THE Art of Logic; OR, THE ENTIRE BODY OF LOGIC In ENGLISH. UNFOLDING To the meanest Capacity the Way to dispute well, and to refute all Fallacies whatsoever. The Second Edition, corrected and amended. By Zachary Coke of Grays-Inn, Gent. Jam. 1. 17. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Multi multa canunt admiranda, haud sat credenda. Cato Lib. 3. Distich. 17. LONDON, Printed for John Streater, and are to be sold by the Booksellers of London. 1657. TO THE ILLUSTRIOUS, His Excellency Oliver Cromwell, GENERALISSIMO OF England, Scotland, and Ireland, Chancellor of Oxford, etc. AND TO The most Renowned his General Council of Officers. SIRS, THe Commodement of the Public in the Appendages of an holy Peace, as it is the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and just Carac of Heroic Enterprizing; so haerentes capiti multâ cum laude Coronae, the Crown and Apex of their Glories, whom God shall honour to contribute thereunto, though but a Grain or Atom. Whereof (my Lords) by the conduct of Providence, and Advantage of your incomparable Magnanimities, after long Exagitations and Repugnance of Affairs, we have gotten more than a (glad) glimpse, and by your unwearied Zeals may shortly obtain the full Prospect and Fruition. Doubtless Sir, there is a Standard of Reforming all things. Nor is any Model so grateful to good men, as whose footsteps appear in the Word of God; wherein there is no Peccadillo; To which you do well to take heed, as unto a most exact and perfect Rule. And because, to Tranquillity of Government, Corruption of Manners, and Mazing Errors are grandly opposite (these delude and distract, that doth deboish a people,) It will be your Prudence, Sirs, who sit at Helm, steering affairs of the first Magnitude, to debel and overrun the one, as it may be any one's part (who to common Weal oweth both himself and his Devoir) to abandon in his capacity the other, as Fatal thereunto; Which humble Attempt, my Lords, here Employeth both your Resentment and Patronage. The smattering (Sciolus) Soul of Lapsed man, in its most vigorous contendings unto Beatitude by its own Acies, cannot now (as in its estate of Native Innocence) with the Eagle behold the refulgence of Sunny Truths; Soaring in the highest Region of Contemplations, Penetrating the Arcana, and Essences of things; But through the flagginesse of her Pinion, flutters Ostrich like, in gross and earthy Ideas; Forming sensual and faint conceptions, and in its survey, often taking shows and shadows for substances, gets the the mind great of Distemperature, and the State of Insecurity. But this jargon, my Lords, or rather System of Logico-Theologie, as it will medicine the disease, so it will purge out the humour and serve (with Heaven's concurrence) as the Clew of Ariadne, to guide the intricate and perplexed thoughts of the unfixed people through the great Labyrinth of Time, and involvednesse of affairs to a point of consistency; and as a jacob's staff o● Astralabe, to help them in taking the dimensions and full heights of things, by an infallible Rule of certitude. And since knowledge is the excellency of man (seeing he abhors more to be accounted ignorant then vicious) surely the excellentest part of him (needs) must be that wherein this perfection inthrones, which being no other than intellect above Inferior Powers, challengeth the prerogative of Aids and Organs: Of which kind Logic (in our Native Tongue, as most rare, so) is the greated and most proper, which frameth and teacheth the use of Instruments accommodable to every operation of the understanding in its distinct and deliberate Quests of Truth. This quality in man is the true Philophers' stone it turneth all that his mind toucheth into Gold and Treasure of satisfaction. It is Janitrix Scientiarum; the Tutelary and Guardian of all, both Moral and Intellectual Habit: On the raisen wings of whose perfections, the prone and Reptile Soul soars a pitch, Circuiting all the stately Provinces and Dominions of knowledge. This is that which by (Grace) recovers us to our Primogenial condition, unclouds the masked mide, ploughs up, and useals the depths of Reason, Evolves the hidden Ideas of things, and unites the knottiness of every emergency. By it are confuse things made Distinct; Abstru●e, Obvious: And the Planetick thoughts to act Syncentrick, and in its Sphere. This also rangeth the Pell-mell Conceptions to Battlia and Order; It unforks Oracles, making them Toothless, turneth into Milk bony Paradoxes, and Cloudy Aenigmas to clear Sunshine. Ignorance, Sirs, benights the Soul, or rather Eclipseth it: By interposingit makes a man go all his way groping as he were blind: It is the Rack of ingenious and generous Spirits; who will oft rather drown than not dive beyond it; Nor did they ever find a better way to chase or conquer it, then by Logical Adjuments; The faithful Organ to scent the footsteps of Truth (amidst the various Abolets of Error) in the Indagation and Researches after knowledge. It is a Zealous (but frivolous) Mistake of (the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) some that would be thought Christians in these times; That Learning aversates, & Logic leadeth from the Grace and Truths of God: As if the Donations of Heaven were opposed, subordinated in man's tendency to Bliss and Glory; Can that be erroneous or bad, that teacheth what things be, or what be not, right and good? Such prove but the opinion of those men, who affirm the World groweth old, in their beginnings thus to dote and talk idly; Can there be contrariety in means that conspire one common end, man's perfection and happiness? God's gifts may serve, not shut out one another. Wherein Transcended us the first and second Adam and Solomon too, as to the Compliment of their Natures, but in Logic and Philosophic endowments? The connatural Imposition of Names, at first to things; That Herbal of Herbals, swallowed of Time; And the famous disputes with the Sanhedrin-doctors, and Saducean Families, abundantly argue the advantages of acquired Habits; Nor can the manner of their having them, diversie the Nature of them. By this time than it transpares, That, as Nature needs Grace, so Grace desireth Nature: and Art both Grace & Nature. Nature without Grace cannot do well; Grace without Nature cannot do at all: But Grace in Conjunction with nature and art, can do all things, as the great Apostle and Master of Learning affirmeth of himself; and as Symilus saith, Without Art Nature cannot be perfect, and without Nature Art can claim no being, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Now seeing this is the key of the Sciences, the study whereof is not more pleasing then profitable, and quisque cupit se bear: Why should it longer lie covert and concealed from the community? Is not Communication the excellency and measure of Good? Bonum est sui diffusivum; Doth not the Glorious and superessential Being of beings (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 delight himself in scattering beams, and filling every thing with the Expandings and Circumfusions of his goodness? And why should the lesser Beauties of Knowledge, and Arts be vailed with, and confined to Foreign Languages (to the most, Barbarous and unknown) since science is no man's property? I do not derogate Sirs from the Universities, which I know are the Seminaries and Founts of Learning and Liberal Acquisitions. Rich streams have, do, and may hereafter flow from thence, to Indent the Land with (Rivulets of) Refreshing Blessings: Yet believe I not, they should still (as formerly) have the Monopoly of Letters to enhance them as by Patent, above the price of the meanest capacity (if willing) to purchase them. There cannot be a greater Prop (next that of quenching the heavenly Tapers of the Word) to the black Monarchy of the Prince of Darkness, than the Engrossments and Enclosure of the Sciences (which this lays open.) What were the Hieroglyphics, and Imagery Resemblances of Egypt, and Ancient Greece, but to captive the People under blindness of mind, whilst some few obtained Titles of Magis, Daemons, and Sophoi; The Guerdon of their most injurious services. But this Book, my Lords, as it designeth the Disempa●ing of the Sciences, unlocking to the People the Mysteries of them: So Heaven (no doubt) may follow it with a Correspondence of blessing, and breaking up the Caverns and Cells of reigning ignorance, may enamour the People with the Attractive Beauty of them, and clearly inform them (omitting matters of faith) what is payable to the Magistrate, and practicable each to other. The want whereof agitates their lighter minds, scorched with flashing Zeal (unduly tempered and set on fire) to pinch the Magistrate of their duty, whilst they know it not perfectly, and Ravelling the bond of love in the unity of the Spirit; for minute differences, uncharitably invade one another, contending as for their Fires and Altars. And seeing Religion is the palisado, or rather the Palladium of Republikes, and knowledge the Cement of Religion; For that blesseth a people, this blasteth error and drowns their breaches of Harmony; It importeth you Sirs whom God hath honoured with the chief Conduct of affairs, to promove both (which struck together, make a Diapason) since not-rare experience hath proved, where they have rung out for one, they have begun to toll for the other. Indeed my Lords, you drive courageously, you have almost doubled the Cape of Bon Speranze; Reformation and a happy peace will not longer ride at dead Anchor. These Mountains now removed, who were so long in travel of a Mouse of Reformation; We have hopes to receive (by your hands, as by some good Angels) the first born of our blood, establishment of Religion and liberty, which lately was like to have miscarried in the birth. Sirs, God hath set you up the Oracles of War, made you to your Enemy's Rocks, dashing them as Waves of the Sea; Your Drums▪ like Zizca's, conquering with Alarms, the clashing of your Armour terrible as thunder, your Victories always as sure as the Rancontre; Every Field to bear you new Palms, immense structures to be crowded with Ensigns and Trophies of your admirable Successes: But these my Lords, are but Meteors adding Blaze, little of true Brightness: They have an Umbrage of Grandeur, not a spark or Dram of Glory; The Enamel of these Gaieties and Gauds, Sully and soon grow Dusky. It is your Zeals to the Interest of Heavens affairs. and the good of Community, that will be the Heralds to blazon your Escutcheons without stain, and Aggrandise your names to all Posterity. And when the Ardour of Christian Charity in its sweetest Vigour, and the light of knowledge (by Providence. and your powerful influences) shall flame, & as a flood break in upon us, and our youthful liberty open into a flower, then shall we grow rich with the increases of God, and the World venerate each of you, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; As a little Deity guesting in a body of flesh. Or what is it to have the airy titles of a great Alexander, a victorious Caesar, a politic Hannibal, a valiant Serpio? What Fate attended these Philomathies? Some of them lived the Idols of the age, and mounting upon the pinnacles of State (elevated on the wings of their ambitions) were most ingloriously dashed & precipiced; whilst others like descending spokes of Fortune's wheel, beheld the solemnities of their Honour's funerals: Nor could the Monuments of these Whirligigs serve Muniments to their expiring glories. Greatness without goodness is a slippery height: The possessor in endeavouring to stand. accerseth his fall: But who builds on the Rock of ages, shall grow still and Bourgeon, his leaves shall refresh and shade the afflicted of the People; his days shall be many and good, his walks shall be on an Helix, still dilating. And since God hath made you thus Great, may he also make you grateful; he hath given you the Conquest of affairs, to give him the Conquest of yourselves and wills. Be the shadow and Echo, or rather Heliotropes shutting and opening to his good pleasure: Then having perfected Deliverance for this Nation (whose expectations you are) your greatness shall be complemented with goodness, and your aspirements with Glory. But that I build not too spacious Gates to my Mynda, or throw the Fabric out at the Casements, I only add, that your Lordships fixing this Land to a happy Temperament of Justice, and Equity, advancing Letters, and reforming all things to the standard of the Word, will render England the Worlds Utopia, the most Felicitous of Nations, and having absolved your courses thorough the Zodiac of praiseworthy actions, you will set laden with Lustre, and satisfying soul-peace: Treasures of an higher Carac than the world's Magnalia; And the prayers of the Saints ascending with you, will Petard your entrances thorough Heaven's Portcullis; while you scale the Battlements of Glory to perfect your Triumphs, and with Seraphic Hierarchies chant Eternal Trisagions in ravishing Division; and every Colon and Column of your lives, quartered with the memory of your Achievements, cause your Names (Rivalling with time) to survive on Earth, perfumed as Incense, and Odorous as a pile of Spices. — Magnum hoc ego duco, Quod placeat tibi, qui turpi secernis honestum. Your Excellencies, Your Honours, and the Commonwealths most faithful servant. Zach. Coke. TO THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. GOd hath made you an Ingenious and curious People, may he also make you wise unto Salvation. Not one of you (I presume) but would know much, and dispute well: This Book will serve you in both your ends. It will lead you through the plainness and depths of knowledges, both natural and Divine, which as yet perhaps seem Mysterious to you, and impenetrable; make it but your own, and you have conquered the difficulties of all the Sciences; Truths that before delugeed you, will take you now but up to the Ankles. Though it be a little one, it may live to do you much good: and like the Bee of Myrmecides, hath not the less Labour and Artifice. It is not the Enchanted Egg of Oromazes, instead of universal happiness, stuffed only with wind and Vapour, or as the numerous Tomes of the Times, Cui quidlibet scribendi est Cacoethes; which serve but to beat down the price of waste-paper, and to make the world sit strait about you; but securing always the Interests of truth, It will teach you to dispute and form a right Judgement of any thing, to discern golden Verities from glaring and guilded; and to assure your faith against the strongest Sconces of error, to Raze or batter it. It will not lead you out of the right way (as some blind guides) but help you to reduce those that are strayed: From it, as from a spiritual Artillery, you may deprome all weapons of reason, to guard, not affront the truths of God (which not seldom suffer in men's hands.) But as the end of war is a calm and good peace, so Harmony and agreemement of spirit, is the Mark, or rather Centre of dispute: for Fencing is but fooling in the Faith. Look then into it, go over it, and you will quickly see the use and Advantage of it: Judge it not by the Frontispiece no more than you would the Riches of the Indian Mines, by the barren and Raggy surface of the Earth, or the Treasure of a Lapidaries store by the presentment at his Window: Yet when you have read it, and (perchance) dispute whether it doth more please or profit you, know that as a passion to the common good both▪ conceived and brought it forth, so I have obtained, if growing up with the peace of the Nation, it shall beget any thing of Amity and Unity among the Saints: That Paul being nothing, and Cephas nothing, The God of Truth and Love may be All in all. Z. C. The Art of Logic. THe prime perfection and pleasure in this life General rules to be foreknown of Logic. (second to that supernatural one, Faith in Christ blessed for ever, and Sanctification through the Spirit) consists in man's conversing according to understanding and Reason: i. e. to understand, know and judge distinctly of things as they are in their Natures. To the attainment of such a knowledge, three things are necessary. 1 The object or thing to be known, viz. Every thing in Nature. 2 A natural faculty or power of understanding, which floweth from a reasonable Soul, and is innate to every man. 3 A certain disposition whereby this power is ordinately and regularly, that is in order, and without error, led into Act. Now this is either, 1 Immediate, and by infusion of God, which is extraordinary and rare, and in these Ages of the Church promised to no person in particular. 2 Or it is acquired, and gotten by information and discipline, which is frequent and ordinary. Now the disciplines disposing a man's understanding to the knowledge of things, are either. 1 Objective. 2 Directive. 1 Objective disciplines be such as handle things which Objective disciplines. are in Nature as Objects of our understanding, which are principally four. 1 Theology. 2 Jurisprudence. 3 Medicine. 4 Philosophy. 1 Divinity, called by the Greeks Theology, which is the knowledge of God, and things Supernatural, as they are Supernatural, etc. 2 Jurisprudence, or Law, which takes in beside the special Laws of God and Nature, the Canon, Civil Laws, the Law of Nations, our Laws Common, Statute and Municipal, etc. 3 Medicine or Physic, both the Speculative and Practic. 4 Philosophy, which comprehends Metaphysics, which considereth things as they are such, &c Also Physic's, or natural Science; next of all Mathematics, which contains Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy▪ Music, Optics, and last of all Ethics, or Morals, containing Occonomicks and Politics, under which again (beside History) is comprised Strategicks, called Martial Discipline. Directive Disciplines be such as handle not the things Directive discipline. themselves to be known, nor do they inform or perfect the understanding of man in those things, but they prepare only some operation of man, and with framed Rules and Instruments do guide and direct it. Now the operations of man requiring and needing such artificial Rules, are chiefly two. The first is the understanding Observe. All faculties have two things in them, Matter, and Form, or somewhat not unlike; the Matter, Precepts; the Form, the order of the Precepts. The Matter every faculty hath of itself, as of its own nature. The Form is by Logic administered. or cogitation of things. The second the signification either by word or writing of those cogitations (as for the Disciplines Directive of the signification of men's thoughts, as Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, they are beside our purpose to treat here) and that which thus directs the understanding or cogitations, is Logic only: to the consideration whereof, I The AEquivocation of the word Logic. mean the Homonomy and AEquivocation of the Word of Term, we now come. This word Logic Hath divers significations: For first is meant by it the 1 Natural Logic. power or faculty of the understanding and reasoning, which is innate, and floweth from man's Essence or Nature. 2 It may be taken for a frame or constitution of Logical precepts, by this or that man written, called a system; which frame may be also taken for an Art, by a Metonymy of the Cause for the Effect, accepting Art not for an habit ingenerated in the mind by precepts and use, but for a collection of universal precepts, to operate in a determinate latitude and limit of End. 3 It may be accepted for a certain part of this whole frame or constitution, namely that which is of a Syllogism Contingent or Commune. 4 It may signify an Act or Habit, begotten by precepts and use in the mind of the Artist; as when we say Peter is a good Logician: and this is the most proper signification of the word Logic, according to which we define it: So therefore Logic is an Art of ordering and directing of man's † The thoughts of man's mind is nothing else but his reason or understanding wholly occupate about things. understanding The first Definition of Logic. The second. in the knowledge things: Or secondly, Logic is an Art that teacheth how to think and judge distinctly of all things. In this Definition are contained, 1 The Genus. 2 The Object. 3 The End. The Genus of Logic is an Art; for 1 Genus The five principal Habits of Aristotle. It cannot be Wisdom which teacheth and treateth of the highest causes and things. 2 It's not Understanding which containeth and consisteth of the habit of principles. 3 Nor is it Science, which is made up only of such things Reasons drawn from the properties. as are real and universal. 4 Nor can it be Prudence, which teacheth things that are particular to be done and practised. It remains therefore that it be an Art: For, First it imitates and perfecteth Nature. Reason's why Logic is an Art. 2 It presupposeth a certain end whereunto it directeth all the means. 3 It is to be known, not for its own, but for the sake of some other; the profit thereof being in use, not speculation. 4 It adviseth nothing of the means, it consults not whether to use these or those means to obtain the end, for that they all are predetermined, and in a certain disposition ordinated to their end. 5 It operates without any contrariety, or repugnancy of the appetite and affections, as not engaging or disengaging them. 6 It is not commendable for the intent or purpose, but for the thing done, the work itself. 7 It is not to be dispraised when it errs of set purpose and industry (for it could have done otherwise) but when it errs of ignorance and unwillingly. 8 It is delivered by an Analytical and Resolutive method, proceeding from the object and end foreknown, unto the means which are to be ordinated. Ergo, Logic is an Art. Of the Object of Logic. 2 Object of Logic. The object of Logic is twofold. 1 That which it directeth. Also the primary object of Logic is Reason, the secondary, Speech, the manifestation and utterance of Reason. 2 That whereto the understanding is directed. 1 The object which Logic directeth, is the Understanding, Reason, Mind or thought of man: wherein two things are to be foreknown. 1 The properties of the understanding. 2 The parts and degrees thereof. 1 The properties of the understanding to the preknowledg 9 Properperties of the understanding. of Logical precepts necessary, are 1 That those perceived of sense, be first and best known of the understanding; let By sin there are three defections in man's Reason. 1 Aberration from the apprebending of things. 2 Obscurity and difficulty, either not being able to comprehend the natures of things, or to discern them with their notes and properties, as in a glass. 3 Distraction and confusion in the apprehension of them. Logic now hath a medicine to cure these, which it doth, 1 By the explanation of things. 2 By the Probation. 3 By Ordination. the understanding deduce thence its original knowledge. 2 That since the defection of our first parents in Paradise, our understanding cannot faithfully and certainly determine to comprehend the natures of things with distinctness and order, and by its own acies and strength to discern the truth, unless by artificial and outward rules, directed and governed, unto which the understanding looks, as the Mariner to the Compass; In which respect and sense, it is in worse case than the sense●, which have conserved themselves sound & entire since the first apostasy, of their own force and vigour being still able to determine themselves faithfully to know their own objects. 3 That the understanding of itself, is rather carried to the cogitation of things universal (and such objects as are not determined either by will, place, time, etc. circumstances) then unto determinate things and singular, the effects and products of sense. 4 That the understanding acts not in a moment, but successively, in time, and by order. 5 It understands not the same independently, and of itself, but goeth from one thing to another; and hence it is that the distinct knowledge of God is paramount the reach of the understanding, there being nothing in God divers from God, or what is not God himself: in man there are many things more obvious to knowledge than man himself, but in God there's no such thing, who is conceivable only (& that but most imperfectly) by himself. 6 That at one and the same time it is occupied about, and understandeth but one thing. 7 That the object must be proportionate to itself, and finite; it cannot understand God who is infinite. 8. That it may assent certainly to conclusions proved, even Testimony (if authentic) yet so as no distinct knowledge can be begotten in the understanding, except there be a mean from the nature of the Predicate or Subject; for that to know, is by the Cause. 9 That the instruments of its operation need be pure and composed, should be spirits void of affectuous humours, as Anger, Fear, Malice, Revenge, etc. Degrees are three, 1 The first degree of the understanding is simple, viz. 2 The Degrees of the understanding. the apprehension of a single Term or Theme, as Peter, Paul, a living Creature. 2 Is the conception of two Terms by way of composition, as when we think, A man is a living Creature: or, A man is a reasonable Creature. 3 Is when in order we think of more than two Terms passing the thought from one to the other, till you come to a third. This is discourse. Discourse now is twofold. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Illative. Ordinative. Illative is such a moving of our Thoughts, as when by the repeating the co-ordination of things, that is, the third Term with the two former, we judge the co-ordination of these two Terms to be true or false: This discourse is that which is called Syllogistical. 2 Ordinative is a moving of our thoughts from one part of the doctrine to another, that so we may judge how they consist and hang together. This discourse is called Methodical. The Object to which the understanding is directed and ordered, is every thing in Nature; for the understanding and comprehending of which in our thoughts, the Understanding needeth and seeketh rules of Logic. 1 Of this object there is a threefold partition of things. Things to be known, threefold. 1 Some are infinite, as God, and hereunto the serv'ce of Logical Instruments is not sufficient for the eliciting of a perfect conception or knowledge: Others are finite, and create; and of them some be spiritual and imperceptible by sense, and with much ado can the understanding conceive them: Some also be corporal, and to know them and their instruments, Logical instruments chiefly serve. 2 Things in nature are considerable two ways. 1 Indeterminately without respect or restraint to Term, Place, or other circumstances, as a Man. 2 Determinately unto circumstances, as Peter Paul, etc. About the first (as about things universal) are Logical instruments and directions primarily and principally used About the latter (as about singular) they are used but secondarily. 3 Things are considered absolutely and in themselves, and so are called simple beings, or entia, or things, as a Man. Sometime as coordinate, and one with another, as a Man, a living creature: now they are called compounded. About the first, the first part of Logic is used; about the latter, the second and third parts. The proper end of Logic, is, the ordering and directing 3 End of Logic. of man's cogitations (or the acts of man's understanding) in the knowledge of things; this is the true and proper end of Mark, other Disciplines do not so much direct the mind (Physics, Mathematics) as teach and minister the knowledge of things; whereas Logic of itself is but 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Logic. 1 Because every essential end must be equal to its thing ended, (nor straighter nor larger) because the end constituteth the essence. 2 Every end must be one, for the unity of an Art depends of the unity of the end; as the unity of knowledge depends of the unity of the subject. 3 An End in Arts not conjectural, such is Logic, must be put when the means are put; and these three Criteria, or rules, exactly do agree in the direction of the understanding: and hitherto having minded the nature and essence of Logic, le's now consider the properties and effects that followeth the essence. Properties of Logic. 1 No discipline more helpeth the wit, or contemplative Proper acdents, and the effects of Logic. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 sharpness, i. e. the inclination of the temperature to contemplate distinctly and accurately. 2 Unto the wit belongs, 1, The judgement, or judging faculty, i. e. a disposition sound to think and perceive what's true, and what's false in 2 things. 2 A facility of learning. 3 Discipline. 4 A witty 3 faculty quickly to find out the mean to prove the truth, and 4 refute the falsehood, all which Logic helpeth, ordereth, directeth. 3 Logic is the directory of the thoughts, making them regular, that whatsoever is conceivable of a thing, may be drawn to a right sum, for an orderly process in them, and to avoid confusion. 4 When a man hath sound and well thought on a thing, it enableth him exactly and in order to reach and write it. 5 It causeth a man well to learn that which is well taught. 6 It giveth a reflexive knowledge to a man, that is, it makes a man not only know (directly) but makes him know that he knoweth a thing. 7 It enableth a man to resolve what is compositively handled by others. 8 It much avails and profits to conference and collations, whether occasional or other. 9 By it, is a man enabled to an apt and regular placing and acquiring of intellectual virtues, as on which depends the disposition and order of all disciplines, as to their frames and constitution. 10 It is the rule of those habits a man hath acquired, instructing him to work aright; yet I mean but the rules of ingenious and intellectual operations. 11 In respect of man (that is to learn) it is the rule of all other disciplines whatsoever, but especially for Divinity. I say not, it is essential to the simple knowledge of things substantial to salvation (for this may be by infusion from heaven, without any humane artifice) but I mean, the ordinary way of erudition and skill to handle places in Theology, depends on Logic. Now unto Logic (as unto every habit) are required three things, (as it were efficient causes of it) Nature, Method, Exercise. 1. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or Nature, that is, a natural faculty, which consists 1 Nature required unto Logic, as the (as it were) efficient cause. of the humours, disposition and temperament of the body, whereby a man is inclinable to this, more than to that Discipline. 2 Method (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 in the Greek) is a Collection and frame of all Logical precepts, needful to the acquisition or getting the habit of the Art. About this frame two things are considerable. 1 Invention. m 2 Conformation. n The principal Inventor of this Art (as of all other) is the m Spirit of God, viz. the holy Ghost; then, men his Instruments in all Ages. Now the Causes motive of men to invent this Art, were 1 The defect of man's nature, who out of a perception 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 that the thoughts of men could not well determinate themselves to the understanding of things without the help of second thoughts, were forced to frame and devise such, and they call them Logical notions. a 2 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: Admiration of natural effects, arising out of abstruseness of the Causes, causing grief to ingenuous spirits (for, wonder speaks ignorance) by which they were irritated to a serious enquiry after the Causes, which without Logical determinations was not feasable. 3 A puritation and itch after knowledge (innate to every man) Now he that desireth an end, adviseth of, and desireth the means conducent thereunto, and such in special is Logic. The means men used at first (I mean since the Fall) for 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. the expoliting and adorning of the Art of Logic, is, first, Outward Sense, principally those of Seeing and Hearing. 2 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Observation; and this ever presupposeth † For nothing comes into the understanding but that was some manner of way first in the sense. remembrance, which is nothing but a reflection upon something formerly taken notice of. 3 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Experience, that is, the collection of many Observations and Examples, and retaining them in memory. 3 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Induction (the third 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, that is, effect of the understanding, is invention) which from the judgement of the senses, and experience of observations, formeth in the understanding a common and universal notion, which as it were is a rule by which the knowledge and virtue of working are directed in the operation to come. In the Conformation of this whole Logical Constitution, n two things are very observable. 1 The Formal. q 2 The Material. 1 The formal, etc. consists, 1 In the determinate distribution of the parts. a 2 In the co-ordination of the q parts so determined, unto the end of the whole: b 1 In the distribution of the parts, these 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or rules a are observable. 1 Every good distribution should be made with words fit and significative unto the mind, of the parts of the whole distributible, but not of any thing not therein contained. 2 Division should be of the whole, not of the parts of the whole. 3 If it be a good division, the parts (divided) will be equal to the whole, and neither more nor less. 4 It should consist of such parts only as are in the whole, retaining the same order, and agreeing with it. 5 In a good partition there should be a disjunction & segregation of the parts one from another, neither presupposing or including one the other. 6 And this disjunction of parts must be such a disjoyner which mensurates the whole, and whereby the whole is constituted. 7 A division should distinguish the whole, not confound or perplex it. 8 The parts (integral) should be amongst themselves of the same order and nature with the whole, that the whole might the better measure them. 9 Lastly, A good division should be commodious, and apt to notificate the whole. The second (as it were) efficient cause of Logic, is Method, 2 Method requisite to Logic. the division whereof (or the general way to learn it) is into three parts. 1 The first is of the general precepts to be foreknown (which precepts are as the Porch of a building) as of the signification of the word or name, the acception of it▪ the genus, or general title of it, the end, the object, and the parts. 2 Is the Method or frame of the precepts constitutive of Three parts of Logic precepts. 1 Directrix 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 2 Directrix 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 3 Directrix 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the Art; these are the chief rooms of the house. 3 The Exemplar or pattern of this Art of Logic to be used and practised, which servs as the Postick and hinder part of this Edifice. Again, the second of these is tripartite, or admits of a threefold division. The first is, which shows the cogitation to coordinate two terms one toward another. The second and third, which direct the discursive cogitations▪ when they are first Illative, & go by way of inference and consequence; Or 2 When they are ordinative, methodical, and by conclusion, as is premonstrate; And so much as to the determinate distribution of the parts. 2 Now come we to the Co-ordination of the parts, concerning b which, note these 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or Rules. 1 That every constitution or frame, is a mean to some determinate & certain end, therefore it ought to be proportioned and ordered to this end, with a certain proportion, adornment and method, and adapted to the happy acquisition thereof. 2 Whatsoever is in the end or use, must be put into the constitution and frame, not more or less. 3 Let no precept go into the frame, that maketh not for the end or use. 4 The use should easily and plainly be understood by the precepts, it being a thing unfit that the instrument should be more hardly understood than the use of it. 5 That we may attain without precepts, there should be no precepts delivered of the same. And thus much of the Formal, of the frame of Logic, now come we to the Material. 2 The Material then of the frame of Logic, consists in The Material of the frame of Logic. that wherein the partition and conformation before handled is, and it is twofold. 1 Primary. 2 Representative and Secondary. The primary Material also is twofold. Simple. a Compound. b 1 The simple material, be the Logical terms, † 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. words a made to represent the sense of the cogitations, so that the understanding is as it were limited and confined within itself in cogitating and thinking; they are called Second Notions. The first Notions are the conceptions we have of things, as they are things. Now these second Notions do not directly and by themselves shadow out unto us the things themselves, nor any thing accidental or appendent unto them, but point unto certain intellectual Rules, whereby we do with all distinctness and regularity form things, that is, the conceits of things: As the Sailor's Compass doth not give direction to the Mariners by subjecting to the sight the very winds themselves really, but the Northwind, Southwind, etc. as they may be specificated, or the Regions wherein they range. Those that primarily imposed names, intended to name first the things themselves, & then secondly they added second Notions, which we call Mental and Logical: As the word Man, is to express primarily the conceit which we form of Humane Nature, and is as the image thereof, and immediately founded therein; for man's nature is the immediate object, and this is a word of the first intention; but when we say, a man is a Species, or a Genus, or Difference, etc. these are words of the second intention, not desumed immediately from the thing, which is humane nature, but from the manner of understanding, whereby we understand such Terms to agree unto Peter, John, and every man. 2 The compound Material be the precepts in Logic, b framed of and from those Notions of second intention, explicitly & plainly exhibiting to our minds and understandings, those things which the second Notions themselves do but implicitly and darkly; these therefore are necessary unto the learning of this Art of Logic, and aught to be form according to these subsequent Rules. 1 The precepts of Logic should be made regularly and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 For the constituting of Logical precepts. fully to obtain the End. 2 Both as to the words of them and number, they should be conceived and set down determinately. 3 They should be Homogeneal, that is, of the same kind, mensurated and adapted only to this Art and End. 4 They should be framed plain and with perspicuity. 5 They should be apposite and fit to the teaching and learning of this Art. And so much for the primary Material of Logic. The secondary Material of Dogick. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Of the secondary Material. The secondary Material, or representative, are Examples added to the Precepts, which is only a particular experiment of this or that precept, either upon ourselves or others; wherein are observable these following Rules. 1 Examples ought to be agreeable and fitting to the nature and end of the Art, deducing carefully the experiments from those had arrived unto the end of the Art, and that accordingly operated 2 Examples, as accommodate to the precepts, so they should be very intelligible, fit to be made use of, and proportionate to the truth and verity of the precepts. And thus much of the first and second efficient causes, by which the habit of Logic is acquirable (viz.) the Nature, and Method. We come briefly to the third Efficient, which is, Exercise of Logic. The Exercise then of Logic consisteth in this, that we frequently 3 Efficient cause of Logic. think on, & diligently meditate things conformable to the prescriptions and rules of Logic, that is, orderly and distinctly: This indeed is the chief, most principal, and the nearest Efficient Cause of this habit in us of this Art of Logic, and immediately engenerates and expresseth Logic in us, whereas Wit and Precepts are Causes but remote. The means and parts of this Exercitation are two. Representative. Operative. 1 Representative are such as are superadded to the The means and parts of Exercise two. Rules of Logic, as Experiments and manifest Testimonies, Forms of Disputation, Resolution, etc. 2 Operative is the very Art itself of this Exercitation and Use, which should be by an assiduous imitation of the most eminent wits, and by the agitation of our own. And thus much of the Prolegomena's, and things necessary to the foreknowledge of Logic. THE FIRST BOOK OF THE Art of Logic. Logic is an Art which conducteth the mind Which directeth simple terms. 3 Parts of Logic. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. in the knowledge of things. It hath three things to be remarked as parts thereof. The first is, that which directs the first operation of the mind, which objecteth to itself only single or simple things, by the mediation of a single or simple term, which is a notion or instrument of Logic, representing unto the understanding one thing (called therefore incomplex:) and it is called a second notion as it is the minds image and portrait, shadowing to itself some outward 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. thing. First notions are (as it were) the string or rule of a Dial; second notions are (as it were) the ombre and shadow made by that rule or string: these both show the hour, but the string or stem first and fundamentally; the second (that is the shadow) but secondarily, as it configurateth to the other. A single or simple term is, 1 On whom the latter depends, and it Simple terms twofold. is either of a word, or of a thing. 2 Arising from the first, and it is also either of a word, or of a thing. Of a Word or Voice. The term of a Word is that whereby the naming of a thing is considered; a word is the sign of things or conceptions, pronounced or written with a certain frame of letters and syllables. In a word three things are remarkable. 1 The Material. 2 The formal. 3 The Imposition. The Material is the sound in the pronouncing of the letters and syllables, whereof the word is constituted, either in speaking or writing. The Formal is the signification of the word, and by consequence the relation to the conceit of the mind which 〈◊〉 giveth knowledge of: now the efficient cause of this signifcation, is, the imposition and institution, which in the He brew Tongue is Divine (as God was the institutor and imposer) in other tongues humane, as having been invente and imposed by man. Unto a Word appertain 1 Divisions. 2 Affections. 1 Of the division of words. 1 Words have their divisions either Of the thing signified. a *. Of the manner and ordering of signifying. b * Of things signified, some words are Of themselves significative, as a Man or a. Woman, Worm, etc. and all Nouns that signify a thing wholly. Consignificative, and that need other words to express their meaning, as Adverbs, Pronouns, etc. Significative words also are of the first intention which signify of themselves without the help of the mind, and they are the things themselves, or 2 Of the second intention, which means not a thing (it self) but the manner of it, or word of Art, whereby the thing is understood. Now the division of the manner of signifying words is b into Abstract Concrete ” 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Abstract, is which signifieth a thing apart, causing the mind to meditate the simple and precise nature of any thing, as Godhead, Manhood, whiteness, redness, etc. Concrete is that which signifies things conjointly, as having more natures than one complicate or conjunct, as man, white, holy, etc. Words also are either of 1 A particular signification, as man. 2 Collective signification, as a flock, a company, a Church, etc. Again, of the manner of signifying, words are either Distinct. Ambiguous. Distinct, which hath a certain and distinct signification, as fire, earth, air, and other names of things existent in nature. An ambiguous word, is which indistinctly signifieth things that in nature are divers, as Cancer, which signifieth both a living creature and a disease; hereunto all words that are Eqvivocall, and have divers senses are referrible. Now words become doubtful either by chance. of purpose. Words ambiguous by chance is, when reason cannot be 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. given why one name should be given to things divers in nature and definition. Of purpose doubtful, is when a common name is given to divers things upon counsel, and for some certain reasons, and this again is doubtful either of Dependence. a Similitude. b Ambiguous of dependence, is when a general name is given a to divers things, whereof one is dependant on another (as upon the more principal) touching the nature of it; as this word thing is most general, and therefore doubtful, it being attributed both to substances and accidents, but not equally and alike; for to a substance it is given of itself, and principally; to an accident, less principally, as having its nature dependent of the substance, it is therefore called an Analogous' ” 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. general or Genus. Ambiguous of similitude, is, when for some consimilitude or likeness, together, one name is given to divers things, b d and is either 1 Simple, d or 2 Compound e 1 Simple, is, when the Similitude lies between two and no more, and is of Conceit. Things really. Ambiguous by similitude of conceit, is, when two things altogether divers (as God and the Creature) obtain one and the same attribute or name upon the conception we make of some similitude betwixt them; so God and man are both said to be good, just, to repent, etc. whereas really, no words can be found to express Gods most incomprehensible being. Ambiguous by similitude of things in reality, is, when the significations of their natures or operation bear an evident and known similitude. As when meat and medicine are called healthful, because both cause health: Or, as when a beast and a disease are called a Wolf, because of the rapacity and ravenousness of both; and upon this account are the Seals of God's Covenant called Sacraments, because of the correspondence and similitude they bear unto those Solemn Oaths, wherewith men were in former ages bound and consecrate to the Wars. Ambiguous of a Compound Similitude, is, whose likeness e consisteth of a proportion between four; and it is called Analogy. As this word Governor is Analogical and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. proportionable, when attributed to a Magistrate and a Shipmaster; for (here is the proportion between four) as the Master of a ship or Pilot is unto a ship (whereof he hath government) so is the Magistrate unto the Commonwealth. In like manner, flesh is Analogical in respect of beasts, birds, and of apples, cherries, etc. And in this sense are Magistrates called Gods upon earth, Psal. 82. 6. And thus much of the divisions of Words; Now follow their affections, or their Canons and Rules, which be three. The first affection of a word, is, that it should be perspicuous, Rules of the affections of words. that is, plain, and significative unto the mind of that which it ought to signify, 2 It should be received by a common consent and use. 3 It should be proper, determined and adapt to the signifying of the thing to be signified. Of the Order of things. Having hitherto treated of the first single Term, which is of a word; the next thing to be treated of, is the single Term of a Word which without the word representeth to the understanding somewhat of the thing itself. And it is either The order of things called Predicament, or some Term or Not on without the Order. * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Predicamental Order is a distinction and disposition of all things by certain orders, and degrees of orders. Herein are considerable, 1 The manner how things are received into this order a What a Predicament is. a 1 The manner of receiving things. 2 The graduation or degrees of this order. b 3 The particular things themselves. c 1 The manner of receiving them into this order, is first Direct. 2 Proportional. 3 Collateral. 4 Indirect. 5 By accident: all which are declared by eight Rules following. First then directly and primarily in the order or Predicamental scale, is a thing which is, 1 Real and positive. 2 Simple and of itself. 3 Universal. 4 Complete or Whole. 5 Univocal (that is) a thing signified by one distinct and certain word; these five are as it were conditions of referribility in things unto a Predicamental order. 2 Receiving things into this order, is by proportion; thus may God (blessed for ever) be brought in, not directly, because he is a most simple Being, one in Number, having neither Genus above him, nor difference to restrain him, because whereof, he cannot be placed in the Predicament of substance, but Analogically, and by proportion. 3 Collaterally, side-wise, or obliquely; thus a difference is placed in the Predicamental scale or series (as a reasonable soul, if it be taken for the difference of a living creature, is placed in the Predicament of Substance, but sidewise, not directly: hitherto also may be referred Abstracts, to wit, Abstraction of Inferiors (as they are called) as Humanity, Animality, etc. 4 By Reduction, or indirectly: things placed in this Predicamental scale, are first Concrete, and which simply consist not of one and the same thing, as just, merciful, and other Concretes, containing both substances and accidents: so the Church, the World, and other like Collectives: hither also may the parts of any whole be referred, as the head, hand, foot, etc. but reductively, and by reducing them unto their whole. 5 By Accident do appertain to the Predicamental order things compounded; and this they do by reason of their simple Terms, as Man is a living creature; this sentence is referred to the order of substance; A man is learned, this is referred to the order of substance in part, as it respects the man; and partly to the predicament of quality, as this man is learned. 2 Things Intentional, without the mind, as the Images of true things, colours seen in a glass, etc. 3 Second Notions, as words of Art, Genus, Species, Difference, etc. 4 Relations of Reason, as the right or left side of a pillar, etc. 5 Privations, which are always referred unto the same Predicamental order that the habits thereof are; as blindness is in the same rank that sight is. 6 Feigned things, things of fiction, as a Golden Mountain, Hircocervus, etc. referred to the predicament of substance. 6 From the predicamental order be excluded plainly 1 All words of ambiguity and doubt, at least before they be distinguished and limited. 2 Feigned things, which are absolutely impossible, as a Created God, Deified flesh, an unbloody Sacrifice, merit of works in a sinner, universal Election, and other such prodigious fantasies. 7 A thing in itself simply one, pertains to one Predicament; if it be Concrete, it may be referred to two, but inequally, and so that it be primarily under one, viz. that which it most respecteth; so Baptism and the Lords Supper are not to be referred to Substance or Action, but to Relation, because water and the washing therewith are but the material things in Baptism; the formal being the holy Relation in signing and sealing the Spiritual washing away of sin. 8 Lastly, things themselves are placed in the Predicaments of themselves and fundamentally; Conceits and Names of things but secondarily, and so far forth as they represent things: and so much of the manner how things are received into the Predicamental scale or order: we pass now to the second, viz. The degrees of the order, or Predicamental Series. The degrees then of this Order, by which things are to be understood in their ranks, some are superior, some inferior to others, and these degrees are not unfitly called Predicables. A Degree is 1 Direct. a a 2 Collateral. b b 1 Direct, when we ascend or descend forthright, that is in a straight and direct line in order, as Genus, Species, Individuum. 2 Collateral, when the ascent or descent is made in an indirect line, and side-long, as Difference. Again, the direct degree is either Primary or Secondary. Primary, as Genus, and Species: Secondary, as Individual. Primary, is that which in the Predicamental order is universal or common to many, and is Genus and Species. Genus. Genus, is that which hath Species under it, that is, a general is that which containeth two specials or more under it. The common Rules hereof are four. Rules 4. 1 The Genus or general is always of the same Predicament 1 or order of things with it Species or special. By which Canon or Rule, you may discern any, and many false generals, as that the body of Christ is not the true Genus or general of the Sacrament of the Lords Supper; that water is not the true Genus of Baptism, nor an action the Genus of sin, nor air of sound, that harmony or number is not the Genus of the soul, for such be not in one Predicament; by this also Metaphors are removed, as when the Church is called Noah's Ark, or the Spouse the body of Christ; these are true, but not the true genera or generals: for Metaphors show not what a thing is, but what a thing is like to. 2 The Genus is never the cause of his Species, nor the 2 subject, nor the accident, and therefore is never predicated or spoken of his Species in the Concrete, but always absolutely in the right (that is the nominative) Case: They therefore err, that in the Meteors make water to be the Genus of rain; fire the Genus of a Comet; air of the wind; whereas Meteors are called waterish, fiery, airy; so the cause cannot be the true Genus, as when dubitation is said to be the counterpoise of equal reason; Anger the boiling of the blood about the heart; Death the separating of the soul from body, etc. In such, the causes are placed in stead of generals; so also for the subject, when we define wind to be the air moved; Original sin to be corrupt nature, etc. 3 The Genus is always and necessarily more large than all the Species of it, and is not returned or reciprocated with them. 4 The Genus is inseparable from his Species; nor can that be the true Genus without which the Species are or may be in any, or any where: this proves motion cannot be the true Genus of pleasure, seeing pleasure may be somewhere, where motion is not or ceaseth. Genus is twofold Genus twofold. Supreme. Subaltern. 1 The highest and most general, is so a Genus, as it can never be a Species. 2 Subaltern Genus is, that is successive and by turn, that is, when it is Genus of them contained under it, and Species of that which is above it. Also the Genus is either remote and afar off from the Species, or, 2 Near and next unto it; as the Genera of a man, a living Creature is the remote Genus, and Animal is the nearest Genus; for there are none other so near man as those two. Again the Genus is Perfect. a Imperfect. b Perfect Genus, or a Synonymous general is, when his ● Species all of them take equal part of him; as a living creature is the equal and perfect Genus of man and beast; for a beast is a living creature no less than, and equally with a man. The Canons and Rules of a perfect Genus are five. 1 A perfect Genus hath a Nature not separated, but yet 5 Rules of a perfect Genus. distinct from all his Species. 2 All that which is in the Genus is equally communicated with the Species, so as nothing can be said of the Genus, but the same also may, and must be said of every species. 3 The Genus is in Nature before all his Species, and therefore first in that knowledge which is according to Nature. 4 The Genus hath necessarily many species, as not being able to be conserved in one; for every genus is perfected in determination of opposite differences, and opposition implieth plurality; so that one genus must of necessity have at the least two species. 5 A perfect Genus being put, there needs not therefore any determinate or certain species to be put; and if one species be denied, the genus is not thereupon denied. There is an Analogy and similitude between a Genus and Matter: For first as the matter is more imperfect than the form, etc. So is the genus more imperfect than the difference or species. 2 As the first matter is undetermined to any of his forms so is the genus to any of his differences; & as the matters have a power unto the opposite forms; so hath the b general unto the opposite differences; yet nevertheless there is great discrimination betwixt the genus and the matter, and they be not the same. An Imperfect Genus is that which is not communicated with his species equally and alike, but to one more, to another less. The Rules and Canons of this be three. 3 Rules of an imperfect Genus. 1 An Imperfect Genus, is immediately, properly and of itself communicated but with one species, with another it is communicated but mediately and secondarily in order to the primary species; so this genus (thing or ens) is an imperfect genus to substance and accident; for thing is communicated primarily to substance; to accident but secondarily in and by the substance, accidents being not so much things Create as Concreate. 2 An Imperfect Genus hath not a Nature altogether distinct from its species; so a thing naturally is not altogether distinct from substance or accident. 3 To put an Imperfect Genus, we must needs put some certain species, viz. that species by which it agreeth to the other; and this species being denied, the genus itself is forthwith denied. And so much for the first Predicable of the first degree, to wit the genus. The Species. Species, or the special, is an universal thing subjected, or subordinate unto the Genus: and it is, Perfect. a Imperfect. b Perfect is that which is under a perfect Genus. a The Rules hereof be four. 1 The Species is in Nature after the Genus, & in Knowledge distinct. 2 It ariseth from the determination of the Genus, so as it swalloweth up, as it were, the whole Genus in itself; that whatsoever the Genus hath, it also hath. 3 Perfect Species do equally participate of their Genus, one as well as the other. 4 Perfect Specials be in Nature together. As a Man is not after a Beast in nature, though in time Beasts were first created. So Baptism and the Lords Supper be in Nature together (being alike Species of the Sacrament of the new Testament) though in time Baptism was first. Imperfect Species, is that which is under an imperfect b Genus. The Rules hereof be three. 1 Under an imperfect Genus, one Species is more principal than another. So a Substance is the more principal Species of a Thing; An Accident is less principal. 2 The principal Species of an imperfect Genus, communicateth as much to the other Species, as doth the Genus itself. So an Accident is as much bound to a Substance, as to a Thing. 3 The principal Species is in Nature and Knowledge before the less principal, for it depends wholly on the principal, and is that which it is, by benefit thereof. This Rule discovereth the Popish Error, That in the Mass the Accidents of Bread and Wine should remain without the Substance. Also the Species is either Subaltern, that is, Species of one, and Genus of another. Most special, or lowest Species, never Genus. The Rules hereof be two. 1 The lowest Species cannot be divided by opposite differences. 2 It may be conserved in one Individuum. Hitherto of the direct degree Primary. Now followeth The Individuum. the Secondary, or Individuum. An Individuum or singular thing, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, is that which under the generals and specials is determined unto certain circumstances of Existence. The Rules hereof be four. 1 The note of on Individuum is sometime more strict, sometime more large. The word whereby an Individuum ●s signified, is sometime single, sometime compound. Single, as proper names, as Christ, Abraham, Peter, etc. or 〈◊〉 ●f proper, as the Apostle, meaning Paul; the Philo●… meaning Aristotle. 1 Compounds be either * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Demonstrative, as this Man, that Woman, etc. O● uttered by common names † 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. , as a certain man, or the Saviour of the world, the Virgin's Son, meaning Christ: the enemy of Mankind, i. e. Satan. These some call Individua vaga, and Individua vaga ex hypothesi. 2 Singulars, or Individua, as they are the secondary object of Logic, so also they cannot perfectly be defined; neither of themselves, as they be singulars, are they considered in disciplines: [for they belong to sense, as to be seen, felt, etc.] whereas universal things, appertain to reason; and as sense properly perceives not universal things, so neither doth reason singular things, viz. as they are sensible: nor so excellently as universals. 3 Singulars primarily and by themselves, do exist work, and are perceived, [ * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Essence is of universals. † 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Existence is of singulars:] for hereto is required the Termination of some certain time and place, which is not in universals. 4 Singulars are incommunicable; for they having a most restrained Nature, have no inferiors to communicate with. An Individuum is either, Accidental. a Substantial. b 1 Accidental is, which is under the order of Accidents; [as Accidents have their Predicaments, so also their Genus, Species, singulars] So an habit is the Genus of Faith. Faith is the Species; but Abraham's faith, the Centurion's faith, etc. are singulars, or Individua. Substantial is that which is under the order of Substance. And is b m n Absolute. m With Addition. n Absolute, which is looked on absolutely. With Adjection, is a person, which is the first substance intelligent, incommunicable, not part of another, nor sustained by another. Some singulars be called indirect, as are the names of Cities, Rivers, Mountains, etc. Note these Properties, A Person must he 1 A Substance; so no Accident is a Person: It is 2 The first Substance, or a singular thing; so no Universal is a Person. It must have 3 Understanding; so no particular Beast, as Balaams' Ass, is a Person. It is 4 Not part of another; so a man's soul is not a Person. It is not 5 Sustained by another, so Christ's humane Nature is not a Person. It is 6 Not communicable; so the divine Essence is not a Person, for it is communicated with the Father, Son, and holy Ghost. We have seen the direct degrees; now follow the Collateral, b b or sidelong, which is called Difference. Difference is here taken in a strict and peculiar signification, The Difference. only for the determination and restraining of the universal and indifferent Nature, in the Predicamental order, and not for every distinction and diversity of things, whereof we treat hereafter. And thus Difference pertaineth to the degrees of Order, not as constituting or informing, but as binding and knitting, not as causing any thing properly, but as determining and tying together the universal in the Predicamental line. The Difference is that which restraineth and determineth the Genus in the Species. The Rules hereof are eight. 1 The Difference respecteth the general and the special in a divers respect: the general as determinable; the special as determinated. 2 The Difference, as it is a difference, never noteth a thing complete and separate, but always incomplete. 3 The Difference is after the general, and before the special, yet is it in the general indeterminately, or in * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. power. Universals are like a long rope, loose without knot: difference is like a knot; the special is as a rope tied with a knot. The knot is after the loose rope, but before the knit rope: and the knot which in power was in the loose rope, is in act in the tied rope. A rope with knots differeth not really from a rope which hath not knots: so the Species restrained by difference, differeth not really from the Genus. 4 Every Difference inferreth his proper and certain Genus. Therefore differences should not be transferred from Genus to Genus. 5 The Difference that is to determine the general, must needs be opposite * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. ; for difference restraineth not the Genus, but by a kind of opposition and see junction of the Species. 6 Every Difference is inseparable from his Species. 7 The Difference is not varied by degrees. 8 The Difference is apt to be avouched (praedicari) of his Genus, but in the Concrete, or in quale. For no difference showeth what a thing is, but of what manner it is: As if one ask, What manner of living creature is a man: The answer is, A reasonable, living creature: so that the difference is not so much spoken of the Species, Man, as of the Genus, Living Creature, or Animal; for it maketh the Genus to differ, and determineth it. Difference is either, Far off. Nearest. Far off, is that which is not reciprocate with his Species, called Generica. Nearest, is that which is equal with his Species: It is call- Specifica. As sensible maketh a man differ from a stone, in a far difference; for other Species, as Beasts, have the same difference, but reasonable is the nearest, whereby he differeth from a stone, beasts, and all other things. Hitherto hath been handled, 1 The manner how things are received into Predicamental Order. And 2 The degrees of the Order. Now follow, 3 The particular Orders, Predicaments. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. or Predicaments themselves. There be ten Predicaments, or Orders, and of them, Some principal. Some less principal. The principal are, in which things first and properly so called, are disposed and ordered: and they be the first six. And these be either, Of Substance. a Of Accidents. b 1 The Predicament or orderly row of substance, is that Substance. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. where in the substance is orderly disposed by his Generals and Specials. A Substance is a thing subsisting by itself. a The Rules or properties whereof be three. 1 A substance, as it is a substance, is not contrary to another; but as it hath accidents or qualities, it is contrary, as Fire and Water, Sheep and Wolves, etc. be contrary in quality and temperature. 2 A substance, as it is a substance, is not varied by degrees, or receiveth not more or less; but the variance or comparison is in respect of accidents, as a Wise man, and a Fool, an Old man, and a Child, one water hotter than another: these differ in qualities, not in substance. 3 A substance remaining one in number, may receive into it contrary accidents. As water may be now seething hot, anon frozen cold. The Order of Substances is to be seen in a Table, As Substance, is either Uncreated, infinite, and beyond our understanding, as, the most holy God. Created, and is either Spiritual Absolute: as Angels, good and evil. Determined to another: as Man's soul. Corporal, and is either Incomplete, and is Passive, called, Matter, first and second. Active, called Form, first and second. Complete, or perfect, and is either Far from mixture, as the heavens, whose parts are Orbs without Star. with Star▪ Fixed: The firmament. Planet's Stars Fixed. Wandering, Saturn, Mars, etc. Ordained for mixture (and therefore not existing apart and completely) called elements, and is Fire. Air Water. Earth. Mixed Imperfectly, as Smoke, Vapours, whereof are Meteors Fiery, as Lightnings, Comets, etc. Airy, as Winds, etc. Waterish, as clouds, rain, snow, hail, etc. Perfectly without life Metals, perfect and Imperfect, as gold, silver, brass, quicksilver, etc. Minerals Hard, as Sand, Stones, precious and base kinds of earth, etc. Soft, as Salt, Al●um, Pitch, Myrrh, Frankincense, etc. with life Vegetant, as 1 Trees, fruitful and unfruitful: Oak, Ash, Elm, Laurel, etc. 2 Bushes, Rose, Bramble. 3 Herbs of all sorts, Wheat, Rye, Pease, Rise, Beets, Mallows, etc. Sensible. Reasonable, as Man. Without Reason, as Beasts. 1 Of the Air, Fowls, Swans, Geese. 2 The Earth, Beasts, and creeping things, Horse, Lion, Dog, Worm. 3 The Water, Fishes of all sorts, Whales, Pikes, Eels, Oysters, Serpents, etc. Compounded of a created and increated Substance, in a mystery of marvellous union, Christ jesus, the Son of God and the Virgin. We have seen the Predicament of substance. Accident: b 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Now followeth Accidents. An Accident is a thing which dependeth upon a substance, for the essence and existence thereof. The word Accident is commonly used in a large sense, for all that betideth, chanceth, or cleaveth to any thing: but here it is more properly taken for that which cleaveth to a substance, and is no part thereof, and yet cannot be without the same. An Accident is either Absolute, having an absolute nature, as Relation. Quantity. Quality. Action. Passion. The Predicament of quantity, is that wherein the Generals 2 Quantity and Specials of it are orderly disposed. Note that in every Predicament there is the Material, or thing itself (which Logic doth but lightly touch, as belonging to another place) and the Formal or disposing, and Table of the thing, which is chief in all Predicaments. Quantity is that whereof the greatness or number of any thing is named. And therefore quantity is either continued, as greatness. dissevered, as number. 1 Greatness is extension, or stretching out, and is called Properly. 1 Improperly. Properly so called Extension is of the matter in a Natural Body, which therefore is said to be continued, and divisible. The Rules or Notes hereof be five. 1 Greatness hath a certain continuance and position of parts. 2 Greatness hath of itself no motion, or efficacy. 3 Unto it nothing is contrary; for contrarieties are in qualities. 4 It receiveth not more or less. As one house is not more or less a house than another, though one be a greater house than another. 5 Of greatness, the subject is said to be equal or uneequal; greatness or extension properly so called, is length, breadth, deepness or thickness; the beginning of all which is a point or prick. Length, is that which of the Mathematics is called a line. Breadth or latitude, is called the Superficies. Thickness or deepness is the threefold dimension, which is called also height, and of the Mathematics, Metaphoricè, a body. 2 Number or multitude is the gathering together of Unities. And unity is the beginning of number. Number is considered 2 Abstractly. a Concretely. b Abstractly considered, is that which is primarily in this a Predicament. As 2, 4, 10, etc. The Rules hereof be five. 1. 1 Number is not coupled with any common term, neither hath its parts endued with Position. As 3 and 7 are coupled with no common Term, though they concur to the making of 10. 2. 2. Of number, things are said to be even or odd. 3. 3. Number also as it is number, hath no force, no efficacy. 4. 4. Number of itself hath nothing contrary thereto. 5. 5. Number receiveth not more and less. Concretely considered Number here, is, things collective, which may be referred hither materially. As a Wood containeth many Trees, an Host many Soldiers, an heap many grains, etc. The Formal thing of this Predicament is the Table or Order of all Quantities: As, Quantity is taken either for Dissevered quantity or number, which is taken Continued extension, which is taken, either Unproperly, and by proportion, as Continuance of any thing: as in time the 〈◊〉 of durance. Extension of degree, called Intention, as one heat ● said to be greater than another. Extension of weight, or heaviness. Properly so called, which is the extension of a Body only, and it is either Incomplete, as Length or line, which is either Right or strait. Round or circular. Mixed of sundry sorts. Breadth, or superficies, which is either Right lined Of three sides. Of four sides. Of many sides. Crooked lined; As a circle. Mixed of right and crooked; As half a circle. Complete: the threefold dimension called a Body, which is either Regular, having basis, sides, corners, equal and like, as Pyramids, etc. Irregular, as a wedge, collar, etc. Largely, for any multitude of divers things, and ye call it Transcendental Number. Such as is the holy Trinity, in spirits, and other things that have no quantity. Strictly for a collection of discontinued quantities. It is called predicamental number, and considered Absolutely, and either it is Simple either Perfect, which is equal to his parts. Imperfect A bounding, which is lesser than the parts of it, as 12. Diminished which is greater than the parts, as 88 Again both perfect and imperfect is either Even when it may be divided into two equal parts & it is either A likely even, as 32. A likely odd, as 18. Unlikely even, as 12. Odd, which cannot be divided into two equal parts, and is either First, which unity only measureth, as 3, 5, 7. Compound, divided by 2, or more numbers, as 15. Mean as 9, which 3 only measureth; 25, which 5. Figured, which is either Plain, arising of the multiplication of one number by another, as seven times five are 35. Square, arising from multiplication of number into itself, as 25. Cubick, arising from a number led in itself, & that which comes of them multiplied again by the first number, as 125. Concretely, or determinately unto some subject to be numbered, as a flock, an host, a talon. Hexameter, for a verse of six feet. A Church, a Commonwealth, a City, an Oration, etc. The predicament of quality is, wherein the generals and Quality 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. specials thereof be disposed. The general Rules hereof be five. 1 Quality, is of all absolute antecedents, the most copious and frequent in Nature; for whatsoever we see, hear, ●aste, smell, feel, all of it is quality. 2 Of all accidents, quality is most accommodate to the sense. 3 Qualities only have contrariety. 4 Qualities have degrees, or more and less. And these 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. they have not in respect of the essence, or definition (which is no where varied) but in respect of the existence or singular cleaving to this or that subject, disposed so or so; So Faith in general in respect of the essence, is one and single, without degrees, but faith in this or that person, is greater or lesser, yet retaineth it the same essence and definition in all. For a weak faith, is yet Faith. The like is for other qualities, heat, cold, etc. 5 By reason of qualities, things are said to be like or unlike one another. As men of one colour are said to be alike, but of one stature they are said to be equal. Quality hath four kinds or specials▪ 1 Habit. 2 Natural power. 3 Sufferable quality. 4 Figure. 1 Habit is a quality brought into man, whereby he is liable unto those works which by Nature alone he cannot do. Here habit is taken properly and strictly, and not for every accidental form contrary to privation; nor for the habit and stature of the body, nor for apparel, or any general power, which sometime in a large use are called habits. The general Rules of Habit are two. 1 Unto Habit there is required a certain inclination going before, and a power of Nature. 2 Habit maketh easiness and cheerfulness in working aught. Habit is either begun. a full-ended. b 1 Begun, it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Disposition. Taken here strictly, though sometimes it is largely used for all fitness to any thing, or unfitness also for disposing and ordering parts in method, for degrees of every accident, as when water waxeth warm, it is said to have a disposition to heat. The Rules of disposition be two. 1 Disposition goeth before habit, as a Degree thereto. 2 It is more easily lost then is an habit. 2 Full-ended, or complete habit, is that which hath got his confirmation and compliment. And it is either infused, or gotten otherwise. Infused, is that which is shed by the singular grace of b the Holy Ghost into men's minds, as Faith, Love and other gifts of God. Got, is that which is gotten by the Humane Industry, precepts and often repetitions of Actions; As the Art of Logic, Rhetoric, etc. Natural power, is that which is in us by Nature: And is Active. Passive. Active, is that whereby we are able and apt to do. Passive is that by which we are apt to suffer or receive aught. Natural power also is either First. Second. The first power is that which next followeth from the form of the subject, [as in a natural body power to move in a man to speak, etc. The second power is a disposition of the temperature and instruments by which the first power is brought into act, [as a living creature hath not only the first power of seeing, flowing from the sensitive soul (which it retaineth always) but hath also a disposition of the eye, (which may lost) whereby one seeth clearer than another. Hereto belongs towardness of wit, strength of body, original sin, virtues of Herbs, Gems, etc. 3 Sofferable quality, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, is that which maketh suffering or passion in the senses, Or it may be called efficient quality, for it affects the senses, as sweet smells refreshes a man, and stenches annoy him. So cold and heat. 4 Figure or form is a certain configuration of the colour and lineament in the body, [it may be called Figure in respect of the lineaments and disposition; and Form in respect of the colour or light. And it is either Natural, Artificial. Natural is the figure which Nature gives every one. Artificial is the form which is given by Art: [as the Goldsmith puts Gold into the form of a Ring, Cup, or Chain, etc.] The rank and order of all qualities followeth. Quality properly so called, is either Potential. * Actual. ** Potential is either * Natural. Brought in, and it is called Habit. Natural is First. a Second. b First, which is either a Manifest, whose causes are manifest, as in a man, facility to learn, to laugh, etc. Hidden. Hidden, which is given to a thing, either by Proper temperature: As the Loadstone to draw Iron. Sympathy, as between the Vine and the Elm. Antipathy, as between the Olive and the Oak. Second, which is either b Common. Singular. Common is the natural disposition of the instruments which every first power needeth, if it should be brought into Act. Singular ariseth from the temperature of some persons; as wittiness, boldness, etc. Habit brought in, is either Incomplete, called Disposition. Complete, properly called Habit or Virtue. Complete Habit is either Extraordinary, such as was in the Prophets and Apostles, and by the image of God in man before his fall. Ordinary. Ordinary Habit or Virtue, is either Speculative. m Operative. n Speculative, is either m In Part, as opinion and knowledge of some conclusion. Totall. Total or Aggregative, peculiarly called Science, which is either 1 Metaphysic: Or a Physic, under which is Astronomy. 3 Mathematic, under which is Geometry, Arithmetic, Optic, Music, etc. Operative is either n Practic. A Factive. B Practic is A More perfect. a More imperfect. b More perfect, by the special help of the holy Ghost. And is either a Total. h In part. i Total or Aggregative is considered h Absolutely, called Theologie. Relatively, called church-policy. In part, is called spiritual Virtue, and is i General. Special. General, and the common directive of all other virtues; which are 1 Religion, Love, fear of God, etc. 2 Love of our neighbours. 3 Universal Justice. 4 prudency. Special, and it is ordered towards Ourselves. Another. For ourselves: To rule: The appetite and pleasure, by Temperance. Anger, by Meekness. Fear, by Fortitude, Patience, etc. To another God. Our Neighbour. Towards God, Worship, Prayer, Profession, Swearing by him, etc. Towards our Neighbour Superior: Reverence, Obedience. Equal: Particular Justice, Peace, Concord, Kindness, etc. Inferior: Gentleness, Mercy, Liberality, &c More imperfect, by general Grace of God, and for this life; and is also Total. In part. Total & Aggregative, & is either Absolute: Ethics, or moral virtue. Relative, unto The Common-weal, Politics, Law. Families, as Economics. In part, commonly called moral virtue, and is General, directing others, as Universal Justice. Prudency. Special, which is Absolute. In conversation: Absolute, about Fear, Fortitude, Pleasure, Temperance, Riches, Liberality, Magnificence, Honours, Modesty, Magnanimity, Anger, Meekness. In conversation, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, as is Gentleness. Kindness. Justice particular. Urbanity. Commutative. Distributive. Factive, called Art, & is either E More worthy or Liberal. a Less worthy or Mechanical. b Liberal a Is Directive. Or Principal. Directive and instrumentary, Governing the Speech by Forming it Grammatically. Adorning it Rhetorically. Poetry. Reason, Logic. Principal, as Medicine: under it Surgery. Apothecary Art: Mechanical, which is profitable to live either b 1 Absolutely. 2 Commodiously. 3 Comely. 4 Pleasantly. 1 Absolutely: As, 1 A Midwife's Art, 2 Husbandry, 3 Shepherdy, 4 Hunting, Fishing, Fowling. 5 milner's Art. 6 Baking, Brewing, Butchery, etc. 2 Commodiously, of which some be 1 As the Art of Printing. 2 Warfare 3 Building, 4 Book-binding. 5 Merchandise. Mean, As 1 About Metals, Minerals, Smiths, etc. 2 About Wood, Carpenters, Joiner's, etc. 3 About Wool, Clothmakers, etc. Tailors. 4 About Stones, as Stone-hewing, etc. Base. As Curriers, Shoemakers, Saddlers, Barbers, etc. 3 Comely, as 1 The art of Painting, 2 Carving, 3 Graving, etc. 4 Pleasantly, as the art of 1 Singing and Minstrel●●e, 2 Dancing, 3 Gaming, etc. Actual quality is either ** Affecting the Senses 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, a Conforming. b Affecting is a First. Second. The first is either More effectual, as Light. Cold. Heat. Less effectual, as Moistness. Dryness. The Second ariseth of the first: either Neat: as Thinness, Thickness, Lightness, Heaviness, Softness, Hardness, Smoothness, Roughness, slipperiness, clamminess, Dryness. Further off: as, 1 Taste, 2 Smell, 3 Colour, 4 Sound: 1 Taste, which is either Hot: as Acrimony, Bitterness, Saltness, Sweetness, Fatness. Cold: as Sourness, Austerity, Tartness. 2 Smell Simple. Sweet or stinking. Mixt. 3 Colour, which is either Intentional, as they that appear in a Glass. the Rainbow. Real and true, and is either Simple. Mixt. Simple as Whiteness. Blackness. Mixed of the former two either Exactly, as redness, Inequally, with one of the First & redness, and that either exceeding Saffron- Colour Purple. wanting as Yellow- Colour Greenness. 4 Sound, which is Direct. Reflexive, as the Echo. Direct is either, 1 Simple, as high and low, or 2 Mixed, as the mean. Conforming, b called form and figure, which is either Natural in bodies Unperfect, as Meteors in the Air. Perfect, as in Plants, Beasts, etc. Artificial, as the figure of a Garment, Table, Sword, etc. Action. Action, is the agitation or stirring of a substance, and as it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 were, the flowing out and execution of the forces thereof. The Rules are four. 1 Every Action is taken in hand, and finished to some End. 2 Every Action is before the Passion, in order of Nature and dignity: whereupon it is better always to give than to receive. 3 Action taketh contrariety: Not of itself, but by and for the qualities, by means of which the Agent acteth. As heating and cooling are two contrary actions, because heat and cold are contrary. 4 Action receiveth more and less. In the same respect as before. Action is either Immanent and tarrying. Transient and passing. Immanent, is which inferreth no real & evident change, outward, such is understanding, willing, perceiving. Transient is, which inferreth a change indeed, as warming, cooling, burning etc. Whereby the Patient is changed. Also Action is either Dividuall. Individual. Dividuall, which is distinguished as with certain parts of the progress Individual, which hath not many parts of progress. So forgiveness of sins is an Individual Action; for it is done in a time inobserveable, but sanctification and regeneration is a divided Action; for it is done by degrees and successively in the Elect in this life. A Table of Actions followeth. An Action is either Of God. a Of a creature. b Of God; either Inward. Outward, Inward or Absolute, not terminate to creatures, and is Essential, proceeding from Absolute Essential properties. Personal proceeding from personal properties, as Generation. Mission. ● Outward referred to the creatures, and is Commune. A Proper. B Commune to the three persons, and is General. c Special. d A General pertaining to all Creatures indifferently, and is Ordinary, as the Creation, Conservation, Government of the World. Extraordinary, or miraculous. Extraordinary, when things are either Perfected, as raising up the dead, healing diseases. Hindered, as the staying of the Sun Josh. 10. of the fire, Dan. 3. Used for that which is not of their Nature, as a rock to send forth water: a Virgin to conceive, etc. Special, pertaining to some creatures, as Election to B life, calling to Grace, Redemption, Justification, etc. Proper to some certain Person, as The Father to send the Son. The Son take our Nature, and be our Mediator. The Holy Ghost to illuminate and sanctify. A Creatures action b on is either of a Spiritual, Creature. Temporal, Creature. 1 Spiritual, which is General, or common to all, as local motion. Special of Angels. A reasonable soul, such as it doth apart from the body. Angels Good, as praising of God, executing his Commandments, etc. Evil, as afflicting, and tempting of creatures. 2 Corporal, which is Superior, and more worthy, as in the heaven. Circular motion Illumination by stars: Inferior. Circular motion Illumination by stars: Inferior in General, & is either Alteration. Local motion rightforth either Pulsion or driving: Traction or drawing. Vection or carrying. Special. In special, of Elements, which have their alteration and motion local. Mixed things. Of mixed things that be Without life, as all operations, mineral and metallical without life or living. Of living things in General. Special. In the general, as be either Nourishment, under which be Growth. Generation taken actively. In special, of Plants, as the operations of herbs, trees, etc. Animals or living Creatures. Animals or living creatures General. a Special. b In general, Sense, actively taken Inward Common sense. ● Phantasie actively taken. Outward more worthy, as Seeing. Hearing. less worthy, as Touching Smelling, Tasting. Appetite Actively taken under which is Desire of Food. of Generation. Affection 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Respiration and local going. In special Of Man. a Of brute Beasts. b b a Man, whose actions are Natural. Habitual. Natural Inward, as be the 1 Understanding The apprehension of simple things, composition, and division. 2 Remembering The apprehension of simple things, composition, and division. Discourse Syllogistical. Methodical. 3 Willing, Outward, as speaking, laughing, weeping, Speculation 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, contemplation of the Heavens, and other Natural things. Practices, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Sacred Common, as praying to God, loving of our Neighbour, etc. Ecclesiastical, as preaching, ministering the Sacraments, etc. Moral as Comm●on to exercise Temperance, Meekness, etc. Special Political, to govern a Commonwealth, etc. Oeconomical, to rule the house, bring up children, etc. Faction, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 More worthy, as to read, write, dispute, heal the sick, etc. Less worthy, as to wove, spin, etc. Of Brute beasts, which are divers, according to the b diversity of kinds in Beasts. Of Passion. Passion is the receiving of an Action. The Canons hereof are three. 1 Passion, is received not so much by the condition of the Agent, as by the disposition of the Patient. So, many Passions and effects of the holy Ghost are imperfect, because of us which receive them, not for the condition of the holy Ghost. 2 Passion receiveth contrariety. 3 Passion receiveth more and less. Passion is either. 1 Transmutative, or 2 Intentional. 1 Transmutative, when some real change is made in the Patient. 2 Intentional, when no real change is made, but only a Termination of the Action. Thus a coloured thing is said to suffer, because it receiveth & terminateth the sight. Some call this Spiritual and Logical Passion. The Table of Passion followeth. Passion is Perfective. a Defective. b Perfective of the Creatures, either In general Ordinary, as Government Passive Sustentation Passive In special, Extraordinary, as the Sun staye● from moving. In special, of Spirits. Bodies. Of Spirits, as of the Good Angels, which have their passions, joy in God, anger against his Foes, etc. Holy souls, which also have joy, etc. By which they are perfected. Of Bodies, and these Superior, as Heaven, whose circular motion is a kind of passion. Inferior, and this is either In General, as all alteration and motion Passive. In Special. In Special, as of the Elements, in which is mutual alteration. Mixed Bodies. Of mixed bodies, which be either Common, as to be heated, cooled, moistened, dried, boiled, etc. Special, of things without life, as passions of Metals, etc. with life. With life In general, as Nourishment increasing. In special. In special either of Plants, as the Passions of herbs, etc. Animals, or things with soul. Animals in General. m Special. n m In general, as the Sense, inward and outward, passive. Appetite either Desire 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of Food Dry, as hunger. Moist, as thirst. Generation, as Lust. Affections 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Approving and following Common, as Pleasure. Special of good Present, as joy, love. Future, as desire. Eschewing and flying Common, as Dolour. Special of evil present, as sorrow, anger. future, as fear. In special Of Brute beasts. Of Man. * * Of man either Adventitial, as to learn, to receive habit Theoretical. Engrafted. Engraft Outward, as weeping, laughter passive. Inward. Inward Receiving of Intellectual Species, etc. Reasonable appetite, or will Approving and following either Common, as humane pleasure. Special of good Past, as a good conscience. Present, love, joy. Future, hope, desire. Shunning Grief of mind Special either of Terrible 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ones own Present heaviness. Future fear. Another's mercy. Indignity, as shame. Defective & privative in Spirits Evil Angels, as hatred of God and good men, despair, envy, joy in evil. Torments. Souls of Reprobates, despair, pains eternal. Bodies Heavenly, as Eclipses of Sun and and Moon. Inferior things In general, Corruption. In special mixed things Generally, Rottenness. Specially in living things In general Diseases of death intemperateness Hot, pestilent, Ague, Apoplexy, Epilepsy, mixed, the joint ague. 2 Ill conformation, as of parts out of joint. Solution of that which is continued. As wounds, impostumes, etc. In special in men all commonly Evil concupiscence, terrors of conscience for sin. Calamities, as punishments. Specially the Reprobates, as Despair, Torments. Relation. We have seen the Order of Absolute Accidents: now followeth Relation, which is the Union of two or more. The Canons hereof are six. 1 Every Relation is more unworthy than any Absolute Accident, and in Nature after it. For Relation is not a thing real by itself, but by the foundation of it, that is, either the subject, or the efficient cause; for every real thing added to another, maketh composition▪ but Relation added to a Subject, makes no composition; for in God be many Relations, but in him is no Composition. So the name of a Doctor or Captain, given to a man, is nothing but a vain title and shadow, except there be qualities of Learning, Virtue, Fortitude. Also Relation may be taken from a Subject, it remaining safe as it was. So relation of the Sacrament may be taken from the water, and yet be water still. So in us after forgiveness of sins, there remains Original sin, as touching the material thereof, that is, inclination to evil; though the formal of it, that is, guiltiness, be taken away by God's gracious imputation. 2 Relations do in company and multitude exceed all Absolute Accidents: for infinite references are added both to qualities, and all other Accidents. All disciplines are full of References. In Theology, all Doctrines have relation, as of sin, of the Law, of the Mediator, of the Persons in the Trinity, of Sacraments, of Miracles, etc. 3 Relation by itself is not perceived by the senses. As a man sees a stone in the field, but knows not whether it be a Dool stone, unless he be admonished of it. Abimelech saw Sarah to be a fair woman, but could not see her to Abraham's wife. The Relate and the Correlate, as they are such, are together both in Nature and knowledge, and so mutually do put or take away one another, as well in being as in knowing. So the Father and the Son, as they are Relate and Correlate, are together, though materially: as the Father is a man, he must needs be before his Son. Hereupon Christ saith, He that knoweth me, knoweth the Father. 5 Every Correlate doth so answer to his Relate, that the one may be said to be of the other So Adam was the Father of Cain, and Cain the son of Adam. 6 Relations need no local Touching for the bringing in or conservation of themselves. As a Father being in England, may have a son born in France. Christ now bodily in Heaven, hath true and real union and eleaving with his members on Earth. The same body hath also true and real union Sacramental with the Bread in the Lord's Supper. So as there needs no Popish Transubstantiation. Moreover, the Term of the Relation is not to be tied to the Relate, as the Communion with the substance and benefits of Christ, is not to be tied to the bread and wine in the Supper; nor the washing away of sins, to water in Baptism. The Table of Relations Followeth. Relation is either Natural, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. a By Institution, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. b a Natural which is either 1 Of Measure, either Inward and productive, as is every cause: hither may be referred the degrees of Kindred, which is either Outward, Ruling: as every Rule, Square, etc. Adjacent. Place. Time. Primary, as Degrees of consanguinity in a line. Right, as great Grandfather, Grandfather, Father, Son, etc. Sideloong, Equal, as Brother▪ Sister. Unequal, as Uncle, etc. Secondary, as degrees of affintiy, Father in Law, Son in Law, etc. 2 Of Convenience. 3 Of Difference. 4 Of Disposition. 2 Of convenience, or, Agreement, and this either in Substance, called (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) the selfsame absolutely. Quantity, called (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) equality and proportion: Quality, called (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) similitude. Representation, called Signification, and all Natural Signs. 3 Of Difference; as diversity and opposition of things. 4 Of Disposition; or order and situation in the world and worldly bodies. b By Institution, either Divine. A Humane. B A Divine, which is either Of Power, General as the Regiment of the world. Law of Nature. Special, as touching. The Church, as the Regiment of the Church. The head of the Church, Christ Christ the Mediator. Prophet. Priest. King. The Ministers of the Church, to Preach. Minister Sacraments, etc. Of Conjunction, as The Law. The Gospel. Of Confirmation, as touching. Temporal things, as the Rainbow. Spiritual, as God's Word, which is a sign formally considered. Figures or Types. Sacraments. Old; Circumcision, Passeover, New; Baptism, Lord's Supper. B Humane which is either Of Power, and Office, and Dignity. Greater, as Kingdom, King, Prince, Duke, Earl, Consul, etc. Lesser, as Master, Tutor etc. Of Convention or Consent. To be rightly, as is Marriage. State of the Commonwealth. Monarchy. Aristocracy. Democraciy. To be well, as are Societies and Confederacies, Contracts, Covenants, Testaments, Obligations, etc. Contracts specially so called, and are either Named Borrowing, Lending, Trusting, Pawning; Buying, Selling. Un-named. Of collation, either. Distinction and Disposition: Armies, Order▪ and Method of Diciplines. signification Vocal, as all Towns formally. Real Simple, as signing or confirming, Seal, Diadem, Sceptre etc. Soldier Coats, Badges, etc. Pawns and Pledges Limits, Bounds, etc. Hitherto of the principal Predicaments; now follow the less principal, in which only things by accident and secondarily so called, are disposed. And they be four. When, Where, Situation, Habit. The Predicament When, is that wherein are placed things in the Concrete, noting the manner or circumstance of the 7 When. time. Hereunto belong Ages, Infancy, Youth, Old age, parts of the year, Summer, Winter, Spring, Autumn, Morning, Noon, Night, etc. Also the Concretes of Ages, as a Child, an Old man, etc. The Predicament Where, is that wherein are placed 8 Where. things in the concrete, noting the manner or circumstance of place. As Europe, Germany, England, an English man, a Londoner, an Islander, a Seaman, etc. All Countries and their Inhabitants. The Predicament of Situation, is that wherein are placed 9 Situation. things in the concrete, noting the certain position and order of the parts of the body. As standing, sitting, lying upright, grovelling, etc. The Predicament of Habit, is that, wherein are placed 10. Habit. things in the concrete, noting some artificial Adherent. As armed, cloaked, booted, spurred, with a breastplate, etc. Of the Cause. We have seen the Order of things: now followeth the Term without that Order, which is no degree of the Predicamental rank. And it is either Inward. a a And it is either Outward. b b Inward, is that which inwardly cleaveth with another. a a Inwards, be the Cause, the Caused, the Subject, the Accident, the Whole, the Part. A Cause, is that whereon the thing caused doth depend. 'Cause 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. And so it differeth from a beginning, which hath not always respect of dependence; as God the Father, may be said to be the beginning of the Son, but not the cause; for the cause and the caused differ in essence, which the Persons in the Trinity do not, The Canons of the Cause are three. 1 Every Cause is before his thing caused, in order of nature, of knowledge, and dignity. 2 As without a cause nothing is done, so also without it nothing is distinctly known. Therefore God is without Cause; for he is not made, nor done, but existeth of himself. 3 There is a certain Order of Causes, neither is there granted in them a Proceeding to infinite. There be four Causes. The Efficient, the Matter, the Form, the End. The efficient Cause, is that whereon the effect dependeth, and is By itself. m By accident. n Efficient by itself, is that whereon the effect dependeth m by itself. The Canons hereof be three. 1 No Efficient doth in vain, but all for some certain End. 2 The same Efficient Cause, as it is the same, always doth the same thing. Idem, quà idem, semper facit idem. 3 The Efficient Cause, properly so called, doth not effect but some good thing in itself. For evil things are not things properly, but defects of things. A Thief puts forth his hand to take another man's goods; this moving of itself proceeds from the soul that moveth, but the misorder [〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉] in this motion, is not from the soul. So the theft is not properly an effect, but a defect and ataxy in the motion, proceeding from the ataxy of the appetite. Moreover the Efficient cause, as it is a cause, is always a simple thing: so when a man is said to be the cause of his own accidents, properly he is not the cause, but the subject that hath the cause; and things are spoken of him, not as effects but accidents. A man is not the cause of laughter, but the commotion of the heart and midriff by some ridiculous object known; neither is a man the cause of the faculty of laughter, but a reasonable soul. The Efficient is of itself divided by 1 The Force and the manner. of Effecting. 2 The order of Effecting. 1 Of the force of effecting, it is Principal▪ Less Principal. Principal, whereon the effect princicipally dependeth, and s Solitary. Partaking. Solitary, is that which hath alone the chiefty in producing 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. the effect, and is therefore called the total cause 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. As Samson was the sole cause of carrying away the Philistines gates. Christ, the whole or only cause of Man's Redemption. Partaking, is, which not alone, but with others hath the chiefty in producing the effect, and is called partial, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. And it is partaking or sociated, either 1 Necessarily, or 2 Contingently, 1 Necessarily sociated, are, when all of them together are needful, if the effect should be produced. 2 Contingently sociated, are, when there is not need of All, etc. So a man and a woman are causes necessarily sociated in producing a child. Again, six-horses may for more pomp be joined together in drawing a chariot, when two or three are sufficient. Less Principal, is that whereon the effect less principally dependeth. And it is either, 1 Impulsive: or 2 Instrumental. Impulsive, is that which impelleth or moveth the principal agent, to do. And it is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which within moveth to do. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which outwardly moveth to do▪ Occasion. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, is always a cause within the Efficient himself; but, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, is without the Efficient cause. So of our Justification, the principal Cause is God. The cause Proegumene, is God's good will and love; for these move God in himself to forgive us ou● si●s. The Cause Procatactick, is likewise obedience and merit, whereby outwardly he is provoked to take us into favour, seeing his Justice is satisfied for us. So in an Ague, the Proëgumenon is some corrupt humour in the veins; the Pr●cata●cticon is outward heat of the Sun, or the Northern wind, whereby the pores are stopped, and the humour boileth. 2 Instrumental, is that which is taken of the principal cause, to produce the effect, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Canons hereof are two. 1 The whole Instrument serveth for the Action of the Principal Agent, by whom it is directed. Therefore when it serveth not the principal Agent, it loseth the Nature of an Instrument. As men when they oppose themselves to God's Commands and Rule, are not Gods Instruments, but the Devils. Hereupon note, that an Instrument taketh the determination of his action from his principal Agent. As Ink of its own nature blotteth the Paper, but it fashioneth no letter, unless the Writer guideth the Pen. The whole force of an Instrument consists in the use; for than it is in Act a cause, when it is caused; but when it is idle, it is not an Instrument, but some other thing. Instruments have no dignity of themselves, but of the principal cause, and serve not but in use and work; when the principal Agent can use them no more, they are no longer called Instruments, but 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 by homonymy. And all Instruments▪ because they are indeterminate, are therefore 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, i. e. such as one may use well or ill: as a sword, riches (called of their use 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉.) An Instrument is either Co-operative, Passive. Co-operative, is that which by an inward force together is moved in producing the effect. As a servant is an Instrument used by his Master, yet so as he also moveth himself. So the Creatures, though they be instruments in respect of God, yet have they their action distinct from Gods. As Paul calleth Ministers Gods co-workers 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Unto such instruments often is given the efficacy of the principal Agent, as Preachers are said to convert and save souls when the Lord doth these by them; so Baptism is said to regenerate, etc. by an improper predication; whereof hereafter in the second Book. Passive is, that moveth not itself at all, in producing the effect; as the earth under us is an instrument of walking, so a copy to write on other things, or a pattern: some instruments are necessary, some not, as God useth Angels, etc. when as he needeth them not. And it is true the principal efficient cause worketh well by evil instruments, to wit when it needs not the instruments. As God made Joseph▪ Ruler of Egypt by his envious brethren; and by Balaam blessed his people; otherwise in necessary instruments such commonly is the action of the principal doer, as is the instrument; so a man cutteth ill if he have a blunt knife; rideth ill if he have a lame horse, etc. Also in divine things, often instruments do move, but it is all one as if they moved not; for the force of the effect is not in them. So Moses staff was moved at the dividing of the Red-sea, but this motion caused not the Sea to part, save only in a similitude. So Peter's shadow, Acts 5. Paul's napkins, Acts 19 had of themselves no force to heal the sick. Also the efficient cause is either Natural. a Voluntary. b Natural is, which of the readiness and necessity of Niture a bringeth forth the effect. As fire of necessity naturally burneth, etc. The Canons hereof are two. 1 A Natural cause is properly determined unto one of the Opposites; As fire naturally is carried upward, not downward, only heateth and cooleth not. The Loadstone draweth iron to it, and doth not both draw and drive it away. 2 A Natural cause doth not add a certain moderation and dilation of the action, but it worketh to the utmost of his power; as fire when it hath fuel, burneth without measure. 3 A voluntary cause is, which doth of certain foreknowledge b and counsel. The Canons hereof be three. 1 A Voluntary cause is free and indifferent to an action; 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 so as it may do or may not do. And freedom is twofold. 1 of Contradiction, and 2 of Contrariety; the first is, when a cause may do or not do; and so every voluntary cause is simply free. But liberty of contrariety is again. 1 Natural, or 2 Moral. Natural when contrary natural effects proceed, as a Physician may use medicines, cooling or heating. Moral is, when men may effect things good or evil, honest or dishonest. 2 A voluntary cause doth by certain moderation; and, at his pleasure, can suspend the action, though occasion be given of doing. So God gives not all his gifts to one, or always punisheth, but deferreth, etc. at his pleasure. Again, a voluntary cause is free either Merely. After a sort. Merely free, which with full appetite willeth and produceth the effect: And it is called, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. After a sort free, which willeth and produceth the effect, but with an heavy and sorrowful appetite. As in a tempest, a Merchant casts his goods into the Sea to escape Shipwreck. Moreover, the efficient cause is either Transmutative. Emanative. Transmutative, which doth with some notable change or motion: as when fire worketh on water and heateth it, etc. Emanative, when the effects flow without any notable change: as, from the soul flow forth the powers of sense, understanding, speaking, etc. From the Sun comes light, and yet in the soul or Sun is no change. 2 We have seen of the 1 force or manner of effecting; now follow the divisions of 2 the orders of effecting. The efficient cause is subordinate either Essentially. m Contingently. n Essentially, when the inferior doth of itself, and necessarily m depends on the superior in effecting: as in Generation, a man depends on the Sun. The Canons hereof be three. 1 In causes of themselves subordinate, there is not granted 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. a proceeding to infinite; for subordination presupposeth order, and order resisteth infiniteness. 2 Of causes subordinate, the inferior in causing, hangs on the superior. 3 In causes essentially subordinate, that which is cause of a cause, is the cause of the thing caused. This is true only in causes essentially subordinate, but false in contingently subordinate; for God is not the cause of sin, though he be the cause of man's will; which causeth sin, for will is not, o● it, self and as it is will, the cause of sin (for then it should sin always) but as it hath defect; so the nature of the horse is not the cause of halting, though it be the cause of motion. Causes subordinate be either First. a Second. b First is that which hath the highest place in the Order of a causing; and it is either, 1 simply first, or 2 after a sort. 1 Absolutely first is, which in no respect is second; as only God. 2 After a sort first, is that which is first in a certain kind only: as in the moving of living Creatures, the soul is the first cause whereon all other causes and effects in such creatures depend. The second cause, is that which hangeth on the first, either b Mediate or Immediate. Mediate, when others do come between it and the last effect: It is called, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, cause in power, for putting it, the last effect is not yet, but only may be. And this mediate cause is either Farr off. Or near. Far off, when many come between it and the last effect: as the motion of Heaven is a cause far off of man's walking, etc. For many other causes come between. This pertains not to the first cause, God; for he is not far from every one, Acts. 7. 27. but he walks immediately with every created Agent. Near is, when one only comes between it and the effect: as the lifting up of vapours unto the clouds, is a near cause of rain; for one only comes between, even the resolution of the cloud. Immediate cause is, which produceth the effect by immediate and next force, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Canons hereof be five. First, The next cause presupposeth all the causes farther off. 2 The next cause being granted, needs must the effect be granted or taken away, when it is taken away. For the next cause is the cause in Act, and therefore cannot want an effct, any more than a father can want a child. So then they greatly err, which strive, that the essential Proprieties may be taken away, the forms of the subjects remaining safe, whereas the form of the subject is the next cause of all those properties that are in the subject. 3 One effect hath but one next cause, though it may have many effects. 4 By the next cause, Accidents are distinctly and perfectly known. 5 The next cause is enquired, both by sense and observation, and by the Examen of Logic: these two Instruments God hath given men to find out the next causes, chiefly of Natural effects. The next cause, is either Inward. Outward. Inward, which is essential to the subject unto whom it produceth the effect. So forms are always next causes of many faculties in subjects, as a reasonable soul is the next cause of laughing, speaking, etc. Outward, which is without the Essence of that subject, to whom it produceth the effect; so the next cause of laughter, is a moving of the heart and midriff by some ridiculous object known; and this is called outward, because it is neither the form, nor matter, though it be in man. Contingently subordinate causes, are when the Inferior b hangs not on the superior of its self, and its own Nature. As man depends on the Sun, and the picture depends on man; but because this picture depends not on him as a man or natural thing, but as he is an Artificer only, therefore the picture is subordinate to the Sun contingently; So is it for man's will and sin; for though sin hang on the will, yet because it hangs not on it according to the preferment of nature, and as it is will, but as it is corrupted, therefore are they subordinate contingently. Hitherto of a cause by its self; now followeth a cause ” 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 by accident, which is either in 1 Natural, or 2 Voluntary Agents. First, the Natural Agent; That is called a cause by accident, which brings not forth the effect of its own Nature, but by something that happens to it; as an Ague causeth temperance, not of its self, but by accident; for of itself the cause is the will, bridling the appetite. So knowledge puffeth up; The Law causeth wrath, for it lighteth on them that cannot keep it. 2 In voluntary Agents, cause by accident is, which brings forth an effect besides the intent and purpose, or by ignorance: as a man cutting wood, his Ax-head flies off, and kills his neighbour unawares. Thus Judas, Pilate, and the Jews were causes,, by accident of Christ's Passion and man's Redemption; for they never purposed, nor thought of such a good effect. Hither belongs Fortune, which sometime is taken largely for any chance: as when a glass falleth, and by fortune is not broken: sometime strictly taken, Fortune is the cause voluntary by accident, of that effect which one knew not, meant not, nor hoped for: as a man digging or ploughing the ground, finds a bag of gold. Thus many things amongst men may be said to be done by fortune or luck, not in respect of God the first Cause, but in respect of secondary causes. The Canons of causes by Accident, as well Natural as Voluntary, be four. 1 One end of the same thing may be a cause, both by accident and by its self, in a divers respect: as the Gospel by its self is the cause of Conversion, by accident the cause of hardening. 2 Every effect of a cause by accident, is reduced to a cause by its self. And thus all chances of Fortune, are to be reduced unto God. 3 Things that be done by chance or fortune, be rare, but of causes by themselves many and often. 4 Causes by accident are infinite and inordinate [〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Some make it a kind of cause, Sine qua non, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. But it needs not; for such causes may be referred to instruments, or some other before. The matter next followeth, which is either Properly so called. 2 Matter. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Improperly so called. First, properly so called, is Principal. a Less principal. b Principal, which is only matter, and in no respect compounded. Second, which so is matter, as it is also a material compound. As a man's body is the matter of a man, though it be all compounded of Elements. The Canons hereof be two. First, every second matter depends on the first, viz. in a certain Order of Nature. 2 Every second matter is necessarily determined in a certain quantity to one only and certain form: So the matter of a man is only determined to a reasonable soul, and cannot receive any unreasonable, and so in all other creatures; that vain is the M 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or transamination of Pythagoras, the Jews, etc. Hereby is confirmed the doctrine of the Resurrection, when every one shall receive the same body and soul. The second matter is either Far off. Near. Far off, which makes a compound, others coming between. So an humane body is the next matter of a man. Less principal is that, whereof it being changed and not b remaining, a thing is made; Called therefore matter, passing away, whereas the other is permanent: so seed is the matter passing away of living Creatures; for it is changed, and as it were perished before the constitution of the body. And it is either Far off, when things are made of it from far. Near, whereof a thing is next made. As of meat and drink a man is engendered afar off, for of it is blood, & of blood seed, but seed is the next matter. Matter improperly so called, is in a similitude, and by Analogy or proportion called matter. The Canons hereof be three. 1 That which Artizens work on in their Art, and are occupied about, is called matter. As the matter of the Goldsmith, is gold and silver: The matter of Idols, is silver, gold, wood, or stone, etc. 2 The Notion of matter is also often given to Accidents: so three Propositions are called the matter of a syllogism. The two Tables the matter of Gods Law. 3 The name of Matter is also given to a subject wherein the accident is; and the Object about which the Action of a thing is busied. The form answereth to the matter, and is so called Properly. m 3 Form. Improperly. n m Form, properly so called, is a cause that with the Matter constituteth a substantial compound or body: it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: And the substantial Form. The General Rules hereof be seven. 1 Every form properly called is a substance. 2 The form is the chiefest part of the essential compound, whereby it is constituted, and essentially distinguished from all others: Every thing is named not of the matter, but of the form: hereupon the form is called Act; for the Antecedent matter is not in esse, but in power, till the form come; and this the Greek name 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 meaneth. 3 Unto the Form are due properly the operations of every compounded thing. The form being put, three things are put: 1 the being of a thing, 2 the distinction of it. 3 the operation; and he that grants the form, grants the consequences of it, that is, the proper operations. 4 The Form in a divers respect, assumes the relation of the efficient cause and end. Of the efficient in respect of the powers that flow from it, and operations in which the powers cease; and of the end, in respect of the begetter and disposer, who intends nothing but the consequences of the Form. 5 Every Form is more perfect than the matter, and according to Nature's scope, before it: wherefore the form is called species, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 6 The Form by itself comes not into the senses; because it is not endued with qualities, which are the Objects of senses: therefore man who begins to understand by sense, is very ignorant of forms, and their names; by reason whereof our knowledge is like the shadow in the Sun. 7 The Form is not varied by degrees, nor increaseth it by its self, though the whole compound be varied in quantity. For the Form consists in indivisibility; it is like a number, which if one add to, or take from it, it continueth not the same it was before. Form is either First. Second. First Form is, which in Order goes before all other: in Order I say, not of intention, but of generation: This also is called the first beginning active, and the common form of all bodies and Nature. Second Form is that which follows the first; called also the inferior and the particular Form, as Nature is called the Universal Form. The Canons hereof be two. First, The second Form is not united to the Matter, unless the matter be rightly disposed and prepared. Secondly, A certain and specifical Form, is determined to a certain matter, so as it cannot be communicated with another, nor go out of one unto another, nor be together in two disjoined Matters. men's souls cannot go into the bodies of beasts, etc. Form, improperly so called is either Natural or Artificial, n 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Arist. 2. Phys. cap. 1 of which we have spoken in the Predicament of quality. In a most general signification, Privation sometime is called a form: so every relation in Philosophy is called form and formal; as the formal thing of a Syllogism, is, the order of knitting the three Propositions, which are the Material. What formal difference is, shall be showed after in distinction. The End is, that unto which the Efficient is ordained. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. End is diversely taken, as for the last or utmost of any thing; here properly we treat of the End of intention, called also the scope. End is either End. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. By itself. A * ● By Accident. B An end by itself, is that whereunto the efficient and A * means of their own Nature are ordered: And it is either so called Primarily. a Secondarily. b Primarily, which the Efficient intendeth to attain [called a Finis, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, i. e. cujus.] The General Rules hereof be six. 1 The End moveth the efficient to do; therefore is it called the cause of causes; for Matter without Form is rude. Form, if there want the preparing and efficient cause, is not brought into the matter; but the efficient worketh not, if it be not moved with desire; so without the end, no cause is caused. 2 The end by itself and in its own Nature, is only good and of good. So an End and Good are convertible; for the end is that which we most would: what we most would, is most to be desired, and desire naturally is always ordered to good. All vice wanteth both efficient and end. 3 Whatsoever hath an efficient cause, hath also an end. 4 The end is both cause and effect, in a divers respect; so the celebrating of God's Name, is man's action and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and yet is also the end of man. 5 The end, as it is an end, is also before and better than the means: before it, not in order of production, but of perfection and intention: So Justification is before Faith, though also it be gotten by Faith. I say also (as it is an end) for otherwise as touching the absolute essence, the means may be as perfect, or more. Christ's incarnation and office, hath greater perfection than man's Redemption, absolutely considered. 6 The end and the efficient are causes each of other: the end causeth the efficient, as touching causality, not as touching being, and not causality. Walking before meat is the efficient cause of health, and health is the end or final cause of such walking. The end is either Principal. * 1 Less principal. * 2 * 1 Principal, unto which a thing is ordered of its own nature, and by first intent of the efficient: as the principal end of the Lords Supper is the confirmation of Faith, and sealing up of Spiritual benefits, with a thankful remembrance of Christ's death. And it is either A mean between. a Last of all. b A mean between, is, which tendeth yet further. As the a intermiddle end of a Soldier, is to fight valiantly; but this tends to a further end, to get the victory. And it is either Work. Ending of the work. The work 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 is a certain thing brought forth by Nature, or by the Artizen: so the house is the end and work of the builder. The ending of the work 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, is the possession and use thereof. As dwelling is the ending of the house. The last end is whereunto all the rest are ordered, called b 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the first scope and chief intention. The Canons hereof are seven. 1 The end, which is last in execution, is first in intention. 2 The last end is necessarily and chiefly good, and chiefly moving or to be desired, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Galen. 3 In the last end, both appetite and operation of the efficient is terminate. 4 It gives to all the means, loveliness; order and measure: So tribulations for the Gospel are joyful, because the end is eternal life. 5 Only the last end perfecteth both doer and deeds: wherefore we must know the last end, if we would intend and use the middle end aright; which is against Popish Doctrine of perfection of virtues, even without respect of the last End. Bellarm▪ 5. de great. cap. 9 6 The End being put, all means to the end are put: As, in God's predestination, whom God hath destinated to Life, he hath also to Faith in good works. 7 The End entereth the manner of being, and supplieth places of Form, viz. in those things whose essential perfection is in operation. The last end, is last either Simply. After a sort. Simply last, which in respect of all things whatsoever is the last: and this is always the end, and never a mean to the end; so the seeing and celebrating of God is the last and utmost end wherein man's understanding, will, and desires, shall rest, Prov. 8. After a sort last, which in order of some things is the last: thus the last end of War is Victory and Peace; the last end of Logic, is the direction of the mind in knowledge. The less principal end, is, whereto things are less principally * 2 ordered, viz. not of the nature of the thing, but the appointment of the Agent: So the principal End of the Lords Supper, is, a faithful and thankful remembrance of Christ's death; but the less principal Ends be many, as exexercise of Repentance, distinction of the Church from other Companies, etc. The Canons hereof be two. 1 Less principal Ends are not taken away by the principal. 2 One thing may have many less principal Ends; and they either sub-ordinate, or well coordinate. The End secondarily so called, is that whereto the End b primary so called is intended, called Finis 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 cui. And it is either of Imperfection. Perfection. Of Imperfection is, to whose use and need the thing is intended: so the End cui to whom of health is the sick man▪ so the end of the Lords Supper, is faithful people. So Reprobates are not the end cui of Christ's passion; for the end cui by destination of the efficient and of its nature, aught to be capable of the end cujus, but Reprobates are not intended by Christ, nor are capable in applying of it, and therefore are removed by Christ, John. 17. 7. Of Perfection the End cui is, of whom the efficient receiveth perfection; called also the end of assimilation; thus God is the End to whom of all our actions, as the perfecter of them. A● End by Accident, is, unto which the means are ordained * B. by accident, and not of their Nature. So the End of sin is the manifestation of God's Justice: the End of Hereresies and Atheism, is the illustration of the truth: such Ends are indeterminate and confuse. Of the Caused. The Caused is that which hangeth 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, upon the Cause, and is The effect. The Mattered. The Form. The destinate. The effect is that which hangeth on the Efficient. 1 Effect. The Canons hereof are three. First, No effect, exceeds the virtue of its cause: So the Sun, though it hath not formally the heat which it giveth, yet it hath it eminently, that is, something much more excellent than that heat, namely, pure light. Absurdly therefore do the Popish Priests give unto Accidents the power of making a substance; for they say in the Mass, the accidents of Wine in the cup do change the water into another substance. 2 As is the cause, such is the caused; This is meant, 1 of causes by themselves, not of causes by accidents; therefore it followeth not, to say, This Shipwright is a good man, therefore he makes a good Ship; for he makes the Ship, not as he is a man or good, but as he is a Wright or Artizen. 2 It is meant in causes natural, and those chiefly particular; so it followeth not, to say the effects of the Sun are hot, therefore the Sun is hot; for the Sun is a universal thing, and not a particular in causing. 3 It is meant of causes doing voluntarily, if they would produce an effect conformably: as a good Shipwright makes a good Ship if he will. 4 It is meant upon condition and manner of the receiver, not of the thing received; so the Argument follows not from the chief perfection of God to the chief perfection of the gifts in the Creatures; for God works voluntarily, and according to the measure of the receiver, and when we speak here of goodness, it is not meant moral goodness, but the Natural and Artificial faculty and force of causing, and by this many Canons of effects are to be understood. 3 That for which any thing is so, is itself so much more: 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. This Canon hath three limitations. 1 The cause must be by itself; for it follows not, This man is drunken with wine; therefore this wine is more drunken; because wine maketh not a man drunken, but by the abuse of it. 2 It is required, that that affection, whereof the cause and effect is named such, be in both. 3 That it receive more and less. 1 The Mattered is, that which hangs on the matter. 2 Mattered As the whole compound natural body, is the caused of the matter. 3 The Form is, that which hangs on the form. As the 3 Form. said natural informed body. 4 The Destinate is, that which is ordered unto the End; 4 Destinate it may also be called the Ended; for by the End it is determined; so vocation, justification, sanctification, are the Destinates of Eternal Life; for they are ordered as means hereunto. The Distinctions and Subdivisions of these may be gathered from the divisions of their causes going before; for among Relates, one is known by another. Of the Subject and the Accident. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. A Subject is that whereunto an Accident sticks ●and is Absolute. a Limited. b Absolute is, that whereto an Accident sticketh absolutely, without any limitation of part: So Christ's person is the absolute subject of the Mediators office, and all things thereto pertaining; for to be Mediator agreeth to the whole person as it is the whole: So the whole man is the subject of life and death; and it cannot rightly be said the body dieth; for that which is compounded, is also dissolved, and consequently dies, and that is the whole man. So also man is the absolute subject of laughter; and an Animal is the absolute subject of sense. And it is either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Proper. Common. Proper, which is reciprocate with his Accident, viz. so as it be determined to it alone, not larger nor straighter: so a man is the proper subject of laughter, and Animal of sense. Common is, which is not reciprocate with his Accident, but may have, or not have the accident, as a man is the subject of whiteness. A Limited Subject is, that whereto an accident is given in b part, not absolutely; as a Black-moor is the limited subject of whiteness, being white but in his teeth; so Christ is the subject of accidents limited 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. As when whole Christ is said to be every where, it is by limitation to his infinite Nature or Godhead; so when he is said to be born, die, etc. it is by limitation to his finite nature or manhood: this the Greeks note by the phrase, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. An accident is, that which sticketh to the subject; it is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. called also adjoin. The Canons hereof be three. 1 An Accident by nature is later than his Subject. 2 One Accident in number cannot be in divers Subjects in number. 3 One Accident in number goes not from Subject to Subject. An Accident is either Proper. m Common. n Again proper is so called either m Absolutely and primarily. After a sort. Absolutely so called, is reciprocate with the subject of some certain Species. The Canons hereof be three. 1 Every proper floweth from the Essential beginnings of his subject, as the power of laughter floweth from a reasonable soul. 2 Every proper is determined to some certain Species in Nature. 3 Every proper accident of one Species is communicable to another that is really divers; every thing to the perfection of it requireth three things, knit, undivided. 1 Essence. 2 Essential properties. 3 Operations, wherefore a propriety cannot be communicated, unless first the Essence of things be made common and confounded. Absolute proper is either Perfect. Imperfect. Perfect, is that which is not only alone and in all, but always and perpetually in it, as qualities in respect of a natural body: the faculty of wit, will, speech, etc. in a man. The Canons hereof are three. 1 A subject cannot without contradiction be conceived under the denial of a perfect proper adjoin: as I cannot conceive man without power of wit, etc. But it must imply contradiction, a man to be no man. 2 It is not possible for perfect Propers to be severed from their subjects, a moment of time; because they come from the form of the subject, and the next cause being put, the effects are put; and contrary, he that takes away proprieties, takes away Nature. 3 Perfect Propers are first in Universals, as reason is in man generally; than it is in this or that man, more or less. Imperfect proper, is, that which is in a thing alone, and in all, but not always; as the acts of speaking, laughing, weeping, etc. are only in a man, and in all men, but not always. Proper after a sort, which is called proper only by comparison with another; as it is proper for a man to be two-footed in respect of a fourfooted beast. Fewness is proper to the Elect in respect of the Reprobates. Common accident is, that which commonly and contingently n is in subjects that be divers in specie. The Canons hereof are five. 1 A Common accident floweth not from the Essential beginnings of the subject. 2 It is such as a subject may be conceived under the opposite thereof, without any implying of contradiction: a man may be conceived under the opposite of an Ague without implying contradiction, a man to be not a man. 3 A common accident may be in two divers, specifically distinct, subjects. 4 It is more and rather in singulars than universals; for they flow not from the essence, but from the existence. 5 Common accidents receive degrees; as one man is whiter than another, but one man is not more risible than another. A common accident is either Separable. Inseparable. Separable, which may easily be separated from the subject; as health from a man, sleep, etc. Inseparable, which is not easily separated from the subject, though to be separated nothing repugneth, as blackness is inseparable in a raven. Of the Whole and the Part. Now follow the inward terms, the Whole, and the Part. The Whole is that which hath parts, and it is either by itself. a by accident. b Whole by itself, is, which hath parts properly and perfectly a so called. And it is either Universal. coordinate. Universal whole, is a thing common and universal in respect of Particulars; as an Animal is the whole of man and beast. coordinate is, which is made of parts coordinate in act, and is Ordinary. a Extraordinary. b Ordinary, which hath ordinary parts, and is a Essential. Integral. Essential, which hath essential parts, as Matter and Form, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, as a man in respect of body and soul. And it is either, 1 Perfectly, or 2 Imperfectly so called. 1 Perfectly called, is substantial, which is compounded of Matter and Form. 2 Improperly so called, as an Oration consists of Letters, Syllables, Words, as the Material; and the signification as the Formal. A Common-weal of Magistrates and Subjects as the Material, and of their union by Laws to felicity as the Formal. Integral, which consists of Integrant parts, and is Perfectly called, Imperfectly called, Perfectly, which consists of substantial parts united. And is either of The same kind, Homogeneum. Of another kind, Heterogeneum. Of the same kind, which hath parts having the same name with the whole; as every part of water, wine, blood, etc. is called water, etc. Of another kind, which hath parts having a name divers from the whole as a man's body consists of head, breast, belly, etc. Imperfectly called, is that which consists of parts imperfect. And is Substantial. Accidental. Substantial, which consists of the Aggregation of substantial parts, as a heap of corn of many grains, etc. Accidental, when an accident is as it were compounded of other accidents; so the Moral Law is the whole in respect of the ten Commandments; man's conversion is the whole in respect of mortification and vivification. Extraordinary whole, is, whose parts are united extraordinarily; ● such a whole is the person of our Mediator Christ, which consists of Natures, as of parts; yet is neither a whole essential nor integral, though it have a great Analogy with the Integral. The whole by accident, is which is whole improperly and b plain accidentally: as the caused, which is divided by his causes; the subject which is divided by accidents, and the accident by the Subject; so heat is the whole in respect of the Sun and fire. Parts. Part. A Part is that which is referred to the whole, and is either By itself. a By accident. b 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. By its self, which is referred to the whole by itself, and is Subject. Co-ordering. Subject is that which is subjected to the universal whole, a as a straighter to a larger; so man and beast are the subjective parts of Animal. Co-ordering is, by whose co-ordination the whole is made or compounded Ordinary. Extraordinary. † The Canons hereof be five. 1 Parts as they make their whole, so also they determine and measure it. 2 Parts differ from their whole, though they be taken together: for, the whole is never the constituter, but the constituted, and the parts are always constituters; and the same thing constitutes not itself; also the whole (as it is the whole) is one thing; parts, though taken together, are many. 3 That which is of a part, (as it is a part) the same also is of the whole, viz. according to that part. Note that some things are in the part as a part, that is, cannot be there, but in as much, and as long as it cleaves to the whole. Again some things are in it, not as it is a part, but as it hath a substance divers from the whole; and therefore those may remain, though separated from the whole: of this sort attributes and accidents are not rightly given to the whole, but only to the part; as it is rightly said, The eye is mixed of humours, is round, etc. for such is the eye, though it be plucked out of the body; but it is not properly said, the eye seeth, the ear heareth, etc. for those agree to those parts as they are parts and instruments of the whole, which if it be extinct, the eye seeth not, nor the ear heareth. The like is in all other parts, in every essential and integral whole that is one by itself; for in Aggregate totals, as a heap, etc. it is otherwise; for they are not indeed totals; this hath great use in the Doctrine of Christ's Person, which is the whole consisting of two Natures; for rightly and really do agree to the whole person the attributes of either Nature; fitly therefore it is said, Christ is omnipotent, as touching his Divinity; Christ died for us touching his Humanity; and this is more aptly spoken thus than in the Abstract. 4 Note, whatsoever is of the whole, is also of the part. Here distinguish between the whole Universal, and the whole Essential & Integral. For whatsoever is in an universal whole, as an Animal, the same is in the parts of man and beast; but in other totals it is not so; for there, what the whole hath, cannot be properly given to the parts, because such parts receive not the definition of their totals, as in the Universal whole; it is not fitly said, the soul understandeth, thinketh, pitieth, etc. but the man that hath the soul doth those things; so whatsoever is spoken of whole Christ, or the person of the Mediator, is not properly spoken of the Humane Nature, nor of the Divine. 5 Every part in respect of his whole, is an imperfect thing; as the soul and body are things incomplete; but a man, complete. And this part is either Essential. a Integral. b Essential, is, which is referred to the Essential whole. And is Perfectly called. a Imperfectly called. Perfectly, which is referred to an Essential whole, perfectly so called; as soul and body are perfectly Essential parts; for they make a perfect Essential whole. Imperfectly, which is referred to an Essential whole imperfectly so called: so sound and signification, are the Essential parts of Speech, but imperfectly called, the sound as the Matter, the signification as the Form. Integral, is, which is referred to an Integral whole. b And is also Perfectly called. Imperfectly called. Perfectly, which is referred to an Integral whole, having quantity. And perfectly so called. And it is either Of the same, Homogenea. Of another kind, Heterogenea. Of the same kind, which hath the same Name with the whole; as every part of flesh is called flesh; of blood, blood; of gold, gold, etc. Of another kind is, which hath a divers Name from the whole; as the parts of a man; head, hands, feet, etc. And it is either Principal. Less Principal. 1 Principal, without which the whole cannot be: As in man, the heart, the brain, etc. 2 Less principal, which may be away without the destruction of the whole, as the finger, toe, etc. Imperfectly so called, is, which is referred to an Integral whole, imperfectly so called, named 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Intelligible part; such parts be the propositions in a Syllogism; the ministering of the Word and Sacraments, are the parts of the Ministry. An Extraordinary part, is, which is referred to an Extraordinary whole; as the two Natures in Christ's person. A Part by accident, is that which is referred to an whole b by accident: as subjects when they are divided by their accidents, and accidents by their subjects, causes by the effects, etc. Outward Terms. We have seen the simple terms inward. Now follows the b b outward term which is preferred unto others outwardly, so as it constituteth them not inwardly; but, in deed and place, is divers and distinct from them. The outward Term is either Adherent. m * Concomitant. n * Adherent is either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Adjacent. a m * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Object. b Adjacent, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, again is either Knit together. 1 Circumstance. 2 a adjoin. 3 1 Knit together, or Connex, is that which happeneth, and is done together with the thing: as with Christ's passion the darkening of the Sun, the rending of the veil, etc. 2 Circumstance is, which is about a thing, and to it adjacent, as place and time, named 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; so the circumstances of Christ's suffering, were the place, Golgotha; the time, Tiberius' reign; the day, hour, etc. So shadow is the circumstance of the body. 3 adjoin, is that which is adjoined near to a thing, as the Thoray Crown, Reed, Purple Robe of Christ, etc. An Object, is about which a thing or operation of a thing ● is busied. And it is either By itself. e By accident. f By itself, unto which a thing is ordered by its self, and e of its own Nature; such an Object of the Will, is Good, of the understanding, Truth, etc. And it is either Common. Proper. Common, is about which many things together are busied; so the common object of all the senses is greatness, figure, and motion; for these are apprehended and judged of all the senses in common. Proper, is which is determined to one, as colour to seeing, sound to hearing, etc. Both of them again is Primary. Secondary. Primary, unto which a thing is first carried; as universal things, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, are the primary object of the understanding. And God is of the Philosopher (Ethic. 10.) acknowledged to be, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Secondary, unto which a thing is secondly carried; as things singular in respect of the understanding, and things universal in respect of sense. Also the object is either Mediate. Immediate. Mediate, which is objected by means of another: as sensible substances are objects of the senses by means of the qualities▪ Immediate, which is objected without any means; so qualities are objects of the senses, as colour of sight, etc. An Object by accident, is about which a thing is busied by f accident; and this is meant both in respect of the action, and of the object; so evil is the object of the will by accident; for about it the will is busied, not of its own Nature, as it is will, but of vice and defect outwardly accident; thus also the understanding by accident is busied about falsehood; the preaching of the Gospel about Reprobates. And of the object, Sarah Abraham's wife was sensible by her accident, when the King saw her not as Abraham's wife, but as a fair woman, etc. Concomitant, is either Antecedent. 1 n * Consequent. 2 1 Antecedent is, which goeth in order of time before a thing, so as it cannot be the cause. And it is either Necessary. Contingent. Necessary which goeth before necessarily, either by nature or by will, as Childhood goes before Manhood, Spring time before Harvest, Resurrection before Eternal Life. Contingent, which goes before a thing contingently; as the redness of the evening, in respect of the next day's fair weather, the red lowering of the morning in respect of rain at evening. Such antecedents may be called signs. 2 Consequent is, which followeth the thing, so as it is not the effect. And it is either Necessary. Contingent. Necessary, which needs must follow the antecedent, as in the necessity of God's decree, Christ's suffering necessarily followed his last Supper, death followed his suffering, resurrection his death and burial, etc. Contingent, which followeth contingently; so fair weather contingently, or it may be followeth the white Moon, for sometime it doth not, etc. Of simple Terms arising from the first. Having seen the first single Terms; next follow those that arise, and are conceived by means of the first. A Term arising from the first is either of A Word. 1 * A Thing. 2 * Of a Word. The Term of a Word is either the a Explication of a Word. 1 * b Conjugation of a Word. The Explication of a Word, is either 1 a Definition of a a Name; or 2 a Distinction of a doubtful word; or a 3 clearing of a dark word. 1 A Definition of a Name, is, which turneth up and unfoldeth the signification of a Word, and is either by a Word, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. by Notation, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Definition by a word, is, which declareth the signification of a word by some other that is more known, either by a Synonymy and Metalepsis, or by a contrary word: As when I say a Condition is a Promise; Stibium is Antimony; Antichrist is he that is against Christ and for the Devil, etc. Etymology. Definition by Notation or Etymology, is, which declares the Word by the Original of it; and this not Grammatically, but Logically, for the meaning and explaining of a thing; as Noble is he which by virtue is noscible, famous or well known. The Canons or Etymology are three. 1 The Etymology of all words is not to be sought; for many words are primitive. 2 In Etymologies we must not go on without End, but must stay in some that is first; as the English word, Mix, may come from the Latin Misceo, and that from the Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. And the Greek from the Hebrew 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Masach. And here we must rest; for the Hebrew is the first tongue, and many words in it are primitive. 3 Etymologies are taken from the end, effects, proprieties, object, and opposites of a thing; and are therefore from these to be derived, and these by those to be declared; as a River comes from the Latin Rivus, and both of them from the Hebrew 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Ravah, which signifieth to wet or moisten, because Rivers do moisten the dry Land. World so called of War▪ old, because the older it is, the War or worse it is, etc. Distinction 2. A Distinction is, the freeing of a doubtful word from the variety of hidden significations. The Canons hereof are seven. 1 The Distinction of a doubtful word must be first in all consideration of things. 2 When one word or name is given to things of divers Orders and kinds, it is doubtful, and needeth distinction; as if one speak of a Canker, it is to be known whether it be of the Canker-worm, or the Canker-sore, etc. 3 When a word is given to any in a divers respect, viz. Absolutely, and by relation, it is doubtful, and needeth distinction: as Justification is taken either absolutely, as it is in the Justified person only, Rom. 4. or relatively to our neighbour, as he may acknowledge us to be justified by the effects of Faith. Jam. 2. 4 When a word meaneth sometime more things, sometimes fewer, it is doubtful: as Faith is sometime largely used, sometime strictly; so Church, Grace, Election, etc. 5 When the opposite of any word is doubtful, the word itself is doubtful; as Election to life hath opposite, Reprobation: Election to an Office hath no opposite; therefore Election is a doubtful word. 6 When a Primitive word is doubtful, the Derivative is so too; and if one of the conjugates be doubtful, so is the other; as Faith is diversely taken; therefore a faithful man or infidel, is diversely to be taken. 7 Distinction of a word, repugneth not the Nature and use of things, neither darkeneth it, but cleareth the understanding of the mind, viz. a good distinction; but evil distinction doth darken and confound things. Illustration. 8 The clearing or Illustration of a dark word, is the reducing of it to perspicuity. The Canons hereof be four. 1 When a word is dark by barbarousness or Soloecism, it is to be judged by Grammar Rules: as Transubstantiation is a monstrous word, and hath bred as monstrous opinions, so Opus operatum, etc. 2 When a word is dark for want of use, let a more usual and safe word be put in place: as the Sacrament of the Altar is an unproper word, not to be used for the Lords Supper. 3 When a word is larger or straighter than the thing meant thereby, let another word, if it may be had, be put in the room; as when the word Clergy is applied to the Ministers only, which is said to be common to all the Saints, 1 Pet. 5. 4 When a word is figurative, not for any need, but for fineness sake, put a proper word for it. The Conjugation, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or yoking together of words, b is a depending of words yoked together. And is Primitive. Derivative. Primitive, on which another word hangs in deduction. Derivative, which hangs on the Primitive; as faithful on Faith. And they are either Of a word only. Of thing. Of word only, when not so much the Natural Order of signifying is looked on, as the forming of words, one from another. Of thing, when there is a union of signification, and is Primary. Secondary. Primary, which is in which the dependence, both of signification and determination is observed; of Faith faithful, and Justice just, etc. Secondary, In which there is a dependence of signification only, and not of termination also; as when of virtue one is said to be studious, gracious, etc. Of a thing. 2 * The arising term of a thing without the word is Resolving. Conferring. Resolving is either Definition. Division. Of a Definition. Definition, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Definition, is the unfolding, or turning out of the defined thing. And it is either 1 Perfect. 2 Imperfect. 1 Perfect is the unfolding of the thing by essential terms, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Canons hereof be five. 1 Every defined thing of perfect definition must be by itself, and directly in the predicamental order of things; so then there can be no perfect definition of doubtful things, of Fictions, or Privations, as sin, etc. of things concrete, incomplete, etc. 2 Whatsoever is perfectly defined, is a Species. 3 A Definition must be form perspicuous and determinate, viz. free from all ambiguity. 4 A Definition should be reciprocal and equal to the thing defined. 5 An essential Definition must consist of things simply before more known, and so indemonstrable. Not regarding what we must know, or what this or that man is able to comprehend, but absolutely and simply what is first in nature, and more known according to the Essential Order of things. Definition hath two Notions and Conceits. 1 The one of agreement or conveniency, called the Genus. 2 The other of distinction or difference, called the Difference. The conceit of agreement, or Genus, both of Substances and Accidents, is found by bringing the defined thing into his predicamental Order, and by conferring with his superiors, by the Canons of a true and next Genus. The Notion of Distinction or Difference, is either Of Substances. Of Accidents. In Substances, there is one only and simple Difference, which also may easily be known by the same predicamental Table. In Definition of Accidents, the Difference is taken from the Subject, the Efficient, the End, and Object. The Canons of Defining Accidents by every of the Orders are nine. 1 Proper Accidents are defined by the Subject made equal, and the next efficient cause. 2 Common Accidents are defined by the mention of the efficient cause. 3 Quantity taken in general, and completely, is defined by mention of the subject and the efficient: as that it is ● bodies Accident, arising from the extension of the matter. Special quantities, as a line, etc. are not defined, because they are things incomplete; neither is number. 4 Qualities potential natural, are defined by the subject, the efficient cause, and act, unto which they are carried as to an end; As, risibility is the power of man to laugh, proceeding from a reasonable soul. 5 Habits are defined by the end & the object: as Logic is an Art directing the operations of the mind about the knowledge of things, Liberality is a virtue of taking & bestowing. 6 Qualities patible, are defined by the efficient cause, and the subject, if they be proper accidents; as colour is the quality of a mixed body, arising from the tempering together of bright and dark. Smell is an affecting quality of a mixed body, arising from the predominion of a d●y thing savouring tempered with moist. 7 Actions are defined by mention of the subject, the object, the efficient and the end; as sense is the knowledge of a sensible object, arising from the receiving of sensible species, by a fit sensory instrument, to the conservation and perfection of the living creature. Sight is a sense about Colour and light, arising from the receiving of both by their species, unto the perfection of the living Creature. Adoration is an holy operation of a Faithful man▪ arising from the acknowledgement, and trust of God Almighty, and (in his Son) merciful, by the holy Ghost stirred up, to the honour of God, and the faithful man's salvation. 8 A Passion is defined by the subject, and the efficient cause; as, anger is an affection arising from heat of the blood, moved about the heart for some hu●t done. Sleep is a passion ceasing from operations in living creatures, arising from the Alimentary, nourishing and profitable humour, imbruing the brain, and as it were congealing the passages of the Animal Spirits. 9 Relations are defined by the subject relate, correlate, foundation and term. The subject rela●e and correlate, is wherein the relation is of mutual part; some call it the material; as the subject of marriage, is man and woman; hereupon the Relate and Correlate is the husband and wife. The Foundation, is, from which the relation riseth, or for which it is in the subjects: the foundation is ratio referendi, without which it would be nothing; it is answerable to the efficient cause, and is either near or far off; as the next foundation of Marriage is the lawful consent of each party; the far Foundation, is God's first institution in Paradise. The term is as the end for which the relation is brought into the subject▪ it is the office and effect of the relation; so the term of Baptism is the seal and confirmation of the washing of sins by Christ's blood; so marriage is an order or union between husband and wife, established by mutual consent for procreation of seed, and pleasant society of life and goods. Description 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: An Imperfect definition is the unfolding of a thing by terms less essential; it is called Description: and is either. Principal. Less Principal. Principal, which unfoldeth the thing by the Genus, and the Accidents, or the proper effects; as a man is a living Creature that can laugh, go upright, made after God's Image. Less Principal, is the unfolding of a thing by terms merely contingent, or outward, without assigning the exact Genus, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, showing not what, but what manner a thing, it is. And it is either. 1 Of the part of the concrete, or, 2 of the part of the thing. Of the part of the concrete, when a thing by its nature capable of a perfect definition, is yet unfolded to us unperfectly, Of the part of the thing, when the thing itself is not capable of a perfect definition; as be all privatives, incomplete, concrete, etc. The Canons hereof be two. 1 Privations are described by mention of the habits whose privations they are; as original sin is an ataxy, or disorder of the understanding, will and appetite, born with us, and opposite to God's Image. 1 Concrete accidents are not unfitly described by putting the subject in the place of the genus: as a Minister of the word is a person lawfully called and ordained to the preaching of the word, and administrating of the Sacraments. A Magistrate is a public person, ordained of God, to rule and defend the Subjects with Justice, Prudence, and Fortitude. Boetius gathereth from the Greeks ten forms of Descriptions 1 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, when the name of a thing is unfolded, as Antichrist is he that is against Christ. Justification is a reputing for Just. 2 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, when a thing is declared by its difference; as hatred is that which dureth longer than wrath. 3 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, when a thing is said to be that which it is like to; as a man is a bubble; the Church is Noah's Ark. 4 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, when a thing is declared by removing the contrary; as virtue is to flee vice; death is the privation of life. 5 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, by circumlocution; as Paul was the Teacher of the Gentiles. 6 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, by Example; as a substance is, for example's sake, a man, a horse, etc. 7 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, by want of the full of the same kind. As an Enthymeme is that which wanteth one of the premises to be a Syllogism. 8 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, by praise; as a history is the witness of Times, the light of Truth, the life of memory, the mistress of life, the shower of Antiquity; also by dispraise; as riches ate the enticements to evil. 9 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, when one thing is said to be another, for natural similitude: as a man is a little world; wine is the soul of a Banquet. 10 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, by Notation; as the World is that which waxeth worse and old. Of Division. Division is the resolving of the whole into parts, and is Perfect. a Imperfect. b Perfect, is the resolving of the whole properly so called a and perfect, into parts properly called. The Canons hereof are nine. 1 That which is rightly divided, must needs have parts; Therefore the truth is ill divided into Philosophical; seeing, it is not an whole thing, but simple and impartible. So Omnisciency into Ubiquity, etc. 2 The divided and division should be without all doubtfulness and darkness; as works should not be divided into operation, & operantis; nor Faith into Historical, Miraculous, and saving Faith; not blindness into corporal and spiritual, nor liberty into civil and spiritual. 3 The members dividing should agree with the whole; therefore Logic is not well divided into Invention and Judgement, seeing these are actions, and Logic a quality. 4 The members dividing should be equal to the whole; so ceremonies are ill divided into godly and ungodly; for this contains not the whole Nature of ceremonies, because some are mean or indifferent. 5 The members dividing should be disjoined one from another; so a body, is ill divided into head, eyes, belly, heart, etc. for the eyes are contained in that head, and the heart in that body, etc. 6 Division should be made into the next and immediate members: so a body is ill divided into man, beast, and tree; for many members that come between are leapt over; for next a body is, either simple or compound. 7 Division should consist of as few members or parts as the nature of the whole that is to be divided will bear. 8 A true division should be made by those things which are in the whole, and not by the things outward and accidents to the whole; so quantity is ill divided into Mathematical, Physical, and Logical; for Disciplines are accidentary, and outward to things; neither is a thing by and by divers, when it is diversely considered by sundry disciplines. 9 A perfect division is the beginning of understanding, and of constituting the method of things and disciplines. A perfect division also is either of The whole Subordering. The Co-ordered, Of the subordering is, which resolveth the general into the specials that are subordered or subjected thereto, as to divide Animal into man and beast. The Canons hereof are two. 1 The divided must be a general; we must learn to discern the divers respects and considerations of things from the divisions; as when the Church is distinguished into visible and invisible, it is not properly a division, much less a division of the general into specials; for a Church is a lowest special; but it is only a divers respect and manner of considering the Church; likewise when a man is divided into inward and outward. 2 The difference by whose means the general is divided, should be essential and proper, viz. not translated from one general to another. The division of the co-ordered, is which resolves the whole into parts co-ordered: and is either Essential. a Integral. b Essential, which resolves the essential whole into essential a parts, and is either 1 First, or 2 Secondarily so called. 1 First, is when the Essential whole properly called is resolved into matter and form: as a man into soul and body. And here, the true and next matter and form must be taken. Secondarily so called, is when an Essential whole improperly so called, is resolved into his material and formal; as an Oration into a sound, or words written, and their signification. A Church into men called, etc. The union of th●se with Christ, and one with another by faith and obedience of the Faith; whereof these are the material of the Church, those the formal. Integral division is which resolveth the whole into integral parts, and it is also either, 1 First primarily. 2 Secondarily so called. 1 Primary, is which resolveth into parts the entire whole properly called; as the Tabernacle was divided into the Court, the holy, and the most holy. This manner of partition should be instituted in right order, descending from the more principal and greater parts unto the lesser. Secondarily called, is, which resolveth into parts an entire whole improperly called, such as accidents be; as a Syllogism is resolved into three Propositions and Terms: the Law into two Tables, or ten Precepts. An imperfect division is, when the whole is resolved into b parts by accident; and it is either: 1 Of the subject into his accidents and circumstances: or 2 Of accidents by their subjects. 3 Or of the effects by their efficient, or final causes: or 4 Of causes by the effects: or 5 Of things by their objects: as 1 Of men, some are tall, some low, some learned, some unlearned, some dwell in hot countries, some in cold. 2 Agues, some are in the spirits, some in the humours, some in the solid parts. 3 The Scriptures, some were written by the Prophets, some by the Apostles. Gardens, some are for profit, some for pleasure. 4 Gods word, either terrifieth the conscience, as the Law; or comforteth it, as the Gospel. 5 Love is either of God, or of our neighbour. Of the selfsame being. Hitherto of the arising term resolving; now followeth the conferring, whereby thing with thing is compared. And is either Consentany. Dissentany. Consentany (or agreeing) is when the Identity, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or selfsame being of things is looked on. Identity, is the unity and agreement of things, and is Ordinary. a a Extraordinary. b b Ordinary in ordinary things, and is either Greater. a Lesser. b Greater Identity of them, which is are the same in some greater manner, and as it were absolutely. a And is either Formal. Numerical. Formal, is of them which differ only in evolution of definition, otherwise are the same in all things. As a man and a reasonable Animal. Numerical Identity, is the unity of one singular undivided thing. And is either; 1 Primary. or 2 Secondary. 1 Primary, which simply and properly is one in Number; As Heaven, Peter. 2 Secondary; Which are one in Number by some outward conjunction. As one Church under Christ the head; One heap of Corn, etc. b Lesser Identity, is of them which are one after a sort. And is Inward. Outward. Inward, is of them which agree in some inward manner or Term. And is either, 1 Subordinate, or 2 coordinate. 1 Subordinate, is of them which agree under the Predidicamentall Order, and is either Conjunctive, Disjunctive. Identity of Conjunctive subordination, is of them which in the Predicamental order do strait follow one another: As be all Generals with their subordinate specials: These are called really the same; as a man, & an Animal; for they are not two disjoined things, but only subordinate, The Canons hereof are two. 1 They which are really the same, of them the Superior concurreth to the constitution and the definition of the Inferior. 2 They which are really the same, fight not in anything. Identity of disjunctive Subordination, is of them which so agree under the predicamental Order, that they are notwithstanding disjoined one from another, as two divers things. And is either General. Or Specifical. General, of them which agree in the General, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, As a man and and a beast agree in an Animal. Specifical, which agree under one lowest special: As Peter and Paul agree in humane Species, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2 Coordinate, is of them which agree in Coordinate Terms, and is Causal. Cohaesive. Causal Identity is of them which agree in the causes, or caused: So in 1 Cor. 12. the distinct gifts agree in one efficient, God, etc. Cohaesive Identity, is either of the Subject, or of the Accident. Of the Subject, is of Accidents which are in one Subject, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: As the Prophetical, Priestly, and Kingly Office in Christ; this may also be called the same really: so the faculty to understand, to will, etc. Accidental Identity is of them that agree in Accidents; as a Moor, and a Raven agree in blackness: And it is either Primary, Secondary. Primary, is of them which agree in Primary and properly called Accidents. And it is either Parity. Similitude. Parity, is the Identity of things that agree in quantity: As when two men are of like stature, or having a like number of children. Of Similitude. Similitude is the Agreement of things in quality chiefly; and then also in action, passion, and relation. And is either Absolute. parabolical. Absolute, is the agreement of things in quality, Action; Passion, Absolutely and simply. parabolical, is when the Accidents of things have a kind of Image among themselves: As Christ's Parables, Mat. 13. etc. The Canons hereof are four. 1 parabolical similitude is the most fit instrument for plain and popular kind of Teaching: Seeing all our Doctrine proceeds from known to unknown, we must needs learn so much the more easily, as that is easy from whence the beginnings of learning are taken, as, are in Parables, sensible things. 2 Every like is also unlike, Simile non estidem. 3 Similitude must not be made between things too much dissevered; As some have compared the ten Commandments with the ten plagues of Egypt. 4 A Parable must be fitted to the Principal scope and intent of the Declarer, and not be stretched beyond this; As when Christ likeneth his coming to a thief, etc. Similitude is either Simple. Compound. Simple, which is between two Terms: As a subtle wit likened to fire. Compound, which is between four: So a Magistrate is to the Commonwealth in War, as a Governor is to a Ship in a tempest. Secondary Accidental Identity, is of them that agree in relations: Thus two parts are said to be same, as two Masters, as two Sons, &c: Outward Identity, is when things agree in outward Terms, as in Time, Place, Objects, Antecedents, Consequents As Moses and Balaam lived in one age, etc. Extraordinary Identity is when things agree extraordinarily. And it is either Essential. Hypostatical. Essential, is in three persons of the holy Trinity which communicate in one essence in number: Called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Hypostatical, is when two complete Natures are united in one Hypostasis, or persons, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, whereof there is only example in the person of our Mediator Christ, where the Divine and Humane Nature are said to be the same in Hypostasis: such are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; as they that agree in Essence, are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Of Distinction. Hitherto of the arising Term Consentany; Dissentany followeth, whereby the diversity of things is understood. And is either Distinction. Opposition. Distinction is the diversity of things without sight. And it is either Primarily so called. Or Secondarily. Secondary is that which is only in consideration and conceit of mind: As when we distinguish in mind the right side of a Pillar from the left; so in light, though it be a most simple quality, we distinguish the form of warming, and of drying. So in the attributes of God from the Essence, and one from another; as when we distinguish between God's understanding, Willing, Punishing, Pardoning, etc. Though in the Godhead there is properly no distinction indeed; but only thus in reason. Primarily called distinction, is, which is in things immediately without the mind. And is either Ordinary. Extraordinary. Ordinary is in ordinary things, as in the Creatures. And is Formal. a Real. b Modal. c Formal, is of those whereof one is taken in the definition a of another; as between Genus and Species; Species and Singulars, etc. The Canons hereof are two. 1 They that are formally distinguished, are not as thing and thing, nor as two separated things; as substance cannot be separate from man, etc. 2 They that are formally distinct, do yet communicate in the same nature and properties. Real distinction, is of them that are as two severed and b distinct things. The Canons are three. 1 Things that really differ, may be severed one from another, as water from cold. 2 They are never subordinate one to another. 3 They may receive opposition and repugnancy; as, man and beast. Real distinction is either Inward. Outward. Inward is of them which differ in inward Terms. And is Subordinate. coordinate. Subordinate, is of them which differ in subordinate or predicamental Terms. And is either Generical Distinction. Specifical Distinction. Individual Distinction. Generical, is of them which differ in the general, far off or near: As, man and virtue; For one is a substance, and the other is a quality. Specifical, is of them which coming of one general, are separated by essential differences, or put under sundry specials: Thus man and beast differ in species. Also Man, and Lion, Horse, etc. Individual, is a separation of two or more singulars, which also are said to differ in number: As Peter, Paul, James, etc. coordinate distinction, is, which is made by coordinate Terms: And is Causal. Subjective. Causal is of them which differ in cause far off or near: As man and beast differ in form; laughing and weeping differ in the efficient and end. Subjective, is either of The Subject. The Accident. Distinction of Subject, is when accidents differ in subject; as speaking and bleating, laughing and neighing, etc. Distinction of accidents, is of subjects that differ in accidents. And is either Primary. Secondary. Primary, is of them that differ in accidents primarily called. And it is either, 1 Imparity, 2 Dissimilitude. 1 Imparity is when things differ in greater or lesser quantity; as love excels faith, 1 Cor. 13. The soul excels the body, etc. 2 Dissimilitude is distinction of things after divers qualities, actions, passions, and the image of all these. Secondary distinction of accidents, is of them that differ in relations: as when one is a father or a master, another not. Outward real distinction, is when things are distinguished by outward Terms, as by Objects, Time, Place, Antecedents, Consequents, etc. Modal distinction, is when not the things so much as the c manners of the things are distinct; either things by their manners, or manners by their things. And it is either Simple. Comparative. Simple, when manners of things are simply distinguished: so essence and existence differ in a simple modal distinction. Comparative, is when the same thing or quality is distinguished by more and less. As between hot and lukewarm. 1 More and less do never vary the species; so weak faith and strong faith; Paul a child and a man, do not differ in specie. 2 Things compared by more and less, must not be aequivocal: As the sharpness of voice, and of a sword, may not be compared. 3 Things compared by more or less, must be of the same species and nature; so it is not meet to compare a Smiths saw to a Carpenter's mallet; nor to ask, which was best learned, of Galen (a Physician) or of Bartolus (a Lawyer.) Extraordinary distinction, is in things extraordinary. And it is either between God and the Creatures, or between the essence and persons of the Godhead, or of the persons one from another: God differs from Creatures more than in general, and agrees only in Analogy; in the persons there is distinction somewhat like the Modall: For Justin Martyr calls the persons 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Of Opposition. Now followeth Opposition, which is the Fight together of two simple Terms, so as neither the one can agree with the other, nor both of them with the third, after one and the same manner. They agree not 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, nor 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, nor 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, nor 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; The Canons of Opposition are two. 1 Opposites so far forth as they are such, are together. 2 One Opposite helps the knowledge of another in that that is an Opposite. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Opposition is either Common. a Special. b Common, is contradiction, which is the first opposition of a a thing and not a thing. The Canons hereof are four. 1 Contradiction is of all Oppositions the first, and so the measure of all the rest: Cold and heat were not opposed, unless Cold were not Heat, and Heat not Cold. 2 Contradiction is of Oppositions the simplest. 3 It wants simply all mean: For between a thing and not a thing, there is no mean thing. 4 It is of all Oppositions the greatest or strongest. Contradiction, is either 1 Expressed. 2 Employed. 1 Expressed, when the note of denial is plainly put to one part: As a man, and not a man. 2 Implicit, when the note of denial being omitted, one part overthrows another: As an unbloody Sacrifice: For that which is not bloody, is not a Sacrifice: so the Catholic Roman Church; Christ's every where present Body; for if it be every where, it not a body. Special Opposition, is which is between special extremes; and is Primary. b Secondary. Primary, whose parts are most strongly opposed. And is either 1 Privative. 2 Disparation. 3 Repugnancy. 4 Contrariety. 1 Privative Opposition, is the fight betwixt habit and privation▪ Habit is the presence of a thing that cleaveth to some certain and fit Subject. Privation is the absence of an habit in a Substance capable of the habit. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Canons hereof are five. 1 A privative Opposition is near akin to Contradictory. 2 Privative Opposition admits a Mean; as, to the eye, twilight is a Mean between light and dark; God is neither movable, nor immovable, Privatively. 3 Privative Oppositions have extremes of the same Genus, the Habit directly, the Privation indirectly; as sight and blindness. 4 Habit and Privation are about the same Subject: As, because an Animal only hath sight, therefore an Animal only is blind, not a stone, etc. 5 Privative Opposition requires determination of a certain time▪ neither can privation be given to a Subject but after the time that by its nature and fitness it might receive the habit; as none can be said to be bald until the time by Nature they should have hair. Privation is either Natural. Coming otherwise. Natural, when that is wanting which the Subjects should Naturally have, whether it be Accident that is due to the Subject, or a part required to the constitution of the whole. And it is again, either, First total, or Secondly after a sort. Totall privation, is from which there is granted no ordinary regress to the habit. The Canons hereof are three. 1 Totall privation is properly of dispositions, or powers only. 2 Totall privation is beside Nature 3 From privation to habit no regress is granted: As, he that is once quite blind, can never see more, viz. ordinarily. Privation after a sort, or in part, is when an ordinary, and easy regress is granted from the privation to that habit. As darkness of the night, which at morning returns to light; so sleep to awaking, sickness to health, etc. Privation adventitial, or coming otherwise, is of a thing outwardly cleaving; as poverty is the privation of riches, imprisonment of liberty, etc. 2 Disparation is an opposition of specials, arising from the division of one General by opposite differences; as a man and a beast are disparates, or dissevered. The Canons hereof are three. 1 Disparates never agree to the same things as they are Disparates; So, bread is the body of Christ, cannot be spoken substantially, but only relatively, as bread hath relation to Christ's body. 2. Complete Disparates do not concur as body and soul to make a man; so God and man concur to one hypostatical thing in Christ, but not essential. 3. Repugnancy is opposition either between one Disparate, and the property of another, or between two or more properties of Disparates, and also properties of contraries, and their antecedents and consequencies: As to feign, and to be indeed a friend, to be elect, and to fall from the grace of God▪ To be bread, and to be born of the Virgin: To be prudent, and not to be able to dissemble anger; for this is Repugnant to prudency. 4 Contrariety is an opposition between two qualities that drive out one another. And it is either By itself. By Accident. Contrariety by its self is of qualites by themselves, and absolutely taken, The Canons hereof be eight. 1. Of contrariety, each part is positive, as hot, and cold. 2. Of contraries, both are under a certain general, near or far; As white, and black are under the general of colour. 3. Contraries are about the same subject, viz. either the general or the special; But not always about the same in number, or those things which only differ in Accidents: So white and black are in the same mixed body generally taken, but not in the same body in number; As a Swan, and a Raven, etc. 4 If one of the contraries be, the other also must needs be, or at least have possibility to be: If in nature there be fire, there must also be water. 5 Contraries cannot be in the same degree that excel; But may be in degrees that are remiss: So what is hot in extremity, is not cold at all. 6. One contrary if it▪ overcomes, corrupteth another. 7 The remission of one contrary often comes to pass by the weakening of the other. 8 Contraries have contrary Causes, Effects, Properties, and next Subjects: So Virtue is of God, Vice of the Devil, Temyerance helps health, Intemperance hurts it, etc. Contraties by themselves, are either Mediate. Immediate. Mediate, which do admit a Mean, viz. of taking part with the extremes; as heat and cold admit between, lukewarmness Immediate, which do not admit a Mean: As Virtue and Vice. Contrariety by accident, is which agreeth unto other things for the qualities: as fire and water are contrary, because of heat and cold. The secondary opposition is betwixt the Relation and the Correlate. The Canons hereof be three. 1 Relative opposition is of all the weakest. 2 Opposites relatively have no Mean, viz. which takes part of the extremes, as Father and Son, 3, Opposites relatively are both affirmative. And thus much of the simple Terms of the first part of Logic. A General Sum of the first Part of Logic. The first part of Logic is about a simple Term, and is either The first which is either, Of a word with the Divisions. Canons. Of a thing which is either The predicamental Row wherein is considered The manner how things are received into the Rows. The degree, Direct which is Primary The General. The Special. Secondary, the singular. Collateral, or sidelong, the difference. The partition; for a predicament is either Primary. Of Substance. Of Accidents. Absolute. Quantity. Quality. Action. Passion. Of Relation. Secondary, as When. Where. Situation. Habit. the term about the Row, which is either Inward. The cause Efficient. Matter. Form. End. The caused. The Subject and Accident. The Whole and the Part. Outward. Adherent either Adjacent which is either Connex. Circumstance. Adjoint. Concomitant, which is either Antecedent. Consequent. Arising of the first, and is either Of a word, and is either The unfolding of a word. Conjugates. Definition of a Name. Distinction of the doubtful. Clearing of the obscure. Of a thing, and either Resolving, and is either Definition. Division. Conferring, and either is Consentany, as the identity of things. Dissentany, as Diversity. Distinction. Opposition. THE SECOND BOOK, Handling the Second Part OF LOGIC; Which is a Director of a Compound conceit. Of a Proposition. THe second Part of Logic directeth a compounded conceit, which is done by Precepts concerning a Proposition. A Proposition is a sentence wherein one thing is affirmed or denied of another. And it is considered either In general, and is called Formal. a a In Special, and determinately called material. b b In General, when the disposition of a sentence is looked a a on nakedly, and absolutely, without any special condition of the things themselves. And is again either Primary, or simple, and Categorically perfect. c c Secondary, or Compound, and Hypothetical, and Imperfect. d d Primary or Simple, is, which in one simple Composition c c propoundeth any thing to be or not to be. Of this we are to consider both the 1 Constitution, and 2 Division, and also the 3 Affections. The Constitution of a Proposition is of the parts, and the Constitution. disposing of the parts, of which those may be called the material, and this the Formal. The Parts are either the Signed, or the Signers, or Signs. Material. The parts Signed, or Absolute, are The Antecedent, or Subject. The Consequent, or Predicate, or Attribute. The Subject or Antecedent, is, of which any thing is pronounced. The Consequent or Predicate, is, that which is pronounced of the Subject; As in this sentence, True faith doth work by love: the first part, true faith, is called the Subject, or Antecdent; the latter part, work by love, is called the Consequent, or Attribute, or Predication. The Canons of the Subject and Attribute are two. 1 That is the true natural subject (or antecedent) in a Proposition, which without the proposition, even in the Nature of things is subjected; And that is the true Natural attribute or consequent, which in the very Nature of things is in another: and if in any Proposition that be put first, which is not first in Nature; or last, which is not last in Nature: it is called a proposition against Nature, and Inordinate, which must be marked and brought into order; as, It is not good for man to be alone: Here good is not the true Antecedent or Subject, but the Lonedom of the man, of which it is said that it is not good. 2. The Consequent or Attribute must be divers from the Subject: For the same is not to be pronounced of the same; as a Sword is a Sword; no though it be in other Terms as the Gospel is glad tidings. Stibium is Antinomy. The Signing parts of Signs be either Significative, Categorematical. Consignificative, Syncategorematical. A Significative Sign, is which represents to the mind a certain Antecedent and Consequent. And it either A Noun. A Verb. A Noun is a simple word, signifying a certain and absolute thing without time. The Canons of a Noun are six. 1. A Noun is a simple word, and never a whole sentence. 2. A Noun should be instituted to signify some certain thine, by institution of God and man. 3. A Noun should be one in Unity of Signification, not equivocal. 4. A Noun should be of finite Signification. 5. A Noun of the first or right case, is properly a Noun i e. Nominative Case. in Latin. 6. A Noun by itself signifies not distinction of time. A Verb is a simple word, inferring with the principal signification of Action or Passion, Distinction of time. The Canons hereof are four. 1. Every Verb includes in it some Noun or Signification of a certain thing: As I speak, Includes in it Speech. 2. A Verb beside the conceit of some certain things notes fitness of avouching of some other. 3. A Verb primarily infers with it a certain distinction of the time present. 4. A Verb of the Indicative mood is of all, most fit for Enunciative composition and division. A Consignificative Sign, is, which signifies no certain thing in the Proposition; But the manner only of a thing; As, all, none, some, &c The Formal thing in a Proposition, is A disposing of the Formal. Parts to others: And it is either Signed or Signing. Signed, is, the Order of the parts of the Proposition absolutely looked on in the mind, agreeing with the order of things without the mind. Signing is, an outward note of this Disposition & Order. And it is either Expressed or Included in the Verb. Expressed, when the antecedent is put with the consequent, by mean of the Verb Substantive [ls] as▪ Faith without works is dead. Included, is, when a Verb Consequent, or Attribute, is immediately added to a Noun Antecedent or Subject, As for Peter runneth, understand, Peter is running. Thus have I shown the constitution of a Proposition. Division from the Material. Now followeth the Division, taken partly from the Material, partly from the Formal. Of the Material, a Proposition is either Finite. Infinite. Finite, is, which consists of a finite Antecedent and Consequent. Infinite, which consists of an Infinite Term: as, Faith justifieth, faith is not without works, these are Finite. But, Peter will do any thing rather than deny christ: This is an Infinite affirmation. Man was able not to sin, and man was not able to sin; the first is an Infinite affirmative, the later a Negative. Both of these is either, 1 Universal. 2 Particular, or 3 Singular. 1 Universal, whose Subject or antecedent is universal. And is either Definite. a Indefinite. b Definite, which hath the Sign of Universality expressly a added to the Subject: As all, every one, none, etc. This Consignificative not all, is either Distributive. c Collective. d Distributive, when it signifies that the Consequent may c be distributed into those things which are contained in the Antecedent. And it is again either distributive into Singulars of the Generals, or into Generals of the Singulars. Distributive into Singulars of the Generals, is which signifieth that the Consequent is distributed into every singular thing contained in the antecedent. And it is again either Restrained, or Limited. Absolute. Absolute, when a thing to which the note of Universality is added, is absolutely distributed without restraint; As, every man is a living creature. Limited, when there is a restraint included to be understood: As Psalm 8. Thou hast put all things under his feet. Yet he himself is restrained that put all things under, 1 Cor. 15. So, No man received his Testimony, meaning no Reprobate man, etc. Distributive into Generals of the Singulars, is when the Consequent is distributed not into every singular thing, but into certain Orders and Estates of the Singulars; as, every beast was in Noah's Ark, that is, not every Singular or Particular beast; But some singulars of all sorts of Beasts. Christ cured every disease, that is, every kind of disease; God would all men to be saved, that is, all sorts of men. Collective, is when the antecedent is so taken under a ● numbering Collection, that the Consequent cannot be distributed into the Inferiors▪ As, all the Apostles were twelve, all the Evangelists were four, all the Commandments beware ten; of this we cannot gather, Peter is an Apostle, therefore he is twelve. The Canons of an Universal Sign are these. A Note or Sign of Universality is not added to the Consequent: As we cannot say, every man is every living Creature; But here it must be excepted, if the Consequent be a Verb Adjective; for we may say God preserveth all men, Christ redeemed all the Elect, etc. 2 Adverbs that have the place of a Noun, make also universal propositions: as, Never do the Godly want affliction: No where are the Saints free from troubles? 2 Every Note Collective, as also Distributive into Generals of the Singulars, Imperfectly, and Secondarily, do b 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. make an Universal Proposition. An Indefinite Universal, is which hath an Universal Subject (or Antecedent) without Note. The Canons hereof are two. 1. The chief force and use of Indefinites is in Propositions of the Idea: That is, in such, as where the Universal Subject is taken absolutely: As, The Lords Supper is a Sacrament, Man is the Noblest Creature, The soul of man is immortal, etc. 2. There is also an use of Indefinites; to signify that the Consequent is in the antecedent, for the most part, though not always 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 As, The Cretians be liars, Mothers are too much Cockerers of their children, &c, 2. A Particular is, which to a particular antecedent adds a particular Note: as, Some men fear God, Few are Elected, not many are Called, etc. 3. A Singular is, which hath an Antecedent singular or undivided: as, John Baptist is not the Christ; This man is a true Christian, etc. The Canons hereof are two. 1 When a Note of Universality is added to a singular Antecedent, it means nothing but a Collection of singulars: as all Pharoahs' were Tyrants. All Herod's were cruel. 2. To the Antecedent of a singular Proposition, may not be added a denial Infinite. From the Formal, a Proposition is divided into Affirming. Division from the Formal. Denying. Affirmative is when the Consequent is joined with the antecedent. The Affirmation is before, and more worthy than the Negation. Denying or Negative, is which divideth the Consequent from the Antecedent, As, Good works do not justify: A man is not a stone. The Canons are two. 1 That a Proposition may be a Negative, it is necessary that the Particle of denying be either set before the whole Proposition: as, No Elect are damned; or be immediately added to the Coupler, and Verb adjective that hath the force of the Coupler, or Band; as, Marriage is not a Sacrament; Works justify not. 2 Every true Negation hangs on a true Affirmation: For it could not rightly be said, Works justify not, unless it were true, that Faith only justifieth. Both of these (Affirmative and Negative) is either Pure. Modal. Pure, is, wherein the Consequent is purely disposed with the antecedent, without the express manner of disposition. Modal, is, which is affected with a certain mood or manner of disposition. And it is either Primary. a Secondary. b Primary, is, which is affected with some Primary manner, a 1 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. as be those four. 1 Necessary, or needs. 2 Impossible. 3 Possible. 3 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 4 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 4 Contingent, or perhaps. 1 As, It is necessary that a Creature be finite. The Elect must needs be saved. 2 It is impossible that God should be created. 3 It is possible for him that fighteth to win the victory. 4 It is contingent for a man to sit, for he may also not sit. The Canons of those Modal propositions are five. 1 There is more use of those Modals among the Greeks than the Latins. 2 No other Modes (or manners) are here looked on than Formal, that is such as affect the disposition of the Consequent with the Antecedent. 3 A Modal Proposition hath the manner for the Consequent indirect, and by Analogy so called: in every Modal Proposition, there are two things, the Saying, and the manner; as in this, It is impossible that the Elect should be deceived. That the Elect should be deceived, is a saying; impossible is the manner; the saying is put in stead of the Antecedent, the manner in stead of the consequent, but this must narrowly be taken. 4 The quantity of a Modal proposition is esteemed partly by the saying, partly by the manner; but chiefly and properly by the saying, as that which hath the quantity of multitude. Secondarily by the manner, as that which hath the quantity of time; Necessary hath the force of an Adverb universally affirming; as, It is necessary for a man to be reasonable, that is, a man is always reasonable; Impossible, hath the force of an universal Negative, as, It is impossible for a man to be a Stone, that is, a man is never a stone: Possible and contingent, have the force of particulars, as sometimes, for the most part, etc. 5 The quality or affirmation and Negation of a modal proposition is esteemed by the manner: as, It is impossible for the Elect to perish. This is a Negative: It is necessary that Christ should be true man, this is affirmative by reason of these Manners, Necessary and Impossible. Secondary Modals which have a secondary manner, are either 1 Exclusive. b 2 Exceptive. 3 Restrictive. Exclusive, which hath an exclusive significative word, as only, alone, etc. And it is Exclusive either of the Antecedent or Subject. Consequent. Exclusive of the antecedent, is, which with an exclusive word set before it, excludes or shuts out other antecedents from participation of the same consequent: as, Only faith justifieth; Only God is uncreated. The Exclusive of the antecedent, excludes not concomitants, or them that accompany the same: as only the Father is true God, excludes not the concomitant, the Son and the holy Ghost, but false gods, idols, etc. Exclusive of the consequent, is, which by a sign of Exclusion put between antecedent and consequent, excludes other consequents from the same antecedent, as, Reprobates do evil only; Carthusians do only eat fish. 2 Exceptive, is, which consists of an excepting particle, as Except, Besides, Unless, etc. The Canons be four. 1 In an Exceptive proposition, always the antecedent is excepted from participation of the consequent, and not contrary as was in the Exclusive. 2 The antecedent excepted must be contained under the Excepter: For it is foolish to say, Every man, except a beast, is able to laugh, because a beast is not contained under a man. 3 The antecedent from which the exception is made, must be an Universal, that it may be distributed: As it is foolish to say, Some man except Judas is elected. 4 That which is excepted should be straiter than that from which it is excepted; For it is vain to say, A man, except a man, runneth. 3 Restrictive is, which consists of restraint or limitation; as far forth as, in respect of, according to, etc. Limitation is the determination of that according to which the Consequent agreeth with the Antecedent, or not agreeth. And is General. Special. General, which is conceived with general terms. Special, which is conceived with special Terms, that is, which pertain to any thing in special, and properly. And it is either of One Noun. Divers. Of one Noun, is, which limits the thing by itself, that the Consequent may be understood to agree essentially: As, A man, as he is a man, hath reason. Of a divers Noun, which limits the Antecedent by something divers from the Antecedent. And it is either Essential. a Accidental. b Essential, which is done by an essential term. a And is either General. Partial. General, when it is limited by his Genus: as, a man, as he is a body, is local; as he is a living thing, he is nourished; as he is Animal, he hath sense, etc. Partial, when a thing is limited by some part Essential, or Integral: As, A man touching his soul is Immortal: Sacraments touching their matter are visible, touching their form are invisible; Christ as man died, etc. Accidental is which limits a thing Accidentally. And is Inward. Outward. Inward, when a thing is limited by some Inward accident either absolute or Relative: as, Fire, as it is hot, burneth; not as it is dry: God willeth hardening of sinners; not as it is sin, but as it is a punishment. Outward, when a thing is limited by some outward comparison and respect; as when a mean man is said to be great in respect of a dwarf, Isaac was a Son in respect of Abraham, and a Fat●her in respect of Jacob; Faith justifieth as it hath reference to Christ. The Canons of limitation are six. 1. A Consequent or Attribute contradictory, can with no Limitation, be made to agree with the antecedent 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; False therefore are the Popish Limitations to prove that Accidents may be without the Subject in their Transubstantiated Sacrament; For it implieth a contradiction. 2. Every lawful Limitation should have possibility to be referred to some form of Limitation, delivered by the Art of Logic, 3. A Limitation should be made by that which agreeably is in the antecedent, or Consequent, whether it be in it absolutely, or Relatively. 4. The manner Limiting in part should be distinct in deed and words, from the Limited in the antecedent and Consequent. 5. Limitation should be perspicuous, easy to be explained. 6. Limitation in a divers respect, pertaineth to the antecedent and Consequent of the proposition Limited. The Affection of propositions either Consentany. a 3 Affections. Dissentany. b Consentany, whereby propositions agree together, And is Equal valour 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a a Conversion, b The Canons of equal valour are either General. Special. General, which pertain as well to the Pure as to the a Modal, though chiefly to the Pure. And they be ten. 1. Equal Valour of Propositions which is taken from the Signs of quantity, is showed by the signification of the Signs and their mutual correspondence: These therefore are equivalent, Not every man is elected, and some man is not elected; there is no man that is not a sinuer, and every man is a sinner. Not any man is good, and, No man is good, etc. 2. Diversity of words takes not away the equal value of sense, when the things signified by the words in the sense and meaning of the Speaker are the same: These therefore are equipollent, Bread is the body of Christ, and bread is the Communion of Christ's body; For it's Christ's intendment, as Paul expounds him. 3. Equivalents should have Antecedent and consequent the same indeed: The transplacing of antecedents and Consequents changeth the sense of propositions; For these are not equivalent, to say, Bread is Christ's body, and in bread is Christ's body, or Christ's body is in the bread; nor these, Bread is Christ's body, and, let Bread be Christ's body, etc. 4. Of Equivalents, one may be more forcible and significant than another; and yet the agreement of sense remain safe: As these agree in sense, Bread is Christ's body, and read is an holy sign of Christ's body; Though the first hath a more forcible signification. 5. A Proposition of this sign [all] having limitation, is of equal value with the particular, when the limitation is taken away: as, All men that believe shall be saved, and, only some men shall be saved. 6 A proposition of the sign All, distributing into general of the singulars, is of equal value also with a particular; as, God would all men to be saved; and, God would some of every sort of men to be saved. 7 A proposition of the sign All collective, is equal to an indefinite; as, All the outward senses are five; and there are five outward senses. Note also, that in the Hebrew, not all, is equivalent to none, as Psal. 143. Not all living shall be justified, i. e. no living. 8 Indefinites sometime are equivalent to universals, sometime to particulars; to those in a matter necessary, to these in a contingent. 9 The affirming of a privation, and denial of an habit, are equivalent in an able subject; as, He is not just, therefore he is unjust; this is true in a man, not in an infant, nor in a stone. 10 He that puts one eqvivalent, puts also the other; and contrary, He that takes away one, takes away the other: so when Christ saith, Few are chosen, he saith in effect, All are not chosen. The special Canons which pertain to the Modals only are five. 1 Propositions of necessary and impossible are equivalent when they have the manner of the same spoken of a divers quality, as, It is necessary that offences arise; and, it is impossible that offences should not arise. 2 Propositions of necessary and contingent are equivalent when they have a divers quality in a word & in manner; It is necessary for the Elect to abide in God's grace; It is not contingent for the Elect to abide in God's grace. 3 Propositions of impossible and possible are eqvivalent when they have the saying of the same, and the manner of a divers quality; It is impossible for the Elect to perish; It is not possible for the Elect to perish. 4 Propositions of possible and contingent, in the Greek, phrase are often equivalent, when the manners considered in themselves import a divers signification. 5 In Modals secondarily so called, an exclusive in a necessary matter is eqvivalent to an universal; as, The elect only are saved, and all the elect are saved. Conversion, is the agreement of two propositions by 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. transposing of the parts; and it is either 1 simple, or 2 by accident, or 3 by counterplacing. 1 Simple, is the mutual change of the Antecedent and consequent, the quantity and quality abiding the same; first, and properly about an universal denier, and particular affirmer: 2 And by reason of the mater, about an universal affirm, necessary and reciprocal; as, No unbeliever eateth Christ's flesh; therefore none that eateth Christ's flesh is an unbeliever. 2 By accident is the mutual change of antecedent and consequent, the quality abiding, but the quantity being changed, viz. the universal into a particular affirmant; as, Every man is a living creature; therefore, some living creature is a man. 3 By counterplacing is the mutual transplacing of the consequent and antecedent, the quantity abiding, but the quality changed, viz. about an universal affirmant; as▪ All that are ordained to life do believe; therefore they that believe not, are not ordained to life, Acts 13. The Canons of conversion are nine, of which the first four are general, the other pertain to the Modaiss. 1 That which is to be converted, must have a proper connexion, understood without any ambiguity; these therefore are not to be turned; Christ is a vine; Bread is Christ's body, etc. 3 The whole antecedent of that which is converted, must be made the consequent of the converter, not maimed or cut off. 4 In converting, the obique Cases must be made light, as not because, Some tree is in the Garden, therefore some Garden is in the Tree; but thus; therefore something that is in the Garden is a Tree. 5 Conversion of Modals is made by change of those extremes which are in the saying, the manner always abiding fast, and the quality of the saying▪ kept. 6 There is no other conversion in Modals then simple and by accident. 7 Propositions of the manner necessary are converted so as the pure simply, when they are universal negatives, or particular affimatives; and by accident▪ when they are universal affirmants, though so also they be simply converted; as, It is necessary that no man be a stone, is converted simply, therefore it is necessary that no stone be a man. 8 Propositions of possible are converted as the former of necessary. 9 Propositions of contingent, if they be affirmative, are converted as the former, but negatives not so; for particulars are converted simply, but universals no way. Thus much of the consentany affections. Dissentany is the opposition of Propofitions. Opposition, is the fight of two Propositions according to ● the disposition, in affirming and denying. The Canons hereof be four. 1 Opposition must have the same antecedent and consequent understood without ambiguity; as, It is not good for man to be alone; it is good for man to be alone; here is no opposition; for the one is meant simply, the other respectively. 2 Opposition, must be 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 in the same respect, i. e. the consequent must be disposed with the antecedent according to the same part and nature of the antecedent, as, Christ was before Abraham; Christ was not before Abraham: the first is Time, meant as he is God: the other, as he is man; so here is no opposition. 3 Opposition must be 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 unto the same: as the Sun is darkened, the Sun is not darkened; by limitation both those are true, and not opposite; for in respect of our sight the Sun is darkened, but in itself the Sun is not darkened. 4 Opposition must be in respect of the same time; otherwise both may be true; as, Paul was at Rome, Paul was not at Rome, viz. at the same time. Opposition is either Contradictory. a Contrary. b Contradictory 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which is of perpetual dis-junction; a and it is principal or less principal. Principal, is the fight of Propositions both in quality and quantity, as is between an universal affirmant, and a particular negant; also between a particular affirmant, and universal negant; as, All men are good, Some men are not good, etc. Less principal, is between two singulars, two indefinites, and two immediate universals, fight in quality only; as Peter was at Rome: Peter was not at Rome. A man is good; A man is not good, etc. The Canons of contradiction are three. 1 Contradiction, is of all oppositions the first, the most perfect, and most fight, and therefore the measure of them. 2 Contradiction, is of eternal dis-junction, so as it is impossible for both parts to be together true or false. 3 Contradiction wanteth all mean. Contrariety is opposition between two universals, viz. them whose antecedent or subject is manifest without the consequence; as, Every man is wise; no man is wise. 2 Two contraries can never be together true, though they may be together false. The opposition of Modals hath three Canons. 1 Contradictory Modals are, which have the same manner of divers qualities, but the saying of the same quality; as, It is not possible for the elect to be deceived, It is possible for the elect to be deceived. 2 Contrary Medals are, two universals having the same universal manner affirmant; but the saying in one denying, in another affirming; as, It is possible to be; It is possible not to be. 3 In Exclusives (which are Modals secondary) the particular negative added to the only manner exclusive, maketh the opposition: as, Only the elect are reconciled to God; not only the elect are reconciled, etc. Hitherto of a simple proposition: now followeth the compound, which consisteth of a sense or sentence compounded. And it is either 1 Expressed. m 2 Implied. n 1 Expressed, which hath the express note of composition. ● And it is either by conjunction, or particular relatives. Compounded by Conjunction, is, whose parts are tied by a Grammatical Conjunction. And it is either Connexive. Separative. Connexive, whose parts are tied by a connexion, and is Copulative. Conditional. Copulative, whose conjunction is copulative; as, Love God and thy brother. The Canons are four. 1 A Copulative is affirmed and denied by reason of the i e. Proposition. conjunction copulative, whereto if a negation be added, it always maketh a negative; We are justified by faith, and not by works, etc. this is affirmative. Not by faith and works are we justified; this is negative. 2 The whole copulative proposition is esteemed by reason of the conjunction copulative. 3 To the truth of a copulative, there is required the truth of either part; and if one part be false, the proposition wholly is false. 4 Copulation noting the time, is to be taken in respect of one and the same time; otherwise the copulation will be false; as, Paul was at Rome, and saw Jerusalem. This is a deceitful copulation, for both were not at one time; but at several times both were true. Conditional, is, whose conjunction is conditional, as, If thou sin, thou shalt die. The Canons are six. 1 A conditional hath two parts, whereof the first is called the antecedent, which contains the condition; the latter the consequent. 2 A conditional putteth nothing in esse, and only suspendeth the sentence, or sense of the mind, unless the manner and condition be put, which the antecedent designeth. 3 All the truth and force of it, is in the union and coherence of the parts, whereby the consequent rightly followeth from the antecedent. 4 The measure of it is some simple composition, to which it must be resolved, that the force of it may appear, and the reason of the connexion be manifest. 5 The affirmation hangeth on the affirmation of the condition; therefore it is then Negative, when the denial is put before the conjunction If, not when it is put after: So, If the Lord keep not the city, the Keeper's watch in vain: this is affirmative, not negative. 6 A conditional, having an impossible condition annexed, is equivalent to a simple denial: as, If the sands can be numbered, Abraham's seed shall be numbered, meaning they shall not be numbered. Separative, which hath a separative conjunction: and is either Disjoined. a Discrete. b Disjoined, whose conjunction is disjunctive; as, either a we are justified by faith, or by works. The Canons hereof be five. 1 The disjoined parts of a proposition must be subordinate; it is therefore vain to say, Either it is a living creature, or a man. 2 The affirmation or negation is esteemed by the disjunctive conjunction only, whereto there must needs be added a negation, if the sentence must be negative. 3 For the truth of the disjunctive, it is enough if one part be true. 4 That therefore is false which hath no part true, and wherein taking away one, another member can be given which is true: as, Either the Pope is head of the Church, or it hath no head; both are false; and a third is true, Christ is the head, Colos. 1. 5 When the disjunctive opposition is immediate, and either member is removed, it makes the rest requivalent exclusively; as, Either we are justified by faith, or by works; but works are removed, Rom. 3. Therefore this exclusive sentence is true, Only by faith are we justified. A discrete sentence, is, which hath a discrete conjunction; b as, although, yet, notwithstanding, etc. The Canons are two. 1 To the truth of a discretive is required the truth of both parts. 2 False therefore is the discretive when any one part is false; as, Christ's humane nature is not eternal, yet it is every where present. Compounded of particular relatives, is, which hath notes of comparison according to quality, quantity, time and place: as, Such as the Shepherd is, such is the sheep. He is as honest as he is learned▪ Where the treasure is, there is the heart. Then men fast when the Bridegroom is gone, etc. 2 An employed compound sentence, is, which hath no express note of composition. The Canons are two▪ 1 The truth or falsehood of an employed sentence, wholly dependeth upon the manner of the consequence, or knitting of the antecedent or consequent; as, They that are guilty of Christ's body, they eat Christ, body; this is a false compound proposition; for there is no connexion of parts. 2 As much as may be, this proposition is to be reduced to a mere simple. Hitherto of a proposition common, called formal; now followeth a proposition in special, called material; which is determined to a certain condition of things antecedent and consequent. It is divided partly by the words, partly by the things, and partly by both together. First therefore every proposition is either Dark. Clear. Dark, when the sense needeth Interpretation; Interpretation is the unfolding of the sense or sentence, and bringing of it to clearness. The darkness of a sentence is cured by six Canons; According to which every lawful Interpretation is to be made. 1 A dark proposition must first of all be called back to a certain Method of some kind of discipline, and judged by the principles and analogy of the things delivered therein. 2 Interpretation is to be made according to the first intent and scope of the Speaker or Writer. 3 The order of the context is carefully to be weighed, and interpretation to be made by the knitting of the antecedents and consequents. 4 Like places are to be compared together, and by conference and agreement the sense to be set down. 5 Let the agreeing expositions of famous Interpreters be looked unto. 6 The dark places are to be expounded by the more clear, and not the dark by as dark. A clear proposition, is, whose sense is manifest by its self, and needs no interpretation. Again each of them is either True. False. True, is, which agreeth to the composition and division of things without the mind, or which affirmeth or denieth as the thing is. And it is either Connominative Synonimical. Denominative Paronimicall. Synomina, be those that have a common name, and in regard thereof, one and the same essential definition. Paronimas, be those that be derived, and have their denomination from others. Connominative, is, in which the consequent is spoken of the aatecedent connominatively, Synonimicè. And it is either Notional, Or Real. notional, in which the second Notion is avouched of the first; as Animal is the Genus, Man is the species, etc. Real, is, in which the consequent Synonimicall Real is disposed with the Antecedent, As, A man is an animal, Faith justifieth. And it is Ordinary. Or Extraordinary. Ordinary, in which the consequent is ordinarily disposed with the antecedent: As, A man is an animal; Peter is a man; Whiteness is a Colour. Whatsoever is said of the consequent by a Synonimical attribution, the same may also be said of the antecedent. Extraordinary, is, in which there is a disposition of the Consequent connominative, with an extraordinary antecedent, viz. the Person of the Mediator Christ; as, Christ is God, Christ is man. Denominative (or paronimical) attribution, is, which consists of an attribute (or consequent) paronimicall, as when either difference, or part, or accident, or circumstance, &. is spoken of the Subject, or antecedent; as, A man is reasonable; a man is bodied, is headed, is booted, is Temporal, is Local, etc. So, Christ is Eternal, is the Mediator, King, Priest, Prophet; Christ hath redeemed us with his blood, etc. Each attribution, as well connominative, as denominative, Is either Proper. Improper. Proper, is, whose disposition and words are proper. And it is Necessary, or Contingent. Necessary, in which the Consequent is necessarily disposed with the antecedent. The degrees hereof are three 1 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Universal. 2 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Immediate or of itself. 3 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Reciprocal. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; Or Universal, is, when the Consequent is attributed to an universal antecedent. And it is either of the Subject or Antecedent. Adjacent. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, (or Universal) of the Subject, is, when the consequent agreeth to all contained under the subject, viz. Specials or Singulars: as, an animal hath sense, this is spoken of man and beast, as also of all singular men and beasts. Therefore it is an attribution universal, (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) by reason of the subject. Universal (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) of the adjacent, is, when the consequent is attributed to the antecedent without any exception of time or place: as, Every man is reasonable; this is true in all time and places. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Or Immediate, is when the consequent is in the antecedent immediately. And it is either of The First Manner. The Second Manner. Of the first manner, is, when the consequent is of the Essence or definition of the antecedent: As, a man is a living creature, a man is reasonable, Melchizedeck was a man, etc. Of the second manner, when the antecedent is of the Essence or definition of the consequent; and this is either principal, or less principal. Principal, when an accident perfectly proper is given to the subject: As, a man laugheth, weepeth, learneth, etc. Less principal, when an accident imperfectly proper, is given to the subject; as a man is risible, and every risible thing is a man: This is the highest degree of necessity; noted therefore with two titles, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Universe, respecteth the consequent, and signifieth that it is wholly, and every whit drawn up of the antecedent, so as it is neither straighter, nor larger than it. It is not therefore 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 when I say, A man moveth. For moving is also without a man, and is not all contained in him; nor is it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 when I say, A man is learned; for this consequent is more narrow than a man, and extends not so large; Seeing there are many men that are not learned. The other term 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 1 Respecteth the subject or antecedent, and saith that that is the only and sole thing, of which the consequent is strictly spoken, so as there is no other subject to whom it is rather than to this, as there is no subject wherein laughter rather and nearer is; than a man. The Canons of necessary propositions are six. 1 A Necessary proposition, is not only affirmant but also negant: As, Christ's body is not every where; A man is not a stone. As in affirmatives it is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; so in Negatives it is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in none at all. 2 Of necessary avouching, some is pure, some mixed of necessity, and contingency: As, A man laugheth: this is mixed. 3 In pure Necessaries the couple or word Is, is freed from all difference of time or place, and from all existence. 4 A necessary consequent can in no respect, limitation, or Distinction be denied of the antecedent: as, A body is finite. 5 The latter degree of necessary propositions, is always more perfect than the former which it includeth: So a perfect 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 includeth a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 includeth both a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 6 Necessary attributions have the force of principles or beginnings; A Contingent proposition, is, wherein the consequent is contingently, or changeably disposed with the antecedent. The Canons hereof are three. 1 A Contingent attribution hath such a consequent as may without contradiction be separated from the antecedent, when it is affirmative, or be given to it when it is a Negative. 2 Contingent propositions chiefly consist of common accidents, and integral parts less principal, and of adherents: As, A man is white, is bearded, booted, etc. 3 Contingent propositions are said to be probable, when the truth of them is neither by sense nor by other reason manifest unto us; For that is probable, which when it can neither certainly be affirmed, nor certainly be denied, inclineth the assent unto the one part. An improper attribution, is, in which the consequent is improperly disposed with the antecedent. And it is either by reason of The Disposition▪ a The Words. b By reason of the disposition, is, when proper words being a retained, the consequent 〈…〉 for any inward or Essential ●…lation or Union. And it is either Common, Or Mystical. Common, is, when an outward consequent is given to an antecedent for some vulgar and common Union or Relation: these Relations are of four sorts. 1 The Relation of the cause to the effect; As, The Sun is said to be hot, because it causeth heat; the Gospel is the power of God unto Salvation. 2 The Relation or Union of place, and cleaving to; as when Iron is said to burn for the fire united unto it. 3 The Relation or representation; as when the title of the Prince is given to his Ambassador. 4 The Union of consent and indissoluble society; as when the wife hath the titles and dignity of her husband, as to be called Princess, Prophetess, Doctoresse, etc. Mystical, is, in which the outward consequent is given to the antecedent for mystical or holy relation. And it is either Typical, Or Sacramental. Typical, when for the certainty of the representation, that is given to the Type which belongs to the Antitype. These attributions are simple or compound. Simple, as when that which is due to Christ only, is given to his Type and Figure; as of David it is said, Psal. 16. Thou shalt not suffer thy holy One to see corruption; Of Solomon, I will establish his house for ever, 2 Sam. 7. These are fulfilled in Christ alone. Compound, when partly they agree to the type, partly to the antitype, as, thou shalt not break a bone of him, Exod. 12. Joh. 19 Sacramental, is, in which for the Union Sacramental, and certainty of sealing up, the thing signed or propriety thereof is given to the holy sign: As, Circumcision is a Covenant, the Lamb is a Passeover, Sacrifices are expiations of sins, Bread is Christ's body, Baptism is the laver of Regeneration, Bread is the Communion of Christ's body, etc. Improper by reason of the words, is, in which a word is ● transferred from the Native signification to some other: As when we say, The Woods do sing, The Seas clap their hands, The Fields laugh, and other figurative speeches. A false attribution, is, which answereth not to the composition and division of things out of the mind; and it is either wholly false, or false in part; also either necessarily, or contingently false. And thus much of the second part of Logic. A Summary View of the Second Part of Logic. The 2d. part of Logic is about a proposition, which is considered either Commonly, and so is Simple, in which the Constitution of Parts Signed Antecedent, or subject. Consequent, or attribute. Signing Significative Noun. Verb. Consignificative. Disposition of parts which is either, Sign Signing Express. Employed. Division from the Material Finite both either Infinite both either Universal Secondary Definite. Indefinite Formal Affirming Each either Denying Each either Pure Modal Primary Secondary Exclusive Exceptive Restrictive. Affection Consentany Equivalence Conversion Dissentany, opposition, either Contradictory. Contrary. Specially & conditionally, and is Compounded Expressed by. Employed Conjunction Connexive Copulative. Conditional. Separative Disjoined. Discrete. Relative particles. Dark Both is either Clear Both is either True Connominative notional. Real Ordinary. Extraordinary. False Denominative, And both of them either Proper Necessary. Contingent. Improper by the Disposition. Common. Mystical. Typical. Sarcamental Words. THE THIRD BOOK, Handling the Third Part OF LOGIC; Which is the Director of DISCOURSE. Of a Syllogism. THE third part of Logic is busied in directing The definition of Discourse. the Discourse. Discourse is an act of the mind of man, moving itself forward from a known thing to an unknown, by a fit collation of things former and latter. And it is either Inferring. Ordering. Inferring Discourse is an action of man's mind by certain premised propositions proving another proposition, or improving it, by help of the Precepts of a Syllogism. A Syllogism is considered, either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Commonly. a Specially, in certain conditions of matter. b A Syllogism commonly considered, is either perfectly so a called, or imperfectly. Perfectly called, is, the disposition of three Propositions, wherein from the two former and better known, a third A Perfect Syllogism. more unknown or doubtful is fitly inferred, and gathered. In this are to be considered the Constitution. Division. A Syllogism is constituted of the Material. m Formal. n The Material, is either 1. Simple, or 2. Compound. m 1. Simple are the Terms into which at last the Syllogism is resolved. The Term is either the utmost or the mean. The utmost or extreme, is that which is put both in the Conclusion and in the Premises. And it is greater, or lesser. The greater or Major, is the Consequent of the Conclusion, Major. always to be put in the first Proposition. The lesser or Minor, is the Antecedent or Subject of the Minor. Conclusion, always to be put in the second Proposition. The Mean, is, by means whereof the extremes are disposed Mean. together. The compound matter of a Syllogism, is a Proposition. A Proposition, is either inferring or inferred. Inferring, is, which inferreth the Conclusion: called therefore Premises: and it is either the major or minor. The Major, or greater, is, in which the greater extreme is disposed with the Mean. The Minor, or lesser, is, in which the less extreme is disposed with the Mean. The Inferred, is that which is gathered from the Premises. The Formal of a Syllogism, is the fit disposition of the ● Mean with the extremes. The disposition of the Mean ariseth from the finding of it out. The finding out of the Mean, consists in two things. 1. The foreknowledge of the Conclusion. 2. The Collation of the extremes one with another. 1. The foreknowledge of the Conclusion, is either Simple. a Compound. b Simple, is, when the nature and propriety is foreknown a of both the extremes, as well the Antecedent as the Consequent. Of this Foreknowledge there are three Canons. 1. Let the Word or Voice of both extremes be diligently examined, what it is, and of what sort; and if it be doubtful, let it be carefully distinguished, and that distinction be presupposed in place of a Principle, as well for confirmation as refutation. 2. Let it be observed, whether the extremes of the conclusion be universal or singular. 3. Let the causes, proprieties, and whole definition of both extremes be set down, either implicitly or expressly, as a certain and necessary Principle of the confirmation and refutation to come. The Compound foreknowledge of the conclusion, is, when the nature, quality, and quantity thereof is considered. The Canons hereof are seven: 1. Let the conclusion or state of the controversy be rightly informed. 2. Let a compound or Hypothetical, never be put in the place of a conclusion, but only a Simple or Categorical. 3. That conclusion is more easily proved, which may be concluded in many figures and moods; And that which can be but in few, is harder to be proved. 4. An universal affirmative is hardly proved, not easily refuted. 5. An universal negative is easily proved, hardly refelled. 6. A particular affirmant is more easily proved, more hardly refelled. 7 A particular negant is easy to prove, most hard to refute. 2. Now followeth the taking of the mean by Collation of the extremes. The mean or medium, is either Perfectly so called or Imperfectly. Perfectly called, is that simple Term which being taken from the nature of both extremes, either knitteth or disjoineth them one with another. Hereof, are three Canons. 1. Every mean is taken from the Terms of both extremes in the conclusion, as well the natural, as the repugnant Terms; therefore he that would find a medium, must mind the general, the special, the causes, the accidents, the parts, the cognata, the opposites of both Terms in the conclusion. 2. What manner of mean is required to make a Syllogism of this or that quantity, the Vowel Letters in the Modes of every Figure, do evidently show. 3. The mean, though it may be taken from the part of the antecedent as well as of the consequent, yet that is counted more noble which is drawn from the nature of the consequent; As for example, a mean is to be found to prove this conclusion, Every man is an Animal; mind the nature of this consequent Animal, and from it take the property of it, which is sense; this agreeth with both Terms, and is an excellent mean, or Argument to prove the conclusion, thus, Every thing that hath sense is an Animal. Every man hath sense; therefore every man is an Animal. 4. One and the same mean for a divers respect of the Antecedent or consequent, may be referred to divers places of Inventiom; as for example, A man hath sense, because he is an Animal: This Argument in respect of the Antecedent man, is from the place of the genus; but in respect of the consequent, it is from the place of the subject; for an Animal is the proper subject of sense. 5. Store of Means or Arguments is gotten chiefly two ways: 1. By deducing both extremes one after another through the places of invention, as well contingent as necessary. 2. By discerning the principal means from the less principal; for example, take the consequent of thy opposed conclusion particularly, and lead it through the contingent places; argue and reason from the Notation of it, the likes, equales, conjugates, and the other contingent titles of places: which are at least 16. now thou hast so many Means. Then come to the others store-house of necessary places; and reason from the Genus, the difference, the subject and accident, the proper, the causes, and the other titles of necessary places, which are at least 17. Then do the like about the Antecedent of the proposed conclusion; and thus mayst thou have for one Conclusion fifty Means or Arguments: but not the store of Arguments is to be respected so much as the weight or force of them; three or four sound Arguments are enough to prove any common Conclusion. The Mean imperfectly so called, is when a Testimony, or speech of any Author is taken to prove the conclusion. This mean is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 inartificial, because testimonies want artificial force to prove any thing of themselves. It is called also the Place from authority, that is, the dignity of the speaket. And thus much of the constitution of a Syllogism; Now followeth the division of it. Of the three Figures of Syllogisms, A Syllogism is divided by three Figures. A Figure is the conformation of a Syllogism, according to the certain situation of the Mean term, and certain manners (or modes) of quantity and quality; Figura est 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Alexand. A mode or manner, is a lawful constitution of Propositions in every figure, according to the quality and quantity. And it is either Principal. Less Principal. Principal, is, when the Propositions are general, that is, joined with universals, or indefinite, or particular. Less Principal, is, when the premises are singular. The Figures of Syllogisms are three: The first Figure, is, in which the mean or middle Term is the Antecedent (subject or foregoer) in the major or first proposition: and the consequent (Attribute or follower) in the minor or second Proposition. The Modes of this Figure are four, called Barbara▪ Celarent, Darii, Ferio; these are but words of Art, and serve for no other meaning then that the vowel Letters in them denote the quality and quantity of the Propositions; a noteth an universal affirmative; e an universal negative. i Noteth a particular affirmative, and o noteth a particular negative. As may be seen in the examples following. Barbara. Every sinner is subject to God's wrath. Every man is a sinner: therefore, Every man is subject to God's wrath. Celarent. No sinner deserveth God's favour. Every man is a sinner: therefore, No man deserveth God's favour. Darii. All sin is to be shunned. Some pleasure is sin: therefore, Some pleasure is to be shunned. Ferio. No sin giveth a man true comfort: Some pleasure is sin: therefore, Some pleasure giveth a man no true comfort. A Singular Syllogism. The promised Messias ought to die for the sins of the world. Jesus Christ is the promised Messiah: Therefore, He ought to die for the sins of the world. The second Figure, is, in which the Mean or middle term is in both the Premises put in the place of the Consequent. The Modes of this Figure are also four, Called, Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baroco. Cesare. No true Christian loveth this world's good: Every covetous man loveth this world's good: therefore, No covetous man is a true Christian. Camestres. All righteousness pleaseth God. No faith without works pleaseth God: therefore, No faith without works is righteousness. Festino. No true Worship displeaseth God: Some prayer displeaseth God: therefore, Some prayer is not true worship. Baroco. All virtue deserveth praise: Some love deserveth not praise: therefore, Some love is not virtue. Singular Syllogisms. Jupiter Belus was an Assyrian. Jupiter of the Poets was not an Assyrian: therefore, Jupiter of the Poets, is not Jupiter Belus. Judas Iscariot was a Traitor. Judas that wrote the Epistle, was not a Ttaytor: therefore, Judas that wrote the Epistle, was not Judas Iscariot. The third Figure is, in which the Mean or Medium is put 3. Figure. in the place of the Antecedent in both premises. The Modes of this Figure are six. Called, Darapti, Felapton, Disamis, Datisi, Bocardo, Ferison. Darapti. Every godly man is happy. Every godly man is hated of the world; therefore, Some that is hated of the world is happy. Felapton. No will worship pleaseth God. All will-worship is the invention of man: therefore, Some invention of man pleaseth not God. Disamis. Some man shall be saved, Every man is a sinner: therefore, Some sinner shall be saved. Datisi. Every holy man is loved of God. Some holy man is afflicted of God: therefore, Some that is afflicted of God, is loved of God. Bocardo. Some in the visible Church shall not be saved. All in the visible Church profess Christ▪ therefore, Some that profess Christ shall not be saved. Ferison. None whom God loveth are wretched. Some whom God loveth are poor: therefore, Some poor men are not wretched. Singular Syllogisms: Judas was not saved. Judas was an Apostle: therefore, Some Apostle was not saved. Abraham entered into the Kingdom of Heaven. Abraham was rich: therefore, Some rich man entereth into the Kingdom of Heaven. And thus much of the Species or Figures of a perfect Syllogism. Now followeth the proprieties. Of the Proprieties of a Syllogism. The Proprieties of a Syllogism are either General. Special. General, are which agree to all the Figures together. And they are comprehended in these Canons. 1. The disposition of a Syllogism is called by the principles set in the mind of man, of which the first is that which is called Spoken of All, and of None; to wit, when any thing is said or denied of the Universal, the same is also said or denied of the particulars contained under it. The other Principle is of proportion. Whatsoever do agree in one third Term, do agree between themselves; and they that dis-agree in one third, disagree between themselves. 2. In a Syllogism three Terms are only disposed, not more, nor fewer: The fourth Term must needs trouble the frame: For the mean is referred unto two: And four Terms may either be expressed, or employed in a doubtful word; For every doubtful word, is a double word. Neither can there be less than three Terms; For two extremes cannot be disposed and knit without a third mean; Not but that one Term repeated more effectually may stand for two Terms; as in this A man in extreme poverty is yet a man. 3. The mean (or middle Term) may not come into the conclusion. 4. If Abstract Terms be confounded with Concrete: and Oblique cases, with Right; so as the Principle of the spoken Of all, Of none, be violated, or that there be four Terms, the Syllogism must needs be naught. 5. Let there be a right placing of consignificative, or exceptive, and restrictive words, lest that which pertains to the conclusion be plucked from it, or lest the particular restrictive be twice repeated in the premises; For if that be, it is mere trifling; As in this example, Good, as it is good, is lovely; Justice is good, as it is good, Ergo, etc. 6. A Syllogism consisting of mere particulars is naught. One Term must be universal, else 'tis against both those Syllogistical principles noted before in the first Canon of All, and of None, and agreeing in one third; Moreover in pure particulars there be four Terms; For the Major speaks of one subject, and the Minor of another; As Some man is rich, some man is learned, Therefore learned men are rich. 7. A Syllogism of mere Negatives is naught: For it is against the second Syllogistical principle, which will have the middle Term at least attributed to the one extreme. Example, No Infidel pleaseth God; No Elect is an Infidel; Therefore, No Elect pleaseth God. 8. Let the Premises in a Syllogism have the same kind of Attribution, or Predication; that is, the major must not be proper, and the minor improper, or otherwise. As, Bread is eaten with the mouth; Bread is Christ's body; Therefore, Christ's body is eaten with the mouth: Here that which is attributed or spoken of the Bread, in the first proposition, is proper; in the 2d. figurative: the conclusion therefore is false. 9 The major and minor Term, must be brought into the conclusion, as they were disposed in the Premises, not changed or maimed; Therefore it is not right to say; All sinners repentant find mercy; Some men find not mercy; Therefore, some men are not finners: Here the conclusion is maimed, and is not as in the first proposition. 10. There must be no more in the conclusion than was in the premises. 11. The conclusion must imitate the more unworthy and weaker part that is premised: The worthiness is esteemed by the quality, and quantity; so that an Affirmative is always more worthy than a Negative, and an Universal than a Particular. It is therefore ill to reason thus; Some faithful are saved; Every faithful man is called; Therefore, every man that is called is saved. Here, of a particular Major is inferred a general conclusion; And it followeth not the weaker, but the stronger. 12. In a Syllogism, sometime by reason of the form, a true conclusion is gathered from false premises: But it is impossible for a false Conclusion to be gathered from true premises: Truth cannot be gathered from falsehood▪ but by accident; as, Every man is a Living creature: Every man is a stone: therefore, Every man is a living creature: Here the conclusion is true, (by reason of the form) though both the premises be false. 13. Of one Syllogism rightly framed, many conclusions may be gathered. And this, four manner of ways. 1. By consequence; As, They that have communion with the Devil abide not in Christ, and consequently do not eat Christ's body. 2. By conversion of propositions; As, No elect abideth in sin all his life; Every believer is an elect; Therefore, none that abideth in sin all his life, is a Believer. 3. By inclusion of one proposition in another; As, All the Elect believe in Christ; Some men believe not in Christ; Therefore some men are not Elect; Therefore also it is false that all men are Elect; For in proving the truth of the one part of the contradictory, the falsehood of the other part is included and proved. 4. By descension, or undertaking a particular term under an Universal; As, All that conserveth society, is profitable; All virtue conserveth society; Therefore, all Virtue is profitable, Therefore every lawful contract (because it conserveth society) is profitable. And thus much of the general properties, common to all the Figures. Now followeth the special. Of these some pertain to the Primary. Figure. Secondary, Figure. The properties of the primary Figure, are five, contained in so many Canons 1. The disposition (or frame) of the first Figure, is most perfect: And this for three causes. 1. Because the frame of this Figure most agreeth to natural sense, and the Syllogistical principles that are in all men, and is of all the most evident. 2. Because the Mean of this Figure, is indeed the Mean or middle in place and situation; whereas in other figures, it is the Mean 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and by reason of illation. 3. Because in this, all kind of conclusion may be gathered; Affirmative, Negative, Universal, and Particulars, which is done in none of the other Figures. 2. In the first figure there is a proceeding from Universals to Particulars, or from the Genus to the Species. 3. The major of the first Figure must always be Universal. 4. The minor must always be Affirmative. 5. The Antecedent of the minor proposition in the first figure, must be included in the Antecedent of the Major, as the Special in his General. This Canon is most profitable to be noted: For the whole frame, and form of this first figure is overthrown, if in the Antecedents of the major, and minor be two disjoined things, and not subordinate one to another. The properties of the secondary figures, are either common to both, as well the second as the third, or special to each one. Common to both, is imperfection arising both from lesser evidence, and from placing of the mean with the extremes. Imperfection requireth both Reduction, and Exposition. Reduction, is the transforming of a Syllogism form in the first or second Figure, into a Syllogism of the first Figure. Reduction is either Direct, or Indirect. 1. Direct, is, which is done by the only transposing, or turning of the Propositions, the extremes of the conclusion remaining. The Canons of this Reduction are eight. 1. Reduction of the second and third Figure unto the first, is not always necessary; therefore not always carefully to be essayed. 2. The Consonants in the beginning and the midst, do show the manner of Reduction. 3. The Consonanrs in the beginning are four; B C D F▪ showing unto which Mode of the figure, every Mode of the second and third figure is to be reduced; Namely to that which beginneth with the same Consonant. As Cesare and Camestres are reduced to Celarent; Festino and Felapton unto Ferio; Disamis and Datisi unto Darii. 4. Also the four Consonants in the midst. C M P S, do show by what Instrument the reduction is to be made, whether by Conversion, Transposition, or deduction unto impossible. 5. C, therefore noteth indirect Reduction, or that which is done by the Impossible, and is only in those words, Baroco and Bocardo. 6. M, noteth that there must be a transposition made of the propositions, the Minor in the place of the Major, and the Major in place of the Minor. 7. P, noteth conversion of the proposition by accident: to wit of the minor, into which the syllable having P, falleth, if the syllable of the modes be rightly distributed into the propositions. 8. S, showeth that there must be a simple conversion made either of the Major, or the Minor, and the conclusion together: as this letter is hard, either in the first, or middle, or last syllable: For if it be heard in the first syllable, As Cesare, it noteth the simple conversion of the major; if in the midst, it notes the conversion of the minor: And if in the last, the conversion of the conclusion, as in Camestres it is twice heard, in the midst and the last, and therefore noteth the conversion to be made of the Minor and of the conclusion. As take the syllogism in Cesare. Cessare. No true Christian loveth the World, Every covetous man loveth the World: therefore No covetous man is a true Christian. First the letter C sheweth it must be reduced to Celarent; S, in the first syllable shows the manner of reduction; to wit, by a simple conversion of the major, thus. Celarent None that loveth the world is a true Christian. Every covetous man loveth the world: therefore, No covetous man is a true Christian. Indirect Reduction, is, when we show the evidence of the Illation by absurdity of the contradiction to be admitted. The Canons hereof are six. 1. Indirect Reduction hath place only in two Moods Baroco of the second, and Bocardo of the third Figure. 2 Indirect Reduction is made by concession, and by Assumption. 3. By concession, because the adversary granteth both premises, and yet denies the inference of the Conclusion. 4. The premises therefore, being granted, by supposition, the contradictory is to be taken of the conclusion, which is in the imperfect Syllogism, that is to be reduced. 5. The contradictory of the conclusion being taken, is put in the place of the Minor, if it be Baroco of the second Figure: and in place of the Major, if it be Bocardo of the third Figure: and so the Major in the second Figure, is always left in his place, as the Minor in the third. 6. Hence is made the conclusion in the first Figure, wherein contradiction is made to the proposition left of the imperfect Syllogism; and so the adversary is driven to an absurdity, that is, to the contradictory of that proposition, which before he had granted as true. And thus much of showing the evidence by Reduction. Exposition, is the declaration of a Syllogism form 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. with a middle Mean general Term in the third Figure, by a singular Mean contained under the general, as nearer to the sense; for example, None of the Elect sin unto death. Some of the elect sin grievously, Therefore, Some that sin grievously, sin not to death. Exposition of this may be made by singulars known unto us, as David, Peter, etc. David sinned not unto death; David sinned grievously; therefore, some grievously sinning, sin not to death. The Properties peculiar to the second Figure now follow, which are comprehended in three Canons. 1. The second Figure is (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) most sit to refute with; for it disjoineth two divers things, because they agree not in one third. 2. In the second Figure the Major must always be Universal, even as in the first Figure. 3 In the second Figure, may be no mere affirmants. The Proprieties of the third Figure, are four, set down in four Canons. 1. The proceeding of the third Figure is, for the most part, from the straighter to the larger. Therefore Logicians say, the first figure hath process 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: the third, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2. The Minor must always be affirmant. 3. The whole and entire consequent of the Minor must needs be inferred in the conclusion, and put in the place of the Antecedent; for if it be maimed, or in part, all is troubled, and there are four Terms. As, Whole Christ is every where; whole Christ consisteth of the Godhead and the Manhood; therefore the Manhood is every where. Yea, though the Matter be good, the Form may be evil; as, God is the God of the living; God is the God of Abraham: therefore, Abraham liveth. Here, in the Conclusion, the Consequent of the Minor is impaired; which whole is not Abraham, but the God of Abraham. The Argument than must not be in the third, but the first Figure; thus, They, of whom God is God, do live; but God yet, is the God of Abraham; therefore he liveth: the Major followeth, because to be God, is to exercise Divine properties in the Object; and in whom such things are done, he must needs exist. 4. The Conclusion in the third Figure, is never Universal. And hitherto, of a perfect Syllogism. Animperfect Syllogism, is, which hath an imperfect disposition Imperfect Syllogism. of Syllogistical Form. And it is Direct. f Indirect. g g Indirect, is which concludeth by indirect or absurd. And it is Primary. a Secondary. b Primary, is, when the adversary by the contradictory of a the conclusion which he denyeth, and by the complication of a proposition manifestly true and granted, is driven to an absurdity. The Canons hereof are seven. 1. Let the contradictory be taken of the conclusion which the adversary denyeth. 2. Let a contradiction be assumed manifestly true, and which the adversary cannot deny; and let that be placed instead of the Major. 3. Let the contradictory of the conolusion be put instead of the Minor: and thereupon with the Major manifestly true, let be inferrd an absurd conclusion. 4. From the absurd conclusion inferred, go back to the absurd proposition, or contradictory of the first conclusion. 5. The falsehood of the Minor being showed by the force of the contradictory principle, let it be showed that the first conclusion is true, as, that whereto the Minor is contradictorily opposed; for example, Arians deny this conclusion, The Holy Ghost is God. I take the contradictory, The Holy Ghost is not God, but a Creature: and thus I infer, The spirit of God is not God, but a Creature; therefore, the The spirit of God is without God. This Conclusion is absurd; for no spirit is without that whose spirit it is: therefore Paul saith plainly, The spirit of God is in God. Therefore either the Major or Minor is absurd; not the Major, for it is manifest, the creatures are without the Creator; therefore the Minor: And therefore the right conclusion is true, which is opposed to this Minor. 6 Therefore a Syllogism leading to absurdity, is faulty either when the Major is infirm, or the conclusion not absurd or opposed to a true conclusion. 7 A Syllogism leading to absurdity, much urgeth in disputing, and hath the chief use in showing the verity of principles, and specially of those conclusions which are nigh to principles, so as they cannot well be proved by demonstration. Secondary, is, which by the Adversaries grant of concontradictories, inferreth the denial of the same by itself; as, No Natural body is infinite; some body, viz. Christ's, by the Ubiquitaries opinion is infinite: therefore some body, viz. Christ's, is not a body. A direct, imperfect Syllogism, is, 1 Enthymema. 2 Consecution of sentences. 3 Induction. 4 Sorites 1 An Enthymema is a Syllogism wherein one of the premises is kept in. The Canons are three. 1 In an Enthymema; the first proposition is called the antecedent, the other the consequent. 2 It may easily be made a Syllogism by adding the proposition that wanteth. 3 Which of the premises is wanting, may easily be judged by the conclusion; whereof, if the attribute (or latter part) appear not in the antecedent; the Major is wanting: if the subject (or first part) appear not, the Minor is wanting; as, a living creature moveth; therefore man moveth. Here wants the Minor; for this word man appeareth not in the antecedent. A man is aliving creature; therefore he moveth; Here wants the Major; for the attribute in the conclusion, moveth, appeareth not in the antecedent. Consecution of sentences, is, when without disposition of the Mean, one sentence followeth another. And it is Consentanie. a Dissentanie. b Consentanie, is, when the consecution proceedeth by consent of the sentences; Namely by conversion, inclusion, and other natural Relations of the Sentences. a The Canons hereof are nine. 1 The converting to the converted▪ in all kinds of conversion, followeth rightly: as, No Infidel eats Christ's body; therefore, None that eats Christ's body is an Infidel. 2 That inference which is made from a contrary sense is near kin to conversion by contrary placing: as, Virtue is to be praised, therefore, Vice is to be dispraised. 3 From the Superior or Universal unto the Inferior or Particular distributely there is a good consecution: as, All sinners repenting find mercy: Therefore all great sinners repenting do find mercy. But from one particular to another, it followeth not rightly; As to say: Some sin is not forgiven in the life to come, therefore some sin is forgiven in the life to come. 4 From the affirmative of a finite consequent (or attribute) followeth the Negative of an infinite consequent: as man is just, therefore man is not not-just. 5 From the affirmative of an infinite consequent followeth the Negative of a finite consequent, if the antecedent be capable of the habit: as, Man is not just, therefore neither is he just, neither un just. But of an infant it follows not, he is not just, therefore he is unjust; for he is not capable. 6 From a conjoined consequent are inferred things divided, where there is no ambiguity nor repugnancy in the adject: as, Man is a living sensible body; Therefore man is a body, man is living, man is sensible. But it follows not, a Carcase is a dead man, therefore it is a man; For between a Carcase and a man there is a repugnancy. 7 From two or more disjoined consequents that cleave together by themselves, and are taken without ambiguity, we may infer conjoined things: as, Man is a body, and he is mixed, and he is living, and he is sensible; therefore, man is a living mixed sensible body. But it followeth not if one say; This man is a Musician, and he is good, therefore he is a good Musician; because Musician and good, cleave together by accident; And there is ambiguity in the word good, which may be understood either of Moral good, or of perfection of Arts. Neither is this right to say; This servant is a father, and he is thine; therefore, he is thy father; For there is ambiguity in the word thing. 8 From an exclusive to an Universal of transposed terms, is a good consequence. As, Only man can laugh▪ therefore whatsoever can laugh is a man. 9 From the removing of the one immediate member, unto the exclusive, is a good consequence: As, We are not justified by works: therefore by faith only. Dissentany consecution, is, when from the truth of the one b of the opposites is understood the falsehood of the other; and contrary from the falsehood of the one, the truth of the other. As, It is true that some man is not chosen to life: therefore, It is false that every man is chosen to life. It is true that every Christian man is to be baptised: therefore, it is false that no Christian Infant is to be baptised. Induction is either Principal. a Less principal. b Principal, is, when from many singulars, or particulars, a there is drawn a general conclusion. The Canons hereof are three. 1 An Induction standing of particular propositions, may bring in all the particulars: As if one would prove that Wine heateth, he may reckon up all sorts of Wine in the World, as French, Spanish, Rhenish, European, Asian, African Wine, etc. 2 When singulars are infinite, it is enough to allege some chief, with addition of this clause, Neither can an unlike example be shown: As Paul in Heb. 11. to prove that all that are saved, are not saved but by faith, allegeth Abel, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, etc. and at last saith, There are many more examples; Neither can any be showed unlike to those. 3 An Induction may be made a Syllogism of the first Figure, by putting in the place of the Major such a proposition in which the consequent of the conclusion is spoken of all particulars or singulars (reckoned up or understood) as of the mean; and adding a Minor, in which the same particulars or singulars are spoken of the Antecedent (or first part) of the conclusion. As, Spanish, French, Rhenish, and all Wines do heat. All Wine is Spanish, French, Rhenish, etc. therefore, all Wines do heat. Less Principal Induction, is, when one or two singulars b are induced, or when one is proved by another: As, Abraham was justified by faith: therefore, other godly are so justified also. Sorites is an imperfect Syllogism, wherein the consequent of the first proposition is made the Antecedent of the second; and so forward as by a chain, until at length the last consequent be spoken of the Antecedent of the first propoposition: 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 an heap, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a coacervator, an heaper together. This is called a Stoical argument. The Canons are five. 1 The reason of the consequence in a Sorites is both the connexion of the subordinate's in the same predicament, and also the coherence of the causes and effects by themselves. For Example. A man is an animal, an animal is a sensual body, a sensual body is living, that that is living is mixed, that that is mixed is a substance: therefore, a man is a substance; also, Rom. 8. All foreknown are predestinate, all predestinate are called, all called are justified, all justified are glorified: therefore, all foreknown are glorified. 2 When terms not subordinate are confounded, and causes by themselves are mixed with causes by accident, the Sorites is naught: as, Of evil manners spring good Laws, good Laws are worthy of praise, things worthy of praise are to be desired: therefore, Evil manners are to be desired. This conclusion is naught; for evil manners are not causes of themselves of good Laws, but by accident. 3 A denial makes a faulty Sorites, when it cannot be reduced to some figure; and begetteth either both premises negant, or a negant Minor in the first figure: otherwise when there is a good connexion of negative consequents or attributes, Negative Sorites are not simply to be rejected; as, Affliction bringeth patience, patience bringeth experience, experience brings forth hope, hope makes not ashamed, therefore affliction makes not ashamed. 4 When a particular proposition in a Sorites it put in the second or third place, or when the particular negant is put in any place, the Sorites is naught; for the Major is particular, or the Minor negant in the first Figure. 5 In a Sorites, the Antecedent or first part of the conclusion is the Minor term, the consequent the Major; the other which besides these are found in a Sorites, are Means; and look how many Means, so many Syllogisms. An imperfect Syllogism also, is either Simple. A compound or hypothetical Syllogism. Compound. Simple, which consisteth of simple Propositions; of which we have heard before. Compound, is, which consisteth of a compound Proposition, called also hypothetical, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. And it is either 1 Conditional. 2 Disjunctive. Conditional, whose Major is Conditional or Hyprthetical. The Canons hereof are seven. 1 An Hypothetical Syllogism, consists of antecedent and consequent: the antecedent is of the first part of the Proposition; the consequent of the latter. 2 The Union of antecedent and consequent, is called the reason of the consequent, which is the very form of an hypothetical Syllogism; and therefore if it cannot be granted, the hypothetical Syllogism must needs be faulty. 3 That Hypothetical Syllogism is good, which may be reduced to a good simple Syllogism; for as the perfect is always the measure of the unperfect, so a simple Syllogism is the measure of a compound. 4 Therefore in an Hypothetical Syllogism, from the assumption of the antecedent to the conclusion of the consequent, the inference is of force, but not from the assumption or putting of the consequent, to the putting of the antecedent; for so in the second figure should be mere affirmants; as, If Infidels be grafted into Christ, they eat his flesh: But they eat his flesh; therefore they are grafted into Christ. The Argument is not of force. 5 From removing the consequent to the removing of the antecedent, the inference is of force; but not from the destruction of the antecedent to the destruction of the consequent; for so there should be a minor negant in the first figure: as, If he be a man, he hath reason; but he is not a man: therefore he hath not reason. The Conclusion is true, but it followeth not of the premises formally, but by accident only. 6 When an Hypothetical hath three terms in the first Proposition, it is easily reduced to a categorical (or simple) Syllogism; for the reason of the consequence being granted, is put for the Major in a simple Syllogism, and then the Minor followeth of its own accord; as, If the Heaven be hot, it may be corrupted by another body: the reason of the consequence is, Every hot thing may be corrupted with another body that is cold; but it is not corruptible; therefore neither is it hot. Here of make a simple Syllogism in the second figure, thus▪ Every hot thing is corruptible. Heaven is not corruptible: therefore Heaven is not hot. 7 But when four terms are in the first Proposition, the reduction is hard and laborious, because the reason of the consequence cannot so easily be rendered by a simple Proposition: as, I● Justice be by the Law, Christ died in vain; But Christ died not in vain: therefore Justice is not by the Law. Here are four terms in the first Proposition. 2 A Disjunctive Syllogism is, which hath the first Proposition a Disjunctive. And it is either Uniform. c Biformed, or a Dilemma. d Uniform, is, which of members disjoined takes away the c one to put the other, or puts the one to take away the other. as, Either we are justified by faith, or by works: not by works; therefore by Faith. The Canons hereof are two. 1 The whole force of the consequence in a disjoined Syllogism, consists in the opposition and disjunction of the parts, whereupon that must needs be naught whose parts are subordinate: as, We have instruction either from God, or from our teachers; but it is from God; therefore not from our teachers. The disjunction is naught, for it disjoineth things subordinate. 2 A right disjunction, requires a full enumeration of parts: if therefore a third part can be given, or a fourth, the disjunction is naught: as, Heaven is either Hot or Cold: but it is not cold; therefore it is hot, Here the first proposition hath an imperfect enumeration; for we should add, or else it is without all Elementary quality. A Biformed disjunctive is, that when a disjunction of parts is made, which soever be granted, the adversary is fast: d it is called a Dilemma 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, as it were 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, twice taken and taking; also an Horned Syllogism, and a Crocodiline Syllogism. As, John's Baptism is either of God or of men. If of God, why do we not receive it? If of men, we are in danger of the people which count him a Prophet. The Conon's hereof are four. 1 The force of consequence in a Dilemma dependeth on the full enumeration of the disjoined members, and the convenient removing of them both. 2 The Dilemma hath no force, if there be not a full disjunction, but a third or fourth member may be given. 3 It is also without force if both members be granted, as making nothing against us. As the Jews reasoned against Christ: Tribute must be given to Cesar, o● unto God; If to God, than not to Caesar, and this is Treason: If to Caesar, than not to God, and this is Sacrilege. Our Saviour answereth by granting both, Give to Caesar that which is Caesar's, and to God that which is Gods. 4 Finally, A Dilemma hath no force if it may be turned and returned upon the adversary. Often also in the undertaking of a Dilemma, they are faulty in evil consequence, and then we must answer by denying the consequence, as, Infants which while they are a Baptising, do cry and resist, either they understand, or not: If they understand not, neither believe they; and therefore should not be baptised: If they understand, they are Sacrilegious that oppugn God's Institution. Here be evil consequences in both branches; for it followeth not, That Infants do believe, although they understand not explicitly what there is done. Neither followeth it, That they are Sacrilegious and repugn God's Ordinance though they cry and struggle; for they stuggle not against the water as it is an holy sign, or with formal reason; but as it is a cold Element oftensive to their tender body. Even as a godly man that loves no wine, doth naturally abhor the wine which is in the Lord's Supper; but he abhors it only as it is wine, and not as it is a Sacred sign of Christ's blood. And thus much of a Syllogism Formal, or commonly considered. A Special or Material Syllogism, is, which is restrained unto certain conditions of matter. And it is either True. Apparent. True, is, when not only the form, but also the matter of it is good. And is either Notional. a Real. b A notional Syllogism, is, whose conclusion and premises a have some second Notion or term of Logic. The Canons hereof are two. Of which the first for foreknowledge of the conclusion. The latter is for finding out of the mean. 1. Every simple Notion handled in the first part of Logic comes into the conclusion of a National Sillogism; for every second Notion may be compared with the first. We ask, Whether time and place be words conjoined or absolute? Whether the Genus of sin be an action, or the Genus of faith be knowledge? Whether Antichrist is to be one singular person? Whether faith be proper to the Elect? Whether persons in the Trinity be really, modally, or formally distinguished, and so of all other points. So as there is great use of a Notional Syllogism. 2. The Mean term for a notional Syllogysm, is easily taken from the nature and properties of that second Notion, of which question is made in the conclusion; so as from the first part of Logic the Canons of every second Notion may be put for the Major in the Syllogism, and then let the assumption be made affirmative or negative. For example. It is asked, Whether an action be the genus of sin, or not. For a denial, there is found out a mean term, from the nature and properties of a good genus. As by this Canon. No subject is the genus of that whereof it is the subject. l. 4. Top. cap. 6. But an action is the subject whereto sin cleaveth; therefore it is not the genus of sin. Again, It is asked, Whether good works be the cause of Justification. Take for Major this Canon of a cause; No cause is after the effect; but good works are after Justification; for the person must first be justified and please God before he can do any good work: therefore good works are not the cause. And so of all other Notions, with their Canons treated of in the first part of Logic, whereby appeareth the great use of those Rules: and that there needs here no long discourse of a Notional or topical Syllogism. A Comparative Syllogism. Seeing every Syllogism is first absolute; As when we ask whether this be that or not: or else secondly Comparative, as when we ask whether this be more or less than that; here shall be added Canons of a Comparative Syllogism. The general Canons hereof are two. The 1 For the foreknowledge of the conclusion. 2 The other to find the Mean. 1 The conclusion of a Comparative Syllogism being contingent, and for the most part taken confusedly, needeth therefore diligent distinction and limitation: As it one ask, whether this or that be better; We must distinguish between better simply and absolutely, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and better in respect, and after a sort, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, rather to be chosen in respect of time and place: So marriage is simply better than a single life, because of propagation, Gen. 2. Yet single life is rather to be chosen in time of persecution, 1 Cor. 7. 2 The mean term of a comparative Syllogism, is hardly found by the places of real invention; because the attribute is most common, and almost Notional, not real; therefore this is here handled after a Notional Syllogism. The special Canons pertain either to the question as it is asked indefinitely, whether this be rather than that? or unto the question as it is asked, whether this be better than that, or worse? 1 That which is such by Nature, is rather such than that which is not such by Nature; as, flowers are fairer than garments; For, they have a natural beauty, these but an artificial. 2 That which maketh an other such, is rather such than that which maketh not; and if both do make, that which rather maketh, is rather such; As Fire is hotter than Water; for it maketh the Water such. The Canons pertaining to a conclusion, better or not better, are these. 1 That which is more lasting and constant, is better than that which is less lasting; So 1 Cor. 13. Love is better than faith; For love endureth always. 2 That which is of itself good, is better than that which is good by another, and by accident; So, To live is better than to eat, because we eat to live, and live not to eat. 3 Simply good, is better than that which is good for some; As marriage is better than single life; Study of learning better than Merchandise. 4 That is more excellent which is in the more worthy and honourable thing; As a Monarchy is the best Regiment; For God is a Monarch. It is better to give, than to receive; For God giveth only. 5 The end is better than the means unto the end; As better is health than the use of Physic; better is peace than Triumph. 6 That which is possible, is better than that which is impossible. 7 That is better which of itself is more fair and honourable. 8 That which is after, is oftentimes better than the former; to wit, if other things be like, etc. As, the later thoughts are better than the former. 9 Many good things are to be preferred before few. 10 That which effecteth many good things, is better than that which doth but few; So a Public person is better than a Private. 11 That which is joined with pleasure, is better than that which wanteth pleasure. 12 At what time a thing is more necessary, at that time it is more to be chosen; So comfort is better in sorrow than in prosperity. 13 That which is always profitable, is better than that which is but sometime; So, Bread is better than all Pheasants, Partridges, etc. For it is always needful. 14 That which hath all kinds of good, as honest, profitable, and pleasant, is better than that which is under but one kind of good. 15 That is most to be shunned, which most hindereth things to be chosen. 16 They are most to be chosen, whose opposites are most to be shunned: So prudence is better than knowledge, because imprudence is more hurtful than simple ignorance. 17 That is best which is most famous and notable. 18 Hard things are to be preferred before easy. 19 Things that we may communicate with others, specially with friends, are better than those which we may not; So learning is better than health, liberality than temperance. 20 That is best which is most proper; So God's grace is better for his children, than worldly riches; For these are common with the wicked, that proper to the elect; To use reason, is better than to use sense; For that is proper to man, this is common with beasts. So wit is better than memory, which many fools have. 21 Of those which are under the same Genus or Species, that is better which hath its own proper virtue; So cold water is better than hot; Natural gesture than affected. 22 They which are of abundant, seem better than necessary things; As to have fair clothes better than mean, to be a good Artizen better than a mean. 23 Things that cannot be given by men, are better than those that can: So wit is better than riches. 24 That is more to be chosen, the abundance whereof is more to be chosen than of any other thing. 25 Better is when a thing may be chosen without an other, than when without an other it is not to be chosen: As prudence is better than strength. 26 Of what things we deny the one, that the other may seem to be in it; that is the better which we would have seem to be in it: So many deny they took pains about a thing, that they may seem to be witty; therefore, wit is better than pains taking. 27 Such things as whose loss we take not more grievoussy, we are more blamed for, are more to be chosen, As children than riches, for we are more blamed if we be not sorry for loss of our children, than of our goods. 28 That which effecteth good, is better than that which doth not. 29 Conjugates follow mutually; therefore, if one be better, the other also shall be better; As the New Testament is better than the old; therefore, also a Minister of the New, is better than a Minister of the old. 30 That which pleaseth God, is better than that which pleaseth man. 31 That which we choose for itself, is better than that which we choose for glory. And this much of a Notional Syllogism, and a comparative. A Real Syllogism, is, whose terms are Real: that is, first b Notions put without the mind. And it is either Contingent. a Or Necessary. b A Contingent is, whose contingent mean contingently a disposed with the extremes, getteth a suspended and weak assent to the conclusion, and is called opinion. A contingent mean, is that which is taken from a contingent place. Contingent places be either From the word. c From the things. d Places from the word, are either 1 From the definition of a Noun. 2 From the Conjugates. A place from the definition of a Noun, hath three Canons. 1 To what the definition and notation of a noun is given, to that also the defined thing is given. 2 When the definition and Notation is larger than the thing defined and noted, the consequence is of force only negatively; As, it is not a sacred sign; therefore, not a Sacrament. 3 When the Notation is equal to the noted, the consequence is of force as well affirmatively as negatively: as, He foretells things to come, therefore he is a prophet: he is not a prophet, therefore he foretells not things to come. A place of Conjugates hath three Canons. 1 One of the conjugates being put, another is put; and one taken away, another is taken away; as, Sin pleaseth not God: therefore not the sinner. ● That which is given to one of the Conjugates, is given also to the other: as, Religion is contemned, because the Religious are contemned. They that have one God, one Spirit, one Baptism, aught to have Unity amongst themselves: In the Trinity there is Unity, because the Father, the Son, and the holy Ghost are one. A place from the things is either Artificial. h Inartificial. i Artificial, is, which containeth Terms arguing of themselves. b And it is either First. Or, rising from the first. First, is, which containeth the first Terms. And it is either Inward. m Outward. n Inward, is, which containeth inward Terms: as, Of the m cause and caused, of the subject and accident; of the whole and the part. The place of the cause and caused hath five Canons. 1 The far-off efficient cause being put, it is probable that the effect should be put: as, The clouds gather, therefore it will rain. 2 The cause 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 being put, it is probable the effect is put, and chose; also the effect being put, it is probable such a cause is put: as, He loves her, therefore he will marry her: He married her, therefore he loved her. 3 The Instruments being put, it is probable the effect is put; and contrary, the effect being put, it is probable the instruments are put, and contrary: as, He reads good books, therefore he will be learned: He useth proper physic; therefore he shall recover health, etc. 4 From the common matter put or taken away, or the matter whereof, to put or take away the mattered, and so on the contrary, is a contingent inference: as, In Germany is much wood, therefore they have many ships. 5 From a voluntary end to the means, and from these to the end, is a contingent inference: as, He studied hard, therefore he means to have the degree of a Doctor, etc. The Canons of Subject and Accident, Whole and Part, are four. 1 From the common accident being put unto the subject, is a contingent inference; as from the accident removed, to the removing of the subject: as, It is a black Bird, therefore a Crow: She loves the child, therefore she is the mother of it. 2 From a common subject being put, to the putting of a common accident, and contrary, is a contingent infference: as, She is a Mother, therefore she loves the children: He is a Cretian, therefore a liar. 3 The whole being put, it is probable this or that part is put: as, He is a man grown, therefore he hath a Beard. 4 Some integral part being put, it is probable the whole is put; and chose: as, There is a foundation and walls, therefore a house. Places of outward terms have five Canons. b 1 The adherent being put, it is probable that is put which it is wont to cleave to, and contrary; As he goeth brave; therefore he is rich. 2 The contingent object being put, it is probable that is put, about which it is busied, and contrary; as, There are many sick; therefore, many Physicians. 3 The circumstance of place or time being put, it is probable that is put which is wont to be therein, and contrary; as, It is eight of the clock in the morning; therefore, he is not drunk: He was not seen about the house in the night, therefore, he is a thief. 4 The antecedent being put, it is probable the consequent is put, and contrary; as, The Moon is pale; therefore, it will rain. 5 The contingent consequent being put, it is probable the antecedent was, and contrary; as, It raineth; therefore, the Moon was pale. Places of terms arising from the first, Are either From Description. From Comparison. The place from description hath one Canon. To whom the less principal description agreeth, it is probable that the described agreeth, or agreeth not thereto; as, It is not a Bush bigger than a Biamble, with strong twigs, and red Berries; therefore, it is not the Dogg-bryar. The place from comparisons, the place is either from Consentany a Comparison. Dissentany b Comparison. From consentany comparisons, a the place is either from, Even. Like. The place from Even hath two Canons. 1. Even things agree ro Even; and what is given to the one, is given to the other of even things, and contrary: as Rom. 5. By one man salvation may be restored to the world; seeing by one man sin and death came on the world. 2. Whereto one of the even things agreeth or not, thereto it is probable the other also agreeth, or not; as, Christ had power to heal the Palsie-sick; therefore, he had power to forgive sins, Mat. 9 The place from Like hath three Canons. 1 That which agreeth or not, to one of the like things, that also agreeth or not to the other: as, The rain returns not back to heaven, but watereth the earth; neither God's Word returneth in vain. 2. To whom one of the Similes agreeth, or not▪ the other also agreeth, or not. 3. A similitude, or comparison allegericall, if it should have any force in arguing, it must needs have authority in the Scriptures, and application Ministered by the Holy Ghost. Of Proportionals, there is the same Judgement; and what is affirmed or denied of one by proportion, that is also of another: For as is the seed in the land, so is the word to the heart, but seed falling into good ground, bears good fruit; therefore doth God's Word likewise in a good heart. Near to the place of Even and Like things, is the pla●● from a singular thing and example, whose Canon is one. Of Even▪ and Like things, there is the same Judgement; and that which agreeth, or not, to one singular of the same kind, doth so to the o●her: as, Abraham was justified by faith, therefore also other men. An example is either True. Feigned. True, which hath indeed come to pass. Feigned, which is devised for the teaching of children. And it is A Parable. A Fable. A Parable, is a feigned example, drawn from such actions of men, as may or are wont to be done. A Fable, is a feigned example, drawn from beasts and other such things, whereunto humane actions do not agree. From dissentany comparison the places are from Uneven. Unlike. b Uneven, either greater or lesser. The place from the greater hath two Canons. 1. If there be the greater, there will also be the lesser, and whereto the greater agreeth, the less doth also: as, God hath given us life, therefore he will give us food and raiment. 2. That which in the same proportion agreeth not to the greater, agreeth not also to the lesser: as, The Just is scarce saved, therefore much less the wicked. The place from the Lesser, hath only this one Canon. If the lesser be not, than the greater will not be; as, Of ourselves we cannot think a good thought; much less, do a a good deed. 2. The place from Unlike, is either Simple. Compound. Simple Unlikes agree to Unlikes; and whatsoever agreeth to one of the Unlikes, as it is unlike▪ agrees not to the other: as, Though beasts have all things common, 'tis unfitting men should. For compound unlikes, they which are not proportionate, to them proportionals do not agree: as, A good shepherd deals not with his flock like an hireling: the hireling flies when the wolf comes; therefore the good shepherd doth not so. And thus much of places Artificial. Inartificial, is a place which argueth not of itself, but b by the assumed force of an artificial place, and it is called the place of testimony. Contingent testimony, is that which cometh from man as he is man. The Canons of humane Testimony are 13. 1 Though no humane testimony as such, be of necessary truth, yet admitteth it certain degrees, and one is more strong, or weak than the other. 2 Proper, or ones own testimony of things, done or not done, especially in the worse part, if it be not wrung out of force, is counted for firm. 3 Public testimonies of public seals are firm. 4 Testimony of public and long-lasting fame is also to be esteemed for meanly firm, 5 Old testimony is more worth than new. 6 Grammatical testimonies, to wit, which treat of the use, signification, quantity of words, syllables, etc. gathered out of the best Authors, are firm. 7 Testimonies Practic, that is Ethick, Politic, Legal, of honest, filthy, right, wrong, spoken of grave Authors, are firm. 8 Testimonies historical, of approved Historians, are firm. 9 Testimonies Theoretical of some great and received Author, alleged after reasons of a Theoretical conclusion, have great force. 10 Testimony of many Wise men and Famous, is to be preferred before the testimony of one and an obscure man. 11 Testimony of a skilful Artizen, is to be preferred before the testimony of another unskilful, however famous otherwise. 12. Testimonies of ancient Fathers, if they be subordinate to the holy Scripture, have a force in proving Theological conclusions, but no proving humane, yet greater. 13. An Argument from humane Testimony negatively, is of no force. And thus much of a contingent Syllogism. Of a necessary Syllogism. A necessary Syllogism, is, which hath a Mean or Medium of necessary disposition to b● get in the mind firm and immovable assent to the conclusion. It is called Science. The general Canons thereof are three. 1. The Conclusion of a necessary Syllogism sometime is pure, ●r proper to one discipline; sometime mixed, or of divers Disciplines: as, Only Faith justifieth, this is a pure conclusion; for both the terms, faith, and justifieth, are terms of Theology, and handled therein. A natural body is in a place; this is pu●e; for only Natural Philosophy treateth of a place, and a body; but this, Accidents in the Lord's Supper are not without the holy bread and wine, is necessary, and may be proved by a necessary Syllogism; but it is not pure; for the word Accident is Metaphysical o● Logical; the other terms Theological. 2. In a pure conclusion we must needs use a Mean of the same kind, that is, such as together with the extreme of the conclusion, pertaineth to one and the same discipline, and not to divers. 3. Of a necessary Syllogism, the propositions also are necessary. A necessary Syllogism is either Monstrative, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. f Demonstrative, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. g Monstrative, is, whose Mean is taken from a monstrative f place that is, from every place of necessary invention▪ except the place of the efficient cause, the end, and the effect. And it is either Artificial. c Inartificial. d Artificial places again are either of first Terms, or secondly c of Arisen. Places of the first terms be Inward. a Outward. b Inward, are they which are taken from inward terms, and a they are nine. 1. From the Genus. 2. From the Species. 3. From the cause material. 4. The Formal. 5. The Subject. 6▪ The Accident. 7. The proper. 8. The whole. 9 And the part. The first place of the Genus hath two Canons. 1. To what the Genus is given, to the same some Species must needs be given, but indeterminate; as, It is sin; therefore Original, or Actual. 2. From what the Genus is taken away, from that necessarily all the Species are taken: as, It is no sin, therefore neither original nor actual; therefore no sin. The place of the Species hath two Canons. 1. To what the Species is given, to the same the Genus must needs be given: as, He is a man, therefore a living creature. 2. From what all the Species are taken, from it the Genus must needs be taken: as, It is neither original 〈◊〉 actual sin, therefore no sin. The place from the Form and specifical difference hath two Canons. 1. Whereto the Form is given, or taken away, thereto the formed is given or taken away: as, Satyr's have no reason, therefore are ●o men. 2 Whereto the Form is given, thereto the determinate matter must needs also be given; and contrariwise: as, Nabuchadnezzar kept the Form of a man still; therefore also the body. The place from the matter hath three Canons. 1. Whereto the matter is given or taken away, thereto the mattered thing must needs also be given or taken away: as, Glorified bodies shall consist of the four Elemements; therefore they shall be mixed 2. Whereto the matter is given, thereto the determined Form must needs also be given; and chose▪ as, Pig●eyes have the bodies of men, therefore the Forms also. 3. As is the matter, such is the mattered thing: as, The Image is of rotten wood; therefore it is also rotten. The place from the proper subject hath this one Canon. Whereto a proper accident is given, or taken from it, thereto the subject also m●st needs be given or taken from it: as, Christ is God, therefore hath power to forgive sins. The place from the proper accident hath two Canons. 1. Whereto a proper accident is given, or taken from it, thereto the subject must needs be given, or taken from it: as, Christ forgiveth sins, hath life▪ in himself, and giveth ● life to others; and therefore he is God. 2. That which is said of the proper accident in theiconcrete, is said also of the subject: as, A questioner is to be shunned, because a blab is to be shunned. The place from the whole and parts hath three Canons. 1. The whole being put or taken away, needs must the parts be put or taken away: as, the whole Supper pertaineth to Lay men, therefore the Cup. 2. That which agreeth, or not, to an whole of the same kind, that also agreeth, or not, to the part, if the attribute be such, as may by proportion agree to the part: as, Water is moist, therefore every drop of water is so. 3 One principal part being destroyed, the whole is taken away. as, This building hath no Roof, therefore is no house: He hath no head, therefore is no living body. Places of outward terms, are Circumstances, Object, b Concomitancy. The place of Circumstances hath this one Canon. Circumstances being put or taken away, the adject is put or taken away; and the adject put or taken away, so is the Circumstance: as, The flowers are badded, therefore it is spring time: it is a body, therefore there is a place wherein it is. The place of the necessary object hath also one Canon. Whereto an even object is given or taken from it, thereto that which is busied about the object is given or taken from it; and chose: as, He is exercised about the worship of Idols; therefore he is an Idolater: Christ is true God; therefore he is to be worshipped. The place from the necessary Antecedent, hath this one Canon. A necessary Antecedent being put or taken away, the consequent of it, is put or taken away: as, he is dead in Christ, therefore he shall rise to eternal 〈◊〉. The woman is not with child, therefore she shall not bring forth. The place from the necessary consequent hath also one Canon. A necessary consequent being put, the antecedent is put▪ as, The woman brought forth, therefore she had conceived: he is a man, therefore he was a child. 2. Places of terms arisen from the first, are of Definition, Division, and Opposites. The place of definition and description principal, hath one Canon. Whereto a definition or description is given or taken from it, thereto the defined or described thing is given or taken from it; and that which agrees, or not, to the definition, or description, the same agreeth, or not, to the defined or described; and chose: as, In the Old Testament there was a state of worshipping God in and by Christ; therefore in the Old Testament, there were Christians. The place of Division hath these two Canons. 1. All the members of the divided being taken away, the divided itself is taken away. 2. One of the Immediate members of a Division being taken away, the other is left. The place of Opposites hath seven Canons. 1. Of Opposites, so far forth as they be such, the attributes are opposite; so as the opposition be made by the differences whereby the opposites disagree, and not by the genus or common accidents▪ and that proportion be kept between the causes and effects of the opposites. So, It follows not, Whiteness is colour, therefore blackness is no colour; for the opposition is made by the common Genus. Neither followeth this, Evil works condemn, therefore good works justify; for there is no proportion of good works to salvation, when our works cannot be said to be truly good of themselves, as Evil deeds are truly evil. Neither this, We must do good to our friends; therefore evil to our Enemies; For Enemies, in that respect that injuries are to be forgiven them, are not so much our enemies as our friends. Neither followeth, virginity is good, therefore marriage is evil; for goodness is common to both in divers respects▪ But this follweth, Heat disseve●eth things of divers kinds, therefore cold gathereth them: Purity cherisheth the Spirit, therefore impurity expelleth it. 2. From what a disparate is removed, from it all in the disparate are removed: As 1 Sam. 15. God is not as man, that he should lie, or the Son of man, that he should repent. 3. One of the 〈◊〉 and repugnants being put, the other is removed; As, It is unbloody; therefore, it is no Sacrifice; For these are contradictory, 1 Cor. 10. Ye cannot drink the cup of the Lord, and of Devils. 4. One of the contraries in an high degree being put, the other is removed. As, He is in despair: therefore, he hath no comfort. 5. One of the privatives being put, the other is removed, and contrariwise: As, He is blind: therefore he seeth not. 6. One of the Relatives being put, the other is put; As, God is an eternal Father; therefore he hath a coeternal Son. Christ is always Mediator and head: therefore, he will always have a Church. 7. Whereto one of the Relatives is giving, thereto the other cannot be given in the same respect; And from the remotion of the Relative▪ to the remotion of the Correlative, the inference is right: As Christ is David's Lord: therefore, he is not his servant. An inartificial place, is necessary Testimony. b Necessary Testimony, is either Of God. a Or of the Senses. b. God's Testimony is a sentence spoken of God. a Testimony. And is Mediate. Immediate. Immediate, which God uttereth without means of any Minister. And it is either. First, By Vision, as of old to the Prophets. Or Secondly, By Voice; as, at Christ's Baptism, Mediate, is, which God hath uttered by his Son sent in the flesh; Or by inferior Ministers, the Prophets and Apostles. The Canons of God's Testimony, Mediate, and Immediate, are twelve. 1. God's Testimony is believed for God himself, and his Authority, not for the man's sake by whom it was uttered. 2. There is no Divine testimony written this day; But in the Bible. 3. All principles of Theological conclusions, pertaining to the perfection and Salvation of the Elect, are sufficiently delivered in the Scriptures. 4. Argumentation from God's testimony, proceedeth both Affirmatively and Negatively in things pertaining to Salvation. 5. It ceaseth to be the testimony of God, if wrested either to a wrong sense or unmeet allegories. 6. From places or testimonies doubtful, Doctrines of faith are not firmly established. 7 That which by good consequence is gathered from any Divine testimony, it hath the same force with it. 8. What is proved or explained by the Scripture, that is understood to be also proved and explained by the true Church, Lawful Counsels, and Ancient Doctors. 9 From Gods revealed will to his power, the argumeent always is of force; But it follows not, because he will not, that therefore he cannot. 10. From God's will Indefinite and Hypothetical unto the simple execution thereof, an argument is not of Force: as, God would all men should be saved: therefore, they shall all be saved; It follows not; For that Will is hypothetical or Conditional, If they believe. 11. God's affirmative Commandments are to be taken with limitation. 12. God's negative Commandments do bind simply. Testimony of sense, is that which every ones sense telleth b him. And it is Outward. Inward. Inward, is, which Laws of Nature and Conscience tells us. Outward, is, that with the outward senses (as seeing, hearing, etc.) rightly disposed, and so the sensual observation and experience doth confirm: Matth. 11. Go tell John what ye hear and see. Come see the place where the Lord was laid. And thus much of the first kind of necessary Syllogism. The other kind of necessary Syllogism hath the mean term from the place of the Efficient cause, the Final, and Demonstration. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. the Effect. And it is called Demonstration 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. And it is either Perfect, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. a Imperfect. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. b Perfect Demonstration called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. (i. e.) Wherefore, is, whose mean is taken from the place of the efficient cause or end, for to get the knowledge of such a conclusion as wherein the accident is attributed to (or spoken of) his subject. The general Canons of this Demonstration are eight. 1 Three things are in every demonstration. 1 The subject 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2 The affection, or accident 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 3 The cause 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2 The conclusion of a demonstration consisteth of two extremes, viz. the affection or accident which is put in place of the attribute; and then secondly, the subject wherein the affection is. 3 The foreknowledge of the conclusion is the same that was of others, viz. that the subjects both name and existence, and definition of the Essence be foreknown, and the name of the attribute or affection. 4 The finding of the mean also agreeth unto the general precepts; For it is taken from the nature of the extremes, viz. the efficient cause of th● attribute, which often is the form of the Subject, and from the end of the same attribute. 9 A demonstation hath certain degrees; So that one exceeds another in necessity, and so hath propositions, one more necessary, another less. 6. Demonstrations are given in all kinds of disciplines contemplative, of practic, though the demonstrations of contemplative disciplines be more worthy. 7. There are given demonstrations aswell Negative as Affirmative, though the affirmative be more worthy. 8. A Demonstration perfect (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) hath great kin with the perfect definition of an accident: For the things that are in a perfect definition, as Efficient, Cause, End, and Subject, the same are also in a demonstration. A perfect Demonstration, is either Of the Efficient. a Of the End. b A Demonstration of the efficient cause, is, whose mean ● is taken from the place of the next efficient cause. And it is either Principal. c c Less Principal. d d Principal, whose mean is the next principal efficient c c cause; and it is either of the inward cause, or Outward. Of the Inward, whose mean is the next principal efficient. Outward, whose mean is the outward principal next efficient cause. The Canons of both these are two. 1. Whereto the next efficient cause is given, thereto the effect must needs be given; and from what the cause is taken, the effect is also. 2. A Demonstration of the Inward cause, is perfecter than a Demonstration of the Outward cause: Examples of Demonstration: That which hath the guilt of sin, is wretched; But all mankind since the fall, hath guiltiness: therefore, it is wretched. Whatsoever differeth from the Law and will of God, deserveth God's wrath; but every small sin differeth, etc. therefore, it deserveth God's wrath. He that hath satisfied God's wrath, hath perfectly redeemed us; Only Christ hath satisfied, etc. therefore, he hath redeemed us. They that are constantly kept of God in the purpose of Election once mode, their Salvation is sure: But all the faithful are so kept: therefore, their Salvation is sure. Whatsoever hath matter, is movable; Every natural body hath matter; therefore, Every natural body is movable. Less Principal, is, whose mean term is a less principal d d efficient cause, viz. either▪ Impulsive, or first Instrumental. The Canon hereof, is. Whereto the Impulsive and Instrumental which is more matching, is given; thereto also must needs be given the effect and power or faculty unto which the instrument is ordained: and contrary, from what the instrument is taken, from that also the end or effect must needs be taken; Thus Demonstration is made▪ that fishes do not breathe, because they have no lungs, that the wicked eat not Christ's body, because they have no faith; So man is a communicable and sociable creature, because he hath speech, the Instrument of communion. Demonstration of the end, is, whose mean term is drawn b from the place of the final cause. The Canons thereof are two. 1. The end being put, (specially the fitted end) needs must the means to the end be put, or chose. 2. Even as the end is either fitted and principal, or less principal, accordingly the Demonstration is more perfect, or imperfect. Thus Christ showed they ought not to buy and sell in the Temple, because it was an house of prayer. Heresies must be, that the approved may be known; etc. Imperfect Demonstration (or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: That a thing is) b whose mean is taken from the place of the effect. The Canons hereof are three. 1▪ The effect being put, the cause is necessarily put; and the effect being taken away, so is the cause (as it is a cause of that effect); So it is showed that some men are Elect; because in time they are called justified, and sanctified; and contrary, that some are not Elect, because they are not called, etc. So, Infants are sinners, because they die, Romans 5. 2. Even as the effect is either principal, or less principal, accordingly is the demonstration more or less principal. 3. When by the effect it is proved, the cause is, or not; on the contrary also, the effect may be showed by the cause; which Reciprocation, Logicians call Regress. And thus much of Demonstration: Of an Apparent Syllogism, or Fallacy. Hitherto we have treated of a true Syllogism; Now followeth the Apparent, which hath a false disposition or matter, painted with a show of a true; Whereupon ignorance or naughty disposition is begotten in the mind. The Doctrine hereof hath two parts. The 1. whereof is the caution of a deprehended Fallacy. The 2. is, Showing and losing of that Fallacy. First, Of the deprehension, or finding out of a Fallacy. A Sophism or Fallacy is a deceit, either In Form. a In Matter. b A Fallacy of Form, is when men sin against the disposition a of a Syllogism, violating the Canons, either general or special of all the Figures. A Fallacy of matter, is either In words. m b In things. n A Fallacy of words, is either in a word Simple. g m Compound. b g A fallacy of a simple word is either Of want of use. k Of Ambiguity. l A Fallacy of the want of use of a word, is either 1. For the darkness of it. 2. For the oldness. k 3. For the Novelty. 4. For the impropriety of it. These are opened in the first part of Logic. Ambiguity of a word is either For the many meanings. For the doubtful forming. l Ambiguity for many meanings, is, when a term in a Syllogism is taken in this meaning or in that: as, That which is begotten beginneth to be: The Son of God is begotten, therefore beginneth to be. Here is ambiguity in the word, begetting; for the generation that is in the Holy Trinity, differeth generally from the generation of the creatures. Ambiguity for the forming of a word, is either in respect of the 1. Orthography. 2. Etymology, 3. Prosodie. 1. In respect of the Orthography, is when the doubtfulness ariseth from the divers pronouncing of word, or writing: as, If a man, pretending to make one his heir, should say, I will make thee mine hair; or to commend one for a full- hardy soldier, saith, He is foolhardy. 2. In respect of the Etymology, doubtfulness is which ariseth either of likeness of ending, or confounding one number for another. This Fallacy is called, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 3. In respect of Prosody, doubtfulness is which a●i●eth from wrong pronounciation; a long syllable for a short, or otherwise. A Fallacy of a compound word, is, which is in a sentence and is called Amphib●lie▪ which is a double uncertainty of the meaning in a sentence. And it ariseth either 1. Of the construction and distinction. 2. Of the phrase. 3. Of the Composition and Division. 1. Of the construction, when the coherence and construction of words is doubtful. 2. Of the phrase, when not the construction, but the kind of speech makes uncertainty of sense: as, Christ went up to Heaven to fill all things. Therefore, His body is diffused everywhere. It is a Fallacy, by not understanding the Apostles phrase, Fill all things, which is meant of the effusion of the Holy Ghost, not of the diffusion of his body. 3. Of Composition and Division, when words are joined together which should be disjoined, or chose: as, Two, and three are even and odd; but five are two and three; therefore five are even and odd. A Fallacy in things, is either n 1. About the conclusion, or question. a 2. About the proof of the concluon, on o●●●●ing the Mean. b About the conclusion, is either a 1. Ask of many questions, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 2. Ask of another question, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 3. Ignorance of the argument 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 1 The Fallacy of many questions, is, when many questions or conclusions are confounded in one: As, Were Moses, and Aaron, and David, good Kings? Here is confusion; for Aaron was not a King. So, when we ask, Have you left your stealing? If one answer, Yea, it intimateth he was once a thief; if he answereth, No, he argueth himself now to be a thief. For every ambiguous question is not one, but manifold. As, Was Judas elected? Here 'tis doubtful, whether 'tis meant Election to life, or election to an Apostleship; therefore, it is no simple question. Ubiquitaries reason thus; That which is Sacramentally united with the Bread, is eaten; though not after a natural, yet a supernatural manner. But Christ's body is Sacramentally united with the Bread: Therefore, it is eaten, though not after a natural manner, etc. Answer is, In the conclusion, there is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. For two questions are confounded, 1 Whether Christ's body be eaten. 2 How it is eaten. 2 Ignorance of the Argument or Elench, is, when either the state of the question is quite turned and wrested, or the adversaries conclusion is not directly opposite to our Thesis, according to the Canons of lawful opposition: As, They that are conceived and born in sin, are not holy, The children of the faithful are conceived and born in sin: therefore, the children of the faithful are not holy. Here is ignorance of the Elench; for the conclusion is not directly opposed to our conclusion, who make the children of the faithful holy with the holiness of the Covenant of calling and promise; But the Adversaries conclusion speaketh of holiness which is immunity from sin. About the proof of the conclusion, Fallacies are either 1 About the finding of the mean. b 2 About the premises risen of the disposition of the mean. 1 About the finding of the mean is Begging of the question. a Assumption of a false mean, b Begging of the question (or Petitio Principii) is when a no mean is taken, but the conclusion is proved by itself, repeated either by the same words, or by others Equivalent: As if one would prove pleasure to be the chiefest good, because delight is the chiefest good; or one would prove Jeconias to be the father of Salathiel, because Salathiel was son of Jeconias. The Fallacy of a false mean, is when to prove a question, b there is taken a false mean having the appearance of a true: Whereupon, either the Major, or Minor is false. A false mean is either Of Contingency apparent. Of Necessity apparent. Of Contingency apparent, is that which seemeth to be drawn from some place of contingent invention: As Peter is named à Petra, the Rock of the Church: therefore, he is the Foundation and Head. Answer. It is a Sophistical Syllogism taken from the place of false Notation; And so of the places. Of Necessity apparent, is, when a false mean is so propounded as taken from some necessary place, Monstrative, or Demonstrative: As from a false Genus, false Difference, Definition, etc. As, Extreme Unction is a Sacrament: therefore, it sealeth spiritual graces: It is from a false Genus. Also, That which is united to the word, is every where; Christ's humane nature is united to the word: therefore, it is everywhere; It is a Sophism, having for the Medium a false efficient cause. 2 Fallacies about the premises or disposition of the mean, are Fallacy of the consequent. Fallacy from a thing spoken after a sort. Fallacy of the consequent, is, when there is a naughty connexion of the mean with the greater extreme in the Major Proposition: as, He that said, Bread is my body, said, my body lieth hid in the Bread, but Christ said, &c, Ergo It is a Sophism of the consequence, whereof no good reason can be rendered: So Christ taught us to pray for our daily Bread: therefore, Laymen must not drink of the Wine in the Lord's Supper. Fallacy from a thing spoken after a sort, to spoken simply, is when from the mean Term disposed with limitation, or after a sort with both or either of the extremes, a conclusion is inferred absolutely and simply true: as, He that is less than the father is not equal with him; Christ is less than the Father. Joh. 14. therefore, he is not equal with him. It is a Sophism from that which is limited, to that which is not limited. It should be thus, He that is less, simply and in all respects, is not equal: but then the Minor is false, For Christ is less, not in degree of Essence, or of substantial perfection; But, First, By hiding the Godhead in the State of Humility. Secondly, By Office of Mediator, whose parts he handleth with the Father. So he that saith, thy words are words, saith true; He that saith, thy words are lying ☜ words, saith, thy words are words: therefore, He that saith thy words are lying words, saith true. Answer, He that saith thy words are words, viz. Absolutely, or Indeterminately, not adding false difference, saith true, and so the Minor is false. Under this is contained Fallacia Accidentis. Of the losing or soluting of Fallacies. The Detection and losing of Fallacies, Is either True. a Apparent, b True Solution, is the showing of the deceit used by the Sophister. And it is either Direct. a Indirect. b Direct, is when answer is made directly to the Syllogism a Showing, and naming the Fallacy. And it is either of the 1 Form. 2 Matter. Solution of the Form, is the rejecting of the Syllogism; by showing some Syllogistical Canon against which the form of it sinneth. Solution of the matter, is either of the Word. Thing. Solution of the word, is, when the ambiguity of simple words, and the amphiboly of joined words is showed and distinguished. Solution of the Thing, is, either of the Question. Proof. Solution of the Question, is, when the state of the controversy is rightly constituted, the manifold question discerned, and the fault of evil opposition showed. Solution of the proof, is either about the 1 Finding of the Mean. 2 Disposition with the Extremes. About the finding of the Mean, is either the showing, and denying of a vicious consequence in the Major, or a limitation: when there is a fault by omitting a limitation. So there are in all, five direct Solutions and answers to the matter. 1 Distinction or explication of a word simple or conjoined. 2 Information and distinction of the conclusion or question, 3 Denial of one of the Premises. 4 Rejection of a naughty consequence. And 5 Limitation. Of these three be three Canons. 1 When the form is plain, straightways we must think of the conclusion of the proposed Syllogism▪ and see whether it be constituted rightly, or opposed to our position. 2 When the conclusion is plain, We must answer to the Premises either by distinguishing and limiting, or by denying. 3 We must never answer by denial when the argument b may be soluted by distinguishing and limiting. Indirect Solution, is when we answer indirectly, and thwartly to the Syllogism proposed. And that is either unto the Thing. † Person. * Indirect answer unto the thing, is either 1 By Retortion. 2 By Contrary objection. 3 By showing contradiction. 4 By opposition of equal or less private † authority. 5 By comparison, etc. 1 Answer by Retortion, is, when we show that the mean or proof brought by the adversary maketh for us, or overthroweth the same conclusion which he would prove by it, or at least other assertions of the adversary: As, Christ is first begotten before the creature: therefore he is a creature. Answer, Nay, therefore he is not a creature, because he was begotten before any creature was. 2 Solution by contrary objection (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) is when the objection is not solved, but another stronger objection is propounded to the adversary: So Christ answered them that would have the Ointment sold and given to the poor, by opposing a stronger reason: The poor ye have always with you, but me not. 3 Showing of contradiction, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, is when we show contradiction in our adversaries words▪ As, when the Papists except that in their Mass, Christ is not crucified again, because the sacrifice is unbloody; it is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: for a Sacrifice and unbloody are contradictory. 4 Opposition of equal authority, is, when to an humane Testimony we oppose another Testimony as good, or better. 5 Comparison with like absurd, is when we compare our adversaris argument with the like absurd. Indirect answer unto the person, is either ** A Blame. A Comparison. A Blame or chiding (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) is, when we blame the adversary for that he disputeth against Piety and Honesty, or against manifest sense and Experience. A Comparison of the like, or greater, is, when we put away any thing objected against our or an others person, with an other personal objection: As, Christ, when the Pharisees blamed his Disciples for eating with unwashed hands, answered, Why do you also transgress God's Commandments by your traditions? Apparent Solutions, are, by which nothing is fitly answered; b Only in show something is said. Of this Solution there be five sorts. 1 The first, when nothing is answered to the Syllogism propounded: But somewhat is said of the thing generally, lest the Answerer should seem to say nothing. 2 When general and ill understood Fallacies are applied, which pertain not to the Syllogism proposed. 3 Provocation unto wrath. 4 Is a setting at naught (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) when we mock the adversaries reasons as light. 5 Is running aside (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) and leading from the matter in hand (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) And thus much touching the Doctrine of Syllogism. A Type of the whole Doctrine of the Fallacies. The finding out of the Fallacies; For it is either of the Form In the word Simple of Want of use. Ambiguity. Compound, wherein is Amphiboly by the Construction. Phrase. Composition. And division. Matter & that Out of the word, and that either about. The conclusion or question. Many questions. Ignorance of the Elench. The proof and that either The Mean Begging of the question. Taking a false Mean. The premises as the Fallacy Of consequence. From spoken after a sort. to spoken absolutely. The resolution, which is either True. Direct Of the Form. Of the matter. 1 True constitution of the state of the controversy. 2 Distinction and Explication of doubtful words and phrase. 3 Denial of false premises. 4 Rejection of a naughty consequence, 5 Limitation. Indirect; which is either unto▪ The thing Retortion. Contrary Objection. Showing contradiction. Opposition of Authority. Comparison. The person Blame. Comparison. Apparent, 1 When nothing is answered to the matter. 2 Applying of a fallacy ill understood. 3 Provoking of the Adversary. 4 Setting at naught. 5 Running aside. A Type of the Doctrine of Syllogisms. A Syllogism is to be considered. Commonly Primary of the Figure, First, Second, and Third, Secondary either Indirect, Prima. Secondary. Both which are Simple. Compound: Conditional Disjunctive. uniform. Biform, or Dilemma. Diarect, Enthymeme. Consecution of sentences. Induction. Sorites. Speially under condition of some certain matter, and it is either. True Real which is either, Contingent which is either notional Of the word Definition. Conjugates. Of things which is either Artificial, which is either First, Inward Caused caused. Subject, Accident. Whole, part. Outward Adjacent Object. Concomitant, Risen of the First from Description. Comparison. Consentany. Even. Example, Like. Dissentany uneven. Unlike. Great. Less. inartificial, Humane Testimony. Apparent of which see before, Necessary. Monstrative from places. Artificial. First. Arisen. Definition. Opposites. Inward Genus, Species. Matter, Form, Proper Subject. Proper accident. Whole, parts. Outward. Circumstances. Objects concomimitants. Demonstrative, or Apodictike. which is either inartificial or testimony, Of God. Of the Senses. Perfect The efficient. The End, Principal. Less principal. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Imperfect 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from the place of the effects. OF METHOD, OR ORDER. HItherto hath been the directness of discourse Illative. Now followeth the directness of discourse Ordinative, which is an act of the mind or understanding proceeding from one part of Doctrine to another, by conferring them one with another, & knitting them together with the help of the precepts of the Method. Method is the constitution of the parts of Doctrine, from a a certain beginning unto a certain end. And it is either Artificial. a Inartificial. b Artificial, is which is Instituted according to the Nature of Things, and Rules of art. The Canons hereof are five. 1 Let no Part be wanting, none Overplus. 2 Let the proceeding of Method imitate the natural proceeding and order of things; going on from things first and best known, to things after. 3 The parts before and after distinct between themselves, must agree with a kind of Harmony, in a certain beginning▪ and end, or scope. 4 The knitting together of things before and after, should be showed in the Chapters, and Heads of the Treatise by Bands and Forms of Transition. 5 Let all the parts of the Method be of the same kind. Method also is either Compositive, Synthetical. a Resolutive, Analytical. bb The Canons of the Precepts of a Discipline are two. 1 Let every Precept be, Definition, Division, or Canou. 2 Let the Precepts be True, Methodical, Profitable, and informed with proper and perspicuous words. Compositive Method, is wherein the parts of a contemplative a Discipline are so disposed as that progress is made from the Universal Subject of contemplation unto the particulars, and so from Simples to Compounds. The Canons hereof are five, 1 The parts of Compositive Method are three; First, the Subject. Secondly, The beginnings or causes. Thirdly, The affections. 2 The subject of a Science is necessarily one in Unity of Collection, and of Universality 3 The Subject is foreknown. First, That it is, Secondly, What it is. Thirdly That it hath certain Properties, or Affections. 4 The beginnings are foreknown that they are, and what they signify. 5 The Affections are foreknown what they signify. Resolutive Method, is, wherein the parts of an operative bb discipline are disposed so as that from the knowledge of the end, the progress is made to the knowledge of the beginnings or means, by which that end may be brought into his subject, The Canons hereof are six. 1 The Parts of this Method are three. First, the end to to brought in. Secondly, the Subject whereinto it is brought. Thirdly, the beginnings or means by which the end is brought in. 2 The end is foreknown, First, that it is, or that it may be produced: and Secondly, What it is. 3 The end hath double accidents; Of which, some pertain to the finding of the means by which it should be produced, and they are to be known at the first; Others pertain to the Possession and conservation of the end, and that is not needful to be foreknown. 4 The Unity of an operative discipline, dependeth on the Unity of the end. 5 The Subject is foreknown. First, that it is. Secondly, that it is capable of the end. Thirdly, that it hath accidents, which pertain next unto the end. 6 The means are not foreknown, but are handled in proceeding from Universals to Particulars; from Simples to Compounds; so as that they be profitable, and sufficient for the end. Particular Method, is wherein a certain and special theme b is disposed. And it is either of a theme, Simple a Compound. b Method of a Simple, is, in which a simple Theme is handled a and declared. And it is either Principal. 1 Less Principal. 2 Principal, is, in which a full Progress is made from simples to more compounded. This Progress hath nine parts. 1 The name or word of every simple thing is considered, whether Concrete, or Abstract; Withal the definition of the name is given, etc. If it be ambiguous, it is distinguished. 2 The Genus of the thing is found out by looking in the predicamental order. 3 The causes are found out and put; In substances, in respect of the Essence, Matter, and Form, in respect of the Existence, Efficient, and End; In accidentals, because Essence and Existence fall together, the Efficient and Final causes, the Object and the Subject are found out. 4 If it be a singular accident, also the antecedents, consequents, and other circumstances are considered. 5 The whole definition is made, viz. divers, even as the Theme is either Accident, or Substance. 6 The proper accidents and Effects of this thing are proposed, and often also the adjacents and concomitants are taught. 7 The theme is divided into the parts chiefly integral; For the division into the Species, if the theme be a Genus, is kept till the last place, if one would handle the matter at large. 8 The things akin unto it are laid down. 2 9 The things divers and opposite are added. Less Principal, is, when first the Definition is laid down, b and then it is resolved by parts. The Method of a compound or conjoined theme, is, wherein the handling of a conjoynt question or problem is instituted. The parts thereof are eight. 1 A right constitution of the problem or state of the controversy. 2 A choice or setting down of a position, Negative; or Affirmative, which you will defend. 3 A foreknowledge of both extremes, viz. of the antecedent and consequent; as touching Limitations, Definitions, Distinctions, and so the presupposition of thine Hypothesis. 4 Confirmation of thy position. 5 A laying down of the adversaries position. 6 A foreknowledge and refutation of the aduersaries distinctions. 7 A solution of the adversaries Objections. 8 A repetition of the proved position, and a collection of consequences or conclusions. In artificial Method, is, which is instituted not so much by b the Order of Nature and rules of Art, as by the circumstance of the Learner and Auditor at the discretion and pleasure of the Teacher and Learner. And thus much of the whole frame and body of the art of Logic. OF The use and Exercise OF LOGIC. AFter the absolute Frame or method of the Precepts of Logic, followeth in order of Nature, and of Doctrine, the use and Exercise of the Art more fully and plainly to be delivered. Exercise of Logic, is a function of the mind or reason, whereby the Precepts of art comprehended in the mind are indeed and work applied to the things that are to be known out of the art. And it is either Particular. Universal. The particular or special Exercise of Logic, is, when some one particular Logical precept, is by the example thereof illustrated and exercised: Unto this special use there need no other direction than the frame of Logical Precepts before laid down; For there the use through every Precept is declared by special Examples, The Universal Exercise, is when some whole Rank of Logical precepts is applied to things that are to be known or recognized: Like as a Smith, when some little part of a work is to be done, taketh in his hand the Hammer only, or the Tongues; But when he hath a whole work to do, he useth the furniture of all his Smith's Tools. So in Logic, sometime the genus, or the cause, or some accident of a thing only, is to be dealt of, and proved or refuted by a Syllogism or two; and for this the special Rules before delivered are sufficient: But these are not enough when one hath a general argument, or whole matter to treat of Logically. For a larger course is now to be taken. This Universal Exercise is either The handling of a thing, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The recognising of a thing handled, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Of the Tractation or handling of a thing, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or Generation. Tractation (or Handling) is the meditation of a Theme, or matter to be done by Instruments of Art. And it is either Simple. a Conjunct. b Simple treating, is, whereby a simple Theme is explained. a A simple Theme is one thing signified by one Term only. The handling of a simple Theme, is either Universal. Singular. The general Canons of handling a Theme are five. 1 Let the name of the propounded theme be considered, whether it be simple; and if it be not simple, but combined of many words, whether it may be reduced to one simple word, either in the Latin, or in the Greek, or other tongue. For a word of that language is to be preferred, which signifieth a simple thing most simply. 2 When the word is found to be simple; Let it be considered whether it be a Noun Abstract or Concrete. 3 It is also to be considered whether the word of the proposed Theme be certain, or ambiguous; and if it be ambiguous, let it carefully be distinguished. Let there be added a definition of the Noun; Either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, according to the term, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, according to the Etymology and Notation: And especially the latter. 5 Having considered the definition, think then carefully of the Genus (or general) of a Theme; Namely, in what order of things, and how it is placed: and if it be no where found in this order among the predicaments, let it be counted for a Non ●ns; And so the handling of it be ended with the consideration of the Name. For example. If a man would treat of Purgatory; First, let him weigh the name; Then mind the Definition and Declaration of the Name by the Etymology, viz. That by this Name is signified some Infernal fire; But somewhat gentler, wherein the souls of them that are to be saved, must be purged, and roasted therein, so long as till full satisfaction be made for their sins. This Declaration of the name showeth that such a fire there is no where: therefore, Not to be sought in any predicament (or Rank of things.) And so it is but folly, either to define it, or declare it by the causes and properties thereof. But here note, that this consideration, Whether a thing be or not, is not to be according to the Existence (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) in some certain place, or time; but it is to be minded essentially (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) As if one would treat of Christ's Incarnation; The question, Whether it be or no, is not to be minded so, as whether it be to day, or whether it shall be; But this is enough, that at any time it hath been, and now also dureth in effect, although Christ be no more Incarnate, nor brought forth. The like is also to be minded for things to come, as the day of Judgement, Resurrection, etc. For though these have not yet Existence, yet have they Essence; and because it is sure they shall be, they are to be treated of, in order and manner of things that now are. Treating also is either Of a Perfect Theme. a b Of an Imperfect Theme. a b A perfect theme, is, that which is perfectly placed in the a order of things or predicaments; as an Universal thing, one, and whole by itself. And it is either Substantial. Accidental. The treating of both these is either Primary. 1 Secondary. 2 Primary treating is, which, when the beginnings of the Definition are foreknown, gathereth from them the Definition, and then useth the other Logical terms for explaining the term, according to those Canons that follow pertaining to the explication of a substance. 1 When the name of the theme is weighed, and the lawful A Theme substiantial Genus found, let the difference be sought for, either by the predicamental Tables, or by some notable effect, or antecedent of a Theme known to the senses. 2 When the Genus and difference are found by its self, the Definition must be gathered and made. 3 The Definition of a substance being gathered, the form thereof and matter is distinctly to be considered. 4 Let the Form then be assigned, and (so far as the perspicuity of the Doctrine will suffer) declared. 5 After the Form, let the matter generally be weighed. 6 After, the Integral parts, which make the matter entire; let those parts at least be considered which are most principal, and primary Instruments to bring forth the operations of the Form. 7 The efficient cause Principal and Instrumental, although it pertains not to the Essence of a Substance, yet it is to be considered for the knowledge of the Existence; The like is also to be minded for the final cause. 8 The proper accidents or effects flowing from the Form, and cleaving to the whole compound, must be reckoned. 9 Then let there be added a Division of the proposed substance, by the Primary accidents, by the Integral parts, inferring a manifest distinction; and if the Theme be a Genus, let the Species thereof be recounted, which after may have their peculiar handling also if the handler be so purposed. 10 Let the things that are akin to the proposed substance be added. 11 And then let there be showed the things that are divers and contrary. For example, Let this Theme Animal (or living creature) be to be handled. 1 Weigh the name, which in Latin is of Anima, a Soul; which signifieth any living Form, which also is in plants; but is by an excellency given to other sensible creatures, in whom the Soul more manifestly appeareth by sense and motion. In Hebrew it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Cajah, of life; for that such creatures seem only to have life. Of the ambiguity of the name, or concretion, or abstraction, there needs none ado. 2 Next look for the Genus which is found in the Table of Substances to be a living body. 3 The difference restraining that Genus, is found in the same Table also to be sensitive. 4 The whole Definition therefore is, that an Animal is a living body sensitive. 5 The matter far off of an Animal, are the Instruments of life; The next matter is the Instruments of sense and motion; which taken all together are called the body of the Animal. 6 The Form near, is the Soul Vegetant; the nearest, is the Soul sensitive, which by the effects or proper accidents that cleave to the Animal, are as it were by the latter words evidently perceived. 7 Then come to the existence, and here weigh the efficient cause of an Animal: The principal Efficient, is the Forming of the youngling of an Animal, whereby the sensitive Soul is united with the body; The Instrumental cause is the Seed, the Womb, the Birth; all which may be treated of peculiarly. 8 The end is to be showed wherefore an Animal was at first created, and wherefore in time gendered; The End Universal is the glory of God the Creator; The particular is the Compliment of all the degrees of life, and so the perfection of the World and Creatures, which require not only a Body vegetant, but also sensible. 9 The proper accidents of an Animal are principally, 1 Sense Inward and Outward. 2 Appetite. 3 Going. Secondarily, 1 Breathing, 2 Watching, Sleep, Dreaming. 10 The Integrant parts of the body or matter, are, 1 Similary parts, as blood and other Humours, Flesh, Bones, Sinews, Arteries. 2 Dissimilary parts principal, are the Brain, Heart, Stomach, Liver; and other less principal all over the body. 11 The division of an Animal, is, 1 By reason of the temperature and parts, into Male, and Female. 2 By the Species, into Man and Beast, which also may severally and distinctly be considered. 12 The things akin to an Animal, are, Plants, especially those that are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Plant Animals, and half Animals, as Sponges, etc. 13 The Opposites of an Animal, are things that want Life, Sense and Motion; and Poisons, which are pernicious to the Life. And thus much for handling a perfect Theme Substantial. A Theme Accidental is handled according to these Canons. b A Theme accidental. 1 After due consideration of the name, First think of the Order or predicament of the proposed accident; whether it be quantity, quality, Action, Passion, or Relation; For so it will appear, whether it indeed be an accident, or a Non ens, and feigned Theme. 2 When the Genus is found, let the Subject of the accident be showed; And withal, consider whether the accident treated of, be common or proper; For these two have divers explications; Wherefore an accident should always be reduced to his first and even subject, that of a common it may be made proper. 3 Because Relation is busied between two Subjects, of which one is called the Relate, the other the Correlate, therefore in explaining of a relation, both of them must be assigned. 4 The Object than is to be minded about which the accident is occupied; and Objects bear rule in qualities and Actions. 5 The Principal efficient causes must be found out; First the near, and then the nearest causes. 6 In Relations the ground or Fundament must be enquired, and it differeth not from the nearest cause. 7 Then let the end of the accident be showed, which also bears sway chiefly in quality and action. 8 But in Relations the Term must be enquired, which is the same with the final cause. 9 Then give the definition of the accident according to the nature of every predicament, assigning besides the Genus the essential terms, as the Subject, the Object, the Efficient cause, and the End. 10 Often also the Antecedents, Connexes, Circumstances and Consequences are to be reckoned; As when the propounded Theme is an Action or Passion. 11 The effects of the proposed accident must be distinctly told. 12 A Division must be added, either into the Species, if the proposed accident be a Genus: or into other members fitting to an accident. 13 Then show the things akin thereto, or which have some affinity of nature with the proposed theme. 14 Let the diversity which is between Themes akin be showed. 15 Let the Opposites or Contraries be added. For Example. This accidental Theme is to be handled; Calling upon God. 1 The Name is absolute. 2 The Genus in the Predicament of Action is found to be this, a religious action. 3 The Subject of this Action, is, a faithful man. 4 The Object, First, to whom it should be directed, is the whole Trinity, and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, reconciled by the Son. Secondly, The Object of the things to be asked, which are Bodily and Spiritual. Thirdly, The Object for whom, is ourselves and others. 5 The Efficient cause principal, is, the manner of confidence, stirred up by the holy Ghost, by the authority and merit of Christ the Mediator, Joh. 4. Rom. 6. The outward moving cause (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) is God's commandment, and his promise to hear us, Joh. 16. Psal. 150. The inward moving cause (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) is, the feeling of our own wants, and remembrance of God's benefits before received▪ The Instrumental causes are the Form given by Christ, Mat. 6. and our members Inward and Outward; as heart, tongues, eyes, hands, knees, etc. 6 The end, is the obtaining of benefits, and thankful glorifying of God. 7 So the whole definition is this; Invocation is a Religious action, or operation from the motion of faith, kindled by the holy Ghost, with trust and authority of Christ the Mediator, done by a faithful man, and directed unto God propitious in his Son, for the obtaining of good things needful, and for the glorification of God's holy Name. 8 The proper accidents or things requisite, are, First, That it be done in true faith without wavering. Jam. 1. Secondly, That it be directed to Gods will. Thirdly, That it be with devout inward Motions and outward gestures (if it may be.) Fourthly, That it be not hasty, limiting God a time or manner. Jsaiah 28. Fifthly, That it be conceived with brief words without any redundance of speech. 9 The effects, are Union with God, joy and comfort of mind, the obtaining of good things needful. 10. The Circumstances, are the place, now free. Joh. 4. public, or private; the time also free, at all hours, etc. 11. The things connexed unto it, are, purity of life, sobriety, tentations of the Devil much to be resisted. 12. The Division, is by circumstance of the place, public or private: By the object: it is supplication (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) Prayer (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) Intercession (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) 13. The things akin unto it, are, diligent reading of the Scripture, Meditation of holy things, continual diligence in the works of our calling. 14. The contraries, are, A corrupt conscience, an unclean life, doubting, profaneness, and contempt, blasphemy and execration. And thus much of the primary handling of a perfect Theme. The Secondary, is when the Definition of a Theme is put at the first beginning, and afterwards is resolved and explained by parts: This way is commonly used of many in an their treatises: And though it be good, yet is it not so artificial and profitable as the former. Now followeth the handling of Imperfect Themes. Imperfect Themes, are they that are imperfectly placed in the Predicaments and Orders of things. Imperfect▪ Theme. And they are imperfect, either In respect of our understanding. Of their own Nature. In respect of our understanding, only the nature of the most high God cannot perfectly be treated of & explained. Of its own nature, a Theme Imperfect is fivefold, 1 A singular thing. 2 A Part. 3 A Concrete. 4 A Collective. 5 A Privation. A Singular thing or Individuum, is either Substantial. a 1 Accidental. b Substantial hath these Canons. a 1 Among substantial Themes, those chiefly come to be handled in use which are called persons. 2 The Genus and Species are, in secret thought, presupposed in singulars. 3 The persons name, and Etymology, and reason of the giving of it, is to be considered. 4 Then comes to be considered the efficient cause, or beginning and birth of the person, with the Circumstances of place and Country, of time when; and then the subjects of this birth, his Father and Mother. 5 These are to be told; the accidents of the person; First, Pertaining to his body; as Stature, and Health. Secondly, to his mind; as Wit, Judgement, Memory, Learning; Also Moral Virtues, Chastity, Liberality, etc. And these may be led along his ages, as his childhood, youth, man's age, 6 The effects of the person are to be recited, what memorable things he hath done in every age, especially in his manhood. 7▪ Let the things which are akin be showed, as they that live in his time, his friends, and the things wherein the person most delighteth. 8 Finally, let the divers things and contrary to the person, be rehearsed, as Foes, Enviers; and his death with the cause thereof, as the disease; or if it were violent, by what adversity he perished; Then the things connex to his death, if any strange signs went before: or if he spoke any memorable thing at last; whereto add the consequents of his death, as his Burial and Funerals. A singular accident, is, which cleaves to a singular substance, [b] as either the quality▪ or action, or Passion, or Relation of it. The Canons for handling this Theme are these. 1 Let the name be weighed, as was in a theme universal. 2 Let the Genus and Species of the propounded theme be presupposed. 3 The Subject, namely, the singular substance is to be considered; as also the Object about which it is occupied. 4 Let the antecedents, connexes, adjacents, and circumstances specially be explained. 5 Let the causes Efficient, both Principal, and Impulsive, and Instrumental be diligently discussed, and the final cause also added. 6 Let the description be gathered, by naming of the Species, assignation also of the subject, object, circumstances of time and place, with mention also of the efficient and final causes. 7 Let the proper Requisites and Effects be added. 8 Let the Consequents be named. 9 Let the things akin be rehearsed, 10 Let the things divers be compared, and the opposites at last assigned. For example, Let Christ's ascension be the theme to be handled, 1 Ascension is the scansion or moving from an inferior place to a superior. 2 The Genus of it is a motion local, whose extremes are 〈…〉 what, and unto what, and then the mean by which the 〈…〉 is made▪ Now here we are to mind whether Christ's Ascension be a Natural moving, or Supernatural. And we may find it to be a Natural moving, First, In respect of the Subject, which is a natural Body. Secondly, and in respect of the terms and mean. But in respect of the Efficient cause and end, it is Supernatural. 3 The Subject of this ascension, is Christ's whole person; not absolutely, but restrictively, according to that part which could move from place to place, which is his humane nature. As for the Object, Local moving is not occupied about it. 4 The Antecedents far off, were Christ's Ministry, and all that he did in his life, the nearer, are his Passion, Resurrection, conversing after with his Disciples forty days, and bringing of them to Mount-Olivet etc. The Connexes, are the term from whence; Namely, Mount-Olivet: The term whereto, namely, the Heaven of Heavens. The means by which, are the Air, and Sphere of fire, and other Orbs, thorough which his Body went. The Circumstance of places agrees with the terms; The time was forty days after his Resurrection: The other Connexes, were, the gazing of his Disciples, the appearing of the Angels, etc. 5 The principal Efficient cause, was the virtue of the Godhead, the inward moving cause (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) is Christ's love to his Elect: The outward moving cause (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) is the profit and salvation of his Elect. The final cause in respect of Christ, is, the full possession of glory. Secondly, In respect of his Elect, to fulfil his kingly office, by defending and ruling of his Church; Also, his Prophetical and Priestly office, by sending the holy Ghost to teach them, and the interceding for them with the Father. 6 Hereupon the Description ariseth, this, That Christ's ascension was a Local moving, whereby he, as touching his body, leaving the earth on Mount-Olivet, came thorough all the Regions of the Elements by virtue of the Godhead into the glorious Heaven to possess full glory, and to defend his Church against all Enemies, and by the power of the holy Ghost from Heaven to teach and instruct, and by Intercession to commend us to the Father. 7 The Effects of his ascension, are, the sending of the holy Ghost, the gathering of his Church by the Ministry of his Apostles; the suppressing of the Enemies, and defence of his Church; sitting on God's right hand, and Intercession. 8 The Consequent of his Ascension, was, the Apostles wondering, and returning to Jerusalem; Fear, and dwelling together till the Spirit was sent down. 9 The things akin to his Ascension, were, his Resurrection, the ascending of Enoch, and especially of Elias. 10 Diversity may be showed between those; for the ascension of Enoch and Elias was not a Victory over sin and the Devil; nor a triumph of merit, but of grace; not by their own power, but by another's, etc. And the Opposites of his ascension, are, His base estate on earth, and that disparition & vanishing away, which Ubiquitaries feign of his Body, etc. And thus much of the handling of a singular accident. The handling of a Part hath these Canons. 2 1 Let the name of the part in several tongues be considered, and the Notation showed. 2 Because every Part is a thing Incomplete, a complete Genus or Species of it cannot be had, but it must be referred unto the predicament in which the whole is: therefore, by Comparison to the whole, and Relation to the whole, the Nature of the Part is of our understanding to be conceived; For every part is part of the whole; and if it be cut from the whole, it deserves almost no consideration, because the use of it is ceased. 3 It must be considered whether the part be Essential, or Integral. 4 If the part be Essential, let it be minded whether it be the Form, or the Matter: If the Form, it must chiefly be explained by his Operations, or Forces, and Effects. If it be the Matter, the disposition of it must be considered, by which it is apt to receive the Form, and so the Instruments by which the operations of the Form are wrought; and so let the whole body be subdivided into parts greater and principal, lesser and least of all. 5 Let it be considered, whether the Integral part be similar, or dissimilar: For Similars come rarely under consideration, because it is of the same name, nature, and properties with the whole, but dissimilars are wont chiefly to deserve explication. 6 In every part therefore, besides the name, there must be considered 1 The quantity and figure▪ 2 The quality or temperature. 3 The situation, and how it is placed, and knit with other parts. 4 The uses or actions of the parts, for whose sake this Instrument is of Nature made. 5 The lesser parts of which it is compounded. 7 After this, let the things akin to the part be weighed as are either parts like unto it; and finally let the Opposites be added, as are in man's body, the peculiar diseases of the parts. The use of this Doctrine of the Part is chiefly seen in anatomies, and in astronomy, and architecture or building; But most of all in the anatomy, and parts of a man's body. A Concrete accident is explained chiefly by these Canons. 3 1 Besides the ambiguity of the name, and the Etymology, let the Absolute accident be considered of which the Concrete is denominated, because the resolution of the Concrete into the Absolute is the best explication of the Concrete. 2 In the accident absolute, whereinto the Concrete is resolved; let the Genus, Causes, Objects, Effects, Things akin, and Opposites be considered, and let them be applied to the Concrete accident after the same manner. 3 In relations, concrets are often wont to be taken for absolutes, by the unheedy: therefore, there needeth great discretion. 4 When the nature of the absolute accident is perceived, the description of the Concrete may be annexed, viz. that which is builded by the consideration of the absolute. 4 Collectives are divers things, especially substances united together, not by any essential Band, but by Number and Relation. The Canons for explaining Collectives, are these. 1 Besides the Name, consider whether the Collection be made of many accidents, or of Substances. 2 Consider whither unto those many Subjects gathered together, there cleave any Relation, and then that Relation is to be explained by the Precepts given before. For example. To treat of the Church, which is a collection of many singular persons, 1 Consider the name in Hebrew, Greek, and other Languages; And then mind it after a double kind. 1 In respect of the Material thing. 2 And in respect of the Formal. The Material of the Church, be God's people: therefore, the Church may after a sort be referred unto Substance: And after a sort to quantity, or Number. But because to this Number there cleaves a Relation, therefore first of all thou must turn thy mind to Relation: For the Church is the Communion of Saints; and all Communion is Relation. Now the Relation of the Church is twofold. 1 Of the members to the head. 2 And of the members one to another: therefore, the Church may be defined, The company of the Elect united in one head Christ, and one with another in the Bond of the Holy Ghost, unto the fruition of eternal Salvation. A Privative Theme hath these Canons. 5 1 Besides the name, consider the Genus of that thing whose Privation is propounded, to wit, so as that there may be a calling back unto the Habit. 2 Then let the description of the Privation be added, the Privative causes being added to the denial of the habit, and the Subject wherein the privation is. 3 Things akin and repugnant, may so be added in Privatives, that it may be thought the opposition of the privation is perfection. And thus much of the handling of a simple Theme. * A conjoined Theme, is, which is combined of simples; So as it is made the matter and object of the second and third function which the reason or understanding of man exerciseth. The handling of a conjunct Theme, according to the second part of Logic, is, which combineth and constituteth some proposition or sentence. The Canons hereof are these. 1 Let the antecedent and consequent of the proposition be rightly ordered, each one in his place. 2 Let the Negative Particle to make a Negative Proposition, be put in that place where the Band of the Affirmation may be broken. 3 Let the note of universality be rightly placed, & showed, whether it be absolute or limited, distributive or collective. 4 Let the consequent rightly be restrained and limited to the antecedent. 5 Let the Conjunctions, specially the conditionals rightly be distinguished in the proposition from the other parts. 6 Let a conditional proposition be revoked by cogitation of the mind unto a simple proposition. 7 Let the sentence constituted be rightly reciprocate and turned. 8 Let an improper proposition be reduced to a proper. 9 Let a contingent proposition be called to a necessary. 10 Let it be considered unto what Discipline the proposed sentence doth pertain: Which may be learned by the Nature of the simple terms in the proposition; For if these be Theological, the proposition belongs to Theology: If Political, to Politics, and so the rest. And this may suffice for the handling of a conjoynt theme, by the Instruments of the second part of Logic. The handling or generation of the third part, is either Syllogistical. a Methodical. b Syllogistical, is, when any problem or conjoynt proposition a is handled by confirming, or refuting, that the truth, if it be unknown, may be found out: if obscure, may be declared; if doubtful, may be confirmed. And this handling of Logic, is called Disputation. Disputation is either Solitary. 1 * Social. 2 * Solitary disputation, is when ourselves secretly treat of 1 * any controverted Problem, or question, the adversary being not present, or instant. In this, two things are to be considered. 1 The question itself, or state of the controversy. 2 The manner of confirming and refuting. The question (or Problem) is the matter subjected to Disputation. The Canons of this matter are these. 1 Let not the matter propounded to be disputed of, violate Piety and Religion. (As, whether there be a God, whether Parents are to be honoured, etc.) 2 Let it not be of things plainly manifest, & without doubt. 3 Let it be profitable, grave, not inept, or ridiculous. 4 Let it not exceed the capacity of man's mind. 5 Let it be framed with words perspicuous, and not ambiguous. 6 Let it be such as is this day controversed. A Problem propounded to be disputed of, is either Perfect. Imperfect. Perfect is, whose terms are Universal, so as they may be proved, or disproved, by necessary and artificial arguments. Imperfect, is, whose terms are singular, so as they have need to be proved; chiefly by Inartificial arguments taken from authority of Writers, or from testimony of the senses. The handling of a Problem, is either Primary. Secondary. Primary, is, which is instituted according to these Canons. 1 Let the state of the controversy be rightly constituted, and without all ambiguity, by choosing the Affirmant, or Negant Thesis' which thou wilt defend. 2 Let a full precognition of the future proving and refuting be instituted by definition of the Antecedent & Consequent; Also by fit Limitations and Distinctions which are the future Principles of all the disputation to come. 3 Let the propounded Thesis be confirmed by arguments. 1 Artificial, drawn from the nature of the Antecedent and Consequent. 2 By Inartificial, that is, Testimonies and Authorities. 4 After confirmation let our Adversaries Thesis be set down directly opposite to our Thesis. 5 Let a Refutation be added, both of the Distinctions by which they answer unto our arguments, and also of the adversaries Objections. 6 Let the proved Thesis be repeated, and let the Consequences (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) be gathered from the conclusion, confirmed by the arguments. Sociall disputation hath in it two parts, one of the Opponent, 2* the other of the Answerer. The Canons of these parts, some are common to both parts, and some proper to each of them. The common Canons are six. 1 Let there be brought unto disputation a good intention of the mind, which seeks not glory, but truth. 2 Let the mind be pure from all prejudices. 3 Let the disputers agree whether of them shall oppose, or answer. 4 Let both parties bind themselves to the Laws and Rules of Logic. 5 Let them agree between themselves of certain foreknown Principles. 6 Let brevity and plainness be kept in opposing, and answering all ambiguities, and Ambages of Oratorious Declamations be avoided. The Canons of the Opponent are six. 1 The Opponents parts are two: 1 To move the objection. 2 To insist upon the solution given 2 As touching moving the question, let the position diligently be weighed, against which thou wilt oppose. 3 The position being carefully weighed, let the mean terms be brought forth for that conclusion thou desirest to infer, from the nature of the Antecedent and Consequent, and then also from testimony of chief Authors; Yet having withal a choice of arguments. 4 Let the arguments be clearly and briefly included in a Syllogistical Form. 5 Let the Opponent use a double kind of argumentation; Direct, or Offensive, and then that which leadeth to absurdity; and let him prefer this oft times before the other 6 If either of the premises in the Syllogism need manifest proof, let not the Opponent expect until the proof of the Major, or Minor be required; But let himself by and by confirm his proposition by making a Prosyllogism. The Opponents duty in urging, or insisting on the Objection, hath these Canons. 1 Having heard the answer to the objection, let the Opponent in secret thought examine with himself, whether it be unto the Form, or the Matter. 2 If the Form of the argument be refused, let the Rule of Logic, against which it faulteth, be required; and if he acknowledge it to be a fault, let him urge it no more. For it is childish to go about to defend a naughty Form of Syllogism. 3 If answer be given to the matter, as for the most part it is, he must look whether it be by the distinction of an ambiguous Word, or a Limitation, or a Denial; And if it be none of these, let the Answerer be minded to deal Logically, and to use some certain form of Answer, which is fitting unto either of the Premises. 4 If the Answer be by Distinction, let it be examined by the Rules and Laws of a good Distinction, set down in the Frame of Logic, and let the like be done for Limitation. 5 Let there be endeavour also that from the answer given there be a Syllogism made leading to absurdity: Namely, so that the sum of the answer be put in place of the Minor, and some other proposition manifestly true in plac● of the Major; from which an absurd conclusion being inferred, may convince the answer to have been evil. And thus much for the Opponents duty. The Answerer is either Inferior, or Superior. The Inferior Answerer, is he that absolutely is so called, as that hath propounded the Thesis to dispute of. The Answerers' duty, is both to assume the argument, and to solve it. The taking of the argument hath two Canons. 1 Let the Answerer diligently look that he take the argument faithfully without any Circumlocutions; and for that purpose let him take to himself some leisure. 2 If the argument be not form by the Opponent, let him bid it to be form; and if he cannot form it, let the Objection be rejected; or if the Form of the argument be not plainly desperate, let the Answerer himself form it. His other Duty to Solve, hath these Canons, 1 When the Form is agreed of, let first the conclusion be minded, as whether the Opponent hath rightly form the state of the controversy: and whether he hath lawfully opposed his position or conclusion unto our position. 2 If the conclusion be rightly framed, Let the mind have recourse straightway to the Major Proposition: As, weigh whether it be true, and whether it be simply true, or but after a sort, and whether it be compounded, having a faulty knitting or composition. 3 Let the Answer never be by denial, if the argument may be by Distinction and Limitation. 4 The Minor Proposition seldom comes to be limited, or distinguished, but often to be denied. 5 Let not the Answerer rashly reject the authorities of famous men, but deal thus. 1 Let him cause their words faithfully to be recited. 2 Let him reconcile them what he he can to his sentence. 3 If he cannot, then let him oppose the authority of another man as famous as he, or more. 6 To a direct Answer, which is so to be made as we now have showed, let there be sometime added an indirect answer, as, chiefly a Retortion, whereby we show how the Adversaries argument maketh for us. The duties of the Superior Answerer or Precedent, are two, to Rule, and to Help. For Ruling, Let the Precedent diligently attend whether they dispute to the purpose, and abide in the matter that is within the lists of Disputation: which if it be not done, let him warn both the Opponent and Answerer of their duty. For Help. If the Answerer fail, let the Precedent show a more solid and firm answer; Yet, without the Answerers' shame; But if the Answerer give a tolerable answer, let him praise it, and explain it somewhat more fully for the Audtories sake. And thus much for Generation, or Syllogistical handling. The Generation or handling of Method, is, whereby we frame a Method and Order to our Tractation. Ordination therefore or Disposition, is either Particular. Universal. Particular Ordination, is, whereby the Method is framed of any simple or conjoined Question or Theme; This hath been treated of enough before in the Precepts of handling a single and conjoined Theme. Universal Ordination, is whereby the whole Discipline or Frame of any Art or Science is disposed. The Canons hereof are these. 1. He that would orderly Frame any Discipline, let him first mind of what sort it is, either Contemplative, or Operative. 2. Necessary things which cannot by man be produced, are Delivered in Contemplative Disciplines, whose Method is called Compositive. 3. He therefore that would dispose a Contemplative Discipline, must proceed thus. 1. That he fore know the Subject of it touching the name. 2. That he deliver the Principles of the Subject. 3. And that he follow the properties of the Subject which flow from the Principles or Causes. 4. Operative Disciplines are handled. 1. By the End. 2. By the Subject whereinto the end is to be brought. And 3. By the means whereby his end may be obtained. And this Method is called Resolutive, (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉). The Operative Disciplines thus to be disposed, are, Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, Ethics, Economics, Politics; and the three Superior Faculties, Theologie, Law, Physic or Medicine. For example, In the disposition of Logic, First, there is mention made of the end; Namely, The direction of men's thoughts in the knowledge of things; then the Subject of it: Namely, the three Operations of man's mind. And then that which remaineth in this Art, is all spent in handling the Instruments or means, by which this end may be obtained of man, which means are taught in the three parts of Logic. Hitherto we have heard of handling or Generation separate, or a part, which is instituted according to each of the parts of Logic. Now followeth combined generation which mingleth the The way of teaching well. use of all the parts of Logic together. Combined generation or treating is either In Teaching. a In Learning. b Teaching is of a two kinds, Accurate or exact, called Acroamatical▪ a Popular, called Exoterical, b The accurate kind of Teaching, is, which is instituted according a to the strict Rules of Logic, and is not so much applied to the capacity of the Learner, as to the nature and distinct knowledge of the things. The General Canons hereof are five. 1. In Teaching, three things are to be looked on. 1. The Teacher. 2. The Learner. 3. The manner of teaching. 2. Let the Teacher apply himself chiefly to the nature of that thing which he would teach; and therefore let him not choose every Learner; but one that is of a good wit, and capable of exact Doctrine. 3. The Method of teaching must be esteemed by the nature of the things and Laws of Logic, not by the pleasure of the Teacher, or capacity of the Learner. 4. Let brevity in teaching be used, such as is fitted for the nature and greatness of the thing. 5. Let the words be fitted only to the understanding and mind, not to the affections and delight. Exact manner of teaching is either a Free. a Textual. b Free, is when we do not explain other men's words or writings: But we ourselves propound the thing And it is either a Of the whole Discipline. a Of some part or Theme. b A whole entire Discipline is taught by these Canons. 1. Let the Teachers first care be, to perceive whether the Discipline that he will teach, be Contemplative or Operative. 2. Let the Frame of the Discipline, if it be Contemplative▪ be disposed according to the Precepts of Compositiv● Method; if it be Operative, according to the Precepts of resolutive Method. 3. After the things to be foreknown, let there be a right partition of the Discipline. 4. Let the Precepts be given in a Lawful Order by Partition, and Subpartition, by Definitions, Divisions and Canons. 5. Let the Precepts have these three Requisites. 1. That they be true. 2. That they be profitable. 3. That they be Methodically disposed. 6. Let Commentaries be added to the Precepts; But so as the Scholar may discern the difference between the Precepts and Commentaries. A Theme is taught by these Canons. b 1. Let the teacher look whether the Theme he is about to propound be Simple or Compound. 2. If it be Simple, let him handle it by a simple Method; if conjoined, then by a conjoynt Method [Of both these, Rules have been before.] Textual, or a strict kind of teaching, is when we declare b to the Hearers any Author's text. And this is handled both by Resolution. Illustration. Resolution, is the recognising of those Artifices by which the Author hath handled his purpose. Illustration, is either of Words or Things. Words are either Simple. Conjoynt. Both of them are Illustrated by help of Grammar. Logic. By Grammar help, the Natural meaning of words is showed, Synonomies are compared, Constructions are weighed. By help of Logic a doubtful word is distinguished, and a Figurative is reduced to a Proper, a dark Proposition is made clear. The Things themselves are declared by the Essential ●ope of the text propounded. Ev●ry Text is either Doctrinal. 1. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Practical. 2. Mixt. 3. A Doctrinal Text, is, which is referred unto knowledge 1 only. This is declared, 1. By revocation to some Method. 2. By filling up those things which in the Text are wanting for the full handling of it. Practical writings are declared either 2. Historically. Rhetorically. Historically we declare any thing, 1. By bringing like Histories. 2. By explaining the Chronology, Topography, and Prosopography (that is, description of time, place and person,) 3. And by translating the Hypothesis to a Thesis, or Particular to a General. Rhetorical kind of Teaching pertains to popular, and consisteth chiefly in Amplifying and Augmenting: Of these it is not here further to be spoken of, they rather pertaining to Rhetoric then Logic. And thus much for the way of right teaching. To Learn, is to comprehend in mind those things which the The way of Learning well. Teacher propoundeth, and we in our Judgement do approve. The manner of Learning is either Exact. Popular. To Learn exactly, Acroamaticè, is to conform one's judgement b in the comprehension of things to the Nature and Order of the things themselves, and to the exact judgement of the Teacher. And thus men learn by these four things. 1. Attention▪ 2. Ordination. 3. Selection. 4. Imitation. 1. Attention, is the attaining and firm impression of the things taught. The Canons hereof are three. 1. Let a Teacher be chosen Methodical and perspicuous, and one that knoweth the exact manner of teaching, and is willing faithfully to communicate it with thee. 2. A living voice is always to be preferred before a dead or written. 3. Let the Learner meditate with himself alone the things heard or read, and let him take occasion of speaking to others that which he learneth. The Ordination or ordering of studies hath these Canons. 2. 1. Let the Study of words be discerned at first from the Study of things, and let one time be bestowed in the learning of Tongues, another in the comprehending of things. 2. On Tongues, let the flowering years of youth be bestowed: For unto these there needeth little judgement, but only memory which hath vigour in youth. 3. Because Tongues are learned for the things, and Words are only Images of things: therefore less time is to be bestowed in manly age, on words, then on things. 4. For the right ordering of the Study of any Tongue, two things are required. 1. A Methodical & dexter Frame of the Art of Grammar. 2. A Comprehension of the meaning of every word in that Tongue. 5. As for the Study of things, they are learned either in whole Disciplines, or in particular Themes. 6. Frames of Instrumental Disciplines must needs be learned before the Principal. 7. Instrumental Disciplines pertaining to things, are Rhetoric and Logic, needful to be learned before other Disciplines: For they are the keys whereby the doors of other Disciplines are unlocked. 8. Among Principal Disciplines, one may begin with Ethics than proceed to Physics, Mathematics, Metaphysics, till at length they stay in Theology, or some other that is aimed at. 9 When the Frame of the Discipline is rightly ordered and comprehended in the mind, then come to the reading of Authors, which serve to confirm or illustrate that Discipline. 10. The Learner must diligently distinguish the Commentaries of the Precepts, from the Precepts themselves: and in the Precepts observe this Order, that he keep in mind the Definitions and Divisions, making Tables for the same use; And then, that he turn him to the Canons and Rules, and have them diligently, both in understanding and Memory. 11. Let the Learner handle one Discipline only at one time; and having done that, let him go then to another in order as before is said, beginning at the Instrumentals. 12. In the Learning, let Ardent love of the thing which is learned be cherished in thy mind; and that which is begun, let it be continued without interruption. 3 Selection, is whereby the things which we read in others, worthy observation; or which we ourselves do find out, we dispose under certain Classes and Titles: commonly it is called the gathering of Common places. Common places are titles Methodically disposed, unto which things read and meditated, are referred. And they are either of Words. Things. Places of Words are either of Common Words. Words of Art. Places of common Words, are again either of Single. Words. Conjoynt. Words. Places of Single words are in Lexicons, and in the Nomenclator. Places of Conjoynt Words or Phrases, seem to be things best disposed, if you gather only the more solemn and usual Forms, either in common life, or in the faculty which thou professest according to the order of the things themselves. Common places of Words of Art, are so gathered as the places of the things themselves. Places of things themselves are either Theoretical. Practical. † Theoretical, which pertain to knowledge only. And they be either of Essential Precepts. Commentaries. Places of Precepts, are the seats of matters which are disposed in every Discipline, according to the proper Method; The matters of every Discipline are to be disposed according to the Method of the simple Question, as, that the fr●t title be of the name of every Theme, another of the Genus, and so forward as the Order is diligently designed in the handling of a simple Theme. Places or Commentaries pertain chiefly to Disputations and Controversies which are moved about any matter of the Frame of any Discipline. The Canons of the common places of controverses, are. 1. The Controversies that fall about the matter, ought diligently to be severed, and the titles or places of these, from the titles of the simple things themselves looked upon in their nature. 2. The order of the Controversies, depends upon the Order of the things. 3. Undertitles also of Controversies must be disposed according to the members of the Problem to be handled. 4. But whether to absolute simple titles any man will subject the titles of Controversies, or assign a peculiar Volume to Controversies, that is Arbitrary, or at one's pleasure. 5. Controversies should be brought to a few, as much as may be, that in every Discipline, only the necessary sums, and such as be this day in use, be set into a common place. Practic places be either Rhetorical. a Historical. b By Rhetorical places here we mean not those that pertain ● to the Precepts of Rhetoric; But which are referred to the use and practice of the Precepts. The Canons of gathering common places Ecclesiastical are these. 1. Let the Common places of Ecclesiastical Rhetoric be distributed into two Volumes; Of which let the first contain places gathered for teaching, the other places that p●rtain to moving. 2. The first Volume of teaching-places, let it be so furnished, that, according to the Chapters of the Catechism, the titles of the Common places, of which the people are wont to be taught, may be noted. 3. Under these titles, let Forms be written in which any head of Religion may popularly be propounded in the mother Tongue, that the people may be taught both truly and perspicuously. 4. The other Volume of moving places, should be disposed according to the chief affections, which by Sermons are to be moved. 5. In the first place may be put the title of the motion of Repentance, which again may be divided into his undertitles. 6. Next we may come to the Affection of love and desire, or Adhortation. 7. Let the last Affection be of Joy and Consolation. Historical places are either b Simple. Compound. Simple, are examples of Virtues, Vices, Punishments, and of Rewards, whose disposition is to be made according to the Frame of Ethics. Compound places are titles of Aphorisms, Ethick, Oeconomick, Politic, Ecclesiastic; which (as it were Practic Conclusions) are proved by their Examples as Induction. Imitation is the Conformation of the Learner unto the 4 Image of some Notable Doctor. Imitation is either Grammatical. Rhetorical. Logical. Grammatical Imitation is about Words and Phrases. Rhetorical is chiefly in Amplifying and Adorning, and it is learned in Institutes best from Rhetorical common places. Logical Imitation, is, when we conform our understanding unto the understanding and judgement of excellentest Wits in the handling of a simple and conjoined Theme. And thus much of the first part of the Exercise of Logic; Namely, of Tractation or Generation. OF The Recognising of a thing handled, OR ANALYSIS. ANalysis (or Resolution) is a Logical Exercise whereby the Artifices are recognized, by which the handling of any matter hath been instituted. The General Canons of Resolution are two. 1. Every Resolution is understood by the Construction; for with what Artifices any thing is constructed or framed; with them it is also resolved or unloosed. 2. Every Analysis consisteth in two things. 1. In the knowledge of the thing or work to be resolved. 2. In the weighing the manner or Artifice whereby the work is Framed. Analysis is either Grammatical. Rhetorical. Logical. Grammatical resolution, is which weigheth a simple or compounded word, as touching the forming and fit knitting together for the learning of any Language. Rhetorical resolution, is whereby the Artifices are examined of Amplifications and Adornations in any Oration, or other writing. Logical resolution, is whereby are weighed the Artifices of Explication, Probation, and Ordination or Method: which are used of the Author in making the work. This resolution is either Separate. a Combined. b Separate, wherein the handling of one Theme is weighed a apart. And it is either of a Theme Simple, a Conjoined. b Resolution of a Simple Theme, is whereby the Artifices a used in a simple Tractation are Recognized. The Canons hereof are these. First of all, let the Theme itself be gathered out of the Text, as being the Object and Scope of the whole Resolution. 2. Let it be diligently minded, whether the The●e be perfect or imperfect, Singular or Universal; for hereon hangeth the applying of the Terms, which may be used in the handling of any Theme. 3. It is also to be minded to what Discipline the Theme of the propounded Text doth belong. 4. Because it seldom falls out that the Authors do explain any Theme by all the Instruments of the first Part of Logic: therefore in Resolving, the mind is to be applied unto some certain Instruments by which the Author handled his Theme. 5. Let Amplifications be diligently severed from the Explication of the Theme, instituted by the Terms thereof. 6. Let the Terms by which a Theme is handled of an Author, be judged by the Canons of the first Part of Logic; as whether it be a Genus, a Cause, a Property, or an Effect. Resolution of a conjoined Theme is either of the second, b or of the third Part of Logic. Resolution of the second part of Logic, is, which turns over Sententious Texts; wherein mere propositions are contained without proofs. Resolution of the third Part of Logic is either. Syllogistical. a Methodical. b Syllogistical Resolution, is, whereby the handling of a a Conjoynt Question is unfolded, According to these Canons following. 1. Let the Propositions or Conjoynt Theme of the Author be first of all gathered out of the Text. 2. That Proposition, if it be not by the Author put in the Indicative Mood must be reduced thereunto. We must look if the proposition be often repeated in the Text; for these repetitions must be gathered into one, and counted but for one Proposition. 4. But if the Proposition be not only repeated, but also explained, or limited by the Author, that explication and limitation is to be showed before the Resolution of the Arguments. And if the Author have not explained or limited it, and yet the Proposition needeth explanation and limitation, we ourselves ought to do it. 5. Let it be considered, whether the propounded Theme be universal or singular, or whether it be a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or an 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. 6. Let it also be considered whether it be a Theme doctrinal, or practical. 7. After the Theme is thus considered, let the next ca●e be of the Means by which the Theme is handled of the Author, which are Arguments either proving or refuting, or Anticipations, or unloosing of objections, or amplifications, or exaggerations. 8. Of the Arguments, We are first to mind whether they be artificial, or inartificial i. e. Testimonies. 9 Let the artificial Mean be reduced to the place of Invention; and conferred with the Antecedent and Consequent of the propounded Conclusion. 10. We must look whether any of the premises be omitted▪ by the Author in the Text, and then he that resolveth must add them. 11. If any of the Premises be proved by a Prosyllogism, then must we use the same process in resolving the Prosyllogism that was used before in the primary Syllogism. 12. Let the confirming Arguments be distinguished from the refuting. 13. If the Author bring in a secret Objection, that also must diligently be distinguished from the Confirmation, and reduced to a syllogistical form: We must also mark how the Text answers to this Objection. 14. Let Amplifications be referred to their certain places, and Adornations to the certain Figures of Rhetoric. Methodical Resolution, is, whereby the Artifices of Method b are examined. The Canons thereof are three. 1. As Method is Universal or Particular; so must the Resolution also needs be made, Either according to the Parts of Universal Method, or according to the Canons of particular Method. 2. The Bonds of knitting together, and of passing from one point to another in the Method, must in the Resolving diligently be showed. 3. If any things occur in the Author, either superfluous, or strange from the propounded Theme; he that resolveth must give warning of them. And thus much of Simple Resolution or separate. Combined Resolution, is, whereby is unfolded any Treatise made by the Author, according to more Parts of Logic. And it is either of a whole Discipline, or of some Writing or Treatise pertaining to some Discipline. The Resolution of a whole Discipline, is, whereby the Method of any Frame or Body of Discipline is unfolded. The Canons of which Resolution, are these. 1. Let the Praecognita, or things fore-known of the proposed Discipline be so instituted, that first it may appear whether it be a Contemplative, or an Operative Discipline. 2. If it be Contemplative, than the whole Resolution must be directed to these three as to a most certain Load-star; Namely, that first the Subject of the Discipline be enquired; Afterwards, the Species of this Subject, and also the affections both General and Special, and then the causes or beginnings of these affections. 3. And if it be an Operative Discipline, also three things must be enquired in the Authors Writings. 1. The end that is to be got by the Operation. 2. The Subject whereunto this end is to be brought. And 3. The means by which it is to be brought in. 4. Let the Precepts always be distinguished from the Commentaries. An Author's Treatise is Resolved by these Canons. 1. Mind, whether the writing be accurate (Acroamatical)▪ or popular (Exoterical), or mixed. 2. Let lawful foreknowledges be made of the Efficient cause, or Author of the Writing, of the Scope of his Writing; of the Object, if it be an Epistle to any. 3. Let a general partition be made of the whole Treatise; and if it be divided into Chapters, let every Chapter be referred to his part. 4. A general Resolution being so made, then come to a particular Resolution of every Member & Chapter; wherein, when any Theme, Simple or Conjoynt is handled, let the process of the Resolution be made according to the Precepts before given of either Theme. And thus endeth the Doctrine of the Exercise of Logic: Blessed be God. FINIS.