Janua Scientiarum: OR, A COMPENDIOUS INTRODUCTION TO Geography, Chronology, Government, History, Philosophy, And all Genteel sorts of LITERATURE By CHARLES BLOUNT Gent. — Brevis esse Laboro. Printed by Nath. Thompson at the Entrance into the Old-Spring-Garden near Charing-Cross, MDCLXXXIV. To His GRACE, Charles Lenox, DUKE of RICHMOND, EARL of MARCH, BARON of SHEDRINGTON, Master of the Horse TO HIS MOST Sacred Majesty, And Knight of the most Noble Order of the GARTER. This Piece is most humbly Dedicated by the Author, CHARLES BLOUNT. ERRATA. PAge 2. line 5. read Corcica, p. 2. l. 9 r. Stephanus, p. 31. l. 16. after Luxury put the, p. 32. l. 3. r. Astyages, p. 40. l. 16. r. Antoninus, p. 42. l. 16. r. Constantinus, p. 43. l. 5. r. Heruli, p. 45. l. 16. r. Lygdanus, p. 61. l. 21. r. Antoninus Pius, p. 61. l. 22. r. Aurelius Antoninus, p. 62. l. 19 r. Scythia, p. 63. l. 4. after whom r. he, p. 64. l. 6. r. Antoninus, p. 66. l. 11. after rather r. a, p. 70. l. 17. r. 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Great is Diana of the Ephesians: Or, the Original of Idolatry; Together with the Politic Institution of the Gentiles Sacrifices. Both Bound together, price 1 s. 6 d. Both written by C. Blount Gent. Kings of The first ASSYRIAN or BABYLONISH MONARCHY. (which began Ano. M. 1788 & lasted 1646 years) were NIMROD. Belus Ninus or Ashur Semiramis Ninias Arius & others we known till Sardanapalus After whom the Empire was divided by Rebellion Ano. M. 3148 between MEDIA Arbaces Mandanes Sosarmus Articas Cardicias Deioces Phraortes Cyaxares Asty ages by Succession BABYLON Belesus Tiglah-Pelesar Salmanasar Senacherib Assarhaddon Merodach-Baladan Nabuchadnezzar Evil Merodack Belshazar. by Conquest Kings of the second or PERSIAN MONARCHY, (which began Ano. M. 3434 and lasted, 228 years) were CYRUS Cambyses Darius Hystaspes Xerxes Artaxerxes Longimanus Darius Nothus Artaxerxes Mnemon Artaxerxes Ochus Arsames Darius Codomannus Overcome by The first King of the third GRECIAN or MACEDONIAN MONARCHY, (which. began Ano. M. 3642 & lasted 300 years) were ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Who dying without sons after him the Empire was divided into these four parts. MACEDON ●ridaeus Brother of Alex: M. Cassander Phillippus Antipater Demetrius Poliorcetes Pyrrhus King of Epirus Lysimachus Ptolomaeus Ceraunus Meleager Antipater the 2d. Sosthenes Antigonus Gonatus Demetrius the 2d. Antigonus Doson Phillipus the 2d. Perseus who being Overcome By Paulys Emylius the Roman Consul, Macedon was hereby reduced into a Province Under the ROMANS: Who Anº: M: 3924 began ASIA MINOR 1 Antigonus Phil: of Macadons. Bastard 2 Demetrius Poliorcetes Who being expelled by his Son in Law Seleucus Nicanor. Asia was thereupon A next to Syria, and by consequence fell, jointly with Syria under the Dominion of The ROMANS: Who Anº: M: 3924 began SYRIA 1 Seleucus Nicanor 2 Antiochus Soter 3 Antiochus Theos 4 Seleuchus Callinachus 5 Seleuchus Ceraunus 6 Antiochus Magnus 7 Seleucus Philopater 8 Antiochus Epiphanes 9 Antiochus Eupater 10 Demetrius Soter 11 Alexander Bala 12 Demetrius Nicanor 13 Antiochus Entheus 14 Tryphon 15 Antiochus Sidetes 16 Demetrius Nicanor, redux 17 Alexander Zebenna 18 Antiochus Grypus 19 Tygranes who being subdued by Pompey, Syria after that became a Province. Under the ROMANS: Who Anº: M: 3924 began EGYPT 1 Ptolomeus lagus Phil: Bastard of Mace● 2 Ptolom: Philadelphus 3 Ptolom: Evargetes 4 Ptol: Philopater 5 Ptol: Epiphanes 6 Ptolo: Philometor 7 Ptolo: Physcon 8 Ptolom: Lamyrus 9 Ptolom: Alexander 10 Ptol: Lamyrus redux 11 Ptol: Auletes 12 Ptolom Dijonisius 13 Cleopatra (Daughter of Ptolom: Auletes) who was not only the Beloved Mistress of Julius Saesar, but also of Mark Anthony, whose Over throw at Actium made her in despair throw away her Life by the Biting of an Asp & by her Death Egypt was also reduced into a Province Under the ROMANS: Who Anº: M: 3924 begins first Period of the fourth MONARCHY, or ROMAN EMPIRE (which. reached to Constantine the Great, & lasted 355 years) under 1. JULIUS CAESAR 2 Augustus 3 Tiberius 4 Caligula 5 Claudius 6 Nero 7 Galba 8 Otho 9 Vitellius 10 Flavius Vespasian 11 Tytus Vespasian 12 Domitian 13 Nerva 14 Trajanus 15 Adrianus 16 Antoninus Pius 17 Antoninus Phylosophus 18 Commodus 19 Pertinax 20 Didius Julianus 21 Septimius Severus 22 Carracalla 23 Macrinus 24 Heliogabalus 25 Alexand: Severus 26 Maximinus Thrax 27 Balbinus, & Puppienus 28 Gordianus 29 Phillippus Arabs 30 Decius 31 Tribonianus Gallus 32 Valerian 33 Galienus 34 Claudius Secundus 35 Aurelianus 36 Tacitus 37 Probus 38 Carus 39 Dyoclesian and 40 Constantius Chlorus, The Father of Constantine the Great, Who Removing the Seat of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium in Greece, did there after his one Name Erect Constantinople, where (as Historians reckon) began (A. Ch. 306) the Empire of the East. LIB. I. OF GEOGRAPHY. Qu. WHat is Geography? Ans. It is the description of the Globe of the Earth; and differs from Topography, (which is the description of particular places) as the whole differs from a part. Qu. Into how many parts is the Earth divided? Ans. Into four; Europe, Asia, Africa, and America both North and South. Qu. Which are the chief Countries of Europe? Ans. Europe may be divided into these three parts: I. on the Continent, Scandinavia, which comprehends Sweden, Denmark, and Norway; Muscovy, or Russia, France, Germany, Poland, Spain, Italy, and part of Turkey. II. The British-Isles; as, England, Scotland, and Ireland. III. Isles on the Mediterranean; as, Sardinia, Candia, Sicily, Corcia, Majorca, and Minorca. Qu. Which are the chief Countries of Asia? Ans. Asia may be divided also into three parts; as, I. On the Continent, part of Turkey, Georgia, Arabia, Persia, India, or Moguls Country, China, and Tartary. II. Isles on the Ocean; as, Maldivies, Ceylan, Sunda, Molucques, Philippines, and Japan. III. Isles on the Mediterranean; as, Cyprus, Rhodes, Scio, and Metelin. Qu. Which are the chief Countries of Africa? Ans. Africa in like manner may be divided into three parts; as, I. On the Continent, Barbary, Egypt, Biledulgerid, Zaara, Country of Negroes, Guiney, Nubia, Abissinea, or Aethiopia, Zanguebar, Congo, Monomotapa, Caffares. II. Isles on the Ocean; as, Madera, Canaries, Cape Verde, St. Thomas, St. Helena, Madagascar, or St. Laurence, and Zocotora. III. an Isle on the Mediterranean-Sea, called Malta. Qu. Which are the chief Countries of America? Ans. Which America do you mean? for it is usually divided into North and South. Qu. Which then are the chief parts of the Northern America? Ans. The Northern America may likewise be divided into three parts; as, I. On the Continent, the Arctickland, New north Wales New south Wales New Britain, Canada, New France, New Scotland, New England, New York, New Jersey, or Pennsylvania, Mary-Land, Virginia, Carolina, Florida, Mexico, or New Spain, New Mexico, Land of Jesso, and Anian. II. Isles on the North Sea; as, Newfoundland, and the Antilles, which comprehend Jamaica, together with all the Lucaif and Caribbe-Isles. III. an Island in the South Sea, named California. Qu. Which are the chief parts of the Southern America? Ans. The Southern America (excepting one Island, called Magellanick) is all a Continent, having in it these several Countries, viz. the firm Land, Magellan, Peru, amazons, Chili, Brasil, and Paraquay. Qu. What is a Continent? Ans. A Continent is one great parcel of Land, wherein are many countries' joined together, without being separated by the Sea. Qu. What is an Island? Ans. An Island is any part of Earth encompassed round with Water; as, Great Britain and Ireland. Qu. Of what extent or circumference is the Earth judged to be? Ans. Geographers divide the Globe into 360 parts or degrees; So that reckoning each Degree to be 73 Italian miles, or 69 English, (which is the same) its Circumference will appear to be 26286 miles, and its Diameter 8365 miles. Qu. Of what situation and extent is Europe? Ans. Europe is for the most part situate in the Northern Temperate Zone, and contains within its bounds the principal part of the Roman and Grecian Monarchies: whose length, from Cape-finis-terre on the west of Spain, to the River janais in Muscovy, is 2400 miles; and breadth, from Cape-Metapan in Morea, to the most Northern Promontory of Norway, about 2100 miles. Qu. How is Europe bounded? Ans. Europe is bounded on the North with the Northern Ocean, or frozen Sea; on the West with the Western or Atlantic Ocean; on the South, with the Mediterranean Sea, parting Europe from Africa; and lastly, on the East, it is divided from Asia by the Rivers Duina and Tanais. Qu. Of what situation and extent is Asia? Ans. Asia (from whence sprang the first Monarchies and Religions of the World, and now possessed by four the greatest Princes of the Earth, (viz.) the Grand Signior, Sultan of Persia, Great Mogul, and Cham of China and Tartary:) is seated mostly in the Temperate Zone: and extends in length, from Smyrna in the West, to the farthest part of Tartary near Jesso in the East, about 4800 miles; and in breadth, from the lowest part of Malacca in the South, to the straits of Weigats in the North, near 4200 miles. Qu. How is Asia bounded? Ans. Asia, on the west, is separated from Africa by the Red-Sea, and by the Istmhus of Sues; from Europe, by the Rivers Tanais and Duina; and towards the other part of the World, is environed by the Tartarian, Chinean, Indian, Persian, and Arabian Seas. Qu. Of what situation and extent is Africa? Ans. Africa is situated under the Torrid Zone: being in length, from Cape-Verde to Gaardafuy, 4300 miles; and in breadth, from Cape-Bon to the Cape of good-hope, 4200 miles. Qu. How is Africa bounded? Ans. Africa is form like a Triangle, and separated from all parts of the World but Asia by four Seas: being limited, on the North, by the Mediterranean; on the East, by the Red-Sea, or Arabian-Gulph; on the South, by the Aethiopian; and on the West, by the Atlantick-Ocean. Qu. How is America bounded? Ans. America (the fourth and last known part of the World, which Columbus first discovered 190 years ago) is bounded on the East, by the Atlantic and Vergivian Seas, which part it from Europe and Africa; on the West, by Mare Pacificum, which divides it from Asia; on the South, by Terra incognita, separated by the straits of Magellan; and on the North, by parts as yet undiscovered: so as no extent thereof can certainly be given. Qu. Now, forasmuch as it concerns all Europeans to have a more particular knowledge of Europe, as well as of the chief Towns in other parts of the World, wherewith we trade: pray tell me first, how many Cities and Parishes there are in England, together with its extent, circumference and limits? Ans. In England there are twenty-five Cities, whereof London, York, Bristol, and Norwich, are the four chief. Also it is divided into fifty-two Shires or Counties, and those again into 9725 Parishes: being in length, from Barwick in the North, to the Isle of Wight in the South, 386 miles; and from Dover in the East, to the Landsend in Cornwall in the West, about 279 miles; and 1300 miles in compass round about. Lastly, it is bounded on the South with Normandy and France, on the East with Germany and Denmark, on the West with Ireland, and on the North with Scotland. Qu. Which are the chief Cities or Towns in France; and how is it divided? Ans. France may be divided into three parts; 1. the Inland, containing these Provinces, (viz.) the Isle of France, Champagne, Orleanois, Burgundy, Lyonnois, and Dauphine. 2. on the Ocean, as are Picardy, Normandy, Bretagne, Guienne, and Gascoigne. 3. and lastly, on the Mediterranean, Languedock and Provence. As for the chief Cities or Towns of France, they are these; Paris, Roven, Lions, Bourdeaux, Tholouse, Rochel, Aix, Grenoble, Diion, Metz, Amiens, Orleans, Marseilles and Nants. Qu. How is Italy divided; and which are its principal Cities and Towns? Ans. Italy is likewise usually divided into three parts; 1. the Midland, which comprehends the State of the Church, and State of Tuscany. 2. Lombardy, which consists of Venice, Milan, Genuoa, Parma, Modena, Mantua, Trente, Lucca, and Piedmont. 3. and lastly, the Extremes of Italy; as, Naples, etc. which several parts are beautified with these most eminent Cities and Towns, Rome, Venice, Milan, Naples, Turin, Genoa, and Florence. Qu. How is Spain divided; and which are its most eminent Cities or Towns? Ans. Spain is divided into five parts, 1. the Inland, consisting of Castille and Leon. 2. the North-part, which contains Galicia, Asturies, Biscay and Navarre. 3. the East, comprehending Arragon, Catalognia, and Valencia. 4. in the South are, Murcia, Granada, and Andalousia. 5. and lastly, in the West are, Alguares and Portugal. The most eminent of the Spanish Cities are, Madrid, Toledo, Burgos, Lisbon, Sevil, Granada, Valencia, Barcelona, Salamanca, Caragoza, Leon, and Cadiz. Qu. How is Germany divided; and which are its chief Towns? Ans. Germany may be divided into three parts; the first belonging to the House of Austria, which contains Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tirol, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, Lusatia, French-County, and the Catholic Provinces called Flanders. 2. that part divided among the Princes of the Empire; as, the Palatinate on the Rhine, the Ecclesiastic Electorates, Franconia, Hesse, Westphalia, Bavaria, Sovabe, upper-Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomerania, and lower-Saxony. 3. and lastly, the United Provinces; as, Holland, Zealand, Vtretch, Guelderland, Zutphen, Overyssel, Friesland, and Groningen. As for the chief Cities and Towns belonging to these several parts of Germany, they are these, Vienna, Prague, Cologne, Francfort, Hamburg, Nurembourg, Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Amsterdam, and the Hague. Qu. How is Poland usually divided; and which are its most eminent Towns? Ans. It is divided into several Provinces, whereof the chief are, the great and dat Polands, together with Mozavia, Prussia, etc. As for its Towns, the most eminent are, Cracovia, Warsaw, and Dantzick. Qu. How is Turkey in Europe divided; and which are its chief Cities? Ans. Turkey in Europe may be divided into three parts; as 1. the North Provinces, which are, Romania, Servia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Hungaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia. 2. South Provinces; as, Macedonia, Epirus, Thessalia, Achaia, and Morea, or Peleponesus. 3. and lastly, Transylvanian Provinces; as, Transilvania, Valachia, Moldavia, and petit Tartars. As for the chief Cities in the European Turkey, they are these seven, Constantinople, Adrianople, Sophia, Buda, Belgrade, Salonichi, and Misistra. Qu. How is Muscovy divided; and which is its chief City and Town? Ans. Muscovy, or Russia, (which is all one) may be divided into two parts, North and South, comprehending several Principalities and Dukedoms, together with one Republic, called North-Lapland. The chief City of Muscovy is Moscow, but its chief Harbour and place of trade Arch-Angelo. Qu. How may Sweden be divided; and which are its chief Towns? Ans. Sweden is divided into many considerable Provinces; as, Vpland, Gothland, West-Lapland, Finland, Livonia, and others: whereof the capital Cities are, Stockholm and Vpsal in Vpland, and Calmar in Gothland. Qu. How may Denmark and Norway be divided; and which are their chief Towns? Ans. Denmark and Norway are now two Kingdoms united under one Monarch: to which we may add Greenland and the Isles of Ferro and Iseland. The chief Towns are, Copenhagen in Denmark, and Berghen in Norway. Qu. Which are the chief Towns in Scotland? Ans. Edinburgh, St. Andrews, Glascow, Sterling, Dunbritton, Falkland, Perth, and Aberdeen. Qu. How is Ireland divided? Ans. Into four Provinces, (viz.) Leinster, Ulster, Munster, and Connaugh; In which Provinces are 32 Counties. Qu. Which are the chief Cities in Ireland? Ans. Dublin, Waterford, Galloway, Limrick, Kingsale, Cork, Londonderry and Armagh. Qu. What is a Peninsula? Ans. Peninsula, quasi pene insula, almost an Island, is a part of Land, which being almost encompassed round with Water, is yet joined to the firm land by some little Istmhus, or neck of Earth; as Africa is joined to Asia; Peleponesus or Morea to Greece; Molucca to India; Jutland to Holsatia; and Corea to Tartary. Qu. What is an Istmhus? Ans. An Istmhus is any narrow neck of Land betwixt two Seas, joining the Peninsula to the Continent; as that betwixt Egypt and Arabia, which parts Asia from Africa; and those of Panama and Dariene in America. Qu. What is a Promontory? Ans. A Promontory is an high Hill or Mountain, that shoots itself out as an Elbow of Land into the Sea, the utmost extent whereof is called a Fore-land, or Cape; as, the Cape of good-hope in the furthest part of Africa, by which those pass that sail into India: Also Cape-Verde in Africa, the Cape of Victory at the mouth of the Magellanie Seas, & the Cape of S. Vincent in Portugal, with many other. Qu. Which are the most eminent Hills or Mountains upon Earth? Ans. Those of most note are, the Pyrenaean Hills betwixt France and Spain, Mount Cenis and the Alps betwixt France and Italy, Mount Atlas in Mauritania, Mount Athos in Macedon, Mount Caucasus in India, Mount Olympus in Thessaly, Mount Taurus in Asia, Mount Apennine in Italy, and lastly, el Pico in Tenariff near the Canary Isles, thought to be the highest in the World, being 15 miles high, and visible 100 miles off at Sea. Now, besides all these, there are many other Mountains, no less famous for their vomiting up of Fire, than for their height; as, Aetna in Sicily, Vesuvius near Naples in Italy, Hecla in Iseland, and many others of the like nature in the Molucca and Japanese Islands, as well as in Peru, Brasil, Congo and the Azores. Qu. Which are the chief Deserts? Ans. Those of Lybia in afric, that encompass Egypt; as also those in Arabia, Tartary, Nova Zembla, Norway, Lapland, Finmarch, Sweden, Germany and America. Qu. Where are the best Gold and Silver Mines? Ans. In Peru, Arabia, Guinea, Monomotapa, Japan, Persia, China, Chili, and Potosi, from whence the Spaniards have yearly exhausted 12 millions. Qu. Having given this general account of the terra firma, and particular (because most necessary) relation of Europe: let us in the next place launch into the Ocean, and examine the watery World; for which end, inform us, how the several sorts of Waters may be distinguished? Ans. Into Seas, straits, Lakes, or Rivers. Qu. Which are the chief Seas? Ans. The Levant, or East Sea; the West, North and South Seas; the Baltic Sea; the Red Sea; the Aethiopian Sea; the Mediterranean Sea; the Archipelago; St. George's Sea; the Euxine Sea; and the Dead, or Caspian Sea, on our Continent; together with the Magellanick and Mare-pacificum on the Continent of America. Qu. What is a Straight? Ans. A Streight or Gulf is any narrow part or arm of the Ocean, lying between two shores, and opening a way into the Sea, as, the straits of Jesso, lying between the two Continents; the straits of Magellan, between North and South America; the straits of Gibraltar on the Coast of Spain, betwixt Europe and Africa; the straits of Babelmandel, between Asia and Africa; the Gulf of Venice and the Bay of Biscay in Europe. Qu. What is a Lake? Ans. A Lake is any place that continually retains standing-water in it, as Laggo Major in Italy, the Lake of Lucerna, and Geneva in Switzerland, etc. Qu. What is a River? Ans. A River is any small branch of the Sea flowing up into a Land; as, the Thames, Severn, Trent and Humber in England; the Seine, Loire and Rhosne in France; the Rhine and Elbe in Germany; the Po and Tiber in Italy; the River Volga of Muscovy, the greatest in Europe; the Danube of Turkey in Europe; Euphrates, Tigris and Jordan of Turkey in Asia; the Indus and Ganges of India; and the Nile of Egypt. Qu. Which are the best Authors for Geography? Ans. Ptolemy, Strabo, Stephanuus, Ortelius, Mercator, Scaliger, Ferrarius, Varenius and Munster; with Bleau's, Johnson's and Sanson's Maps. LIB. II. OF CHRONOLOGY. Qu. WHat is Chronology? Ans. Chronology is the knowledge of Times past. Qu. What is an Age, or Century? Ans. The space of an hundred years. Qu. In what Age of the World was our Saviour born? Ans. About the middle of the one and fortieth Age. Qu. What is a Year? Ans. It consists of twelve months, and is the space of time wherein the Sun passes thorough the twelve Signs of the Zodiac. Qu. What is the Zodiac? Ans. An imaginary great Circle in the Heavens, which (as Astrologers pretend) containeth the twelve Signs. Qu. Name the twelve Signs. Ans. Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagitarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces. Qu. What is that which the Greeks call Galaxia, the Latins, Via Lactea, and we, the Milky-way? Ans. 'Tis nothing but a number of little Stars, which give but a confused light, and are not perceptible to the eye without a Prospective-glass. Qu. How many days are there in a year? Ans. Three hundred three score and five days and six hours, according to Caesar's Reformation of the Calendar. Qu. What becomes of these odd six hours that remain every year? Ans. Why, in the space of four years they make up a day; so that every fourth year hath one day more than ordinary, and is therefore called Bissextile, or Leap-year. Qu. What is a Month? Ans. Of months there are two sorts; First, a Lunary month, consisting of four weeks, which is the space of time wherein the Moon passes thorough the twelve Signs of the Zodiac; and secondly, a Solary month, consisting of thirty days, ten hours and an half, the space of time wherein the Sun passes thorough the twelfth part, or one Sign of the Zodiac. Qu. How many days are there in each Solary month? Ans. Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November; February hath twenty eight alone, And the rest have thirty one. Qu. How did the Ancients divide their months? Ans. Into Calends, Nones and Ideses; calling the first day of every month the Calends. Qu. How did the Ancients divide their weeks? Ans. Into seven days, which they called by the name of the seven Planets; the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. Qu. What makes the Day and Night? Ans. When the Sun is above the Horizon, it makes day; and when it is under the Horizon, it makes night. Qu. What are the Aequinoxes and Solstices? Ans. There are yearly two Aequinoxes and two Solstices; a Vernal and Autumnal Aequinox, and a Summer and Winter Solstice, which begin the four several seasons of the year. The Aequinoxes are so called from the Latine-word Aequinoctium, because the days and nights are then of equal length, the Sun rising and setting at six, which is upon the 10 th'. of March and 12 th'. of September. Also the Solstices are named from the Latine-word Solstitium, which signifies a stop of the Sun; because, as it comes no nearer us than the Tropic of Cancer in the Summer, so goes it not further from us than the Tropic of Capricorn in the Winter; which Summer- Solstice, as it makes the longest day on the 11 th'. of June, so doth the Winter- Solstice make the shortest day on the 11 th'. of December. Qu. What makes the several Changes of the Moon? Ans. The Moon shines more or less according to the proportion of light it receives from the Sun. As for example: We call it New Moon when it is in conjunction with the Sun; and than it gives us no light, because the dark part of it is towards us: But four days after it makes its first appearance in the shape of two bright Horns, (the rest of her Body being dark) and then is the first quarter. Being a week old, half of it appears bright, and the other half dark; at which time it is called a Crescent, or Half-moon. Thus it increases a week more, till it comes to be Full; and then being diametrically opposite to the Sun, this strikes its Beams upon that more fully, till four days after full Moon it gins to decrease, and lose its light, which is called the Wain; three days after which, it appears in the form of a Crescent; and so loses its light gradually till New Moon again. Qu. What makes an Eclipse of the Sun? Ans. The interposition of the Moon betwixt the Sun and the Earth, which happens when the Moon is the same Sign and Degree with the Sun; for then the Sun, Moon and Earth are diametrically opposite. Qu. What makes an Eclipse of the Moon? Ans. The interposition of the Earth betwixt the Sun and the Moon, which happens generally upon the full of the Moon; at which time this Planet is diametrically opposite to the Sun. Qu. What is an Epocha? Ans. It is some remarkable point of time, from the which Chronologers begin to reckon, in reference to the changes of their own Nation: Thus, the Jews reckoned, from their departure out of Egypt; the Grecians, from their Olympiads instituted by Iphitus; The Romans, from the building of their City; the Christians, from the Birth of Christ; and the Turks, from their Hegira, or flight of Mahomet. Qu. What is a Lustre, and an Olympiad? Ans. A Lustre among the Romans and Olympiad among the Grecians, signified the space of five years: because the Games so called were celebrated every fifth year. Qu. How do Sacred Chronilogers begin to reckon? Ans. First, from the Creation to Noah's Flood, 1657 years. 2dly. From the Flood to the calling of Abraham, 367 years. 3dly. From the calling of Abraham, to the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt, 430 years. 4ly. From the Egyptians Exodus, to Solomon's building of the first Temple, 480 years. 5ly. From the building of the first Temple, to the erection of the second by Zorobabel, 497 years. 6ly. From the building the second by Zorobabel, to the Birth of our Saviour Christ, 529 years. 7ly. and lastly, From the Birth of our Saviour, to these present times, 1683 years. Qu. How do Profane Chronologers begin to reckon? Ans. First, From Nimrod to Cyrus the Great, 1646 years. 2dly. From Cyrus to Alexander the Great, 228 years. 3dly. From Alexander to Julius Caesar, 300 years. 4ly. From Caesar to Constantine the Great, 355 years. 5ly. From Constantine to Charles the Great, 455 years. 6ly. From Charles the Great to Radulphus of Auspurgh, 472 years. 7ly. and lastly, From Radulphus to these present times, 400 years. Qu. Which are the best Authors for Chronology? Ans. Helvicus, Calvisius, Bucholcer, Funccius, Petavius, Usher and Alstedius. LIB. III. OF HISTORY. Of the Assyrian MONARCHY. Qu. WHat is History? Ans. A Record of past actions, either Sacred or Civil. Qu. Which are the four chief and most ancient Monarchies of the World? Ans. The Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian and the Roman. Qu. Under what Kings did the Assyrian Monarchy begin, flourish and expire? Ans. It began under Nimrod, and flourished till Sardanapalus, by whose Lust it was divided, and almost destroyed. Qu. At what time was the Assyrian Monarchy founded, and how long did it last? Ans. It was founded about seventeen hundred years after the Creation, and lasted sixteen hundred forty six years longer. Qu. Tell me the Names of the Assyrian Kings in order. Ans. Nimrod, Belus, Ninus, or Ashur, Semiramis, Ninias, Arius, and others unknown, till we come to Sardanapalus, by whose Luxury Monarchy became divided between two Rebels, Arbaces and Belesus, and so continued to them and their Heirs till Cyrus' time, who began the second Monarchy, called the Persian. Qu. How came Cyrus to begin the second Monarchy? Ans. One part of the Empire falling to him by succession from his Grandfather Astygas, (one of Arbaces' Successors) he soon conquered Belshazzer, (who was Belesus' Successor) and so joining both parts of the Empire together, began a new Monarchy in Persia, his Native-Countrey. Qu. What Authors treat of this Assyrian Monarchy? Ans. The holy Scriptures, Josephus, Diodorus, Siculus, Justin, Eusebius, Matthaeus, Usher, Raleigh, Hoel and Viginier; besides the ancient Ctesias, Berosus and Megastenes, whereof only some few fragments remain. Of the Second, OR PERSIAN MONARCHY. Qu. WHy was this second Monarchy called the Monarchy of the Medes and Persians? Ans. Because the Empire did chief consist of those two Kingdoms. Qu. Under what Kings did this Persian Monarchy begin, flourish and expire? Ans. It began under Cyrus, whose Race ended in his Son Cambyses; after whom, Darius Hystaspes, having defeated the Magis, and won the Empire from his Competitors by the neighing of his Horse, it still flourished till Darius Codomanus, in whom it ended. Qu. How long did this second, or Persian Monarchy last? Ans. It lasted 228 years, and was enjoyed only by two Families, that of Cyrus, and that of Darius Hystaspes. Qu. Tell me the Names of the Persian Kings in order. Answ. Cyrus' the Great, Cambyses, Darius Hystaspes, Xerxes, Artaxerxes Longimanus, Darius Nothus, Artaxerxes Mnemon, Artaxerxes Ochus Arsames; and lastly, Dar. Codomanus, Qu. What Authors writ chief of this second Monarchy? Ans. Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, Diodorus, Justin and Orosius. Of the Third, OR GRECIAN MONARCHY. Qu. WHy was this Third Monarchy called the Grecian or Macedonian Monarchy? Ans. It was so called from its first Founder, Alexander, the Son of King Philip of Macedon, a Grecian born. Qu. When was it that Alexander began to reign? Ans. 329 years before the Birth of Christ, and in 12 years' space conquered most part of the Universe; and is therefore called, the Great. Qu. How long did the Grecian Monarchy flourish? Ans. It flourished no longer than Alexander's Life; for he dying without Sons, bequeathed the Empire to the Worthiest; which caused great division amongst the Nobility, till at length they divided it into four parts: And so it lasted till they were all conquered by the Romans, who began the Fourth and last Monarchy, under the Conduct of Julius Caesar. Qu. Which were the Four parts of this Grecian Monarchy, after its division? Ans. The Kingdoms of Macedon, Asia minor, Syria and Egypt; all which were in the space of 300 years reduced to the Roman Yoke. Qu. What Kings succeeded in Macedon after Alexander? Ans. The first was Alexander's Brother Arideus; after whom succeeded fifteen Kings more, whereof the last was Perseus, who was overcome by Paulus Aemylius, the Roman Consul. Qu. What Kings succeeded in Asia minor after Alexander? Ans. But Two; whereof the first was Antigonus, King Philip of Macedon's Bastard, and the second was Demetrius Poliorcetes, who being put to flight by his Son-in-law Seleucus Nicanor; after that, Asia minor was joined to the Kingdom of Syria. Qu. What Kings succeeded in Syria after Alexander? Ans. The first was Seleucus Nicanor, after whom succeeded 19 King, whereof the last was Tigranes, who being subdued by Pompey, Syria became a Province to the Romans. Qu. Now lastly, What Kings succeeded Alexander in Egypt? Ans. The first was Ptolomaeus Lagus, (another of King Philip's Bastards) after whom succeeded 12 Princes more, till by the death of the famous Cleopatra, Egypt was reduced into a Roman Province; And thus Rome, having swallowed up the four divisions of the Grecian Monarchy, began another, which was called the Fourth, or Roman. Qu. Which are the best ancient Authors that treat of this Grecian Monarchy? Ans. First, Arrianus and Quintus Curtius, that writ of Alexander himself; and secondly, Plutarch, Justin, Polybius and Diodorus, that treat concerning his Successors. Of the Fourth, OR, ROMAN MONARCHY. Qu. WHen was Rome first founded, and by whom? Ans. Rome was first built 753 years before Christ, by the two Brothers, Romulus and Rhemus. Qu. How hath Rome been anciently governed? Ans. Rome was first governed successively by Kings; then by annual Consuls, limited with Senators and Tribunes; and in time of War or distress, by Dictator's, who becoming perpetual, were at last called Emperors. Qu. How many were the first Kings of Rome? name them in order. Ans. Seven; to wit, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullius Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Tarqvinius Priscius, Servius Tullius, and Tarqvinius Superbus, who by reason of his Tyranny was the last King of the Romans; after whom they governed by Consuls till the Emperor's times. Qu. Who was the first Roman Emperor? Ans. Julius Caesar, who making himself perpetual Dictator, and having defeated Pompey, took upon him the sole government of the Empire, and so began the fourth Monarchy, called the Roman, which was afterwards established by Augustus. Qu. How many years was it from the building of the City of Rome, to the death of Julius Caesar? Ans. 710 years; which was about 42 years before the Birth of Christ, who was 14 years old when Augustus died. Qu. The first period of this Roman Empire, reaching from Julius Caesar to Constantine the Great, tell me in order the Names of the several Emperors. Ans. Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Flavius Vespasian, Titus Vespasian, Domitian, Nerva, Trajanus, Adrianus, Antonius Pius, Anton. Phylosoph. Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Macrinus, Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus Maximinus Thrax Balbinus & Puppienus, Gordianus, Philippus Arabs, Decius, Tribonianus Gallus Valerian, Galienus, Claudius' second ' Aurelianus, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Dioclesian, and Constantius Chloras, Father of Constantine the Great. Qu. How many years was it from Julius Caesar to Constantine the Great? Ans. About 355 years. Qu. Why is the first period of the Roman Empire reckoned but to Constantine the Great, when he had so many considerable Emperors that succeeded him, as Constantius, Julian the Apostate, and others? Ans. First, because Constantine the Great was the first Christian Emperor; and secondly, because he removed the Imperial Seat from Rome in Italy, to Byzantium in Greece: where building a great City he called it after his own Name, Constantinople, which soon after produced a division of the Empire into East and West, betwixt Arcadius and Honorius; and so it continued for several years under two several Emperors. Qu. What became of the Empire of the East, after its division? Ans. The Empire of the East, together with its chief City, Constantinople, was taken by the Turks (who now possess it) about 230 years ago, from the last Greek Emperor, Constantius Palaeologus; whereupon 'tis observed, that as the City of Constantinople was built by a Constantine the first, whose Mothers Name was St. Helena, so likewise was it lost under a Constantine the eleventh, whose Mothers Name also was Helena. Qu. What became of the Empire of the West, which was held at Rome, after Honorius? Ans. About 100 years after Honorius, the Empire of the West was destroyed, together with its Emperor Augustulus, by Odoacer King of the Herulii; which Empire hath been since succeeded by two Successions of Western Franks: the first beginning with Charles the Great, and the second with Radulphus Auspurgensis of the House of Austria, who possesses the Germane Empire at this present time. But here it is observable, how that as the Roman Empire was founded by an Augustus, so was it lost by an Augustulus. Qu. How was the Roman Empire destroyed? Ans. By the Invasion of Barbarians, such as were the Hunns, Goths and Vandals. Qu. Which are the best Writers of this Fourth, or Roman Monarchy? Ans. Caesar's Commentaries, Dionysius Halicarnasseus, Valerius Maximus, Livy, Plutarch, Suetonius, Tacitus, both the Pliny's, Velleius Paterculus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Appian, Lucius Florus, Herodian, Polybius, Dion Cassius, Sallust, Zozimus, Procopius, Jornandes, Cassiodorus, Agathias, Historiae Augustae Scriptores, and all the Byzantine Writers, besides many learned modern Authors of the same Subject. LIB. iv OF THE GREEK and ROMAN HISTORIANS. Queen WHich are the most eminent of the Greek Historians? Ans. Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus. Dionysius Halicarnasseus, Josephus, Plutarch, Philostratus, Arrianus, Laertius, Appian, Dion Cassius, Herodian, Eunapius, Zozimus, Eusebius, and the Byzantine Historians, as Procopius, Agathias, etc. Qu. What account have you of Herodotus? Ans. Herodotus, born at Halicarnassus, a City in Greece, is the most ancient of Historians we have extant next to Moses, and therefore called by Cicero, the Father of History. He lived about 450 years before Christ; when, being a man of Quality and Power in his Country, and opposing Lydamus, his City's Tyrant, he was forced to fly to Thurium, where he wrote those Nine Books of History, which Posterity called by the names of the Nine Muses, and which contained the most remarkable Transactions of the World during 240 years, beginning from the time of Cyrus the first King of Persia, and so on to Xerxes' time, wherein Herodotus himself lived. As for the Life of Homer, (though very ancient, and ascribed to him) it is thought to have been wrote by some other hand. Herodotus his Style (like Homer's) is sweet and easy; his Dialect jonick: Some (as Plutarch and Chrysostom) esteem him fabulous: but Camerarius, Stephens, especially our late Voyages and Discoveries, have sufficiently vindicated him. He died, and was buried at Thurium. Qu. What account have you of Thucydides? Ans. Thucydides was twelve years younger than Herodotus, and lived 438 years before Christ. Being but a Boy, he wept at the hearing of Herodotus repeat his History, whereby Herodotus presaged his future parts. He was the Son of Orolus, of a Royal Extraction, and married a rich Wife, the King of Thrace his Daughter, by which means he expended much money both to the Athenians and Lacedæmonians, for good intelligence of their proceed; whereof being well informed, he wrote his History, and called it, A possession for everlasting, which gives an account of the Peleponesian Wars with the Athenians for one and twenty years together, in 8 Books, whereof the last seems uncorrect and unfinished to the former seven, which makes some think it wrote by his Daughter, others by Theopompus, but Vossius by Thucydides himself whilst he was sick. His method is preferred above all others; His Style pithy, and full of matter; His Dialect most pure Attic. However, Dyonisius accuses him of using obsolete words. His Orations filled with good Argument, but tedious. Lastly, he was an enemy to Fables, and his Relations most faithful; writing only of such things as were acted in his own time and knowledge, which advantage Herodotus wanted. Qu. What account have you of Xenophon? Ans. Xenophon, by Birth an Athenian, and Son of one Grillus, lived 400 years before Christ. He was a second Tresmegistus, being a great Captain, Philosopher and Historiographer. His Attic Dialect was so pure, that he was called Apes Attica, and was therefore envied and hated of Plato. He was so generous, that he exposed the Writings of Thucydides, which he might have delivered for his own. Xenophon's History treats of 46 years' Transactions of the Greeks, and gins where Thucydides ended; showing Alcibiades' return to his Country, whom Thucydides left meditating on that retreat. Also Xenophon gives us the Enterprise of Cyrus the younger (under whom he was a General) against his Brother Artaxerxes, with the Grecians retreat out of Persia, which was afterwards an occasion of his Banishment. His Institution of the Elder Cyrus is a moral Romance, and shows rather what a Prince should do, than what Cyrus really did: there being little true History in it, save the taking of Babylon, and captivating of Croesus, as appears by the Relation given of Cyrus in Justin and other Historians. As for the Book de Aequivocis, attributed to Xenophon, it is an Imposture of Annius. His works (saith Chrysostom) may teach Politics to all Princes, Statesmen and Generals; which made Scipio and Lucullus, who never went without them, succeed accordingly, as Cicero observes. A late foolish Italian Author, without any ground for it, accuses Xenophon of an immodest Love for Agesilaus, only because he writes so much in his praise; but he had learned too much Morality from his Tutor Socrates, to commit such an Act. Qu. What account have you of Polybius? Ans. Polybius, born at Megalopolis a City of Arcadia, was the Son of Lycortas General of the Achaians, by whom both Father and Son were sent Ambassadors to Ptolomaeus Epiphaneus; and afterwards Polybius associated with the Roman Consul, as joynt-Commissioner, in the War against Perseus' King of Thessaly. He wrote his History in 40 Books, whereof only the five first remain entire, with an Epitome of the 12 next following, to the beginning of the 18 th'. Book, which were thought to be epitomised by Marcus Brutus. This History gins with the second Punic War, and contains not only the Events that passed betwixt the Romans and Macedonian Kings, to the end of that Monarchy, but all other the most considerable actions of the World for 53 years; for which reason he gives it the Name of Universal. And for the more completing hereof, he travelled himself over most part of Europe, Asia and Africa, being furnished with Ships by Scipio Aemilianus, who, together with Lelius, were his two Bosom-friends; whereupon Cicero saith that he wrote a distinct Treatise of the War of Numantia, waged by his Friend Scipio, (to whom he was a Councillor, though not a Schoolmaster, as some would have it. He died in the 82 d. year of his age, which was 230 years before Christ. He believed nothing of Gods, Heaven or Hell, as appears by his sixth Book. Dyonisius accuses his unpolite Style: Patricius, without reason, blames his method; and Livy (notwithstanding he transcribes whole Books of Polybius verbatim in his Decades) disingeniously terms him only a Writer not to be despised. However, (besides the modern Casaubon) Cicero and Plutarch of old did much esteem him; and Brutus, who disliked Cicero, did much admire Polybius. Finally, as Vossius observes, though inferior to one or other of the Greeks for Eloquence, yet to none for Civil Prudence and Military Science. Qu. What account have you of Diodorus Siculus? Ans. Diodorus Siculus, born at Agyrium a Town in Sicily, lived to a great age under Julius and Augustus Caesar, about the middle of whose Reign he died. He spent 30 years in writing his Historical Library, which in 40 Books (whereof we have but 15 extant) comprised the most remarkable passages of the World for the space of 1138 years, (not reckoning what was comprehended in his first six Books, of those fabulous Times before the War of Troy;) which is certainly the best account of the ancient Heathen Mythology, we have any where extant. For the perfecting hereof, he travelled most part of Europe and Asia, as well as into Egypt. Henry Stephens was informed that the Remainders of this Author's Works were all found in Sicily, but how true, I know not. His stile is condemned (as being a Sicilian, and living in the declining of the Greek Tongue) by Bodin; His Chronology censured by Pighius and Sigonius; and Ludovicus Vives inveighs against his whole Book, for describing the Antiquity of the World according to the ancient Caldaean and Egyptian Records. Nevertheless, Authors of no less Credit, as Photius, (who praises his Style) together with Pliny, Eusebius, Justin Martyr, and Stephens, do at least equalise, if not prefer him to the best of the Greek Historians. Qu. What account have you of Dionysius Halicarnasseus? Ans. Dionysius of Halicarnassus in Greece, lived under Augustus at Rome, whither he came soon after the end of the Civil-Wars; where, after 22 years' abode, (having well informed himself both from the most judicious Books and Men) he wrote his History of the Roman Antiquities, in 20 Books, (whereof 11 only are extant.) The whole Work began from the Siege of Troy, and reached to the first Punic War, and ended there where Polybius began. But the 11 now extant conclude with the Government of the Decemviri, when the Consuls resumed their Authority, which was 312 Foundation of Rome. He was a severe Critic, and censures Plato, Demosthenes, and most of the Ancients; also a most accurate Orator, as appears by his Composition of Rhetoric now in being, but too exact and rigorous in his Laws of Eloquence; He too much affected digressions in his History; also he was too credulous and superstitious in his Ethnic Religion, as when he makes a Statue speak, etc. Nevertheless, Photius praises his Style as most Elegant, and some prefer him before Livy; but Scaliger esteems him before any of the Latins for his account of Roman Antiquities, both in respect of his Chronology and Matter, wherein he is very particular. Qu. What account have you of Josephus? Ans. Josephus the Jew was born under Caligula, (which was 39 years after Christ's Incarnation) of Royal Extraction, being descended from the High-Priests of Jerusalem by the Father, and from the Royal Blood of the Maccabees by the Mother: He lived also under nine Emperors. In the 26 th'. year of his age he went to Rome, and by the assistance of Poppaea (Augustus' Wife) procured the release of those Priests whom Faelix had imprisoned. Afterwards, being chosen Captain of the Galilaeans, he headed them in their revolt against the Romans under their General Vespasian: and being worsted, obscured himself in a Well, where he endured great misery, till being taken, and brought to Vespasian, he there prophesied of Vespasian's coming to the Empire; which soon happening accordingly, as also interpreting the Prophecy of a Messiah to signify Vespasian and his Son Titus, he was released, and made as a Friend to accompany Titus at the taking of Jerusalem. After which, he composed seven Books of that Judaic War, which he presented to Titus, who valued them above all others in his Library. To this he adds his own Life, written by himself; And when he was returned to Rome with Vespasian, he wrote his twenty Books of the Jewish Antiquities, beginning from the Creation, and so on to the 12 th'. year of Nero's Reign. As for his two Books against Apion, they were to vindicate the Antiquity and Honour of the Jews, from a Work which Apion had published to the disadvantage of Philo and his Countrymen. Josephus (tho' Hebrew was his Mother-Tongue) wrote his Books in Greek, (wherein he was most perfect) to have them more generally understood by the Greeks and Romans. The credit of his History is blamed by many; as, Maldonat, Melchior, Canus, Pererius, Baronius, and others, as Gregory, who says, (in his Posthuma) that Josephus destroys several Miracles in Holy-Writ, only to make them seem credible. Nevertheless, Justin Martyr, Eusebius, St. Jerom, Suidas, Calvisius, and Scaliger, prefer him to the best of Writers next those of the Holy-Writ, as doth the Letters of King Agrippa approve him for the truest of Authors. As for his Testimony of Christ in the 22 d. Book of his Antiquities, it is by the most judicious Critics thought to have been inserted by another hand, though very ancient. Josephus published his Writings also as well in Hebrew, as Greek. Finally, Josephus has not only writ many things contrary to Moses, but also omitted many Evangelical Truths; as, the coming of the Wisemen to Judaea, also Herod's Massacre of the Infants; and therefore aught to be read with caution. Some (as Munster) confound with this Author, that Counterfeit Josippus Gorionides his Wars of the Jews. Qu. What account have you of Plutarch? Ans. Plutarch (who lived under Domitian and Nerva, but flourished chief under Trajan, about 100 years after Christ) was born at Cheronaea in Boeotia; He was a Priest of Apollo, and both a great Historian and Philosopher. First, as for History, he wrote the Lives of 24 Famous Grecians, educated at Sparta and Athens; and of 25 Romans, bred up under the several Governments at Rome: His Greek Lives begin with Theseus' King of Athens, in the year of the World 2750. and end with Philopaemenes, General of the Achaians, in the year of the World 3821. which was 121 years before Christ. His Roman Lives begin with Romulus the Founder of Rome, and end with Galba and Otho, about 70 years after Christ, and 820 from the building the City of Rome. Now secondly, for his Philosophy, contained in the Book of his Morals, he learned it partly from his Father Lampras his Oratory, partly from his Grandfather Nicarchus his Philosophy, and partly by the Converse of his Brother Timon, but mostly from his Egyptian Tutor Ammonius, and Travels into Egypt. He is esteemed by all as a most wise grave Author, both in Philosophy and History. Qu. What account have you of Philostratus? Ans. Philostratus flourished from Severus to Phillippus: and at the request of Julia Augusta, Severuses Wife, (whose Secretary he was) wrote the Life of Apollonius Tyanaeus, a Pythagorean Magician, in eight Books: wherein he followed the Relations of Damis the Assyrian, and Apollonius his Associate in his Travels; as also the Records of Maximus the Aegaean, and two others, besides Apollonius his own Testament of himself, and written with his own hand. From hence Hierocles (who is for that cause Answered by Eusebius) attempts to prefer Apollonius before Christ; which has raised an unjust outcry of the PRIESTS against our Author Philostratus: ☜ whose Style is Elegant Greek, as well as his Geographical Descriptions, especially of India, useful, and such as are not to be found in others. But to say the worst of him, Philostratus is (as Merric Causabon observes) (though fabulous, where he would make a God of a Magician) yet for some strange Relations once supposed false, and now approved true, well deserving to be Read. Qu. What account have you of Arrianus? Ans. Arrianus, of Nicomedia a City in Bythinia, was a Priest of Ceres and Proserpina; and flourished under the Emperors Adrian's, Antonius, Pius, and Marcus Aurelius Antonius. He was as well a Philosopher as Historian, being Educated under Epictetus the Stoic: whose Philosophy he collected from his Discourses, and afterwards published in Writing as an Enchiridion. Besides which, he published of his own Composure, seven Books of the Expeditions of Alexander the Great, and an eighth Book of so much of the East-Indies as was known in his time. He wrote also ten Books of Alexander's Successors, whereof at this day there remains only Photius' Abridgement. He wrote likewise four other Tracts, none of which are at this time extant: one of Timoleon of Corinth's Acts in Sicily: Another of the Art which Dion of Syracuse used to free those Countries from the Tyranny of Dionysius the Second: A third of the Parthians descent from Sythia and Wars with the Romans under Trajan: And the fourth, called the Alanick History; which makes some believe him to be the same Arrian that Dion says was Governor of Cappadocia under Adrian, that made War upon the Alanians. His Greek is so Attic and Sweet, that it gave him the name of the new or young Xenophon, whom attempted to imitate. Not only Lucian and Photius of old, but also Scaliger, Vossius and Bodin of the modern Critics prefer him to the best of the Greek Historians, provided you will pardon his Arrogance in the middle of his first Book, where he boasts himself to exceed all other Authors, as much as Alexander excelled all other Conquerors. Finally of his eight Books, the only that are extant of him, he professes in the first seven concerning Alexander to follow the Relations given him by Aristobulus and Ptolomaeus, Lagus, their Writings, who were Captains under Alexander; and in his other eighth and last Book of the East-Indies, to follow the Geography of Marinus Tyrius, who in this point far exceeds Ptolemy: Qu. What account have you of Diogenes Laertius? Ans. Diogenes Laertius, so called from Laerte a Town in Cilicia where he was born, lived under Antonius Pius, or soon after. He wrote the Lives and Apothegms of the Philosophers in ten Books, beginning with Thales, and ending with Epicurus; whom (being himself an Epicurean) he favours even to a fault, making him place his chief Happiness in the pleasures of the mind, and not of the body, which is contrary to the Character given both by Cicero and other Ancient Authors of Epicurus. Nevertheless from hence Gassendus (too much inclined to this Epicurian Sect) takes occasion to write so favourably of its Founder. However, as Lactantius treats only of the Moral Philosophers, so we own our best account of Natural Philosophers to Laertius; notwithstanding Keckerman (who is more studious of Modern, than Ancient Writers,) condemns him. Finally, Ludovicus Vives tells us, that this Piece was written by Laertius, to a woman. Qu. What account have you of Appian? Ans. Appian of Alexandria, removed thence to Rome, where he lived (under Trajan, Adrian, and Antoninus Pius,) at first the quality of Advocate, but afterwards for his parts preferred to be one of the Emperor's Proctors. He wrote in 24 Books an History Royal, beginning with the taking of Troy, and success of Aeneas, and extending to the reign of Augustus; nay with some reflections even to the times of Trajan. But of all these, we have none at this time extant, save his Punic, Syriack, Parthian, Mithridattick, Spanish, Hannibalick, Illyrian, and Civil Wars of the Romans: For as for his Celtic, or War with the Gauls, we have none but a fragment thereof left us. His Style is plain and easy; and his Orations moving; his Descriptions of his Battles Natural, and full of Military knowledge; for all which, he is much extolled by Photius. And lastly, for his method, he endeavoured to imitate Thucydides and Sallust; but fell far short: In so much that 'tis rather Rhapsody of things most important, than a continued History, as Livyes: He flatters the Romans right or wrong: and as Bodin observes in many Relations appears too Credulous: Also Sigonius accuses him of great Levity, and many Omissions: But what is worst of all, he inserts as his own, whole Paragraphs out of Polybius, Plutarch and other Antique Authors, without ever acknowledging his Theft; which was (I conceive) one great reason that exasperated Scaliger so far, as (in his Notes upon Eusebius) to call Appian a mere Child in History. Qu. What account have you of Dion Cassius? Ans. Dion Cassius, whose Surname was Coccius, or Cocceianus, was born at Nicaea a City of Bythinia, whither he like wise retired in his old Age to avoid the Praetorian Militia, being advised thereto by his Familiar Spirit, or Daemon, which directed him in all things, as Socrates' did him; and diverted him from his former Philosophical Learning, and Interpretation of Divine Dreams, (whereof he composed a Book) to the writing of History. He lived under the Tyrannies of Commodus, Caracalla, Macrinus and Heliogabulus; in whose Reigns by the prudent conduct of himself, he escaped the loss either of Life, Goods or Reputation; and arrived safely to the peaceable happy Reign of Alexander Severus, under whom he published his Roman History, being directed thereto by his Genius, as well as commanded by Septimius Severus. His Father Apronianus was a Consular man, as well as Governor of Dalmatia, and Proconsul of Cilicia. Also he himself having Consular Dignity twice bestowed upon him, and commanding Pergamus, Smyrna, afric, Austria, and Hungary, was afterwards made Joynt-Consul with the Emperor Alexander. His History comprehends 981. years, viz. from the Building of Rome, to the Reign of Alexander Severus in 80 Books, divided into eight Decades, whereof the first 34 Books are lost: Also, of the twenty, we have only the Epitome of Xiphiline a Constantiniopolitan Monk; for all that we have entire of Dion Cassius (besides this Compendium,) are only the Events of 300 years, beginning with Lucullus about 71 years before Christ, and ending with the Death of the Emperor Claudius. But all this Author's Write that are lost, what are most to be lamented, are the 40 last years, whereof he was an Eye-witness. He employed ten years in providing Materials for his History, and twelve more Composing it. He imitates Thucydides in his Narratives and Orations, but not in his Obscurity; his Language (saith Photius) is Elevated, Copious, and Artificial, but without Labour; he hath discovered the Arcana Imperii, Election of their Magistrates, Roman Rites and Ceremones, the Apotheosis and Consecration of their departed Emperors, together with the Ceremony of August's Funeral, Livia's Mourning, and the letting fly the Eagle from the Funeral Pile, better than any other Historian, either before, or since. Nevertheless he is condemned for his tedious superfluity of Orations; for too much adhering to Caesar against Pompey in compliance with the Times; for impartially siding with Antonius, and bespattering Cicero; for too much Superstition and Credulity given to Vespasian's Cure, and Appollonius Tyanaeus his Prediction; as well as for his Calumnies against Seneca, unless his abbreviator Tigellinus misquotes him. But I shall not accuse him (as Barronius does,) for attributing the Victories of Marcus Aurelius rather to the Magic of the Egyptian Sorcerer Arnaphis, than the Prayers of the Christians, because he himself was an Heathen. Lastly, besides his History, Suidas and Volaterranus (how true I know not) make him the Author of Arrianus the Philosophers Life, the Actions of Trajan, certain Itineraries, three Books de Principe, and some small Tracts of Morality. Qu. What account have you of Herodian? Ans. Herodian, the Son of Apollonius Difficilis, was originally a Grammarian of Alexandria, and lived in the third Century under Commodus the Emperor. He wrote Eight Books of History of his own time, beginning with the Death of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus the Philosopher, and ending with the Murder of the two Emperors, Balbinus and Puppienus. His History comprehends the space of 70 years, and is praised, not only by Photius for his Elegant Style, but also by Julius Capitolinus, Tribonius Pollio, Ammianus Marcellinus, and Stephanus, for the Fidelity of his Roman Accounts, wherein (according to his Latin Interpreter Angelus Politianus) he only swerves in his Relation of Alexander and Maximus. He imitates Dion Cassius in his Relation of the Ceremonies used at the Apotheosis of the Roman Emperors, particularly of Severus his Funeral Rites, in the beginning of his fourth Book. As for the Censurers upon Herodian, he is thought by some to be too full of Orations; as also, to be too severe upon the Empress Mammea, out of ill will to her Son Alexander Severus, to whom he was a declared Enemy. Suidas saith that Herodian wrote many other Pieces, the which (if he did) are now lost. Qu. What account have you of Eunapius? Ans. Eunapius Sardianus lived in the times of Valentinian, Valens and Gratian: He is called Sardianus from Sardis a City in Lydia, the place of his Birth, from whence he traveled to Athens, and there became eminent, as well for Sophistry and Physic, as History; being the Disciple of the Great Proaetesius, and nearly related to the Noble Sophist Chrysanthius, who married Eunapius his Sister's Daughter. At the persuasion of this Chrysanthius, he wrote an elegant piece of the Lives of the Sophists, and afterwards that other Historical Tract of the Roman Emperors, beginning where Herodian left off, and so continuing it to his own times. Photius praises his Style, but condemns his History, for traducing Constantine the Great, and extolling Julian, as also (in his Lives of the Sophists) for being too severe upon the Christians. Lastly, besides these two pieces here mentioned, we have likewise a fragment of another Treatise of Eunapius, Entitled, de Legationibus, which was first published by Andrea Shottus, and is now annexed to the Byzantine Historians. Qu. What account have you of Zosimus? Ans. Zosimus lived in the time of Theodosius the younger, and wrote six Books of History; whereof the first doth briefly describe all the Emperors from Augustus to Probus, and so on to Dioclesian: But the other five Books (which extends to the Siege of Rome by Alaricus) are more copious and large, especially when he treats of the grounds of the Division betwixt Arcadius and Honorius, whereof he himself was an Eye-witness. This History of Zosimus is said to be a mere Abridgement of Eunapius; except in those passages where he praises Stilico, whom Ennapius condemns. Evagrius, Photius and others say, that he barks like a Dog at the Christians, and unworthily traduces Constantine the Great: As also, that he not only irreligiously bespatters Christianity, but Superstitiously adhers to Paganism, being over-credulous in sundry of the Heathen Miracles. However, Leunclavius, who first Translated Zosimus into Latin, makes great Apologies, as well for his inveighing against the Christians, since Zosimus himself was an Heathen, as for his Traducing Constantine, since he discovers as well his Vices. Lastly, Photius applauds the Purity of his Style, the Brevity of his Sentences, and Conciseness of his Phrase, being exempt from Figures or long Orations. Qu. What account have you of Eusebius? Ans. Eusebius Pamphili (so called from the Intimacy betwixt him and the Martyr Pamphilius,) was Bishop of Caesarea, the chief Metropolitan of all the Churches in Palestine, and most Ancient of all the Ecclesiastical Writers in the fourth Century. For (as St. Jerome in his Life tells us) Eusebius flourished under Constantine the Great, and his Son Constantius: So that (perhaps) fear might oblige him to render a more favourable account of Constantine, than Zosimus did. As for his Writings, they are various, both Profane and Sacred: The Profane, is his Chronicle from the beginning of the World to Constantine's twentieth year, which was, 326 years after Christ; Joseph Scaliger esteems this Piece to be only a Transcript out of Julius Africanus. As for the Sacred Writings of Eusebius, they were these: Of Evangelical Preparation, fifteen Books; Of Evangelical Demonstration, twenty Books, whereof but ten are now extant; Of Divine Apparitions, five Books; Of Ecclesiastical History, ten Books; Of the Disagreement of the Evangelists; upon the Prophet Esay, ten Books; Against Porphyry, thirty Books, whereof twenty were only known to St. Jerome; Of Topics, one Book; A Defence of Origen, in six Books; The Life of Pamphilius, in three Books, and several other Books of Martyrs; Learned Commentaries on the whole Book of Psalms; The Life of Constantine, in, four Books, Against Hierooles, Eight Books; Against Fatal Destiny, one Book; and three Books against Marcellus, mentioned by Socrates, lib. 2. Ecclest. Hist. All which several Pieces have been Translated by several hands. In his Evangelical Demonstration, he seems to favour Arrianism, notwithstanding his Subscription to the Nicene-Council, and therefore is to be read with Caution. Qu. What account have you of Procopius? Ans. Procopius was born at Caesaria in Palestine, from whence he went to Constantinople in the time of the Emperor Anastatius, by whom he was highly esteemed, as also by Justin the first; and afterwards by Justinian, so as to be preferred to the Senate with the Quality of Illustrious, and created Praefect of New Rome: Besides which, he was chief Secretary to the General Belisarius in all the Wars of Persia, afric and Italy; which makes him every where give so Honourable a Character of him. Procopius was both an Orator, Sophister, Rhetorician and Historian. His History consists of eight Books, whereof, the first two comprehend the Persian War, Abbreviated by Photius: The two next the Vandal Wars: and the four last, the War with the Goths: Of all which, there is a Compendium in the Preface of Agathias, who began his History where Procopius ended. His ninth Book called Anecdota, or the Secret History of Justinian, which is a Scurrilous Invective against that Emperor and his Wife Theodora, though mentioned in Suidas, was thought by Vossius to have been lost, but has since been made public by Heschaelius and others. Now besides the forementioned Pieces, there is another Treatise de Aedificiis in six Books, which Procopius wrote for the Honour of Justinians Buildings in which Discourse there are some passes that make many esteem our Author a Christian, but if his whole works are examined, he will be found no better than a Superstitious Ethnic Writer. Procopius is extremely condemned, not only for his too severe reproach of the French; but likewise, for his Anecdota or Libellous Invective against the Emperor and Empress, Justinian and Theodora: Which not only varies from it in Style, but also in Matter contradicts all his other Works, wherein he ever mentions the Emperor and Empress with great Honour and Applause; Insomuch that for this very reason many have doubted whether that Piece is not Spurious, and written by some other hand. Lastly, by his Obliqne Orations he attempts to imitate the Ancients, but comes far short of them. His Translator Porsona, did rather pervert, than convert him Qu. What account have you of Agathias? Ans. Agathias (the Son of Memnonius) was born at Murina a City of Asia, in the Reign of Justinian; he professed the Law, and pleaded as an Advocate at Smyrna, for which reason he was Sir-named Scholasticus. His first study was Poetry, which made him publish many small Poems in Heroic Verse under the Title of Daphnicks, together with divers Epigrams; whereby being prepared with a Style most agreeable florid, he (by the advice of Eutychianus prime Secretary of State) undertook to write an History concerning the Empire and Deeds of Justinian in five Books, beginning where Procopius left off; which Piece he finished in the Reign of Justin the second, as he himself declares in his Preface. Now albeit Agathias highly extols Procopius, yet he differs from him in many things, particularly in his commending the French, whom Procopius decryes. He likewise (though an Heathen, as appears by his Discourse of Stephen the Proto-martyr,) seems to speak more favourably of the Christians in the beginning of his History, where he praises the French for being so. Finally, his account of the Oriental Monarchys, in the end of his second Book, as well as his Succession of the Persian Kings after Artaxerxes, in his fourth Book, are rendered very considerable by the assistance of his Interpreter Sergius, who was furnished herein, by the Notaries and Library-keepers of all the Kings and public Archives in Persia, LIB. V OF THE ANCIENT LATIN HISTORIANS. Qu. WHich are the most eminent of the Ancient Latin Historians? Ans. Julius Caesar, Sallust, Livy, Paterculus, Valerius Maximus, Quintus Curtius, Tacitus, Florus, Suetonius, Justin, and Marcelinus. Qu. What account have you of Julius Caesar? Ans. Cajus Julius Caesar (descended from the Noble Julian Family) was the first Founder of the Roman Empire; yet no less eminent for his Commentaries, than his Conquests: Using his Pen with the same Vigour, as he used his Sword; in so much, that, as Quintilian observes, he was the only Roman, who for Eloquence might have been opposed to Cicero: And who, as Gyraldus saith) did alone overcome all others both in Writing and Fight. In his tender years he addicted himself to Poetry, and Composed the Tragedy of Oedipus, the Praise of Hercules, and several other Poems under the Title of Julii, which Augustus afterwards prohibited to be published. Neither was he less famous for his Skill in Oratory, witness his Funeral Orations on his Wife Cornelia, and Aunt Julia, his Accusation of Dolabella, his Invectives against Cato, and his Orations for the Bythinian Law Plautia, for Decius the Samnite, for Sextilius and others, Likewise his two Books of Analogy gave him great repute among the Grammarians. Besides which, he wrote several other Tracts of Augury, and witty Apothegms; as well as of the motion of the Stairs, which he had Learned in Egypt, and wherein he Prognosticated his own Death, on the Ideses of March, as the Elder Pliny relates; nor is he less eminent for his Reformation of the Calendar. But what surpassed all his other Writings, were his seven Books of Commentaries, describing nothing but his own Actions, and things that he himself had seen. Asinius Pollio, (that carping Critic) accuses him (as Suetonius saith) for suerving from the Truth in many Relations about himself, and that he differs extremely from the account which Dion, Plutarch and other Authors give of the same Actions; as also, that he reports many things unjustly to the Defamation of the Ancient Gauls: But these Censures are only conjectural. As for the excellency of his Style, 'tis so Easy, Natural and Eloquent, that his Latin has ever been compared to Xenophon's Greek, as well as his other Characters. The eight Book of his Commentaries was written by Hirtius. Caesar's Writings, though adorned with some Orations, are destitute of many Rhetorical Ornaments, wherewith he could have beautified them; in so much, that Cicero esteems his Commentaries to be nothing but short Notes prepared by Caesar in order to a more complete History, had not his untimely Murder prevented him. Qu. What account have you of Sallust? Ans. Crispus Salustius, or, as others call him, salustius, was born at Amiternum in the Sabines Territory, the third year of the 173 d. Olympiad, which was the same year that Sylla's Soldiers took and Sacked Athens; for he was Elder than Caesar, though he outlived him seven years, Sallust was first Educated in Rome, spending his youth in Ingenious Studies, so as to be preferred to many considerable Offices in the Government: as, Senator, Tribune, Treasurer, and Praetour in afric by the favour of Julius Caesar, in which last Office, by his Extortions, he grew so vastly Rich, as to purchase the Village Tiburte, and his Countryhouse at Tivoli, as well as the chief Houses on Mount Quirinal in Rome, together with those spacious Gardens, called (at this day) The Gardens of Sallust. He was descended from the Noble Salustian Family; and Educated under his Tutor Attejus Praetextatus Philologus. Of his Works, Catalin's Conspiracy, and the Jugurthine War, are the two chief, that are extant; Besides which, he wrote the History of Rome from its foundation, with a particular Narration of Marius and Sylla, as also the Achievements of Pompey in the Mithridatick War, of all which, we have only some few Fragments remain; but for the true delivery of his Punic History, he was so Zealous, that he Travailed into Africa on purpose, to be the better informed. His Style, in imitation of Thucydides, whom Quintilian compares him to,) is Concise, Short, and Pithy. Of the Ancients, as well as Tacitus, and Seneca, as St. Austin did highly esteem Sallust; and of the modern Critics, Lipsius, Turnebus and Scaliger prefer him to Caesar or Livy. Nevertheless, Asinius Pollio, Livy and others accuse him for inventing new words, as well as for the using obsolete ones; and for too much obscure brevity in his expressions, wherein Tacitus imitates him. He is likewise censured for stealing out of Thucycides and Cato many Select Sentences, and for the too often repetition of the same words; as well as for inserting many inessential things into his History, more especially his two Prefaces before Catalin's Conspiracy, and the Jugurthine War, which relate not at all to the following subjects: But the first a general Harangue against Idleness; and the second an Invective against those whom Debauchery diverted from their Employs. Yet that, for the which he was the most condemned, is his own extravagant Life, so much contrary to his Writings: When, not being satisfied with his own Wife Terentia, whom he married after her Divorce from Cicero, he was taken in Adultery with Fausta, Lucius Sylla's Daughter; for the which he was not only expelled the Senate, but condemned also to be Whipped by Milo, and fain to buy off that punishment with Money. Finally, his Orations discover both his amity to Caesar, and enmity to Cicero. Notwithstanding some question, whether these two addressed to Caesar, were Salusts or no. But most certain it is, that that one Oration which Cicero ascribes to Sallust is counterfeit, and none of his, it being in no wise Historical. The most considerable of his Friends were, Julius Caesar, Cornelius Nepos, Messala, and Nigidius Figulus. Qu. What account have you of Livy? Ans. Titus Livius Patavinus, was born at Milan, and flourished chief under Augustus and Tiberius. He began to write after Augustus' Triumph for the War at Actium, and finished his History in the beginning of Tiberius' reign. He wrote (as Seneca tells us, many Philosophical Dialogues before he came to Rome, the which he dedicated to Augustus Caesar, whereby he procured his Favour. And Quintinian informs us, that in a Letter to his Son, he delivered many excellent Precepts of Rhetoric; but his chief Piece is his History, which contained 142 Books, or (as some say) but 140. beginning with the Foundation of Rome by Romulus, and extending for the space of 746 years, to the Germane War, managed by Drusus. who lost his Life in that Expedition. This History was not divided into Decades (as now we find it,) by Livy himself, but by others since his time. And of the 140, or 142 Books which he wrote, there remain at present not above 35. neither are those altogether entire: For that the whole second Decade is wanting; also we have but the first, third and fourth, with half of the fifth, which was found at Worms, by one Simon Gryneus. Likewise the beginning of the forty third Book has been lately recovered by a Manuscript in the Chapter of Bamberg. But for the remaining fourteen Decades, we must rest contented with the Epitome of Florus, who, as some vainly fancy, was the occasion of the loss of the whole. His Style, notwithstanding Asinius Pollio blames it for its Patavinity, or Paduan Dialect, (where he writes sibe for sibi, and quase for quasi, as we now pronounce it;) is yet extolled by Quintilian, as most Eloquent, and his History equalled to Herodotus. Also, however the Emperor Caligula accuses him of Verbosity, yet the same Prince was no less an enemy to Homer, Virgil, Seneca, and all Ingenious men. It is true, that Augustus blamed Livy for too much favouring Pompey's party against Caesar, but yet he withdrew not his favour from him, as perceiving it his Country's cause, who were all of the Pompejan Faction. Again, Trogus Pompejus (as Justin informs us) accuses Livy's Orations, as too direct and long, which censure might happily, arise out of Jealousy betwixt two Historians of the same Age and Subject. And for what Mascardi blames him, of beginning his History with part of an Hexameter Verse, 'tis frivolous, since there is no Prose without something of the like nature occurring. Seneca more justly accuses him of envy to Sallust, in preferring Thucydides so much above him; but yet Seneca terms him the most Eloquent. Finally, the Aspersion which can with most difficulty be wiped off from Livy, is that, for the which Gregory the Great prohibited him to be kept in any Christian Library, and which Causabon mentions in his Preface to Polybius, viz. his notorious Credulity in the Pagan Superstition, where he fills his History with Prodigies; as, of an Ox's Speaking; a Mules Engendering, the Metamorphosis of Men, Women and other Creatures; showers of Flint-stones, Milk, Blood, Flesh and Chalk; the Statues of Gods Weeping, Speaking, and shedding Tears of Blood, Armies engaging in the Air, and Ghosts appearing; together with Lakes and Rivers of Blood: All which nevertheless he represents only as the fond opinions of others, and not to be credited. Last of all, Gruterus entitles him the Prince of Latin History, Barthius, the Patavinian Siren, and Lipsius, the most Plentiful of Historians, wherein (as he observes) we meet with things too good for us. He died in the fourth year of Tiberius. He was chosen by the Senate to be Tutor to the Emperor Claudius in his youth. And (as Pliny the younger tells us) One traveled to Rome from the remotest parts of Spain, only to have a sight of Livy. Qu. What account have you of Vellejus Paterculus? Ans. Vellejus Paterculus (descended from the Ancient Warlike Princes of Campaigne) was at first a Military Tribune in France, than Praefect of Horses in Germany, afterwards Quaestor, and last of all Tiberius' Legate in the Pannonian War; as he himself informs us. About the 16th. year of Tiberius he composed his Epitome of Roman History in two Books, whereof the beginning of the first is lost. He pretends to begin only with the Foundation of Rome, nevertheless, as appears by the remains of his first Book, He treats of things far more Ancient, and so comes down to his own time, the 16th. year of Tiberius, which was the 32d. year after the Birth of Christ. Vossius, Lipsius and others extol the Elegancy of his Style, and allow him to have given us a Judicious account of some things which are not elsewhere to be met with. Nevertheless, he is condemned for too much flattering the House of Augustus, as well as for parasitically applauding even the Extravagancies of Tiberius and his Evil Councillor Sejanus, whom he magnifies for the most Virtuous of men. But, to conclude, his greatest Excellency is his Eloquence, which appears chief in his Invectives and Encomiums, as where he traduces Mark Anthony, and extols Cicero. Some attribute this Author another Fragment of the defeat of the Roman Legion by the Grisons, the which Vossius, Velserus, and other Learned Critics have demonstrated to be a counterfeit. Qu. What account have you of Valerius Maximus? Ans. Valerius Maximus, a Roman Citizen of a Noble Patrician Family, derived his Pedigree from the Valerian Family by his Father's side, and from the Fabians by his Mother. In his youth he was initiated in Learning, but coming to be of Age, he served for some time in the Wars, and Sailed with Sextus Pompejus into Asia: From whence, being returned to Rome, he published in nine Books his various History, or rather Miscellanious collection of memorable Deeds and Say that had occurred among the Romans; the which he wrote at the latter end of Tiberius his reign, and after the disgrace of Sejanus, which makes him so boldly traduce that Favourite, whom Paterculus was obliged to flatter, as writing in the time of his Prosperity. Finally, he is condemned for the obscurity and unpoliteness of Style. Qu. What account have you of Quintus Curtius? Ans. Quintus Curtius Rufus, though born (as most think) in the Reign of Tiberius, yet, living to a great Age, flourished chief under Vespasian: And was the same Curtius whom Suetonius makes in his younger days to teach Rhetoric under Tiberius; as also the same, to whom (as the younger Pliny reports,) a Phantasm appeared in Africa. He wrote the Life and Expliots of Alexander the Great in ten Books; whereof, the two first, and end of the fifth are lost, as also the beginning of the sixth; and in some parts of his tenth or last Book, there appears a defect: Nevertheless, Christopher Bruno has supplied the two first Books out of Arrianus, Justin and Diodorus. As for the Censures that pass upon him, Glarian, Mascardi and others condemn him for an ill Geographer, in making the River Ganges run from the South, and confounding Mount Taurus with Caucasus, as also mistaking the Jaxartes of Pliny for the River Tanais: Likewise for too much abounding in Sentences, and making persons speak improper to the Characters they bear, as in the Oration of the Scythians to Alexander, in his seventh Book. But all these accusations are frivolous and groundless, in comparison of that which is urged against him, for vindicating the Brutish and Unnatural Lust of Alexander to the Eunuch Bagoas, which Curtius justifies as Lawful. Nevertheless, he is as much esteemed of among the Critics, as any of the Latin Historians, both for sincerity and Judgement, and Eloquence. Lipsius prefers him before all others for the perusal of Princes. Vossius saith, He is more Elegant, than Perspicuous; yet allows his Words to be Choice, his Sentences Acute, his Orations Eloquent, and his Phrase worthy of Augustus' Age. As for his Orations, whether direct or obliqne, they are all Excellent. Neither is he impertinent in Digressions, unless you will accuse his Description of India for one, which was really essential to his Design. Lastly, Alphonsus' King of Arragon was recovered from a dangerous fit of Sickness by the diversion he took in the reading of this Author, which made him cry out, That he owed his Recovery neither to Hypocrates nor Avicenne, but only to Quintus Curtius. Qu. What account have you of Tacitus. Ans. Cornelius Tacitus, Praefect of the Belgic gaul's under the Emperor Adrian, besides his Annals, (which reach from the Scene of Augustus, to the end of Nero's Reign, excepting his last twelve years,) wrote also an History, that extends from the Death of Nero, to the Government of Nerva and Trajan; of which History, there are now extant but Five Books: And Lipsius, with reason, conjectures, that there are at least Ten more lost, in as much as they were all said to reach from Galba to Trajan, which was the space of one and twenty years; whereof the five we have now left us, treat but of one whole year. His History is quoted in the eleventh of his Annals, whence we may conclude That to have been first written. Now, besides his Annals and History, he wrote also a Treatise of Germany and its Inhabitants, with another Book of the Life of his Father in Law Agricola: Both which pieces are now extant. But for the other Tract of the corruption of Roman Eloquence, which some attribute to Tacitus, and others to Quintilian, 'tis thought by Lipsius and other Learned men to have been written by neither. Now among these many Judicious persons who extol this Author, Vossius (though he prefers the Eloquence of his History before that of his Annals,) yet allows him to be every where Grave and Elegant: Also Lipsius calls him, a sharp and prudent Writer, and Imitator of Sallust: Sidonius would have him never mentioned without Praise: But the Emperor Tacitus had so great a veneration for his Ancestor and Namesake, that he made his Books be transcribed no less than ten times in one year, and caused his Statue to be erected in all public Libraries. Notwithstanding, he hath not been totally exempt from Censure: For Alciatus, rather out of Affection, than Reason, preferred his Friend Paulus Jovius before him; and Ferret, as well out of Ignorance, as Vanity, accuses Tacitus of writing ill Latin; However Pliny the younger, magnifies his Eloquence therein. Also Vopiscus (only to justify his Assertion, that all Narrations are mixed with untruths,) accuses Tacitus of delivering falsities, but gives no instance where. Likewise, Chrysostom and Tertullian bribed rather with Religion, than Judgement, accuse Tacitus as an Imposture, for that he derides the Christians, abuses the Miracles of Moses, and upbraids the Jews for their adoring the Effigies of an Ass, in the fifth Book of his History: Which, as coming from an Heathen, is not altogether so criminal; but rather to be condemned for a digression, than for an Impiety. Finally, he equals as well Thucydides, as Sallust, in the number of his choice Sentences; out of which, the wisest Politicians have selected their most prudent Maxims of State. Qu. What account have you of Lucius Florus? Ans. Lucius Annaeus Florus (descended from the Noble Annaean Family, and thereby allayed to the Senececaes) lived under the Emperor Adrian; and composed an Epitome of Roman History in four Books. Some question whether he was the same Author that annexed the Arguments to Livy's History; but 'tis a great error to imagine, that he ever designed the Epitome of all Livy's works, much less, that he should occasion the loss of any part of them. His stile is Poetical, using (like Virgil) Hemesticks in his Periods, and writes more like a Declamer than a Historian, which makes Sigonius brand him for impertinent. His account of the Suns being seen to fall into the Ocean, and there heard with Horror to extinguish its Beams in the Waves; (as mentioned in his Description of Brutus his Sea Voyage,) also his Report of two Spirits in the shape of young men appearing in Rome near the Temple of Castor and Pollux; (when he speaks of the defeat of Cimbri by Marius;) are things altogether incredible, and not fit to be inserted in History; as Scaliger, in his Comment on Eusebius, well observes. Yet notwithstanding, Vossius allows him to be a Writer, that is both Elegant and Eloquent, and (except in some few places) truly Florid. Qu. What account have you of Suetonius? Ans. Caius Suetonius Tranquillus (whose Fathers name was Suetonius Lenis, as he himself testifies in the Life of Otho,) was Secretary of State to the Emperor Adrian, till being suspected of too great Familiarity with the Empress Sabina, he was removed from that Employ. After which, he applied himself to writing, and composed these several Pices: To wit, The Lives of the Twelve first Roman Emperors, beginning with Julius Caesar, and ending with the death of Domitian, in the 98th. year of Christ, which piece is now extant: Together with other Tracts of the Illustrious Grammarians, Rhetoricians, and Poets, whereof at this day, only some Fragments remain; Besides, a Discourse of the Roman Games, a piece called, the Republic of Cicero, and of the most Illustrious Families of Rome, all which are perished in the ruins of time. Ausonius' likewise tells us of another Book of Kings divided into three parts, Which (he saith) was written by Suetonius, and afterwards contracted into a Poem by Pontius Paulinus. But for that Treatise of the Life of the Elder Pliny, which goes under the Name of Suetonius, it was certainly none of his; for the great Intimacy betwixt our Author and the younger Pliny, would have produced a more Honourable Character of his Friend's Uncle, the Elder Pliny, than is there to be found, had Suetonius been the Writer of it. Some are of opinion that the beginning of his first Book of the twelve Caesars is wanting, because there is no mention of the Birth and first years of Julius Caesar, as there is of the Original and Education of all the other Emperors, in the rest of their Lives As for the Censures that are passed upon Suetonius, they are chief two; the first, For his exclaiming against the turbulent Superstition of the Christians; And the second, for his Description of Vice in the Lives of Tiberius, Nero, and Caligula; whereof, if you will pardon him the first as an Heathen, I see not how he could avoid the other, as a Faithful and True Historian. Nevertheless, Pliny calls him, A most Learned and Honest Author: Suidas, the famous Roman Grammarian: Vopiscus, a fair, Candid and Compendious writer: But Ludovicus Vives saith, That of all the Greek and Latin Historians, He is the most pure and diligent, speaking Truth boldly. Nay, many prefer him before Livy, Sallust or Tacitus: which Character, though Vossius will not assent to, yet doth he approve of those other Encomiums given him by Vopiscus and Vives. This Author was at first rendered into English by that Voluminous Translator Dr. Philemon Holland, which gave occasion for one merrily disposed to break this quibbling Jest upon him: Philemon with Translations doth so fill us, He will not let Suetonius be Tranquillus. Qu. What account have you of Justin? Ans. Justin flourished under Antonius Pius, and abbreviated those forty four Books of the Universal History of two thousand years from Ninus to Augustus, which Trogus Pompejus had before composed under the reign of Tiberius, and whereof nothing but this Epitome remains; which, nevertheless, we find not to occasion the loss of the Original, as some imagine. Martin the Polander, as well as Munster, confound this Author with Justin the Martyr, making them one of the same, because they were Contemporaries; but without any colour of Reason, as appears by the Scurrilous Invective made by this Historian against the Jews, in his 36th. Book, which the Martyr would never have been guilty of. Now of this Author, as well his Method (wherein he follows his Original, even in the very number of Books) as his Style, are both highly commended. The seven first Books comprehend the Infancy of the World, or first Inhabitants thereof, beginning with the description of Kings, Places and Countries of the first Assyrian or Babylonish Monarchies; and from the seventh to the one and fortyeth Book, is a continued Series of the Empire of Macedon, beginning with Philip, the Father of Alexander the Great. He used no direct Orations, for that had rendered him guilty of the same error, which Trogus himself condemned in Livy and Sallust. Yet nevertheless, Justin is accused of some Digressions, as in the beginning of his second Book, where the Scythians and Egyptians have a long tedious debate in preference of each others Antiquity: And likewise in the twentieth Book, concerning the Birth, Travels, Virtue and Death of Pythagoras. Again, Pererius in his Comment upon Daniel, hath convinced Justin of many errors concerning the Jews: And Vopiscus accuses him of Falsity. But that wherein he seems most of all inexcusable, is his false Chronology, which is wholly attributed to the Abbreviator. Qu. What account have you of Ammianus Marcellinus? Ans. Ammianus Marcellinus, a Grecian and Citizen of Antioch, flourished chief under the Emperor's Gratian and Valentinian, holding in his youth divers considerable Offices of the Militia, particularly, one of the Guard du Corpse, besides many other eminent Employs, in all which, he acquitted himself with much Honour. He wrote an History which extends from the beginning of Nerva, to the death of Valens, in one and thirty Books: whereof, the first thirteen being lost, the other eighteen only remain; and those (too) full of Imperfection. As well his Military Profession, as Greek Birth, do both contribute to the Roughness of his Style; and for the same Reasons ought to be pardoned. No other Historian so well informs us of the Antiquities and Originals of the Gauls, Germans and Burgundians, as he doth; neither hath any Heathen Author written less reflectingly on the Christians, notwithstanding the excessive Praises he attributes to Julian, which were but his due in respect of Moral Virtues: For which reason, as well as for his sincerity, and presenting us with things no where else to be met with, he is duly esteemed of by all Learned men. Yet, nevertheless, some just exceptions may be taken against him; when, instead of an Historian, he plays the Philosopher, and runs away from his Subject: As in the seventh Book, where he quits Julian at Paris, to Speculate the nature of Earthquakes: Also, in the beginning of his twentieth Book, where leaving Constantius to prepare against the Persians, he falls enquiring into the nature of Eclipse; and presents his Reader with a Lecture of Astronomy instead of History: And again, in his thirtieth Book, where he leaves Valentinian at Tryers, whilst he presents you with an Invective against Lawyers. Also Marcellinus is by Causine accused of his too many Poetical Descriptions throughout the whole Body of his Writings. But notwithstanding all these Censures, he is allowed of by Vossius, To be a Grave and Serious Writer, worthy to be beloved by all men. LIB. VI OF GOVERNMENT AND SUCCESSION. Qu. WHich are the three principal forms of Government? Ans. First, Monarchy, which is the Government of one single man alone, as is used in England, France and Spain: Or secondly, an Aristocracy, where the people are governed by a select number of Noblemen or Grandees, as heretofore the States of Venice and Genoa: Or thirdly, Democracy, which is a Republic or Commonwealth, wherein the People are governed only by such Magistrates, as they choose among themselves, as 'tis at this time in Holland. Qu. What are the Extremes or Abuses of these three sorts of Government? Ans. When a Monarchy runs into Tyranny, Aristocracy into Oligarchy, or Democracy into Anarchy and Confusion. Qu. How many sorts of Monarchy are there? Ans. Two, the one Hereditary, as in England or France, and the other Elective, as in Poland. Qu. How hath England been Anciently governed? Ans. England was first under the Britain's: secondly, Tributary to the Romans: thirdly, under the Saxons; fourthly, under the Danes: and fifthly under the Normans; whose Conquest of this Island by William Duke Normandy, is the chief Period of time from whence our Chronologers reckon. Qu. Name me the Succession of our English Monarches from the Conquest, together with their several Races? Ans. First, of the Norman Race, were William the Conqueror, William Rufus, Henry the first, and King Stephen. Secondly, of the Race of Plantagenets, were Henry the second, Richard the first, King John, Henry the third, Edward the first, Edward the second, Edward the third, and Richard the second. Thirdly, Plantagenets of the House of Lancaster, were Henry the fourth, Henry the fifth, and Henry the sixth. Fourthly, Plantagenets of the House of York, were Edward the fourth, Edward the fifth, and Richard the third. Fifthly, of the Race of tudor's, were Henry the seventh, Henry the eighth, Edward the sixth, Queen Marry, and Queen Elizabeth. Sixthly and lastly, of the Race of Stuarts, were King James, King Charles the Martyr, and Charles the Second, our present King, whom God preserve. Qu. How many years is it since William Duke of Normandy Conquered England; or when began he to Reign? Ans. William the Conqueror having defeated Harold in that famous Battle at Hastings in Sussex, began his Reign Anno Domini one thousand sixty six. which is about six hundred and seventeen years ago. Qu. When did the Division betwixt the two Houses of York and Lancaster first begin? Ans. It began upon the death of Richard the second: In which Kings reign was that Insurrection of Watt Taylor and Jack Straw, whom the Mayor of London so Loyally defeated. Qu. How ended the Quarrel betwixt these two Houses? Ans. By the Marriage of Henry the seventh, to Elizabeth the Eldest Daughter of Edward the Fourth; which Match united the King's Red-Rose of Lancaster, with the Queen's White-Rose of York, and so established the Peace of both Houses. Qu. From whence sprang the Title of King James, and the Stuarts, to the Crown of England? Ans. By the Marriage of the Lady Margaret, King Henry the seventh's Eldest Daughter, to James the Fourth King of Scotland, whose Son, James the fifth, had Issue one only Daughter, which was Mary Queen of Scots, the Mother of our English Monarch King James, the sixth of that Name in Scotland, and the first in England. For Henry the sevenths Issue Male being expired by the Death of Queen Elizabeth, (the only Relict of Henry the eighth) the next Succession fell upon his Issue Female, the aforesaid Lady Margaret. Qu. Which are the chief Writers of our English Chronicles? Ans. Matthew Paris, Matthew Westminster, Jeffry of Monmouth, Martin, Polydore Virgil, Holinshead, Speed, Stow, and Baker; besides the Writers of particular Lives: such as, Daniel, Heywood, Bacon's Henry the seventh, Herbert's Henry the eighth, and Cambden's Queen Elizabeth, the best in their kind. Qu. What Races have succeeded to the Crown of France? Ans. There have been three Races of Kings in France: The first of Pharamont, A. Ch. 419. the second of Pepin, A. C. 751. And the third of Hugh Capet, A. C. 988. Qu. What Races of Kings have succeeded to the Crown of Spain? Ans. Since the Expulsion of the Romans, the Spaniards have had four Races of Kings: the first from the Goths, the second, after the Invasion of the Moors, from Don Pelago; the third from Don Sancho Mayor, King of Navarre; and the fourth from the House of Austria, by the Marriage of the Daughter and Heir of Ferdinand the Catholic; which Race now governs in Spain. Qu. What Races of Kings have succeeded to the Crown of Scotland? Ans. The Ancient Kingdom of the Scots reckon by two Periods; the first from Fergusius, who was King of Scotland in the time of Alexander the Great; and the second from Robert Stuart, the Son of Walter Stuart, who married Margery, King Bruces Daughter, in the year of our Lord 1350. or thereabouts. Qu. How came Ireland into the hands of the English? Ans. By the Conquest of Henry the second, in the year of Christ 1172. Qu. Of what Family is the Emperor of Germany? Ans. Descended from Radulphus Auspergensis, who A. D. 1273. made Austria the Imperial Seat, constituting his Son Albert first Duke thereof. Qu. Of what Family is the Emperor of Turkey? Ans. Of the Ottoman Family, so called from the Warlike Emperor Ottoman (Son of Orthogules) who A. D. 1300. did much enlarge the Mahometan Empire by his Arms. Qu. Of what Family are the Kings of Portugal? Ans. Portugal, which did formerly belong to Spain, is now a distinct Kingdom of itself, and enjoys the blessing of Kings of its own, out of that Honourable Family of the Duke of Braganza, descended from Henry of Lorraine, to whom Alphonsus King of Castille gave his Daughter Teresia in Marriage, for the good Services he had performed against the Saracens in Portugal, A.C. 1110. Qu. How is Holland and the Lowcountries Governed? Ans. Holland did formerly belong to the King of Spain, till by the Severity of the Spanish Inquisition, and Cruel Government of the Duke of Alva under Philip the second, they Revolted, and by the Assistance of Queen Elizabeth threw off the Spanish yoke, and set up a Commonwealth among themselves; under which kind of Government they now continue at this very day. Qu. What Interest hath the Prince of Orange in the Government of Holland? Ans. He is allowed a double Vote in their Senate, with many other Privileges above the rest, as a Reward for the good Services done them by the Old Prince of Orange, in their Revolt against the Duke of Alva and the Spaniards. Qu. How is the present Government of Italy? Ans. It is divided into little Commonwealths, Principalities or Dukedoms; which in Spiritual matters are mostly subject to the Pope; who, as the Ghost of the Deceased Roman Empire, sits Crowned upon the Grave thereof, as the Malmsbury Philosopher well observes. LIB. VII. OF PHILOSOPHY. Qu. WHich are the chief Successions of Ancient Philosophy? Ans. These three; the jonick, Italic, and Eleatic, as Clemens Alexandrinus reckons them; But Diogenes Laertius mentions only two the jonick and Italic, which last he makes to fall in with the Eleatic. Qu. Who was the first of the jonick Sect? Ans. Thales. Qu. Who was the first of the Italic Sect? Ans. Pythagoras; whose Masters Name was Pherecydes? Qu. What Philosophers succeeded Thales in his Sect of jonick Philosophy? Ans. Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, and Socrates, who being the first Founder of Moral Philosophy, after his time several new Sects arose. Qu. Who were the chief Philosophers of the Italic Sect after Pythagoras? Ans. Telauges and Xenophanes, (whom Clemens makes the first of the Eleaticks,) also Parmenedes, Zeno Eleates, Leucippus, Empedocles, Democritus, Protagoras, Metrodorus, Diomenes, Pyrrho, Heraclitus, Anaxarchus, Nausiphanes, Naucydes, and Epicurus, whose Philosophy is given us by the Latin Poet Lucretius. Qu. What are the chief Sects, which you say arose after Socrates, amongst his Followers? Ans. They were the Cynics, Stoics, Academics, Peripatetics, Sceptics, Epicureans, and Eclectics. Qu. Who were the chief Cynics? Ans. Antisthenes', Diogenes, and Crates, from whom sprang the Stoics. Qu. Who were the chief Stoics? Ans. Crates, Zeno, Citiensis, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Cato, Varro, Tully, Seneca, Antonius, and Possidonius. Qu. Who were the chief Academics? Ans. Plato, Pseusippus, Xenocrates, and Polemon, of the old Academy: Crantor and Arcesilaus, of the middle Academy: and Lacydes, Hegesilans, Carneades, and Clitomachus, of the new Academy. Qu. Who were the chief Peripatetics? Ans. Aristotle, Theophrastus, Straton, Lycon, Critolaus, and Diodorus. Qu. Who were the chief Sceptics? Ans. Pyrrho, Timon, Aenesidemus, Neumenius and Sextus Empericus. Qu. Who were the chief Epicureans? Ans. Epicurus, his servant Must, Hermannus, Lucian, Celsus, Lucretius, Cassius who murdered Caesar, Maro, and Patronius Arbiter. Qu. Who were the chief Electticks? Ans. Potamon of Alexandria, Sotion, Ammonius, and Plotinus. Qu. Why were the Cynics so called? Ans. In derision of their Morose Dogged Manners and ill Nature; Fawning on Virtue, and Barking at Vice; as Ammonius well expresses it. Qu. Why were the Stoics so called? Ans. From the place they disputed in, called a Stoa, or Porch. Qu. Why were the Academics so called? Ans. From the place where they studied in, called an Academy. Qu. Why were the Peripatetics so called? Ans. From their manner of Disputing as they walked in a place called the Lycaeum. Qu. Why were the Sceptics so called? Ans. Because they denied any certainty of knowledge in any thing; which others affirming, were called Dogmatics. Qu. Why were the Epicureans so called? Ans. From their Master Epicurus; who nevertheless received all his Principles of Atomical Philosophy from Democritus, who held the same long before. Qu. Why were the Electicks so called? Ans. Because they pretended to search all other Phylosophies, and choose the best out of each. Qu. Why were all these men called Philosophers? Ans. From their Study of Wisdom and Knowledge. Qu. To what kind of knowledge did the Academics pretend? Ans. To know nothing certainly, but to dispute all things; yet not absolutely denying that there may be some probability of conclusion, only that it was difficult to attain unto. Qu. In what did the Stoics differ from the Peripatetics, and the Epicureans from both? Ans. Somewhat they differed in their Physics, but most in their Opinions of the chief good and Happiness of man. Qu. Wherein did the Stoics place Happiness? Ans. In the rigid exercise of Virtue, and contempt of those things, which others esteem Pain or Pleasure. Qu. In what did the Peripatetics place Happiness? Ans. In the exercise of Virtue, together with the enjoyment of the gifts of Nature and Fortune; the want of which, they acknowledged to be Unhappiness. Qu. In what did the Epicureans place their Happiness? Ans. In the enjoyment of Pleasure, and living without the fear of Powers Invisible. Qu. What are the chief parts or contents of Philosophy? Ans. Physics, or Natural Philosophy; Ethics, or Moral Philosophy; and dialectics, or Logic. Qu. What doth Physics, or Natural Philosophy, comprehend? Ans To know the Nature of the Heavens, and all things in the World. Qu. What doth Ethics, or Moral Philosophy, comprehend? Ans. The instruction of Good Manners, Virtue and Vice, together with the chief good of men, and how to attain it. Qu. What doth dialectics, or Logic, teach? Ans. The Art of Discourse, or true Reasoning, which serves as the Instrument of both the other. Qu. Which are the best Authors to instruct us in the Lives and Doctrines of the Philosophers? Ans. Diogenes Laertius, Stobaeus Plutarch, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Steuchius Eugebinus; but above all, Cicero's Works, wherein we shall find what the Lord Bacon says to be Infallibly true: That as a little Philosophy inclineth men to Atheism, so depth in Philosophy bringeth back to Religion. LIB. VIII. Of LEARNING AND SCIENCES In General. Qu. WHich are the seven Liberal Sciences? Ans. Philology, History, Mathematics, Philosophy, Physic, Law, and Divinity. Qu. What doth Philology comprehend? Ans. Philology comprehends the study of Grammar, (or the Art of Writing and Speaking Correctly;) Rhetoric, (or the Art of Speaking Eloquently;) Poetry, (or the Art of Writing in Measure or Verse;) Logic, (or the Art of Reasoning;) Anagnostick, (or the method of Reading Authors Profitably;) Critics, (or Censures upon Authors;) and Diadacticks, (or the method of Teaching others.) Qu. How may History be divided? Ans. Into seven parts: As for Example, Ecclesiastical, (or the History of the Fathers and Councils;) Political, (or the Government of States and Kingdoms;) Natural, (as Pliny of the Heavens, Fowls, Beasts and Plants;) Successions, as of Countries and Families;) Professions, (as the Lives of Famous men in any Faculty;) Various, (as Aelian, Plutarch's Morals, and Valerius Maximus;) and Fabulous, (such as are called Romances;) Qu. What do the Mathematics comprehend? Ans. Arithmetic, (or the Art of Numbers;) Geometry, (or the Art of Measuring;) Perspectives, (or the Art of Sight;) Astronomy, (or the knowledge of the Stars and their Motions;) Geography, (or the Description of the Earth;) Architecture, (or the Art of Building;) and Music, (or the Art of Harmony.) Qu. What doth Philosophy comhend? Ans. Metaphysics (that treat of Supernatural things, as Spirits, &c) Physics, (or Natural Philosophy;) Ethics, (or Moral Philosophy;) Oeconomiques, (of Order and Discipline; Politics, (of Government;) Thanmaturgicks, (or the working Strange Conclusions;) and Pneumatology, (or the Doctrine of Spirits.) Qu. What is comprehended in the Study of Physic? Ans. To be well read in all Natural and Physical Writings, of the Latins, Greeks, Arabians, Paracelsians, Galeno-Chymists, Prophylacticks, and Empirics. Qu. What is comprehended in the Study of Law? Ans. To read such as have written concerning Lawgivers, and Laws in general, Of the Law of Nature, Of the Law of Nations, Of the Laws of the Hebrews, Of the Civil-Law, Of the Canon-Law, and Of our Municipal Laws. Qu. What is comprehended in the Study of Divinity? Ans. To read such as have written Divinity Natural, Catechetical, Exegetical, on Commentators, Polemical, in Controversies, Synidetical, for Cases of Conscience. Prophetical, of Preaching, and Gubernetical, of Church-Government. Instrue praeceptis Animum; nec discere Cesses: Nam sine Doctrina, vita est qansi Mortis Imago. FINIS.