. 1, & 2. τ] and after the coniunction it creepeth downeward,[ Tab. 25, fig. 1, ω] and from the outside sendeth a small branch[ ta. 25, fig. 1, Γ] to the muscle of the Wand called Supinator longior. But when it hath attianed vnto the bent of the cubit it is diuided into three branches, 
His diuision into three branches. ( somtimes into two, but then the lower is againe subdiuided) one vpper and smaller,[ ta 25, fig. 1, creeping from the vpper E vnto the lower E] which passing a good way by the outside of the arme with a branch of the humerall veine runneth vnto the outside sometime of the first somtime of the second ioynt of the thumb, and intertexeth that part with small surcles. The second[ tab. 25, fig, 1, ☉] is the middle-most and something larger then the former. It lyeth vnder the foresaide humerall veyne where the Median or Common veyne ariseth thereout( and descendeth with an oblique passge along the cubit, but aboue the fleshy pannicle) euen vnto the wrest.[ ta. 25, fig-1, Λ aboue 44] The third is the lowest.[ ta. 25, fig. 1, Ξ] His progresse is somwhat oblique and is fastened to the interior branch of the Basilica veyne, & in the cubit is diuided into two branches,[ ta. 25, fig. 1, Π Σ] at length ouer comming the wrest it distributeth surcles to the skinne on the inside of the hand, frō which somtimes smal shootes do attaine vnto the outside of the thumbe, which are commixed with the surcles of the posterior branch.  
The third nerue of the hand[ ta. 25, fi. 2, τ] runneth through the fore and lower side of 
The third.  the cubit and vnder the double-headed muscle in the arme is increased with a branch of the second nerue.[ ta. 25, fig. 1, Ψ] Presently after it is diuided and affoordeth two branches to the skin on the forepart of the arme[ ta. 25, fi. 1 ν betwixt τ and χ.] When it hath attained vnto the bent of the cubit, it is mingled with the fift payre,[ ta. 25, fig. 1, ch. 43,] & sendeth small branches vnto the muscles which grow out of the inner protuberation of the arme: from hence it reacheth a notable branch obliquely to the Radius or wand,[ ta. 25, fig. 1. ch. 44,] which being accompanied with a veine & an artery is parted into 3. and runneth into the inside of the hand, communicating 2 surcles to the thumbe, two to the fore finger, & one to the vpper side of the middle finger. And when this middle finger doth not receiue a surcle from the fift nerue, then it alloweth two to the middle and somtimes one to the Ring-finger.  

Table 25. Fig. 1 & 2 sheweth the Nerues of the whole hand, the first figure sheweth their foreside, the second their backside.  
TABVLA XXV.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  

A, the spinal marrow getting into the Rack-bones.  
charact. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Seauen rackbones of the necke and two of the Chest.  
c 2 the hinder branch of the fift paire.  
d 1. 2, the forward branch of the fift payre.  
f 1, 2, A branch of the nerue d creeping to the top of the shoulder, vnder which are surcles going to the shoulder-blade.  
g 1, 2, Propagations of the nerue f going to the skin of the top of the shoulder.  
h 1, 2, A branch of the nerue f going vnto the second muscle of the arme.  
i 1, 2, Another branch inserted into the same and to the skinne.  
charact, 6, in 1, the sixt coniugation of sinewes  
k 2, the hinder branch of the sixt paire.  
l 1, the fore branch of the sixt payre.  
m 1, A surcle thereof that maketh the nerue the midriffe.  
p 2, A branch of the sixt payre reaching vnto the cauity of the shoulder-blade.  
q 1, 2, the complication of the branch/ with the neighbour branches.  
char. 7, in the first fig. The seauenth paire of nerues.  
r 2, The hinder branch of the seauenth payre.  
s 1, the congressiō or meeting of the seuenth payre with his neighbour branches.  
t t t, Some surcles hereof going vnto the muscles of the shoulder-blade and the arme.  
u 2, the hinder branch of the eight payre.  
x 1 2, the coition or meeting of the 8 payre with the seauenth.    
y 1, A branch of the eight payre going to the top of the brest, αα 2, Surcles from the eight payre going vnto the muscles of this place. char. 9, in the first figure, the ninth payre of nerues. β 2, the hinder branch of the ninth payre. ♌ 1, the fore branch of this coniugation. 〈◇〉 1, the first nerue of the arme going vnto the skin. ρ 1, 1, the second nerue of the arme. 〈◇〉, Frō this do proceede nerues going vnto the first muscle of the Cubit called Biceps. τ 1 2, the third nerue of the arme τ 1, A branch thereof to the skin of the arme. Φ 1, A small branch going vnto the second muscle of the Cubit called Brachiaeus. χ 1, to the skinne of the foreside of the arme. ψ 1, the meeting of the third nerue with the second. ω 1, the second nerue together with the third creeping downeward. Γ 1, A nerue to the second muscle of the Radius called Supinator longior. Δ 1, the diuision of the second nerue into three branches. EE 1, the vpper or first branch of the second nerue running vnto the wrist and so vnto the first ioynt of the thumbe. Θ, the middle branch of the second nerue. Λ 1, His progresse euen vnto the hand. Ξ 1, the lower and third branch of the second nerue. Π Σ 1. two branches of this nerue going vnto the inside of the hand. Φ 1, 2. The fourth nerue of the arme. Ψ 2, Nerues from this vnto the extending muscles of the Cubit. Ω, A branch vnto the skinne on the backside of the arme. 32, 2, to the skinne on the outside of the arme. 33, 2, A branch creeping along the outside of the Cubit vnto the wrest. 34, 2, the bypartition of the fourth nerue at the cubit. 35, 2, the vpper branch of the saide diuision. 36, 2, the surcles which belong to the thumbe, the forefinger, and the middle finger on their outside. 37, 2, the lower branch of the foresaide diuision. 38, 2, Surcles therefrom vnto the muscles arising from the externall protuberation of the arme. 39, 40, 41, 2. three branches going to the muscles that arise from the Vlna or Ell. 42, 2, the end of the branch 37 neare the ioynt of the wrest. * 1, 2, the fift nerue of the arme. 43, 1, Propagations of the third and fift nerues, vnto the inside of the Cubit. 44, 1, A branch of the third nerue going vnto the palme of the hand and the fingers. 45, 1 A branch of the fift nerue vnto the inside of the hand. 46, 1, A propagation of the branch 45 vnto the outside of the hand. 8, 1, 2 The sixt nerue of the arme. 47, 1, His end neare vnto the ioynt of the hand. 48, 48 1, Surcles from the sixt nerue vnto the skinne.  

Fig. 3. Sheweth the complication of the Nerues which come vnto the arme out of Vesalius.   
Char. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, The rootes of those coniugations from which nerues are produced vnto the arme. A A portion of the fift payre or the first nerue. B, the second nerue. C, the third nerue. DD, the fourth nerue which issueth out of the backside of the congresse or coniunction of the fift payre and the sixt, it assumeth a portion out of the backside of the coniunction of the seauenth payre, and after creeping vnder the coniunction of the eight and ninth payres, it also assumeth a portion therefrom. E, Which is the branch marked with E. F, the fift nerue that runneth into the arme. G, the sixt nerue deriued into the arme.  
The fourth Nerue[ tab. 25. figu. 1, and 2, Φ] which is the largest of all the Nerues that 
The fourth.  runne into the Arme, taketh his beginning from the complication we spake of before. It runneth along the backeward and vpper part of the cubit ouer the externall protuberation of the arme, and passing along with the Deepe-veine and the Axillary artery, it inflecteth itself at the vtter and backepart of the arme, and distributeth two branches to the extending muscles of the cubit[ ta. 29. fig. 2. Ψ] and to the skinne which is at the ioynt, and vnto the backepart, and another vnto the vtter part.[ ta, 25, fig, 2, Ω and char, 32,] Afterward neare the ioynt of the cubit at the externall protuberation of the arme[ tab, 25, fig 2, char, 34,] it is sometimes deuided into two trunkes which lye deepe as doeth their roote;[ char, 35, 37.] sometimes it is diuided into three branches,[ char, 33, 35, 37,] whereof the 
His diuision.  exterior[ ta, 25, fig, 2, char, 33,] runneth along the outside of the cubit whereuppon it bestoweth branches and descendeth obliquely to the wrest.  
The second which is the higher[ ta, 25, fig, 2, ch, 35,] runneth throughout the length of the wand vnto the outside of the Hand[ ta, 25, fig, 2, char, 36,] and is consumed or spent into two surcles which passe vnto the thumbe, two into the fore-finger and one into the middle finger.  
The third[ char, 37,] descending by the length of the vlna or Ell, affordeth surcles to the muscles that extend the fingers[ chara, 38, 39, 40, 41.] and is consumed or spent into the outside of the wrest intangling with some surcles at the roote thereof[ chara, 42,] the ioynt of the wrest with the cubit.  
The fift nerue of the Hand[ ta, 25, fig, 1, and 2, *] taketh his beginning from the foresayde 
The 5. nerue.  complication, and being fastned to the fourth runneth betweene the muscles that extend and bend the cubite,( yet distributeth no branches to the Radius or wand) on the backeward and lower side thereof, and when it attayneth to the inner cauity of the processe or protuberation of the arme, at the foreside of the cubite it is a little reflected, and affordeth propagations[ ta, 25, fig, 2, char, 43,] to the muscles which arise from the inner protuberation of the Arme, as also from the Ell and the wand, which muscles doe not receiue any surcles from the third nerue.  
From thence passing with a notable branch and being accompanyed with a veine and an artery it is fastned to the Ell, and in the middle of the cubit is deuided into two braunches, 
His progresse [ ta. 25, fig, 1, char, 45, and 46,] one internall[ char. 45,] which is conuayed by the inside of the Ell, amongst the muscles that bend the Fingers, & accompanyed with a veine and an artery is conducted vnto the wrest, and vnder the transuerse Ligament thereof vnto the palme of the Hand, where it sendeth two surcles to the little finger, two to the middle finger, and one to the ring finger on their insides.  
The other externall branch[ char, 46,] at the middle of the Ell shooteth out a propagation from his outside, between the muscle that bends or extends the wrest, which propagation runneth along the Ell, and is lengthned to the outside of the cubite, and at the outside of the wrest bestoweth two surcles on the litle finger, two on the ring finger and one on the middle finger. But wee must remember that the inner braunches are larger then the vtter, because the vtter may more easily bee offended. Sometimes from this fift Nerue there are no surcles distributed to the inside of the hand: sometimes also the outside of the inner part of the middle finger and the inside of the ring finger do obtaine surcles from the third nerue, and then the fift doth onely exhibit two propagations to the inner part of the litle finger, and one to the inner part of the ring finger.  
The sixt Nerue,[ ta, 25, fig, 1, and 2, γ] which in bignesse is answerable to the second 
The sixt.  where it attayneth to the cubit, creepeth through the inner and lower side of the Arme & of the cubit as far as to the hand,[ ta, 25, fig, 1, char, 47,] and neare the inner protuberation of the arme distributeth many surcles on each side into the skinne of the cubit;[ Tab. 25, figure 1 char, 48,] which surcles doe sometimes lye vnder the branches of the Basilica veine, sometimes aboue them, and it determineth not farre from the connexion of the wrest with the cubit[ Ta, 25, fig, 1, char 4●.]  
Here we must note that which we touched before in the 24, Chap. that with the fourth, fift and sixt Nerues of the Hand oftentimes there are mingled certaine small braunches yssuing from the fift Coniugation of the Brayne. And thus much of the Nerues of the Hand.   

CHAP. XXXI. Of the Nerues of the foote in the large acception.  
_THE nerues which at the beginning of the legge( by leg we vnderstand here the whole member) doe run into the thighe and the foote, arise out of the 
The Nerues of the Legge.  spinall marrow, out of that part, I meane, which consisteth of the spondels or rackes of the Loines and of the Holy-bone; for they are propagated out of the three lower paires of the loynes; and the four vpper of the holybone, and in their very originall are mixed like as wee saide they were before they entered into 
Their original  the arme, for their coniunction is like the Meishing of a net or Plashing of a hedge, and so they proceede on either side in foure nerues.[ Tab. 26. char. 57, 60, 66, 71] They are not all of alike thicknesse, neither is their passage the same, although their common original be within the cauity of the Peritonaeum or rim of the belly. The first and the third are the shortest, and therefore they passe onely vnto the thigh. The second is longer & thicker then they, and reacheth through the thigh into the legge. The fourth is thicker then al the rest put together and longer also, for it descendeth through the thigh and the Legge vnto the ends of the Toes.  
The first[ tab. 26. char. 57] ariseth of a commixtion of a branch of the third pair of the 
The 1 Nerue  Loines with the fourth paire[ about the 22. & 23 racke-bones] and is terminated aboue the ioynt of the knee. This nerue lying vpon the muscles of the loines attaineth to the little Rotator, and is consumed into the two extending muscles of the thigh and a branch of it into the foreside and outside of the skinne of the Thigh that lyeth ouer them, but the greater part[ char. 59] affoordeth surcles to the first, seauenth, and ninth muscles of the Legge.  
The second Nerue of the legge[ Char. 60] issueth ouer against the coniunction of the third spondell of the Loines with the fourth,[ betwixt 23 & 24] and being accompanied 
The second.  with the crurall Veine and Artery passeth through the groines into the Thigh, and descendeth in a notable branch, which on the inside[ char. 61] is fastned to the vein Saphena, as farre as to the great toe passing by the inward Ankle.[ char. 62] And this must especially be noted because of the Section of the hamand inner Ankle-veines, least if the launcet or Plegme be bent forward, you cut the nerue in sunder: and as the Saphena in his descent communicateth diuers surcles, so also is this Nerue diuided into many braunches: the chiefe of which is that[ char. 63] which we meete withall about the fore and inside of the knee. The greater portion of this second Nerue[ char. 64] beeing accompanied with the deepe veine and artery is distributed into the forward muscles of the thigh, especiallie into the fift of the thigh and the eight of the legge; yet so, as it disperseth certayne small shoots into the membranes that there tye the vessels together.  
The third Nerue[ char. 66] ariseth especially where the fourth spondell of the loynes is 
The third.  articulated with the fift, and passing ouer the seauenth muscle of the Thigh, it breaketh through the perforation of the share-bone[ char. 67] and reacheth surcles to the ninth & tenth muscles of the Thigh, as also to the muscles of the yard which arise from the sharebone. It produceth also two Nerues that descend vnto the middle of the Thigh; one of which is sprinkled into the skin of the Thigh neere the Groine,[ char. 68] the other is consumed into the second Muscle of the Legge, and into a part of the fift Muscle of the Thigh.  
The fourth Nerue[ char. 71, 72] is sixe times as bigge as the thirde, yea to say true of all the nerues of the whole body it is the thickest, hardest, strongest and driest. This is 
The fourth.  compounded of the foure vpper paires of the Holy-bone, or of the 25, 26, 27, & 28 coniugations. It goeth on the backside of the thigh betwixt the Holy and the haunch-bones; for where they depart either from other it runneth in a peculiar cauity or sinus of his own, and first shooteth out surcles from a branch lurking on the backeside[ char. 72] vnder the first muscle to the skin which couereth the buttockes and the backeside of the thigh euen vnto the middest thereof. Afterwards, it distributeth other branches on either side,[ char. 73] which for the most part are three, vnto the heads of the third fourth and fift muscles of the legge and the fift of the thigh. Thence forward it is hidden amongst the Muscles, and below the middle of the thigh sendeth a branch[ char. 74] vnto the fourth muscle of the legge, and sprinkleth propagations into the skin nere the knee. Next in the lower part it disseminateth on either side one surcle[ char. 75] at the head of the thighe into the heads of three muscles of the foote. But the trunke itself in the backward cauitie of the 
His diuision.  
TABVLA. XXVI. sheweth the Nerues of the foote in the large acception.  

From 20 to 24 E. Fiue paires issuing out of the spondels or rack bones of the loynes.  
50, 50. Nerues going vnto the muscles of the Abdomen.  
5. Branches from these Nerues vnto the broad muscle of the arme.  
From 25 to 30. Six paire of Nerues of the Holy-bone.  
53. A braunch of the paire 25 to the inside of the haunch-bone, and the muscles of the hanch-bone issuing therefrom.  
56. The termination or end of the spinal marrow vndiuided.  
57. The first Nerue running vnder the Legge or the Thigh.  
58. Braunches going from this Nerue vnto the skin.  
59. Hence also branches going to the Muscles that occupy the outside of the thigh.  
60. The second Nerue of the leg.  
61, 62. From this Nerue go branches through the inner side of the thigh and the leg vnto the lowest part of the foote at 62.  
63. Surcles from the branch 61 dispersed into the knee.  
64 A branch of the 2 nerue running vnto the depth of the thigh.  
65 Hence also a braunch vnto the muscle of the thigh called Triceps.  
66 The third nerue of the legge.  
67 Propagations from this third nerue vnto the muscles occupying the hole of the share bone.  
68 Another braunch vnto the skin on the inside of the thigh.  
69 A portion of the third Nerue lying deepe which goeth vnto the muscles.  
70, A portion to the second bending muscle of the Leg.  
71, The fourth nerue of the leg which is the thickest of the whole body.  
72, A propagation hereof vnto the skinne on the backside of the thigh.  
73, Another propagation to the heads of the muscles arising from the appendixe of the Coxa. 74 Another vnto the fourth muscle of the leg and vnto the skin that is at the ioynt of the knee. 75, Surcles from the fourth nerue vnto the heads of the muscles of the foote. 76, the diuision of the fourth nerue of the Ham into two trunks. 77, The lesser and vtter trunk of this diuision. 78, 78 A branch of the said trunk stretched vnder the skin, and caried to the outside of the legge and the Foot. 79, the greatest part heereof betwixt the Legge and the Bra●e 80. A branch distributed vnto the fore-side of the Legge vnder the skin from the branch 79. 81, the greatest part of the braunch 79 going vnto the muscles of the foote. 82, The inner and thicker trunke of the fourth nerue of the legge in the ham. 83. A branch creeping along the inside of the leg and of the foote. 84, A branch of the trunke 82 dispersed into the skin of the Calfe. 85, 85, A branch of the trunke 82 creeping through the foreside of the leg vnto the top of the foote. 86. Another braunch creeping behinde amongst the muscles of the foote. 87, The remainder of the trunke 82 conueyed downe by the inner Ankle, and in his lower part affoording to euery Toe two small surcles.   knee or in the ham[ char. 76] is diuided into two branches of vnequal thicknes,[ char. 77, 82] which are distributed into the whole legge and the foote: for the leg hath no branch from any nerue sauing this alone vnlesse it be a branch of the second paire[ ch. 61] which runneth through the inside of the thigh, the leg and the foot; and yet somtimes a branch of this fourth nerue is faine to supply the place of that also.  
The vtter of these two vnequall branches and the lesser[ char. 77] is presently byfurcated;[ char. 78, 79] and the greater and vtter part of that byfurcation[ ch. 78] which is produced 
The vtter branch.  presently about the ham, descendeth along the Brace and the outward ankle to the outside of the foote and the little toe, in his way offering surcles to the skin: The other and interiour part of the bysurcation which sometime also is the greater,[ char. 79] when it hath conueyed a branch[ char. 80] vnto the forepart of the legge, it is hidde neere the Brace among the Muscles that are called Paeronei and affoordeth branches vnto them[ ch. 81] From thence it stealeth along, and is returned toward the Vtter ankle.  
The Interior and greater of the vnequall branches[ chara. 82] runneth secretly vnder 
The inner branch.  the muscles along the backeside of the Legge, together with the fift muscle of the Foot & the benders of the Toes seated in the Leg, & being reflected at the backeside of the inner ankle attayneth to the soale of the foote and communicateth most what to each Toe two surcles. This branch is subdiuided, and from the greater trunk[ betwixt 82. and 85.] a little vnder the diuision, and in the inside thereof yssueth a branch at[ ch. 84] which is distributed into the skin of the Calfe. Afterward the trunk falling into the leg and stealing vnder the muscles thereof propagateth yet two braunches, one carried forward which is greater then the other[ char. 85.] and passeth through the membranous Ligament which fastneth the Leg and the Brace together; neare which Ligament it creepeth downeward, affording surcles to the muscles of the Toes to which it is fastned, and passing vnder the transuerse or annular Ligament together with the tendons of the foresaide muscles, it attayneth vnto the vpper parts of the foote, and is distributed into the muscles of the great Toe and those that leade the Toes backward. The other branch which is the lesse runneth backward,[ char. 86.] and passeth through the hinde side of the Leg and is consumed into the muscles of the foote amongst which it walketh.  
The lesser Trunke[ char. 83.] creepeth along the inside of the Legge vnto the inner 
His distribution.  ankle, thence to the inside of the foot euen vnto the great Toe, and in his progresse sprinkleth diuers surcles into the skine.  
Columbus after he hath made mention of this great and notable nerue and the distribution therof, addeth; After the three perforations of the Holy bone follow in some bodies the fourth and the fift, out of which doe issue two other Coniugations of nerues which after their egresse are likewise vnited and beget a nerue, which is reflected and distributed into the muscles of the buttocks and the skin of the same. It sendeth also small nerues into the inside of the abdomen vnto the muscles of the right Gut; in some men also vnto the muscles of the bladder; in women into the wombe, the necke thereof and to the muscles of the bladder: others also passe into the Peronaeum and Scrotum or the Cod. Out of the backepart of the Holy-bone through his perforations doe yssue small nerues little and short, which are dispersed into the muscles of the backe, to the buttocks and the skin of the backside.  
And so haue we brought to an end our History of the Vessels, whose curled streames and wandring passages, if I haue not euery where so exactly troden out as to giue myselfe 
The conclusion.  contentment: yet I presume that few will be able( if there be any) to finde my error. Notwithstanding, I confesse that in two or three places I haue not beene able to comprehend the meaning of my Authours, if at least they comprehended their owne. Yet I did compare them diligently together; but it is no wonder that in such intricate labyrinths and inextricable Meanders, he that is best acquainted with them should some time be at losse, in which respect he that is best able to finde the fault, I hope will soonest pardon the offence, I proceede in my taske.    
The end of the Eleauenth Booke.   

THE TWELFTH BOOKE, which hath foure parts, 

Of Gristles.  
Of Membranes.  
Of Ligaments.  
Of Fibres.    

The Praeface.  
_OVR Webbe now weares neare the Threds. The glory and beauty of this stately Mansion of the Soule we declared in the first book. The outward walles we dismantled in the second. The Cookeroomes and sculleries with all the houses of Office and roomes of repast we suruayed in the third. The Geniall bed and the Nursery we viewed in the fourth and fift. In the sixt we were ledde into the rich Parlor of pleasure, wherein we were entertained by a leuy of Damozels; one Modest as Modesty itself; another Shamefast, another Coy, another Iocond and merry, another Sad and lumpish, and a world of such Passions we found inhabiting in the Little world, there also we saw the curious clocke of the heart mooued by a perpetuall motion; the Heralds of honor, those nimble and quicke Purseuants, those agile spirits whose presence giues life, whose pleasance giues cheere & refreshment whether soeuer they are sent. From thence wee ascended in the seauenth Booke by staires of Iuory into the presence Chamber, where the Soule maketh her chiefe abode; there we saw the Counsell gathered, the Records opened, and Dispatches made and signed for the good gouernement of the whole family. From thence in the eight Booke we clombe vnto the battlements, and saw the watch of the Senses set to discouer and giue warning of the approches of enemies or friends. In the ninth we obserued the guard appointed to fetch in the prouision from without, to entertaine or giue the repulse, to defend or offend as cause required. In the tenth we discouered the Materials which filled vp the empty distances in the walles, and parted the roomes asunder. In the eleuenth we followed the courses & conuayances, the enteries and Lobyes which leade throughout the whole edifice from chamber to chamber, out of one office into another. Now we are ariued neare the principals of the building, where we may see how they are ioyned, how they are fastened and bound together, how they are couered and defended, how they are interlaced and intertexed. And finally, in the next and last booke wee shall with God to friend come vnto the Principals themselues and to the very foundation & groundworke whereon the whole Frame is raysed.   

The first part, Of Gristles.  

CHAP. 1. Of the definition, vse, and differences of Gristles.  
_BEfore we come vnto the particular Histories of the Gristles, it will bee requisite to speake something in generall which may open their nature, 
The distinction of a Cartilage.  vses, and differences. A Gristle therefore is a similar part, cold and dry, made out of the thickest part of the seede gathered together by the power of heate, and ordained to secure the variety of motions, and to put by outward violence. That it is similar is very manifest, because it is altogether like itself, the least fragment or particle thereof retaining the nature, temper, and name of the whole.  
This Gristle if we will beleeue Galen is to be numbred in the list of those parts which are gouerned by themselues and do not gouerne others. It is cold because the heat soone 
The explication of the definition.  vanisheth away, and dry for that the moysture is vapoured from it, whence also it becommeth hard but not so hard as a bone.  
The matter of it is the crassament or thickest part of the seede. The efficient is heate, which is the immediate organ of the procreating Faculty, to which the Altering and the Forming vertues are assistant: yet is not this an extending heate, such as whereby the Membranes are dilated; nor perforating such as boreth the Veines and Arteries, but a more remisse degree which gathereth or curdleth the parts together, and is indeede proportionable to cold in outward things, there being nothing actually cold in a liuing body. But as a high degree of heate doth melt the Lead which caketh when it is lesse hotte though a great heat do remaine yet in it; so it is in the body, the greater heare diuideth the parts and the lesser gathereth, or if we may so say, congealeth them.  
The finall cause is expressed in the last particle of the definition, for although there be diuers vses of Gristles as we shall shewe by and by, yet these two are principall. First, to make the ioynts of the bones which are coupled by Diarthrosis more gladde or easy to mooue, and more secure and permanent. Secondly, to defend the parts vnder them from outward impressions or iniuries.  
The Nature of a Gristle is much vnlike that of a bone, for saith Aristotle, when the bones are in any creatures wanting, the supply is made by Gristles. Their Tempers also are not farre asunder. Sense they haue none, because the creature should not be in perpetuall paine, neither indeed haue they any Nerues dispersed through them. Notwithstanding as we shall say in the next Booke there are some kinde of bones which haue Sense, 
How Gristles and Bones do differ.  The teeth for in stance; So some Gristles seeme to haue Sense, as those of the Eye-lids, because certaine small Tendrils of Nerues do touch them.  
Finally, saith Laurentius, a bone and a gristle do differ but secundum magis & minus. For bones are harder, drier and colder: yet we may say further, that all Gristles are transparant, smooth and polished, many bones vnequall and sharpe. Moreouer, a Cartilage or gristle hath no marrow, nor cauity, nor corners, or celles in it as bones haue, because there was no neede of them, for being not so thick or solid as a bone their aliment doth easily passe through their substance. Wee conclude therefore, that a gristle is of a middle nature betwixt a Bone and a Ligament, faster then a Bone and harder then a Ligament.  
The vses of the Gristles are diuers and those very admirable and wonderful. The first 
The vses of the Gristles.  and most common vse is to helpe the motion of the bones which are ioyned with a laxe or loose articulation, for by the helpe of the Gristle the motion becommeth more easie, 
The first  more secure and more permanent. More easie, for being smooth and polished, it leuigateth and maketh slippery the asperities or roughnesse of the bones, and so their heads become more glib or prompt in their motion. Whence it is that all moueable ioynts are crusted ouer with a Gristle. So also are the heads, & the sinus or cups or cauities of bones where they touch one another lined with a smooth gristle. They make the motion more secure, because the gristle encreaseth the hollownesse of the bone that so the articulation is not so easily luxed or put out of ioynt, as we may see in the articulation of the arm with the shoulder-blade, and in many others. Finally, by the inter-vening of the gristle the motion is preserued and made more lasting and dureable, for the extremities or ends of bones being very hard by their mutuall contaction and perpetuall attrition would haue bene worne and fretted, and so in time the motion would haue decayed, which inconuenience is auoided because they are compassed or lined ouer with a soft gristle.  
The second vse of Gristles is by yeelding to illude or break the occursation of outward iniuries, as when the bones are beaten or ratled together, or some other violence offred, 
The second.  which haply might breake a bone: for being of a middle nature betweene very harde and very soft, it cannot be easily broken, as that which is hard and friable or brittle, nor easily wounded or bruised, as that which is soft and fleshy.  
Hence it is that the Extremities of many bones which are exposed to external offence haue gristles allowed them, as the Nose and the Eares. And these are the chiefe and primary vses of gristles: there are also many other by-vses, as some gristles like bones do sustaine some parts, some haue muscles affixed vnto them, and some doe sustaine or establish 
By vses of the Gristles.  the vessels. Such are the gristles of the Larynx or Throttle and the Rough Artery as also those of the Eye-browes, into which as into a pale the beard of haires whereby the eyes are defended are infixed.  
There is also a fourth added, as if they should be defences or muniments to safegard the parts subiected vnder them. So the gristles of the brest-bone and the ribs were made for the defence of the heart and of the lungs, although they make indeed the motion of the chest more easie, because they follow with more readines then bones would, his distention and contraction. In like manner the sword-like cartilage which wee call the brest blade is thought to haue beene ordained to defend the midriffe and the mouth of the stomacke when it is distended.  
A fift vse of the Gristles you may gather out of Galen his booke de ossibus, that by their 
The fift.  mediation as it were by a glew some bones might be conioyned. So the share-bones are vnited by a Gristle, and that kind of coniunction is called Synchondrosis.  
I will adde also a sixt out of Galens eleuenth booke de vsu partium, to ioyne hard and 
The sixt.  dense bones with lax and rare, for it filleth or maketh vp the hollow holes of a rare or lax bone, and leuigateth or maketh smooth his rough sharpenes.  
Finally, there are other and those very many peculiar vses of particular Gristles. Some belonging to the sight, some to hearing, some to smelling, some to diglutition or swallowing, 
Many peculiar vses.  some to respiration or breathing, some to apprehension & some to progression, as partly hath beene and shall further be declared in the History.  
For the differences of gristles they are to be taken from their substance, magnitude, figure, 
The differences of gristles.  site, vse, and connexion. From the substance or rather from those things which follow the substance, that is, hardnes and softnes; some gristles are hard which at length become bony as those that forme the Larinx; others are in a meane which doe neuer degenerate into the nature of a bone, as that which we call the Epiglottis or Ouer-tongue; others are soft which tye the ioynts together and carry in them the nature of a ligament, & such are called 〈◇〉. From the magnitude; some are great and others are small. From the figure, which is very diuers Gristles haue diuers names, as Ensiculata, Annularis, Scutiformis, Aritenoides. The blade Gristle, the ring Gristle, the shield Gristle, the ewre Gristle. From the site, some are called vpper some lower, some fore some after, some internall some externall Gristles. From the vse wee may also gather differences and varieties of Gristles. Some are made for motion, some to auoyde out ward iniury, some for defence and some onely for supportation. The differences which are taken from Connexion are more necessary and therefore a little the more to be stood vpon. A gristle therefore either groweth to a bone or maketh a part by itself. That which groweth to a bone, eyther tyeth two bones together, or else is onely fastened to a bone. That which tyeth two bones together, eyther doth it by the interposition of common ligaments, as it is in the ende of bones that are connected by Diarthosis, or immediately as in the share-bones & the brestbone. That which is fastened to a bone appeareth in the gristle of the Nose, in the breastblade and that which groweth to the Coccyx or the Rump The gristle which maketh a part by itself is by some called Solitaria, such is the gristle in the extremity of the Eye-liddes, such are the gristles of the Larinx or Throttle; of the rough artery, of the outward eares and of the Epiglottis or Ouer-tongue.  
But for more perspicuity we will referre the whole history of the gristles vnto three heads. Those of the head, those of the trunke, and the gristles of the ioynts: the gristles 
A diuision of gristles.  of the head are, of the Nose, of the Eares, of the Eye-lids and of the lower Iaw. The trunk is diuided into the Spine and the Chest. The parts of the spine are the necke, the backe, the loynes, and the holy-bone. The gristles of the necke are eyther behind or before. Behind, those that tye the spondels together; before, the Throttle, the Rough artery, and the Ouer-tongue. The gristles of the chest are those in the extremities of the ribs, and those of the breast bone. The gristles of the ioynts are some of bones receiuing, some of bones receiued, and of each of these some belong to the Hand and others to the Foote.   

CHAP. II. Of the Gristles of the Face.  
_OF the Eye-lids we haue spoken before in the third chapter of the eight book which we will not now repeate, onely heere remember that a great part of 
The gristles of the eie-lids  them are cartilaginious or gristly, by which the opening and shutting of the eye is made equall, by which the violence of outward inluries is better resisted, and in which the small hayres that keep dust and flyes from the eyes are infixed and sustained, which otherwise would haue fallen if the lid had beene onely made of flesh and membranes.  
Againe, if they had beene bony, they would not haue beene so easily moued, and beside, their hardnes would haue offended the coates within the eyes which are of exquisite sense. But this gristle is very thinne that it might be a little transparant to cast a little shadow of the externall light vppon the Eye. There are two of them, one vpper and another lower; the vpper is greater in a man, and in those creatures whose lower eye-lids are immoueable, or their motion, if it be any, very little and obscure, whereas in Birds the gristle of the lower lid is the greater. They are called 〈◇〉, because the row or beard of haires, which is set in so many perforatiōs made in the gristle, are not vnlike a rank of rowers in a Galley. There is also another gristle in the greater angle of the eye, which hath the figure and vse of a Pulley described elegantly at first by Falopius. This Pulley hath a Canale or open perforation through which the tendon of the muscle that mooueth the eie round is conuayed, but of it we haue spoken before. In the ioynt of the lower iaw there is a slippery and mooueable gristle which hindereth least the bones of the temples and the iaw should by their mutuall attrition be worne, or when they are we aried with too much labour giue ouer their motion.  
The outward eares called in latine Auriculae, are also gristly, for if they had beene bony they might easily haue beene broken, and beside would haue beene an impediment in 
Of the outward eares.  our sleepe.  
Againe, if they had beene soft and fleshy they would not haue retained their arched figure, and so the ayer should haue beene shut out, or if it had beene admitted, a fleshy substance could not haue repelled the sound. These gristles are aboue, thicker and harder; below, thinner and softer till you come to the lap which is of a mixed nature between flesh and gristle.  
The gristles of the Nose are fiue, the three anterior are fastened to the circumferences of the bones, and two make the Wings. 
Of the nose are fiue.   
Of these the two vpper are the broadest and adhere to the bones of the nose[ Tab. 12. lib. 8. fig. 8 from f to e] where they are broad and rough. From them they hang, and together with them doe forme the anterior cauity of the nosthrils and their lower part. Descending downeward they run out being fastened together vnto the tippe or toppe of the Nose, and the lower they goe the softer they are, in the very extremity degenerating as it were into a gristly ligament. The third gristle which is in the middest betwixt these two is called Septum cartilaginosum, the gristlie partition, which groweth to the bony partition, for it depending forward groweth to the foresaide gristles throughout their length on the inside. This is the gristle which maketh the Nose to rise in the face, and distinguisheth the two nosthrils, where also the bony partition aboue the region of the Pallate separateth the perforation of the nosthrils from the Nose vnto the Chops. To these three gristles other two are annexed which make the wings of the Nose called ala or pinna, because like wings they shut and open the nosthrils, and they are tyed with membranous ligaments to the former gristles on their inside. Each of these gristles is orbicular and so make the holes of the nosthrils round, and indeed they approch neare vnto the nature of a ligament.  
Moreouer they haue voluntary motion being drawne vpward and downward, inward and outward by proper and peculiar muscles, and in great inspirations they are a little eleuated, but in expirations do settle againe. They are seated in the lower part of the Nose, 
Their vse.  for the vpper is bony to be a foundation vnto the rest: but it behooued that the lower part of the Nose should be gristly; partly that the cauities might remaine alwayes open for the better attraction of the ayer into the Lungs and into the braine; partly that being soft we might close our Noses against any euill sauours, partly also the better to euacuate the excrements of the braine through the nosthrils; and finally that they might yeelde to outward violence to which they are most of all exposed. This part of the Nose if by any casualty it shal happen to be cut off may be elegantly restored by a Traduction of skinne out of the arme, as we shal( God willing) at large discourse and exhibit the figures of that kind of deligation in our worke of Surgery. And so much concerning the Gristles of the Face.   

CHAP. III. Of the Epiglottis, the Gristles of the Larinx and of the Weazon.  
_OF the Epiglottis, the gristles of the Throttle, and the Weazon we haue spoken before in the 18 chapter of the 6 booke, and in the 34, and 36 chapters 
Epiglottis.  of the eight booke; wherefore heere it shall be sufficient to touch vpon thē and so to passe vnto the rest that follow. You must therefore remember that the Epiglottis is nothing else but a gristle that lyeth vppon the cleft or slit of the Larinx made of the two processes of the Ewre gristle. The forme of it is compared to an luy leafe, whose basis is broade but the cone not very sharpe. The basis is in the vpper and inner side of the shield gristle, the cone vergeth toward the Pallate. If this gristle had been bony, it would not so easily haue beene depressed in diglutition, nor readily againe lifted itself vp for the inspiration of ayer. If it had beene fleshy or membranous it would indeed haue easily fallen but not so readily risen againe. The vse of it is double. The first to couer the Larinx, that in swallowing the meate and the drinke might not passe into the Lungs. The second vse is to breake the ayer that is driuen out of the Lungs and to Modulate the voyce.  
This gristle saith Laurentius standeth alwayes yawning open, as well when wee draw in our breath as when we breathe it forth. Neyther is it at any time depressed of it owne accord but onely by the weight of the meate and drinke which we swallow, neyther at that time is it so exquisitely closed vp but that a portion of the drinke sipeth by into the Artery.  
As the Epiglottis is the couer of the Larinx, so is the Larinx the head or couer of the 
The gristles of the Larynx  Rough artery. The whole body of it is almost all gristly, for being the Organ of Breathing it was necessary it should euer be open whether we had neede to take in fresh ayer or to breath out old.  
Againe it is the Organ of the voyce which is nothing else but a percussion of the ayre. Now the ayer is not broken but at a solid, hard, and light body. It consisteth of three gristles or rather of foure, which are so fastened together that by them it may easily be dilated and constringed, shut and opened. The first is called Thyroides the shield-gristle, because it is like a square shield such as is carried before Tilters in their triumphs; and this is sometime double, especially in women, in whom likewise it buncheth not out so far forward as it doth in men. The second is called Crycoides the Ring-gristle, for it is wholy circular and keepeth the pipe open. It preuenteth also the compression of the rest of the semicircular gristles in the motions of the Larinx. The third is called Arytaenoeides, or the Ewre-gristle, because it is like an Ewre with which we vse to powre water vppon mens hands, or rather it hath this denomination from the similitude it hath with an oyle cruise.  
The first Anatomists accounted this gristle single, but those that haue come since haue found it to be double, and that the parts therof are connected or knit together with membranes or with ligaments. And indeede these parts thus ioyned do make the glottis or cleft of the Throttle. The opening or closing of these parts make the voyce base or treble, but the Epiglottis striketh a great stroke in it as it shutteth his cleft more or lesse. Columbus saith that these gristles do somtimes turne to bee bones. And thus much of the Larinx; now we proceede to the rough Artery.  
The Weazon because it is a vocall Organ or wind instrument, fistulated or made hollow 
The Weazon  to lead ayer vnto the Lungs and to returne out of thē fumid vapours the recrements of the spirits, it was for the greatest part made of gristles, and thence it is called 〈◇〉, Arteria aspera because it is asperated or made rough and vnequal with gristlie rings. Now 
Why Gristly.  a gristle is the fittest instrument of the voyce because it is of a middle nature betwixt harde and soft, for soft things because of their weaknesse doe strike the ayer more remisly, and hard things doe easily ouerturne it.  
These gristles are like rings, not round rings, for on the backpart where they touch the gullet they end into membranes, so that they are but semicircular like the letter C, from whence also they are called 〈◇〉. These gristles saith Laurentius do not onely run as far as the Iugulum as some haue dreampt, but throughout the whole course of the artery they are in all his branches that passe into the whole flesh of the Lungs.  
The reason why these gristles were not made perfectly circular, I thinke was, as well 
Why the rings are not round.  that the Gullet should not be hurt with the hardnesse of the artery, as also that we might swallow the more freely, for oftentimes wee swallow hard and vnbroken bittes which would out of doubt offend vs vnlesse the artery did yeeld vnto the Gullet.  
It may be obiected that the body of the Larinx or Throttle is wholy gristly, and yet it hindereth not the Gullet.  
But there is a great difference betwixt these, for in deglutition or swallowing the Gullet is drawne downeward but the Larinx runneth vpward, so that the situation of those parts is changed, and the beginning of the Gullet approcheth vnto the rough artery, but the throttle ascendeth as high as to the chops.  
Moreouer these gristles are semicircular onely in the vpper part as low as the Iugulum, but when they are past the Oesophagus and come vnto the Lungs, they grow round because it was necessary that the artery in the Lungs should be kept open for the freer traction and expulsion of the ayer. He that desireth further satisfaction concerning the nature of these gristles, let him repaire to the 18 chapter of the 6 booke.   

CHAP. IIII. Of the Gristles in the Trunke or Bulke of the Body.  
_THE Gristles that are in the bulke of the body are eyther in the rack-bones 
The gristles of the Spine.  of the Spine or in the Chest. In the spine there are many gristles to establish the articulation of the spondels, and to make their motion more facile and easie. All the vertebrae of the necke haue gristles aboue and below, excepting the first, so is it likewise in the backe and in the loynes. But those of the holy-bone are harder and drier then the rest because the whole bone is immoueable.  
The extremity also of the holy-bone is gristly, and is called Coccyx or the Rump. It carrieth the figure of a Cornet or paper wherein Grocers vse to put vp their Spices, sauing that the cone or sharpe end is somewhat beaked or crooked. This establisheth the right gut, as also the neck of the womb and the bladder, and when women are in trauel it is bent backward not without very great paine.  
For the chest it behooued well that some part of it should bee gristly that it might more easily follow our inspiration and expiration. First therefore there are two gristles 
Of the gristles of the Chest.  which ioyne the clauicles to the brest-bone. Then the Sternon or brest-bone hath a gristle in the vpper and another in the lower part. In the vpper part betwixt the first and the second bones which serueth instead of a ligament, but below appeareth that not able gristle which they call Xiphoides or the brest-blade. The forme of this gristle is very diuers, 
the brestblade  for it is not alwayes acuminated or pointed; but sometimes broad in the end, and sometimes tyned or diuided into two forkes and thereupon some haue called it Furcella the little Forke. Oftentimes saith Laurentius we haue seene it round like the Epiglottis. Sometime the parts are vnequall, and the lesser lyeth ouer the greater like the leafe of the herbe which we call Horse-tongue, about the middle of it it is perforated with a smal hole which few haue obserued, made to transmit a nerue and a veyne.  
The vse of this gristles is the same with other gristles which hang at the ends of bones to witte, by yeelding to breake the violence of outward iniuries, and to defende the 
The vse of it.  parts subiected thereto. Some thinke it was made as a defence for the midriffe which in that place is neruous; some to safegard the mouth of the stomacke, hence say they often comes a Nausea or loathing of the meate when this gristle is bent inward and presseth the mouth of the stomacke. Some of the Neotericks or new VVriters do deride this latter vse, because say they there is a great distance betwixt this gristle and the mouth of the stomacke which is applyed to or leaneth vppon the backe, but Laurentius saith it is false that there is any such distance in liuing bodies, for first they that vomit much when they are about to cast, do find a paine at this gristle.  
Againe, Hippocrates in the third section of his booke de Articulis hath remembred such a distention of the stomacke to the foreparts where he saith That the repletion of the belly( he meaneth the stomacke) is a direction for broken ribs.  
Moreouer in Coacis he calleth the mouth of the stomacke Sternum, where he speaketh of the bitternes and gnawing of the Sternum, that is, of the mouth of the stomack; but aboue all that is absurd with old wiues fable, who say that this gristle somtimes fals away and may be replaced againe by muttering a peece of the mattens ouer it, and by attrectation or groping vppon it.  
Finally, euery rib hath two gristles, one on the backside where it is articulated to the spondell: another on the foreside by which it is ioyned to the brest-bone. But the forward 
Two gristles in each rib.  are greater and thicker then those that are backward, because the fore, art of the chest is distended and contracted. The gristles also of the bastard ribs are longer then those of the true ribs. And so much for the gristles of the Trunke.   

CHAP. V. Of the Gristles of the Ioynts.  
_THere is almost no Ioint in the whole body of Man, but for his more secure and facile motion it is crusted ouer with a Gristle, as partly wee haue shewed before in particular. Moreouer in the cauity or hollownesse of the Shoulder-blade Nature placed a Gristle to increase the sinus or bosome of the bone, least in violent motions the ioynt should bee easily luxed or put out.  
In the lower part of the Cubit which hath an acute or sharpe processe there appeareth a gristle which filleth vp the empty distance. It hindereth the Hand when it is led to 
Of the cubit.  the side frō offending against that acute processe. Betwixt the Share-bones there is a thick & hard gristle so vniting them together that it is not credible they shold be seuered in the time of trauell, as we haue shewed before in the 33. Question of our fift booke. In the cauity 
Of the hanches.  of the hanch-bone there is another gristle which increaseth the compasse of the bosome or cauity therein.  
Finally, in the lower heads of the thighes we finde two semicircular gristles which inlarge the lippes of the cauities. In a word almost euery articulation is cursted ouer with a gristle to make the motion more easie, more secure and more permanent: and so much concerning Gristles. Now we proceede vnto the Ligaments.    

The second part of Ligaments.  

CHAP. VI. Of the Nature, Vse and differences of Ligaments.  
_AS the lubricity of Gristles makes the motion of the Bones more nimble and quicke: so the Ligaments doe secure both motion & articulation: but there is a double acception of a Ligament, the 
A double acception of a ligament.  one large, the other presse and more restrained. In the first Sense we call any thing a Ligament which tyeth one part to another. So Hippocrates calleth the skin and the flesh colligations, the ancients also called all manner of vesselles Veines, Arteries and Sinnewes. Common Ligaments. In the presse and strict signification wee call that a Ligament which is a hard and firme body, yet laxe and flexible and without sense, which incompasseth, tyeth downe and contayneth the ioynts.  
This kinde of Ligament properly so called, the Grecians call 〈◇〉, the Latins copula, vinculum & Ligamentum, wee may call it a Tie, but because the worde Ligament is growne into common vse, we will if you please retayne it for the most part, Laurentius giueth 
The definition of a ligament.  this definition of a Ligament. It is a similar cold and dry part, of a middle nature betwixt a Nerue and a Gristle( betwixt a Membrane and a Gristle sayth Bauhine) ingendred by the power of heat out of the slimy part of the Seede, and being of great vse in colligation, contayning, inuesting and forming of Muscles. Concerning the Temper of a Ligament( which is the forme of the similar part) all men do agree that it is cold and dry, albeit some peculiar ligaments of ioyntes are lined ouer with a mucous and slimy humour, but concerning those things which accompany, follow and happen to the temper many haue made scruple: hardnesse and softnesse followe the temper, sense and motion happen vnto it. We resolue that Ligaments are of a middle Nature betwixt Gristles and Membranes harder then Membranes; least in vehement motions they should bee broken, and softer then Gristles, that they might more easily follow and obey the Muscles which moue the bones. For the most part they are all insensible, as well because they receiue no Nerues into them, as also least being perpetually moued they should breed perpetuall payne.  
It may be obiected that Galen in his 3. booke de facultat. natural. sayth that Ligaments consist of sensible fibres, but we must know that by sensible in that place Galen vnderstandeth not that which hath Sense, but that which is liable to Sense, not that which is sensatiue but that which is sensible. For Ligaments borrow nothing from the brayne, and therefore haue no sense, neither can they mooue themselues, notwithstanding as among the bones the Teeth haue sense, among the gristles those that make the Eye-liddes, so amongst the Ligaments there are some which haue the sense of touching, as the two ligaments that make the yarde, and the reyne or bridle of the Tongue  
The matter of Ligaments is the slimy part of the seed extended or lengthned by heat, 
The matter of ligaments,  whence it is that they can bee contracted and againe relaxed. Their Aliment I doe not take to be( sayth Laurentius) as some would, marrow, but bloud conuayed vnto them by Capillary veines, which are so little that they cannot be perceiued.  
The vses of Ligaments are diuers, the first and most common is to firme and assure 
Their vses.  the articulations, especially those that are more laxe of the bones and the gristles and to hinder luxation, for it was to be feared that when the bones are separated in violent motions they should be also distracted, vnlesse the wisedome of Nature had prouided to tye their extremities together with strong and straite bonds. These Ligaments which performe this vse are either common which compasse the ioynt round about, or priuate. The common are thin and membranous, the proper are thicker and most what round.  
Their second vse is to bind and fasten the bones where they are not articulated, for there are thinne and fine Ligaments which tye the cubite to the Radius and the Legge to the Brace where they gape asunder, as also the spines of the spondels.  
The third vse is that which Galen remembreth, who sayeth they serue for an outward garment to defend the tendons. So the tendons which bend and extend the Fingers & the Toes are throughout their whole length couered with Ligaments & with mēbranes.  
Adde hereto the fourth to contayne the Tendons in their owne places, to establish them and safely to transmit them from one place to another. Such are the Transuerse Ligaments of the wrest, round like a ring and therefore called Annularia.  
Fiftly, they are interposed like a pillow betwixt the bones and the Tendons, that the hardnes of the bones should not offend the tender and sensible tendons.  
Sixtly to discriminate or separate the right muscles from the left, the fore muscles from the hinder, and other parts one from another as we may see in the Ell and the Wand, in the Leg and the Brace.  
Seauently to encrease and augment as do the gristles the Cups of the bones.  
Eightly, to suspend the bowels that they should not fall with their great waight. Such are the Ligaments of the Liuer, the Bladder and of the Wombe.  
Finally, they concurre vnto the structure of a muscle, for of the fibres of a nerue and a ligament mixed together is a tendon made.  
The differences of Ligaments are to be taken from their substance, magnitude, figure, 
The differences of ligaments.  site, originall, insertion, vse, and from their principall parts. From the substance some are soft, some hard, some membranous, that is, like vnto membranes, because they be broade. Some are neruous, that is, round like nerues, some are gristly. From the magnitude some are little some are great, some are broade and some are narrowe. From the figure some are broade some are round, some are continuall some are perforated, some are transuerse and annular and some are long and direct. From their situation they are supernall infernall, right left, fore and backe Ligaments.  
From their originall and insertion their diuision is very elegant, some arise from bones, some from gristles, & some from membranes. Those which arise from bones are inserted either into a bone or into a gristle, or into the heads of muscles, or into some other part. Of those which arise from a bone and are inserted into a bone, some do firme the ioynts, others tie the two bones together without a ioynt, others defend and inuest the tendons. Those which arise from a bone and are inserted into a gristle doe appeare in the knee, one from the internall roote of the inner Cup, the other placed vnder it. Those that are inserted into the heades of muscles are very diuers, some grow out of bones and runne into other parts, as that double Ligament which maketh the greatest part of the yarde, and ariseth out of the share-bones. Those Ligaments that arise out of gristles are some of them inserted into gristles; such are they that tye together the gristles of the Larynx; they that are in the end of the Rump and those that tye together the halfe circles of the Rough artery; others are inserted into the heads of muscles, as those that runne into the proper muscles of the Larynx. Those ligaments that arise from membranes are but few.  
From the vse you may gather diuers differences of Ligaments according to the vses before named.  
Finally, from the principal or more notable parts of the body we may very fitly deuide Ligaments into those of the Head, those of the Chest and Back, and those of the Ioynts, according to which diuision we will now prosecute their particular History.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Ligaments of the Head.  
_THE Ligaments of the Head doe some of them belong to the whole Head, some to particular parts thereof: the whole Head is mooued aboue the first 
The ligaments of the head.  and the second vertebra or spondell of the necke, wherefore it was needfull that it shold be fastned with strong ligaments, otherwise a notable part had bin in danger of luxation. Of these Ligaments Bauhine reckoneth 4; Laurentius but three, which notwithstanding( sayeth hee) may bee deuided into more particles.  
The first is a very great and broade Ligament which tyeth the first Racke-bone vnto 
The first:  the Head and compasseth the whole ioynt round about. It hath two portions, one like a thicke membrane and runneth to the inside of the first spondel, the other part compasseth about the outside of the ioynt. It ariseth out of the Basis of the occiput or Nowle of the head, which is therfore exasperated, and in young children is scotched or cleft manifold: hence it is that the first and second vertebrae may sooner be broken then luxated.  
The second Ligament fastneth the processe of the second Rackbone called the Tooth 
Second.  to the head, and it consisteth of three parts. Two arising from the outside of the Tooth are inserted into the inside of the circumference of the hole which is in the nowle-bone. The third is round like a nerue and ariseth from the foreside of the Tooth, and is infixed likewise into the hole of the Nowle to which it adheareth very strongly.  
The third Ligament is very like a nerue and made with wonderful art, and compasseth 
Third.  the cauity of the first Racke-bone which was made to receiue the Tooth of the second, & constringeth the sayde tooth, so firming it that it cannot incline to either side; it safeguardeth also the spinall marrow least it should offend against the bare bone.  
The fourth Ligament ioyneth the second Racke-bone to the first. It is membranous 
Fourth.  and of the same nature and vse with the other ligaments of the ioyntes; and these are the common ligaments of the head. There are also other proper ligaments in the head which belong to particular parts: as the ligament of the gristle of the Eare: a strong ligament, for it fastneth the roote of the gristle to the stony-bone, and ariseth with diuers propagations 
Of the ligament of the care.  from the Pericranium, where it tendeth toward the Mammillary processe. These propagations when they come vnto the care do grow together into one ligamēt & it is inserted into the vpper & gibbous part of the care to hold the gristle pricked vp & suspended.  
There is a ligament also in the Eye called by Falopius, Ligamentum Ciliare, not because it is of the nature of a ligament, but because the grapy coat is thereby fastned to the verge 
Of the eie.  or circumference of the membrane of the Christalline, but wee haue spoken of it sufficiently before in the end of the 7. Chapter of the 8. Booke.  
The Ligaments of the vpper Iaw betweene the sutures and the harmonies are thin and 
Of the Iaw.  membranous, made for the original of the muscles, for from them the tendons of the muscles of the Face and of the neighbour partes take their originall. The articulation also, sayth Galen in the 20. Chapter of his first booke de vsu partium, of the lower Iaw with the Temple bones hath strong ligaments, which Bauhine out of Platerus calleth a common membranous ligament incircling the whole ioynt.  
The Ligament of the Tongue Galen discourseth of in the 10. chapter of his 11. booke de vsu partium. It is strong, membranous and broad, but of it wee haue spoken before in 
Of other parts.  the 32. chapter of the 8. booke. Of the ligaments of the bone Hyois we shall speake in the booke of Bones. Of the ligaments in the Heart, in the Rough Artery and the cutany ligament of the wombe we haue spoken before in their proper places, which wee will not now stand to repeat, but proceed on vnto the ligaments of the Spine and the Chest.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Ligaments of the Spine and the Chest.  
_THE motions of the Spine are very diuers, and therefore the Rack-bones stood need to be fastned together with ligaments. In these Rack-bones we may obserue their bodies and their processes. In like manner there are two sortes of 
Liga. of the Spine.  ligaments, one kinde fastneth the bodies of the spondelles, another their processes, and these saith Bauhine are of two sorts, the one is strong and mucous, which compasseth the bones and fastneth the whole length of the Spine; in violent motions downeward and great burthens securing it from danger.  
The other sort is gristly, and Galen indeed in his Booke de ossibus calleth them Gristles, which kinde goeth betwixt the bodies of the spondels and fastneth them strongly together.  
It is fibrous and mucous, thicke without, but toward the middest attenuated, and carrieth the very forme of the spondell, answerable to it in breadth and length, and determineth into the gristle which is betwixt the spondels.  
The ioyntes of the processes are also fastned with common membranous ligaments, the ascendents with the descendents. Furthermore there is another priuate or particular Ligament and yellowish, arising out of the inside of the hole of the Rack-bone at the roote of the backward processe betwixt two ascending or descending processes, and is againe inserted into the same place of the subsequent spondell.  
In the necke of a Dogge wee meete with a Ligament which is rare indeede but strong and yellow, and cannot be parted into fibres. It groweth out of the very top of the spine of the seauenth Racke of the necke, and ascending vpward free and at liberty is fastned into the top of the second spine of the necke. In sheep it groweth to the Nowle-bone. In beastes of burthen it is very thicke for more strength, and of all the Ligaments of the body is refused for meat; yet sayth Vesalius some commend it to be eaten to make the haire grow long. It may be( sayth he) because it is easily dissolued as it were into yellow haire. In some creatures throughout the length of the backe runneth a Ligament on each side betweene the muscles that moue the backe, which sayeth Vesalius, Galen also attributes to men in his bookes de vsu partium.  
The Chest also hath his Ligaments for all the ioynts thereof are ioyned with common 
Of the chest.  membranous Ligaments compassing them about. So the ribbes are fastned to the spondels with strong and almost gristly Ligaments, especially in the first and second rib because of the burthen which they were to beare; likewise in the twelfth, because it is not sustayned with a transuerse processe. The same ribs are ioyned by the mediation of Ligaments to the gristles of the breast-bone. The bone also of the Breast itself is fastned to the clauicles by the interposition of a proper Ligament.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Ligaments of the Shoulder-blade, the Arme, the Cubit, and the Wand.  
_THE head of the Arme being round that the whole Hand might moue speedily euery way, and the cauity or Cuppe of the Blade being but shallow;( as whose browes are narrow) least in the diuers motions the Arme should bee luxed, Nature partly by two recurued processes of the blade, partly by Ligaments which defend the ioynt, hath prouided for so desperate an inconuenience.  
These Ligaments are fiue. The first is Broade, so Galen calleth it, and membranous like 
Fiue ligaments of the arme.  the Ligaments of other ioyntes. It taketh his originall circularly out of the verges or browes of the necke of the Blade, incircleth the whole ioynt about, and is infastned on the inside of the beginning of the head of the Arme, and is implanted to the outside of the head and into both their necks.  
The second is perfectly round, as also is the third, and groweth from the top of the interior processe of the Blade, and compasseth about the inside of the vtter heade of the Arme whereto it groweth very strongly.  
The third is thicker and greater then the former and ariseth out of the vpper part of the necke of the Blade, and climing ouer the head of the arme, is inserted into the outside thereof, where at his cauity the ouside buncheth out somewhat, so that these two Ligaments together make as it were one transuerse Ligament.  
The fourth is broade also and yssueth out of the same place with the third. His originall is large, and runneth obliquely till it be infixed into the backeside of the vtter head of the Arme where it compasseth the backepart of the ioynt as did the first.  
The fift yssueth from the interior processe of the blade and runneth vpward to the top of the shoulder.  
The vse of these Ligaments is; of the first the same with the Ligaments of other ioints; of the three next to keepe the arme that it fall not downeward or outward out of his socket. Of the fift to keepe the arme from luxing forward, in which seruice it is holpen by the outward head of the double headed muscle.  
For the Cubit, although throughout his length all the muscles are compassed with a strong membrane which fasteneth them together, holdeth them in their places, and like a 
The ligament of the Cubit.  transuerse ligament as it were bridleth them vp growing to them very strongly and closely as the proper membrane of a muscle doth; yet there are other ligaments which ioyne the bones together. VVherefore the cubit, which is compounded of the El and the VVand, hath ligaments wherby it is fastened to the arme, to the wrest, & also the two bones of the cubit together. To the arme it is fastened with common ligaments, strong but membranous, which tye the Ell to the arme and the wand to the vtter protuberation of the arme. But to the wrest it is articulated with a membranous ligament common to other ioynts, and beside with two proper round ligaments, one fastened to the Ell which runneth from the processe called Styloides vnto the fourth bone of the wrest and is more gristly then the rest; the second fasteneth the wand to the wrest, for it issueth out of the top or pitch of the wand and runneth into the wrest.  
Againe, these two bones of the Ell and the Wand are vnited by a common ligament aboue and below, as also by a peculiar which is membranous & strong running throughout the whole length of both bones, for his situation is in the distance betwixt them, arising from an acute line of the Ell, and inserted into a line of the Wand. It hath also oblique fibres which creepe downeward obliquely from the Wand vnto the Ell.  
The vse of this ligament is to conioyne and fasten these bones together, to distinguish 
Their vse.  the exterior muscles from the interior, as also to offoord an originall to some muscles, or at least to adde strength to their originals.   

CHAP. X. Of the Ligaments of the Wrest, After-wrest, and the fingers.  
_THE bones of the VVrest haue common Ligaments with which they are in a manner inuested, for somtimes and in some places they get betweene the 
the ligaments of the wrest.  bones and become gristly. This common ligament issueth from the lower appendix of the Ell and the VVand. It is very strong and so fasteneth the bones that they become fit for their proper motions which are indeede but obscure, for they are implanted into the appendix of the bone of the After-wrest.  
The bones also of the After-wrest are fastened together by common ligaments, which 
Of the After-wrest.  doe not onely compasse the bones orbicularly, but also, neare their extremities in the middle where the bones doe meet one with another, they insinuate themselues, becomming of the nature of a gristle, so as they passe againe outward and ioyne the bones of the After-wrest to the wrest.  
Finally, the knots or knuckles of the fingers are fastened together with common Ligaments, 
Of the fingers  besides which there are yet in the hand other ligaments which do not serue to articulate or ioyne the bones, but do onely incompasse and containe the tendons that go vnto the fingers, least when they are moued they should slippe out of their places. This kind of ligament is double, one at the inside of the wrest transuerse and broade, stronger also then the rest of this kind. It compasseth the wrest like a bracelet on the inside especially, and holdeth together al the tendons that fall downe to the hand: from it also somtimes proceedeth the tendon of the muscle called Palmaris.  
The other ligament is on the outside where the wrest is articulated to the Cubit. It taketh his originall from the two forenamed appendices or out-shootes, and is spread ouer the whole breadth of the Cubit.  
At the first sight it seemeth to bee but one, but when it is dissected it appeareth to bee 
6 transuerse.  sixe transuerse ligaments, which like Rings are shot ouer the tendons of the muscles that extend the fingers, whereby those tendons are contayned or fastened together.  
The first proceedeth out of the Ell into the VVand and runneth vnto the Sinus or cauity which is common to them both and is peculiar to the sixt muscle that extendeth the fingers.  
The second belongeth properly to the Ell and to the first extending muscle of the wrest.  
The third is proper to the VVand and to the extending muscles of the forefinger, the middle finger and the Rin-finger.  
The fourth is an exceding narrow Ring belonging to the slender tendon of the muscle that leadeth the fore and middle fingers from the thumbe.  
The fift maketh away for the second extender of the wrest, and for that muscle which turneth the thumbe toward the forefinger: sometime also a peculiar ligament couereth the tendon of the Thumbe.  
Finally, the sixt transmitteth the three tendons of the second muscle that extendeth the Thumbe.  
Moreouer, euery finger hath ligaments which run throughout their length, arising 
Other Ligaments of the 〈◇〉.  from the sides of their inner bones which are long and like canales; these do containe or keepe the tendons that bend the fingers in their cauities, least in the flexion they should strut vp out of their place or goe astray.  
To conclude there are other membranous Ligaments, or rather mucous membranes, but redder then the other membranes of the Tendons, which after the manner of Ligaments couer the Tendons that are transmitted to the hand and the fingers, involuing them for their more security, from which sometimes the muscles take their originall, & so much of the Ligaments of the Hand.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Ligaments of the Holy-bone, the Hanches, and the whole Legge and Foote.  
_IT remaineth now that we proceede vnto the Ligaments which tye the Hanch-bones and bones of the Coxendix and Holy-bone, as also those that fasten the share-bones and which belong vnto the legge.  
The ligament which tieth the hanch bone to the holy-bone is a common ligament, broad, membranous and strong, yea in that part where it goeth betwixt the bones it seemeth both in strength and thicknesse to be 
The Lig, of the hanch.  gristly, the better to constringe and fasten that loose coniunction. Hence it is saith Bauhine, that in the trauell of a woman, if the impression be more violent, the connexion wil yeeld somewhat.  
That which tieth the holy bone to the Coxendixe is double, one ariseth out of the 
Of the Holiebone.  coniunction of the fift and sixt holy bones, and is infixed into the acute processe of the Coxendix, the other ariseth indeed out of the same place, but is inserted into the posterior part or appendix of the coxendix to fasten the bones the stronger together. Anatomists also do conceiue that this ligament was ordained to sustaine the right gut with his Muscles vnder which there is no bone.  
The share-bones although they be fastened together by the interposition of a gristle, yet haue they a double Ligament, one which compasseth them about circularly, least in 
The Sharebone.  the trauell of the birth, or other great and strong motions of the thigh they shold be broken, which might well haue hapned if there had bene nothing but bones; the other ligament is that which occupieth the perforation; membranous it is and consisteth of fibres that run obliquely downward, for because it was fit that the share-bones should be light a great part of it is as it were turned out, and a ligament substituted as wel to sustaine the Muscles that belong to the bone, as to distinguish the two Obturators or the ninth and tenth muscles of the thigh. The ligaments of the legge are threefold. Some are referred 
Of the legge.  to the articulation of the thigh, others to the articulation of the legge, and others to the articulation of the foote.  
The thigh is fastned to the ioynt of the Coxendix by a double Ligament, one common and membranous which circumcircleth the ioynt, and this the Grecians call 〈◇〉, 
Of the Thigh two.  by the name of the whole ioynt, because it is much thicker, harder & stronger then other Ligaments that compasse the ioynts; which strength was wel prouided for by nature, for 
The first.  the motions thereof are very strong, and besides it sustaineth the whole body. This Ligament lieth vpon the ioynt and the necke of the thigh, but groweth onely orbicularly to the root of the great proces that the motions of the head of the thigh might not be hindred. The other ligament of the Thigh is round, and because of his hardnesse may be called 
The second  a gristly nerue. It is seated in the cup of the Coxendix, and ariseth out of the depth thereof where the cauity is lined ouer with fat to make the head mooue more glib, and where the brow or brim of the cup ceaseth: and is inserted into the middest of the head of the thigh on the top thereof, that it might not easily fal out of the socket; for the thigh is heauy, and hangeth as it were down from the Coxendix, wherfore when this ligament is laxed and becommeth longer luxation oftentimes ensueth, yea sometimes it is broken, and although the bone be restored, yet the patient is alwaies lame after, because the two bones do not adhere so close as they did before.  
Next follow the Ligaments of the Legge and the Brace. The first Ligament of the legge is membranous and common, which compasseth the whole knee, except that part 
The ligamēts of the Legge.  which the whirle-bone together with the tendons containing it doth occupy, for that is sufficiently constringed and contained by them.  
The other is seated in the backside or in the inside of the knee; strong it is and neruous and groweth out of the processe of the legge, and being forked or tined, is fastned vnto the lower head of the thigh on either side. The third is exceeding strong and gristly, growing out of the prominent part of the legge betwixt the cauities thereof, and is inserted into a middle canale or bosome betwixt the two heads of the thigh on the backside. The fourth is slender and mucous in the middest of the ioynt of the knee, & runneth vp from the legge into the thigh, but is not to be found in all bodies. The fift is thicke & almost round, couering the outside of the knee, and it fastneth together the bones of the thigh, the Brace, and the Legge. The sixt is yet smaller then the fift and softer, and is fastened to the inside from whence it ariseth, running obliquely vnto the forside of the leg.  
The Legge also is fastned to the Brace, first by a common Ligament in the vpper part neere the ioynt of the knee which embraceth the connexion of the bones on the outside. Againe in the lower part they are ioyned with a common membranous ligament which proceedeth from the legge vnto the Brace which it tyeth thereto.  
Moreouer, betwixt the bones of the legge and the Brace; the space is occupied or taken vp by a Membranous peculiar Ligament which groweth throughout the length of the Brace very fast vnto it. Notwithstanding his originall seemeth to bee, by the course of his descending oblique fibres, from the leg-bone, and his insertion into the Brace. By this Ligament not onely the bones are conioyned, but also the muscles which occupye the leg are distinguished the forward from the backward, and it also affordeth a strength vnto the originall of these Muscles that grow vnto it.  
The Ligaments of the foote are very many, whereof some do containe the tendons transmitted into the foote and the toes, and they are three transuerse, others fasten togither 
Of the Foote.  the bones of the foote.  
The first is situated before at the ioynt of the foote with the legge, which fasteneth the bones together and transmitteth some Tendons of the Muscles. The second ariseth from the bone of the legge or from the inward ankle, and is inserted into the bone of the heele, and this Ligament maketh three rings, as it were three Ligaments, because there are three cauities for the tendons of the bending muscle of the greate Toe and of the great bender of the other toes which passe that way. The third ariseth from the outward ankle or from the Brace and is implanted into the heele, it helpeth the Coniunction of the bones, and couereth two cauities to transmit vnder it the Tendons of the two Muscles called Peronaei, as we haue shewed before in the History of the muscles.  
The vse of these Ligaments as it is in the wrest, is, first of all to add strength to containe the tendons of the muscles of the foote that they be not mooued out of their places: 
Their vse.  from these Ligaments also those tendons do receiue a portion, by helpe whereof they are produced or lengthned togither with the smal strings of the Nerues. In like maner in the lower side of the toes we finde transuerse Ligaments such as are in the Hand, that containe and establish in their office the tendons of the muscles which bende the second and third ioynts of the fingers. These Ligaments do fasten the bones of the foot, and are referred to the instep, to the wrest, the after-wrest of the foote, and to the Toes. Platerus addeth to those, a broade Membrane coupling together many Muscles in the Legge and the Ligament in the soale of the foote, which serueth instead of a tendon.  
There are also Ligaments which binde the Talus or pastorne-bone( for so it is called 
Of the Talus.  in Beasts, we call it commonly the Cockall) either to the legge or to the bones of the foote; the first of those that binde the Talus vnto the bones of the Legge is common and Membranous and compasseth their articulation, the rest are all gristly. The second ariseth from the inside of the Talus where it is receyued by the inner ankle, and is inserted into the Legge bone where it regardeth the Talus. The third ariseth from the outside of the Talus, and is fastned into the Brace-bone that regardeth the same.  
The Ligaments that fasten the talus to the bones of the foote are fiue, the first is common and membranous and compasseth the iuncture of the talus with the heele; and this Vesalius maketh the fift. The second is stronger and gristly and ariseth from the lower part of the talus nere his necke, and is inserted into the heele betwixt the two commissures thereof with the talus. This Ligament Vesalius accounteth for the third.  
The third Ligament, Vesalius calleth it the fourth, is gristly likewise, and compasseth the whole ioynt on the outside. It ariseth out of the necke of the talus, and is fastned to the bone which is like a Boate. The fourth is strong, arising from the necke of the talus, and is implanted into that bone which we call the Dy or the Cube: The fift is strong and gristly, ioyneth the bone of the Heele vnto the Cube, and encompasseth the ioynt round about.  
The bones of the wrest of the foote are coupled with very hard and gristly Ligaments 
The Wrest.  either among themselues or to the bones that border vpon them. To the Neighbourbones as on the backside the Cube or Dy-bone to the necke of the talus, and the same vnto the heele, so three bones are fastned to the Boat-bone, and on the foreside to the bones of the After-wrist. They are ioyned one to another as in the vpper part or backe of the foote. In like manner in the lower part there is a very strong and peculiar Ligament, which fasteneth them on the outside and tyeth also the hindparts of the bones together, because it insinuateth itself among them.  
Finally, the Ligaments of the After-wrest and the toes which ioyne them together are answerable to the Ligaments of the hande both in their passage and conformation: 
The After-wrist.  those also which run in the distances betweene the bones of the wrest are gristly, the rest are membranous. Archangelus addeth, that there are common Ligaments which bind & fasten the particular ioynts of the toes, as it is in the ioynts of the fingers. And thus much concerning Ligaments.    

The Third Part of Membranes.  

CHAP. XII. What a Membrane is, their Vses and Differences.  
_BY the common consent of Hippocrates, Galen and almost all Physitians 〈◇〉, a Membrane and a Coate doe signifie one and the same thing. I knowe there is sometimes some nice difference amongst the Grecians, but it is of no great consequence, & therefore I would haue you to vnderstand me to meane the same thing, when I speake of a Coate and of a Membrane. The definition of a Membrane is much more necessary, which Laurentius hath on this manner: It is a similar part, cold and dry, engendred of 
Definition of a Membrane.  the slimy part of the seede, and therefore broad, thin and fast, the organe of the sense of Touching, keeping, knitting and separating the parts vnder it.  
That it is similar it is manifest, because it is vniforme, and though it be wouen with fibres yet are they not conspicuous. I speake here of true Membranes not of membranous bodies, such as are the wombe, the bladder, the stomacke, the guts and such like, which make a part of themselues, and wherein all the three sorts of fibres do appeare. That it is cold and dry, Galen teacheth in his Booke de temperamentis, but yet it is lesse cold and dry then a Tendon, a Ligament, a Gristle, or a Bone: but more cold and dry then Arteries, Veines and Sinewes. The matter of Membranes is the slimie part of the seede, which by the power of heate is stretched or distended; whence it is that a Membrane may easily be dilated or compressed without danger: onely the Membrane, saith Galen, may bee safely distended and contracted, and therefore all parts which were to bee distended and contracted are made membranous. A membrane is broad and extensible to inuest & preserue the part: thight and fast for strength, and beside that it may not so easily receiue an influxion of humors, yet thin, least the waight of it should be offensiue. Notwithstanding though it be thin and appeare simple, yet euery Membrane is double; thorough which duplicature there runne Veines for nourishment, Arteries to conuey life and Nerues to conuey Sense, which vessels being slender and fine, it was fit it should be conueighed betwixt two coats.  
The common office of a membrane is to be the organ of the Sense of Touching as the 
The organe of Touching.  eye is the organ of Seeing, and therefore the sense of a membrane is most exquisite. A Nerue is indeede the conueyer of the spirits and carrieth downe the commandments of the Soule; but as in a muscle it is not the primary organ of motion, as in the eye it receiueth not visible obiects, so it doth not receiue the first tactiue qualities, onely the Membrane is it which we must esteeme the organ of Touching; and if you despoile the partes of their membranes, you make them also insensible. Hence it is that the flesh of the lungs, of the liuer, of the spleene, and of the rest of the bowels is insensible. As therefore the sense of Touching is diffused throughout the whole body of the creature because it is euery where necessary: so likewise are there membranes sprinckled through the whole body almost internally and externally. On the outside the body is inuested with the skinne and the fleshy membrane. On the inside the peculiar membranes are almost infinite.  
If it be obiected out of Galen in arte medicinali, that membranes haue onely inbred 
Obiection.  not influent faculties such as is sense. We answere with the Reconciler; that Galen then speaketh of membranous and broade ligaments which issue from the bones.  
The three last particles of the definition do elegantly expresse the three principall vses of membranes. They inuest the parts vnder them like a couering, whence they haue 
Galen expounded.  the name of coates. They conserue the fibres to make the flesh more firme and stable, they containe the substance of the parts and enclose it round about least it should dissolue and separate part from part.  
Moreouer, they fasten one part to another, from whence proceedeth the admirable 
The vses of membranes.  simpathy or society of the parts. So by the periostia the bones are all continuated one to another; by their common membrane all the muscles are vnited: by the skin the whole body hath his connexion though it be diuers in respect of the structure of parts which are of diuers kindes.  
Finally, by the helpe of membranes parts are separated from parts, as wee may perceiue in our sections of muscles. There are other peculiar vses of membranes, to sustaine parts as appeareth in the Mediastinum: to hinder the refluence of humor as the values that are in the heart, in the great veynes and such like places, and to leade along and establish the vessels that are to be distributed into other parts, as into the mesentery, the kel, & the fleshy membrane.  
The differences of membranes are manifold and are taken from their substance, magnitude, 
The differences of membranes. The first.  site, figure, conformation or texture, and from the nature of the parts which they inuest or containe. If you regard the substance which is the Mansion-house and Ancient seate of the determinate and particular faculty, then wee say that membranes are either lawfull and true or illegitimate. Those are true membranes to which the definition before giuen wil agree, such are the membranes or Meninges of the braine, the Peritonaeum, the Pleura, the Periostium and such like; Illegitimate membranes may more truely be called membranous bodies. Of these there are three kindes, some arise from the bones, are broade and insensible, and fasten the ioynts together. Such are called Ligamentall membranes or membranous ligaments. Others are made of the tendons of muscles dilated and so become more like a membrane then a tendon, such are the thin ends of the oblique and transuerse muscles of the Abdomen, also the tendon of the muscle that leadeth the leg backward, which they commonly call fasciam latam the broade swath. To the third kinde. I refer those membranous bod●es which make parts by themselues, which although they be inuested with coates, yet are altogether made of membranous bodies. Such are the bladders of vrine and gall the stomacke, the guts, and the wombe,  
Againe, those membranes which I called legittimate, are eyther of a thin or slender substance like vnto broade cob-webbes, such as appeareth in that membrane or coate of the eie that compasseth the Cristaline humor called Arachnoides or the cob-webbe coate; likewise in the Pia mater of the braine, and in the coates of the Lungs and the Liuer; or they are thicke as the Dura mater and the membrane of the bladder; or they are fleshy as in the face, or altogether neruous.  
From the magnitude some membranes are broade and some are long. The figure 
the second &c  of membranes is manifolde according to the variety of the parts which they doe inuest. From the situation some are internall some are externall, some supernall some infernall. From the context or conformatiō some haue fibres of all three kindes, some of two kinds, some of one kind onely: others are without fibres and may be torne euery way as paper may.  
And so much of membranes in generall, of their Nature, vses, and differences. Now we come vnto their history.   

CHAP. XIII. Abriefe enumeration of all the Membranes.  
_THE number of Membranes is almost infinite, and we haue handled many of them before as they fell in our way in the order of Dissection, nowe we will gather them into a briefe sum.  
The Membranes therefore do some belong to the Embryo or infant before it be borne, others to the creature after it is borne also. The Membranes 
The Membranes of the Embryo.  that inuolue the infant are three, called Chorion, Amnios and Allantoides: the Chorion is so called, either because it conteyneth the infant, or because it compasseth it like a circle or a crowne: it cleaueth wholly to the wombe by the interposition of the vmbilical veines and arteries. Amnios or the Lamskin is the receptacle of the sweate. Alantoides, so called because it is like a Haggas-pudding is onely found in bruite beastes, and couereth the creature not all ouer, but like a broad swath from the end of the breast-bone vnto the hips. Of these we haue spoken more at large in the 5 chap. of the 5 booke, and in the xvi. question of the Controuersies thereto belonging.  
The Membranes belonging to the creature after it is brought foorth, are vniuersall or 
Of the Regions.  particular. The vniuersall we call those which either do inuest the whole body, as the skin and the fleshy membrane: or all the parts of the same kind as the muscles and the bones. The Muscles are all couered with a Membrane which is common to the muscles, thin, neruous and fibrous, which some thinke dooth arise from the periostium: but Bauhine esteemeth it to take his originall from the sinnewy fibres of the Muscles themselues; and it is fastned to them with thin and slender filaments. The vse of this membrane is to inuest and circumscribe the muscles, to separate them from the other parts and to giue vnto them the sense of Touching. The bones are all cloathed ouer from the crowne of the head to the soale of the foote with a membrane which they call Periostium, neruous, thin and very strong, yet we may except the teeth, the inside of the scull, and the ioynts of the Bones: of it we haue spoken in the third chap. of the seuenth booke.  
The particular Membranes are such as doe inuest a particular region of the body, or one onely part. The Regions are three, the vpper, the middle, and the lower. The vpper Region is on the outside couered with the Pericraniū, which is seated betwixt the fleshy mēbrane and the Periostium, arising as some say from the processes of the dura meninx, as others from Ligaments which passe through the sutures of the scull, which Ligaments are stretched ouer that part of the scull against which they issue foorth, and so meeting togither are vnited into a common Membrane. Of this also wee haue particularly entreated in the place last before named.  
The Braine itself is couered with two membranes called Dura and pia Mater: Of which we haue spoken in the 7 chap. of the 7 Booke, and thither referre the Reader for satisfaction, onely heere we remember that they compasse not the Braine only, but his Vicar and substitute the spinall marrow, yea all the nerues throughout their generations.  
The Middle Region is inuested round with a membrane which is stretched vppon the ribs, excepting the twelfth and is called Pleura: of it we haue spoken in the 6 chap. of the 6 Booke, as also of the purse of the heart and the Mediastinum which arise there-from in the seuenth and eight chapters.  
In the Lower Belly, the Peritonaeum comprehendeth or embraceth all the contained parts, and of it we haue spoken at large in the 10 chap. of the second booke.  
The particular partes of the body are almost euery one couered with their peculiar 
Of the particular parts.  membranes or coats. The eies haue six, called Coniunctiua, Cornea, Vuea, Aranea, Ciliaris and Reticularis, of which we haue spoken in the sixt, seuenth, and eight chapters of the 8 Booke. The tongue is inuested and iudgeth of Sapors by a proper coate arising from the third and fourth coniugations of sinewes. The Gullet, the Mouth, the Palat and the Chops are couered with the same coate that couereth the Stomacke; the Heart itself, the Lungs, the Liuer, the Guts, the womb, the bladder and all the vessels haue their particular coats: so haue also the Kidnies and that thick, which they call Fasciam or the swathband. The Kell is made of the Peritonaeum duplicated, so is also the Mesentery. A world of other Membranes there are, which we haue remembred in their particular places, and therefore list not now to trouble either ourselves or the Reader with them, seeing they may easily be found by the title of the Chapters in those places to which they belong: we proceed vnto the Fibres, wherein also we will be very short.    

The fourth part of the Fibres or Villi.  

CHAP. XIIII. The nature of Fibres  
_FIbres are called in Greek 〈◇〉, in Latine villi, although that name is sometimes communicated both to Nerues and to Tendons: some call them 〈◇〉, because they are like the strings or lines in plants, or graynes in the woode. Laurentius defineth them to be Similar partes colde and dry ingendered of the Seede, and therefore 
The definition of a fibre.  white, solid and long like fine spun threds, destinated or appoynted for motion, and to hold the flesh of the parts, wherein they are, together.  
The first particles of the definition are so manifest as they need no explication, the latter which designe their vse or finall cause wee will open in a fewe wordes.  
There are two especall vses of Fibres, Motion and Preseruation of flesh. Motion according to the Physitians is threefold, Animall, Vitall and Naturall. 
Their 2, vses.   
Animall or Voluntary Motion is performed by the helpe of the muscles: a Muscle is 
Motion three fold.  moued when his fibres are either intended or drawne toward their originall, and therefore sayeth Galen in the 8. de Anatom. administrat. if you cut all the fibres ouerthwart, the muscles would presently loose all their motion.  
The Vitall motion belongeth to the Heart and to the Arteries, for the heart hath his fibres manifold and very strong by whose helpe he is distended, contracted and quieteth himselfe. The Arteries also haue their fibres, in their inner coate many transuerse; in the vtter coate oblique and right.  
That Motion we called Naturall is most manifest in Attraction, Retention and Expulsion. Wherefore all manner of Motions proceede from fibres, but their common action is Contraction.  
Notwithstanding we must know that these naturall Organs had not their fibres allowed 
Fibres necessarie for officiall actions.  them for a peculiar Traction, Retention and Expulsion, but for a common and officiall. So the Stomach, the Guts, the Veines, the Arteries, the VVomb, the Bladder, the Heart and such like, did not stand in neede of fibres for their priuate nourishment( for the bones and the brayne, and the gristles and the flesh of the bowels doe draw their proper Aliment without fibres) but for a common and officiall action. The heart for the generation of vitall spirits; the Arteries for the commoderation or tempering of the natiue heate; the Veines for the transmission or transportation of bloud; the Stomacke for the making of the Chylus; the Guts for the distribution of the same Chilus, and the excretion or euacuation of excrements; the Bladder for miction or making of water; the VVombe for Conception and for the Birth.  
The other vse of the Fibres is the custody or preseruation of the Flesh, as wel musculous 
The 2. vse.  as that which maketh the proper substance of the part, for the fibres are as it were the first stamina or the warpe, whose empty distances the flesh like the woofe filleth vppe. There are also other peculiar vses of Fibres in the Veines and Arteries, to wit, that therby they might be better extended after all the violent motions of the bloud, and so become lesse subiect to mischiefe.   

CHAP. XV. Of the differences of Fibres.  
_THE differences of Fibres are to bee taken from their site, hardnesse, sense, texture and from the variety of the Organs. From the site they are called Right, Transuerse and Oblique, for if they run lengthwise then they are called 
The differences of fibres  Right fibres. If they run according to the breadth and intersect or cut the right, then are they called Trāsuerse or round and circular fibres. If they haue a middle situation and intersect both the right and the transuerse at vnequal angles, then are they called Oblique fibres. The office of the right fibres is to draw, the office of the transuerse to expell and that of the oblique to retaine. If the right fibres worke alone then the length of the part is shortned and attraction made, if onely the transuerse bee contracted then the latitude or breadth is diminished and expulsion made, but if all the fibres together, the right, the oblique and the transuerse be intended, then the whole part is contracted and retention made which also they call Amplexation. Retention therfore is made not when any one kind of fiber doth worke, but when all are in action together; for so when we would firmely retaine any thing in our hands we compasse i● about on euery side, yet the oblique fibres are said peculiarly to retaine, because when they are contracted 
How Retention is made.  they do onely imbrace, for they compasse the part on euery side constringing and closing together the particles thereof: but the right and the transuerse fibres when they are contracted do not only serue for retentiō, but these for expulsion & those for traction.  
The second difference of fibres may be taken from the hardnes, for some are hard & strong as those of the heart, for the feruent force of the inbred heat did require so much, as also the perpetuall agitation of his necessary motion, others are softer as the fibres of 
The second difference.  muscles.  
The third difference is taken from their sense. Of fibres some are sensible as those which arise from nerues. Others insensible as those that proceede from the ligaments of 
The third.  bones. If you regard the texture of fibres, some are so permixed that they make a continuall body, so true membranes haue their fibres, yea they are nothing else but fibres conioyned one within another. Others are separated from the substance of the part and haue another vse beside the vse of the part, and these are eyther simple as in the muscles( for all 
The fourth.  the muscles excepting a very few haue but one kind of fibres, eyther right, or transuerse, or oblique) or manifold, and so wouen together that no arte is able to make separation between them.  
So the flesh of the heart is wouen with al 3 kinds of fibres & in the naturall organs which serue for natural motion, if the part haue one proper coat, as a veyne, the womb, the two bladders, then in that coat are al the fibres placed; but if it haue two coats one external the 
How the fibres are placed in the Necturall organs.  the other internal, then are the transuerse fibres placed in the external coat, & the right ●● oblique in the internal. From this general rule you must except the guts and the arteries, because the guts do serue for distribution and excretion, and the arteries for the expurgation of the heart. Now nature is more carefull for the expulsion of that which is hurtfull then for the traction of that which is profitable. 
The last difference.   
The last difference of fibres is taken from the variety of Organs, some serue the animall Organs, as the muscles, the nerues, the ligaments, and the tendons: others serue the vitall, as the heart and the arteries: others the naturall, as the Gullet, the Stomacke, the Guts, the Bladders, the wombe, and the veynes. But what euery one of these fibres in their seuerall courses doe performe, and how they are disposed in the parts, we haue declared before in the particular history of euery part. And thus much concerning the fibres: Now we proceede vnto our last taske of the Bones.    
The end of the Twelfth Booke.   

THE THIRTENTH BOOKE, Of the Bones.  

The Praeface.  
_A Ship that hath bene long at Sea, discouered many strange Continents and Riuers, strugled through many hiddeous tempests, escaped many Rockes and Quicke-sands; though she hath made no rich Returne, yet when she commeth within ken of her owne Countrey, and sees the Land lye faire before her: If thou canst imagine( Gentle Reader) how sodainly she forgetteth her irkesome Trauell, thinke also how well apaid I am, that I am come within view of the end of this my Tedious Voyage. For I also haue trauelled about a Worlde, and that for thy behoofe.  
In my Iourney, if I haue not made many new Discoueries; yet certainely I haue sounded the Depths more truely, Entered farther into the Continents, Coasted the Shores, plyed vp the Frythes, Discouered the Inhabitants, their Qualities, Tempers, Regiment of Life, their Diet, their Apparrell, their Imployments: And in a worde, I haue made it easie for thee to reape the profit of many mens Labors, and of mine Owne. Yet thou must Vnderstand this but as a Letter of Aduertisement from the Coast. I haue not yet brought my Barke about: Many haue shunned Scylla and Charibdis, and haue miscarried euen in the Mouth of the Hauen, where there are more Rockes then in the Maine; Many Reaches, which we must haue diuers windes to fetch, and therefore thou must haue Patience if wee make not so fresh a Way, but bee constrained to winde in by Bourds; and in the meane time, forget not Thou to follow vs with thy Vowes. For this Shore is buttrest with Rockes on euery hand, the Currants swift, the Shallowes many. To breake off our Metaphor. The History of the Bones is a busie piece of Worke; their Articulations and Compositions many dissolute and laxe, many strict and close; Their Coalitions hard to be discerned, harder to be expressed; Their Perforations, Cauities, Bosomes, Appendancies, Prominences and Processes, difficult to distinguish. Now therefore, if at any time, I stand in neede of thy patience;( Gentle Reader) for my Stile heere must be abrupt and broken, hard and harsh of necessity according to my Argument. If thou canst finde Profit, loooke not for Pleasure; and if thou finde it hard to Reape in this vnequall Field, remember hee had something to do that brake vp the Swarth, and sowed it for thee.   

CHAP. I. Of the definition and differences of Bones.  
_THE Bones saith Hipocrates 〈◇〉, that is, doe giue to the whole body stability, rectitude and forme: for they are as it were the carkasse of a Shippe whereto the rest of the parts are fastned, whereuppon they are sustayned and the whole mountenance of the body is built and consuinmated. From their figure and magnitude we esteeme of the figure and magnitude of 
The knowledge of the bone necessary,  the rest of the parts: without the knowledge of the bones we must needes bee ignorant of the originals and insertions of Muscles, of the courses of the Veines, of the distribution of the Arteries and of the partitio is of the Nerues. The vniuersall syntax or composition of the Bones from the Head to the Feete the ancient Grecians called 〈◇〉, as it were a dryed or arrid carkasse.  
Galen defineth the Bones to be the hardest, the dryest & most terrestriall part of the creature. 
Galens definitions.  But this definition doth not please the pallats of the new writers, as being not exquisite or Philosophicall, but made onely for the ruder and more ignorant sort by way of innitiation. Laurentius defineth them more accuratly thus.  
A Bone is a similar part, the dryest and coldest of all the rest, made of the earthy crassament 
Laurentius definition.  and fatnesse of the seede by the formatiue faculty, assisted by the strength of heate, for the stability, rectitude and figure of the whole body.  
And this definition he sayth is Essentiall, because it designeth all the causes of Bones, the Efficient, the Materiall, the Formall and the Finall. The forme of similar partes according to Physitians is the Temper, because it is the first Power whereby and wherewith 
The explications thereof  the forme worketh and suffereth whatsoeuer the similar part woorketh as a similar. Siccity, therefore and Frigidity dryeth and coldnes doe expresse the forme of a bone. It is drye because of the exhaustion of moysture and fatnes, made by an intense or high heate. Cold it is because the heate vanisheth away for defect of moysture. These primary qualities 
The forme.  are accompanied with secondary, hardnes, heauines and whitenes. A Bone is hard not by concretion as yee, for then it would be dissolued by the fire, not by tention as the head of a drum, but by siccity as wood.  
Heauy it is because it is earthy, as also because the aire and the water in it are extreamly densated and thickned: and it is white because it is spermaticall.  
The matter of the Bones is the crassament of the seed, that is, the thicker and more 
The matter.  earthy part. Aristotle cals it Seminale excrementum, the excrement of the Seede. For though the Seede seeme to bee Homogeny, yet it hath some parts thicker then others.  
There is in it also something fat and something glutinous or slimy. Of the glutinous part because it may best be extended or streatched, are made the nerues, membranes and the ligaments. Of the fatty part are made the bones, and this Hippocrates confirmeth where he sayth, Where there is more fat then glew or slime, there the bones are formed.  
The Efficient cause of a bone is the Formatiue power which some call the Idoll or 
The efficient.  the Idea of him that ingendreth: this faculty vseth the heat for his architect, and the spirit for his chiefe worke-man, and to these the Philosopher attributeth Ordination, Secretion, Concretion, Densation and Rarification. The heate therefore drinketh vp and dryeth the fatnes, whence comes hardnes and solidity. So saith Hippocrates, Bones are condensated by heat and so grow hard and dry.  
Futhermore this heate although it be moderate( for the substance of our natiue heat is well tempered) yet because it maketh a longer stay in a more dense and fast matter, it bringeth forth the same effects that an intense or high heat doth; yea it seemeth to burn, whereupon Hippocrates doubted not to say, that the generation of bones was made by exustion, that is, by burning.  
The finall cause of Bones which Galen is wont to call their vse, is well expressed in the 
The end.  last particle of the definition. For the primary and most common vse of bones is to giue the body stability, rectiude and figure. Stability because they are as it were propugnacles 
Stability.  or defences against all violence, beside they sustaine the body as the bases or finials of a house sustaine the roofe. Rectitude because without bones the creature cannot stand vp 
Rectitude.  right but would creepe vpon the ground as a Serpent or a worme. Hippocrates secund● Epidemiωn, maketh mention of a childe borne without bones, yet were the principal parts of his body separated and fashioned, but he was not aboue foure fingers big, and dyed soone after he was borne.  
Finally, the bones do giue the figure to the body, because from them dependeth the procerity or stature and the limitation of the growth. For those that haue a great head haue large braines, those that are narrow chested their Lungs also and bowels are but short and narrow: those that haue small iawes haue also small muscles. By reason of this finall cause, which being itself immoueable mooueth all the rest, the bones are of that substance which we see, hard, solid, and insensible: hard and solid for so it behooued a pillar or prop to be; insensible ad 〈◇〉, that they should not bee so apprehensiue of payne, for because they sustaine the burthen of the body and are continually moued, they could not haue endured so diuers motions without paine if they had beene sensible therof, and then the life of the creature should haue beene alwayes sad and quaerulous. But this want of sense comes not from their earthly substance, for then the teeth which are 
Why bones are insensible.  the hardest of all bones should haue no sense; but because there are no nerues disseminated through their substance.  
The differences of Bones are to be taken sayth Galen as also the differences of singular parts from those things which follow the essence, or happen thereto. 
The differences of bones.   
The essence of a bone, that is, his cold and dry temper doe the Tactile qualities follow, Hardnesse, Softnesse, Density, and Rarity; the accidents are Magnitude, Figure, Situation, Motion, Sense, and the like.  
The first diuision therefore of bones is from their hardnesse. Some bones are very 
From the hardnesse.  hard as those that are called Stony bones and the Teeth; others soft in respect, as the spongy bones and those which we call Appendices or Appendants; others are simply hard as all the rest.  
From the magnitude some bones are great, some little, and some moderate. There 
Magnitude.  are among the Anatomists that account those bones to be great which are of a large bore or very hollow and medullous or marrowy. But wee make account of such bones for great as are great in quantity, whether their marrow be lesse or more, for the hanch-bones and the shoulder-blades which are not hollow nor medullous are yet great bones. But because the quantity belongeth to Dimentions and Dimention is three-fold, long, broad and deepe, therefore from the magnitude of bones may be taken a three-fold diuision of them. For some are long as the thigh bone, others are short as the bones of the fingers: some are broad as the shoulder-blade and hanch-bones: others narrow, some crasse or thick, others fine or thinne.  
From the figure some bones are plaine, some round, some haue three sides, some 
Figure.  haue foure, some are like a boat, some like a Cube or Dye, some like a Mallet, or an anuill, or a stirrop, &c.  
To the figure also we referre, as the best Physitians doe, the passages and cauities, the smoothnes or roughnesse. Some therefore are solid others not solid: some smoothe and some rough; I call that solid which is not hollow. Solid bones therefore doe eyther appeare altogether solid hauing no cauities or dens in thē, or at least none sensible as the bones of the eares and the nose; or else they appeare solid on the outside, but within are full of perforations and holes like sponge as are the bodies of the rackbones. To solid bones we oppose those that are hollow, that is, such as haue a sensible or conspicuous cauity, which Galen calleth 〈◇〉, a belly.  
In these is that substance contained which we properly call marrow, in latine Medulla, and therefore such bones we say are medullous, that is marrowy bones.  
From the situation there may a twofold difference of bones be taken, because vnder the 
Site.  name of situation we comprehend the position and the connexion.  
If you respect their position, some are vpper others are lower, some on the fore-side others on the hindside, &c.  
If their connexion with other parts, some are fastened by muscles, some by ligaments, and some by gristles. From motion some bones are mooued as those that are articulated 
Motion.  by Diarthrosis; some are immooueable, as those that are fastened by Synarthrosis.  
From Sense, some bones are sensible as the Teeth, all the rest without sense. 
Sense.   
Finally, we will adde that difference of bones which is taken from the order of generation. For some bones are generated perfect and compleate as the small bones of the eares, the ribs, and the cannell or coller bones The bones of the eares, because it was fitte they should be very hard and very dry the better to resound. The ribs because they were to make the cauity of the chest wherein the heart was to moue from the very birth. The coller bones because they tye the armes to the bodye and strengthen the breast. Other bones are at the first imperfect or little differing from Gristles, as the bones of the Heade and many in the body beside.  
And thus much of the differences of bones; now we proceede vnto their parts.   

CHAP. II. The particular parts of bones and an exposition of many appellations or names, of which we shall haue frequent vse in the History of the Bones.  
_IN Bones two things are to be considered; their parts and their cauities. The parts of a bone are three-fold; the principall part whereof the bone 
Three parts of a bone.  consisteth; the parte that groweth to the bone, or the bunching part of the bone. The principall part of the bone hath no proper name belonging thereto, but is called by the name of the whole bone. The part that groweth to the bone is properly called Epiphysis. That part which buncheth or beareth out beyond the plaine surface is called Apophysis. The principall part is the primary bone made by Nature, as a man should say, at the first hand or according to 
The principal  Natures first intention. This is the basis of the rest and occupieth the middle place as being the hardest part; for it is in the generation of bones as in the structure of the vniuerse that which is hard and earthy is placed in the Center.  
To this principall part often times groweth another which the Graecians call 〈◇〉, the Latines Appendix, we may call it an Additament, or if you will we may retaine the Latine word Appendix, because it is growne in vse amongst vs. For as if Nature had forgotten 
The appendix  herself & made the bone too short, she eeketh it out by this Appendix as workmen vse to lay stones or timber vnder their postes or pillars to lengthen them when they are too short. This appendix Hippocrates often calleth 〈◇〉, which wee note but by the way.  
An appendix therefore is a bone by itself, fastened to the whole bone by Symphysis or Coalition; not the vnition itself of one bone with another, for so there should be no difference betwixt Symphysis and Epiphysis, Coalition and the Appendix. That it is a bone by itself is manifest because it hath a proper and peculiar circumscription, and in young creatures may easily be separated without coction or putrifaction; yea it hath often been obserued that in young children it hath beene luxed, if I may so say, by a blow or by a fall and separated from his bone. This Appendix, is fastened to the principall bone b● that kinde of Symphysis or Coalition which is made without a Meane, because the extremities or ends of the primary bone are softer then their middle parts. Now the substance of an Appendix is rare and lax: but saith Aristotle, Soft things are easily contained in the termination of another, and yeelde vnto them. This Coalition is not made by a plaine superficies or 
Their Coalition.  surface but by a mutuall ingresse of a head and a Sinus or bosome, which kind of coniunction doth much resemble that which afterward we shall call Ginglymos.  
The substance of an Appendix is rare and lax, at first gristly, but in processe of time it groweth harder and drier because in the motion of the ioynts and their attrition the heat 
Their substance.  is stirred vppe which drieth and hardneth it. To the extremity of the Appendix Nature hath added a gristle that they might not be so subiect to outward iniuries, or if they happen to be broken yet the softnes of the gristle may helpe them to revnite againe. In old bodies they are so vnited with the principall part of the bone that they can very hardly be separated, yea they seeme to be very parts of their bones. All bones haue not this Appendix, for in the lower iaw there is none. In some bones there is but one, as in the rootes of the ribs and in childrens teeth: in others it is double one at eyther end, as in the Legge, the Brace, the arme, the Ell and the Wand. In others it is treble, as in the haunch bone; some haue foure as the bone of the thigh, three in the vpper part and one in the lower. The vertebrae or rack bones haue fiue, two in the transuerse processes, two in the bodies, and one in the Spine. There are many Appendices which are ordinarily by the people taken for processes, as the tooth of the second Rack-bone, the great Trochanter, Styloides, &c.  
The vses of these Appendices or Appendances are diuers, Galen acknowledgeth a double 
Their vses;  vse: one that in Bones which haue marrow they should serue in steade of a couer to keepe the marrow in, for that which is hollow and solid as is the lower iaw, doth keep in his marrow without an Appendix.  
The other for more firme articulation, for a bone is better established vpon a large Basis, whereas if the bones should determine into a sharper poynte, their construction or articulation would bee more dangerous and deceitfull, and the bones easily and vppon a light offence would fall out of their seates. And herein Art immitateth Nature, for the Basis or foote of a Finiall or columne for more security is made large and broad. But because these Appendances are broade, Nature made them rare and laxe, least their wayght should presse too much vpon the parts vnder them.  
To these vses of Galen we may also adde others, first that out of them the Ligaments might take their originall, which either fasten the bones or make the tendons or chordes of muscles. Falopius obserued that the Ligaments were not extended or lengthned beyond the appendices, as if the appendix bee short the Ligament is also short.  
Moreouer, the Appendix being softer then the bone and harder then the Ligament, interposeth itself as a mediator betwixt the coniūction of the bones, for such is Natures vse to couple things that are extreame by those that are in a meane.  
Adde hereto, that by the interposition of the Appendices the fracture of a bone, if it happen, is stayed and goeth no further, as appeareth in the sutures of the head.  
Againe, Appendices were made for the conseruation of the ioynt. For a bone being very hard, if one hard thing should haue beene committed or conioyned to another, by reason of their continuall motion they would haue beene broken or at least worne as the teeth are, and therefore the bones were construed or conioyned by softer bodies.  
Some out of Hippocrates doe imagine that the Appendix was made to bee as it were the belly of the bone wherein his Aliment is concocted, from whence by degrees it is percolated or strayned into his spongy or hollow parts. And thus much of the second part of a bone.  
The third part of a bone the Grecians call 〈◇〉, the Latines Processum, many other 
A processe.  appellations it hath in Greeke and Latin, but wee take the most common. In English we call it a Protuberation or Processe, and may be described thus: A processe is a legitimate part of the bone, breaking out of the bone itself, and bunching beyond his plaine and euen surface: such as are the knags of Harts-hornes. Euery bone almost hath his processes, but they are most conspicuous in the lower Iaw and in the racke-bones.  
Their vse we acknowledge to be double: one for the originals and implantations of many parts, especially of muscles; for vnlesse the bones had protuberations or productions 
Their vses.  in them, neither muscles nor ligaments could grow from them. Another vse of these processes is, that in some parts they should supply the place of a defence as it is in the rack bones and in the shoulder-blades.  
The differences of Appendices and Processes are taken from their Figure. For if 
How they differ from appendices.  the protuberation be round it is called a Head, whether it be an appendix or a processe. If from a narrow beginning it be by degrees dilated it is called a Necke. If it end in a cone or an acute termination it is called 〈◇〉. An Appendix therfore or a Processe is threefould according to the variety of their figure, a Head, a Necke and a Point.  
The Head is double, one which is absolutely called a Head, long and large, such as is 
The head.  the head of the Thigh-bone: the other depressed which is commonly called 〈◇〉, wee may properly English it a Knuckle.  
The Necke is only of one sort, herein differing from the head, that for the most part the head is an appendix and the necke a processe. 
The necke.   
That which is called 〈◇〉 the Cone or Poynt, an acute or sharpe processe is manifould. One is like a Bodkin, another like an Anchor, another like a Crowes-beake, and another 
The poynt.  like the nipple of the Dugges.  
The first is called Styloeides or Graphoeides; the second Anchyroeides, the third Coracoeides, and the fourth Mastoides.  
Those processes which at the circumference of the cauities doe hang out like lippes and increase the depth of the Cup are called Browes or Lips or Verges or Brimmes or what you list, for all these things they doe resemble. And these are the parts of a bone in generall.  
The second thing to be considered in a Bone was the cauity, which was made for the 
Differences of cauities.  articulation or construction thereof. Of cauities there are two sortes; some are deepe and some are shallow. The deepe cauities which haue high and large browes about them are called 〈◇〉 a Cuppe, and indeed it is most like the new fashioned siluer bowles which are rounde and deepe, and the edges hanging ouer their cauities: such are found in the hanch-bone and in the shoulder-blade The superficiary or shallow cauities are called 〈◇〉 from the cauity of the eye when the liddes are shut: and they are so obscure that at the first sight you may doubt whether they admit another bone or themselues enter into another: These cauities whether they bee deepe or shallow, Hippocrates calleth 〈◇〉 And these are the Appellations and names which we thought good in this place particularly to explayne, because in the History of the Bones you shall meete with very frequent mention of them. Now we proceede vnto the structure and connexion of bones.   

CHAP. III. Of the structure and connexion of Bones in Generall.  
_MAn being created for Vnderstanding and Action, to receiue infinite images of Sensible things, and to flye or apply himselfe to the diuers obiects of his appetite, stoode in neede of locall motion, but if hee had beene made of one continuall bone, how could he haue bent or extended or compassed his body? how could he haue apprehended any thing or moued himselfe forward 
Why mans body was not made of one bone.  to attayne it? No; he must haue stood like a trunke or a blocke, and the creature that was made to commaund all the rest would haue beene a right Mauchen or gazing stocke to the rest. Nature therefore for the better accomplishment of the varieties of motions, hath wonderfully framed the body of man of a Packe or Set of bones, of diuers kinds and manifold figures. And this diuersity is also of as great consequence ad 〈◇〉, that when one bone is broken the fracture might stop and not offend the rest. Hereby also is there fit way made for Transpiration of fumid vapours: hereby are the parts discriminated or distinguished one from another: hereby is the ingresse and egresse made for the vessels. Notwithstanding though this connexion bee diuers, yet is it so strangely fitted together that al seeme to be but one: one I say either by Continuity or by Contiguity at least. The vniuersall compage of coagmentation of the bones is called a Syntax, and the packe of 
What a Sceleton is.  bones so fitted together is called a Sceleton.  
The manner of this Syntax or composition is double, for it is made either by Articalation or by Coalition. Articulation we define to be a Naturall structure of the bones, where in the extremities or ends of two bones do touch one another. So that the whole Nature of Articulation consisteth in the Contaction of extremities or ends. This Articulation according to Galen is double; one laxe and loose called Diarthrosis, for 〈◇〉 in composition of wordes signifieth a separation or loosenes; another strict and so compacted that there is no space left for motion. And this kinde is called Synarthrosis. The first is with manifest motion; the second hath no motion at all, or if it haue any it is scarcely conspicuous. 
Diarthrosis. Enarthrosis. Arthrodia.   
Of Diarthrosis there are three kindes, Enarthrosis, Arthrodia and Ginglymos. Enarthrosis is when the cauity that receiueth is deepe, and the head inserted into it long, and such is the articulation of the Thigh-bone with the Haunch. Arthrodia is when the cauity is superficiary or shallow, and the head depressed or almost playne; and such is the articulation of the lower iaw with the Temple-bone and the Nowle-bone with the first spondell. 
Ginglymos.  Ginglymos is when the same bone receiueth & is receiued, as it is in the hindges of a dore, wherein the yron that carrieth the hindge and the hindge that is carried doe mutually enter one into another.  
In Ginglymos therefore the gibbous part of one bone entreth into the hollownesse of another; and againe the Sinus or bosome of one bone admitteth the gibbous or embowed part of another.  
This Ginglymos is made two wayes; for either the same bone is receiued by one and receiueth it againe, or it receiueth one bone and is receiued of another.  
An example of the first wee haue betwixt the Arme and the Cubit: of the second in the Racke-bones of the Backe, for the vertebra in the middest receiueth that spondell which is aboue it, and is receiued by that which is vnder it.  
Of Synarthrosis there are also three kinds, Rhaphe, Harmonia, and Gomphosis. Phaphe, 
Synarthrosis 3.  the Latines call Satura a seame, for it is like the seame of a garment: and it is double, one toothed like a Saw or a combe, the other plaine like the scales of a fish or the mayles of a 
Synarthrosis 3. Kinds.  Harnesse, or nailes of the fingers one thrust vnder another. The first we find in the sutures of the scull, the second in the Temple-bones. Harmonia is an articulation by a simple line, either right, oblique or circular, and so are almost all the bones of the vpper iaw ioyned together. Gomphysis is when one bone is fastened into another, as a naile into a boord, and so the teeth are set in the iawes. And these are the two kinds of articulation, Diarthrosis and Synarthrosis, vnto which we may add out of Galens twelfth chapter of his Booke de ossibus a third which is a neutrall articulation halting betwixt two, and participating of them both, yet being neither perfectly: and this neutrall articulation, because the motion thereof is obscure, may bee saide to belong to Synarthrosis, but in respect of the manner of his composition which is made by a cauity and a head, it may bee called 
The Neutrall Articulation.  Diarthrosis. Such is the articulation of the ribs with the breast-bone and the rackes: such also is seene in the wrest and the insteppe. And these are the differences and kinds of articulation.  
The other kinde of composition is called Symphysis or Coalition. For Nature well fore-seeing that the articulation of great bones was not very secure, because they might easily slip out of their seats, she therefore deuised a more streight or neere kinde of coniunction or colligation which Anatomists do call Symphysis, wee coalition, which is nothing else but a naturall vnion of bones, by which two bones are continued together and made one, so that the nature of coalition consisteth in continuity, as the nature of Articulation did in contiguity or contaction of extremities.  
This Symphysis or coalition is double, one with a meane, another without a mean. Those bones that are soft and fungous do grow together without a Meane, so all appendancies almost because they are soft and gristly are vnited with bones by coalition, but those that are dry and hard cannot be vnited without the inter-vening of another bodye. That middle body is threefold, a nerue, a gristle and flesh. And hence proceede the three differences of Coalition, Synchondrosis, Synneurosis and Synsarcosis. An example of Sychondrosis wee haue in the share-bones, and in the lower iaw. An example of Synneurosis in euerie Diarthrosis, but you must vnderstand that by a Nerue in this place we meane a Ligament. An example of Synsarcosis you haue in the bone Hyois and in the shoulder-blades, but by flesh here we vnderstand muscles. VVee haue heere added a Table which containeth their pedigree, wherto we wil not so exactly stand, as that there may be no exception taken thereto bycurious Schollers, either in the manner of diuision or in the Appellations, although presume such as will be most ready to find fault, will not finde it so easie to Amend.  

The Table of Connexions.  
Bones are ioyned or compounded by Articulation. whose Nature consisteth in contiguity of extremities, & it is threefolde. Dearticulation which is a laxe and loose iuncture, called Diarthrosis, and is of three so●ts Inarticulation, when the Cup is deepe, and the Head long, and it is called Enarthrosis, as betwixt the thigh and the Hip. Adarticulation, when the cup is shallow, & the head depressed, & it is called Arthrodia, as betwixt the lower iaw and the temple-bones, the Nowle and the first rack-bone. Hinge-hung, when the same bone receiueth and is receiued, it is called Ginglymos, & it is made two wayes. When the same bone is receiued by one bone, and again receiueth the same as betwixt the Arme and the Cubit. Coarticulation which is a strict and well compounded iuncture, and it is called Synarthrosis, it is also of three sorts by Scame called sutura, and it is double. Toothed like a Sawe or a Combe, as the sutures of the scull Plain like the scales of a fish as the temple bones with the scull When it receiueth one bone & is receiued of another, as a midle rackbōe receiueth the vpper & is receiued of the lower. Harmony which is like to Caemertation made by a line which is Right. So almost are all he bones of the vpper iaw articulated. Oblique. Circular. Mortize, which is when one bone enters into another, as a Tenant into a mortize, so the teeth are fastned in the iawes, and this is called Gomphysis. Galen addes a thirde which is newtrall or doubtfull; and is neither the one nor the other, but partaketh of them both, agreeing to Coarticulation by reason of the obscurity of the motion, and to Dearticulation if you regard the composition of the heads and the cauities. Such is the articulation of the ribs with the breast bone and the racke-bones, and that of the bones of the wrest and the Instep. Coalition or vnion, whose Nature consisteth in contiouity, and it is cald Symphysis. It is double. Without a Medium or Meane, so do soft and fungeous bodies grow together, as almost all ●ppendancies. A Gristle such Coalition is cald Sychondrosis and it is sound betweene the share-bones. A Ligament called Synneurosis, and it is found in all Dearticulations. With a Mean, as dry and hard bones which are not vnited without the interposition of some middle body: and that is Flesh called Synsarcosis, and is found in the bone Hyois and in the shoulder blades.   

To this place also we haue thought good to add six seuerall Tables conteining the Sceleton or packe of Bones throughout the whole bhdy, as they appeare before, behinde, & on the side in a man; the Sceleton of a woman; of an infant newe borne, and of two vntimely Births, with their descriptions at large, by which the Reader may be well initiated before he come to the particular Historie.  

TABVLA I.  
TABVLA. II.  
TABVLA. III.  
Ta 1. sheweth the forpart of the sceleton of a man, that is to say, the whole packe of the Bones and Gristles in a mans bodye, as they appeare on the foreside.  
Table 2. sheweth the backside of the Sceleton.  
Table 3. sheweth the later all part of the Sceleton. Wherefore we will put all these three descriptions into one.  

A 3. The Coronall Suture called in Greeke 〈◇〉.  
B 2 3. The suture like the letter Λ called 〈◇〉.  
C 2. The sagittall suture called 〈◇〉.  
D 2, 3. The Scale-like Coniunctiō, cald 〈◇〉  
α, 2, 3. Os verticis or syncipit is the bone of the Synciput, called Os 〈◇〉.  
β, 1. 3 The forehead bone, that is, 〈◇〉.  
γ, 2, 3. The bone of the Nowle or 〈◇〉.  
●, 2, 3. The bones of the temples or 〈◇〉.  
● 3. An Appendix in the temple-bone like a Bodkin, 〈◇〉.  
ζ 1, 2, 3. A processe in the temple-bone like the teate of a dugge, called therefore Mamillaris and 〈◇〉.  
E 2, 3, the wedge-bone, 〈◇〉.  
●, 3, the stony part of the scull.  
● 3, A processe of the Wedg-bone, much like the wing of a bat, and therfore called 〈◇〉  
F, 1, 2, 3. The yoke-bone 〈◇〉.  
G. 1. 2, 3, the lower iaw.  
IK, L, M, N, 1, 2, 3. the backe or the spine, 〈◇〉.  
From I to K, the Necke, 〈◇〉.  
From K to L, the rackebones of the Chest.  
From L to M, the rackebones of the Loynes.  
From M to N, the Holy-bone, 〈◇〉.  
N, the Rumpe bone, 〈◇〉.  
O 1, 3, the brestbone 〈◇〉.  
P 1, 3. the Sword like gristle of the brest 〈◇〉  
Char. 1, 2 3, as farre as to 12 in all three Tables, shew the twelue ribs of the Chest cald 〈◇〉.  
Q 1, the Clauiclas or choller bones 〈◇〉.  
R. 1, 2, 3 the shoulderblade. 〈◇〉.  
●, 1, 2, 3. the vpper processe of the shoulder blade, or the top of the shoulder, called 〈◇〉.  
μ, 1, 2, The 〈◇〉 processe of the shoulderblade, called 〈◇〉.  
●, 1, 2. 〈◇〉 bone of the 〈◇〉, called Humerus and 〈◇〉.  
T, V, 1, 2, 3, the Cubit 〈◇〉.  
Χ, 1, 2, 3. the wand or the vpper bone of the cubit called 〈◇〉.  
Y, 1, 2, 3 the ell or the lower bone of the Cubite, called 〈◇〉.  
ν 3, the processe of the cubit, 〈◇〉.  
ξ, 1, 3, the processe like a bodkin or probe, called 〈◇〉.  
ZZ, 1 2, 3, The wrest 〈◇〉.  
ΓΓ 1, 3, The After wrest 〈◇〉.  
ΔΔΔ, 1, the fingers 〈◇〉.  
Θ, 1, 2, 3. The bones ioyned to the sides of the holy bone on each side one, distinguished as it were into three parts.  
● 1, 2, 3. the first part called the Haunch bone Os Ilium 〈◇〉.  
π, 1, 2, 3, The second part the bone of the coxendix 〈◇〉  
ρ. 1, 2, 3. The third part, the sharebone os pubis, 〈◇〉.  
σ, 1, 2, 3. A gristle going between the coniunction of the share bones.  
Λ, 1, 2, 3, the thigh, 〈◇〉.  
τ, 1, 2, 3, the greater outward processe of the thigh called Rotator, 〈◇〉.  
υ, 1, 2, 3, His lesser and inner processe.  
Ξ, 1, 2, 3. The whirle bone of the 〈◇〉 Patella Rotula, 〈◇〉.  
Π, Σ. 1, 2, 3, The leg, 〈◇〉.  
Φ, 1, 2, 3, the inner and greater bone of the legge, 〈◇〉.  
Ψ, 1, 2, 3, the vtter and smaller bone of the Legge called the Brace-bone, Fibula 〈◇〉.  
φ, 1, 2, 3, The processe of the Legge or the inner Anckle called Maleolus internus.  
X, 1, 2 The processe of the brace or the outwarde ankle, both of them are called in greeke 〈◇〉  
Ω, 1, 2, 3, the bone called the cockal Talus, balistae Os 〈◇〉.  
a, 2, The Heele Calx, 〈◇〉.  
b 1, 3, The bone called Os Nauiculare, 〈◇〉.  
cc, 1. 2, 3. The wrest of the soote called Tarsus, consisting of foure bones, 〈◇〉.  
d e. f, 1, 2, 3, Three inner bones of the wrest of the foote, called by some 〈◇〉.  
g, 1, 2, 3. The vtter bone of the wrest of the foote, like a Dye, 〈◇〉.  
hh, 1, 2. 3, The Afterwrest of the foote called Pedium by some 〈◇〉.  
i, i 1, 2, 3. The toes of the foote.  
k, 1, 2. 3. The seed bones of the foote, called ossicula sesamina, 〈◇〉.   
FIG. III.  
Table 4 sheweth the Sceleton of the bones and gristles of a woman, that it may appeare, all her bones are in proportion lesser then the bones of a man. But in this table onely those parts are marked with letters wherein a woman differeth from a man in her bones & gristles  
TABVLA IIII.  

A. The sagittall suture descending vnto the Nose and diuiding the forehead bone, which is sometimes found in women, very rarely in men, but alwayes in Infants.  
BB. the chest somwhat depressed before because of the Paps.  
CC, the coller bones not so much crooked as in men, nor intorted so much vpward.  
D, the brest-bone perforated somtimes with a hole much like the forme of a heart, through which veynes do run outward from the mammary veynes vnto the paps.  
E, the gristles of the ribs which in women are somwhat bony because of the weight of the Dugs.  
F, A part of the backe reflected or bent backward aboue the loines  
GG, the compasse of the hanchbones running more outward, for the wombe to rest vpon, when a woman is with childe.  
HH, the lower processes of the share-bones bearing outward that the cauity marked with K might be the larger.  
I, the anterior commissure or coniunction of the share bones filled vp with a thicke gristle, that in the birth they might better yeelde somewhat for Natures necessity.  
K, A great and large cauity circumscribed by the bones of the coxendix and the Holy-bone  
L, the Rump or Coccyx curued backward to giue way in the time of the birth  
M, the thigh bones by reason of the largenesse of the spresaid cauity haue a greater distance betwixt them aboue, whence a so 〈◇〉, that womens thighes are thic●er then mens.   
Table 5 sheweth the sceleton of a child new borne, wherein the bones are yet eyther gristly or membranous.  
TABVLA V.  

a, A thicke and for the most part square membrane betwixt the bones of the forehead & of the Sinciput which filleth vp the parts betwixt them.  
c, The bone of the forehead diuided into two equall parts by the sagittall suture.  
d, the separation of the lower Iaw into two bones.  
e, the Scaly part of the Temple bones which in the middest indeede is bony, but in the circumference membranous.  
f, the other part of the Temple bone which maketh a part of the stony bone, where the hole of hearing is gristly.  
l, the sockets of the Iawes made to receiue the teeth.  
mm, the body of the rack-bone distinct from his backpart.  
nn, the backpart of the rackbones consisting of two broade and small bones, and of gristly processes.  
o, the Holy-bone made of 5 racks with a gristle betwixt them.  
p, The Rump gristle.  
q the brest-bone, gristly in the circumference, but in the middest cōpounded of many bones.  
rr, the large part of the Coxendix made of three bones, with a gristle betwixt them  
ss. the second part of this bone making the parts of the Coxendix & the share-bones.  
t, the third part behind making the same parts with the second.  
uu, the whitle of the Knee which is gristly.  
x, the wrest of the hand gristly.  
y, the After-wrest of the foote gristly.  
* Although all the appendances of the bones in infants are gristly, yet this * maketh the most notable as those of the arme, the blade, the Cubit, the haunch-bone, the thigh and the legge.   
TABVLA. VI.  
Table 6. sheweth the bones and gristles of an Embryo or vntimely Birth.  
FIG I  
The first figure sheweth the Embryo at 42, daies old, already formed and proportioned, when all the bones are like to curdled Cheese or to Butter.  
FIG. II  
Figure 2. sheweth the tender bones of an Abortiue fruite about 3. months old, which are more gristly then they are in a child borne in due time.  

aa 1. Betwixt these letters is that space which on the toppe of the Scull is soft and membranous, the Arabians call it Zeudech, and commonly it is called Fontanella.  
a 2, A thick membrane which goeth between the foreheade bone and the bones of the synciput.  
bb 1, the ends of the arme gristly.  
b 2, membranes betwixt the diuision of the bones of the head where afterward the sutures are.  
cc 1, The soft appendices of the Ell and the Wand almost separated from their bones.  
dd 1, the appendices of the thigh and the Leg.  
ee 1, the bones of the after-wrest of the foote, altogether gristly.  
● 2, the nayles of the fingers which are conspicuous euen in an abortiue Infant.      

CHAP. IIII. A briefe diuision and Ennumeration of all the Bones in the body.  
_THE whole Set or Pack of Bones called Sceletos we deuide into three parts; 
The diuision of the sceletos. The scull 8.  the Head, the Trunke, and the Ioyntes. The Scull which is called Cranium or Calua consisteth of eight bones, sixe proper and two common. The proper bones are the Fore-head bone, the Nowle bone, the two bones of the 
3. of hearing  Synciput, and the two Temple bones, wherein are contained the three small bones of the Eare, the Mallet or Hammer, the Stithy or Anuell, and the Stirrup. The two common bones are the Wedge bone and the Spongy or Syue bone.  
The Face contaynes both the Iawes, both the vpper and the lower. The vpper Iaw 
The iawes 13 Teeth 32.  consisteth of eleauen bones. The lower Iaw of two onely, vnto both these are 16. Teeth articulated by way of mortize or by Gomphosis, of which foure are called Incisores the Sherers, two are called Canini the Dog-teeth, and ten Molares or the Grinders.  
The Trunke is deuided into the Spine, the Ribs and the Bone without a name. The 
The spine 28.  Spine hath foure parts: the Necke, the Backe, the Loynes and the Holy-bone. The Neck hath seauen rackebones which are called vertebrae. The Backe twelue, the Loynes fiue, 
The rumpe. Ribs 24 Breast bone 3 Coller bone 2 Shoulder. blades.  and the Holy bone 4. or 6, whose extremitie is called Coccyx or the Rumpe. The ribs are twelue on either side, seauen true Ribs and fiue bastard Ribs, to which are articulated on the foreside the Breast-bone, aboue the Coller bones and on the backesides the shoulder blades. The bone without a name( and I thinke it better so to leaue it then to giue it an vnfit name) hath three parts; the Hip, the Hanches and the Sharebones.  
The third part of the Sceleton is called the Ioyntes, and there are two of them the Hand and the Foote. The Hand is deuided into the Arme, the Cubite and the Hand 
Arme 1. Cubit 2. The hands 54 The seed bones.  properly so called. The Arme hath one bone the Cubit 2, called the Ell and the Wand. The Hand properly so called is deuided into the VVrest, the Afterwrest and the Fingers. The VVrest hath eight bones, the Afterwrest foure, the fingers fifteen, to which you may adde the Seede bones called Scsamoidea.  
The Foote is deuided into the Thigh, the Leg and the Foote properly so called. The 
The thigh 1. Leg 2. Feete 52.  Thigh hath one bone: the Legge two, one retayneth the name of the whole and is called the Leg-bone, the other we call the Brace-bone, in Latin Fibula. The Foote properly so called hath three parts as had the Hand, the VVrest, the Afterwrest and the Toes. The VVrest which is called Pedium hath seuen bones: the Afterwrest Metapedium fiue bones: The Toes foureteene. To all these wee may adde the bone of the Tongue called Hyois which hath no articulation with any other bone; and this is the briefe summe of all the bones in the body. Now we proceed vnto their particular History.   

CHAP. V. Of the Sutures or Seames of the Scull, and of the substance thereof.  
_COncerning the Figures or formes of the Head, we haue spoken before sufficiently in the fourth Chapter of the seauenth Booke, and therefore here wee will not stand either to repeate or enlarge this argument, but come directly to the bones of the Scull.  
The Scull therefore is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine Caluaria, and is that bone 
The Scull  which compasseth the whole brayne, being put vpon it as a Head-peece or Murrion, for more security and stronger defence, because vnderneath it, are contayned so noble and necessary parts.  
The Scull also for further security was made round and large, because it was to contayne a great quantity of Brayne and After-brayne. It was not made of one bone for 
Not of one bone.  feare least by one wound it might haue beene throughout fractured, but of many ioyned together by sutures or seames, as well for security as also to make the Head lesse subiect to offence: for were it not for these seames, in vehement motions the bones must needes start asunder.  
The fashion of these Seames is of two sorts: the one playne and linear like two bords 
The seames.  glewed, or stones caemented together: the other indented like the teeth of two Sawes ioyned together, or like a loose seame of a garment when it is slackly sowed. It is very rare to finde the head without seames, although Aristotle report such a thing, as also Pollux in his second booke, Herodotus in his ninth, and Columbus vpon his owne experience. Sometimes we finde the Coronall suture to bee obliterated, sometimes one of the other, sometimes in old bodies through length of time and drith all the seames do grow together by coalition, as doe the Appendances of bones, and their sutures are so abolished that scarce any footsteps of them doe remayne, which in yonger bodies are most conspicuous.  
Of all the Sutures sayth Falopius those of the Temples doe continue the longest. Hippocrates de vulneribus capitis, and Galen out of him do say, that the sutures do change their position and number according to the different figures of the head, so that in those heads wherein the anterior prominence is wanting therein also is the Coronall suture absent, where there is no prominence in the Nowle there is no Lambdall suture: yet alwayes the Sagittall suture remayneth, and then the figure of the remayning sutures is like T. But where both prominences are wanting, there are 2. lines intersecting themselues through the Scull like X. Columbus for this reprehendeth Galen, and sayeth hee hath handled sixe hundred thousand Sculs( he meanes a great many in some Church yard or Cloyster) yet neuer found any whose figure was not naturall, or which wanted either the Coronall or Lambdall sutures. Falopius also in this is against Galen, and so is Eustachius. Bauhine cannot approue it, for sayth he we often find heads which want either the interior or posterior prominence and yet haue all the sutures. Againe, some wee finde without the Coronall sutures, when notwithstanding the fore head beareth out; some without the Lambdal suture though the Nowle be būching: some without the sagittal; sōe are foūd without any suture at al, though no prominence be wanting: not that these sutures are deficient from their originall or from the birth, but they are therefore abolished because they oftentimes grow together whether the head be well formed or no. For if the prominences were the cause of the sutures, then where there are no prominences there should bee no sutures, but in the side of the head at the Eares where the Scull is depressed there are sutures without prominence.  
The Sutures are called 〈◇〉, and they are of two sorts; some are proper to the Scull 
Their differences.  itselfe, some are common to it with the vpper iaw. The proper sutures are againe double, True or False: the True are three, the False sixe. The common sutures are fiue. The true seames are two transuerse, and one lengthwise, so that together they make such a figure as this.  
The first or the anterior or the transuerse[ table 7. A B tab. 9. fig. 11. nn] is called 〈◇〉, Coronalis the Crowny suture, because the auncients were wont to weare 
The Coronall suture.  their Crownes or Garlands in that place; not such Crownes as Kings weare, and 
TABVLA VII.  
FIG. VI.  
VII.  
Table 7 sheweth some bones and sutures of the head. Fig. 6 sheweth the left side. Fig. 7 sheweth the right side, the yoke-bone beeing remooued. See the description in Lib. 7, folio 438.  at this day amongst vs, Gentlewomen doe in that place weare there Wyers or Tyers of haire, and oftentimes lay some peece of Scarlet or such like vnderneath to defend the mould of the head,( for so wee commonly call it) from the ayer. This suture resembleth a transuerse circle, for it runneth ouerthwart aboue the forehead as farre as to the scaly agglutinations, and it separateth the forehead bone[ ta. 7, L from I to K] from the bones of the Synciput, or it ioyneth them together.  
The second or posterior suture[ Tab. 7; C D. tab. 9, PP] is in the backpart 
The Lambdal.  of the head, and ascending obliquely from the basis of the nowle to the rootes of the mamillary processes, at each eare determineth at the middest of the sagittall suture. This suture because it is like the letter Λ is called Lambdoides. It separateth the nowle bone from the bones of the Synciput[ ta. 7, M from I K] and the temple bones.[ tab. 7, N]  
But in those men whose Sculs are large behind this suture is altered into others of diuers formes; somtimes the bone is diuided by a transuerse suture; somtimes it is circumscribed with a double suture as if a greater Triangle should comprehend a lesser; somtimes with a treble, as if a greater Triangle should comprehend two lesser; and these bones so circumscribed are by some called Triangularia, and are commended as of much auaile in the Epilepsie or falling sicknes. The 3 suture is in the midst betwixt the former two,[ Ta. 7, fi. 1, ●] and commonly 
Sagittalis. ( as you may see in grown bodies) it rūneth from the middle of the Lambdal throgh the middest of the length of the head to the midst of the crowny suture; somtimes it breaketh through it and diuideth the forehead bone iust in the midst vnto the top of the Nose, which is alwayes to be seene in Infants, in some children till they be 7 yeares old, in women but rarely, in men more rarely, and especially in those that haue flat faces. It is called Sagittalis because it is straight like an arrow. It diuideth the two bones of the Synciput; somtimes also as we haue saide, the forehead bone, and somtimes it cutteth also a part of the Nowle-bone: And thus much of the true sutures.  
The Bastard sutures are so called because they be not so euident and conspicuous as the former, or rather because they belong to the second kinde of seame which is plaine, lying 
The bastar● sutures.  as the scales of a fish one aboue another. Some reckon foure, others fiue, we with Bauhine will account six. The first is at the sides of the cauities of the Temples on each side 
The first.  one.[ tab. 7, F, G, H] It runueth with a circular passage vpward from the roote of the mammillary processe and passeth downeward vnto the basis.[ Tab. 7, fig. 6, from F, G, H, to Ω] These sutures are not made by coniunction but rather by superapposition, so that the bone of the Synciput is by little and little attenuated like the plate of a Iacke or scale of a fish, and lieth ouer the temple bone. And therefore they are not simply called sutures but Squamosae adglutinationes and Squamiformes suturae.  
Now the reason why Nature ioyned the bones of the synciput and the temples together like scales was, because she determined to place in the latterall parts of the templebones the smal bones of hearing, for which end she stood in need to make the bones of the hollow, whereas if both bones had beene thicke there had beene no roome for the cauity, and beside the head would haue beene to heauy. Wherefore out of the great bone of the temples being attenuated, is formed a cauity for the bones of hearing, and the other bone of the Synciput was also made thin, that it might more fitly be ioyned to the tēple bones. These two sutures do ioyne together on the foreside the temple bones with the wedge-bone;[ tab. 7, fig. 6, N with Ω] but behind and aboue with the bones of the Synciput.  
The fift, or the second bastard suture[ tab. 7, fig. 6, b] runneth likewise obliquely downward 
The fift.  at the sides from the top of the former[ tab. 7, fig. 6, from M to g] vnto the beginning of the first common suture;[ at g] and this may bee called Cuneiformis, the suture of the wedge-bone; for on the vpper part it ioyneth the wedge-bone with the bones of the Synciput, on the lower part with the bones of the forehead.  
The sixt suture[ Tab. 8, fig. 9, MM tab. 9. fig. 10, s] is on eyther side at the basis of the head; 
The sixt.  oblique also and continuall with the Lambdall suture, and runneth from the extremity of the same close by the roote of the mammillary processe through the middest of the stony bone obliquely inward to the basis of the head, where it is ioyned to the first rackbone as farre as to the transuerse line; but because it doth not so exactly expresse the forme of a suture, but seemeth rather a simple line, therefore some haue called it Lambdoides Harmonialis; others Lambdoides inferior and Galen an additament of the Lambdall suture; & this suture or line is common to the Additament of the nowle with the lower part of the temple bone and the Organ of hearing. In children it is very manifest but in growne bodies by degrees it vanisheth away so that in old men there is no remainder or shew of it.  
The seauenth suture[ tab. 8, fig. 9, nn. tab. 9, fig. 10, t] is a line in the middle of the basis 
The seuenth.  of the head which runneth on eyther side ouerthwart with a short course till it end into the chinke or rift which is common to the wedge-bone with the temple bone. This is common to the Additament of the nowle with the wedge-bone, and ioyneth together the end of the Lambdall suture.  
The eight[ tab. 9, fig. 10, uu] is most conspicuous on the inside of the Scull. It runneth 
The eight.  ouerthwart on both sides in the forepart thereof, and reacheth to the lower angles or corners of the spongy bone and the cauities of the Nosthrils. It is common to the forehead with the fore-part of the wedge-bone. Moreouer it separateth the spongy bone on euery side from the fore head bone, which seeme rather to be ioyned by Lineall harmony or Caementation then by suture.  
The ninth[ Tab. 9, fig. 10, from u by K I vnto x on the left side] on the outside almost in the middest vnder the spongy bones of the Nosthrils appeareth foure square, and runneth 
The ninth.  obliquely according to the forme of the wedge-bone, so that it is common to the spongy bone as it is referred to the Scull: on the backpart with the wedge-bone, on the forepart and in the sides with the forehead bone: and these are the sixe bastard sutures which with the three true sutures make nine proper sutures of the Scull.  
The Sutures which are common to the Scull with the bones of the vpper Iaw wherby 
The common sutures of the Scull. The first.  the processes of the bones of the Scull are fastened on the outside are accounted fiue.  
The first is in the outside of the eye-brow,[ tab. 7, fig. 6, 7, gg Tab. 8, fig. 8, ●. fig. 9, g] and runneth outward from the end of the fift suture and the second common suture, and expresseth the right forme of a suture indeed, and it is common to the bones of the forehead and the first bone of the vpper Iaw.  
The second which Archangelus maketh a proper suture of the Scull and Columbus 
The second.  accounteth for the sixt, appeareth in the vtter and laterall part of the orbe of the eye, and as if it were double is distinguished with a long common perforation; aboue it runneth downeward[ Tab. 8, fig. 8, from S to Q and fig. 9, to d. tab. 7, fig. 7, to d] from the outside of the orbe of the eye and the cauities of the temple bones vnto the foresaide perforation & becommeth common to the wedge-bone with the first bone of the vpper iaw, which maketh the outward angle; below it runneth directly downeward at the sides of the Pallate and the cauity of the Nosthrils from the foresaide perforation euen vnto the roots of the teeth,[ tab. 8, fig. 9, from d to e] and is common to the wedge-bone with the fourth & sixt bones of the vpper iaw.  
The third, which Columbus accounteth for the eight, is feated in the inside of the orbe of the eye and the cauity of the Nosthrils, and runneth obliquely outward from the roote 
The third.  of the eye to the top of the Nose,[ Tab 8, fig, 8, R S T V X Y Z] and is common below, by a 
TABVLA VIII.  
FIG. IIX.  
IX   
See this description lib. 7. cap. 4. fol. 439. short cutte to the protuberation of the wedge-bone with the third bone of the vpper iawe; the rest of his passage ioyneth the outward table of the forehead bone, with the second, third, fourth and fift bones of the vpper iaw.  
The fourth belongeth to the yoake-bone 
The fourth.  and runneth obliquely thorough the middest thereof,[ ta. 7. fig. 6. Y tab. 8. fig. 9. Y fig. 8. P] and ioyneth the processe of the temporall bone with the proces of the first bone of the vpper iaw.  
The fift is belowe in the cauity of 
The fift.  the Nostrilles, and runneth[ ta. 8. fig, 9, vnder. 〈◇〉] from behind forward betwixt the processes called the Bats-wings, and is common to the wedge bone with the partition of the nosethrils. It is also to bee obserued that all the coniunctions of the bones of the head which outwardly are sutures, on the inside doe rather seeme to be ioyned by Harmony or Caementation thereby suture: on the contrary sayeth Eustachius, in the Scull of an Ape they are each where so obschre, that for the most part they doe not deserue the names of sutures. In 〈…〉 men also they are greater and more loose in others smaller and more compacted.  
The first sort are lesse troubled with paynes in the head from internall causes; albeit Celsus in the first Chapter of his 8. book is of another minde; neither ought any man to wonder much thereat, because Anatomy in his dayes was but in the Infancy, and beside that kind of learning among the Romans was but geazon: the other whose sutures are more compacted, are obnoxious or subiect to continuall and great paynes of the head, because the sooty excrements are retayned, which with their acrimony or sharpnesse doe goade the membranes, and with their aboundance distend them.  
The vses of these sutures are; first to be vents of the brayne, that the thicker and sooty excrements might exhale. But this was not the only vse, for then the Scull might haue 
The vses of the sutures.  beene bored through with small perforations to haue serued that turne; but it was necessary that the Dura meninx should issue forth and be suspended to the Scull, least the hardnesse thereof should presse the brayne or the ventricles therein: beside the Filaments or strings do make the Pericranium and the Periostium. Furthermore, the sutures were made for the ingresse and egresse of vessels for the nourishment and life of those parts.  
Fourthly, that if at any time the head should happen to be broken, the fracture might not run through the whole skull but stay at the end of the fractured bone. Otherwise if a fracture were made in the forepart, the fissure or cleft would passe in the continuation of the bone vnto the hinder part, as it will doe in an earthen pot. Finally, Nature found it needfull that some parts of the scull should be thicker, others thinner, some of one forme some of another; and therefore she thought it fit rather to make it of many bones and to ioyne them together by sutures, then to make it of one onely bone, which must haue had so great variety of parts. We may also adde with Galen in the 22. chapter of the 13. book of his Method, and Falopius maketh it the 7. vse; that medicines which are to bee applyed outwardly might better enter into the braine and affect it. And thus much of the sutures.  
The substance of the Scull varieth according to the age of the partie. For in children 
The substāce of the scull.  newe borne it is very soft, afterward it is gristly and membranous, especially about the commissures or seames[ ta. 3. ta. 4: figure 1. betwixt a and b, especially ta. 4. fig. 2, betwixt a and a] and in the vpper and middle part of the head; so that in some childeren till they haue passed ouer some yeares it wil yeild to the compression of a mans finger. And this tenerity or softnes of the Scull was very necessary, both to make the birth of the infant more easie, as also for the growth of his head.  
But in growne bodies it is altogether bony for more strength; yet not fast and thin, for then the parts contayned vnder it would not haue beene so wel secured, for a light violence would easily haue penetrated through a thinne bone: nor yet fast and thicke, for then it would haue beene too great a burden; and therefore it was made neither fast nor thinne; but thicke, rare and cauernous or full of holes.[ ta. 9, fig. 11, 12, L ta. 10. figure 14. c] Thicke for security and strength, and rare that it might not bee a burden, porous also for Transpiration.  
It is made of a double scale[ ta. 10. fig 14. a o] which some call Diploas or Laminas, we will cal thē Tables, which are most manifest in the bone of the Forehead, in the Templebones, in the Wedge bones especially about the browes, or where the Scull was to bee 
The double table.  made thick, as aboue where there is no flesh; below in the Basis especially about the perforations and the cauities to strengthen them. The Tables although they bee hard and somewhat thicke, yet the vtter may sometimes bee eaten away by the French disease and the Patient recouer notwithstanding.  
Betwixt these Tables[ ta. 10. fig. 14. betwixt a & o c] there is a substance which some haue compared to a Pumie stone, fungous and fistulated manifould, not onely to make the Soull the lighter, but that in the cauities and pores thereof a marrow might bee contayned, in which marrow the bloud and spirits which are powred into it out of the veines and arteries thither ariuing, is boyled for their nourishment, and this the Anatomists call Meditullium. In other parts although it be thinne, yet is it hard and solid, as about the Temples where it is very thinne indeed and giueth way to the Temporall muscles, in the cauity also of the eye where notwithstanding aboue and below it is duplicated.  
The outward surface of the Scull is almost euery where equall and smooth, least it 
The surface  should hurt the Periostium wherewith it is compassed: yet in the margents or edges of the forehead bone, and aboue the cauity of the eyes it buncheth somewhat out for more strength: againe, at the sides of the Temples the bones are compressed for the behoofe of the Temporall muscles, and in the Nowle it is exasperated with small knottes or bunches made for the insertions of the muscles. The lower side or the Basis is very vnequall, and rough by reason of the many processes, cauities and swellings of the bones, all which we shall make mention of in their particular History.  
The Internall cauity is also for the most part smooth, that the Dura meninx whereby it is compassed might not be offended. In the top as it were of the Helmet it hath shallow cauities, in the forehead bone and the bones of the Sinciput, whereto the Dura Meninx 
The inner cauity.  doth grow, & inscriptions also or lines for the courses of the veines: but below there are diuers productions, extuberations, & small bosomes made to receiue the different figures of the parts of the Brayne, the After-brayne and the instruments of the Senses.  
Both Tables are perforated with many small holes, thrilled not in order but wildly 
Perforations.  and as it were at aduenture, and those transuerse or oblique, through which small veines and arteries do passe into the cauity of the inner bones and the sinus of the Dura meninx or hard membrane.  
Moreouer the small cauities or dens that are in either Table doe make way for the Transpiration of subtile and thinne vapours, which if they be retayned doe breede giddines and other diseases. For the head is set aboue the rest of the parts as a roofe vppon a house that is kept hot but without a chimney: whose rafters, because the smoake hath no vent, wil become black and sooty. Beside these, most bones of the head haue their proper perforations, cauities, Sinus or bosomes and processes, of which we shall speak in the particular History of each bone.   

CHAP. VI. Of the proper Bones of the Scull.  
THE Bones of the Scull are of two sortes: some belong to the Scull itself, some to the Iaw, which is double, the vpper and the lower. The bones of the Scull in grown bodies are commonly 14. whereof some are proper others are common. The proper bones are in like manner double, some make the circumference of the scul, and these are commonly accounted sixe. The fore-head bone, the two Bones of the synciput, the Nowle-bone and the two Temple-bones. The other serue onely for the sense of hearing which likewise are six, three in each Temple-bone called the Hammer or Mallet, the Stithy 
The diuision of the bones of the Scull.  or Anuile, and the Stirrop. The common Bones of the scul are so called, because they are common to the scull and the vpper iaw, and these are two, the wedge-bone and the spongy bone. In children new borne the Bones of the scull are 22. two of the fore-head, two of the synciput, foure of the Nowle, two of the Temples, two Labyrinths, sixe of the Hearing, one wedge-bone, one spongy bone, and two without names.  
The first is the fore-head bone[ Tab. 7. fig. 6, 7 L. Tab. 8. fig. 8. I l] seated before, for it maketh the forepart of the scull both aboue and below, and the whole forehead, and the vpper part of the orbe of the eyes. It is tyed aboue to the bones of the synciput[ T. 7. fig. 6 I K] 
The forehead bone.  by the Coronall suture;[ Tab. 7. fig. 6 c fig. 7 A b] belowe, partly to the bones of the scull as the wedge-bone, and on the outside to the bones of the Temples by the scale-like suture;[ Tab. 7. fig. 6 and 7 A g] on the inside by the eight suture,[ Tab. 9. fig. 10. T u] as also to the spongy bone which it doth as it were encompasse by the ninth suture:[ Tab. 9. fig. 10 from u toward K I] partly it is committed vnto some bones of the vpper iawe, to the first in the vtter angle of the eye by the first common suture[ Tab. 8. fig. 8. R Table. 7. fig. 6 and 7 g] againe in the cauity of the orbe of the eye, to the second third, and fourth bones;[ Tab. 8. fig. 8 S, T, V, X] and to the fifte in the top of the nose[ Tab. 8. fig. 8 Y Z] by the third common suture.  
This forehead bone in growne-bodies is but one, very rarely two[ Tab. 3 c Tab. 6. fig. 2 aa] though it be alwayes so found in new borne infants, distinguished by the sagittal suture; sometimes it continueth so to the seuenth yeare, but is afterward obliterated, the bones growing together. The figure of it is after a sort circular. The substance in a mean betwixt the bones of the synciput and the nowl-bone: in infants that part where it is committed with the bones of the synciput and meeteth with the sagittal suture; is very thin, and in new borne infants[ Tab. 9. fig. 11 Y] but onely membranous, in growne bodies it is more thin and infirme in the cauity of the eyes and where it is ioyned with the eight bone: in some places also it hath two transparant shels or scales. Toward the sutures it is thicker, that it might fasten more strongly with other bones, as also at the toppe of the nose and aboue the eye-browes, where it is diuided as it were into two partes to make a sinus or Denne.  
For betwixt the two Tables aboue the Nose in the Region of the Eye-browes, there 
The cuulties thereof.  are large cauities for the most part two,[ Tab. 9. fig. 10 & 11 L] one on the right hand, another on the left, which are distinguished with bonie Fibres and smal scales. Sometimes also, they are separated and encompassed with a greene Membrane, which contayneth a soft medullous and as it were an oyly bodye. In these bosomes there are perforations which determine partly into the cauity of the nosethrils, and one[ Tab. 9. figu. 10. aboue X] which endeth into the scull presently aboue the partition[ tab. 9. fig. 10 x T. 10. fig. 12 ●] of the spongy bone, whereby the organs of Smelling are distinguished. But these bosomes are not found in those that haue flat faces and saddle noses, neither yet where the forehead is diuided. They were formed to make the voice more shril, and thence it is that such ●s speake in the nose haue them not.  
Againe, they were made to conteine the aire which is drawne in by the nostrils, that 
Their vse.  being altred it might first be conueyed to these bosomes, and from thence by degrees to the organs of smelling and so vnto the Braine to make alteration therein: they serue also when the Braine is affected to reduce it vnto his natural state, as when for a moist Braine we appoint a Pomander wrought vp with Muske and Amber-greece; the Muske & Amber warmeth the aire that is drawne in by the Nosethrils and conueyed to these bosoms; and hence it is that oftentimes an odour that is drawne in by the Nosethrils remayning in these cauities, is felt a whole day together in the top of the Nose. Some thinke, as Archangelus and Piccolhominie, that the matter conteyned in them is somewhat like vnto Oyle, passeth thorough the perforation that is in the greater angle of the eye, and moisteneth the same, whereby it is made glib and his motion more quick and speedy.  
Beside these, there is also a Den made of a double scale, the vtter scale maketh the 
The Denne.  vpper part of the Orbe of the eye[ Tab. 8. fig. 8. aboue ●] and is plaine; the inner maketh the cauity aboue the eyes on either side[ Tab. 9. fig. 2 Z] and is not plain but hath inscriptions answerable to the winding convolutions of the Braine, whose protuberating portions it receiueth. A Sinus also runneth through the middest of this Bone, as farre as to 
The perforations.  the spongy-bone, which was made for the third sinus of the dura Mater, to giue way vnto it that it should not be pressed by the forehead bone.  
Holes it hath in the place of the Eye-browes, sometimes two, sometimes three, & three beside peculiar vnto it, one on the inside in the coniunction of the spongye bone with the forehead bone where it passeth into the sinus, of which we haue spoken before. Beside two on the outside at the middle of the browes, on either side one[ tab. 8. fig. 8 AA] which is sometimes orbicular, sometimes long, and endeth into the orbe of the eie; thorough which a branch of the Nerue of the third coniugation is transmitted out of the orb of the eye to the musculous skin of the forehead, haply also vnto the Muscles of the eyeliddes, whence it is that oftentimes when a man rubbes his fore-head hee will sneeze vpon it.  
Finally, the forehead bone sendeth foorth two processes, one vnto the lesser, another to the greater angle of the eye which make the vpper brimmes of his orbe: and so 
His processes.  much of the forehead bone.  
The Bones of the synciput are so called, saith Arch. of our before, and Caput the Heade, because they make the anterior or forward part of the head. In Greeke they are called 〈◇〉, 
The Synciput.  which word Eustathius vpon Homer acknowledgeth to bee giuen, because in Infants that part is not onely tender but very moist: or rather saith Bauhine, because therevnder lyeth the moist and soft Braine. They are called in Latine Ossa verticis, because they make the heighth or top of the head:[ tab. 7. fig. 6. I K] also Parietalia the VVall-bones, & by Volcher, the Bones of Reason or Discourse.  
They are two ioyned together in the midst of the length of the head by a suture common to them both, called Sagittalis;[ Tab. 7. fig. 6 A] and so ioyned make the vpper part of the scull, as also the sides for the most part as farre as to the eares. They are fastned also to the adiacent bones, on the foreside to the forehead bone by the coronal suture,[ t. 7. fig. 6 A B] behinde to the Occiput or Nowle by the Lambdal suture,[ tab, 7. fig. 6 D C] on either side to the bones of the Temples by the scaly sutures,[ tab. 7. fig. 6 G F H] and finally to the wedge-bone by a part of the fift suture.[ tab. 7. fig. 6 & 7 H, A]  
Their forme is almost fouresquare and almost equally thicke, sauing that they are attenuated where they are ioyned to the Temple-bones.  
Their substance in growne bodies is hard and solid, yet in respect of other bones very rare and weake, and this haply is the reason why wounds in the Synciput are most-what 
Forme and substance.  mortall. In infants( I speake not now of Beastes but of men) the anteriour part of these Bones where the Sagittall suture is ioyned with the Coronall[ tab. 7. fig. 6 B N] this part is Membranous and hardneth by degrees, and the two Bones do grow together and are indurated: last of all the Bones of the Head, and some haue thought as Aristotle and Pliny, that it is not possible children should speake, before the whole scull bee become Bonie.  
Because of this softnesse when the Bones are not yet so well growne that they can couer 
The breach betwixt them  the whole Braine, you may obserue about the crowne of the head as it were a breach or Den,[ Tab. 9. fig. 11 Y. tab. 6. fig. 11, aa] which the Arabians call Zeudech, the Barbarians because of the moysture and pulsation do call it Fons pulsatilis, the beating fountaine. Others call it the Foutanel, and indeede in that place at this day wee vse to apply Cauteries, and the Ancients vsed red-hot frying pans in fits of the Apoplexy, for so I may cal them with good warrant: if you wold know the very place of this coniunction in a liuing body, let him lay the roote of the palme of his hand betwixt his browes, and the middle finger will designe the iust place.  
These Bones haue on the inside superficiall cauities or small Bosomes, to which the dura Meninx growes, as also inscriptions[ tab. 9. fig. 10 and 11, SS] for the vesselles which run from the internall iugulars through the thicke Membrane of the Braine. They haue also some smal perforations, especially outward at the sides of the Sagittall suture which perforate the Bone from one side to another, and transmit small veines for nutrition.  
The Bone of the Occiput or the Nowle-bone[ Tab. 7. figure. 6 & 7 M tab. 8. figu. 9 MM] is 
The Nowle-bone.  called Occiput, of Oc for Ob and Caput, because it is behinde the head. Some call it Os basilare, the Arabians os Prorae, and os Memoriae, as if the memory were seated in it. The situation of it is behinde, and it maketh the backward and lower part of the Scul and the middle part also of the Basis. Platerus sayth it is alwayes one, but sayth Bauhine I haue a Scull wherein it is made of three bones, and Eustachius maketh mention of the like.  
In children till they come to the end of the first yeare it consisteth of foure bones, one aboue which maketh the greater part of the capacity, and in some bodies is diuided in the middest by the sagittall suture. Another below vnder the great perforation which they call his additament; at the sides of that perforation are the 2. other very thin bones and gristle bound or vnited by Synchondrosis, for they are deuided by lines filled with a gristly substance, which becomming in time harder is turned into a bone. It is fastned aboue to the bones of the sinciput[ ta, 7, fig, 6, IK] by the Lambdall suture,[ tab. 7, fig. 6, CD] at 
His connexion.  the sides of the Temple bones by the additaments of the same Lambdall suture, or by the sixt suture;[ ta. 8, fig. 9, mc] and in the middest of the wedge bone[ t. 8, fig. 9, OO] by a transuerse line or suture, or by the seauenth suture which is common to it with the wedgebone[ ta. 8, fig. 9, nn.]  
The figure of it is almost rounde or rather dianguliar, consisting of two circular lines 
Figure.  which end into sharpe determinations.  
The substance is hard and fast aboue all the bones of the Scul, and thickest at the basis 
Substance.  where it is without flesh, and where two sinus of the Dura meninx are ioyned,[ ta. 9, fig. 10, vnder fgh] for it behoued well that it should be stronger then the forehead bone, because it is behinde where it could not so well haue beene attended vnto. At the sides of the great perforation[ ta. 8, fig. 9, a ta, 9, fig, 10. d] it is somewhat thin, ( Aristotle sayeth the thinnest of all bones, but he mist his marke) and without any cauities or small dens therein, but in the middest to strengthen it the more because of his thinnesse, there riseth and runneth a long prominence[ ta. 9, figu, 10, at h] throughout, to secure it if by chance a man should fall backward.  
It hath nine Sinus or Bosomes, 7. on the inside, of which two are partly oblique & partly transuerse: on each side one which climeth obliquely vpward & backward through 
Sinus nine.  the temple-bones,[ ta, 9, fig, 10, from b toward q] presently runneth ouerthwart[ ta, 9 figu, 10, and 11, about h] and so they meete in the middest of the Nowle. They are made to receiue two sinus of the Dura meniux that they should not be compressed by the bones of the Scull.  
The third Sinus is right, straight, and from the congresse of the former runneth directly vpward, and vnder the sagittal suture, and the middle of the foreheade bone attayneth vnto the spongy bone,[ ta, 9, figure 9 at h] and this Sinus was exsculped or grauen in the bone for the third Sinus of the Dura meninx.  
There are two other bosomes seated aboue the transuerse, and distinguished by a right line. Their vse is the better to receiue the Brayne, which is double. There are yet two 
Their vse.  other large Sinus in the Basis below the transuerse,[ ta, 9, fig, 10, g] which receiue the protuberations of the After-braine, and these are the seauen Sinus on the inside.  
On the outside there are two semicircular, made to receiue the two anterior processes,[ ta, 8, fig, 9, ll.]  
The perforations of the Nowle-bone are fiue: the first[ ta. 8, fig., 9, H ta. 9, fig. 10, d] is in the middest of the Basis of the Nowle. The largest of all the inward holes of the head; 
The perforations.  it is round but somewhat long, through which the marrow of the brayne falleth into the spine. It hath also two other perforations[ ta. 8, fig. 9, ● ta 9, fig. 10, b] common to it with the temple bone, on either side one betwixt the head of the Nowle[ ta. 8, figu. 9, betwixt l and i] and the appendix Styloides. These are notable and long perforations, and seeme as it were double, for through it in the lower and vtter part doth passe the greater branch of the internall Iugular veine, and the lesser braunch of the sleepy artery: againe, through the vtter and inner part passeth the sixt coniugation of Nerues.  
Two other proper perforations it hath[ ta. 8, fig. 9 ζ ta. 9, fig. 10, c] which are neare vnto the first, running obliquely inward and are orbicular: yet sometimes they are long for the transmission of the seauenth coniugation of sinewes which is presently ioyned to the sixt; sometime also it transmitteth a veine and an artery. Sometimes there is yet found another perforation on either side in the vtter part of the head of this bone[ ta. 8, fig. 9, ●] which is not very large because it runneth a long course before it gette within the Scull. Some thinke through it there passeth a veine and an artery which did climbe vp the transuerse processes of the Rackebones: but sayth Bauhine wee finde this perforation wanting oftentimes on one side, sometimes on both, and then these vessels passe through the two holes last before mentioned.  
On the outside at the basis the nowle bone is rough and vnequall as well for the originall as for the insertion of the muscles and ligaments.  
His processes or heads( for so we called them euen now and according to Platerus) are two,[ Tab. 8, fig. 9, ll] broad before, and in infants they haue an Appendix couered also with a gristle, and protuberating more inward then outward, which processes are inserted into the Sinus of the first rack-bone to helpe the motion and articulation of the head. On the backside there ariseth a small processe which is receiued by the first rackbone.  
Finally, in dogs from the nowle bone proceedeth another triangular bone sinuated which goeth betwixt the braine and the After-braine.  
The temple bones called 〈◇〉, are called by diuers names, Ossa lapidosa, Saxea, Parietalia, Dura, Arcualia, Squamiformea, Squamosa, Mendosa,[ tab. 7, fig. 6, and 7, N. ta. 8, fig. 9, TT] 
The templebones.  their principall part is about the sides neare the eares, part of them also in the basis. In growne bodies they are two, on each side one, but in children each bone by the interposition of a gristle is parted quite through the auditory passage. The footsteps of which 
The conexiō.  diuision do yet remaine at the entrance of that passage. They are conioyned aboue with the bones of the Synciput by a proper Scully suture,[ Tab. 7. fig. 6, and 7, G, E, F] somtimes also with the forehead bone below, and on the inside with the Additament of the nowlebone by the sixt suture;[ Tab. 8, fig. 9, m n] in like manner with the wedge-bone: before that is, at the sides, it is ioyned by that suture by which the stony-bone is annexed to the same wedge-bone,[ Ta. 7, fig. 6, from Ω to H] but in the basis on the outside where the cleft is, they are parted asunder.[ Tab, 8, fig. 9, from n to o] Finally, they are ioyned with the first bone of the vpper law;[ Tab. 7, fig. 6, Y] I meane their processe which is called Iugalis or the yoke( for that is a processe of the temple bone) by the fourth common suture.  
Their figure is aboue ample, round and semicircular, but below it hath no shape but seemeth like a rude rugged and vnequall Rocke. 
Their figure and substance   
The substance is also full of variety, for at the basis they are thicke and rough like Rocks whence they are called 〈◇〉 Petrosa, The rocky or stony bones. Ascending they are by degrees attenuated, so that they were not so thicke at the basis, but they are as thinne at the top, yea transparent; especially where they giue way to the temporall muscle, and like scales are adioyned by the second kinde of suture to the bones of the Synciput which in their descent are attenuated to receiue them: and though the height of the temple bone be but thin in respect of his basis, yet it is harder and faster then the bone of the Synciput vnder it to which it is a kind of defence, and therefore cannot be broken without danger of death, although Columbus make mention of two children cured of fractures in that place, the one at Padua, the other at Rome.  
Moreouer if these bones had beene equally thicke throughout and not attenuated 
Parts.  toward the top, their very waight, if nothing else, would haue beene burthensome. On the outside they are solid, smooth, and plaine; on the inside because of the conuolutions of the braine it hath many risinge inscriptions. Againe in the basis of it wee shall finde one Appendix, three Processes, eight Perforations, and two Sinus or cauities of which we will speake in order.  
The Appendix is sharpe, long, and slender, and a little incurued like a Cocks spurre.[ Tab. 7, fig. 6, and 7, i. tab. 8, fig. 9, ii] It is commonly called Styloides, sometimes Belenoides, 
Appendix.  Graphoides and Plectrum, that is, the Bodkin, the Needle, the Pen, and the Cockspurre. In children it is gristly, in growne bodies solid and hard, but because it sticketh farre out, a little thing will breake it off, which is the reason why wee finde it so seldome in Sculs gotten out of the ground, yea a little seething will make it fall away.  
From this Appendix proceede the muscles which go vnto the bone Hyois, the tongue and the lower iaw to draw them downeward, yea the bone Hyois itselfe groweth thereto by the interposition of a ligament. So much of the Appendix.  
The first processe is on the outside blunt and dull tending downward on each side one, which because they are like the nipple of a Cow are called Mastoides, mammillares.[ ta. 7, fig. 6, and 7, K. tab. 10, fig, 8, M, fig. 9, K.] It is a thicke processe, spongy within and somewhat hollow, it may be for more lightnes, and it serueth for the insertion of the muscles which bend the head; wherefore it is rough and like a Rocke. The second processe runneth forward from the hole of the eare to the processe of the first bone of the vpper iaw to helpe to make the bone called Iugale or the yoke bone, for these twoe processes one of the Temple bone, the other of the first bone of the vpper iaw beeing ioyned with an oblique suture do make the fashion as it were of a Bridge or of a yoke.[ ta. 7. f. 6 & 7 V, X. ta. 8. f. 8 at P] The third processe is on the inside[ ta. 9. fig. 10 α α] and stony, swelling out in length; wherin there is a triple or threefold cauity. The first is called Tympanum the drum, the second Labyrinthus the Labyrinth, the third Cochlea the Snaileshel, where also there are 
The bones of Hearing, and the cauities of the stonybone  3 bones of hearing, all which because they were made for that sense wee haue handled particularly; the cauities of this stony-bone in the 20. 21 and 22 chap. of the 8 Booke, as also the three bones of hearing in the 18 chapt. of the same Booke, where hee that listeth may finde aboundant satisfaction, at least so farre as we could serue his turne, for we haue handled them there very particularly. This third processe in infants is called the bone of the labyrinth, because it lieth vnder the scaly bones, & is so straightly fastned vnto them that at length they vnite; so it changeth his name and is called the interior processe of the Stony bone. So much of the Processes.  
The Perforations are of two sorts, six externall and two internall, which doe let something in or send something forth, or both. The first externall perforation which Platerus 
The perforations.  calleth the third of the temples and the first of Hearing,[ ta, 8. fig. 9 y] is verie large betwixt the Mammillary processe and the Iugall or yoake-bone; because it intromitteth or giueth way to the entrance of aire and sounds. It is called by a proper name, Meatus Auditorus, the hole of Hearing.  
The second perforation which Platerus accounteth for the first of the temples, is in the backside, nere to but behinde the Mammillary processe[ ta. 6. fig. 9. x] and entreth into the cauity of the scull at the transuerse and round side of the Lambdal suture.  
This perforation is sometimes wanting in one side sometimes in both, but when it is there a branch of the externall Veine passeth through it.  
The third perforation which Platerus accounteth for the second of the Temples, is at the stony processe[ ta. 8. fig. 9 X] vnder the appendix called the Bodkin or Styloides. It is a great hole vnequall, and runneth oblique from behinde inward and forwarde, thorough which the greater branch of the Sleepy artery runneth obliquely vnto the fift hole of the wedge-bone, and from thence into the Ventricles of the Braine; by it also yssueth a portion of the third Coniugation of sinewes. It was bored aslant or oblique that it might more safely passe without breaking from behinde forward. Some think the cause of the obliquity was, that the spirituous bloode might there make a certaine stay.  
The fourth hole, which Platerus calleth the fourth of the Temples and the second of Hearing, is likewise oblique, double and short.[ ta. 8 fig. 9 V] It intromitteth the Iugular veine, and sometimes transmitteth a small branch of the Auditory Nerue.  
The fift, according to Platerus the fift of the temples and the thirde of Hearing, is betwixt the Mammillary processe and the Appendix Styloides, a round perforation and determineth into the long Canale. It intromitteth the Sleepy Artery and giueth way vnto the egresse of a Nerue.  
The sixt, according to Columbus the fift, is betwixt the Nowle and the temple-bone great and vnequal, and bored for the egresse of the sixt coniugation of sinewes, and the ingresse of the internall iugular veine vnto the Braine.  
The seauenth, the sixt according to Platerus of the Temples and the fourth of Hearing, is bored in the backside of the proces,[ Ta. 9. fig. 10 a] it is long and as it were oual, dilated by degrees and runneth with a blinde passage( from whence it is called Foramen ●acum, the blinde hole) into the labyrinth: into this hole the Auditory nerue of the fifte paire doth passe.  
The eight, according to Platerus the seuenth of the Temples and the eight of Hearing, is in the foreside of the processe;[ tab. 9. fig. 10 against a] a narrow perforation and rugged like a rift, and it transmitteth from the organ of Hearing a small Artery into the capacity of the scull. And thus much of the perforations.  
The sinus or cauities of the Temple bones are two. One outward[ Ta. 8. fig. 9 h] betwixt the hole of Hearing and the processe of the yoake-bone: it is a long cauity, transuerse 
The Sinus.  and crusted ouer with a Gristle, and into it the longer processe or the head of the lower iaw is inserted and articulated, and this sinus saith Columbus, Galen in his Booke De Ossibus hath not rightly described. The other bosome or cauity is inward, at the backeside of the processe, long and oblique and common to the Temple-bone with the nowlbone.[ Tab. 9. fig. 10 from b toward i] And thus much of the proper Bones of the Scull.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Bones that are common to the Head and the vpper Iaw, that is to say, of the Wedge and spongy bones.  
_THE first Bone that is common to the Head and to the Iaw, is called Sphaenoides, 
The Wedgebone.  either because it is like a Wedge, sharpe aboue and thicke below; or rather for that like a VVedge it sticketh betwixt the Bones before named and those of the vpper Iaw. The Interpreters of the Arabians call it by diuers names, os Paxillare, Colatorij, Basilare and Cauilla. It is seated in the middle of the basis of the Heade, yet so as that it toucheth almost all the bones of the head and the vpper iawe. It is ioyned before, to the fore-head bone by the eight transuerse suture,[ ta. 9. figu. 10. from T to u] to the spongy-bone on the inside by a portion of the ninth suture;[ ta. 9. fig. 10 at the middle u] On the outside at the cauity of the nostrils, 
Connexion.  to the partition by the fift common suture;[ ta. 8. fig. 9 nere 〈◇〉] behind, to the additament of the Nowle-bone by the seuenth suture;[ ta. 8. fig. 9 nn] at the sides to the temple bones by the scaly suture;[ tab. 7. fig 7 a] to the angle of the Bone of the Synciput by the fift Suture,[ ta. 7. fig. 6 and 7 from H to A] and to the forehead bone by the same suture.[ from A to g] It is also ioyned by his eminences or processes to the Bones of the vpper Iaw, as on the inside; with the orbe of the eye, with the third Bone of the Iaw by the third common suture. In the outside with the first, fourth and sixt Bones of the vpper iawe by the second common suture.[ ta. 8. fig. 8 from S to Q. and fig. 9 from d to e]  
In growne bodies it is but one bone, yet at first it is compounded of foure Bones with a Gristle betwixt them, which saith Falopius in his Obseruations do not appeare distinguished 
His parts.  after the seuenth month but are vnited. The first of these foure is the basis, in middle almost of the head separated by a transuerse line from the ende of the additament of the Nowl-bone, and it containeth the Pituitary or Phlegmaticke Glandule, and beecause it is like a saddle, is called the saddle of the Wedge-bone.[ ta. 9. fig. 10, ●]  
The second part of the wedge-bone hath no name, and is destined to beare vp the vnition of the Optick nerues,[ ta. 9. fig. 10 D] and is coupled to the first with a plentiful gristly substance, toward the palat there is in it a bony naile, whereto is fastned a long & broad bone which is gristly in the originall, and is like to the Cowlter that runneth before the Plowshare. The third and fourth parts of this bone are two processes, on either side one like to wings.[ tab. 8. fig. 9. char. 1, 2, 3, 4] VVherefore because this bone is made vnequal, with many processes both within and without, it was called by the Auncients 〈◇〉, Seare-shapt.  
The substance thereof is in the basis dense and fast, partly because the head lyeth vpon a basis, and therefore the Barbarians call it os basilare, partly that it should not be hurt by 
His substance  the excrements that fall downe. In young bodies it is solid, but in growne hollowe in the midst, for the hollownesse is made of the solid matter distended; for as hee that out of a little quantity of glasse bloweth a great Violl, so Nature according to the vse shee had of this bone, first made it dense and solid in children, and then dilated that density into a hollownesse, which is large and couered with a hard and fast scale or shell not at all perforated; as for the inner part, there the substance is not so solid but somewhat spongy.  
It hath many processes, some externall, some internall; within two on either side, 
His processes  which they call 〈◇〉, because they expresse or resemble the lower part of a bed or a Table.[ tab. 9. fig. 10, αα] The two forward of these are the larger and thicker, and from a broad basis do end in a sharpe Cone. The two Posterior in some bodies doe not bunch out at all, but are euen like a Wall, and therefore some haue taken it for one Processe.  
Their vse is, that the Dura Meninx might be more strongly fastened vnto the Scull. The outward processes are double: before, one on either side neere the partition of the Bones of the Nosethrils and the Palat, in that place where it is ioyned with the vpper Iaw. And these processes are likened by Anatomists to Bats wings, and therfore called 〈◇〉, for they are thicke and yet end into a notable thinnesse, almost as sharpe as the edge of a Knife.[ tab. 8. fig. 9. char. 1, 2, 3, 4. tab. 10. fig. 12 HH] They serue for a seate and a couering to the muscles that lurke within the mouth: wherefore in the middest of them there is a deepe and long cauity from which the muscle taketh his originall, and whereby it is defended. On the backside, the bone hath two small points bearing out toward the styloides. The anterior of these is blunt, and from it the first muscle of the Chops doth arise; the posterior is rough and sharp from whence issueth the 5 paire of muscles of the lower iaw or very neare vnto it. Finally, there issueth another processe from the middle edge thereof which deuideth the pallat into two. There are also bosomes or cauities insculped in this bone. On the outside in the wingy processes as hath bin said: on the inside one anterior & 
His bosomes.  vpper which is transuerse and long[ tab, 9, fig, 10, at c] and prepareth a place for the coniunction of the optick nerues. Another posterior & lovver almost foure square, broad and smooth very like vnto a saddle. Hither the neck of the Tunnell reacheth, & in it the glandule vvhich receiueth the phlegme hath his abode,[ ta. 9, fig. 10, ●] out of vvhich the same moysture flovveth aftervvard into the pallat and the nosthrils: for from this cauity or bosome, at the sides on either hand do yssue 2. canales very shallovv.  
The vpper of these[ ta. 9, f, 10, F] doth attain forward to his second perforation, through which perforation the teares distil into the eyes, and the phlegme runneth either vnto the nose or vnto the choppes through the fourth perforation; through the lower[ ta. 9, figu, 10, O] the phlegme is thought to distill into the chinke[ ta, 8, figu, 9, N] which is seated betwixt the stony bone, the bones of the Synciput and the wedge bone, & from thence into the Pallat.  
Cauities it hath, two at the sides of the forenamed bosomes common with it to the 
His cauities.  Temple-bones and the bones of the Synciput; on the inside concauous or hollow, on the outside conuex or embowed.[ ta. 9, figu, 10, SS] One also and that notable is in the basis of this bone[ tab, 9. fig, 10, vnder ●] betwixt the surface which is toward the braine, and that which is toward the cauity of the mouth. This cauity in children is not found although the part be spongy for a whole yeare; in growne bodies it is hollow and skaley, sometime 
TABVLA. IX.  
FIG. X.  
FIG. XI.  
See this discription Tab. 4. lib. 7. fol. 441.  not distinguished, but spongy and made of diuers scales, sometime it it is deuided into two distinct[ ta, 10, fig, 12, E] cauities[ ta, 10, fig, 12, CD] which are great or little according to the increment or groweth of the bones. This Cauity is couered with a fine and thin membrane, as those cauities are which be in the forehead and in the cheekes. It is either empty( and therefore some haue thoght it was made for the voyce, and that the bones might be the lighter) or in it is contayned a viscid or tough phlegme. Vnder these is another small cauity sundred into twayne by a partition:[ ta, 10, fig, 12, G] and from the former cauity run two holes vnto the nosethrils,[ figure, 12, F] haply to giue entrance or entertainment to aire, although Platerus saith it containeth a medullous substance therein. It is couered on euery side with one continued scale, no where bored or hauing yssue but into the capacity of the nosethrils; yet is this scale very thin, and may easily be bored through with a sharpe poynted Probe. If in some bodies these cauities doe not appeare, then it is made within spongy or hollow like a Pumy Stone, ouer the surface of which porous substance are drawne continued scales.  
It hath ten perforations, some in the 
His perforations.  orbe of the Eye, others in the Basis of the Scull. In the orbe of the Eye fiue, three 
5. In the Orbe of the eye.  proper and two common with the vpper Iaw. The first of these neare the processes which make the saddle, is circular or round[ ta. 8. fig. 8. EE ta. 9. fig. 10 B] made for the transmission of the Optick Nerues, and aboue in the outside it hath as it were a litle angle[ ta. 9. f, 10 C] through which passeth one small veine vnto the eye. The second perforation bored in the vpper part is not round but like a semi-circular cauity, a slit or a long cleft ending into an acute angle,[ ta. 8, fig. 8 G ta. 9. fig. 10 G] but the lower part of it is somwhat long and orbicular. And of this perforation Bauhine vnderstandeth that of Galen, where he saith, That the wedge-bone is perforated like a Siue, as if his meaning were that this 
Galen redeemed.  rift is like a Siue through which the Phlegm doth distil; and fitter it was saith Galen in the 11 de vsu partium, that it shoulde transcolate or distill then fall directly through: Otherwise we should be continually spitting and must haue held our mouths open; and therefore herein Vesalius and Columbus were too apprehensiue to finde fault with Galen, whereas indeede they are rather to bee found fault withall themselues that they did not sufficiently vnderstand him, as we could make it manifest if it were a fit place to dispute so nice questions in, but we follow our History.  
Through this second hole passeth the second Coniugation of nerues vnto the muscles of the eies which arise thereabout: also, the third paire or the lesser part of the third coniugation which goeth vnto the skin of the forhead, to the muscles of the cheekes & of the nosethrils; which yssueth partly by the hole of the forhead bone aboue the inner angle of the eye, partly through the fourth hole; thirdly, a notable branch of the sleepy Arterie; fourthly a veine entreth into the cauity of the forehead from the greater vein of the temples; fiftly thereby yssue the watery humidities of the Braine which are gathered together in the glandule, of which teares are made, and those get out of the cauity of the eye, from thence through the fourth perforation into the fifte, and from the fift they fall into the cauity of the nosethrils. And these are the vses of the second perforation. The third is immediately vnder the forenamed rift. A little perforation it is and perfectly round, thorough which the lesser branch of the fift coniugation of sinewes is transmitted to the temporall muscle and to those that lurke within the mouth: somtime also it giueth way to the lesser root of the thirde coniugation, which falleth out sometimes together vvith the second paire.[ tab. 8. fig. 8 H: tab. 9 fig. 10, H] The fourth perforation in the outside of the cauity of the eye towardes the nose is long and large like a rift, and is common to the wedgbone with the fourth bone of the vpper iaw. It transmitteth out of the orb of the eie smal nerues of the lesser rootes of the third & fift coniugations, and Phlegme or rheume with them, all which entred into the orbe by the second hole.[ ta. 8 fig. 8 & 9 D] The fift hole lurketh in the roote of the eye at the ende of the fourth. It is a long, large and noteable perforation, thorough which the rheume which fell out of the scull through the second hole, and into the orbe of the eye by the fourth hole, is conueyed vnto the capacity of the nosethrils,[ ta. 7. fig. 7 Φ] and these are the fiue perforations of the wedge-bone in the orbe of the eye.  
In the basis also of the Scull it hath fiue 
5. Out of the basis of the scull.  perforations. The first within, at the side of the bosome where the Glandule is seated: a wide, shorte and orbicular hole it is which admitteth the great branch of the sleepy Artery from the second hole of the temple bone into the scull.[ tab. 9 fig, 10 X] The second, is on the outside somewhat long and large, which transmitteth the greater rootes of the third and fourth coniugations of sinnewes, 
TABVLA X. See this Table with his description in fol. 443.  
FIG XII  
XIII  
XIV.  commonly so called.[ tab. 8. fig. 9 Q. ta. 9, fig. 10 Q] The third adioyneth on the outside to the second, but is much lesse and round, made to admit the branch of the internal Iugular veine which entreth into the scull and into the substance of the Dura Meninx;[ tab. 8. fig. 4 R Tab. 9. fig. 10 R] sometime at the side of the sixt perforation wee finde small holes prepared to admit a branch of the foresaide Veine.[ Tab. 9. fig. 10 M] The fourth is at the Nosethrils, a long hole and running directly outward, through which a braunch is conueyed into the cauity of the nosethrils[ Tab. 9. fig: 10 V] from the greater branch of the sleepy artery. The fift and last perforation of the wedge-bone is in the pallate at the extremity of the winged processe: it is large and almost oual, that through it the third coniugation of sinewes and the fourth might yssue:[ ta. 8. fig. 9 μ ν] The third into the tongue and his coate to the teeth and the lips to giue them sense; the fourth to make the coate of the pallat. And thus much concerning the wedge-bone.  

Of the Spongie Bone.  
The second Bone that is common to the Head and the Iawe, which Vesalius and Columbus make the eight bone of the head, Anatomists haue called Ethmoides or the Syue, not because it is full of holes and dennes, but because these holes are not direct( though some direct there be) but curued or writhen as are the holes of a Sponge. It is more truly called Spongoeides or the Spongy-bone, which name Hippocrates gaue it, as Galen witnesseth in the 7 chap. of his 8 Booke De vsu part.  
It is scituated in the forepart of the scull before the Meninges and filleth vp almost the 
Situation.  whole cauity of the Nosethrils. It is ioyned to the middest of the forehead bone,[ ta. 9. fig. 10 K] and is distinguished on the backside from the wedge-bone by the ninth suture of the head, if that be not rather a harmony or Coementation then a suture:[ ta. 9. fig. 10 aboue u] on the outside it determineth at the second Bone of the vpper iawe, Columbus saith at the second and the third.  
The figure of it is like to that square that on one side is longer, on the other broader: but he that would see the true figure of the bone must take viewe of it in a childe but of 
Figure.  one year old, for afterward it cannot be seuered from the rest of the bones without breaking. At that age also a man may perceiue how that which is accounted by Vesalius and Archangelus the third bone of the Iaw which maketh the thin but solide and plaine part 
4 Partes.  of the orbe of the eye, and the Spongy bone of the nosethrilles which is oft eaten out by the French disease, and the Syue-bone are all parts of one and the same bone. For, indeede there are foure parts of this bone.  
The first is the vpper processe in the middle of the bone, long and triangular, ending in a sharpe point and resembling a Cockes-combe; sometimes it is thin and broad; sometime thicke and diuideth the whole bone like a partition it distinguisheth also the Mammillary processes of the Braine. To this part also the third sinus of the dura Meninx which diuideth the Braine groweth very strongly[ ta. 9. fig: 10 x ta. 10. fi. 12 B]  
The second part of the Spongy-bone is on either side at the processe where it maketh the cauity of the scull. It is throughout perforated like a Syue with abundant, small and oblique holes.[ tab. 9. fig. 10 K I. tab. 10, fig: 12 AA] In dogges these holes are much larger, whence haply it is that their smell is so briske and sharpe. It is compassed with a thin Membrane which is perforated like the Bone, and that indeed was the reason why it was called the Syue-bone or the Collander.  
The third part is a lower processe opposite to the vpper which distinguisheth or separateth the vpper part of the nosethrils.  
The fourth part and the last like a sponge or a pumi stone is porous and full of smal cauities, whereupon the whole Bone is called spongoides. This part is seated in the vpper part of the nosethrils, and accomplisheth or perfecteth the inside of the orbe of the eye. It is spongy and full of oblique perforations that the cold aire which we breath in, or impure aire might not insinuate itself directly into the Brain vnbroken or vnaltred, wherby it might be too much refrigerated or otherwayes annoyed; for being a while retained in these oblique passages it receiues a mutation, and is made more like to the temper of the Brain. And here Galen in the seuenth chap. of his eight Booke de vsu part. doth woorthily commend the infinite wisedome of our creator, who hath disposed of all the partes of our bodies, as was most fit for our vse and preseruation. This bone therefore is manifold: at the head perforated like a Syue, at the cauity of the nosethrils spongy, at the orbe 
The wisdome of God.  of the eye plaine and broad. And hence it appeareth that the substance of this bone is very thin thrilled, also manifould but finely and obliquely, finely or with a small bore least any thicke body that flies in the ayre should get into the brayne.  
The vse of the perforations is, sayth Galen in the sixt Chapter of his 8. boode de vsu partium, that through them the ayre might be breathed in for the generation of Animall 
The vse of the perforations.  spirites: againe, that with the ayre odours or sauours might ascend into the brayne, and therefore the Mammillary processes or the organs of Smelling doe runne out hard vnto these perforations: hence it is that those that be troubled with the Coriza( we call it commonly the Pose) cannot smell, because these perforations are stopped vp with Rheume. There is also good vse of them in diseases of the brayne, that the ayre being altered by medicines, and retayned longer in these cauities, might woorke more powerfully vppon the brayne.  
Galen in the place last before quoted addeth another vse. By these perforations sayth he, when neede is, aboundance of excrements may be suddenly and togetherward auoyded: so likewise sayth Laurentius, but maketh it a secondary vse, yet Platerus denyeth that there can be any such confluence, vnlesse it be vnnaturall or beside nature.  
Finally, in the backeside of this bone on either hand there is a semicircular rift or cleft, as if it were pinched with a mans nayles, which establisheth[ ta. 9. fig. 10. below] the Dura meninx fastned there to and perforated with diuers holes. And thus much concerning the spongy bone which is the last of the bones of the head or of the Scull. Now wee proceede vnto the bones of the Nose.    

CHAP. VIII. Of the Bones of the Nose and of the Yoke bone,  
_THE Bones which make the cauity of the Nostrilles are of two sorts: some which may be sayde to bee proper to the Nose although indeede they bee bones of the vpper Iaw, others are common. The proper bones are three, two externall and the third internall, and these runne onely vnto the middle of the Nose, for the rest is altogether gristly.  
The two externall bones which make the rising bony part of the Nose are one on each 
The 2 externall bones.  side, small and quadrangular, but one side is longer then another. These are thin but very solid, perforated with small and common holes and are portions of the fift bone of the vpper Iaw,[ ta. 8, fig. 8, ΞΞ] which portion aboue is ioyned in a short cut by the third common suture with the forehead bone betwixt the browes.[ ta. 8, fig. 8, zy] At the sides they are vnited by a proper suture, Archangelus calleth it a Harmony, running along the side of the Nose[ ta. 8. f. 8. from e tovvard y] vvith the 4 bone of the iavv[ ta, 8, fig. 8, B f. 9, S Λ] which maketh the sides of the nostrils, the lower part of their holes, & the greatest part indeede of their capacity. Below they are vnited by gristles, wherfore at their end they are rough vnequall that the gristles and the bones might cleaue faster together. On the inside they are ioyned by another common line and cleaue fast vnto the partition of the Syue-bone.  
The third bone we sayd was inward within the cauity of the nostrilles: broad it is & thinne at the roote, but before and aboue thicke: it tendeth vpward to the holes of smelling 
The 3 internall.  and downeward to the Pallar. This is placed betweene the two former and adhereth, yea is vnited to a processe of the Syue-bone o● the eight bone of the head.[ ta, 9, fig 10. vnder x] It is called Septum or the partition, because it distinguisheth the cauity of the nostrilles into two parts.[ ta, 8, fig, 8, O] It is ioyned to the two former of the fift bone of the iaw by the first internall suture.[ ta, 8. fig, 8, vnder f] On the foreside it determineth into the middle gristle wherewith it is vnited. At the inner hollownes of the Nose toward the Pallat where this bone is seuered from the wedge-bone, it is deuided throughout his length by a broade rift, passeth throughout the Nose, and hauing his Basis which is thicke and broade bifurcated it lyeth vppon the wedge bone, resembleth the share of a Plough[ tab, 8, fig, 9, c] and his edge is sinuated or vnequall. Finally, it is ioyned on the inside to the fourth & the sixt bones of the Iaw by the second internall suture.[ ta, 8, fig, 8, g] These are those three we call the proper bones of the Nose.  
The common bones are, first that which we called the spongy bone which cleaueth to 
The common bones.  the top of the roote of the Nose, for in the inside of the Nose at this bone there are found two fungous and spungy portions which fil the vpper cauity of the nostrils, and are made to assist the voyce and the smelling. Their forme is very diuers, but they seeme to bee most like scales growing one vpon another. They are vnited with the Syue-bone, from whose outward sides they yssue, so that sayth Bauhine for my part. I beleeue that they arise from it and are parts thereof, although they do not grow to the partition. Againe they are vnited a good way in their sides to the forehead bone: on the inside they are so conioyned with the third bone of the Iawe, that Falopius hath referred this third bone of the iaw to the additaments of the Syue-bone and that not without good reason. In these the ayre which is drawne in together with odours receiues an alteration. They are vnequall and rough, that the excrement of the Nose should not perpetually distill downe, and in the French disease they are easily gnawne asunder.  
Below at the pallat, the fourth bone of the Iaw[ ta, 8, fig, 9, Λ] and the sixt[ ta, 8, fig, 9, Π] together with his fellowe doe make the greatest part of the capacity of the nostrilles where they open backward into the Chops.  
In a word this whole bony cauity of the nostrilles is formed of bones both on the inside 
A briefe of the bones of the nose.  and on the outside. Without, either before or at the sides, outwardly and before, aboue by the fourth[ tab. 8, fig, 8, B] and fift[ ε] bones of the vpper iaw to which gristles are adioyned. Below at the pallat, by the fift[ tab. 8, fig, 9, Λ] and the sixtt[ Π] On the inside by the spongy bone of the head,[ ta. 9, fig, 10. K] by the two spongy bones of the nostrilles, & by the partition of the nostrilles:[ O] at the sides the cauity is made vp by the second,[ tab, 8, fig. 8. Δ] the third[ θ] and the fourth[ from X to B] bones of the vpper iaw.  

Of the Yoake-bone.  
The Yoake-bone[ tab. 7. figur. 6. VX] is called 〈◇〉, because it is made of two bones 
The yoake-bone.  ioyned together. It is seated in the side of the face vnder the orbe of the eye. This is no peculiar bone though it haue a pecular name, but is compounded of two processes of two seuerall bones: one of the Temple bone another of the first bone of the vpper iaw, which two processes are in the middest ioyned together by an oblique suture[ ta. 7. fig. 6. Y table 8. figur. 8. P] and so make one bone like a yoake, although me thinks it is better dompared to a bridge. On the outside it is gibbous, within hollow. The rootes on either side are thicke, but the middle of the processe which yssueth out of the Temple bone is but slender.  
The substance of it is hard and almost solid, almost I say, for it hath a cauity in it, such as it is, wherein it contayneth marrowe for his nourishment, yet is it somewhat solid too, 
His substāce,  the better to defend the Temporall muscle, especially his Tendon, before which it is placed, from outward iniuries: beside the muscle called manforius taketh his originall therefrom, and againe it strengthneth the Scull which is there but thinne. And finally sayeth Platerus and with him Laurentius, it giueth a great strength vnto the orb of the eye which swelleth out a little aboue it. And so much of the yoake bone: now we proceede vnto the vpper Iaw.    

CHAP. IX. Of the Sutures and Seames of the vpper Iaw.  
_THE Iaw is called by Aristotle 〈◇〉, because when we hould our Iawes together wee keepe silence, which the Grecians call 〈◇〉, it is also called 〈◇〉, because there the beard doeth first flourish or breake out. The Iaw is double, the vpper and the lower, called by Hippocrates and Galen 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉.  
The vpper Iaw is the bony part of the Face, which maketh the lower part of the orbe of the Eye and the sides, the cauity of the Nostrils, the Cheeks, the Pallat & containeth 
The diuision of the face,  the vpper rowes of the Teeth.  
This vpper Iaw is to bee considered either whole or according to his parts of which he is compounded.  
In the whole Iaw wee consider his conformation and his connexion which is made by sutures. In the consideration of the partes wee will examine the bones where of it is compounded. The conformation of the whole Iaw is diuers, broade aboue and narrow below, because of the protuberations, perforations and cauities which are therein.  
The prominences or protuberations are aboue in the middle of the face where the Nose is formed,[ tab. 8. figure. 8. f] which is peculiar onely to man, for onely a mans Nose 
The protuberations of the vpper iaw.  swelleth out or standeth off from his Face. At the sides it swelleth on both handes, at the Temples to make the lower edge or verge of the Eyes and of the Cheekes[ table 8. fig. 8 aboue Ρ] although it also make the lower cauity of the eyes. Below on the outside, wher the roots of the teeth are it buncheth circularly:[ vnder Λ] within it maketh the anterior and greater part of the pallat which is rough,[ tab. 8. fig. 9 t y z] and in the circumference it protuberateth for the dens or sockets of the teeth.[ fig, 9 u u]  
The perforations are partly small, through which the veines, arteries, and nerues are transmitted, as shall be saide in the History of the particular Bones; partly great, two in the lower cauity of the eyes, as in the second bone[ fig. 8 C] through which the rheume 
The perforations.  falleth and a small Nerue vnto the nosethrilles; and in the fourth through which a little nerue runneth to the outside of the cheekes. So also in the foreside of the Plate and in the middest thereof one perforation which admitteth a small veine and a little Artery[ fig, 9, Z] and on the backside of the palate two on either hand which run vnto the sides of the nosethrils.[ at V]  
The Cauities are Proper and Common. Proper to the fourth bone wherein there is a den closed vp within the bone at the sides of the nosethrils[ fig. 8 vnder B V] & the sockets 
The cauities.  made to receiue the teeth, of which we shall speak in the descriptions of the fourth bone. The Common cauity is that of the nosethrils, distinguished by the partition and filled aboue with the spongy bones, which cauity both outwardly in the nose[ figu. 8 OO] and inwardly in the mouth[ figu. 9 at qq] is alwayes open, that the ayre in expiration may returne backeward, and in smelling bee drawne vpwarde, and Rheume be that way euacuated.  
This vpper iaw in all creatures is immooueable excepting the water Crocodile, of which, saith Archangelus, there can be no particular reason giuen. A common Reason he giueth out of Aristotle where he saith, that the Body is the Instrument of the Soule, & 
Why the crocodiles vpper iawe is immoueable.  therefore Nature hath accommodated the body and so furnished it as it wee see for the behoofe of the Soule in Men, in Oxen, in Horses, yea and in the Crocodile too, whose soule hath some poure or faculty to vs vnknowne, but expressed by the motion of the vpper Iaw; but his nether iawe is so vnited with the Temple-bones that it cannot at all bee mooued, because it is fastned into 2 bosomes, whereas the vpper is articulated on eyther side with a broad head. Yet Aristotle saith, that his vpper iaw was made mooueable to recompence the defect of his feete, because they are little, and vnfit either to catch or to reteine his prey.  
In a Parrat or Poppingey both iawes are mooueable, and he moueth them either one at once or both together as he listeth. In a man the vpper iaw is immoueable, first, because the motion thereof would haue hindred his sight. Againe, in receiuing of Odours and inspiration of aire the motion of the vpper iawe would haue made an interruption. Thirdly, hard mears could not haue bene so well broken; for as in a Mill where Corne is ground one stone must rest immoueable the other must run vppon it, so in the grinding 
Why a mans immoueable.  or breaking of meate it was necessary that one part which is the vpper iaw should be immoueable, the other which is the lower iaw moueable.  
Heereto we may add, that the immobility of the vpper iaw is a beauty to the face, for if it had bene moued then it must necessarily haue bene corrugated or contracted, and so the elegancy and forme of the face bene deformed, whereas in the frame of mans bodye our Wise Creator had an especiall respect to make the face beautifull, because it is the image of the soule; wherfore a mans face is not set off from his head as in brute beasts, but made short and round for beauty and better forme.  
The vpper iaw is fastned either with the bones that are about it, or with the proper bones of which it is compounded; which connexion is made by immouable commissure 
Connexion.  or coniunction, and that partly by sutures or seames, partly by Harmony or Caementation. Of these Sutures or commissures some are common vnto the scull with the bones of the vpper iaw, and those are fiue, of which we spake before in the fift chapt. Others are proper to the bones of the iaw and are nine in number, and ioyne together twelue bones of the iaw, some of these, that is, two, are in the cauity of the nosethrils, the other seauen are on the outside. Againe of these seuen fiue are common to two bones of the iawe ioyning together, and two are peculiar to one bone. Of these in order.  
The first internall suture we meet withall in the cauity of the nosethrils, & it is common to the partition and the fift bone. His course is short and obliquely downward.[ tab 8. fig, 8 vnder f] 
The first internall suture.  The second is also found thereabout and is common to the partition of the nosethrils and the fourth and sixt bones of the iaw, his course is somewhat longer and forward, but ouerthwart.[ Tab. 8. fig. 8 g]  
The first externall suture runneth obliquely to the cheeke-bone, and of it there are three parts, the first runneth through the cauities of the Temple bones outwarde and downward to the lower side of the cheeke: the second through the foreside of the cheek 
The first externall.  vpward and inward to the middle part of the eye.[ Tab. 8. fig. 8 from ae vnto the lower D] The third in the cauity of the eyc; it runneth backward and outward[ From the lower D to Q] and determineth at the second suture which is common also to the scull. This first externall suture is common to the first bone and the fourth.  
The second externall suture runneth circularly in the orbe of the eye aboue the compasse of his bone; it beginneth at the third common suture and runneth downward, then presently forward, and again from thence vpward. This suture is common to the second bone with the third on the backside, and to the fourth bone on the outwarde and lower side.[ tab. 8. fig. 8 from V to i. from thence to C and δ]  
The third is also in the orbe of the eie, and runneth directly outward from that suture which is called the second common suture of the wedgebone, and determineth in the second suture; it is common to the third and fourth bone.[ ta. 6. fig. 8 from d to c]  
The fourth is at the outside of the nosethrils, and runneth from the third common suture directly downward throughout the length of the fift bone as far as to the gristle, and this is common to the fourth bone and the fift.[ Tab. 8 fig. 8 from Ε to e]  
The fift is in the pallat and runneth ouerthwart through the backside therof, & it is common to the fourth bone with the sixt.[ tab. 8 fig. 9 t u]  
The sixt is in the vpper part of the nose, and runneth from the middle of the Browes, where the third common suture is, directly throughout the length of the nose, and distinguisheth the fift bone through the middest.  
The seauenth is in the pallate, a line rather then a suture; so also is the sixte saith Columbus, it runneth directly through the whole length of the Pallate, and is verie conspicuous both vvithin and vvithout the Nosethrilles, and diuideth thorough the middest the fourth bone and the sixt.[ tab. 8. fig. 9, y t x] So also in the forepart of the iawe it runneth from the cauity through the middest of the shearing- teeth directly downward vnto the pallat,[ tab. 8, figu. 8 h] but in Dogges, Apes, and Swine, and those creatures whose Dog-teeth are strong and hang ouer the iaw we meete, saith Vesalius, with two sutures or Harmonies which are not to be found in a man, and therefore they haue peculiar bones in which the Shearing-teeth are fastned.  
There are also certaine Bastard Sutures which do not quite diuide the bone but are rather 
The Bastard Sutures.  lines or inscriptions and are onely founde in the fourth bone: first in the lower part of the orbe of the eye which runneth from the first perforation obliquely vnto the compasse of the eye but no further, and diuideth the fourth bone betweene the vpper seate of the first perforation and the circumference of the eye.[ Tab. 8. fig. 8 i] Againe, in the forepart of the palat runneth a line obliquely from the second perforation of the fourth bone vnto the Dog-teeth.  
This saith Columbus in children is very manifest, but in growne bodies there remayneth no signe or footestep thereof. Heereto opposeth Falopius in his Obseruations where 
Disagreemēt betwixt Falopius and Col.  he saith, I discent from them who say there is a suture found attaining ōuerthwart vnder the pallat to the Dog-teeth on either side, which in children should be conspicuous, but in growne bodies is obliterated. For I finde saith he, that this is a diuision or a rifte rather then a suture, because it doth not separate one bone from another nor appear on the outside: for how can it be a kind of articulation if it do not ioyne one bone with another. Moreouer, I cannot bee perswaded that this diuision, such as it is, is more conspicuous in children then in growne bodies, for I finde it very seldome obliterated and that in verie old men.  
Thus farre Falopius. Bauhine addeth, that although in men it doe not diuide the Bone throughout, yet in Dogs, Apes and Hogs it doth, in which creatures it doth not only diuide the fourth bone in the palat, but also on the outside in the sorepart of the iaw.   

CHAP. X. Of the Bones of the vpper Iaw.  
_THE vpper iaw doth not consist of one Bone but of many, not only to make it fitter to repell iniuries, but also and especially that out of their Commissures and coniunctions might yssue Ligaments to make vp the construction or frame of the Muscles, which by that meanes are more firmly fastned to their originals as to bony parts and therby made the stronger. Beside, it was not fit that the vpper Iaw should be on euery side a like thicke or harde, or fast or soft. The bones therefore of the vpper iaw are of two sorts, Common and Proper.  
The Common Bones are the VVedge and Spongy bones called also the seuenth and 
The common bones of the Iavv.  the eight bones of the head. From this eight bone do yssue two spongy bones seated in the inside of the nose, which distinguish the vpper part into two sides, to these are ioyned other two which make vp the inner orbe of the eye, which also wee will account, as other men do, for the third bone of the Iaw. But of these wee haue partly spoken before in the seuenth chapter among the bones of the Head, partly in the eight amongest the bones of the Nose, and therefore we will come now vnto the proper Bones of the Iaw.  
The proper bones of the iaw which helpe to make the face are twelue. The first[ ta. 8. figure 8. Τ Τ] maketh a good part of the Cheeke, the lower part of the eye to 
The proper bones. First.  wardes the Temples, that round extuberation which Hippocrates calleth 〈◇〉 the circle of the countenance, one part of the yoake-bone, a litle of the temples and the vtter angle of the eye. The figure of it saith Columbus is diuers: Bauhine saith it is triangular, sending forth of a broad middle three protuberations; one to the angle of the eie, another to the teeth, and a third which is most notable, that is, the processe which maketh a part of the yoke-bone,[ tab 8. fig. 9 Y with Y] and hauing a perforation or two but verie small ones.  
This first bone is ioyned to foure bones: aboue, to the forehead bone where the eye-browes end by the first[ tab. 7. fig. 6 & 7 g] common suture:[ tab. 8. fig. 8 R] behind, to the wedge-bone by the second common suture:[ tab. 8. figu. 8 from S to Q] at the sides, it is ioyned by his processe to the processe of the Temple bones by the fourth common Oblique suture:[ tab. 8. fig. 8 P] below, to the fourth Bone of the vpper iaw neere the cheeke, and in the lower part of the orbe of the eye.[ tab. 8. fig. 8. from the lower D by the vpper D vnto Q]  
The second bone[ tab. 8. fig. 8 Δ] standeth in the great angle of the eye neere the Nose, 
Second.  and iust at the beginning of the angle where the hole goes into the nosethrils[ t. 8. fi. 8, C] wee meete also with a caruncle which like a glandule receiueth the Phlegme which floweth from the Braine vnto the eye to deriue it vnto the nosethrilles that it shoulde not fall downe the cheekes. Galen also addeth, that Medicines which are put into the eyes, doe vse to yssue out of the nosethrils, whereat Columbus much maruelled, because such medicines must penetrate the Membrane before they can get into the nose.  
This is a small bone, thin as a scale and transparant, and because it hangeth but loosely, as being rather ioyned by harmony then by suture, to the outside of the fourth bone, it is easily broken and lost, and therefore we rarely meete with it in the sculles digged out of the earth, for being and in a moyst place it easily putrifieth; but in those sculs that are boiled it is easily preserued. It is ioyned to three bones: aboue, to the forehead bone by the third common suture:[ tab. 8. fig. 8 nere v] behind, to the third bone of the iaw by the second externall suture;[ from V to V] before and below to the fourth of the iawe by the same suture:[ from C toward X] somtimes also it is ioyned vnto the spongy-bones of the Nose. And this is the place where those Apostemations are which the Graecians call 
Aegilops.  〈◇〉, which if they be neglected do penetrate to the mouth, and do end into weeping Fistulaes. This bone also hath some perforations; aboue some small ones which are common; 
Weeping Fistulaes.  one also very notable which is cōmon to it with the fourth bone,[ t. 8. f. 8 C] which runneth out of the inner angle of the eye directly downward into the cauity of the Nosethrils: the vse of it is to transmit a smal portion of the lesser roote, commonly so called, of the third coniugation, and also Rheume or Phlegme.  
The third Bone which we saide was the fourth part of the Spongy-bone,[ tab. 8. f. 8 θ] but is by most made the third of the vpper iaw, is seated in the inner side of the eye, and within is continuall with the fungous bones of the Nosethrils. This is broader then the 
Third.  second, quadrangular but somwhat round, thin & transparant like the scale of a fish; with out smooth, within rugged and vnequall, because of the scales that cleaue vnto it: & if you breake it, within you shall finde large cauities filled with aire.  
It is ioyned to foure bones. Aboue to the forehead bone by the third common suture, & there is a good length off the suture between them[ t. 8. fig 8 from T toward V] Behind, to the wedge-bone by the same suture, but the length of it is lesser. Before, with the second Bone of the iaw by the second suture.[ from V to c] Belowe, to the fourth bone of the iaw by the third suture.[ from c to b]  
The fourth bone[ tab. 8. fig. 8. ΛΛ] maketh for the most part the forepart of the nosethrils and of the mouth, into which al the vpper Teeth are infixed, also the sides and lower part of the pallat and of the holes of the nostrilles; yea and beside the lower part of the 
The fourth  orbe of the eye toward the Nose. Galen calleth it Os malae the Cheek bone, and he saith it deserueth well to be called by the name of the whole, the vpper Iaw. It is much larger then any other of the bones, and is circumscribed with many sutures, for it abutteth vppon seauenteene bones if you reckon the Teeth. Aboue neare the Nose it is ioyned to the forehead bone( yet but a little way) by the third common suture.[ ta. 8. fig. 8. X Y] Below to the wedge bone by the second common suture[ ta. 8. fig. 8. from D to H fig. 9. from d to c] 
His connexions.  where also the vpper part of the wedge bone and the iaw doe yawne into the orbe of the Eye.  
It is also ioyned with other bones of the vpper iaw: as to the first by the first oblique suture[ tab. 7. fig. 6. abQ] in the Cheeke, the orbe of the Eye and the cauities of the Temples. Before to the second in the inner angle of the eye by the second suture.[ ta. 8, fig, 8, from C toward X] Behinde to the third by the third suture.[ from b to c] On the outside to the fift bone in the top of the Nose by the fourth suture:[ cY] to the sixt in the Pallat by the fift suture;[ ta, 8, fig. 9. tu] and finally to his owne companion by the seauenth suture, or rather by a line, partly in the forepart of the iaw[ tab. 8. figu. 8. h] where the furrow is of the vpper Lip, partly in the pallat[ tab. 8. fig. 9. XY] Into this fourth bone also are the vpper Teeth fastened by Gomphosis or way of Mortize, and it is vnited vnto the Gristles of the Nose.  
It hath also perforations and dennes. The perforations are Common and Proper: one Common which is very small toward the inner angle of the Eye. The Proper are 3. 
Perforations.  two in the lower part of the Eye, on each side one, which is onely couered with a body scale, and runeth from the lower part of the Eye outward: his vse is to transmit a surcle of the lesser roote, commonly so called, of the third coniugation of sinnewes out of the orbe of the eye into the Face.[ ta. 8. fig. 8. at ●]  
The third hole is in the Pallate at the backepart of the Shearing or shredding Teeth, where both bones of the iaw do meete.[ ta. 8. fig. 9. Z] It runneth out of the Pallat into the capacity of the Nostrilles, and transmitteth a small veine and a small artery vnto the nose; and at the sides hereof there appeareth a suture in young children.  
The dennes or cauities of this fourth bone are of two sorts; of the first is one on each side at the lower sides of the cauity of the nostrilles vnder the orbe of the Eye. It is a 
Cauities.  great cauity, and so large sometimes that in it a man may lay his thumbe end: and therefore it may well be likened to those hollow images made of molten waxe: yet is it couered with an attenuated bone, blowne vp as it were round,[ ta. 8. fig. 8. vnder B Λ] which was made partly because of the leuity of the bones, which in this place stoode in neede to bee thicke by reason of the situation of the eyes, partly because it is most fitte to forme the voyce, so sayth Vesalius.  
This cauity is not to be found in young children, but is made as they grow, and is inuested with a very fine coate, it is also found full of mucous or slimy phlegme, or marrow saith Archangelus, whereby the bones that containe the Teeth and all the vpper Teeth also are nourished. Of the second kinde of dennes of this fourth bone, are the sockets or mortizes of the Teeth which are insculped in the lower brinke thereof, in which the teeth are fastned.[ ta. 8. fig. 8. vnder h.]  
The fift bone of the vpper Iaw,[ t. 8. fig. 8. ε ε] which with his companion maketh the bony prominence of the Nosei, s a small bone and almost quadrangular, but somewhat long, yet shorter by farre in a man then either in Dogges or in Apes. It is a hard, solid, broade and thinne bone hauing smal common perforations in it. It is ioyned aboue to 
The fift.  the forehead bone by the third common suture;[ tab. 8. fig. 8. yz] againe in the sides to the first bone of the iaw on either hand, and outward to the fourth bone by the third proper suture,[ fig 8. from c to Y] and in the middle it is ioyned to his companion by the sixt suture[ fig 8. from Z to f] which is not much vnlike a harmony, and runneth directly from the suture of the forehead throughout the length of the bones of the Nose. Below it hath no suture but is rough and vnequall that the gristles of the Nose might take better hold vppon it. On the inside where these two bones are ioyned, they adhere to the bony partition vnder them, and that cleaueth to the spongy bone.  
The sixt and last bone of the vpper Iaw( for you must reckon euery one of these double, 
The six●  ble, one on one side, another on another)[ ta. 8. fi. 9, n] is placed at the end of the pallate, where the nosethrils do determine into the chops and maketh together with his companion the backpart of the circumference of the nosethrils and the pallat. It is a broad bone thin and solid, and in the end where it is rough it resembleth a semi-circle.[ tab. 8. fig. 9 aboue q] It is ioyned behinde, to the wedge-bone at his wingy processes: belowe, and on the outside by a part[ q] of the second common suture. On the inside to the partition of the nosethrils by the second externall suture:[ tab. 8. fig. 8 g] againe, to the fourth Bone of the iaw by the fift transuerse suture;[ fig. 9 t] and finally, to his companion in the backepart in the pallate by the fixte suture running along the length of the pallat[ tab. 8. figu. 9. from t to x]  
It hath two perforations on either side, one large which runneth vpward and backward 
The perforations.  to the ninth common hole of the wedge-bone,[ tab. 8. fig. 9. a little below μ] the other small, which sometime determineth into the former, somtime into the second common suture.[ aboue q at r]   

CHAP. XI. Of the lower Iaw.  
_THe lower Iaw, which the interpreter of Halliabba calleth Faucem[ tab. 11. fig. 1 & 2] maketh the lower part of the capacity of the mouth, into it the teeth 
The Lower Iaw  are infixed and it is articulated to the scull. In men it is mooueable and by it they chew their meate for, because the teeth must grind and cut that which is eaten, it was necessary that the vpper teeth should depart from the lower and returne againe vnto them. And because in the descent it needed no strength, but in the ascent very great strength, as well to lift vp the weight of the bone as to breake the meat3e, therefore it is depressed by weake muscles, but lifted vp by exceeding stronge as we haue shewed before in the 10 booke. This iaw in a man is shorter then in anie other creature proportionably. It is almost orbicular because of the roundnes of his face wherin is his beauty. In other creatures, saith Galen( excepting an Ape, whose face and hands are much like vnto a mans) the iawes are long and prominent, because they vse them instead of hands, and because they were to be enclined to the earth to gather their foode.  
The figure of it is like a bow, the belly hollow for lightnesse, and that it might not offend the muscles which mooue it. Before, in the top of the chin it is broade and thicke, in 
His Figure.  other creatures it is narrow and prominent. Behinde it is parted, partly that the passage of the meate should not be hindred, partly that it might more commodiously for motion be articulated to the scull on either side.  
For it hath on the backside on either hand two processes( some call them Hornes) 
Processes.  which run vpward. One turned backward,[ Tab. 11. fig. 1 & 2 C] broad and thin, ending into a cone or point called 〈◇〉 which receiueth the tendon of the temporall Muscle; for that tendon compasseth it round about, and is very strongly implanted thereinto; & hence haply it was, that Hippocrates saith, the luxation of the lower iawe is most-what mortall, because of the distention and alteration of the temporall muscle.  
The other and the backer processe is called 〈◇〉 and is like a knot. It runneth backward, hauing a long prominent head and transuerse,[ fig. 1 & 2 A] whereunder there is a notable necke.[ B] By this head it is articulated into a cauity on either side answereable thereto insculped in the Temple-bone, which articulation is made betwixt the root of the yoake-bone and the Hole of Hearing. By this articulation the iaw is mooued vpward to the scull, downward also and somewhat to the sides: ouer the heade, as also ouer the sinus there is a gristle couering them like a crust.  
But besides this which is common to all ioyntes, there is another gristle reposed betwixt the bosome and the head which is smooth, thin and soft, doing not onely the office of a Ligament to conteine the processe within his cauity, but also it maketh the motion of the ioynt more glibbe and slipping. Moreouer, togither with the other gristles in the strong and perpetuall motions of the iaw it keepeth the bones from breaking, at lest from wearing one against another.  
This ioynt also of the lower iaw with the Temple-bones is couered with a common Membranous Ligament. On the backside on either hand where it shooteth out his processes[ fig. 1 and 2 EE] it is exasperated with small protuberations like litle rising hillocks especially where it is broadest behinde and below. Before and on the inside in the middle of the chin there riseth a bunch vp,[ fig. 2 H] made for the stronger insertion of the proper 
TABVLA XI.  
FIG I  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
Tab. 11. sheweth the lower iaw together with the teeth in the first and second figures. The third figure sheweth the Teeth by themselues.  

A. The head of the iaw wher it is articulated vnto the Temple-bones.  
B. The necke of the Head.  
C. The processe into which the Temporall Muscle is inserted.  
D. A Bosome or cauity giuing way to the third muscle of the lower iaw  
E, A roughnesse into which is inserted the muscle called Mansorius.  
F. The inner perforation.  
G. The vtter perforation.  
H. Asperities into which the Muscles are implanted.   
Third Figure.  

AA. Eight vpper Teeth.  
BB. Eight lower teeth.  
C. The basis or bottome of a grinding- tooth called Molaris.  
D. The basis or bottome of a shearing-tooth called Incisorius.  
E. The Cauitie that is in the grinding teeth when they are broken.   muscles by which it is led downward, as also to giue a more commodious originall to some muscles of the tongue; for where the place is rough and vnequal there the muscles will cleaue the faster. In like manner also is it exasperated on the outside at the toppe of the chin,[ tab. 11. figu. 1 vnder G] that the Muscles of the lower lippe might better arise therefrom.  
At the sides of the processes is hath superficiary or shallowe bosomes, yet so that it is 
The Bosomes.  more hollowed on the inside then on the outside. VVithout on each side one, and that large;[ fig. 1 betwixt BC] within two distinguished by a certaine knot.[ fig, 2 neere D E] The anterior at the roots of the teeth was made to giue way to the gummes, the posterior and the larger affordeth a seate vnto the muscle that lurketh in the mouth, that his thickenesse and bulke should not fill vp the narrownesse of the chops.  
It is compounded of two bones, for in infants the two bones are very manifest, ioyned together in the middle of the chin by a plentifull gristle, so that in some bodies at seuen 
The composition of it.  yeares of age, the markes or footsteps thereof doe remaine, but in grown bodies the gristle is chaunged into the nature of a bone, and those two bones are so strictly vnited, that there doth not appeare so much as any shew of a line betwixt them, neyther can they be separated by boyling, by putrifaction, or by any strength, which is the reason why Vesalius concludeth it to be but one bone. For, saith he, although in young children it be formed of two bones vnited together, yet we cannot simply say that the lower iaw confisteth of two bones, vnlesse we will also say, that the Nowle-bone, the vertebrae or rackbones 
Vesalius.  and the bones that are ioyned vnto the sides of the Holy-bone bee made of many bones, for in children euen these are built vp of many bones.  
Falopius makes answere, if Vesalius say wee may not make denomination from imperfect partes, then certainly all Anatomistes haue erred who speake so much of Appendances: for they are found onely in imperfect bones, not after the body is growne: but to proceede.  
The Line which we see in the iaw of a childe is insteade of a suture, that out of it the Ligaments might be produced which goe into the muscles of that place. In Dogs, Oxen, Asses, and many other creatures, these two bones may easily bee parted without coction or any great violence.  
The bone of the lower iaw is very hard, and for the most part solide to make it the stronger; not because it alone was moueable, but because it was to endure diuers & those 
Why it is hard.  very violent motions in biting and chewing: within it is excauated that the weight therof should not be offensiue or hinder the muscles that moue it.  
It hath also cauities to contayne the marrow which is his nourishment, which are not exsculped or grauen in the backepart of the iaw as in bruite beasts, but more forward 
Cauities.  toward the Region of the Chinne and the sides of the iaw vnder the sockets of the teeth, and therefore about these places it is thicker, as it is thinner toward the backpart.  
For that the lower iaw is made thicker by reason of the teeth that were to be fastned therein hence it appeareth, because in old bodies and those who haue lost their Teeth, or where the sockets of the teeth are grown vp; in such bodies I say the iaw groweth much thinner and narrower from below vpward. These sockets, or beds, or mortize holes, or what you list to call them, wherein the Teeth are infixed, are engrauen in the embowed compasse of the iaw.  
Perforations also it hath on either side tvvo, vvhich runne through the iavv like a Canale 
Perforations.  or pipe; for put a bristle into the hole of a iavv vvhen it is drye on the inside and you shall easily thrust it through the hole on the outside, and if you breake the iavv in sunder you shall finde that the vvay betvvixt the outvvard and invvard hole is continuall and formed round like a canale. The one of these perforations is inner and backer at the internall bosome not farre from the processes.  
It is on each side one, and greater then the other, vnequal also or rough beginning like a scale,[ tab. 11. fig. 2 F] and through it a portion of the third coniugation of nerues is dispersed vnto the roots of the Teeth( together vvith a small veine and artery) vvhich sendeth small surcles to the teeth and to the iaw.  
The other perforation is small and round, grauen or thrilled without at the sides of the chinne,[ ta. 11. fig. 1. at G on either side] and by it the foresaid nerues being now within, doe againe returne out of the iaw outward into the lower lip, and this second perforation is far lesser then the first.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Sockets of the Teeth.  
_IN the circumference or margent of both the Iawes, which place Galen called 〈◇〉, we meete with certaine cauities or hollow places which the 
The sockets of the teeth.  Latines call Alueoli or Locelli. They are digged deepe that the Teeth like so many nayles might be firmlier fastned in them by Gomphosis or by way of Mortize; and therefore the rootes of the teeth are made iust fitte and answerable to the holes of the Iaw, for if they had bin broader the composition would haue beene too dissolute, and if they had beene too narrow the rootes of the teeth would not haue attayned to their bottomes, but being fitte as they are they are very firmely conteined. The number of these sockets can hardly be assigned, because they are sometimes single, sometimes double, sometimes treble, according to the variety of the roots of the Teeth.  
Moreouer, although they be bony, yet they appeare to be almost like wax, and may well be compared to the holes of a hony combe which are often obliterated and often againe renued: for when a Tooth is drawne, vnlesse a new one grow vp, the hole is so constringed that there remayneth no print thereof: yea if a Tooth fall out and a newe one doe rise vp in his roome, the former socket is obliterated and a newe one grauen for the new Tooth.  
Hence Falopius concludeth, that the liuely and quickning Formatiue faculty remaineth 
The Formatiue faculty remaines in the teeth.  in the Teeth vnto the period of a mans life, for by it they encrease and receiue their forme. So in the Cheekes and the Iaw when those Teeth which wee cal Genuini dentes or dentes sapientiae doe shoote out, haply about seauenty yeares of age, yet euen then new sockets are made for them. Againe at fourescore when the teeth fall, the sockets grow vp and the iaw in that part is so compressed that the bone on euery side cleaueth together, & at length is vnited. For the sockets are not onely filled with a bony substance and rammed vp, but each partition growing to other do make a sharpe edge which in olde men serueth in stead of teeth, if not to cut yet somewhat to breake and chew their meat. And so much of the Sockets, now we come to the Teeth themselues.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the name, definition, figure, magnitude, number, site and articulation of the Teeth.  
_THE Teeth are called in Greeke 〈◇〉, as it were 〈◇〉 of 〈◇〉, which signifieth 
Their names.  to eate. In like manner the Latines call them Dentes quasi edentes of eating. They are the hardest of all the bones, hollow within, hauing small veynes, arteries, and nerues; articulated to the sockets or dens of their owne iaw Per Gomphosin, or by way of mortize, fastened with membranes, & flesh, or ligaments, & prim arily created for the comminution or mitigation or chewing of the meate.  
That they are bones some men do deny, first because bones are insensible the teeh sensible. Secondly, because the bones haue certaine limits of auction or increase, neyther 
Arguments that teeth are no bones,  do they euer grow againe if they perish, but in teeth it is quite contrary. Thirdly, because they are harder then other bones. Fourthly, because bones exposed to the ayre do grow blacke, whereas the teeth keepe their whitenesse. Fiftly, they say, that Hippocrates in the 18 Aphorisme of the fift section distinguisheth them from bones where he saith, that cold things are enemies to the teeth, to the bones, and to the nerues. Finally, say they, there is a stone that will consume flesh called therefore Sarcophagus, which within forty dayes will deuoure the whole body except the teeth. If therefore the teeth were of the nature of bones they also would be consumed.  
We answere to the first, that sense is not of the nature of a bone. To the seconde, 
Answered.  that they grow because in attrition they are worne. To the third, that more or lesse do not change the species or kind, otherwise the spongy bones shold be no bones. To the fourth, that they are accustomed to the outward aer and haue no periostion on them, and the Philosopher saith, that that which is accustomable maketh no impression or alteration. To the fift, that is, to Hippocrates authority we say, that the bones and the teeth are affected by cold diuersly; the bones onely by suffering, the teeth not onely by suffering but also by sensation. To the sixt, first we may safely doubt of the experience; secondly, we may say that the Teeth are not consumed because they are harder then other bones.  
It remaineth therefore according to Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen, that the Teeth are bones, for saith Galen they cannot be referred to any other similar part, and therfore he placeth the teeth vnder the common Genus of the bones, and the rather because the qualities of their matter do agree, as hardnesse, solidity, smoothnes, whitenesse, &c. yet there are some differences betwixt them and other bones. For among all the bones none but these haue any exquisite sence because the teeth alone do admit nerues into their cauitie.  
The teeth alone do increase as the life increaseth, that without any detriment they might performe their offices: for being worne in the chewing of meates they are increased againe, but onely so much as they are worne away, otherwise they would soone fayle. The other bones haue no sence or but obscure, neither do they increase alwayes but when they come vnto their state or perfection they make a stay because they are not changed in the performance of their functions.  
They differ also from bones because they are naked hauing no periostion without thē, for then they would be payned in the wearing; hence it was that Aristotle doth oftentimes 
How they differ from bones.  not number the teeth among the bones, but sometimes faith they are bony, somtimes that they resemble the nature of bones. And truly in their hardnesse, fastnesse, or solidity they doe exceed other bones, yea they are little softer then stones themselues, if they bee not allout so hard especially about their extremities. Some are stony like a milstone, others are sharpe like the steeld edge of a knife. They were made very hard that they might not weare so soone or be broken in the chawing or breaking of hard things, for they are 
Why they are hard & how.  not lined eyther with fatte or gristles as other ioynts are to hinder attrition. The teeth therefore do breake bones, resist the edge of steele, neyther can they easily as other parts of the body be burnt with fire. Hippocrates in his booke de Carnibus ascribeth the cause of their hardnesse to the quality of the matter out of which they are ingendered, for hee writeth that out of the bones of the head and the iawes there is an increase of a glutinous matter. In that glutinous matter the fatty part falleth downe into the sockets of the gums where it is dryed and burnt with the heate, and so the teeth are made harder then other bones because there is no cold remaining in them.  
Their outward surface is by nature white, smooth and polished, but in age for want of care or by disease they become liuid or duskish. There groweth also vnto them a hard 
Their surface  scaly matter by which as also by corruption they become rugged and vnequall, yet sayeth the Philosopher a horses teeth become whiter as he becomes older.  
Their forme is before somwhat round, behind more plaine; where they are ioyned one 
Forme.  to another they are euen, and in their extremities somtimes thinne, somtimes sharpe, somtimes plaine, but alwayes vnequall,  
They differ among themselues in figure, magnitude, and number. Their figure in man differeth according to the difference of their vse in chewing. In fishes they are only 
Difference.  acute or sharpe. In those creatures that chew the cudde they are of a double forme; some Grinders and some Shearers. In men according to the three speciall diuisions of meates there are three kinds of teeth, Shreaders or Shearers called Incisores, Dog- teeth called Canini and Grinders called Molares.  
Againe mens teeth do not stand out of their formes as a Boares tuske, but are concluded or shut within the mouth; neyther are they set like the teeth of a Saw as it is in dogs, for their teeth are giuen them in stead of weapons.  
The teeth of a man are much lesse then the teeth of many other creatures lesse then he, for his mouth is much lesse: for according to the magnitude of the mouth is the 
Magnitude.  strength of the teeth which consisteth in their figure, hardnesse, and quantity; yea mens teeth compared among themselues are not equall but some greater some lesser, for the grinding teeth are greater then the rest.  
The number of the teeth is not in all men one and the same, for some haue more, some haue fewer, yet the more the better, for such, saith Hippocrates in the sixt section of 
Number.  the second Epidemion, are long liued, whereas those that haue few teeth are but short liued as Aristotle saith in the 3 chapter of his 2 booke de historia Animalium. The reason is, because the paucity and rarity of the teeth is an argument eyther of the want of spermatical matter or of the weaknesse of the formatiue faculty.  
Againe, those that haue but few teeth do not chew their meate so throughly, not prepare it so well for the stomacke. So that the Chylus is not so well concocted, and by consequence the bloud not so pure; for the second concoction which is in the veynes of the Liuer doth not amend the error of the first concoction which is made in the stomack. Stories make mention of some men who haue had but one tooth in their vpper iaw, and therevpon haue some bin cald 〈◇〉, as Euripheus the Cyrenian, Euriptolimus of Cyprus 
Diuers rowes of teeth in some men.  and Pirhus the King of the Epirots. Some in stead of teeth haue one continuall bone, such was the sonne of Prusias King of the Bythinians. Some haue had a double row of Teeth, as Dripetinus the sonne of King Mithridates, Trimarchus of Cyprus. Some haue had 3 rowes as Hercules, for so Coelius Rhodiginus reporteth in the third chap. of his fourth booke. But for the most part there is but one row which is called 〈◇〉, Septum the hedge, because it hedgeth in the tongue. In both iawes there are in growne bodies 32 Teeth, 16 in each iaw, in some men 30, sixteene in the vpper iaw and 14 in the neather; in some 28, which is the least number, and then the foure last are wanting, for they doe not breake out in all men nor at the same time, somtime lying imperfect within their sockets, sometimes not formed at all by Nature.  
And truly the grinding Teeth are the cause why Authors do not agree in the number of the teeth, for the nūber of these Grinders is often changed, the Shearers & the Dog- teeth in man very seldome. These Grinders are somtimes fiue in a side, somtimes foure, somtimes foure on the left hand and fiue on the right, or on the contrary; or else four below and fiue aboue, which variety is made by those Teeth which wee call Genuini. The Teeth were 
Why many teeth.  made many not one, that they might do seuerall offices in cutting, breaking, and chewing the meate; againe, that when one is payned or perished eyther by force or by corruption the affection should not become common to them all.  
A mans Teeth are set in both parts of his mo●h in the vtter compasse of both the iawes; Fishes haue their Teeth in their Pallate and their tongue: Crabs in their stomacke. Alexander Benedictus witnesseth that in a mans pallat sometimes Teeth haue been ingendered, and Eustachius testifieth the same thing from his owne experience in a woman of Rome. Those creatures that chew the Cud haue their lower gang of Teeth whole, which reacheth euen to their Lippe, so disposed and so equally ranked, that sayth Galen, Nature is much to be commended for so ordering the dance, so he cals their rank or course.  
The Teeth therefore are streight, inclining to neither part, before are the shearers; called 
Their order.  Incisores, next to them the Dog-teeth called Canini, and then follow the Grinders or the Molares which are the hindmost, yet so that they are all disioyned with a decent and conuenable distance, which the Grecians call 〈◇〉, for they are set close one to another, and touch at the top, least that which is chewed should remaine in the spaces betwixt thē and there putrifie.  
The rootes of the Teeth doe enter into the holes or sockets of the iawes, to which they are so fitted, that a nayle sticketh not faster in a post then they do in their proper places, euery tooth being compassed with slender processes of the iawes which hould them fast that they fall not out or be shaken.  
Euery Tooth also sayth Galen hath a nerue, and that nerue helps to establish it, for when 
Their composition.  the nerue is loosened with too much moysture, the Tooth becomes prominent and mouable: beside they are very strongly tyed by Ligaments which passe betwixt their rootes and the bottom of their sockets. The Gummes also doe establish the teeth very much, fastning about them very exactly; and this Commissure of the Gums and the colligation of the iawes, Rufus cals habena or the bridle. In a word the Teeth are vnited by the interposition of nerues, membranes and flesh. The nerue is inserted into the cauity and so the Teeth may be said to be ioyned by Synneurosis. The fibres of the membranes do cleane to the rootes of the Teeth: the flesh compasseth them about, which being eaten away, they eyther grow loose or fall out, and so they are ioyned by Synsarcosis.  
Hence we may gather that the articulation of the teeth is by Gomphosis or by mortize 
1, by way of mortize.  which is a kind of coarticulation, and yet Galen doubteth hereof and saith, that their composition commeth neare to a Coalition: neare; it may be, but indeed they are coarticulated, which may be prooued, because when for want of nourishment they grow drye and begin to wither, then their coniunction is not so stedfast but loose and vncertaine, which hapneth also when the nerue vnder them is ouer moyst. Finally, their rootes are simple, double, treble and fourfould.   

CHAP. XIIII. Of the Shearers and Dog-teeth.  
_WE sayd before that according to the three kinds of diuisions of Meats, there are also in men three kindes of Teeth called Incisorij, Canini and Molares, 
3 kindes of teeth. Both in viewe and generation.  Incisorij we cal the shearers or the shreaders;[ t. 11. fig. 3. D 1. 2.] they are seated in the forepart of the iawe, and because they are the first, they are called by Hippocrates and Aristotle 〈◇〉, primores.  
They are sharp edged like a knife and broad also the better to deuide that that comes betwixt them, and are therefore called 〈◇〉. Sometimes they sheare a thing asunder as a paire of pinsons doth a wire, and that is when the lower teeth are vrged, not against the ends of the vpper, but higher toward their bodies. And because these Teeth in luaghter discouered, therefore the Grecians call them 〈◇〉.  
These Shearers are for the most part foure, and those two that are next the Dog teeth are lesse then the other, and shorter then the Dog-teeth.[ ta. 11. fig. 3. char. 2.] Gorreus sayth 
Are foure.  that some men in stead of these foure, either aboue or below haue onely two, but those so broade that they take vp the roome and performe the vse of foure. Some againe in stead of foure shearers haue sixe, eight, or more placed without any order, some of them being right, others crooking outward to the Lip, others inward into the mouth, which are so offensiue both in chewing and in pronunciation, that we are constrained somtimes to draw them, sometimes burne them, sometimes to file them. Bauhine maketh mention of a Doctor of Diuinity, whose two foreteeth in the lower iaw were double, for when the two vtter were almost consumed about the fortith yeare of his age two other grewe vp within them. The part of these Teeth which standeth without the Gummes is narrower betwixt the Basis and the sides, but before and behind thicker, growing thinne and broad by degrees vnto the extremity: especially it is so in the vpper two which are called duales and Palae, because they are very like vnto a pale: the superficies is on the outside some-what gibbous, and againe a little hollow on the inside. The other part of these teeth which is infixed in the law is toward the side flatted or compressed and endeth in a sharp point; for their roote is but single; yet greater for the most part, at least as great as any the roots of the great teeth: hence it is, that they easily fall out, especially those in the vpper iawe. In the extremities of these Teeth when men are growne to some age, there is either no perforation at all, or if it be it is wonderous obscure.  
Next to these are the Dog-teeth called Canini,[ Tab. 11. fig. 3. char. 3] by Aristotle & Galen 〈◇〉, not so much for their figure, or because they stand out of the gummes as 
Dog-teeth.  Dogs teeth do, as for their vse; for in dogs after the shreading teeth there are two kindes of sharpe teeth; Some standing outward, others of a triangular forme. But a mans dog-teeth differeth from them both. They are onely two in each iaw, because a man is a mild 
2 in each iaw.  and ciuill creature, whose strength consisteth more in wisedome then in fortitude of bodye, and therefore is not full of Dog-teeth as other furious and rauening creatures are, for to breake that which is hard two were sufficient. These go betweene the sharpe teeth and the plaine, the Shearers and the Grinders, and below at the gummes are broad and thicke, aboue sharpe and somewhat prominent beyond the course or order of the rest of the teeth. From the Shearers heerein they differ, because they are thicker & their head somewhat narrower but not so sharpe. They are also harder, that if any thing by chance do come betwixt the teeth which the shearers cannot diuide, these may breake it; for the shredders were made to cut meate short, and these to breake that which is hard.  
Their roots as those of the shearers are but single yet infixed deeper, stronger also and 
Their rootes.  lesse pressed or narrowe before then behinde. These rootes are longer then the single roots of the rest of the teeth, yet so that the vpper are sharper and longer then the lower. These they call the Eye-teeth, not that they are so produced that they touch almost the lower circumference of the eye, for they do not go aboue the lower end of the wings of the nose, but because a portion of the Nerue which mooueth the eyes is deriued vnto them; and hence it is that it is commonly and truly said, that to draw the eye-teeth is not 
Eye teeth.  without danger.   

CHAP. XV. Of the Grinding Teeth.  
_THE great Teeth the Grecians call 〈◇〉 or 〈◇〉 Molares, because by them 
The Grinders  he meate is broken as corne is broken vppon a Mill. They are seated in the inner part of the mouth and hidden by the cheekes: the reason of this position is, least the meat already shred or broken and by the tongue rowled vnto these Teeth to be further ground should fall out of the mouth. In 
The Forme.  their vse therefore and likewise in their forme they are like vnto a Corne-quern, vnequal, rough, hard, broad and great: Rough and vnequall, for so they are more fit for comminution, and that is the reason why Millers when their stones are growne smooth do pick them anew. But these Teeth in olde men by long attrition do becom equall and smooth and by reason of their perpetuall vse, are more sooner broken and eaten out then the rest.  
VVherefore that part of these grinders which standeth without the gum is foursquare, and that square more perfect in the 3 hinder teeth: and though their tops are very large insomuch as Ruffus in the eight chapter of his first Book calleth them 〈◇〉 Tables, yet they are not smooth, but euery one, saith Eustachius, hath a pit one or two in the midst: whence it commeth to passe that their extreame or outward partes are somewhat high. Those two that are next the Dog-teeth are heightned on the inside and on the out-side, yet the first especially in the lower iaw doth sometime want his inwarde eminence: the third protuberateth or swelleth vp in foure corners: the fourth and the fifte for the most part haue two eminences on the outside, on the inside but one. These cauities and protuberations meeting iust one with another do hold the meate faster that it fals not so easily from betwixt them.  
They are the hardest, saith Vesalius, of all the bones, that they might not so easily weare away; broad also and plaine the better to leuigate the meate that is already shorne and broken by the other teeth; for it was not fit that aman should swallow his meat before it were perfectly ground: beside being so ground, the heat & moisture of the mouth assisting, there is made in the mouth a rude inchoation or beginning of concoction. They are called also 〈◇〉, not because their insertion is by way of mortize, for that is common vnto all the Teeth, but 〈◇〉, that is from the rough superficies of a Mill-stone, whose figure and vse the vpper partes of these grinding Teeth doe elegantly imitate. In Magnitude they differ, for the middlemost are the greatest, & those on each side lesser. The third is the greatest of all in Men, in Apes the fourth and the fift; for it 
Magnitude.  was not fit that the internall capacity of the mouth which groweth narrow as the anterior part doth, should haue teeth so great as the middle where it is broadest of all. Sometimes to the fourth or the fift( but in the vpper iaw rather then the lower) there is adioyned as it were a halfe tooth, for Nature contending to make more grinders, is hindred by the narrownesse of the place, and therefore is constrained to ioyne them together.  
Their Number is commonly in the vpper and lower Iawes on each side fiue, that is in all twenty. The reason why there are more grinders then shearers is, because Nature 
Number.  doth vse according to the largenesse or narrownesse of the fissure of the mouth to allow creatures more or fewer of this kinde. Man whose mouth is verie narrow, & whose teeth were especially giuen him to chew his meate, hath therefore more grinderss then shearers or dogteeth: on the contrary in rauenous creatures there are more shearers then grinders, because they vse them as weapons. Hence it is, that in men there is little difference in the number of their Shearing or Dog-teeth, but of Grinders there is great variety: sometimes fiue, sometimes foure, sometimes six. Eustachiu did neuer obserue so few as three, sauing once in a Cardinall. It may be his Iawes were short. And this variety Gal. makes mention of, although there be no such variety in Apes; whence saith Eustachius( and the obseruation is very good) it may well be concluded, that Galen did vse to cut vp not apes onely but men.  
The two latter grinders both in site and generation, are called by Hippocrates in his 
The teeth of Wisedome.  Booke de Carnibus 〈◇〉, the Teeth of wisedome, because when they growe vp a man beginneth to be wise: for they arise about the fourth Septenary, that is, at 28. yeare old, at what time men are or should be temperat and moderate. In the breeding of these teeth there is sometime great torment and paine, and therefore Auicen calleth them the teeth of Sense. They spring vppe sometime in olde age, and therefore Aristotle calleth them 〈◇〉, because they perfect the age or growth: the Latins call them Gemnuos, to which Teeth this is peculiar, that they do not begin to breake out till all the rest haue beene a good while perfect. Sometime also they onely perforate the gummes but rise little aboue them; sometimes they lurke al together in the iaw, and are couered with the gums, sometime they are not created at all.  
The roots of these Teeth are perpetually of one forme in Apes, as Eustachius elegantly 
Their roots its Apes.  declareth, for in them the grinders of the vpper iaw haue three roots: of the lower iaw two, excepting sometimes the fift; the fourth as it is the greatest, so are the roots thereof greatest. In Men their roots are not alwayes of one forme, yet mostwhat they are many and alike: sometime in the fift of the lower iaw,( in the second also Eustachius obserued the same) which because of his magnitude a man woulde thinke should haue many roots, there is but one, thicke and persorated with one broad hole. Other roots of the Teeth haue an equall or vnequall supersicies, and within two or three holes skilfullie thrilled and disseuered by thin scales, much like a Hony-combe. In the fift grinder there are three, in most of the rest two. Oftentimes the roots grow together, sometime they are separated, sometime a man cannot perceiue so much as the line that parteth them.  
The Figure also of these Rootes is diuers, for some are round, others streight and accute, 
Their Figure.  others obtuse, plaine and crooked. They differ also in magnitude, the roots of one tooth being thicke sometimes, sometimes narrow, of another short, of another long, of some broad and thin, yet for the most part the roots of the vpper teeth are longer and of the lower teeth shorter.  
They varry also in situation, some touch one another, some growe neare but touch not, some straddle one from another like the feete of a stoole. Againe, some stande off one from another, but yet are so incurued that their extremtties doe touch, others running 
Situation.  foure wayes are in their ends most of all disioyned, and these in drawing of Teeth are sometimes broken and put the man to cruell torment.  
If there be three roots, especially in the vpper iaw, one runneth inward and two outward. To conclude, commonly the two vpper grinders which are next to the Dogteeth are fastned into their sockets with two roots, the other three with three. Sometimes, the fift hath foure which is rare. Againe, the two lower Grinders which are next to the Dog teeth haue but one roote, the three others two. Those Teeth which we call Genuini or Teeth of wisedome, haue very short rootes, partly because that portion of the iaw wil not admit a deepe insertion, partly because in the leuigation or chewing of meate they are not in so much vse as the rest. Wherefore the rootes of the grinding Teeth of the lower iaw are fewer and shorter then those of the vpper, because the substance of the lower iaw is harder and more solid, and therefore better able strongly to containe the Teeth, and to beare their waight; but in the vpper iaw which is more rare and soft and wherein the Teeth hang, and therefore are more subiect to fall out with their owne weight, their rootes are longer the better to fasten them, for they needed more ties as it were to binde them and to containe them within the iaw.  
Hence it is that where the rootes are shorter the Teeth are drawne with lesse danger, but with more labour where they are many, especially if the rootes grow vnto the sockets.  
The rootes of all the Teeth are perforated euen into their internall cauities, yet 
Their perforations.  this perforation in perfect and growne Teeth is very small, and that in the sharpe pointe or top of the roote through which a veyne, an artery and a nerue are admitted; of which Vessels we will speake in the next place but briefly because we haue touched vppon them before.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Vessels and Sense of the Teeth.  
_THrough the holes of the rootes of the Teeth al manner of Vessels do run and are diuersified in their internall cauities; veynes to bring them plentifull 
The veines.  nourishment. Now it was necessary that the Teeth should alwayes grow, because in mutuall attrition they were one against another, & this we may certainly conclude by our owne experience. For if a tooth fal out or be drawne, that which groweth opposite against it will be longer then the rest of the Teeth of his owne ranke, because it is no more worne by the Tooth that before was opposite against it, the rest of the Teeth by their mutuall attrition in chewing of the meat are impaired and againe so much increased.  
Arteries also do enter into the Teeth to preserue and keepe their naturall heat; hence it is that in inflamations there is a beating or pulsing payne felt, such as fleshy parts feele 
Arteries.  when they are inflamed. And this Galen first of all men obserued in the 8 chap. of his fift book de Compositione medicamentorum secundum loca, for he found in himself not only paine but a pulsing paine in his Teeth, whence he concluded that there was one paine in the Gums, another in the very substance of the Tooth. Yea without any inflamation of the Gums somtimes there is paine in the proper body of the Teeth, somtimes in the nerue.  
And againe vnlesse vnder the Tooth there were an artery, how could so much florid and pure bloud issue when the Tooth is perforated, which Eustachius obserued in a man that fell into such a flux of blood that he had like to haue died vpon it.  
They haue also nerues soft and slender, which come from the third coniugation commonly 
Nerues.  so called, and runne through their rootes into their cauity, euen from their first conformation; where they are disseminated and their small surcles are mixed with the mucous matter of the Teeth; hence it is that when that mucous matter is become bony yet it easily consenteth with the nerues and the Teeth become sensible; whereas to other bones there are no nerues at al conuayed which may be dispersed into their cauities. And therefore it is truely saide that bones want nerues although the membrane which is called Periostium haue sense and nerues in it. Wherefore when this Periostium which is of exquisite sense is affected, the paine may be thought to be in the bones themselues when it is onely in the membrane; so in a Cicatrice which hath no sense wee imagine wee feele paine when indeed the paine is onely in the neighbour parts; and the membrane which 
How Teeth haue sense.  inuesteth the Liuer being affected we thinke we feele paine in the Liuer whereas the Parenchyma or substance of the Liuer itself is insensible: vnlesse any man will say that the bones haue sense by the helpe of the Sensatiue soule by which they subsist: and yet that very obscure, because the hardnesse of the bones doth very much resist any such sensation; and thus we may say that bones do differ from plants as being particles of a sensatiue creature.  
These nerues of the Teeth are very small, yet in our Table we haue made thē large immitating therein Vesalius and others. But by what order and manner of dissection, we 
How to demonstrate the vessels of the Teeth. Eustachius.  vse to make demonstration of the vessels and nerues of the Teeth, saith Bauhine, wee will now relate as we learned it out of Eustachius.  
These vessels are better demonstrated in the iaw of a great creature, as for example, in an Oxe, then they are in a Man: and againe the administration is easier in the lower iaw then in the vpper. We take therefore the lower iaw of an Oxe and open it on the inside, & presently we meet a cauity full of marrow, together with the nerue inuolued in a membrane; when we haue remoued the marrow & slit the membrane throughout his length, then may wee perceiue the nerue made as it were of many strings, betwixt which do run propagations of veines and arteries. Moreouer, if you remooue this membrane with the surcles of the nerues and vessels a little vpward from the bone carefully that you break them not, you shall perceiue some fibres distributed from the membrane not vnlike the Lawny threds of a cob-web. In like manner in the iaw of a Ramme certaine fibres do penetrate the bony partition which is betwixt the Nerue and the Teeth, but these fibres are most conspicuous at the roots of the grinders.  
From these Grinders vnto the Dog-teeth and the Shearers there is a nerue conuayed accompanied with an arterie: the nerue is deuided into two; one part of it, through a hole in that place, breaketh vp at the lower Lip, and a branch of it runneth along vnto the Shearers, and affoordeth a small surcle to euery one of them; another portion of it is ioyned with the vtter part of the rootes: the second part which is also the slenderest pearceth into the cauity of the teeth, and may euen without any greater difficulty be discerned euen in men.  
And truely it is a strange thing that the Shearers and Dog-teeth which are the lesse and haue but one roote, haue notwithstanding allowed them great and conspicuous surcles of vesselles attayning to their insertion by a broade and open way; whereas the Grinders which are the greater and haue three, sometimes foure rootes, are allowed but small and capillary surcles made of the former, doubly, trebly and foure-fold deuided, and creeping obscurely into their insertion.  
Againe, if a Grinder or a Shearer bee gently and by degrees drawne out of his socket, you shall finde to arise with it out of the cauity of the Iaw very small fibres which are ioyned to the roots of the Teeth: you may also obserue that the parts of the bony partition are full of a mucous substance which is not vnlike to that whereof the teeth and their huls or huskes are generated  
Againe, when the Tooth is drawne, in the extremity of his roots you shall find a matter partly mucous partly fibrous, which carrieth a resemblance or shew of a nerue, a veine and an artery.  
But if you deuide the Tooth in the middest you shall finde a mucous substance wouen with vesselles and some fibres: but these things may be better seen in the iaw of an Oxe or of a Ram then of a Man; and yet euen in a man diligent search will find them out, though they be not so perspicuous.  
Wherefore who can deny but that there is a Pulsatiue or beating payne euen in the inner part of the tooth, as Galen and Eustachius haue witnessed, when he shall perceiue an arterie and a nerue attaine thereinto? For veines, why should we not likewise beleeue that they enter into the Teeth, when wee see it sprinkled with bloud in men? and in Oxen may manifestly perceiue the vessell itself? for it is in the tooth as it is in that coate of the eye called adnata, as long as a mans Eie is well disposed the veines therein are not visible, but then onely become conspicuous when it is inflamed.  
Concerning the Sense of the Teeth, the opinions of Anatomistes and Physitians are 
Of the sense of the teeth Diuers opinion, of Anatomists.  very diuers. Some thinke they haue no sense at all, because they are bones and may be filed without paine; others thinke they haue Sense, but that of themselues without nerues, as other bones haue: and these men imagine that the paine of the tooth is without it, that is, in the membrane which compasseth the socket: others thinke they liue and haue Sense by their inbred heate. Aristotle determines that they feele cold sooner then heate, and are more affected by it: Galen saith they are pained, they beate and receiue soft nerues. But the question may be asked what part of the tooth hath this Sensation? Varolius answereth the body of the tooth, but on the inside onely. Others say that the whole Tooth indeede hath Sense, but the whole Tooth doeth not feele paine; it perceiueth the first and second qualities, but the first qualities onely doe paine it, because they exercise their power vpon the rootes of the teeth, into which certaine small nerues doe penetrate. This was Archangelus his conceit, and Laurentius hath almost the same. The whole Toothsayeth hee doth feele, but more exquisitly on the inside more dully on the out.  
Another question may be asked whence comes the sensation that payneth them? some answere, that it is by reason of the nerues and of their proper substance, so saith Actuarius. Falopius thinkes the paine comes by reason of a thin membrane compassing about the inner cauity. Others ascribe the cause to the nerue and the membrane ioyntly: others to the nerue which cleaueth to the neighbour partes and to the rootes of the Teeth onely. Others to the nerue that entreth the Tooth and a membrane that cleaueth to the roote thereof as it were a Periostium. Others to a nerue which penetrateth the substance.  
These and such like are the diuers opinions of Anatomists concerning the sense of the Teeth. Bauhine interposeth his opinion on this manner.  
The teeth, saith he, do feele, and the faculty of sensation is communicated to their 
Bauhines resolution.  substance by the mediation of a very thinne membrane which compasseth the inward cauity of the Tooth lightly hanging vnto it, and also of a soft nerue which attaineth into the same cauity: thus the Teeth haue a proper kind of Touching which we cannot in words so well expresse as by instance. For vpon the eating of sowre or sharpe meates the Teeth are affected with a kinde of stupor, and then we commonly say our Teeth are set on edge, which kind of sensation is proper only to the Teeth and the Gums, and is nothing else but a Symptome of the touching faculty.  
But we must conceiue that each part of the Tooth is not equally sensible, but that the inside which is nearest to the nerue and the membrane is of quicker apprehension then the outside, for the outside partly because of the spisse and hard substance which like a shell couereth the inward part of the Tooth, and doth not admit the power of the nerue or the impression of the animall spirit: partly because it is continually accustomed to the mutations that come from the ambient ayer is not so sensible. Euen so we see that the callous skinne in the hands and feete of a labouring man is almost altogether without sense, thogh the skinne itself naturally disposed be very sensible.  
Wherefore that part which is without the Gummes or the shell of the Tooth is not ffended by hard and rough things, for though it be cutte or filed, or burnt with hot yron, yet it is not payned neyther is there any sense or signe of sense following therevppon, especially the height or top of the tooth which was made solid to breake the meate, & therfore the cauity not attaining so far the nerue also commeth short of it.  
The reason why a part of the body of the tooth is not payned by fire or by hot iron, Aritaeus sayth is knowne onely to the Gods. As for vs we can say nothing but that it is a peculiar to the teeth that they are not equally affected eyther by all things that make alteration in them, or by those things which might offend them; but are more affected by heat and cold then by any other qualities, & by cold more then by heate, yet to giue some satisfaction, we say that the teeth are not offended by moist or dry by soft or hard thinges because their qualities are not so suddenly communicated to the membrane or to the nerue. But they are affected by hot and cold things because the animall spirits which are contained in the substance of the tooth and diffused through the same, are thereby altered; for those actiue qualities do pierce on euery side, affecting and changing together with their substance the animall spirite and by succession also the membrane and the nerues. And truly it is very reasonable to imagine that in the substance of the teeth there are great 
Great store of animall spirits in the Teeth.  store of animal spirits more thē in other bones, first because they receiue soft nerues into their cauities, and againe because their internal substance is somwhat rare, made of a mucous matter condensated or thicknesse.  
Obserue also that the paine which is felt in the substance of the tooth differeth much from that paine which is in the Gummes, eyther from their distemper or from any flux of humor into them, and from the payne which is felt in the nerue that runneth vnder the roote of the Tooth.  
The vse of their sensation is thought to be, first that being exposed to outward iniuries, 
The vse of their sense.  and hauing no Periostium to compasse them about; it was fitte they shoulde haue an ingenite principle of Sense that they might bee able to discerne betwixt that which is profitable and hurtfull.  
Againe if we wil beleeue Galen in the second Chapter of his 16. book de vsu partium, as all the other parts of the mouth, so likewise the teeth doe after a sort discerne of sapors or Tastes, and for that purpose they receiued soft nerues. For as the Skinne hath Sense, yet through the cuticle or scarffe-skinne which is not sensible; so the marrow of the tooth is apprehensiue of tactile qualities through the bony part, like as the neruous membrane which is vnder the nailes doth feele heat and cold through the nailes which haue no sense at all. And so much shall haue beene sufficient to haue spoken of the Sense of the Teeth. Now we come vnto their cauities.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the inward cauity and Membrane of the Teeth.  
_WEe saide before that the Vessels and the Nerues did enter into the cauities of the Teeth, and therefore it would be very fitte we should acquaint you what this cauity is.  
All the Teeth are hollow on the inside,[ table 11. fig. 3. I] but this cauity is 
The cauity of the teeth.  greater or lesser according to the magnitude or figure of the Teeth, which thing also Aristotle acknowledged in the 7. chapter of his 3. booke de historia animalium, where hee sayeth that the teeth are bones partly concauous and partly solid. Norwithstanding some new Anatomists haue been so impudent as to challenge to themselues the inuention or finding out this cauity. Galen indeede in those bookes of his which are extant, doth not write how great or what a kind of cauity this is, nor yet what is contayned therein; yet because ofttimes he makes mention of the Dennes of the Teeth, it is not likely that he was ignorant of them; for if hee had beleeued that the teeth in their first originall had had no cauities, it had bin an idle thing for him in vehement payne of the Teeth to commaund that their solid substance should be perforated with a small wimble or piercer, in the ninth chapter of his 5. booke de compositione medicamentorum secundumloca. Againe, Hippocrates in the 4. Epidemi●n repotteth that a Childes Teeth were eaten with acorroding vlcer, those especially that had cauities or were hollow, whereby Hippocrates doth insinuate, first that the substance of the Teeth may bee corroded, and secondly that they haue a naturall cauity in them.  
This cauity is in children of seauen yeares old and somewhat vpward very large, and circumscribed with a thinne scale very like vnto a hony-combe. It is also full of a white 
The humour therein.  humor, not of marrow, such as we may see in the sweet-tooth of a Calfe when it is broght sodden vnto the Table, but this humour in processe of time is dried, becomes harder, and for the most part turnes bony, and so the cauity is euery day diminished; yet so that in the middest at the roote there remayneth alwaies a Sinus which scarcely reacheth aboue the height of the Gummes: for it was necessary there should be an empty space left, because of the insertion of the vessels and the dilatation of the artery: yet some men affirme that the pulsation we feele in our teeth doth not proceede from the beating of the artery, but from a spirit or ayre moued, as sometimes we finde it to be in our eares.  
These things sayth Eustachius are best perceiued in the Grinding teeth of an Oxe broken; and in a Calfe and a Lambe each grinder hath three cauities, one anterior another 
3 cauities in a calues tooth  posterior & the third in the middest; and the middlemost cauity is perforated with a crooked hole like the letter C which reacheth as farre as to the top of the Gummes: in the two other cauities there is a mucous matter contayned, which for the most part as the Tooth growes perfect turneth bony. Beside, because in these creatures we finde oftentimes two, sometimes three, sometimes foure grinding Teeth ioyned together, Nature to make a mutual consent between them, hath perforated the bony partition with a transuerse hole, through which a matter like a small membrane passeth out of one cauity into another, as surcles of vessels do passe through their perforations.  
This cauity is compassed with a membranous substance, which Falopius and Laurentius call a thinne membrane. Goreus saith it is a production of the Pia mater. Columbus esteemeth it to bee made of a complication of veines, arteries and nerues, which imbibeth or sucketh vp the matter that falleth vpon it, from whence come the greatest and most intolerable paynes of the tooth-ach.  
And indeed this membrane is of most exact Sense, and by it the Teeth are so apprehensiue of heate and cold: yea sayeth Bauhine wee consent with Columbus herein that the flux of humor out of the Brain vnto this membrane is the true cause of the greatest pains in the teeth which do so long endure as the humour is detained in the Membrane, or till the braine be purged, and so the cause of the flux be taken away.  
By reason of this cauity if the teeth be perforated by an affluence of sharpe humors, 
How the teeth rottes.  which perforation dooth reach to the cauity, then are the teeth quickly rotted euen vnto the roots, againe in this cauity, especially the erotion and putrifaction of the teeth doth begin. In it groweth that dolourous rottennesse, and in it somtimes are wormes gathered which do miserably excrutiate and punish the patient. The vse of the cauity is, that 
The vse of their cauities.  by it the teeth may be better nourished, and receiue the faculty of sensation.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the generation and vse of the Teeth.  
_COncerning the generation of the Teeth, there are diuers opinions; some thinke they are generated within the Wombe, as Columbus and Eustachius; some without the wombe, as Aristotle; some partly within and partly without, as Hippocrates who maketh a threefolde time of their generation, in his Booke de Carnibus, of a threefolde Aliment which ministreth matter vnto them. The first is from the sustenance they receiue in the womb; the second is after birth by the Milke which the child sucketh; the third is after he hath cast his teeth by the meat 
Diuers opininions concerning the generation of the teeth.  and drinke that he eateth whereby new teeth are engendred: for, saith he, whatsoeuer is glutinous in the Aliment that maketh the Teeth, but the fatty part, which heere is more plentifull then in the matter of the rest of the bones, is exiccated by the power of the heate. So also, saith Laurentius, as this threefold kinde of Aliment differs in thicknesse, so doth the solidity, hardnesse and thicknesse of the teeth varye, for those teeth that are engendred of the Aliment which the infant vseth in the wombe, or when hee suckes his mothers brest are but soft and do easily fall away, but those that are made of more solide meats are also firmer.  
The truth is that they are generated in the womb together with the rest of the bones, with which they are not delineated but formed and absolued by degrees: wherefore they 
The truth.  lye for some time imperfect in the Iawes, neyther do they all breake their prisons at the same time, but some sooner, some later, according as the necessity of Nature dooth require. And this is the cause why some made a double time of their generation, one in the wombe, another out of the wombe.  
In the wombe after the generation of the Iawes there are twelue Teeth formed, foure of which are Shearers, two dog-teeth and six Grinders, all which do want roots and lie hid in their sockets, on euery side compassed therwith, and the gummes whole aboue them. And this may be seene in the raw of an abortiue infant or other creature, yea if it dye presently after the birth; for if you cut vp the Iaw you shall finde Teeth therein. Some haue bene borne with their Teeth out of their gummes, as of olde time M. Curtius Dentatus, and Cn. Papyrius Carbo. Of later times, the same is reported of Richard Crooke-backe the Vsurper.  
The substance of the Teeth being yet imperfect is partly mucous and partly bony, for if you take away the husk of the Tooth,( for there is about euery Tooth such a white, mucous and slimy substance somewhat membranous wherewith the tooth is couered, which 
The substance of the Teeth diuers.  also is so much the more mucous by how much the tooth is the softer and the younger) perforating it in the vpper part, that the end of the Tooth may peepe out, then shall you perceiue that the tooth is partly bony, partly mucous; for that part which was to rise aboue the gummes is fashioned into a white scale, thin and excauated or hollowed like a 
Their hard part.  Hony-combe, and so the vpper part of the Tooth is bony, hard and hollow. The other part which should haue remained in fixed in the Iaw, is soft, moyst and mucous, like the 
The soft part.  substance that is in a young quill.  
This substance seemeth to haue fibres and threds and to be couered as it were with a thin coate, for the superficies thereof is like to a smooth tunicle fastned and conioyned to the substaunce that it containeth: wherefore a resemblance of the generation of the teeth wee haue some what expressely in the generation of a quill: for the part which is without the skin is horny and hard, but that which is within the wing is softer and moyster, yea sometimes like blood or congealed Phlegme. This soft part of the teeth as they breake the flesh hardneth by degrees, and by degrees becommeth bony. Sometime also it is hollowed within and formed into roots.  
The hull or huske of the Tooth whereof we spake euen now serueth insteade of a Ligament, for by it the tooth is fastned as with glew to the socket and to the gums.  
In Infancy the Teeth be within the Gummes that they might not byte the Nurses nipple: the seauenth moneth they beginne to breake out, or later sayth Hippocrates, if the Infant do toothe with a Cough, and then they are troubled with Agues, Convulsions, Scowrings and such like, especially when they breede their Dog-teeth. Galen rendereth a reason, because when the Gummes are perforated by the Teeth the paine is as violent as if a goade were thrust into the flesh, but indeed the teeth are more paynfull then goades, for if a goade be once fastned it resteth, but the tooth issueth still to the extent of his augmentation.  
The Teeth breake out not altogether but the vpper sooner then the lower, and the Shearers sooner then the Grinders: that they issue later in men then in bruite beastes( for 
The times of dentition  the Elephant saith Aristotle in the 5. chap. of his 2. book de hist. animal. breedeth his teeth as soon as hee himselfe is borne) the reason is saith Aristotle because a man aboue all creatures hath lesse of that earthy excrement whereof they are ingendred. But because the first Teeth and those that follow them which are thought to bee regenerated, do lie hidden 
The first  in the iaw-bone, therefore wee rather say that the cause of their late yssuing in men is to bee attributed to the good will and pleasure of him that made them, who moderateth all things according to his owne wisedome; yet when the childe comes to chewing, that he might cease to be troublesome to his mother, and not lie alwaies lugging at her brests but fall to stronger kinds of meate, therefore at length Nature put them foorth; for euery particle is then accomplished when Nature standeth in neede thereof, and this is the reason why the Teeth are not formed till after the birth. For this cause also sayeth Aristotle the Shearers doe yssue before the Grinders, because the meate is first shred before it bee ground.  
Dentition or the breeding of the Teeth begins about the seauenth yeare, sometimes sooner, but then saith Hippocrates in his booke de carnibus, they are ingendred of an ill humour. The first Teeth that arise are the fore-teeth; Democritus saith because their sharp ends make way before their due time. Aristotle reprehends him and giueth another reason, because that which is sharpe doth soonest grow blunt: & therefore Nature sendeth a supply of others; the broade Teeth are not blunted at all but onely leuigated by attrition, and this is Aristotle his conceite in the 8. chapter of his fift booke de generatione animalium.  
When the first Teeth about the seauenth yeare are either drawne or thrust out by those that come vnder them, then doe those first Teeth appeare soft and as it were hollowed: and therefore some haue thought them onely Appendances of certaine rootes left in the iaw, of which roots, as it were of seede, a new hope or succession of teeth is broght forth. Vesalius therefore counsels vs to take heed that when a childes tooth is broken by accident we doe not draw the roote, for then haply the tooth will not grow againe. But Anatomy teacheth vs the contrary, that is to say, that there is no coniunction betwixt the imperfect teeth that fall at seauen yeares of age and the perfect that arise after. Nay they do not so much as touch one another, for there is a partition in the midst betwixt them before the new tooth can breake forth. And thus much of the first time of the generation of the teeth within the wombe.  
The second time of their generation is without the womb, about the seuenth yeare, 
The 2. time.  and these teeth are commonly thought to be Regenerated; but to say trueth and to speak properly, they are then neither generated nor regenerated. For together with the first Teeth in the beginning of generation they doe receiue with the rest a rude kinde of forme, and are made of the same matter; otherwise wee must be constrayned to confesse,( and that were very absurd) that Nerues, Vessels, Ligaments and Membranes which are spermaticall partes and doe consummate the frame of the Teeth, doe beginne their generation after the Infant is borne seuen yeares, more or lesse. It is true indeed that these latter Teeth are not sooner absolued or perfected then in the seuenth yeare or there abouts, and the proportion seemeth not to bee much amisse, for they first break out of the Gums about the seauenth month, and the second about the seauenth yeare. And this proportion Hippocrates in his booke de septimestri partu standeth much vpon, not only in the production of the Teeth, but also in other mutations in the body of man.  
Falopius conceiueth that the latter Teeth are made of the same matter with the former by the seminary faculty which remaineth in the iawes, and Eustachius confesseth that if you remoue the bony partition that is betwixt the first and the later teeth you shall finde the seedes of the Teeth one vnder another, I meane of the Shearers and the Dog-teeth, but of the Grinders he neuer found any seedes, and yet he thinketh it reasonable that they should haue a rude originall in the wombe which is accomplished afterward at leasure.  
The teeth which about the seauenth yeare break out, or as some say are renewed, are in eyther iaw ten, foure Shearers, two Dog-teeth, and foure Grinders or Maxillaries that is two next vnto the Dog-teeth, and two that are called Genuini or Teeth of wisedome. The 
The number of the teeth. How they issue.  shearing teeth when they breake forth do thrust the first shearers out before them and issue betwixt the two first, the second, and the Dog-tooth that is next vnto them. But if the former teeth will not fall or be not pulled out, or if the latter issue before the-firstfal, then the latter worke their way through new sockets and turne in the vpper iaw outward, in the lower iaw inward, so that there seemeth to arise a new row of teeth, and this indeed hath deceiued many Hystorians and some Anatomists also.  
The Dog-teeth also do fall out and the place of the succeeder is a little of the one side the roote of the former.  
The reason why the teeth about the fourth fift sixt or seauenth yeares do grow loose, is because the sockets do continually increase and the teeth are but soft and therefore doe soone perish, because the harder Aliment which from thenceforth accreweth vnto them is nothing conuenable to their substance and then they putrifie and fall away: but those teeth that breake out at the seauenth yeare receiue nourishment agreeable to their substance, and therefore do continue as long as their nourishment is supplyed. Among the grinders the two first do somtimes thrust out their predecessors, but for the most part they arise at their sides and increase the number; those two that are called Genuini doe neuer thrust out them that were before them, but yssue somtimes in extreame old age, in the very ends of the iawes; yea Aristotle reporteth that these teeth haue arisen not without great paine after fourescore yeares. Notwithstanding this is more rare in men then in women. Hippocrates in his booke de Carnibus witnesseth that these teeth which grow vp so late doe wax old together vnlesse by mischance they fall out or perish.  
The manner of the generation of the teeth Fallopius thus expresseth. The quickening faculty by an actiue spirit makes the bone hollowe; at the same time is ingendered a 
The manner of their generation.  membranous huske which hath two ends, one posterior whereat a small nerue, a veyne & an artery do meete. The other anterior whereat hangeth a neruous tayle like growne Malt: and this taile creepeth through a narrow perforation of the bone to the side of that tooth which hath a successor and so passeth vnto the Gums.  
In the foresaide husk there gathereth together a white and slimy matter, and the first part of the tooth becomes bony when as yet the latter part is soft, euen so as we saide it was in the teeth formed in the mothers wombe.  
Euery tooth yssueth through that hole dilated, through which the tayle or beard of the huske was transmitted. Instantly the huske is broken and becommeth as we said before a ligament to the tooth, and the tooth itself issueth naked and hard, notwitstanding the hardest part of it receiues a further perfection by induration of his matter without the Gums.  
The primary and first vse of the teeth was to diuide to breake, to chew or mitigate 
Their vses.  the meate and so prepare it for the stomacke. Againe, another vse of the teeth is for the forming of the voyce, for Shearing teeth are of great consequence to true pronunciation of letters or words; and hence it is that those that want their teeth cannot so well pronounce R, S, X, Z, yea it is thought that the shearing teeth in men haue no other vse but only for elocution although the Infant doth not lightly speake before he haue all his teeth, or at least some of all kindes. VVhen he hath a few teeth he will mumble and as it were record, but cannot articulate plainely till he haue all, yet these shearers do not equally assist vs in the pronunciation of all words, only they make the prolation of some more cleare and facile. Those words that are formed of T and R cannot bee pronounced without the shearing Teeth articulatly, for they require that the Tongue should rest vppon the fore Teeth. Laurentius saith the Teeth were made for ornament, but Homer more wisely, that they were giuen to men to keepe their Tongues within compasse. Bauhine thinkes that the Teeth of themselues are not onely no ornament but a fearefull sight, and therefore Nature compassed and distinguished them with Gums, couered them with the lip as it were with a buckler the better to break & change the ingresse of the outward aer. Those creatures who are able eyther with their hornes to defend themselues as a Bull and Cow, or with their hoofes to offend their aduersaries, those creatures I say haue teeth onely to eate withall. They that haue saw-teeth do both mitigate their meat by them and stand vpon their guard with them, for they are giuen to such creatures both to offend and to defend, whereas a man hath his hands to defend himselfe.  
And thus much shall be sufficient to haue saide of the Teeth, their Sockets, their Nature, Figure, Magnitude, Number, Site, Articulation, Kindes, Vessels, Sense, Cauitie; and finally of their Generation and Vse.  
And thus we haue brought to an end the history of the bones of the Scull and of the Face. Another bone there is which belongeth not indeed to the head, but much lesse vnto the Trunk or the ioynts, whose history we will therefore insert in this place because it is neare vnto the Head though it be not of it, and that is the bone Hyois.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the bone Hyois, called Os gutturis.  
_THAT bone which from the similitude it hath with the letter u is called Hypsiloides, or shorter Hyoides,[ Tab. 11, fig. 4, and 5,] is seated in the chops 
The bōe Hyois His situation.  before the top of the Larinx, and therefore is also called by Galen Os gutturis. It lyeth like a foundation vnder the basis of the tongue, and is extended directly along the necke, and the figure of it is farre other in men then it is in brute beasts. It representeth the letter υ, for the termination thereof is not 
Figure.  in an acute angle but in a bow or bent, and therefore is not much vnlike the lower iawe, for it is not onely curued like a bow as that is, but also determineth into two processes. The figure of it was thus made that the way might be left open for the meate to passe into the stomacke and for the breath to passe and repasse to and from the Lungs; for as wee sayde euen now, it is placed iust before the chops and the Larinx.  
Although this bone be expressed by one single name yet is it not one bone but compounded of many, at least of three, at most of thirteene, but for the most part in antient 
The parts.  men it consisteth of eleuen bones which are ioyned together by a laxe or dissolute composition with a gristle betweene them that they might better yeeld and giue place when they are mooued.  
The ends of this bone do not touch the ends of any other, and therefore it is fastened to the neighbour parts, otherwise the tongue could not haue rested vppon it as vpon her basis. The continuity therefore that the bone Hyois hath, is by the mediation of muscles and ligaments, for it is continued to the lower iaw about the Chin, to the brest-bone, to the shoulder-blades, to the Appendix of the Nowle called the Bodkin; to all these I say, by that kind of Coalition which we called Synsarcosis, for it is bound by flesh or Flesh bounde. Of all the bones, that is the first which is in the middest, greater and broader then the rest, and as it were their basis.[ ta. 11, fig. 4, ABCD] On the anterior and exterior part that regardeth the mouth, it is connex and determineth into an obtuse or dul angle, which we may feele in ourselves aboue the Throttle although the processes do lye very deepe. This angle was made partly to secure it from outward iniuries, partly to affoord an implantation to some muscles. On the inner or posterior side which reguardeth the chops it is hollowe,[ Ta. 11, fig. 4, D. fig. SP.] from which hollownes two muscles of the Tongue do arise, and beside the cauity giues way to the Epiglottis to open and lift itself vp.  
It hath three bosomes; aboue, a transuerse depressed bosome[ C] to admit the second paire of muscles which are proper vnto it, in the midst it buncheth out.[ *] In the sides of 
Cauities.  this Sinus there are two other cauities, one on the right hand another on the left, which giue way vnto the first paire of muscles that are implanted into the sides of this bone.  
It hath also two processes on either hand arising out of the basis,[ PFIK] which some cal 
Processes.  Hornes or Ribs, by which it is ioyned to the two lower neighbour bones.  
The two lower which make the second and third bone[ EF] do consist on either hand 
The 2 lower.  of one bone; they are shorter and broader then the vpper, and are fastened to the bottome of the sides of the first or middle bone[ Tab. 11, fig. 4, G] by the interposition of a gristle & a good broade gristly ligament. At their extremitics[ HH] because they are not ioyned with any other bone, they couple thēselues with the processes of the shield-gristle of the throttle, & these processes together with the middle bone make the shape of the letter υ.  
But because this bone hangs like a meteor, it would not haue had sufficient strength if it had bin only ioynd with the gristle of the Larinx; Nature therfore aded 2 other processes 
The 2 vpper.  it and firme it to the Appendix called Styloides, which is fastened to the Temple bone, and by this meanes being so on each side bound, the bone Hyois standeth stedfast in the middest. Wherefore the two vpper processes which make the fourth and the fift bones[ I K] and are slender, round and long, are fastned to the vpper part of the side of the first or middle bone. To these processes are oftentimes added on either side 3 small Bones, which make the sixt, seauenth, eighth, ninth, tenth and eleuenth bones. They are fastened with round and slender Ligaments to the extremities of the appendix Stylo●ides; so that as the two lower processes or the second & third bones together with the first make a resemblance of the letter v, so also the two vpper processes or the fourth and the fifte bones, and those that are assistant vnto them together with the first bone, do again make another v, so that this bone may well be called Hypsiloeides, because there resulteth a double vpselon out of his figure.  
Sometime the vpper processe on either side consisteth of one short and slender bone, and is fastned to the Appendix Styloeides by a neruous Ligament. Sometime it hath only the inferior processes and the vpper bones as the fourth and the fift, and all the rest to 
Sometimes wanting.  the eleuenth especially in women are wanting, as we haue expressed it in the fift figure of the eleuenth Table, and then their place is supplyed by long, round, strong and neruous Ligaments, which yssuing from the first or middle bone do passe vnto the processes Styloeides on either side, and then there are onely three bones. Afterward as a man growes in yeares, those which were at first but additaments do grow dry and harde, and so the Number of the bones is increased, till they come to seuen, then to nine, after to eleauen, and sometime though rarely to thirteene.  
Finally, least the bone Hyois, saith Galen in the eleuenth chap. of his 7 book de vsu par, 
How it is established  should be displaced from the middle Region of the Larynx, and leane too much to one 
FIG I  
FIG. II.  
FIG. III.  
FIG. IV.  
FIG. V.  
TABVLA. XI. Fig. 4 sheweth the Bone Hyois, as well the fore-side as the backeside with his processes.  

A, B, C. The forepart of the greater bone.  
* His protuberation.  
D The backside of the same greater bone.  
E, F. His lower processes on each side.  
G. The connexion of the lower side, with a small bone of the broade Bone of the Hyois.  
HH. The tops of the Hyois, by which they are ioined to the Larynx.  
I, K. The vpper processes.  
L, M, N. Three bones of these processes.  
Fig. 5. sheweth the bone Hyois vvithout processes or horns such as Bauhine found in a man.  
O. Sheweth his Anteriour part.  
P. His Posterior.   side, Nature hath prouided muscles which ballance it and keepe it equall, and not only so, but also certaine strong Ligaments in the two sides of the bone Hyois, yea and others that are gristly and round which she hath inserted on each side; and as if all this were not sufficient, it is fastned by certaine membranes not onely to the Larynx and Epiglottis, but to make it more stable, to the Gullet also.  
The vses of the bone Hyois are very great though it be but a little bone, and very many. It was framed therefore for the tongue and the Larynx: first to bee a Basis for the tongue 
The vses of the bone hyois  aboue which it might be moued diuersly and suddenly, like an Ecle sayth Laurentius. The second vse of it is to lift vp the Larynx. A third, that from it many muscles might take their originall, that is to say, some of the tongue or the fourth payre. The fourth payre from the first of the middle bone, the fift payre from the fourth and fift bone when they are there, when the fourth and fift are wanting then it ariseth from the second and third bones.  
The muscles also of the Larynx take their originall from hence: the anterior, that is to say, the beginning of the first and fourth payres of the foure common muscles from the lower part of the first bone: and thus wee see howe the bone Hyois was ordayned to establish the muscles of the tongue and the throttle. And so much of the bone Hyois, now we proceed.   

CHAP. XX. Of the Spine in generall.  
_WEe deuided the Sceleton before into three partes, the Scull, the Trunke and the loynts. The Scull we haue prosecuted as narrowly as we could; the Trunk we also deuided into the Spine, the Chest, and the Bone without a name. Vnder the name of the Spine we comprehend all that which is extended from the first Racke-bone of the Necke vnto the Coccyx or Rumpe: and this the Grecians call 〈◇〉, because the backepart of it is sharpe and spinie. It is called also dorsum or the Backe, because the Backe is the greatest part thereof.  
This Spine is the habitation or seat and defence of the Marrow as the Scull is of the 
What the spine is. The dignity thereof.  Braine. For because the dignity or woorth of the Marrow of the Spine is equall to the worth of the braine( for it is the originall of all the sinnewes excepting seauen coniugations, and therefore is called the Braines Vicar or Substitute) Nature was no lesse carefull of the preseruation thereof then she was of the Braine itself. As therefore the Brayne was compassed with the bones of the Scull as with a Helmet, so the Spinall Marrow is walled in on euery side by the Racke-bones of the Chine.  
This that Nature might the better accomplish, first she hollowed the Spine throughout, then she exasperated it with many processes both acute and transuerse, thereby as it were flanking the bulwarke against all annoyance. The cauity is large, the better to containe the Marrow, in which respect the whole Spine is called 〈◇〉 the Sacred Pipe, by Herophilus the Canale. The Spine therefore is bony, not made of one but of many compacted together, as well to helpe the variety of motions because it was fitte the creature 
Why the spine is hollow.  should moue forward and backward, as also to preuent danger; for the luxation saith Hippocrates, of one Rack-bone is more dangerous then of many, because it constrayneth the Marrow into an acute angle, and so doth necessarily either breake it or compresse it very sore.  
These Bones that make the Spine are called 〈◇〉 from the similitude the haue with the whirle of a wheele. They are also called vertebrae, because by them the body is turned into diuers parts. Pliny calles them ossa orbiculata round or Nut-bones. This Spine is 
Why made of manie bones.  the Basis and foundation of the whole building, and therefore the auncients compared it to the carkasse of a Ship, for as the crooked ribbes and elbowes of a Shippe are fastned to the bulke, and afterward the prow and the sterne or castle are annexed, right so the ribbes the Armes and the Legs are fastned to the Spine.  
The figure of the Spine Hippocrates first elegantly expressed in the third Section of his Booke de articulis, and in his Booke de natura ossium, where he sayth it is 〈◇〉, that 
The figure of them  is, after a manner direct or straight: yet so that it inclineth sometime backeward sometime inward. From the first Rackbone of the Necke vnto the seuenth it inclineth inward that it might support the Gullet and the rough artery. From the first Racke of the Backe vnto the twelfth it beareth outward, to leaue more space for the organs of Respiration, that is, for the Heart and the Lungs. The Loynes incline inward to support the descending trunkes of the hollow veine and the great artery. The holy-bone protuberateth outward with a kinde of rectitude or streightnesse to make the capacity of the Hypogastrium or water-course better able to conteine the bladder, the right gut and the wombe.  
We also will add, saith Laurentius, that the fore and inner part is equall that it might not offend the bowels yet scored throughout with transuerse inscriptions: the backeside is vnequall for the better insertion of muscles, and the safer egresse of the vessels.  
The Spine may be diuided into foure parts, the Necke, the Backe, the Loines, and the 
4 parts of the Spine.  Holy-bone. The Rackes of the necke are seuen, of the backe twelue, of the Loines fine, whose articulation and coalition is strange and wonderfull. The articulation is double, forward and backward; the forward articulation is made by the bodies of the Spondels, and is more strict and close: the backward or hinder articulation is made by the oblique processes and is more lax or remisse, partly that the creature might mooue more easilie forward, partly least in bending backward the vessels should be distended, compressed, or broken. In a word, there are sixe articulations of the rackbones, two by their bodyes, and foure by their oblique processes ascending and descending. That articulation which is made by the processes belongeth to Ginglymos, for euery racke( excepting the first and the eleuenth) receiueth an vpper and is receiued by a lower, so that for the making of 
The artiction of 〈…〉 Rackes. ●  the Ginglymos there must be three rackes.  
The Symphysis or coalition of the Rack-bones is not Gristle bound, although their extreamities bee lined ouer with a gristle, but by Ligaments and those very strong, arising from the bones, from the gristles, and from the membranes that inuest the bones.  

TABVLA XII.  
See this Tables description, in fol. 771.   
All the racke-bones of the Spine haue many thinges in common. First euery rack hath his body seated on the inside 
What the Rackbones haue in common.  thicker and more fungous thē the rest of the bone, to which also Appendices do grow & gristles. It is broade both in the vpper and in the lower basis to make the articulation more secure least it should lux sideward. Againe, euery racke hath a large hole wherein the narrow is contained, and this perforation is in all the rackes equall, saith Laurentius, for he neuer could obserue it larger aboue or narrower below, although some haue thoght the contrary. But, saith Laurentius although the wonderfull fruitfulnesse of the Marrow of the backe in propagating Nerues be by degrees diminished, yet those lower cauities are filled vp with thicker Membranes, prepared more straitely to vnite the thicker Bodyes of the Spondels. Thirdly, in euery rackbone there are three kinds of processes, oblique, transuerse and acute. The oblique are foure, two in the vpper part and as many in the lower; the vpper ascending, the lower descending, and by these are the Hinges of the backe hung together, for the articulation is made by Gynglimos.  
The transuerse processes are two, made to secure their muscles and for their originals and insertions. The acute processe is single, seated in the backepart, and giueth the name vnto the whole, for it is called 〈◇〉 or the Spine, and this is wanting onely in the first Racke.  
Fourthly, in euery Racke-bone there are fiue Appendices, two in the body, two in the transuerse processes, and one in the Spine.  
Finally, euery spondell which is articulated with another, hath a perforation which affordeth an outlet for the nerues, produced from the Marrow. Notwithstanding this perforation is not after the manner in all the Racks, for in those of the Neck the lower is deeper then the vpper: in the spondels of the Backe, the semicircle of the vpper and the lower is equall: in the vertebrae of the Loynes the whole cauity almost is formed by the vpper. And these things are common to all the Racke-bones. Now in their particular history wee shall see what is proper to euery one of them; but first you shall haue a Table to shew you all the Rack-bones of the Spine from the top to the bottom.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Rack-bones of the Necke.  
_THE vse of the whole Necke and his admirable structure doeth not belong to this place, and of it we haue spoken before: here wee haue to doe onely with the Bones, which are commonly seauen[ table 13. fig 2. 3. 4.] differing both amongst themselues and from the other Racks of the Spine.  
The two first are ioyned to the Nowle by Ligaments, whereby the head is strongly fastned to the necke. The first of these[ ta. 13. fig. 2. 3. 4. F F ta. 14. figu. 2. 3. 4.] 
7 Racks of the necke. 1 Atlas.  is called Atlas, because as he was imagined to hold Heauen vppon his shoulders, so this especially beareth vp the Head. The body of it is more slender but faster 
TABVLA. XIII.  
FIG I  
II.  
III  
IV  
V  
VI  
See this description lib. 6. fol. 397  then the rest, and it wanteth his vpper processe or his Spine, least it should haue hurt twoe small muscles of the head: but ascending and descending processes it hath like the other Racke-bones, which in this are hollowed on either hand[ tab. 14. fig. 2. 2. ● ●] Aboue to receiue two processes[ ta. 13. fig. 1. B C] of the nowle-bone to help the motion of the head. Galen thought in compasse, but Colūbus reproueth him who sayeth that by this articulation the head is inclined and reclined, that is, moued forward and backward. Below it receiueth the processes of the second Rack-bone.[ tab. 14. fig. 5. and 6. MN] It hath also at the sides two transuerse processes[ tab. 13. fig. 2. 3. I I ta. 14. fig. 3. 4. G G] perforated[ tab. 13. fig. 2. K tab. 14. fig: 2. H sheweth the hole] for the ascent of a veine and an artery into the braine.  
It hath also a sinus or bosome[ t. 14. fig. 2, 3. B] crusted ouer with a gristle[ fig. 3. 4. C] the better to receiue the tooth[ fig. 7 O] of the second racke, and at the processes where the rackes are ioyned there is a sinus on either hand: in the first[ fig. 4 Z] and the second[ fig. 6 Y] bearing the forme of a rift or cleft. In the other rackes it is orbicular, sauing that in the Chest it is somewhat long. Through these finus are conueyed coniugations of finewes and branches of Veines and Arteries, ministering nourishment to the marrow and to the bones.  
The second Racke[ Tab. 13. fig. 2, 3, N tab. 14. fig. 5, 6, 7] besides his bodye, his laterall processes[ tab. 14. fig. 5, 6, 7 b] short and perforated with an oblique hole,[ fig. 7. c] his Posterior processe byfurcated in respect of the muscles,[ figu. 5, 6, 7 ●] his ascending processes lightly bunching out, and his descending[ tab. 13. fig. 2 R. tab. 14, fig. 6, 7, d] lightly sinuated; beside all these, I say, there yssueth out of the middle of his body an appendixe( commonly called a processe) round and long,[ tab. 13, fig. 2, 3, 4 O. tab. 14. fig. 6, Q. fig. 7, O] which because it is like the Dog-tooth of a man, is called the Tooth. Hippocrates calleth the whole Racke the tooth, and in the luxation therof, saith he, happeneth the most incureable Squinsey. This Appendix is somewhat rough in the surface, that from thence a Ligament might yssue[ tab. 13. fig. 5 t] by which it is fastned to the Nowle; about it also is cast a solid and round[ tab. 13. fig. 5 ●] ligament to keepe the marrow from compression. Moreouer this second racke is ioyned to the first by a broad Ligament[ tab. 14. f. 5 P] which is orbicularly cast round about it.  

TABVLA XIIII.  
See this Tables description, in lib. 6. Fol. 398.  
FIG. I  
II  
III  
IV  
V  
VI  
VII  
VIII  
IX   
The third Racke-bone,[ Tab. 13. fig. 2, 3 SS. tab. 14 fig. 8 and 9] 
3 and the rest  is called 〈◇〉. It is ioyned most strictly and exceeding firmelie on the outside to the other 4. The third, as also the three following, haue their laterall processes byfurcated,[ tab. 13, fig. 2 V, V. fig. 4β] for the better implantation of the Muscles; but the seauenth[ tab. 13. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, char. 7] agreeth with the rackes of the Chest, & his posteriour processe is not alwayes byfurcated[ ta. 13. figure 24 X] but whole and sound: his body belowe is plain, that it might equally be ioyned to that which followeth. Finallie, all the rackes of the necke excepting the first haue Appendices, betwixt which doe run thicke and softe Gristles for their more facile motion. And so much shal suffice to haue spoken of the rack-bones of the neck; for concerning the motions of the head, wee haue spoken before in the Booke of Muscles.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the Rackes of the Backe and the Loynes and the Holy-bone.  
_THe backe is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine tergum, it consisteth of twelue 
How the rackes of the necke and the backe differ.  rack-bones,[ tab. 14. fig. 1 at D] iust so many as there are ribs on a side, for to euery rack-bone are two ribs[ tab, 15. fig. 5 DP] articulated. The bodies of these Rackes as also their processes do differ somewhat from the bodies and processes of the rackes of the Neck. The bodies of the necke are long, broad and equall, that vpon them the Gullet and the Rough Artery might leane more securely.  
The bodies of the backe are round, conuex or embowed, thicker also and not so solid. The spinall processes of the necke are byfurcated, those of the backe are long, simple and do bend downward. The transuerse processes of the necke are broad and perforated. Of the backe, thick, solid and round, to make the articulation of the ribs more firme, excepting the eleuenth and the twelfth, to which the last and the shortest ribs are fastned, that there might bee more space left for the Liuer, the Spleeue, and the parts thereunder.  
Of the twelue Rackbones of the back, sometimes but rarely there is one wanting, more rarely is there one too many, yet for the most part dogs haue one more then men. They were made many for the better flexion of the spine, and are fastned together with strong Ligaments,[ tab. 14. fig. 1 RR. ta, 15. fig. 6 ch. 5] yet there is a good quantity of gristle betwixt each of them.[ Tab. 15, fig. 6. char. 1, 2]  
The first tacke of the backe is called by the Ancients 〈◇〉 because it standeth out beyond the rest, the second is called 〈◇〉, that is, the Axillary spondell: the eight following 
The first.  〈◇〉, that is, Costales belonging to the ribs. The eleuenth[ ta. 15. fig. ●] called 〈◇〉, because his spine is right, and this like a naile fasteneth the other rackes. Laurentius addeth, that it is quite contrary to the first, for the first receiueth and is not receiued, this eleuenth is receiued but doth not receiue. The twelfth is called[ t. 15. fig. 4] 〈◇〉, the compassing spondell.  
These Rack-bones haue in the middle protuberating, round and embowed bodies, 
Their Figures [ tab. 15. fig. 1] aboue and below[ tab. 15. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 A] plaine, thicker then the Rackes of the necke and lesse solid; full also of small perforations for the transportation of the vessels that carry the nourishment. Their spinall processes[ ta. 15. fig. 1 and 2 N O P] are long, simple and accute looking downward: the transuerse also[ tab. 15. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, H I] for the firmer articulation of the Ribs are crasse, solid and long, determining into a round head. They haue also ascending processes two[ tab. 15, fig. 1 T V] & as many descending.[ tab. 15, figure. 2, 3 a b] The transuerse processes of the eleuenth and twelfth racks[ tab. 15. fig. 4 e f g h] do differ from the processes of the other spondels, which variety Galen attributed to the tenth racke, for in a Dog or an Ape the tenth is the middlemost, but in a Man the twelfth. 
Appendices,   

TABVLA. XV.  
See this Tables description in Lib. 6. Fol. 393.  
FIG I  
II  
III  
IV  
V.  
VI.  
VII.  
IIX.  
IX.   
They haue also fiue Appendices, two at their bodies aboue[ tab. 15. fig. 3, ●] & below; two at the transuerse processes, and one at the extremity of each spine They haue also two sinus or bosomes;[ tab. 15. figu. 1 from C to D] one at the sides, another in the Transuerse processes, both small & answerable to the heads of the ribbes, for into them the ribs are articulated. The holes of these Racke-bones[ Table. 15. figu. 2, 3, 4 ●] are proportionable to the marrow which they containe, and though Laurentius will not agree therto yet Bauhine conceyueth that the marrow is attenuated in the descent, and so the holes of the lower rackbone become straiter. And so much of the backe.  
The Loines make the third part of the spine, and do consist of fiue Spondels[ ta. 16. fig. 12 from b to c] the greatest and thickest of all the rest which are fastened by Gristles and thicke Ligaments; aboue, with the rackes of the Chest or the backe,[ tab. 16. fig. 2 a sheweth the last racke of the backe] below, with the Holy-bone,[ tab. 16. fig: 1 & 2 c] for they lye vpon them, and are articulated by the interposition of a Ligamentall gristle; yet so, that the motion of the Loines is more lax and dissolute then that of the backe: the Reason was, because we might better incline ourselves vnto the earth.  
The first Rack of the Loynes is called 〈◇〉 from the Kidny which resteth itself vpon it. The last is called by some 〈◇〉, that is, the supporter or the strengthner.  
The Rackes of the Loynes, beside their lateral perforations made for the transmission of the Nerues, are also thrilled through with small holes.  
Their processes are Ascending.[ Tab. 16. fig. 4 & 5] Descending[ fig. 4 N] & transuerse,[ fig. 2 ee fig. 3, 4, 5 H] longer and slenderer then in the rest: but their acute processes which they call the Spine[ tab. 16. fig: 3, 4, 5 CD] are thicker then in the rest and broader, that to them the Ligaments and muscles of the backe might be fastened. The Spondels also of the Loines( saith Laurentius) haue processes like a Medlar stone, which is found sometime in them all, sometimes onely in the vppermost. And so much of the Loines.  
The Holy-bone, called Os sacrum and 〈◇〉, not because it containeth in it any sacred and hidden mystery, as some haue fondly imagined, but because of his greatnesse, for it 
Table 16, figu. 1. sheweth the anterior part of the bones of the lower belly.  
Fig: 2. The posterior parts.  
Fig. 3, 4, & 5 do shew one of the Rackbones of the Loynes.  
The third figure his fore-part, the fourth Figure his backepart, the fift figure his side.  
TABVLA XVI.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
III  
IV  
V  

a 2, The last racke-bone of the spine.  
From b to c 1, 2. The fiue rackebones of the Loynes or of the Rhe●nes.  
From c to d, 1, 2. The broad Holybone.  
d 1, 2. The hip bone or the Coceyx.  
ee 1, 2. The laterall processes.  
f, 2. His posterior processe or the Spine.  
g, 2. The vpper processe.  
h 2, the lower.  
ii, 1, 2. The plainer or bunching part of the Coxa.  
k 2, His lowest processe.  
ll, 1, 2. A bosome or cauity in the lower part of that bone.  
mm 1, 2. The hanchbone called Os Illium and Lumbare.  
nn 1, 2, the sharebone Os pubis.  
qq 1, the hole of the share-bone.  
AA, 3, 4, 5. The vpper appendix of the body of the racke.  
B, 3, 4. The lower Appendix.  
C, 3, 4, 5. The vpper part of the spine of the racke of the Loynes, or a broad & rough line.  
D 5 the lower seat of this spine or the lower line.  
E 5, A sinus or cauity at the side of the line D.  
F, G, 4, 5. The appendixe of the spine resembling a triangle.  
H 3, 4, 5 A transuerse proces on either side  
I, 4. The right ascending processe.  
K, A sinus of the left ascending processe.  
L, M, 4, 5, the browes of this sinus before and behinde.  
N 4, The descending processe of the other side.  
O, 4, 5. The head of that descending processe.   is the greatest of all the bones of the Spine, so Homer calleth great Fishes Pisces socros; and Hippocrates for the same reason calleth this Holy-bone vertebram magnam the Great rack-bone. It is also called 〈◇〉 the broad bone. The figure of it is almost triangular, hauing a broade beginning, and ending by degrees into a narrownesse. Immoueable it is and maketh the Basis of the backe. Galen sayth it consisteth of three bones, by which hee vnderstandeth the three first, but the trueth is, that it is made of fiue bones[ tab. 10. fig. 1. & 2. from c to d ta. 17. fig. 6. from A to F] as it were of proper rackes knitte and fastned together by gristles, which in growne bodies are so fast glewed that it seemeth to be but one bone, whereas in children the gristles betwixt the bones are very euident.  
This Holy-bone on the foreside is hollow, smooth and equall; behind it is incurued or gibbous, rough also because of the Ligaments and the muscles of the backe. His acute processes are very small, the transuerse[ ta. 17. fig 6. and 7. ●] but obscure, and determining into a cauity shallow, vnequall and rough, which receiue the hanch-bones: ascending processes onely the first racke of the Holy bone is allowed[ tab. 17. fig. 6. 7. S] by which it is articulated with the descending processes of the last spondels of the Loynes. In the sides of the three vpper bones there are certaine Sinus or bosomes insculped, to which the hanch-bones doe so cleaue and are articulated[ table 17. figu. 7. M] that they seeme to grow together.  
It hath also Spines[ table. 17. fig. 7. dddd] looking downeward, which in the fift and sixt bones are deuided into two parts. The perforations of this Holy bone[ ta. 17. fig. 6. and 7. char. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 shew the holes of the nerues; fig. 7. efghik shew the holes for the marrow] are before and behind, not on the sides as in the other Rack-bones, because the haunches do occupy them, and the anterior are greater then the posterior, because greater nerues are distributed into the fore parts and into the hind parts.  
At the end of the Holy-bone appeareth the Rumpe-bone called Os Coccygis,[ tab. 16. 
TABVLA XVII.  
Table 17. Fig. 6. sheweth the fore side of the Holy-bone & the Rump. Fi. 7. the backeside. Fig. 8. the Rumpe-bone of a man curued forward. Fig. 9. the Rump bone of a woman curued backeward. Fig. 10. sheweth the foreside of the Holy and Rump-bones of an Ape. Fig. 11. their backeside.  
FIG. VI.  
VII.  
X  
XI  
XIII  
IX  
IIX  
XIV  
XII  
XV.  
XVI.  

From A to F 6. The sixe parts of the Holy bone placed vnder the fift racke of the Loynes.  
From G to K 6, 8, foure bones of the Coccyx or rumpe which cleaue to the Holy bone.  
L L 6, 7, The large transuerse processe of the second Holy-bone, for the rest as farre as Rare by degrees angustated or straytned.  
M 7, an vnequal bosom of the Holy bone to which the right hanch bone is ioyned.  
N 7, the exterior part of this sinus which is the plainer.  
O 7, a long protuberation distinguishing this exterior sinus from the interior, noted with Φ.  
Φ 7 the interior sinus vnequall.  
P Q 7, the vpper and lower part of this sinus.  
R 6, 7, a swelling of the transuerse proces whereto a ligament is ioyned.  
S 6, 7, The ascending processe of the first bone. T 7, a sinus of the processe receiuing the head of the descending processe of the fift racke of the Loynes. V X 7, the browes of this sinus on either hand. Y 7, The connexion of the descending processes of the first bone, with the ascending processes of the second bone. Z 6, 7, the coniunction of the transuerse processes of the first and second bones. a b 7, the connexion of the Holy-bone with the Rumpe. b b 6, 7, 8, a gristly ligament comming betweene the loose connexion of the Rumpe bones. c 7. 8, a gristle growing to the end of the Rumpe bone. d d d d 7, the spines of the Holy-bone. e f g h i k 7 Holes betwixt the distances of the spines made for the transmission of the spinall marrow. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, in fig. 6, & 7, holes through which the Nerues of the Holy-bone doe passe.   fig. 1. and 2. d tab. 17. fig. 8. and 9.] because it is like a Cuckoos beake. Galen calleth it an Appendix, and vnder that name vnderstoode the three lower bones that belong to the Holybone.  
This Rumpe consisteth of three or foure bones[ ta. 17. fig. 6. and 8. from G to K] and two gristles. One where it is fastned but loosely to the Holy-bone[ tab. 17. figu. 6. and 7. a] that it might yeeld backeward when the thicker excrements are auoyded, and when wee sitte downe returne forward into his place. In men it is curued or bent more inward to sustaine the right gut, but in woemen outward, because of the necke of the wombe. The second gristle is at the very extremity or end of it,[ tab. 17. fig. 3. and 7. c] sometimes also it is placed betwixt his first and second bones.  
That this Rumpe-bone in the time of the birth is retracted or drawne backward, we doe no more doubt sayeth Laurentius then wee thinke it impossible that at that time the sharebones should be disioyned. And thus haue we brought to an end the History of the Spine which we made the first part of the Trunke. Now we proceed vnto the Chest.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the bones of the Chest in generall.  
_THE second part of the Trunke is called Thorax, a word which signifieth to leape, for the heart therein contayned is moued with perpetuall subsultation. Wherefore because it contayneth so noble a bowell, so necessary for the maintenance of life, therefore Nature hath defended it with bones. But againe because in Respiration it must continually bee distended and contracted, therefore it was made also partly fleshy. The fleshy part wee haue described in his proper places, that is to say, in the sixt and tenth bookes. The bony part though we haue touched before in the sixt booke, yet because it pertained properly to this place, we will attend it here more districtly.  
The Chest therefore is circumscribed or bounded out aboue by the clauicle, below by the Breast blade. But more precisely his parts are anterior or posterior or laterall. The 
The diuision of the bones of the chest.  anterior part is called 〈◇〉 sternum the Breast-bone: the sides 〈◇〉 costae the Ribs: the posterior part 〈◇〉 dorsum the Backe, whose vpper sides are called 〈◇〉 & 〈◇〉 the Wings or the Shoulder-blades, and all these we will describe in their order.   

CHAP. XXIIII. Of the Clauicles or Coller Bones.  
_THE Clauicles are called by Galen 〈◇〉 because they close or shutte vp the whole Chest, or because they conclude the Arme and the Necke. Celsus calleth them Iugulum a iungendo, of coupling, because they couple the Breastbone with the Shoulder-blade and the Arme, for they are very like the yoke 
their names.  wherein two Oxen doe draw together, but by the name Iugulum wee commonly vnderstand the hollow place aboue the clauicles where they vse to sticke a Swine. The Clauicles Nature hath giuen to no other creature sauing to a Man, an Ape, a Squirrell, a Mouse and a Hedge-hog. There are two, one on each side, seated ouerthwart in 
their figure.  the bottome of the neck and top of the breast-bone. Their figure is not streight, but at the Iugulum embowed outward,[ ta. 18. fig. 2. H] on the inside they are concauous or as it were guttered. At the shoulder-blade on the contrary they are lightly hollowed on the outside, but on the inside conuex or embowed.[ ta. 18. fig. 1. 2. 3]. In men they are not so crooked as in Apes, and therefore are most like the Latin letter s, but in Apes more like the S. They were made hollow on the foreside where they regard the Iugulum, that the vesselles which runne vpward, that is to say, the Iugular veines and the sleepy arteries might not be compressed; but especially because of the propagations of sinewes, which from the marrow of the backe run vnto the arme-holes. They haue in them a double semicircle for more strength, for if they had beene simply semicircular being fistulated and spongy with in, and but as it were crusted ouer with a thin bony scale, they might easily haue been broken, yea and are notwithstanding. Though these bones are long, crasse and crooked, yet they are more crooked in men then in women, that the motion of a mans arme might be at better commaund; but in women[ ta. 18. fig. 4. R] they are lesse curued and arise higher; hence it is that women are so auckward when they throw a stone or strike a ball, but Nature 
How they differ in men and women.  made recompence, for her necke is so much the more beautifull and stately built, because there is no such hollownes in it as is in a mans.  
They bunch something forward, and haue two rising lines in them[ ta: 18. fig. 1, 3 ● fig. 2 F G] from which the subclauian muscle and a part of the pectorall muscle do arise. They 
Their protu berauons.  haue also a knub or protuberation from whence ariseth a Ligament which goeth to the inner processe of the shoulder-blade.[ tab. 18. fig. 3. It ariseth about N] Neere their endes they are also on both sides exasperated, and from that roughnesse proceede Ligaments, and the muscle called Mastoides or the seuenth of the heade. But where the Clauicle is broad, there it affoordeth an originall to the muscle Deltois, and insertion to the second muscle of the blade.  
These Coller-bones fasten on both hands the shoulder-blades with the breast-bone by dearticulation, yet there commeth betwixt them a large gristle[ tab. 18. fig. 5 S T] which is moistened with an Oyly humor. And this gristle is called 〈◇〉 clausura, because it closeth them together, yet doth it not grow vnder them, but is onely held downe by the Ligaments that compasse the ioynt, that in the motions of the arme and the shoulder it might giue a little way.  
It hath two heades, one smaller, crusted ouer with a gristle[ tab. 18. fig: 1, 2, 3, A] whereby it is ioyned to the brest-bone as we sayd: the other is broade and somewhat long[ ta. 18. fig. 1. 2, 3 Q] by which it is articulated to the vpper processe of the shoulderblade by the interposition of a peculiar gristle, which Galen calleth the small gristly bone, made saith he, for the security of the ioynt.  
The vse of the Collerbone is, that the Blade should not together vvith 
Their vse.  the arm fal vpon the brest, and so many motions of the arme be forfeyted. It is true indeed that these bones may seeme not to belong vnto the Chest, beecause all brute beasts haue Chestes, but very fewe of them these bones. We answere, that Nature is most Wise in her administrations and hath therefore giuen these bones vnto men because they haue hands, which it concerned them much diuersly to mooue into manie positions from one side to another. Now because in such flexions the arme should not fall hedlong as it were into the opposite side; and when it is voluntarily bent or with violence mooued that way, might yet be able to recouer itself, or to stay his fall, therefore the clauicles were set betwixt the two sides to inhibite or preuent any such ouer-extent: againe, were it not for the Clauicles when wee offer to thrust any thing strongly backeward, the blade would fall forward, as sometimes the arme falles vpon the ribs when it is luxed or put out of ioynt, or when the blade hangs downe like a wing, as it will do when the Coller-bone is broken. And thus much concerning the Clauicles.  

TABVLA. XVIII.  
See this Tables description, in lib. 6. fol. 393.  
FIG. I  
I  
II  
III  
IIII  
V  
VI  
VII  
VIII  
IX  
X  
XI  
XII    

CHAP. XXV. Of the Brest-bone.  
_THe Brest-bone is the forepart of the Chest, and called in Greek 〈◇〉, either because[ ta. 18. fig. 9. ghi] it is disposed in the middle of the ribs, or because 
The Names,  there is 〈◇〉 Mentis firmitas, because the heart lyeth vnder it. Hippocrates calleth it 〈◇〉, the Latins Pectus or os pectoris the brest-bone, because it maketh the forepart of the brest, and safegardeth the noble partes therein 
Substance.  contained. This Brest-bone is somwhat conuexe or embowed, long also or broad, and because it is like the handle of a dagger such as was vsed in olde time, it is called 〈◇〉. The substance of this bone is not solid as other Bones are but fungous and reddish, compounded also of Bones and Gristles: for it is not one bone, vnlesse it be in very olde men, otherwise if you scrape off the membranes, you may see it is compacted of many. In Infants new borne it is alto gether gristly excepting the first bone of it, a little after ther may be obserued eight distinct partes, each of them distinguished from other by a large and 
Number of Bones  thicke Gristle, seauen of which were made to receiue the articulation of the seauen true ribs. The eight was framed to be a foundation to the Sword-like Cartilage, which wee properly call the Brest-blade.  
These Bones after seuen yeares are conioyned and begin to grow fewer, yet sometimes foure may be distinguished, that is to say, the first[ ta. 18. fig. 6 a] which is the broadest, the second and the last: those betwixt these do grow into one, but in growne bodies there are but three, distinguished each from other by a transuerse line. The first and 
The first.  the last both in young and old carry alwayes one forme, but the middlemost is distinguished into many parts, acording to the youth and age of the party, which parts are gristle bound or fastened together with a gristle betwixt them by Coalition. For although according to the motion of the chest it seeme to be eleuated and againe depressed by the helpe of the ribs, yet it hath no motion apart or by itself. In dogs it consisteth alwayes of seauen Bones ioyned together by Synarthrosis or Coarticulation. But we wil follow the description as it is in a man, in whom the Bones are three.  
The vppermost[ Tab. 18. fig. 6 abc] is larger and thicker then the rest, and is like the head or pummell of the handle of a dagger, but flat and vnequall; horned or crescent aboue[ tab. 18. fig. 9 g] which maketh a kinde of cauity or den which some haue called Iugulum. In the middest for more strength it protuberateth like a triangle[ tab. 18. fi. 6 a] at which the first rib[ fig. 6 g] is ioyned, a gristle comming betwixt them. A second gristle it hath, where the first bone is ioyned to the second.[ ta. 18. fig. 6 h] On the inside about the middest it hath a bosome grauen in it[ ta. 18. fig: 7 d] made to giue way to the descent of the rough Artery, and other bosomes on each side[ ta. 18. fig, 6 & 7 ef] which receiue the heads of the coller bones.  
The second Bone of the Sternon hath on either hand in the sides many cauities[ t. 18 fig. 6 klmn] distant one from another vnequally, and it is compared not amisse to the haft 
The second.  of a dagger, wherein there are inequalities for the fingers to take fast hold vpon, for euen so these impressions do receiue the gristles of the third, fourth, fift & sixt ribs. This Bone is narrower then the other two, and in women somtimes toward the end perforated with a broad hole much like a heart.[ Tab. 18. fig. 8 u]  
The third Bone is lesse but broader then the second[ ta. 18. fig. 6 and 7 s] wherefore Celsus wrote that the Brest-bone was horned or crescent at both ends; but you must vnderstand him of a man and not of a dogge. Heereto is ioyned the gristle of the seuenth 
The thirde.  rib iust where itself is fastened vnto the second bone, and in some bodies it is diuided in the middest by a line.  
On both sides this sternon is smooth, sauing that aboue it is somewhat exasperated 
The Gristles of the Breastbone.  to giue an originall vnto the muscle Mastoides or the seuenth muscle of the head. Gristles it hath,( beside the two vpper which go betweene the coniunction of it with the Clauicles) one betwixt the first and the second bone[ ta. 18. fig. 6, 7 h], which supplieth the place or doth the office of a Ligament. Another in the end, long, mooueable, and triangular[ t. 18. fig. 6 & 7 t] which commonly is sharpned like the point of a sword, whence it is called 〈◇〉, Ensiformis and Mucronata, the Blade of the Brest; this also is sometime broad in the end, sometime byfurcated, and therefore some haue called it Furcella, the litle forke. Oftentimes it is round, sometimes double, saith Laurentius, and the lesser part lyeth vpon the greater, as the leaues of the Herbe called Horsetoung: sometime also it is perforated [ ta. 18. fig. 8 u] to transmit the Mammary veins which are accompanied with a nerue. If this gristle( saith Platerus and Bauhine consenteth with him) bee too much pressed or curued inward in children, which disease women call the Compression of the Heart, it offendeth the Liuer and the stomacke vnder it, and those children die of that kinde of consumption which we call an Atrophie, for in children this gristle is somwhat long, and oftentimes may be felt with the finger. Heere also we must obserue that cauitie which the Ancients called 〈◇〉, commonly the Heart-spoone. The whole brest in men is somwhat eleuated or raised vp, but in women it is more flat & depressed because they haue greater dugs which would stand out too far if the breastbone were raised as high as it is in men.  
The vse of the brest-bone is the same which we shall say anon the vse of the ribs is. The Brest-blade is a defence to the parts thereunder, that is the Midriffe & the mouth of the Stomacke; and this may be proued, saith Bauhine, because if it be compressed or rubbed too much, a Nausea or loathing will follow: againe, he that is readie to vomit shall find a paine iust vnder it. And thus much of the Brest-bone.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Ribbes.  
_THE sides of the Chest are called by the Grecians 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉, because they are placed side by side like the Rowers in a Galley: the Latines call them Costae, wee call them the Ribbes. They are commonly both in Men 
The Names and Number.  and in women on each side twelue, oftner more then fewer. For nature would rather there should be aboundance then want. And in a publicke Anatomy when a Malefactor was cut vp, Bauhine found thirteene on each side: the first on the left side was perfect, but the first on the right side was imperfect.  
Fallopius also twice found one too many, Columbus once eleauen at Padua. They are diuided into True and Bastard Ribs. The true Ribs are the seauen vppermost[ table 18. fig. 9. from Char. 1 to 8] so called, because they make a perfect circle being ioyned togither 
The true ribs.  by the Spondels of the Backe and the Breast-bone. For behinde they are fastened with strong Ligaments by Dearticulation or Diarthrosis to the Spondels of the backe.[ ta. 18. fig. 10, ST] And that they might sticke the closer the knotte is double, one higher at the body of the Spondell, another lower at his laterall processes: Before, they are articulated to the brest-bone,[ Tab. 18: fig 9 c] for their Cartilages bee like little heads ioyning with the smooth bosomes of the sternon by Synarthrosis or coarticulation. The two first Ribbes are called 〈◇〉, as it vvere Retorted, the two next are called 〈◇〉, that is, solid; the three last, by Pollux hee that gaue them all Names, 〈◇〉, that is, Pectorall Ribbes.  
The Bastard Ribs are the fiue lower; they are soft and almost gristly, that themselues 
The bastard ribs.  might be more safe from iniuries, and by them the parts thereunder. And indeed, the prominent parts of Bones were for the most part by Nature made gristles which if it be wounded or violated will not breake but easily revnite. These Bastarde ribs therefore do end into exquisite gristles, which are retorted vpward and fastned one to another[ Tab 18. fig. 19 FF] excepting the twelfth, and so are ioyned to the gristles of the true ribbes.[ tab. 18. fig. 19, I]  
They may also be sayde to be imperfect, because they are onely articulated vnto the Rackebones, but that after diuers manners. For the eight and the ninth haue a double articulation, yet doe their ioynts not sticke out so farre as the ioyntes of the true Ribbes doe, which receiue more strength from the Racke-bones then from the Breast-bone. The eleauenth and the twelfth haue onely the vpper articulation, as also hath the first oftententimes, but the tenth is ioyned sometimes with a double ioynt, sometimes with a single.  
These Bastard ribs do not attain vnto the Brest-bone that the lower belly might better be dilated when the stomacke is well stuffed or the womb impregnated. The eleuenth sometime, sometime also the twelfth are fastned to the Midriffe. Againe, the twelfth is the least of them all, and according to some mens estimation doth not deserue the name of a rib, that there might be roome left for the bowels in the lower belly, and because it was so little Galen calleth the eleuenth Rib the last. Sometime this twelfth Rib groweth to the oblique muscle of the Abdomen, sometime againe it is seen to haue a circumscription of a proper muscle whereby it is drawne downward.  
All these ribs are not only of a bony yet fungous substance,[ Table 18. fig, 11 R] but also euery one hath his owne Gristles, both behinde where they are articulated vnto the Rack-bones, and before where they are committed to the brest-bone,[ tab. 18. figu. 9 AB shew the coniunction of the ribs with the gristles, CD. the coniunction of the Gristles with the brest-bone] But the fore-gristles are greater and thicker, because the fore-part of the chest is distended and contracted; so likewise the gristles of the bastard ribbes are longer then those of the true ribs, but the gristles of the true ribs are harder then those of the bastard ribs, because they were to bee ioyned with the breast-bone which is a harder substance, whereas the gristles of the bastard ribs are thin and narrow, because they are ioyned with other Gristles: & hence it is that some Anatomists haue called them 〈◇〉, that is Gristles. Notwithstanding the Gristles of the first and last ribs are very short, but that of the last is narrow and sharpe, that of the first broad and large. The lower ribbes in men remaine gristly euen to extreame old age: the vpper somewhat before that time do begin to grow bony, and haue, as we may say safely by Galens warrant, bony gristles. In Virgins after their paps begin to swell the gristles also grow some-what bony, the better to sustaine the waight of the paps that lye vpon them, whereby if the ribs should bee depressed, the motions of the Chest would be interrupted.  
The figure of the ribs is semicircular like a Bow, to make the figure of the chest circular and round, whereby it becommeth stronger and more capacious. The length of the 
Their Figure  ribs is not the same in all; for the vpper and the lower are the shortest, the middlemost are the longest and the broadest, excepting the first which is the broadest and shortest of all the rest. Againe, the vpper ribs are more crooked and more bent, the lower are not so embowed. All of them in their originall are narrow and somewhat round, & by how much they come neerer to the brest by so much do they grow the broader, which broder part is called 〈◇〉 or the Palme, the narrow part which is towardes the spine 〈◇〉, the Rower.  
They are also thicker aboue then below, and by that signe may the right bee distinguished from the left. On the outside especially where they are tyed to the rackebones they are rough[ tab. 11. figu. 11 P] and vnequall, that from thence the Ligaments might proceede by which they are fastned to the Rackes; in that place also they haue two protuberations, one whereby[ ta. 18. figu. 11 L] they are articulated to the sinus or bosome of the Rack-bone, another where they are ioyned to the transuerse processe.[ Tab. 18. fig. 11 H] They are also exasperated[ Tab. 11. fig. 11 Q] to receiue that Muscle of the Chest which is called Sacrolumbus, accounted by Vesalius and Falopius for the fourth, by Columbus the fift Muscle of the chest, as also for the originals and insertions of the intercostal muscles. On the insides they are smoothe, that they might not hurt the Pleura, and in the lower part of euery rib,[ tab. 18. fig. 11 K] there runneth a sinus like a canale thoroughout theyr length to receiue three Vessels, a Veine, an Artery & a Nerue, but the Nerue lyeth next vnto the rib; and these sinus are most conspicuous in the middle of the Ribs, and in that part that is next to the Rack-bones.  
The vse of the ribs is to be a defence vnto the brest, that is, to defend the bowelles therein contained. Moreouer, to yeelde a fit place for the implantation and supportation of the Muscles which serue for Respiration, that they should not fall down and interrupt 
Their Vse.  the functions of the Heart and the Lungs. Wherefore, that when we breath in & breath out though we be fast asleepe, the chest might more easily follow his necessary constriction and dilatation, a part of them was made gristly, which gristles likewise defend the bowels seated vnder them, and sustaine some Muscles of the Abdomen which otherwise would fall inward and impeach the offices of the bowels of the lower belly. And thus much of the Ribs.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the Shoulder-blades.  
_THE backpart of the chest is called the Shoulder-blade, in Latine Os Scapulae, in Greeke 〈◇〉.[ tab. 19. fig. 7, 8, 9] There are two of them, one on each side, which behinde sitteth vpon the top of the Ribbes like a shield for their 
His Names.  defence, and is articulated with the clauicle and with the arme; for whose sake it was especially created, as well to hold it to the body, as to affoord an originall to many Muscles by which it is moued. It is fastned also to the ribs, to the nowle and to the bone Hyois by the interposition or mediation of Muscles.  
The figure of it is after a sort triangular: on the inside[ ta. 9. fig. 7 M] concauous: on the outside:[ ta. 19. figu. 8 V, V] it is prominent, which place is called the Basis, and this basis hath an angle[ ta. 19. fig. 7, 8, 9 shew the vpper Angle] and a rib both aboue and belowe; from which is produced a spine that looketh vpward.[ Ta. 19. fig. 8 and 9 G H]  
Table 19. Is the same with Table 16. a little before in follo 978.  
The extremity of this Spine is commonly called 〈◇〉, albeit according to Hippocrates Acromion be the articulation of the clauicle with the vpper part of the blade or a gristlye bone, which like a Ligament tyeth those Bones together.  
It hath three processes: the first is the shortest, and hath a short necke which is called Scapulae ceruix,[ t. 19. fig. 7, 8 C D] which Necke endeth into a sinnewated or hollowe Cup or head,[ ta. 19. fig. 7 & 8 A B] which Cup receiueth the head of the arme, & it is compassed 
Processes 3.  with a thicke gristle[ t. 19. fig. 8 α X] whereby the cup is inlarged, that the heade of the arme should not so easily fall out of ioynt. The second processe is the ende of the spine, of which wee spake euen nowe, which hangeth ouer the ioynt of the arme, called therefore Acromion,[ t. 19. fig. 7, 8, 9 K] the point of the shoulder and the top of the shoulder, and by this processe the shoulder-blade is ioyned with the clauicle. The third processe is the least, and on the inside[ ta. 19. fig. 7 & 8, 2] which is called 〈◇〉, and from the likenesse it hath with an Anchor 〈◇〉. Some call it Coracoides, because it is like the Beake of a Crow, and this processe holdeth the bone of the arme in his seat.  
It hath fiue Appendices, three are at the inside and at the basis, and affoorde an originall to some Muscles:[ ta. 19. fig. 7, 8, 9 X Y] the other two do breed Ligaments which ioyn the arme to the head of the blade, and the clauicle to his second processe which wee called Acromion.  
It hath also two cauities, one aboue the Spine, and another belowe it, called Interscapilum. 
Appendices 5   
Finally, there is an inequality in this Bone; for in the middest it is very thinne, in the 
Cauities 2.  processes thicke, medullous and fungous. It hath also perforations which admit Veines and Arteries for his nourishment. And thus much of the shoulder-blades.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the Hip, Hanch and Share bones.  
_THe third part of the Trunke was saide to be the Bone without a name, so called first by Oribatius, some from the greater part called it the Hanch-bone: Kufus 〈◇〉, os Coxae.[ t. 20. f. 12, 13, & 14] It appeareth to be one on each side, because the gristles are dryed vp, but in children till the seauenth yeare of theyr age it is found to be made of three Bones diuided by gristles, and therefore they are saide commonly to be on each side three bones.  
The vpper and broader parts which are ioyned with the Holy-bone[ tab. 20. fig. 13, A B CC DD are called ossa 〈◇〉, in Latine Illium, in English the Hanch-bone[ ta. 16. fig. 1 mm ta. 20. fi. 13 aboue T to f] 
The Hanchbone,  Their semicircular circumference is called the Spine of the hanchbone,[ ta. 16. fig. 1 & 2. ii ta. 20. fig. 13 HLMN] which is vnequall, that some muscles might take their original therfrom, to wit, the oblique ascendent of the Abdomen, the fift of the chest, the first bender of the Leg, and the first extender called Membranosus. The inner part of the circumference is called Costa or the rib: the vtter part of the whole bone[ Ta. 20. f. 14 at X] is called Dorsum Illij the backe of the Haunch-bone, wherein there are vnequal inscriptions or lines for the three muscles of the Thigh which make the Buttockes.  
The interiour part is hollow and broad to affoord a fit and conuenient position to the internall Iliacke Muscles:[ ta. 20. fig. 13, KK] aboue also it extuberateth for the Square muscle of the backe that is the first, and below for the tenth of the thigh.  
The lower and vtter parts of this bone are called ossa Coxendicis,[ ta. 16. fig. 1 nn. Tab. 20. fig. 13, below T & f as farre as to RP] in which there is a great sinus which they cal Acetabulum and Pixidem[ ta. 20. fig. 12 and 14 abc] the Cup, and properly in our English Tongue the Hip, to which the head of the thigh is articulated exceeding strongly. This cup or Hip hath a gristly processe,[ ta. 20. fig. 12 and 14 e] called Supercilium or the brow, in vvhose circumference there are obserued three bosomes, two protuberations,[ ta. 20. figu. 12 and and 13, T, V] an acute processe,[ ta. 20. fig. 13 & 14, g] and finally an Appendix[ ta. 20. fi. 13 and 14 i] that is very thicke: all these were ordained for the production partly of Ligaments, partly of muscles.  
Finally, the foure parts of this vnnamed Bone are called ossa 〈◇〉, Pubis, in English the Share-bones,[ ta. 16. fig. 1 and 2, pp. Ta. 20. fig. 13 and 14, that which is below R and Φ] 
The sharebones.  

From T to f in Fig. 13, & 14, A part of the Coxendix called Os Illium the haunch bone, that which is below as far as to R & ● is called by the name of Coxēdix the Hip the remainder is the sharebone.  
A B CC DD 13, the foreside of the hanch bone where it is ioyned to the Holy-bone distinguished by a protuberation CC into two sinus A B DD.  
E F G 13 the backside of the hanchbone which gapeth from the Holy bone, & is filled vp by a gristle,  
H 13, 14, a part of the backside reaching out beyonde the processe of the Holybone.  
K 13, An impression in the inside of the hanch-bone made for the originall of of the fift muscle of the back.  
L 12, 13. the inside of the appendix of the banch bone.  
M 12, the anterior end of the appendix.  
N 13, 14, his posterior end.  
O 12, 14, the outside of this appendix.  
P Q R 13. A swelling from whence the tenth muscle of the thigh issueth.  
* 13, this place affoordeth an originall to the 7. muscle of the thigh  
S 12, 13, 14, the vpper sinus of the Coxendix aboue which do run the sixt muscle of the thigh, & the 7. with a Nerue,  
T 12, 13, 14, A higher protuberation aboue this sinus or cauity.  
V 12, 13, 14, another lower protuberation.  
X Y Y 14, a darke line in the backe of the haunch bone X, another in the same place YY.  
Y 12, 13, the vpper sinus of the sharebone a b 12, 13, The Cup of the Coxendix which admitteth the head of the Thigh, the deepe hollownesse of it is marked with c. d 14, the sinus or bosome wherein the Cup is grauen. e 12, 14, the brow of the Cup. f 13, 14, a cauity of the Coxendix made for transmission of the fourth nerue of the Leg. g 13, 14, the acute processe of the Coxendix. h 12, 13, 14, a sinus to which the tenth muscle of the thigh is reflected. i 12, 14 the Appendix of the Coxendix, k l m n 14, diuers impressions in this appendix. o 14, the posterior end of this Appendix. p 12, P 14, the roughnesse of the share-bone to which the gristle groweth. q 12, 13, 14, the hole of the share-bone. s 12, 13, 14, abosom aboue the hole of the sharebone. t 12, 13, 24, the lower processe of the sharebone.   
Figure 12. sheweth the forepart of the Coxendix which is ioyned to the right side of the Holy-bone.  
Fig. 13. the inside of the Coxendix. Fig. 14. his outside.  
Fig. 15. the gristle that goeth betwixt the share-bone in a man  
Fig. 16. the gristle that goeth betwixt them in a woman.  
TABVLA XX.  
FIG. VI.  
VII.  
X  
XI  
XIII  
IIX  
IX  
XIV  
XII  
XV. XVI.  because in the middle of the share they are ioyned together by a gristle.[ t. 20. fig. 15. at 6] Before and aboue they haue a sinus or bosom,[ ta. 20. fig. 12. Y] made for the descent of the crurall vessell: they are also rough for the originall of the right and pyramidall muscles of the Abdomen, and of the second bender of the Leg. But otherwise they are but thinne bones and perforated with the greatest hole that is in the whole body[ ta. 16. fig. 1, and 2, qq tab. 20, fig, 12, 13, and 14, q] This hole was made for lightnesse, and the empty place is stopped vp on the outside with the external obturator or compassing muscle of the thigh and on the inside with the internall, vnder the hole it hath a processe[ ta, 20, fig, 13, 14, ●] from whence the bodies of the yard and some muscles take their originall.  
These Bones ioyned with the Holy-bone doe make that cauity which they call the Bason[ tab, 16. fig, 1, sheweth it] which contayneth a part of the Guts, the Bladder and the 
Their vse.  Wombe: and to conclude, these three bones put together make the basis or foundation of the body, which itself is immouable whilest all the body moueth vpon it. And thus much of the Trunke.   

CHAP. XXIX. of the Bones of the Arme and the Cubit.  
_WE haue gone through the two first parts of the Sceleton, that is, the Head and the Trunke; the third remayneth which comprehendeth the Ioynts. These loynts are two, the Hands and the Feete. The Hand we call all that which is betwixt the shoulder-blade and the Fingers; and is deuided into three parts, the Arme, the Cubit & the Hand properly so called, of which we will speake in their order, and then descend vnto the Foote.  
The Arme is called by the Greekes 〈◇〉, by Celsus Humerus, commonly brachium. It is but one bone[ tab. 21. fig. 1, & 2,] round and vnequall, long also and the greatest of all 
The names of the arme.  the bones of the hand, yea of the whole body except the Thigh-bone if we beleeue Galen. But Columbus sayth that it is not so bigge as the Holy-bone, nor so broade as the Hanchbone, nor longer then the Leg-bone. It is articulated to the shoulder-blade and the cubit, and for these articulations both the endes of it are protuberated or swell into heades. 
One bone.  For in the vpper part where it is inserted into the Cup of the Blade, and articulated by that kinde of dearticulation which we called inarticulation it hath an Appendixe[ table. 21, figu, 1. A ● ● H] which maketh the head of the Arme or the Acromion seated in the vpper but inner parts.  
This head is large and orbicular, and crusted ouer with a gristle[ ta. 21, fig, 1, & 2, ABC] that it might better bee turned in all motions within the cauity of the Cup of blade, which also is enlarged for that purpose with a plentifull gristle. At the outside of this head do bunch out two processes rough and vnequall, whereout doe arise the strong Ligaments which tye the Arme to the blade. The first of these is seated on the foreside[ fig. 1, D] the other and the greater on the backeside[ figu, 1, & 2, E] and the greatest part of them both is contayned in the Appendix.  
It hath two Sinus or bosomes, one orbicular and rough at the side of the head which 
2, Sinus.  it distinguisheth from the processes[ tab. 21. figu. 1, FG] to which a Ligament is implanted. The other is on the outside and long, running downward[ fi, 1, HI] betwixt the two processes which it doeth distinguish or separate. And this sinus was grauen for the beginning of the bending muscle of the cubit which is called Biceps, and groweth out of the cup of the shoulder-blade, for through this sinus as through a pulley that muscle doth runne.  
The lower part of the Arme which at the Cubit is articulated to the Ell & the Wand, is in Infants increased by an Appendix, which in processe of time is so vnited to the bones that there remayneth no footstep, no remembrance of the appendix. This lower part is broad and the figure of it diuers, for it is partly protuberated and partly excauated or hollowed.  
The protuberations or processes are two very notable on each hand, and one at the sides of the orbe, because it was to be articulated to tvvo bones. The exterior of these[ ta. 
The processes.  21, fig, 1, P] is the thicker, and endeth into a head crusted ouer vvith a gristle vvhich entereth into the vpper sinus or cauity of the Wand. It is situate before, and is made round to turne the Wand vpvvard and dovvnard. This processe at the outside buncheth out very farre, that from thence some muscles might take their originall[ fig. 1. vnder Q] and endeth into an vnequall Line. Betwixt the heade and the protuberation there is a sinus on the backeside[ fig. 2. R] grauen, to conuay the fourth nerue that passeth vnto the hand.  
The inner processe[ S] which may easily be felt euen in liuing bodies, & swelleth much inward to yeilde a place for the originall of some muscles, is likewise crusted ouer with a gristle. Neare the side of the orbe it hath two sinus or cauities, one shallow in the foreside[ figu 1. T] to leade along the third nerue that passeth vnto the Hand; the other in the backeside[ fig. 2. V] through which the fift nerue is conuayed. Betwixt these two sinus wee meet with an orb, which sayth Falopius may by a curious Anatomist bee called a third apdix. Archangelus calleth it a third and middle processe.  
It is also called trochlea or the pulley whereto the Ell is articulated by gynglimos, and it is moued onely with a right motion: this orbe because it hath a cauity in the middest[ K] and buncheth out on either side[ IM] seemeth to be like the gutture of a pulley wherein the cord doeth slip, and therefore it is commonly called Humerirotula the gutture of the Arme.[ KLM] That part of this cauity which is like a pulley was at the first an Appendix, yea betwixt the two processes there went a gristle which after the seuenth yeare groweth bony, and maketh a part of the cauity and the outward browe thereof. In the vpper part 
Tab. 21. sheweth the Bones of the arme and the Cubit.  
Fig. 1. sheweth the foreside of the right arme.  
Fig. 2. The backside.  
Fig. 3. & 4. Shew the inner & outward parts of the left cubit  
Fig. 5 & 6. Shew the inner and outer parts of the left Ell.  
Fig. 7 & 8. The inner and vtter seate of the left wand  
Fig. 9. The lower part of the left wand.  
Fig. 10 & 11. The lower and vpper part of the right wand.  
Fig. 12 & 13. The vpper & lower extremity of the right El.  
TABVLA XXI.  

A, B, C, 1, 2. The head of the arme which entreth into the cauity of the shoulderblade  
D 1, His anterior processe.  
E 1, 2. The other posterior processe.  
F G, 1, 2. The orbicular cauity of the head thereof.  
H, I, 1. A right sinus leading directly downeward.  
K 1, 2, the sinus of the gutture of the arme which receiueth the cubit.  
L, M, 1, 2, the two lips of the gutture, the inner and the vtter.  
N, I, 1, 2, the anterior sinus in the vpper part of the guttur.  
O 2, Another posterior sinus.  
P, 1, 2, the head of the arm to which the wand is articulated.  
Q 1, 2, A line swelling out in the vtter side of the arme.  
R 2. A bosome of the vtter proces of the arme  
S 1, 2. the inner protuberation of the Arme.  
T 1, the anterior sinus of the inner protuberation.  
V, 6. the posterior sinus of the same,  
X, Z 2 the length of the arme betwixt his thick ends.  
Y 1, the middle part, where the bone of the arme is as it were writhen.  
a 1, A bunching line in the fore-side, which runneth along as farre as to f.  
b, c, 1. Impressions on both sides the line.  
d 1, the vpper gibbous part of the Arme.  
e, 1, 2 A roughnesse in the outside of the middle of the arme.  
f 1. Another somewhat higher, but more inward.   
FIG. I  
II.  
III.  
IV.  
V  
VI  
VII.  
VIII  
IX  
X  
XI  
XII  
XIII  
Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.  

A 3, 4. The vpper part of the Cubit, whereby it is ioyned to the arme.  
B, 3, 4. The lower part of the cubite reaching to the wrest.  
C 3, 5, 13, the anterior and vpper processe of the Ell.  
D, 3, 4, 5, 13. the posterior and vpper processe of the Ell.  
E, 3, 4, 5. A sinus of the Ell, receiuing the pulley of the arme.  
F, 13. A protuberation in the foresaide sinus.  
GG, HH, 13. The internal side depressed nere vnto the protuberation at G. the external side at H.  
I, 13, A sharpe small cauity in the left hand, to which the right aunsweres on the other side. L, 3, 5, 13, An saperity in the roote of the processe of the Ell. M, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, the Necke of the Wand. O 11, A sinus of the wand wherein the head of the arme doth enter. P 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, the necke of the Ell. Q, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, the appendix of the Ell. R, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12 the processe of the Ell called Styloides. S 12, A sinus or cauity in the basis of the appendix of the Ell. T 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, a Gristle growing to this sinus. V 4, 6, a sinus in the side of the appendix of the Ell. X, Y, Z, 4, 6 three corners of the latter processe of the Ell. aa 3, 4. a line or the first bunching part of the Ell. bb 3, 5, the second line of the Ell. * An oblique inferiour line of the Ell. cc, 3 4, 5. the sharpnesse of the Ell touching the wand. dd 3, 6 the first vtter side of the Ell. e 4, 6, the 2 vtter side. f 3 5, the lower rough side. gg 4, 6 a line drawn in the vtter side h, i 1, 3, the commissure of the wand with the ell aboue h and below i. i. k. 3 A distance where these bones do part asunder. l, 13, A sinus of the ell wherein the head of the Wand is turned. m, 7, 8, 11 the head of the wand, resting vpon the sinus of the Ell l. n, 3, 7, the lower appendix of the wande. o 9, A Sinus of the Radius receiuing the head of the Ell. p, 5, 12, the head of the Ell entering into the Sinus of the wand o. qq, 3, 4, 7, 8 11. A roughnesse swelling vnder the necke of the wand. rr, 3, 4, 7, 8. An acute line respecting the Ell & the wand. s, s 3, 7, the rough internall side of the Wand. tt, 4, 8 the smooth externall side of the wand. u, 4, 7, 8, A roughnesse in the midst of the length of the wand. x y 3, 10, a Sinus of the wand whereunto the wrest is ioyned. z 3, 10, a protuberation in the midst of the Sinus. α 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, the processe of the Sinus x. εζ, 4, 8, the inner Sinus of the wand double which carieth the tendons. εζ 4, 8, the externall double Sinus of the Wand. η 4, 8, the 4th Sinus producing a Ligament. θ 4, A Sinus of the wand common with the Ell.   of the Orbe there are grauen two cauities or bosomes, which Hippocrates called 〈◇〉, distinguished onely by a scale: one of these is in the forepart,[ fig. 1 N] the other which is the larger and the deeper[ fig. 2 O] is in the backpart, and these two are the limites of the motion of the Ell. Moreouer this bone throughout his length is rounde in the middest,[ fig. 1 b] in the sides a little compressed,[ fig: 1 a c] behinde yet more depressed, wherein there is a shallow gutture[ fig: 2 Y] whereunto the fourth Nerue of the arme creepeth; before, there is a double asperity or roughnesse, one[ fig: 12 c] made for the stronger implantation of the muscles that mooue the arme, and for the originall of the muscle which is called Brachiaeus. In old men the roughnesse is so great that from thence there seemeth a processe to grow, whereunto the muscle called Deltois is inserted. The other Asperitie,[ figure. 1, f] is that whereto the fleshy part of the Double-headed Muscle dooth grow.  
It hath also small perforations nere the browes of the head and the bosomes, through 
Perforations.  which some Ligaments are produced or implanted; and moreouer some other perforations it hath on the inside of the length of the bones which admit certaine veines. Finally, the bone of the arme is on the inside hollowed with a deepe bosome or cauitie, as wel to containe the Marrowe which is his Nourishment, as also to make the Bone the lighter.  
The second part of the hand in the large acceptation is called the Cubit, and is seated betwixt the Arme and the wrest, with both which it is articulated. It consisteth of two 
The Cubite.  bones lying one vpon another, and fastened together with a Membranous Ligament. These bones are long, but yet shorter then the bone of the arme, and they haue appendices at either ends.  
The lower of these[ fig. 3, 4 A B 5, 6] which is also the greater, hath for the most part the name of the whole and is called Cubitus, yet to put a difference it is also called Vlna 
The Ell,  the Ell, and sometime focile maius, and is articulated to the sinus[ Figu. 2 K L M] which is in the guttur of the arme by Ginglymos, and by this articulation both flexion and extention is made.  
It hath in the vpper part two notable processes, long and as it were triangular, but the angles are obtuse or dull, and these processes together with the cauity in the midst, which 
His processes.  is called Sigmoides, are in yong infants gristly, yet the anterior processe together with the cauity do quickly become bones, and the marke of the appendix is obliterated. The Posterior processe beginneth not to harden till after the seuenth yeare, and then it is agglutinated or fastened to the rest of the bone.  
The Anterior and vpper of these[ fig. 3, 5, 13 C] entreth into the Sinus or cauity of the Arme,[ Fig. 1 N] and is crusted ouer with a gristle on the inside: the posterior[ D] is the thicker and the larger, which Hippocrates calleth 〈◇〉, Galen 〈◇〉, the Latines call it Gibberum, and we the Elbow; it entereth into the posterior cauity of the arme.[ figur. 2 O] The places of both these processes are rough,[ Fig. 13, C D] partly that the Ligaments 
The Elbovv.  might more strongly encompasse the ioynt, partly for the insertion of some muscles of the cubit partly also to giue originall vnto the muscles that bend the Fingers; for which cause also the bone is rough at the roote of the processe:[ Figu. 5 and 13 L] the circumference also of the Sinus or cauity is rough[ Fig. 13 I K] that from thence Ligaments might yssue, for in the middle of these processes there is a great Sinus[ Fig. 3, 5 ● betwixte C D] which receyueth the gutture of the arme. This sinus is hollowed like a semi-circle, and being concluded or closed vp by these swelling processes, representeth the forme of the Greeke Sigma C. and therefore by Galen is called 〈◇〉, and is crusted also ouer with a Gristle. But because it might be fitted exactly to the gutture of the arme, it hath in the middest an obtuse protuberation,[ Fig. 13 betweene FF] and at the sides on either hande is compressed,[ fig. 13 GG, HH] so that it may be compared to a cord compassing the gutter or rim of a wheele, that in it the cubit may be bent and extended: and from it is separated by a swelling line, least the Ell should slippe this way or that way: hence comes the mutuall ingresse of the bones one into another, which kinde of articulation is called Ginglymos, which we know not how better to expresse, then as the crookes of a paire of Hinges do receiue and are receyued one of another. There is yet another Sinus at his outside smooth and crusted ouer with a gristle,[ fig. 5, and 13, l] which receyueth the heade of the Radius or Wand.[ fig. 7, 11 m]  
From hence the Ell descending growes slenderer by degrees,[ fig: 3, from A to B] and at the wrest is encreased with a small necke.[ fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, 12 P] It hath also a round Appendix or an obtuse head inclining inward,[ fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, 12 Q] about which the Wande is led vpward and downward. Finally it determineth into an acute processe,[ R in the same figures] which is called Styloides, because it is like a probe or writing pen which the Ancients were wont to vse, not much vnlike a long Bodkin; and from this Bodkin there groweth a Ligament which firmeth or fasteneth the ioynt of the wrest with the Ell. At the basis also of this appendix there is grauen another vnequall sinus[ Figu. 12 S] which distinguisheth the Appendix of the Ell from the wrest, and to it there is adioyned a gristle which is placed betwixt this articulation;[ fig. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10 T] another sinus somwhat long is grauen on the outside betwixt the two protuberations, fig. 4, 6, 12 V] to guide & direct the tendon of the first muscle that extendeth the wrest.[ T]  
Furthermore, the Ell on the lower side vpon which it resteth when we lean, is gibbous a good way,[ Fig. 6. X Y Z] and beside there are foure swelling lines which run throughout 
The Forme of the Bone.  his length made for the vse of the muscles of the wrest. The first[ fig. 4 & 6 from zby a and fig. 1 aa] The second ariseth or swelleth more toward the wrest[ fig. 3, 5, 6 *] for the originall of the Square muscle. The third is the sharpest and the roughest[ fig. 3, 4, 5 c c] that from thence might arise a Ligament which like a membrane fasteneth together the Ell and the Wand. The fourth is prominent indeede but obtuse or blunt,[ fig. 4 & 6 g g] from which three muscles haue their originall.  
The vse of the Ell is, that the Hand without danger might bee mooued outward, and againe with facility returne inward. 
His vse   
The other bone of the Cubit which is the vpper and the shorter, and occupyeth almost the whole exterior part of the cubit, fig. 7 and 8] is called 〈◇〉, by some Focile minus, in Latine Radius, in English the Wand. This bone in respect of the Ell is oblique, and 
The Radius or Wand.  is committed or ioyned thereto aboue and below,[ fig. 3 h i] so that aboue the Ell receyueth the wand, below the wand receyueth the Ell; but in the middest they stand off one from another a good distance,[ fig. 3 kk] partly that the wand might more readily be moued vpward and downward, partly that a place might be made for the muscles which extend the Cubit.  
This wand is articulated to the arme per Diarthrosin, by Dearticulation, hauing an oblique and slender necke;[ fig. 7, 8, 11 M] a round and depressed head,[ fi. 7, 8, 11 N] crusted ouer with a gristle for more agility of motion, but where it regardeth the arme it hath a round or superficiary bosome[ fig. 11 O] into which the head of the arme entreth,[ fig. 1. P] and at this head the VVand when the Ell is at rest is turned downward and vpward. A little aboue the necke it hath a rugged and abrupt processe or protuberation[ fig. 3, 4, 7, 8 11 q] into which is inserted the tendon of the anterior muscle that bendeth the Cubit: so also through his length there runneth an acute and bunching line[ figu. 3, 4, 7, 8 rr] vnto which is fastned a Ligament that ioyneth the Ell and the wand together, on eyther side with which line the bone is compressed[ F. 3, 7, s, s. and fig. 4, 8 tt] to giue way to the Muscles. The bone also itself throughout the middest of his length is rough,[ figu. 4, 7, 8, u] so made for the insertion of two muscles of the wand. This wand below at the wrest is dilated, and groweth thicker, because of a bosome therein to be made for the articulation of the wrest with the cubit.  
It also hath an Appendix[ fig. 3, 7 n] with a double bosom crusted ouer with a Gristle,[ fig. 5, 12 o] that therein the head[ fig. 5, 12 p] of the appendix of the Ell which is also couered with a Cristle might be mooued. This bosome or cauity was made double[ fig. 3, 10 xy] 
His Appendances.  because there are two bones of the wrest articulated therewith, to wit, the first and the second:[ ta. 22. fig. 1, 2, 4, 5, char. 1, 2] also where these two are ioyned together, the sinus protuberateth moderately in the middest,[ Fig. 3, 10 z] yet beside that protuberation it hath also a processe.[ fig. 3, 7, 9, 10 α]  
The outside of the Appendixe of the wand, as also of the wrest is gibbous, and therein hath foure sinus insculped or grauen,[ fig. 4 〈◇〉] thorough which the tendons of the muscles might be more certainly conducted through the annular Ligaments. The 
The Sinus.  fourth of these [ n] is very shallow but rough, for it bringeth foorth a transuerse Ligament and beside swelleth vpward, for into that swelling the tendon of the Long muscle which turneth the wand vpward is infixed.  
There is also in the same place another sinus common to the Ell and the wand[ Fig. 4 θ] made for the Tendon of the muscle that extendeth the little Finger. [ t]  
Both these bones of the Cubit are of a solide and hard substance excepting their Appendances, 
The consistence of the bones of the cubit.  and full of smal holes bored also to containe marrow, but if you consider them apart they are one contrary to another in respect of their parts, for the vpper part of the Ell is the thicker the lower is the thinner, contrariwise the vpper part of the VVand is the thinner & the lower is the thicker. Finally, the vse of the wand is to moue the Hand downward and vpward, as also in compasse, although the Ell, saith Archangelus, be not moued.   

CHAP. XXX. Of the Bones of the Hand properly so called, that is, of the Wrest and After-wrest.  
_THE Bones of the Hand doe follow in the next place which are of foure sortes: first those of the Wrest; secondly those of the Afterwrest; thirdly the bones of the Fingers; fourthly the Seede-bones called Sesamina.  
The Wrest is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine properly by Celsus brachiale, 
The wrest.  but the Greek word is also among the Latines grown into vse, which is carpus, wee call it the Wrest, which is that part of the Hand which is articulated to the Cubite and to the After-wrest, and is construed or made of eight bones; most Anatomistes say of seauen, but because the first is thought to bee double, therefore sayth Archangelus we account eight.  
These bones are distinguished in a double order, the reason was that the Hand might 
8. bones.  be moued with more agility.[ ta. 22. fig. 3, char. 5, 6,] These eight bones do differ in their magnitude, forme, situation and consistence, and in the first generation are all gristles and not bones, but in processe of time they become hard and grow bony. Their substance is spongy as are all the rest of the bones which of gristles become bony, of which kinde are all Appendices, the bones of the breast and such like. These bones are not without marrow, and beside are couered ouer with gristly and strong Ligaments, whereby they are so compacted together, but the vpper more then the lower, that if you doe not deuide the Ligaments and the Membranes also, you will thinke that they are but one bone, which hath deceiued some Anatomists.  
They haue a double superficies, the one exterior and gibbous[ fig, 4] the other interior 
their surface.  and sinuated or concauous,[ figu, 3] and aboue, where they are ioyned to the Cubit, as also below where they are articulated with the After-wrest they are all smooth and crusted ouer with a gristle, but beside that gristle where they touch one another they haue also sinus or cauities and heades crusted with a slippery gristle: and this articulation of these 
Their articulation.  bones is to be referred to that third kinde which Galen calleth Neutrall and doubtfull; for in respect of their composition it may be called Dearticulation, and in respect of their pure motion it may bee called Coarticulation. Foure of these are reposed in the vpper ranke of the wrest which is next vnto the Cubit,[ tab, 22, figur, 1, 2, 3, 4, char. 1, 2, 3, 4] the other foure in the lower ranke.[ chara, 5, 6, 7, 8] But because these bones want proper names, therefore they are distinguished onely by their order and number.  
VVe call that the first which maketh the inside of the vpper ranke. It is a long bone 
The first bone of the wrest.  curued inward and articulated to the VVand together with the second bone of the latter ranke, and his head entreth into a sinus of the second bone on the inside. Another head it hath also which is greater then the former and lower, and entreth before, into a sinus formed by the fift and sixt bones. It hath also a notable sinus, wherein together with the second bone it admitteth on the inside the head of the seauenth bone.  
The second bone of the wrest leaneth vnto the former and is lesse then it: it is reposed behind in a sinus insculped in the appendix of the VVand,[ tab, 21, fig. 3, 10, x y] and is ioyned on the foreside with the first bone, below with the seauenth, behind with the third hauing a plaine superficies.  
The third is ioyned with a plaine superficies also to the Ell and his gristle:[ ta, 21, figu, 3, 4, 7, 8, T] againe to the second and the fourth; and below it hath a large head which entreth into a sinus of the eight bone.  
The fourth bone is called Os rectum the Right-bone, and is the hardest and the least of al the rest, and almost round, for it is neither hollowed nor protuberated as the rest are. It is ioyned with a depressed head to the externall side of the third bone, and seemeth also to be a little inserted into the processe of the eight bone; otherwise it toucheth no bone of that ranke, but in the vpper part thereof the Tendon of the muscle that bendeth the wrest is inserted: below, two muscles haue their originall which goe into the little Finger.  

Table 22. Fig. 1. & 2. The first sheweth the inside of the bones of the Hand, the second the outside.  
Figure. 3. & 4. shew the inside and outside of the bones of the wrest.  
Fig. 5. The posterior part of the bones of the wrest articulated to the Cubit.  
Fig. 6. their anterior part ioyned to the Afterwrest.  
Fig. 7. Two bones making the first Ioynt of the Fingers.  
Fig. 8. The second Ioynt.  
Fig. 9. The third Ioynt.  
Fig. 10. A Nayle parted from the Finger and shewed on both sides.  
Fig. 11. The Seede-bones in the Foote & the Hand.  
TABVLA XXII.  
FIG. I.  
FIG. II.  
III  
IIII  
V  
VI.  
VII  
IIX  
IX  
X  
IX.  

A 1, 2, The first bone of the Afterwrest sup porting the thumbe.  
I, II, III, IIII, The foure other bones of the Afterwrest ioyned to the fingers.  
B C 1, 2, the two bones of the thumbe.  
D E F 1, 2, the three bones of the fore-finger, the same also in the rest of the Fingers.  
G 3, 6, The gutture of the fift bone of the wrest whereto the first bone of the Afterwrest is articulated.  
a b 6, the length of this gutture  
c d 6, The inside of the gutture c, the outside d.  
e 3, 4, 6, A sinus at the gutture which the second bone of the Afterwrest doth touch  
H 3, 4, 6, The sinus of the sixt bone of the wrest whereto the second bone of the Afterwrest is ioyned.  
f 3, 4, 6, A part of this sinus which the third bone of the Afterwrest scarce toucheth.  
I 3, 4, 6, the sinus of the seuenth bone of the wrest to which the third bone of the afterwrest is ioyned.  
K 3, 4, 6, The place of the eight bone of the wrest which admitteth the fourth bone of the Afterwrest.  
L 3, 4, 6, a sinus of the same bone receiuing the fift bone of the Afterwrest.  
M 1, 2, a small bone placed sometimes outwardly at the ioynt of the eight bone of the wrest.  
N 1, 3, 6, a processe of the same eight bone swelling out into the ball of the hand.  
O 1, 3, 6, the processe of the fift bone of the wrest from whence groweth a Ligament  
P 2, an Appendix of the wrest wherby they are ioyned to the Afterwrest.  
Q 2, Another Appendix which with the head entreth into the sinus of the fingers.  
R 1, 2, the distance betwixt the bones of the Afterwrest.  
S 1, 2, two Seed-bones set at the inside and outside of the first ioynt.  
T 1, 2, two Seed-bones in the first ioynts of the foure fingers.  
V V 1, one Seedebone in the second and 3. ioynts of the fingers.  
Char. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, these numbers in six figures doe shew the eight bones of the wrest.   
Fig. 7, 8, 9.   
A 7, the bone of the Afterwrest which supporteth the fore finger. B 7, The first bone of Fore finger. C 7, the round head of the bone of the Afterwrest. D 7, a sinus of the Fore finger receiuing the foresaid head. E F 8, the first bone of the Fore finger E, the second F. G H 8 two small heads of the first bone of the Fore finger. I K 8, two sinus of the second bone of the Fore finger. L 8, a sinus betwixt the two small heads of the first bone. M 8, a small head betwixt the two sinus of the 2. bone. N 9, the second bone of the Forefinger and his 2 heads. O 9. the third bone of the Forefinger containing a sinus. Fig. 10. A 10, The inside of the nayle hollow. B 10, his soft roote which the skin is wont to couer. C 10, the outside of the nayle gibbous. Fig. 11. A 11, the lower side of the Seedbone that is placed before the first ioynt of the great Toe. B 11, the vpper part of the same which is next vnto the ioynt. C 11. the vpper of another Seed-bone. D 11, the lower part. a a 11, the Seed-bones at the ioynt of the thumbe. b b 11, the seede-bones at the ioynt of the Forefinger. c c 11. Seede-bones placed at the little finger.  
The fift bone of the wrest on the outside toward the thumbe, receiueth into his vpper sinus the posterior head of the first bone on the inside, it receyueth into another Sinus the head of the sixt Bone. It hath also a lower Sinus[ tab. 22. fig. 3, 6 G] which is long[ fig. 6 a b] grauen somewhat deepe on the inside and the outside,[ figu. 6 c d] wherein it receyueth the head of the first bone of the thumbe, as also a part of the fifte bone of the Afterwrest.[ fig. 3, 4, 6 e] It produceth also on his inside a processe[ figu. 1, 3, 6 O] to make waie for the Tendons of the Muscles that bend the fingers, and so with the fourth bone maketh that passage hollow.  
The sixt Bone receiueth into his sinus on the backside the first bone, and his outwarde head entreth into the sinus of the fift, his inner head also is ioyned with a plaine superficies to the seauenth bone. This bone also receyueth the first bone of the Afterwrest which supporteth the roote of the fore-finger,[ figu. 3, 4, 6 n] but the second more obscurely.[ fi. 3, 4, 6 f.]  
The seauenth, which is the greatest of the second ranke( as the sixt is the least) is easily luxed because of his laxe connexion. It hath a round head which entreth into the sinus which is common to the first and second bone. It is also loosely articulated on the inside to the sixt bone, on the outside with a depressed head to the eight bone, whereto it is likewise ioyned by the interposition of a gristly Ligament. Finally, it is fastned to the second bone of the After wrest.  
The eight bone which like a wedge is placed between the third and the seuenth bones is ioyned at the left side with a depressed head to the third bone. On the right side with a depressed Sinus to the seuenth: before, his superficies is broad,[ Fig. 3, 4, 6 K] whereby it is ioyned to the third bone of the After-wrest and receiueth in a certaine Sinus[ Fig. 3, 4, 6 L] the Heade of the fourth bone of the After-wrest. It also produceth in the inside of the wrest a processe which inclineth from the outside inwarde, exsculped or grauen like the letter C. to make the hand hollow to containe the tendous of the muscles that bend the Fingers. Out of the toppe of this processe groweth the transuerse Ligament of the wrest, and to it is fastned a seed-bone.[ Fig. 1 & 2 M] And thus much of the wrest.  
The next part of the Hand is called in Greeke 〈◇〉, in Latine Postbrachiale, by some Imapalma, we will call it the After-wrest. It is that part of the hande which is betwixt 
The afterwrest.  the wrest and the rootes of the Fingers, and consisteth of foure bones, of fiue say some Anatomists, who reckon the first bone of the thumb with the Afterwrest, because we do not meete with it bare as the bones of the rest of the Fingers are, but it lyes deeper as the other bones of the Afterwrest,[ ta. 21. fig. 1 & 2]  
These bones of the After-wrest being placed betwixt the wrest and the bones of the Fingers,[ char. I. II. III. IV] are ioyned to the wrest by Coarticulation; or rather by doubtfull 
The bones of the afterwrest  articulation as they are ioyned to the bones of the Fingers by dearticulation; for al the bones of the After wrest where they regard the Fingers do end into a rounde head, that so they might enter into the shallow or superficiary cauities of the subsequent ioynts. Among themselues they are ioyned onely by contaction of their extremities towardes the bones of the wrest, where they are fastned with gristly Ligaments.[ Fig. 2 P]  
These bones of the After wrest are longer then the bones of the fingers, and the first of them which standeth before the fore-finger is the longest and thickest of them, all the rest are by degrees shorter and thinner; beside they are all somewhat broader on the outside then they are on the inside.  
Toward their extremities they growe thicke and haue Appendices growing to them aboue and below,[ figu. 2 P Q] out of which Appendices yssue Ligaments whereby these bones are ioyned together though that coniunction be somewhat dissolute or loose: for the vpper are fastned to the bones of the wrest, but the Appendices themselues are tyed together by the interposition of a gristlye Ligament. The lower appendices which are the greater are fastned to the bones by coalition, for their head is round and long, forward and backward, lengthned out somewhat to the sides, and crusted ouer with a gristle, and these heads do insinuate themselues into the Sinus of the first bones of the fingers.  
These bones are after a sort round yet haue they as it were three sides, two inward sides ending into a line the better to giue way to the muscles called Interossei or the bone-bound Muscles,[ fig. 1] and one externall which maketh the hand plaine.[ fig. 2]  
There is also betwixt these Bones an intermediate distance,[ figu. 1, 2 R] in which distance 
The distance betwixt them  the bone-bound muscles are placed, that is to say two in euery distance. And because the palme of the Hand should not swell too great by the bellies of these muscles and so be made lesse fit for comprehension, as also that the place might be sufficient to containe them, these bones on the inside which is next vnto the palme are curued & their outside is gibbous: they are also cornered and haue swelling lines in them made for the insertion of the muscles in that place.  
The first bone also where it is articulated with the wrest hath a processe[ ta, 22. fig. 1, aboue char. 6, and 7,] whereinto the second muscle that bendeth the wrest is inserted. In 
Their processes.  like manner the fourth bone swelleth on the outside[ figu. 1, aboue M] into which swelling the third muscle of the wrest is inserted. Note also that the palme of the hand is especially made hollow by the first bone of the thumb( which some make the first of the Afterwrest) and by the fourth of the After-wrest, for the other three doe helpe that cauity but little.  
Finally, the bones of the Afterwrest are sistulated or hollow to contayne marrow. Their vse is to establish and strengthen the Palme, that it might comprehend or containe 
Vse.  whatsoeuer it is applyed vnto with more stedfastnes. And thus much of the VVrest and Afterwrest.   

CHAP. XXXI Of the Bones of the Fingers.  
_THE Fingers which make the third part of the Hand are construed or compounded of fifteene bones: for we say, sayth Bauhine, that the thumbe also hath three bones. And because they stand as it were in rank, therefore the Grecians haue called their order 〈◇〉, as it were the Files of a battell disposed in order. 
The row of the fingers.   
The particular bones doe want proper names, and therefore are expressed by the names of the fingers to which they appertaine, as the first bone of the thumbe or the fore finger; the second and the third and so in the rest. Their number was with wonderfull wisedome ordayned as was fittest for the facility and variety of motion, for if they had beene more they could not haue beene perfectly and strongly extended: againe, if they had beene sewer the fingers could not haue beene moued into so many formes. Galen in his first and second bookes de vsu partium, hath so elegantly discoursed of the counsell and wisedome of Nature in this poynt that it will not onely delight any man that shall reade it, but also transport him as he himselfe seemeth to haue beene transported into an admiration of the wonderfull wisedome of the Creator.  
The forme of these bones on the outside( excepting the last) is gibbous and crooked, on the inside it is plaine and somewhat hollowed or sadled, partly because we apprehend with the inside of the hand, partly because more tendons run into the inside then into the 
Their forme  outside. Furthermore on their inside ther are certain lines runing on both sides the bones throughout their length, from which lines certaine Ligaments are produced, which like rings doe encompasse the Tendons and hold them stedfastly in their places. These bones although they be hard and fast or dense that the hand might vse them in manifould imployments without danger or annoyance, yet they haue a cauity or hollownesse within them which contayneth marrow.  
Their magnitude is diuers, for the first bone of each finger is larger in all the dimensions, 
Magnitude.  that is, thicker, longer and broader then the second,[ ta, 22, fig, 1, a & 2,] in like manner the second is greater thē the third; for Nature prouided that the thicker finger shold haue the thicker bones, and the longer finger the longer bones .. Notwithstanding albeit their magnitude is not the same, yet they appeare all equall, & all the fingers are broght together into one right line when we would comprehend any round body. Moreouer they are in the beginning broader, and so grow narrower by degrees. At the ioynts all the bones are somewhat thicke, that the basis being the larger the construction might bee more substantiall: in their length they are not all of a thicknesse least their quantity or waight should haue beene offensiue. The swelling protuberations of the bones are called 〈◇〉 Knots, but in English Knuckles.  
The bones of the first and second ioynt haue Appendices aboue and below made for the originall and insertion of muscles: the bones of the third ioynt haue Appendices onely aboue; for the very end or head of the finger being not articulated againe but onely ioyned with flesh or a nayle, needed no Appendix at all: they are also crusted ouer with gristles that the ioynt might be at all times glib and easie to moue.  
The first bone of the thumb[ tab. 22. fig. 1 & 2 A] aboue, hath a long sinus, but before & 
The first bone of the thumb.  behinde it buncheth out, that it might ioyne with the furrow or guttur of the fift bone of the wrest. It is manifestly mooued directly outward and inward toward the palm; sideward toward the forefinger, from which also it is remoued by reason of the length of the guttur, and beside it is turned circularly. But if the head of the bone of the wrest bee produced more backward then is the bone of the thumbe easily and directly bent backward, so haue I seene a man able to lay the Naile of his thumbe vpon his wrest. Some also will in like manner turne all their fingers vppon the backe of their hands. Aboue, this first bone of the thumbe hath a head but not perfectly round, which entreth into the sinus of the second bone.  
The second Bone of the Thumbe where it regardeth the third is diuided by the Mediation 
The second.  of a long sinus[ fig. 8. L] into two long heads,[ fig. 8 GH] protuberating before on either side.  
The third bone hath two Sinus[ fig. 8, IK] distinguished by a long knor,[ M] whereinto the heads of the second bone are receyned: againe the knub of the third bone entreth into 
The third.  the Sinus of the second so the second; is receiued of the third, and the second receyueth the third, making thereby a Ginglymos, wherein the two Bones are so straightned, that onely the third bone can be bended or extended.  
After the same manner are the articulations made of the rest of the fingers, for they 
The Bones of the Fingers.  haue two heads and two bosomes. But the first ioynts of the foure fingers haue but one head and one bosome, because the bones of the After-wrest haue each but one Heade, which looketh especially into the inside of the Hande, and hath more aboundance of gristly substance about it. The Sinus in the first bone of the foure fingers is orbicular, and aboue that head the first bone is bent, extended and moued to the sides. The third bone also itself swelleth into a gristly top and rough head[ fig. 9 O] whereinto is inserted the Tendon that bendeth it. Moreouer, all the inside is rough and vnequall, and at the end it is not knotted as the first and second bones are, but lyeth plaine to giue waie vnto the Nayles.   

CHAP. XXXIII. Of the Seede-bones.  
_THE last thing to bee considered in the Hande are the Seede-bones, called 〈◇〉[ tab. 22. fig. 9] because they are like Sesamum seede. These Bones 
How to finde the seedbones  are placed in the ioynces or knuckles of the fingers and of the toes: for the most part they grow vnto the Tendons and lurke vnder them; and therfore he that would make demonstration of them must seeke for them in the dissection of the Tendons of the Muscles which are seated about these bones. Moreouer, they are so entangled with ligaments, that if you desire to clense the bones, you shal take them away with the Ligaments vnlesse your care be the greater. They are crusted ouer with gristles, and touch the slippery side of the other bone. Solid they are, round a litle depressed, sometimes gristly, sometimes bony, within fungous and full of pores, wherein they containe a iuyce which serueth them instead of marrow.  
These Seede-bones are commonly in each hand twelue, one standeth before the 
Their number  middest of the third ioynt, two at the second ioynt of the thumbe,[ fig. 1 & 2. S] two lesser which are gristly in the first knuckles of the foure fingers[ Fig. 1 T] which leaue vppon tendons, and are bent on either hand at the sides of the ioynt with the double tendon. In the rest of the ioynts of the foure fingers, that is in the second and the third at each ioynt there is one bone which is placed before the middest of one single tendon, and these are much lesser,[ Fig. 1, V] and as it were gristly, but yet larger in the hands then in the feet: in old men they grow big and almost plaine, in children they are but gristly & scarse conspicuous in the Tendons. Their number is not certaine as is the number of other bones, partly because they are so small that they are lost in dissections, partly saith Archangelus, because for want of seede Nature omitteth some things which are lesse necessary in the frame of the body.  
There is one little bone amongst these Seede-bones which may be numbred twice[ fig 12 M] because it is found in the hand nere the connection of that bone of the After-wrest which sustaineth the little Finger with the eight bone of the wrest, for it filleth vp a place there on each side.  
The vse of these Seed-bones is foure-fold: the first, that in certaine motions by theyr hardnesse they might be better able to receiue and sustaine the violence of the bone moued; for the Tendon is defended with such a small seed-bone to keepe it from shouldring vpon itself; for, in the extention of the fingers they insinuate themselues somwhat into the space of the ioynt, and returne or holde the Tendon least in the motion it should fall from the ioynt as it swels.  
The second vse is to hinder the bone, at which it is set, from luxing easily out of his ioynt, & so they are a defence to the ioynts, like as in the great ioynt of the knee the whirlbone is as it were a shield or muniment to keepe the bones from luxation.  
Their third vse is to fill vp the distances which remained empty betwixt the bones of the fingers, and so againe they adde strength vnto the ioynt.  
Fourthly, to make the action of the hand which is apprehension more firme and constant. And this shall be sufficient to haue saide concerning the bones of the whole hand, Onely we will adde.  
That on the outside of the singers there are nayles set[ Tab. 22. fig. 12] to make their apprehensions more distinct and strong, and these nayles are neyther longer nor shorter then the ends of the fingers are, and therefore when they grow longer wee pare them off; otherwise they would hinder apprehension. And thus much of the bones of the hand. Now we proceed vnto the Foote.   

CHAP. XXXIII. Of the bone of the Thigh.  
_THE Ancients called al that the foot which is betwixt the top of the Thigh and the top of the great toe. The bones of the Foote are 42, and belong some of them to the Thigh, some of them to the Legge, and some to the Foote commonly so called.  
The Thigh is called by the Grecians 〈◇〉, by the Latines Femur a ferendo, because the creature is borne or sustained especially by these parts. It is also called Femen although saith Varro in his fourth booke, Femina are properly the inner parts of the Coxa, and Femora the outward. The bone of the thigh is but one as is the bone of the arme.[ Tab. 23, fig. 1, 2, 3.] In a man and an Ape it is the longest bone of the body, in other creatures wherein a great part of it lyeth hid, it is shorter then the Legge as it is in Birdes. The position of it is obliquely inward to the knee from the Hip-bone. The figure of it is long, round and straight, but not exquisitely because it descendeth obliquely 
The figure of it.  inward at the knee to make the station or standing, the walking and the running more firme and strong, which also Galen euidently declareth in the {us} chap. of his booke de vsa partium, for those men whose Thighes are more streight and direct then it behooued, are called Vari and become lame in their knees. And it behooueth much that wee shoulde marke this posture of the Thigh bone( being thereto councelled also by Hippocrates) least if it be broken and be to be restored againe, he that mends the breach should turne it the wrong way.  
On the foreside it is gibbous, and that is profitable not onely for Session and sitting, but for many other labours or operations which are performed when we sit, as if a man would write vpon his knee, hold a Viall or any other thing betwixt his legs, or lay one leg ouer another. In the sides it is round and smooth on hoth hands, on the backeside doked or hollow aboue, it endeth into a head, a necek and two processes, below it determines into a head which hath two productions and bosomes.  
The vpper head[ tab. 23, fig. 1, 2, A fig. 3, X Y the vpper] is wholy made of an orbicular 
The vpper Head.  Appendix which it hath, and is thicke and the largest head in the whole body. In so much as Hippocrates, in his book de fracturis, cals it by an excellency 〈◇〉, Articulum the Ioynt. This head is round and long, the better to enter into the cup of the hip bone which is not onely deep of itself but indeed deeper by a large gristle that compaseth the verges therof.  
And the reason why this cup was so deepe and the head so long, was that the articulation should bee exceeding strong because of the enorme and huge waight which the thigh was to sustaine. It is therefore articulated by Inarticulation which is a kinde of Dearticulation, and beside to strengthen it the more, and to fasten the two bones together, there ariseth out of the cup of the hip an exceeding strong and round ligament which is implanted into his Sinus,[ Tab. 23, fig. 2, B] seated vnder the top of the head which is narrow and deepe. The head also is smooth and crusted ouer with a gristle that so the thigh might more easily and with greater expedition be bent, extended, mooued to the sides and circumflected or turned about.  
Vnder the head is the necke of the thigh called 〈◇〉 Ceruix. Ta. 23, fig. 1, 2, 3, D] It is long and reaching vpward reclined also obliquely inward, least the thighes motion 
The necke.  should haue beene hindered. Out of the necke where the bone groweth broader vnder[ D] doe arise two knots which they call processes, or Trochanters, or Rotatores: and these Trochanters haue Appendices[ Tab. 23, fig. 3, the middle X] which in children new borne( as also the head itself) may easily be separated, but in growne bodies they are so vnited with the prominent parts[ fig. 2, Q with v. fig. 1, a with b] that there remaineth scarce any signe or footstep of an Appendix.  
The vpper of these[ fig. 2, Q V] is the greater, and of all the processes in the body which are not ioyned to another bone simply the greatest: it bendeth vpward and outward. The lower[ fig. 1, 2, a] is farre lesser and looketh backward and inward. And both these are called Rotatores, eyther because they were made to turne the Thigh, or rather because the muscles which accomplish the motions of the Thigh are inserted into them. The first is called the great Trochanter and 〈◇〉, eyther because it is something like the Buttock; or because the muscles of the buttocke are inserted into it. The other is called the lesser Trochanter. These two processes are ioyned together by a line which buncheth out behind and runneth from without inward and so the bone of the Thigh becommeth round.  
The vse of these Trochanters is like a little hill to admit the insertion of some muscles 
The vse of the Trochanters  and to others to afford place of originall, for into the inner Trochanter is infixed the tendon of the first and second muscles which bend the Thigh: close vnto this there runneth a rough line[ fig. 2, cc] obliquely downward and backward which seemeth to be parted into two and to reach vnto both the heads, but is more euidently terminated at the vtter head and into this line is the eight muscle of the Thigh implanted adhering verye closely thereto, for by the helpe of that muscle especially we stand vpright.  
At the vtter processe there is a Sinus, certaine impressions, and a line to be obserued. 
The sinus of the thigh.  The Sinus[ fig. 2, ●] reguardeth the head of the Thigh, and into it are the ninth and tenth muscles of the thigh inserred. The impressions are foure at the vtter gibbous part which receiue the Tendons of foure muscles. The first in the backward and lower, side;[ fi. 2, Q] it is a large impression which receiueth the tendon of the first muscle of the thigh,[ fig. 1, τ] in the foreside which is also the rougher and receiueth the tendon of the seconde muscle; the third in the vpper and vtter part[ fig. 1, β below τ and υ] which is gibbous and made to receiue the tendon of the third muscle: the fourth[ figu. 1, and 2, v] is in the very top of the processe and narrower then the rest, and admitteth the tendon of the fourth muscle. But from the roote of this processe on the anterior and the exterior side ariseth the seauenth muscle of the head. The line wee spake of is rough and runneth from the first impression downeward and somewhat obliquely through the backside of the thigh, 
The line.  and into it is the first muscle of the thigh implanted.  
Now below the middle Region the Thigh as it descendeth[ fig. 2. from d to e] it becommeth thicker, is dilated and depressed,[ fi. 2. c] in which depression a veine, an artery and 2 nerue do securely run, and at length it determineth into an ample and broad head, which latitude is made by a large Appendix.[ ta. 23. fig. 3. x y the lower] Out of the backeside of this head are produced two processes as it were two other heades,[ fig. 1 & 2 E F] betwixt which there is a large space left about an inch broade,[ figu. 2. l] which receiueth a protuberation swelling out of the head of the Leg-bone.  
These two heades are on the outside rough, but their superficies is smooth, because of a gristle which compasseth them to make the motion at the knee more expedite or easie. These heads doe bend more backward, and in the sides are scarce depressed at all, because of the articulation of the Thigh with the Legge-bone.[ ioyne ta. 23. fig. 1 and 2. E F I, with ta. 24. fig. 7. G F] which is made by Ginglymos, for these two heades of the Thigh doe sit in 
The lower heads of the thigh.  two bosomes or cauities of the Legge-bone, and the protuberation of the Legge bone which swelleth vp betwixt his sinus[ ta. 24. fig. 7. l betwixt ● and F] is receiued by the postenor sinus of the Thigh-bone.[ ta. 23. fig. 2. l] Moreouer the Thigh is fastned with the Leg below, as it was aboue with the Hip-bone by a strong ligament produced from the protuberation of the Leg-bone.  
Of these heads, one is internall which is the thicker; another externall which is broader and more depressed, least both of them should bee equally articulated to the Legge 
Table 23. Figure 1 and 2 shewe the fore and hinder part of the thigh-bone.  
Figure 3 sheweth the thigh, whose Appendices wee haue remooued out of their place, and disioyned with a little distance.  
Figure 4 and 5. The fourth sheweth the anterior and rough side of the Pattel-bone; the fift his posterior part crustedoner.  
TABVLA XXIII.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III  
IV  
V  

A 1, 2. The head of the thigh going into the Cup of the Hip-bone.  
B 2, A sinus into the head of the Thigh, into which is inserted a round Ligament.  
C 1, 2, The coniunction of the Appendix of the thigh with the bone itself.  
D 1 2, 3, the necke of the thigh.  
E, F, the two lower heads of the thigh.  
G 1, 2, the coniunction of the lower appendix,  
H 1, I 2, A sinus betwixt the two heades of the Thigh.  
K 2, A part of the lower heade of the thigh from whence the first muscle of the foote doth proceede.  
L 2, Another part from whence the seconde and third Muscles arise.  
M 2, Another part to which the Tendon of the fift Muscle of the thigh is infixed.  
N 1, 2 A sinus of the outward side of the head for the fourth muscle of the legge.  
O 2, A sinus of the inside through which the tendons do passe.  
P 2, a protuberation at which the saide tendons are reflected.  
Q 2, the vtter processe of the thigh, and betwixt Q and D is the sinus.  
R 1, 2, the vnion of the processe with the thigh.  
S S 2, a rough line from the impression of the externall processe.  
T 1, the anterior impression of the internall processes.  
β, betwixt T and V another impression higher then the former.  
V 1, 2, the fourth impression in the toppe of the processe.  
X 3. Foure X, shew the foure appendices of the thigh.  
Y 3, Three Y shew the three heades of the thigh.  
Z Z 3, Two processes of the thigh.  
a 1, the anterior processe of the thigh  
b 1, the coniunction of the processe with the thigh.  
c c 2, a line descending obliquely from the inner processe.  
d d 2, a line running thorough the length of the thigh.  
e 2, The largenesse of the thigh in this part. f 1 a roughnesse from which the eight muscle yssueth. g, h 5, a knub of the Whirle-bone going into the sinus marked with I which is betwixt the heads of the thigh. i 5, a sinus fitted for the inner head of the thigh k 5, a sinus agreeing with the externall head of the thigh. l 5. The lower asperity or roughnesse. m 4, The foreside of the pattell or whirle-bone rough or vnequall.   and so the oblique motion made by the muscle of the Ham called Popliteus bee interrupted; for this muscle yssueth from the externall heade where it is exasperated with small cauities, and these heads as is saide doe enter into the sinus of the Legge-bone. From these processes as it were, the three first muscles that mooue the foot take their Original, as also the tendon of the fift muscle of the thigh is infixed into the side of the inner head,[ M] where the compression is marked.[ figu. 2 R] Their sides are full of blinde holes, out which do yssue the Ligaments which hold together the ioynt of the knee.  
They haue also foure sinus or cauities, two in the middle of the head, and one in the sides on either hand. The first of these which is the forward[ tab. 23. fig. 1 H] is crusted ouer with a gristle and receyueth the protuberation of the Pan:[ figu. 5. gh] the second and the backward[ fig. 2 I] is deepe, rough and vnequall, and receyueth the protuberation of the leg-bone:[ ta. 24, fig. 7; I] the third is at the outside of the head,[ fig. 12, N] through which the tendon of the fourth muscle of the legge reflected in this place is safely transported: the fourth Sinus is at the inner head[ fig. 2, O] wherein the tendons of the first, seconde, third and fift muscles of the legge are safely conuayed.  
On the foreside at the roote of the necke the thighbone is large and rough,[ fig. 1, f] so framed for the originall of the eight muscle of the legge: on the backside it buncheth out with a rough and vnequall line[ fig. 2, dd] into which the fift muscle of the thigh is infixed.  
Finally, on the outside throughout the length of the bone there is a large sinus or cauity made not so much for lightnes as to containe great store of marrow for nourishment and therfore the vpper part of the bone, but especially the lower, is thrilled through with many small perforations whereinto the veynes are admitted which bring blood vnto that place. The vse of the thigh is for progression; now some creatures do moue right vp, some bending downeward, and this variety is made by the different insertion of that round and 
The vse of the thigh.  strong ligament which yssueth out of the Thigh and is inserted into the cup, for if the insertion be made, saith Archangelus, toward the vpper part of the cuppe, then the creature walketh streight vp as a man doth, if it be inserted toward the laterall parte then his gate is prone or inclined to the earth, as an Oxe or an Horse. And thus much of the bone of the Thigh.   

CHAP. XXXIIII. Of the two bones of the Legge.  
_WEe call all that the Legge which is betwixt the knee and the instep, 
The names of the bones of the legge.  and it hath two bones as the Cubit had,[ Tab. 24, figu. 1, and 2,] and surely if it had consisted of one thicke and great bone it would not haue beene so fit for motion, which would haue beene hindered by the grauity or weight thereof, as Galen excellently sheweth in the 13 chap. of his third booke de vsu partium. Of these bones the inner is called 〈◇〉, Tibia, carying the name of the whole, and so we call it the Leg-bone,[ fig. 3, 4, the vtter is called 〈◇〉 Fibula,[ fig. 1, and 6,] wee call it the Brace bone or if you will the Shinne bone.  
The Legbone is called Tibia, haply because it is like a Fluite, it is called also Canna maior, for so also a Fluite in latine is called. If you will for difference sake we may call Tibia the Shanke, and Fibula the Shin bone, or if you had rather retaine the vertue of the latine names call Tibia the Leg-bone and Fibula the Brace bone. The leg-bone is the inner and the thicker, somwhat shorter then the Thigh to which it is ioyned, otherwise it is the longest of all the bones.  
The figure of it is long and three square, thicke aboue and below and eeked with an 
His figure.  Appendix.[ Tab. 24, fig. 1, and 3, AB●D] It is also made vnequall with long cauities and lines and is articulated aboue with the Thigh, below with the talus or Coccal, or bone of the instep by Ginglymos.  
The vpper part which they call the vpper head is broader then the lower, for the legge 
His vpper part  was made to beare the thigh, and this bredth is formed by an Appendix which is set like a cup vppon the head of the bone.[ tab. 24, fig. 1, 3, AB] This Appendix is thicke and before inclineth somthing more downward then it doth behind,[ fi. 1, 3, B] it hath two long Sinus,[ figu. 2, and 7, FG] which are but shallow and crusted ouer with a slippery Gristle 
his gristle.  whereinto it receiueth the two heads of the Thigh,[ ta. 23, fig. 2, E, F,] and so a Gynglymos is made. But because the proper cauity of these Sinus was not deep enough to receiue the length of the heads of the thigh an amends is made and the Sinus encreased in al cretures by a peculiar gristle[ fig. 8,] like a halfe moone, which is therefore called Cartilago Lunata, the Creseent Gristle; and this gristle is softened by ligaments. This gristle is mooueable and thicke in the circumference or Verge,[ fig, 8, N] & yet toward the Center it is alwayes attenuated[ fig. 8, OO] toward the Center I say, for it doth not reach so farre as to the Center but endeth on eyther hand into sharpe tops,[ fi. 8, PP] yet so that before these tops doe meete; for the right is ioyned to the left, but behind they are more distant to giue way to a thick ligament that passeth betwixt them. The gristle also is slippery, smooth, and soft, ful of an vnctious or oily humor to furher the motion of the ioynt, and it supplyeth the office of a ligament.  
These two Sinus are separated by a rough and vnequall protuberation[ fig. 7, HIK] growing out of the middle superficies of the leg and shank-bone, which protuberation is receiued by the sinus of the thigh[ tab. 23. fig. 2 l] which is betwixt his two heads. Out of the rough and sinuated to●[ tab. 24. fig. 2, 3, 4: 7 l] of this protuberation on the backeside yssueth[ tab. 24. fig. 2 4 7 K] a strong Ligament which is infixed into the middle of the sinus of the thigh,[ tab. 23. fig. 2 l] that the ioynt being thus on euery side defended, might the better be contained in his owne place. From the arterior part of the protuberation[ tab. 24. fig. 7 ●] which is rough and sinewated, are produced certaine Ligaments which on the foreside of the protuberation doe ioyne the gristles together which encrease the cauities of the shanke,[ fig. 8, IM] although also they grow together by the interposition of that orbicular or round Ligament which compasseth the knee.  
Out of the Appendix at the vtter side of the legge ariseth a little head[ ta. 24. fig. 4 R] which is crusted ouer with a gristle and entreth into the vpper sinus[ fig. 5. Q] of the Appendix 
His Head.  of the Brace or shin-bone, so the anterior part which is next to the appendix[ ta. 24. fig. 1. 3, 7. ab] is rough and full of holes, whereinto the tendons of the Muscles that mooue the legge are very strongly inserted.  
From hence the Leg-bone is by degrees attenuated, diuersly also distinguished vvith lines and cauities, and imitateth the forme of a triangular; for it hath one corner like a long and sharpe edge 〈…〉 situate in the forepart; the seconde corner is in the Vtter part, the third in the inside; and betwixt these Angles the bone lies plain but lightly excauated, as well to make it more light, as also for the insertion and original of the Muscles. On the backside it is round.  
The anteriour part and the middle is produced or lengthened vnto an acute and long angle,[ tab. 24. fig. 1, 3 γγ] which angle is as sharpe as the edge of a knife, and therefore it is called spinatibiae, the spine of the Legge by the best Anatomists. 
His Lines.   
The second line[ tab. 24. fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 ♌ ♌] which maketh the vtter angle of the backside is also sharpe, and is seated vnder the Brace: this line receiueth the Ligament which fastneth the shin and the shank-bones together.  
The third line[ fig. 1, 2, 3, 4 ●●] which maketh the internall angle of the backeside is blunt and almost round. Wherefore these lines do make the three sides of the leg. The first side[ fig. 1, 3 ζ] is sinuated but plain, and together with the side of the Brace[ fig. 1, 5 χ] it affoordeth a place vnto the anterior muscles which descend vnto the foote. The second side[ fig. 1, 5. ●] is inner and gibbous which by some is called 〈◇〉, by some 〈◇〉, in a contrary Sense, because it hath no flesh at all, although the other sides especially behind be very fleshy: The third side[ fig. 2. 4 θ] the posterior muscles of the Thigh do occupie, and in it, aboue we meete with another rough line running obliquely downward[ fig. 2 N][ fig. 4, ●] made for the insertion of the muscle of the Ham.  
On the outside aboue the lower heade there is also a long sinus which runneth backeward, 
His Sinus. [ t. 24. fig. 4, 10, ●] which receyueth the interior part of the head of the brace-bone which is a little rough,[ fig. 5, 6, 11, τ] and so the Brace and the Leg, or the shin and the shank are ioyned together; but where these bones are conioyned there commeth a strong Ligament betwixt them, which fasteneth them together both in the circumference, and where they touch one another. So also behind it is depressed[ fig. 2, 4 m] and sheweth as it were three sinus which conuey the three Tendons of the fift muscle of the foote, and the two benders of the toes, for these muscles run out vnto the foote.  
The lower part of the Legge or the lower heade is thicke, which for all the appendix that is added and the plentifull gristle wherewith it is crusted ouer and made broader 
The lower part of the leg  is notwithstanding lesser then the vpper, whose Appendix together with the appendix of the Brace, do make in the surface a large sinus[ fig. 9, defgh] which receiueth the Talus[ tab. 25, fig. 3, 4, 5, 6] or the Coccall bone: but in the appendix of the leg bone there is as it were a double sinus[ figure. 9, 10 ef] distinguished by a swelling knot which buncheth lightly in the middest betwixt them.[ fig. 7, 10 d]  
It hath also a thicke processe yssuing from the inside,[ tab. 24. fi. 1, Φ, 2, 3, 9, 10 i] which processe in that part that regardeth the sinus,[ fig. 9, g] is hollow, smooth and crusted ouer with a gristle whereby the cauity is enlarged, and by that means it receyueth the Talus more commodiously, for that being inserted into the Sinus it cannot be mooued out of his place. The other side of the processe which regardeth the other Legge is gibbous and without flesh.[ fig: 2, 3, 9, 10 i] But in the opposite part the legge could not haue had another processe, because it was necessary that in it there should bee a long sinus, into which a part of the Brace-bone was to enter.  

Table 24. sheweth the bones of the Legge and the Brace, together with the gristles about the knee.  
Fig. 1 & 2. shewe the right Legge whole, both the fore-part and the back-part.  
Fig. 3 & 4. shew the foreside and the backeside of the Legge or Shank-bone.  
Fig. 5 & 6. shew the foreside and the backside of the Brace or Shin-bone.  
Fig. 7. sheweth the vpper part of the Shanke-bone to which the thigh is articulated.  
Fig. 8. two gristles increasing the cauity of the ioynt of the Leg-bone at the knee.  
Fig. 9: the lower part of the whole Leg where on the foreside it receiueth the Talus or the Instep.  
Fig. 10. the backpart of the lower end of the Leg-bone.  
Figure 11. sheweth the inside of the lower end of the Brace or Shin-bone where it is articulated with the Talus or Instep.  
TABVLA XXIIII.  
FIG. I.  
II.  
III.  
IV.  
V.  
VI.  
VII.  
VIII.  
IX.  
X.  
XI.  

A B 1, The vpper Appendix of the Legge of shanke-bone.  
A B 2, 3, The line where the Appendix ioyneth with the bone.  
C 1, The vpper appendix of the Brace-bone.  
C 5, the coniunction of this appendix with the bone.  
D D 1, the lower appendix of the Leg-bone.  
D 3, the coniūction of this appendix with the bone.  
E 1 the lower appendix of the Brace or shin-bone  
F G 2, 4 7, the bosomes of the bones of the Leg receiuing the heads of the thigh bone.  
H I K 7, A protuberation which is betwixt these cauities K L in the second, third and fourth figures doe shew the same.  
L M 8, a gristle encreasing the outward cauity of the Leg-bone L, another increasing the inner cauity M.  
N 8, the foresaide gristles do in this place appeare thickest.  
O 8, and here they appeare thinnest.  
P 8, here they do determine into sharp points  
Q 5, A shallowe sinus of the Brace bone t● which the head of the leg-bōe is articulated.  
R 4, the head of the Legbone which is ioyned to the Brace.  
S 4, 10, A sinus of the Legbone receiuing the lower end of the Brace bone.  
T 5, 6, 11, the inside of the Brace where it is ioyned to the bone of the Leg.  
V 2, the context or coniunction of the Brace with the Legbone aboue.  
X 2, the same coniunction below.  
Y 2, the distance betwixt the shanke and shin bones.  
Z 1, 2, The oblique turning of the Brace inward which on the outside is somwhat indented.  
a b 1, 3, the forepart of the Legbone wherinto the muscles which extend the Leg are in serted.  
c 5, 6, the vpper processe of the Appendix of the Bracebone, whereinto is inserted the tendon of the fourth muscle of the Legge.  
d e f g h 9, At this place the vpper part of the talus or instep is articulated: in the ninth & tenth figures d e f shew the vpper region, but d noteth the protuberation.  
h 9, 11, the outside where it is sitted instep.  
Φ the inner ankle or a processe of the inner with the appendix of the Legbone.  
i 2, 3, 9, 10, the inner ankle.  
k 4, 10, ● sinus of the inner ankle from whence a gristly ligament is inserted into the instep  
l 1 3, 9. an vnequall sinus in the lower appendix of the Legge bone, whence groweth a gristly ligament which is sent vnto the necke of the instep.  
m 2, 4, 10, certaine sinus through which three tendons are led to the foot. n 2, 5 6 9, the outer ankle or the processe of the shin bone in the first figure noted with E. o p 1, 5, that part of the shin bone which is hare. qq 2, 6, in this sinuated place of the shin bone the tendons of the seauenth and eight muscles of the foot are reflected r 2, 6, 11, a sinus of the appendix of the shin bone from whence goeth a ligament into the instep. ss 1, 5, the first line of the shin bone. t t 2 5, 6, the second line of the shinbone. u u 1, 2 5, 6, the 3. line of the shin bone. x x 1, 5, the first side of the shin bone bunching a little out. α α 1, 5, the 2 side of the shin bone. ββ 2, 6, the 3 side of the shin bone. εε 1, 3, the first line of the leg bone. 〈◇〉 1, 2 3, 4, the 3 line of the leg bone. γγ 1, 2, 3, 4, the 3 line of the leg bone. ζ 1, 3, the first side of the leg bone. ζ 1, 3 the 2. side of the leg bone. θ, 2, 4, the 3, side of the leg bone. N 2, ●, 4, a rough line of the third side of the leg bone made for the muscle called Popliteus.    
This processe is by degrees dilated and determineth into two browes; wherefore also the shinne-bone or the fibula departeth into a processe, that so the bone of the Talus might be contayned or kept in by both the processes, that it should not slippe out on this side nor on that side. And if at any time the luxation of the Talus doe happen, it is rather to the inner processe then to the vtter, because the proces of the Brace-bone is lengthned out somewhat longer then the other.  
These processes are called 〈◇〉 malleoli the Ankles, the processe of the Leg-bone is 
The Ankles  called the inner ankle, and the processe of the Brace-bone is called the vtter ankle.  
The inner Ankle[ figure 1, p fig, 2, 3, 9, 10, i] in the lower end of the backepart hath a rough sinus[ fig, 4, 10, k] whereout yssueth a gristly ligament whereby the bone of the leg is fastned to the Talus, so likewise in the lower and foreside[ figu, 1, 3, 9, l] of the appendix 
The inner ankle.  there is a sinus rough, transuerse and long, from whence groweth a ligament which fastneth the necke of the Talus[ ta. 25, fig. 3, N] to the leg bone.  
Finally, this bone as also the Brace is notably hollowed within, and that cauity conteyneth they marrow, neither is it without other perforations. The vse of the Leg-bone 
His vse.  sayth Archangelus is to make the progression more expedite and nimble. And thus much of the Leg or Shank-bone.  

Of the Brace or Shin-bone.  
The other bone of the Legge is called 〈◇〉 Fibula, because as in buildings those Irons whereby the beames and pannes are ioyned together are called fibulae or braces, so this lesser 
The brace bone. His names.  bone may also be well called the Brace, because it ioyneth together the muscles of the Legge: it is also called canna minor, and in English if you will the Shin-bone. It is seated on the outside of the Leg as the wand is on the outside of the Cubit; aboue it entreth into a plaine and crusted sinus of the Leg-bone[ fig. 5, Q] vnder the head thereof;[ tab, 24, fig, 1, C vnder A] below it entreth into a long sinus of the Legge.[ fig, 1, from ● to D] At both the ends it is articulated by Arthrodia or adarticulation, whose motion is obscure. In the middest the two bones doe stand off one from another[ figure 2, Y betwixt V and X] that so the muscles of the foote might finde place between them especially in the vpperpart, because there the Leg is bent into a sinus. In this distance there is a membranous ligament which fastneth the skinne and the shanke-bone together. The length of the Brace-bone is equall to the length of the other, for although aboue, it do not ascend into the knee, yet belowe it descendeth lower then the shanke-bone, but in breadth and thicknesse it commeth farre short. Moreouer a little vnder the middest it is somewhat curued toward the Legbone, and the outside is after a sort concauous,[ fig, 1, 2, Z] yea to say true, the figure of it is not much vnlike the figure of the Leg-bone itself.  
It hath two heades, one aboue and another below whereto there groweth an Appendix which endeth into an acute processe somewhat exasperated. The vpper of these is 
His heads  below the head of the shanke-bone,[ figu, 1, C vnder A] which is defended with an Appendix 
the vpper.  and crusted ouer with a gristle: it is round, and on the outside swelleth very notably,[ figu, 5, b c] the better to receiue the rendon of the fourth muscle of the Legge, as also to giue an originall vnto the head of the seauenth muscle of the foote. The Appendix of this head hath on the inside a large and ample sinus[ figure 5. Q] crusted ouer with a gristle whereto the head of the Appendix of the Leg-bone is articulated[ fig, 4, R.]  
The lower head tendeth into a sharpnesse[ figu, 1, ●] and descendeth so much lower then the Leg-bone, as the head of the leg-bone ascended aboue the Brace in the top; it is 
the lower.  also furnished with one appendix[ fig. 1 ● 2, 5, 6, 9, n] which growing thick departeth with a processe called the outward ankle, which desendeth somewhat lower then the vtter ankle and maketh the externall side[ fig. 9. 11. h] of the common sinus[ fig. 7. d e f g h] which receiueth the Talus or bone of the instep, and is crusted ouer with a gristle. This ankle is lower then the inner, and on the outside gibbous, some part of it also may bee felt without flesh, and from it some muscles of the foote properly so called take their originall, on the inside it hath a rough sinus[ fig. 2, 6, 11, r] out of which ariseth the gristly Ligament which fastneth the Brace or shin-bone to the instep. Aboue the Ankle there is a sinus[ fig. 2, 6, q] couered with a transuerse Ligament, where vnder the tendons of the sixt and seauenth muscles of the foote are safely conuayed.  
Betwixt these two heads the body of the Brace or shin-bone is vnequall, because of 
the liues,  cauities and lines therein made for the insertion of muscles: so that about the middle it seemeth to be triangular; for before there appeareth an acute and swelling line;[ fi, 1. 2. ss] behind it is depressed and hath on either hand a strutting line,[ fig. 1, 2. 5. 6. tt vv] and these lines make the three sides of the Brace-bone.[ fig, 1, 5, 〈◇〉 α 2, 6. β] In like manner at the lower end aboue the appendix[ fig. 5. 6. 11 τ] there buncheth out an asperity, at which place by the interposition of a ligament it is fastned to the shanke or leg-bone.  
The vse of the Brace-bone is threefold: the first to ioyne the Leg and the Instep, whereby the foote is bent and extended: secondly to defend the vessels and muscles of the Leg 
The vse of it.  from outward iniuries, for the Brace-bone couereth for the most part the course of them all. Thirdly, to sustaine, strengthen and secure the Legge by fastening it to the outward head of the Thigh-bone. Moreouer, as the wand helpeth to mooue the Hand, so the Brace-bone helpeth to moue the Foot in compasse, saith Archangelus.    

CHAP. XXXV. Of the whirle-bone of the Knee.  
_BEfore we part from the Leg, you must remember that there is a bone placed 
The names of the whirle bone.  before the ioynt of the Knee[ tab. 23. figu. 4. and 5.] which the Grecians call 〈◇〉, because it lieth vpon the knee; others call it 〈◇〉 the Milstone, because it is very like it. Celsus calleth it patella or the Sawcer. It is also very commonly called Rotula, we will call it the Whirle-bone.  
It is a bone common to the Thigh & the Leg although it be separated from them both, for it is placed before their articulation. In each knee there is one, somewhat round and broad and ending into a sharpnesse where it resteth vpon the Leg. The magnitude of it is moderate, the latitude scarce two fingers broade, the longitude is somewhat thereabouts, the thicknesse is vnequall, for in the extremities it is thinne and growes thicker by degrees, so that in the middest it buncheth out like a compassed buckler, or if you will, like an embowed Looking glasse such as they vsed in ancient times. The vpper part therof 
How it is fastned.  groweth to the thicke Tendons of the seauenth, eight and ninth muscles of the Thigh, which by the knee doe runne vnto the Leg: by these Tendons it is established, for they serue it in steade of a Ligament to fasten it both to the Thigh and to the Leg: moreouer on the outside it is couered by them; on the inside it is crusted ouer with a smooth and slippery gristle, at lest the greatest part of it; especially where it reguardeth the Thigh, and this gristle maketh the motion more glib, for it will easily moue vnder a mans finger. Columbus cannot taste this conceit, but sayeth that it is fastned both to the Thigh and to the Leg by Ligaments of his owne, which sayeth hee doe grow from the Appendices of the Thigh and the Legge, so also sayth Archangelus, yet he doth not deny but it is established by the Tendons of the muscles before spoken of. But Bauhine leaneth more to the first opinion of Vesalius, that it hath no other Ligaments but the Tendons. If these Tendons to which it groweth be cunningly taken away it will appeare both before and in the sides[ ta. 24. fig. 4.] rough and full of blind holes, but behinde it hath a moderate protuberation[ fig. 5. g h] and shallow bosoms on either side[ fig. 5. i k] crusted ouer with a gristle of which the vtter is the larger and the broader.  
This protuberation wee spake of, is receiued by the sinus which is betwixt the heads of the Thigh,[ f. 1. R betwixt ● ●] like as the bosome of this whirlebone receiueth the heads of the Thigh; wherefore the Thigh receiueth the whirle & the whirle the Thigh, and so are ioyned by Ginglymos, but the whirle and the Leg-bone are ioyned by adarticulation; 
His articulation,  wherefore it is moouable least it should make the motion of that ioynt difficile or hard. Moreouer the inner and lower part[ fig. 5. L] where it groweth into a processe and regardeth the vpper part of the Legge-bone, is rough and perforated that it might growe the faster to the Tendons of the foresaid muscles.  
The substance of the whirle is at the first gristly and so remayneth for certain months. Afterward it groweth as hard as a hard Appendix, and at length bony, hard & solid, such as it appeareth in growne bodies, so sayth Falopius in his obseruations, and with him Bauhine consenteth; Columbus thinketh it groweth not beyonde the height of an hard Appendix.  
The vse of it is to couer and to firme the laxe and dissolute composition of the ioynt of the Thigh and the Leg, least in progression and walking the Thigh should luxe outward, as also that when we goe downe a hill it might support the ioynt. Moreouer, by the help of the whirle when the knee is gathered directly backward it is bent into a right angle.  
Finally, it defendeth the Tendons of the foresaid muscles, least in the bending of the knee when the Thigh bone presseth forward it should beare to hard vppon them; and in a worde as the Seede-bones of which wee spake before, the hardnesse of it receiueth the violence of the Thigh-bone, and breaketh it that it shoulde not compresse those Tendons.   

CHAP. XXXVI. Of the Bones of the foote properly so called, and particularly of the Wrest of the Foote.  
_WE are now come vnto the third and last part of the Foote, which is properly called the Foote, and Pes extremus or Pes paruus. It hath 38. bones and three parts. The first part is called Tarsus, which we call the wrest of the Foot, and hath seauen bones.  
The second is called metatarsus or pedium, the Afterwrest of the Foote & hath fiue bones.  
The third part is of the Toes, which haue foureteene bones, to which wee may adde twelue Seed-bones. Of these in order.  
Of the seauen bones of the Tarsus or wrest of the Foot: foure haue names, the other three are not so much beholding yet vnto Anatomists.  
The first[ ta. 25, fig, 1. and 2. Ρ and the whole third, fourth fift, and sixt figures] which 
The first bone of the Tarsus.  the Greciancs cal 〈◇〉 and 〈◇〉, the Latins Os balistae and Talus. The Dye or pastern bone lyeth vnder the Appendices of the shinne and shanke-bones as a firme and stable foundation, and yet it seemeth to lye onely vnder the shanke, and this bone is not onelye found in men but in all other creatures whose feete are deuided into Toes. In the vpper part thereof there is a smooth and round knub[ fig. 3. 4. 6. ABCD] crusted ouer with a gristle, which representeth the forme of the nut of a Crosse bow or the fourth part of a wheele. The surface also of the knot is as it were foure square, limitted about the edges with foure sides, and therefore by some is called quatrio: the first and second of these[ fig. 3. 5. 6. from A to B and from C to D] goe through his length: the third is on the foreside[ from A to C] the fourth on the backside.[ from C to D] In the middle it hath a shallow cauity[ fig. 3. EE] with rising sides[ figu. 3. FF] like the sides of the furrow of a pulley wherein the rope runneth, by which sinus it is coupled by Ginglymos with the appendix of the shankbone.[ tab. 24. fig, 9. 10. def] The sides of it are plaine and sloping, crusted ouer with a thinne gristle to receiue the Ankles: the inside[ fig. 5. G] is crusted but a little way, and receiueth the inner Ankle of the Legge: the outside is broader[ fig. 6. H] and more hollowed, descending lower the better to admit the outward ankle of the Brace-bone which also descendeth lower.[ tab. 24. fig. 9. 11. b] And thus the Talus is ioyned with the Leg and the Brace, which articulation serueth for the right motion of the foote, which that it might more easily perfourme and without attrition of the bones, it is on both hands crusted ouer with a gristle.  
Furthermore, on the inside it hath a rough sinus[ figu. 5. l] where into a gristly Ligament is receiued which groweth from the inner ankle, and whereby the Talus is fastned to the shanke. Againe, on the outside fig. 6. ●] there is another sinus which receiueth a Ligament produced from the outward ankle. Moreouer, on the backside at the root of the protuberation where it is ioyned to the Leg and the heele[ fig. 5. after BD] there is a roughnes, partly to receiue the ligaments which grow from the Leg, partly to reach other ligaments vnto the heele. There is also in the backepart[ figure 5. 6. LM] a sinus prepared for the transition of the tendons of muscles which attaine to the sole of the foote.  
Yet further, this first bone is not onely ioyned with the shin and the shanke, but also with the Boate-bone, and therefore the forepart of the Talus is lengthned into a long neck,[ figu. 3, 4, 5, 6, N] and the necke endeth into a round head[ O] couered ouer with a slippery gristle which is receiued by the large and round sinus or bosom[ fig. 11. R] of the bote-bone, and by the meanes hereof the foote is moderately and with an obscure motion mooued inward and outward, and something also in compasse.  
At the Heele also this Die or pasterne-bone is fastned with a double ioynt, and therfore the lower part thereof hath on the backside a large and deepe sinus[ fig. 4. Q] couered ouer with a gristle, into which the large and broad head[ figu. 7. 8. 9. P] of the heelebone is inserted: before it hath a long and smooth protuberation[ fig. 4. S] which is receiued by a long bosome[ figu. 7. 8. 9. R] on the backside of the heele. Betwixt these two spaces or in the middest of these ioynts there is a deepe and rough cauity[ figu. 4, TT] whereto the sinus of the heele[ fig, 7, 8, 9, R] is opposite and answerable: the vse of which cauity is to contain a mucous substance and fat withall, whereby these bones are moystned that they should not grow dry by perpetuall motion. Moreouer in the same cauity doe grow these gristly ligaments which in this place doe very strongly binde the Die bone to the heele, and therefore when the bones are cleansed and afterward fastened together, there remayneth in this place a great distance. Sometime also on the backeside it is extended aboue the heele where it bends inward as it were into a double small processe. It hath no appendix for it hath need of equall strength on euery side: neither receiueth it the insertion of muscles, neither doth it offer originall vnto them.  
The substance of this bone in the original, as also of all the other bones of the wrest of the foote, excepting the heele is a gristle, but in growne bodies it is on the inside fungous, yet where the processes break forth, solid and dense, sauing that it is perforated manifold.  
The second bone of the Wrest[ fig. 1. and 2, Δ and the whole seauen, eight and nine 
The second bone of the wrest. The heele.  figures] is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 Calx, calcaneum, pedis calcar, in English the Heele. This is the greatest and the thickest bone of the whole foot properly so called, and was so made for more strength and firmitude. For the extention and flexion of the foote are made by the articulation of the Talus or Dye-bone to the bones of the Leg and the brace. Againe, the motion of the foote to the sides, is wrought by the coniunction of the Talus to the boate-bone: the rest of the connexions of the bones which are many and small do little assist the former.  
As therefore the Talus or pasterne bone is the principall agent in the motions of the foote, so is the heele the principall firmer and establisher thereof. And vnlesse the heele 
His vse.  had beene greater then the Talus, not only the pasterne itselfe, but the shanke also would slip backward, for it lyeth directly vnder the shank and almost alone supporteth it, and by it the Thigh, and by the Thigh the whole body. It was therefore very necessary that it should be a notable large bone, or else Nature had beene very improuidēt to lay so great a weight vpon it. It behoued also that his articulation should be very firme, not wauering or vnstedfast, and therefore Nature ioyned his processes with many hard, gristly, broade and round ligaments, not onely to the pasterne bone but also to other bones neare adioyning to make his strength more assured. VVherefore it doth not onely lye vnder the talus and sustaine it, but is also articulated thereto and to the cube. To the Talus the vpper part of his large head[ fig. 6. 8. 9. P] entring into the sinus of the Talus,[ fig. 4. Q] and againe the heele admitteth into a narrow and almost plaine sinus of his own[ fig. 7. 8. 9. R] the protuberation of the Talus:[ fig. 9. S] to the Cube bone, it is ioyned on the foreside[ fig. 11. R] by his depressed head.[ fig 7. i]  
The lower part of the Heele[ fig. 2. XYZ] is somewhat broad that the foote might stand more safely; rough also and vnequall because of the muscles. It hath a rough[ fig. 2. yz fig. 8. y fig. 9. z] and transuerse processe running from behind downeward, from whose foreside ariseth the muscle which bendeth the second bones of the foure Toes, and the fleshy portion, from which are produced the muscles which leade the foure Toes to the great Toe: wherefore within the processe there is a cauity least when the foot is fastened vppon the ground, the heads of these muscles should be compressed.  
The head of the heele or the vpper part thereof in children hath an Appendix, and is like a round body, hauing a light impression raysed with a little ruggednes,[ fig. 7. 8. 9. ab] into which impression the Ligaments of the shanke bone and of the pasterne are inserted. On the backside this vpper part is depressed and rough on either hand,[ f. 2. 8. 9. c] in which depression and asperity the greatest and strongest tendon of the whole body, that is, of the first, second and fourth muscles of the foote is inserted. On the foreside it hath rough and deepe bosomes,[ figure 7. vv] which with the bosomes of the pasterne are filled with gristles.  
The sides of the heele are broad and depressed. The inside[ fig. 2. 8. dd] is smmoth and notably sinewated; in the middest are three inscriptions[ figure 2. 8. e] to make way for the tendons of the fift muscle of the foote, and the two benders of the last ioynts, which passe that way vnto the sole of the foote: that way also passe the veines, arteries and nerues, which are also defended by the processe of the heele which maketh the inside of the heele very deepe.  

Table 25. Sheweth the bones of the Foote properly so called.  
Fig. 1. & 2. shewe the bones of the right foote fastened together their vpper face and their neather face.  
Fig. 3. 4. 5 & 6. shewe the vpper, lower, inner & outer sides of the Talus or pasterne.  
Fig. 7. 8. 9. shewe the same sides of the Heele.  
Fig. 10. & 11. sheweth the forward and backward side of the boate-bone.  
Fig. 12. & 13. shew the fore and backepart of the wrest made of foure bones.  
TABVLA. XXV.  
FIG I  
II  
III  
IIII  
V  
VI.  
VII  
VIII  
IX  
X  
XI  
XII  
XIII  

A B C D 3, 5, 6, The protuberation of the Talus ioyned to the appendix of the legbone, and of this protuberation foure sides.  
E E. 3, A sinus in sculped in the protuberatiō of the Talus.  
F F 3, two bunching parts of the protuberation of the Talus.  
G 3, the innhr side of the protuberation of the Talus cursted ouer with a gristle, ioy ned to the inner ankle.  
H 6, The outward sinus of the protuberation of the Talus couered ouer with a grisile, and receiuing the inner ankle.  
I 5, A rough sinus of the Talus receiuing a gristly ligament from the inner ankle.  
K 6, a sinus of the Talus receiuing a gristly ligament from the outward ankle.  
L M 5, 6, two sinus in the hinder part of the Talus  
N 3, 4, 5, 6, the neck of the Talus or pastern bone.  
O 3, 4, 5, 6, the head of the Talus going vnder the sinus of the boate bone.  
P 7, 8, 9, The head of the bone of the heele crusted ouer with a gristle and going vnder the sinus of the Talus or the pasterne bone.  
Q 4, a large sinus of the Talus receiuing the head of the heele.  
R 7, 8, 9, a sinus of the heele whereto the lower part of the head of the Talus is ioyned.  
S 4, the lower part of the head of the Talus going into the sinus of the heele.  
T T 4, a sharp sinus of the heele receiuing a gristly ligament from the pasterne bone.  
X Y Z 2, the place of the heele.  
Y Z 2, Y 8, Z 9, a proces of the heele made for the production of muscles.  
a b 7, 8, 9, from a to b the distance of the vpper part of the heele.  
c 8, 9, the hinder part of the heele.  
d 2, 8, the inner side of the heele.  
e 8, the place where the tendons that run to the bottom of the foot are reflected.  
f 7, 8, the vtter side of the heele.  
g 1, 7, 9, here the tendons of the 7 and 8 muscles of the foote are stretched out.  
h 7, the fore part of the heele which is ioyned to the pasterne bone.  
i 7, that part of the heele which is ioyned to the Cube-bone.  
k 11, The sinus of the Boat-bone receiuing the head of the Talus. l m n 10, three surfaces of the Boate bone lightly prominent, which are articulated to the bones of the wrest. o p 11, the vpper part of the Boatbone regarding the top of the foot. q r 10, & q 11, his lower part. q 10, 11, A sinus through which the sixt muscle of the foote is led. s t u 13, the plaine surfaces of the three inner bones of the wrest whereby they are articulated to the Boat-bone. x 13, a shallow sinus of the Cube-bone whereby it is articulated to the heele. α β 12, the place of the Cube bone to which that bone of the Afterwrest is ioyned which supporteth the last Toe saue one. γ 12, 13, the place of the Cube bone where the third bone of the wrest is articulated. ♌ 12 13. that part of the Cube bone which respecteth the outside of the foote. Ε 12, 13, the surface of the Cubebone in the vpper part of the foote. ζ 2, 13, that part of the Cube bone which reguardeth the earth. n 2, A sinus of the Cube-bone at which the tendon of the seauenth muscle of the foot is reflected. B 13, a processe of the third bone of the wrest whereinto the fift muscle of the foot is inserted. ● 12, the place of the inner bone of the wrest to which that bone of the Afterwrest which sustayneth the great Toe is coupled. x 12, the place of the second bone of the wrest whereto the bone of the Afterwrest that supporteth the fore Toe is articulated. Λ 12, the place of the third bone of the wrest where to that bone of the Afterwrest which supporteth the middle▪ Toe is articulated.   μ, 1, 2, A small bone whereby that bone of the Afterwrest which sustaineth the little toe is ioyned vnto the Cube bone. vv 1, 2. the distances betwixt the Bones of the Afterwrest. ξξ, 1, 2, the heades of the bones of the Afterwrest which enter into the bosomes of the toes. π, 2, A processe of the bone of the afterwrest whereinto the tendon of the seauenth muscle of the foote is implanted. ρ 2, A processe of the Bone of the Afterwrest, which sustaineth the little toe, which processe receyueth the tendon of the eight muscle of the Foote. σ, τ, ν, 1, 2, the three Bones of the foretoe. ψ, ω, 2, two seede bones placed vnder that bone of the afterwrest which sustaineth the great toe. * 2 vnder χ A Seede bone set to the second ioynt of the great Toe. Γ. 1, 2, The Talus or pasterne. Δ, 1, 2, The Heele. Θ, 1, 2, the Boat bone. Λ, Ξ, 1, 2, The bones of the toes Φ, X, 1, 2. Two Bones of the great toe. I, II, III, IV, V, 1, The fiue Bones of the Afterwrest. 1, 2, 3, 4. In fig. 1, 2. 12, 13, The Foure Bones of the Tarsus or the Wrest. Char. 1. in fig. 12 & 13, the greater wedgbone of the fift Bone of the wrest. Char. 2. fig. 12, 13, the lesser wedge bone or the sixt bone of the wrest. Char. 3. fig. 12, 13, the middle wedgebone, or the seuenth bone of the wrest. Char. 4. fig. 12, 13, The Cube-bone.  
The outside[ fig. 2, 9 Z] is depressed, rough and vnequall, out of whose lower part yssueth the muscle which leadeth the little Toe from the rest, but in the foreside there is a little sinus[ fig. 1, 7, 9 S] crusted ouer with a Gristle, which we meet withall vnder a smal processe, and through this sinus the tendons of the seuenth and eight muscles of the sole do passe and are reflected vnto the backside if the vtter ankle. That part of the heele that is next the little Toe is on the foreside smooth by reason of a gristle wherewith it is crusted ouer, and the vpper part shooteth out a large head raised somewhat high, by which head the heele is articulated into a sinus of the Cube-bone almost plaine,[ fig. 1, 2 θ] belowe it hath an oblique Sinus bending inwarde, which receyueth a part of the Cubebone.  
The third bone of the wrest[ figu. 10. 11] is called by the Grecians 〈◇〉 Nauiforme, Os Nauiculare Cymba the Boat-bone, because it is long, deepe, behinde hollowe, before and in the vpper part gibbous,[ fig. 1, o p] in the lower part hollow.[ fig. 10, 11, q t] This 
The 3. bone of the Wrest.  Bote-bone is seated in the inside of the foote, and by the mediation thereof, the greatest part of the wrest is ioyned to the Talus. For on the backside it hath a Sinus[ figure. 11, k] deep and transuersely long,[ fi. 1 olmn] in which the head of the talus[ fig. 3, 4, 5, O] is inserted, and this articulation must be referred to an obscure Enarthrosis or Inarticulation, because the motion thereof is obscure. The other part hath a long head bunching out, and distinguished with a threefold superficies or surface[ fig. 10, l m n] to which the three last bones are articulated,[ fig. 1, 2, 12, 13. char. 1, 2, 3] but because they are very smooth, it is to be doubted whether they receiue or are receyued.  
The outside of this Boate-bone is large, round and sinuated[ fig. 10, q r and 11 q] especially where it is ioyned to the fift bone. Presently after, it is angustated by degrees, and endeth into an internall narrow processe[ Fig. 10, q] resembling the prow of a ship. The inside is prominent, so that it maketh a notable protuberation, which protuberation maketh the lower Sinus[ Figu. 10, 11 q] ouer which it hangeth much greater vvhere the tendon of the sixt muscle of the foote is reflected. Finally this Boat-bone is rough aboue and below, that from thence the Ligaments might yssue which tye this bone to the Talus, and the bones of the wrest of the foote.  
These three bones whereto there is nothing aunswerable in the hand, and are as it were the basis of the leg, the Ancients haue not numbred among the bones of the wrest of the foote. There follow other foure, which say they, do alone make the tarsus or wrest, and are like vnto the wrest of the hand; for being ioyned together by Ligamentes, they make as it were an Arch, whose vpper superficies is conuexe, & the lower concauous or hollow: for the Cube-bone is ioyned to the heele, and the three following to the Boatebone, and with them are together lifted vp from the earth, for such a construction as this is stronger both for the fastening of the foote and sustaining of the hodye, for an arched building is more strong and lasting. These bones also were necessarily prominent, that vnder such prominences a cauity should be left, wherein as wel the tendons of those muscles should be secured which run vnder the sole, as also the muscles themselues which arise from the lower part of the wrest, and are directed to the toes of the foote: for if the sole had bene plaine, the Muscles with their tendons would haue bene compressed, and so neither could a man haue trauelled without paine, and besides the muscles had beene kept from performing their office in flexion and extention.  
Moreouer, where these bones are ioyned one to the sides of another, they are not couered ouer with gristles, sauing onely where they beare vppon the Boate-bone. Otherwhere they are coupled with gristly Ligaments. They are also without appendices, and their substance is like the substance of the pasterne and Boat-bones. They differ also in quantity and figure,[ conferre Fig. 1 with 2. and 12 with 13] for the two first are far greater then those two in the middest, and are ioyned to the foure bones of the Pedium or After-wrest, but we will intreate of them particularly.  
The fourth bone of the wrest[ Fig. 12, 13. char. 4] is called in Greeke 〈◇〉 Os Cubiforme 
The 4. bone,  from the forme of a Dye, because it hath as it were six sides. It is also called 〈◇〉, Os Miltiforme, because it hath diuers formes, the Arabians call it Grandinsoum. This bone on the outside of the foote is placed before the heele. It is greater then the rest & the first side of it[ Fig. 13 x] is ioyned behinde to the heele[ Fig. 7, i] with an vnequall surface and resteth vpon the ground, and it is doubtfull whither it receyue or be receyued. Archangelus affirmeth both: the second side,[ figu. 12 α β] before is ioyned with a continuall superficies to the fourth and fift bones of the After-wrest, and supporteth them like a basis: the third side is inward[ fig. 12, 13 γ] and articulated to the seauenth bone of the wrest; the fourth side is outward[ fig. 12, 13, d] and obscurely plaine, neither doth it ioyn to any bone, no more then the two following sides do, for the fift side is aboue plain and rough[ fig. 12, 13 〈◇〉] and the sixt is below.[ fig. 2 ζ n fig. 3 ζ] Finally, the latter end or extremity of it hath a processe diuided by a middle sinus,[ fig. 2, n] which is long and oblique, whereat the tendon of the seuenth muscle of the foote is reuolued.  
The fift bone of the wrest[ Fig. 12, char. 1, fig. 13 s] as also the two following, are called in Greeke 〈◇〉 Cuneiformea, because they are like wedges. This fift, occupyeth the inside of the foote, and is seated ouer against the great toe. On the foreside it is sinuated 
The 5. bone. [ Fig. 13, γ] to receiue a portion of the processe of the Boatbone; behind, it receiueth the first bone of the pedium or Afterwrest, and it is vncertain whether it be sinewated or prominent, which vncertainty is common to the backeward bones, as they are coupled either one with another, or with the bones of the After-wrest, so that they seeme to be conioyned by Ginglymos, because they haue obscure Sinus or bosomes, notwithstanding this part seemeth to haue two small knots or protuberations, because the bone of the Afterwrest carrieth the shew of a double cauity: the vpper part is but small and a litle conuex, whereby it is ioyned to a shallow or superficiary Sinus of the sixte bone: the lower side is thicker, that it might rest faster vpon the ground.  
The sixt bone of the wrest[ fig. 12, 13. char. 2, 7] is called Cuneiforme minus, the lesser wedge, and if you regard the vpper part which looketh toward the foote it is broade, somewhat arched, and as it were foure-cornered. If you respect the lower part which 
The 6 bone.  looketh toward the foote it is very narrow and edged, and so resembleth a wedge, as also doth the seauenth which is next vnto it, for they both seeme to be like wedges interposed amongst the rest to ioyne them the faster together. This sixt bone behind is ioyned to the Boate-bone:[ Fig. 13 t] before it lightly buncheth out and is fastened to the second bone of the After-wrest;[ Fig. 12 χ] on the inside it is ioyned with the outside of the fifte bone of the wrest, and on the outside with the outside of the seuenth.  
The seuenth bone of the wrest[ Fig. 12 & 13. char: 31] is called Cuneiforme medium, the 
The 7 bone.  middle wedge, and is seated betwixt the fourth and the sixt. It is some-what like a Quadrangle but longer, for on the backside it hath a small sinus[ Figu. 13, u] which receyueth the protuberation of the Boat-bone: on the foreside it admitteth the thirde bone of the Afterwrest,[ Fig. 12 λ] and the sides of it touch the sides of the sixt and the fourth Bones. And thus it is placed amongst the bones like a wedge: below it swelleth out with a protuberation,[ Fig: 13, θ] whereinto the fift muscle of the foote is inserted.  
[ The twelfth Figure sheweth the anteriour face of the foure bones of the wrest, of the foote fastened together, the thirteenth Figure sheweth their backside]   

CHAP. XXXVII. Of the Bones of the After-wrest, and the Toes of the Feete.  
_THE second part of the Foot is called 〈◇〉 by the Grecians, by Celsus Planta, the tread of the Foote, by others pecten, and by others Matatorsum, because 
The afterwrist of the foote.  it is answerable to the Metacarpium in the hand, we will call it the Afterwrest of the Foote.[ Tab. 25. fig. 1, Char. I, II, III, IV, V] It is compounded of fiue bones which are articulated to the Bones of the Tarsus or wrest, and do sustaine the bones of the Toes. To the Tarsus or wrest they are ioyned by somewhat plaine and smooth superficies.[ Fig: 12, 2, χ, λ, α, β]  
The first which is placed before the great toe, is adarticulated to the inner bone of the wrest; that which is placed before the next to the great toe, is ioyned to the second bone of the wrest; that which is placed before the middle toe to the third,[ fig. 2 betwixt ρ π] the other two are adarticulated to the Cube-bone.[ Fig. 2 neere ρ and n] And as the bones of the VVrest of the foote are not placed on the foreside in a right line, so of the bones of the After-wrest one enclineth more backward then another. Notwithstanding, they stand in one order or ranke as do the bones of the Toes, which maketh much to stability and firmitude.  
They are long bones and round, and end on both sides into heads. For where they are articulated with the bones of the wrest they are thicke and sinewated and ioyned together by their sides, where they recede or depart by degrees one from another, they become slender and leaue a distance betweene them for the Muscles called Interossei, which wee called the Bone-bound Muscles. But their lower heads which are inserted into the deepe bosomes of the first ioynts of the Toes[ fig. 1, 2 ξ in φ] are orbicular, and on the backside encreased with an Appendix. The heads of these bones are more diuided towards the vpper part and lesse toward the lower, quite contrary to that it is in the handes, and the reason was because in detxention it behooued that the Toes of the feete should be more eleuated then the fingers of the hand, which kinde of articulation we call Enarthrosis or Inarticulation.  
The first of these that is set before the great toe, is the thickest of them all & the shortest, hauing a rounder head, that so the great toe might bee better mooued to the sides 
The first.  then any of the rest. In the lower part vnder the heade, where it is articulated vvith the Tarsus or wrest it buncheth out into a processe[ fig. 2 π] wherevnto is inserted the tendon of the seuenth muscle of the foote, and at the same place there are two Seedebones greater then the rest, and crusted ouer with a gristle.  
The second bone of the Afterwrest which sustaineth the foretoe is the longest, vnlesse it be the fift which sustaineth the little toe; for the length of this last is encreased by a notable 
The Bones of the Toes.  processe,[ figure. 2 ρ] whereby it was articulated to the wrest, because it was to bee lengthned into the outside of the foote to make a place of implantation for the tendon of the eight muscle of the foote. These bones of the Afterwrest aboue and belowe, haue Appendices crusted ouer with gristles: their substance also and their cauity which conteyneth their marrow is answerable to the substance and cauity of the bones of the Afterwrest of the Hand. Moreouer they are thrilled with small holes, by which little veines and arteries, as in other bones, do passe in to nourish and cherish them.  
After the bones of the Afterwrest doe follow the bones of the toes which make the third part of the foote and are in number fourteene[ fig. 1 ● Ε. fig. 2 Λ, Ε] for euerie one of them consisteth of three bones, as it is in the fingers of the hand excepting the great toe;[ fig. 1, 2, 〈◇〉] and indeed their substance, structure and situation is litle different from the hād, sauing that the first ioynts haue a deeper sinus because the deeper heads of the bones of the pedium or Afterwrest are inserted into them. And although the heads of the bones of the foot are large, yet is not their sinus so large as in the hands, that so in extention the toes might be more lifted vp, and yeeld something to the ground vpon which we stande. The great toe is formed of two bones[ fig. 1 Φ χ] that the foreside of the cauity of the Afterwrest might more firmely rest vpon the earth. All these Bones aboue and below haue Appendices, and are crusted ouer with strong gristles to make the ioynt more glib which is articulated by Ginglymos, alwayes excepting the last bones of the toes, which are not articulated to any other bone, but haue nayles cleaning vnto them. Note also, that the knuckles of the toes are shorter then those of the hands, gibbous aboue and hollowe belowe, the better to admit the Tendons of the muscles which bend the second and thirde ioynts. Againe, the first bones are greater then the second, and the second greater then the third, and the middle bone in foure toes seemeth to be square. In like manner, the bones of the great toe are thicker then the bones of the thumbe: the rest of the bones of the toes are lesser then the bones of the fingers. Finally, the bones of the toes are also full of marrow.   

CHAP. XXXVIII. Of the Seed-bones and the Nayles.  
THE Seed bones[ t. 25. f. 2 〈◇〉] are of the same number and position with the Seedebones in the hands, that is to say twelue, and they are so much lesse and lesse conspicuous in the toes then they are in the fingers, as the fingers are greater then the toes: notwithstanding as the great toe hath greater bones thē the thumb, so also are his seedbones larger. Wherefore at the first ioynt of the great toe nere the head of the bone of the Afterwrest which is articulated to that ioynt, there are two notable seede-bones which lye vnder the neruous part of the muscle which bendeth the first bone of the great toe: and of these the inner is bigger almost by halfe then the other, yea as big as half a great pease when the husk is off, and not much vnlike it. This bone the Arabians call Albadara, and they say( how foolishly let the Diuines speake) that of this bone as it were of seed a man receyueth the new body wherewith he riseth at the resurrection; that which lieth vnder the second ioynt of the great toe and is much lesse then the former, leaneth vppon the tendon of the muscle which bendeth the second bone of the great toe.  
Cōcerning the rest of the seedbones, they are disposed as is said in the history of the hand.  
To this place wee thought good to refer two small bones found in the Ham neere the 
2 Seed bones in the Hand.  thigh-bone, and growing to the heads of the two first muscles which mooue the Foote. These bones, saith Vesalius, are found in Harts, in Dogs, and Hares, and such like dry creatures, yea in old men also. Their surface is slippery and regardeth the vpper part of the lower heads of the thigh, to which bones this is peculiar, that they do not leane vppon the tendons of the muscles as other seed-bones do, but vpon their originals, like as doth the bony part which in old men is fastned to the Cube-bone, which bony part we meet withall in the tendon of the seauenth muscle of the foote there reflected.  
Furthermore, as we said before, that to the outside of the ioynt, whereat the bones of the Afterwrest which sustaineth the little finger is fastned to the wrest, there is a small bone annexed, so also in the foot at the outside of the articulation of that bone of the Afterwrest of the foote which supporteth the little toe[ ta. 25. f. 1, 2, μ] where the fifte bone of the Afterwrest is articulated to the Cube-bone, there is also found a small bone at the insertion of the tendon of the eight muscle of the foot.  
These seed-bones, although they seem to haue the same vse that they haue in the hands; 
Their vse.  yet moreouer in the foot they are the cause why whē we stand or walk, whether the place be rough or smooth, the foot applies itself more equally vnto the earth: as also to keepe the toes when we stand or walke, from being luxed by stones or any other eminent thing we shold light vpon. Finally, the extremities or ends of the toes as it is in the Fingers, are couered and defended with nayles fastned to the skin on the outside, of which we will add a few words. The Nayles are called by the Grecians 〈◇〉, their root 〈◇〉, the bottome or white moone 〈◇〉, and the filme that groweth to the root 〈◇〉. There are 
The Nailes.  diuers opinions concerning the matter of the Nailes: some thinke, it is a glutinous moysture parched and dryed by the heate, and driuen vnto the extreame parts, and therefore saith Hippocrates are the nailes exceeding fast and thight, beecause their matter is baked together. Secondly Empedocles conceiued, that the nails were made of nerues by congealation, and therefore Foesius in his notes vpon Hippocrates cals the nailes Neruorum clausulas summas, the terminations of the nerues giuen by Nature to make vp and establish the 
Diuers opinions of their generations.  extremities of the body, and therefore if they faile or fall away it is a signe of great weaknesse. Thirdly Aristotle in the sixt chap. of his 2 book de generatione animal. saith, that the nailes, the hayres, hornes, beakes of birdes, hooues and such like are engendred of aduentitious aliment. Fourthly Columbus remembers, that some thinke the nailes are amassed of a part of a bone of a nerue of skin, yea some say also of flesh, but he doth not easily subscribe to their conceite.  
Columbus saith, they take their originall partly from the skin, partly from the tendons of the muscles which extend the Fingers and the toes. Bauhine saith, that some conceyue them to arise from the crasse excrements of the third concoction, and therfore that they continually grow by an imperfect acretion, made by the apposition onely or addition of Aliment, whence, say they, it is that they grow onely in length, not in bredth or depth, and therefore are to be excluded out of the number of liuing parts; notwithstanding Galen in his booke de Admin. Anatom. witnesseth, that there is conueyed to the roots of the nailes, a vein, an artery and a nerue, by which they receiue aliment, life and sense, as other parts do. And truly, not onely two Nerues are conueyed vnto the roots of the nailes, but also do creepe vnder the nailes together with the veines vnto the very top of the Finger: yet we do not say that the nailes haue sense, because they are not distributed throughout the substaunce of the nailes no more then are the veines which vnburthen themselues of the Aliment at the roote of the naile. We conclude therefore that the nailes are encreased like the teeth by an apposition of aliment to their roote, which was the best way, because they were euery day worne and therefore had more neede to bee restored in theyr length then in their bredth and thicknesse.  
Their substance is of a middle Nature betwixt bones and gristles moderately hard, 
Their substance.  the better to beare the violence of outward iniures, flexible or buxome that they should not breake but giue way to violence, pellucide or transparant and therefore they are either red or liuid according to their flesh vnder them: thin they are and conuex, that they might lye more snogly vpon the fingers, and this also maketh much for their security; for if they stood off from the flesh they would easily be torn from their roots. Again, to make them more stedfast, they are fastned at their root with a Ligament, & because they must needs grow to the flesh and the skin, therefore the skinne on the outside compasseth the root round, but the flesh groweth to them more inward. Vnder the nailes as far as to the very extremities or ends of the fingers the tendons of muscles doe passe and are dilated vnder them, which thing, saith Columbus, I first obserued. And this is the reason why the part vnder them is of so exquisite sense, and the pain so great if any sharpe splinter or such like do get vnder the naile.  
The vse of the nailes is to defend the end of the fingers which are very softe, that they 
The Vse.  be not offended by outward occurrents: their hardnesse therfore giueth a firmitude vnto the softnesse of the flesh. Againe, the hands had nayles for better apprehension, for wee could not haue taken hold of many small things vnlesse there had bene fastned some hard body to strengthen & establish the fleshy extremities of the Fingers, which must bee also sharpe or edged to enclose a fine and slender bodye, that otherwise would haue slipped from betwixt them. The Toes had nayles to couer and defend their extremities, & beside in station to beare the Toes against the ground with more resistance. As for scratching or clawing, or any such other vse of the nailes, we thinke it to be of the by and not of the Maine.  
Thus at length haue we, through the diuine assistance, brought vnto end a long and painfull labour, worthy indeede to haue bene vndertaken by a man of more sufficiencie and of greater experience in this Art then I would haue myself esteemed to be; my Age 
The Conclusion.  and Meanes not affoording me time or opportunities to do that which I haue earnestlie euer affected. But for recompence of these Defects( gentle Reader) I haue pressed the footsteps of the best and most approoued Authors; wherein as my first and most simple intent was the bettering of my owne knowledge in so necessary a part of my profession, so being perswaded that thy profit might fall in with the same, I haue set before thee a Mirrour, wherein thou mayst see the true representation of thine owne Originall, Structure, Growth and Accomplishment; & learn thereby to giue the glory and profit of thy Creation, to him that acording to his mighty vvorking did first poure thee forth as a few drops of Milke and after curdled and sammed thee vppe into so exquisit a forme as thou art become the most wonderfull of all his workes of wonder. To him therefore so admired and propitious a Creator, ascribe with me all honor and praise, and consecrate the glorious Temple of thy body, and the Altar of thy Soule vnto that Diety, vvho created them first of nothing, redeemed them when they were worse then naught, and hath promised eternall mansions for them, to partake with Himselfe of euerlasting Felicitie.  
〈◇〉.     
FINIS.  

❧ The Printer to the Reader.  
_WHen I intended first this excellent labour( Courteous Reader) my absolute purpose aymed at the ingenious worke of M. Ambrose Parae,( Chirurgeon to the most Christian King of France, Henrie the third) a man of admirable perfection in his Art and profession; whereto I was the rather incited, because his first fiue Bookes beginneth with this present Argument of Anatomy, a matter much affected by mee. But finding his scope farre short of so deliberate a determination, & that more mature discourse flowed from those two famous Anatomists, Iaspar Baubinus and Andreas Laurentius, with diuers other Authors writing on the same argument, I made choise for this time to be gouerned by their worthy enstructions; although to my no meane care and cost it hath risen to so great a volume, which( in the first intention) was imagined to comprize the whole frame or building. Yet let me not be misinterpreted heerein, as one fearefull to aduenture on a worke of farre greater moment, the Authors being so renowned, and the expectation only to the publique benefit of my countrey. For thus much I assure thee, the Figures, Pieces, and Shapes belonging to the remaining Bookes of Paraes Chirurgery, are already prepared, & the worke itself fully translated for the presse, which by thy gentle acceptance of this my first aduenture in this kinde, will flye vnto thee with the swifter speed.  
Farewell.