〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉: OR, A DESCRIPTION OF THE Body of Man: BEING A Practical Anatomy, SHOWING The Manner of Anatomising from Part to Part; The like hath not been set forth in the English Tongue. adorned with many demonstrative Figures ●ong since Composed in Latin, by that Famous J. Berengarius of Carpus, Dr. of A. & P. Reader of Chirurgery in the University of BONONIA. Done into English by H. Jackson Chirurgeon ●y whom is also added a fit Etymon to the Names of the Parts, in their proper place. ●ondon, Printed for Livewell Chapman, at his shop in Exchange-Alley in Corn-hill. 1664. TO The Worshipful Society of the Mystery and Commonalty of Barber-Chirurgeons of London, together with all Students and Practitioners in Anatomy, Henry Jackson a Member of the aforesaid Society commendeth these his Labours. (Most renowned Brethren, and Friends:) I Am provoked in my mind, after long deliberation, to publish this Work, being commanded in my first undertaking thereunto, by my aged Father, an ancient member of this Society, who having met with this Author in his Travels in Italy, esteemed it as a great Treasure, and too good indeed to be concealed; which being in old and curt Latin, cost me not a little pains to put it into smooth English; and yet I never overread the Work but I had comfort in it, and thought it worth all my pains. I have also been much encouraged by the commendations I have heard of the Book, by the learned Dr. Guinn, and Dr. Andrew's, in their public Anatomy Lectures at our Hall, as also by that exact Anatomist Doctor Wharton, who hath had the perusing of it, and is pleased to prefix his Epistle to it. And now considering the great want there is of such a Work, that may be as a Directory to young Practizers in Anatomy, how to dissect from part to part, and how studious most ingenuous men are of this Art; as also how mysteriously those that have it do conceal it, I am, I say, provoked to thrust forth this Work into the world; by the help of which for the three Ventures and general parts, and Muscles of the Body of Man and Woman; as also by a little Treatise of Master William Molins, of the Anatomical Administration of Muscles, which he calls 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, (which I also commend to the industrious Practitioner in Anatomy) I am not ignorant what a great light of experience may be gained to the diligent hand of such who do industriously labour in this Science. I have also added a fit Etymon to the names of the parts in their place, from divers Authors, besides those inserted by this Author, because it is both pleasant and profitable, and customably observed in Anatomy Lectures. By the help of which Book, I am of opinion, that the ingenuous Chirurgeon may be enabled, not only to Dissect from part to part, but also (where more excellent Physicians are not to be had) to explain and read upon the parts, to the satisfaction of a Country Auditory; which effects hoping the Lord will crown this work withal. I take leave humbly to subscribe myself, From my house in Southwark, Febru. 25. 1659./ 60. A Lover of this Art, and of you all, Henry Jackson. To the Reader. Courteous Reader, I Am desired by my learned Friend and Tutor, M. Mark Frank, sometimes Fellow of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, to read this Translation of his old acquaintance Master Jackson, Chirurgeon, and to write my thoughts, as an Epistle before it; in obedience whereof I shall briefly address myself. I understand the Author to be Jacobus Carpus Bononiensis (because of his Figures, as also his mentioning his Commentaries upon Mundinus) printed in Latin in the year one thousand five hundred and thirty, about one hundred and thirty years ago. He was in his time much esteemed for a most industrious, judicious, and expert Anatomist, and hath in this Book given good testimony thereof, for he hath in this Isagoge exceedingly much improved the administration of Anatomy, in many difficult parts of it, which is one of the principal qualifications of an Anatomist; therefore it's hoped this Book will be as well worth the reading as any in that particular, by whosoever that will favour that ever Noble employment and exercise. Moreover, this good old Author is concise and short, without any tedious repetitions, and also writ in an excellent good order and method, and will neither spend time in reading, nor charge considerable. It's hoped the Reader will easily be persuaded to indulge this Writer with the common abatement necessarily granted to all our ancient Authors. First, for that he writ so long before our for ever renowned Doctor Harvey, and therefore was not acquainted with those curious truths of the circuit of the blood, which evidently demonstrates that the Veins reduce that blood which was sent by the Arteries from the Heart abroad into the parts of the Body, and that the Heart with the Blood and Spirits, is the chief Organ of vitality, the habitacle of the spirit of Life, common to us with Brutes: but the Brain, the Primum sensorium, the seat of the Intellect, the compliment of man, and the palace of the immortal soul. The other excuse to be entreated for the Author of this Work, is also for his age; for he lived before our incomparable Doctor Glisson, had demonstrated the true uses of the Liver; the exact way of Nature's making Blood; the nature and course of the Lympha, and the motion of the Chyle; and that the Spleen pours no juice, either sour or sweet into the Stomach: which being supplied, our Author may happily pass completely current. Formerly Italy bred many such learned Physicians and Philosophers as this Author, and then it was worth the while to journey to Milan to hear them, as other Nations anciently went into Egypt: But now England by the industry of Harvey and Glisson, is the only Scene for both; so that the politic Italian, if he will attempt the attaining to the knowledge of any thing considerable in either, must visit England, and ours stay to better purpose at home, unless the careful Father shall judge it necessary for the manning 〈◊〉 Son, to hazard him such a Pilgrimage as to survey the ruins of old Rome, and Campus Martius the stately place of the new. Lectures upon barbarous Avicen will never advance the true worth 〈◊〉 knowledge of Physic, nor his Auditors ever admit the truth of the Circulation of the Blood, whilst they upon his third or middle Sinus in the Septum of the Heart, which this good Author did then deny. This Anatomist hath pursued the various ducts of the Vessels, to wit, Arteries, Veins, and Nerves, and also the Muscles, with a notable design, which hath given our later Authors occasion frequently to mention his Labours with honour. This Book, as it is ancient and learned, so it hath been rare to be found with us; therefore we own much to this Translators indus, who hath rendered it answerable to the Original, and made it both easy for any to be had, and by the vulg●● to be understood. I crave your excuse for this freedom, both in commending the Author, and informing the Reader, that he be not misled; as also to add, that I suppose the word Colligancy may in some places be read continuation, or connexion, or communion, without wrong to the Author's sense, but in all shall willingly submit, and so conclude Feb. ●4. 1659/60. Tho. Wharton. De Libello Jacobi Berengarii 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Anagr. Jacobus Berengarius. Vis Cibare? Bonus ager. ●nè cibare v●●is? (loquitur Jacobus) adesto, Est bonus (inquit) ager, qui bene pascit oves: 〈◊〉 Barengarius duro percussit aratro, Fructus distribuit, pauperis auxilio. Henricus Jackson. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Errata. FOl. 77. for quantiby, read quantity, f. 80. for different Vessels, r. deferent Vessels, f. 108. for cancrenated r. caneerated, f. 114. for on the upper part it containeth the Natural members, and on the lower the Vital, etc. r. for on the upper part it containeth the Vital members, and on the lower the Natural, f. 223. for of Mundinus is called in●●sivi, r. are called incisivi. f. 24●. for endimious r. endemious, f. 249. for and first it is to be noted, r. and first is to be noted, f. 263. for from which the voice and conservat●●● of life reboundeth, r. from which the voice reboundeth, and it is a conservation of life, f. 309. for concur, r. occur, f. 313. for safety and such like, r. ●●f●●ti and such like. A Brief and Practical ANATOMY. THis Work hath two Parts, the first handleth things Universal, the second things Particular; the first ●oth (according to the opinions of ●ome) denote Anatomia to be derived of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a Greek word, which ●n Latin signifieth per, and sur●um, through, upward, a thing ●ruly equal and right, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, ●hich is divisio or sectio, a division ●r section, as it were a right division 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Declarat etiam aequalem quandam distributionem. Vi. Scap. through or about the parts. But by a truer interpretation 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in composition (amongst the ●est) signifieth a certain enquiry ●ade through all the parts, whereupon in composition of this word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which is incido, to incise, it signifieth in singulas partes seco, that is, to make incision into every part, to the end that we may know what and how many they be: and although it may seem reason that every thing should be spoken of what parts it hath, yet use hath obtained this, that it be spoken of Animals, and especially of men. Therefore Anatomia, or Anatome, Anatomy, is a division of all the parts of a living Creature, that we may know their Substance, Quantity, Number, Figure, the Situation, and Colligancy of them, and Colligantia from Colligo, as, is such an affinity of the parts, as is by being tied or fastened to one another. all these are in dead bodies; and therefore Galen said in his Book of the Constitution of the Art of healing, I think it were necessary for ●● when we intent this Art, not only to know the parts and their composition, but their operations also; and in this Physicians do differ from Builders, for they do only know the parts and compositions of Houses, whereof none hath operation, because it is not a living Creature; but by Physicians, of the members of man, insomuch as he is a living Creature, operations are to be sought; and because that in a living man, and not in a dead, there are Operations, Complexions, and Passions, so that these three being added to the other six, there are in a real Anatomy those aforesaid nine things to be considered. But because we must begin from the whole as being best known; First, some dead body being laid with his face upward, in a place fit for dissection & demonstration, being before washed, the hairs shaved, and very well cleansed from filth, even from the head to the feet; we must know, that the body is divided into four parts, that is, into three notable Bellies, and the extremes, to wit, the hands and the feet, with some others. The first part being the Head is Testa, an earthen pot, called in Latin Caput, quia ibi s●nsus initium capiunt, because the Senses take their beginning there; in which the Animal members are contained; and this is called the highest Belly. The second part is a Cavity between the ribs and the bones annexed to them, in which there are principally the Spiritual or Vital members, and some others; and this is called Pectus, and Cassus, the breast, and the middle belly. The third part is the hollowness which is within the Abdomen, and part of the Back underneath the Septum transversum, otherwise Diafragma, and goeth down before unto the Pecten, and behind unto the Anus; in which the Nutritive members, and also the Generative are partly contained; and this is called the lower belly. The fourth part is the whole residue of the body, as the neck, the hands, and the feet, and parts that belong unto them. Of the Anatomy of the lower Belly. THe universal part being seen, I come to the particular, in which the Workman must begin his incision from the lower belly, wherein there are many members first to be Anatomised and cast away, lest if they be left behind, they should hinder the rest of the body by their putrefaction and evil savour. Therefore let this Belly be considered according to the nine aforesaid conditions: and first for the Substance which is divers, as well according to the parts Containing, as the parts Contained; the Substance of the parts Contained will appear in its place, but the Substance of the parts Containing in the former and lateral part is Pannicular and Musculous, that it may be fit for Constriction and Dilatation, because of impregnation, and food, and the like. There is also notable fatness in these parts in a fat Body, but in a lean body little, and sometimes none at all; and fatness is not properly a member, but increasing and diminishing as a superfluity, nevertheless profitable. But the hinder substance of this belly is fleshy, musculous, bony, and also somewhat membranous. It's Quantity and Figure are apparent, its Situation and place is under the belly of the Vital members, the Septum transversum being between; and it beginneth from the lower furcula of the Breast, and from the bounds of the five lower Ribs on both sides, and goeth unto that part in which the body is divided into two parts by the great Feet to which it is fastened; The great foo● is the whole thigh, leg, and foot, from the groin downward. it hath Colligancy with the Brain by means of the Nerves, and with the Heart by means of the Arteries, and with the middle Belly by some Muscles; the Colligancy that it hath with the Liver, and with the members of Generation is sufficiently known, It is in Number one Belly, yet the number of the parts of it is divers, because some are Contained, and some Containing; the parts contained are the Liver, with its little Gystern containing Choler▪ and the Spleen, and the Ventriculus called of many Stomachus, although not well, also the six Intestines with the Veins dispersed through them, and the Reins with their Emulgents, and the Bladder with the Uritidian pores, which are called the Emunctories of the Reins, and the Mesentereon with his glandules, and the Vena Porta, and Vena Chyli● descending with the Arteria Aorta; and also the Umbelical veins and Arteries, and the Seminary vessels, with the Didimies, and Testicles, and the Matrix in a Woman; and although the Didimies and Testicles, with their Scrotum or Oscheon may be exterior parts, yet they are reckoned within that Belly, because they are immediately fastened unto it. But of the parts Containing, some are Common, some Proper, and some more proper; the Common are all those parts which compass about that Belly, to wit the Anteriour, the Lateral, and the Posteriour parts; the Anteriour or Lateral parts are called in Latin Sumen, but by antiquity Abdomen, in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and of Epigastrion. some 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and in Arabic Mirach; Etron. the Posteriour are called Imum dorsi, the bottom or lowest part of the back. But the parts Proper, some are also before, some on the sides, and some behind; those which are before, of the latter Physicians are commonly appointed five; the first which is the highest is in the middle of the Body, about the lower furcula of the Breast, and is called Gladialis, & scutalis cartilago, and also Pomum granatum; but this part is common both to the middle, and to the lower belly, taking up but little room. The second immediately under that is called Pars stomachalis, the region of the Stomach, because the stomach, that is the Ventricle, hath its former part in that region, and this part reacheth unto the Navel. The third part is called Umbilicalis, and it is that part in which the Navel is enclosed in the middle of the Abdomen, which is now frustrate from his principal function in a child. The fourth part is called of Mundinus, Sumen, because it is the most eminent part of the very Sumen, Synecdoche partis. and there the part is taken for the whole; this region is from the Navel unto the Pecten. The fifth part is called Pecten, within which is the Os pubis, or Pectinis, in that region there beginneth the neck of the Bladder in both Sexes, and of the Matrix in a woman. The Lateral parts, as they are equally divided on both sides, are of Physicians commonly said to be two, to wit, the Superior, and the Inferior; the superior is called Hypochondrium, the Inferior is called Ilium, or Flancus; the Ilia are also called Lagones', & Ceneones; 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Laxa significat. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 vacua significat. in the right Hypochondrium is the Liver, but in the left the Spleen; the upper part of the Ilia beginneth from the top of the Os ancharum, and endeth about the bottom, in the extreme part of this Belly; their lowest part is called Inguen & bubo, but the Hypochondria do begin from the lowest of the false ribs, and are terminated below at the Ilia; between the Ilia and Hypochondria there appeareth a certain cavity when a man bendeth himself forward, which of some is called Colago, and of some Intrum. The parts properly called the Posteriour, some are in the middle, and some on the sides; those which are in the middle are Spina inferior, & filum inferius dorsi, the lower spin, and line of the Black. Of the Lateral parts some are Superior, and some Inferior; the Superior are called, Regiones Lumbares, or Renales, the regions of the Loins or Reins; the Inferior are called Parts supra clunos, the parts above the Buttocks But the parts called more Proper, some are also Anteriour, some Lateral, and some Posteriour; the Anteriour and Lateral parts happen together, and they are that skin which you first meet withal, under which there is Fatness, and eight Muscles; of which four are obliqne, two long, and two broad; all which are dilated, and united to the likeness of a Pannicle, which may be called, and indeed is called of Avicen, Panniculus Carnosus, the fleshy pannicle; neither is there any other fleshy pannicle there, as late Physicians do suppose. Under the Muscles there is a membrane subtle and hard, called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Periton●i●● and in Arabic Sifac; and all these do make the Abdomen or Mirach. But the Posteriour parts called also more Proper, are the Skin, sometimes some Fatness, and a musculous flesh on both sides of the Spondiles, to wit, before and behind, called of some Lumbaris, and a simple flesh not musculous, filling the empty places of this part; and the spondiles of the Reins or Alkatim, and three bones of the Os sacrum, or the three Spondiles, called in Arabic Alhovius, and the three Spondiles called Alhosoes, or Caudae; also their Cartilages, with their Pannicles, and Nerves, Veins, and Arteries, with the pannicle Peritonion; the Anatomy of those parts shall be spoken of in their place; but now I return to the Anatomy of the Abdomen. Of the skin of the lower Belly, and of Umbilicus quasi umboiliacus quod ibi fit iliorum umbo. Grae. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Umbilicus the Navel. YOu shall first consider the situation of the Navel, which is termed the root of man; which hath two veins without the body toward the Matrix, and very often one; and two Arteries covered with the superfluous skin; which in Children new born is tied up, and cut near unto the Abdomen, and is consolidated and shut up again itself; the middle part of it thus consolidated is called Acromphalum, and because it is wrinkled it is called Vetula, and in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; Graica. these things being noted, cut the skin in the manner of a cross in length and breadth through the whole Abdomen, and excoriate it, reserving the Navel unhurt, which you shall very often perceive entering into the belly with one notable Vein and two Arteries, which are frustrated from their proper work in Children; the Vein is ascending, penetrating into the concave of the Liver in the Vena porta. The Arteries descend by the inward part of the Abdomen, almost unto the Pecten, and they pass unto the back from the sides of the Bladder, and are implanted, one on the right side, the other on the left into the Arteria aorta, which is two-forked about the Os facrum near the Reins. From those Vessels the blood and spirit doth pass to the Liver, and Heart of an infant in the Mother's womb; but you shall see the Navel better after the Anatomy of the Abdomen, which you shall carefully reserve, observing the skin which is twofold; the first is the Exterior, which is a gross superfluity of members, and therefore it groweth again; the second is the Interiour, which is nervous, not growing again, under which or within which, about the sides, there are in both Sexes two Veins, one on the right side, another on the left, hardly to be seen in one that is born, but in a faetus of three months they do very well appear, which do ascend unto the Mamillae or Teats, which observe and keep for the Anatomy of the Mamillae or Teats, especially in a Woman. But in the whole skin of the body there are very small veins dispersed into fibraes, and they are so small and narrow that the blood cannot pierce through them, not any thing else but a banished humour which is called Sweat, and the Wheyishnesse. Serosity of the blood. Of fatness, called pinguedo. Pinguis dicitur quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ● 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 poto & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 terrerus. AFter the Skin there is always some fatness, especially in a body not brought down by sickness, more in one than in another, which remove, that the members contained under it may the better be seen. Of the Muscles of the lower Musculus a ●uri●● similitudi●e. Belly. AFter the Fatness are to be seen eight Muscles of the Abdomen, of which first of all four named obliques do occur; two of them are placed on the right side, and two on the left, which do cover all that belly before with their Chords, from the top to the bottom; and do ride over all the other; for in each side of the belly, and before in the middle of the abdomen, one of them is descending, and one ascending; the descendent are above the ascendent, which you may see being guided by a learned hand. First, you shall warily separate the descendent from the ascendent▪ and you shall find them in each side of the belly to be crossed of one another, one cross is on the right side, another on the left; their fleshy part doth mutually cross itself, even as the sinewy or Chordy part also doth cross it self; their fibers do always reach obliquely from the sides toward the middle of the Belly, therefore the Chords of those muscles of the right side, do reach unto the left part of the same right side; and the chords of the muscles of the left side, do reach after a contrary manner: for their own proper chords do in each side cross one another. And the Obliqne muscles begin to make their chord when they meet with the Long muscles; and the chords of the Muscles of the right side, and also of the left are terminated when the long muscles are contiguous, which place is in the middle of the belly, by the Linea recta, from the Pomum granatum unto the Pecten. The Descendent take their beginning from the breast, the Ascendent from the upper and anteriour region of the Ossium ancharum; their Chords are double coated, and very broad, hardly to be separated, having their beginning from the pannicles covering them, and from the nervous vills through them dispersed. The First Figure of Museles ●●●ce these Six Figures between the: 16 and 25. pages engraving of man with musculature exposed The TWO Figure of Museles engraving of man with musculature exposed The III Figure of Museles engraving of man with musculature exposed The IIII Figure of Museles engraving of man with musculature exposed The V Figure of Museles engraving of man with musculature exposed The VI Figure of Museles engraving of man with musculature exposed Two coats of the Chords of the descendent Muscles on both sides, and one coat of the Chords of the Muscles ascendent doth cover over the long muscle of his side from the top to the bottom; also one coat of the Obliqne muscles doth cover or involve the long muscle of his side toward the bottom, that is toward the Chord of the Broad muscle; because the long muscles, have not a proper pannicle covering them, as the sense showeth; and you may very well see the aforesaid obliqne muscles in the three figures immediately following; but observe all their ligaments diligently in your incision, which you may not take quite away (unless those which are over the long Muscles) but those which are under the Long muscles are to be kept until you have anatomised them. The first Figure of Muscles. In this Figure you have two Obliqne Muscles descending, one on ●he right side, another on the left, which are above all the Muscles; the fleshy part of them appeareth on the sides, and in the middle of the belly, their Chords are above the long Muscles, to wit, one on the right side, another on the left, which are pellicular and broad, which are terminated in the Linea, which is in the middle of the belly, as you see, and those ligaments are of the two Pellicles, to wit, below and above. The second Figure of Muscles. In this Figure you have two Obliqne Muscles ascending, which do cross themselves with the two descending placed in the other Figure, which descendent are indeed above those ascendent; and one whole Muscle of the aforesaid descendent (placed above in the other Figure) doth with his Chord obliquely ride over one of those obliqne ascendent Muscles, and they together make the shape of X the Greek letter; and the fleshy part of those Muscles is also on the sides, but their Chords are in the middle of the belly, which are also of the two Pellicles, and they have one Pellicle only over-riding the long Muscles, but the other Pellicle is below the long Muscles, which cleaveth to the Chords of the latitudinal Muscles; and those Chords are also terminated in the Linea, which as you see is in the middle of the belly. The third Figure of Muscles. In this Figure you see how the Long Muscles being taken away, under them there is one Pellicle which is of the Chord of the Obliqne Muscles, which hath Obliqne Vills, and there is one under each Long Muscle, as you see in this Figure, and the Long Muscles are those which hang between the thighs, that they may appear taken from their Natural place, that the Chords of the aforesaid Obliqne ascending Muscles might be seen. Of the Long Muscles. THe Long or right Muscles are two, placed in the middle of the Abdomen, below and above the Chords spoken of before, reaching with their Vills from the lower furcula of the Breast through the length of the belly unto the Os Pectinis, and they are therefore called Long; they touch one another, taking up the anteriour part of the belly in breadth, being in the quantity of their breadth in all eight fingers or thereabout; those Muscles have not a proper pannicle as others, yet they have short Chords terminated in the Pecten, and they have not any other Chords; their substance is fleshy, and divided through the breadth by two sinewy or ligamental intermedians, whereof one is above the Umbelical region, the other below, so that every Muscle seemeth divided into three fleshy parts notably distinct; as you may see in the Figure following. The fourth Figure of Muscles. In this Figure you see two Long Muscles stripped from the Chords of the Obliqne muscles, which Long muscles are above the ligaments of the Latitudinal muscles, and every Muscle hath two sinewy or ligamental divisions in it, reaching through the breadth; to wit, one above the Navel, and another below, as you see; and so every Long muscle seemeth divided into three Parts, or into three Muscles; and Nature hath done thi●, because by how much the threads of the Muscles are shorter, by so much they are the better, and more easily contracted. Of the Broad Muscles. THe aforesaid things being seen, you may cast away as well the Obliqne as the Right Muscles, that you may the better see the Broad, which with their Chords are under the Long muscles (one of the coats of the Chords of the Obliqne ascending muscles coming between them:) which observe with diligence after the Long muscles are removed, which tunicle is very subtle, notably fastened to the Chords of the Latitudinal muscles the Broad muscles have their fleshy part under the fleshy part of the Obliques, and they are called broad, because the position of their Vills is through the breadth of the belly, and they are more above the Umbelical region than below, because their principal operation is from the upper parts to the lower, which is to help the expulsive virtue of the Intestines; the fleshy part of them is towards the back, they are terminated into Chords in that region, where the situation is of the Longitudinal muscles, and the Right meeteth with the Left his Chord being between; their fleshy part is under the flesh of the Obliques, and their Chords are immediately under the Chord of the aforesaid Obliqne ascending muscles; those Chords also are very broad, and also double coated and hard, compact together, fastened to the pannicle Peritonion or Sifac, and their Chords do cross themselves with the Long muscles unto right Angles. The situation of the Muscles of the lower Belly appeareth by that which hath been said; their substance, their quantity, and their shape is to be seen; in number they are Eight, four Obliqne, two Long, two Broad: their Colligancy is shown, for they are very firmly chained together, and they are so united that they are judged one pannicle, which is called Carnosus, the Fleshy Pannicle; their complexion in a live man appeareth by their substance. The helps of them are to keep the Intestines warm, and to hold in all the united members of nutrition, and to help the retentive virtue, but chief the expulsive, and sometimes they help the members of breathing, especially in * See Galen in 4ᵒ interior c. 15. where he maketh mention of five operations of breathing, whereof this is one. Flamine cum ictu, in a Blast with a stroke or noise, and in a violent expiration: they may suffer passions of all sorts. You shall see the aforesaid Muscles in the first Figure following, and in the second Figure you shall see the situation, place, and also the shape of the eight Muscles of the Abdomen, or Epigastrion, otherwise Mirach; but he which intendeth better to search into these Muscles, and many other things, let him have recourse unto our Commentaries upon Mund. the envy of whose labour shall affect me after death. The fifth Figure of Muscles. In this Figure you have two Broad muscles, above which were the Long and Obliqne muscles, which are now taken away from them, as you see, and the fleshy part of those Latitudinal muscles is on the sides, but the Nervous part of them (to wit, their Chords) is in the middle of the Belly, and they are compounded of the two Pellicles, that is of that below and above, and they are fastened with the pannicle Siphac, and those Muscles are more in the upper part of this belly than in the lower, as you see, that they might the better expel downwards, that which is in the Intestines. The sixth Figure of Muscles. In this Figure are three kinds of Muscles, to wit, Obliqne, Long, and Broad, and you have in the right part two Muscles, which are not covering the whole right part, as they do naturally, and as it is shown in the first and second Figures, and they are so made in this place, that the crossing of them may the better be seen; but in the left part you have one Long muscle, and one Broad of which Broad the fleshy part doth only appear, but the Chord of that Broad muscle is under the Long muscle afore spoken of. Of the Peritonion or Siphac. THe aforesaid things being seen, remove carefully the Chords of the Broad muscles from a membrane annexed to them towards the Intestines, which is subtle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Circumtendo, quia circum intestina circumtenditur. and hard, named Peritonion and Siphac, this compasseth all the vacuity of the lower Belly round about; it is round, but not perfectly, its substance is Nervous, and hard, its shape is spoken of. From that Pannicle do arise two Purses or Bags, in which the two Testicles are placed within the Scrotum, which are parts of the same Scrotum; its quantity is so much as is the vacuity of the lower belly, its situation appeareth; in number it is one pannicle only; its Colligancy is with the Broad muscles, and with all the members contained in that Belly; and all the members of this Belly, have a proper Pannicle involving them, arising from this Peritonion. It hath Colligancy, (according to Avicen) with the Pleura, it hath also Colligancy with the Septum transversum, and with the Testicles, its complexion is the same which is of other Pannicles. Its Helps are to fasten the members of Nutrition, and Generation, to the Back, and to warm the Intestines, and to keep them from Rupture, and it is to hold them from going out of the belly; it helpeth also (together with the Septum transversum) the expulsion of that which is contained in the Ventricle, and in the Intestines, and in the Matrix. It suffereth Passions of all sorts; its proper Passion is Rupture and Mollification; look for the cure of them all somewhere else, because in the demonstration of Anatomy, it is not convenient to put the cure of Ascites, neither the cure of wounds of the Abdomen, nor of the Intestines, nor the manner of gelding, nor drawing out of the stone (as Mundinus hath done) neither also of any other disease: yet we will say somewhat of the phlebotomy of the Veins of Guidez, and perhaps some other special things. Of the Omentum or Zirbus. THe members spoken of are to Omentum di●. quasi opimentum, ex opimus, vel ab omen, quod ex omenti inspectione ominarentur. be cast away, that the rest of the members may the better be seen; and first cometh the Zirbus or Omentum, called of the vulgar sort Rete, a Net, or Caul, which is a member compounded of two very thin sinewy Pellicles, with much fatness annexed to it. This member hath many pulsant and quiet Veins, but more manifest in a lean body, than in a fat; its Pannicles are discontinued throughout, unless about the circumference of it; it beareth the form of a Pouch or Bag, for between those Pellicles there is a very great hollowness. It's substance hath been spoken of, it Colligance is with Siphac, with Colon, and with the Spleen; its situation is towards the forepart, reaching over the Intestines from the Ventricle unto the Inguina; the quantity of it may be seen; it is in number only one member; its shape is handled, its complexion is the complexion of the parts of which it is compounded: its helps are to help digestion, and to mollify the dregs: it may suffer passions of all sorts; it causeth the Ramex in the Scrotum, in the Navel, in the Inguina, and in other places of the Sumen, if the Peritonion be broke or mollified. Of the Intestines. REmove the Zirbus, and you Intestinum quod intus in ventre continetur. shall see the Intestines, which are continual from the Ventricle unto the Anus, they are revolved to and again, that they might retain the meat a long time for a good end, and they are six in number. The first beginning with the lowest is Rectum, of the length of a Palm, or thereabouts. The second is Colon, which ascendeth by the left side, unto the Region of the Kidney, and Spleen, and from thence it passeth from the left side unto the right, riding over the Stomach, and in the right side it is united to the intestine Saccus situated about the highest part of the Os Anchae. This Intestine called Saccus or Cecus is to be reckoned the third in order, and these three are said to be of a gross substance, for they are fleshy, and they may be consolidated if they receive solution. The fourth is the long Intestine called Ileon, and Revolutum, or Involutum, because it is on both sides revolved throughout the Belly. In the fifth place is Jejunum. In the sixth, Duodenum, and these three are subtle, called of some Lactes; the solution of which, if it be notable, is not consolidated: The uppermost are subtle by their Colligancy, and the lower gross; all of them have two Tunicles, and a common Pannicle coming from the Peritonion covering them over, and fastening them to the Back. In the inside of them there sticketh Pituity or Phlegm to resist corrosion, and to make slippery the dregs; in them there are fibres of all sorts, but most broad; their complexion is cold and dry & the small are colder than the gross, because their substance is Nervous: and in the gross there is some flesh; their shape is apparent; their particular situation hath been, and shall be laid open by that which followeth; their Helps are known; they suffer passions of all sorts. For the seeing of the particular Anatomy of the Intestines, first observe with diligence the situation of them, and before you separate them from the Mesentereon, consider their Veins, which are called of some Lactes, which do transport the Chilus to the Vena Portae, in the very small branches of which beginneth sanguification, by the help of the Liver; note also the situation of the Vena Portae which is without the concave of the Liver, reaching with eight branches towards the Intestines, and towards the Stomach, the Omentum, and the Spleen, all which observe with diligence, if you can, before the Intestines be cast away. Of the Intestine Rectum. THese things being dispatched, Rectum quia ascendit recte. first we must see the Rectum, or Longaon, which is to be cleansed from the filth, driving it with your hand into the Colon: and its extreme part towards the Colon is to be tied in two places, and to be cut between the Ligatutes; for its situation is from the Anus ascending to the upper parts through the belly, about the length of a Palm, having few Miseraick veins, because that which it containeth nourisheth but a little; it is terminated about the left Ilium, where the Colon beginneth, the Rectum being united thereunto. Of the Intestine Colon. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 dictum quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Cavum. YOu shall observe the Colon to be placed in the left side, and it ascendeth about the left Rein, and there it is strict, that it might give place to the Spleen, which it covereth, and to which it is fastened: it reacheth from hence to the right side, and doth ride over the Ventricle, and is fastened unto it: hence is caused the departing for a time in a Syncopis; hence doth its pain increase after meat is eaten; but the grief of the Reins groweth in the second digestion; it is fastened to the Omentum, of which, and also of the Ventricle it is moistened; it is covered with that Penula of the Liver, in which is the Cistis Bilis, the Gall, and therefore it is very black and bitter: it is vauted or celled, and Pituity aboundeth there. In it are engendered Cucurbitines, and also other Worms: in it also the Ordure doth obtain an unequal shape: there is in it a rumbling a little before the time of feeding, It is thus situated that the weight might the better descend from the ●pper to the lower part: and by its situation to have the keeping of Clysters, and the places of applying Medicines in the Colic; its quantity is to be seen; its substance is a little fleshy; and it is sinewy and fat, and solid, that it may resist hard and sharp matters; it hath also notable miseraick veins through which the Chilus and blood doth pass. It's proper passion is a windy pain; in it there are bred stones, and skins by adust phlegm▪ These things being seen, you may separate the Colon from the Mesentereon, to which it is fastened, and let alone the Rectum in its place, until the Anatomy of the Anus, which cannot be perfectly seen, but when you make Anatomy of the Virga and Vesica. Of the Intestine Saccus. Ex sacci similitudine It is called Cecus blind, and Monoculus, one eyed, because it hath but one orifice. TO this Intestine about the O● Anchae beneath the Kidney in the right side is placed an intestine called Cecus, Saccus, and Monoculus, because it hangeth like a sack, and it hath but one Orifice, by which it draweth and expelleth the excrements, but in certain hours it draweth from the Ileon, and driveth it into the Colon; in this there is a greater digestion than in any other Intestine, for it is a second Ventricle, first it draweth, next it digesteth, and afterwards expelleth unto the Colon. It's quantity is about a palm in length, but it is as broad as Colon, and also more, it is not fastened to the Mesentereon, but hangeth in the belly; in it are bred worms called Serpents. But this Intestine is often found frustrate in nature, because it doth none of the aforesaid things, and then it is also found fastened to the Intestine Colon and Ileon, and it is as it were a certain additament, and its shape appeareth strictly compacted, but within it is empty, and is less in breadth than the least finger of the hand, and it is of the length of three inches or thereabouts. Of the Intestine Ileon. TO this Intestine Saccus going 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 in arctum cogo. upward is immediately fastened the first of the slender Intestines called Ileon, and Longum, and Revolutum, or Involutum, whose substance is slender; its shape is very long and round; its quantity is longer than all the other Intestines together; there are more Miseraicks in that Intestine than in any other, because of his length; its situation is more about the Ilia, yet it is in other places through the belly; it is fastened to the Mesentereon, from which it must be separated that you may Hic morbus dic 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ab 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 misericordia quia miserandus dolour. well observe the other upper Intestines. It's proper passion * is dispositio Iliaca, and the passion called Miserere mei, in which the ordure passeth to the mouth. Of the Intestine Jejunum. TO this Ileon is continued the J●junum signifies hungry, empty, or barten, because this gut is always found empty. second small Gut, called Jejunum, Hira, Hilla, and Sterilae, or Vacuum, and it is empty, because it is near unto the Liver by whom it is emptied, by drawing Chilus from it, and by expelling that which is contained in it, by means of Choler from the Cistis, entering into it about the Duodenum: it hath more Miseraicks, than any other Intestine like unto it in length, that they might quickly secure the Liver, yet it is emp●iest in the upper part about the Duodenum, and it is not altogether straight, but beginneth to be revolved where it is fastened to the Ileon, and therefore it is partly straight, and partly involved; it is of a Citron colour, because it is ●e●r the Liver; insubstance and shape it is like to Ileon; its quantity may be seen, but it is not much, and its situation is about the region of the Liver, and somewhat below, but in the middle of the belly. These things being seen you may also excarn this Intestine from the Mesentereon that you may the better see the Duodenum, which you shall know in his longitude from the stomach below, to be in quantity as much as are ' twelve fingers in breadth from the stomach downward. Of the Intestine Duodenum. IN the last place is to be seen the highest of the small Guts, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a duodecem digitorum longitudine Duodenum and Dodecadactylon, whose quantity in length appears above, and in breadth is less than every other Intestine, and is as much as the lower gate of the Ventricle, called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and in Latin Janitor. The substance of it is slender, it is not revolved, but straight, fastened to the Ventricle towards its upper part, and it is fastened to the Mesentereon, also about the Jejunum, it is fastened to the Cistis bilis, by the Channel which conveyeth choler for the cleansing of the Intestines from phlegm principally, and from excrements. That Channel entereth Diagonallically in that Intestine between * Or between the two Tunicles. a Tunicle, and a Tunicle, lest the Choler, and perhaps Chilus might again ascend unto the Cistis. Consider that Channel warily, and keep it for the Anatomy of the aforesaid Cistis; the helps of this Intestine are to take from the Ventricle things digested, and to send them to the other Intestines; it suffereth every kind of disease. Of the Mesentereon. THese things being seen, divide the Duodenum below the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, quia medium inter intestina fitum obtinet. poor coming to it from the Cistis bilis, binding it first, lest that which is contained in the Ventricle go forth; and you may put away the other Intestines when you have first warily excarned them (as it is said before) from the Mesentereon or Eucarus, which of some is also called Lactes; this member is placed among the very Intestines, fastening them in their Centre to the back; and it is compounded of doubled Pellicles of fat, and of Glandules, in the which there are many veins proceeding from the Liver, which are commonly called Miseraicks, and of Galen are called the hands of the Liver, because they snatch from the Intestines the matter of blood, and give it to the Liver; those veins are of the branches of Vena portae; in this member there are also some Arteries. This member is divided into two parts; the first is fastened in the upper part to the Jejunum and Duodenum, which is very glandulous, and its Pellicles are single; the Venaeportae do pass thorough that part to the Ventricle, to the Spleen, and to the Omentum this part in a Hog is of a savoury taste, and is commonly called the Sweet-bit, and also Brisaro, and Bocea saporita: In those great Glandules is sometimes contained a matter causing a sickness, which is called Melancholia Mirachia. Another part of this member is fastened to the other Intestines, whose Pellicles are doubled, because they fasten great members to the back; and this second part is esteemed of all men for the true Mesentereon; those two members are nourished from the veins of the Porta. Their quantity and shape appear, the first is lesser than the second, their complexion is cold, they have colligancy with the back by means of Siphac; their helps are to fasten the Intestines to the back, and to sustain the Miscraick veins, and other veins of the Porta, and to moisten the dregs of the Intestines. In number they are two members, even among the vulgar; they may suffer diseases of every sort; this member or members is to be let alone in its place, until the Anatomy of the veins of Porta be seen. Of the Ventricle, which is commonly called the Stomach. THe Mesentereon being dispatched, Ventriculus vertus dic. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 enim idem est quod Gula. blow up the Ventricle through the Duodenum left afore, as much as you can, that the chiefest greatness of it may be seen, than you may reduce it to a mean inflation, that other things requisite in it may the better be seen. And first you shall observe its place which is in the middle of the whole body, the extreme parts excepted, and it is immediately under the Septum transversum; on the right side it hath the Liver, and on the left the Spleen, under it the Intestine Colon, and other Intestines, before the Omentum, and Abdomen, behindethe back, and the parts contained therein; its situation is obliqne, fastened to the back under the Diafragma; its upper part is in the left side, that it might give way to the Liver, which is in the right, and placed on high: and that melancholy might the more easily go from the Spleen to the mouth of it: the lower part of it is in the right side, that it may give way to the Colon which is in the left taking up a great room; but its lower part in the right side towards the Portanarium or gate, is less than in the left side toward the Colon, because in the right side the Liver taketh up a greater room than the Colon placed in the left; also it's lower part is in the right side, lest otherwise the Orifices should be direct, both that the meat might be the better retained, and that the Choler from the gall might the more easily enter into the Duodenum continued to the lower part of it. It's substance is nervous, by predomination, its colour appears, its shape is round, arched after the manner of a * Or Morescan. Moors Gored; its quantity is apparent. It hath Colligancy with the heart by Arteries, with the Liver and Spleen by veins, with the Brain by the descendent nerves; it is fastened to the Anus by the Intestines, and to the mouth by means of the Gula; it is fastened to the Zirbus toward the former part; it hath two Tunicles, the innermost is more sinewy by reason of the appetite, and more gross rugged and hard, because it meeteth with hard meats; it is harder in the upper part, and also more sensible; it hath an outward Tunicle more subtle inclining a little to the nature of flesh; the innermost is some way nourished by the Chilus; the outermost is nourished by Venaportae; the innermost hath towards its inside long fibers serving for attraction, and towards its outside it hath obliqne fibers for retention, the outermost hath broad fibers for expulsion. The bottom of it serveth for the digestive faculty by means of the outermost Pannicle, and by means of the heat of those parts which are about it, yet it hath a proper hidden virtue of digestion, as the Matrix of generating, and the Liver of making blood, the upper part of it serveth for the appetite by the help of melancholy, milking itself into its mouth from the Spleen, and for this cause it is often found black. The Ventricle hath also a common Tunicle involving it, and fastening it to the Back arising from the Peritoneon, which is grosser than any other member contained in the lower belly, except the Mesentereon in that part wherein it is doubled, and it is so in the Ventricle because of the extension that it hath in victuals. The body of it is fastened with its upper Orifice to the back, to wit, between the twelve and thirteenth of the Spondiles of the back, which Orifice is properly called the Stomach, and there are applied Medicines for the comforting of the appetite, and this Orifice is in the very lower part of the Gula, or Meri, which by penetrating the Diafragma is continued upwards to the extreme part of the mouth (especially with its innermost pannicle) and this Orifice is shu● up by the Diafragma, lest in the inclination of the body the meat might easily return back; it is also fastened to the back by its lower part, that is by the Pyluron, or otherwise Pyloron, or Portanarium in that place where the Duodenum is fastened to the back by the Mesenterion, but the rest of it is lose, and is easily moved any way; this Portanarium is higher than the bottom that contains the food, lest the meat might too easily fall downward. In number it is one member; its complexion by the parts compounding it is cold and dry. Its helps are to cause appetite, to retain, and to concoct the food, and to give the gross part to the intestines, but the good and digested to other members by means of the Liver. It suffereth passions of all sorts, and through the great sense of it the heart and brain do suffer with it. Of the Spleen. Splen a suppleo dic. quia vacuum locum ex contraria parte Jecoris supplet. HAving left the Ventricle in its place for the seeing of the Venae portae, we must mind the anatomy of the Spleen or Milt, and first you shall see it placed in the left Hypochondrion, cleaving to the Ventricle with its little concave part, and with its Gibbous part touching the ribs, towards the back and sides; it is covered with the Peritoneon. But you may lift up the Corpse as if it sat, that you may the better see the situation of it, which is under the Diafragma, immediately in the Hypochondrion, especially in a living body; but in a dead body, lying along, it seemeth to be under the ribs, because its heaviness doth easily drive the Diafragma to the upper parts, for the Lungs are empty, and lose, easily yielding; you may also break up some of the false ribs that you may the better see the situation of the Spleen; you may likewise do so in the Anatomy of the Liver for the aforesaid cause; this manner likewise would be somewhat convenient in showing the situation of the Stomach, which also in a dead body lying along seemeth (through the emptiness of the Lungs) to be under the bones of the breast with some of its upper part, more than it is naturally in a living body. It's shape is square, somewhat like a half Moon, of a lose substance; it hath colligancy with the Heart by great arteries (which you must mark) making thin the gross blood, which being made thin nourisheth the Spleen; it is fastened to the Liver by a branch of the Porta, to the brain by nerves, to the Mesentereon and Omentum by veins, and to Siphac by the pannicle covering it, to the stomach by many veins, some whereof do nourish the left part of the Ventricle, and one doth milk out melancholy unto the mouth thereof; its quantity is known; its complexion is ordained hot and moist, and is appointed opposite for that which is contained in it; in number it is one member; it is helpful to the whole body by purging the mass of blood from the dregs, and for that cause it provoketh laughter; sometimes it maketh blood, it stirreth up appetite, it helpeth the digestion of the Stomach; it suffereth every kind of Disease, and there is sometimes in it a special impediment of its course and strong motion; and it is held that that part being taken away by a wound Creatures do sometimes live, and there are some that think, that through the greatness of it laughter hath been quite hindered, and that it hath sometimes changed place with the Liver (but very strangely.) Of the Liver. HAving seen the aforesaid 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ab 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 id est operari sanguinem. parts, you must raise up the Corpse, as it is afore made plain, ●hat the Liver may show its situation, which is immediately under the Diafragma in the right Hypochondrion; it is great in a man, because he is a hot and moist Creature; it is of a Moon-like shape; its concave part is toward the Ventricle, but its gibbous part is touching the ribs about the Diafragma, but higher, and toward the sides, and the back. It's substance is the flesh of it, and the net woven of the Veins dispersed in it, and its flesh is coagulated blood; it hath five Loabes, sometimes four, and three, and sometime two. In the hollow part of it is one Vein called Porta, which entereth into it with five branches, which toward its gibbous part are dispersed throughout the whole body even to the least members; that the Chylus divided in them to the least members might the better be transformed into blood. Also in the hollow part is a little Cistis or bladder cleansing the blood from Choler, before it pass unto the gibbous part; also in the hollow part the Vena Umbelicalis entereth into the Vena Portae to nourish the young one in the Mother's womb. In the gibbous part is one Vein called Chilis, dispersed also with five branches through the whole body of it unto the least members; the least branches of this Chilis are joined or united with the branches of Porta, and they suck from them blood purified from Choler and Melancholy, but mixed with wateriness, which requireth a farther decoction in the gibbous part. The Liver hath vent in its gibbous part of the Septum transversum, and of the Vena Chilis ascending by it to the heart, by which it is fastened unto it; it hath also small Arteries in the hollow part of it by which it is vented. These Arteries come from Aorta which is near there, and are difficult to be seen; it is fastened to the Metaphraenum by its pannicle suspending, and to the Abdomen by the Vena Vmbelicalis; to the brain by a Nerve; but by the means of a pannicle risen from the Peritoneon of which it is circumvolved; it hath also colligancy with every member that hath a vein; its complexion is hot and moist; in number it is one; its parts are proper flesh, the Vena Porta, Vena Chilis, and Arteries, a Nerve with a pannicle, and the Cistis of choler; its operation is the making of Blood; its proper passion is the Dropsy; yet it suffereth every kind of disease. Of the Vena Portae. WIthout the substance of the Porta quia per totum corpus portat sanguinem. Liver is Vena Portae, so called of a witty man according to its nature (Galen being witness,) and from him hath the name remained until now; which Hypocrates, and all the company of Asclepias have commended, because its branches do carry the food before laboured in the belly unto that place of the digestion for the whole Creature, which we call the Liver. This vein without the Liver hath eight parts, two are small, six greater; one of the lesser hath two branches, one nourisheth the Duodenum, and the other the Mesenterion, close to the Duodenum. The other lesser vein nourisheth the Ventricle about the Portanarium. The first of the six greater nourisheth the outermost broad part of the Ventricle. The second with some branches goeth towards the Spleen, from which first branch goeth to nourish the Mesenterion; forthwith one other great branch goeth to the Spleen, which in the way is divided into more branches, of which one great one doth nourish the left lower part of the Ventricle. This same branch goeth on entering into the Spleen, and ●t sendeth from ●t two branches, one of which ascendeth, the other descendeth; of the ascending there are three parts, one part nourisheth the Spl●e●, another nouri heath the upper part of the Ventricle, the other part passeth to the mouth of the Ventricle, milking into it Melancholy for the stirring up of the appetite, which for the most part goeth forth with the excrements through the intestines. The aforesaid descending Vein is divided into two parts, one branch nourisheth the Spleen, the other goeth to the Omentum in the left side, and nourisheth that. The third branch of the six aforesaid, goeth on the left side for the succouring of the Intestine Rectum. Also the fourth branch of the six greater is spread into capillary branches, whereof some go to nourish the right side of the Ventricle, and some to nourish the right side of the Omentum. The fifth goeth to the Mesenterion in that place where it is fastened to the Colon. But the sixth goeth to the Mesenterion in that part where it is fastened with its branches to the Jejunum and Ileon, which are called the Meseraick veins, and this is very large. The substance of these veins is such as of others; their quantity, and their principal number and situation, and shape and Colligancy are manifest; their complexion is cold and dry, but by reason of that which is contained, it is hot and moist; their help is to bring the afore-laboured meat to the Liver; it also with its branches beginneth the second digestion, it also carrieth nutriment to the Ventricle, to the Spleen, and Omentum, and it nourisheth the Intestines; it suffereth passions of all sorts, and especially oppilations, and also the opening of his Mesenterics, and sometime scissures, and it suffereth with the Liver in all the diseases of it. Of the Cistis containing Choler, which is called Fel the Gall. THe Cistis of Choler called the Fel quod folliculu● gestans bilem. Gall, is a purse or sack in the hollow part of the Liver, cleaving to a loab in the middle; it is compounded of a pannicular substance which is thin, solid, and without blood; having only one Tunicle covered with the Pannicle which covereth the Liver; in it there are fibers of all sorts; in the inside it hath long and obliqne fibers, on the outside broad. It's substance is thin, because it digesteth not any thing, and it is hard, that it may resist the sharpness of the Choler; it hath one Poor entering immediately into its purse (which is called communis) being greater than others which (according to the opinions of some) is divided into three parts: One goeth to the Liver, continued with the Vena Portae, from which it draweth Choler by narrow passages, in that Poor there are only long fibers. One other Poor goeth towards the Intestines, which is double at a certain distance, whereof one part goeth to the Duodenum towards the Jejunum, that it may cleanse the Intestines from phlegm and excrements by the sharpness of the Choler sent thorough it; and that Poor entereth in the Duodenum * A Diagone is a line in Geometry drawn from one corner to another. Diagonally between two Tunicles of it, lest that Choler, and those things which are contained in the Intestine should go back, and stop it. Another (according to some) goeth to the Pyloron of the Ventricle to comfort the digestion with its Choler; which if it be much, maketh a man miserable by the continual vomiting of Choler (but some do deny this Poor;) by the common neck is caused its attraction and expulsion. It's quantity and shape appear; in number, it is one member; and it is fastened to the heart by a small Artery which it hath, and to the Brain by a small nerve; its native complexion is cold and dry. Its helps are to purge the blood from Choler, and to make hot the digestion of the Liver, and to keep it from putrefaction; it doth also comfort the Ventricle, and cleanseth it from phlegm, and helpeth the expulsive virtue of the Intestines; sometimes a man is without a gall, but this man is of a feeble health, and of a shorter life. It suffereth passions of all sorts; its proper passion is oppilation, by which is caused Morbus regius, or * Yellow Jaundice. Icteritiae, and if there is oppilation in the common Poor, and the body be not purged of Choler, then are caused cholerical diseases of divers sorts, yet the excrements may be coloured. But if there be an oppilation in the neck, reaching to the Intestines, and unto the Portanarium, than the excrements are discoloured; and also the Choler is not purged from the Cistis, but doth flow back to the Liver, and doth cause many cholerical diseases. And if there be oppilation in the neck towards the Liver, the excrements may be coloured for some time; and it will also cause cholerical diseases of divers sorts; but the oppilation continuing, the excrements will be discoloured. We have spoke of other things in the Comments upon Mundinus. Of the great Vein Chilis, and Aorta, descending, and emulgent. THe aforesaid parts being seen, you may put away the Mesenterion, the Spleen, and the Liver, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, pasco, quia partes sanguine ut mater venarum pascit. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 quod vas signific. ab 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, tollo, qu●a ut vas sanguinem vitalem per totum tollit. of whose gibbous part, reserve that, from which the great channel of Vena Chilis doth immediately go forth, that you may see the beginning of it; but leaving the Ventricle in its place unpuffed up that some other parts of it may also be seen. In the first place you shall see a great vein go forth of the gibbous part of the Liver, which is called Parigiba, and Chilis, and Concava, and Mater venarum; from which the blood is dispensed to all the parts of a living creature, by means of its branches, which are the receptacles of it; this vein is subtle, full of pores, and gentle, not double-coated, as the Arteria Aorta, lest it should too long time contain the blood which is gross, but that it should quickly nourish the members; it is also such, because it is without motion; but an Artery carrieth subtle blood, which of some is called the vital spirit; this doth continually systolize and diastolize: therefore it is hard, gross, and compact, lest it should be broken, and it is such, that it may a long time contain the subtle blood contained in it, which by reason of its motion is disposed to solution. The upper part of this Vein ascendeth to the heart and further, perforating the Diafragma, which is called Chilis ascendens; of which it shall be spoken in its place. This same Vein directly descendeth, cleaving to the back, and is called Chilis descendens, which the great Artery descending, doth accompany, called Aorta, which observe with diligence, together with the Vein, but the Vein is above the Artery, and they are both envolved in the Peritoneon. In the descent of both of them, their branches are first divided, which go to the swadling-bands or pannicles of the Kidneys; but when they are in the direct of the Reins, the Vein, and likewise the Artery, send from them one notable branch on the right side, another on the left, which are continued in the Reins. These branches are called Emulgents; for the most part, the right branch is higher than the left, because it must be near to the Liver, that it may quickly cleanse it from the Wateriness contained in the Chilis; And the left is lower, that its Kidney might give place to the Spleen, which is lower than the Liver. Those Orifices are not direct, that by the first might be drawn from members at hand, by the second from members afa● off, and lest their attraction should be hindering to one another. In like manner, from that Vein, and from the great Artery under the Kidneys, are many other Veins and Arteries separated, which nourish the Rectum, the Bladder, the Matrix, and the parts near unto them. In like manner, in the direct of every Spondile, one branch from each of them enter into it, and is dispersed in the muscles near unto them; also of the aforesaid branches, between every Spondile do enter very small branches, which do feed the Nuca, and the Pannicles, Ligaments, and Spondiles, which envolve and fasten the same Nuca, as you shall see in the dissection of them; of the aforesaid branches, some also go to the muscles, and to the membrane of the Abdomen. This Vein, and likewise the Artery about Os sacrum, beneath the Spondiles of the Reins, is forked into two equal parts to the form of a greek letter, which is called Lambda λ Some call those two-forked Arteries Sempiternal, in which do enter two Umbelical Arteries, one whereof is on the right side, the other on the left, which descend in them to the sides of the Bladder. Those two-forked Veins and Arteries, one on the right side, the other on the left, descending toward the Hips, (according to some) are in each side divided into ten parts, whereof one nourisheth the lower part of the Back, being dispersed through the Loins toward the Kidneys within, and without. And one other part being divided into capillary branches, nourisheth the Peritoneon. And one nourisheth the profound muscles of the Hip. And one nourisheth the musdes of the Anus, and from it spring the Hoemoroidal Veins. And one nourisheth the neck and mouth of the Matrix, from which also two branches go to the Bladder, one to the bottom, the other to the neck of it; and that which goeth to the neck in women, is small, but in men great, because of the yard. And one other of the ten goeth to the parts of the Pecten. And one other extendeth to the long muscles of the Abdomen; whose branches ascending, are continued with the veins of the Breast, which descend toward them; and they united together, extend to the Mamillas, and from that branch in a woman, there do likewise go notable parts to the Matrix, from whence two Veins, not accompanied with Arteries, ascend by the Abdomen unto the Mamillas, by which they are fastened to the Matrix; and therefore in women with child, and in the time of preternatural retention of the Menstrues, for the most part the Mamillas swell. or Tea●s. And one other of the ten doth also go to the Matrix in a woman, but in a man it goeth to the yard, and to the cod. But another goeth to the Universal muscles of the Hipp. And another part, which is the tenth, doth also extend to the Hipp, and that is notable, and descendeth by the inside of the Hipp; and when it is near to the Knee under the Ham, it is divided into three branches, whereof one is made obliqne toward the outside of the Shank, and reacheth unto the Little foot; and this branch is called Sciatica, because being incised, it helpeth in the pains of it; and the beginning of that branch Mundinus knew not. One other of the three aforesaid descendeth unto the Foot by the inside, and this is called Saphena; but the third branch holdeth the middle between the aforesaid branches; all which do nourish the Shank, and the Foot; but of them, speech shall be made in the Anatomy of the Great foot. But observe, that there are more Veins than Arteries; Witness Galen in his sixteenth Book of the Utility of the parts, in the thireenth and fourteenth Chapters; and witness the sense; and it is reason, because there are many cold members naturally, not wanting eventation, for which also a little spirit doth suffice; therefore they have not many Arteries; and in the hands, and in the feet, and in the brain, and in the superficial part of the neck, and in the Cutis of the whole body there are some Veins without Arteries; but there is no Artery without a Vein joined to it, some whereof that are chief notable, are fastened together by a Pannicle risen from the Artery; and they are united together, that the Veins might be made firm, and fortified by the aforesaid Pannicle, and that the Artery might give life to the Vein, and that the Vein might give blood to the Artery in necessities, whereof is made vital spirit, and the Artery itself is nourished: but the small Arteries are not fastened with the Veins by the aforesaid Pannicle, although they are companions to one another, but they are companions that they may give life to, and nourish the members; witness Galen, where it is quoted above. And the Veins and Arteries do go from the nearer places for the nourishing of their members, except the Veins and Artries of the Testicles, and Mamillaes', which go unto them from afar off, that the blood might make long delay in them, by which it is the better digested, and is more easily turned into good Sperm, and into Milk; and there are many Arteries and Veins not perceivable by the sense, as those which go to the bones and to the skin, and those which extend unto the extreme parts of the members. The situation of these Veins and Arteries, and also the substance and the quantity, and the shape do appear; the number of the branches of them is unperceiveable; their colligancy appeareth by that which hath been and is to be said; their helps are to nourish and give life to the whole body; they endure passions of all sorts. But to them do happen Diseases compounded of the chief of Oppilations, which are worse than the oppilations of the nostrils, and Intestines, and like places; both because their oppilation forbiddeth the members to be nourished, not suffering the blood to flow unto them; as also because they cause the blood to flow back again unto the Liver, which causeth in it oppilation, or putrefieth, or induceth some other ill Diseases; also their oppilation is ill, because it is often unknown, and because Medicines cannot be well applied unto them, as well within the body as without: their solutions may be of an inward cause, and of an outward, of which there are three kinds, one is commonly called Diabrosis, which is a corrosion of the vein, of Dia, which is the, of, or composition, and Brosis, or Rosis, which is Comestio, an eating; another kind is called Rexis, which is interpreted incisio, incision; the third is called Anastomosis, which is the same that the opening and dilatation of the Veins is every where; Diabrosis corrodeth the veins, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Rexis cutteth them, Anastomosis causeth them to open. But to the Emulgent Veins (among other Diseases) may happen a weakness of the attraction of the wont watery blood, as also in the Reins, whereupon they do either not attract, or else weakly; and thereby happeneth either a difficulty, or a total ablation of the Urine; yea there being in the Bladder no Urine; in which case rude Physicians do err, attempting to draw Urine from the Bladder, with a Syringe or other handy operation, and that is a singular hazard, for the most part bringing death, which I have often seen, and amongst the rest, I was with many honoured Physicians, in the cure of the magnificent and illustrious Lord, Lord Galataeus, of the noble Family of the Palavicinians, which was suflocated by the wateriness of Urine gathered together in the Veins throughout, and this wateriness induced to him a Squinancy, for which we applied Ventoses without scarification for diversion sake, and the Ventoses were filled with pure water through the pores of the skin; but these things by chance I have written for the profit and honour of young men. Of the Reins. WIth the aforesaid Emulgent Renes 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a fluendo: qnod per eos Sperma & urina fluunt. branches are continued two fleshy bodies solid, covered with the Peritoneon, called Renes, or Renones; they are two and not one, as the Cistis of Choler, and the Spleen, because the wateriness is more than the dregs and scum of the blood, for which is required one great place of purging, or two small ones; and it was not one great Ridney, lest it should crush together and press the Intestines, and lest they should make the Back unequal; and they were two, that if the operation of one should be hurt, that of the other might remain firm; and they were solid, that they might help much in a little room; and lest the Blood should go forth with the Urine by some of its Pores; and that they might not draw any thing by sucking it, but that which is thin; and that they might resist the sharpness of the Urine; they were also solid, because a thick body is stronger for attraction. Their quantity appeareth; their Phaeseolus, Plin l. 18. ca 12. shape may be seen, which is like the grain of the Kidney bean; they have colligancy with the Brain by Nerves, by means of the Pannicles involving them; with the Liver by the aforesaid Veins; with the Heart by great Arteries. Galen hath noted, that the great Arteries in the Kidneys, are not only for the cause of nutrition, and giving life, seeing the Kidneys are little members, for which a little Artery did suffice, but in them there are great Arteries, because they do also cleanse the Heart from wateriness and Choler; and he saith moreover, many times Aorta draweth from the Stomach, and from the Intestines blood not pure, yea Chylus which the Emulgent arteries do purge out to the Kidneys. I myself also in the year 1521. in our exercise at Bononia, saw in one publicly Anatomised, one of the Emulgent arteries that made one Poor in the right side without the Kidney, which in a notable distance beneath the Kidney did enter into the Uritidia● poor risen from the aforesaid Kidney, and both of them by one channel did reach unto the Bladder; nevertheless this Emulgent artery did also enter into the Kidney in his wont place; and in that individual the Kidneys were continued, as if it were one Kidney; and it had two Veins, and two Emulgent arteries, and two Uritidian pores with one only Pannicle involving, which did take up the wont places of the Kidneys, and also the middle part of the Back, which is in the place between the Spleen and the Liver, a little below them. Therefore let alone the left Kidney in its place, for the seeing of the Spermatical vessels, and divide the right in its concave part through the middle, according to the length of it, unto its centre, considering the place of its Vein and great Artery, which do enter into the substance of the Kidney in the hollow part of it, from which the Kidney doth draw spirit and nutriment, and the watery supper fluities of the whole body mixed with Choler; all these mixed matters pass thorough the whole substance of the Kidney although it be solid, because they are subtle; for blood could not pass alone to the least parts of the Kidneys, because they are solid, except it were mixed with water and Choler; all which mixed are resembled to the washing of flesh, being drawn by the Kidneys thorough the Emulgents, from the Liver, and from the Heart, by means of the vein Chilis, and the artery Aorta. This blood mingled with much wateriness is alone retained of the Kidneys for their nutriment; and the water together with the choler separated from the blood passeth to a certain notable hollowness, being in the centre of the Kidney, as it were into a ditch; the which the river or channel called the Uritidian poor bringeth to the Bladder; this Poor called of the Greeks * Uretra, is a very long, pannicular, solid, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. hollow body, having its beginning from the body of the Bladder (because as it is said it resembleth it) and ending at the Kidney, which consider with wariness, and keep together with the Kidney for the anatomy of the Bladder. And in the Kidney there is not a net, neither any other pannicular strainer, as some suppose, but the Kidneys are made hollow Organs, attracting by some Orifices, but sending forth by others a thin waterish superfluity. Therefore Galen said in hls fourth Book, De Utilit. cap. 12. Finally, many Drunkards drinking whole Amphoras, and pissing the proportion of the multitude of drink, are not troubled about the separation, but the blood which cometh to the Vena cava, is readily and by stealth all purged forth by the Reins not touching the Vein; the afore-named Ditch hath about it a solid Pannicle, perforated with more than ten great holes, through which Nature milketh forth the Urine into the aforesaid hollowness, by means of a certain small substance of the Kidney, like to the Nipples of the Teats of women. The Colligancy of the Reins appeareth by that which hath been said; they are also fastened to the Brain by a little Nerve, by means of a pannicle covering them. Their helps are to purge the whole body from superfluous Water and Choler, but especially the Liver and the Heart, nevertheless in the rest of the Veins there also remaineth much wateriness mixed with the Blood, which is called Vehiculum nutrimenti, the Wagon of the nutriment, which appeareth in Blood flebotomised, or otherways drawn from the body. They suffer every kind of Disease, all which almost are of a hard curation, as is the Diabetes, or as it were the continual dropping down of the Urine; they also suffer a weakness of the attractive quality, by means of which the Urine goeth not to the Bladder, and by that means a living Creature is sometimes choked, or dyeth some other way; also of such a weakness is caused the Ascitis: they also suffer Stones, Gravel, and Hairs, but the hairs are bred or condensed in the uritidian pores; the stones of it are red, small, oftentimes long, being bred in the aforesaid trench; when the Kidneys are weakened, not able to retain the blood, the Urine goeth forth bloody; it also goeth forth so when the Liver is weak, not separating the wateriness from the Blood, by that separation and quantit which it ought. Of the Seminary Vessels called Spermatica. THose things being dispatched 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 idem est quod semen a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, semine. in both Sexes, first you shall note in the great Vein Chilis, and the Artery Aorta, sometimes above the Kidneys, sometimes below, one little Vein, and one Artery, both which are united at some distance touching one another, descending to the Testicles of the right side. You shall also note two like Vessels in the like manner descending, and united in the left side, one from the Emulgent vein of the left Kidney, and another from the Artery Aorta; all those little Veins and Arteries so descending are called Vasa Spermatica praeparantia, that is, the Seminary preparing vessels; these vessels are covered about with a Pannicle risen from the Peritoneon, called of Celsus Aegitroides; the Vein lieth above, but the Artery lieth beneath. Those vessels are broader and harder in a Man than in a Woman, excepting the time of impregnation and menstrues, as it appeareth to the sense, by the much blood then retained in them; but at other times they are harder and broader in a man, and also they are always longer, because they are to carry their matter contained to a longer distance; and they are such, because the Masculine Seed is more, and is grosser than the Feminine; by which length also of the vessels of a man his Seed is the more digested; and the Seed of the right side engendereth Boys, because its matter is more digested, and cleansed from wateriness, but of the left side Girls, because it is cold and watery, coming from the aforesaid Emulgents filled with watery blood. These vessels in both Sexes agree in the place from whence, but disagree to whence; their termination in a woman is within the body, as it shall be said in the Anatomy of the Matrix, which is placed after the Anatomy of the Yard, and of the Anus, for better orders sake. But these vessels in a man descend on both sides unto the Os Pectinis, in the end of the Ilia, above the Loins, and therefore they are also called Lumbaria, which vessels in their descent above the Os Pectinis do enter on both sides into one pannicular covering, risen partly from the extreme parts of the Sifac, which is commonly called Didymus, and Cremasteres, and they pass in the Cod near unto the Testicles, as it may be seen in one only side, leaving the other side untouched, for the seeing of the Anatomy of the Didymus; but take heed lest you spoil the Scrotum in any part, but draw that vessel only which you intent to see together with his Didymus, and Testicle, to the upper parts towards the Pecten. These vessels descending near unto the Testicls are very hard, and are revolved like to Varices, A Disease in certain Veins swelled with wind and melancholy blood like Worms. whereupon they are called Variciformia, which are made soft when they meet with the Testicles (about which they are revolved) lest they might hurt them with their hardness, and there these vessels are called Epididymi, and Anendor, and Andros. From those vessels the matter of the Sperm doth immediately pass to the Testicles, in whose substance it procureth whiteness, and the generative virtue; and from the Testicles it is again cast out to the aforesaid soft vessels named Epididymi, from which it passeth to other inferior vessels continued with them, which are called Deferentia, whose substance is white, and harder than the rest; these different vessels in a man ascend from the Testicles unto the Pecten, being contiguous with the aforesaid preparing vessels descending; which Deferents so ascended in the upper part of the Os Pectimis, are turned back again within the belly on both sides; which keep warily together with the Testicles, until you have seen the Anatomy of the Didymies, and also of the Testicles. These vessels reflected within the body descend between Rectum and the Bladder, and there they dilate themselves into more caves ful● of Sperm, therefore there these Vessels are called Conservantia & Deferentia, keeping together, and carrying the Sperm; and of Galen guided by Eracleus, they are called Parastrata, Adeniformia, because Kernelly flesh doth compass them. On the right side, and on the left, these Vessels do pierce through the neck of the Bladder, and within the Yard about the Anus, they cast forth the Sperm, which afterward is driven forth through the Channel of the Yard. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 sig: geminus quia geminy su●t Of the Didymies. THese Vessels together with the Testicles, are involved in each ●ide with one Pannicle, from the bottom of the Cod unto the lowest part of the Ilia; the greater part whereof hath its beginning from the Peritoneon, descending into the Scrotum, in the end of the Abdomen, which is commonly called Didymus, and suspenforium Tisticuli. Of the Greeks they are called Cremasteres; the substance of which consider, which are of three, (and perhaps according to some) of four revolutions of Pannicles. The first is outmost, risen from the Pannicles of the Spondiles; another is risen from Sifac, or Peritoneon, contained within the Abdomen, near unto the Thigh, which of Celsus is called Darion. Of these two, by reason of their strong Colligancy, is made as it were one only Pellicle. Another is of the Pannicle, immediately involving the aforesaid vessels, risen from the Peritoneon, about the back; which is called Aegitroides. Another is of the Chords of the muscles of the Testicles, which is small; consider also their quantity and Colligancy, their complexion and number; they have the Shape of a Cistis, in the top narrow, in the bottom broad, as much as is the thickness of the Testicles. Its uses are to hang up the Testicles, and to keep fast the aforesaid Vessels. Of the Scrotum, or Cod. Scrotum seu Scortum ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 pellis, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Galeno 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, quod Testiculos tegat veletque Of those Pannicles, and of the skin, is compounded Oscheon, or Scrotum, that is, the purse of the Testicles, in which there are some Nerves giving sense unto it, and some Arteries and Veins nourishing it; and the Scrotum is one member common to the two Didymies, and it is a Sinus or vault, to the Didymies, Testicles, and to the Seminary Vessels. This member is divided by the middle of a light Membrane, which of some is called Sutura, & Taurum, & Chorda; which also doth somewhat appear in the outmost skin in the middle of the Scrotum, according to the length of the Body; the Quantity, Shape, Situation, Number, and Colligancy of this Member, are apparent; its complexion is cold and dry; its helps appear. This member with the Didymies, endureth every kind of disease; their proper passion is a dilatation of them, by which means are caused many Burstnesses, called Herniae, to wit, one of the Zirbus, called Omentalis; another Intestinalis. In the Scrotum also is caused the Hernie, or Hymea, waterish, windy, humeral, and fleshy; and also the Varicous; which is made by a repletion of the Seminary Vessels, caused of gross blood, or of much and watery. Of the Testicles. Testiculi dicti quod testes sunt V●rilitatis. Within the aforesaid suspensories on both sides are two glandulous white members, like to the flesh of the Teats, which are called Testiculi, whose Shape is like an Egg, and therefore they are also called Ova; their substance is without blood and all sense, yet it feeleth by its Pannicles; each of them hath two muscles cleaving to its Pannicles, that they might preserve them, and lift them up, lest they should be relaxed. Their Qunantity, their Number, and Situation, are apparent: their Native complexion is temperate in things active, moist in passive, but in fluent it is hot, by which means (Witness Aristotle) they draw to themselves from the whole body matter of the Sperm, as it were Ventoses; and they are placed of Physicians among the principal Members; they have Colligancy with the other principal Members, by Veins, by Arteries, and by Pannicles; their helps are to preserve the Species: they endure passions of all sorts. Of the Vesica, or Bladder. Vesica quasi vas aquae THese things being dispatched, take away the Kidneys with the Uritidian pores, risen from the Bladder, entering Diagonally within its Tunicle, nearer to the neck than to the bottom, lest the Urine might flow back unto them; through those Pores doth sometimes pass a Little stone to the Bladder bred in the Kidneys, causing in them an extension, with a vehement pain, because they are Sinewy as the Bladder. First, cut the body of the Bladder about the bottom of it, which is compounded of one only Tunicle, in the outward part of which do go two Nerves for its sense; first noting its Situation, which is in the Lower part of the Belly, in the hollowness of the Little trough, in which is also the Intestine Rectum, toward the Back, and the Matrix in a woman in the middle of them. You shall also note its Colligancy, and Quantity, and Shape, and Number, whose substance is Sinewy of the Nerves of the Ligament, not to be consolidated, if it receive solution, in the Neck it is fleshy, and therefore there is consolidated; its Neck is united to the Yard throughout, even unto the extreme part of the Glans, from whence goeth forth the Urine. It's complexion is cold and dry, and it is circumvolved with one Pannicle risen from the Peritoneon; its uses are to retain the Urine a long time, lest a man should continually rise to send it forth: But it doth as it were, continually flow from the Kidneys to it. Certain glandules of flesh do help its retention, envolving and compressing the beginning of its Neck, on the outside; causing in the Neck some turn, by reason of which the Bladder is not wholly cleansed from the water, and one only muscle of the Bladder, envolving the mouth of it, doth help its Voluntary retention, and likewise Expulsion. The Bladder may endure passions of all sorts, which are sometimes incurable, as is a very great stone; and Excoriation in a Choleric body, and in an old man. Of Virga, or the Yard. Virga quasi Vim gerens. AFter the aforesaid Members, cometh the Yard, which is of a Ligamental substance, it is also Sinewy and hollow like a Sponge, yet with some muscles; the Yard, and likewise the Tongue, hath more and greater Veins and Arteries than any other Member like to it in bigness; through the aforesaid Porosities the Yard above being guided by the imaginative virtue, is oftentimes magnified and erected of the Spirit, for in it is a natural virtue, by which when a living creature is moved to Copulation, it is puffed up, and enlarged; and there is caused naturally a motion in the Heart and in Arteries, but in these it is caused always for necessity; but in this sometimes when it is necessary. It's beginning and Situation is of a part of the Pecten, in the middle, known to all. It's Shape is very long and round, having in it a Channel, by which the Urine and Sperm go forth. The upper part of it is called Glans, and the head of the Yard, and there it is compact, hard, and of a dull sense, lest it should be hurt in copulations; a certain soft Skin doth compass about that Glans, which is called Preputium, being obedient to turning Praeputium a praeputando eo quod a Judais praeputaretur. back in every Friction. This Praeputium in the lower part, in the middle only, according to the length, is fastened to the greater part of the Glans, by a certain Pellicular member, called of the Vulgar, El filello. It's Number, and also Quantity, are apparent; its Native complexion through influence is hot and moist; it hath Colligancy with the Os pect●nis, with the Kernelly Parastata, with the Bladder, by means of the Channel without, by which the Urine floweth forth; with the Brain, by means of the Nerves, coming to the muscles and skin of it; with the Heart and Liver, by means of the aforesaid Arteries and Veins descending. The Yard hath in it three Orifices, one wide, the which is common both to the Sperm and Urine; and two small, by which the Sperm coming from the aforesaid Seminary vessels, do enter into that common Orifice. Those two Orifices or Vessels, do enter into this Channel, in the place called Perineon, which is a place between the Yard and the Anus. That Channel from those Orifices to the Bladder, is according to the truth called the Neck of the Bladder; from hence unto the extreme part of the Glans, it is called the common Hole and Channel of the Yard, and of some it is called ●retra. The Yard also hath four Muscles, two towards its lower part, on both sides one, near unto the channel of the Urine; which are long-ways extended, and do dilate the Yard, and elevate it; that the Sperm may with easiness pierce thorough it. There are of it two other Muscles beginning from the root of it towards Os Pectini●, coming transverse about the Glans in its upper part; which when they are extended the Yard is lifted up, and when they cease from extension it is kept down; that if the extension happen to one, and not to the other, the Yard will decline to the part of the extended muscle. The profit of the Yard is made principally for conservation of the Species; for by its means the Sperm is sent into the field of Nature, that is into the Matrix; which if it be of a moderate quantity (as likewise the Tongue) it is praised, and is profitable; for the shortness of it doth not bring the Sperm to the due place; and it's too much length is the cause of the resolving of the spirits in the Sperm. The Yard also by its Colligancy doth empty the Bladder from Urine, whereof it is a sign, because Lice applied to its extreme Orifice provoke it by biting. The helps of the Praeputium, and the aforesaid Pellicle fastening it to the Glans, are to yield some delight in Copulation, and to defend the Glans from outward hurts. That Praeputium the Jews take away in Circumcisions, working contrary to the intent of Nature; the Yard suffereth passions of all sorts, its proper passion is a Priapism. For the well seeing of this Anatomy, the things spoken of being first observed, and the situation of the Intestine Rectum being noted, separate with a Scalprum, Falx, or Saw, or other Engine, the Os Pectinis from its lateral part, and together with the Bone separate a notable part of the Buttocks, to wit, that in which are the muscles of the Anus, and take away the Rectum, the Bladder, and the Yard, with the Seminary Vessels, and the aforesaid Uritidian Pores, and put the aforesaid members (being first washed, and clean from the dung and bloodiness contained in them) upon some table, that you may the better see the aforesaid members, putting away with diligence the Os Pectinis only from the aforesaid members. And first, you shall note the place of the afore-named Uritidian Pores entering into the Bladder, by putting into them a Probe, or Radius, or some such thing, and you shall perceive it pierce Diagonally through the substance of the body of the Bladder, into the hollowness of it, as hath been said before. These things being seen, you shall also see the aforesaid Seminary vessels to enter between the Rectum and the Bladder, and with some instrument of Incision separate warily the Rectum from the Bladder, because in that place these members are very firmly fastened, and you shall see the Parastata afore-named full of caves, and large, and incising them you shall find the Sperm there contained for two or more Copulations, and these Vessels are terminated in the channel of the Yard. And about that place you shall see notable glandulous flesh on the sides of the neck of the Bladder, which doth somewhat digest and whiten the Sperm there contained, or at least keepeth it that it be not dried up, conserving also in it the genitive spirit. Those flesh's do also keep the neck of the Bladder lest it should be dried, and also the Yard, which by reason of its length hanging without is apt to be dried, and shut up; and for this cause Women have not that flesh; also those flesh's with their somewhat fatness resist the sharpness of the Urine. These things being noted, you may slit the Yard long-ways, and you shall see the aforesaid channel with the Orifices, through which the Sperm entereth, which are two, one on the right side, another on the left, not much distant from the hollowness of the Bladder; you shall also see the body of the Yard hollow, or pory, to the likeness of a Sponge, not very hollow, but somewhat compact. Of the Rectum. THe aforesaid things being noted, you must be mindful of the place of the Intestine Rectum left before, for the Anatomy of the Anus, which you shall observe to be in the hollowness of the little Trough, and is terminated within the Buttocks, in the place called Anus, from whence by the order of Nature those excrements of the first digestion go forth; the higher part of it reacheth to the left side where it is fastened to the Intestine Colon. You shall also consider its quantity, which is apparent; and it● Shape, situation, and number you have seen afore; it hath Colligancy with the Heart, with the Liver, and the Brain, with the Bladder in a man, and with the Matrix in a woman. Consider also its Complexion, which is cold, therefore it is between the Buttocks, lest it shoul● be offended by cold. After this divide it according to the length, and having very well washed it, you shall observe its inversion, which is ascending from the outermost part to the inside, the space of four fingers or thereabouts; for oftentimes you shall see the end of its inversion, and sometimes you may not see it; this inversion cleanseth it from the Excrements, because in the avoiding the excrements the Rectum doth somewhat descend; and this is best seen in Horses avoiding their excrements. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, stringo, est musculus. The lower extremity of it is called Anus, and Podex, and Sphincter; and it hath many other names recited by me in my Commentaries upon the Anatomy of Mundinus. It's substance is fleshy and Pannicular, which is made more fleshy with its Muscles, there is in it some fatness toward the outside, in it there are many broad and long Fibers, few Obliqne, the long are without, and within, helping the expulsion by drawing downward. In it there are Four Muscles, one is in its extreme Orifice, being mixed with the Cutis, and dispersed throughout with it; which constringeth the Anus on every side, by which means it cometh to pass that the dung may be wholly cleansed from it, there is another Muscle more within, being raised toward a man's head, which Muscle hath two heads, and is here continued with the root of the Yard; the benefit of it is strictly to bind the extreme part of the Anus: after them there is one pair of Muscles reaching overthwart above the others, whose help is to raise the Rectum upward, which being mollified, there is caused the falling down of the Rectum without, between the Buttocks, for a certain distance. In the extremity of this Inrestine there appear many Veins, in some notable, in some hidden which are called Hemorroidales, flowing by fits, which consider. Those Veins have their beginnings from the branches of the Vein Chilis descending, nourishing the muscles of the Anus; many do use the Flux of them instead of Purgation, neither are they made very weak by it. The helps of the Anus are to bring forth the Dung in due time, its muscles help the Parastata in the sending forth of Sperm in Copulation, whereof it is a sign, because some are at once copulating and avoiding excrements. They also help the Bladder in the sending forth the Urine. The Anus suffereth passions of all sorts; all which are hard to be cured; and amongst the rest the extremity of the Rectum falleth down; and in like manner the Matrix, which we bring back by Styptic means; there are also bred coudylomata or certain little swell; The ficus, and also fungi, likewise Marisca, and Ragadas or Ragadiae, which are wont to proceed of Inflammation; yet sometimes a lascivious wantonness of Luxury and Burning Lust doth cause these Diseases, in both Sexes; seeking byways, nature being neglected, not without the injury of it, and the Divine Majesty. Of the Matrix, not pregnant. Matrix a matre quae a materia dic▪ quod ibi materia speciem conservans inseritur. THe Members contained in the Lower belly of a man, being seen, I pass unto the Anatomising of a woman, in which the Anatomy of the Matrix is to be seen, and of their Testicles, with the Seminary vessels, and their Bladder. The Matrix which is also called Vulva, hath two parts, to wit, a Receptacle, or Sinus, or hollowness, and Cervix, or Collum, a Neck, and it is a Member created of Nature for increase; the substance of its Receptacle is Sinnowy, mixed of the Chords of a Ligament and confused flesh, therefore it is a little sensible, and it is compounded of one only Tunicle, circumvolved with the Peritoneon, and it is Sinnowy, that it might be extended in Copulations, and that it might be gathered together to a little quantity in the Birth; also all its hollowness is moved to the Centre in the receiving of the Sperm, and embraceth and toucheth it with its sides. But the substance of its Neck is of Lacertous flesh, as it were, Cartilagineous, having wranckle upon wrinkle, which do give delight by Friction in Copulations; this part is sensible enough. It's hollowness is called Uterus, and Venture, and Receptaculum faetus. It's fastening which is the Orifice of the Neck, is called, Pudendum Muliebre, and Vulva, and Natura, and Os Genitale. In this N●ck is the Yard placed in Copulations. Between the Neck and the Receptacle within, is a certain pellicular substance, fleshy, sensible enough, perforated in the middle, that may be dilated and constringed, called Os Matricis, the Mouth of the Matrix, having the form of a Mullets head, otherwise of Shafalus, or of the Tench fish, or of a new bred Puppy; which in Copulations, and Births, and Menstrues, is opened by the order of nature, but at other times, especially when it is pregnant, it is so shut, that a small needle cannot enter into it, unless with violence. The Shape of its Neck is very long, round, hollow, it is as much unviolated as is the Yard of him that doth copulate therewith, but in a Virgin it is less. This hath about the middle of it, the Virginal pannicle, like a Net woven together of small Ligaments, and very many Veins, which one violated, is without, because it is broke in the first copulation with a man; this Pannicle is called Eugion, and Cento, and Imen. To the extreme part of the Neck, on the sides are added Skins, which are called Praeputia. Within the Neck, a little towards Os Pectinis, doth enter a short Neck of the Bladder, whose Orifice is shut up of certain small, fleshy, and pannicular Additaments, of which, and of the aforesaid Praeputia, by reason of the Air, there is caused some noise in making water. The Shape of the Receptacle is Quadrangular, with some roundness, hollow below as the Bladder. In the Receptacle towards the Neck, there is on both sides one Ligamental additament fastened to the Back toward the Anchae, having the Shape of a Snails horn, therefore these are called, the Horns of the Matrix. About these Horns on both sides, is one Testicle, harder, and less than in a man, not perfectly round, but pressed together like an Almond; in them are engendered Sperm, not gross, as in a man, nor hot, but watery, thin, and cold. Those Testicles have not one Pannicle, in which they may be both contained, as is the Scrotum in a man, but each hath a proper Pannicle, risen from the Peritoneon, fastening them about the Horns; and each of them hath one small muscle, of which it is moved. In those Testicles are implanted the aforesaid Seminary vessels, which being called Praeparantia, descend from the Chilis, and from Aorta, and from the Emulgents; from thence do reach other Vessels, named Deportantia, continually spreading themselves unto the Receptacle, and they bring Sperm within the hollowness of the Matrix. The Orifices of these Vessels are called Fossulae, and Cotilidones; through them flow the Menstrues, from them doth the young one draw Nutriment by the Umbelical Veins and Arteries fastened to the aforesaid Fossulae. In a woman there are not the Vessels Parastata, nor the Vessel Epididymum, because in a woman the soft Vessels are not offensive to the Testicles, as they are in a man through their hardness. The whole Matrix with its Testicles and Seminary vessels, is like to the Members of Generation in men: but the Members of men are complete, expelled forth by reason of their heat; but of women they are diminished, retained within for their want of heat. And the Matrix is as it were the converted Instrument, for the Neck of the Matrix is as the Yard, and its Receptacle with the Testicles and Vessels is even as the Cod. For in the Cod being turned in, there is a hollowness within it; and without it, being likewise turned in, there do lie the Testicles and Seminary vessels, as in the Receptacle of the Matrix, but the Testicles and Vessels of men are greater. The Situation of the Fissure of the Matrix is between the Anus and Os Pectinis, and the place which is between both Orifices, is called Perinion. The Neck ascendeth above from the Fissure through the Belly, unto the Receptacle, whose place is between the Rectum and the Bladder; all these are placed long-ways in the hollowness of the Little trough. The Quantity of the Receptacle in Damosels, is small, and less than their Bladder; neither is its hollowness filled, unless with the filling of the increase of the body, whereof it is: but in full grown (unless it be great with young) it is not much greater than may be comprehended in a hand; but it increaseth by reason of the Menstrues, having walls, as it were, fleshy, thick, and gross, but in one pregnant, it is very much stretched, and thin, appearing more Sinnowy, and then it ascendeth towards the Navel, more and less, according to the quantity of the young one. It hath only one concavity or Cell, which nevertheless somewhat toward the bottom of it, is divided into two parts, as if they were two Matrices, both ending at one Neck. In the right side of it, for the most part are fastened the Male, in the left the Female. It hath Colligancy with the Brain by Nerves, with the Heart by Arteries, with the Liver and Teats by Veins, with the Intestine Rectum by Pannicles, with the Bladder by the Neck of it, which is short, not penetrating without, as in a man; with the Anchae by the horns (but of the horns above) The Receptacle is every way lose, and therefore falleth to the sides, and sometimes its Receptacle goeth altogether forth out of the body, through the Neck of it. The Number of it is apparent, and perhaps he doth not err that saith there are two Matrices, because there are two Concavities as two hollow hands, touching one another, covered with the selfsame Pannicle terminated at one Channel, And that you may somewhat satisfy yourself, of its Figure, Place, and Situation, you may see the under-written Figures immediately following; to the seeing of which let not him come which is not ingenuous and expert in Lines, and Shadow, or in Picture, which doth much help Physicians, and many other Artificers; the Native complexion of the Matrix actuated by the Influence, is hot and moist; its helps are to purge the body of its natural bloody Superfluity; but principally to conserve the Species. It may suffer every kind of disease; it often falleth down, and it may all be drawn forth out of the body, the health remaining. One Matrix being corrupted, I saw drawn wholly forth by my Father in the Land of Carpus, which was cured, and lived long. I also at Bononia, drew forth one other wholly, which was cancrenated in the year one thousand five hundred and seven, in the Month of May, which lived in health. One other being corrupted, my Kinsman (by my brother) Danianius, drew wholly forth in my presence, in the Assembly of many Doctors and Scholars, anno Domini one thousand five hundred and twenty, the fifth of October, that last by name. Gentilis was the Wife of Christopher Briantus of Mediolanum, inhabitant at Bononia, Milan. in a Country called Lo Inferno, which at that hour one thousand five hundred twenty two, the tenth of November, was sound, and exercising household affairs. If you seek greater things, look in my Commentaries upon the Anatomy of Mundinus, and there you shall have of the pregnant Matrix, and many other things. And these things are sufficient for the Anatomy of the Lower Belly. The first Figure of the Matrix. YOu have in this Figure the Matrix with its Horns at the sides, under which in their natural place are the Testicles fastened to the Seminary vessels, which vessels, as you see, are terminated at the body of the Matrix: and they have their Original above, about the Region of the Reins, from the Emulgent, and from the Vein Chilis, as it is said above; and this Matrix is figured great, as if it were pregnant. In the former part of which is the Bladder, with its Uritidian pores, and the Neck of the Bladder is terminated in the Neck of the Matrix, fastened a little above, which is called Vulva; and the Testicles in this Figure are in their due place; but these things are better seen in the Anatomising of one woman great with Child, and also one not with Child. The second Figure of the Matrix. YOu have in this Figure the whole Matrix with the Horns, and the Testicles above the Horns, and you see how the Seminary vessels go to the Testicles, and from the Testicles to the Matrix, but the Testicles are not in their natural place, because their natural place is below the Horns, but they are set above the Horns in this Figure, that the Seminary vessels may the better be seen to enter into them, and you shall see in this Figure, how the Mouth of the Matrix is above the Neck, which Mouth is that Hole which you see above the Neck of the Matrix. The third Figure of the Matrix. YOu have in the Belly of this Figure the Matrix opened, in which you see some black pricks, showing the Heads of the Veins, which are called Cotilidones. You have besides the Matrix turned in without the Belly, and it is that Figure over which you see the Finger, a token of the present Figure, and in the bottom of the Matrix is a certain depression, as you see, which is that that distinguisheth the right side from the left; neither may there another division be found in the Matrix; and them black pricks are the Cotilidones; and you see how the Neck of the Matrix is without Cotilidones; and you see how the Neck is like to a man's Yard. The fourth Figure of the Matrix. BEcause things ten times repeated, are wont to please, you have here two other figures of the Matrix, whereof one is turned in, in which you see how in the Receptacle throughout are many black prints, betokening so many Cotilidones, which nevertheless are, not in the Neck; in the other you see the natural Matrix with the Testicles and Spermatical vessels, and the horny Ligaments, with which it is fastened to the Anchae; you see also the Neck and Mouth, through which the Menstrues and the young one go forth, and the seed of man entereth in. Of the Anatomy of the Middle Belly. THe aforesaid things being seen, dissect the Middle belly, in which are the Vital members, with which also for the better orders sake, you shall see some members of the former part of the Neck, and some parts of the Face within and without, before the upper Belly be Anatomised. The Parts first to be seen, are the Members of the Breast; which is called, Cassus, Clibanum, and of some Thorax; for in that are parts containing, and contained. And of the parts containing (as in the Lower belly) some are common, some proper, and some more proper. The parts common, are all the parts compassing the emptiness of the Breast; whereof some are bcfore, some on the sides, and some behind. But in that Belly (neither is it so in the Belly of the Natural members) are placed the upper parts, neither are the lower determined by them, as in the Upper belly: because the parts before, on the sides, and behind, in the Belly of the Natural members are united, and do make the lower part of that, and in like manner make the upper part of this Belly; for this is terminated in its upper part; but that in its lower part, as in a point, and this is compassed about of the aforesaid parts above, and that below. But the Septum transversum or Diafragma doth mediate between them, and maketh the uppermost part of the lower Belly, and the lowermost of the upper; but because the Septum transversum is common to both Bellies, therefore it is not properly and determinately put for any containing part of the aforesaid Bellies; but Authors do place it among the parts contained; nevertheless it is a part contained and containing; and it is called contained, in as much as it is within the hollowness of the body, and it is containing, because on the upper part it containeth the Natural members, and on the lower the Vital. I say therefore, that the common part of the Middle belly before, and on the sides, is cal●●d Pectus, but the hinder part is called Summum dorsi, the top of the Back; and they that place the Neck with the Back, do name this middle part of the Belly, the middle of the Back. But the parts proper, some also are before, some on the sides, and some behind; those which are before, are commonly appointed three, to wit, an upper, a lower, and a middle. The upper is a place, where immediately under the Neck are joined together two Bones, both of them reaching sideways toward the Shoulders, called the two Lateral Furculaes'; and this part is named the upper Furcula, taking its name from its figure and place, taking up a little room, especially in the length of the Breast; and this place of some is called Jugulum, and Clavis. Immediately under that is the middle Isido: vi. Rider: de pectore. part, properly called Pectus, so called, Quia pexa est inter Eminentes Mamillarum parts, because it is hairy between the Eminent parts of the Teats; and this part is downward from the first aforesaid part, almost as far as the Septum transversum in length, but in breadth as much as is the breadth of the bones of the Breast, the Ribs excepted. But the lower part is the place where the aforesaid bones of the Breast are terminated about the Region of the Septum transversum: and because those bones reach on the Sides, making likewise a Fork, therefore this place is called the lower Furcula, in the middle of which is Cartilago scutalis, called Pomum granatum, because it is like to a part of the Balaustium, that is, of the flower of the pomegranate. But the lateral parts are termed the Ribs, and the Sides, and the Region of the Teats. But the posteriour parts, some are in the middle, and some on the Sides; those in the middle are called Interscapilium, & Metaphrenon, & Noton; those on the sides are called Scapulae, Spatulae, & Scapilium; but some do call the lateral parts with those in the middle, Metaphrenon, & Noton. But the parts more proper, some are also before, some on the sides, and some behind. Those which are before, are first the Skin, the Fat, some muscles, the bones and Cartilages, and the Pannicle Pleura. But the lateral parts are the Skin, the Fat, the substance of the Teats, many Muscles, Ribs, and also the Pannicle Pleura. Last of all are the parts behind, to wit, the Skin; some fat; flesh musculous, and some simple, not musculous, filling up certain Vacuities of the bones, twelve Spondiles of the Ribs, or of the Breast, and the Pannicle Pleura. The parts contained, are the muscle Diafragma, called Septum transversum: which according to some is to be numbered among the parts contained of the Breast, in as much as its principal operation is to serve the Heart by reason of its motion, by which it moveth the Lungs: there is after that the Pannicle Mediastinus, Capsula Cordis, the Heart, with his Artery Aorta, and the Lungs with their Vessels, the Vena Chilis ascending, the Nerves descendent, and the ascendent which are called Reversivi, the Glandule called Timum, & Morum, the Gula, that is the passage for the meat from the mouth to the Ventricle, with the Pannicles covering the aforesaid Members. The substance of this Belly is pellicular, fat, bony, cartilagineous, musculous, and pannicular. The Bones of it are not united, as in the Head, but divided, that the Breast might be obedient to the motion of breathing; and therefore for its motion there are muscles in it; Galen said 7 de Utilit: If the Breast were made of muscles only, they would fall upon the Heart and Lungs; that therefore there might be some space between, and that in like manner the whole Organ might be moved, the muscles are placed to the Bones by course. This Belly called Pectus is great in quantity, because it serves many and great members, yet it hath a greater hollowness behind than before; the beginning whereof toward the hinder part is from the first Spondiles under the Neck unto the Septum transversum, as much as twelve Ribs contain: but before, it taketh up only the part contained between the upper Furcula, and the lower inclusively. In a man the Breast is broad, not carinated, as in the greater part of Beasts, yet it is broader in a man than in a woman; but for the bearing of the young, the lower Belly is greater in a woman than in a man; and for this reason the Region of the Reins, of the bone Sacrum, and the Ancharum in a woman is very large. The Shape, and Number, and Situation of the Breast appears, but the inward concavity of it is like to the hollowness of half an Egg, cut obliquely through the breadth, the part whereof is sharper toward the Neck; it is also like to the nail of an Ox's hoof (as is the figure of the Lungs.) It hath Colligancy with the whole body; its complexion is according to its parts; its native complexion actuated through influence is hot; the helps of it are principally to keep the Heart, and the Lungs: it suffers passions of all sorts. Mamilla diminut. ●x Mamma quae ex vo●e infant 'em dicitur, ut etiam Papilla ex vo●e Pappas. Of Mamillae, or the Teats. IN the former part of the Breast toward the sides are two round Members, taking their name Mamilla from their * The Author taketh Mamilla from Mamillana, a kind of Figs like Dugs. Figure, called of the Ancients, Rumae. In the middle of each of them there is one little Knob, which is called Papilla, through which the Infant feeds, about which there is a Circle, which is red or roset, and sometimes black, called in Greek, Fos. The substance of these is of Veins, Arteries, and Nerves, between which there is a hollowness, which glandulous flesh doth fill up, being white, without sense, and by reason of its whiteness, when blood stayeth in them, it is made white, and is turned into Milk; and the Teats turn blood to whiteness, and make Milk, as the Liver turneth Chilus into redness, and maketh it blood; for every one of them turneth the humour in them contained to its own likeness in nature and colour: of this blood, being made white, the one part nourisheth the Teats, and the other is Milk, and this is a profitable superfluity. Unto the Teats do come their Veins and Arteries, descending from the Region of the Armpits about the Ribs; and also from the Region of the Pecten do come Veins through the Abdomen, which you have kept above, those Veins and Arteries do best appear in a body very lean, but in a fat they are hidden; but they are very well seen in a Faetus of three or four months. The number of the Teats, and the quantity appear, yet they are greater in a woman than in a man for the engendering of Milk; their Situation is in the Breast, because it is broad, not carinated, in which th●y may fitly be placed; and also because the superfluity of the Members above passeth not into Hairs, neither into the Teeth, nor into the Horns, as in brute Beasts. They have Colligancy with the Brain by Nerves, with the Heart by Arteries, with the Liver and Matrix by Veins; but they receive the greatest part of the blood from the Matrix, of which the Milk is made, therefore those that give suck, have not their Menstrues, unless seldom, and few; and in those that have not their Menstrues in due time, their Teats swell; also the Teats do swell, and are pained a little before the time of the Menstrues, because the Matrix, and the Veins therewith united, are full. The helps of them in a man are for comeliness, and for the defence of the Members of the Breast; and they reverberate heat to the Heart, and sometime there is Milk made in a man by reason of the abundance of Nutriment, especially in one that hath great and strong Teats; in a woman they have also the aforesaid helps, but they are principally for the engendering of Milk, that the newborn Child might be nourished therewith, until it can swallow solid meat; and Milk is a proportioned nutriment for the newborn Child, because it is made of blood, by which it was first nourished in the womb; they suffer diseases of all sorts. Of the Muscles of the Pectus quasi pactus quod ex costis quae veluti firmamentum pectoris sunt, compactum aut pactinatum fit. Gasp. Baubinus. Breast. THe aforesaid things being seen and noted, you may excoriate the Skin of the whole Breast, leaving the muscles in their place, and incise the Teats, that you may see their substance, especially their flesh, in which are Veins and Arteries dispersed throughout, and ye shall observe the * Papilla. nipples to have very many small holes, from which the Milk goeth out; at which holes (according to some) the extremities of the aforesaid Veins are terminated, through which the Milk goeth forth; and according to others the Milk goeth forth from the Spongiosities of the flesh of the Teat terminated at the holes of the Nipple, and not immediately from the Veins; both of them are probable. These being seen, you shall note in the Breast many muscles, which move the Breast voluntarily; although the Breast may also be moved naturally, to wit, according to the motion of the Heart and Lungs, as we have said in our Commentaries; whereof some are without, some between the Ribs, and some within the Breast. Of those without, there are two under the upper Furculaes', continual with the first Rib, which do reach to the head of the Spatula, and with them are united one other pair, whereof every odd is doubling the first pair, and making it into two parts, the upper part whereof is continued to the Neck, and moveth that, but the lower moveth the Breast, and this pair is continued with one pair which is continual with the fifth and sixth Rib. After that is another pair in the hollowness of the Spatula, continued with one pair coming from the Spondiles, even unto the Spatula, and all they are, as it were, one pair, which are continued with the hinder Ribs. After that is another pair, risen from the sixth Spondile of the Neck, and from the first and second upper Spondile of the Breast, continued with the same Ribs; and all those muscles do di●●te the Breast. After that there is one other pair extended under the roots of the upper Ribs, which descending, is united with its extremities to one pair, which is about the lower Furcula, continued with the long muscles of the Abdomen; above which pair are two pair which cover it, and all they bind the Breast. But the muscles within the Ribs are dilating and constringing, differing among themselves in their work; and those which are between the Ribs, between Rib and Rib, are four, to wit, two muscles toward the outside; and two toward the inside, which ye shall know, separating them lightly, by the going of their Fibers; the two first uppermost have their Fibers transverse, and do dilate the Breast; but the second, which are below, have their Fibers broad, and are constringing. But the muscles within the Breast is only one, to wit, the Diafragma, or Septum transversum, which when it resteth, draweth the Breast together, (but by accident) and when it is moved, it doth dilate it, yet the motion of the Diafragma is compounded of voluntary and natural. The number of which in all is one hundred and five muscles, the aforesaid muscles of the Back and Neck excepted, to wit, the two first under the upper Furculaes', and two other continued with the fifth and sixth Rib; after that two muscles coming from the hollowness of the Spatula, continued with the hinder Ribs; after that two from the sixth Spondile of the Neck, and from the first, and from the second of the Breast continued with the same Ribs; and those are eight in all, all dilating; there are also so many constreining (the Diafragma excepted) which also dilateth. And of them which constrein, first, there are two under the upper Ribs, and two about the lower ●●rcula, above which are four others covering them, all which together with the Diafragma, are 17, afterward there are between the twenty four Ribs twenty two spaces, and for every space are four muscles, which are in all between the Ribs eighty eight, and together with the aforesaid seventeen, they make the number one hundred and five muscles. But that all they may well be seen, the Spatulaes' must be also excoriated, and the Back; and first you shall see the outward muscles, secondly the muscles between the Ribs; the Diafragma shall be seen below in its place; but these things are spoken more largely of me in my Commentaries upon Mundinus. Mark, O Reader, that the motions of the Breast are four, to wit, violent expiration, and unviolent, and inspiration unviolent, and also violent, to which the aforesaid muscles are obedient. In the unviolent motion of inspiration, do serve the muscles between the Ribs, dilating the Breast; also the motion of the Heart and Lungs do serve it, for whilst the Diafragma is moved, it draweth the Lungs, which is filled with Air like a Breast plate, and dilateth the Breast, the dilative motion of the heart helping it; also the two first muscles which are about the upper Furculaes', do help that motion, and that motion is mixed of voluntary and natural, the natural excelling. But to the violent inspiration, do concur with these aforesaid, all the other muscles dilating the Breast, together with the Diafragma; and that motion is also compounded of natural and voluntary, the voluntary abounding whilst the Heart remaineth in strength. But to the unviolent motion of expiration, do concur (though easily) the inward muscles of the Ribs, and all the other constringent muscles; but this motion is chief natural, because it is caused of the Heart, and of the Lungs. But to the violent motion of expiration, the Heart and the Lungs do help, but all the constringent muscles do principally help, and likewise the muscles of the Abdomen. By that which hath been said, doth appear the affinity of the muscles of the Breast, and their figure, place, quantity, and substance; their number is spoken of; their complexion is hot and moist; their helps are spoken of; they suffer passions of all sorts. Of the Bones of the Breast. THe bones of the Breast are not one continued, as in the Head, but they are many, touching one another, that they might be dilated; those which are before, and on the sides, are properly the bones of the Breast; but those which are behind, are more appropriated to the Back; the lateral bones of the Breast are called of the Latins, * Costae, they are called in Greek, Pleura, or Pleuron, and Costa ut Custos quia ab ipsis Viscera Custodiantur, vel a Coasso. Chondron; in number they are twenty four, in each side twelve, of which the ten lowermost (five on each side, in Greek called Roas) are shorter than the rest, and not much bony, but cartilagineous, which of the Latins are called Mendosae, and Incomplete, the false Ribs; but the uppermost are complete and whole, and are called Costae verae, or the true Ribs, which in each side are seven, with which on both sides is continued the aforesaid bone of the Breast; which bone in the middle is hard, and toward the Ribs cartilagineous, because between the bone of the Breast and the Ribs, there is a Cartilege. This bone is (according to some) compounded of seven bones, to which on both sides are united the seven true Ribs; and according to some others, it is of fifteen, that is seven on each side, and one in the middle; and according to others, it is of twenty one, to wit, of seven in the middle, and of seven Cartilages on both sides, to which the true Ribs are united. Their figure is crooked, like an halfmoon; their substance, and quantity, and place appear; the Ribs have Colligancy with the first twelve Spondiles below the Neck, and with the aforesaid bones of the Breast, and with the Pannicles covering them; their complexion is cold and dry; their helps appear; they may suffer passions of all sorts. You should see the Anatomy of them best, if in one undivided, you would attend them only, not having respect to the Spiritual members. Of the Pannicle Pleura. Pleura nomen tenet de costis ita dictae, sub quibus locum habet. BEtween the Members containing, is placed a Pannicle immediately cleaving to the Ribs, and the bones of the Breast, which is called Pleura, whose substance is Sinnowy, hard, and subtle, from which do arise the Pannicles, immediately covering the Members in that Belly; its figure is plain, extended throughout in the circumference of the Breast, and it is also extended about the Diafragma throughout, toward the upper part of it, firmly cleaving to it; its quantity appears from that which hath been said; it taketh up the whole concavity of the Breast, excepting a certain part of it before, which is taken up of the Mediastinus. It's number, and situation, Colligancy, and complexion, are apparent; its helps are to clothe and defend the Members of the Breast, and to fasten its bones together; and to mediate between the bones and the Members contained in the Breast, lest that which is soft, should be hurt of that which is very hard; it endureth passions of all sorts; you shall not see that Pannicle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 intersepire itaque latine dicitur Septum transver sum inter spiritualia & naturalia dividens. perfectly, unless inc●sing the Ribs, you open the Breast, in that manner which shall be spoken of below. Of the Septum transversum, or Diafragma, the Midriff. THe parts containing being seen, the contained do follow; and first, is to be seen a Pannicular muscle, called Diafragma, Secondly, the Pannicle Mediastinus, Thirdly, the Pannicle called Capsula, and Receptaculum Cordis, the Receptacle of the Heart; after those Members shall be seen the Heart, and the residue of the parts contained in the Breast. I say, that within the body between the upper and the middle belly is a certain substance pannicular and fleshy, fastened to the Back about the twelfth Spondile; which is fastened to the Back toward the forepart, always by the extremities of the false Ribs, until it is terminated and bound to the end of the lower Furcula of the Breast; and so it divideth the natural members from the vital; and this member is called Septum transversum, and Paries, and Phrenes, and Diafragma; and Galen in his Book de Voce & Anhclitu, calleth it Percordium, which is a Muscle, and not a Pannicle, yet it executeth the office of a Pannicle in defending the Heart and the upper members from the stinking vapours fuming up from the members of nutrition; its fleshy part is at the extreme parts of it; and its Chord is in the centre of it, united to the Lungs, because by that Situation it serveth to move it. To this is the Pannicle Pleura fastened throughout toward the upper part; and in the same manner the Sifac is fastened to it below; it is perforated toward the Back by the Vein Chilis ascending, from which there do remain in it two Veins nourishing it, one on the right, the other on the left; the Artery Aorta descending, doth also perforate it toward the Back; and the Gula or Merum, which is immediately fastened to the Ventricle toward the Lower Belly. It's shape and quantity appear; its Substance, Colligancy, and Situation are spoken of; yet it is fastened to the Heart by small Arteries, and to the Brain by three pair of Nerves, whereof two come from the Nuca, and one from the Brain, and those appear sometimes notable. It's complexion is hot and moist, its helps are in part spoken of; yet Galen said, that in it is the beginning of respiration, and of all the strength of the body; and these helps he first found out; it helpeth also in expelling from the Stomach, and from the Intestines, and from the Matrix some matters contained in them; it also provoketh laughter (according to some) by moving the mind in tickle beside the will. It suffereth passions of all sorts; its solution is deadly. Of the Mediastinus. Mediastinus eo quod hunc ventrem medi● dividit. AFter the Anatomy of the Diafragma, cometh the Pannicle Mediastinus, so called, because it divideth the void places of the Breast in the middle, according to the length; it hath also other names; for the seeing of which, first, separate the bones of the Breast from the Ribs, on the right side, and on the left; in like manner (lest you should hurt the parts contained in the Breast) separate also the Diafragma before, from the bones of the Breast; and you shall observe that Pannicle to divide the Breast from the bottom to the top, and from before backward: its substance is pannicular, its figure and quantity appear, its Situation is spoken of; in number they are two Pannicles, notably distant toward the forepart, having in them a notable hollowness; but toward the Back it appeareth one only; it hath Colligancy with the Pleura, from which (according to some) it hath its Original; it hath also Colligancy with the Diafragma, and with the Back, and with the Lungs, by means of a Pannicle risen from the Pleura; it hath also Colligancy with the Meri, witness Avicen, and also with the bones of the Breast; it hath Colligancy also with the Brain by Nerves, with the Heart by Arteries, with the Liver by Veins; its complexion is cold and dry; its helps are to divide the Breast and the Lungs through the middle, that if hurt should happen to one part, it might not happen to the other; it also defendeth the upper Furculaes': from it there is also a conservation of the heat of the Heart; it endureth passions of all sorts. Of the Capsula Cordis. In qua ut in capsula Cor includitur. THe aforesaid things being seen, you must put away the foremost bones of the Breast, separating them from the former part of the Pannicle Mediastinus, which leave in its place, until you have seen the Anatomy of the Lungs; take away also the tops of the Ribs on both sides, that ye may have large room for the seeing of the other parts, and in that Section you shall well consider the bones of the Breast, and also the Pleura; but leave the Diafragma whole, where you can, fastened in its place, especially to the Back, that the Nerves coming to it from above, may be seen, and that the Colligancy of the Gula or Meri with it might be seen. Those things being taken away, you shall see the Lungs, in the middle whereof is one Pannicle, fastened to the Mediastinus, which is hard and gross, that it might the better defend the Heart from outward things; the shape whereof is even as the Bowel contained of it, called, the Heart, which is hollow, and like a Pouch, and therefore it is called Capsula, a little Coffer, in which there is the Heart itself, and water in a notable quantity bedewing it, and hindering, lest it should be dried up by its strong heat; which if it be exhausted, there is caused Morbus Cardiacus, or the passion of the Heart; whereby a living creature is brought to a consumption, as it happened to Galens Ape; this Capsula is very sensible; and perhaps was perfectly bred at the first with the Heart. It's substance, situation, shape, and helps have been spoken of; in number it is one, its quantity appeareth, it is fastened to the pannicular roots of the Heart, and to the Pleurs, and Mediastinus, and Diafragma, by their Pellicles, to the Liver by Veins, to the Heart by Arteries, to the Brain by Nerves; its native complexion is cold and dry, but influent, hot, because it is next the Heart; it suffereth passion's of all sorts. Leave in their place the aforesaid Capsula, and Mediastinus, and Diafragma, until you have seen the Anatomy of the descending Nerves, which as they descend to the lower belly, do send branches to the aforesaid Members, as it shall be spoken hereafter. Of the Heart. Cor a Cura quia in eo omnis solicitude & scienti●●ausa manet. AFter the Capsula, the Heart doth occur; in the Anatomy of which, and also of the Lungs, and of some parts of the Head and Neck, I will proceed more largely, by reason of their artificial composition and operation. For the dignity of the Heart is of more value than other parts, for of all the members it is the most principal, and is called, Sol Microcosmi, the Sun of the little world, for it illuminateth the other members by its Spirit, for this hath a special heat; it doth certainly pant, and hath motion as a living creature; therefore it is reported to be the first thing form in young ones in the womb, after that the Brain and Liver, the eyes (as it pleaseth some) but very slowly; but that these do die first, but the Heart last; this member only is not putrified by hurts; neither is it free from the punishments of life, but being notably hurt, it presently bringeth death, and the life remaineth in that, though the other parts be corrupt; and for this cause that creature liveth not, in whose Heart there may be found a hurt, as it is in other parts. And creatures which have a little Heart, are bold; but they are fearful which have a great one; as by the proportion to Mice, to the Hare, to the Ass, to the Stagg, and to all fearful creatures, or through fear hurtful; but a great Heart endued with much Spirit, doth make them more bold than others. It is reported, that some men have been born with a hairy Heart, and these are more bold and stronger than others; as for Example, Aristomenes Messanius, which slew three hundred Lacedæmonians, and he, when he was wounded and taken, at length escaped, getting away through a Cave of Foxes; being taken the second time, he being adventurous, escaped; the third time being ensnared, the Lacedæmonians cut open his Breast for the cause of seeing his manhood, and his Heart was found hairy. All creatures also have a Heart that have a Midriff and blood; Witness Aristotle 2 de Histor. cap. 15. but in some it cannot be discerned by reason of its smallness. The Situation of the Heart is in the middle of the Breast within the Lungs; in man only it declineth to the left Pap, with its lower part; lest it should meet with the bones of the Breast, which are not carinated, as in Beasts, but compressed into breadth. It hath the shape of a Pyramidis, but the gibbous part is not chief such, because it is hot, following the form of fire; but because it is a perfect mixed body, having life, it possesseth a shape competent to its work. It's upper part wherewith it reacheth to the upper members, and is fastened to the Back, is broad; and this part is the more noble of the parts of the Heart, because the life of a living creature is conserved by the means of two Orifices of Arteries of the left side, coming from that part; but the bottom doth gather itself into a sharp figure, and goeth out almost into a sword's point; and in the former part it is eminent. Also its gibbous part is toward the upper parts of the Breast; and it is of such a shape, that its upper and lower building might be good; and that there might not be a superfluity in it, apt to hinder its continual motion, and that in the end of it, it might be gathered into one point, that that which is hurt with the touching of the bones, might be the least of the parts of it, that it might take the less hurt. It's substance is of simple flesh, every where solid, but it hath part of its point, and the left side of it of grosser flesh, that it might conserve the Spirit placed there, and that it might equal the weightiness of the blood contained in the right Ventricle with its weight, whose walls are lighter than of the left Ventricle▪ In its hollow places are very many white Ligaments, (there being many Caruncles and Pellicles, or doors of the Vein Chilis) and they are fastened to the Vena Arteriosa. Also the Heart is involved in a subtle and firm membrane, with some fatness, which do keep and strengthen the substance and heat of it, and being dried, they hinder it. In the top of it, where it cleaveth to the Back, are two tugged and hollow Pellicles, called Auriculares, which are united to the houses or Ventricles of it, to wit, to the right and left, taking and keeping the superfluent Spirit, and blood, (like a good S●eward) and restoring it in necessities. Nature hath ordained those Auriculae, that they filling up places of the Heart's greatness, might receive the Blood and Spirit sometimes overflowing in the Heart, by which it might have had filled up the places of other members near unto it. Also by its greatness it had been heavy, unfit for motion; and likewise if it should be very great, it would often be empty, by reason of the want of Spirit and Blood, and consequently weak, as ● fearful creatures, having a great Heart, to wit, wanting Blood and Spirit in the proportion. Its roots are fastened to the top of it, which are solid, and hard; and as it were, cartilagincous, that its continual motion upon these might be nimble. In the Heart also are Fibers of many shapes, and placed after a divers manner, that it might sustain continual and strong motions, which are natural, and not voluntary; and therefore there is not any lacert in it. In the upper part of it about the outside, is one Vein, proceeding from Chilis obliquely, branching itself to the least parts towards the Mucro, which nourisheth it. There also are two pulsant Veins, proceeding from Aort●▪ spreading abroad toward the outside; one is in the same place wherein is the aforesaid Vein not pulsant, which giveth life to i●; another is spread in the right Ventricle, and bringeth the vital virtue to it; it also concocteth and giveth life to the blood continually, entring in there, and by means of that the Liver is vented by the Chilis in its gibbous part, and conserveth its own vitality. It hath a threefold Sinus or hollow place, or little house, or Ventricle; the right is bigger than 〈◊〉 left, and the left cometh unto the extremity of its point; but the right is ended a little below that place. Between them is a wall, gross and thick, called of Galen, Diafragma, in which are many small holes, going from the right Sinus into the left, being broader from the right than to the left; those holes are dilated, whilst that the Heart is abbreviated and opened, and they are shut up whilst it is lengthened and shut, by this means the blood being rarified and prepared, goeth from the right unto the left, where it is completely turned into the vital Spirit. These Orifices are counted of Physicians for the middle Sinus. Galen, witness Avicen, calleth that Sinus, a ditch, and passage, and not a Ventricle, that it might be the Receptacle of the nutriment wherewith the Heart is nourished; which nutriment is thick and strong, like to the substance of it, ●●d it is the mine of the Spirit, begotten in it of subtle blood; and it prevaileth, that the more temperate blood is in the middle Ventricle. But the right Sinus hath two Veins, one whereof whose Tunicle is simple, is bigger than the other Veins, coming from the Liver; it is called, Chilis, and Concava, and Audax ascendens, and this is very great, because it giveth blood to all the other Veins within and without the Heart, taking nothing from them, and therefore it bringeth more blood into the Heart than it can carry back; it is also very great, that it may contain much blood, oftentimes flowing and flowing back; and th●● it may bring it to the Heart in a short space, that it may the more commodiously be con●●cted by it. Thls blood so concocted, is divided into three parts, one part of the subtle choleric, beingless than the rest, goeth to the nourishing of the Lungs. The other more and subtler than the aforesaid, reacheth through the perforations of the Diafragma unto the left Sinus, where it is made Spirit. But the rest of it not so subtle, and which is also far more than the rest, passeth through the same Chilis to all the parts of a living creature, and nourisheth them, oftentimes going in and out in the right Sinus, that it might be perfectly concocted, and might receive life. Nevertheless Avicen placeth a fourth part in the middle Ventricle, which he saith is temperate, but this is unknown to my eyes; perhaps because in the middle wall of the Heart there pierceth blood, nourishing it; but it turneth into the substance of the thing nourished, because there (in my judgement) there is not blood without the ●●ins, unless in the right and left Ventricle. The upper Orifice of this Vein is terminated at the Heart; whilst the Heart is dilated, and draweth the blood, it is opened, and whilst it is restrained, it is shut, expelling the blood; but it is not shut whol●y, because in part it remaineth open▪ therefore nature always retaineth in it (as a treasure and mine of heat) some portion of servant blood▪ which at length changeth the Blood that cometh in into its own nature, by uniting itself with it. And this Orifice is opened and shut of three Sinnowy or Ligamental Pellicles, whose colour is white, being fastened with their upper extremities to the walls of the aforesaid Sinus, by white and solid Ligaments. Those Pellicles named Ostiola, are wholly opened at the inside of the Sinus, giving way to the blood, entering in, and are shut at the outside, but not wholly, and those Pellicles are solid and hard (and in like manner are the Pellicles of the arterious Vein) left in the great and continual motions of the Heart, there might happen to them disruption, because they are fastened in the top of them to Ligaments, continually extending them. But the Pellicles of the Artery Aorta, and of the Arterial vein, are less hard than they; because they are not any thing extended by Ligaments, and therefore they are without fear of breaking. Another Vein goeth to the Lungs; the name of this is Vena non pulsans, or quieta, it is also called Vena Arterialis; and it is called a Vein, because it carrieth blood for the nourishing of the Lungs; and it is called Arterialis, because it hath two Coats, that it might be strong and compact, because of the Choleric and subtle blood flowing in it, and lest it should be broke by reason of its continual motion; in whose Orifice are three Pellicles or doors, shutting themselves wholly within the Sinus, and opening themselves without, giving way to the blood going out. In the Dilatation of the Heart they are altogether shut, lest the blood should flow back unto the Lungs; but in the constriction they are opened, and the Veins cleave to the walls, neither are they any where else united by Ligaments, as the most are. The substance of these is pannicular; their shape is like to the vacuity which is within the letter C They are therefore called Ostifola C formia; they have also that Circular form which a man's nail hath; which Pellicles are with their Circular part fastened to the body of the Vein. But the left Sinus more noble than the rest (because the middle and the right do service first to it; it also excelleth the rest by reason of the Spirit contained in it) hath in the top or it two Veins: one not much less than the aforesaid great Chilis, which is as the stock of a Tree, distributed through the whole body; and this is pulsant and double-coated, whose thickness (witness Erosilus) is six-fold to a Vein; and this is called Arteria Aorta, and the great Artery; whose inner Coat is harder than the outer▪ because it meeteth with percussion, and the substance of the Spirit, for the keeping of which it is intended. That same carrieth the Vital spirit to the whole body of a living creature, and keepeth it in life For by that Artery (said Galen) all the members except the Lungs, do inspire and expire, lest their liveliness should be suffocated; but the Veins are as the storehouses of meat, needing neither to diastolize nor systolize; and therefore the body of them is subtle, porous, and soft; but the Lungs do inspire and expire by reason of the motion of the Heart and Breast. This Artery or its branches, are seldom without the Chilis accompanying them, and Aorta ascending a little above the Heart, is divided into two parts; one part is made obliqne below, and descends, which in the Breast, and in the lowest Belly, sendeth forth many Fibraes from it, even unto the feet, and giveth life unto the members of them; under that branch being made obliqne below, they do ascend by the left Nerves of the voice, which are called Reversini; and this place is called, Flexor, and Girgilius, of which it shall be spoken in another place. Another part ascending about a part of the Lungs, and the glandule Timum, giveth life unto, and filleth with Spitit the upper part of the Breast, the Arms, the Neck, and Head, and the parts of them, And always those Arteries which are fastened to the Veins, by many pores or little Fibraes, are united or joined together, and the Vein receiveth into it the Artery, and on the contrary, the Artery the Vein; and from the Vein doth pass blood into the Artery, which is likewise made spiritual in necessity, and from the Artery into the Vein doth pass the Vital spirit, concocting the blood thereof, and conserving it in its virtue; also the Tunicles are nourished, and receive life from that which is contained in them; and this Artery is less above the Heart than below; Witness Galen 16 de Utili: Cap. 11. and it is made so because there are more parts from the Heart of a living creature below, than are above it; and this Artery is so much greater descending, than that which ascendeth by the Back, by how much the multitude of the lower parts exceedeth the upper; and in this is known not a little justice of nature: the Vein Chilis descending must also be bigger than the ascending for the same cause. In the Orifice of this pulsant Vein, which is called Auritium, are also the three gates C formia, opening and shutting themselves at the same time, and in the same manner, in which the Arterial vein is opened and shut. There is in that Ventricle another Vein, not pulsant, but quiet, called Arteria Venalis; and it is called an Artery, because it carrieth and recarrieth the Spirit or Air to the Heart, and from the Heart to the Lungs; from whence it is sent without the Breast; and it is called a Vein, because it hath a single Coat. In the Orifice of this are only two Pellicles or doors, fastened after the same manner, and incomplete; and they are opening and shutting themselves in the dilatation and constriction of the Heart, with which they make the doors, being in the Orifice of the Vein Chilis; also this Arterial vein carrieth more Air to the Heart than it can bring out; because by the blood and Air brought in by it, is the vital spirit engendered, which by the Artery Aorta, passeth to all the parts of a living creature. By the aforesaid things the Colligancy of the Heart, and the complexion and helps of it appear; its quantity may be seen; in number it is one, although it is reported, that the Heart of an Ape had two heads, but prodigiously; it is also reported, that the Partridges in Paphlagonia have two Hearts. Every kind of disease may happen to it, but it endureth them not if they continue long. Of the Lungs. THe Heart being seen, cometh the Lungs, called in Latin * Flabellum dicitur a flando. Sic Ventilabrum a ventilando. Flabellum, and Ventilabrum, and in Greek * Grece etiam 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 suffior, sufflatur enim ut follis spiritum trahens & emittens. Pneumon, for this is the Artificer of breathing, and the work-shop of Air; this is nourished by Air, as the body is with Meat; this filleth the hollowness of the Breast, round about the Heart with its five Coats or Lobes, whereof two are on the left side, and three more on the right; of them three one is less than the rest, cleaving to the Back, as it were, in the middle; which hath little pipes, but almost no motion; and this is the Mat or Pallet to the Chilis ascending; and about that Lobe toward the top of it, there is also certain glandulous flesh, which also with the aforesaid Lobe, is a Pallet or Coverlet of the aforesaid Vein, and this flesh is of a notable bigness, and is called of Authors, Morum, and Timum; and of the Vulgar it is called, Animella, and Laticinium, and it is in usual meats of a rank taste, especially that which is found in Claves, and in milk Kids. The substance of the Lungs is mixed of thin, light, soft, and red flesh, inclining to whiteness, like to the coagulated froth of blood, and it consists of three vessels or pipes, entangled as in a net, through all the parts thereof, in the same manner, that the branches of the Vein Chilis are in the Liver; and this composition may be like to a honey comb, and also to a Sponge; therefore it is capable of blood and Air, for the Lungs is as it were a certain storehouse of Air to the Heart, fit to serve to both motions, to wit, dilatation and constriction. Certainly its flesh is rare, that there might be much blood, and Air continually in it. Two vessels in it, which contain it, do show the multitude of the blood, which are bigger in the Lungs than in any other member like unto it, the Heart and Liver excepted, in which the vessels containing blood are greater, surely not for themselves, but because they give Spirit and blood to all the members. This blood in the Lungs is much, because the abounding plenty of it is dissolved by reason of the continual motion, which a great quantity doth continually oppose; and it is subtle, that it might pass suddenly to all the parts of the Lungs to nourish it▪ and it is also subtle, that it might be light, lest by its heaviness it should hinder the motion of the Lungs. Also the long submersion of a living creature in the water without choking, showeth that there is always a great quantity of Air in it, and the sending forth of a long and continual voice and blast, hindering from the receiving of new Air, or when one abhorreth it by reason of stink, or other causes, yet this Air in the aforesaid drown and stinks, is kept in the mouth, and in the jaws, the Tonsils helping with their Pellicles. The help of this Air continually drawn, is, that by that being first altered, the Heart might be cooled and contemperated in necessities; and also that the Heart might have vent, left it should be choked. The utility of it also is, that not out of a little part thereof might be engendered Spirits necessary for the being and well-being; and it is a help of the expulsion of the abounding hot and smoky matter which is drawn; it is for the entering in of the Air that is less hot▪ ●eing altered first in the Lungs, and then in the members through which it passeth. This smoal●y air, as it were an adusted superfluity of spirit, is driven by the pulsant Vein into the branches of the Trachea, in the constriction of the He●●●; and afterwards goeth forth ●●nce from aliving Creature by the Trachea, and by the nostrils and mouth, the systolative motion of the Lungs helping it. But the air going into the Heart hath the beginning of alteration in the Nostrils, in the mouth, in the jaws, in the Trachea, and in the branches of it dispersed in the Lungs; in like order which one feeding on meat and drink hath in the mouth, in the Gula, and in the Ventricle and Liver. For the alteration of the Lungs in the air is compared to the alteration of the Liver in Chi●us, for by the Liver is the Blood made of Chilus, which receiveth a perfect concoction in the Heart, but the spirit is prepared by the Lungs, of air which is made truly vital in the Heart, this going to the upper parts in the Rete mirabili, or in the least branches of Arteries about the Brain, is again altered; from whence entering the Ventricles of the Brain, the Animal spirit is ma●● perfectly true, which is a brig●●, light, and pure spirit. Also the flesh of the Lungs is light, lest it should hinder the motion of it; it is also soft, that it might defend the vessels thereof from breaking; and it is reddish clear, declining to whiteness, because of the dominion of the Air over it, with which it is nourished, and also because of the coldness thereof. A thin Pannicle doth cover this substance of the Lungs, being bred of many Membranes proceeding from the Pipes thereof, and from the Pannicles of the Breast; by means whereof it is sensible. The Pipes of the Lungs are three, one whereof (as also the rest) growing always less, descendeth to all the parts of it, even unto the Pannicle inclusively envolving it, from the Faringa, or Epiglottis, through the foremost part of the Neck united to the Gula; this is hard and always open, and also bigger than the rest, and it is compounded of very many Cartilagea, each whereof is united one near to the other by pannicular ligaments, and this is called Trachea, and Aspera arteria, and Laringa, and Bronchium: its Cartilages in the Lungs are entire, and also annilar, but in the Neck they are incomplete, and in the manner of a C. From their Magnitude and Figure it is judged in the Hawkings of them, whether there be Ulcers in the extreme parts of the Lungs, or in the middle, or in the neck. Between these Cartilages, and in all the Trachea within and without▪ there is a Pannicle of a mean substance, perfectly circular, fastened to the jaws and mouth, in which are Vills lengthening and shortening the Trachea in the motions of the Lungs. The helps of this Pannicle is also to defend those Cartilages from the going in of extraneal things; it is also a pacifier of the voice in the going out. This Pipe doth not carry blood as others, but only Air; also by this alone the unnatural things contained in the breast are purged out, having entered into it in the time of the dilatation of the Lungs by the thin Pannicle involving it, therefore is there caused an expulsion of Sanies, and other unnatural things to the mouth, and without; the Heart not being troubled. This Pipe also possesseth a middle situation among the rest; on the right side of it is the quiet Vein, but on the left side the Pulsant Vein, but the Pulsant Vein toward the former parts, without the Heart, doth immediately enter into the substance of the Lungs, lest by reason of the motion of it, because it is subtle, it should receive solution; but the Vein not pulsant, because it is double-coated, and strong, doth not immediately enter the Lungs, but first compassing about the Trachea, it also entereth the Lungs, reaching toward the hinder parts. In this Bowel, only the pulsant Vein hath not without cause changed substance with the not pulsant; for the Vein not pulsant, called Arterial, in other members is single, in the Lungs double-coated; first, lest it should be broken by the continual motion thereof; secon●ly, that it might also contain subtle blood, nourishing the flesh of the Lungs, and also the Trachea. But the pulsant Vein, called the venal Artery, is of a single coat, nimble in motion, that it might obey dilatation and constriction in a short space; this bringeth Air to the Heart, and carrieth it out; in it also there is spiritual blood, nourishing the Lungs, (as some would have it) but it is rather giving it life; its branches are united or joined together with the branches of the Trachea, through which the Lungs giveth Air to the Heart; but the Heart not being unthankful, giveth life and nutrition unto that. The branches of this Vein are so narrow, that the blood cannot pierce through them to the Trachea, and therefore they are passable to the Air, but impassable to the blood; but if they be notably opened, the blood floweth from them to the Trachea; and perhaps (as some would have it) from the branch ●f the Vein not pulsant, blood also floweth into the Trachea, whereby is caused spitting of blood, without the solution of the Veins of the Breast; nevertheless the pulsant Vein is more apt to this. Every one of the aforesaid vessels in their first entrance of the Lungs, is divided into five branches, always growing less throughout all the parts thereof, and multiplying their branches; two are in the left side, and three on the right, whereof one less than the rest goeth to the little Lobe on the right side, cleaving more to the Back; which (as we said before) is a Coverlet to the Chilis ascending. The shape of the Lungs is like unto an Ox's hoof; in number some think that they are two members united into one, in such wise, that it appeareth one Lung, with five Lobes, divided into two like parts, that one being hurt, the other might remain firm; in the hinder part it is longer than before, following the situation of the Midriff; in number it is one; the quantity of it, the situation, and colligancy appear; its complexion is hot from the part of its contents and place; but by accident, because of the Flegms remaining i● it, it is cold; its helps are to serve the Heart by preparation and carrying; it serveth also to the breathing, and to the voice, and in like manner to speech, and its little Lobe serveth to the Chilis ascending; it suffereth passions of all sorts. Of the Anatomy of some parts of Collum ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 membrum ● secundum▪ eminentiam quia capitis basis aut fulcrum, alii a colle quia ascendit ab humeris collis more. the Neck, and of the pulsant and quiet Veins, inclusively ascending from the Liver and the Heart, even unto the Head and Hands. THe aforesaid things being seen in the Section of parts, the Trachea should first occur, and the Epiglottis, and also the Gula; nevertheless these for the present cannot well be seen, unless the Anatomy of the Neck, and some parts of the Face be set before; which being seen, we will speak of the parts aforesaid: the Lungs therefore being dispatched, reserve some of the upper fleshy part of it, for the seeing of the Trunk of the Trachea Arteria (laying aside the rest) except the fifth Lobe of it, which cleaveth to the Back; keep also a certain glandule near unto it, which is called morum and timum, that the situation of the Chilis, and the ascendent Artery upon these may be seen, to which these two members are a coverlet; you shall also keep the Heart and its Capsula, and the Pannicle Mediastinus, and the Stomach, and also the Midriff, for the enquiring of other things of them. Those things being kept, for better orders sake, I come first unto the speech of the Neck, and I term the Neck to be an Organical member, noble, and very necessary to a man for the members contained in it, which witness Aristotle, 3 de partibus, Cap. 3. is made for the Trachea, serving to the Lungs, and for the Gula. But Galen in his eighth book de juvamentis, Cap. 1. saith, that it is principally for the Lungs, because creatures wanting a Neck, want Lungs, as Fishes: but he addeth, that the Neck is the way of those members which descend from above downward & of ●hem which ascend from below upward; those which descend, are the Nerves, the Gula, some muscles, and the Nuca; but the ascending, are the pulsant Veins, and the quiet: and the Nuca is contained of the Spondiles, that it may be safe from outward hurts; and that hollowness which is between the parts of the Veins and Arteries, is filled by glandules remaining there; and all those are kept of their Cover and Ligaments, after that they are all covered with the Skin; and that which is compounded of all those, is the Neck, which is placed for the Cane of the Lungs, by which is made the voice and breathing; also the Neck in some creatures is instead of a Hand, because they take their meat from the earth by the help of the Neck, by reason of the length of their feet. But of this sort the Neck serves for the Cane of the Lungs, and by means of it the Nerves do reach to the Arms, and to the Hands, and to the Diafragma, and to other members, the Nuca being their guide; and therefore for the Original of the Nerves were the Spondiles placed between the Breast and the Head, of which the Neck is compounded. These things Galen speaketh, which nevertheless saith not whether the Trachea ascend or descend; and although he may say, that the Gula doth descend, yet perhaps it doth ascend, neither can its descent be proved more than its ascent; neither of the Trachea; because they have not a manifest beginning, as Veins and Arteries, and as Nerves. We may therefore say for the present, that the Neck is taken for that part upon which the Head is sustained and turned, which serveth to the upper Belly, to the middle, and also to the lower, by means of Nerves descending from the Brain, and from the Nuca; the situation of which is before from the upper Furculaes' of the Breast, and behind from the upper Spondile of the Ribs, and on the sides from above the Shoulders, unto the bone of the Head called Basillare; and commonly the hinder part of it is called, Cervix, of which shall be spoken somewhere else; but the former part is called Collum, and because this member is principally for the Trachea, it shall be the nobler o● these parts, for the nobility o● which the Anatomy of the Neck is to be placed with it; and because the Trachea is a part of the Lungs, which is of the more principal parts of the middle Belly, spoken of before; therefore the Anatomy of the Neck for the present, cometh with the Anatomy of the middle Belly. This part named Trachea, is called of many, Guttur, and Faringa; although Faringae (according to some) are the Veins which do swell in great voices, and those Veins are called of Celsus, Granges, and Fragitides, and of some, Sfragitides; and those Veins with the Arabians are called, Guidez, and Apopleticae, and Somni, and of some Pencils, and Spermatici, and Juveniles, and Jugulares, and ●anicae; and of Galen in libro de ●. part. they are called Fagoti● because they are near unto ● passage● of the meat, and of ●e Carotides, or Somni; but Cel● calleth the Arteries only that ●ain there, Carotidas, called so of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which is Somnus, sleep; because according to some, for ●he most part, there is an oppilation made in the branches of those Arteries, causing sleep, and also the Apoplexy. And of those Veins there is on both sides one immediately under the Skin, which is commonly called, Guidez manifesta; also on both sides under some notable muscles of the Neck, is one Vein, which is called Guidez occulta, and Profunda, the hidden and deep Guidez, which is fellow to the Artery Carotida. With those profound Veins and Arteries, there is on both sides assotiated one Nerve of a notable greatness, which is called, Descendens, from which do arise on both sides the Reversives; of all which speech shall be made ●●tle below. Also the former part of ● Neck, is called of some Jug● and of some Gula; although well; because Gula is the p● of meats and drinks; and ●gulum is that part which is immediately above the upper Fur●●laes of the Breast; nevertheless some call the aforesaid Furcula●● Jugulum, and Clavis, and Clid●● and Clidia; the extremity o● these Furculaes' toward the Spatulaes', is called Epomis; but the other part toward the middle of the Breast, is called, Paras●●gis. The aforesaid things being noted, the Anatomy of the muscles, moving the Neck and Head, should occur after the Skin: but we cannot have the perfect demonstration of them, unless the Anatomy of those Nerves, Veins, and aforesaid Arteries should be destroyed; therefore we will be silent of these, referring the Readers to Galen, and to Avicen, and ●er Authors; for these mus●●e many in number, and di● 〈◊〉 placed, and therefore they 〈◊〉 be seen with diligence, 〈◊〉 finding out of which, you 〈◊〉 attend to them only, be● 〈◊〉 ●hey are Anatomised with ●culty; and for this Galen, 12 ●●l. part. Cap. 8. where he ●eth of these muscles, said, concerns him to be diligently ●re-exercised, who studies cer●inly to follow these things here ●oken of; he saith also in the same ●lace, that speech only is not suffi●nt in Anatomy, but there is reared touching and seeing, and ●refore let there be refuge to the aforesaid Authors, because we should attend to the Neck and Head only, in which are many muscles, as well about the Spondiles as elsewhere, which in a common Anatomy cannot be seen. For the Head, by means of the Neck with its bones and muscles, hath many motions, where●● some, witness Avicen, prima partitione primi libri, are prop● to the Head, and some comm● to it, and to the five Spondiles ● the Neck; by which there i● compound motion of the decli●tion of the Head and Neck toother; and those motions do ●ther bow forward or backway or on the right, or on the ●● and between them is a motion ● conversion or turning about; a●● those muscles are many and great, because the Position of them is of many shapes; and also, because they have great, and almost continual motions; therefore Gal●● (in the place afore,) said, 〈◊〉 they compass about the Head ● every side, which they move un● any part that you would decli● it; concerning the number ● them, there is discord between Avicen and some of his Companions contrarying him. Therefore the enquiry of them being partly left alone, incise the skin from the sides of the neck, laying bare the lateral and anteriour muscles, above which immediately under the skin you shall note the Vein Guidez manifesta, which you reserved unhurt; after that incise those great Muscles, descending obliquely from the ea●s even unto the upper Furculaes', towards the middle of the Breast; under which on both sides is one Glandule, to the form as it were of an Almond; which is filling the empty places there remaining between the Veins and Arteries, about the lower part of the Epiglottis; and therefore it is called Aequatrix partium colli, the equal divider of the parts of the Neck; which also it moisteneth in necessities; you shall also observe under those glandules on both sides one notable Vein Gui●ez; and in like manner one Artery fellow to it, which are called Occultae, and Apopleticae, many names of which are spoken of above. Near unto the aforesaid Arteries and Veins you shall also note one Nerve, on both sides, compounded of many Fibers; these Nerves are called descending, and the reversive Nerves do spring from these, of which a fair enquiry shall be made below. Keep those Nerves, and 〈◊〉 branches of the aforesaid Ar●●●● and either Vein, to wit, the ●●den, and the manifest, until th●● you have seen the Veins and Arteries ascending from the Heart, and from the Liver, even unto that place, for the seeing of which the Workman may return back again about the region of the gibbous part of the Liver, and there he will note a great trunk of the Vein Chilis ascending; which in its ascension first perforateth the Midriff, and there sendeth for●● many little Veins on both sid●● whereof two do feed the Mid●● but the rest do nourish the lower ribs, and the members near unto them. But a very great branch of it ascending reacheth even unto the Heart, being every way lose, without an Artery fellow to it, and by that branch the gibbous part of the Liver is vented, and perhaps vivified. This branch is divided into three parts, one whereof much less than the rest entereth about the roots of the Heart, and is dispersed through the substance thereof, and nourisheth it. Another bigger than the rest is united to the right mansion of the Heart, and bringeth blood very plentifully to it. From that branch (according to some) that Vein called Arterialis, which nourisheth the Lungs, taketh its original: but of these Veins we have spoken somewhat in the Section of the Heart. The third Branch of the aforesaid, which is also notable, ascendeth also above from the region of the Heart, under which is a certain glandulous flesh called Morum, and Timum, and this, together with the fifth lobe of the Lungs which cleaveth to the back, is (as we have said before) a Mattress, or Bed to the aforesaid Branch, ascending even unto the highest Furcula of the Breast; where this Vein is parted into two branches, reaching transverse towards the Spatulaes' on the right side, and on the left; in that same manner also doth the great Artery, called Aorta Ascendens reach transversly toward the S●●tulaes; and that you may the better see those Veins and Arteries, lay aside the upper Furcula, yet warily, lest you loosen the members near unto them. Those things being dispatched, you must see the aforesaid Veins and Arteries, noting first that every one of them is divided into two Branches, one whereof as well of the Vein as Artery ascendeth by the Neck on both sides towards the Head, from which do arise all the Veins of the Neck called Guidez, which you shall keep to be better seen afterwards. Another Branch also on both sides is divided into five parts, one of them nourisheth the upper Ribs, and one the place of the Spatulaes', and one the deep muscles of the Neck, and one penetrateth in the upper Spondiles of the Neck, and from thence passeth to the Head, and the branches of the pulsant Vein do associate them. Another branch greater than all the aforesaid five, reacheth to the Axilla, or Armpit, and this is divided into four parts, one of them is spread in the muscles placed above the Breast, which move the Spatulaes', and one entreth in the lose flesh, and in certain Pannicles of the Axillaes', and one goeth from the upper part of the Breast about the Teats, descending toward the Abdomen; and this (according to some) nourisheth them, and in part carrieth the matter of milk to them; and this (as we have said elsewhere) is coupled in the Abdomen, with a Vein ascending from the Inguina, and from the Matrix to the Teats; and of that branch Galen speaketh, in 14 de utilit. part. cap. 8. saying, That from the Thorax do reach Veins to the Hypocondria, and to the whole Epigastrion, and are coupled with Veins which are carried from the lower parts to the Matrix, having Colligancy, that when the living creature is increased in the Matrix, they might bring in the nourishment for it; which being born, the● puff up the Teats again; wherefore it happeneth, that the Menstrues, and to give suck, cannot well be together. But another branch greater than the aforesaid, is divided on both sides into three branches; one reacheth to the muscles which are in the Spatulaes', and one to the muscles of the Axillaes', but another bigger than the aforesaid, reacheth by a near part toward the Adjutorium, and this goeth unto the little hand; this branch is called Asellaris, and Basillica, which being flebotomized, helpeth in diseases of the Breast, by reason of its near Colligancy unto the true Ribs, and to the whole Breast; this Vein is also called of the Vulgar, the Liver vein, because it is nearer to it than the Cephalica. But of the first branches (which I spoke that you should keep) from which are made the Guidez, there ascendeth on both sides one, and before they do much ascend, ●hey are divided into two parts on both sides; one of them is called, Guidez manifesta, the manifest Guidez, because it is near unto the Skin, easily apt to be seen, which in one living swelleth in a strong voice; but the other, because it is below some muscles, is called, Guidez profunda & submersa, the deep and overwhelmed Guidez. And indeed the manifest Guidez, presently when it ascendeth above the Furcula, is divided into two parts on both sides, whereof one ascendeth, but the other is involved about the Furcula, from which do arise many branches, nourishing the parts near unto them, and some of those branches do again ascend, and are united again with the aforesaid first branch of the manifest Guidez; but before they are united, one notable branch reacheth to the Spatula; and by the outside, under the Skin of the Adjutory, is terminated even unto the little hand; and this is called, Spatularis, Humeralis, and Cephalica, because it helpeth the Head, by reason of the near Colligancy that it hath with its Guidez, that nourisheth the Head; but of that Vein, Cephalica, and also of Basilica and of the Artery fellow to it, it shall be spoken more amply in the particular Anatomy of the great and little Hand. And the aforesaid manifest Guidez on both sides notable, is immediately under the Skin above the muscles of the Neck, which with its branches doth nourish the upper and lower Mandible, and the Tongue, and the Head, ascending on the outside, about the Ears. And some would have that those branches of the manifest Guidez, which are about the Ears, should be called, Venae Spermaticae, because they say, that the Sperm cometh by them from the Brain; and they are moved from the say of Hypocrates, in his Book de aere & aqua, which saith, that whosoever have the Veins behind the Ears cut, they are altogether deprived of all Generation; nevertheless there are some that think, that such Veins are from the branches of the profound Guidez, which nourish the muscles remaining between the first and second Spondile of the Neck; and some which say, that Hypocrates did understand by the Veins the very Arteries, because they are more fit for good Sperm than the Veins; nevertheless Hypocrates saith in the same place, that Sperm also cometh from the whole and Avicen, 20 tertii cap. 3. saith, that Galen knew not whether the incision of these Veins may cause barrenness to incur or no: nevertheless he said, but it seemeth to me that it doth not matter that the Sperm should be of the Brain only, although the nourishing of it be of the Brain; nevertheless it is gathered by the good Anatomy of the Spermatick vessels, that the incision of these Veins behind the Ears maketh not barren, by reason of the Sperm descending by them; nevertheless those Veins being cut, may weaken the Brain so, that it may not duly send the Animal spirit for conception; and this the profound Guidez may rather do than the manifest, and the Arteries may rather do this than the Veins, because they are the carriers of the Spirit; but either is possible. But the profound Guidez, on both sides near to the Meri or Gula, ascendeth below the aforesaid muscles which you cut, and in its ascent sendeth forth branches, nourishing the Gula, and the muscles of the Faringa; they also nourish the muscles remaining between the first and second Spondile of the Neck, from which (according to some) the Spermatick Veins recited of Hypocrates, do arise, which are behind the Ears, of which there is yet a controversy. They also nourish the Pericranium, ascending by it from the bottom, even unto the top of the Head; and there by perforating the Cranium, they descend to the Dura, and Pia Mater, carrying nourishment to them. Also from the aforesaid profound Vein, doth arise one branch on both sides, piercing the bone Basilare, in the direct of the commissure Lambda; and being born up of the Dura Mater, it ascendeth even unto the top of the Head; and from that in the same place do go forth many branches through the pores of the Skull, which also do nourish the Pericranium; nevertheless the greater part of the aforesaid branches ascending within the Skull with the Dura Mater, do pass into the Pia Mater, with which also do pass some branches of the aforesaid manifest Guidez, piercing the Skull on the top of the Head from the outward to the inward part, and from hence they pass to the substance of the Brain, and nourish that. Also some of the aforesaid Branches in the direct of the Commissure Sagittalis, and Lambda, do enter into the Dura mater, being doubled in that place; and this place is as it were a press of which the blood is pressed out from the aforesaid Veins, into a certain large place being near there, towards the outside, which is called Platea Fovea, Palmentum, and Lacuna; about which Platea are certain Veins sucking the blood pressed out into it, which out of the same do nourish the centre of the Brain; and all those Veins within the skull, together with the Arteries, are those of which it is rightly called Secundina; and otherwise it is called Pia Mater. But the aforesaid Arteries called Carotides, being in the Neck, near to the Veins Guidez, and the descendent Nerves, ascending on the sides of the Neck on both sides, do reach with some Branches dispersing here and there before, and also behind, and to the Tongue, and to the upper Mandibles, and the lower; and in the whole face, and in the hinder part of the Head, and some notable ones about the Ears, in the Temples, do reach with their Branches to the top of the Head; and some also reaching to the muscles about the common juncture, are spread abroad to the Neck, and to the Head, where there is a great hole, from which the spinal Marrow goeth forth; it may be from those branches Hypocrates said, that Sperm descendeth from the Brain, because the Ancients did call the Arteries also Veins; and therefore Avicen said, twenty tertii, that these Veins were continued to the Nuke, that they might not be fare off from the Brain, in which there is light milky blood, which goeth first to the Reins, forthwith after that to the Veins reaching to the Testicles; and one notable Branch of these Arteries on both sides pierceth the bone, Bafilare toward the former part, and is united to the Pia Mater, giving life to the Brain, and carrying spirit to the Ventricles thereof. From that Branch ascended on both sides immediately above this bone Basilare (according to the Hinges of Physic) is made the Retentirabile; which is (according to them) of a notable magnitude, which is before, behind, and on the sides. And the aforesaid Veins nourishing the Brain in their ascent must be sustained of some solid body, as is the Pericranium, and Dura Mater, because they cannot ascend by themselves for their single and soft coat, and the blood in them is more apt to descend than to ascend, because it is heavy. But the Arteries are not joined to any solid body, but standing by themselves do ascend too within the Skull, because they are double coated and hard. And it was not necessary that they should ascend, and afterwards turn their heads downward as the Veins, because their blood is light, and more apt for ascending than descending. Yet you shall better see the branches of those Veins, and also of some Arteries in the Anatomy of the Members following. The substance of Veins and Arteries hath been spoken of in another place; their complexion is judged from the composition of them; their shape is known, they have Colligancy with the whole body; their bigness is also known; they are bigger in one body than in another; But the situation of many of them is often varied; in number they are unperceiveable, because many of them are hidden; their helps are to feed all the members; they also suffer passions of all sorts, but there often happeneth to them a straightened oppilation, caused from the fullness of blood, which if it be made in the branches of the Veins Guidez, there always followeth profundity of sleep, the Apoplexy, and extreme suffocation. That Vein Guidez is sometimes flebotomized, yet seldom in our Region and Age; its incision helpeth the Leprosy not confirmed, and in a strong squinancy, in a sharp Astma, in straightness of breathing, in hoarseness of voice caused by superabounding of blood in an Apostume of the Lungs, for evacuation and diversion sake, for the antecedent cause, in the beginning and augmentation; nevertheless this incision of the Veins Guidez is to be made by a learned hand, with a Flebm or Lancet, having some Obstacle near the point, lest all the sides of the Vein be opened, for these Veins are slippery in the touching of them, because they are not annexed to the flesh, as many others, as well also because of the soft and slippery glandules being under them; as also, lest the Flebm should prick a Nerve or other members placed there. But the manner of flebotomizing these Veins, is thus; first, let the lower Belly of the Patient be bound, between the Ilia and Hypochondria, with a girdle decently binding; let him also hold his mouth shut in expelling the air from the Breast; then let the Patient decline his head to the contrary side that is to be let blood; because by doing so the Vein swelleth as a Chord extended, and with a fit instrument holding the Vein firm with the hand, or other device, the Vein must be pierced in the more eminent place. Authors commend such a Section to be made according to the breadth, nevertheless I would do it obliquely, and let not the quantity of blood be superfluous, neither let it be done the second time; and let the Workman have with him powders constringent for stopping of Blood, as Bolearmonick, Sanguis Draconis, the hairs of a Hare, Mummy, the barks of Frankincense, Aloes, and the like, and among all let him have Vitriol, or Colcotar, also Soot is praised, and burnt Beans, and Paper burnt, Skins, and the likc to these, the white of an Egg well beaten being always laid over, and with decent Ligature, and the Patient lying with his head lifted up for eight days, with light sleep, and decent diet; as fare as it shall seem good to the lawful Physician. Of the Anatomy of the descending and the Reversive Nerves. THe Anatomy of the Veins ascending Nervus ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 quod ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 nuto, & flecto: quia Nervi instrumenta voluntarii motus. Gal▪ from the Liver upward being dispatched, in which also many things have been spoken of the Arteries ascending, I return to the descendent Nerves, from which the Reversives do arise; and I say, that in the lateral parts of the Neck, a little under the Ears, between or under some Muscles, are notable Veins, and Arteries (as it was manifested before) to which on both sides there doth adhere one notable Nerve called Descendent; these Nerves the Ancients did call Apoplecticos: and not well, because they did not know the operations of them, witness Galen in his Book De Voce & anhelitu: And these Nerves do arise principally from the sixth pair of the Nerves of the Brain, and they rise also from the third, and descend perpendicularly, because in such sort they must move the members. These Nerves are compounded of many branches, whereof some by descending (witness Galen) are spread abroad to the Heart, and to its Capsula, to the Mediastinus, and likewise to the Breast in the roots of the Ribs, and some notable enough to the mouth of the Stomach, and to the Diafragma, and some lesser to the Liver, to the Spleen, to the Kidneys, and to other sensible members of the lower Bellies, to which also do go certain Nerves obliquely descending from the Nuke, and from those Nerves descending some notable branches are again turned back upward, which are called Reversivi, and Retro Redeuntes, which are commonly called the Nerves of the Voice, and they reach toward the Epiglottis, binding themselves with certain of its muscles, whose heads are placed at the lower parts of its body. Some branches also of the aforesaid descendent Nerves (besides those Reversives) do go likewise by descending to some of the Muscles of the Epiglottis, the heads whereof are turned upward, and they are Reversives (as it pleaseth some) with their muscles they shut the cartilege Cymbalaris, and Glotida, but the muscles of the descending Nerves do move other Cartilages, and also they open the Cymbalaris. From the seventh pair also, and from the Nuca, do come Nerves to the muscles of the Epiglottis, which do move it obliquely, (witness Galen.) Those Nerves are two; one right, the other left, nevertheless they are divided into very many Fibers, or branches, as it appears, because of the many members to which they go. Their quantity and colour is apparent; their complexion and substance is such as of other Nerves, yet the Reversives are drier and harder, because they are to bear notable, and as it were continual motions, especially when they shut the Epiglottis, to which shutting there is required a stronger motion than to the opening of it, because there are more muscles opening than shutting it; also the motion of the Heart, of the Lungs, and of the Breast doth open it; and therefore that such Nerves should be strong, Nature hath set them afar off from the moist Brain, from which by how much the more they are distant, by so much the more drier are they; and they pass near unto the Heart about the Artery, where perhaps by reason of its heat they do obtain dryness and hardness, and they are turned back upward, that by drawing downward they might shut the Epiglottis, which when they are relaxed, many other muscles helping, the Epiglottis is opened. Their situation is on the sides of the Neck descending to the aforesaid members, but the Nerves which are called Reversivi, in the left side begin to be turned back to the upper parts, when they meet with the great Artery Aorta in the place a little above the Heart, where that Artery is first forked, and beginneth to be turned back through the Breast to the lower members, about which great branch descending is made the motion of the attraction, and relaxation of those Nerves, and that bifurcation of the Artery is to those Nerves as a wheel upon which water is drawn from a Well with a cord; and this place as well on the left as on the right, about which these reversive Nerves are moved, or to which they are joined in their motion, is called of Galen, Diablum, and Flexor; it is also called of some Girgilus, and Bachan, and Galen in his eighth Book, De juvamentis, cap. 2. doth resemble that reversion of the Nerves, to those that with Horses in a Camp are turned back to the way from which they first came, and saith, that it is as it were a turning back of a thing upon a small wheel; and in the seventh, De Utilitate, cap. 14. he saith, that he first of all found out those Nerves placed in that manner, and their Muscles, having the heads of them downward. He saith also, that that reversion of those Nerves showeth, that the Nerves have their original from the Brain, and not from the Heart, as Aristotle did think, for if the Nerves should have their beginning from the Heart, those Reversives should come from it, and not from the Brain, as it appeareth to sense. And to those Reversive Nerves of the right side Nature hath also made the Girgilus (or that wheel which she made in the left side) of one sufficiently noted branch of the Artery ascending, being obliqued toward the right Armpit, about the upper Furcula of the Breast of the right side, which Artery goeth to the right Arm, to which branch it hath joined other Pellicles remaining there, that it might be strong, because this branch is not so great as is that about which the reversive Nerves of the aforesaid left side are turned back. And under that branch of the right side, fortified of the aforesaid Pellicles, do the right reversive Nerves ascend by the Neck; and as well those of the right as of the left are by ascending, implanted to the muscles of the Epiglottis with many branches, as it appeareth to sense, by means of which they move the Epiglottis, or Laringa voluntarily, as a Rider, by means of his Bridle and Reigns, moveth the Horse when he list. The helps of the aforesaid descending Nerves are to give sense, and some motion (according to some) to the members to which they go in their descent, concerning which it was spoken before; and the helps of the Reversives are for the giving of the Voice; and therefore they are called Nervivocis, the Nerves of the Voice, as well the descending as the Reversives do suffer passions of all sorts; and if their complexion be notably changed, as sometimes it happeneth in the uncovering of them by reason of an Ulcer, especially of the descending, and happily of the Reversives, the Voice is lost, and their other operations, if they be not taken away, they are at least diminished; and if the Reversives only should be wholly cut on both sides, the Voice and the Speech is lost; but if in one side only, the half of the operations is hurt; but if the descending be cut, of which the Reversives be parts (according to some) those Five Operations will be hurt, of which Galen maketh mention, 4 Interiorum, cap. 15. to wit, Exitus aeris â pectore cum anhelitu, a going forth of air from the Breast with painful breathing; and Flamen sine ictu seu strepitu, a blast without stroke or noise; and flamen●●um strepitu, a blast with noise; and Vox, the voice; and Loquela, the speech; yet some will have it, that by the incision of the descending Nerves, the voice alone, and that blast with the stroke is lost; but concerning those Nerves look upon our Commentaries. These things being seen, leave the reversive Nerves in their place in the Neck, that by them you may the better see the muscles of the Epiglottis, to which they are fastened; leave also the upper part of the Ventricle, and all the Gula or Meri, and that upper part of the Lungs, which you kept for the seeing of the Trachea; leave also such a part of the Veins and Arteries, reaching to the Arms and to the Head, that you may see the Anatomy of them in their place; but you may cast away the Heart and the other members of the lower and middle Belly, which have first been seen, & kept for the seeing of the Veins, Arteries, and Nerves spoken of before; & before we do further proceed in the present order of Anatomy, some things are to be spoken of the Face, and of some parts of it; afterwards we shall come to the Epiglottis, and Gula, Of the Face. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 hoc est quod antrorsus videat. Gas. Bauhi. THe Face, called Fancies of the Romans, and of the Greeks * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which is only to man, is the former part of the Head known to all: this part should rather come to be Anatomised with the upper Belly than with the middle, but for the present we speak of it by the way, because in a common Anatomy the Gula or Meri cannot be shown, unless there be first mention made of some parts of the Face, and Fancies is said, quasi faciens hominem, making the man; for by it is the knowledge and distinction of every person. This part called Fancies, is also called Vultus a Volvendo, of rolling, and so called a Volendo, of Willing, because by it the affections of the mind are known, in which the colour of it is changed, either for bashfulness, or for some fault committed, or for fear, or sickness; nevertheless there are some whose countenance is seldom changed, and those are called Vultuosis, brazen faced. Also the countenance is changed from age to age, and the Face differs from the countenance in that, because the Face is always the same, and the countenance is changed; albeit the Face may change its colour and quantity by age; and the knowledge of the Face is much considered of the Physiognomist; it is also considered of the Physician; as in the first Prognostic you shall first consider the Face of the sick man, for it helpeth in the knowing of many diseases, as the Leprosy, the Periplemonia, the yellow Jaundice, cachexia, and the time of Menstrues in a woman; in that they are also known that counterfeit sickness, but not always. It's situation is under the former hairy part of the Head; its substance is of more rare and soft Skin, than any other Skin of the body, of the vapours ascending to it from the whole; and for comeliness sake, under that Skin are many Muscles and Veins, pulsant and quiet, Nerves, Pannicles, Ligaments, Cartilages, and Bones; in number it is one Organical member. The number of the parts of it, is the Forehead, the Temples, the Ears, the Kickshaws, the Nose, the Eyes, the Eyelids, the Cilia, or hair of the Brows, the Cheeks, Maxillae, or Mandibulae, the Jaws, which are here Synonymaes, the Mouth, and the ball of the Cheeks, the Lips, Gelasini, the foreteeth, Mystax, the Mustache, the trench or hollow place under the Nose, and the Chin, with its trench; its quantity, its figure, and Colligancy are apparent; its complexion is such as is the complexion of the parts of it; its helps are also to be gathered from its parts; it suffereth passions of all sorts. Of the Forehead, and the other parts Frons a ferendo quod animi indicia prae se ferat Ca Bauhi. of the Face, the Nose, the Eyes, the Eyelids, the Cilia, and the Mouth, with the parts thereof excepted. FRons the Forehead, is all that middle upper part of the Face without hairs, which is above the Eyes; nevertheless it is said of some, that the Eyes are in the Forehead; and therefore witness Varro, it is called, Frons a foratu Oculorum, from the boaring of the Eyes. Under the Skin of the Forehead, is dilated one muscle, having its Fibers according to the length of the body, by which it moveth the Kickshaws; in the Forehead are also wrinkles, reaching according to the breadth of it, according to the situation of which, Empirics do cut their Abscessions, (but ill) because then the Kickshaws do fall; therefore the incisions in the Forehead ought to be made according to the length of the body. In the Forehead are some Veins which are cut in divers diseases, and Horsleeches also are applied to them; under the aforesaid muscle is the Os Frontis, called Coronale. Of the Temples. Tempora dicuntur quasi aetatis tempus & annos sua canitie & macilentia prodant. ON the sides of the Forehead, are the Temples, called in Latin * Tempora, which is times, because in them are known the years of many living creatures; for they first wax grey in man, but not always; they are also made hollow in the long continuance of time; in the Temples are little bones, somewhat long, reaching overthwart the Head, which do keep the Temporal muscles within them, and the Skull; these bones are called of Avicen, Ossa paris; and beyond the aforesaid muscles in the Temples, there are also some Arteries, and notable Veins, which in some diseases are incised. Of the Kickshaws. Supercilium qui supra cilium nascuntur crines; cilium vocatur vel a cilleo quod sepiusmovetur vel a celo quod celet oculum. SUpercilia the Kickshaws, are known to all, whose situation is in the ending of the Forehead; they are bred together with a man for ornament sake, intended of nature, that they might defend the Eyes from dust falling, and from rain, and the like; its hairs do not increase as those of the Head, for a good ends sake. Of Intercilium, or the space between the Brows. IN the bounds of the Forehead is a certain space between, dividing the Kickshaws in the middle of them, it also divideth the Forehead from the Nose; and to this part as to a centre, are bounded the Nose, and the lower and middle part of the Forehead; this part is called Glabella, or Glabra; for Glaber is interpreted, Sine pilis, without Hair; this place is also called, Lepor nasi, the comeliness of the Nose: in that place do often begin Erisipilas, called by another name, Gutta Rosea. Of Malis, the Cheeks. Mala contract. ex maxilla Cicerone, vel ex mali similitudine. MAlae are those round parts in the Face, which are also called Poma, and they are below the Eyes on the sides of the Nose, and they are only to mankind; and they are properly called Genae, although the greater part of the Face may be called Gena. The Skin of this part is thinner than any other part of the Face, which is easily made red, and changeth its colour in the affections of the mind, which commonly in well complexioned people is of a Roset colour; those Malae do adorn the Face, and they are a defence to the Eyes, and to the Nose; and each of them hath one broad muscle, firmly united to its Skin, which are serviceable to them and to the Lips; as shall be said hereafter in the Section of the Lips. Of Barba, called Gena, the Beard. Gena Latin: a genero ibi capilli generantur. IN the Face also is a barbarous part, which hath a proper name, and is called, Gena, a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, genero, to beget, because the Hairs are created there; this part also of some is called Mystax, or * From whence may come our English word Mustachio. Mustax. Of * Mentuma memini Ci ceroni quod quibusdam ejus inter recordandum aliquis usus esse videatur. Mentum, the Chin. IN the lower part of the Face is Mentum the Chin, so called ab Eminendo, from appearing above the rest; for it is eminent above the Gula; (it is also called, * 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Polluci & Ruffo 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, quod pili ibidem floreant. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) from Mentum its disease is called Mentagra; its upper part beginneth from the root of the upper Lip, and hath an end in the lowest part of the Face; and in respect of its place it may be called Mentum, because they that are Mentum vult quasi à miti diduci. lowest ought in all things (if they are not) to be mild. In the middle of the Chin is a certain hollowness, called of some B●ccula, and Buccella, a little Cheek, it is also called Typos. Of Gelasinis. ON the sides of the mouth, on Martiali Gelasinus ● 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 rideo maxime onim apparent risu. both sides in the skin (in some persons, and especially in Boys, and in Women) is a certain little pit, which appeareth in ●aughter, which showeth grace and comeliness, and therefore those pits ●re called Umbelicus Veneris, and ●elasinus, these are also called, ●mbelicus Veneris, Venus' Navel, because they are like to the hollowness found in the leaves of the ●erb called Venus' Navel, and ●ayledon. Of the hollow pit under the Nose. UNder the Nose, in the middle of the upper Lip is a certain little valley, which Lactantius Firmianus for the similitude of its hollowness, calleth Lacuna, a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Polluci & Ruffo quasi amatorium sive amabile dixeris vel amoris illecebra velut esset quoddam in amore illectame●tum. Ditch, it is called of some Philtr●●, and Sperion, and Hyspia; concerning the Nose, the Eyes, the Eyebrows, the Eyelids, the Mouth, and its parts; it shall be spoken in their place, beginning with the Anatomy of the mouth. Of the Anatomy of the Mouth, an● the parts thereof. THat therefore the Trachea Epiglottis, and Gula may be● fitly Os Scalig. ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 vox. showed, as we have promised I come to the Section of the Mouth, and the parts of it; and ● say, that the Mouth is that hollow part in the face, being immediately within the Lips, by which th● meat and drink, and in part ai● do first enter within the body, and by which Spitals and Voices go forth, and in which the Speech is form, and it is called Os, as it were Ostium, the door to the aforesaid things, letting them in and out. But the Cheek or Cheeks Bucce, are those parts in the face or mouth which may naturally be puffed up of the breath, that is, that hollowness of the mouth which is puffed up of the breath, being brought back from the Lungs, and retained in the mouth the lips being shut. The parts of the Mouth are the Lips, the Teeth, the Gums, the Jawbones, the Palate, the Uvea, the Tongue, the Tonsils, and the Fauces. From the aforesaid things doth appear the substance, situation, and figure of the Mouth; its quantity is known to all; in number it is one member; the number of the parts of it is spoken of; its Colligancy is taken from its parts, and also its helps; its complexion is such as are its parts; it suffereth passions of all sorts. Of the Lips. LAbia, which are also called Labrum a lavando, quidam, eo quod in eo lavationem infantium solitum est fi●r●: haud improprie labium à labor dici puto quod ex iis verba elabuntur. Labra; the Lips in some are gross, in some thin; gross do commonly argue rudeness of wit; the more prominent part of the Lip is named Prochilum; the continual joining of them is called Prostomion, or Prostomia, and those which have their Lips hanging over, and likewise their Teeth, are called Brochi; in the middle of the Lips is a cleft which is properly called Os, the mouth. The substance of the Lips is compounded of Musculous flesh, skin, and a Pannicle continued to the Gula; the union of these parts is so compacted, that one can very hardly be separated from the other, and it is such, lest through the grossness of it, its nimble motion should be hindered, which serves for every difference of placing, and therefore in them there are four proper Muscles, and two common to them, and to the balls of the face. And the proper are little, according to the bigness of the Lips, which before they are united to the skin are chained together one to another, so that their parts are unseparable without the ●ending of them, one pair whereof hangeth obliquely under the apples of the face toward the Lips; also the other two hang obliquely from the lower Mandible toward the Lips. And although there are only four muscles in the Lips, nevertheless there are eight motions, witness Galen, 11 De Utili. cap. 16. to wit, four Strait, and four Obliqne, for every one of them while it is moved moveth Obliquely, because the situation of every one of them is obliqne, but when two of them are equally moved, they move rightly, as it is in the opening of them, in which there is one right motion; but the other right motion in the Lips, is when they are shut, or pressed together to one another. There are also two other right motions in the Lips, one is, when they are turned outward, and the other when they are folded inward; and those motions are made of straight Fibers, some whereof innermost are within those muscles of the Lips, and some are outward; and when the outermost are extended, than the Lips are turned outward, and when the innermost, than they are folded under or inward; and how the Obliqne motions are made of one Muscle only, and the right of more, it is easy to judge, if you look into the shutting of a Purse, which when they are drawn together rightly, and uniformly, they open the mouth of the Purse, and when only one of them is drawn, the mouth of the Purse is moved overthwart. Nevertheless Avicen, although he speaketh of the aforesaid situation of the Muscles, setteth down but four Motions, as there are four Muscles; and saith, that four Motions is sufficient for them; he saith, that every part of them when it is moved, moveth to its own part, and when two, they are moved to two parts, and are dilated to two; they have therefore a perfection of their motion to four parts, neither have they any other motion besides them. And as well Galen as Avicen do speak of the proper motion, because the motion common to the Cheeks, and Lips, is made of two broad Muscles, which are in either Mandible; and the broad ones are bigger than the aforesaid, and those, witness Galen, are outward from the Cheeks unto the spin of the Neck, unto which do pass Nerves from the Breast, and from the Clavicles, that is, from the upper Furcu●aes of the Breast, which are implanted into the Cheeks, and into the lower Lip by right Fibers, and some other Fibers, reaching also from the Clavicies obliquely, and some other more obliqne than the aforesaid, ascending from the Scapulaes' to the sides of the Lips are implanted in the Cheeks; and moreover, some other do reach from the place behind the ears (which sometimes they move) unto those Muscles; nevertheless those muscles are not manifestly known, although they have a multitude of Nerves almost from all the parts of the Neck; yet they are known if the Lips and the balls of the face be moved, when the Mandibles are shut to their uttermost power; not because the bony parts of the Cheeks may be moved, but their aforesaid fleshy musculous part is moved with the skin, which is properly for the only motion of the Lips; to which part, and also to the very Lips the aforesaid Broad Muscles do go, which move the Lips, and the Cheek-balls, and this is called the common motion that is of the Lips, and of the Cheek-balls. Some also would have that the Cheek-balls in their upper part be somewhat moved of the Broad Muscle moving the forehead, and some say, that those Broad Muscles moving the Cheeks and the Lips, do also help the chawing. And the motion of those muscles are best seen in those which are living, especially in them that are lean, and therefore I make mention of them, omitting the Anatomy of many muscles, because they may not be seen in those that are living, neither be shown in a common Anatomy; I will also declare the Anatomy of the Tongue, and Mandibles for the same cause. These Lips within themselves, and also the whole mouth are covered with a Pannicle, covering the Gula, or Meri, and the Stomach, and for this the lower Lip doth tremble when one is ready to Vomit: but this Pannicle is harder and thicker in the mouth than any where else, and grosser in the Meri than in the Ventricle, and always as it descends it is made more soft and subtle, because in the mouth it first meeteth with meats somewhat hard, which as they descend are always made softer, witness Galen 4. De utilit, and according to that of Avicen, that one feeding, receiveth some digestion by chawing. The Figure, situation, quantity, and number of the Lips do appear; their complexion is set down hot; they have Colligancy with the Brain by Nerves, with the Liver by Veins, with the Heart by Arteries, and therefore sometimes in the compression of them the effects of the mind are known; the Lips also are stretched out, and restrained voluntarily; they have also Colligancy with the Ventricle, and Meri, and with the whole body by means of the Skin; their helps are many, they are first for the defence of the Teeth, and for the good form of the Face, for the expressing of the Speech, for the taking of meat and drink, and they are to the mouth as a door to a house, necessarily opening and shutting themselves; they also hinder the Air from entering cold to the Heart by itself, and by accident; they also retain the Air brought back from the Lungs in necessities. They endure passions of all sorts, and among others they suffer Ragadias', Chaps, and oftentimes Cancers and trembling in Crisises, and in Fevers by participation from the Brain, and from the Ventricle. Of the Teeth. THe aforesaid things being seen, you may first open the Dens quast edens, ab ●dendo. mouth as much as you can, by cutting the Cheeks on each of the sides, that you may the better see the Teeth and the Gums; first noting the substance of the Teeth which is bony, and is harder than a bone (witness Celsus) nevertheless some say, that they are of the nature of flesh and bone, both because they feel, and because they are renewed again; they also do increase all the time of their endurance for their ends sake, because if they should not increase they would not last, and the chawing would be nought, from whence the life would be short. In number they are thirty two, to wit, in one rank, near unto either Cheek there are placed sixteen, they are also oftentimes twenty eight only, because then the four hinder teeth are wanting, which of Avicen are called Negnegid. and these are two in either side, and sometimes they want six in all, and the Negnegids are the last in coming, which are called also the Teeth of understanding, of sense, and of wisdom, because in some they are bred in Manhood, or in Old age; and witness Aristotle 2. De Natura seu de Historiis animalium; the Male have more Teeth than the Female, as it appeareth in the Sex of Women, of Sheep, of Sows, and of she Goats. The names of them are other of Celsus, other of Galen, other of Aristotle, other of Avicen, other of Mundinus; and first these are the names of Avicen, for in every part, whether in the upper, or in the lower, or in the middle of the mouth toward the forepart, beginning in the middle, there are first two equals somewhat broad, called Duales; at the sides of which on both sides is one, which of Mundinus is called Incisivi, and of Avicen are called Quadrupli, yet Galen called the Duales Incisivos, which two Duales, and two Incisivi, Celsus calleth Quaternos, and Aristotle called all these Acutos, that they may cut, and it agreeth with Galen; on the sides of them, on both sides is one, which are commonly called Cynodentes, or Canini, Dog-teeths; and of some they have been called Gelasini, because they appear in laughter more than the rest, Then all the rest (according to Avicen) are Molares, Grinders, called a Molendo, from grinding; which in some (according to him) are on both sides four, on the sides of the Dog-teeths, and in some they are five, and in tha manner they are thirty two, or twenty eight, numbering them thus; two Duales, and two Quadruples, or Incisives, and two Dog-teeths, all which are six, and the Grinders (according to Avicen) are ten, or eight; if ten in either part, to wit, in the upper or in the lower, they are in all sixteen, and as so, they are thirty two, but if they be eight, they are in either part fourteen, and so they are twenty eight. Nevertheless Mundinus in the number thirty two, placeth two Duales above, and so many below, and two Incisives, and two Dog-teeths, and four Molares, and six Maxillaries, yet neither Galen, nor Aristotle do appoint particular names of all the Teeth, but Celsus appointeth four Dog-teeths, on either side two, next to the Quaterni above, and as many below; Celsus also appointeth eight Maxillaries above, and eight below, to wit, four on both sides next to the Dog-teeths. Their shape is divers, for some have only one sharp head, and one root, as all the Duales, and the Quadruples, or Incisives, and the Dog-teeths. But the lower Molares have at the least two heads, and two roots, and sometimes three, and as many heads, and especially the farthest; but the uppermost have at the least three heads, and as many roots, and sometimes four, and especially the farthest, which are as it were a wall holding the others firm; and the roots of the upper Teeth are crooked, that they may be the stronger, lest they should fall by their own weightiness; and the holes in which they are fastened are wondrously fitted to them. And from the Jawbone doth arise for every Tooth one round additament, fastening the Tooth by means of the strong Ligaments; and those additaments Galen called Praesepia, which are not only in the place of the Gums, but in the extreme of their roots. And the Molares have more roots than the rest, because their operation is more continual than the rest, and because in chawing they are not moved upward and downward only, but they are moved laterally, or circularly. All the Teeth have some sense, (witness Galen and Avicon) their quantity and situation are apparent; they have Colligancy with the Mandibles and Gums, and with the Brain by the Nerve; their complexion is known, their helps are to prepare the meat for the Stomach; they also accent the Speech; they are also the weapons of Nature. They suffer every kind of Disease which other Bones do suffer, in them there is pain, commotion, corrosion, putrefaction, congeling, alteration of colour, and elongation from their Natural place. Of Gingivis, the Gums. AFter the Teeth are to be seen the Gums, Gingivae, so called, a Gignendis dentibus, from the begetting of Teeth; and they are simple flesh, hard, in which the Teeth are infixed; in them there are so many holes as there are Teeth. In number they are two the one above, the other below; their shape appeareth, which followeth the shape of their Jawbone; their situation also appeareth, and their quantity, and their Colligancy; their helps are to make f●●m the Teeth, and to the Bones of the Mandible about them, and with their heat to comfort them, and to them that want Teeth they do afford the help of chawing; they have also a notable sense by their Colligancy with the Brain, by means of the Nerves dispersed through them; they endure passions of all sorts. Of Palatum, the Palate. AFter the Gums, according to Palatum quod labiis dentibusque quasi palis munitum sit. the true method of universal Anatomy, doth occur the Palate; which is a part of the mouth, witness Aristotle, primo de Historiis, cap. 11. and is that part of the mouth either open or shut which is above the tongue. This part is bony, ordained of the bones of the upper Mandibles, nevertheless it is covered with some flesh, with its pannicle covering it, in which there are some Nervs giving the sense of Tasting and this part in the mouth is resembled to the hollowness of the roof of a Vault, or to the covering of a Furnace, and therefore it it is called Caelum, and Altum oris, the highest part of the mouth; and it is called Palatum, quia in apertione oris palam ostenditur, because in the opening of the mouth it is showed openly to us; or, quia manifeste latum videtur, because it seemeth manifestly broad; and the Palate, witness Galen, is as it were a bell lying before the Laringa, or Epiglottis, in which is made the founding of the Voice, in which by the means of the Nerves is the notable Sense of Tasting. It's situation, its figure, its quantity, and number, and Colligancy appear; its complexion is cold, because it is bony by predomination; in that member there is not any hole serving the Collatory, as some do think, by which the superfluities of the Brain should be purged out, but such a hole or holes are in the bone Basilare, above the Nostrils, as shall be spoken in another place. The helps of it are, that the mouth being shut, and also open, the Air might be retained there to this purpose, that it might warm it if it be cold, lest being so it might hurt the Heart in its entrance; it also retaineth Air, by which the Heart is refreshed in necessities; it also helpeth in the retaining the Vocal air, and therefore the Palate is rugged for this, that the air may go forth full o● surges; the Palate also by its hollowness helpeth the revolution of meat in the mouth in the time of chawing; by means of its hollowness also the Tongue is moved more nimbly for its operations; it also helpeth digestion with its pellicle, the pellicle of the whole mouth helping it, and i● may be the Spittle mixed with meats in chawing. It suffereth Passions of all sorts, and among other Diseases it suffereth in Fevers the Colam, or Alcolam. Of the Wnla, or Uvea. IN the ending of the Palate about the Fauces, towards the Ex Uvae similitudine. head, right against the root of the Tongue is one member, fleshy, of a rare substance, covered with the membrane, whose quantity and shape is equalled to the grain of a Grape, and therefore it is called Wa, Uvigena, and Uvigera; it is also called Columella, and also ●●●●mna, and of some Gargareon, Gargar, and Gurgulio, it is also called Fundibulum; nevertheless this member increaseth more than naturally in length and breadth, by humidity filling it, and sometimes it is like unto a Mouse tail, as I have often seen; and sometimes it is indurated, and sometimes stranguleth, witness Aristotle. Man only hath this member; its substance is spoken of, in which there are some Veins, and Arteries, and therefore if it receive solution it notably induceth blood; its complexion is warm and moist; its number, situation, and Colligancy appear; this member giveth way to things that are swallowed; neither hath it voluntary motion, therefore it is without muscles; it helpeth in the breaking and altering the air, and according to some in the tuning the Voice; it also hindereth thirstiness, by hindering air from entering the Fances violently. It suffereth Passions of all sorts, and especially corrosion, and mollification, in which there is often required Cautery. Of the Tongue. THe Tongue is sometimes taken Lingua ex lingo, qua parte lingimus. for the variety of Languages, as the Greeks, the Arabians, the Latins, and of that kind; it also signifieth many other things, but for the present it is taken for a member contained in the mouth, and it is called Lingua à ligando, of binding, because it is bound from one end to another within the lower Mandibles. The substance of this member is naturally rare, fungous, and soft; it is also soft by accident, because of the Humidities descending from the Head, and from the Stomach to it; also the glandulous flesh in the root of it (in which there are fountains of Spittle) doth moisten it, by means of the Spittle; it hath also a multitude of Nerves, as well for the Sense of touching and taste, as for the motion; those that give the ●aste come from the third pair of the Nerves of the Brain, but those that give the motion come from the seventh, and these Nerves are notable, because the Tongue hath need of an excellent sense, and also motion; it also needeth very much heat and nourishment, therefore it (and in like manner the Yard) hath more and greater pulsant and quiet Veins than any other member like to it in bigness; and the Nerves that give it motion are distinct from them that give it sense, but those which give the sense of Feeling, do also give Tasting, and the tasting is more easily corrupted than the feeling, because the tasting is a more subtle virtue than the feeling; and the situation of the Nerves of sense is superficial, but the situation of the Nerves of motion is nearer the Centre more or less, according to the place of the muscles, which are commonly appointed nine, to wit, four pair and one single, with which it is moved to every difference of position; and the Tongue in its roo● is large, gross, and strong, but in the former part it is subtle and sharp, that it might be more fit for motion. Of the aforesaid muscles two are on the sides of the Tongue, of both sides one, which are called Latitudinal, proceeding from the sharp bones of the Head, placed behind the Ears, from which place also in part do come the Fibers of one muscle, which is common for the motion of the Lips, and for the motions of the Apples of the Face, and these bones are called Sagittalias, and Acularia; there are also two called Longitudinals, beginning from the upper part of the bone Lambda; which are continued with the middle of the Tongue; and there are two other muscles which move the Tongue overthwart, proceeding from that side which is the lower of the two sides of the bone Lambda, and those do penetrate between the aforesaid Longitudinals, and Latitudinals. There are also two others converting it, and turning it upward, and the Fibers of them are spread abroad in breadth under the aforesaid, and these are continued with the ●one of the lower Mandible; nevertheless Avicen 12. animalium saith, that those last are above the others; after that there is one muscle called single, which continueth the Tongue to the bone Lambda, and draweth the one to the other, and this muscle driveth the Tongue to the outward parts, by lengthening it, it also draweth back, and shorteneth i●. Yet there are many that say, that the Tongue is not moved to the outward parts voluntarily, but merely naturally from the imagination, as the Yard; and some say that it, and also the Yard are moved of muscles, and of the imagination together, and some of the imagination only, which by means of the spirit causeth a windiness, dilating, and erecting the Yard, and in like manner the Tongue, with bringing it o●● of the mouth; but these things are handled of Galen, Pr●● de motibus liquidis, and of ●●vicen, Prima primi, in the Chapter of the muscles of the Tongue, and there the Expositors do resolve the doubts, which see. Of the Bone of the Tongue. THe Tongue in the root of it hath a bone to which it is knit and fastened, and standeth firm, as upon his Basis in his many motions; and this bone is quadrilateral, or four-sided, not very hard, but it is as it were Cartilagineous, and it is called Os * Hyoides Latini cum Graecis appellant, idque voce contractiore, siquidem 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 dicendum esset, quod 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 literae formam ex primate, vocatur 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 sed quia ubi confunctum est & sinum facit, non i●a acuto angulo terminatur, rectius illud ν figurae quam λ simile dicemus. Columbus De ossib. 1. 1. Hyoideum, and Lambda, or Lamb, because it is like to that Greek letter; two of the sides of it are towards the Tongue, which are in the form of the aforesaid Letter two forked, and two also so form bigger than the first, are toward the Cartilege Deltalis, or Target Cartilege of the Epiglottis; which they embrace, and are fastened to it, lest it slide here and there, that this bone might the better make firm the other members fastened to it; and it is not only fastened to the Epiglottis, but also to the Meri by some Ligaments. And this bone was not of a very long, or of a strait Figure, because the weightiness of the Tongue had drawn it to one side only, and then there had not been good speech, nor good chawing; and this bone is called Hyoideum of Galen, and Os Lambdae, and of Avicen Alfahic. The helps of this bone are of Galen set down many, although it be a little bone; first, many muscles do come from it to the Tongue, and some muscles also of the Epiglottis, and some do go from it to the Spatula, and some to the Breast, and some to the Mandibles; from that also, or from its Ligaments do arise the Chords of the muscles near unto it, and it is also a defence of the Target Cartilege of the Laringa, and this bone is the principal foundation upon which the Tongue is turned in its motions. This Bone hath three conjugations of muscles proper unto it, to wit, one pair proceeding from the extremities of the lower Mandible, toward that part with which it is continued to the root of the Tongue, whereof the one is on the right, the other on the left, and that pair whilst it is contracted draweth it toward the Mandible. The second pair ariseth under the Chin, and passeth to that bone under the Tongue, and is fastened to it toward the upper part, to wit, toward the Epiglottis, and that bone, this draweth to part of the Mandible. The third pair ariseth from the Needle-like additaments of the bone of the Head, to wit, from the two sharp bony extremities, which are behind the Ears, and those muscles are continued with the end of that bone, which is toward the Tongue, and they draw it to the upward parts backward. All the other muscles continued to this bone are common to it, and to the members to which they go. Under the Tongue itself are two notable Veins, on either side one, which in many dispositions are let blood (especially in the Synanche or Squincy) which are red, sometimes black, and sometimes green, and they are called of some Raninae. Under the Tongue also where it is fastened to the mouth, are certain notable Caves divided into two parts, which are called the Orifices, or Mouths, or fountains of Spittle, which of Avicen are called Generativa salivae, the engenderers of Spittle, in which a stile or pin of a Table-book doth easily enter; these Orifices are opened and shut like a Purse, as the Spittle increaseth and diminisheth; these fountains are terminated to the aforesaid kernelly flesh placed in the root of the Tongue, from which a spitly moisture doth continually sweat out into the aforesaid fountains. Under the Tongue also is a certain pellicle, in the middle of it reaching long-ways, which is called of our Vulgars' Il filello, which in some is great, and the Widwives or Surgeons do cut that in the age of infancy, which if it be not cut maketh them hard of speech. The complexion of the Tongue is hot and moist; its shape, and situation, and Colligancy doth appear from what hath been said; its quantity is conspicuous, for witness Aristotle, one is broad, another narrow, another mean, but that is laudable which is measured in its Longitude and Latitude, according to the ability of speaking. In number, although it may seem one member, yet there are two members, nevertheless they appear one compounded of two likes; for commonly Nature hath created the Senses double, that if hurt should happen to one part, the other part might remain unhurt; and it was not divided sensibly into two parts distant from one another for the chawing and speech, but it is united by means of one Pannicle covering it, nevertheless this Pannicle is divided in length into two sides, below and above, yet united and very firmly fastened to the Tongue, and this Pannicle is continual with the pannicle covering the Stomach, and Meri, and the whole mouth within side. The helps of the Tongue are principally for the distinction of Voice, and for the joining of Letters, and therefore Galen in his Book, De voce & anhelitu said, there are three members appointed for the Voice and Speech, to wit, the Trachea, the Epiglottis, and the Tongue, and every one hath glandules tempering it with moisture. And the glandules of the Tra●hoa are in the Neck moistening it, and making the parts of the Neck even. And the glandules of the Epiglottis are those which are called Arcae aeris, chests of air. There is also a certain far kernelly flesh about that, covering of the Epiglottis, which is called Glotida, which is a principal organ of the Voice; but the Tongue hath glandules to which Veins do pass, carrying Spittle to them, but the rest are without a Vein but are filled of their own accord with moisture flowing to and again unto them, and in the Epiglottis is engendered moisture, with which it is moystued: some moisture also floweth unto it from the Head. The Tongue also helpeth for the discerning of taste, it also helpeth for the turning of meat in the mouth, so that every part of it may be bruised; it also helpeth swallowing; it suffereth passion's of all sorts. Of the Amigdals, or Almonds. IN the upper part of the Tongue on the sides about the root of it, Ex Amygdalorum similitudino are certain kernally or glandulous flesh's, on either side one, called of many Amigdalae, Almonds, which together with the aforesaid Uvea, and Galsamach, and also Aifahic, are placed of Avicen (9 tertii) among the parts added to the throat, and by the throat, the interpreter of Avicen, understandeth the space in which are the passages of the meat, and of breathing (but not well) because Gut●●r, the Throat, is taken of the Latins for the Trachea arteria, it is also taken for the former part of the Neck, which is from the Jaws to the Jugulum, and therefore Celsus said that the Veins Granges, that is, Guidez, are in the right and left side about the Guttur, or Throat, and Pliny being witness, the throat is so much in a man, as oftentimes swelleth up in a Disease, and this tumour is called Botium, and also Struma, although Struma may also manifest Scrofulous, and some other tumors. Therefore that space which is behind the Uvea, and the aforesaid Almonds, and Galsamach, and Alfahic, is called Faux; and Faux, or Guttur in the rule of Avicen, 9 Tertii, is not any member, but is that vacuity to which the top of the Gula or Meri is terminated, in the termination of which toward the forepart is the Uvea, and the Almonds, and Alfahic, and Galsamach; but in its upper termination is that hollowness which is terminated by above the Palate, to the Nose, and to the bone Basilare, towards the Anfractus, or turn, being under the Colatory, of which, speech shall be made hereafter. And the aforesaid Glandules, of which we intent for the present, are commonly called Tonsiles, and Celsus calleth those Glandulaes', and Mundinus Fauces (although not well) and the Greeks call them Antiadas, and Parhitmia. The substance of these Almonds is fleshy and sinewy, to wit, with Pellicles, with which it is fastened on the sides coming from the root of the Tongue toward the Palate, and by means of them the aforesaid Amigdales are united to the Palate, and those Nervous pellicles, together with the Glandules, are as it were little hollow ears, and therefore they are called Arca a Chest, or the Storehouse of Air, for those Chests are notable in the Beasts Cynocephalis, within which they keep not only air, but sometimes (as I have seen) meat, as are Chestnuts, Chiches, filberts, Beans, or the like, yet those Amigdales with their pellicles may be seen better in one than in another, but better in a living Creature, because in a dead Creature they are drawn back and those Chests keep the air more in the going out than in the coming in, that all might not go forth from the passage of the Heart, and the Creature perish, and that in drown in waters, and in stinks it might be refreshed by the air retained. And those Pellicles only (according to some) are those which Avicen calleth Galsamac, or G●lzama, but in my judgement they are not but the aforenamed Chests▪ because Avicen saith, that above the Galsamac is the Alfahic, to wit the bone Lambda; and this bone is annexed to the Tongue and to the Epiglottis before, under those Pellicles, and if those Pellicles are Golmaza, or Galsamac, the writing of Avicen is corrupted, to wit, that which saith, And the Alfahic is above the Galsamac neither is there any other member there toward the Palate unless the Uvea, and the pellicles of the Glandules (of which speech hath past) which make an arch for the retaining of air, and therefore Galsamac is not there, (but in my judgement) Galsamac is the Epiglottida, to wit, that pellicular covering which shutteth the Epiglottis, lest meats and other extraneal matters might enter into it, as we shall speak anon. From that which hath been said, the helps of the Amigdales do lie open; their Colligancy, also shape, quantity, and number do appear; their situation is best seen when the tongue is depressed, and the mouth opened in the furthest part of it; their complexion is hot and moist. They suffer passions of all sorts, and now adays they are Apostumated, indurated, and ulcerated in a certain Endimious disease, which of the Vulgar is called Mor●u● Gallicus; and they do easily receive Rheums from the Head, and in them is caused the false Squinantia, or Synanche, which is called Branconcellus, and therefore it is said, Ad fauces Branchus, ad nares Coriza catarrus: If the Catarrh doth come unto the Jaws, 'Tis Branchus called; Coriza to the Nose. It is also called Dragonzellus, and perhaps corruptly, and at Bononia Strangog●oni, because they are apt to strangle, they are also called Gaioni. You shall see those Amigdales, and also the Tongue better, the Mandibles being excoriated in that manner, as shall be spoken hereafter, because I will place the Anatomy of their Muscles, and of the members of the whole Face, and also of the whole cane of the Lungs, that they may be seen as the Workman list, because they are seldom shown in a common dissection. Of the lower Mandibles, or Jaws. THe Amigdales being seen, it seems good to me to determine Mandibulae ex mandendo, virt. officii. of the two lower Mandibles, that the rest of the Neck may be more fitly and diligently Anatomised; of the upper it shall be spoken in their place, and the Mandibles are taken of me for the present for those bones of the Head in which the Teeth are infixed. And first it is to be noted, the skin covering their Muscles, which in men is commonly full of hairs; after which are their proper muscles, serving to three motions, to wit, to the motion of opening the mouth, and to the motion of shutting it, and to the motion of chawing and grinding; the motion opening maketh the lower Mandibles to descend, and shutting elevateth them; and the grinding motion maketh them turn about, and decline to two parts; it is therefore necessary that the motion of shutting should be by muscles which descend from above, and draw to the upper parts; and the motion of opening is made on the contrary manner, and that of grinding with transversion. The Muscles shutting are two, great ones, and having great Chords, which are called the muscles of the Temples, because they are fastened to the Temples between the Craneum, and the Ossa Paris, and in a man they are smalllest they should burden the Head, and also because a man chaweth things not very hard, and those muscles have great Chords, terminated to the lower extremity of the Mandibles, and they are very soft because they are near the Brain, from which they have three Nerves, two from the third pair, and one from the fourth, and by consequence the solution of them is very bad▪ and therefore Galen, 11 De Utili, cap. 3. saith, If therefore as Hypocrates said, those parts which are near, and common, and prime, are most of all maligned, but there is not any nearer than the Temporal muscles, neither doth any other muscle communicate more with the Brain by more Nerves; it is good reason to hearken out the beginning of their passions; and for their nobility, Nature hath placed them in the hollowness of the Temples between the bones, keeping them on every side; the muscles of the Eyes are also very noble, because they are near to the Brain, but they have not so many Nerves as the other, and those two Temporal muscles are helped of two other muscles, which do go unto the aforesaid Mandibles, by the inner part of the Cheek, and the Chords of those Temporal muscles do not arise from the end of the muscle, but from the middle of it, that they may be stronger. But the muscles opening do arise from a place called in Arabic Alhiliricti, which are two bones called Acuta, Acularia, and Sagittantia, added to the hinder part of the Head, and those bones are behind the Ears, and these two muscles descending are united, and are made one muscle, afterwards they are separated, and of them is made a Chord that they may be strong; after that they are again branched, and are filled with flesh, and the muscle is made; after that it meeteth with the reflection of the Mandibles, and when it is contracted it draweth the Mandible backward; and because the Mandibles are heavy, descending of themselves, two muscles only do suffice them. But the chawing muscles are two, on either side one, which are triangular, and very sinewy under the balls, and they are such that in the contracting they might have divers motions, so that by them the grinding and chawing might be complete, and those muscles with one of their Basis are about the Ossa Paris, and with one other toward the balls of the Face, and with another toward the Mandibles; yet every angle of the aforesaid muscles is most firmly mixed with a part of the Face in the direct of them, that they might move the Mandibles diversely, and some would have it (witness Gal●n) that every one of those muscles should be three muscles, and that gibbosity which is in the balls of the Face, is of those muscles in part. The Tongue also, besides those muscles helpeth the chawing by turning about the meat. And the muscles lifting up the Mandibles are great, because they have a great motion, and they are soft, because they are next to the Brain. And the muscles depressing are small, because it is more easy to depress the Mandible than to elevate it, and to hold it being elevated. But the chawing muscles are mean, because the circumduction or turning about of the Mandibles is more easy than the elevation, and more hard than the depression. Some will wonder that Nature made the Teeth of chawing greater, and more than they of incising; it is to be said, that Nature hath prepared not only teeth to out the meat, but she hath ordained Reason and Art, which she useth for the cutting of meats; She hath also made the chawers greater, and more, because the chawing action is stronger, and more permanent; which chawing Art doth not for the most part (unless by accident in sick people) as she doth the cutting of meats. The muscles being seen, that you may the better see the Os Lambdae, and the head of the Meri, and the Epiglottis, you shall cut the skin transversly from either corner of that Fissure which is called the Mouth, and the aforesaid muscles toward the Ears, in which Section consider (if you can) the aforesaid muscles, and also the other parts of the Face, excepting the Nose, the Eyelids, the Eyes, and the Ears, flaying the skin with diligence from them, which being seen you shall lay bare the bones of the lower Mandibles from their upper junctures unto the middle of the chin, in which they are firmly united by one juncture; the aforesaid bones are also united on both sides to the Head, by one lose juncture about the ears; you shall also note their Situation, Number, Figure, Colligancy, and quantity; their substance, complexion, and helps lie open, they endure passions of all sorts. Of the Anatomy of the Throat, and of the Gula. THe Mandibles being seen, remove Guttur a gutta, quia voces sunt quasi gutta fluentes sermonis. them with diligence with a crooked Knife, Saw, or other Instrument, wholly from their place, that you may the bett●● see the Throat, and the Gula, yet keep the Tongue unhurt, and the bone Lambda, that you may see the Colligancy of these members; the Mandibles being removed, observe the situation of the Throat, and of the Gula, and of the bone Lambda, which is placed near unto the root of the tongue, and the top of the throat; howbei●●●u may not stir these memb●●●, unless you shall first see the muscles of them; but before you may see them you must give way, to the Anatomy of the Throat, and of the Gula, for those members are so fastened to one another by Pannicles, and Ligaments, that one cannot be showed without the other. The Throat depending under the Jaws even unto the Lungs, possesseth the foremost situation; first, that by its hardness it might be a defence to the Gula; Secondly, because by that situation it is more direct to the Lungs, and so doth serve it better, and more easily; Thirdly, it is foremost, because the Gula is longer than it, which if it should be before the throat, it should either be obliqued from the end of the Throat unto the Stomach, and the swallowing had been ill; or because there should also have been some inconvenient hollowness from the end of the Throat unto the Stomach, toward the back. And the Throat is a body very long, round, hollow as a Cane, whose substance is compounded of many annular Cartilages, yet they are imperfect circles, like those Bracelets called Armilla, and they are like the letter C. and therefore they are called Cartilagines C forms, C like Cartilages, and Semicirculares, but they are bigger than a half circle, and in the part not Circular they do meet with the Gula, by means of a soft pannicle and somewhat hard, being perfectly Spherical, covering and fastening them within and without, and beyond the pannicle, on the inside covering the throat from the top to the bottom; there are 〈◊〉 Ligaments filling the throat toward the Gula, where the Cartilages are uncompleat, nevertheless those Cartilages without the ●●●nicle are properly the instrument of voice. The upper part of the throat is commonly called Epiglottis, Laringa, and Nodus Gutturis, and sometimes Gurgulio, and it is called 〈◊〉 Bronchii & Gutturis, but th●●est of it is often called an Arte●● and a Spiritual Organ, or Pipe, and the Vocal Artery, and the sharp Artery, and the cane of the Lungs, and it is called Faringa à findendis vocihus, of cleaving of Voices, or of Fando, of speaking, and Gargar, and Gargarean but Laring a for the most part b● the interpreter of the Books of Galen, De utilitate parti●m, in the Latin tongue; Laringa is taken for the upper part of it, but the lower part is commonly called Trachea, and Guttur, called so, Garriendo of chattering, because that chattering cometh from thence; and Avicen, Prima pri●● capitis, de musculis gutturis, ●●derstandeth by Guttur this member, but Nona tertii, by Guttur he understandeth that space which is behind the Palate, in which the passage of meat, and of breat which of the Latins is called Fa●● or Fauces. This member is also called Bronchium, or Bronchum, for the likeness of a certain Fish, and also of an Earthworm called Bronch●●● whose body is long, Cartilagineous, or scaly and annular, as is Viper. The lowermost part of this member is divided into two parts, one on the right, another on the left, which entereth into the upper part of the Lungs, and from hence it is divided into infinite Fevers unto it all, growing always less through the whole substance of the Lungs, through the centre of it to the extremes, carrying and recarrying spirit to the Heart, in that manner which it appeared in the demonstration of the Lungs. This member is not of one Carriage only, but of many, convex without, and hollow within, united one near another, at a certain ●●nce by Ligaments, and Pan●●●●s; that by means of the Fevers of the Pannicles which are longitudinal, and the Nerves of their Muscles, it might be extended and drawn back in its motions; and it is moderately hard and light, that it might be shrill; and in the deprived of sense, that it ●ight resist outward things hurting it; and it is round, because it is less apt to be hurt; and their Cartilages toward the Gula are incomplete, that by their hardne●● they might resist things swallowed, therefore the channel of the Trachea is filled behind of the aforesaid Pannicles and Ligament, which by their softness do give way to things swallowed, and 〈◊〉 this cause the hollowness of 〈◊〉 throat within it (its panni●●● giving way) serveth the Gula ●● necessities, when great morsels are swallowed, and the pannicles ●● the throat do easily obey in s●●●lowings, because the time of breathing and of swallowing is divers, and not only the thr●●● in this serveth the Gula, but 〈◊〉 the Gula the throat in breathing because in the time of breathing the Gula is empty, as the throat is empty of breath in the time of swallowing, because the Epiglottis is always shut in swallowing▪ Also the hinder part of the throat was not Cartilagineous, but pannicular, that it might be the more easily moistened by drinking, or by licking with the tongue some moist thing, as it often happeneth in great heats and in Fevers, and that also matters contained in 〈◊〉 Breast might be more easily brought out by hawkings, as it is in the Pleurisy. And this member was wisely 〈◊〉 Cartilagineous, and Pellicu●● for two reasons, to wit, for 〈◊〉 sound or voice, and for breathing, and it doth therefore serve ●● and the Voice, and it is not still toward the Gula, because 〈◊〉 it is soft, and as it were fleshy, 〈◊〉 therefore if the Trachea and ●●iglottis be not decently dry, 〈◊〉 moist, there is hoarseness, ●●●ess Galen, in his Book De vo●● anhelitu, as it is before drink and liquid meat, that the Voice ●● clear and shrill, but drink being taken by the Gula moistening the Tra●hea next, and united to it, a clear voice is not uttered, and if i● be superfluously moistened with drink or rheum there is caused hoarseness, and therefore old men reason of the moisture of these ●●ts are hoarse, and dry bodies have a more clear and shrill voice than moist; and if the instruments of the passages of the Voice be opened, then s●ddenly mu●● air goeth out, and that is Anbel●tus, the breathing; and if they 〈◊〉 constrained, with the breathing there is somewhat to be 〈◊〉 differing, by the difference of 〈◊〉 instrument constrained; and if 〈◊〉 Epiglottis be constrained a 〈◊〉 is made; but if the cane only there is made a certain so●●● which is between breathing, and voice, and this is Roucedo hoarseness, of these things speaketh Galen. From that which hath been 〈◊〉 the substance of the throat doth appear, whose lower pannicle i● solid and hard enough, that it might resist Catharres, and evil Hawkings, and the smoky vapour breathed from the Hearr, and that it may withstand the motions of the throat in the voice; the situation, figure, and Colligancy, and number, and helps of the throat, and its quantity are to be seen; its complexion is cold and dry; it suffereth passions of all sorts. Of the top of the Throat which is called Epiglottis. He aforesaid things being 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 quod lingulae superemineat quae 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 dicitur Columb. ●● seen, I come to the top of the ●●●oat, the principal substance of 〈◊〉 member is of many Cartilages joined together artificially, and with great diligence, from which the Voice, and conservation of life reboundeth; the Muscles, Ligaments, and Pannicles covering the whole Trachea, do bind to●●●●er these Cartilages within and without. This member (witness Galen) is not of one only Cartilege, but of many, unlike in shape and quantity, that by the benefit of the 〈◊〉 it might be dilated and con●●●●ned for the breathing and voice; and its Cartilages are at least four, whereof one is not a pure Cartilege, therefore Authors the commonly appoint three Cartilages in the Epiglottis, which are pure; the first pure Cartilege is called Peltalis, or Scutalis, or Scutiformis, because it beareth the form of a Buckler, the convex part of it is forward, but the concave is turned to the centre of the Epiglottis, that is, to the passage of air, and this is bigger than the rest, which of us seemeth notably eminent in the former part of the Neck under the skin. After the Scutalis, toward the Gula, or Meri, is the second pure Cartilege, which wanteth a name, neither hath it a name of the Greeks, nor of the Latins, and therefore it is called Cartilege ●●nominata, or the Chartilage without name; this second hath its lower part of a perfect circle, with which it is united with the upper circle of the Trachea Arteria, behind, before, and on the sides, and toward the forepart it is firmly united with its circular part under the Scutalis, and the Scutalis hath too notable additions, with which it doth embrace the second, and those two united together do compound the whole circular poor of air before, behind, and on the sides, being altogether cartilagineous and hard. The third Cartilege being also pure, is commonly called Cymbalaris, and of Galen is called Autyoi●de●, because it is fastened within the second Cartilege in the top of it, toward the poor of air, right against the bone Hyoidea; this third is so much less than the second, as the first is greater than the second, and this Cartilege (in my judgement) is not one only, but two, united so that they seem one on●●, and this in its opening taketh the course of the two shutting of a little Book, one whereof is shut against the other, and they work in a contrary manner in the opening of them, and this Cartilege when it is shut in its upper part, and also in its lower, maketh the hole wider than in the middle of it, and then it hath such a hole, or holes, as the trumpet hath in its ends, but greater above than below; therefore Galen said in his eighth Book, De juvamentis, that for the voice it behoved the Epiglottis to be first broad, afterward narrow, and after that again to be made broad; and when this is shut it meeteth with the Scuta●●●, and when the parts of it, or the side● are opened, they go toward the Cartilege that hath not a name. Above these three Cartilage● is a fourth, which is a body membranous, cartilagineous, and fat, being like to the tongues of Pipes, and therefore Galen calleth it Glotida, it is also called Sublinguium, and this is the most principal Organ of Voice; and the Glotida is not a member of pure Cartilege, because a hard thing is hardly doubled, neither of pure Membrane, because in shutting it would be doubled, but it is compounded of Membrane and Cartilege for its decent shutting; and in it there is also fat, lest it should be dried as well by the almost continual motion, as also by the breathing and respiration of the air ●●●ing it; this member hath the Epiglottis to shut in time of swallowing; and the Cymbalaris also shutteth it; this on the hinder 〈◊〉, but the Glotida before, so 〈◊〉 ordinarily neither in Vomiting, nor in swallowing, any thing 〈◊〉 ●●●●er into the cane of the 〈◊〉. And the Epiglottis is not of one 〈◊〉 Cartilege, but of many, ●●at it might be dilated and constrained in the diversities of for●ings of the Voices, and therefore Nature gave to those Cartilages, and also to the Throat muscles serving them, four where●● do unite the first Cartilege to the second, and two of them are within, shutting the Epiglottis, and two without. There are other four which join the second with the third, to wit, with the Cymbalaris, two whereof are behind, and those open, drawing the Cymbalaris to the hinder parts, and two on the sides, drawing that also to the sides. There are two other muscles about the Cartilege Scutalis, within the Epiglottis, which 〈◊〉 the Cymba●aris. There are also two other Muscles within the Epiglottis; 〈◊〉 the root of the Cymbalaris, also shutting the Epiglottis; and the●● twelve are proper to the Cartilages of the Epiglottis; joined ●● none of the adjacent parts, wit●●●● Galen, 7. Deutilitate. The Glotida also hath one pair of Muscles, by means of which it shutteth the top of the Epiglottis, and those are stronger than the rest, witness Galen, 8. De juvamentis, and those resist the muscles of the Breast, and other muscles opening the Epiglottis, and perhaps (according to some) that those are the two last immediately described. Beyond the aforesaid are also eight other Muscles, whereof two are proper to the cane of the Lungs, witness Galen in his Book De voce & anhelitu, and those are in the channel of the throat, 〈◊〉 A●●cen saith those are at the 〈◊〉. There is another pair of Muscles serving the Throat, yet not principally, but serving also to the ●●●bers by, and this pair continueth the third Gartilage with 〈◊〉 Gula. And there are two other, serving the Throat, at the ruin of ●●ch there is caused hoarseness, and in that manner there will be twenty muscles serving to the Epiglottis and the Throat. And from hence is comprehended the error of some Moderns, which do believe that in the Fau●● there are two proper muscles serving to them, thinking that Avicen, in Primo primi de musculis gutturis, should by Guttur understand the Fauces, as he did in Nona tertii, but we deny this; because that Faux is not any determinate member, as we have spoke more largely in our Commentaries upon Mundinus, and therefore those that intent to judge rightly, do not trust in names, because the Interpreters of the Greek, and of the Arabic into Latin (being often ignorant) do take one thing for another▪ and by that means almost all Sciences are spurious by the variety of Interpreters. Of the Gula. AFter the Throat is to ●● Gula ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Gusto. shown the Gula, which holdeth the hinder part to the Throat before the Spine; this descendeth unto the Stomach from the Fances by the Neck and Breast, being contiguous to the Artery Aorta, and to the Spina, perforating t●● Midriff; this some Latins do call Gula, the Servant or Steward of Meats; the Arabians Meri, the Greeks call it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, as it were Ferens comesta, carrying things ab 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 fero; & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Edo. that are eaten. This member being included descendeth directly unto the fourth Spondile of the Breast, afterward it is a little obliqued to the right side, giving place to the Aorta descending, lest the motions of the Aorta should hinder things swallowed, and when it is not much distant from the Midrist it is a little lifted up, lest it should compress the Vein Chilis, and that it might be the better fastened for the sustaining of the aforesaid descending Nerves, after that about the tenth Spondile it doth a●●●n begin to be obliqued to the le●t side, and so descendeth obliqued to the Ventricle. The substance of this member is fleshy and pellicular, having in the inner Pannicle long Fibers' serving for attraction, terminated at the ●●in of the mouth, and of the lips, and broad ones in the outer part serving for expulsion, helping the expulsion to the lower, and also to the upper part, by contracting themselves, and by that means the Long and the Broad Fibers do help the swallowing, they also help Vomiting, and two Nerves do cleave to the Gula, descending from the Brain, on either side one, from which the Reversives do arise. And the inner Pannicle o● the Gula is thicker in the top of it than in the bottom, and thicke● there than in the Stomach, an● thicker in the Stomach than in the first Intestine, because there is no● required a resistance equally strong in touching of the matter digested, as of the undigested; and this inward Pannicle is continued to the mouth, that the attraction ●● meats might be continual, by which means the Epiglottis ascendeth naturally in swallowing▪ being drawn of the Fibers of the Meri, o● Gula, by reason of the strong Colligancy of them together; and from hence it is comprehende● that the Meri is a part of the Stomach continued to it with gradation. The Epiglottis also ascendeth, witness Galen in his Book, De Voce & A●helitu, because in all the inward part of the throat is tha● Pannicle involving, being fastness even unto the extremity of 〈◊〉 mouth▪ and lips, in which also there are long Fibers, drawing the Epiglottis to the upper parts. And there are some which say, t●●t the Epiglottis doth also as●●nd voluntarily, because it ascendeth when we will, and by that means it will have its motion compounded of a voluntary motion, and a natural; but Galen thinketh otherwise in his Book D●motibus liquidis, holding that 〈◊〉 Epiglottis doth only ascend naturally, in whose ascension the muscles of the Glotida do necessari●● draw it to the lower parts; and it may be those Muscles are not moved voluntarily, because the Epiglottis in his ascent being d●●wn by the aforesaid Fibers, ●oth draw the Glotida with it as other Cartilages; in whose ascent the Glotida is necessarily depressed, because it is fastened to its proper Muscles, which are united with their lower part toward the Trachea, and with their upper to the 〈◊〉 itself, which do not 〈◊〉 with the Glotida, and therefore do draw it downward, and by that means also (not always voluntarily is the Glotida shut in swallowing, by the ascension of the Epiglottis in the aforesaid manner, whereby it cometh to pass, that things drank and swallowed pass not to the Guttur, unless in a time in which the swallowing doth hasten before the ascension of the Epiglottis be perfected, and then Nature expelleth the things entered into the Cane with a Cough if it can; for it is reported in the History, that there happened choking Plin. lib. 7. c. 7 to Fabius the Praetor, ●nd, to Anacreon the Poet; to this, with the stone of a Raison, to the other with a Hair swallowed in Milk; yet the Glotida is shut voluntarily by its Muscles, when we will retain inspiration and respiration; and in that manner the aforesaid Muscles of the Glotida do shut it, sometimes by themselves, and sometimes by accident. The shape of the Gula is ve●● long, dilated in the upper 〈◊〉 the Fances like a trumpet; 〈◊〉 is not like a Cane, for it is like a Gut, whose lower Orifice is continual to the Stomach, where hath notable sense by reason of notable branches of Nerves ●●om the Brain terminated at it; its quantity appeareth; in number it is ●●e member; it is fastened to the ●outh, and to the Epiglottis most firmly, so that one is hardly separated from the other, it is also ●astned to the Throat through●●●, to the Heart by Arteries, to ●he Liver by Veins, and to the ●rain by the aforesaid Nerves; ●● complexion tendeth to hot, but ●ot excelling, because it is very pannicular; its helps are to carry ●●ings swallowed to the Stomach, ●●d to bring back many superbious things from it, to without ●e mouth; it suffereth passions fall sorts. He that desireth with diligence ●o have the demonstration of the throat, and Gula, first let him see ●e ●●tuation of them, beginning 〈…〉 lowest part, noting the ●ula, and as he goes upward let ●im ●ore the Colligancy of it ●ith the Throat, separating them with a Falx, or other device, ne●● unto the Epiglottis, nothing the a foresaid Muscles, to some of which he shall see the Reversire Nerves to be fastened. The Muscles being seen, ●● him separate the Gula in the ●● of it from the Epiglottis, and ●● him note its Cartilages, noting also the situation of the bo●● Lambda, which with its two greater additaments embraceth th● Cartilege Scutalis, and with i● lesser sustaineth the Tongue; aft●● that the three aforesaid Cartilege of the Epiglottis may be seen, a●● the fourth Cartilege united wi●● fatness, and pellicle, called Gloating by means of which is made t●● shutting of the Epiglottis; afterwards let the Tongue be cut noting its aforesaid parts; and the● things suffice for the Anatomy ●● the middle Belly, in which I hav● been prolix, and not absurd●● because these things are deli●●● to learners. Of the Anatomy of the upper Belly. THe upper Belly is named Ca●ut the Head, Quia ibi sensus 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Grecis dict: 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 cavitate, Bauhin. ●●tium capiunt, because the Senses ●●e their beginning there, which ●● Greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and the ●●ad for the present is taken for a● that which is sustained by the Neck, in which the Animal members are contained, that is, the ●●ain; of the former part of which ●ere is demonstration made of ●ome parts, for the better orders ●●ke. This Belly in a man is notable ●● its contents, and it hath parts ●●mmon and proper; of the com●o● some is before, some behind, ●l some on the sides; some a●ove, some beneath; the former ●● is called Sinciput, the hinder ●● Occiput, the lateral Tempora, ●● Temples, and the place of the Ears; and the upper part is called Interciput, Vertex, and Cacumen, ●● the lower is called Basis capitis, the Basis of the Head, and of its members, whether the Head b●e for the Brain, or for the Eyes, we have spoken in another place. The parts proper, some are c●●taining, and some contained; t●e containing are all the outward parts, to wit, first the Hairs, which nevertheless are not to be numbered in the parts of the Hea● (unless unproperly) because they are not members, but they are reckoned as a superfluity, sometimes profitable. Secondly, is the Skin, which is gross, somewhat fleshy, th●● the Hairs might be well fastened i● it, and that it might be a defence to the parts below it. Under the skin is a little flesh or none, except in the Foreheads, and in the Temples. After the Skin and Flesh is ● Pannicle compassing the whol● bone of the Head, called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and in Arabic ●●mocatim, and of some Zinzi● mater. After the Pericraneum followeth the bone of the Head, called of the Latins Calva, and Testa, and in Greek Craneum, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 corneum Licophroni autem 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ab imperando. because it is hard. The things contained are the hard Pannicle, and the soft Pannicle; this is called Pia mater, and ●●cundina, but that is called Dura ●ater; and above the mouth, in the bottom of the Head, below the hard Pannicle, manifold use doth place the Rete mirabile. Within the aforesaid Pannicles is the medullous substance of the ●●ain, with its Ventricles, Glan●●les, Worms, and Nerves risen from the Brain, yet the Pia Ma●●r, and the Dura, are of some pla●ed among the parts containing, ●ut the Nose, and the Miringa of the Ears in like manner, and the Eyes also are placed among the ●●rts of the Head contained, but not in the upper Belly, nevertheless they are contained in the ●ead, and so the whole Face is contained in it also, Therefore the Hairs are first to ●● examined, which are engendered by reason of the vaporo●● matter raised up from the whole to the Head, as it were overflowing by reason of the heat ●● the whole body, and from hence are made the hairs of the He●d called Capilli, made for their end because they are for comeliness, as it pleaseth some, and that it might defend the Head from many outward things. The Skin of the Head appeareth of itself, this wanteth motion unless in the Forehead, and the Temples, & it is therefore deprived of Muscles; it hath also little sense. You shall (by excoriating the whole skin from the Head) see the Pannicle called Pericraneum, every way made involving the Head, that the Dura Mater mi●h● be hung up in the Craneum by commissures, and by many other pores of the Craneum; this Pannicle is also there, lest the Skull should meet with the Skin, an● the flesh of the Head without a medium, and that the Craneum by means of it might be sensible, and that there might inhere to this Pannicle Veins and Arteries, feeding the Head on the outside, and those which enter in by the Commissures and other Pores, and those which go out. After that Pannicle is the Bone called Craneum, which lay bare throughout, considering the form of it, which ought to be round, that it might be of the greater capacity, and less apt to be hurt, and it is lightly compressed on the sides, making the Prow of a ship before, and the Poop behind, that its Ventricles might be long, serving the better to the operations of the understanding, and every form erring from that is evil, and by how much the more it is differing from that, it is the worse; this bone is not one continual, nor hard and thick as are many other, but thin and spongious, not very gross, and compounded with some Commissures or Junctures. Nevertheless the joints of it are not knobby, but with teeth like Saws, and rough, because they are not moved, and the Skull is so that its junctures might be stronger, and that if hurt should happen to one part, the other might remain unhurt, and also that the virtue of a Medicine to be applied to the Head, for an offence of the Brain, might the better work its effect; and that the vapours raised up from the whole, and from the Brain, might the more easily go forth and be resolved; and therefore the upper part of it is thinner than any other part, neither is it very hard there, because hurt doth not happen to the top, as to other parts (yet fiery Mars hurteth every place) and it is such lest it should burden the body, but it is thicken in the forehead, because it is soft there; nevertheless it hath two tables, within which there is a notable hollowness, lest it should burden the body, and that between them there might be air implanted receiving the favours; and this part is softer than the rest, because that which it containeth is softer. But the Bone behind is harder, because that which is contained behind is harder also the Bone behind is harder, because the eyes cannot defend it with their sight, yet it is thicker and harder in the sides, that it might be shrill, because there within the substance of it the Organ of Hearing aught to be placed. Also part of this bone in the hinder part toward the Neck is thick, gross, compact, and hard, and also on the sides behind the Ears, because there are fastened strong Chords of the Neck, which have great and almost continual motions; and behind the Ear are certain shar● eminences called Clavales, and Aculares, being very hard, to which many Muscles are fastened, moving the members of the mouth, and of the face, and of the neck, which if they had been soft should not resist the aforesaid motions. And this Bone is also hard about the Temples, because there are great Muscles moving the Mandibles, and therefore all those bones on the sides toward the hinder part are hard as a rock, and are called Petrosa. Also the lower part of this Craneum called Os Basilare is hard, chief in the direct of the Palate, where the Optic Nerves are situated in the form of a Cross, through which (perforated in that place like a Sieve) the moist watery superfluity of the Brain descendeth, and this place is commonly called Collatorium. This Bone Basilare in the top of it is not smooth but unequal, which may best be seen in Churchyard, as also other parts of the Head, and likewise all the bones of the Body, to the seeing of which let not him have recourse, which is not a lawful Physician. The number of the Bones of the whole Head, and the names of their Commissures I have very well spoken of in my Commentaries upon Mundinus, therefore I let pass the declaring of many things for brevity's sake, especially because the Writers of them do not agree. Part of this Bone happening first, is that in which are the places of the Eyes called Frons the Forehead, which is terminated in the first Saw-like juncture meeting it, which is called Coronalis, because (as it pleaseth some) Kings are crowned in that place, or perhaps because this Commissure beareth as it were a Bow-like, or Circular and Coronal form, descending from the top of the Head, of both sides, unto the corners of the places of the eyes, which are toward the ears. Right against this Bone is one other Bone terminated in the Saw-like juncture, placed in the hinder part of the Head, which is called Commissura Lambdae, because it is like to that Greek Letter which is called Lambda; this Commissure hath also the form of a Bow. Between these Junctures is another Commissure also like a Saw, placed in the top of the Head reaching from before backward, and this is called Sagittalis, because it goeth straight from every of the aforesaid Bow-like junctures to the other, as an Arrow standeth to a Bow. At the sides of this Bone above the two Ossa paris in the walls of the Temples, are two rough Junctures, on either side one, the lower bones of which do ride over the upper bones. The first three Junctures are called true penetrating within by a direct line, and those last penetrating obliquely are called false. Between those lateral Commissures ascending toward th● Sagittalis, there is also on both sides, one other rough Juncture which is seldom seen, unless in heads macerated a good while, or boiled to the uttermost, between which and the Sagittalis are two bones, on either side one, thinner than the other bones of the Head, which Galen calleth Ossa Bregmatis, and Avicen Prima primi calleth it Craneum, that place where the Coronal juncture is joined with the Sagittalis, is called of some Bregma, and Zuendech, and Fontanella capitis, in which the bone groweth together in Children at the last; and there are applied Cauteries, and Cerates, and other local Medicines for Catarrhs, and many other Diseases; in other parts of the Head also are many other Junctures, of which speech is not made, because Physicians have not so much regard of them as of the aforesaid. From that which hath been said hath appeared the situation, substance, and shape of the Head; its quantity lieth open, its helps and Colligancy are in part, and shall be spoken of; in number it is one; the number of the parts is spoken of, and also of the Commissures of the Craneum, whereof three are like Saws, penetrating directly inward, the rest are like Scales, penetrating obliquely. It's complexion is the complexion of the parts compounding it; it suffereth passions of all sorts, which if they be in the cover, and in the Brain itself are judged ill, more or less, according to the place and quality of the Disease. Of the Dura Mater. THe aforesaid parts being seen, Meniux dicta, ex rotunditate, à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 luna. (that the parts contained within the Skull may be more fitly seen) divide the Head from the Neck about the third Spondile; after that cut the Skull a little above the Ears (unto the inward circumference of it round about, so that you may not hurt the Dura Mater) keeping always the aforesaid situation. This being done, lift up the whole upper bone cut from its lower part with some Elevatory fit and strong, because it is most firmly fastened to the Dura Mater on every side, as well in the Commissures as in many other pores of it. The Skull being lifted up, you shall see the Dura Mater, called also Miringa, which is a pannicle somewhat thick, sinewy, and strong, yet it is porous, that the vapours may go forth from the Brain; its figure is plain, extended into a circular form, comprehending within it the whole medullous substance of the Brain, with the Pia Mater. The Dura Mater is doubled from the Prow to the Poop according to the length, and in the direct of the Commissure Sagittalis, within the substance of the Brain, for the quantity of two inches, dividing the right part from the left; it is also doubled behind according to the breadth, dividing the hinder part of the Brain from the former; this second Duplication is n●● fastened together as the other 〈◊〉, because the first is joined together by some Ligaments, and by 〈◊〉 Veins, so that in it there is a hollowness apt to hold any thing within itself, and within that hollowness from before to behind, are many Veins ascended from the aforesaid Guidez, which are there compressed of the aforesaid Duplication, and being compressed they do press out blood unto many little Branches of them, which are continual with the branches of the Pia Mater nourishing the Brain. Toward the hinder part, in that doubling is a certain hollowness called Lacuna, and Platea, and Fovea, and Palmentum, into which part of this blood is pressed, and there is almost always some blood there; for which Erophilus called that trench the third Vein, because this hollowness is very long as a Vein; and elsewhere Chords, as in Veins and Arteries; and in that trench there is not found blood under the form of blood; and Avicen calleth that doubling Torcular. It's quantity, situation, Colligancy, and complexion do appear; in number it is one pannicle; it helps besides the aforesaid, are to the Brain with the Pia Mater, according to its length, breadth, and depth, only by compassing, and by piercing into it, as it appeareth before; it also helpeth by mediating between the hard Bone, and the Pia Mater which is very soft. It also helpeth in supporting the Veins which nourish the Brain, and the members near unto it; it suffereth passions of all sorts, its notable solution is evil. Of the Pia Mater. UNder that is another thin Membrane woven throughout Pia vel lenis mater quae media est inter duram matrem & cerebrum, ut dura inter eam & craneum. with very subtle Arteries and Veins, being immediately fastened ●o the Brain, called Pia Mater, and Secundina, because it nourisheth the Brain, as the Secundina doth the young one; and in my opinion in those little Branches of Arteries every where dispersed in ●he Pia Mater, the blood or vital spirit is made subtle and prepared, that in the substance of the Brain, and in the Ventricles it may be made animal, as we have said in our Commentaries upon Mundinus. This Membrane is sinewy and thin, and is fastened to the Dura Mater in the top of it, from the Prow to the Poop by many little Veins, and with some Veins about the sides of the Head, and it is fastened through the whole substance of the Brain which it nourisheth; and according to the truth, the two Worms placed within the Ventricles of the Brain, do draw their beginning from those Veins and Arteries, of which the spirit is carried to within the Ventricles, and also blood nourishing the inward parts of the Brain; in the walls also of the Ventricles is some portion of the Pia Mater carrying blood and spirit, blood for the nourishing of the parts near unto it, but spirit for the operations of the Soul, as the aforesaid Worms do. From that which hath been said, do appear its substance, shape, number, Colligancy, and situation, and its quantity appeareth, which entereth notably, not only into the Brain without, but also within the Ventricles, and in many foldings or turn, although some may say that the Pia Mater is not in the hinder Ventricle, by reason of the hardness of its substance, nevertheless this part is nourished, and therefore it hath Veins although but little ones; its native complexion is cold and dry; its helps appear; it suffereth passions of all sorts, which are worse than in the Dura Mater. ●f the Marrow of the Brain. AFter the Pia Mater doth occur the substance of the Brain, ●●lled unproperly Medulla, or Medulla quia in medio ossis vel quod madefaciat ossa. Marrow, because it doth not nourish or moisten the bones near unto it, as the Marrow of other ●ones, but the bones of the Head are nourished that they may conserve that. It's substance is to be seen, softer before, and above, than behind and below; in quantity it exceedeth the quantity of the Brain of other living Creatures, as well by reason of the multitude of the animal spirits, as also that by its cold and moist complexion it might contemperate them, which come very hot from the Heart. It's situation appeareth, and also its shape, which is such above, and throughout, as is the form of the Skull, nevertheless it hath many manifest foldings at the first sight, and also many hidden which are seen in the dissection of it, within which the Pia Mater annexed to it doth enter th● 〈◊〉 out; its Colligancy appeareth, and will appear by the knowledge of its Nerves. In number it is one member yet it hath two parts which are not altogether separated from one another, but notably united. One part notably exceeding the other in greatness, is from before unto behind, filling the whole hollowness of the Skull before, and in the middle from the top to the bottom, and behind it filleth only the highest part of the Skull, being also in the direct of the greatest part of the Bone Lambda, and this part is called the former Brain. The other part fare less than the first, called of Aristotle Cerebellum, and more solid than the first, filleth up the hinder and lower part of the Head, and this hath its place in the hinder part of the Head, under the first part aforesaid; but in this hinder part of the Brain called Cerebellum, there is not any concavity, or ven●●●●e (as many note) It is well ●●●●red every where of the Dura and Pia Marer, and the sense showeth all these things; the first part aforesaid is notably divided of the Dura and Pia Mater into two parts, according to the length of the Head, that is, into the right and left part, that its substance and its Ventricles might be distinct and doubled. First therefore, remove diligently with a Razor in the other of the sides of that Duplication, side-ways according to the top and bottom) the Pia Mater, together with a notable quantity of the Brain, going down for the space of three fingers more or less, according as you shall find the Ventricles of it. For in every side of that doubling you shall find one notable hollowness called a Ventricle, which is extended long-ways, somewhat obliqued, descending toward the hinder part of the sides. One side being seen, see likewise the other, in which you shall see the very same as in the former; and these Ventricles are divided from the substance of the Brain, that if hurt should happen to one part, it might not happen to the other; and the operations of the one part of those Ventricles are like unto the other fellow to it. In that Ventricle on both sides is one pellicular red substance called Vermis the Worm, compounded of Veins and Arteries, which reacheth from one end to the other of each Ventricle, which hath motion (according to some) voluntarily opening and shutting the Ventricles. Beneath those Worms at the sides of them is a certain eminent part of the Brain, which many do liken to men's Buttocks in shape, which in the lengthening, and in like manner in the shutting of the Ventricles do touch one another, but in the shortening and opening of them they are separated one from another. In those aforesaid Ventricles, in the former part of them there is commonly placed Fantasy, Common Sense, and the Imagination. The aforesaid things being seen, remove a notable part of the Marrow of the Brain, that the other hollownesses of the Brain may be more diligently seen, noting in the foremost Basis of the two aforesaid hollownesses one hole, which is common to the aforesaid cavities, by which the spirit, and also some Humidities contained in them, do by descending go forth to a certain hollowness reaching toward the Bone Basilare, about that place where there is a certain glandulous flesh under the crossing of the Optic Nerves. This hollowness is called of Mundinus, Lacuna; of Avicen, Cap●t Rosae, and of others Embotum, because it is broad above, narrow below, every where compassed of a thin pannicle unto the Bone Basilare, and by that Embotum to the aforesaid bone (pierced there with very small pores as a Sieve) are the superfluous moistures of the Brain for the most part emptied, which afterwards in many turn of the Bone Basilare placed above the bone of the Palate, are thickened of the air drawn by the Nostrils, and of the natural heat, and at length are sent forth by the Nostrils & Mouth, by means of the Jaws, in that form which is known to all, having by reason of divers causes a divers substance, colour, quantity, and figure; from that which hath been said, doth appear the helps of the Brain, which nevertheless are of one sort from Aristotle, and of another from Galen and his followers, which see; it suffereth passions of all sorts; its solution is deadly, not always but fo● the most part. About that Embotum toward the hinder part, also under the aforesaid Ventricle, or Ventricles, there is a certain hollowness somewhat long, whose walls are like unto the aforesaid Buttocks, which shut and open that hollowness when there is need, either from the motion of the aforesaid worms which are immediately above them, or from another motion caused of the spirits. And that hollowness Authors do commonly put for the middle Ventricle, in which they say that the Cogitative virtue is. In the hinder part of this middle Ventricle is a little hole which reacheth to one other hollowness, which is descending toward the place where the beginning of the Nuca is; and this hollowness is not in the aforesaid Cerebellum, as many think, neither is it compassed every where of the medullous substance of the Brain, but it is placed between the hinder and former Brain, compassed notably toward the Cerebellum of the Pia Ma●●r covering it. And between that last hollowness; and the aforesaid middle Ventricle, is a certain glandulous flesh, called Conarium, because it is in the form of a Cone, or Pine apple; this glandule there doth sustain many Veins of the Pia Mater, ascending toward the Centre of the Brain, that they may nourish it; and this Glandule doth strain the superfluous Humidities to the aforesaid middle Ventricle, from which they are purged, forth to the aforesaid Embotum; and from thence as it appeareth above. In that hollowness spoken of in the last place, which is behind the middle Ventricle, being called the hinder Ventricle, Authors do commonly place the Memorative Virtue, but I think otherwise. And I say first, that the Apprehensive, Cogitative, and Memorative Virtue are in the first of those Cavities placed for the former Ventricle, as well in the right as in the left, and the Apprehensive or Common Sense is in the former part of it, and the Cogitative in the middle, but in the hinder part of it is the Memorative. And I say, that the aforesaid Ventricle, which Authors put for the middle Ventricle, is not for the Cogitative Virtue, but is a way for the purging out of many superfluities of the Brain, and for the carrying of spirits to the aforesaid third Ventricle, which spirits serve not to the Memorative Virtue, but to the Motive and Sensitive Virtue, which come from the aforesaid first Ventricle and are serving to the Common Sense, and from hence it is comprehended that the Nuca hath virtually its beginning from the former part of the Brain, and also that the Nuca doth substantially arise from the former part of the Brain, as well from the colour of it, as also from the continuation; (which is nevertheless continued also with the Cerebellum placed behind) yet it hath greater direction, and also Colligancy with the Brain, than with the aforesaid Cerebellum. But we have spoken these things better, and more fully, in our Commentaries upon Mundinus. Of the Nerves proceeding from the Brain. AFter the aforesaid things are to be seen the Nerves proceeding from the Brain, which are 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ex 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Nuto, & flectomotus est flexionis instrumentum. commonly seven pair, of every pair there is on either side one like to its fellow; and a Nerve called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, i● consimular member, white, viscous in substance, long and round in shape, fast and hard to separate, the Organ of Sense and motion, and the pure sensitive● ●●e softer, and colder than the motives. Therefore take away the Brain lightly, beginning from the former part, and you shall find in the direct of the upper part of the Nose two white long substances, on either side one, cleaving to the Pia Mater, the heads of which are somewhat gross, wherefore they are called of many Carunculae Ma●●llares, or fleshy Teats, and they are the instruments of the Sense of Smelling, which Galen calleth not Nerves, because they are soft; in the direct of them the pannicles of the Brain, and the Os frontis are perforated as a Sieve, as well for the smells as for the purging out superfluities of the Brain in necessities, because for the most part they are purged forth by the Colatory, which is in the direct of the aforesaid Embotum; and there be●●re in the Skull is a certain notable hollowness filled for the most part with air, in which air the ●●●se of Smelling is first received of those Caruncles. After the aforesaid Caruncles you shall see two great Nerves, which serve the eyes for the sight, and these seem to be crossed, but there is yet contention about this under a Judge. After those is one pair of Nerves, which is placed for the second pair, and these give motion to the Eyes. After those is a third pair, which is a little while united to the fourth, from which it is afterward separated, and descending it is spread by the Face; and within and below the Bone Basilare it is united with the sixth pair to be spoken of now; and together they make the aforesaid Nerves, descending to the members of the middle and lower Belly, and from them do arise the Reversives. Afterward are the Nerves of the fourth pair, descending to the Palate for the sense of Tasting, and these are subtle; yet some take the third pair for the fourth; and contrariwise, as we have said in our Commentaries, and there we have declared the cause of that error. After that there is the fifth pair, which is spread abroad on both sides, within the bone Basilare, in the direct of the Ears, and serveth to the sense of Hearing. After that is the sixth pair, which is mingled with the third, as it is said before; after that is the seventh pair, which because it is Obliqne, gives motion to the Tongue, and also to some Muscles serving the Epiglottis, it also giveth the sense of Tasting to the Tongue itself. The substance of these Nerves is known to all, yet the hinder are harder than the former for the senses within; its figure, quantity, situation, number, and Colligancy appear; in complexion they are not very dry, and therefore they have not strong motions; and they ar● cold by nature; their helps also appear; they suffer passions of all sorts, all which are evil, because of their colligancy and operations. Of the Rete Mirabile, according to the common opinion, and somewhat of the Nuca. THe aforesaid things being seen, lay aside the whole Brain, Rete mirabile ex textura mirabili. with that portion of the Nuca which is between the Spondiles, which you cut, and kept with the Head; first noting its situation, substance, number, and figure; its Colligancy with the Brain is spoken of above; its quantity and other things requisite unto it, shall be better observed from that which is to be said; in the beginning whereof near to the Brain is a certain hollowness, continued to the hollowness commonly placed for the Ventricle of the Memorative Virtue, by which the spirits sent from the Brain, for sense and motion, do pass to its Nerves; and the Nuca (as also the Brain) is covered of the Dura and Pia Mater, as the sense doth demonstrate. Those things being noted, above there is only the Dura Ma●er, because by removing the Brain the Pia Mater is also removed, by reason of the firm and continual Colligancy of them together. Between the Dura Mater, and the bone Basilare, in the region of the crossing of the Optic Nerves, where the aforesaid Colatory is, there do ascend by the Bone Basilare two notable Arteries, one on the right, the other on the left, as it appeared above in the Chapter of the Aorta ascending; from which (as Authors do commonly say) above the Bone immediately under the Dura Mater, are made many very subtle branches wonderfully united together, one above another, to the likeness of a Net, taking up a great place before, behind, and on the sides; after this, of those many branches are again bred two arteries like to the first, from which the aforesaid little branches are ●●de; and these two Vessels perfect and great do afterward ascend again above the Skull, to branch out even unto the Ventricles of the Brain, carrying spiri●● to them made subtle in the Rete mirabile. And about that Net, some say, that there are two Glandules supporting it, and they say, that the helps of that Net are, that a subtilization of the vital spirit might be caused there, that being divided unto less branches it might be the better altered, and the Animal spirit might be made; and perhaps that its little branches might be more easily stopped, and might cause sleep, by the vapours raised up from the meat, and made thick by the Brain, falling down. Nevertheless that Net I never saw, and I think Nature doth not work that by many things which it can do by few; but Nature can make subtle these spirits in the least branches of the Arteries, descending above the Dura Mater cleaving to the bone Basilare, and ascending by the Pia Mater even ●nto the centre of the Brain; therefore this Net is not given here between the Dura Mater, and the bone Basilare; many other reasons have I spoken upon this in my Commentaries upon Mundinus, to which for brevity's ●ake I referte the Readers, and Nasus a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 fluor: propter mucci fluorem; ut 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 fluo grae: sic Latin: nasus a no, per quem excrement a flnunt & quasi emanant, quod etiam spiritus innatet & enatet. among other reasons, sensible experience is to me a guide. Of the Nose. THe aforesaid things being seen, the speech of the bone Basilare should concur; but because the Anatomy of it, especially of the number of its parts is placed divers among Authors; and also because this Bone is better seen in Churchyards, than in a Common dissection, therefore I shorten my speech concerning them, and refer the desirers of this Art to our Commentaries, and to Churchyards. Let us therefore speak somewhat of the Nose, which for the present is taken for that principal eminent part, which being set with an equal ridge on the centre of the Eyebrows, doth distinguish and fence either sight of the Eye; the lower lateral parts of this member Galen calleth Alaria, they are otherwise called Alula; its upper part is called Lepor, and Summum Nafi, the lower part Inaum Nasi▪ the middle exterior part is called Columna, and the inner part of it dividing the right side from the left, is called Septum porrectum, and Interfinium Nasi, and some do call the lower holes of the Nose N●res, but for the present the hollownesses placed above the Palate in the bone Basilare, are of us called Nares, in which the moist superfluity of the Brain being strained through, is made thick; of which we have spoken somewhat above. The substance of the Nose is of Skin, Muscles, Cartilages, and Bones, and of the Pannicle covering its bones; its skin is so united to its muscles that it cannot (but with difficulty) be separated; its former and lower part is Cartilagineous, but its upper part bony; its muscles are two small ones, but hard, one on the right hand, the other on the left, more toward the lower part, because both do arise from the balls of the Mandibles, and they move the wings of the Nose to what part a man will. After the Muscles are three Cartilages, one in the middle, and two on the sides, which are softer than the middlemost, which is hard enough, that it might keep the Nose (which it divideth within by the middle) strait and strong. The Bones of the Nose are two, triangular, touching the Forehead, perforated with small holes towards the corners of Tears, by which the Humidities in the Eyes may penetrate, and from the Eyes into the Nose, and from the Nose into the Month, and by reason of this the savour of Medicines put into the Eyes is tasted of the Tongue. And the Os front is in the direct of the Nose is perforated as a Sieve, that it might serve for smelling, and that by them holes the superfluous moistures might go forth from the Brain, passing first by the holes which are in their Pannicles, about the places of the Mamillary Caruncles. From that which hath been said, is seen the substance of the Nose; in number it is one member, but divided into two parts at the inside, that if one part should but hurt, the other might be firm; its figure, quantity, situation, and colligancy appear; its complexion is appointed cold and dry; its helps are for comeliness, and for carrying and recarrying air to the Lungs; they also carry the matter forth from themselves, sent through the Colatory to the aforesaid Caves, which Caves are for the present called Nares. They suffer passions of all sorts, and their solution is easily consolidated; in the lower end of it are sometimes applied Horseleeches for safety, and such like; its proper passion is the annoyance of the Olfactive Virtue, which may happen to it principally by reason of oppilation caused in the holes that are in the Bone ●●silare, in the direct of the aforesaid mamillary Caruncles. Palpebr● à palpacid● id est praetentando objecta, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 grac: quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ho est visus tunicae. Of the Eyelids. PAlpebrae of Palpitando, of stirring, called also * Genae à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 genero ibidem pili generantur. Genae, are the pellicles covering the Eyes, known ●n all; their substance is of Cartilege and Membrane, with a very little (and it may be as it pleaseth some) with no fleshy part, the Muscles excepted, and it is Cartilagineous, that the Hairs may be fastened in it, which stand straight, and hard, that they may the better defend the Eyes; these are called Cilia, a Celandis Oculis, of covering the Eyes; it is also Cartilagineous, because it better ●esisteth outward things, and that it might stand upright when it is opened, because if it should be pellicular it should easily be depressed, and it is covered with skin for defence and comeliness. In the upper Eyelids under their skin is a Pannicle proceeding from the Pericraneum, which is turned inward, involving their Cartilege without and within, even unto the tunicle Cornea, the conjunctiva being between covering the muscles of the Eye, and in the lower in like manner there reacheth a Pannicle, risen from the Pannicle covering the balls of the Face, and by that means it seemeth that the tunicle Conjunctiva should arise also from the Pannicle covering the lower bones of the Face. About that Cartilege which Galen calleth Tarsum, there is some fat moistening them for necessity's sake, lest they should be dried up by reason of their almost continual motion; the upper alone are moved, but not the lower. And on either side their motion is of three Muscles, witness Avicen, whereof one openeth, which is in the middle, but the two others are in the corners, which shut, yet Galen 10. De Vtilitate, cap. 8. seemeth to place but two Muscles, whereof one is said to be in the corner toward the Ear, which he saith doth open if it be moved alone, and the other in the corner of the Nose, which he saith doth shut if it be also moved alone; and if both be equally moved the eyelid is not more shut than it is opened, and this half shutting is called of Hypocrates, Curva Palpebra, a crooked eyelid, which in Sicknesses doth infer an ill sign; and also Galen saith in the same place, Cap. 10. that he never knew the aforesaid muscle placed at the corner of the Nose, because he saw great Cauteries to be applied there for Fistulaes', and nevertheless the motion hath yet remained in the Eyelids, which had not remained if the muscle had been there. And he doth affirm, 11 De Utilitate, cap. 14. That the musculous skin of the Forehead, and of the balls of the Face, by their motion is sufficient for the shutting and opening of the Eyelids, and some do add with the help of the muscles; but Aristotle, 2 De partibus Animalium, cap. 13. saith, that the eyelids move not voluntatily, but by instinct of nature; nevertheless it seemeth to me, that they have a proper motion, and a common, the common is of the Forehead, and of the balls of the Face; but the proper is of their proper muscles, which have their Nerves annexed to the Eyelids, and to the muscle moving the Forehead, and to the Temporal muscles, and to those of the balls of the Face, but whether those Nerves should proceed from the Nuca, or from the Brain, it is not perceived by sense; yet Avicen saith, that in the upper eyelid only there are Muscles, because they are nearer to their beginning, that is to the Brain; which are small, and some say that they are without Chords, about the situation of which some are disagreeing among themselves. And the lower Eyelids are not moved (witness Avicen) because the motion of the upper sufficeth for the perfect shutting and opening to one another; and the lower are less than the upper, and more joined to the eyes, lest by reason of their greatness, and the separation of them from the eyes, they should gather in themselves bloodshot, and tears, and other outward things, witness Galen 10. De Utilitate. In the substance of the Eyelids, in either angle or Canthus, toward the Nose, are two small holes manifest to the sense, one in the upper eyelid, another in the lower, by which the Tears go forth, and in that Angle are spongeous flesh's which contain within them that humidity of Tears, that they might moisten the members near unto them, lest they should be dried; and those humidities do come sometimes from the Nose, and also from the Brain, by the Veins of their pannicles. The situation of the Eyelids, the number, quantity, shape, and Colligancy appear; their substance is handled; their complexion is appointed cold and dry; their helps are to defend the Eyes from small and soft things, but the bones adjacent do defend them from great and hard things; and they help in the causing of sleep; their Hairs also do help the Eyes, lest when the eyelids be open, dust or other small things might hurt them, and by their blackness they do strengthen the sight; and they are not very thick, lest they should shadow the sight; nor too thin, that they might hinder small things to enter into the eyes. They suffer passions of all sorts; and among others they suffer the turning in of their Hairs, which is cured by Cauterizing every Hair turned in, in its root, with a golden Needle, afterwards they are cured, as other places cauterised. Of the Anatomy of the Eyes. THe Eyelids being seen, the Eyes do occur, called Ocnli Oculi ab occulendo Varroni, quod ciliorum teguminibus, sen palpebris (ut Lactantius de opificio) occulantur. ab occultando of hiding, for they are hid between the Eyelids; for the seeing of which, first cut the Os front is in the direct of them, so that at length you may see the other of them, in the manner hereafter to be spoken, noting first its Nerve, which is called Opticus, which by perforating the tunicles of it reacheth towards its centre; and between the Conjunctiva, and Cornea, there is a notable fatness and glandulous flesh taking up the humidities, as the glandulous flesh of the root of the Tongue doth, which it streameth out sometimes by the Nose, and by the holes which are in the eyelids spoken of before, by means of which, as well by the fatness as by the humidities the Eyes are kept from drying up. There are also its proper Muscles which are seven, whereof one moveth upward, another downward, and one other toward the right hand, another toward the left, and two reaching overthwart do move circularly, but the seventh is near the Optic Nerve, which it doth sustain and elevate, and defendeth it from relaxing, whilst the eyes are fixed in a continual beholding, and therefore this alone fasteneth the Eye; some do say, that that muscle is doubled, and some that it is trebled, and all these muscles have their Nerves from the second pair of the Nerves of the Brain. The aforesaid things being seen, separate the muscles, the aforesaid fat, and likewise the glandulous flesh from its pellicles, which are really four, yet they are commonly appointed seven, which do differ somewhat in substance, situation, colour, shape, and quantity, and in complexion, but in Colligancy they do not differ; they do also differ somewhat in their helps. In those Pellicles which are called the Membranes, and Tunicles of the Eyes, there are three Humours, yet some do add a fourth which they call Aethercus, or the Airy Humour. Therefore of those Tunicles beginning before, the Conjunctiva doth first occur; so called, because it joineth the Eye to the Head; and this proceedeth from the Pericraneum, and from the Pannicle of the Bones covering the lower bones of the Face about; but it proceedeth immediately from the innermost pellicle of the Eyelids, risen from the aforesaid Pannicles; it doth also somewhat proceed from the Pericraneum covering the orbs of the Eyes, and this alone is truly one Tunicle. Nevertheless the Conjunctiva doth not cover the whole Eye before; but in the place where that faileth, before the Eye in the middle is the second Tunicle, which because it is clear as a horn, is named Cornea, this (according to some) hath four slender Tunicles, as it is found in its Ulcers. To this Cornea toward the hinder part is one Pannicle not bright, but obscure and hard, therefore it is called Sclirotica, which covereth the whole Eye behind, yet this is bigger than the Cornea, and those two are of some placed for one only for their Colligancy, because they both arise from, or are fastened to the Dura Mater. After them beginning likewise before there is one Tunicle called Uvea, and Coronoydea, and Foraminalis, because it is perforated as a Crown, and as the grain of a Grape when it is removed from that it hangeth by, or the Cluster, and its hole is called Pupilla; its colour is various but often black, and particoloured like the Rainbow, or of an Azure colour. To this toward the hinder part is fastened one Tunicle, which is almost of like greatness as is the Uvea, and also of the same colour, and this is called Secundina; because that, and also the Uvea do proceed from the Pia Mater, called Secundina; or as it pleaseth some, because this Secundina nourisheth the Eye, as the Secundina the young one. Between the Secundina and the Uvea is the Humour called Albugi●e●●, which in the direct of the Pupilla, cometh even unto the Cornea, and there this Humour is bright, more clear than in another place, and therefore some say that this Humour is called Aethereus, or the ●irie Humour, and so do appoint Four Humours; and because those two aforesaid Tunicles do arise from the Pia Mater, some do say that those two are one only. After those Tunicles are two others, one before, another behind, which is bigger than that before; the former is called Aranea, the hinder Retina; Aranea is subtle, but compact, more bright than an Adamant Jewel; Retina also is subtle, but not bright as Aranea. Between these are two Humours; toward the hinder part, and on the sides is the Vitreal Humour, which is like unto liquefied glass, yet it is somewhat thick and viscous, in the former part of which is placed the Crystalline Humour, as a Gem is placed in a Ring; the Vitreal Humour is fare greater than the Crystalline, but the Crystalline is harder than the Vitreal, and it is bright as a Gem; also those aforesaid two Tunicles do arise from the Optic Nerve (according to Authors) and therefore they are placed for one, which nevertheless, whether they be one or two, as likewise the rest, doth little concern the Physician; and the Optic Nerves are (according to some) notably perforated, nevertheless the sense denieth this in a dead Creature; we have spoken of other things concerning the Eyes in our Commentaries. From that which hath been said, is seen the substance of the Eyes; they are situated in their Orbs, that is in two great holes placed in the Forehead, and they are not very eminent without, lest they should be hurt of outward things; and for this cause they have the Eyebrows eminent without, and below the bones of the balls of the Face; their number, Colligancy, shape, and quantity appear. Their complexion by reason of the Humours is set down cold, and moist; and by reason of the Pansides is set down cold, and dry; and by reason of the multitude of the spirits is set down warm; their helps are known to all; they suffer Passions of all sorts: their proper Passion is the taking away, diminishing, and corruption of the sight. If you cannot see all these things in one Eye, see them in both, at least see in one the muscles, and the glandulous flesh, with its fatness, and also the Conjunctiva; but in the other see the Tunicles, and Humours; yet a learned hand doth seek after harder things. Of the Ears. AFter the Eyes do occur the Ears, called Aures ad hauriendis vocibus, from drawing Voices, Aures ab hauriendis vocibus Lactantio & Virgilio; alii ab aura, quod sonus per auram defertur; aliia Grae. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 vox. or because they are Audit vocum, hearers of the Voice; and as well the Cartilege of them as the holes are called Aures; their upper part is called Pina, or Pirula, and Lobus, but their lower Fimbra, and Lobus, where there are certain Veins flowing notably; if they receive solution, their inward part is called Scaphus. Their substance is Cartilagineous, that it might be safe from outward things, and shrill; they are without motion for the most part; some do think that the Memorative Virtue is in the lower part of them, therefore those that would remember do rub those parts; the truth is, that that last concavity of the first Ventricle of the Brain being doubled (in which I do place the Memorative Virtue) doth reach obliquely toward the Ears, and perhaps that by reason of this the rubbing of those parts doth help the memory. These members are covered with Skin, yet they have some flesh very firmly united to their skin; there is not sense in them, unless a little; their shape is known to all; they are winding as Periwinkles, that the air making the sound might the better flow into them without violence. Their perforation is in a bone more thick than any other part of the Skull, within which is a certain hollowness, which a certain thin and solid Pannicle doth cover, risen (according to some) from the Auditive Nerve, which is of the fifth pair of the Nerves of the Brain. In the aforesaid hollowness, which the aforesaid Pannicle doth cover before, is implanted air, which receiveth the forms of hearing, which it giveth to the Auditive Nerve, dilated into the Pannicle, which is called Miringa Auris, and then the sense of hearing comprehendeth the Vocal wave, and every other sound coming to it. And to this Pannicle within the aforesaid hollowness, are added two little bones apt to be moved of the air there in the next motion, which in their motion do strike one another, of which according to some, are caused all the forms of sound more and less, according to the air moved without. There are some which would have the aforesaid Pannicle to rise from the Pia Mater, which passeth with the Auditive Nerve to the aforesaid hollowness; but concerning its beginning see our Commentaries. For the well seeing of these things, there is required a learned hand, with Tenacles, a crooked Knife, a Saw, and a fit Mallet, because the aforesaid things, as well the Nerve which cometh from within, as the Miringa, which is toward the Orifice of the Ear, with the little bones, are seen with difficulty. From the aforesaid things is seen the inward, and outward substance of the Ear; its situation, quantity, shape, number, and Colligancy appear; their complexion is cold and dry; their helps are known to all; they suffer passions of all sorts; their proper passion is the hurt of the Auditive Virtue. Of the upper Mandibles. THe Ears being seen, lest any part of the Head should remain untouched, I come to the Mandibulae à mandendo, cujus in actione non parum adjuvant. upper Mandibles, which are placed after the aforesaid members, for better orders sake; those Mandibles have only two proper bones under the Nose, and are divided by one only commissure by the length of the Palate; in which are the Teeth, which are in shape, name, and number like to those which are in the lower Mandibles. These upper Mandibles are (according to some) compounded of twelve and more bones, but improperly, because they do add them of the eyes, and Ossa Paris, and those of the balls of the Face, and other bones, to the two aforesaid bones. The substance, number, quantity, situation, shape, Colligancy, and complexion of these Mandibles appear; their helps are those which are of the lower, and which are of the Palate; they suffer passions of all sorts. Of the Involutions above the Palate. FRom the Fauces above the Palate, Palatum quod labiis dentibusque quasi palis munitum sit, vel Palatum quasi palam latum. to the holes of the Nose, is an ample way, by which a man continually breathes to and fro; to this about the top are certain little Vaults, wind, or caves, placed under the Colatory below the Embotum of the Brain; the bony walls of which are subtle and pelliculiar: hence by the holes of the Nose, and by the Fauces, the gross excrements of the Brain are streamed forth to the mouth. For the well seeing of those, the great hole of the bone Basilare, by which the Nuca descendeth, being first seen, and those Spondiles of the Neck being well shown, which you took away with the head, divide the Bone Basilare with a Saw, or Falx, through the middle, even unto the Palate inclusively, and you shall see all the aforesaid things very well. Of the Anatomy of the Extremes. THe Head being dispatched, in a common dissection, the hinder part of the Neck doth first occur, called * Ruffo 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Tendo, sic etiam Lat. Tendo quiaix capitis motu tenditur. Tenon, and * Cervix quasi Cerebri via. Cervix, whose situation is from the Bone Basilare of the Head, even unto the seventh Spondile inclusively, descending from the head downwards. This part hath parts contained, and containing; the Containing are the Skin, the Muscles, the Pannicles, and the Spondiles. The Contained are the Membranes covering the Nuke, the Nuca itself, with its Nerves, Veins, and Arteries. Of the Containing, some are without, some within; those which are without, some are above, some below, and some in the middle. The upper outward parts are called of some Fontanella Colli, and it is the place where the first, and also the second Spondile are joined to the Head; this place is called of Avicen, 4 Primi, Alchadam, in which are applied many Cauteries for divers dispositions of the Head, and there also are Seton's placed. It's lowest part is called of Avicen, Alchael, or Alchel, and the middle part between these is called Nocra. From Alchael, even unto the Alkadam inclusively, there are between every Spondile actual Cauteries applied to Children, in preservation from the Epilepsy, and it is a singular remedy. Among the outward parts containing is also placed the Skin first occurring, which is to be excoriated, that the other outward parts containing may be seen, to wit, the Muscles, which in this Section are placed after, for the reason spoken of in the Anatomy of the former parts of the Neck, which nevertheless by the excoriating may be shown after a certain confused manner, and casting them away, first noting the quantity, substance, situation, complexion, and shape of them; the number, Colligancy, and helps of them being omitted, which cannot be wholly comprehended, by reason of the diflection of the head placed before, and of the former parts of the neck; which things being seen, the bones of the Neck do occur, placed among the former parts containing. These Bones are called Spondyli, and they are seven, which are more subtle than the rest, because they must be light, lest they should burden the body, and they are such because Nothos, called corruptly Nuca, is grosser there, which by descending is always made more subtle, because it sendeth part of its substance for every Spondile; yet the first Spondile united to the Head, is grosser in the hinder part than the other six, yet it hath a broader perforation, and the greatest part of the Spondiles unto the Os Sacrum, have wings and eminences, which this first is without, that the head might the better be bended to the hinder part, and lest it should tear the Nerves going forth from the Nuca near unto them; in that Spondile also toward the upper part are two pits, in which do enter two pieces of the Bone Bafilare, near unto that great perforation by which the Nuca goeth forth; it hath also two other pits almost alike toward the lower part, in which do enter two pieces of the second Spondile, although there be some that say, that those pieces are in the first Spondile, and do enter into the second; the first Spondile is united to the Head by strong ligaments, upon which it is bended sideways. After the first Spondile followeth the second, which differeth from all the rest in shape, for this Spondile hath in its top a certain additament, which Hypocrates calleth a Tooth, but of Galen it is called Pyroydea, because of its sharp form, and this additament entereth into a certain pit which is in the first Spondile, distinct from the perforation by which the Nuca goeth forth; and by reason of this the Head is safely moved forward and backward, and round about, or Obliquely, without the dislocation of the aforesaid Spondiles, which would be easy, if the aforesaid additament should not resist it; because the juncture of the second Spondile with the first, is loser than any other found in the whole Spine; also the other junctures of the Spine of the Neck are loser than those that are below them, and they have their bones Simenia, forked and small, lest they should burden the body. After the Spondiles of the Neck do follow twelve Spondiles, to which are united on both sides twelve Ribs, and those are called the Spondiles of the Back. After those do follow five Spondiles called Lumbares, and Renales, that is, belonging to the Loins and Reins, and there are the Kidneys, and two Muscles called Lumbi; Avicen calleth that Region Alchatim; and these are bigger than the rest, and the place which is between the uppermost of them, and the lowermost Spondile of the Ribs, is called of Galen Glutum, and of Homer Acrusta, in that region is fastened the Diafragma. After those Spondiles do follow three others, which are not Spondiles unless unproperly, and these are called of Avicen, Spondili Alhavins, and of Averro they are called Ossa Agit, and of Galen Os sacrum, and Amplum; but this sacrum, according to Galen, consisteth of four bones, with which the Ossa Ancharum are continued, which are very firmly united with that bone on both sides, and by the command of Nature they are opened, or separated from one another in the birth; also those Ossa Ancharum are in such a time opened in the Pecten, wherein other times they are also naturally very firmly united. After those bones first appointed, three by Avicen, are also three others, called Ossa Alhosos, and Caudae, and so in all the true and false Spondiles are commonly in number thirty, of all which the substance is bony, with some cartilege placed between their junctures, and they are all firmly conjoined by Ligaments, left they should be easily dislocared by their motion. Their quantity, shape, situition, and Colligancy is to be seen; their complexion appears; their helps are to defend the Nuca, and its Nerves placed with●n them. They are also a foundation of the whole body; but the Spondiles of the Reins, and Alhovius do principally this; they suffer passions of all sorts. For the well showing of these Spondiles Churchyards are requisite, our Commentaries upon Mundinus being somewhat helping; and that their inner substance may be well seen, and in like manner their Marrow, commonly called Nuca, divide the Spondiles through the middle from the head to the tail with a great Falx, preserving as well as you can the Nuca, and its Nerves unhurt; this dissection being made, you shall consider their Bones and Cartilege, and the Pannicle covering the inward part of them, and also the Ligaments with which these Vertebraes or Spondiles are united together; these being seen return to the Nuca. Of the Nuca. THe Spondiles being showed, the parts contained within them, as well in the Neck as elsewhere, Nuca vox Africa fortè a nuce dici possit Nuca enim spondilis includitur ut nuce nucleus. are to be seen; the chief of whom is the Nuca, with its Nerves; the other parts are two hard Pannicles, and one soft, that which is harder than the rest cleaveth to the bones, the other is instead of the Dura Mater, being also hard; the other is soft, instead of the Secundina, or Pia Mater, all compassing about the Nuca itself, and the Nerves. The substance of the Nuca is viscous, moist, with some solidity, and it is like to the substance of the Brain, but somewhat harder, and by how much the more it descendeth it waxeth the more hard; neither is it Marrow (as neither the Brain) as some do think; its shape appeareth to all. It's situation and place is from the lowest part of the Head▪ descending unto the second uppermost Spondile of the Reins inclusively, and it doth not pass that place; but from that place downwards. The whole substance of the Nuca is divided into many Nervs, which by descending even unto the last Spondile of the Cauda are divided through them; the number and quantity appear; it hath Colligancy with all members unto which its Nerves do pass; it is also fastened to the Liver, and to the Heart by means of the Acrta and Chilis, by certain very little Veins and Arteries, reaching to it through the holes of the Spondiles; these Veins and Arteries do perforate the aforesaid hard Pannicles compassing it about, and do enter into the soft Pannicle risen from the Pia Mater, by means of which cleaving unto it, that they may be supported, they do nourish and give life to the Nuca. It's complexion is commonly appointed cold and dry, but some think otherwise. Its helps are that Nerves might pass from it to the members, not in so great a distance as if they should come from the Brain, and that the Nerves might be more distinct, not hindering one another, and that they might be drier, and lest from their hurt the Brain should immediately be hurt; and also if there should not be a Nuca, the Brain should be bigger, and should too much burden the lower members; it suffereth passions of all sorts. Of the Nerves risen from the Nuca. WHat a Nerve is, we have spoken somewhere else; Nervus Grae: 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 quod per totum corpus diffunduntur. not only the substance of them, but their shape and complexion; from the head therefore descending to the end of the Spine of the back are Nerves risen from the Nuca, and these are thirty one pair, and one Nerve without a fellow, numbering them thus; the first pair of Nerves goeth forth from the first Spondile, one Nerve on the right, another on the left, as they are also always in all the other Spondiles; and the second pair goeth forth from the middle between the first and second Spondile; and in like manner is the third pair between the second and third Spondile of the Neck, and every Spondile descending hath one pair of Nerves correspondent unto it, either in the Orifice of its fellow, or in the Orifice proper to its self; and the last Spondile Alhovius, which is contiguous to the first of the three Bones, Alhosos, or Candae, hath its pair of Nerves, as likewise the Spondiles above it; but between that and the first of the Spondiles Alhosoes, is another pair of Nerves, and by reason of that doubled pair there are thirty one pair, and one Nerve unfellowed; because by descending between the first Spondile and the second there is one pair, and between the second and the third there is also one other pair, but from the last Bone which is properly called Canda, goeth forth one Nerve only; and as so there are thirty Spondiles true and not true, and one Nerve without a fellow. Their Colligancy is better known from whom than to whom, and they have Colligancy with the greatest part of members having motion; their situation and quantity appears, as also their number; the helps of those Nerves are to give motion and sense; they suffer passions of all sorts. From the aforesaid things doth appear, that in a man's body there are thirty eight pair of Nerves, and one Nerve, which in all are seventy sev●n, those two excepted which go to the Nose for the Olfactive Virtue, which are not commonly termed Nerves, because they are too soft; yet I call them Nerves, in as much as they are the Organs of the sense of Smelling, and as so there are seventy nine, whereof sixty three come from the Nuca, and fourteen from the Brain, or sixteen, the Mamillary caruncles being reckoned with them; of which it hath been spoken above in the Anatomy of the Nerves of the Brain, which afterwards are terminated to infinite Branches, and Fibers, which sense doth not comprehend, and these are thus, The Nerves coming from the Brain are seven pair, or eight. The Nerves of the Nuca of the Neck are eight pair. The Nerves of the Nuca of the Back, and of the Ribs are twelve pair. The Nerves of the Nuca of the Reins, or Alkatim are five pair. The Nerves of the Nuca of Alhovius are three pair. The Nerves of the Nuca of Alhosos, with the two Nerves, between the Spondiles Alhosoes, and Alhovius, are three pair, and one odd Nerve going forth from the Cauda. The Figure of the Spondiles and Nerves. IN this Figure you may easily see the number of the Spondiles, and you see how from the substance of the first Spondile do go forth two Nerves, from either side one, and you may note the number of the Nerves in the extremity of the lines placed in that Figure. Yet note (Reader) that the Figure hath not a true similitude with the Spondiles, except in number, but their true Figure is seen in the true Spondiles dried in Churchyards. Of the Anatomy of the Hands. Manus à manando quod ex Brachiis m●net, vel quod boc instrumento potissimum actiones è nobis emanent. THe aforesaid things being seen, I do first come to the Veins of the Hands used to be Flebotomised; with which also we shall see the Cartilages, the Marrow, the Bones, and the Nails, the Muscles of such members being let alone, which in a common dissection are not shown; yet the knowledge of Muscles is a very great help in Chirurgery, witness Aver. primo colliget, and therefore because for the present they cannot be shown, we will place in the end of the Book certain Figures showing some Muscles, especially the outmost; we will also place Figures showing the principal bones. First therefore do occur two members placed on the sides, which from the shoulders even unto the extremity of the Fingers are of Galen called the great hands; these members (for the present) have three parts. The first part beginning from the top is commonly called Adjutorium, above which is the Spatula, which also of some is placed in the great hand. Under the first part called Adjutorium, is the second called Brachium, and between these is the juncture called Cubitus, but commonly Brachium is taken of many for that first and second part aforesaid. Under the second is the third part called the little hand, and it is properly called Manus ab emanando, quia ab ist a part fere omnia artificia emanant; because almost all Handicrafts do flow from that part. Between that and the second is one juncture compounded of very many Bones, called in Arabic Raseta, and Ascam, and in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Those things being noted, you shall excoriate the whole skin of the great hand with diligence from the Neck even unto the ends of the Fingers; and you shall see, first the Vein Basilica, that is Regia, or Kingly; the Ancients before Aristotle did call that Vein Jecoraria, and it keepeth that name yet, because it is commonly called Vena Hepatis, the Liver Vein; it is also called Ascellaris, or Axillaris, because as it appeareth above in the Anatomy of the Veins, this Vein passeth by the Ascella, for Ascella is that hollow place on both sides, which is under the shoulders in the lateral part, between the upper part of the Breast, and the top of the Adjutory, which because it hath no vent in many doth savour ill; for it is not vented, witness Aristotle in his Problems; in these places is a notable part of glandulous flesh, which receiveth some excrements of the Heart, as likewise the kernels which are about the Inguina, and in the Neck about the Guidez, not much distant from the Ears, which receive the superfluities of the Liver and Brain, and those places are called the Emulctories of the Heart, of the Liver, and of the Brain; and those flesh's are as it were a mattress to the great Veins placed about them. This Vein called Ascellaris, and Basilica, descendeth by the inside and lowest part of the Arm, with the Artery fellow to it for a certain distance; after that the Vein is notably manifested alone about the juncture of the Cubite in the inward part; and there is flebotomised, and helpeth principally for the Diseases of the Breast, because it is immediately united to the Veins nourishing its parts. But from the Neck, by the outside, there doth pass from the shoulders to that Juncture, by the Adjutory, one Vein called Spatularis, Humeralis, and Cephalica, which also about the Juncture of the Cubite is flebotomised, which principally helpeth for Discases of the Head and Neck, because it is immediately united to the Veins Guidez. Between them is one Vein reaching overthwart from the one to the other, from which it receiveth blood indifferently; this is called Nigra, Communis, and Media, because it emptieth from the members of the Head and Breast, and consequently from the whole upper part, by which means it doth also empty from the lower parts. And the Cephalica descendeth alone for the most part, directly even unto the little hand, between the forefinger and the thumb, and is called of Albucasis, and of Rasis, and also of me, the true Funis Brachii, and of Cauliacus, and of Canamusalus it is called Cephalica ocularis. This being cut helpeth in Diseases of the Head, by reason of its Colligancy with the aforesaid Cephalica, and also by reason of its directness. But the Basilica descending also alone almost unto the hand, by the inside, and lower, is obliqued toward the outside about the little hand, which sendeth forth branches from it between the little and the Ring-finger, and this being incised emptieth from the Breast by means of the aforesaid Basilica. Between those two Veins of the little hand, there are (for the most part) some Branches between the forefinger and the middle, and between the middle and the Ring-finger, which incised stand instead of the common Vein; but the branch which is between the forefinger and the middle, doth more participate with the Cephalica, and that which is between the middle and the Ring-finger doth more participate with the Bafilica; and from the Cephalica above the Cubite by the outside of the arm, doth descend one Vein named also of many Funis Brachii, which for the most part is terminated in the aforesaid Veins being on the sides of the middle finger; and this Funis Brachii is not in use for phlebotomy, yet it may be incised in case of necessity, and it would carry from the Head, because it is continued with the Cephalica. There doth also often arise from the common Vein, which is in, the bending of the Cubite, one branch which doth descend alone on the outside of the branch of the aforesaid Cephalica, between the thumb and the forefinger, and therefore some have affirmed, that that branch incised doth help in the Diseases, in which the aforesaid common Vein doth help. Many times also there doth not any Vein descend from that common Vein between the Forefinger and the Thumb, and this I have often noted, not only in that, but in many other Veins I have seen them, and also Arteries, to differ their situation, and in some individual their branches are deficient, and in some superfluous. Many times also there is a branch between the Forefinger and the Thumb, compounded of a branch of the Cephalica, and a branch of the Common Vein, and then it emptieth from the Common Vein, and from the Cephalica, and more from the Cephalica than from the Common, by reason of its greater directness; for the directness of the Veins to the Members do make much for evacuations, witness Galen in his Book De Phlebotomia. Place this figure between 352. and: 353: pages engraving labeling the veins of the arm The first Figures of Veins. HEre you see in one Figure the Vena à veniendo, quod per eam sanguis veniat, vel à via, & no, quod via sint natantis san guinis. true Funis Brachii, reaching directly from the Shoulder even unto the Forefinger, and the Thumb; which in the little hand is called Salvatella of Mundinus; and of Dinus, and of Ugo, and of their followers Sceilen, which is counted of Avicen for one branch of the Common Veins; and you see in both the Figures how the Basilica is in the nearest part of the arm, and nourisheth it, and how from that, one branch goeth obliqne toward the left part of the hand near the Juncture, and goeth between the little Finger and the Ring-finger, and is called Ascellaris, of Galen, and of his followers, because it is a branch of the Ascellaris, or Basilica; and that branch between the little and the Ring-finger, you shall see in the following Figure; you see also in those two Figures, the common Vein, which is a branch between the Cephalica and the Basilica, or Ascellaris; and you see how from the Common Vein one branch entereth into that branch of the Vein Cephalica descending, which is terminated between the Forefinger and the Thumb, which of Albucasis is called Funis Brachii, and also of others, as it appeareth above. The second Figures of Veins. Place this figure between 354. and 355 pages engraving labeling the veins of the arm The Veins being seen at least in one hand, because that is enough, all its Bones are to be laid bare, with which also the Spatula is to be seen, made, that the hand might be sustained of it, and lest otherwise the Adjutory should be continued with the Breast, because then the facility of the operation of the hands one to another should be destroyed, and there should be caused a straightening; and it was separated from the Ribs, for its strong motion; and because being so placed, it might the better defend the members of the Breast toward the hinder part; and it was on the sides, lest in its motion it should meet with the Spondiles, toward which it is thin, and broad as a Splatter, and therefore it is called Spatula; its part toward the Adjutory is gross, in the hcad of whieh is a certain hollowness termed Pixis, in which is revolved the upper round extremity of the Adjutory called Vertebrum. The Os Spatulae there hath two additaments, one is at the top and behind, which is fastened with the upper Furcula of the Breast, and is called Rostrum corvi, the Crow's bill; whose help is to hinder, lest the Adjutory should be moved from its place to the upper parts; the other of the said additaments is within and below, which also doth hinder the dislocation of the Adjutory. This Bone upon the back of it hath a triangular substance, whose Basis is toward the hinder part, and its eminence is toward the inside, lest the superficious part of the Back should be raised into a sharp point, and should easily be hurt, in the extremity of which there is a Cartilege. Mark, that a Cartilege is twofold; one which is altogether softer than the Bone in any other part of a living Creature, and this is in the broader extreme of the Bone Spatula, and in the Breast, and in the Epiglottis, and also elsewhere in many places; there is also another Cartilege harder than that, which nevertheless is softer than a Bone, and this is in the extremities of the Bones of the great Junctures, which of Avicen is called Alaguahic; this cleaveth immediately to the substance of the bones; but the other Cartilege in the aforesaid Junctures cleaveth to that Alaguahic; and to the aforesaid softer Cartilege, the Ligaments in the Junctures do afterwards immediately cleave, fastening the bones together; and these things are best seen in bones boiled to the uttermost. The Spatula being seen, see the Os Adjutorii, which is the greatest of the Bones of the Hand, whose shape is known to all, somewhat crooked, in whose hollowness, as in many other bones, there is Marrow, called Medulla, quia est in medio ossium; because it is in the middle of the bones. For Marrow (witness Aristotle, secundo de partibus animalium) is a nourishment of Blood, and it is a concocted and contained excrement; and (Avicen prima primi saith,) that the bones are nourished of it; and hence is Nature known artificial, which since She hath not always Veins fit for the Bones, putteth their nourishment in their Pores and Concavities; and also if it be a superfluity, She likewise putteth the excrement in them, since She hath not another place fit for the aforesaid things. The lower extremity of the Adjutory Bone hath two eminences, with which it is joined with the two Fociles of the Arm, making with strong Ligaments the juncture of the Cubite; and in the hollowness which is between the aforesaid eminences, doth enter the extremity of the lower Focile, which is greater than the upper, which is crooked, that the Juncture might be the more firm for the continual (as it were) and strong motions of this Juncture, which for this cause also is seldom dislocated; and if it be dislocated, it is with difficulty reduced into its former degree; the Fociles of the Arm are also hollow, because all Bones are either hollow within, or porous, that they might be light, lest they should burden the body. And the extremities of those Fociles, and of all Bones, and of the Junctures of the Hand and Foot, are grosser than in the middle, because in the extremities there must be great Ligaments for the strength of the junctures, and in the middle they are small, that they might give place to the Bodies of the Muscles, which must necessarily be many and great, for their many shaped motion. After the Bones of the Arm are the Bones Rasettae, or Carpi, which are eight, for the multitude of motions▪ & also for other cause. Afterward is the little Hand, whose inner part without the Fingers is called Vota, and Palma, but its outward part is without a name (witness Aristotle primo de Histor.) Its Bones are four correspondent to the other Fingers, (the Thumb excepted) from which is compounded the Pecten of the hand, and the Procarpum, or Procarpium, and Antecarpum, and Metacarpum, yet there are some that would that the first Bone of the Thumb should be in the Raseta, and as so, the Thumb hath not but two bones; some say, that the first Bone of the Thumb is in the Pecten of the hand. After the Pecten are the Fingers; First is Pollex the Thumb, which hath two bones out of the Vola; after that is Index, or the pointing Finger next unto it; next to which is Medius the middle Finger, longer than the rest; afterward is the Finger called Medicus, and Anularis, the Physicians, and Ring-finger; after that is the least, named Auricularis; these four have three junctures, and three Bones; and also the Thumb in my opinion hath three junctures, and three bones, because I do not place the first bone serving it, neither in the Raseta, nor in the Pecten. In the inner part of the Fingers there is notable flesh, which is a coverlet to the Bones, lest they should be hurt in their continual meetings of hard things, which they necessarily touch in the operations of the hands; but in the sides of them is less flesh, and less in the outward part, because in those parts they do not meet with things hurting them in their operations, as within the hand. The Chords of those Fingers, especially the outermost, do enter into their juncture above; and every Finger hath a Chord, of which speech is not made for the present, because their Muscles cannot be seen, whereof some are deep placed in the arm, and some Chords come to the Fingers from the Neck, as we have more largely spoke of the Ring-finger in our Commentaries upon Mundinus. Therefore in the great Hand there are thirty one Bones (the Bones Sisamiis excepted) which fill up some junctures; and first is the Bone Spatula, afterwards the Bone Adjutorium, after the two fociles of the arm, and eight of the Raseta, and four of the Pecten, and fifteen of the Fingers. In the end of the bones of the Fingers are the Nails, whose helps are for the comeliness of the hand, and for the defence of the end of the fingers, and to take up small things; and the Nails are engendered of superfluities, as also the Hairs, therefore they do continually increase, yea in a dead man. From the aforesaid things ●●th appear the substance of the ●●●ds; their situation, number, ●●●pe, and Colligancy, and their quantity lie open; their complexion is such as are their parts; their helps cannot be described, for they are the Organs of Organs; they suffer passions of all sorts. Of the Anatomy of the Feet. THe Hands being seen, see Pes Lati. a Grae. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Quasi in ipso à toto corpore cessatum fit Aristotele. likewise the Feet, at least one, which is enough in that diffection, as also one hand; the Foot therefore is divided into great and small, as also the Hand, witness Haly and Galen; and the Foot, witness Haly, hath four parts, the first part is called Ancha, the Hip; the second Coxa, the Thigh; the third Crus, the Shank; the fourth Pes parvus, the little Foot. And first, the skin of it is to be excoriated every where from the top to the bottom; in the inward part of which under the skin, is one notable branch of the Vein Chilis, descending from the Inguen by the Thigh, which 〈◊〉 it is under the Ham (as 〈◊〉 have said above) is divided in●● three parts; one doth descend directly by the inside unto the innermost hollowness of the Foot, and this is called Saphena, which is cut in divers diseases. One other is obliquated toward the outside by the calf of the Leg, and descendeth to the foreign or outermost hollowness, and this is called Sciatica, or Scia, which being cut availeth for the pain of the Hip; and the bifurcation of this Mundinus knew not, neither his followers; and it may be that this branch doth avail for the pain of the Sciatica, because some of its branches are united with the branches of the Veins nourishing the Muscles, and the outward part of the Hip toward the juncture of the Sci●. Place this Figure between 304 and 305 pages engraving labeling the veins of the feet and legs Between the aforesaid Saphena, and also the Sciatica, under the Ham, even unto the little Foot, there doth descend one notable branch, which keepeth the middle between these, which may be cut in place of the deficiency of the other aforesaid; in the Figures under written, you shall see the aforesaid Veins, at least the Saphena, and the Sciatica. Here followeth the Figures of the Veins of the Feet. IN these three Figures you have all the Veins used to be flebotomised in the Feet, and in that Figure which is in the middle you see how one Vein big enough coming from the inner part of the Hip goeth overthwart, descending, and under the Ham is divided into two Forks, one branch of which goeth by the inner part of the Foot, or Shank, even unto the little Foot, which is called Saphena. But another Branch goeth by the outer part of the Foot, which is called Scia, and those branches as well inward as outward, are seen in the Figures on the sides, which are flebotomised about the ankles, or about the toes of the Feet. The Veins of the Foot being seen, the Muscles are to be removed wholly from the bones; as also it is done in the Section of the Hand, for the same cause, noting that glandulous flesh about the Inguen, which is the emunctory of the Liver, about which doth pass one aforesaid branch of the Vein Chilis descending, from which the Saphena, and the Sciatica Vein are made; and in that flesh the matters overflowing to the Liver are drunk in, as we have said in another place. The Muscles being removed, the Bones of the Foot do remain, of which that which doth first occur, from the upper parts, is called Os Anchae, which Bone is on either side one; these two Bones are in the hinder part most firmly united to the Os Sacrum, or to the bones Alhovius; but in the Pecten they join themselves togeter, and these two Bones as well before as behind, are (by God's appointment) opened in Births; and these Bones are more crooked and large in a Woman than in a Man, for the Birth; and these Bones have four names, before they are called Ossa Pectinis, Penis, Pubis, and Femoris; and on the hinder part they are called Ossa Anchae, and on the top and before they are called Ossa Ilii, and Alharthapha, and below in the place in which there is a hollowness, it is called Pixis, into which doth enter the head of the Os Coxae, which is round on the top, called Vertebrum; they are called Ossa Sciae, and Acceptabulum. To those two Bones Ancharum in the hinder par● do adhere the Buttocks called Nates à nitendo, of being neat and comely, and Sessus à sedendo, of sitting; in those parts the flesh is thicker than in other members, lest pressing upon it, the soft of the body should be pressed with Bones; and those parts (according to some) have Colligancy with the whole, therefore they say, that Ventoses and Horseleeches applied there are instead of phlebotomy; and they are dull of sense, because they are little Nervous; and among other helps they do perform rest to the body by sitting; they do also defend the Anus from cold; and they are for comeliness, by hiding the place of excrements. After that Bone or Bones of Ancha, doth follow the Os Coxae, being a long concave within, and convex without, and more gross than any other Bone of the body; hollow, that it might be light, in which there is marrow, as also in other great Bones; and the juncture between that Bone and the Os Ancha is called Scia; that Bone hath two Additaments above, and two below, but those above are greater, one whereof doth enter into the aforesaid Pixis of the Os Anchae, in the centre of which, besides other Ligaments, it is most firmly united with one ligament, Chordy, round, and hard, lest it should be easily dislocated. And their lower additaments are joined with the two Pociles of the Shank, in the former part of which there is a smooth round bone called Rotula, and all these bones are fastened together very firmly by Ligaments, and this Juncture is called Genu the Knee, whose hinder part is called Poples the Ham. From the Knce to the little Foot is the Leg, whose former part is called Crea, and the hinder part Sura, in that part are the two aforesaid Bones which are called Focilia, Arundines, Colla, Tibiae, and Cannae; those two Fociles do differ in quantity, for the bone placed in the inner part, is longer, and more gross than that which is placed in the further; and the lesser is not joined with the bone of the Hip, but cleaveth to the great Focile below the Knee, that it might strengthen it, and that it might keep it strait. Those two Focil●s toward the bottom, are terminated to one Bone of the little Foot, which is gross enough, named of Avicen Os Cahab, at the sides whereof the two aforesaid Fociles do make that eminence on either side which are called Cavillae the Ankles; and of all these is ordained the greater of the junctures of the little Foot. The Foot also hath a concavity below, and a convex part above, which is called Mons, and Altum pedis; and the whole Foot is compounded of many bones, whereof that which first occurreth is the aforesaid Os Cahab, under which is Os Calcanei the Heel-bone, which as one stands is declining toward the bottom; before the Os Cahab is one Bone called Naviculare, after that four Bones of the Raseta, to which toward the outside is united one Bone of the Sisaminum, after that five Bones of the Pecten of the Foot; then are fourteen bones of the Toes; in the middle juncture of the great Toe are seen also two Bones, Sisamia, or Sisamina, so called because they are like to the grains of Sisamum. And the Chords extending the Toes begin in the Shin, and those contracting them are in the sole of the Foot, which Chords with their Muscles cannot well be seen but in bodies consumed in the water, or dried in the Sun. In the extremity of the bones of the Toes are also the Nails, the helps of whom are those which are in the Hands, this excepted, that they are not for the taking up of small matters. From the things done before is to be seen the substance of the Feet, in which also are Cartilages, Albaguahic, and Arteries, as in the hands; their situation, shape, quantity, Colligancy, and number appear; their complexion is such as is the complexion of Organical members; their helps are to change the place, and to carry the upper parts to the will of the Soul as far as they can: they suffer passions of all sorts; the Figures of the Muscles and of the Bones do follow. The first Figure of Muscles. THis is a Figure which resembleth a Man flayed from the skin, in which are seen the shapes of the outward Muscles of the former part of a man, by which Physicians are helped in knowing the Heads, and also the middle parts of the Muscles, that thereby they might the better know to Prognosticate of Wounds, Ulcers, and Apostumes, and that also they might know to make the incision of Ulcers, and of Wounds, and other Chiturgical operations, without the hurt of the Chords, which are the heads of the aforesaid Muscles. place these .4. figures between. 372. and. 373. pages engraving set of images depicting muscles and skeleton 1 2 3 4 The second Figure of Muscles. IN this Figu●● are seen the outward Muscles on the sides of a man's body, from which Physicians are made cautious in Prognosticating Aposturnes, Ulcers, and Wounds, and in Incision, and in other Chirurgical operations. The third Figure of Muscles. THis is a Figure in which are seen all the Muscles behind, placed immediately under the skin, which doth perform the aforesaid helps to Physicians, and those Figures do also help Painters in the drawing of members. The first Figure of Bones. IN this Figure are seen the forms, and situations, and also the true number of all the Bones of a man's body, except the bones of the head, and also the bones of the back; all the junctures of which cannot be seen, unless in bodies boiled, or dried in Churchyards. The second Figure of Bones. IN this Figure are seen the bones of the hinder part of a man; there are also seen two Skulls, in the right of which is seen the Coronal Commissure which is in the upper part, & the Sagittalis is seen which is in the middle, the Commissure of Lauda is also seen, which is in the lower part on the sides; there are also seen the two Commissures named of me above in the Anatomy of the Craneum, which are above the Commissures Squamosas being near the Ears, but they are almost not to be perceived; on the left side is another Skull, in which are seen the Mandibles, and part of the Coronal Commissure, and two Commissures below, the Sagittalis being on one side, and there is seen one bone of the two Ossa Paris which is from the region of the Eye, or from the Bone called Domum Faciei, reaching ●●ace these 2. figures between pages .374. and .375. engraving set of two images depicting the human skeleton through the breadth of the ●ead toward the Ear. The third Figure of Bones. YOu have in this Figure the number, shape, and situation of the Bones of the Hand and ●oot; in the Hand are the extremities of the two Fociles of the Arm, and eight Bones of the Ra●etta, and four of the Pecten, and fifteen of the Fingers. In the Foot you have the Os ●alcanei, and the Os Cahab, and ●s Naviculare, and four bones ●f the Rasetta, and five Bones of ●he Pecten, and fourteen Bones of ●he Toes. These are those things which ●or the present we have given to ●ur Scholars for common Anatomy, for the end whereof let ●im be praised which is three and ●ne, whom I most humbly entreat that he may direct me to ●reater matters. Amen. And he which is not content ●ith these, let him have recourse to our most wholesome Commentaries upon Mundinus. Far y● well in the Lord, ye which g●ther the Flowers of our Art after the manner of Bees; for we d● reject the outrageous Reader, t● rest we entreat and reverence once more farewell. FINIS.