Cursus Osteologicus: BEING A Complete Doctrine OF THE BONES; According to the Newest, and most Refined Notions of ANATOMY.  
Showing their Nature, Substance, Composition, manner of Ossification, Nourishment, etc. Also the various ways of their Articulation; together with the Parts to be considered in each particular Bone of the whole SKELETON, as Figure, Cavities, Protuberancies, Foramina, Situation, Connexion and Use; with several Curious Observations relating to the BONES.  
To which is Annexed by way of APPENDIX, An Excellent Method of Whitening, Cleansing, Preparing, and Uniting the Bones, to Form a Movable Skeleton, wherein the Bones may have the same Motions as in a Living Subject.  
The Whole being a Work very Useful and Necessary for all Students in Physic and Chirurgery.  
By ROBERT BAKER, Chirurgeon.  
London, Printed by I. Dawks, for D. Browne, at the Black Swan without Temple-Bar; and R. Clavell, at the Peacock near St. Dunstan's Church. 1697.   

INTRODUCTION.  
REctum est Regulasui, & obliqui, is an undeniable Axiom among the Mathematicians; the same may be said of that thrice Noble Science called Anatomy, it being the Grand Foundation, or if I may so say, the Cornerstone both of Physic and Chirurgery, especially the latter, it being the Basis on which we build all our Structures towards the Cure of Distempers, both External, and Internal; for how is it possible we should pretend to Cure any Internal Affect, unless we know what Part or Viscera is affected; the like may be said in Chirurgical Cases; for what Surgeon can give a true Prognostic in Wounds, Ulcers, etc. or Restore Luxated or Fractured Limbs, or perform any Manual Operation, without a true Knowledge of the Oeconomy of Humane Body; and this ought not to be a bare Knowledge only of the Parts, and where they lie (as many who are unwilling to give themselves the Trouble of Scrutinying into the more nice Composition of them) but we ought also to know the Figure, Structure, Use, what Juices they separate, and the like, all which the Doctrine of Anatomy teaches; for to what a prodigious height is the Art of Medicine improved, since our most Ingenious and Accurate Countryman, Doctor Harvey, found out and demonstrated the Circulation of the Blood; Jolivius the Lymphatic Vessels; Casper Assellus the Venae Lacteae; and Haver's the Articular Glands; with many more great Improvements, which are too long to mention; nay, the whole Method of Physic is almost altered; and this Great and Noble Work could ne'er have been performed, had those Learned Men contented themselves with a bare Knowledge o the Parts only; for suppose any had a Pile of Building to Erect, would they think you, employ any one who is Ignorant of what Figure of Size the Stones or Timber ought to be, and how to be joined together? The same may be said of a Chirurgeon, or Physician, who is ignorant of Anatomy; so that whoever is willing to perform the Duty of a Good and Conscientious Surgeon, aught to know the whole Fabric of Man's Body; and that as well in its perfect, and sound state, as morbid, that he may re-establish Health when lost, and restore unsound Parts to their former Sanity.  
I shall not here Harangue, or run out in the many Praises which are due to Anatomy, or Treat of its Origin and Antiquity; it being already so excellently well performed by the Learned Doctor Charleton, in the Preface to his Anatomic Prelections, but proceed to the Matter in hand.  
Various are the Opinions of Authors, about the Parts we ought to begin with, in Anatomical Demonstrations. Bartholinus says, We ought to begin with the Teguments, they being first in view, then proceed to the Viscera, and Muscles, and lastly, end with the Bones; and the Reasons he gives for it, are because the Bones cannot be examined before they appear, which they cannot do, (says he) till all the Muscles are separated from them; others begin with the Abdomen, or Lower Belly, so proceed to the Thorax, then to the Head, and lastly, to the Extremities; by reason the Belly is apt to send forth in a little time, very noisome and offensive Smells, which would hinder the Operator from prosecuting his intended Design: 'Tis true this is the best way, supposing we have but one Subject to work on, and that we be obliged to show all, or most of the Parts on this one Subject.  
Galen says we ought to begin with the Bones, and gives many Cogent Reasons to prove it; first, because they serve as Beams or Supporters of the whole Body. Secondly, they serve to fasten the Muscles too; for how can we tell the Origin or Insertion of any Muscle, if we be wanting in the true Doctrine of the Bones; nay, all the Parts seem as if designed for their use; for when the Bones cease to grow, they also put a Period to the growth of all the other Parts.  
Laurentius says, that in the Anatomical School of Alexandria, the Young Students in Medicine, always began their Anatomical Course with the Osteology, and then proceeded to the Doctrine of the Muscles, several of which receive their Denominations from the Bones, which they pass by, or lie on, as the Tibialis Posticus, and Anticus the Peronii, Scapulares, Sternohyoidei, Mastoideii, etc. Lastly, the Knowledge of the Bones is of that great use to a Surgeon, that it's impossible for him to restore well a Fracture or Dislocation, who is Ignorant of; the Structure, Figure, Articulation, etc. of the Fractured or Dislocated Bone.  
All these Reasons are a sufficient Inducement to persuade us, that we ought to begin with the Skeleton, and then proceed in order, to the Rest of Man's Body.  
The Skeleton is an Assemblage of all the Bones of the Body; it's either Natural, or Artificial; the Natural, is when the Bones are all excarned, but kept together by their proper Ligaments; the Artificial one, is when the Bones are Artificially Cleansed, Whitened and Joined together by Wires.  
That part of Anatomy which Treats of the Bones, is called Osteologia, which is as much as to say, A Discourse of the Bones.  
We shall in this Tract examines what belongs to the Bones in general, and what belongs to each particular; which we shall divide in several Demonstrations.   

Cursus Osteologicus: BEING A Complete Doctrine OF THE BONES, &c  

Demonstration I.  
Of the Bones in General.  
THE Doctrine of the Bones in General, 
What to be considered in the Bones in General.  consists in these Eleven Things, as Definition, Substance, Composition, manner of Ossification, Vessels, Nourishment, Differences, Parts, or Things to be considered in the Bones; together with their manner of Articulation, Number and Use; of all which in order.  
Galen defined a Bone to be the most hard, 
Ancient Definition.  firm, and terrestrious part of all the Body. Laurentius adds, and says, That it's engendered by the formative Faculty, by reason of great heat, out of the most crass and terrestrious part of the Semen, to serve as a Foundation to all the Body, and to give it Shape and Figure; but this Definition, as it is not complete enough, so on the other hand, the word Faculty, is a Term which they used to exprese themselves by, when they were at a loss for an Answer or Solution to any Question proposed; besides, it's not at all agreeable to the Idea we have of the formation of the Bones, or Use; yet it's certain the Ancients made use of that Term to explain most of the Actions of the Body; for when they were to declare how the Chyle, or Blood was made, or how the Bones or Cartilages were formed, nay, how the Senses acted; they answered, That the Stomach had a Chylific Faculty, the Liver a Sanguifying; the Bones were formed by an Ossific, and the Cartilages by a Cartilaginous Faculty, that the Eye saw by the Visive Faculty; &c sic de caeteris.  
This was a general Answer, by which they eluded (as well by their occult Qualities) all Difficulties proposed to them, so that their Pupils were as Ignorant at the finishing of their Studies▪ as at the beginning; but we at this Day explain all these Actions purely Mechanically; as I shall show in demonstrating each part of the Osteology exactly, that the Action which it performs, absolutely depends on its Structure, so that it can do nought else, but what it does.  
But to return from whence I have digressed; 
Modern Definition.  the Moderns say a Bone is a similer part, most dry, cold and hard, without sense, (unless by some Preternatural Accident) inflexible, affording Stabiliment, Figure and Form to the whole Body.  
A Bone may be considered at two distinct times, either before or after the Birth.  
In their beginning, 
Nature and Substance.  or before the Birth, they are of a Membranous Substance, wrapped up, as it were, in very many folds, or Laminae; which at first are Gelatinous, in time grow Cartilaginous, and at last when sufficiently indurated by the Ossific Liquor, are so strong as to resist all inward force, and their Parts which had before some Heterogeneous Bodies in their Insterstices, being squeezed closer by the power and pressure of the Spirits, disengage themselves from those Bodies which lie between their Laminae, so grow more solid, wholly fixed, and void of motion, which is about the time when the Bones have attained their full perfection of growth, which also puts a period to the bulk and magnitude of the Body, so that they are no more extended or enlarged, either in breadth or length.  
The Bones are composed of many strings, 
Composition of stringy Fibrils.  or threads, which have their course according to the length of the Bones, or their Figure; for if the Bone be of an unequal, or irregular Figure, the strings are also unequal, and irregular; except in the Cranium, where the threads begin at a point, (sometimes two or more) for the most part in the Centre, and terminate in the Circumference of the Bone, as the Spokes in a Wheel; for which reason it's more thick, and compact there, than in the Circumference, the thready Fibrils being more close and united there, which is visible in the Cranium of a Foetus; the Bones have also some transverse Fibres, to hold the long ones in; which may be seen in the Bones of the Tarsus, as also in the Extremities of most of the long Bones, where the Porosities are.  
The Ossification begins not in the same place of every Bone; 
Where the Ossification begins.  in the long Bones it begins in the middle, and towards each end; but in Bones of an irregular Figure in several places, as may be seen in the Ossa Innominata of a Foetus, where it begins at three points or places at once, so that they seem to be three distinct Bones united just in the middle of the Acetabulum, but in time, as the Ossification increases, they grow more strong, the fibrous threads join, and so make but one Bone; for if the Bones should have been totally Ossified before the Birth, 
Why the Bones are not totally Ossified before the Birth.  how should the Foetus pass through the Vagina of the Womb as it doth? For it's without Dispute, that both the Bones of the Head, and also the Hips of the Foetus, give way somewhat in time of Exclusion; for it's observed that those Animals which have long and small Heads, 
☜  but big Bodies, have the Bones of their Head wholly Ossified before the Birth, but their Ribs not, so careful is Nature in this Affair.  
In the Skull, and most broad thin Bones, as the Sternon, the Ossification begins at two, three, or more points, commonly about the Centre; Nature is also very cautious in Ossifying long Bones all at once; for if their Extremities had been Ossified as soon as their middle, the ligamentous and tendorous threads would not enter so easily their ends, to join them together, which they can do, being not totally Ossified. The Ossification, as I said afore of the Ossa Innominata, begins at three points, that they may have the greater solidity; but quite contrary in the Bones of the Cranium, for while the middle of most Bones of the Cranium are fully Ossified, their edges are only Membranous, that they may give way somewhat in time of Birth, which they would not, were the Cranium completely Ossified. These are the Reasons why Nature retards Ossification in some Bones, and advances it in others.  
The Bones before they be throughly indurated, 
Vessels.  have many Blood-vessels, which are obliterated, as soon as the Meduller Glands are large enough to separate the Oily Particles from the Arterial Blood, (which have a Property of keeping the Bones soft) then the Ossific Liquor which is emitted from the aforesaid Glands hardens them, and so presses the Parts closer together, and hinders the Blood from passing and repassing as usual, when they were softer, their bony threads gave way, and being than not pressed so close; which Vessels are also bonified by the Ossific Juice, having lost their first use; yet some few remain, which serve only the Meduller Glands, for their Nourishment, the Pulsation of Blood in them having strength enough to scatter the Fibrils of the Bones in that Part, and so makes passages for themselves.  
The Bones are nourished two ways, 
Nourishment two fold.  the one in their beginning, that is, when they are only Membranous, and is quite different from the Nourishment they receive after their Perfection; for now they are nourished as all other Membranes, 
When Membranous.  with Blood immediately from the Arteries, so that if you then cut them, you'll find every thread bloody, which is not so when truly Ossified; for when the Bones have occasion of greater solidity, Nature then changes her way of Nourishment, 
When Bony.  which is by a peculiar Liquor of a Saline Tartarous Nature, prepared by the Meduller Glands, the more oily Particles being separated, and kept in them, 
Medulla Quid.  which is that we call the Marrow; this Liquor; I say, insinuates its self all along the bony strings, and is visible in a Fractured Bone, it appearing at their Extremities, and meeting together causes them to reunite, 
Callus Quid.  which we call Callus; nay, we often find that the adjacent Parts are sometimes indurated by this Ossific Liquor, and the Limbs often grow Gouty, and has not its former nimble motion, the Callus growing too big; for if they were bloody Particles, which exuded forth of their bony threads, instead of generating a Callus, it would Impostumate, for all Blood shed out of its Vessels putrifies, this Liquor is of such an indurating Quality, that if the Fibrils of the Bones be any ways broken, that it sheds itself in any great quantity, it will Ossifie the very Tendons; I have seen the Marrow itself turned bony.  
The Bones have Nerves (is plain) although no Sense, 
Nerves, but no Sense.  for when they come to the solid Substance of the Bone, they are pressed so close, that the Animal Spirits cannot enter their Substance, and so consequently can have no feeling, 
Acids soften the Bones.  unless softened by Acids, which will cause them to have a dull Sense, as may be tried by the use of Acids on the Teeth; which, as the acidity goes off, reassume their former hardness, and insensibility. Sometimes the Blood acquires such an acidity which is apt to cause a Spina Ventosa, 
'Cause of a Spina Ventosa.  which is nothing else but a Cariosity of the Bones, proceeding from an Acid Blood coming to the Meduller Glands for the Nourishment of the Bones; also Acid Acrid Humours in an Ulcer may cause a Cariosity.  
The Differences observed in the Bones, 
Differences Nine.  may be derived from Nine Things, viz. from their Substance, Quantity, Figure, Situation, Uses, Motion, Sensibility, Generation, and Cavities.  
The First Difference is derived from their Substance, 
From their Substance.  for some Bones have a very hard one, as the Tibia; others less hard, as the Vertebrae; and finally, others have a more soft and spongy one, as the Sternon.  
The Second is derived from their Quantity, 
From their Quantity.  for some as those of the Thigh, Leg, Arm, etc. others less, as those of the Head; some least of all, as those of the Fingers.  
The Third proceeds from their Figure; some are long, 
From their Figure.  as the Os Femoris, Tibia, etc. others short, as those of the Fingers, and Metatarsus, etc. some round, as the Rotula; others flat, as the Ossa Palati; others square, as the Ossa Parietaria; others triangular, as the first Bone of the Sternon, Scapula, etc.  
The Fourth is from their Situation, 
From their Situation.  as some are placed in the Head, others in the Trunk, and some in the Extremities; others are seated deeply, as the Officles in the Cavity of the Ear, etc.  
The Fifth is from their Use, 
From their Use.  as some serve to sustain the Body, as those of Legs and Thighs, others to contain and defend the Parts, as the Ribs defend the Lungs, Heart, etc. Ossa Innominata, and Os Sacrum, the Bladder, Womb in Women, etc. Cranium the Brain.  
The Sixth is known by their Motion; 
From their Motion.  for some have a more manifest motion, as the great Bones of the Extremities; others have a less, as those of Tarsus and Carpus; others none at all, as those of the Head.  
The Seventh is from their Sense, 
From their Sense.  which is easily remarked, for all the Bones, generally speaking, have no Sense, except the Teeth, and they only a very dull Sense; except, as I have already observed, they be softened by some offending Acid.  
The Eighth is taken from the time of their perfect Generation, 
From the time of their Generation.  and Perfection; for some Bones are perfect in the Womb, or before the Birth, as the small Officles of the Ears; and others, which do not acquire their Perfection, but as the Subject advances in Age, as all the rest of the Bones of the Body, yet some of these Ossifie quicker, as those of the lower Jaw; others slower, as the Fontanella of the Head.  
The Ninth and last Difference is drawn from their Cavities, 
From their Cavities.  for some have great ones, and contain Marrow, as the Bones of the Extremities; and there be others which have no manifest Cavity, but only Porosities; which contain a Meduller Juice, as those of Tarsus, Carpus, etc. some have holes, by which Vessels pass and repass, as those in the Basis of the Cranium and Vertebrae; others have only Trenches or Furrows, as those of the Sternon, Ribs; others have Sinesses, as the Os Frontis, and Ossa Petrosa; lastly, some are pierced like the holes in a Seive, as the Os Cibriforme.  
The things to be considered in the Doctrine of each Bone are three; 
Threetian's considered in the Bones.  1. The Apophisis. 2. Epiphisis. And 3. Cavities, Furrows, and Sinusses.  
First, 
Apophysis, of Process.  The Bones not being of one even Form, or Figure, have at their Extremities several Prominencies, or Protuberancies, which are of two sorts, the one is a continued part of the Bone jetting manifestly out, above its superficies, ordained for the more commodious and strong insertion of the Tendons of the Muscles, and is called an Apophysis, or Process.  
The Second is an additional Bone growing to another by immediate contiguity, 
Epiphysis, or Apendage.  as if Nature had forgot to make the Bone long enough, and is generally more porous than the Bone itself; which will separate if you boil in Oil, for they will not separate if boiled in Water never so long, unless the Subject be very young, it's called an Apendage, or Epiphisis; this in young Bodies may sometimes by great force be separated from the rest of the Bone, or to speak improperly, Dislocated.  
If this Protuberance be round, it's called Caput, under which is the Cervix, as in the superior part of the Os Femoris; if it be flat, Cordilus; if sharp, Corone; others from their figure are called Styloides, Mostoides, Coracoides, Ancyroides, etc.  
Embryos have not these Protuberances so large; for except some very few large ones, they are hardly visible.  
These Protuberances are either Natural, as the Spina of the Scapula; the rest are only Accidental.  
The Accidental Protuberances of the Bones, 
'Cause of the Protuberances.  (which are only manifest when the Bones are perfect) are caused by the Tendons of the Muscles or Ligaments, which always are inserted there; for the stringy Filaments of the Tendons and Ligaments, entering into the Bones (while soft) between their stringy threads, cause them to enlarge there into a bulk, which it must do of necessity, there being a double portion of Fibres united together; which are all Ossified as the bony Liquor increases.  
It's a general Note, that where you find such Protuberances, some Ligaments or Tendons of Muscles are inserted there; although these Protuberances seem only to be accidental, 
Uses of the Protuberances.  yet they have many uses; first, by them the Muscles have a greater force to lift or pull up the Part. Secondly, they are of use to enlarge the Extremities of the Bones, that the Body be sustained.  
The next part of the Bones, 
Cavities of three sorts.  that come under our Consideration, are the Cavities, which are either External or Internal: These Cavities are of three sorts, Holes, or Foramina; Trenches, or Furrows, and Sinusses.  
A Foramina, 
Foramina, or holes.  or Hole, is a Cavity which is perforated in a Bone, or made up of two Bones joined together, as may be seen in the Basis of the Cranium, lower Jaw, Vertebrae of the Ribs. They are designed for the passage of the Vessels and Nerves, which pass through them, also the great Cavity of the Ischium may be called a Hole.  
A Trench, 
Trenches, or Furrows.  or Furrow, is not a Cavity through the Bone, but only a deep hole, or hollowness, long, or round, as the orbit of the Eye, etc. sometimes very shallow, as those in the inside of the Cranium, etc. some of a mean between both, as those in the Joints, to receive the Protube. rances of other Bones; some call these Sinusses, but improperly.  
A Sinus is a sort of Cavity in a Bone, 
Sinusses.  whereof the Orifice or Entrance is very straight, and the bottom large, such are in the Frontal Bone, etc.  
I shall declare the use of all these Cavities, when I Treat of each Bone in particular.  
All the long Bones of the Body are hollow in the inside towards the middle, 
All long Bones hollow.  and contain a Marrow, which is only a heap of Membranous Vesicule, full of a fatty or oily Substance, called Meduller Glands; which, 
Meduller Glands.  as I observed before, separated the more oily Particles from the Blood, so that the more salfish only remained, which has the Ossific Virtue of rendering the Bones hard: The Ends or Extremities are porous, somewhat like a Pumice Stone, containing a Meduller Juice, 
Meduller Juice.  like thin Oil, and have very few Glands; it's probable that the Ligamentous strings entering the top of the Bones, divide and scatter the bony threads, which make it so porous.  
The External Superficies of all Bones have a certain solid Cortex. 
Solid Cortex in all Bones.   
All the External Cavities which serve for Articulation, have at their Circumference an Eminence called a Lip, to which is fastened a Circular Ligament, which embracing the Head of the received Bone, fortifies the Articulation.  
As for each particular Process and Cavity, we shall describe them in the Demonstrations of each particular Bone.  
Before I mention the Articulation of the Bones, I think it convenient to observe these things.  
First, 
The Bones not of the same bigness in Women as in Men.  All the Bones are not of the same greatness, and that not only in Persons of different Stature, but also in those of an equal Height, or Stature; for some of these have their Bones smaller than others, and its Beauty consists (as some have said it does) in the delicateness and smallness of the Bones, than Women have all the Reason imaginable to have a better Shape and Symmetry than Men, by reason their Bones are smaller; the Bones also of their Face are finer and more smooth.  
There's also a great difference between the Bones of the Ossa Innominata, 
Difference of the Ossa innominata.  which makes the Pelvis. In Men they are less and more unequal, but in Women larger, and smother, to have a greater space to contain the Womb; also a Woman's Os Sacrum inclines more backwards than a Man's which makes their Buttocks more large.  
We must also observe a difference in the Bones, 
Difference of the Bones according to Age.  according as we grow in Years; for from the Birth to the twentieth Year, or thereabouts, the Bones continually increase, and from that to the sixtieth they continue in the same stay, neither increasing or diminishing; but after that they daily diminish, by reason of the bony Fibres drying, approach nearer one another, and so must consequently have a less bulk.  
The Colour of the Bones is not alike in all; 
Difference from the Colour.  for some have them very white, others less, but some almost greyish; so that if you take the same Pains in whitening two or three Skeletons, yet one will be doubtless whiter than the other.  
It's true, 
Periostion.  as I have observed before, that the Bones have no sense; yet they are Invested with a very sensible Membrane, called Periostion, as if we should say a Membrane over or inversing the Bone, it's very thin; all Bones have this, except the Teeth. I think there's a great Question about its Use. 
Use.  Some affirm it's to convey bloody Vessels to the Bones; but it's rather believed to be for the greater implantation of the Tendons of the Muscles; for when you separate the Periostion, the Muscle comes off with it.  
I shall now proceed to the manner of the Articulation of the Bones; there's such Art in the Conjunctions of the Bones, 
Articulation of the Bones.  that they have served as a pattern to many Artisans in their Curious Works; for they could find nothing in Nature more fit to copy by; and although there be so many various ways of Articulation, as almost Junctures, yet they are all necessary, otherwise Man could never move himself every way so completely as he does.  
The Bones joined together have either motion, or none, the former is called Articulation, the latter Symphysis, Or growing together.  
Articulation, 
Articulation twofold.  is either for manifest, or obscure motion: The first is called Diarthrosis, or loose Articulation, the other Synarthrosis, or more close and compact.  
Diarthrosis is Threefold, 1. Enarthrosis. 
1. Diarthrosis threefold.  2. Anthrodiae. 3. Gynglimus.  
1. Enarthrosis, 
Enarthrosis.  is when a large Head is received into a deep Cavity, as the Os Femoris in the Acetabulum of the Ossa Innominata.  
2. Arthrodia, 
Arthrodia.  is when the Cavity is shallow, and the Head of the received Bone also shallow and flattish, as the Os Humeri, with the Scapula, and the Bones of the Metacarp and Metatarse; with the first Phalanx of the Fingers and Toes.  
Now the Bones which are Articulated by Enarthrosis, and Arthrodia, are capable of all sorts of motion, as upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, and circularly; yet the deeper the Cavity, and the more bony the Edges are, the motion is rendered more slow, and not so brisk and nimble as when the Cup is not so deep; 
These two all sorts of motion.  this is seen in the Os Femoris, and Acetabulum, for the Os Humeri being inserted in a more shallow Cup, is capable of all sorts of motion, and that to a great degree, yet about the Cup or the Scapula there are several Cartilages, which make it seem as deep as the Acetabulum, but at the same time by giving way, hinders not the very free motion of the Humerus.  
Ginglimus, 
Ginglimus threefold.  is when the same Bone both receives, and is received, and is Threefold. 1. Ginglimus Proximus. 2. Longus. 3. Compositus.  
1. Ginglimus Proximus, 
Proximus.  is when a Bone is received by another, and receives the same, as the lower part of the Os Humeri, and Vlna.  
2. Ginglimus Longus, is when two Bones are joined together according to their length, 
Longus.  so that the one Bone having a Cavity in its side towards the end, receives the head of the other, which has a Cavity likewise at its other Extremity, to receive a Protuberance of the first Bone, as the Radius and Ulna.  
2. Ginglimus Compositus, 
Compositus.  is when a Bone receives one, and is received by another, as in some of the Vertebrae of the Back, where one receives the upper, and is received by the lower: Ginglimus Compositus, is also when a long Process of a Bone is inserted into another above it, and so turns in the Cavity as an Axis in a Wheel, as the second Vertebra of the Neck with the first.  
As Enarthrosis, and Arthrodia, 
Ginglimus for Flexion and Extension only.  serve for all sorts of motion, Ginglimus serves only for Flexion, and Extension; yet in the Radius and Vlna it serves for Pronation and Supination.  
When a Bone is joined by double Arthrodia, it makes a sort of Ginglimus, as may be seen in the lower Jaw.  
Synarthrosis, 
Synarthrosis.  or obscure motion, is in the Ribs which have a little motion in their ends towards the Vertebrae in Respiration; also most of the Bones of the Tarsus and Carpus, which in great pressure give way a little, for the more easy motion of the Part.  
Symphysis, 
2. Symphysis Threefold.  is only when the Bones are united without any motion at all, and is Threefold, as Sutura, Harmonia, and Gomphosis.  
1. Sutura, 
Sutura.  is when the Bones are united together in their edges by little Points, or Teeth (as it were) unequally, as may be seen in the Bones of the Cranium.  
2. Harmonia, 
Harmonia.  is an union of the Bones by a simple Line only, either straight or curved, as the Bones of the Nose, Face, Palate; but this is only in their outward part, for we always find them Internally Serratil, or Suture like.  
3. Gomphosis, 
Gomphosis.  is when one Bone is fastened in another, as a Nail in Wood, so are the Teeth in the Jaws.  
Some add to the symphysis several other sorts of Articulations, as Synchondrosis, Syssarcosis, syneurosis, vel Syntenosis.  
Synchondrosis, 
Synchondrosis.  is when a Cartilaginous Substance intervenes, as may be seen in the middle of the lower Jaw; which in young are two distinct Bones, but as the Ossific Liquor predominates, grow one; also the Ossa Pubis are united by it, so are the Bodies of the Vertebrae one to another.  
Syssarcosis, 
Syssarcosis.  is when a Bone is fastened by Means of Flesh only, as the Os Hyoides in the Mouth, and the Scapula to the Ribs.  
Syneurosis, 
Syneurosis.  vel Syntenosis, is when Bones are united together by means of Ligamentous Parts, as the Rotula with the Bones of the Legs; but I think these are not properly Articulations.  
The Bones of the Body in an Adult, 
Number 245.  are accounted 245. For Example, the Head has 64, the Trunk 57, the Arms and Hands 64, the Legs, etc. 60, which makes in all 243. Some perhaps may wonder why the Great Creator composed such a number of Bones; I Answer, how could the Hand or Arm perform all the Actions it does, and put itself in so many Thousand Postures, had it not many Junctures and Articulations? For had the Part been composed but of one or two Bones, how Lame and Preposterously would it have acted? The same may be said of the Legs, etc. And if the Spine had not been made up of such a number of Vertebrae, how could we have bend, or moved it as we do? It was therefore convenient and necessary for the Perfection of Man and his Functions, to have as many Bones as he has.  
The Head, 
Head 64.  as I said, is made up of 64 Bones, which are thus numbered, 6 proper of the Skull, 8 of the Ears, 4 in each, 3 Common of the Skull; Face 11, with the Vomer; Os Hyoid 1, lower Jaw 1, though some make it 2, Teeth about 32, which make 62; but if you add the Ossa Spongiosa, they make 64.  
The Trunk consists of 57 Bones; 
Trunk 57  Vertebrae 25, as 7 of the Neck, 12 of the Back, 5 in the Loins, and 1 in the Os Sacrum, which some say is made up of 5; 3 in the Coccyx, Ribs 24, Sternon 3, Ossa Innominata 2, which 

A Table of the BONES.  
The Bones of the Body are those; of the 

Head, 

Whose Parts are either of the Cranium, which has, 

Proper Bones 6, as, 

Os Frontis 1.  
Ossa Sincipitis 2.  
Occipitis 1.  
Temporum 2. 

In whose Foramina Auditoria are 8 Bones, 4 in each 

Malleus.  
Stapes.  
Incus.  
Os Orbiculare.        
Common Bones 3▪ 

Os Sphenoides.  
Os Cribriforme.  
Os Jugale. 

To which is annexed; Ossa Spongiosa 2.      
Of the Bones of the Face, 

In the Superior part are 11 Bones; 5 pair and an odd one, Upper Jaw. 

Ossa Triangularia.  
Ossa Lachrimalia.  
Ossa Malae.  
Ossa Nasi.  
Ossa Palati.  
Os Vomer.    
Lower Jaw 1. 

Teeth in both Jaws 32. 

Incisorii 8.  
Canini 4.  
Molares 20.          
To which is Annexed, the Os Hyoides, joined by Syssarcosim.    
Spine, in which are the Bones of the 

Neck, in which are 7 Vertebrae.  
Breast, divided into the 

Forepart, in which are, 

Clavicles 2.  
Ossa Pectoris 3.    
Lateral-part, in Which are, 

Ribs 24.    
Backpart, in which are, 

Scapulae 2.  
Vertebrae 12.      
Loins, divided into the 

Forepart, in which are, 

Ossa Pubis 2.    
Lateral-part, in which are, 

Ossa Ilia 2.  
Ossa Coxendicis 2. 

These joined together in Adults, make up the Ossa Innominata.      
Backpart, in which are, 

Lumborum Vertebrae 5.  
Os Sacrum, which some make 5.  
Ossa Coccygis 3.      
Limbs, which are either, 

Superior, or Hands, divided into 

Os Humeri 2.  
Cubitus ejus 

Radius  
Vlna    
Lower-part, or Hand, strictly so called, whose Parts are, 

The Wrist 8.  
Metacarpus 4.  
Fingers 15. 

Three in each.    
To which are annexed, some Ossa Sesamoidea.      
Inferior, or Feet, divided into 

Bones of the 

Thigh  
Patella    
Leg, strictly so called, 

Tibia  
Fibula    
Lower-part, or Foot, strictly so called in which is 

Tarsus, Bones 7.  
Metatarsus 5.  
Fingers or Toes 14.  
To which are annexed, Ossa Sesamoidea.             makes up the number of 57— I once saw a Skeleton which had 13 Ribs on each side.  
The upper Extremities, or Limbs, consist of 64 Bones, 
Upper Limbs 64.  taking in the Claviculae, which I think we ought to do, since much of the motion of the Arms depends on them; there's 32 Bones in each Arm then, as Clavicula, Scapula, Os Humerus, Radius, and Vlna; 8 Bones of the Carpus, 4 of the Metacarp; and Bones of the Fingers 15, 3 in each, accounting the Thumb as one Finger, which added to the other Arm makes 64.  
The Lower Extremities consists of 60, 
Lower Limbs 60.  that is, 30 in each; as the Os Femoris, Rotula, Tibia, and Fibula; 7 in the Tarsus, 5 in the Metatarsus, and 14 in the Toes, which makes together with the other Leg 60.  
Some augment the number, who make many of the Os Hyoides, 3 of the Os Innominatum, 2 of the lower Jaw, 5 of the Os Sacrum, and add the Ossa Sesamoidea, which are not often found, and then for the most part in the great Toes, which would then make up above 250.  
I am come now to the last Consideration of the Bones in General, 
Use of the Bones.  which is their Use.  
They have many Uses; 1. They serve for the support of the Body, being as so many Beams or Pillars in a House. 2. For the Defence of some Noble Part, as the Skull for the Brain, Ribs for the Heart, Lungs, etc. Ossa Innominata and Sacrum, which make the Pelvis for the Womb, Bladder, etc. 3. For the Progression and Motion of the Animal, of which with the Muscles, they are the only Instruments. 4. To give Shape and Figure to the whole Body; these are the General Uses, as for their Particular, we shall speak of them in the Demonstration of each particular Part.   

Demonstration II.  
Of the Bones of the Skull.  
WE now come to the Doctrine of the Bones in particular; 
Skeleton divided into three parts.  we divide the Skeleton into three parts, as the Head, Trunk and Limbs.  
By the Head we understand not only all the Bones of the Skull, but also those of the Face, even from the Vertix to the first Vertebra of the Neck; by the Trunk all that composes the Neck, Back, Loins, Os Sacrum, Ossa Innominata, Sternon, etc. By the Limbs those which make up the Arms and Legs, generally so called; of all which in order. The Head is subdivided into the Skull, properly so called, and the Face.  
The Skull (I mean that upper part whose Bones compose, 
Figure of the Skull.  and make up a large Cavity, which contains the Brain, in which you must consider its Figure altogether) is globous, somewhat what long, but flattish towards the sides, for the better Situation of the Temporal Muscles; which being on, make it look more round.  
All the Bones of the Skull are made up of two Laminae or Plates, 
Skull, two Tables.  called Tables, one Internal, the other External, between which lies a Medullar Juice, of a reddish Colour, called the Pith, 
Diploe, what.  or Diploe, which is very discernible in young Persons; but as we grow in Years, the Ossific Liquor invading, it bonifies.  
The Exterior and Superior Superficies of the Cranium; is very smooth, and polished, having few inequalities; but where the Sutures are, the Internal Superior Superficies is not so equal, having many little Sulci, or Furrows, which are caused by the Vessels of the Dura Mater, when the Skull is but Membranous, being then capable of receiving any Impression, that the Pulsation of the Vessels give it, 
'Cause of the Furrows.  so make themselves Furrows; but its Internal Inferior Part is very unequal, by reason of the many Productions and Cavities found there.  
The Cranium has many Foramina, 
Foramina in General.  which give way or passage to the Vessels sells passing and repassing, which fill up these holes so close, that no Fumes or Vapours, as the Ancients believed, can get in, or come forth, unless by the Vessels themselves: we will show all these holes, at the latter end of this Demonstration.  
It's a Question, 
The bigness of the Cranium, depends on the Brain.  whether it be the Cranium, which gives greatness to the Brain; or whether the Brain gives form to the Cranium, I Answer, that the bigness of the Cranium depends on that of the Brain, for two Reasons; First, the Cranium, while Membranous, especially towards the Sutures, extends itself more or less, as the Brain increases: The Second, is that the Cranium is not totally Ossified till the Brain is arrived to its full Magnitude; for we see in an Infant newborn, that although the Brain be perfect, yet at the same time, the Cranium is only Cartilaginous about the Sutures; though bony in the middle of every Bone, nay, the Fontanella does not Ossifie under some Years; from whence also it is, that in Labour these Bones, as I have before observed, give way, and fold over one another, for the more easy exit of the Infant out of the Womb.  
The Bones of the Cranium are joined together by Sutures, 
Sutures, twofold.  which are of two sorts, true, or false; or to speak more properly, common, or proper.  
The Proper are Eight. 
Proper, three.   
1. Coronalis, 
Coronalis.  (vel Frontalis) because the Ancients used to wear their Garlands on that part of the Head, it reaches from one Temporal Bone to the other, joining the Os Frontis to the Ossa Parietaria.  
2. Lambdoides being like the Greek Letter 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
Lambdoides.  others call it Triangularis; this Suture is seldom wanting, whatever the rest are; it begins at the Basis of the Os Occipitis, and ascends obliquely to the middle of the backpart of the Head, and descends again to the other side of the Head; the Point in the middle is called Vertix, 
Vertix, what.  by reason the Hair on the Scalp commonly turns there; it joins the Occipital Bone to the Bones of the Temples, and Ossa Parietaria.  
3. Sagittalis, 
Sagittalis.  because it runs lengthways as an Arrow; it begins at the Vertix of the Sutura Lambdoides, and marching straight forwards to the middle of the Coronal Suture; in Children it divides the Coronal Bone, and goes quite to the Nose, which as we grow in Years vanishes; yet I have seen it in the Cranium of some Adults.  
The Sutures being so united together, make up a Figure almost like this)— <.  
Some of our Modern Anatomical Professors, will have the Sutures to be Serratil only in the Superior Table, but joined by Harmony in the Lower, but it's always found to the contrary.  
The Common are Five, 
Common, five.  or more; these are the Chief, 1. The Suture Squamose, 
Squamosae.  or Scale-like, because applied as one Scale on another; they are two, one on each side, which arise from the outside of the Mastoidprocess, and circumscribing the Temple-bones, descend Circularly towards the Basis of the Ears.  
Whatever Anatomists say, I think them true Sutures, being Serratil as well Internally, as Externally.  
2. Orbalis, 
Orbalis.  it begins at the top of the Sutura Squamosa, and descending obliquely towards the Orbit of the Eye, crosses on the top of the Nose, so passes over the other Eye, and so on to the other Squamous Suture.  
3. Nasalis, 
Nasalis.  which divides the Bones of the Nose.  
4. Sutura Basilaris, 
Basilaris.  which separates the other Bones from the Os Basilare.  
5. Sutura Ethmoides, 
Ethmoides  seu Cribriformis, dividing this Bone from the Os Frontis; some say that these Four last are rather Harmonia, than Sutura, but Demonstration shows the contrary.  
The Sutures have many uses, 
Use of the Sutures.  the principal are these; 1. Many Ligamentous Fibres pass through them from the Dura Mater to the Pericranium, which suspends the Dura Mater, so are a sort of hindrance of too violent Concussions of the Brain, in any great motions of the Body; for by these Fibres the Brain is kept more light; it's by this Communication, that when the Pericranium is wounded, an Inflammation often arises in the Dura, Mater, as if it had received some offence itself: These Fibres also, by suspending the Dura Mater, and keeping it close to the Interior Surface of the Cranium, the Arteries in the Cortical part have a freer motion, which would be somewhat impeded, if it fell on the Brain. 2. They give passage to several Vessels, that are passing and repassing to the Diploe, for the Nourishment of the Bones of the Cranium. 3. They are of use in hindering Fractures from passing further than one Bone, for they always stop at the Sutures, which if the Skull were but one continued Bone, the Fracture would be apt to run over all the Cranium, as may be seen daily in any Earthen or Glass Vessel, when cracked by a stroke, it commonly runs almost quite over, or round. Some say, a fourth Use is, to give a vent or breathing to many Fuliginous Vapours gathered within the Cranium, but I much question this use; yet some say, that many who have had their Sutures too close, have been subject to insupportable headaches, Transpiration having been stopped, as they say; but I rather think it proceeded from the pressure of the Vessels which pass through them, which causing an Obstruction of the flowing Liquors, was a cause of these Pains.  
There are many Observations in several Authentic and Learned Authors, 
Some have had no Sutures.  of some who have had none, or very few Sutures, and others who have had more than usual. I saw a Skull lately in the Hands of an Ingenious Chirurgeon, my very good Friend, which had a Suture running transverse the Occipital Bone, and the Sagittal passed quite through the Os Frontis, and it was the Skull of an Adult; such is the various Disports of Nature; also in very Old Age the Sutures are almost obliterated, the Ossific Liquor then predominating.  
Embryos have no Sutures, 
How the Sutures are made.  or at least not to be well distinguished, their Skulls being wholly Membranous; so while the Ossific Liquor, (which as I have said, begins at a point, etc. in the Cranium) insinuates itself along the bony Threads, and by degrees hardens them, some Fibrous and Vascular Strings passing from the Dura Mater to the Pericranium, hinders in those places the bony Liquor from uniting, so forms these Seams or Sutures; for in a Foetus the Skull being as yet Membranous in its edges, wrap, or fold themselves as it were one over another, to take up less room in the Birth; for had the Skull been totally Ossified before the Birth, the Infant would for the most part endanger the Life of the Mother; this may be daily seen in young Children, where the Skull is wholly Membranous in the top of the Head between the Coronal and Sagittal Sutures, which place is called Fontanella. 
Fontanella, what.   
The Bones of the Skull are either Proper or Common; the Proper are Six in number.  
1. The Os Frontis, 
Proper Bones of the Skull, Six.  or Coronalis, the Forechead-Bone; of a Semicircular Figure, in its superior part, situated in the Superior part of the Face, and Anterior of the Cranium, bounded above by the Coronal Suture from the Ossa Parietaria, on the sides by the Ossa Temporum, below by the Transversalis, or Orbalis from the Nose, Eyes, etc.  
The things to be considered in this Bone, are its Cavities and Processes.  
It's outside is smooth, as are most of the Bones of the Cranium, no Tendons or Ligaments being inserted here.  
The Ossification begins in this Bone at two Points, between the Laminae of this Bone there's a Cavity called Sinus Frontalis; 
1. Os Frontis.  it's ofttimes double, which by two small Foramina enter into the Nostrils; this Sinus makes the inside of this Bone arise in a ridge, which begins about the top of the Forehead, where the Hair grows not, and reaches to the Crista Galli; 
☜  for which reason we must not Trepan here, lest we offend the Dura Mater on each side the ridge, whenas the middle is not perforated by much; the upper Lamina of this coming to the Eyes, where turning inwards, makes up part of the Orbit on the upper side: This: Sinus is lined with a thick Membrane full of Glands, which separate a Mucus to moisten the Nose; in Brutes it's very large, but not so in Men; yet once I saw a Skull which had it extremely large, and divided in four or five Cells, quite round the Basis of the Os Frontis, so that the Internal Protuberances almost hid the Crista Galli; 
☞  yet sometimes this Sinus is quite obliterated, and the Membrane turned bony, as the Ossific Liquor increases, and we incline in Age.  
In its lower part over each Eye is a small Foramen, 
Foramine.  through which passes a Branch of the five pair of Nerves to the Musculous Flesh on the Forehead.  
It has Four Processes; 
Processes.  the two greater at the Internal Canthus of the Eyes, the other two at the less; its inner Lamen about the Eyebrows towards the Nose, bunches inwards, so causes a hollowness there, which is part of the Sinus Frontalis.  
2. The Os Occipitis is opposite to the Coronal, 
2. Os Occipitis.  in the hinder part of the Head, it's the thickest and strongest Bone of the Head; the reason whereof is this, we having no Eyes behind, Nature has framed it of a thicker consistence, to the end it may the better resist any stroke or blow it receives; it's five-cornered, joined to the Ossa Parietaria by the Lambdoid Suture, and to the Ossa Temporum by the Squamous Sutures, and its bottom to the Os Sphenoides, by a sort of Harmony.  
The things to be considered in this Bone, are its Sinusses, Foramina, and Processes.  
Its Sinusses, 
Sinusses, or Sulci.  or rather Sulci, are many, two on the External part just behind the Foramen Medullare; and seven in the Internal Superficies, the two largest of which contain the Protuberances of the Carebel, the other are of small moment.  
It has five Foramina or Holes, 
Foramina.  the lowest and largest called Foramen Medullare, the Spinal Marrow passing by this hole to all the Vertebrae; the other four are less, and only serve for the exit of the Vessels; two give passage to the Nerves of the Tongue, and two to the Arteriae Cervicales; these are proper Foramina, there are two others which are common both to it and the other Bones, one on each side the Os Petrosum, which give passage to the eighth pair of Nerves called parvagum, and to the two Internal Jugular Veins.  
It has five Processes, four of which are on the outside by the Foramen Medullare; the two innermost are called Condyli, 
Processes.  and are received by the two shallow Sinus' of the first Vertebra of the Neck, serving for the Articulation of the Head; in its Internal part it has a long Protuberance or Ridge, which ascends in the middle from the Foramen Medullare, and parts the Protuberances of the Cerebellum, this is its fifth Process.  
There's another small Protuberance or Process, 
A sixth Process, not described by any Author.  which is not described by any Author; it lies between the Condyli, from it passes a Ligament, which joins it to the first Vertebra of the Neck.  
It has also several small Prominences towards its Basis on the outside, some Tendons being inserted there.  
Third and fourth are the Ossa Sincipitis, vel Parietaria, 
Third and fourth, Ossa Sincipitis.  because alike, or forming the Walls of the Cranium, as it were; they are the thinnest Bones of the Head, are joined by the Coronal Suture to the Os Frontis, to the Occiput by the Lambdoidal, to the Ossa Temporum by the Squamosae, and to one another by the Sagittalis: They are very smooth on their outside, but somewhat unequal within, 
Sulci.  having many small Sulci, or Furrows, for the reception of the Vessels of the Dura Mater; they are thinnest towards the Sutures, as are all Bones of the Cranium; these Furrows are thus caused, 
How caused.  while the Skull is Membranous, the Vessels by their Pulsation make themselves these Furrows.  
These Bones are of a Quadrangular Figure. 
Figure.   
Anatomists call that the Bregma of the Head, 
Bregma, what.  where these two Bones are united together by the Sagittal Suture, towards the Coronal Bone.  
The fifth and sixth Bones are called Ossa Temporum, 
Fifth and sixth, Ossa Temporum.  so called a Temporibus, because as a Man grows old, the Hairs on the Temples whiten the soon; they lie on the sides of the Skull, being joined above by the Squamous Sutures to the Ossa Parietaria, before to the Process of the first Bone of the upper Jaw, below to the Sphenoidal Bone, and behind to the Os Occipitis; their superior part is smooth, thin, and semicircular, so sometimes called Ossa Squamosa; 
Ossa Squamosa & Petrosa. Sinusses.  their inferior thick, and hard, and called Ossa Petrosa.  
Their Parts to be considered, are Sinusses, Processes, and Holes.  
These Bones have two Sinusses each; the first is large, and lined with a Cartilaginous Substance, placed between she Meatus Auditorius, and its long Process, which makes up part of the Os Jugale, 
Glenoides.  called Sinus Glenoides, and receives one of the Processes of the lower Jaw, called Condylus; the other two are less, and lie on the inside of the aforesaid long Process.  
Each Bone has four Processes, 
Processes.  three External, and one Internal.  
The First is called Styloides, 
Styloides.  being slender, sharp, and long; some take it to be an Appendix only; in Infants it's Cartilaginous; those Animals which want these Processes, 
☜  their Os Hyoides have a double Horn, or Process which supplies its place, many Muscles arise from it.  
Secondly, 
Mastoides.  Mastoideus, or Mamillaris, because like a Cow's Teat; 'tis blunt, thick, and short, hollow within, placed at the bottom of the Auditory passage.  
Thirdly, 
Jugalis.  Processus Jugalis vel Zygomaticus, very long, somewhat broad, and curved, it's thin, arising a little from the outside of the Sinus Glenoides, and meeting with another long Process belonging to the first Bone of the Maxilla superior, are joined together by an oblique Suture, and make up the Os Jugale, or Bridge.  
Fourthly, The Internal Protuberance is called Petrosus, 
Petrosus.  from its hardness, or Auditorius; it's somewhat long, and jets out towards the inner Basis of the Skull, or Os Sphenoides; it's hollow, and contains the Instruments of Hearing: 
Four small Bones of the Ear.  It has four little Bones within its Cavity.  
1. Incus, or the Anvil.  
2. Malleus, the Hammer.  
3. Stapes, the Stirrup.  
4. Os Orbiculare, which lies just on the top of the Stapes.  
These Bones are as big and perfect at the Birth, as in Adults; they are Articulated after this manner, 
Manner of Connexion.  the Apophisis of the Malleus is fastened to the Tympanum, and Articulated by its Head in the Cavity of the Incus; this Incus has two Feet, the shortest of which is placed on the Tympanum, and the longer on the Stapes, on which lies the Os Orbiculare.  
These Bones have many Foramina each. 
Foramina.   
The First is External, and called Foramen Auditorium, seu Meatus Auditorius, 
Meatus Auditorius.  by which the Sound enters to the Organs of Hearing.  
Its Second, Is narrow, short, and oblique, by which the Jugular Vein enters the inner Cavity of this passage.  
The Third, Is between the Styloid and Mastoid Process, and ends in that which goes from the Ear to the Mouth.  
The common Bones are three. 
Common Bones, three.   
1. Os Sphenoides, 
Os Sphenoides.  Basilare, vel Cuneiforme, some call it Polyforme, from its strange Figure; it's not called Cuneiforme, as if it were like a Wedge, but by reason it's seated between the Bones of the Skull and upper Jaw; in Infants it consists of two or three Bones; it's very thick at its Basis, but thin towards the Temples. It's joined to, or touches all the Bones almost of the Cranium, and some of the Bones of the upper Jaw, to which it's fastened by the Sphenoid Suture.  
Its Parts to be considered, are either Processes, Sinusses, or Foramina.  
It has eight Processes, 
Processes.  four Internal, and four External.  
The Internal are called Clinoides, 
Clinoides.  they resembling the Feet of a Bed; these with the depressed Sinus in the middle, 
Sella Turcica.  make up the Sella Turcica, being like the Seat of a War-saddle, on which lies the Glandula Pituitaria.  
Two of the External are called Pterigoidei, 
Pterigoidei.  seu Aliformes, or the Bats Wings, being like the Wings of a Bat; the other two have no Name.  
The Sinusses are many. 
Sinusses.  It has one in each Process, called Pteregoides, 
Pteregoides.  to give way to the Musculi Pteregoidei Interni: It has also a very large one in the middle of the Sella Turcica, to receive the Glandula Pituitaria.  
Within this Bone lies a true Sinus, 
Basilaris.  called Basilaris, which have the same Glands, and separate the same Juice, as the Sinus Frontalis, and has the same use.  
The Foramina, 
Foramina.  are either Common, or Proper.  
The Common are those which lie between it and the Ossa Petrosa, through which the Jugulars pass; the proper are twelve, six on each side; the first pair is called Transcolatores, 
Transcolatores.  which serve as a discharge to the Glandula Pituitaria; the second Foramina Optica, 
Optica.  by which passes the Optic Nerves; the third Motoria, 
Motoria.  by which passes the Motory Nerves; the fourth called Crotophites; 
Crotophites.  the fifth Gustatoria, 
Gustatoria.  by which the Tasting Nerves pass; the sixth called Carotides, 
Carotides.  by which the Carotid Arteries pass.  
The second Common Bone is called Os Cribriforme, 
Os Cribriforme.  being perforated like a Seive, the Fibrils of the Olfactory Nerves pass through these Holes; it's seated at the middle of the Basis of the Forehead, to which it's joined by Harmonia; it's also joined to the two Bones of the upper Jaw, and behind to the Os Sphenoides.  
On its inside it has an almost Triangular Process, called Crista Galli 
Crista Galli.  the Coxcomb; it arises just where the Process of the Sinus Frontalis ends, and reaches about half way in the middle of the Bone; the Falx which divides the two Lobes of the Brain, is tied to the point of this Process.  
On its outside, 
Septum Nasi.  just opposite to the Crista Galli; it has another very thin, but hard Process, called Septum Nasi, dividing the Nostrils.  
To the Os Cribriforme is annexed two other very fine and thin Bones, 
Ossa Spongiosa.  one in each Nostril, called Ossa Spongiosa, they be wrapped up, as it were, in many folds, and lined with a Membrane made up of the Expanded Fibres of the Olfactory Nerves; 
☞  so that those Creatures, who have more of these Laminae have a more exquisite smell, as Cats, Greyhounds, etc. for a Man has not above three or four folds, whereas the abovenamed Creatures have very many; so that it's not difficult to judge of the acuteness of the smell, from the multiplicity of these folds; most Anatomists consider them as parts of the Os Cribriforme, using the one for the other promiscuously; but I think them to be different Bones.  
The third Common Bone is called Os Jugale, 
Os Jugale.  vel Zygoma, by some the Bridge, or Yoak-bone; it's not one distinct Bone, but made up of a long Process of the Temporal Bone, and another of the first Bone of the upper Jaw.  
It's situated on the outside of the Face, 
Situation.  under the External Canthus of the Eye, there's one on each side.  
It's use seems as if ordained by Nature, 
Use.  for the defence of the Temporal Muscle which passes under it; it also gives Origination to the Musculi Masseteres.   

Demonstration III.  
Of the Bones of the Face.  
IF the structure of the Bones of the Cranium be worthy our Admiration, the Composition of the Bones of the Face, which now comes under our view, is no less surprising; for although that contains the Brain, which is one of the most Noble Parts of the Body; yet the Face where most of the Senses are lodged, and for many Reasons may be called the Image of the Soul, since most, if not all the Passions of the Mind, are fully demonstrated in the Face, cannot merit less, especially in the wonderful structure of the Bones which compose it. The Face is also the Seat of Beauty, which Charms and Attracts the Eyes of all to behold it; 
The Bones give Figure, Form, and Beauty to the whole Body.  and nothing contributes more to this Beauty than a good Formation, and true Symmetry of the Bones: Ex. gratia, if the lower part of the Coronal Bone bunch out too much, it makes them Beetle browed, as we call it: If the Bones of the Nose be too large, and rising from the Face, it makes them Hawk-nosed: If the lower Jaw be too sharp, or pointed, it makes an Out mouth, and so of the rest; yet we may say the same of the Bones of the whole Body, they giving, as I have said, Shape and Figure to all; so that if they be any way deformed or unproportioned, that part must of necessity be disfigured.  
The Bones of the Face are divided into those of the upper and lower Jaw. 
Division.   
The Bones of the superior Jaw are eleven in number, 
Bones of the upper Jaw, eleven.  five on each side, and an odd one.  
The Ossa Triangulares are big, 
1, 2, Ossa Triangulares.  of a hard and solid Substance, in Figure triangular, wherefore so called, placed on the lower side of the outward Canthus of the Eye's Orbit, the middle are advanced out, and rising, which forms the Balls of the Cheeks: One of their Angular Processes, as I said before, makes up the Os Jugale, being joined with the long Process of the Temple-Bone; they also make the inferior part of the Orbit of the Eyes, and is united to four Bones, viz. the Coronalis, Sphenoides, Maxillary, and Os Petrosum.  
They have three Apophises each; 
Apophisis, three.  one of which makes an eminence, which forms the lesser Angle of the Eye; the other advancing towards the Nose, makes the greatest part of the inferior Lip of the Orbit; the third may well be called Processus Jugalis, which I have already mentioned.  
The Ossa Lachrimalia, 
3, 4, Ossa Lachrimales.  seu Vnguis, are very little and thin, in shape of a Nail of a Man's Hand, seated in the great Canthus of the Eyes, within the Orbit; there's a small Foramina, in each called Lachrimale, in which the Lachrimal Dust passes to the Nose, 
Puncta Lachrimalia.  also through this hole passes a Branch of the fifth pair of Nerves, to the inner Membrane of the Nose.  
These Bones are so small, that they be easily lost.  
The Ossa Male 
5, 6, Ossa Maxillares.  some call them Maxillares, are the thickest, greatest, and spongiest of all the Bones of the Face, and makes up the greatest part of the Cheeks and Palate.  
Parts to be considered in these Bones, are first, many deep Cavities which are in their lower edge, called Alveoli, 
Alveoli.  or Sockets, in which the Teeth are fastened: Secondly, each has an Internal Sinus, which is lined with the same sort of Glandulous Membrane, as the Sinus Frontalis, and of the same use, and is called Sinus Maxillare. 
Sinus Maxillare.  There's also another long one, which runs along over the Roots of the Teeth, in which the Vessels pass which serve for the Nourishment of the Teeth.  
The Ossa Nasi are two long, 
7, 8, Ossa Nasi.  hard, and somewhat thick Bones, of a Pyramidal Figure each, being joined, they make up the bony or superior part of the Nose; their lower Extrmities are somewhat unequal, for the more strong Connexion of the Cartilages of the Nose with it; they are joined together by Harmonia.  
The last pair are called Ossa Palati, 
9, 10, Ossa Palati.  are very broad, but thin, and being joined by Harmonia, make up the Roof of the Mouth; they are joined to the Ossa Maxillares forwardly, and backwardly, sideways to the Pterygoid Apophisis, by the Sphenoidal Suture: Each Bone has a hole forwardly, called Foramen Gustativum.  
The eleventh Bone of the upper Jaw is called Vomer, 
11, Os Vomer.  by reason the Ancients say it resembes a Ploughshare; it's situated in the middle over the Palate, edgeways, and is, as it were, a sort of Septum, dividing the interior part of the Nostrils.  
Before I pass to the lower Jaw, 
Orbita Occulorum.  'twill not be amiss to give a Description of the Orbits of the Eyes; they are two great Cavities placed at the inferior part of the Os Frontis, which serve as Habitations to the Eyes, and to defend them against all Injuries; their external part is quite round, but internally they grow Pyramidal, having at their bottom many perforations for Vessels, etc.  
Each Orbit is made up of part of six different Bones, 
Each Orbit made up of six Bones.  which altogether composes its Cavity.  
Five of which are Common, and one Proper, which is called, as I have already demonstrated, Os Vnguis vel Lachrimale: Of the Common, three belong to the Cranium, and two to the Face; the first of those of the Cranium, is the Coronal, which forms the superior part; the second is the Ethmoidal Bone, which forms part of the internal side next the Nose; the third is the Sphenoidal, which makes up part of the internal Cavity; the two of the Face compose all its lower part, the Os Triangulare forming that part towards the lesser Canthus, and the Maxillare, that next the greater.  
The lower Jaw is but one continued Bone in Adults, 
Inferior Jaw.  but in young Bodies is composed of two joined together in the forepart, by Syncondrosis; they unite, and become one about the seventh Year, of a somewhat Circular Figure, or rather like the Greek Letter V, smooth and polished without, but a little rough within, several Muscles being inserted, and arising from thence.  
This in all Creatures is only movable, except as some affirm in the Crocodile, who moves the upper only.  
The Parts to be considered in this Bone, are its Processes, Foramina, and Alveoli.  
It has two large Processes at each end, 
Processes.  the first called Condiloides vel Articularis, 
Condiloides.  it's received into the Sinus of the Os Petrosum, and fastened there by a strong Membranous Ligament; the motion of the Jaw depends on this Articulation; the other is called Corone, 
Corone.  which from a large Basis ends in a sharp point; it lies under the Os Jugale, the Tendon of the Musculus Temporalis is inserted into it; these Processes are in the superior part of the Bone. In its inferior part, just where it begins to turn up on each side, are its Angles, to whose outward part the Masseter Muscles are inserted, and the Pterygoidei to the interior.  
This Bone is somewhat hollow within, containing a Meduller Juice.  
It has four Foramina, 
Foramina.  two of which are at the Roots of the Processes in the inside, in which a Branch of the fifth pair of Nerves, together with the sanguifying Vessels enter, and pass under the Roots of the Teeth, distributing Branches to each as they pass; the other two are in the forepart of the Chin, out of which come two Twigs of the aforesaid Nerve, which are spent on the Muscles and Skin of the lower Jaw. 
Alveoli.  It has also its Alveoli, or Sockets for the Teeth, as the upper Jaw.  
The Uses of the lower Jaw, 
Uses.  besides its adding to the Beauty of the Face, is to help Mastication, and serves to form the Voice.  
The Teeth are the hardest of all the Bones of the Body, 
Teeth.  having a peculiar Cortex, are smooth, and fixed in the Alveoli of the Jaws, by Gomphosis.  
They are in number about Thirty-two, 
Number 32.  of three Ranks or Orders.  
1. The Incisores, 
Incisores 8.  or Cutters, four in each Jaw placed in the forepart, and have commonly but one Phang or Root; they are also called by some Risores, they appearing when we laugh.  
2. Canini, 
Canini 4.  or Dog-teeths, by some the Eye-teeths, two in each Jaw, one on each side the Incisores; they have sometimes two Roots, but strong, and crooked.  
3. The last are called Molares, 
Molares.  or Grinders, in number about twenty, five on each side the Canini, and have two or three Fangs.  
The Teeth are not perfected all at once, nor appear before a certain time, when they force their way through the Jaws and Gums; yet there are Observations of some who have been Born with Teeth; the first that appear in Children, are for the most part the superior Incisives, which is sometimes sooner, sometimes later, but generally about the seventh, eighth, or ninth Month; then in time come the Canini, and lastly the Molares: When the Teeth come to about the number of twenty, there appears no more till about the seventh Year, about which time there appears four more: At fourteen there comes four more, and towards the twentieth Year the last four, which are called Teeth of Wisdom, because they come at an Age, when we ought to be Wise and Serious.  
The first twenty Teeth are called Milk-teeths, which fall or shed about the seventh Year, and new ones come in their places.  
I have seen some who have had new Teeth, when they have been upwards of Sixty Years, but this is not very usual.  
The Teeth have several Uses; 
Uses.  first, they serve for Mastication, which is its chief, the Teeth being as so many Mill stones which bruise and grind the Aliment, the Incisores cut the Morsel, and the Molares grind it. Secondly, to help Articulation of the Voice, for we see those that lose their Teeth, especially the Incisores, do not speak plain, but lisp, as we call it; they are also Ornamental.  
Since we are demonstrating the Bones of the Head, 
Os Hyoides.  it will not be amiss to mention the Bone which is at the Root of the Tongue, being united only by Muscles; it's called Os Hyoides, or Ypsiloides, by reason it's like the Greek V.  
It consists of two parts, the Body and Horns which receive the Epiglottis.  
The principal Use of this Bone, 
Use.  is not to support the Tongue, as some pretend, but rather to facilitate the entrance of Air into the Trachea Arteria, also of the Aliments into the Oesophagus; many Muscles also are inserted into this Bone.  
The Bones of the Cranium being joined together, 
Foramina, in the whole Cranium.  there are many Foramina or Holes, through which Vessels pass and repass; to begin then in order, these appear first, and are commonly by pairs.  
1. There's a Hole which lies between the Crista Galli, 
Foramen, Crista Galli.  and the Process of the Sinus Frontalis; it's a single Hole, and mentioned by no Author as I find: It may well be called Foramen Nasale, vel Crista Galli; through this Hole a Vessel passes from the Sinus Longitudinalis of the Dura Mater to the Nose, where it becomes double, one to each Nostril; this is the way how in great Commotions of the Brain, 
☞  the Blood sometimes streams out, and that with violence, the Vessel being then more turgid.  
2. The Foramina in the Cribriforme Bone, 
Foramina Ethmoides  for the passage of the Olfactory Nerves, and may be called Foramina Ethmoides.  
3. The Foramina Opticorum Nervorum, 
Foramina Opticorum  number two.  
4. Two for the Nervi Motorii, 
Foramina Motorii.  and other Vessels, they are very large long Holes.  
5. Two called the Crotophite, 
Foramina Temp.  or Temporal Holes, through which passes two Branches of the fifth pair of Nerves, to the Temples.  
6. Two for the Arteriae Carotides, 
Foramina Carotidum  which lie just by the sides of the lower parts of the Sella Turcica.  
7. Two small ones, 
Foramina Durae Matris.  one on each side the Carotid Holes, called Foramina Durae Matris.  
8. Two for the Auditory Nerves, 
Foramina Auditoria.  which pass into the Antra Auditoria.  
9 Two for the Jugular Veins. 
Foramina Jugul.   
10. Two called Linguales, 
Foramina Lingnales.  through which passes Vessels to the Tongue.  
11. Two more for the Cervical Arteries, 
Foramina Nervor. paris 5.  and also for the exit of some Nerves of the fifth pair.  
12. Lastly, 
Foramen Medullare.  the great one, called Foramen Medullare, for the passage of the Spinal Marrow.  
All these Holes are in the Basis of the Skull, or Internal Part.  
There are also several Foramina, of great use in the External Part.  
1. Are two Foramina, 
Foramina Orbicularia.  or Holes, one by the edge of the orbit of each Eye, called Orbicularia, through which passes a Branch of the fifth pair of Nerves, to the Lips.  
2. The Foramina seu puncta Lachrimalia, 
Foramina Lachrimalia.  in the Lachrimal Bones through which the Tears pass into the Nose.  
3. The Foramina Palati, 
Foramina Palati.  they are placed in the forepart of the Roof of the Mouth next the Teeth, the thinnest Mucus of the Nose is conveyed through these two Holes.  
4. Two in the back part of the Palate, 
Foramina Alia.  through which Branches of the fifth pair of Nerves pass to the Palate.  
As for the Foramina of the lower Jaw, I have already mentioned them in the Description of that Bone.   

Demonstration IU.  
Of the Bones of the Trunk.  
THE next part of the Skeleton that is to be Demonstrated, 
Division, threefold.  is the Trunk, which we shall divide into Three Parts, as the Back or Spine, Ribs and Breast; and lastly, the Hips, or Ossa Innominata.  
The Back, or rather Spine, is composed of many Bones, called Vertebrae, 
Vertebrae.  or Spondils, all which being joined or united together, may not unfitly be termed a Pyramid of Bones; but before we Treat of them in particular, it will be requisite to say something of the Spine in General, 
Of the Spine in General.  in which several Things are to be taken notice of.  
1. All the Bones, 
Denomination.  from the first of the Neck, to the very Extremity of the Coccigis, are called the Spine, I suppose from the acute Processes each Vertebrae have, called Spinales.  
2. The figure or shape of the Spine, 
Figure.  is of great Consideration, for if you look on its Anterior or Posterior Parts, it appears straight; but if you look on its Lateral Parts, it's curved in and out: First, the Spondils of the Neck bend inwards, for the better support of the Oesophagus, also to sustain the Head in an Equilibrium, than the Vertebrae of the Back jet themselves outward, to augment the Capacity of the Thorax, that the Heart and Lungs may have a larger room to play in; towards the Loins again, they bend inwards, not only to defend the great Vessels which lie on them, but also to Counterbalance the better the weight of the Body; the Os Sacrum bends outward, that the Pelvis be enlarged to contain the Bladder, Womb in Women, and Intestinum Rectum; and lastly, the Os Coccygis bends inwards, that it might not be offended when we sit down, also that the Intestinum Rectum be tied to it.  
The third Thing to be observed in General, 
Bodies of the Vertebrae.  or Common to all, is that the Bodies, of each Vertebra are of a spongy Substance, made up of many irregular bony Threads, containing a Medullar Juice, of a Convex Figure forwards, but Concave backwards, and plain above and below, being only joined with Cartilages, which makes them Contiguous, & unites them there, which gives them a more easy motion, the Body also of each Vertebra gradually increases in bulk, till to the very Os Sacrum; for it's reasonable that those which support, 
☞  should be larger than those which are supported, and at the same time as the Spinalis Medulla passes down it grows less, losing of its bulk as the Nerves pass from it, and the Foramina Medullares of each Vertebra consequently less.  
4. Each Vertebra have five Things to be considered, 
Five things to be considered in the Vertebra.  which belong to all; 1. Each, as I have said, have a Body. 2. Each have a great Foramina, 
Foramina Spinales.  through which the Spinalis Medulla passes, even to the very Os Sacrum, which may well be called Foramina Spinalia vel Medullaria; these holes are largest in the Vertebrae of the Neck, and so lessen as they descend, several Nerves, as I have hinted before, passing from the Spinal Marrow, so lessens them; but the Bodies grow larger to sustain the rest, the Spinal Marrow reaches no further than the last Vertebra of the Back, where it begins to divide into many small Filaments, which are subdivided into smaller in the Os Sacrum, 
Cauda Equina, quid?  where it's called Cauda Equina, or the Horse-tail. 3. They have each seven Processes, 
Seven Processes in each Vertebra.  four oblique ones, two superior, and two inferior, two transverse, and an odd one called Acutus, vel Spinalus, by some Posterior. 4. They are joined one to another in their oblique Processes by Ginglimus, 
Conjunction.  and by Synchondrosis in their Bodies; also on their inside, they are lined with a strong smooth Membrane, which reaches from the first, to the Os Sacrum. 5. They have many Sinuffes, but the most remarkable, are those under their oblique Processes, which being united to others above the aforesaid Processes of other Vertebrae, make certain Foramina, through which the Nerves of the Spinal Marrow passes, as also many Blood-vessels to and from the Spinalis Medulla; they may be aptly enough called Foramina Nervina. 
Foramina Nervina.   
We come now to Treat of each Vertebra in particular; 
Of the Vertebrae in particular. Number 25.  the Vertebrae are in number twenty-five; that is, seven of the Neck, twelve of the Back, five of the Loins, and one of the Os Sacrum, to which is annexed the Ossa Coccygis.  
The Neck has seven. 
Seven of the Neck.   
The first is called Atlas, 
1. Atlas.  by reason is sustains the Head, as Atlas was supposed to do the Heavens; its transverse Processes, as also all the other of the Neck, are not so long as those of the Back; it's Articulated to the Condiloid Processes of the Os Occipitis, by its superior oblique Processes, in which are two Sinus' that receives the aforesaid Condiloid Processes; this Articulation is a sort of double Arthrodia, so is only capable of Flexion and Extension; it has very little, or no Body, but within has a small Sinus to receive the Dens of the second Vertebra; this Sinus is lined with a strong Ligament, which fastens the aforesaid Dens, the Spinal Process is a very little blunt knob, but all the other Spines' of the Neck are forked, except the last. It has a small round Process in its upper part where the Body should be, from which passes a small Ligament, to another small round Process between the Condiloides of the Occipital Bone, close to the Foramen Medullare.  
The second Vertebra is called Dentata vel Epistrophous, 
2. Dentata.  because between its two superior Processes, springs another very hard one, called Dens, being like a little Tooth, which being received into the abovementioned Sinus of the first Vertebra, and encompassed with strong Membranous Ligaments; this moves in the Atlas as an Axis, as the Flexion and Extension depend on the first Vertebra with the Head; 
☜  the Circular Motion depends on this and the first: When a Luxation happens here, the Neck is said to be broke.  
The five following have no particular Name, and are much like one another, only increasing a little in bigness, and the Spinal Process of the last is not forked, beginning to grow somewhat like those of the Back; the transverse Processes, and spinous ones, are somewhat rough, for the better insertion of many Muscles, which are fastened there.  
All the Vertebrae of the Neck, 
Foramina Vertebrarum Colli▪  have two small Foramina each, which lie in the Head of the transverse Processes, serving for the passage of the Vertebral Arteries.  
Their oblique Processes have this observable in them, their superior ones are somewhat hollowish, to receive the inferior Convex ones, that the motion of the Neck be freer.  
The Back has twelve Vertebrae; 
Back 12.  yet I once saw a Skeleton that had thirteen, and thirteen Ribs; they are bigger than those of the Neck, but less than those of the Loins; their Spinal Processes are not forked but pointed, and lie one over another; the transverse are short, but large, and blunt, and have a Cavity to receive the Heads of the Ribs; the oblique are sharp, and smooth, and so consequently little motion, 
Vertebrae Costales.  these are called the Costal Vertebrae; the eleventh Vertebra has its spinal Process, not lying over the other, as those above it.  
The last Vertebra of the Back has this to be observed in it; it receives none, but is received, both by the eleventh of the Back, and first of the Loins; on this depends the greatest motion of the Back.  
The five of the Loins are larger than those of the Back, 
Loins 5.  and their Articulation loser, their transverse Processes are more long and fine than those of the Back, which serve as Ribs, as it were, yet the first and fifth are shorter than the rest; their Foramina Nervina are excavated only out of the lower Vertebra, 
N. B.  whereas those of the Back equally out of both, but those of the Neck only out of the superior; their posterior Spines', are short, blunt and thick, a little broad, and turn a little upwards, that the bending of the Body be no way hindered; and whereas in the other Vertebrae, the upper oblique Processes receive the lower, in these the lower receive the upper.  
The first of these Vertebrae is called Renalis, 
Renalis.  the Kidneys being lodged at the side of it; the other four have no particular Name.  
The Os Sacrum, 
Os Sacrum.  or holy Bone, so called, as some think, because the Ancients used to save this part as Sacred in Sacrifices; but I think rather from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, as the Greeks call it, which signifies Magnum, as well as Sacrum, it being the biggest Bone of all the Spine. It's immovable, and serves as a Basis or Pedestal to the whole Spine; it's of a somewhat triangular Figure, with the point downwards; it's Concavous within, which helps to form the Pelvis, also smooth; behind it's Convex, and unequal, many Muscles arising, and being inserted here, it seems as if it were composed of five or six Bones, (as indeed it is in Infants) its Ossification beginning at so many points, but its edges, or rather, if you will, its transverse Processes look but like one continued Bone, as it is; the Foramen Spinale towards its lower part is very small; its Foramina Nervina are before and behind, and not on the sides, as in the other Vertebrae; its spinal Processes are very small, the last being only a small round Protuberance, it oblique Processes are hardly visible, except the superior ones; the parts which compose the Os Sacrum, are placed in the number of the Vertebrae, not by reason of their use, but because of their resemblance, for otherwise they are immovable: The Os Sacrum may be said to be divided into five Vertebrae of different bigness, whereof the superior is biggest, they diminishing as they descend, the last being the least; these separate easily in Infants, by reason the Cartilages which unite them, are not fully ossified; but in Adults, they all make up but one entire Bone.  
This Bone seems to have several Uses, 
Uses.  the first is, as I have already remarked, to serve as a Foundation to the whole Spine. Secondly, to help to contain the parts of the Hypogastrium, by forming Cavity, as I have said. The third to defend them; the fourth to Articulate the Bones of the Hips; the fifth to give Origin and Insertion to many Muscles.  
To the end of this Bone are annexed two or three little Bones called Ossa Coccygis, 
Ossa Coccygis.  the cuckoo's Beak; some call them the Rump-bones: They have a somewhat loose Articulation, and tied by Cartilages one to another, the last is the smallest: They have this loose Articulation, that they may give way to the Foetus in the Birth, therefore in Women these Bones are always more bend backwards than in Men; they end in a Cartilaginous point, to which is tied the Intestinum Rectum; they have no thing more material in them, having neither Process nor Cavity.  
We shall now proceed to the Bones of the Breast and Ribs, 
Bones of the Breast.  which is the second Division of the Trunk.  
The Ribs are twenty-four in number, 
Ribs 24.  twelve on each side; to be well-instructed in all which concerns the Ribs, we must observe several things, as their Substance, Figure, Connexion's, Parts, Division and Use, of all which in order.  
The substance of the Ribs is partly Bony, 
Substance of the Ribs.  and partly Cartilaginous, that end next the Vertebra, being of a harder and more solid and thick substance than that towards the Sternon, which is flattish, so less capable of being broke; sor that end towards the Sternon being more spongy in substance, all the Ribs end towards the Breast by Cartilages, increasing in length as the Ribs descend; and those Cartilages of the superior Ribs, are harder than those of the inferior; sometimes these Cartilages grow bony in Old People, so that they cannot be separated by a Knife.  
The Ribs have a sort of Semicircular Figure, 
Figure.  making a sort of Arch; when two are together, they make a kind of a true Circle, Concave inwardly, to form the Capacity of the Thorax, and to contain the Lungs and Heart, and Convex outwardly, to resist outward force; the farther they depart from the Sternon, the more round they are in their own Body; they are not equally big, for the superior are shorter, the middle biggest of all, and the inferior one lest of all; their upper sides are thick, blunt, and broad; one edge is called the interior, the other the exterior Lip; their under edges are sharp, having in their inside a long Sinus, or Furrow, in which lie the Intercostal Vessels.  
The Ribs are Articulated by their Extremities, 
Articulation.  both to the Vertebrae of the Thorax, and Sternon; that Articulation with the Back is movable, the other not; the long Head of each Rib is Articulated by a single Arthrodia; it has a small Protuberance clothed with a Cartilege, which head is received into a Sinus of the transverse Process of the Vertebra; 'tis this Process which supports the Ribs, and hinders them from coming lower in Expiration: You must observe, 
N. B.  that the backpart of every Rib is higher than the forepart, till the Cartilege be joined, which turning a little up, makes the two ends of an equal height, so that by the rising of the Ribs, the Breast is enlarged. We must also take notice, that almost all the Ribs have a Communication with the Sternon, either directly or indirectly; that is, the superior ones are by a direct insertion, but the lower by an indirect, which is by Cartilages adhering to the superior.  
All the Ribs make a sort of Angle by their Cartilages towards the Sternon, which serves to increase the Spring of the Cartilages, that the Ribs be brought down again, having been raised in Inspiration. It sometimes happens, though seldom, that these Cartilages are ossified, 
☜  which occasions an Incurable Asthma; the last, or lowest Rib in Man, have no Cartilege as the rest; the lower the Ribs, are, longest and more movable, 
N. B.  because Respiration in Man is downwards, but in Birds upwards.  
The Ribs are commonly divided in two sorts, 
Ribs of two sorts.  as true or false, but I think they may well be all accounted true, except the last, (being joined mediateor immediately to the Sternon by Cartilages) which has none, so only may be termed a false Rib; however it being a common received Opinion, I shall make the division: the long or true are seven on each side, 
True 14.  and are the superior ones; the first of which has no motion at all, it being as a prop for all the rest, but as they descend they increase in motion; they are Articulated to the Vertebrae of the Back by a sort of double Arthrodia, which makes a Ginglimus, and to the Sternon by Synarthrosis, the three lowest of which are by some called the Pectoral Ribs. 
Costae Pectorales.   
The false or bastard are five on each side, 
False, 10.  the four uppermost of which have at their Extremities towards the Sternon long Cartilages, bending upwards, and cleaving only one to another; that is, the lowest to the superior, so not directly united to the Sternon, as the first seven are; which was the Reason the Ancients gave them the Name of Spurious: The last has no Cartilege at its end, the edge of the Diaphragme being tied to it.  
All the Ribs, as I have already demonstrated, are received both into the transverse Processes, and body of the Vertebrae; except the two or three last, which are only received into the body of the Vertebrae.  
The Ribs are to defend the Heart and Lungs, 
Use.  etc. from all sorts of external Injuries, so that they be not pressed, but have free motion, which were it not bony, would be always in danger of being offended; they also serve to sustain the Respiratory Muscles.  
The Cartilages of the Ribs have this Use, 
Use of the Cartilages.  that is, when the Ribs are drawn something upwards in Inspiration, they draw them down again with a sort of Spring; for all Cartilaginous Bodies are endued with a sort of Elasticity, so that they always recover their first Figure.  
This Mechanism is observed in various Animals, 
☜  for in Birds the Sternon is immovable, because the flying Muscles arise from thence; so that if the Sternon had any thing to do in Respiration, it would be hindered; therefore Nature has contrived another Artifice, which is this, between every Rib there's a little Bone, placed somewhat obliquely, so that if one moves, the other follow by consent.  
All these Birds have no Diaphragm, 
☞  but instead thereof two Bladders, which reach to the bottom of their Bellies, they serve for the Diaphragma, and also help to keep them suspended in the Air: Those Creatures which have a Diaphragma, breathe downwards, but Birds, etc. which have none, breathe upwards.  
In Amphibious Creatures, as the Tortoise, etc. their shell is in place of Ribs, and Frogs have only one Rib on a side, to defend the Lungs.  
The Breastbone is called Sternon, 
Sternon made up of three Bones.  or Os Pectoris, situated in the middle of the Anterior part of the Breast, composed of two or three Bones, having the Productions of the Cartilages of the Ribs inserted into their sides, of a reddish fungous' Substance.  
To consider it well, it must be examined at two different times; for in Infants it's almost all Cartilaginous, except the first Bone where the Claviculae are fastened. In Old People I have seen it all ossified, except the first with the second at its juncture, but in those of Middle Age, partly Bony, and partly Cartilaginous, the superior Bone always ossifies first, and the inferior last. In the Sternon of Infants you may perceive seven or eight Junctures, as if so many Bones, but in the seventh or eighth Year, they uniting, make up but three or four at most.  
The first or superior Bone of the Sternon, 
First Bone.  is more thick and solid than the rest, made in the shape of a Crescent almost, at each side of its superior part, it has a Sinus to receive the head of the Clavicula; at its top it has a Lunated Sinus called Jugulum; 
Jugulum.  it has also a small long Sinus on its inside, to give way to the Aspera Arteria: Its immovable.  
The second Bone is narrower, 
Second Bone.  longer and thinner, having at its sides many Sinosities, to receive the Cartilages of the Ribs.  
The third Bone is less than the second, 
Third Bone.  but broader, at the lower end of which is annexed a Cartilege called Xiphoides, vel Mucroconita, vel Ensiformis, the Sword-like Cartilege; 
Cartilago Ensiformis.  it's of a Triangular Figure, it serves to defend the superior Orifice of the Stomach: It's this place which is called Scrobiculus Cordis, the Heart-pit; the Diaphragma is also fastened to it; a strong Ligament of the Liver, called Suspensorium, 
☜  is tied to it, for in Inspiration the Ribs being draw upwards, than the Liver by its weight keeps this from moving, and when in Expiration the Ribs assume their former Figure, this by its Cartilaginous Spring assumes his also.  
The Uses of the Sternon are, 
Uses of the Sternon.  first, to unite the Ribs, that their motion may be all at one and the same time, also to receive the Clavicula: Lastly, to fasten the Mediastinum, which is a Membrane that divides the Breast in two.  
The third part that compose the Trunk, 
Ossa Innominata.  are called Ossa Innominata, because of a very strange Figure; they are in number two, one on each side of the Os Sacrum, having where they are united to it, many Depressions and Risings, for their greater Strength and Connexion, 
Articulation.  being Articulated before by Synchondrosis, so make up that Cavity called the Pelvis, 
Pelvis.  which contains the (Womb in Women) Bladder, and Intestinum Rectum, with other of the Guts.  
In Children each Bone consists of three, 
Each consists of three in Children.  all of them meeting in that deep Cavity, called Acetabulum, which receives the head of the Fenier, but as we grow in Years they all make but one Bone, yet then, for better distinction, named as three, as the Os Ileum, Ischium, and Pubis, of all which in order.  
The Ileum is the superior part of the Bone, 
Os lleum.  so called, because most part of the Ileum-Gut lies on its Internal Face; from it's External arise the Musculi Glutei: It's the biggest of the three, and joined with the Os Sacrum.  
Things to be considered in this Bone, 
Spina Ilei.  are, first, its Figure, which is Semicircular. Secondly, its top, which is called the Ridg, Comb, or Spine, being covered with a Cartilege: It's Internal Face is Concave, and its Exterior Convex: It has three Protuberances, being rather so many parts of the Spine; 
Three parts of the Spine.  one forwards, called Spina Anterior Superior; another below, called Spina Anterior Inferior, less than the former; and a third behind, called Spina Posterior.  
The Os Ischium, 
Os Ischium  or Coxendicis, is the lower part of the Os Innominatum, in which is to be considered two parts; first, It's Superior, which makes up the greatest part of the Cotula, or Acetabulum. Secondly, It's Inferior, or lower part, which we sit on, which is called Tuberositas Ischii; 
Tuberositas.  it has a Sinuosity on its inner side, where the Musculus Obturator Internus winds about; the Muscles of the Penis, and Elevators of the Anus, have their Origin from the Tuberosity of the Ischium.  
The Os Pubis, 
Os Pubis.  or Pectinis, by us the Share-bone, is the forepart of the Os Innominatum; it's joined forwardly to its Fellow by Synchondrosis, the hinder part of it forms part of the Acetabulum; the superior part is called the Spine, to which the Muscles of the Abdomen are fastened; where this joins with the Ischium there's large Foramen, called Ovale, 
Foramen Ovale Ossis Pubis.  covered with very a strong Ligamentous Membrane; above this Foramen there's Sinus, by which the Crural Vessels pass to the Thigh.  
All these Bones being joined together in their middle, make up that deep Cavity called Acetabulum, vel Cotula, in which the head of the Os Femoris enters, which is tipped with a Cartilege, called Supercilium.  
These Bones are more ample and large in Women than Men, 
Ossa Pubis, largest in Women.  and those which have them most advanced, have the easiest Labour.  
The Ancients believed, that in Labour the Ossa Pubis separated for the more easy Delivery of the Birth, 
The Ossa Pubis do not separate in Labour.  nay, Bartholinus is of this Opinion, for he says, that in a Woman newly Delivered, you may divide them with the back of a Knife; but I presume it's not so, for they separate not the least; 'tis only the Os Coccygis which gives way a little by bending backwards, for most pain is felt when the Foetus passes by the Fundament; yet some have a more loose Articulation of their Bones, and so perhaps might bring them into this Error.   

Demonstration IU.  
Of the Bones of the Superior Extremities.  
I Have Demonstrated all the Bones which make up the two parts of the Skeleton, there remains now only the third part, which is those of the Extremities.  
The Extremities, 
Extremities, Upper and Lower.  or rather the Limbs, are either Superior, as the Arms; or Inferior, as the Legs.  
We will begin with the Superior; but first I must inform you, that since both Extremities are double, I shall only speak of them in the singular number, for by demonstrating one side, you at the same time show the other.  
Although there be no part which does not furnish us with some Subject of Admiration, yet we must all agree, that the Arm hath as great a share, if not more, than any other; for which reason Aristotle called it the Organ of Organs, and the Instrument of Instruments; and since Nature has given to all Animals, something particular, either to defend themselves against others, and preserve themselves from external Injuries; or else to offend; we may say then, that Man has received two things preferable to Animals, to wit, Reason and Hands, the one for Counsel and Conduct, the other for Execution of our Will; 'tis these Hands which gives him the Sovereign Command over all Creatures be he never so Cruel, Strong, or Swift; for of what Advantage would all our Reason and Conduct be, if we had not Hands to perform what Reason dictates: I could say much more on this Subject, but that I am here on plain Demonstration, and not Philosophising.  
The Arm, 
Division. Arm, five parts.  generally so called, has five parts, as the Clavicula, Scapula, Shoulder, Arm, and Hand, of all which in due course.  
1. The Clavicula, 
Clavicula▪  which some place among the Bones of the Spine, but I think it rather belongs to those of the Arms, as I shall show in its use, the whole motion of the Arm depending on this Bone; It's called Clavicula, I suppose, being a diminutive from Clavis a Key, because the Keys in old time were like an s 
Figure.  in Milan they have such sort of Keys still, as I am informed by those who have been there; it's not so crooked in Women as in Men; 
Articulation.  it's Articulated by one end to the Acromium of the Scapula, and by the other to the upper part of the first Bone of the Sternon; by a sort of Arthrodia, yet has but little motion; the more crooked these Bones are, the more force and agility has the Arm. 
Substance.  It's hollow in the middle, and contains Marrow, as all long Bones, but towards the ends Spongy; that end towards the Acromium is not very thick, but rough, and unequal, the end towards the Sternon smother: It's also here outwardly Convex, but inwardly Concave, to give way to the Vessels which pass under it, otherwise it would have pressed them; but towards the Acromium, 
☜  Convex inwardly, and Concave outwardly, for the more convenient situation of the Deltoid Muscle, which would otherwise appear too bulky, and make the Breast look deformed.  
They serve to uphold the Scapula and Humerus from falling on the Breast, 
Use.  which they do when this Bone happens to be Fractured; the whole motion of the Arm depends also on this Bone; for Brutus' having no Claviculae, cannot move their Forelegs so readily as Man, or as some Animals which have them, as Monkeys, Squirrels, etc.  
2. The Scapula, 
Scapula.  or Shoulder bone, is situated on the backpart of the Thorax, being only fastened with Muscles, (so more loose, that the motion be freer and easy) except in its Acromium where it's Articulated with the Clavicula; it's of a Triangular Figure, 
Figure.  whereof two Angles are Posterior, and one Anterior, It's inward Face is Concave, as well to accommodate itself to the Ribs whereon it lies, as to contain a Muscle, but outward Gibbous, thicker on its edges than in the middle, 
☜  being there transparent, and very thin; so that in a Caries of that part we cannot expect Exfoliation, no Medullar Glands being there, it's nourished from its sides.  
Parts to be considered in this Bone, 
Processes, three.  are first, its Processes, which are three, first is a thin, but rising Process, in the middle of its outside, extending all its length, it's called the Spine; 
Spine Acromium  its Point or Extremity is called the Acromium, in which is a flattish Sinus to receive the Clavicula: Some say that this Process is a distinct Bone from the Scapula, because in Infants its only Cartilaginous, which ossifying by degrees, makes up but one Bone; the second is less, and placed at the superior part of the Neck, which advances above the Head of the Bone of the Arm: It's curved, and called Coracoides, 
Coracoides Ancyroides  the Crows-bill, or Ancyroides, some call it only Processus Curvatus, it strengthens the Articulation of the Humerus. The third, or middle one, is called Cervix, 
Cervix.  is which in a somewhat flat Sinus to receive the head of the Humerus, called Glenoides; the Humerus is tied to it by a strong, but somewhat loose Ligament; the edges of this Sinus is tipped with a Cartilaginous Ligament, which hinders the Humerus from being too easily Dislocated; there's also a strong Ligament from the Acromium to the Processus Coracoides, which, together with the Acromium, 
☞  hinders the Humerus from being too easily Dislocated upwards, except this Ligament or the Acromiune be broken.  
The edges of this Bone are called Costa. 
Costa.   
It has three Angles, 
Angles, three.  1. The Inferior. 2. Posterior. 3. Cervix; that part which reaches from the Posterior to the Inferior Angle, is called the Basis of the Scapula. 
Basis.   
It has two notable Sinusses 
Sinusses.  one on each side the Spine, where the Musculi Infra, and Supra Spinati lie; the lower Sinus is largest; in its inside Concave part lies the Musculus Subscapularis, vel Immersus.  
The Scapula has many Uses; 
Use.  first, it gives Origin to many Muscles, it fastens also the Arm to the Body, and serves to support it, to the end it may have all its motions.  
The third part of the superior Limb is the Os Humeri, 
Humerus.  or Shoulder-bone, it's the strongest and largest of all that compose the Arm; it's long and round in its fore part, but somewhat flat behind; its superior part is Articulated to the Cervix of the Scapula by Arthrodia; 
Articulation.  at its lower end with the Cubitus by Ginglimus; it also touches the Radius by Arthrodia.  
To examine the parts of the Humerus, you must consider its Extremities, 
Parts to be considered.  and Body.  
The Body is long and round, within it contains a Marrow; 
Body.  its Figure is not absolutely straight, but somewhat hollow inwardly, and bunching outwardly, to fortify it in its Actions; there is observed a Line which descends and terminates in two Processes, which serve to fasten the Muscles inserted here.  
The superior Extremity of the Humerus is bigger and more spongy than the Inferior; 
Superior Extremity.  and contains a Medullar Juice; it's called the Head, covered with a Cartilege: It's encompassed on all sides with Ligaments and Membranes, which proceed from the Glenoid Cavity of the Scapula; a little below this Head, 
Processes.  there's a round part a little smaller, called the Neck; there's at the hinder part of this end two rough unequal Processes, into which several Tendons and Ligaments are inserted; so that great Care ought to be had in Wounds, or Ulcers of this part, lest you mistake the Roughness for a Cariosity; 
N. B.  between these inequalities there's a long Slit, or Scissure, in which the Tendon of the Musculus Biceps passes.  
The Inferior Extremity of the Humerus is less, flatter, and harder than the other; it has three Processes, two whereof are called Condyli, 
Condyli▪  the Exterior and Interior: The Bone seems here to be divided in two parts. The third, or middle Process, is large, and called Trochlea, 
Trochlea.  the Poultry; it has two large Sinusses, which receive the Processes of the Vlna, to which it's Articulated by Ginglimus; the back Sinus is large and deep, which receives the Olecranon, but that on its fore part smaller.  
The fourth part, 
Brachium, two Bones.  or that which is strictly called the Arm, is composed of two Bones, the biggest and longest called Vlna, the lesser Radius; for had this part been made up only of one Bone joined by Ginglimus, we could do nothing else but extend and draw up the Arm, and not turn it upwards and downwards, which is performed by means of the Radius, for which end it's Articulated by Arthrodia.  
The two Bones are not both of a bigness, for which some distinguish them by the Names of Major and Minor Focile; in their middle they are somewhat distant the one from the other, for the more Commodious Situation of the Muscles, Passage of the Vessels, and principally for the Ease of Motion.  
1. The Vlna, or Cubitus, 
Ulna.  so called, by reason it's this Bone which makes the Elbow; it's biggest at the superior part, and had two large Processes, that in the backpart is called Olecranon▪ 
Olecranon.  vel Ancon, which when the Arm is extended, is received into the large Posterior Sinus of the Trochlea, so stops the Arm from going further backwards, it's otherwise called the Elbow; the other is less, and received into the fore Sinus of the Trochlea, it stops the Arm from being bend too close forward; below this is another very small Process, into which the Tendon of the Musculus Biceps is inserted.  
It has two small Sinusses, 
Sinusses.  the Latteral one receiving the Head of the Radius, the other is between the two large Processes, and receives the Trochlea of the Humerus; it may be called Sigmatoides, because it resembles the Greek Letter Sigma.  
At the body, 
Three Angles in its Body.  of middle of this Bone, there's observed three Angles, whereof the Inferior is called the Spine, and is very straight; the other two are oblique, the one of which is the Anterior Angle, the other Posterior; one side is very smooth and equal, the other pretty rough, some Tendons being inserted there.  
The Inferior part of this Bone has two Eminencies, and one Cavity; the first of the Eminencies is seated at the lateral part, and is received by the Glenoid Cavity of the Radius: The second is at the very Extremity, and may be called Styloides, 
Stylodes.  it serves to strengthen the Articulation; the Cavity or Sinuosity is at the end of the Bone, and helps to make the Arthrodia with the Carpus: This Bone at its superior end receives the Radius, but is received by the Radius at its lower end.  
The Radius 
Radius.  is the second Bone of the Arm, (or as some call it, the Fore-Arm) so called, because it resembles the Spoke of a Wheel; 
Articulation.  it's Articulated in its superior part, two manner of ways: First, with the External Condyl of the Humerus. Secondly, with the Ulna, and both by Arlhrodia: It's likewise Articulated two manner of ways in its Inferior part, either with the Bones of the Carpus at its Extremity, or with the Vlna, on its latter part: The Radius is smallest in its Superior, but largest in its Inferior part.  
The Things to be observed in its Superior part are these; 
Superior part.  First, its Head, which is round and polished, at the end of which is a Glenoid Cavity, which as I have already remarked, receives the External Condyl of the Humerus; the Neck is somewhat long. Now this is very observable, 
☞  that the Ligament which comes from the other Bone to join it, is not inserted in it as in other Bones, but only encompasses this Neck as a Ring, so that it may turn, 
Ligamentum Admirabile.  for its Prone, and Supine Motions, which had the Ligament been inserted into it, it could not have done, yet at the same time it's strong enough to keep it firm; the whole motion of the Wrist is performed by the Radius; the Tuberosity or Eminence is seated just below the Neck, and is received into the lateral Superior Sinus of the Ulna.  
In its middle it has an obtuse Angle, which some call the Spine, which gradually grows bigger as it inclines towards the Carpus, different from the Cubitus, 
Body.  which diminishes: It's in this that we may admire Nature, which not being able to avoid making these two Bones unequal in their Extremities, has found means to make the Arm equally strong in all parts, by placing the weakest part of one Bone against the strongest of the other.  
At its Inferior part many Sinuosities appear, 
Inferior part.  which are as small Gutters, that so the Tendons be not incommoded; it has also a Cavity at its Extremity, which receives one of the Bones of the Carpus; at its lower end it has a blunt Process, 
Mastoides.  called Mastoides: from the Internal Angle of this Bone, there's a long broad Ligamentous Membrane, which unites it to the Internal Angle of the Ulna, according to its length.  
The Ulna serves only for Flexion and Extension, 
Use of the Radius and Ulna.  and the Radius for Pronation and Supination.  
The fifth and last part of the Arm, 
5. Hand.  generally so called, is the Hand, which is subdivided into the Carpus, Metacarpus. and Fingers.  
The Carpus, 
Carpus, eight Bones.  or Wrist, is composed of eight small Bones placed in two ranks, four in a rank, three of the first rank are united very close on their sides, the two greatest of which are received into the Cavity of the Radius by Arthrodia, for the motion of the Hand in their Inferior part, they touch the three Bones of the second rank of the Carpus; the third of the first rank which is next in bigness, and received in the Cavity at the lower Extremity of the Ulna; the fourth of the first rank which lies on the outside, a little out of its rank, is the least of the four: The four Bones of the second rank are joined together on their sides by Harmonia, as the Bones of the first rank are, also one to another so; but at their ends, to the Bones of the Metacarpus by Enarthrosis, having an obscure motion: The first Bone of this rank is seated more within the Hand, that the Thumb be better sustained; the second and third sustain the first and second Bone of the Metacarpus; the fourth Bone of this second rank sustains the third and fourth Bones of the Metacarp, by its two Glenoid Cavities: All these Bones are Convex on the backpart, but hollowish within, 
☜  for the more safe passage of the Vessels, and Tendons of the Musculi Flexores, being likewise guarded by the Ligamentum Anulare which covers them, 
Ligamentum Anulare.  and joins together all these Bones.  
The Metacarpus is composed of four long hollowish Bones, 
Metacarpus, four Bones.  containing Marrow in their Internal Sinusses; there are some who make five Bones of the Metacarp, and for that end add thereto the first Bone of the Thumb, but it ought not to be numerated among those of the Metacarp, it having a manifest, but the others a very obscure Motion.  
These four Bones are united by their Superior Extremities with the Carpus, 
Articulation.  as I have already mentioned, by means of strong Cartilaginous Ligaments, and with the first Bones of the Fingers by Arthrodia; they also touch one another in their lateral Parts, especially towards the Carpus; about the middle they are a little separated to give way to the Musculi Interossei: They are Convex, and smooth outwardly, but Concave inwardly; all their Extremities are tipped with Cartilages.  
These four Bones are not of an equal bigness, for that which sustains the Index is the largest, that which sustains the middle Finger less, and so on to the very last, which is least of all.  
The Fingers, 
Fingers.  counting the Thumb, are five, having three Bones each; these Orders may be well called Phalangi Digitorum, 
Phalangi Digitorum.  the first largest, the second less, the third lest of all; their outward Face round, but plain, and even within, Articulated to each other by Ginglimus, except the first rank, which are joined by Arthrodia to the Metacarp, and so have all sorts of Motion, but the other Joints have only Flexion and Extension: The least Bones are not hollow as the rest, but spongy.  
The Greeks call the Hand in general Cheir, but the Thumb Antichier, as much as to say, an opposite Hand: The second Finger, counting the Thumb as one, is called Indicator, because we are apt to point it, when we intent to show something: The third is called the Middle-Finger, because of its situation, and is the longest of all: The fourth is called the Annular, by reason Rings are used the most upon this Finger: The fifth and least is called the Auricular, being most fit to pick the Ear with.  
I will not speak here of the Ossa Sesamoidea, which are sometimes found in the Joints of the Fingers, till we explain the Bones of the Toes.   

Demonstration. V.  
Of the Bones of the Inferior Extremities.  
WE come now to Demonstrate the Bones of the Inferior Limbs, which is the last part of the Osteology.  
The Leg, 
Division.  generally so taken, may be divided into the Bones of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot.  
We shall begin with the Thigh-bone, 
Os Femoris.  which is but one in each Leg: It's the longest largest, and strongest Bone of the Body, being formed to sustain the weight of the whole Body; some saying that the word Femur is derived from the Verb Fero, to carry or bear; it's embowed a little on the forepart, but hollow in its back.  
We must examine in this Bone several Things. 
Things to be examined in it.   
First, At its upper end it has a great round head, covered with a smooth Cartilege, 
Articulation.  and received into the Acetabulum by Enarthrosis, and tied therein by a short, but strong round Ligament, which is fastened in the very middle of the Head; 
Caput.  under this Head lies the Neck, 
Cervix.  which is long, and lies obliquely, otherwise the Head could never have entered conveniently into the Acetabulum, considering its posture in the Skeleton; and also the Neck carrying itself outwardly, puts these Bones the one from the other, and so causes that the Body be carried more conveniently and surely.  
At this Extremity or End lies two Apophyses, 
Trochanters.  behind the Neck, called Trochanters, which are derived from the Greek work 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which signifies to turn, because many of the Muscles of the Thigh, especially the Rotatores, are fastened to these Protuberances, the Anterior and Upper one is the biggest, the Posterior and Lower the less: the outward part of this Bone is smooth, but rough within, many Muscles arising from thence: This Bone has a large long Cavity all its length, full of Marrow; it's of a crooked Figure, 
☞  so that Surgeons in Fractures of this Bone, ought well to consider its sound Figure: Towards its lower end it grows thicker and larger, ending in two large heads, which are received into the two shallow Sinus' of the Tibia; between these two Processes is a Sinus which receives a rising Process of the Tibia, so that here the Thigh-bone is Articulated by a loose Ginglimus; the forepart of this Articulation is called the Knee, the Posterior the Ham.  
The Leg, 
Leg.  strictly so called, is composed of two Bones, the greater and internal called Tibia, the lesser and external Fibula, by many also Focile majus & minus.  
The Tibia is the biggest, 
Tibia.  hollow within, and full of Marrow, it's partly Triangular; its sharp Angle of Spine makes that we call the Shin; it has a ridge like a Process at its upper end, which is received by the Sinus at the extremity of the Femur; on each side of this Process, there's two longish, shallow Cavities, to receive the two lower Eminences of the Femur: These shallow Cavities are deepned by a lunated Cartilege, which is thick about the edges, but grows thin towards the Centre; as this Bone approaches towards the Tarsus it lessens, but grows more solid; at the lower part of the Tibia there's notable Process which makes the Internal Ankle, 
Malleolus Internus.  which hinders the luxation of the Foot, in keeping in firm: At the bottom of the Tibia there's a Sinus, which receives the Convex head of the Astragalus; this Bone supports the whole Body.  
The Fibula, 
Fibula.  or Perone, is as long as the other, but much slenderer, placed on the outside of the Leg; its superior head reaches not quite to the Os Femoris, but has a shallow Sinus on its side, which receives a small lateral Process of the Tibia; this Articulation is fortified with a Ligament; its Body is of a Triangular Figure as well as the Tibia, but a little more irregular; the lower end is received by the Tibia, and extending itself to the side of the Astragalus, 
Malleolus Externus.  makes the external Ankle; both these Ankles, or rather Processes, hinder the Talus from being too easily dislocated.  
These two Bones separate a little one from another in their middle, to make room for the Muscles and Vessels.  
Upon the Knee lies a small round Bone, 
Rotula.  gibbous, and plain without, but hollowish within, about two Inches broad, somewhat like the Boss of a Buckler, the middle being thick, and thinning towards its edges, called Rotula, Patella, the Knee-pan; it's movable, and Articulated by a sort of Ginglimus, covered with the Aponeurosis of four Muscles, being the Extenders of the Leg; internally it has a very smooth Cartilege, to facilitate its motions.  
Some believe it's to strengthen the Articulation of the Joint, 
Use.  but it's no such thing, it being rather placed to cause greater force in extending the Leg, by reason the Tendons of the Musculi Extensores pass over it; 
☞  for if the Tendons had not this hillock, as it were, to pass over, but lain flat on the Bones, they could not have had so much force, as by this means to extend the Leg.  
It's of a hard Substance, 
Substance.  but somewhat spongy within, and tied loosely by Ligaments.  
The Foot is subdivided into the Tarsus, Metatarsus, 
Ossa Pedis.  and Toes.  
The Tarsus is made up of seven Bones, 
Tarsus.  differing much in shape and bigness; four of which have particular Names, the other three no other but Ossa Cuneiformia in general.  
First, The Talus, vel Astragalus, 
Talus.  is of a very strange figure, in which is to be considered its six Faces: First, the Superior, which is very smooth and convex, Articulated with the Tibia, hedged in by both Malleoli: Secondly, its Anterior, which is a great head which enters the Cavity of the Os Naviculare, with which its strongly Articulated: Thirdly, the Posterior, which has a Protuberance received by the Os Calcis: Fourthly, the Inferior, which is rough and unequal, rising in some places, and sinking in others: The fifth and sixth are the two Lateral Faces, hedged in, as I said, by the Malleoli; it serves as a Basis to sustain the Tibia, which supports the whole Body.  
The second Bone is the Os Calcis, 
Os Calcis.  or he'll bone, the biggest and largest of the seven, but most porous of all; it's this Bone which hinders the Body from falling backwards, being seated at the Posterior part of the Foot; it lies uner the Talus, to which it's Articulated; it's also joined with a flat head to the Os Cuboides; behind it has a long Process, to which is tied the great Tendon, called Nervus Hectoricus, vel Achilles; it has a large Sinus on its inside, by which the Tendons pass under the Foot, it's very unequal on its outside, for the insertion of Ligaments and Tendons.  
The third is called Os Scaphoides, Cymbiforme, vel Naviculare, 
Os Naviculare.  the Boat-like Bone, behind it has a large Cavity, wherein the head of the Astrgalus is received: but before it has three Eminences, which unites it to the Ossa Cuneiformia.  
The fourth has a somewhat unequal Figure of six irregular sides, 
Os Cuboides.  therefore called Cuboides, the Die-like Bone, by some Multiforme; in its forepart it's joined to the fourth and fifth Bone of the Metatarse, behind to the Os Calcis, its inside to the Ossa Cuneiformia; it lies on the outside of the Foot, and sustains the little Toes.  
The other three are called Ossa Cuneiformia, 
Ossa Cuneiformia.  or Wedge-like Bones, and lie all in a rank, but differ in bigness one from another, joined behind to the Os Naviculare, and before to the three first Bones of the Metatarsus: These Bones are Convex outwardly, but hollowish within, for the more safe passage of the Vessels; there's a broad Ligament which passes from the Os Calcis to the Bones of the Metatarsus, 
Ligamentum Latum.  under which the Vessels and Muscles lie; for if there were no such, in long standing on the Foot, the action of the Muscles, and circulation of the Juices would have been hindered: It's a sort of Ligamentum Annulare.  
The Metatarsus, 
Metatarsus.  or Instep, is composed of five long Bones, placed at the side of each other, to sustain each a Toe, very close where they are united to the Tarsus, but part a little in their middle, to give place to the Musculi Interossei; convex outwardly, but hollow within, for the better lying of the Muscles, and passage of the Vessels; their lower ends are round, and received into the Cavities of the first Phalanx of the Bones of the Toes by Arthrodia; that which sustains the great Toe the biggest, the next less, and so on to the least of all.  
The Bones of the Toes are in number 14, 
Digiti Pedis.  for all have three Bones each, except the great Toe, which has only two; their Articulation the same as in the Fingers and the same Observations.  
There are sometimes, found in the Articulations of the Fingers, 
Ossa Sesamoidea.  but especially in the Toes, some very small Bones, called Ossa Sesamoidea, Seed-like Bones, because they resemble much the Semina Sesami; they are fastened only by Ligaments in number uncertain, sometimes more, sometimes less, in some none at all.  
They have the same Use as the Patella. 
Use.   
The Bones of the Foot being all united together, 
☜  may well be compared to a Lever placed under any great weight, which we intent to raise; for the convex part of the Talus being placed just under the Tibia, which, as I have showed, sustains the whole Body; the long hinder Process of the Os Calcis, being, as it were, the handle of this Lever, and so raised, (as by the Hands) by the Nervus Hectoricus, which is strongly inserted there: This Nerve, or rather Tendon, is composed of three or four Tendons of several Muscles of the Leg, as Solaris, Gastrochnemii, etc. and with it the whole Body is raised, as may be seen when we rear ourselves on our Toes.  
There's one thing very Curious to observe, 
N. B.  in the bending of the Joints of the Skeleton; for all the Junctures of the Arms, as Elbow, Wrist, and Fingers, bend upwards, but otherwise in the Legs; for at the Thigh it bends forwards, that we may sit when weary; at the Ham backwards, at the Ankle forwards again, and the Toes backwards: All these several bend give us a greater strength, both to walk, and rise when down, which we could not do, if the bend were otherwise disposed.    

AN APPENDIX TO THE Doctrine of the Bones; SHOWING,  
The Best Method of Whitening, Cleansing, and Preparing the Bones of Man's Body, for making a Movable Skeleton, wherein the Bones may have the same Motions, as in a Living Subject; together with the manner of Uniting them together.  
WHen you have a Body, that you intent to save the Bones, towards forming a skeleton, proceed in this manner▪  
First, 
No Bone to be lost.  Take Care that in Decarning the Bones, you lose none, although never so small, for by so doing you will spoil the Beauty of your Skeleton; also be Cautious lest you cut away any of the Substance of the Bones with your knife, which if you are not aware you may do, especially when you come towards the more Spongy, and Cartilaginous Extremities of them; as in the Bones of the Breast, Cartilaginous parts of the Ribs, and Cartilago Ensiformis, also the Processus Styloides of the Basis of the Cranium, is very apt to be separated, unless you are careful, especially in young Subjects; but if by chance you lose any of the small Bones, get one in its place from any other Skeleton, and about the same bigness; also if you happen to break any Bone, join it again with Lithecolla, the same as Masons use to join their broken Stones together; or a Preparation of Wax and Rosin.  
That you be at the less trouble in preparing your Skeleton for boiling, 
Method to be observed in boiling and separating the parts.  you ought to divide it in several parts, before you put it into your Cauldron to boil, which you must perform thus; first, Artificially bare from the Muscles, the first and second Vertebra of the Neck, on which the whole Head turns, and separate them gently one from another, so that the first Vertebra be still fastened to the Cranium, then Saw off the upper part of the Cranium to take out the Brain, and with a slender piece of Wire a little hooked, strive to extract the Ossicles of the Ears by the Foramen Auditorium, which will be more easily extracted after a little boiling of the Cranium, so that by the use of the aforesaid Wire they will come out; when they are extracted, keep them by themselves till you have occasion to use them. Secondly, separate the last Vertebra of the Back from the first of the Loins, and the Thighs from the Ossa Innominata, and the Arms from the Scapula's, so you have all most movable Parts separated, Thirdly, separate the Clavicle from the Scapula, and also from where it's joined to the first Bone of the Sternon, and put them by themselves, always taking Care by some mark to distinguish the Right side from the Left. Fourthly, divide the Cartilages from the bony Extremities of the Ribs in their very Coalition; then separate every Rib from the Vertebrae of the Thorax, tying them one below another in order, in a piece of Packthread, to distinguish them rightly, observing also always the side they belong to; take Care in separating them, they having a double Insertion, as well with the Bodies of the Vertebrae, as with their transverse Processes. Fifthly, separate every Vertebra of the Neck and Back one from another, hanging them in order on a small Cord, that you be not at a loss in uniting them again when boiled also the Vertebra of the Loins in the same order from the Os Sacrum; and divide the Ossa Coccygis from that, and the Ossa Innominata from the Os Sacrum, so that you may command, and cleanse each in order more commodiously. Sixthly, come to the Limbs, beginning first with the Arms; as for Example, separate the Os Humeri from the Cubitus, and that from the Carpus, which when you come to, take Care in separating the Flesh and Tendons from them, that you may keep them as much as possible in their due places; for which end, I think it will not be amiss to drill two or three holes quite through each rank, in which pass a Wire or two that will hold them in their right Situation, in time of boiling, they have in been before separated from the Bones of the Metacarpus, which four Bones you must also separate from each Finger, making some fitting Marks with Thread, or the like, which sustains one Finger, and which another; and as for the Fingers, put them in the Fingers of a Glove, according to order; so there will be less danger of Confusion; the Leg is to be separated after the same manner as the Arm, always making some distinguishing Character, which belongs to the Right side, and which to the Left.  
Some Bones require a longer time of boiling than others, 
Sternon, will not admit of boiling.  and some will not endure boiling at all, as the Sternon, with it's annexed Cartilages; the large Bones admit of longer boiling than the small; now suppose it be the Skeleton of a young Subject, boil not above an Hour, or an Hour and half at most, lest the Cartilaginous tips of the Bones come away; but in an Adult you may boil longer, the older the Subject is, the longer time is required in boiling; but before you put the long Bones into your boiling Vessel, bore a hole in their Extremities, large enough, according to the bigness of the Bones, that the Medullar Parts may have free exit in boiling; to further which, run up the Bones so drilled, a red hot Wire to and fro, to make a quicker dispatch of the fatty Particles, than cast them into your boiling Water; for it's this fatty Substance only, which in many Skeletons makes them look so muddy and dull; when you think your Bones sufficiently boiled, let them be presently taken out and cleaned one after another, a fast as you can; it's very good to rub the Bones with Mason's Dust, which fetches off the Periostion, and levigates them very well; or you may wash them in boiling Lie made of Ashes, which scours and cleanses them very well; after they are thus cleansed, throw them in clean cold Water, in which let them lie about half a Day, then take them out, and wipe them dry, putting them still in the same order as they were before you boiled them, and observing to make the same marks of distinction; when they are thus dried, place them on the Leads of he House for some Days and Nights, especially when the Dews fall most, but keep them from the violent heat of the Sun, that being apt to make them brittle; by this means they will become as white as Ivory.  
The Sternon, 
The Sternon not to be boiled.  as I have told you, is not to be boiled at all, by reason the Cartilages will shrink, and go out of their true Figure, so that you cannot bring the Cartilages to their true Shape, to be annexed to the ends of the Ribs from whence they were separated, which will make your Skeleton deformed neither will it endure too great a heat in drying, so that you must use very great Caution in preparing it, which you may do thus, After you have Artificially and Neatly separated it, as I have already taken notice of, cleanse it as carefully from the Flesh as you can, then let it dry moderately in the shade, always striving to keep the Cartilages in their true Figure, and now and then picking away what you find of fleshy Particles; when you think you have cleansed it well, rub it all over, especially the Cartilages, with this mixture, made of Wax, Rosin, and Turpentine, used very warm, for so you will hinder them from drying, and growing brittle, which they would be apt to do otherwise, and likewise defend them from the Worm and Moth, as also from Corruption, so keep it whole by you till you have occasion to use it, in making up your Skeleton.  
When your Bones are thus cleaned and dried, 
Method of uniting your Skeleton.  then begin to unite your Bones towards forming your Skeleton. Since the Spine is the prop of all, and the Os Sacrum the Basis of that, you ought to begin with it, as your Shipwrights do in making a Ship, who always begin with the Keel, to which they annex the other parts towards completing the Vessel; the Spine therefore may well be called the Keel of Man's Body, to which the rest of the Bones of the Skeleton are joined.  
First, Therefore prepare a fitting Rod of Steel, so ordered that it may have an Elastic Property, that is, when you bend it, to return to its first Figure of straightness; let it not be too thick, yet strong enough to support all the Vertebrae; for by this means you will have the Spine perform all its motions. It must be a little more than three Foot long, that it may pass through all the Vertebrae, and come out of the top of the Cranium, to hang the whole Skeleton on; it must be smaller towards its top than bottom, by reason the Bones of the Vertebra grow less towards the superior part of the Spine; then Drill a hole in the very Body of the Os Sacrum, through which pass your Steel Wire, which you must Artificially fasten at the lower end of the Os Sacrum, to sustain all the rest, then pass on the same Wire the rest of the five Bones of the Loins, according to their order, holes being Drilled through the very Bodies of all the Vertebra in the very Centre, that they may fit exactly each other; in the same manner pass on the twelve Vertebrae of the Thorax, one by one, to which join the Ribs likewise in order, beginning with the lowest; this unition must be made with Brass Wire, as well to the Bodies of each Vertebra as transverse Processes, then pass on the Steel Wire to the Vertebrae of the Neck in their order, except the last, which is called the Atlas, which must be joined to the Condiloid Processes of the Occipital Bone, by two fitting Brass Wires, so that the Head may have its due flexion and extension; this being done pass the Steel Rod through the Medullar Foramen of the Atlas, into the very Capacity of the Cranium, to pass through a hole Drilled on the top, that the Head and Spine may hang regular, so the Head will have its Circular motion, as well as flexion and extension, that being performed by the first and second Vertebra of the Neck, as this by the first only, being joined by a double Arthrodia to the Os Occipitis; when you have so done, unite the lower Jaw by its Condiloid Processes into the Glenoid Sinusses of the Ossa Petrosa; then fasten the Teeth in their proper Alveoli, with a preparation of Rosin and Wax; then in its place hang the Os Hyoides, also at the outward part of the Foramina Auditoria hang the Officles of the Ear in order; when you have done this, fasten the Sternon and its Cartilages to the Ribs, holes being Artificially Drilled through their Extremities, to fasten them with Brass Wire; then fasten the Clavicula to the Sternon, to which unite the Scapula, which is not only to be fastened with its Acromium to the Clavicula, but also to the Body of the Ribs, to which its flat side lies on, then pass to the inferior part of the Spine, and fasten strongly the Ossa Innominata to the sides of the Os Sacrum, so as to be joined even before at the Ossa Pubis, which must be joined together with Wires, so the Pelvis, will be formed, and to the Extremity of the Os Sacrum, fasten the Ossa Coccygis, and so you will have the Trunk with the Head extraordinary well fitted.  
Then pass to the Limbs; first take the Os Humeri, to whose lower Extremity unite the Vlna by two Hooks, one fitly adapted to receive the other, which Hooks must be fastened one in the Extremity of each Bone, so as the Bones sit close one to another, for which end you may hollow a little the Extremity of the Humerus with a Graver, to make the Junctures the closer; then to the side of the Ulna fasten the Radius, so that it may have its Prone and Supine motion, which may be done thus, Encompass its Neck pretty close with a Ring of Brass Wire, (after the same manner as the Ligamentum Admirabile doth, which comes from the Ulna) which you must fasten in the lateral Sinus of the Head of the Ulnae; then adapt fitly, and in their due order, the Bones of the Carpus, and they having but little, or very obscure motion, you may only fasten them by their sides with Brass Wire, holes being first Drilled through their very middle, also fasten the first rank to the other according to Art; when the Carpus is thus formed, unite the Bones of the Metacarp to them in their due order; for which end, you must have four little Brass Hooks, fitted close in the Bones of the Carpus, to receive in order four other little Hooks, one in each Bone of the Metacarp, to be engaged in the four first Hooks, fasten them so as the Bones may touch close, and yet at the same time, the Juncture to have its proper motions; also fasten the sides of the Metacarp one to another with a piece of Brass Wire, yet so as the proper distance be kept where it ought; then fasten the first Phalanx of the Bones of the Fingers to the Metacarpus, than the second, and then the third, all in their due place, which must be fastened with fitting Hooks, as in the Bones of the Metacarp with the Carpus; lastly, join the Carpus to the Radius and Vlna, so that it may have its proper motions: When you have thus finished the whole Limb, then fasten it to the Trunk, but so as you may take it off when you please, which may be done by only fastening a Hook on the very Head of the Os Humerus, just where its Ligament is, which is to be hung on a curved Brass Wire, which must be fastened in the Cavity of the Scapula; the lower Extremity must be managed after the same manner, observing fitting Circumstances, which must be also made to take off and on, as occasion requires.  
I only designed this Appendix as a hint towards the forming of a Skeleton, which cannot be so well expressed by Writing, as by often Working, and seeing it done.  
FINIS.   

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A Treatise of the Gout, wherein both its Cause and Cure are demonstrably made appear. To which are added some Medicinal Observations concerning the Cure of Fevers, etc. by the Means of Acids. By John Colbatch, Physician, a Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London.  
Officina Chymica Londinensis. Sive exacta notitia Medicamentorum Spagyricorum, quae apud Aulum Societatis Pharmaceutiae Londin. Praeparantur, & Venalia prostant. Consilio Pharmacopoeorum, & Approbatione Collegii Medicorum Londinensium exhibitum. Opera & Study Nicolai Staphorst, Oper▪ chym dict. 〈…〉.  
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Curiosities in Chemistry: Being new Experiments and Observations concerning the Principles of Natural Bodies. Written by a Person of Honour, and Published by his Operator, H. G.  
Secrets of the Famous Lazarus Reverius, Counsellor and Physician to the French King, and Professor of Physic in the University of Montpelier.