Bartholinus Anatomy; MADE From the Precepts of his Father, And from the Observations of all Modern Anatomists, together with his own. With one hundred fifty and three Figures cut in Brass, much larger and better than any have been heretofore Printed in English. IN FOUR BOOKS AND FOUR MANUALS, Answering to the said BOOKS. 

Book I. Of the Lower Belly.  
Book II. Of the Middle Venture or Cavity.  
Book III. Of the uppermost Cavities, Viz. The Head.  
Book IV. Of the Limbs.   The Four Manuals Answering to the four foregoing Books. 

Manual I. Of the Veins, Answering to the First Book of the Lower Belly.  
Manual II. Of the Arteries, Answering to the Second Book of the Middle Cavity or Chest.  
Manual III. Of the Nerves, Answering to the Third Book of the Head.  
Manual IU. Of the Bones, Answering to the Fourth Book of the Limbs.   Als Two Epistles of the Circulation of the Blood.  
Published By Nich. Culpeper Gent. And, Abdiah Cole Doctor of Physic.  
London, Printed by John Streater living in Clerken-well-Close 1668.   

Books newly Imprinted, or Imprniting.  

1. RIverius Practice of Physic and Observations.  
2. Bartholinus An atomy with large Brass figures.  
3. Vestingus Anato my of the Body of Man.  
4. Riolanus Anatomy.  
5. The London Dispensatory in English.  
6. A Directory for Midwives, or a Guide for Women, the first and second part, newly enlarged and illustrated with Plights.  
7. A Treatise of the Rickets.  
8. Medicam ents for the Poor, or Physic for the Common people.  
9 Health for the Rich and Poor, by Diet without Physic.  
10. The English Physician enlarged.  
11. Oriatrike or Physic refined. The Common errors therein refuted, and the whole Art reform, written by the acute Philosopher Baptista Van Helmont.  
12. The Hidden Treasures of the Art of Physic fully discovered in 4 Books. The second Edition with Additions, By John Tanner Student in Physic and Astrology.  
13. Mathematical Collections and Translations from the Original Copies of Galilaeus and other famous Modern Authors. By Tho. Salisbury Esquire.   
To be sold by Geo. Sawbridge at his house on Clerkenwell-Green.   

The Introduction.  
ANthropologia or the Doctrine of Man's Nature, is, though commonly, yet rightly divided into two Parts: Anatomia which treats of the Body and its Parts; and Psychologia, which treats of the Soul.  
Anatomia therefore [more rightly called Anatomy, that is Section, which Sr. Ignatius reckons as a kind of Martyrdom, Caelius terms Apertio an opening, and Tertulianus Prosectio a cutting up, whence the term Prosector, a Cutter up] that I may come to that which is my business; in as much as it is a part of Natural Philosophy [for 
The Subject of Anatomy.  Medicinal Anatomy how ever useful and of which Galen treats in his Anatomical Administration, we must leave to Physicians] hath for its Subject the Body of any Animal or Livewight whatsoever, whether frequenting the Land or or Waters, flying in the Air, etc. and not only the Body of Man. But we are wont most of all to search into the structure of Man's Body. 1. Because of the great Perfection thereof, which 
Why Anatomy treats chiefly of the Body of Man.  is the Rule of Imperfection. 2. Because the sundry sorts of Animals are almost infinite, so that to dissect and search into all of them, the life of man in this Age of the World is not sufficient. 3. Because of the incredible profit which thereby redounds to every man, who desires perfectly to know himself, and this House of his earthy Tabernacle, both the better to preserve Health and to cure Diseases: Nor can any man be a Natural Philosopher or deserve so to be called, unless he have the Doctrine of Anatomy at his finger's end, above all other Parts of Natural Philosophy. Yet is not the Dissection of other Creatures therefore unprofitable, or to be 
The Dissection of other Animals is useful to an Anatomist and why?  neglected by an Anatomist, partly by reason of the Analogy and Correspondence they hold with the Body of Man, partly to attain to the Knowledge of the Motions of Living Creatures, and partly, to conclude, for the Exercise of an Anatomist and Surgeon. Democritus sought the Seat and Nature of Choler in Living Creatures. After him Galen dissected Apes and other Living Creatures, as also Severinus, Aldrovandus, Castellus, Br●nzerus, Panarolus and myself have cut up divers Living Creatures. By the cutting up of Creatures alive Asellius found out the Ven● lacteae ●● milky Veins, and Harvey and Walaeus found the motion of the Blood.  
Moreover, because in regard of the vari●● of its Actions, the Body of Man does not consist of one part all alike, but of sundry; therefore we must know that the whole Body is divided 
The division of the whole Body of Man. ●  into Parts containing, Parts contained, and Parts moving, according to the ancient Doctrine of Hypocrates: that is to say, into solid Parts, Humours and Spirits. And in this large acceptation, all things are called Parts which make up and complete the Body, even the Nails, Hairs, Fat and Marrow. But stricctly and properly that is called a Pa●● which partakes of the form, and life of the whole, and such the Anatomists accounts 〈…〉 solist Parts, And therefore ●…lius hath well defined a Part to be A Body 〈◊〉 to the whole, partaking of the common Life 〈…〉 ●…ted for the performance of some Functions or Use. But Galen accounts that a Part, 
What a Part is?  which is a B●…●● some sort joined to the whole, and hath in part its own proper Circumsc●●● 〈…〉 part is properly;  

1. Tha● 〈…〉 is 〈…〉 but does not nourish any other Part. And so they exclude the S●… H●…. 〈…〉 also t●● Fa●, which sometimes nourishes the Parts, and the 
What is the proper acceptation of the wor● Part.  Marrow of the Bone▪ 〈…〉.  
2. That which is solid.  
3. Which hath a proper Circumscription of its own. The contrary whereof is in fat, which is terminated by the figure of the Parts adjacent.  
4. Which is continued with the whole, Mathematically and Physically, both in respect of the Matter and Form jointly considered.  
5. Which is fitted for some Function or Use. And so Warts and Swellings, with other things which grow upon the living Body praeternaturally, are excluded.   
And that we may understand what is meant by Function and Use, I shall briefly open the same. An Action or Function may be either private or public. The private Action is that whereby the Parts provide for themselves; the public is that whereby they provide for the 
What is meant by the Action of a Part.  whole live Creature. A public Action as it is opposed to use, is the Action of the principal Part of an Organ which performs the whole Action. For every Action in the Body of a livewight, hath according to Galen, a peculiar Particle, by which it is performed. For Examples sake; The Skin hath of itself a private Action, such as the Attraction and Retention of Nourishment etc. it hath also a public action for the behoof of the whole Animal, viz. the discerning of the tangible Qualities, such as are perceived by the Sense of Feeling. So the action of the Liver●●…od-making, of the Stones, Seed-making; of the Dugs Milk-making.  
But the ●●●e, is that help which the less principal Parts afford the more principal, in the performance 
What by the ●●●.  ●● their Actions, which according to Galen is in all Parts, yea even in those which have no action at all. It springs chiefly from three Fountains, and they are,  

1. The proper Temper of the Part, that is to say the Symmetry or even proportion of the fir●t Qualities. For Examples sake, The Skin is in respect of the first Qualities temperate; and if you ask wherefore, I answer, that it may be able to discern and judge of all tangible Qualities.  
2. Such things as follows the Temper, and they are the second Qualities: Hardness, Softness, Thickness Thinness, Compactness, Rarity, etc.  
3. Necessary Adjuncts, as Magnitude, Number, Passages or Cavities, Figure, Conformation, Connexion, Situation, Surface. But I, in these Institutions, for the conveniency of Learners, shall, with other Anatomists, seldom observe this accurate difference between Action and Use▪ especially, that I may avoid the tedious repetition of sundry things.   
But before I proceed to the Division and Differences of Parts, I shall briefly resolve this question, 
Which Part of the Body is first generated.  Which Part of the Body is first generated. We must therefore know, that according to Hypocrates, all the Parts are form and differenced at one and the same time, as in a Circle, there is neither beginning nor end, but altogether are both beginning and end. But all the Parts are not perfected and adorned at one and the same time; but in the first place the Navil-vein. 2. The Liver. 3. Afterwards the Heart (which Aristotle would have to be first made, as Galen would have the Liver to be) and last the brain. The Navil-vein therefore, is first finished and perfected, in regard of the enlargement thereof by the blood, but not in respect of its first Constitution of the Seed. But others said that the Groundwork or underwarpe of the Parts is Seed, and the Woof or Superstructure blood, supposing that there are two material Principles of the body: Seed and blood. Which Opinion I have refuted and sufficiently explained in my Anatomical Controversies, Quaest. 11. touching the Parts and their Faculties and Functions.  
And therefore the Vessels are said in respect of Perfection to be generated before the bowels, 
Why the Vessels were to be made before the Bowels.  and that justly. For otherwise the bowels could not be nourished without a proportionable Instrument to that end, namely a Vein, by which the blood is conveyed for their Nutriment. For as out of a Kernel or Seed put into the Earth, first a long Root descends into the Earth, after that other Roots spread themselves round about the Surface of the Earth, out of which afterwards, the Trunk and branches spring up; so out of the Seed committed to the Womb, there arises first the Navil-vein, receiving blood out of the Womb-cake; out of which Navil-vein arises the Vena Portae, with its Roots.  
Let us now come to the Division or Differences of the Parts, which may be divers.  
Taking the word in a large Sense, some divide them into parts of Necessity, as the Heart, Liver, 
Division of the Parts.  Lungs, Stomach; and Parts of Commodity, and that either great as the Eyes and Stones, or less as the Nails; and parts of Ornament, as the Hairs of the Head and Beard.  
But I shall divide the Parts, chiefly in respect of their End, or in respect of their Matter. 
In respect of their End.▪ The principal Parts.   
In respect of the worthiness of the End, some are Principal, others less principal and 〈…〉.  
The Principal are the Liver, Heart, Brain, which are the Principles of other Parts. As, out of the brain arise the Nerves, according to the common Opinion, out of the Heart, the Arteries, out of the Liver, the Veins. Others add the Testicles, but without any need, because they make nothing to the Conservation of the Individual, ●and Generation is caused without them, as I shall show by Examples in the 7. Book Chap. 22.  
Now we do not mean the beginning of Radication or Original; for so, the Seed is the beginning 
The Beginning or principle of Radication. The Original of Dispensation. Parts subservient or ministering.  of all the Parts, but of Dispensation and Distribution; that is such a beginning as sends out of itself some Instrument, Force or common Matter. So from the Heart, as the beginning or Original of Dispensation, the Arteries arise, because they receive their Virtue from the heart. and seem there to have their Original. The same may be said of the Veins and Nerves in respect of their Originals. So the Gristles have their Original from the bones, and also the Ligaments.  
The Subservient Parts are necessary or not necessary.  
The Necessary are those without which the Animal cann●● 〈…〉 cannot live well. So the Lungs serve the Heart, the Guts the Stomach; the Stoma●…●aver and Spleen; the Gallbladder, Choler-passage and Piss-bladder, serve the Liver; and all the Instruments of the Senses serve the brain.  
The Not-necessary, as simple flesh, etc. in respect of other Parts: for in consumptive persons ●is wasted away, and in fleshy persons 'tis a burden, and in sects according to Aristotle have no Flesh. 
In respect of their Matter. A similar part what it is, and how manifold.   
In respect of their immediate Matter, some are simple, Homogeneal or Similary; others Compound Heterogeneal, or dissimilary.  
A Similar Part, is that which is divided into Parts like itself, so that all the Particles are of the same Substance with the whole, as every part of flesh is flesh, etc.  
Of such similar Parts, some reckons more, others fewer.  
Aristotle in sundry places, thus reckons them: Blood, Phlegm, Choler, Sanies or blood-water, Milk, Seed, Gall, Fat, Marrow, Flesh, Veins, Arteries, Nerves, Fibres, Membranes, Skin, Bones, Gristles, Hairs, Nails, Horns, Feathers.  
Averro omits some of these, and adds Melancholy, Spirits, Muscles, Cords, Ligaments, Suet.  
Galen in sundry places, thus reckons them: A Bone, a Gristle, a Vein, an Artery, a Nerve, a Membrane, a Fiber, a Tendon, a Ligament, a Nail, Skin, Fat, Marrow, the Glassy and Crystalline Humours, the flesh of the Muscles and bowels, with the proper substance of the brain, Stomach, Guts and Womb.  
Archangelus retains all the aforesaid, and adds three sorts of Spirits, four Alimentary humours, and the Excrementitious humours, as Urinal in the Bladder, Choler in the Gallbladder, Excrementitious Phlegm, and all the Excrements of all digestions, the Scarf-skin, and the internal Skin of ●● 〈…〉 Cavities. Moreover ●e adds to these, seventeen similar parts, not commonly reckoned, viz. the proper substance (setting aside the other similar parts, Veins, Arteries, etc.) of the Brain, Tongue, Lungs, Heart, Liver, Gallbladder, Spleen, Stomach, Guts, Kidneys, Ureters, Piss-bladder, Womb, Yard, Stones, Muscles, Kernels. But it is in Vain for him to reckon these parts as new: for all in a manner are comprehended under Flesh. For according to Hypocrates and Galen, there is a flesh of the Muscles, and a flesh of the Bowels, and a flesh of the Glandules or Kernels. But in another place Galen propounds a threefold flesh. 1. In a Muscle, which the Ancients did only call Flesh. 2. The Parenchyma, or proper substance of the Liver, Heart, Kidneys, etc. 3. In the Stomach, Bladder, Veins. 4. In the Bones, though improperly.  
Whence we may gather four sorts of Flesh. 1. Musculous flesh, which Galen frequently 
How many sorts of Flesh there are?  terms Fibrous flesh, and it is soft and red and properly termed flesh. And in Hypocrates his Language, by flesh many times is meant the Muscles. 2. Viscerous flesh or the flesh of the Bowels. Erasistratus calls it Parenchyma or an Affusion of blood; Galen calls it Similar and simple flesh, which supports the Vessels of the bowels, fills up the empty spaces, and performs the Action. 3. Membranous flesh, or the fleshy substance of every Membranous part, as in the Gullet, Stomach, Guts, Womb, bladder. 4. Glandulous flesh, or the flesh of Kernels, which serves. 1. For to support the divisions of Vessels. 2. To drink up superfluous humours, especially wheyish humours, because the Kernels are of an hollow Spongy substance; and therefore they are vulgarly termed Emunctories or Clensers. Those in the Neck being counted Clensers of the Head; those in the Armpits, of the Heart; those in the groins of the Liver. 3. To moisten the parts for their more easy motion, or otherwise to prohibit dryness. Such are those which are situate by the Tongue, Larynx, Eye-corners, etc.  
But the similar parts are reckoned to be ten: A bone, a Gristle, a Ligament, a Membrane, a 
The Number of the Similar Parts.  Fiber, a Nerve, an Artery, a Vein, Flesh and Skin.  
Of these some are similar only in the judgement of Sense, as Veins, Arteries (some add Muscles) others are simply and absolutely similar. That Veins, Arteries, Nerves, Muscles are not truly simple and similar, hath been rightly taught by Aristotle: for a Muscle consists of Flesh, Fibres, and a Tendon: Nerves are made up of the Dura and pia Mater, with Marrow: Arteries, of two different coats; the Veins of a coat (and of Fibres as some will have it) and Valves. Simply and truly similar parts are Bones, Gristles, Ligaments, Membranes, Fibres, Flesh and Skin. To these some add the Ureters, the Air implanted in the Ear, etc. but in vain. For, 1. They are not parts common ●● the whole body, but proper to some parts. 2. The implanted Air of the Ears, is nothing but an implanted spirit, which cannot be reckoned among solid parts.  
Here we are to observe that all these parts are commonly divided, into Spermatical, Sanguine, or mixed.  
The Spermatical are made of seed, and such are the eight first reckoned; which if they are cut 
What a Spermatical Part is?  asunder, they breed not again, nor can they be truly united, but they are joined together by a Callus in the middle, by reason of defect of matter and formative faculty, which acts not after the Conformation of the Parts.  
The Sanguine or fleshy Parts, contrariwise are bred again, because they are supposed to be 
What a Sanguine Part.  made of Blood, as the Flesh.  
A mixed Part is the Skin, of which we shall treat hereafter, in Book 1. Chap. 2.  
For feed and blood are commonly accounted the two general Principles of which we are made: so that in the Seed there is very little of the material principle, but much of the active, but in the blood much of the material principle, and but a little and weak portion of the active or effective principle. The first Rudiments and underwrap as it were of the parts, are said to be made of Seed; and the woof or superstructure of blood flowing in. But what the Truth is in Contradiction to this vulgar opinion, we have taught in our Anatomical Controversies. For we are rather to hold, that the parts are at first made only of Seed, as of their matter; and that the Mother's blood doth nourish, and increase and amplify the Parts. The Skin in comparison to other Parts, hath an indifferent proportion of Seed, not so much as the Spermatical, nor so little as the Sanguinary parts.  
The Compound or dissimilar Parts are, those which may be divided into divers unlike parts, 
What a dissimilar part is?  as an Hand cannot be cut into other Hands, but into Bones, Muscles, Veins, etc. The dissimilar parts are by the Philosopher called Members: but they are vulgarly termed Organical or instrumental parts.  
Now in every Organ, there are for the most part, four kinds of parts. For example sake, 
Organical parts.  in the Eye there is, 1. That part by which the action, viz. Seeing is performed, namely the Crystalline Humour. 2. That without which it cannot be performed, as the Optic Nerve. 3. That by which it is the better performed, as the Coats and Muscles of the Eyes. 4. That by which the action is preserved, as the Eyelids, etc.  
And because the Dissimilar parts are more or less Compounded, they are divided into four degrees or ranks.  
The 1. Is such as are similar to the sense, as a Muscle, Vein, Artery. The 2. Is made of the former and the rest of the similars, as a Finger. The 3. is compounded of the second, as an Hand, Foot, etc. The 4. Is compounded of the third, as an Arm or Leg.  
Finally the Body is divided into its greatest Members, as by some into the Head, Chest, Belly 
con●… a vision ●●  and Bladder; by others as Aristotle, Ruffus a 〈…〉 Oribasius into the Head, Neck, Chest (under they comprehend the lower Belly) and therefore Hypocrates placed the Liver in the Chest] the Arms and the Legs. But others have better divided them into the Bellies and Limbs.  
The Bellies are certain remarkable Cavities of the Body, wherein some noble bowel is placed: and as there are three principal Members, so are there three Bellies: the lowest belly, commonly called Abdomen or the Paunch, contains the Liver and Natural parts. The Middle or Chest, contains the Heart and vital parts. The uppermost or Head contains the brain and Animal parts. The Limbs which were given us for more conveniency of living, are the Arms and the Legs.  
And therefore we shall make four books: 1. Of the Lower belly. 2. Of the Middle belly. 
This whole Work divided into four Books and four Petty Books or Manuals.  3, Of the supreme belly or Cavity, the Head. 4. Of the Limbs. And to these shall answer four Petty Books: The first of the Veins which arise from the Liver in the lower Cavity. The second of the Arteries which arise from the Heart, in the middle Cavity. The third of the Nerves, which are commonly thought to spring from the brain. The fourth of the bones, which are most what in the Limbs: and as the bones joined together make a complete frame and bodies as it were; so also do the Veins, Arteries, and Nerves.  
We may find another division of the body in Fernelius, which nevertheless is of no use save 
The division of the Body according to the Regions.  in Physic. He divides the body into pulplike Regions and Private.  
Private Regions he calls the brain, Lungs, Kidneys, Womb, etc. Public or common he makes three extended through the whole body. 1. Hath the Vena porta, and all the parts whereinto its branches are spread. 2. Begins at the Roots of Vena Cava, and is terminated in the small Veins, before they become Capillary. 3. Hath the Muscles, Bones, and Bulk of the body and ends in the Skin.  
We purge the first Region chiefly by the Guts; The second by the Urinary passages; The third by the Pores of the Skin.  
The I. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
This TABLE holds forth the Pourtraicture of a Living Man, wherein both the external parts of the Abdomen, as all the Conspicuous Veins which are wont to be opened by Surgeons, and the places where Issues are wont to be made, are Represented.  


A. The Hypochondrium.  
B. The Epigastrium.  
CC. The Hypogastrium.  
D. The Flanks.  
EE. The Groins.  
F. The Region of the Share.  
G. The Navel.  
H. The Heart-pit.  
I. The jugulum or hollow of the Throat.  
K. The Forehead Vein.  
L. The Temple Veins.  
M. The jugular Vein.  
N. The Cephalica Vena.  
O. The Basilica Vena.  
P. The Mediana or common Vein.  
Q. The Head vein of the left Arm.  
R. The Salvatella.  
SSSS. The Saph●na Vein descending.  
T. The Saphaena Vein in the Foot itself.  
V. The 〈…〉 Sciatica.  
XX 〈…〉 of Issues in 〈…〉 in the Thigh.    
before page 1.   

THE FIRST BOOK; OF THE Lower Belly.  
ACcording to the Method 
The Reason of the Order. Why Dissection is begun in the lower Belly.  of Anatomy, this belly or cavity comes in the first place, and is first of all dissected that the Guts and Excrements may be the sooner removed, and the Body preserved from putrefaction.  
It is all that, which is distinguished, within, from the Chest by the Midrif; it 
What the lower Belly is.  is circumscribed by the sword-like Gristle, the Share bones, Hip-bones, Os Sacrum, the Vertebrae of the Loins, and the bastard Ribs on either side.  
The former part thereof is called Epigastrium, 
The Parts of the lower Belly, and their Names.  which compasses the stomach and guts next unto it. The Arabians call it Mirath, which generally is used for the Belly, but in a particular sense it is taken for those wrinkles of the belly, which remain after childbearing, and for the skin gathered together upon the belly, as Giggejus informs us.  
And the upper part hereof is termed Hypochondrium, neighbouring upon the lower gristles of the Ribs, and it is right or left: some term them Phrenes and Praecordia.  
The middle Region is termed Regio umbilicalis, whose lateral parts Aristotle calls Lagonas by reason of their Laxity, and Galen, Cenen●nas from their emptyness.  
The lower part which reaches from the Navel to the Share, is termed Hypogastrium, by Hypocrates, Galen, Ruffus, Pollux; the Latins term it Imus venture and Aqualiculus. The lateral parts thereof, are termed Ilia, and in the bending of the thigh by the Share Inguina the groins; and that part next over the Privities, which is covered with Down or Hair, is called P●bes the Share.  
The hinder part of the lower Belly, is either the upper, which makes the Loins; or the lower, which makes the Buttocks.  
Moreover this Belly consists of parts covering and covered, that is to say External and Internal.  
The covering or Containing parts (which they properly call Abdomen) are either common, as the Scarf-skin, the Skin, the Fat with its Membrane, the fleshy Pannicle, and the Coat proper to every Muscle; or proper, and they are the Muscles of the Abdomen, 〈…〉 the Peritonaeum.  
The inner or contained parts, do serve 
All the Parts which a●e to be examined in this Book.  either for Nutrition or Procreation.  
For Nutrition or making of Chyle, are subservient more or less, the Stomach, the Caul, the Sweetbread, the Guts with the Mesentery: to the making of Blood, are subservient more or less, the Meseraick Veins, the Venae portae with their Roots, the Cava with its Roots, the Liver, the Gallbladder, the Gall-passage, the Spleen with the Vas breve, and the Haemorrhoides, the Arteria Caeliaca the Kidneys, the Capsulae Atrabiliariae or black choler boxes, the Ureters and the Piss bladder.  
Those which serve for Generation, are either Masculine or Female: the Masculine are, the Spermatick Vessels, the Corpora Varicosa or Parastatae, the Stones, the carrying Vessels, the Prostratae, the Seminary bladders, the Yard, etc. The Female are, the Spermatick Vessels, the Corpus Varicosum, the Testicles, the Ejaculatory Vessels, the Womb with its parts, etc.  
But when a Man is in the Womb, there are yet other things considerable, as the Navil-vessels, the coats which enfold the Child, etc. of which in their place.  

CHAP. I. Of the Scarf-Skin.  
THe Cuticula or Scarf-skin, in Greek 
The Scarf-skin.  Epidormis, is by some called the highest or last skin, also the cream of the skin, the cover of the skin, etc. It is a 
What it is.  thin skin void of life and sense, close-compacted, bloodless; bred of Oily, sleek and clammy vapours thickened by the external cold, that it might be a cover to the skin.  
The Matter of which the Scarf-skin 
Whether the Scarf-skin be made of seed?  is made, is not seed. For 1. It is no part of the Body. 2. It is not nourished. 3 A Spermatical part taken away breeds not again; but the scarf-skin is easily lost by rubbing and wearing, or being raised into blisters, by burning with Fire or scalding Water, etc.  
Nor is the matter thereof Blood, For 
Or of Blood?  1. All Veins do end at or within the skin. 2. It hath no spermatical Fibres, whi●●●asis of all sanguine parts. 3. In long ●a●tin and Consumptions, it many times grows thick. 4. Being cut or torn, it sends forth no Blood. 5. It is not of a red colour, etc.  
Nor are the Excrements of any Digestion, the matter thereof. Not the 
Or of the Excrement of concoction.  Excrements of the first or second digestion; for how should it be made of Dung, Urinal or Gall? Nor the Excrements of the third, For the third Digestion or Concoction hath a threefold Excrement. 1. Vaporous and thin which Expires. 2. Thin, but more solid than the former, of a waterish substance, such as are Ichors and Wheyish humours, which by their sharpness and Acrimony, would sooner hinder the Generation of the Scarf-skin, or corrode the same after it is generated. 3. Thick, Clammy, and sticking fast, which Archangelus and Laurentius, do 
Laurentius and Archangelus confuted.  suppose to be dried and turned into the Scarf-skin, and they demonstrate the same from the filth which is, in bathing, scraped from the fools of the Feet. And if their opinion were true, the Scarf-skin would come off in Baths.  
And therefore the matter thereof is another Excrement, viz. an Oily, 
The true matter of the Scarf-skin.  Thick, Clammy, and moist vapour (for of dry Exhalations the Hair is made) proceeding from the Skin and Members under the same. So we see in a Skillet of Water-gruel, a Skin grows over the top of the Gruel, being mad, of the vapours thereout ascending, condensed by cold.  
Now the Scarf-skin is bred, partly in the womb with the Skin, and partly without the Womb. Within, For 1. So there are the rudiments and beginnings of Hair, Teeth, Nails in the Child in the Womb, 2. Without the Scarf-skin, the skin would be moist, and the Humour would sweat out with pain, as in gallings and where Phoenigmi are applied. 3. Experience shows, that the Scarf-skin is somewhat apparent in an Abortion, and may be separated by some fretting Humidity. But whiles the Child is in the Womb, it is exceeding tender, soft, and but as yet begun to be made: because there is not in the Womb so much cold, only a small degree springing from the serous humour which surrounds the Child. But it receives its Compliment and perfection without the Womb, from the coldness of the Air, which doth more condense and dry, which is the Cause that the skin of all Newborn Infants looks red.  
Wherefore the remote and internal Efficient thereof is in the inward heat of the 
The Efficient Cause thereof.  Body, thrusting forth a vapour into the surface thereof, as Exhalations are made by the sun's heat. The next and external, is the coldness of somebody, as the Air, etc. compacting, and thickening. So Gruel, Hot milk, and other hot dishes of meat, have a skin growing over them: sometimes also the dryness of the Ambient Air, consuming the external humour, and compacting the remainders of the matter. Now by how much the said vapour is more Earthy and Clammy, by so much more solid is that which is bred thereof.  
The Use thereof is to defend the Skin. And therefore 'tis somewhat hard, howbeit exceeding thin 
Use.  and yet transparent, like the transparent skins of Onions; lest if it were thicker, the skin should not feel 〈…〉 it is sometimes bard and brawny, in the Hands 〈…〉 by reason 〈…〉 of Labour and Travel.  
〈…〉 ●●d more compact than 〈…〉 And therefore it is that watery pustules pass through the Skin but not the Scarf-skin. Yet not over close and compact, lest it should hinder the body's transpiration And it is close wrought, not only to defend the parts under it but that also too great an efflux of Vapour, Blood, Spirit and heat might not happen. For it is the cover of the Mouths and extremities of the Vessels. And therefore those cannot live in good health that are born without a Scarf-skin; as was seen in jews the King of Bohemia and Hungaria, who became grey haired while he was but a Boy.  
It is of a white colour, and therefore of a 
The colour of the Scarf-skin.  cold and dry temper and quite void of Blood, For being torn or cut, it sends forth no Blood. Nor is it nourished by Blood, as Lauremberg and Sperlinger would have it; for it is not intrinfically nourished by attraction of its proper Aliment; but by addition of parts▪ the vapour growing into the like nature of the Scarf-skin, as Casserus rightly disputes, The Scarf-skin is black in Blackmores, but not the skin beneath it.  
As for number: there is but one Scarf-skin; 
It's number.  only there was once two found by Aquapendent: the one being strongly fastened in the pores of the skin, and inseparable: the other separable without offence to the skin. Which happens in some only, not in all parts of the Body. Also Laurembergius, in applying Vesicatories, found the Scarf-skin double; but that is a rare case, for that Vesicatories do peitce unto the skin is apparent from the humour dropping out, and the pain. In brawny Callosities, indeed there are many little skins, as it were the skins of Onions; but they are besides nature, whose Generation and cure is delivered by Fallopius.  
In point of Connexion, it sticks so 
It's Connexion.  close to the Skin of a man, while he is alive, as if it were one continued body therewith. Yet many times it is cast off as snakes and serpents cast their skins, which Felix Platerus tells us did happen to himself; and which happens in burning Fevers and the small Pox. Salmuth observed as much in some Gouty persons, in an Ague, and some other cases. In dead persons 'tis separated by a Candle, or scalding Water: in living Bodies with Phoenigmi. In the Nut of the Yard, it sticks not to the skin, but to the flesh.   

CHAP. II. Of the Skin.  
CVtis, the skin, is in Greek called Derma, 
What the Skin is?  as it were Desma a band; it is the common covering of the Body; or a Temperate Membrane bred of the seed by a proper faculty, to be the Instrument of feeling, and to defend the parts beneath it.  
It is called a Membrane, which must not be understood simply, but so as to be a Membrane of a peculiar nature and proper temperament. And therefore Piccolhomineus was mistaken 
Piccolhomine ●s refuted.  when he would have the skin to be simply a Membrane; for the skin is thicker, hath a substance proper to itself, and is temperate.  
But the opinion of others is, that the matter hereof is Seed and Blood well mixed together, so that the skin hath a middle nature between Flesh 〈…〉 Nerves. And therefore Galen 
Galens Opinion touching▪ the matter of the skin.  〈…〉 that it is as it 〈…〉 a Nerve endued with blood: he says not simply, but as it were. For he also likens it to a Membrane, because in some parts it may be extended, feels tightly, and is white.  
Aristotle would have the skin to consist of flesh dried and grown old as it were. But 
Aristotle's Opinion.  the skin is easily flaid from the parts under it, and between the flesh and skin there is fat, a Membrane, etc. to which Opinion Fernelius inclined, when he said that the skin of the Face was a certain more dry portion of the flesh beneath it. Wherein he also is to be blamed, Because 1. It may be separated from the flesh. 2. It will admit of Scars as the skin in other places.  
Others say it is made of the Extremities of the Vessels widened, because it 
The Opinion of others.  every where lives and feels, and the extremities of the Vessels end thereinto: but this may be said of all the parts of the Body.  
Others, of the softer Nerves spread out in the surface of the Body, an addition of blood concurring: but this Opinion is of no more force than the formet.  
The skin therefore is made of Seed taken in a moderate quantity: and for 
The true matter of the skin.  its enlargement, it had a moderate quantity of blood; but seed seems to hold the greater proportion. For the skin is naturally whitish; though it varies according to the plenty of humours and Bodies beneath it. For such as the Humour is, such will be the colour of the skin. So Sanguine persons have it ruddy; those that are Jaundized, have it yellow or black. Examples whereof see in Marcellus Donatus and others. If flesh lie beneath it, the redder it is, if fat the whiter.  
It is in respect to the seed, that Authors say, the skin grows not together 
AScar, what it is?  again after it is wounded. In respect of the blood, there is somewhat like the skin produced, viz. a Scar: Which consists as it were of burnt and dried flesh. Howbeit in Children, by reason of the moisture of their skin, as also the abundance of glutinous humours, a wound hath been observed to be closed up with true skin; Witness Spigelius.  
Wherefore the skin being made as it were of a Membranous, cold and dry, and of a fleshy, hot and moist substance; becomes temperate in all the first and second qualities, that it may rightly judge of all.  
The Efficient Cause of the skin, is the Skin-generating faculty; as in a bone 
The efficient cause of the skin.  the Bone-generating faculty, in a Nerve the Nerve-forming power or faculty, etc. which faculty frames a part differing from all other similar parts. But how doth the faculty make of the same Seminal matter Nerves, Bones, etc. by an hidden and divine power as it were.  
The public Action of the skin, and which is necessary for the whole Living-Creature 
The Action of the skin.  is, to be the primary Instrument of the sense of feeling, for every Membrane is the Adequate Organ, as may be seen in the Bones, Nerves, Stomach, etc. For though all the Organs of the senses are dissimilar parts, yet one similar part is the primary cause of the action, which is to be performed by the whole Organ. For example's sake, the hand is indeed the Organ of feeling, and especially that part of the skin, which covers the hollow of the Hands and Feet, as being of all other most temperate. And because the skin is temperate in the first qualities; it is therefore also temperate in the second, as 〈…〉 hardness, thickness, thinness, & 〈…〉.  
The first use of the Skin is, to be a Covering 
It's Use.  for the Body, and therefore it hath received a Figure so round, long, etc. as the subject parts required; and therefore also it is seared without the Body, and because it was to be as it were the Emunctory of the Body. The professors of Physiognomy commend unto us another use of the skin, as it is streaked with lines; who are wont to tell men's Fortunes from the Lines and Hillocks in their Hands, and from the Planetary and Adventitious Lines in their Foreheads. A third use is Medicinal, being good for Anodin● Emplasters. Being dried, it helps women in Labour; Epileptic Convulsions, according to the experience of Hildanus and Beckerus; Wounds of the Skull, according to Poppius. The fourth is more illustrious, that it might give way to Excrements, and exclude insensible sooty Fumes by way of insensible Transpiration, by which we are more disburdened then by all our sensible Evacuations put together. By this, Sanctorius through the statick Art, in the experience of thirty years, did learn that many persons in the space of one natural day, do void more by transpiration, then in fifteen days together by stool. The fifth is to attract. 1. Air in transpiration, in Apople●tick and Hysterical fits, and in such as dive deep and bide long under the Water. 2. Juice, in long fasting, from plasters applied, if we credit the Observations of Zacutus Lufitanus; and the force of purgative and other external Medicaments. And for this cause.  
'Tis bored through in divers places, for the ingress and egress of things necessary. Now its holes are some of them visible, as the Mouth, the Ears, the Nostrils, etc. others invisible and insensible, as the pores. Those pores of the Body, being otherwise not Conspicuous, are seen in the winter, when the Body is suddenly bared; for then the Scarf-skin looks like a Goose's skin when the feathers are pulled of. By reason (it seems) of these pores it was, that a certain Persian King made use of the skins of Men for windows, if we may credit Orabasi●s.  
The Skin is thick, six fold thicker than the Scarf-skin, but thinner than it is in other Animals, nor must any one judge of the thickness of the Skin after it is made into Leather, for by Tanning it is much contracted and thickened, And it seems to be made lighter, for a Man's skin Tanned according to the Observation of Loselius, weighs four pounds and an half.  
It is soft and tightly sensible, but softer and thinner in the Face, Yard, and Cod; harder in the Neck, Thighs, soles of the Feet, Back; of a middling constitution between hardness and softness, in the tops of the Fingers. So, some part of the skin is extreme thick as in the Head, according to Aristotle, falsely cited by Columbus. Some is thick, as in the Neck; some thin as in the sides, whence proceeds tickling; some yet thinner as in the Palms of the Hands, some thinnest of all, as in the Lips. In Children 'tis more thin and porous then in grown persons, in women then in men; in an hot Country, then in a cold. Also the Skin is more rare and open in the Summer then in the Winter; and therefore it is that the skins of Animals flaid off in the Summer do more hardly retain their hair, than such as are flaid off in the winter. Also it varies very much according to the diversity of the suoject; so that in some it hath been of an admirable density and thickness, if we believe Petrus Ser●… who tells of two Negro women, that could without hurt take up▪ carry, hold, and almost extinguish burning oles with their bare Hands. Fallopius saw the skin of 〈…〉 so 〈…〉 that he lost his feeling 〈…〉 ●easo●… of the Nerves  
As to its Connexion: some skin is easily separated from the parts under 
It's Connexion.  it; as in the lower and middle Belly, in the Arms and Thighs. From others with more difficulty by reason of the thick Membrane to which it is fastened by the Fibres, and by means of the Vessels. In the soles of the Feet and Palms of the Hands, it is hardly separated, to which parts it grows that they might lay the faster hold. Also hardly from the flesh of the Forehead and of the whole Face, especially of the Ears and Lips, by reason of tendons and Muscles mixed therewith, especially the Muscle Latus so called, mingled therewith. So, in the Forehead it is movable, and in the hinder part of the Head of some People by reason of peculiar Muscles; but it is not so in the rest of the Body.  
The skin hath received common Vessels, for Nourishment, Life and Sense. It 
Its Vessels.  hath received two cutany Veins, through the Head and Neck, from the Jugulars; two through the Arms, Breast and Back, from the Axillaries; two through the lower Belly, Loins and Legs, from the groins, which are Conspicuous in women after hard Labour, and in such as have the Varices in many branches. It hath few Art ●●ng. And those very small, in the temples and Forehead, Fingers, Cod and Yard. It hath no Nerves creeping in it, but it hath many ending in it, as Galen conceived: though johannes Veslingus the prime Anatomist of Milan says there are very small branches of Nerves running through the skin; and that rightly, for their presence was necessary to cause the sense of Feeling.   

CHAP. III. Of FAT.  
FAt is a similary Body void of Life, 
What fat is?  growing together out of Oily blood, by reason of the coldness of the Membranes, for the safeguard of the whole Body. That it is void of Life, appears in that it is cut without pain, and Consumptions thereof show as much. Therefore Pliny writes that living sows are gnawn by Mice; and Aelian reports that the Tyrant Dionysius was so Fat, that when he was a sleep, the pricking of Needles could not awake him. Also in Greenland they cut fat out of living Whales which they never feel nor perceive.  
Pinguedo fat, which the Greeks term Pimele, is by Gaza ill translated Adeps: 
The difference between Pinguedo and Adeps.  for Pinguedo is an Airy hot and moist substance of the moister sorts of Animals, and is more easily melted with heat, and will scarce ever become hard again, nor can it be broken, and it is soft, lax and rare: but understand the contrary in Suet, which easily grows hard and stiff, but is hardly dissolved, etc.  
Now fat to speak properly, is not a part, but rather an humour, unless 
Fat is not a part of the Body.  haply it be considered together with the Membrane, as many times it is by Galen.  
The 〈…〉 of our order is this; because fat in a man is between the skin and the fleshy Membrane, in ●…s under the Membrane which moves the  
Those parts are void of fat, which 
what parts have Fat, and what not.  could receive no profit thereby but hindrance by resisting convenient Complication and Distension, as the Brain, Eyelids, Yard, Cod, and Membranes of the Testicles. Now it is chiefly in those parts which are more strongly moved then the rest, hard like Suet, and interwoven between the Fibres and little Veins, as in the Palm of the Hand, the inner sides of the Fingers (for there are many tendons, Nerves and Vessels, which ought to be moistened) in the sole of the Foot, especially the Heel. It is softer in sundry parts, of which in their place.  
Caecilius Folius hath larely written 
It is not made of Chyle.  that the matter whereof fat is made, is the milky juice, or fatter portion of the Chylus, and that therewith the Bones are nourished. To which opinion I oppose. 1. That such as eat fat meats, do not presently grow fat. 2. That the Chylus is too crude to nourish the parts. 3. That Children should presently become fat as we see it happen in Children new born, who have been nourished only with their Mothers Blood. 4. That the Chylus is necessarily changed before it come unto the Parts. 5. There is no passage from the Mesentery to the extreme parts of the body; for it is neither sucked through the Membranes, as some learned men suppose, nor is it carried through the Glandules. Not the former. 1. Because they are thicker, then to suck and draw as threads. 2. They would appear swollen, and would in Anatomy discover some Oily moisture in them. Nor the latter, 1. Because the Kernels are not continued with the fat parts. 2. Nor do they receive any profitable humour, but Excrements, yea they abound with a white, phlegmatic, but not a fat humour. 3. We observe that many creatures grow fat which have no Kernels. Now the fatter part of the Chyle is the material cause of fatness, but it is only the remote cause, and therefore in deed and truth,  
The Matter thereof is Unanimously 
But of Blood.  concluded to be Blood, whence Aristotle says, that such Creatures as have no Blood, have neither Fat nor Suet: but it must be blood Purified and Absolutely concocted, nor yet all such blood, but that which is thin, Airy and Oily. It resembles the buttery substance of Milk, and 
That blood is Airy and oily  the Oily substance of Seed; and therefore Aristotle did well deny Fat to be moist; with a watery moisture, his meaning was, not with an Airy. Against whom Fernelius and Columbus have written. And when fat is made of Oily Blood, much of the heat is lost. Whence Aristotle says; Such things as are condensed by cold, out of them much heat is forced and squeezed. And in another place: Natural matters are such, as the place is wherein they are.  
Therefore the nature of Fat is colder 
Fat is colder than Blood, yet moderately hot.  than that of blood, yet is it moderately hot; For 1. Outwardly applied, it Digests, Resolves, Discusses. 2. It is the thinner and more Oily part of the blood. 3. It easily takes fire. 4. It increases the heat within, as the Caul assists the Stomaches Concoction, etc.  
Some will have it to be cold, because Aristotle says, whatever things grow together by cold, and are melted by Heat, are cold. But Fat is congealed by cold. I answer: Fat is cold in respect of the Heat which before it had, while it was blood. But we must learn 〈…〉 the same Aristotle, that such things as having been 〈…〉 cold, are melted with an easy Heat, have  
In this TABLE are expressed the common Cover of the Belly separated, and on one side the Fat besprinkled with its Vessels, and on the other side certain Muscles Detected▪  
The II. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AA. The Scarf-skin.  
BBBB. The Skin.  
CC. The Fat out of its place, separated from the Pannicle or Coat.  
DD. The fleshy Pannicle.  
EEEEE. The Fat left in its proper place half the Belly over.  
FFFF. The distribution of certain Vessels through the Fat.  
G. Store of Kernels in the Groin.  
HH. The White Line.  
I. The Navel.  
K. Part of the Pectoral Muscle Detected.  
LLL. The Productions of the greater Foreside-saw-Muscle.  
MM. The oblique descendent Muscle of the Breast in its Situation.  
NNN. The right Muscle of the Belly appearing through the Tendon of the oblique descendent.  
OOO. The Nervous Inscriptions of the right Muscle.  
P. The Rightside Pyramidal Muscle in its proper place.    
page 5.  
The Efficient, or Generating Cause of Fatness, is moist and temperate Heat, 
The efficient cause of Fat.  the Author of all Digestion. The cause Efficient of its growing together, is the coldness of the Membranes (from whence it gains its white colour) not simple but respective; yet sufficient to coagulate the oily part of the blood sweeting forth, even as melted Lead grows congealed, when it is poured out into a 
How Fat is bred?  place hot enough, yet colder than the fire. And Fat grows together 
'tis proved that Fat is generated by cold.  by cold, in a certain degree as it were (for every thing is not made of every thing) and therefore Fat is not bred in any part. Now that Fatness proceeds from Coldness Galen and other Learned men have determined, so that the Fat, light, and thin Part of the Blood, while in hotter Bodies it turns to Nutriment, in colder it is reserved (and therefore hot and dry Animals are hardly eyer fat) and when the Veins send it out of themselves, it lights upon the Membranes, and grows together.  
For 1. Even the Blood, when it is out of the Vessels, does after this manner grow together, by meeting with the cold Air, though its internal Coldness do also, help forward the mutation.  
2. Aristotle says, among such things as melt, those that are melted by heat, are congealed by cold, as Oil.  
3. The colder Creatures are the fatter, as Geldings', Foemales; also such as lie long hid in the Earth without Exercise: So in the Winter, all Creatures are fatter.  
4. Fat is only bred in cold places, as 
How Fat is bred in th●… Call?  in the Membranes: So we see the Call is fat, by reason of its membranous Substance, also in respect of its place, being far from the hot Bowels, for it 〈…〉 upon the Guts, under the Peritonaeum, and beca●… stored with abundance of Veins and Arteries, i●…uch Fat; so about the Heart Fat is collected, for there is the Pericardium, 
And about the Heart?  a cold and thick Membrane; also the wheyish Humour contained therein: below it there is the Midriff as a Fan, on either fide the Lungs like Bellows, the Mediastinum etc. So about the the Kidneys 
And the Kidneys?  Fat is gathered, because they abound with a wheyish Excrement, lie near the Backbone, and are covered by the Guts.  
5. A Cover hanging over boiling Water, coagulates the Vapours which arise unto it, and turns them into water by its Coldness. For make the Air round about exceeding hot, and then the Vapours striking against the cover, will not be condensed.  
Another Opinion is, that Fat is made by an hot Cause, because the matter thereof 
An Opinion that Fat is caused by Heat.  is hot, and because Fat easily flames; also because all things are made in the body, by Coction, and Heat. But the answer is clear from what hath been said before. And we do not mean mere Coldness, the Cause of Crudity, but a weak Heat.  
Some say that Fat attains its consistency from the compactness of the 
An Opinion that it is made by compactness. Refuted.  Membranes, for that which is itself compact makes other things so. I answer. That cold things condense, and Condensation proceeds from Cold, nor can that which is condensed condense, unless it were a first Quality, or should take the assistance of Cold, for otherwise the thinness of the Membrane would make the fat thin. And why does not the density or compactness of the Vessels make the matter contained to be condensed and compact?  
2. In like manner they object: By a thick cover though very hot, the Vapour arising from boiling Water, when it meets therewith, is turned into Water, or in a Distillation by an Alembick, the Exhalations arising from the subject matter, meeting with the thick glass are stopped, and by reflection turned into a thickened Substance. But the Answer, is clear from what hath been said; moreover, the Vapours which are raised up by boiling, if they are by the Vessel so shut in, that there is no place to breath out, new Vapours continually arising, that there may not be a Penetration of Bodies, it is necessary, that they reassume their former consistency: But if they find egress, they turn to Water, by reason of the cold Air surrounding the glassy Cover. And therefore it is that, to make the Liquor issue more abundantly, Distillers ever and anon cool the same with cold Water. So when the Air abroad is cold, hot Vapours within do turn to Water upon the glass Windows; which does not happen when the Air is hot abroad.  
3. They say, that there are many cold Parts, as the Brain and its coats, etc. which have no Fat about them. I answer, those Parts also are dense. Nor would Nature have Fat in those Parts, for it would be both unprofitable and hurtful: And a moderate Heat is there provided for, by the thickness of the Skin, the Hair and the Skull.  
Fabius Pacius makes the cause to 
An Opinion that it is caused by Dryness.  be also Dryness, by reason of the Fibers of Fat. To which is repugnant 1 That Fat is not dry, but moist. 2 ●…le Fibers, as the Blood hath. Touch-●…e 
It hath ●…ing whi●… th●r.  Anatomical Contradictions of my Fa 〈◊〉  
Other late Writers are pleased with a 
By a peculiar Form.  new conceit, that Fat is made, by a peculiar fat-making form, as a bone is made by a bone-making form. Who doubtless are mistakens because 1 Fat doth not live. 2 It hath no certain Dimension. And 3 The blood turns into the marrow of the bones, without the help of such a form.  
The Form of Fat as long as it is in the Vessels, is not congealed, but liquid and 
The form of Fat.  melted, by reason of the Heat which as yet remains in the Vessels. It hath been voided liquid by Urinal, as Helmo●t hath observed, and in an healthy Woman by stool, in the Observation of Hildanus. Folius conceives it is liquid in the Vessels, by reason of likeness of Nature, but that it is congealed without, because of the different Nature of the Fibres. But no man can easily observe the dissimilitude of the fibres, either within the body, or without.  
The Fat of the Belly hath three Veins, the external Mammillary descending from 
Its Vessels.  above the Vena Epigastrica, arising from beneath out of the crural Vein, through the Groins, and very many Veins coming out of the Loins, accompanied with Arteries. And through these, and the Vessels of the Skin, Cupping-glasses and Scarifications draw Humours out of the inner Parts, as far as I can conceive.  
It hath a very great abundance of Kernels, 
It's Kernels.  which receive Excrements out of the Body into themselves. In sickly persons, and such as abound with excrementitious Moisture, they are more plentiful.  
The Use of Fat is 1 To keep warm like 
It's Uses.  a Garment, to cherish Natural Heat, by its Clammyness, hindering the going forth thereof, and by its thickness, stopping the Passages, least Cold should enter; and in Summer, they keep out the Heat.  
2. In a special manner to help the Concoction of the Stomach. And therefore the cutting out of the Call breeds Winds and Belchings, and to cause good Digestion, it is necessary to provide some other covering for the Stomach.  
3. To daub and moisten hot and dry parts, such as is the Heart.  
4. To facilitate Motion, provided it be moderate, for abundance of Fat hinders Motion and all other Actions, and to keep the Parts from being over dried, distended, or broken. Hence it defends the ends of Gristles, the jointings of the greater Bones; and it is placed on the outside of certain Ligaments, also about the Vessels carried to the Skin. For this very cause, there is store of Fat in the Socket of the Eye, least by reason of continual Motion, it should become dry and withered as it were. And the Vena Coronalis of the Heart, is fenced with much Fat, to accommodate the great Motion and Heat of the Heart.  
5. It serves as a Pillow and Bulwark against Blows, Bruises, and Compressions. And therefore it is that Nature hath furnished the Buttocks, and the Hollow of the Hands and Feet with plenty of Fat.  
6. In times of Famine, it is turned 
Whether it may turn to nourishment?  into nourishment, for we are nourished with that which is sweet and fat, as being familiar to us and our Nature, if we will believe Galen and other Authors. Whose Intention Rondeletius interprets to be, that the Fat doth only relieve famished persons, and hold the parts ●● the Body in play, till they attain their proper Nou●shment.  
7. It fills up the empty spaces between the Muscles, Vessels, and Skin, and consequently renders the Body smooth, white, soft, fair, and beautiful. And therefore persons in a Consumption and decrepit old Women are deformed, for want of Fat.   

CHAP. IU. Of Membranes in General, of the fleshy Membrane, and the Membrane which is proper to the Muscles.  
UNder the fat in a Man, the Membrana 
The fleshy Membrane, its situation.  carnosa, or fleshy Membrane lies, which in Apes, Dogs, and Sheep lies next the Skin. Before we treat thereof, some things are to be known concerning the Nature of a Membrane in general.  
The Ancients called the Membranes Hymenas', and sometimes Chitona's Coats, also Meningas; and otherwhiles Operimenta, and Tegumenta Cover; and with Galen and other Anatomists, speaking in a large Sense, a Coat and a Membrane, are one and the same thing. But when they speak in a strict and proper Sense.  
That is a Membrane which compasses some bulky Part, as the Peritonaeum, 
The difference between a membrane and a Coat, and Meninx.  the Pleura, the Periostium, the Pericardium, and the peculiar Membranes of the Muscles.  
But the term Tunica or Coat in a strict sense, is attributed properly to the Vessels, as Veins, Arteries, Ureters, the Womb, the Gallbladder, and the Piss-bladder, the Gullet, the Stomach, the Guts, the Stones.  
The term Meninx is properly given and peculiarly to the Membranes of the Brain.  
Now a Membrane is a similar part broad, plane, white, 
What a Membrane is?  and which may be stretched, made by a proper Membrane-making faculty, of clammy and watery Seed, to the end that it might by clothing defend the Parts.  
The Form thereof is the equality of its Surface, Thinness, and Lightness (lest it should burden) compactness and strength that it might be widened and stretched.  
It's Use is 1. To clothe and defend the Parts by reason of its hardness and compactness; 
It's Use.  and to be the Instrument of feeling: For the Parts feel by help of the Membranes. And so great is the necessity of Membranes, that Nature hath covered every Part with a Membrane. 2. To strengthen the parts. 3. To defend the parts from the injury of the Cold, and to keep the Natural Heat from exhaling. 4. To join parts with parts. So the Mesentery knits the Guts to the Back. 5. To shut the mouths of the Vessels, lest the Humours should flow out, or flow back: As in the Bladder, where the Ureters are implanted, in the Ventricles of the Heart, by the Valves.  
Now a Membrane is thicker or thinner. 
The Difference of Membranes.   
The thin Membrane differs in thinness. For the Periostium of the Ribs is thinner than the Pleura, the Periostium of the Head, is thinner than the Pericraneum; the pia mater is thinner than the dura mater.  
The thick Membrane is the Membrana carnosa, which is not every where alike thick; for it is thicker in the Neck than other places. And now let us speak of the Membrana carnosa, or fleshy Membrane.  
The Panniculus carnosus or Membrana 
The fleshy Membrane what for a thing it is?  carnosa is by some termed a membranous Muscle, by others a Nervie Coat, a fatty Coat, etc. It is termed fleshy, because in some places, as about the Forehead, the compass of the Neck, and the Ears, it turns to a musculous flesh, and in such Creatures as by the help hereof can move their whole Skin, it seems to be a Muscle: It is endued with such fleshy Fibers, especially in their Necks, by the motion whereof they drive away flies. But in Man, save in his Forehead, it is immovable; only Vesalius and Valverda report that there were some men who could move the Skin on their Chest and Back, and in other parts, just as oxen do. In whom doubtless this Membrane was made of the same constitution, which it hath in Brutes. Moreover in newborn Children, it resembles flesh, by reason of plenty of blood; in grown persons it is like a Membrane, by reason of continually being dried. In a Man's Body, if exact Separation be made, it will appear to consist of four distinct Membranes. Spigelius and others do take those membranous Fibers, which are every where interwoven among the Fat, to be Panniculus carnosus, or Membrana carnosa.  
It's Use is 1. To defend the neighbouring 
It's Use.  Parts, yea, and to cover and defend the whole Body, and therefore it is situate all over the body.  
2. To keep in the Fat, that it flow not out, or melt by reason of the continual motion of the Muscles.  
3. To support those Vessels which are carried into the Skin (which go between 
Connexion.  the Skin and this Membrane) for it is knit unto the Skin by very many Veins, some fewer Arteries, branches of Nerves, and membranous Fibers; and to the Membranes under the Muscles, by the smaller Fibers. It is therefore false, that when the Fat is consumed by fasting, the Skin sticks to the Muscles no otherwise, than a Ball to a piece of cloth wherewith it is covered. It sticks most 
Original.  firmly to the Back, in fashion of a Membrane, and therefore it is said to arise from thence. In the former part of a Man's Neck and his Forehead, it can hardly be separated from the Skin and the Musculus latus; it sticks so close, and is thought to constitute the Musculus latus.  
The Surface thereof is slippery, there where it touches the Muscles, by reason of that clammy Humour, which is wont to be daubed upon the Membranes, lest the motion of the Muscles should be hindered. It is of exquisite sense; and therefore if it be twitched by a sharp Humour, it causes shivering and shaking, as by Choler in Agues.  
The proper Membrane of the Muscles, 
The Membrane of the Muscles▪ what?  which some will have to spring from the Pericranium or Periostium, others from the nervous Fibers of the Muscles, is thin, and is knit unto the Muscle, by most thin filaments.  
It's Use is 1. To clothe the Muscle 
〈…〉 Use.  and separate them one from another 2. To impart unto them the Sense of 〈…〉   

CHAP. V. Of the Muscles in General.  
A Muscle is termed in Greek Must a Mouse, because it resembles a flaid Mouse; and the Latins call it Lacertus a Lizard, from its similitude with that Creature: Howbeit we cannot allot one certain figure to the Muscles, by reason of their variety.  
A Muscle is an Organical Part, the Instrument of voluntary motion. For 
What a Muscle is?  only this part can receive the juflux of the motive faculty. Helmont allows the muscles a life peculiar to themselves, which continues for a while, even after death, as the convulsive motion in the Falling-sickness which continues involuntarily. Which nevertheless does more truly arise, from the retraction and dryness of the Nerves, and defect of Spirits. Also the same man is in an error in conceiving that new fibres do arise in the muscles, and cause the Palsy. No man ever saw them, nor can they be bred anew, because they are Spermatick parts. The Palsy ought rather to be referred to a defect of some fibres.  
A muscle is an Organical part, because it consists 1. Of flesh. 2. Of 
A Muscle is an Organical part.  a tendinous part (and these are the two parts of a muscle, which perform the Action) 3. Of Veins to carry back the Nutriment. 4. Of Arteries preserving the inbred Heat, and bringing the Nourishment to the part. 5. Of Nerves, which contribute sense and especially motion. For the Brain sends the motive faculty through the Nerves into the Muscles. 6. Of Membranes which encompass and keep the muscles together. 7. Of Fat which moistens them, and hinders them from being dried by over much motion.  
The Muscles of the whole Body are most straight conjoined one with 
The Connexion of the Muscles of the whole Body.  another: Yet sometimes they gape, and are at some distance, when Wind, wheyish Humour, or some other matter gets between them; as in the bastard Pleurisy, and concerning a Soldier whipped by the Turks. Veslingus told me that his muscles were so widened and separated, that if he bent his body but a little, every muscle would bear itself out from its Natural situation, bunching out as it were, and swelling.  
We divide the Muscles into two parts, a fleshy part, and a tendinous part. 
The Parts of a Muscle only two. The tendinous Part how many fold.   
Again, we make the tendinous part to be either united, or disgregated, and severed.  
United, where the whole tendinous part appears, white and hard, either in the beginning, end, or middle; or in all these parts.  
chose it is disgregated or severed, where it is divided into many small fibres, scarce discernible to the sight, being compassed about with flesh▪ which tendinous fibers may notwithstanding be discerned among the fleshy ones, in boiled Hogs-flesh, and in the flesh of a Turkeycock, etc. So in some Muscles, especially 〈…〉 of the Thighs of a Turkeycock, the tendinous 〈…〉 appear whole and united from the beginning to 〈…〉. So in a man, sometimes the Tendon descends 〈…〉 after it's Original, mixe● with flesh. Sometimes the tendinous part appears, united in the end, and severed in the beginning, as in the muscle Deltoides; sometimes it is tendinous in the middle, and sometimes not at all.  
With Aquapendent we define a 
What the Tendon of a Muscle is?  Tendon to be a Body continued from the beginning to the end of a Muscle, and that it is a body of a peculiar Nature, cold and dry, made 
It's Beginning.  of Seed, as the principle of its Generation: But the beginning of its dispensation is a bone, for it springs from a bone, and is inserted or implanted into a bone. Yet some Muscles arise from Gristles, and some from Tendons, and are implanted into them. And 
Why called Tendo?  it is rightly termed Tendo, from stretching, because it is bend and stretched like the string of a bow.  
A Muscle is otherwise divided into the Head, middle, and End.  
The Reginning and Head of a Muscle, 
The Beginning and Head of a Muscle.  when it is tendinous, is by Galen and other Anatomists, called Ligamentum, which they say is void of Sense, and that it is less than a Tendon, or the end of a Muscle.  
Now the beginning in a great part of Muscles, is tendinous, seldom 
Both the beginning and end of a Muscle may be called a Tendon.  fleshy. And to speak the very truth, the beginning may as well be termed a Tendon, as the end; seeing for the most part, such as is the Beginning, such is the End, in Substance, in Thinness, Lightsomness, Whiteness, etc.  
Now every Muscle is said to move towards its beginning, 
Two things observable touching the beginning of a Muscle.  and every Muscle hath a Nerve, which is inserted either into the Head, or about the middle (and in some through the Surface of the muscle, in others through the Substance) so that where the Nerve is implanted, there is the Head of the Muscle: Which Galen lays down as 
Galens Rule.  a sure Rule, and saith; that if the Nerve be implanted into the Tail, there is the Head of the muscle. But 
Disliked by Walaeus; and why?  Johannes Walaeus an excellent learned Physician, likes not this Rule, and conceives that it is all one, whether the Nerve be inserted into the beginning, the middle, or the end. 1. Because that Rule renders the motions of many muscles obscure. 2. Because it holds not true in the Pectoral muscle, nor sometimes in other muscles of the Chest and Belly. 3. Because that Rule is not founded upon any reason, for whether the Nerve be inserted into the beginning of the muscle, or into any other part thereof, the Spirits flowing in by the Nerve, may equally move the muscle: As we see in Wind-Instruments, the Air is let in sometimes above, sometimes beneath, one way as conveniently as another. 4. And whereas that Rule is oftentimes found true, it happens by accident, because mostmuscles are moved upward, & because the Nerves descend from above, and therefore could not be more safely implanted any where, then in the upper part of the muscles. And that which Riolanus objects against 
The Objection of Riolanus answered.  Walaeus, touching the Contorsion or Wreathing of the recurrent Nerve, is nothing. For the Nerves run back, to avoid confusion, otherwise, if Nature chiefly intended the Insertion into the Heads of Muscles, she might have carried them right out into the Larynx, as she doth other Nerves of the sixth Pair. Some Muscles receive two branches of Nerves, as the Midrif; some five, as the temporal Muscle.  
The Middle of the Muscle, which they call the belly or body, doth for the 
The middle of a Muscle.  most part swell, and is fleshy; some few have a tendon in the middle, as the Musculus Digastricus which opens the nether Jaw, and the second Pair belonging to the Os Hyoïdes.  
The end or tail of a Muscle, is by some called Tendo▪ by others Chorda, and Aponeurosis. 
The end of a Muscle how known by Galen and other Anatomists?  And the end is sometimes round, sometimes broad, sometimes long, other whiles short; sometimes one, otherwhiles more than one. Now this end, or tendon, is commonly conceived to be made up of a Concourse of Fibres, Ligaments, and very small Nerves, which by little and little grow into one Body. For they will have a Nerve, when it comes to the place of a Muscle to be divided into divers slips, which are met by a Ligament, cleft after the same manner. Consequently they Determine.  
1. That the Tendon hath the sense of Feeling, but not the 
Whether the Head of a Muscle be void of sense?  Head, which they account void of sense and Motion. But this is false; because the tendinous head of a Muscle, when it is pricked, breeds Convulsions and cruel Symptoms, just as if the Head of the Muscle were pricked. Moreover, the beginning of a Muscle hath motion, and therefore sense. It hath motion, because a Muscle, even in its 
If it have Motion?  Head, is contracted and expanded, especially when it is fleshy.  
2. They say also that the End is thicker than the Head: which notwithstanding 
Whether the end be thicker than the Head.  is sometimes true and sometimes false, as in the Musculous Biceps, and others.  
3. They will have the Tendon to be softer than the Ligament (as they call it) or the beginning of the Muscle, namely so much softer, as it is harder than a Nerve, But the contrary is true, viz. that the Tendon is harder than the beginning, because it many times changes into a boney and gristley substance, as in the feet of feathered fowl; but the beginning doth not so. Moreover, I deny that Nerves enter into the Tendon. For Aquapendent 
Whether the Nerves go into the Tendon.  and Riolanus have observed, by frequent dissections, that when they are entered into the flesh of the Muscle, they are spread out into many little branches, which go into a certain Membranous flexure, and so vanish or end, before they come to the tendon. Moreover, a Nerve is soft, how therefore can it be mingled with an hard body? Neither is the end less destitute of sense, than the Head, seeing there come no more Nerves to it then the other: for the Nerve being implanted, tends downwards, and not upwards.  
The Action of a Muscle is voluntary Motion. 
The action of a Muscle is Motion.   
The Motion of a Muscle, is threefold, 1. A Muscle is contracted within itself, towards the Head; and when this is done the opposite Muscle is relaxed and loosened. 2. Being contracted, it continues so. And these two motions are primary, per se and not accidental. 3. After contraction it is relaxed▪ which motion is accidental, and proceeds from another. And therefore Muscles are always set one against another, as Antagonists.  
Now the work of this Motion or Action, which is seen in the parts▪ whereinto the Muscles are planted, doth vary according to the Variety of Parts. For in the throat it is swallowing; in the Arm bending and stretching forth, etc. Yea and sometimes one follows upon another. For the Muscles of the Chest, when they act, do diversely widen or contract the same, they draw in Air, or expel Fuliginous sooty vapours, and cause Respiration.  
This Motion of the Muscles, is sometimes 
And that Voluntary.  called Voluntary, sometimes Animal, to distinguish it from the natural, in Brutus' Spontaneous. For we can hasten, or slacken, or stop this motion as we please. And in this motion, the will of a Man or the Appetite of Brutes, is like an Horseman guiding and putting his Horse forward; the Nerves resemble the Reins of the Bridle, and the Muscles are like the Horse. There are some singular Muscles, as of the inside of the Ear, the Midrif, the Muscles of the Chest, and Eyelids, whose motion is partly voluntary and partly natural, because they many times perform their actions, when we have no thought nor will thereto.  
The use of all the Parts of the Muscle, is 
The use.  after the same manner, as in every perfect Organ. For 1. There is that by which the action is primarily and of itself performed, and it is the Fibrous flesh; [but especially according to the Fibres, for the flesh being wounded according to the length of the Fibres, the motion remains unhurt, but it is not so▪ when the fibres are wounded] for the most part the belly of the Muscle▪ which is most of all contracted. Hence it is that if you cut a Muscle of in the beginning end or middle, in a living person, or in one that is dead it purses itself round and draws itself into itself like a ball: as also it doth, being cast into the water. Riolanus counts the principal part to be the tendon, upon which the Action depends, because it hath a peculiar substance of its own, such as is no where to be seen out of a Muscle. But this is rather true of fibrous flesh, which is in all Muscles, where as in some there is no tendon. 2. That without which it cannot be performed as the Nerve: For if the Nerves be hurt the Muscle loses its motion. 3. That by which it is more strongly and better performed, as the tendons and tendinous fibres. Wherefore those Muscles only, which perform continual 
Which Muscles do move more strongly?  and strong motions, have received united and Conspicuous tendons. For the Muscles do either move themselves only, as those of the Fundament and Bladder; or they move also the skin, as in the Lips, forehead and face: and in these there is no tendon to be seen▪ or they move a bone, and these for the most part evidently end in tendons, because the strong motion of an heavy member did require as much: or they move some other light thing, as the Muscles of the tongue and Larynx (some of which have tendons and some not) of the Eyes, Stones and Yard. 4. Such parts as conserve and guard the action, as the Veins and Arteries, the Membranes and fat.   

CHAP. VI Of the Muscles of the Belly, or Abdomen.  
THose which are called Musculi Abdominis, the Belly-muscles, do cover the lower Belly, and Galen reckons as many, as there are positions of fibres; right, transverse, oblique, and these either upwards or downwards. So that according to Galen there are eight, four on each side; two oblique descendants, or external oblique ones, two oblique ascendants or internal ones, two right and two transverse: But Massa found out two others, and after him Fallopius, which they term Pyramidal Muscles, others Fallopian Muscles, and Silvius calls them Succenturiatos. And so hither Anatomists have made these muscles ten in number. Casserius accounts the right Muscles to be many, and that rightly; seeing there are for the most part four of them on each side; and so for the most part.  
This TABLE represents the Oblique Descendent Muscle of the Belly out of its place, and the rest of the Muscles in their proper places.  
The III. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A. Part of the Obliquely Descendent Muscle on the left side.  
A. The beginning of the Obliquely Descendent Muscle removed out of its Situation, in the right side, as also the insertion of many Nerves, and the oblique carriage of many fibres.  
B. The Right Muscles, of which two are found above the Navel N. and one beneath it.  
C. The fleshy part, or Belly of the obliquely descendent Muscle ends here; and here begins the Tendon or Membranous end thereof.  
D. The hole in the Tendon of this Muscle, through which the Spermatick Vessels, are sent into the Stones towards the Cod.  
E. The obliquely ascendent Muscle, in its situation, with the Fibres which run to the upward parts.  
F. The Fleshy beginning of the obliquely ascendent Muscles, growing out of the sharp point of Os Ilij, or the Appendix GG.  
G. The Spina, or that same Appendix of the Os Ilium.  
H. The Line about which the Tendons of the oblique Muscles of the Belly begin, which Spigelius calls Semilunaris, the half-moon-shaped Line.  
I. The straight Muscles transparent under the Tendons of the oblique ascendent Muscle.  
K. Productions of the Peritonaeum, involving the spermatick Vessels, and descending into the Cod.  
L. Holes in the end of the Ascendent and Right Muscles, to let the spermatsck Vessels through.  
M. The Kernels of the Groin laid open.  
N. The Navel.  
O. The white Line of the Belly.  
P. The Thighs near the Privities.  
Q. The 〈…〉 or Yard.  
1. 2. 3. ●…erves, which proceed from under each Rib, to be distributed into the oblique descendent Muscle.  
9 10. 11 〈…〉 ●e four lower Ribs.  
a a a. The 〈…〉 of the oblique ascendent Muscle.    
page 10:  
In this TABLE are shown the right Muscles of the Belly, with their Inscriptions, as also the Epigastric and Mammary Vessels, which are conspicuous from their inner side. Also the transverse Muscle of the Belly, separated about its beginning, and the Pyramidal Muscles in their Situation.  
The IV. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A. The transversal or overthwart Muscle, made loose about its beginning.  
b b b. It's beginning.  
c c. A portion of the Tendon.  
D. The right Muscle.  
e. Its beginning.  
f f f. Nervous Inscriptions.  
g. The End.  
H. The backside of the other right Muscle, wherein.  
I. Shows the Dug Vein and Artery descending.  
k k. The Epigastry Vein and Artery descending.  
l l. The Concourse or Anastomosis of the Veins.  
MM. The Peritonaeum freed from the Muscles.  
NNN. The Pyramidal Muscles.  
OO. The productions of the Peritonaeum descending into the Cod.    
page. 11:  
there are sixteen Muscles of the Belly for the most part, at least and seldomer fourteen, when there are only three right Muscles on either side; sometimes eighteen, when there are five right ones found, on each side. Fontanus found them all, folded and wrapped up in an Embryo or imperfect birth.  
The first Pair obliquely descendent, [or the external] so called by reason of the Fibres, which descend obliquely from the upper to the lower part; covers all the Abdomen, on its own side, seeing it is very great and broad.  
It's original is in the breast, from the lower part of the sixth, seventh and eight 
The Original of the oblique descending Muscle.  Ribs, before they end in Gristles; and it arises from sundry triangular beginnings, or spires, [near the great sawshaped Muscle of the Breast] which afterward grow into one. And to every triangular spire, from the spaces between its Ribs, and Nerve is carried. Moreover, it arises also [a small space being interposed] from the point of the transverse processes of the Vertebrae of the Loins. So largely is the beginning thereof spread out, namely from the sixth Rib to the lowest Vertebra of the Loins.  
It ends in the middle of the Abdomen, where a white line appears, and it ends into 
It's End.  a large Tendon, an infinite company of oblique Fibres running together in that place.  
Now the white Line, which is sometimes 
What the white Line is?  fringed with fat, is the meeting together of the Tendons of the Muscles of the Belly, saving those of the right muscles. For the Tendons of the oblique muscles are united. and do so meet form both parts, that they form as it were a coat which covers the Belly, or as if it were but one Tendon.  
It is white, because void of flesh, proceeding from the Mucronata Cartilago or pointed Gristle which is seated at the Sharebone: and it is narrower below the Navel then above.  
The two muscles obliquely descendent are bored through. 1. At the Navel. 2. At the Groin in men, that the seed Vessels may pass through; in Women, to give passage to the two round and Nervy Ligaments of the Womb, which are terminated in the Privity near the Nymphs.  
Now as touching the Original 
The Error of Aquapendent and Laurentius, touching the Original of the oblique-descending Muscle.  of the obliquely-descending muscle, Aquapendant did long since hatch a contrary Opinion, which Laurentius did afterwards propound as new, and of his own Invention, reprehending all other Anatomists, who were the said miserably deceived. Now this contrary Opinion will have these muscles to be rather termed external Ascendants, so that their Original should be from the upper part of the Os pubis, Os Ilij, and from the transverse Processes of the Loins: And the end. in the Ribs. They prove it thus:  
1. Because a muscle ought to arise from some quiet and immovable 
Their first Reason refuted.  part, such as is the Share-bone compared to the Ribs. I answer, the Ribs are quiet and still, being compared to the white Line.  
2. They say a muscle draws towards its beginning, and because the obliquedescendent 
Their second Reason  serves for Respiration, it draws the Ribs towards the Share. I answer, this muscle doth not primarily 
answered.  serve for Respiration, as I shall show hereafter. 
'tis proved that these Muscles arise from above, not from beneath.   
Now our Opinion, which is Galens, is proved. 1. By the Ingress of Nerves, which is about the beginning. 2. By the carriage of Fibres, which go here from the beginning to the white Line. 3. All confess that there is a Concourse of Tendons, yea of those which obliquely descend, into the white Line. Therefore the End is there. 4. It  
This TABLE presents the Obliquely-ascendent Muscle of the Belly, loosened from its Originals; the Transverse Muscle, and the she one strait Muscle in its Situation, and the other with its Pyramidals removed from its place.  
The V. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A The Muscle of the Abdomen obliquely ascending, separated about the beginning; wherein.  
bbb. Is the Beginning.  
cc. A Portion of that tendon which covers the right Muscle.  
DDDD. The right Muscle in its Situation.  
E. The inner side of the right Muscles drawn out of its place.  
f. The lower End of the right Muscle, cleaving to the Share-bone.  
gh. The Epigastrick Vessels, which spring from the Ramus Iliacus, of which g denotes the Vein h the Artery.  
●. The End of these Vessels which are joined with the Mammaria Descending from above.  
KK. The Pyramidal Muscles removed from their place.  
l. The Tendon of those Muscles which reaches to the Navel.  
MM. The transverse Muscle.  
nn. Its first Original which is Nervous & membranous.  
OOO. Its second fleshy Beginning.  
ppp. It's Tendon which grows to the Peritonaeum.  
qqq. The Nerves which come from the marrow of the Back to this Muscle.  
rrrrr. The Boughs of the Vein and Artery of the right Muscles, which are sent unto the transverse Muscle cut off.  
SSSS. The Ribs.  
TTT The Intercostal Muscles.  
V. The Os Sternum or Breastbone.  
XX. T Skin separated and hanging down.  
Y. The Spine, or sharp point of Os Ilij.  
Z. Certain Muscles which grow to the Os Ilij.    
page. 12  
is proved by the common Action, of which beneath.  
The Use [according to Riolanus, who saith that the Os pubis or Share-bone being movable, doth move this boney structure forwards, the Chest resting, or being lightly moved, in the Conjugal Embracement, and in the going of such as want Legs and Thighs. But we daily observe the Belly to be moved, in single persons that are chaste, nor doth Nature frame Parts to supply unexpected defects of muscles, but for Natural and Ordinary Actions. Spigelius suspects, that from the same movable beginning, that same bone is drawn obliquely upward, and inclined toward the Chest, by the help of the muscles.  
The second pare is the OBLIQUELY ASCENDENT [or internal] having Fibres contrarily situated: It is situated next the former, and hath a triangular Figure.  
It's Original is fleshy, from the Rib of Os Ilij: but membranous, both 
The Original of the obliquely ascendent Muscles.  from the transverse Processes of the Vertebrae of the Loins, from which it receives Nerves, and from the sharp points of Os sacrum.  
It grows a little by a fleshy End, to 
Their double End.  each of the bastard Ribs, and to some of the true Ribs, but the rest its End turns by little and little into a Tendon, which is double: The one part goes upon the right muscles, the other beneath, so that the right doth rest as it were in a sheath, but near the white Line it is reunited, and inserted thereinto. Which Riolanus hath observed to happen only above the Navel, and not beneath.  
The third pair of the right Muscles, by reason of the right fibres. This pare is commonly reckoned to be but one.  
Galen doth rightly make the beginning to be fleshy, arising from the 
The Original of the right Muscles.  Breastbone, on each side of the Sword-fashioned Gristle, and from the Gristles of the four bastard Ribs. It ends in a Tendon at the Os Pubis. Others chose, will have the beginning to be here in the Share-bone, and the End above. But I answer. 1. That the right Muscles receive their Nerves in the upper part, viz. one branch of those Nerves, which were inserted into the oblique descending Muscle, and others also from the last of the Back, and from the first pare of the Loins. 2. A Muscle uses not to have a tendinous beginning, and a fleshy End. Other late Anatomists will have the right Muscles to have two beginnings and two ends; one beginning and one end in the Breast, and another in the Share-bones. Who are for this Conceit of theirs, beholden to that new opinion touching the moveableness of the Share-bone, of which I shall speak hereafter.  
The Musculus rectus or strait muscle, hath for the most part three. Inscriptions 
That there are divers right Muscles.  in Persons of a middle stature, and sometimes four in tall people, whose Belly is long. But according to Carpus and Casserius, we say that suitable to the multitude of Inscriptions, there are more muscles, because 1. To every Jointing there comes a Nerve. 2. If it were but one, being contracted into itself, it could not equally compress all parts. 3. There should be no such muscle in the whole body, wherein nevertheless there are many long ones, without such a number of Inscriptions.  
In the internal Surface of the right muscles, there are two Veins conjoined, with as many Arteries.  
The upper called Mammaria, arise from the Vena cava, lying beneath the 
The Veins.  Claves, the more remarkable branch whereof reaches unto the Duggs, and runs out under the right Muscle, as far as to the Region of the Navel, where it is terminated.  
This is met by the other termed Epigastrica, which in Women springs from the Womb, in men the Vena cava goes upwards towards the upper Vein, which before it touches, it is for the most part obliterated. Yet these two Veins are sometimes joined together by manifest Anastomosis, touching one another, at their ends. Hence the Consent is supposed to arise between the Duggs and the Womb, the Belly and the Nostrils. For when the Nose bleeds, we fix Cupping-glasses to the belly, and the Duggs of Women being handled, it in citys them to Venery.  
The Musculi recti receive Arteries from the Epigastrica Artery, and Nerves which 
The Arteries and Nerves.  proceed from the last Vertebrae of the Chest.  
The proper use of these Muscles according to Riolanus, is to move the Share-bone forward in Generation, which hath been already confuted. Spigelius will have them to draw the Breast to the Ossa pubis or share-bones, and the Share-bones to the Breast, in a strait motion, and so to bend the Chest; whence it is, that in Dogs and Apes, they reach as far as to the Jugulum, because their Chest did require very much bowing. But these contrary motions, unless they be holpen, with those incisions of the right muscles, do involve a difficulty. Helmont suspects that they are stretched in going up hill, and that from thence shortness of breath proceeds. Flood saith, that by a general use, they make the Belly round, and compress it centrally, or towards the middle point thereof.  
The fourth pair called the Pyramidal 
The Pyramidal Muscles.  Muscles, do rest upon the lower Tendons of the Musculi recti. Nor are they parts of the right Muscles, as Vesalius and Columbus think; but distinct muscles, as Fallopius proves with reasons, which are partly convincing, partly vain. But that they are peculiar muscles is hence apparent. 1 Because they are clothed with a peculiar membrane. 2. Their Fibres are different from those of the Musculi recti.  
They rise with a fleshy beginning, 
Their Original.  not very broad, from the external Share-bone, where also the Nerves do enter; and the farther they go upwards, the narrower they grow, till they terminate with a sharp point, into the Tendon of the transverse Muscle. And from this place I have observed more than once, a small and round Tendon produced, as far as to the Navel.  
Riolanus hath observed the left Pyramidal Muscle to be lesser than the right, and when there is but one, it is oftener left then right.  
The Use of the Pyramidal Muscles, is 
Their Use.  to assist the right muscles, in compressing the Parts beneath. Hereupon according as the Tendons of the right muscles are more or less strong. so, sometimes the Pyramidal muscles are wanting (though rarely) sometimes they are strong, otherwhiles weak, and sometimes there is but one. Bauhine saith▪ If they are absent, then either the flesh joined to the Heads of the right ones [which I have often observed] or the Fat performs their Office. And others will have them to be as it were certain Cover of the right muscles.  
Fallopius will have the Pyramidal 〈…〉 to compress and squeeze the Bladder, when ●…e Water, that the Urinal may be forced out. Con●…wise Aquapendent will have it, that they raise and lift themselves up, and together with them the Abdomen and Peritonaeum, that the parts beneath them, may not be too much burdened. Now Columbus charges Fallopius, that he would have these muscles serve to erect the Yard, whereas that is Massa his Opinion [whose Opinion is followed by Flood, because of the situation of these Muscles] but they cannot serve for that intent, because they reach not the foresaid part, and because they are found likewise in Women.  
The fifth pair called the Transverse Muscles, being lowest in situation, do 
The transverse Muscles.  arise from a certain Ligament which springs out of the Os sacrum, and covers the Musculus sacrolumbus, also from the lowest Rib, and the Os Ilij. They end by a membranous Tendon, into the white Line, and do stick extreme fast to the Peritonaeum, every where save about the Share. The proper Use of these Muscles, is to compress the Gut Colon.  
The Action of all the Muscles of the Belly, is as it were twofold. 〈◊〉 An equable 
The Action of the muscles of the Belly.  Retension and Compression of the Parts in the Belly: For ●…y all act together, the Midriff assisti●…em, and this is the reason why the Fibres of all th●…s, do meet together in one and the same C●…ing as they are thus described by Robert E●….  
2. The Second Action 〈…〉 us upon the former, viz. the ●…dance of 
Why there are divers muscles of the Belly?  Excrements. And because the number of parts to be compressed is great, as the Guts, Womb, Bladder; one Muscle could not suffice, but there was need of divers, acting in divers places, according to divers Angels: Right, transverse, oblique. Every part indeed hath an expulsive Power; 
A Praeoccupation.  but those parts which are hollow, and often, and much burdened, do need the help of these muscles; as in the Expulsion of Excrements, of Worms, of Urinal, of a Child, of a Mole, etc.  
These are their true Actions, which are apparent from their Fabric. But 
A Secondary action of the muscles of the Belly.  Nature sometimes abuses the muscles, to move the Chest, when there is need of a great and violent Expiration, as in Outcries, Coughs, and the like. For than they do not a little compress the Chest.  
Their Use. They are of an hot and moist Temperament. because flesh is prevalent in them: And therefore they cherish Heat and Concoction: They are moderately thick; and therefore they defend the Parts, and are a Safeguard to them, even when they rest: Also they conduce to the Comlyness of the Body: And therefore extreme Fat, dropsied Persons, such as are very lean, etc. are deformed.   

CHAP. VII. Touching the Peritonaeum.  
ALl the Muscles of the Abdomen 
Peritonaeum, how so called?  being removed, the Peritonaeum comes in sight, being spread over the Guts, and having its Name a circumtendendo, from stretchin●…ading about, because it is drawn over all 〈…〉, which are between the Midriff and the Thighs.  
Now the Peritonaeum is a membrane which doth clothe the Bowels of the lower 
What it is?  Belly.  
It is a membrane, and that sufficiently thin and soft, that it may not be burdensome; but strong and compact, that it may be loosened and distended. It is thicker in Women, from the Navel to the Share, that it may stretch the more, when they are with Child; in men that are great Feeders especially, it is thicker from the Mucronata Cartilago, to the Navel, Laurentius conceives for the Stomaches sake, which notwithstanding is hardly probable: for it was fit the lower part should be thicker, lest while we stand, it should become slackened and loosened by the weight of the Bowels.  
Some will have the Peritonaeum to be made of a ligamentous and nervous Substance; others of Nerves only; others only of Ligaments; others of the Coats of the Brain.  
The Shape of the Peritonaeum is oval: 
The Shape of the Peritonaeum.  For it is like a Bladder, or a long-fashioned Egg. For it compasses all the lo●●● Belly, and therefore it is answerable ●…unto in Longitude and Latitude.  
It's Surface is inwardly smooth, and 
It's Surface.  〈…〉 were daubed with moisture, by reason of the Guts which it toucheth; without it is fibrous, and a little rough, that it may be fastened with the mus●….  
It's Original is at the Backbone, at the 
Original.  first and third Vertebraes of the Loins, where the Peritonaeum is thicker; so that it cannot in that place be separated without breaking.  
It is knit also above most closely to 
Connexion.  the Diaphragma (and therefore when it is inflamed, the Hypochondria are drawn upwards) beneath to the Share-bone and the Os Ilij; before, to the white Line and the Tendons of the transverse muscles.  
Now it is in all places double (and Laurentius 
It is double.  with Cabrolius make all Membranes double, even the pia Mater itself) which notwithstanding is most apparent upon the Backbone, above the Navel it sticks so close, that its doubleness cannot be ●●seerned: But from the Navel to the Share, it is manifestly divided into two Coats, so distant, that in their capacious doubleing the Bladder is contained, which hath been observed by few: And that was so ordered. 1. That the membrane might be stronger there, where it is burdened. 2. That the umbelical Vessels, which run out there, may be carried more safely: For they pass through the Doubling of the Peritonaeum. Therefore also.  
The Peritonaeum is boared through before in a Child which is in the Womb: Also above it hath holes, where it grows to the Diaphragma, for the passage of the Vessels. Fernelius hath therefore 
The Error of Fernelius. How many Holes there are?  done ill to contradict Galen, in denying that the Peritonaeum hath Holes. They are three; The first where Vena cava passes through; The second where the Stomach passes; The third where the great Artery and the sixth pare of the Nerves do pass through the Midriff. Beneath about the Fundament, the Neck of the Bladder and Womb, and the Vessels which pass through the Peritonaeum to the Thighs, the Muscles of the Abdomen and the Skin.  
It hath two oblong Processes or Productions, 
Its Productions.  like Pipes and wide Channels, descending in men, into the Cod, by the Holes of the Tendo●s of the oblique and transverse muscles, in which productions (called by the Ancients Didymi) the Seminary Vessels descend and run back, and near the Stone▪ These productions are more widened and become the Coats of the Testicles.  
Whereof, if the outer Coat be widened, and the inner (which sticks most 
The Cause of a Rupture.  exactly, save by the Share-bone, where it is separated) broken, a Rupture is made, according as the Gut or Call, or both, slip down.  
It receives Vessels from the neighbouring Diaphragmatick, Mammary, and 
Its Vessels.  Epigastrick Vessels, and sometimes from the Seminary. It receives small Nerves, from those which are carried to the muscles of the Abdomen. And therefore the Peritonaeum hath the Sense of Feeling, contrary to what others have thought before Vesalius, against whom Experience also bears witness.  
The USE of the Peritonaeum, is the same with that of membranes in general. 1. To 
It's Use.  contain the parts, and to send Connexion's here and there. This the Peritonaenm doth most of all: for it covers 
It is the mother of the Coats in the lower Belly.  all the Bowels of the lower Belly, and makes them more firm; lengthens out, and bestows a Coat upon all of them, to some a thinner, as need requires, and to others a thicker, as to the Stomach, Guts, Bladder, and  
The Peritonaeum is here expressed, with its processes, under which the most of the Bowels of the Lower Belly discover themselves.  
The VI TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AAAA. The four common cover of the Body dissected crosswise.  
BBBB. The Muscles of the Belly dissected after the same manner.  
CC. The Breastbone or Sternum.  
D. The sword-fashioned Gristle.  
EEEE. The Peritonaeum covering the whole Cavity of the Lower Belly and going about the same, under which the Bowels seem to show themselves.  
FF. The liver appearing through the Peritonaeum.  
a. A cleft into which the Navel vein L. is inserted.  
GG. An obscure appearance of the stomach.  
H. The figure of the Spleen appearing situate in the left Hypochondrium.  
FOUR The manifold turnings and windings of the Guts, which appear obscurely in this place.  
K. The Navel.  
L. The Navel vein freed from the covering of the Peritonaeum.  
MM. The two Navel Arteries.  
N. The Urachus or Piss-pipe.  
OO. Vessels distributed, partly to the bottom of the stomach, partly to the Call.  
PP. Productions of the Peritonaeum, wherein the preparatory Vessels are contained.  
QQ. The Muscles of the stones called Cremasteres or suspensores, of which the right is seen in its own place well near, but the left hangs separated.  
RR. The stones freed from the Cod.  
S. The Share Bone.  
T. The Prick or Yard.  
V. The Rise of the Epigastrick Vein.  
X. The Epigastrick Artery, being a companion to the V●ir▪  
Y. A certain branch of the Epigastrick Vein▪  
Z. 〈…〉 the 〈…〉    
page 15.  
Womb. Also from it proceed two doubled members, the Call and the Mesentery. This also, is an Office of the Peritonaeum, that Vessels which are to be carried a great way, do run along between the two Coats thereof.  
2. To shut the Orifices of the Veins. Hence the Liver, if it were not covered with a membrane, the mouths of its Veins would come into view. Hence also those parts in which there are more Arteries, have received a thicker Membrane, as the Spleen. 3. To further the actions of the Muscles of the Belly; out of Galen.   

Chap. VIII. Of the Call.  
UNder the Peritonaeum is the Call as it 
The Etymology of the Call.  were a Covering, others name it Zirbus, Rete or Reticulum, by reason of the straggling course of the Vessels; the Greeks term it Epiploon the Top-swimmer, because it floats and swims as it were upon the Guts. For in all Living-Creatures it is.  
It is situate at the Liver, Spleen, and 
It's Situation  Bottom of the Stomach, and from thence spread upon the Guts, whose turnings it involves and enters into. In some it ceases at the Navel, in others it reaches below the Navel, and sometimes to the Os Pubis where it is inserted: [Sometimes it is joined to the Womb with a straight 
It's Connexion.  Connexion, as the rarely learned Marcus Aurelius Severinus found at Naples in a Shee-Fool; and in another it was knit to the bottom of the Womb▪ in Venice when I was there] and when it comes between the bottom of the Bladder and of the Womb, the mouth of the Womb is thought to be compressed, and Women thereby made 
The cause of Barrenness.  barren. In men an Epiplocele is caused, when it descends into the Cod. And because it is extended rather unto the left then the right side, therefore an Epiplocele of the left side is more frequent. Epiplocele is a Rupture in which the Call falls into the God.  
Many times the Guts being left naked, 
It's situation in persons strangled.  the Call lies lurking under the Liver, which happens not from strangulation,  
This TABLE expresses to the Life the Situation of the Guts and Call and the Navel Vessels.  
The VII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AA. The cover of the Belly dissected, and turned up every way, that the inner parts may come into view.  
B. The Cartilago Mucronata, or Sword-like Gristle.  
CC. The bunching side of the Liver.  
DD. The stomach.  
EE. Part of the Gut Colon seated under the Liver.  
FFFF. The upper Membrane of the Call, fastened to the bottom of the stomach.  
G. The Navel.  
HH. The Navil-Vein.  
II. The two Navil-Arteries.  
K. The Urachus or Piss-pipe.  
L. The Bladder.  
aaa. The Gastrepiploick or Belly-Call Vessels, sprinkled through the Call and stomach.  
MM. The Guts.    
page 16  
seeing in strangled persons, 'tis found in its right place, and in persons not strangled, we find it drawn back; but if we may credit Spigelius, it comes from the Guts being puffed up with wind. In Hydropical persons I have found it quite putrified. C. Stephanus unjustly denies it to hunters.  
Infants, if we believe Riolanus 
In Infants.  are destitute of a Call over their Guts, which as they grow is spread out downwards, and in declining 〈…〉 it is again diminished. ●…t hath two distinct Originals from the Peritonaeum 
It's Origina.  and is as it were a doubled Peritonaeum. 1. It arises at the stomach, viz. the bottom thereof. 2. At the Back and Gut Colon; and no beginning cleaves to another. Hence it hath two 
Its Parts.  Walls or two Membranes, thin and light (that they may not be troublesome with their weight) which lie one upon another: the external or former, which is tied to the outer membrane of the stomach at the bottom, and to the bunching part of the Spleen. The inner and latter, which is tied to the Gut Colon, and arises from the Peritonaeum, under the Midriff, just at the Back. And between these Walls, it hath a remarkable Cavity: in which some very foolishly conceive the Natural spirit is contained. Riolanus will have it propagated from a 
Riolanus refuted.  production of the Mesentery, because if you separate the Membranes of the Mesentery, you may proceed as far as the Gut Colon; which he proves in another place, out of Hypocrates. But in vain, seeing the Mesentery itself, springs from the Peritonaeum, and he confesses the fourth part only of the Call to be Mesenterical.  
The Figure thereof resembles that of a Falconders pouch, for the upper Orifice 
It's Figure.  thereof is Orbicular, and the lower part of the Call is round after a sort, and sometimes unequal.  
The magnitude thereof varies: for it passes in some men to the Navel, in others it 
It's Magnitude.  goes further, as was said before. Naturally it hardly exceeds the weight of half a pound, Riolanus observes. Howbeit Vesalius saw a Call of five pounds' weight.  
The Call hath this property above other 
Its Vessels. ●  membranes, that through the substance thereof, very many Veins and Arteries are sprinkled, from the Caeliacal and Mesenterical branches; and small Nerves from a double branch of the sixth Pair. And by reason of the many Veins, there is much Fat in the Call: and between the same innumerable Kernels are interposed, which suck in and feed upon the dreggy humours. Which Fat I have often observed to have been molten in such as have been sick of Consumptive Fevers.  
This Demonstrates the Lower Membrane of the Call. Also the Mesentery with the Guts and Kernels adjoined thereto.  
The VIII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AAA. The lower Membrane of the Call, on which the Colon is suspended.  
aaa. The Vessels of the Call.  
CC. The Ligament of the Gut Colon.  
DDDD. The Mesentery.  
EEE. The smaller Kernels of the Mesentery.  
F. The greatest Kernel of the Mesentery, situate in the midst thereof, called, by Asellius, Pancreas.  
GGG. The Vessels of the Mesentery.  
HH. The thin and thick Guts.  
I. The bottom of the Piss-bladder.  
KK. The Umbilical Navil-Arteries.  
L. The Piss-pipe, or Urachus.  
M. The Navel cut off.    
page. ●7  
'tis a most rare Case to find the Call perfectly fleshy such as I saw cut out of a Body in the Hospital at Zeyden.  
The Use, 1. By reason of the plenty of its 
It's use.  Fat it helps and cherishes the heat of the stomach, namely of the bottom thereof; for the upper part of the stomach is cherished by the Liver, resting upon it; also it cherishes the heat of the Guts, as being membranous and blood-less parts. And therefore, that same Fencer whose Call was taken away by Galen, was easily hurt by cold, and therefore he always covered his Belly with Wool. The Call therefore is as it were a Pillow to the Stomach, and furthers Digestion. For that is a rare case which Forestus relates of a young man, and Riolanus of others who lived well enough, after their Calls were taken away: Peradventure their Stomaches were some other way strengthened, or might be Naturally more strong than ordinary. Otherwise ordinarily, by defect of the Call, Catarrhs, Loosnesses, Lienteries, Consumptions do arise.  
2. The Membranes afford this Use, that they prop up the Branches of a Vein and an Artery, which go unto the Stomach, Duodenum, and Colon Guts so called, and to the Spleen; also the Fat grows by benefit of the Membranes.  
3. Walaeus supposes that Branches of Arteries and Veins are attributed in greater quantity unto the Call, then is requisite to breed Fat, and nourish the Call, and that they are there placed, being Branches of Venaporta, that the greater quantity of Blood might return to the Heart.   

Chap. IX. Of the Stomach.  
THe Stomach called Ventriculus, 
The Stomach, why called Ventriculus?  that is a little Belly, is an Organical part seated in the lower Belly, just under the Midriff, being the Instrument that makes Chyle. Paraeus observes that it hath through a Wound in the Midriff ascended into the Chest, and gone downwards by reason of the increase of the Call. But Naturally;  
It is seated in the Epigastrium, a place encompassed with no Bones, that it 
It's Situation.  might stretch more easily, just under the Midriff, as it were in the middle of the Body, and it rests upon the Backbone: Now its left side which is the greater and rounder in the bottom, lies in the left Hypochondrium, to give way to the Liver which lies on the right side, and that so the Body may be equally as it were poised, and balanced▪ or trimmed, as the Watermen speak of their boats: Towards the right hand it grows small by little and little, that the meat may be gradually thrust thither. Whence we gather that it is better for such as lie down to sleep, to lie first upon their left side till the Digestion be finished, and afterwards upon their right, otherwise then is commonly imagined. But in the left side there is the bottom, where the meat ought to tarry, for being rolled to the right side, it is nearer passing out. Howbeit in this case, much must be allowed to Custom.  
'Tis only one in Number in man, and such live Creatures as have teeth in both 
The Number of Stomaches in feathered Fowl.  their Jaws. Riolanus bath twice observed a double Stomach in a man, continued, but distinguished by a narrow passage out of one into another. Sperlingerus saw the same in a Woman of Wittenberg▪ and Helmontius saw a bag full of stones which grew to the Stomach. Yea, and that it hath been double in one that chewed the Cud, as Salmuth relates and others, is not to be doubted. In some Fowls there are two Stomaches, the one membranous, which the Latins term Ingluvies the Crap, which only receives the meat, that from thence being lightly digested, they may cast it into the mouths of their young ones, whereas otherwise young Birds could not be nourished. The other is very fleshy and hotter, having within a hard Membrane, wherein hard meat is received. Petrus Castellus a rare man, adds a third, which is in like manner fleshy. In Beasts that chew the Cud, and have Horns, and teeth only in one Jaw 
In Beasts that chew the Cud.  there are four; The first Venture, the Reticulum, the Omasus, and the Abomasus; of which Aristotle speaks. The Venture and the Reticulum which is a part thereof, are ordained to hold the crude meat; The Omasus receives the Food immediately from the mouth, if it be thin, if thick, it is first chewed, and from hence after a short stay, it slips into the Abomasus. Now chewing the Cud, is a second chewing of the meat in the mouth, for the more perfect Digestion thereof, whence the Aliment proves excellent, and for that cause among the Jews, such as chewed the Cud were counted clean Beasts. Chewing the Cud is caused, not as some think, because the meat in the first Stomach gains such a quality, that it provokes the Stomach to cast it up; for so in every sharp biting of the Stomach, and in all Animals chewing the Cud, would happen against their Wills: but it depends upon the voluntary Action of the Stomach, which by a singular membrane, expels what it pleases, and when it pleases; as that some Tosspot of Malta, whom I have seen, would as he pleased cast up what ever he had drunk; and others will swallow down the Smoke of Tobacco, and turn it out again. In great Sea-fish I have observed a threefold Stomach, as in a Porpice and others; but it grew so together, that there was rather three distinct Cavities with passages from one to another, three perfect Stomaches.  
It hath two Orifices, and both of them in the upper Region of the stomach. 
Its Orifices. The Symptoms of the Stomaches, Mouth, and why like Heart-passions?   
The left is commonly called the upper Orifice, and sometimes singly the mouth of the Stomach, and sometimes 'tis termed the Stomach, because of its largeness; the Ancients did call it Cor the Heart, because the Diseases thereof caused fainting Fits▪ and other Symptoms like those which happen to such as are troubled with Passions of the Heart; also because of its most exquisite sense, and because the Heart doth sympathise therewith, both in regard of its nearness, and they have Nerves proceeding from the same Branch. This Orifice is greater, thicker, and larger, so that it may admit hard or half chewed meat. 'tis situate at the eleventh Vertebra of the Chest: It hath circular fleshy Fibres, that it may by Natural Instinct shut up the mouth of the Stomach, after the meat is received in, least fumes should arise, and go into the Brain, and breed Diseases; and that so Digestion may be more perfectly accomplished. So we cover it as we do our Seething-pots with a potlid, to keep in the Fumes, and to hinder the meat from falling back into our mouths, when we lie in bed, and tumble this way and that way. Through this Orifice, meats and drinks are received in. And it is but in the Epigastrick Region, and it is more near the Backbone, than the sword-fashioned Gristle or Cartilago Ensiformis: And therefore when it is diseased, we apply Epithems rather behind then before. Helmont places the seat of the Soul, and the Principle of life 
Whether the Soul be seated in the Orifice of the stomach?  in the Stomach, as it were in its central point, so that it governs and rules over the Head and principal Faculties. If you ask him more particularly where it is placed, he will answer you that it is there after an exorbitant manner, centrally in a point, and as it were in the middle of an Atom of the thickness of one Membrane. But the Stomach cannot be the Seat of the Soul, because. 1. It is always full of impure meats. 2. No Faculties flow to us from thence. 3. Great Feeders and persons of large Appetite, should have more Soul than other people. 4. The Soul is not fixed to any Centre. 5. When the Stomach is hurt, death doth not presently follow, as appears in him that swallowed the knife. And any damage happen, it is by reason of the Nearness of the Heart, and Community of Nerves, and consequently by accident. For the Soul sticks not in the Nerves primarily; but there rather from whence the Nerves have their Original▪ and it is a common Membrane. Yet in a large sense, it may be called the Principle of Life, because there is the Seat of Appetite, and the first Reception and Digestion of Aliments, whose fault in the following Concoctions, is never amended. Now it rules over the Head, by reason of the Consent of the Membranes, and the most undoubted arising of Vapours.  
The right Orifice, commonly called the lower, is as far from the bottom, 
The right Orifice, called Pylorus.  well near, as the left: It is narrower, and abides shut until the Digestion of the meat be finished, that is to say until the meat be turned into a liquid Cream, or Posset as irwere. Howbeit 
It is opened in the Distribution of Chylus.  Walaeus hath observed, that it may and doth let out the more liquid meats, and such as are of easy Digestion, by peicemeal before the rest, which may easily be done by opening itself a little way, so that the thicker and undigested meats cannot pass through, as Riolanus objects, seeing they cannot pass through a narrow chink: This Walaeus I say observed in his Dissertion of Living Creatures. Helmont affirms that in Vomiting, it is shut upwards towards 
It is shut sometimes, and opened in Vomiting.  the Pylorus, because it is inconvenient to Health, that the faculent matter of Vomits should pass downwards. Yet he grants that it is sometimes opened between the first and other Vomits, when somewhat ascends out of the Guts. And the truth is, that it is also open to noxious Humours, Lienteries doth witness, and other fluxes of the Belly, Miserere mei, and other Diseases, which pass and repass through the Pylorus. The same Person believes that it remains shut after Death, which doth, I conceive no otherwise happen, then as other parts are then stiff with Cold. It is a little  
The Stomach-Nerves so called are Expressed.  
The IX. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A. The Stomach.  
B. The Gullet or Oesophagus.  
C. The left and larger side of the stomach.  
D. The upper Orifice of the Stomach called peculiarly Stomachus, and Cardia the Heart.  
E. The right external Nerve of the sixth pare, compassing the Orifice thereof.  
F. The external left Nerve of the sixth pare.  
G. The Gastrick Vessels creeping along the Bottom.  
H. The lower Orifice or Mouth of the Stomach called Pylorus, the Porter.    
page ●●.  
bowed back, and hath transverse Fibres, and a thicker Circle cast about it (others call them Glandulous Pustles) like an Orbicular or Sphincter Muscse [some call it by the Name of a Valve, though it be seldom so closely shut, but that both Dung and Choler, and other things do ever and anon ascend. But the Chylus by a Natural propension, affects to go downwards, nor doth it go the other way, unless compelled] It is called the Pylorus or Porter, because it lets out the Chyle: It may be exceedingly dilated, even 
It is sometimes exceedingly widened.  as also the left. Hence it is that many examples testify, how that very great things have been swallowed down, and voided out by Vomit, and by Stool; as Gold-rings, Nutshells, small Knives, Pebble-stones, pieces of Iron, Frogs, Lizards, Serpents, whole Eels, Pipes, Coins, etc. The Pylorus rules over all the inferior parts, according 
Whether the Pylorus have any Rub over the inferior Parts?  to the Opinion of Helmont, being Moderator of Digestion: From the Indignation whereof, he fetches the cause of the Palsy, and Swimming Dizziness of the Head; and saith that a Flint having stopped the same, Want of Appetite, and Death itself followed. Salmuth saw Death caused by the Gnawing and Scirrhous Tumour thereof, which Evils depend upon viriated Concoction, or Digestion hindered.  
The stomach hath three sorts of Fibres: strait, oblique, & transverse; which are 
The Fibres of the Stomach and their use.  conceived to serve for Attraction, Retention, and Expulsion. But some do peradventure more rightly determine, that the Fibres conduce to firmness and strength, as when we would have a piece of Cloth strong, we cause more threads to be woven into it: Especially seeing many other parts, without these kind of Fibres do attract, retain, and expel; as the Liver, Spleen, Brain, Stones, Lungs, Duggs. And other parts, as Bones and Gristles, though they have Fibres, yet do they not attract or expel any thing.  
The Number of Fibres in the Membranes is uncertain, through the variance 
Their Number.  of Authors. That the first or outmost Coat hath more right Fibres, and the second more transverse, is generally agreed upon by most Anatomists. The doubt is touching the third or inner Coat. Galen, Abensina, Mundinus, Sylvus, and Aquapendens, do allow it only right or strait Fibres. Vesalius says it hath right Fibres towards the Cavity, and oblique in the outward part. Costaeus allows it only oblique. I with Fallopius and Laurentius, being led by Experience and Reason, do admit all kinds of Fibres in this Membrane.  
The Surface is smooth without, plain and whiteish within, when the stomach 
The Surface.  doth purse itself, it appears wrinkled and somewhat reddish.  
It hath a triple Membrane: The first 
The Membranes.  common and external, springing from the Peritonaeum, and the thickest of all that have their Original from the Peritonaeum, though otherwise thin enough; which Petrus Castellus conceives doth chiefly concur in Vomiting. The second more fleshy, which is the middlemost, and hath fleshy Fibres to further Concoction. The third is lowest and nervous, into which the Vessels are terminated, and it is continued with the Coat of the Oesophagus, Mouth, and Lips, that nothing may be received in, which ● ungrateful to the Stomach, and because the meat is prepared in the mouth. Hence it is, that when Choler is in the Stomach, the Tongue is bitter and yellow: And chose the Diseases of the Mouth and Tongue are communicated to the Oesophagus and Sromach. This Coat is wrinkled, that it may be the better dilated. And it hath its Wrinkles from a fleshy Crustiness sticking thereunto, the better to defend it from hard meats. This Crust is thought to arise from the Excrements of the 
The Crustiness in the stomach whence it proceeds?  third Concoction of the Stomach: and it is spongy, and hath passages like short Fibres, from the inner Surface to the outward; that the thinner Chylus may be the better detained till the End of Digestion.  
The Substance therefore of the Stomach being membranous and cold, is holpen by the Heat of the Neighbouring Parts. For the Liver lies over the right side, and middle part thereof; for it lies under the Heart-pit: At the left side lies the Spleen; it is covered by the fat Call: Under it lies the Pancreas or Sweetbread; also near it lie the Midriff, Colon-gut, the Trunk of Vena cava, and of the Aorta.  
The Stomach is knit in the left part 
It's Connexion.  to the Midriff (not to the Backbone) by its Orifice; therefore when it is over full, by hindering the motion of the Midriff, it causes shortness of breath: On the right side it is joined to the Gut Duodenum, by its other Orifice or the Pylorus.  
At the Stomach, in the left side, under the Midriff, is form a remarkable Cavity enclosod with Membranes, partly from the Stomach, partly from the Midriff, and partly from the Call. Tonching this Cavity, that place of Hypocrates is to be understood in the 54 Aphorism of the 7. Section. Those who have Phlegm shut up between the Septum transversum and the Stomach, which causes pain, and can find no passage into either of the Bellies, when the Phlegm passes through the Veins into the Bladder, their Disease is cured.  
The Shape of the Stomach is round and 
Shape.  oblong, like ā Bagpipe, especially if you consider it together with the Duodenum and Oesophagus. In the Forepart is is equally gibbous or bunching forth; in the Hinder-part, while it lies enclosed in the Body, it hath two▪ bunchings, that on the right hand being the less, and that on the left hand the greater, between which lie the Vertebrae of the Back, and the descending Trunk of the Vena cava and the Artery.  
It's Magnitude varies; commonly 'tis less in Women then in Men, that 
It's Magnitude.  place may be made for the Womb when it swells. For Women are for the most part lesser than men, and yet not more gluttonous than Men, as Aristotle believes, viz. being of the same size and equally healthy; yea, and they are inferior to men in Heat to digest and concoct. Also in gluttonous persons and great Drinkers, it is greater than ordinary, so that when it swells, it may be felt as it were naked. For it is exceedingly dilated, and therefore it is thinner in Drinkers, in whom it is sometimes so attenuated, that it can no more wrinkle itself, whence follows long weakness. Which Walaeus in Diffection hath observed to happen chiefly to those old men, whose Stomaches in time of Concoction do breed Wind; which oftentimes also in gluttonous persons, takes up more room than their meat. Columbus will have it, when it is stretched, to reach as low as the Navel, and Archangelus will have it to reach further, when it is over stretched; but being contracted and wrinkled in such as live soberly, it is thick, and lies hid under the Liver. Now the Largeness of the Stomach is known. 1. By the Greatness of the Mouth, for those that have large Mouths, are great Eaters, but withal bold and magnanimous. 2. If from the Cartilago Ensiformis to the Navel, the space is greater, then that of the Face or Breast.  
The weight of the Stomach being dried with the Oesophagus, according to the Observation of Loselius is two ounces and two drams; wherein notwithstanding I have found a variety, according to the diversity of subjects.  
It receives very many Vessels. Veins, as from the Spleen Vas breve, which is inserted, 
Vessels.  not into the mouth but into the bottom thereof, and there insinuating itself into the tunicles, it creeps upwards between them, towards the Orifice: but before it reaches the same, it is obliterated; in some it is not visible, because of its smallness, in some it is quite absent [and therefore peradventure those persons have no good Concoction, or Nature Recompenses that defect with other Arteries] in others I have seen it flourishing, with manifold branches. And because it is implanted into the bottom of the stomach, and blood emptied there, cannot provoke Appetite, as many imagine. Others will have it that a Melancholic Excrement which 
Whether blood cast out of the Spleen help Appetite and Concoction.  could not be changed in the Spleen, is by this Vessel brought into the stomach, that by its harsh and acid faculty, it might further the stomaches Concoction, and make the meats abide therein, a convenient season. But Concoction should rather be hindered, by the casting in of a strange Excrementitious Humour. If we shall interpret it touching an acid fermenting juice, the Opinion will be truer, which kind of juice, can come from no other place but the Spleen. For according to the Observation of Walaeus, the Spleen, especially of a Sow, being boiled and eaten, as coming nearest that of a man, doth wont to help the heavyness and dullness of the Stomach. Hence sharp things are pleasing to the Spleen, and Hypocrates gives Vinegar to Spleenetick persons, and Celsus makes a Cataplasm for the Spleen tempered with the sharpest Vinegar. Moreover Riolanus hath found the left side of the inner part of the Stomach blacker than the right. Others suppose that nothing is carried into the stomach by the Vas breve, but that somewhat is carried out of the stomach into the Spleen; whether it be the thinner part of the Chyle, as Conringius, Horstius, and Regius prove, or Blood as Hogeland conceives; they being informed by Ligature in dissections of live Creatures: of which hereafter.  
Moreover the stomach receives Veins from Vena Portae, viz. the Pyloric, Gastric, and Gastroepiploic branches left and right.  
There is one notable Vein called Gastrica, which creeps a long the bottom of the stomach, but doth not quite touch it least the stomach being very much stretched, it should be in danger to be broken; but it spreads many branches to the stomach: which Picolhomineus and Aquapendent will have to suck out the more thin and subtle part of the Chyle, before it passes out of the stomach to the Liver. And this Opinion seems probable. 1. Because otherwise no reason can be given▪ of so sudden a passage, seeing they who have drunk much, do presently Piss it out plentifully. 2. Otherwise the stomach would be ready to burst, when it is overcharged. 3. Thence it comes, that strength is so soon repaired by fragrant Wine, broths, and other comfortable things.  
In some Men a part of the Choler passage, is inserted into the bottom of the stomach, by which our Countrymen Petrus Severinus, would have choler to be carried into the stomach. But this is an Error of Nature, and therefore such persons are apt to vomit Choler, for they are exceeding Choleric, such as Galen, Vesalius, Fernelius, and Casserius have observed. Such persons are said to be Picrocholoi ano, vomiters of Choler.  
The stomach receives Arteries from me Caeliaca Arteria, which accompany the Veins, not only for life's sake, but that blood may be supplied from the Heart, for nourishment, for that the stomach should be nourished with Chyle, is a false opinion and now out of date. Seeing it is nourished with blood, after the manner of other parts (it is only delighted with the chyle) whichis brought out of the Arteries; which blood flows back again to the Heart, according to the Doctrine of Circulation proved and asserted by the renowned Walaeus in his Epistles. By the Splenic Arteries an acid sharp juice is conveyed into the stomach from the Spleen, as the said Waloeus and Hogeland conceive, which I grant when there is no Vas breve, or in absence of the Spleen, wherein I easily consent with Riolanus.  
Also it hath Nerves from the sixth pair, 
Its Nerves.  viz. a couple in its Orifice, from the stomach branches, being produced after it hath run back in the Chest and furnished the Lungs and Pericardium; which because they are soft and go a great way, they are covered with strong Membranes. And they do so cross one another, that they are carried obliquely and consequently with greater safety. The right branch compasses the fore and left part of the mouth of the stomach; the left the hinder and right part thereof. And therefore because the Orifice is so compassed with Nerves, as if it were altogether composed of Nerves● thence it is that this Orifice of the stomach is exceeding sensible; for there was to be the seat of Appetite and hunger: even as those that are very hungry, do feel that part to be as it were contracted and wrinkled together. Also branches of Nerves are sent from these downwards to the very bottom. A branch goes from the left Nerve, a long the upper part of the stomach to the Pylorus, which it infolds with certain branches, and goes to the hollow of the Liver. Other two Nerves also go unto the bottom of the Stomach, from the branches which run along by the Roots of the Ribs. And therefore it is no wonder, that when the Brain is smitten and hurt, the Stomach is disturbed, and falls a vomiting, especially in the pain called Hemicranea: As also that when the Stomach is misaffected, the Animal Faculty languishes.  
In the Stomach Fermentation of the Meats goes before Concoction, which 
The Stomaches Fermentation.  Hypocrates inculcates in his book de Prisca Medicina. Because hard things ought to be broken to pieces; and thick things as bones and shells, etc. in the stomaches of Beasts, seem impossible to be melted by the natural heat alone, unless somewhat else do cut them in pieces. This labour Petrus Severinus attributes to Choler, which nevertheless according to the ordinary Course of Nature is not found in the stomach, nor does it dissolve any hard meat, though Painters use to temper their colours. De la Chambre attributes it to Spirits, without which it can hardly be performed, Riolanus supposes that it proceeds from the Relics of the Chyle, which have attained a fermenting faculty; it concurs indeed, for a fermentative quality may be communicated to any thing: but we must come to some first, thing, by which the Chylus is fermented, and from whence the ferment of the first meat was derived, before the Relics of the Chyle could arise. The greater part of Doctors do attribute this whole work to Melancholy, which is carried by the Vas breve into the stomach, and of which Melancholic persons, who are otherwise no good digesters, do often complain by reason of its sharp taste. Which Melancholy▪ if it be understood of the acid juice, it may be allowed. For any acid or sharp things taken in, as Vinegar, and Meats steeped therein, Juice of Citrons, Oil of Sulphur or Vitriol, Cream of Tartar, and the like, do ●ase and amend the weakness of the stomach. Also without the Body Vinegar ferments the Earth and Milk, even as blackcholer doth, and the acidity of Vitriol ferments Treacle, and sour leven makes the bread arise, etc.  
Now Johannes Walaeus requires three things to Concoction, first some 
Three things requisite to Concoction,  moisture to temper the meat and make it liquid, viz. Drink and spital; in the next place, somewhat to cut and mince it as it were, as the thin sharp humour, and lastly somewhat to melt and make liquid that which is cut, such as is heat, wherewith in ravenous beasts and some Men, the chyle is made fluid, though they do not always drink, I should not doubt, but that the Excrements of the third Concoction, sticking to the Crust, as being still impregnated with the virtue of the parts nourished, do give some assistance to the Concoction, which when they are fretted of, is impaired, and so in long fasting men are not so able to digest: And that the spittle besides moistening and tempering the meats, doth perform some other more noble work in Concoction, viz. prepares the meat in the mouth, whereupon it comes to change its smells; and heals Tetters, and either kills or chases away Scorpions and Spiders.  
But what becomes of that acid Juice, when it hath performed its office of fermentation? H. Regius believes that it remains after the expulsion of the Chylus, to prick the stomach and provoke Appetite. But hunger is raised in the sensible mouth of the stomach, and not in the bottom thereof, where this acid juice is; also there would be hunger after the stomach is full. I should think that it is expelled with the Chyle, and that then it is either therewith turned into blood, or that in obstructions of the Mesentery, it goes downwards, and raises disturbance.  
The Action of the stomach is Coction which is termed Chylification. For the 
Concoction is the Stomaches Act.  stomach is the Organ of the first Concoction, the beginning and preparation of which Concoction is performed in the mouth, the middle in the bottom of the Stomach, and the Conclusion in the small Guts. Now this Concoction is performed by heat, not 
How it is made.  of the stomach only, but also of the Neighbouring parts; as also by a faculty which is naturally bred in the stomach of every Animal. Now it turns the meats into a white Chylus or Juice, of a like substance, whiles both its Orisices being shut very well, it contracts itself, and closely embraces the food. But touching the whole manner of Concoction see the forecited Epistles of Walaeus.  
It's use is to receive the Meat and Drink, which it doth by reason of its 
The use of the Stomach.  notable and large Cavity. And whereas it sometimes contains and breeds little stones, as Gentilis and Zacutus have observed, as also a Toad, Worms, and other things by me often observed; this is beside the Intention of Nature. And the like we may say of an Infant conceived and form there and voided out at the mouth, the History whereof is described by Salmuth.   

CHAP. X. Of the Guts in General.  
THe Guts are oblong, round, hollow 
The Guts.  bodies variously wreathed about, joining with the Pylorus and reaching to the Fundament; serving to receive the Chylus and the Excrements of the first Concoction.  
They have their name of Intestina inwards, because they are in the inmost seat 
Why called Intestina.  of the Body [whence Tirtullian called the Crosses, the Intestina Trophaeorum, the inwards of the Trophies] and so the Greeks term them Entera; some have termed them Chordaj, and thence the Barbarians had their term Chordae; for which cause also the strings of musical Instruments because they are made of dried Guts are termed Chordae, Chords.  
Their Magnitude in respect of the Contents of their Cavities, and the 
Their greatness  thickness of their substance, is different, as shall be shown hereafter. The weight of all of them dried, is according to the observation of Loselius, a pound. Their length, for the most part doth exceed the length of the person whose they are six times, little more or less. Picolhomineus says they are a foot and half shorter; they are reckoned to be seven times as long by Laurentius, Paraeus and Riolanus, and before them by Celsus, who nevertheless began to measure from the Oesophagus. Hypocrates saith they are near upon thirteen cubits, or not less than twelve: but the full stature of a man, hardly exceeds three Cubits and an half. Flood in a certain Body an ell and half long, found the Guts to be but nine els in length, so that no certain Measure can be determined. It varies according to the Multitude of the windings, and the greediness of the person in point of eating.  
They have turnings and windings all 
The use of the turnings and windings of the Guts.  over save at the beginning and end, that the Ingress and Egress might not be hindered. Now the reason why they have these windings and turnings is. 1. That the nutriment may not slip away, before Concoction be perfectly finished. Also lest if it should presently slip away, before the Chylus be distributed, we should be compelled presently to eat more meat, and so should be hindered from our business through greedyness of eating. Hence it is that living Creatures by how much the way is straighter from their stomach to their Vent, by so much the more greedy they are of eating; and the more their Guts are coiled, the more abstinent they are: which Cabrolius observed in a very great eater, who had one only Gut, bowed after the manner of a Greek Sigma. 3. That we might not be continually going to stool, as it is with greedy Animals, seeing the Excrements may lie long in those windings.  
They are situate in the lowest Belly, the greater Cavity whereof they 
The●r Situation.  fill up, sometimes they are forced to the right side, as I have seen in an Hydropic Woman dissected. They are knit together by the Mesentery, by which, and the Call coming between, they are tied unto the Back, and are propped up in the Cavities of the Os Ilij.  
They have a membranous Substance, like that of the Stomach; so 
Their Substance.  that they may be distended by Chyle, Dung, and Wind. But their Substance is thicker in the thicker Guts: And the nearer they grow to an end, the thicker they are, as the End of the Colon, and the Intestinum rectum.  
This Substance of the Guts may be divided into three Coats: The first is proper 
Their Coats.  and internal, and is in the small Guts wrinkled, in the Colon stretched out into little Cells, being otherwise sufficiently nervous. A certain membranous Crust as it were compasses about, bred of the Excrements of the third 
Their Crust.   
The Stomach is seen open, and the Bowels beneath the same and Joined thereto, much in their natural Situation.  
The X. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A. The Oesophagus or Gullet.  
B. The upper Orifice of the Stomach.  
bb. The Stomach Nerves embracing this Orifice, rudely expressed.  
C. Pylorus or the Porter.  
DD. The common ventricle of the Stomach separated.  
E. The first proper Coat of the Stomach, being the middlemost.  
F. The second proper Coat of the stomach, which is inmost and wrinkled.  
G. A portion of Duodenum.  
h. The passage for Gall.  
FOUR The Guts Jejunum and Ileum, with Vessels creeping through the same.  
K. The blind Gut, or the Worm-fashioned Appendix.  
LLLLL. The Gut Colon.  
M. The Valve in the beginning of the Gut Colon, opened.  
mmm. The Ligament containing the Cells of the Colon.  
NN. The straight Gut is here seen, the thin Guts lying thereon being removed.  
O. The Sphincter Muscle of the Fundament.  
PP.. The Muscles which lift up the Fundament.    
page. 23  
Concoction of the Guts. 1. That the Mouths of the Mesaraick Veins may not be stopped. 2. That neither they nor the inner Coat might be made hard and callous, by the continual thoroughfare of the Chylus. Also the second is proper, and the middle most, being strong and furnished with fleshy Fibres. The third is common and external, being bred immediately of the Membranes of the Mesenterium [save that where the Duodenum and Colon cleave to the Stomach, it arises from the lower Membrane of the Call] but mediately from the Peritonaeum. Of these two proper Membranes, the inner is often hurt in a Dysentery or bloody Flux, that other remaining unhurt.  
They have Fibres. not only transverse, as is commonly conceived, but of 
Their Fibres.  all kinds: The innermost hath oblique ones. the middlemost hath transverse ones. The right Fibres which are allotted for the safeguard of the transverse ones, are fewer in the thin or small Guts, more in the large, especially the right or the last Gut, which was to be strong, because it did collect hard Excrements.  
The Guts are covered on the outside with Fat, on the inside with a slimy snotty Substance, that the Dung may thereby pass more freely, and that the Guts may be duller in point of feeling.  
For Vessels they have the Venae Lacteae or milky Veins, which are chiefly distributed 
Their Vessels.  between the common and proper Membranes, which carry the Chyle to the Liver; and others from the Vena Portae, which are conceived to bring Blood for Nourishment, but they rather carry back to the Liver the Blood which remains after the Guts have received their Nourishment. They have also Arteries from the Caeliaca for life, which by their motion preserve from purrefaction, but especially to bring Nourishment from the Spleen to the Guts, which wanted such kind of sustenance. They have Nerves from the sixth pare of Nerves. But Walaeus conceives that the Guts have such great plenty of Arteries and Veins. 1. That Excrements might be conveyed to the common shore, which are contained in the Vessels, whence the Child in the Womb, though it take no meat in at the mouth, yet hath it Excrements in the Guts. 2. That greater plenty of Blood might be carried through the Vena portae and the Liver, and might come to be perfected by the Liver.  
All the Guts are commonly divided, into the thin, or small, and the thick, or 
Difference of the Guts.  large Guts. For though they make one continued Channel from the Pylorus to the Fundament: Yet because this passage doth vary, in Magnitude, Number of Turnings, Substance, Situation, Figure, and Office, therefore is it distinguished into divers Guts.  
The thin or small Guts, so called by 
Whether the thin Guts may be right said to be uppermost?  reason of the thinness of their Membranes, are situate partly above, partly beneath the Navel; and therefore they possess both the Umbilical Region and Hypogastrium, which is not so in Dogs. Whereupon the Ancients taking Example from Dogs, called the upper Guts thin, the lower thick: which is false in Mankind. For a Man hath more of the thick Guts above his Navel, and more of the thin Guts beneath; seeing that which is the longest, is beneath; and the Jejunum which is short is above. And therefore all the small Guts are in the middle Region about the Navel. 1. Because they are the more noble. 2. That they may be the more near to the Centre of the mesentery, and consequently receive Veins and Arteries immediately from the mesentery, and quickly convey the Blood to the Liver. Now the small Guts are three: Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileon. And these perfect and distribute the Chyle: In as much as by reason of their narrowness, every part of the Chylus may be touched, by their Coat and Vessels. This Distribution is holpen by the inbred peristaltic motion, whereby the Guts are contracted from the upper part downwards.  
The Crassa Intestina or thick Guts, 
The thick Guts.  are so called, because they have thicker Coats; they contain the thick part of the Chyle: And are made to collect, and for a season retain the Dung. And they are three; Caecum, Colon, and Rectum. And they are situate by the sides of the small Guts, which they wall about as it were, that they might give way to the thin Guts, and that the thin Guts might not be oppressed by the thick.  
The Use of all the Guts is, to be like 
Their Use.  the Earth, out of which the Mesaraick Veins suck Blood, and the Venae Lacteae or milky Veins suck Chyle. And the use of the thin Guts is, to concoct the Chylus yet more in the passage, and to distribute the same. Of the thick Guts to contain the Excrementitious Relics of the Chyle. viz. the Dung; also Winds and Choler proceeding from the Liver. A Secundary use of the Guts being dried, is to cure pains of the Colic, and other Diseases of the Guts; and being preternaturally depraved, to contain several sorts of Worms, and Duggs, and Stones; also variously to be affected, of which Physicians are wont to treat.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Guts in Particular.  
THe first thin Gut, under which 
The Gut Duodenum.  the Sweetbread lies, especially in Dogs, is called DUODENUM. Galen terms it Ecphisis, Herophilus, Dodecadactylon, as if it were just twelve fingers long; though in the days and Bodies of ours, it is not found so long; nay it is hardly four fingers long, unless men are grown less of stature than they were anciently, which is not credible. Nor can we understand the finger's breath, of which this Gut hardly attains to eight, unless peradventure the Ancients did also comprehend the Pylorus in their mesuring.  
It proceeds in the right side, from the Pylorus towards the Backbone, or under the Stomach, where being joined to the Vertebrae of the Loins, by membranous Ligaments, it defends right along, without any Circumvolution, and is terminated, where the Windings and Wreathe begin.  
It is thicker than the rest of the thin Guts; but hath a more narrow Cavity, lest the Chylus should slip in too fast. I saw a large one at Milan, and Aquapendent describes such another being puffed with Wind, such as that was, mentioned by Trafelman, which had in it many Stones as big as Nutmegs, of an Ash-color.  
It hath two Holes beneath, towards the Gut Jejunum; the one being the 
The Holes of the said Gut.  outlet of the Exoler or Gall-carrying passage, which is the reason we find it yellow in our Dissections, the other is the new passage of the Pancreas or Sweetbread, invented by Wirsungus; which I have notwithstanding sometimes seen grow together, and joined with one only Mouth.  
It's peculiar Use assigned by Helmont, is to change the acid Cream brought out of the Stomach, forthwith into a brackish Salt.  
It hath a proper Vein called Vena duodena.  
It hath an Artery from the right Branch of the Caeliaca.  
The second is called JEJUNUM, because for the most part it is more empty than 
The Gut Jejunum.  the rest, especially in Dissections. 1. By reason of the plenty and greatness of the Mesaraicks [the milky Veins] which in that place are as it were infinite, and do presently suck out of the greatest part of the Chyle. 2. By reason of the moistness of the Chyle passing through. 3. By reason of the nearness of the Liver. 4. By reason of the Acrimony of Choler. For the choleric or Gall-passage, enters in at the beginning of this Gut, or at the End of the Duodenum, bringing Choler from the Liver to provoke Expulsion.  
It's inner Membrane is longer than the Outer, and therefore it is wrinkled into Foles, the better to stop the Chyle, slipping by.  
Riolanus falsely says that Women have no Jejunum Intestinum, being deceived by those, who either were dull-sighted, or finding this Gut filled, thought it could not be the Jejunum. Laurentius observes, that it appears somewhat reddish, by reason of the Neighbourhood of the Liver.  
It hath Veins from the Mesenterica dextra, which are common to the rest of the Guts, excepting the last, or rectum Intestinum, the strait Gut.  
It hath Arteries from the upper Mesenterick Artery.  
Nerves from a Branch of the sixth pare, which is spread out unto the Roots of the Ribs.  
The third is called Ileon, because it is rolled so and twined, it is also for 
The Gut Ileon.  that cause termed Volvulus, by reason of many Circumvolutions, which make for the tarriance of the Meat, and for that cause it hath fewer pleites or foldings.  
It arises presently after the Jejunum, where few mesaraick  
The Coats and Vessels of the Guts are explained in this TABLE.  
The XI. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
FIG. I. A Portion of the Gut together with the Mesaraick Vessels. 

AA. A Portion of the Gut, as yet whole.  
BB. The External Coat of the Gut separated, that the Carriage of the Vessels under it may be discerned.  
CC. The middle Coat of the Guts, or the first proper Coat.  
DEF. The Mesenterick Vessels, of which D points out the Vein, E the Artery, F the Nerve.    
FIG. II. Expresses the Coats by themselves. 

GG. The common Coat of the Guts separated.  
H. The middle Coat of the Guts.    
FIG. III. 

I. The inmost Coat of the Guts with its Plaites elegantly expressed.    
FIG. FOUR Presents the Muscles of the Intestinum rectum, or strait Gut. 

K. A Portion of Intestinum rectum, or strait Gut, or Arsegut.  
LL. The two Muscles called Levatores Any, or Lifters up of the Fundament.  
M. The Sphincter Muscle of the Arse.    
page 25.  
Veins are inserted.  
It ends at the Caecum.  
It is situate under the Navel, at the Flanks and Hips on each side.  
It is the longest Gut, being near upon twenty one hands breadths in length; it is one finger broad. But the Jejunum is not so long, viz. about twelve or thirteen Hands-breadth long, and the little fingers in breadth, unless it be puffed up with Wind. And as the Ileon is under the Navel, so the Jejunum possesses well near all the space about the Navel, with its very many turnings and windings.  
This Ileon may frequently slip into the Cod, whence proceeds the Hernia 
Rupture of the Guts.  Intestinalis, or Rupture of the Guts. And in this Gut happens the Volvulus or Iliaca Passio, in which the Patient commonly 
The Passio Iliaca.  vomits Dung.  
Riolanus hath observed sometimes three Appendices in this Gut, resembling the Intestinum caecum  
The first thick Gut is called Caecum. 1. Because of the obscure Use it hath in 
The thick Guts. The Gut caecum, or the blind Gut.  persons grown up, howbeit in the Infant in the Womb, it is said to receive the Excrements. Knobleth indeed saith that it hath a double Orifice, severed with a membranous Partition, that by one it may receive from the Ileon, and by the other deliver into the Colon; but we have not yet found this in any man, in whom one and the same Orifice takes in and gives out. 2. Because it hath only one Hole, whence it is also called Monocolon. For it is a little Appendix like a long Worm, which arising from the beginning of Colon, and the End of Ilium, of a substance sufficiently thick, spreads itself upon the Colon like a twined worm, and is annexed to the Membrane of the Peritonaeum; but by its End, it is joined to the right Kidneys, the Peritonaeum coming between, and is quite free and loose from the mesentery.  
It is four fingers long, and as broad as one's thumb, but the Cavity thereof is very straight. Riolanus did find it exceeding wide, and equal to the Stoma itself, as I also have seen it. Silvius did in many find it solid, without any Followness, and in such persons, the Dung does go immediately from the Ileon into the Colon. And Massa suspects that this Appendix is only bred when the Child being from its Birth troubled with a Looseness, the liquid Dung passing speedily by the Caecum, and not abiding therein, being frustrated of its Office, it grows lean. Howbeit, I have seen it of the same thinness in a Child new born.  
The Ancients by the Caecum understood 
The Intestinum caecum, or blind Gut of the Ancients.  that globous and capacious part, at the beginning of the Colon, which Celsus and Rufus Ephesius intimate. For that it was known to the Ancients, contrary to what Laurembergius imagines, I do hence prove, because 1. They dissected Beasts. 2. Pollux and Aristotle have set it down distinctly. 3. Galen hath distinguished it from the Colon, both by Use and Situation, placing the Caecum on the right Hand, and the Colon on the left.  
The Use of the Caecum is, not to be only for a mark or sign, as Hoffman imagines, But first to receive Excrements, lest they slip down violently into the Colon, and breed pains, and force us to be contivally going to stool. And there some imagine the dregs or Excrements proceeding from cherries and cherry-stones, which have been voided forty days after they were eaten, did lie lurking. The Conciliator contends, that the Dung is here separated from all chylous Matter. Helmont places the Fermentum stercoreum or turdie Leaven, which turns the Excrements of the Chyle into plain Turds, in this place. 2. It may help somewhat towards the Elaboration of the Chyle, either by sucking out of the white Mesaraick Veins some neglected parcels of Chyle, as Galen said, or by digesting the inobedient Chylus, which could not be tamed, in the Stomach and small Guts, by reason of the multitude of Food taken in, as Zerbus supposes. 3. It may be instead of a Ligament to sustain the Peritonaeum, lest it fall down. But Riolanus observed this very Gut Caecum in a certain Apothecary rolled to the Groin, and in little Boys into their Cod, in whom it rested upon the Os sacrum. Severinus suspects that the Reason why Dogs void their Dung with more than ordinary straining, is, because the caecum is in Dogs very narrow at the beginning, and a little oblique.  
The second thick Gut is called Colon, from the torment which is sometimes 
The Gut Colon.  therein caused, by colic pains. Some think 'tis so called from its Hollowness, and because it shapes the Belly. Others derive it from a word signifying to delay, because it gives a stop to the Excrements that are in passage. The Author of a Treatise falsely ascribed to Galen, derives it a colando, from straining, because it is narrow like a strainner, and involved, that there may be a Gradation of the Excrement, and that it may not descend all at once.  
It's Situation is various, for its beginning which is capacious and round, is in 
It's Situation and Progress.  the right Flank, arising from the caecum at the right Kidney to which it sticks; than it is turned back upwards under the Liver; where it is sometimes knit to the Gallbladder, and is thereby died with a clay-color yellowishness: It passes further, athwart, under the bottom of the Stomach, and on the left hand is joined to the Spleen, with thin Membranes, and then it is tied to the left Kidney, where it hath very crooked Turnings, which are apt to detain both Dung and Wind; and from thence it ends st●…ong, upon the Rectum. Wherefore it doth a●… compass the whole Belly, and sometimes ascends, and otherwhile descends (hence such as do their business, have commonly one Harvest after another distinct) that the Excrements may be the longer detained, and not flow out all on a sudden, and that we may not every foot be solicited to go to stool. To which intent also serve its Magnitude and Cells. For;  
It is commonly eight or nine hands-breath in length, and the thickest and widest of all the Guts.  
It hath received Cells, that any hard Matter, not before sufficiently digested, might be perfectly concocted, and at last through the milky Mesaraicks, which are carried to the Colon, that said Matter being concocted, might be sent unto the Liver. And that these Cells might not be dissolved, and that being collected into themselves, they might make the Cavities at times, sometimes greater, and sometimes less.  
A Ligament described by few, or a certain Band, as broad as an half finger, is implanted through the middle thereof, on the upper part long-wise, and arising from the Caecum, is termined in the Rectum. Moreover by reason of its largeness; it hath two strong Ligaments, one upwards, another downwards, that it may be tied to the upper and lower Parts. Riolanus nevertheless accounts these two Ligaments to be but one, opposite to the upper Ligament.  
According to the Longitude of the Colon, there are extrinsecally observed certain fat Appendices, from the Spleen to the beginning of the Rectum Intestinum, as Riolanus and Spigelius have observed. Whose use is to moisten the Gut, that the Excrements may slide down the more easily.  
At the beginning of the Colon, a 
A Valve in the Gut Colon.  Valve is placed sufficiently thick and membranous, invented by Baubinus, looking upwards, not downwards, as Laurentius writes: for the Excrements do ascend and not descend, when they pass out of the Ileon into the Colon, by reason of upper Situation of the Guts. But if the Natural settling of the Excrements be considered, they descend making hast out of the Body: And thus Bartholinus and Sperlingerus are reconciled. The first Invention of this Valve, seems to be long unto Solomon Albert's an Anatomist of Witteberg, as appears in an Appendix to three Orations set forth by him, about the End, and from the Observations of Schenkius, Lib. 3. Title de Ilio. Howbeit, besides Bauhinus Varolus did also attribute the Invention thereof unto himself, who was a well known Anatomist in the University of Milan, in the year 1572. And therefore Riolanus conceives the first Invention thereof, aught to be attributed rather to him then Bauhinus; But truly, it is in vain that he seeks to bereave him of this commendation, seeing divers Persons may observe one and the same thing, at one or sundry times, without stealing the Invention one from another. For Nature lies open to all diligent Inquires.  
It is found after this manner: Water 
How it is found out?  poured or wind blown into the Gut Ileon, cannot pass through unless violently: But Water doth a little mar the Gut.  
Touching its Figure or Shape and Number, Authors do not consent. For omitting such as wholly deny the same; Bauhinus determines that it is only one, having the figure of a Nail. Archangelus saith, that there are three Valves at the Caecum, as in the Heart, looking downwards. I have sought it at Milan in many Bodies, and at other places, and always found it, but never more than one, and that of an orbicular or circular Shape. Pavius to Hildanus and afterwards Falcoburgius, did not find out a membranous Valve, but rather a Ring or Circle with an hanging brim. But the said Circle is nothing but a Valve, for some Valves are found of a circular Figure, both in the Heart, and in other Veins. The whole constitution of this Valve is elegantly described by that great Practitioner Nicholas Tulpius, that it is a Circle on which hangs a Membrane, two fingers broad, and so shaped that it is fit to shut the egress of Intestinum Ileum. Before which there hangs a Cortin or slack veil as it were; now the latitude of this Pendulous Membrane is very unequal; for where it looks towards the Ileum, it diffuses itself loosely, to the quantity of near two fingers breadth, but the farther from the place it is, the closelier it is strait'ned, so that about the middle of the Gut (for so far it runs) it is either quite obliterated, and ends in to that Membranous compass, which inwardly severs the Intestinum Colon a Caeco. From which unequal latitude, there follows necessarily that same circular form, which the value expresses being artificially extended: as the smaller picture faithfully expresses. Now this Membrane is fastened above to that same fibrous circle which ends the Colon, but it is fastened below or rather strongly held, by two very little Membranes, proceeding on both sides from the side of that Orifice, through which the thinner Guts disburden themselves into the wider: the use of which bones, is to hinder that the value do not easily totter, for they bind it to the Ileum: But the lower part of the value doth wave up and down loosely.  
The use thereof is, that nothing may pass back out of the thick Guts into the thin, be it Wind or Excrement, especially in a strong excretion or straining at stool, or in costiveness of the Belly. Hence it is, that the matter of Clysters cannot naturally reach unto the small Guts.  
The Colon hath Veins and Arteries under the Stomach from the Epiplois postica. But in the left side it hath the Haemorrhoidal Vein, and from the lower Mesenterick, the Haemorrhoidal Artery.  
The last thick Gut is termed RECTUM, because it goes strait out, 
The Intestinum rectum, or the strait Gut.  without any turning, and ends at the Fundament; for it goes straight downwards, from the top of the Os Sacrum to the extremity of the Crupper-bone, to which it is Knit firmly, by the Peritonaeum, lest it fall of: also it grows in men to the Pispipe in the Yard; to the Neck of the Womb in Women, by mediation of a Musculous substance. Whence springs the consent of these parts in Men and Women, especially of the Womb and this Gut in Women, for the Gut being exulcerated, ofttimes the Excrement is cast out the female Privity.  
It is long, as it were an Hand-breath and an half, and three fingers broad; and Corpulent and thick, having Fat Appurtenances, growing thereto on the outside.  
It hath Veins from the Hypogastrick branch of the Vena Cava, and Haemorrhoidal Veins.  
Four Nerves are inserted into the end thereof, which make this Gut very sensible, as is apparent in the Tenesmus.  
It's end is termed Podex or Anus, the Arse or Fundament, having three Muscles, 
Touching the Fundament.  of which peradventure five may be made. The,  
This TABLE sets forth that Valve which is found in the Guts.  
The XII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


a. The Gut Ileum.  
b. Caecum or the blind Gut.  
ccc. Colon.  
dddd. The valve hanging.  
e. The entrance of the Gut Ileum.  
ffffff. The Gut Colon slit open.  
gg. The inner coat of the Gut Colon.  
hhh. The Valve lifted up.  
i. The beginning of the Gut Ileum.  
kkk. The Circle.  
l. Its Connexion with the Ileum.   

a. The Gut Ileum.  
b. Caecum or the blind Gut.  
ccc. Colon.  
dddd. The valve hanging.  
e. The entrance of the Gut Ileum.  
ffffff. The Gut Colon slit open.  
gg. The inner coat of the Gut Colon.  
hhh. The Valve lifted up.  
i. The beginning of the Gut Ileum.  
kkk. The Circle.  
l. Its Connexion with the Ileum.    
page 27  
I. Is termed Sphincter 
The Sphincter Muscle.  or Any Constricter, the shutter or contractor of the Fundament, so that though some part thereof may be cut of in Fistula's or other Diseases, yet is not therefore the whole use thereof, quite taken away.  
Galen and Fallopius and others do make two of this Muscle, because its upper part is thicker; the inferior part is inseparably annexed to the Skin, as is seen in the Forehead and Eyelids, and therefore Galen called this part the skinny Muscle, or the fleshy Skin.  
It arises from the lower Vertebrae of Os sacrum and is compassed with transverse Fibres all a long the Fundament.  
It is fastened on the forepart. 1. To the passage of the Bladder, by Fibrous couple. 2. To the Yard, to the Muscles whereof it gives beginning. 3. To the Neck of the Womb. Behind to the Crupper-bone which lies under it. At the sides, by Ligaments produced from the Os sacrum, into the Os Corae.  
It's use is, to purse up the Fundament, that we may do our business when we please. And therefore being palsied or otherwise hurt, it makes the dung to come from a man whether he will or no: even as the Sphincter of the Bladder being hurt, the piss flows out involuntarily.  
II. and III. Two other Muscles have insertions into the upper part 
The Muscles called Any Levatores, or Arse-lifters.  of the Sphincter, very much Commixed therewith. They are called Any Levatores Arse-lifters. Because,  
Their use is to draw the Fundament upwards into its own place again, after the Excrements are voided. especially when we have been forced to strain hard at stool. And therefore when they have been weakened or slacked, sometimes the Fundament is drawn up with difficulty, and sometimes it continues hanging forth.  
These Muscles are under the Bladder broad and thin, arising from the Ligaments of the Share, the Os sacrum and Hippolito: from whence they are carried downwards, to the right and left sides of the Fundament, which they compass about. But they have a certain peculiar and distinct portion, growing to the Root and Neck of the Yard, which may be counted a third and distinct Muscle. The use of these Muscles ceases in those who have their Fundament shut up. Such a Case Fernelius saw, And I saw the like at Milan in one named Anna, whose Fundament was so shut up, that he voided his Excements by his mouth when concoction was finished, having an Horn to put into his mouth for that end.   

Chap. XII. Of the Mesentery.  
THe Mesenterium is so called, because 
Mesentery why so called.  it is in the middle of the Guts, not because it is the middle Gut as Cicero will have it [and Macrobius who follows him; for it doth not partake of the nature of a Gut, save in that it is Membranous, nor is there any defence for Laurembergius, because we are rightly said to dwell in the middle of the world, supposing the Earth to be a part of the World. Spigelius doth more rightly interpret  
Here are described four kinds of Vessels disseminated through the Mesenterium, as also the Pancreas is discovered, in its Natural Situation.  
The XIII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AA. The Convexe part of the Liver.  
B. The Concave part of the Liver.  
C. The Gallbladder.  
D. The passage for the Gall.  
E. Part of the Gut Duodenum.  
F. The Pancreas or Sweetbread whole in its proper place.  
GG. The Spleenic Vessels detected by opening the Pancreas.  
H. The Spleen.  
II. The Mesenterick branch of the Vena Portae.  
K. The Mesenterick Artery.  
L. A Nerve of the sixth part spread up and down in the Mesentery.  
MMMM. The Guts cleaving to the Mesentery.  
N. The beginning of the Intestinum Jejunum.  
OOOO. The Mesentery.  
PPPPPP. The Vessels of the Mesentery, of which the black ones the Veins, those by the black ones the Arteries; and the white ones signify the Nerves and 〈◊〉 Veins.  
QQQQQ. 〈…〉 through 〈…〉    
page 28  
This TABLE expresses the Mesentery taken out of the Body.  
The XIV. TABLE.  
The Explication of the Figure.  


A. The Centre of the Mesentery, and that part of the Back, where it arises from the Membranes of the Peritonaeum, which knit the great Artery and the Vena Cava in this place, to the Vertebrae.  
BB. The great Kernel of the Mesentery, which Asellius terms Pancreas, into which all the milky Veins are knit together.  
CC. Glandules or Kernels placed between the Vessels, which reach as far as to the Guts.  
DD. EEE. Part of the Mesentery which ties the thin Guts to the Back.  
F. G. Part of the Mesentery which is fastened to the Colon, from the right Kidney to the Liver.  
G. H. The Membrane of the lower Call, which in this place supplies the Office of the Mesentery, fastening that part of the Colon, which is stretched out under the bottom of the stomach, unto the Back.  
H. I. Part of the Mesentery, knitting together the Colon, drawn out from the Spleen to the straight Gut.  
I. K. Part of the Mesentery, fastening the straight Gut unto the Back.  
L. The two Membranes of the Mesenterium, drawn asunder by the Nails, between which Vessels are carried, and the Fat and Kernels are contained.  
M. The first Membrane of the Mesentery.  
N. The other Membrane of the Mesentery.    
page 29  
the word jutestinum in Cicero, for some middling bowel] but because like a Circle it embraces the Guts round, and gathers them together into the form of a Globe, and clothes them. 'tis called also Mesaraeon: Gaza in Aristotle translates it Lactes [in a large sense] thereby understanding that which involves and wraps up the Lactes that is the Guts, and what ever is contained in them.  
It is one; but others divide it into the Mesaraeon or Mesenterium, and the 
It's Division.  Meso-Colon. The former being in the middle of the belly and knitting together the small Guts: the latter which knits up the Colon, in the right and left side and in the lower part thereof, cleaves to the right Gut.  
It Figure is very near Circular, and after it hath been narrow in its rise, in its 
It's Figure.  progress, at the Circumference it degenerates into very many foldings, that it might gather in the length of the Guts: for one hands breadth of the Mesentry, doth embrace more than fourteen handsbreadths of the Guts in a narrow space. In the sides it becomes oblong, especially on the left side, where it descends to the Intestinum rectum. Whereupon Galen made a threefold Mesentery: a right, left and middle.  
It's Magnitude from the Centre to the Circumference is a span: but its 
It's Magnitude.  Longitude and Circumference is three els.  
It Arises at the first and third Vertebra of 
It's Rise.  of the Loins, [which is thought to be the Cause of that great consent which is between the Loins and the Guts] where Membranous Fibres are produced from the Peritonaeum, which turn into strong Membranes,  
Through which the Mesaraick Veins 
Its Vessels.  [both the Blood and the Chyle-bearers] being exceeding small and numerous, and by little and little running together into fewer and greater, are disseminated. [But of these more largely in the first Manual Chap. 3.] And after the same manner the Arteries: [from the Caliaca, that they may carry arterial blood with heat to the Mesentery and Guts for the Nutrition and Fermentation of each of them and in no wise to draw chyle in a sound state of Body, or other things as Varolius and Spigelius conceit. And that the blood is Circulated even in the Mesentery, by means of these Arteries, I shall demonstrate hereafter against Riolanus.] It receives also Nerves from those which are carried from the sixth pair, to the roots of the Ribs, as also from the Nerves proceeding from the Vertebrae of the Loins, that they may give the sense of Feeling to the Mesentery, as is manifest in the bastard colic and other pains; and an obscure motion in distribution of the chyle.  
It hath Kernels interposed to fill up the 
It's Kernels.  spaces, and to cherish the heat: but one greater than the rest it hath at its original which Asellius following Fallopius, terms Pancreas: different from the other Pancreas situate under the Stomach and Duodenum. Out of this he fetches the Original of the milky Veins, with probability enough, because there they grow all into one, and from hence are carried both downwards and upwards to the Liver▪ Add hereunto, that it is in colour like those Veins; and the Veins themselves have in this place somewhat proper, viz. that they are interwoven in the whole Body of this Pancreas, with wonderful turnings, twist, and twine.  
It is surrounded with Fat as in the Call, which proceeds from fat blood slipped out of the Vessels, and retained by the density of the Membranes, and so congealed; that it may cherish the Heat of those Parts, and further the preparation of Chyle.  
The Use of these Kernels is, 1. To prop up and support sundry Distributions 
The Use of the Kernels.  of the Branches of Vena porta and Arteria magna. Hence it is, that about the Centre of the mesentery are the greatest Kernels, because there is the Distribution of the greater and more collected Vessels. Moreover, these Glandules or Kernels, when they are at any time troubled with a scirrhous hard Tumour; there follows a Leanness of the whole Body, because they bear hard, and lie upon the branches of the Vena portae, and of the milky Vein, so that the Nourishment cannot be freely carried through the said Veins. 2. To moisten the Guts, with the Humours which they suck out of the Parts, and promote Digestion by way of boiling as it were. Which Use Spigelius denies, because there are Animals that have not these Glandules, and nevertheless are fat; and others though they have these, are lean. Which may happen without any prejudice to my assertion, because these former Animals have such good Juice, as needs no purification; the latter have so little nutritive Juice, that it cannot sufficiently be depurated by these Glandules. And therefore, 3. They serve to suck superfluous Humours out of the Guts, which was Hypocrates his Opinion. I add 4. A peculiar Use, viz. to receive that plenty of milky Veins which passes that way, and to keep some portion of the Chyle, because 1. It is of like use with that greater middle Kernel, and its substance is the same with that which exceeds this only in magnitude, because greater milky Veins pass that way. 2. I observed that in Fishes, especially in a Lump-fish male and female, besides the great white one, the others did also send forth a white Juice. 3. This being granted, both Atrophia and other Diseases are better understood, to which Opinion also Asellius seems to have inclined. And whereas Riolanus makes the Seat and Root of all Kings-evil swellings to be in these Kernels, and saith they never show themselves on the outside of the Body, except the mesentery be first diseased with the same kind of Swellings, is not likely, for 1. Though they may be remote and accidental causes. 2. There is no communion between these kind of Swellings in the Head, and the Kernels of the mesentery. 3. Many have the Kings-evil swellings, in whom these Kernels are perfectly sound. 4. All would be subject to such Swellings, because all have these Kernels. 5. Those people dwelling under the Alps, that are so subject to these Swellings, should have their mesentery differing from those that are not so troubled. 6. The said Swellings are filled by any kind of Humour proceeding from any Region of the Body.  
The Use of the mesentery is to be the common Band of the Guts, whereby 
The Use of the mesentery.  they are knit to the Vertebrae of the Loins.  
And the Use of its two Membranes, is 
And of its Membranes.  that through them the Vessels may pass safer unto the Guts.   

Chap. XIII. Of the Pancreas, or Sweetbread.  
THe Word Pancreas signifies All-flesh, 
The Substance of the Pancreas.  whereas this part should rather be called All-kernel, its Substance being wholly glandulous, lose it is and shapeless, three or four fingers long, sometimes six or seven, and more, clothed with a thin Membrane from the Peritonaeum▪ and in fat Bodies, it seems all made of Fat, which others term dirty fat and moisture; some Calicreas the Sweetbread or White-bread, and Lactes; because of its milky whiteness and softness.  
It's Situation is under the lower part of the Stomach, and the bottom thereof, 
It's Situation▪  the Duodenum and Vena portae, as far as the Regions of the Liver and Spleen.  
Now its Original is at the first Vertebra 
Original.  of the Loins. In the middle its Parenchyma is white.  
And it hath for Veins the Splenick 
Its Vessels.  Branch; for Arteries the left Branch of Arteria Coeliaca; for Nerves those of the sixt-pares branches, which go to the Stomach and Duodenum, and it hath also little Kernels.  
In this TABLE both the Body of the Pancreas together with the new Wirsungian Passage, as also the Vessels drawn there through to the Spleen, are expressed.  
The XV. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
FIG. I. 

AAA. The Pancreas dissected.  
BB. The new Passage found in the Pancrras.  
cccc. Little Branches of the said Passage.  
d. The Orifice thereof.  
e. The Orifice of the Choler-passage.  
ff. The Choler-passage.  
ggg. Part of the Gut Duodenum.  
HH. The Ramus Splenicus.  
II. The Spleenick Artery.  
K. A Portion of the Arteria Caeliaca.  
LLL. anastomosis or Conjunctions of the Mouths of the Spleenick Vein and Artery.  
M. The Hemorrhoidal Branch of the Spleenick Vein.  
NN. The Body of the Spleen.  
OO. The Ingress of the Vessels in the Spleen.    
FIG. II. 

A. The convex part of the Spleen.  
BB. The Spleens Membrane separated.  
C. The flesh of the Spleen, which is blackish.    
FIG. III. 

AAA. The concave part of the Spleen which receives the Vessels.  
B. The spleenick Vein.  
C. The spleenick Artery.    
page 31  
Use, is not to carry Chylus ut of the Duodenum into the Spleen, bo use 1. 
It's Use.  It doth not reach to the Spleen. 2. A Valve hinders the Ingress. Nor doth it serve to carry Melancholy out of the Spleen, to which use serve the Capsulae atrabilariae, the black Choler boxes. Nor to carry fermentative Juice unto the Stomach, as Horstius Junior ingeniously feigns, Because 1. Such Juice is not bred in the Pancreas, which is a glandulous Body. 2. The way is more ready to that purpose, from the Spleen; this being a more troublesome and encumbered passage, for it would be troubled by meeting the Chylus in the Duodenum, and would be infected by the nearness of the Gall-passage. 3. Never any such Juice seen in this passage. 4. Who will be bound that it shall be able to pass beyond the Pylorus? Nor is it to prepare Chylus, which Baccius affirms to be found in living Creatures. Nor to nourish the Pancreas, seeing that Humour is therefore unfit, and the coeliack Arteries do that work, but for the common good. But how, or which way shall it return to the Liver? For he rightly denies it to the Spleen. Shall it return to the Duodenum, and from thence to the Mesentery? There would be an infinite Circulation. He shall not easily find it in living Anatomies; also he confounds the Pancreas with the large Kernel of the Mesentery. Nor finally does it send the Excrements of the Chyle to the Duodenum, as Licetus, Riolanus, and Vestingus conceive; for in this Passage no Chyle is seen, but yellow Walls. Moreover the refuse of the Chyle is already voided by stool, nor does the Chyle part with any new Excrement, till it undergo a new change in the Veins of the Liver. Now sure it is, that out of the Pancreas itself, whose proper passage it is, and in which it begins, and is ended, somewhat is thereby voided into the Guts, and it doth as I conjecture.  
1. Purge forth Choler, whether bred in the Digestion of the Pancreas, or in the Spleen, for each of these are taken to be Auxiliary-Livers. And it is as it were the Bladder-gall of the Spleen, which is conveniently joined by its mouth, to the other passage of the Livers-Gall-bladder, by the Duodenum, so that look what use the one affords to the Liver, the same the other may be supposed to afford to the Spleen. And to prevent our doubting, the Humour of Choler daubs the inside of this Passage. To which Opinion of mine, very many Learned men have asserted, though in some things they descent.  
2. To receive into itself the Excrements of Arterial Blood from the Heart and Spleen, though the neighbouring Branches of Arteria Coeliaca.  
3. Riolanus counts it a profitable Use, that by this Passage, in vomiting, divers Humours are purged out, and the Redundancies of the first Region; and consequently the fomenting Humours which maintain long-lasting and malignant Fevers and chronical Diseases, and which lurks in the Pancreas, is this way voided forth. And I may well add somewhat to this most learned Invention. That not only by Vomit, but also by stool, through the assistance of Choler-purgers, hot choleric Distempers may be by this Passage discharged, which burn the Mesentery, Spleen, Arteries, and Heart itself. And hence proceed choleric stools in burning Fevers, and blood in a Dysentery or Bloodyflux, by reason of the large Inundation of Choler, continually flowing from hence into the Guts; which is so much the more hard to cure, by how much the Pancreas doth lie out of the reach of Medicaments, being deeply whelmed among the Bowels.  
The Use of the Pancreas itself is, 1. To prop and support Vessels passing 
The Use of the Pancreas.  through the same, as the Branches of Vena porta, of the Coeliack Artery, and of the Nerves: Especially the Ramus Splenicus. 2. To assist the Concoction of the Stomach, which is performed in Heat and Moisture. 3. To serve as a cushion under the Stomach. And therefore that old Woman of Rome in whom it was become stoney, fell first into a continual Vomiting, afterwards into an Atrophy or consuming of flesh, and at last died thereof, as Panarolus hath it in his Observations. 4. To suck out the wheyish Blood which slides along that way, and through help of the Kernels to purge it. 5. In sickly and melancholic Bodies, to perform the Office of the Spleen, which Riolanus shows from the Example of the most renowned Thuanus: Whose Pancreas or Sweetbread, did equal the Liver in amplitude and weight, yet was it wholly scirrhous; but his Liver hard and round as a ball, and full of Phlegm like Potters-clay, and his Spleen was found so small, that it hardly weighed an ounce.   

CHAP. XIV. Touching the Liver.  
ANd so much may suffice to have said touching the Organs destined to primary Digestion or Chylification, we come now to those which are any ways assisting the second Concoction or Sanguification. And the Principal of these is the Liver.  
The Liver is an Organic Part seated in the Lower Belly, just under the Diaphragma or Midriff, on the right side, being the Organ of Blood-making, and the beginning of the Veins.  
It hath its Name in Greek, from a Word that signifies want or Indigency, 
Why the Liver is the Original of the Veins?  because it supplies the want of the Parts of the Body, the Latins call it Jecur, as if you would say juxta Cor, near the Heart. 'Tis called the Principle or Beginning of the Veins, because therein the Roots of two of the greatest Veins appear dispersed, viz. of the Cava and Portae, as Roots implanted in the Earth. The milky Veins are supposed to arise from the Pancreas: Yet Trunks and Branches of them are also to be seen in the Liver. Now the Roots of Trees dispersed in the Earth, do grow together into a Trunk without the Earth. The Vena arteriosa of the Heart, is in truth an Artery: And the Arteria venosa, is a Vein, and may owe its Original to the Liver, because in a Child in the Womb, it is joined with the cava, and opens itself thereinto by an Anastomosis: And besides, it carries Blood to the Heart, but brings none from it, if there be any force in this Argument.  
The Liver is commonly but one in Number, seldom two: And more seldom 
It's Number.  is the Liver quite wanting, as in Mathias Ortelius.  
It is situate in the lowest Belly, under 
It's Situation.  the Septum transversum (which also Hypocrates and Aristotie acknowledged) by the Ribs, and for the greater part in the right Hypochondrium, a finger's breadth distant there from, that the motion thereof might not be hindered: Therefore a Swelling in the Liver causes shortness of breath. In Birds it lies equally on both sides: As also for the most part in Dogs which have a thin and long Spleen. In Man it seldom changes its place, so as the Liver should be in the left, the Spleen in the right side, which Gemma and Spererius have observed. It rests lightly upon the former and upper part of the Stomach, especially on the right side, for otherwise some part thereof reaches to the left side also, and sometimes the greatest part, the Spleen being very small. But some conceive that Aristotle was ignorant of the Situation of the Liver, because the said Huper de to Diazoma, etc. which they interpret, above the Septum is the Liver seated. But the Philosopher is thus to be translated: It is placed on the other side, or beyond the Septum transversum; for Huper with an Accusative signifies beyond, but with a Genetive, it signifies above.  
And by reason of the Midriff, to which 
It's Figure.  it was to give way, it hath its upper and outward Figure sufficiently round, convex or gibbous, even and smooth, where also there is an oblong Cavity, behind at the Passage of Vena cava. And because of the Stomach it hath received a Figure which is hollow on the inner and lower side, which is termed its simous or saddle side, and it is more uneven than the other having in it two hollownesses: One on the right hand for the Gallbladder; another on the left, for the Stomach to pass by. So that the Liver is on the right side of an ample roundness, but on the left it is narrow and sharp.  
The XVI. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
FIG. I. Expresses the Liver taken out of the Body, and especially the hollow side thereof. 

AAA. The Liver in its hollow side, clothed with its Coat and ragged Nap.  
B. The Vena Portae, and its Egress out of the hollow side of the Liver.  
CC. Two Trunks of Vena Cava, by the tuberant or bossie part of the Liver.  
D. The going forth of the Navil-Vein from out the Liver.  
EE. The Gallbladder seated in the hollow part of the Liver.  
F. The Gall-passage, called Cysticus Felleus.  
G. The other Gall-passage called Hepaticus.  
H. An Artery which comes from the Ramus Caeliacus to the hollow part of the Liver.  
I. A branch of this Artery, which enters the Liver.  
KK. Another branch of the same Artery which goes unto the Gallbladder.  
L. A Nerve of the sixth pair which goes unto the Liver.  
M. A small Lap or Scollup stretched out unto the Call, by which the Liver being full of water, is sometimes emptied.  
NN. Certain Eminencies of the Liver, anciently termed Portae the Gates.  
a. The bottom of the Gallbladder, hanging without the Liver.  
d. The common Channel, made up by the passages of Ramus Hepaticus.    
FIG. II. Shows the Vessels of the Liver freed from the Parenchyma or Fleshy substance thereof, with the Gallbladder. 

AA. A portion of Vena Cava.  
BB. A portion of the Trunk of Vena Porta, passing forth of the Liver.  
CC. The Gallbladder.  
DD. The Navil-Vein ending into a branch of Vena Porta.  
EEEEEEE. The branches of Vena▪ Porta, dispersed through the whole Parenchyma of the Liver.  
FFFF. The branches of Vena Cava, especially those which are distributed through the upper parts of the Liver, and joined in sundry places with the branches of Porta.  
GGGG. The most remarkable anastomosis or joining together of the Mouths of Vena Cava and Porta.  
HHHH. The extremities of the said Veins, called Capiliary Veins, because of their smallness.  
a. The Meatus Cysticus or passage into the Gallbladder.    
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The Greatness and thickness thereof, is remarkable and exceeding great in 
Its Magnitude.  a man (as is his Brain) not only for Nutrition as in brutes, but for the breeding of Animal Spirits, which are often dissipated (and they are bred of the Vital Spirit, as it is bred of Blood. Yet it is greater than ordinary in bodies that are of a cold Complexion, and in fearful Persons and great Eaters, to augment the Heat of the Heart. In persons dead of a Consumption, I have sometimes seen an exceeding great Liver, four or five times bigger than ordinary, and sometimes again very exceeding little. And others have found a very small Liver, and sometimes no Liver, or the Liver consumed away; and a great and strong Spleen performing its Office. Rhasis and Abensina gather the greatness of the Liver from the length of a body's singers.  
It is compassed with a thin Membrane, springing from one of the 
It's Membrane.  Membranes of the Veins, which hath its Original from the Peritonaeum. In this there arise little bladders of water, from whence the Dropsy come, Witness Platerus. I have seen of these bladders in a she Goat, many in number, whiteish, which being cut open, were found to contain within a single coat or skin, wheyish Humour, with snotty Phlegm, and another yellow substance, whether through a fault in Nature, or because the Goat was camed. I have more than once found intertwisted ropes of Worms, in other Membranes of the Liver.  
It is fastened by three strong Ligaments. 1. To the Belly, by the umbelicalis 
It's Connexion.  Vena, or Navil-vein, which after the Birth, is in grown Persons dried up, and turns to a Ligament, lest the Midriff should dangle too much, and should hang too low down. 2. Above to the Midriff, on the right side, by a broad membranous and thin Ligament, but yet a strong one arising from the Peritonaeum, which the Midriff undercircles; and this is called the Ligamentum suspensorium or hanging Ligament. 3. Also above to the Diaphragma, but on the left hand, by another Ligament sprung from the Peritonaeum, round, and exceeding strong: Also in its after-part where the Vena cava passes, i● cleaus by its bunchy side to the Peritonaeum. Riolanus reckons these three Ligaments for one, because he contends that the umbelical Vein is dried up, which being carried through a duplicature or folding of the Peritonaeum, hath for its Companion the Membrane itself, which being rolled back over the Liver, runs out upwards & downwards to the Diaphragma itself, which it invests and fastens. But it is all one case. For Ligaments are termed sundry, because they fasten and suspend divers parts of the Liver, although the two latter arise from the Peritonaeum. Now therefore according to his reckoning, there will be two Ligaments, ●●● one only; the former from the Umbelical, and the other from the Peritonaeum. The fourth Ligament annexed to the mucronata Cartilago, at the Cleft of the Liver, is no pecular one, but must be reckoned as part of our second Ligament.  
It hath a Substance red and soft [so 
It's Substance.  that with a little stick it may be beaten off, and separated from the Vessels interwoven, either when it is boiled or being raw] spread about the Vessels, like congealed blood, for which cause it is termed Parenchyma, that is to say an Effusion or shedding forth of blood, because it is poured about the Vessels, and fills the spaces between them [in some kind of fishes it seems to be a congealed Fat, out of which an Oil is boiled to burn in Lamps. Yet is it hardly corrupted; for Riolanus hath observed that a Liver having been accidentally kept a year together, hath remained uncorrupt. In substance it is most like an Ox's Liver, and being boiled; differs not therefrom, neither in consistence, colour, nor taste, and therefore our flesh is more like that of Oxen then of Swine.  
The Colour of a sound Liver is ruddy [but 
It's Color.  if it be quite void of blood, or boiled, we may rightly say with Gordonius, that it is whiteish, as in an Embryo, before affusion of blood be made. But we shall find it very large and red, in Children new born, of a good Constitution. I have demonstrated it to be yellow, in the fish called a Lump. In a Lamprey it is green (which makes Bronzerus dispute touching the principality of the Liver) though the blood be red, whether it have contracted its colour here, or in the Heart, or from itself] In some sick persons, as those which have the Dropsy, it is very pale, as also the Spleen and Kidneys.  
Now those Vessels in the Liver, are the 
Its Vessels.  Roots of Vena portae and cava, (with a few [to a man's first thinking, but upon serious Examination according to the Observation of Walaeus, an innumerable company of] small Arteries interposed, of a whiter colour, dispersed from the Coeliaca, through the saddle part thereof) [partly that they might nourish the Liver, and warm it throughly with the heat of the heart the branches of Vena portae assisting likewise to the same intent; partly that by the motion of the Pulse, and the necessity of running back, it may assist and provoke the passage of the blood out of the Liver according to the conjecture of Slegelius. For whereas Galen tells us that the Liver is cooled by the Arteries, that is not consonant to truth: For they are hot, and by their motion further the blood, and draw it to those parts wherein they are implanted;] which appear distinct, the flesh or Parenchyma of the Live▪ being taken away, how they are carried this way and that way, without order, among which also small branches are disseminated, which afterwards unite into one common Passage, and so carry Choler into the Gallbladder. Now it is conjoined with the Roots of Porta, that there the Blood may be separated from the Choler. But more Roots of the Porta are spread up and down here and there through the lower part of the Liver, very few through the upper part: chose, more of the Roots of the Cava are carried through the upper and tuberous, or bossie part thereof, and fewer through the hollow or saddle part. To these must be added the Roots of the Milky Veins. Asellius did sometimes observe their trunk to be in the Liver. But he did not precisely add the place, which I have determined to be in the third Lobe.  
The anastomosis or Conjunctions of 
Their anastomosis.  the Roots of Vena Porta and Vena Cava, are peculiarly to be observed. For rejecting those who altogether deny the Union of these Veins, or who conceive that they are obscurely and hardly known: [among whom Harvey and Riolanus are lately come upon the stage, the former of whom could no where find any Anastomosis, either in the Liver, Spleen, or any other Bowel, though they had been boiled, till the whole Parenchyma would crumble in pieces, and was separated like dust from all the strings of the Vessels, with a needle. Only he observed this one thing, in a fresh Liver, viz. that all the branches of Vena Cava creeping along the bossie part of the Liver, have Coats like selves full of infinite little holes, as being made for the draught of the Body, to receive such Blood as settles there: but that the branches of the Vena Portae are not so but are divided into boughs, and that every where the branches of both, do run out to the highest Eminency of the bossie side of the Bowel, without anastomosis. But the Porta hath likewise very many holes great and little, as the Cava hath, some of which will admit the probe, others not, only they make certain Cavities covered with a thin Membrane. Whence it is apparent, that the blood is stayed by those closed holes and not strained out, some of them being▪ covered with a Coat, Riolanus inspired by the same Spirit, doth strongly oppose the anastomosis of the Vena Cava and Portae lest he should be forced to admit the Circulation of the Blood in that Place. He was afraid that the concocted liquor should be confounded and mixed with the unconcocted. And what if they be confounded and jumbled together? The Chymus being changed into imperfect blood is confounded coming out of the milky Veins, with that which is contained in the Cava, for both of them are to be perfected in the Heart. And the other which flows out of Porta, prepares both with its acid juice. But be it how it will be, the Authority of all Anatomists doth assert those anastomosis from the times of Erasistratus and Galen to our days, because it is manifest to such as search diligently, that these roots are joined together, sometimes athwart, so that one lies over the middle of another as it were, sometimes the extremities of one Vein touch the Extremities or ends of another, otherwhiles the ends of one touch the middle of the other; and sometimes they touch not one another at all; peradventure where the Branches of the Liver serve only for Nutrition. Bauhinus wishes us chiefly to observe a remarkable Anastomosis, which resembles a channel, and is as it were a common and continued passage, out of the Roots of Porta into the Roots of Cava, admitting a pretty big Probe. But because we cannot rely upon naked Authorities, experience must be called by us to counsel, which doth necessarily persuade us that there are such anastomosis or Unions of the Mouths of the Vesseis, by reason of the passage of the Blood out of the milky Veins and the Venae Porrae, unto the Cava, and out of the manifest Arteries, seeing the passage only through the flesh cannot suffice, in a quick and plentiful Flux. I confess all the kinds of anastomosis are not appearent to the Eye as to be seen open, in dead bodies, though no man can therefore deny that there are such things; but some of them are insensible, which admit neither Probe not Wind, and some admit Wind and nothing else. The Renowned Walaeus observed and found by experience, that the Veins of the Porta are in the Liver no where opened into the greater branch of Vena Cava, but that the very smallest branches of Vena Porta, do open into the smallest branches of the Vena Cava, as he observed in a Liver blown up with wind, after the flesh was taken away, and floating upon water. I have in an Ox's Liver curiously sought for apparent anastomosis, because there they must needs be visible because of the greatness, following the example of the most learned Slegelius. But the very truth is they are not visible to the Eye: the Vessels indeed are divers ways interwoven and twisted one among another; Trunk with Trunk, branches of the Trunks, either with the Trunk of another Vein, or with little branches; and that either in the middle of those little branches, or in the extremities, even as we see both the Vessels cleave together in the Womb-cake: But a Probe finds no entrance, by any open hole of an Anastomosis. Nevertheless, it is not to be denied, but that in living▪ Bodies there is a passage known to Nature though unknown to us by reason of the necessity of a through passage. Which I the rather believe, because that in the conjunction of the Vessels, yea even of the greater, where the anastomosis seems shut, the Coat is extraordinary thin and for the most part single, as appears by its transparency, which in Living Bodies being ratified by heat and motion, doth easily suffer the blood to pass through.  
By these Unions therefore of the Roots of the Vena Cava and the Vena Portae, the Blood may pass through: And by them likewise the peccant matter passes, when we Evacuate the habit of the Body by Purgations. Not that it should be carried out of the Porta to the Mesentery, as hath been hitherto believed, but so as thence to pass through the Heart, and be emptied out through the Caeliacal Arteries, and thence through the stomach or the Gall-Conduits into the Guts, forced along by virtue of the purging Medicament.  
Those anastomosis are likewise to be observed, by which the small Veins of the Gallbladder, are joined to the Branches of Vena Portae and Vena Cava.  
The Roots of Vena Portae, do by little 
The Original of the Veins.  and little towards the lower part become smaller and greater, until they make one Trunk, which is called Vena Porta, the Gate-Vein: So also the Roots of the Cava, above and in the forepart do altogether make up one Trunk; before the going out whereof, certain Circles are placed, here and there in the greater branches, being of a Membranous substance and very like to Valves, sometimes thicker, other whiles thinner and like Cobwebs, which were first discovered by Stephanus▪ and after by Conringius in an Ox's Liver; and I likewise found them, looking towards the larger trunk, which hinder the return of blood, not so much of that which is impure and dreggy, as of the pair being once gone out to the Heart: afterwards, as soon as it comes to the Liver, it is divided into two great branches, the ascendent and descendent; and hence it is that they say, the Cava arises from the upper or bossie part of the Liver, and the Vena Portae from the lower and hollow part.  
The Liver hath two Nerves from the sixth pair, one from the Stomach, another from the Costal, dispersed only through its Coat, and not through its substance (as Vesalius will have it) that in its inmost body, it may be void of sense, in regard of so many motions of humours. And therefore the pains in this part are, dull and rather a kind of Heavyness than pain. Yet Riolanus hath observed, that two remarkable little Nerves do accompany the Vena Portae, and go into the very substance of the Liver.  
This TABLE shows both sides of the Liver and the Gallbladder, Distinct one from another.  
The XVII. TABLE▪  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Convexe or Bossie side of the Liver.  
B. The Livers Membrane Separated.  
CC. The Ligament of the Liver called Sep●ale.  
DD. The coming forth of Vena Cava, out of the upper part of the Liver.    
FIG. II. 

AA. The concave part of the Liver turned up.  
B. A Lobe or Scollup of the Liver to which the Call joins.  
C. A cleft of the Liver, out of which the Navil-Vein D. descends.  
E. The Gallbladder.  
F. The Gallbladder Channel.  
GG. The Choler-passage, ending into the Duodenum H.  
I. The trunk of Vena Portae descending from the Liver.  
K. The Right-hand Coeliacal Artery.  
L. A Nerve brought unto the Liver.    
FIG. III. 

A. The bottom of the Gallbladder.  
B. A Cavity at the rise of the Neck of the Gallbladder.  
C. The Neck of the Gallbladder.  
DD. The Passage of the Gallbladder between the roots of the Vena Portae F. and of the Cavae G. dispersed through the substance of the Liver.  
E. The concourse of the passages of the Gallbladder.  
H. The Porus Biliarius or Choler-pipe, broader than the Neck of the Gallbladder.  
I. The common passage of the Choler-pipe and Neck of the Gallbladder.  
K. The Orifice of the Choler-passage, in the Gut Duodenum.  
L. M. The Gut Duodenum opened.  
N. An Artery dispersed into the Liver.  
O. A small Nerve of the Liver and of the Heart of the Gallbladder: which the graver hath represented too large.    
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Sanguification therefore or Blood-making, is thus performed: the more 
The Author's opinion how the blood is made.  unprofitable and thicker part of the Chyle (which is made first in the Stomach and finally perfected in the thin Guts) is thrown out into the thick Guts, and voided at the Fundament; but the more laudable and thin part▪ is drawn in by the milky veins, spread up and down in the Guts; and ●…le altered, and from them by means of a power proceeding from the Liver, it receives the first Rudi●… of Blood, and is then called Chymus. The greatest question is whether the Liver draws it, or it is forced thither. It seems to be drawn by the heat of the Liver, as Chaf or Straw is drawn by heated Amber, and as Blood is drawn into the outward parts by hot Fomentations. Which is here visible by Ligatures and live dissections, in which the attraction of the Liver is so great, that the milky Veins are speedily emptied. There is not the same necessity, that it should be forced thither, as other have thought, because the beginning of the Motion or moving principle should either be without the Chylus, or within it. It cannot be in it. 1. Because nothing thrusts or drives, but that which is alive. 2. The Chyle newly drawn out of the Vessels, doth not move itself. 3. It is void of Appetite. 4. It should always be driven downwards▪ not up▪ to the Liver. Nor can it be in any thing without it. 1. Because the Meseraick Arteries have enough to do to drive out their own blood, and the Veins have work enough to receive it. 2. And the milky Veins are exceeding small. 3. The proper Fibres of the Veins, do serve more for strength, then for driving. 4. The Stomach indeed, and the Guts are contracted, but they are not able to expel the chyle; for their motion is obscure, and though it were evident, yet it would not presently follow, that it must drive into the Liver. 5. Those Bowels being contracted on all sides, and shut up, as much Chyle is retained, as is expelled. 6. The Abdomen doth ofttimes rest, according to our desire and pleasure, being apt to be moved by the Muscles; but the motion of the Chylus is performed continually and swiftly, viz. the due time of distribution being come. 7. The dreggy Chyle should be sent unto the Liver, without difference, as well as the pure. It is therefore principally drawn by the Liver, howbeit some construction of the Guts, is secondarily assistant thereunto. This Chymus being attracted in the Roots of the milky veins, as in the place where, is by the Parenchyma or Substance of the Liver, as the Efficient cause, with the assistance of the internal heat of the Chyle, changed into a new substance of blood. Now it gains a Redness like the substance of the Liver, not so much from the flesh of the Liver alone, which itself owes its colour to blood shed about it, which it lays away when it is washed or boiled, and in some other Creatures we find it of a green colour, as from its own proper and adventitious Heat (as Grapes are red) which vanishing away, the redness ceases, as it happens in blood-letting. Nor is that a sufficient cause, seeing in healthy bodies it continues afterwards red, and therefore we must take in light as another Cause, of which there is a great quantity in red colours, subsisting even without Heat, unless the subject happening to be dissolved, it come to be extinguished and exhale. Hence it is, that boiled blood becomes black, and putrid blood is dusky. Hence also, by how much the more Natural inbred light any man hath, the more he shines with bright blood; chose, in Melancholic persons, the same being darkened, the blood grows black and dark. That light and fire are the cause hereof appears in Oil of Sulphur, by the mixture whereof Liquors become red.  
Now this Heat and Light, is partly planted in the liver, and the Chyle itself, springing thereout, by reason of its previous preparation, and partly kindled therein, either by reason of the nearness of the Heart, and bordering parts, or by reason of the Arterial blood, derived from the Heart and Spleen.  
The more crude Blood being thus made, is not distributed to nourish the Liver or the Body, which Office is performed by the Hepatick Arteries, but by insensible anastomosis of the flesh and Vessels, it is expelled into the Roots of Vena cava, where by longer tarriance, it is more elaborated, and soon after with the returning blood of the Vena porta and the Arteries, it is poured out into the Trunk of cava, going all strait along, through the upper part of the Trunk to the heart, that it may there attain its last accomplishment whereby it becomes fit to nourish all the Parts. Not any thing returns this way to the Liver, the Valves hindering, which in the Liver look outwards, in the Heart inwards, as the whole Fabric and Ligatures do testify. By these it is, that the Cava always swells towards the Liver, and is empty towards the Heart.  
Afterwards the Nourishment of all the Parts of the Body being accomplished by the Capillary Arteries, because all the blood is not consumed, which by continual Pulsations is sent forth, nor can that which is superfluous return the same way, by reason of the Valves of the Heart seated by the Aorta, which lets any thing pass from the Heart, but admits nothing back again; and because any Artery being tied, is full, and swells towards the Heart, but is empty, and lank towards the Veins: Therefore it must needs return as it were by a circular motion, out of the smallest Vessels back again into the greatest Veins, and the Trunk itself of the Cava, and thence into the Heart. As it passes through the Liver, other blood there newly bred, is joined with that of the Vena porta, and that which is redundant from the Arteries, for the restoring of that which is spent, and so the Circulation is again repeated. Mean while, as hath been said, Choler is drawn out of the blood, by branches of vessels, terminating into the Gal-bladder and Choler-passage. But the wheyish part, is because of its thinness retained a while, that the blood may more easily pass every where, and afterwards it is sent away, partly to the Kidneys (with the wheyish blood, which according to Galen is not concocted in the Kidneys, but because the Serum is an Excrement of the Liver, the Kidneys do only separate the blood from the whey) and from thence by the Ureters into the Bladder; whence the Urinal does afterward partly go into the Skin, and passes out by sweat and insensible Transpiration.   

CHAP. XV. Of the Receptacles of Choler, viz. the Gallbladder, and Choler-passage.  
ON the right hand and hollow part 
See Fig. III. Table 17.  of the Liver, for the Reception of two sorts of Choler, thick and thin, two Conduits or Passages are engraven: The Vesica biliaria or Choler-bladder, and the Canalis biliarius or Cholerchannel. Galen himself knew as much, when he said that from the Liver a twofold choleric Excrement was purged; the one unmixed and simple, the other mixed and thick, which I collect contrary to what Hoffman asserts, out of the fourth Book of the Use of the Parts, 12. and 13. and from the fifth Book Chap. the 6. For the Channel pours out thick and dreggy choler, but the Bladder such as is more thin and yellow. For the larter bordering upon the Vena porta, sucks more plentifully out of the Spirituous and Arterial Blood; the former being placed at the Roots of the Cava, draws a less quantity of Choler, and such as is more thick, because that blood is thicker.  
The Vesica biliaria or Gallbladder called 
The Shape of the Gal-bladder.  also folliculus Fellis, is a Vessel long and round, fashioned like a Pear, hollow, furnished with a double Membrane, the one, whereby it is fastened to the Liver, from the Peritonaeum [which is also the same, wherewith the Liver is covered] without Fibres, and wherewith that part only is covered, which hangs without the Liver: The other proper and more thick, but strong, having all manner of Fibres; which a certain Crust encompasses, bred of the Excrements of its third Digestion, to keep off the sharpness of the Gall.  
This Gallbladder is small, compared▪ Its Greatness▪ to the Spleen and Kidneys. Being two▪ finger's breadths in deepness: but the more choleric any person is, the greater is this Gallbladder observed to be.  
'Tis divided into the Bottom and the 
Division.  Neck.  
The Bottom is round, and seated lowermost, 
Bottom.  viz. when the Liver is in its Natural Situation, it is died with a yellow colour, and sometimes black, viz. when the Choler being over long kept, is burned.  
The Neck, being harder than the bottom, looks upward, grows long and narrow, until 
Neck.  it end into a very small and narrow passage. At the Neck is observed, first a certain peculiar hollowness, and also certain little Valves or Membranes, sometimes two, otherwhiles three, which hinder the Regress of Choler. Regius proves, that they are sometimes opened by Spirits, through a Nerve inserted into the liver, and so let Choler return into the Liver; which appears by anger, and the sudden boiling of the blood in angry persons, by admixtion of burnt Choler. Howbeit by pressing, or squeezing, and blowing, we cannot force any Choler back. And if the force of the Spirits were so great, they might as easily open and shut the valves of the Heart, when they are in the Arteries more plentiful than ordinary. They pierce indeed by their fineness the valves, when they are shut, but they carry not the blood with them. Choler, truly, may by some other means be inflamed, which is every where among hot blood. Finally, the valve would be broken by the violence of Spirits, and greater danger might follow thereby, then if the Gallbladder were broken, an Example whereof Salmuth relates.  
The Gallbladder hath received very many small Passages, furnished with sundry little twigs, sowed up and down in the Liver, between the Roots of Cava and Porta; which afterwards being joined into one passage, do carry pure Choler into the Gallbladder: and the Gallbladder having disgorged itself into the Gut, is daily filled again, and so it continues that course. Contrary to the Opinion of Arnisoeus; that the Bladder is filled with Choler, which being hindered by the Chylus, from descending by the Porus biliarius, into the Guts, does drive back again into the Bladder, For I have often seen Waloeus demonstrate, how that the Bladder being never so little squeezed with a man's hand, even when the Guts are full of Chyle, Choler is easily squirted into the Guts.  
It hath two very small Veins to nourish it. Also it hath very small Arteries from 
Its Veins and Arteries.  the Coeliaca, to nourish and preserve Heat. It is not therefote nourished with Choler, as Joubertus conceives. It hath a little diminutive Nerve, scarce visible, from a little Branch of the sixth pare, which crawls up and down the Coat of the Liver.  
It's use is to receive yellow excrementitious Choler, pure and thin (not the Excrement 
It's Use.  mingled with the Blood, as the Kidneys do) and to retain it some while, and then to expel it.  
Now touching the use of this Choler, Learned men are of sundry minds. Some with Aristotle will allow it no use, only it was a thing could not be avoided, and is drawn away, that the Blood may not be defiled; which Opinion Conringius maintains. Others attribute more to Choler, and make it useful to the whole Body. 1. In that it 〈…〉 ●iver, according to Italy-Abbas and ●…sina, and by that means comforts ●…e second Digestion, and helps the Natural Heat of the Liver, like fire under a kettle. Yea, it heats the whole Body, if we will credit Nemesius, especially the Stomach, to further its Digestion. If that be true, we must understand it of a moderate quantity thereof; otherwise an over great Heat of Choler would burn the Stomach.  
2. Ofkin to these, is the Opinion of Helmont; that it is the balsom of the Liver, and the whole Blood, brought from the Liver to the Mesentery, and that therefore the Gall precedes in the work of Sanguification, and the Liver follows; also he says it hath the constitution of a necessary Bowel. But how should it come into the Liver, since Anatomy doth teach, that this humour is brought out of the Liver, but not carried back thither. For, the way is too long, through the Mesentery, where by reason of its acrimony, it makes haste out, or the edge thereof is blunted. And of what ●hall it be bred, if it go before the Concoction of Blood? There are few Veins and Arteries dispersed there abouts, but store of Choler is collected. That the Action of the Liver goes before that of the Gall, Children in the Womb do show, in whom the Liver is full of blood, before the Bladder swell with Gall, or be so much as lightly coloured therewith.  
3. Their Opinion is not much unlike, who conceive that Choler preserves the neighbouring Parts, and the Liver itself from corruption, which Zerbus would therefore prove, because when the Gallbladder is removed from the Liver, the substance thereof where the Gallbladder lay, does presently dissolve and melt.  
4. A greater number of Authors will have it to serve to expel the Excrements of the Belly, by strengthening the Guts with its Heat, or provoking them to Expulsion by its Acrimony. For although the Choler-passage, be implanted into the beginning of the Gut Jejunum, or into the Duodenum; yet it hath an easy passage to the Colon and Ileum. That it passes through the Jejunum, is manifest from its yellow colour, and the quick passage of the Chyle there through. Howbeit, it ought to be moderate in quantity, otherwise the Belly is dried and made costive, or too much loosened.  
5. I add that it makes the Dung liquid, and apt to pass, to which intent Painters use it to temper their colours.  
The other Receptacle of Choler, is 
Porus biliarius.  the Canalis or Porus biliarius, the Choler-passage, which is found even in those Animals which have no Gallbladder, as the Hart, the Deer, the Camel, the Roe, the Dolphin, the Sea-calf, etc. It is a vessel round and long, and the passage thereof is twice as large as the Neck of the Gallbladder, and it goes right out from the Liver [being sometimes forked, yet so that its two branches do soon become one, according to the Observation of Riolanus] through the common passage into the Gut (not into the Gallbladder, as Fallopius conceived) receiving a thick choleric excrement, which may plainly be perceived, if the said passage be opened and blown up, for then the Gut swells, and not the Gallbladder. And Riolanus observed that some have died of a Dysentery proceeding from Choler, in whom the Neck of the Gallbladder was obstructed, but the Porus biliarius or Choler-passage, very much enlarged. Which also was known to Galen, who will have Choler to be forced right forwards, even from the Liver into the Gut Duodenum: And next to Galen we are beholden to Fallopius for the true Description of this Choler-passage.  
The Ductus communis or common 
Ductus communis, naturalis, the common passage natural,  Passage, which goes into the beginning o● the Gut Jejunum, or about the end of Duodenum, is made up of the Necks of the Choler-passage, and of the Gallbladder, and is obliquely inserted between the two Coats of the Gut, the length of a finger, and sometimes it is parted into two, having loose Membranes, from the inmost and middle Coat of the Guts, before its Orifice. Where there is plenty of Choler, as in choleric Natures, it often flows back into the Stomach, so that such persons fasting, are often gripped in their Bellies.  
Sometimes though seldom, this Passage goes into the bottom of the Stomach, 
Preternatural.  and there empties Choler. Whence proceeds Vomiting of Choler, and such persons are termed Picrocholoi ano, Choler-vomitets. Which is seldom found in ravenous Beasts, according to the Observation of Argenterius; as also in Dogs by the Observation of Walaeus, contrary to the Opinion of Akakia. But in case this passage be inserted into the end of the Gut Jejunum, such persons are ever troubled with choleric Loosnesses, and are termed Picrocholoi ●ato, Choler-purgers by stool. Such as he must needs have been, in whom the Choler-passage was inserted into the Gut Colon, as Severinus observed, when he dissected the said party at Naples.   

Chap. XVI. Of the Spleen.  
Lain or Splen the Spleen, is seated under 
Situation of the Spleen,  the short Ribs on the left side, just over against the Liver, as if it were a second Liver, under the Midriff, between the Ribs and the Stomach, being in some higher or lower then in others. Yet in all it is nearer to the hinder or backpart, seeing it rests 
See Table XV.  upon the Vertebraes and the bastard Ribs, so that a man cannot feel it with his hand, unless it swell, and so become nearer to the Belly-rim; and this situation of the Spleen is seldom so changed, as to find the Liver in the left side, and the Spleen on the right.  
It is for the most part only one, seldom two (as Aristotle observes in the 4. the Generatione 
It's Number.  Animalium, Chap. 4. And Posthius at Montpelier and Panarolus at Rome) and more rarely three one upon another, though not all of like bigness (as Fallopius observed) but a most rare case it is for the Spleen to be wanting (as Aristotle hath observed in the place forecited, and also Laurentius and Schenkius concerning one Mathias Ortelius, and Hollerius in a certain Girl) nor can it naturally be wanting, because Nature abounds not in things superfluous, nor is wanting in things necessary. That vulgar Opinion is therefore fabulous, which 
Whether the Spleen may be taken out of the Body.  holds that it may be taken out of the Body without danger of death, and that in such as used to run Races, it was usually taken out, which never any man yet saw or recorded, excepting Pliny, Flood, Fiorovanta, Roussetus, who if they speak truth, doubtless those persons made a very bad shift to live, or died soon after, for want of that most noble Bowel, or only the outward part of their Spleen was cut off. For deep Wounds in the Spleen are to be accounted mortal, because of the plenty of Arteries, and the consent it hath with the principal Parts of the Body. This Conceit sprung Questionless from that old Opinion of Erasistratus, who conceived that Nature had made the Spleen in vain, which Opinion Plautus also follows in his Comedy called the Merchant. And others follow them, who are so far to be born with, if they shall say it is not necessary in reference to all kinds of Live wights, but only in respect of some sorts. For such live Creatures as have no bladder do want a Spleen without detriment, as the Chamaeleon, and many others. Infects have no Spleen, and therefore that Proverbial Speech is false: Habet & musca splenem, even a Fly hath a Spleen.  
It is not so great as the Liver, yet in Mankind the Spleen is sufficiently thick 
Why a man hath a large Spleen.  and big, not so much because of the stubborn humour which it is to master, and is hard to overcome, as because of the Arterial, fermentative, or leavening, and yeasty Blood, which it was to contain. For it is six fingers long very near, three fingers broad, one finger thick, of which greatness it is not found in any other living Creature. Yet is its bigness various, according to the variety of Subjects, and the several Constitutions of Men. 'Tis thought to be larger in such persons, as have Naturally a greater quantity of Melancholy or acid Juice than others have, which flowing thereunto, it is soon augmented by reason of its loose and spongy substance. Those persons whose Spleen is over grown, are lean, and bade coloured. Whence it was that the Emperor Trajan termed the Exchequer a Spleen, because as the Princes Excheque is enriched, the People are impoverished; so as the Spleen increases, the Body pines. They who conceive it elaborates the Chylus, do bring this for a reason, viz. that it draws too much Ch●le by the Ramus splenicus, and defrauds the Liver. But because that Action of the Spleen is questioned, another reason must be sought after. The most renowned Conringius allows the Premises for true in a preternatural greatness of the Spleen, otherwise, if it be Natural and legitimate, the Body flourishes when the spleen does flourish.  
Be the state of the Spleen what it will, I conceive the Body is diminished, when the Spleen is augmented, because it bereaves the rest of the Body of the fermentative acid Juice, and either consumes it to nourish itself, if it be naturally great; or is unable to prepare and expel it, when its greatness is preternatural and sickly.  
It's Shape is for the most part like on Ox's tongue, whence some have called it 
It's Shape.  linguosum Visous, the Tongue-bowel. On the outside towards the Ribs and the Midriff, it is a little bunching and bossie; sometimes it hath marks made in it by the Ribs, being hollow on that side, which is towards the right hand, by reason of the stomach which lies close by it: Where all along the middle part, there is a certain white Line, with prominencies in it, which admits Veins and Arteries with the Caul. Howbeit, praeternaturally it receives sundry Figures, viz. exactly round, triangular, sharp-pointed, made rough with eminencies, divided into two parts; as Archangelus hath rightly observed.  
It's Colour in a Child in the Womb is red, 
It's Color.  like that of the Liver, because it is nourished with pure Mother's Blood: But in persons come to age, it is blackish, because of the thick blood wherewith it is nourished, and in such as are yet older, it becomes black and blue. I have observed it red in grown persons, and Vesalius before me, as also Spigelius who therefore believes, that such as have it blackish are unhealthy. Conringius thinks that black colour is caused by Intemperance in eating, and in drinking especially. I do attribute much to the temper of particular persons in this case, and to the variety of Heat. Now the Spleen does praeternaturally put on many colours, according to the Humour predominant, as black and blue, ash-color, etc. In Beasts of hot Constitution, it is blacker than in Mankind, and in Swine it is whiter.  
It is knit by thin Membranes arising from the Peritonaeum, to the Peritonaeum 
Connexion.  itself, the Call, and the left Kidney, sometimes also to the Septum, which Fernelius denies, nor can he be excused, unless we shall say he intended the Centre of the Midriff, for thereto it is not fastened. But in its hollow part, it is knit to the upper Membrane of the Caul, from which also (according to others from the Peritonaeum, or as some will have it, proper to itself) it receives,  
A Coat thin and single, yet thicker than the Membrane of the Liver, which in aged 
It's Coat.  persons is oftentimes hardened, so as to become bony and gristly. It ought to be thicker, that it might be stronger to endure the force of the Arterial Blood.  
It's Substance or Parenchyma, is like thick, black, and congealed blood. 
Substance.   
It hath Vessels of all kinds.  
It hath from the Vena Porta a remarkable 
Its Veins.  Trunk, which is called Ramus splenicus, situate far beneath the Liver, and sent ath wart unto the Spleen. The numerous branches of this bough, being for the most part small as Fibres, are spent in the Spleen, saving two which sometimes pass out of the Spleen: The one is called Vas breve entering into the stomach, sometimes by one, otherwhiles by more branches [which more frequently, as Walaeus informs us, is a little branch of Vena splenica, which when it is come to the middle space betwixt the stomach and the Spleen, it is divided forkwise into two twigs, one of which goes to the Spleen, the other to the stomach] which vessel some will have to belch out acid blood to provoke appetite, or to strengthen the stomach, which is afterwards voided by the Guts. Another branch goes unto the Fundament, and makes the internal Haemorrhoid Veins.  
It hath many and great Arteries from a 
Its Arteries.  branch of the Coeliaca, which the Liver hath not. 1. To cherish life and inbred heat. 2. That the Blood might be more strongly altered. 3. That for its own Nourishment, it might receive blood, and withal prepare acid Juice brought thereunto, with Arterial blood, for to ferment the Chyle and all the Blood.  
Now we are to take special notice of the frequent anastomosis of the Arteries 
Its anastomosis.  of the Spleen, with the Veins thereof, especially one remarkable one, before the Entrance of the Vessels into the Spleen: the rest are in the Spleen.  
Also we must observe its little Nerves, arising from the left Costal branch of the sixth pare, dispersed rather through the Coat, than the Substance thereof.  
The Action of the Spleen is by such Doctors as follow the old Opinion said to be chiefly threefold. 1. To draw melancholic, excrementitious, and slimy Humours out of the Liver. 2. To separate the melancholic Excrement there from, that it may be nourished by the good blood. 3. To void it being separated, into the Stomach and Guts. Also they say that the nutriment of the Spleen is elaborated and broken by the Arteries, because spongy and loose flesh ought to be nourished with vaporous and subtle blood. The Passages by which the melancholy Juice is said to be belched forth, are first the Vas breve, and then the Haemorrhoidal Vein. They will have the Spleen therefore to be the Receptacle of the melancholic Excrement, or of thick dreggie Blood separated in the Liver (even as the Gallbladder receives the yellow Choler) and that therefore the Spleen is set just over against the Liver.  
Howbeit I deny that the Spleen is ordained 
Whether the Spleen receive Melancholy from the Liver?  only to receive an Exerement; For  

1. In the Spleen there is no large cavity receiving, as in the Gallbladder, and in the membranous hollowness of the Kidneys, and in the Bladder.  
2. If it were a Receptacle for Excrements, why was it not seated in an inferior place, that it might more conveniently receive the weighty Exerement as other Receptacles?  
3. Rondeletius denving that the spleen 
The argument of Rondeletius invalid.  is the Receptacle of Melancholy, gives this reason: because that humour while it is naturally disposed, is all consumed upon the bony, and other hard and dry parts; and seeing it is in us the least in quantity of all humours therefore there is no part ordained to receive it, no more than there is for bloody Excrements, which pass away by Sweat and insensible Transpiration. Yet I conceive this Argument is not very strong.  
4. Why are there no Branches of this Receptacle spread through the substance of the Liver, or at least of the Ramus splenicus, even as the Gallbladder receives Branches spread up and down the Liver?  
5. Why are there not some Passages, which carry this Juice from the Liver.  
6. No part is nourished with an Excrement, notwithstanding the Saying of Columbus, that no part is nourished with an Excrement saving the Spleen.  
7. It is absurd that an Excrement should flow back into the Vena porta, and afterwards into the Ramus splenicus.  
8. It should receive in, and purge forth Excrements, by the same Passages.  
9 The strongest reason, that the Spleen is no Receptacle of Melancholy is, In as much as it is another Organ of Sanguification, as shall be proved by and by.   
Later Anatomists have conceived, that the Spleen doth elaborate Blood, as the 
Whether the Spleen make Blood?  Liver doth, but they are not agreed, touching the way, nor the Nature of the Chyle. Casparus Bartholinus my Father was of Opinion, that the Spleen did make a thick, but good sort of Blood, of the thicker part of the Chymus, which by an inbred Faculty it hath, it draws to itself, through the Ramus splenicus. This he proved,  

1. By the likeness of the structure of the Spleen, with that of the Liver. For as the Liver is a fleshy Bowel, covered with a Coat, furnished with very many Vessels, the flesh whereof resembles blood, shed round about: Even so, the Spleen is a Bowel, furnished with a Coat, and with very many Vessels variously interwoven, whose proper flesh is as it were congealed blood, shed round about the Vessels.  
2. In the Spleen, there are very many textures of the Vessels and infinite anastomosis. Now there are no where such textures, and plications, or foldings of the Vessels, save for a new elaboration, as may be seen in the Brain, Liver, Stones, Duggs, etc.  
3. It appears from the Situation of the Ramus splenicus, which is far beneath the Liver, out of the Trunk of Vena porta, where part of the Chymus is attracted, or of the Chyle, which hath some disposition towards blood▪ If therefore it receives matter there, of which blood is made, why therefore shall not the Spleen make blood?  
4. Nature is wont either to double the Parts of the Body, and set one on each side, as appears in the Kidneys, Stones, Lungs, Duggs, Organs of the Senses, etc. or if she makes only one, she is wont to place it in the middle. as the Heart, Stomach, Womb, Bladder, Nose, Tongue, Mouth, etc. Therefore the Spleen must needs be another Liver.  
5. Diseases of the Spleen, as well as of the Liver, do hurt Blood-making or Sanguification.  
6. Sometimes the Situation of the Liver is changed, so that it is in the left side, and the Spleen on the right.  
7. The Liver failing and growing less, the Spleen is augmented, and assists the Liver, as is known by many Examples, whence the Spleen hath been often seen in Dissections, to be greater and redder than the liver.  
8. 'tis unlikely that so many Arteries enter into the Spleen, for the sake of Excrements, but rather to digest & concoct thick Blood, that so by contrary thinness, the stubborn thinness of the said Blood may be overcome.  
9 In a Child in the Womb, the Spleen is red as is the Liver, by reason of the cause aforesaid.  
10. Such as the Diseases of the Liver are, such in a manner are those of the Spleen.  
11. And the Diseases of the Spleen and Liver, are cured well near with the self same Remedies.  
12. If Authorities are of force, enter Aristotle in the 3. Book of the Parts of living Creatures, Chap. 7. where he saith, that the Liver and Spleen are of a like Nature; also, that the Spleen is as it were an adulterate Liver, and where the Spleen is very little, there the Liver is Bipartite, or of two parts, and that all parts in the Body almost are double. Plato calls the Spleen an express image of the Liver. Others call it the Livers Vicar, the left Liver, etc. The Author of the Book touching the use of Respiration, hath confirmed this, as also Apbrodisaeus, Araeteus', and others. Archangelus makes another use of the Spleen to be, to make more plenty of Blood.   
If any shall demand, To what ●nd serves the Blood which the Spleen makes? 
For what Parts the Spleen makes Blood?   
Some conceive it serves to the same end, with that of the liver, viz. to nourish the whole body, and to assist the liver.  
But he was of Opinion, that this was not done save when necessity requires, in some defect or Disease of the Liver.  
But he conceives that ordinarily the Spleen is an Organ to make blood, to nourish the Bowels of the lower Belly, as the Stomach, Guts, Call, Mesentery, Sweetbread, etc. and that the Spleen itself is nourished with some portion of the said Blood, and sends the rest to the parts of the body. And he conceives that the liver makes blood for the rest of the parts, especially the musculous parts. And he proves it,  

1. Because the bowels of the lower Belly receive their nourishment from the Vena splenica, or from the branches yssueing therefrom, namely from the branches of Vena port● only, and not from the Vena cava.  
2. Because those bowels are thick, more earthy and base: And such as the like parts are not found in the body besides, and therefore these parts stood in need to receive such blood from the Spleen.  
3. And therefore the liver is greater, because it makes blood for the whole body besides: The Spleen less, because it makes blood only for the lower Belly, save when in cases of necessity it is forced to help the Liver.  
4. In Dogs the Spleen is long and thin, because the Parts or Bowels of the lower Belly are smaller in a Dog, and less wreathed and folded, then in a Man.  
5. There is an evident difference between the Fat bred in the musculous Parts, or those which are nourished by the Vena cava, and that dirty, and soon putrefying Fat, which is bred in the lower Belly, as in the Cal, Guts, Mesentery, etc. Hence arise so many Putrefactions in the mesenterick Parts. And by how much an Humour is thicker (as is the muddy Fat we speak of) so much the sooner it putrifies: As the dreggie fat doth sooner, than the Fat in musculous parts. So the Blood of the Spleen is more disposed to Putrefaction, then that of the liver, and this then the blood of the right Ventricle of the Heart. Moreover, the blood of the Arteries is less subject to Putrefaction, than any of the former; and the Spirit lest of all.  
6 He believes this to be a most strong Argument, that where a part is found having the substance of the Bowels, there also there are Veins from the Vena portae, or the branches of the Spleen: but where a part is consisting of musculous flesh, there are Veins which have their Original from Vena cava, as appears in the Intestinum rectum, in which by reason of its twofold substance, Nature hath placed two sorts of Veins. In the musculous Part, there are the external Haemorrhoid Veins, which arise from the Cava: In the ●owellie or guttie substance, there are veins from the Vena portae.   
These, and such like Reasons prevailed with my Father of pious Memory, to prove that the Spleen drew Chymus, by the Ramus spenicus. Which Opinion was at that time embraced by most Anatomists, as Varolus, Posthius, Jessenus, Platerus, Baubinus, Sennertus, and Riolanus in his first Anthropographia. But that Age deserves excuse, as being ignorant of what Posterity hath since found out. For the milky veins discovered by Asellius, do show, that no Chyle thick or thin, is drawn by the Mesaraick Veins, or carried any whether, but by the milky Veins only to the Liver, and not to the Spleen. Moreover, a Ligature in live Dissections declares, that nothing is carried through the Mesaraicks to the Spleen, but chose from the Spleen to the Mesaraicks. Yet I allow thus much to the foresaid reasons, that there is a certain Generation of Blood made in the Spleen, by the manner hereafter to be explained, not of Chyle, which hath here no Passages, but of Arterial Blood, sent from the Heart.  
Hofmaannus and Spigelius bring the 
Whether any portion of Chyle be carried to the Spleen, and what way?  dreggie part of the Chyle, through the mesaraick Veins unto the Spleen, that it may be there concocted into Blood. Who are in the same fault. For the Arteries are ordained to carry blood to the Mesentery, which is very manifest by Ligatures, and it is contrary to the course of Nature, for the blood to be carried, and the Chyle brought back the same way, lest they should be mingled together. Moreover, in live Anatomists, there was never any Chyle observed there. And the dreggie Portion of the Chyle, which no part stands in need of to nourish itself, is more fitly purged out by the Guts.  
Sperlingerus a learned Man, conceives that this work is performed by the milky Veins, as to the Liver. Which were a ready way, if the milky Veins do go to the Spleen, which no man as yet hath been able to observe. Those that thought otherwise were deceived by nervie Fiberkies.  
Others who very well saw, that the Mesentery sent nothing to the Spleen, would have the Chyle to come right out from the Stomach to the Spleen, by ways manifest or hidden. They account the manifest ways to be the Vas breve, and its branches, by which the spleen sucks the more wa●ry part of the Chyle. But the Vas breve, carries acid Juice from the Spleen, but nothing to the Spleen, no more than the other Veins. Moreover, sometimes it is not inserted into the Spleen, but there is a Branch of the Splenica without it. I omit, that the Vas breve is never full of the white liquor. Daniel Florstius indeed hath in this case substituted the Vena splenica, but contrary to Experience, and the Office of the Veins. The splenick Vein receives all its blood from the Spleen and its Arteries, and returns nothing, and therefore being bound in living Anatomies, it is filled, and swells towards the Spleen, according to the Observation of Walaeus, but towards the Liver it is emptied. Howbeit Regius appeals to the Ligature, that the Vas breve swells betwixt the Ligature and the Stomach, and that it is lank between the Ligature and the Spleen. Bachius is nothing moved herewith, though he cannot untie the knot, and Hogeland is various in this Observation; so that I much doubt, whether the Vas breve is alone so filled, before I shall see it attested by the Eyes of some others.  
Besides the Vas breve, Carolus Piso proves that the wheyish and potulent matter, is drawn out of the Stomach, by the Gastrick and Epiploick Veins; who was ignorant of the motion of humours in these veins. Both the vessels disburden themselves into the Ramus splenicus, and then the blood is sent by a strait Passage unto the Liver, and returns unto the Spleen, without any hindrance of the Valves.  
Those who are for hidden Passages, would force upon us, either the Pores of the Stomach, or a distinct vessel, to us as yet invisible and unknown. Among the former is Veslingus, among the latter Conringius, who nevertheless differ, touching the Concoction of the Humour. Veslingus will have the Spleen to make blood of the mor●●arry Portion of the Chyle, with the earthy and slimy parts mixed therewith, drawn by the invisible Pores, like the milky veins, resting upon the stomach itself, and the Pancreas. Conringius will have only the potulent liquor to pass by a vessel to us invisible, by reason of the close sticking of the Spleen to the stomach, and the Serum therein contained, which is not so white: Which Vessel will at one time or other be discovered. But all would be well, if those men that have eyes in their heads, would show us either those Passages, or that peculiar Vessel. The Pores are too narrow for the dreggie parts of the Chyle to pass through, and who can hinder them sweeting out some other way, rather than into the Spleen? Many times when the Spleen stuck not so close to the stomach, I could see no vessel, nor could I see any such thing in a Youth, who having largely drunk, was here lately choked with a bit of a Neates-tongue.  
Howbeit, Reusner, Piso, and Conringius lately praised, do suppose, that only potulent matter, is by the Spleen presently sucked out, and that therefore it makes only watery Blood ordinarily. But there is no strong and sufficient reason for this Opinion, seeing there are no manifest Passages. Nor must it only draw that which is thin, which both the Blood and Chylus stand in need of, as a vehicle or carrier, though it flow not alone, but is variously mixed with grosser matter, according to the Constitution of the blood; till having played its part, it is either separated by the Kidneys, or sweats through the whole Habit of the Body. If the wheyish moisture be praeternaturally separated in the stomach, from the thicker Chyle, either it is voided by Vomit, and the grosser Chyle wanting the help thereof to carry it, will make the Colic in the Guts, as I saw in our famous Wormius; or it is voided through the Pylorus, which is always open for liquid meats, and such as are easily digested, according to the Observation of our most desired Walaeus; much more after much drinking, which is sometimes in great Drinkers, quickly voided by urine, not passing through the Spleen, but through the Guts, if there be a conveniency of quality, thinness of Humours, looseness of the Vessels, and strength of the attractive Faculty. All which conspiring, Asellius rightly avouches there is no way so long, which is not soon passed over. In such as are otherwise constituted, Drink does not so soon slip away by Urin. For some will drink all day, and never use a Chamber-pot. In some also their Belly becomes loose, and the Drink goes away, questionless, by the Guts. The blood, indeed, of Splenetic persons, is thin and marry, not that it comes such immediately from the stomach, but the fault is in the whole blood, communicated by the Arteries to the Spleen. I pass over, how that these are the signs of a disordered Spleen, from the preternatural state whereof, no good Argument can be drawn to prove any thing, touching its Natural condition; by which Answer, all other Arguments brought by most learned men, for this potulent Chylus are answered.  
It is a doubtful question, why only 
What Creatures have no Spleen  such Creatures have Spleens, which have Kidneys and Bladders, according to Aristotle, which Panarolus found true in a Chamaeleon. Is it because of the Attraction of wheyish Humours? I cannot believe it. But they have no Spleen, because they make little blood, and therefore the wheyish Humour did not want peculiar Receptacles, but the Superfluities of the blood is spent upon Feathers, Skin, Scales, etc. They are therefore without a Spleen, because Fermentation was not necessary, in the imperfect Concoction of those kind of Creatures, who have a perpetual and Natural Lientery.  
Riolanus hath lately in his Enchiridion out of all these Opinions, hammered a mixed action of the Spleen, to attract slimy Blood for its own Nourishment, and after that to pour out a certain particular fermentative Whey, through the splenetic Arteries into the stomach, and because its flesh is of a drinking Nature, to draw and suck superfluous Liquor through the Veins out of the stomach. To which I have already answered, part by part. The Action verily of the Spleen is more noble, then to receive superfluous Humours out of the stomach. And through what Passages should it do that? For the Office of the Veins is, to carry back the blood in the parts, out of the Arteries to the Trunk, according to the Doctrine of the Circulation, which Riolanus does here vainly oppose. And Ligatures in living Anatomies do show the same.  
Franciscus Ulmus, Carolus Piso, and Aemilius Parisanus, will needs have it that the Spleen makes Arterial blood, for the left Ventricle of the Heart, as the Liver doth for the right Ventricle. Which Opinion is coufuted, because, 1. There is no way by which the blood here made, can go into the left Ventricle of the Heart; for it cannot go by the Aorta, because of the Valves there placed at the mouth thereof. 2. There would ●● a mixture of perfect and imperfect Juice, if by the same way, and at the same time the Heart should receive and return blood. 3. Many Creatures live without a Spleen, which generate Vital Spirits nevertheless.  
Mr. De la Chambre in his Treatise of Digestion, supposes that the Spleen makes Spirits for the use of the Belly. But there is Spirit enough to nourish and vivify the inferior Parts, supplied from the Aorta. But if he understand some qualification of the spirituous blood accommodated to the use of the belly, he deserves to be excused.  
Helmont a late Writer, hath destined 
Whether the Spleen be an Organ of the sensitive Soul?  the Spleen for more noble Actions. He gives it out to be the seat of his Archaeus, which being the immediate Organ of the sensitive Soul, determines the Actions of the ●i●●l Soul residing in the stomach. He calls it the Seat. 1. Of the Understanding, wherein the Conceptions thereof are form, because it is of all the Bowels the fullest of Blood, and enriched with very many Arteries; and the Brain does only keep the Conceptions sent to it from the Spleen. 2. Of Sleep and Dreaming. 3. Of Venery, because Pollutions are in the dig●●; and there about the stomach, the first motions of lust are perceived: For they are said to proceed out of the Loins, in which the Spleen is the principal Vital Member. Finally, persons troubled with the Quartan Ague, are not subject to lust, because their Spleen is diseased. 4. Of sundry Diseases, which are accounted to be Diseases of the Brain and Chest, as the Phthisic, Pleurisy, Apoplexy, Falling-sickness, Nightmare, Swimming of the Head, etc. But 1. All these Conceits bottom upon a false Foundation. 2. No sound Anatomist will grant that the stomach and not the brain is the seat of the Soul. 3. The Spleen is full of blood for other uses, that it may prepare acid blood for the fermentation of the whole blood and the Chylus. 4. There are Living-Creatures, that both sleep, and are addicted to Venery without any Spleen, or though they have a Spleen, when the same is diseased. 5. Nocturnal Pollutions spring from an hot Constirution of the Spermatick Vessels, and wheyish sharp Blood, as the Dissection of the said Parts does declare. 6. That is rather to be affirmed touching the Kidneys in the Loins, as shall hereafter appear. 7. Other Parts in the Belly are diseased besides the Spleen; in such as have Quartan Agues. Yet it cannot be denied, but that the Spleen does assist in some measure, by administering acid blood 8. The Spleen is but the remote seat of the foresaid Diseases, by reason of Vapours raised from thence; but proper Diseases which spring not from Sympathy, do primarily depend upon the Brain.  
The last and truest Opinion, is that of Walaeus, my quondam most worthy 
The Opinion of Walaeus touching the use of the Spleen.  Master, founded upon ocular Inspection, and most certain reason. He finding in live Anatomies no motion of Humours through the Ramus splenicus of Vena portoe to the Spleen, did certainly conclude, that it was unlikely, that either Melancholy or Chyle is carried out of the Liver into the Spleen, by the Ramus splenicus; and that therefore the Spleen receives no melancholic Excrement from the Liver, not that any blood is made in the Spleen of Melancholy or Chylus. But chose he observed always, that all the blood was carried, both swiftly and strongly enough perpetually out of the Spleen into the Liver, as also the blood which comes out of the Haemorrhoidal Vein, the Vas breve, and other Veins which are joined to the Ramus splenicus. And that there is no motion of Humours to the Spleen, unless by the Ramus splenicus of the Arteria Coeliaca: And therefore the Spleen does not receive any matter to change and alter from any place, save the Arteria Coeliaca. And he conceives that it is most likely, that the blood being further to be perfected, is dissolved by the Heat of the Heart, and that when it is forced from the Heart, through the Coeliacal d●●eries into the Spleen, the whole mass of blood is not retained by the Spleen, but as the Gallbladder contains only Choler, so the Spleen holds only the acid or sharp part of the Blood, which you may call Melancholy, just as we see the acid Spirit separated from things that are distilled: And that the said acid Humour is perfected by the Spleen, by means of which the Spleen appears black and acid. And that this sharp humour is afterwards mingled with Blood in the Veins, and with Chyle in the Stomach, and makes them thin: And that therefore the Spleen being obstructed, gross Humours are multiplied in the Body, not because thick Humours are not drawn by the Spleen, which naturally are never found there; but because the Spleen cannot communicate that attenuating acid Humour to the Blood or Chyle. And that as much of this acid Humour, as is unfit for Digestion, is voided with the Serum by Urinal, for such acid Liquors, as Vinegar, Spirit of Sulphur, etc. are easily mingled with Water; and the said acid Humour by Distillation may again be separated from the Urin.  
In as much therefore as the Spleen 
How the Spleen may be said to be the seat of Laughter.  draws the sharp part of the blood out of the Heart, and ●●●●ds it prepared to the Mesentery, that the rest thereof being to be wrought by the Liver, may become more pure and clear; the Opinion of the Ancients may be allowed, which held the Spleen to be the seat of Laughter. For the cheerfuller, and livelier Animals, or live Wights, have great spleens; the more lascivious have great livers; the gentler have little galbladders; the fearfuller have great hearts, and the loudest, have large lungs, etc. Whence that Verse had its Original.  
Cor ardet, pulmo loquitur, fell commovet iras,  
Splen ridere facit, coget amare secur.  
Heart fears, Lungs speak, the Gall moves ' anger fell,  
Spleen makes us laugh, 
* 'tis called Lover in the North of England, & possibly that is the Etymology of the Word.  Liver doth Love compel.  
The Spleen therefore perpares blood to accommodate the Bowels of the lower Belly, and of the whole Body after the manner aforesaid. And the excrementitious part of the blood, which cannot be separated by the Spleen, if it be thin and watery, it is purged out. 1. By the Arteries, not only to the Guts, but also to the Kidneys by the emulgent Veins. Hence in Diseases of the Spleen, Urins are many times black, for which cause in such cases we administer Diuretics. And splenerick and melancholic persons so called, abound with wheyish Humours, as is well known from Hypocrates and Galen, for serum ought to be the vehicle or carrier of the grossest Humour. Hence is it, that persons troubled with the Quartan Ague, do most plentifully sweat and piss: Also when it is very plentiful, by the Haemorrhoid Veins. 2. By the stomach, whence in the Scurvy, the Patients spit exceedingly, as also in the Quartan Ague, so that Galen places spitting and spawling among the signs of that Disease. Hence also melancholic persons are wont to be extreme spitters. Now it comes from the Spleen to the stomach, not only by the Vas breve, but also by other near Vessels.  
If the Excrement of the Spleen be 
How its thick.  thick and earthy, it is voided directly by the Fundament, and comes not at the stomach, for 1. From Melancholy as Galen cells us, comes the blackness of the Excrements. 2. By reason of its weight and heaviness, it settles downwards. 3. The evacuation of Melancholy by the internal Haemorrhoid Veins, does free men from melancholic Diseases present, and preserves from future, as the divine Hypocrates teaches in many places.   

Chap. XVII. Of the Kidneys.  
A Threefold Excrement is purged 
The threefold excrement of the Blood.  from the Blood; thin Choler into the Gallbladder, thick Choler into the Canalis bilarius, and Whey into the Kidneys. And because we have already spoken of the Receptacles of the two former Excrements, we shall now also speak of the third.  
This FIGURE shows the Urinary Instruments, and Parts serving for Generation in Men, in their Natural Situation.  
The XVIII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AAA. The hollow part of the Liver.  
B. The Gallbladder.  
C. The Choler-passage or Ductus bilarius.  
D. The Vena Cystica or Gallbladder Vein.  
E. An Artery distributed both into the Liver and the Gallbladder.  
F. The Navil-vein turned upwards.  
GG. The descendent Trunk of Vena cava.  
HH. The descending Trunk of the Arteteria magna.  
II. The Emulgent Veins.  
KK. The Kidneys in their Natural Place.  
LL. The Emulgent Arteries.  
MM. The Capsulae atrabilariae, with Branches distributed into them from the Emulgens Vein.  
NN. Ureters descending from the Kidneys to the Bladder.  
O. The bottom of the Piss-bladder.  
PP.. Insertion of the Ureters, into th' sides of the Bladder.  
QQ. A Portion of the Urachus or Pisspip●.  
R. A Portion of the right or strait Gut cut off.  
SS. The preparatory Vessels, of which that on the right hand is bred▪ out of the Trunk, that on the left out of the Emulgent Vein.  
T. The Pyramidal Body arising from the Union of the Veins and Arteries preparatory, expressed on the left ●ide.  
V. The Original of the preparatory Arteries from the Trunk of Aorta.  
XX. The Stones, the left being laid open from its common Coat.  
YY. The Vasa deferentia which ascend from the Stones to the Belly.  
Z. The Yard.  
aa. The Cod, which covered the left Stone, separated therefrom.  
bb. The Ilia or Flanks.  
cc. The Share-bones.  
dd. The Loins.    
page 44▪  
They are situate under the Liver and Spleen, where they rest upon the 
Their Situation.  Muscles of the Loins, between the two Coats of the Peritonaeum, at the sides of the Vena cava and Arteria magna, under which very great Nerves lie hid, both of the Muscle Psoas, and others, which evidently pass this way unto the Thighs. Whence it is that a stone being in the Kidney, a numbness is felt in the Thigh of the same side. It is a rare case which Cabrolius hath observed, for the Kidneys to rest upon the Backbone of the Loins. Nor are the Kidneys seated just one against another, 
Which Kidney is the highest?  lest there should be some impediment to attraction, and lest some part of the wheyish humour should slip aside. But the rightside Kidney is lowest in Men, to give way to the Liver, under which it rests immediately, reaching by its end, the third Vertebra of the Loins. It is seldom higher than the left, and seldom are the two Kidneys seated one just against another. The left Kidney for the most part, lies partly under the spleen, but is seldom higher than the spleen. chose in Brutes, the spleen goes more downwards, and the right Kidney lies higher, and therefore there is a Cavity in the Liver by means of the Kidney, which does not Naturally happen in men. Here some observe that the right Kidney is nearer to the Cava, and the left more remote, by reason of the left Emulgent Vein, which is much longer than the right.  
They are not always both just of one bigness, but for the most part they are. 
Their Bigness.  They are commonly of the length of four Vertebrae; their latitude for the most part, three fingers, their thickness that of a thumb, yet the right Kidney is very many times larger than the left, because by reason of the heat of the right part, it draws the wheyish blood more vehemently, unless it be fretted by some Disease, for than it grows lean and thin. Also such as are given to fleshy desires, have larger Kidneys then ordinary. But their Proportion is not always alike convenient for the body.  
The Surface of the Kidneys, as in the liver is slippery and smooth: It is seldom 
Surface.  in Mankind uneven, as if it were composed of many Kidneys or kernels, which any man may frequently find in a Child yet in the Womb. But the Kidney is always so made, in an Ox and Bear, in a Calf, and most curiously of all in a Sturgeon, in which the Kidneys are made up like bunches of Grapes, of triangular and quadrangular dies or tiles as it were after an Artificial manner, as I have demonstrated in the Anatomy of that Creature.  
The Colour of the Kidneys is a dark 
Their Colour.  red, but seldom intensely red. In diseased persons the Kidneys are variously coloured, even as the Liver and Spleen are.  
The Kidney is shaped like a kidney-bean so 
Shape.  called, also like an Asarum leaf, if you respect the plane surface. Externally in the Back or about the Flanks, it is of a round, bunching shape▪ beneath towards the upper and lower part it is bossie, but in the middle concave and hollow. Helmont hath seen the left Kidney triangular, and in the same person the right Kidney not so big as an Hazelnut. Hypocrates compares the kidneys to Apples: Without doubt to the broader sort of red Apples; unless by the word meloisin he intended the likeness of the kidneys in man to other Creatures.  
They are knit by an external Membrane, 
Connexion.  which is from the Peritonaeum, to the Loins and Midriff, and by the emulgent Vessels to the Cava and Aorta Vessels, by the Ureters to the Bladder. And the right kidney, to the blind Gut, sometimes also to the Liver, the left to the Spleen and Colon. Hence pains of the kidneys are exasperated by plenty of Winds and Excrements.  
They have a double Membrane: The 
Membranes.  first internal one near and proper, being very thin without Fat and Veins, from the external and common Coat of the ingredient Vessels dilated (for a Vein only goes in with but one Coat) which growing very close, makes the flesh more compact, and being turned back inwards, it accompanies the Vessels, enters into, and invests their Bellies. Another external from the Peritonaeum, which adhaeres but loosely, whence they term it the Swath-band of the kidneys. For it is as it were a coverlid or blanket of the kidneys; and because it is encompassed with much Fat, for the sake thereof, it hath received the Vena adiposa so called, that is to say the Fat-vein, so that in fat persons, the kidneys lie quite hidden. Whence he that knows or searches into hidden things, is said to 
What it is to search the Reins?  search the Reins. For the Scripture uses two words Pela●oth and Ta●oth, the former of which Mercerus will have to be derived from a word signifying to perfect and finish, because there is in the Kidneys a power of consulting, and finishing things consulted upon: The latter they derive from Tiach a blot, and from the Radical word tiwach to daub, or plaster, and crust over, because the Kidneys are crusted, and hidden as it were with Fat. Some indeed explain the Phrase of searching the Reins to be meant of Concupiscence carnal and venereal Delectation, from the word Calah to desire, Witness Rabbi David, and Pagnine, or from Celi a Vessel, because in and from the Kidneys is the desire of Venereal pleasures. Howbeit this also is a secret Quest, stolen pleasures Venereal seeking the night and dark places and secret carriages, which I have largely demonstrated in my Vindicae anatomicae against Hoffman. Fat is bestowed upon them to preserve the Heat of the Kidneys in regard of plenty of Serum which would over-cool them, and to defend the Vessels. There is less about the right Kidney if we believe Aristotle, more about the left, because the Heat of the right Kidney, either suffers it not to congeal, or melts it when it is congealed.  
This TABLE propounds the Kidneys both whole and cut asunder, that the Ingress and Egress of the Vessels might be discerned.  
The XIX. TABLE.  
The FIGURES explained.  
FIG. I. Shows the Form of the Kidneys and of the Emulgent Vessels. 

AA. The common Membrane of the Kidneys compassed about with Fat, and here separated.  
BB. The Capsulae atrabilariae, or auxiliary Kidneys.  
CC. The Kidneys.  
D. A Particle of the proper Membrane of the Kidneys separated from the rest.  
EE. The Trunk of Vena cava descendent.  
FF. The Trunk of the Arteria magna descendent.  
GG. The Ureters or Piss-channels.  
HH. The Emulgent Veins.  
TWO The Emulgent Arteries.  
KK. The Spermatick Veins, or Seed-veins.  
LL. The spermatick or Seed-arteries.  
m. The Vena adiposa or fat Vein from the Emulgent.  
n. The Arteria adiposa, the fat Artery.    
FIG. II. Shows the Entrance of the Emulgent Vessels, into the hollow part of the Kidneys. 

AAA. The inside of the Kidney cut open,  
B. The Basin of the Ureter.  
C. The Emulgent Vein spread by sundry Branches into the Kidney.  
D. The Emulgent Artery variously divided, joining itself to the little Branches of the Veins.    
The III. FIG. Shows the Rise of the Aorta. 

AAA. The Kidney cut open.  
B. A large Cavity, or the Basin of the Ureter, about the Kidney.  
C. The Ureter looking downwards.  
DDD. Little Pipes embracing the Caruncles of the Ureter.  
EEE. The Teat fashioned Caruncles or Bits of Flesh, which do strain the Urinal into the Kidneys.    
The IV. FIG. Shows the Caruncles. 

AAA. The appearance of a Kidney split open.  
BBB. The Mouths of the Ureters, which compass the Caruncles opened.  
CCC. The Papillary Caruncles so called, which strain the Urinal into the Kidneys.    
The V. FIG. Shows the Kidney cut open to its Belly. 

AAA. The Kidney divided through the bossie part.  
BBB. The Caruncles cut through the middle.  
CCC. The Pipes of the Ureters.  
D. A Wound piercing into the Belly of the Kidney.    
page 46  
The kidneys have two Bellies as it were, 
Their Bellies.  the outermost in the hollow part which Fallopius calls Porta; through which the emulgent vessels are carried, and first they enter bipartite or divided into two, and soon after they are commonly divided into four, and so spread abroad into the whole substance of the kidneys, till at last they are consumed and spent into very small and fine threads. The inner Belly is nothing but the large Cavity of the Ureter, that is to say a membranous Cavity, made of the Ureters, spread out and widened in the Cavity of the kidneys. But the Ureters in their progress are not attenuated within, as other Vessels are, but they have the ends of their branches (eight or ten for the most part) broad and open like Pipes, embracing certain Caruncles, or little fleshy Eminences.  
These Caruncles are like kernels, less coloured and harder than the rest of 
The Caruncles.  the flesh. Carpus was the Finder out of them, though Rondeletius says that he did first observe them, and calls them Mammilary productions. Others call them Papillary Caruncles, because they are very like the Nipples upon women's Duggs: They are as big as Pease, somewhat broad above, convex beneath, and they have very little holes bored through them, so that they will hardly permit an hair to enter, which furrows and little channels may be observed, if the kidneys be cut long-wise. I have instead of these found stones in an Ox. The holes were to be exceeding small, lest the blood which is requisite to nourish the kidneys, should with the Serum and Choler flow into the Ureters, which indeed happens when the kidneys are diseased or the Passages too open.  
They have Vessels of all kinds. Veins from the Cava. 1. The emulgent or milking Veins so called from their Office, which are great 
The emulgent Veins and Arteries.  and remarkable by reason of abundance of wheyish humour in the Body: In which Baubinus saith there are Valves to be seen, which hinder the return 
A Valve in the Vein.  of serum into the Vena cava. But Experience teaches otherwise, for with their broad end they look towards the Cava, and with their sharp and lunary part they respect the kidneys, by which they are opened, according to the Opinion of Dr. Harvey, which I have found true, and demonstrated by visible Inspection, so that any matter may easily repass, from the kidneys by the Emulgents to the Vena cava, in the solemn Circulation of the Blood. By a short and crooked passage they are carried downwards to the hollow part of the kidneys, as also the emulgent Arteries, which are remarkable and large, derived from the Trunk of the Aorta, unto the kidneys, not so much to furnish vital Heat, to resist coldness, as to nourish the kidneys, and to purge away the wheyish humour, which is most plentifully contained in the Arterial blood. For these emulgent Vessels are seldom one like another, or one in number, sometimes with six, five, four, three, and for the most part two branches, they go distinctly to the kidneys, and that either on the one or both sides, seldom on one alone. And when they have entered the hollow part of the kidney, each branch is suddenly subdivided into four or five little ones, which being again divided into other lesser ones, they are at last spent into Veins and Arteries as small as hairs, which end at the the Heads of the Caruncles, into which they shed their wheyish humour, that it may distil into the little Pipes of the Ureters: Yet are the Emulgents never opened at the Pipes of the Ureters. For wind or water being forced in, it flows indeed through the Emulgents, but it goes not out by the Pipes. Into the left Emulgent in some bodies there is implanted a branch of the Vena azugos so called, which is thought to be the cause of that Consent which is between the Chest and the Kidneys, which the Arteries do not a little further.  
2. The Venae adiposae. The right being drawn from the Emulgent, seldom 
Venae adiposae.  from the Trunk, the left from the Cava to the outward Coat, which contain blood to nourish the Fat. Moreover, the kidneys need no other Vessels to nourish them besides the Arteries, as the Vesica bilaria or Choler-bladder, and the Piss-bladder; for they do not draw a pure Excrement as those do.  
The Kidney hath one very small Nerve on each side, from the Stomach-branch 
Their Nerves.  of the sixth pare, distributed into its proper Membrane, whence arises 
Why such as have a stone in their kidney are subject to vomit?  the Sympathy between the kidneys and the stomach, as when persons diseased in their kidneys, are troubled with stomach-sickness and vomiting. But there are a few branches of Nerves, which proceed from about the beginnings of the Arteries of the Mesentery, part of which enters into the hollow of the kidneys with the Emulgents, and is disseminated through their substance. Hence persons having the stone in their kidneys, have more vehement gravative and stretching pains: But their pain becomes more sharp, when the stone enters into the narrow and very sensible Ureters.  
Now this is the structure of the Kidneys 
The structure of a Dog's kidney.  in Mankind. For in a Dog it is otherwise, in whose kidneys there are other Cavities; but in the kidneys of a Man there are none, save what are form by the Emulgents and Ureters variously divided.  
Also there is a feigned Dream of some 
The Cribrum benedictum of the Ancients.  of the Ancients, touching the Cribrum benedictum by them so called. For they feigned that there were in the kidneys, two Cavities seated according to their length: The one uppermost, into which the wheyish blood should be poured out of the Emulgents, the other lowermost, which a certain transverse Membrane was thought to sever like a seive bored through with very small holes, which made them call it the Colander, and the blessed seive, through which they would have the Serum strained into the Ureters, and the good blood to stay behind to nourish the kidneys. These Dreams of the Ancients Vesalius did rightly reject; 
The Error of Vesalius.  but he is mean while deceived, while he would have such Cavities in the kidneys of men, as there are in Dogs kidneys, and will not have the kidneys of a man or sheep to be cut up, because of the Fat. Riolanus defends this Opinion of the Colander or Seive, but he explains it only of the Caruncles (as I do) which are pierced through with very small holes.  
Their Use. Erasistratus and the followers 
Aristoles Error touching the use of the Kidneys.  of Asclepiades did conceive that Nature had made the kidneys in vain. And Aristotle sometimes says, that there is no need of them. But  
Their Use is to draw the wheyish 
How the Urinal is made?  blood, by the emulgent Arteries, that so the mass of blood may be purged. The blood therefore going out through these Vessels, is always carried through the branches of the Emulgents, which are spread abroad through the whole flesh of the kidneys, and go at last into very small passages, so that at last the wheyish Humour is poured right out into the flesh of the kidneys: But the sanguine and laudable portion, does partly remain to nourish the kidneys, and partly returns by little emulgent Veins which are open into the Cava, and so to the Heart. The wheyish and watery part is strained through the Papillary Caruncles, which have holes into the branches of the Ureters, which grow together into one large Cavity or Expansion of the Ureter, into which the wheyish humour is emptied, and through the Ureters into the Bladder, where it becomes urine. And because urine is yellow, a portion of yellow Choler not drawn out by the Gallbladder, is thought to pass along with the Serum or wheyish humour that the Ureters might be cleansed by Choler, as the Guts are.  
Olhafius, Sennertus, Olaus Wormius, whom a great many others have followed, 
Whether the Kidneys prepare Seed?  as Hoffman, Meybome, Horstius, Loseleus, Eichstadius, Sperlinger, and others have attributed to the Kidneys the preparation of Seed, because hot Kidneys cause a propensity to fleshy lust, and cold Kidneys indispose to Venery, and because in Creatures that use Venery, the kidneys have a rank smell and taste of Seed, which in gelded Animals they have not. Because in a Gonorrhaea proceeding from abundance of Sperm, Remedies are successfully applied to the kidneys: because men are said to proceed from the Loins of their Progenitors, and they have been famed for the seat of Lust: Because the Loins being whipped, do raise an Appetite to Venery: And finally because in persons given up to lust, the kidneys are consumed. Which Arguments are indeed of some weight, unless peradventure that smell and razed happen to the kidneys, because they are nourished with such a nutriment as is the matter of Seed, which is carried for the Generation thereof in bordering Vessels. And when the kidneys are hot or cold, the neighbouring places are also hot or cold, through which the matter of Seed is carried, and in which it is altered, and therefore Seed may have affinity to the Constitution of the kidneys. For Johannes Walaeus conceives 
This Opinion reconciled with the Doctrine of Circulation.  that the Circulation of the blood cannot admit this use of the kidneys, for blood is not carried from the kidneys to the stones, by the Emulgents and Veins: but it falls down only out of the Aorta by the Spermatick Arteries. But this action of the kidneys defended by such Learned men, may be reconciled with the circular motion of the blood, if we shall say. 1. That the more wheyish part of the Arterial blood is drawn by the kidneys through the emulgent Arteries, whereby the rest which descends right along through the Spermatick Arteries, becomes more pure and fitter to make Seed. Of which this is a sign, that when the attraction of the kidneys is weak, and the blood comes to the stones more wheyish than it ought to be, the seed which is voided, is unfit for Generation, though plentiful in quantity. 2. That the neighbouring Spermatick Vessels are irradiated and virtuated by the kidneys, even as the Brain irradiates the lower Parts, by an inbred property resembling light. 3. If any thing should be carried from the kidneys to the stones, we might very well say, it is a wheyish substance, which stirs up a sharp titillation and strong provocation and desire to Venery. For I am not persuaded by the Arguments of Helmont, that the salt of the Urinal takes away the fruitfulness of the Seed, if it be moderate, seeing it helps the Seed both by its acrimony and fluidity or thinness of substance. Little Birds, indeed, though very lascivious, have neither kidneys nor bladder; yet they have somewhat that supplies the Office of the kidneys, viz. certain Caruncles or little parcels of flesh, which resemble the kidneys, which are continued with the Vena cava and Aorta, Witness Aristotle and others.  
Beverovicius artributes a kind of Sanguification or Blood-making to 
Whether the Kidneys make Blood?  the kidneys. 1. Because they have a Parenchy●● and very many Vessels. But they might have their Parenchyma because of their Vessels, that they might not be entangled one with another. And it was requisite they should have very many Vessels, to the end they might plentifully purge away the Serum or wheyish part of the Blood, so that through very many and very small outlets, the Whey might be issued out into the Caruncles, without any considerable quantity of Blood therewith. 2. Because the Kidneys which in healthy persons are red, clear, solid; according to the kind of the Disease, become sometimes obscure and blackish, sometimes whiteish; otherwhiles loose, brittle, and as it were rotten; and sometimes again, hard and dried. But that might happen, because as some other parts, so the kidneys might be sick, or through sickness of the Body, Concoction being somewhere hurt, they could not be nourished with good blood. 3. Because the Urins of persons troubled with the stone are crude: But of that another cause is commonly rendered. Viz. in that the kidneys being stopped, the thinner part only of the Urinal can make its way forth. 4. Because persons troubled with the stone are wont to swell and look pale, like those that are termed Leucophlegmatici. But this may easily happen, because the kidneys either through weakness cannot sufficiently draw the wheyish humour out of the blood, or being stopped it cannot be duly expelled. But if he or any other shall affirm, that allowing the Circulation of the blood in these parts, the blood is there somewhat more changed, than it was in its simple Vessel, I shall not disagree with them therein. For themselves it is that they change the blood, but it is for the rest of the body only, that they purge out the wheyish Excrement.   

Chap. XVIII. Of the Capsulae Atrabilariae, or Blackcholer Cases.  
THese Vessels are by most Anatomists neglected and not observed, though they are evermore found in all Bodies, what ever Archangelus says to the contrary. Nor must we say that these Capsulae are made of a superfluous Matter, as a sixth finger uses to be.  
We are beholden to Bartholomew Eustachius 
Their first finder out.  for the first discovery of these small Bodies, who mentions them by the name of Kernels, and after him Archangelus and Bauhinus. Casserius calls them Renes succenturiatos Deputy-kidneys or Auxiliary kidneys. I shall call them, in regard of the use I allot them, Capsulas atrabilarias, Blackcholer Cases.  
Now these Cases are so seated, that they rest upon the upper part of the kidneys on the outside, where they look towards the Vena cava, being covered with Fat and Membranes.  
Their number is the same with that 
Their Number.  of the kidneys. For upon each kidney there rests a Case. I have once seen four of them, of which the two greater being four square were seated above, and the two smaller being round, uneven, and rough, were placed beneath the emulgent Veins.  
Their Magnitude is not always alike; commonly that on the right side 
Their Magnitude.  is bigger than that on the left, yet sometimes the latter is bigger than the for●…▪ In a Child new born, they are near as big as the kidneys, peradventure because they are moister than ordinary, and contain a more thin melancholy Juice, which because they do not strongly enough expel, but treasure it up rather, therefore these Cases are widened. But in grown persons they are straitened, and become less, though they abound more with Melancholy, partly because the Melancholy being gathered by degrees, is through the strength of nature by degrees expelled; partly, because the Serum in hotter persons is dried up, wherewith the new born Infant abounded; and partly because as the Reins grow bigger, they are compressed. Yet I have once observed them in a grown person, by reason of abundance of black Choler, twice as big as ordinary, whereas commonly they are no bigger than a large vomiting Nut.  
They have an apparent internal Cavity, both in persons grown and newborn 
Their Cavity.  babes, compassing the inner circumference of the whole Case as it were, in which they are found to contain a dreggie and black humour, so that even the inner sides are coloured with the said blackness. In Infants I have seen to my thinking wheyish blood in them. I admire that Riolanus could not, or would not see this Cavity, for though he cries that it is so small, that it will hardly admit a little Pea, yet is it sometimes wider, and always so large, as to contain many peasen compressed, and we can thrust a Probe into it, this way and that way, without violence. It contains therefore a large Cavity, respecting the smallness of its Body. Nor hath Nature ever laboured in vain, no not in the smallest spaces of the Capillary Veins. It is a small matter which they can hold, yet it may be counted much, because it is successively received in, and cast out again. This Humour might have been indeed allayed and sweetened by the admixture of blood, as Choler also might, yet Vessels and Receptacles are ordained for both these Excrements, that the blood might not be polluted.  
In Shape and Substance they many times resemble the kidneys, save that 
Their Shape and Substance.  their substance is a little loser; so that they seem little kidneys resting upon the great ones. Which perhaps was the Reason that Casserius did call them Auxiliary kidneys: But more frequently their substance is flat like a Cake (howbeit hollow within) and their shape is round-long and somewhat square. Sometimes they are three corner'd, seldom round; for they are seldom seen in one and the same shape.  
They are knit where they rest unto the external Membrane of the kidneys 
Their Connexion.  so fast, that negligent Dissecters, when they take out the kidneys, leave them sticking to the Membrane of the Diaphragma or Midriff. And this is the Reason that many observe them not.  
They have Vessels: Veins, and Arteries, derived to them from the middle of the 
Their Vessels.  Emulgents. Sometimes also a Vein is sent thither from the kidney, and sometimes also a branch near the Liver from the Cava is brought thereto, sometimes also from the Vena adiposa, and sometimes from all those places, sometimes with a single, otherwhiles with a double branch. Sometimes they have a single Artery from the Emulgents, sometimes a double one; and otherwhiles they have from the Trunk of the Aorta, one while a single branch, otherwhiles three together.  
These Cases have Nerves also. For about the beginnings of the Arteries of the Mesentery, some branches of Nerves mixed together are produced, one part of which goes unto the kidneys, and these Cases which rest upon them.  
The Capsulae Atrabilariae in Men and other Creatures, are here described. In all which FIGURES.  
The XX. TABLE.  
The FIGURES explained.  
The Capsulae or Cases, being round in men  
The Capsulae or Cases, being Trianguler in men  
The Capsulae or Cases, being square and O● all in men  
The Capsulae or Cases, in a Lamb●  
The Capsulae or Cases, in the fish, Tu●sio  
The Capsulae or Cases, in an Ox●  


A. Represents the Cases whole.  
B. Shows them dissected, that the internal Cavities may be seen, which are of various Forms.  
C. Points out their Veins and Arteries, arising from the Aorta and Cava, and from the Emulgents.  
D. Is the Vena cava.  
E. Is the Arteria Aorta.  
F. The Vessels on both sides, called Emulgents.  
G. The Kidneys cropped off.    
Page 5●   

Chap. XIX. Of the ureters, or Vrin-channels.  
THe Ureters or Urin-carryers', are 
The Ureters.  round-long Vessels or Channels, arising out of the Kidneys, planted into the Bladder, into which they carry the Urinal from the Kidneys.  
The Ureters are commonly two in Number, on each side one, sometimes 
Their Number.  two, & sometimes more, yet all growing into one before their Insertion, as also Carolus Stephanus observed in a certain Body. But the far renowned Riolanus, in a body infected with the venereal Pox, saw two Ureters on either side, inserted into the bladder at ●…s places, the one towards the neck, the other in the bottom thereof. Solomon Albertus observed three on the right side, and but one on the left. I have frequently observed the like difference, as among other things I show in my Rare Anatomical Histories.  
Their Situation. They run through many parts in their beginning, middle, 
Their Situation.  and end. Their beginning is in the kidneys themselves, what ever Hoffman, Riolanus, Laurenberg, and Plempius say to the contrary; in which they rise like Roots out of the Earth, and as a Vein out of the Liver. Nor does their similitude with the Bladder move me; because, 1. The Nature of the Ureters is peculiar and distinct from them both. 2. They are not much unlike the belly of the kidneys. 3. All Parts do carry with them the nature and colour of their Original, as we see in the Aorta and the Cava. Nor does their cleaving fast to the Bladder infer any thing, seeing the connexion is not greater there then in the kidneys, being conveniently separable, between the Membrane of the Bladder and the Muscle. And therefore this Original 
The Original of the Ureters.  is in the kidneys, out of nine or ten little Pipes or Channels, to each of which the Caruncles aforesaid are applied, though the Caruncles may be also applied to their middle part being bored through. Now those Pipes go into fewer and greater branches, commonly into three, distributed into the upper, middle, and lower Region of the kidney. These grow afterwards into one large Cavity which goes out of the flat side of the kidney. The middle part, is the whole 
Their Middle.  long-round Pipe or Channel, resting upon the Muscles of the Loins, between two Membranes of the Peritonaeum, with which  
The Ureters are fastened; above to the kidneys, below to the Bladder, 
Their Connexion.  with the inner substance whereof they make one continued Body, so that they cannot be plucked away without breaking. Their End is, where they are implanted, being 
Their End.  carried obliquely a finger's breadth, between the proper Membrane of the Bladder, and it's circumvolved Muscle, not far from the Neck of the Bladder, in its hinder part. And besides the oblique Insertion of the Ureters 
Why the Urinal cannot go out into the Emulgents.  (which cannot at all, or very highly hinder the regress of the wheyish Humour into the Ureters, because it is broad) two little Membranes are placed in the Implantation, like the Valves in bellows, shutting up the passage of the Ureters, so that the Urinal cannot go back. Hence it is, that the Bladder being blown up, will not admit so much as any wind. Laurentius, Riolanus, and Plempius deny these Valves, contrary to all other Anatomists. But though the passage be crooked, yet is it open enough. The Gut Colon is not a little wreathed, and the Ileon more than that, and yet they have a Valve affixed. Yea they are themselves forced to confess, that the two Membranes clapped together, do exactly shut up the passage of the Ureters, and what hinders but that they may be termed Valves.  
As for their Magnitude. They are long-round Vessels, thick and 
Their Magnitude.  hollow, as big as straws. But in Dissections of persons troubled with the Stone, we have often seen their Cavity so wide as to admit two fingers, yea and as big as the Guts.  
As to there Figure, they are round Vessels like Water-pipes, a little crooked like the letter, 
Figure.  S.  
They have a double Membrane: The 
Membranes.  one common from the Peritonaeum for strength sake, the other proper, like the inner substance of the Bladder, and continued therewith, white (whence some and Celsus among the rest call them the white Veins) bloodless, nervous, thick, strong furnished with strait and crooked Fibres, that they may be stretched.  
They receive small Veins and Arteries from 
Vessels.  the neighbouring Parts.  
They have Nerves from the sixth pare, and the Marrow of the Loins. Whence they have an exquisite sense, and are pained when stones pass through them, which sense of pain is increased, by the distension of these membranous Bodies, caused by great stones.  
Their Use is, that through them as Conduit-pipes, 
Use.  the Urinal separated from the Blood by the kidneys, may be carried into the Bladder; and sometimes Gravel and Stones, Worms, Pins, Ha●●, Quittor, Blood, etc. Now the Urinal is carried by a manifest Passage formerly explained into the bladder, which Passage, because Asclepiades was ignorant of, he would have the Urinal 
The Error of Asclepiades and Paracelsus.  carried into the bladder, after a blind manner, as if it were first resolved into a vapour, and did so sweat through, and afterward became an humour as before: Which transudation Paracelsus likewise held.   

Chap. XX. Of the Piss-bladder  
THis Bladder is seated in the lowest 
The Situation of the Piss-bladder.  part of the Belly, between two Coats of the Peritonaeum, in a Cavity fashioned by the Os sacrum, the Hip and Share-bones (as it were in a little belly of its own, separate from the Paunch) in men above the 〈…〉 rectum or Arsegut; in women between the 〈…〉 the Womb, and the Os pubis, and the Shar●….  
It's Magnitude varies, for the greater the Lungs are, the greater is the bladder, so 
It's Magnitude.  that those Live-wights which have no Lungs, have no bladder; and according as it is variously distended. For sometimes being full, it does so strut in the belly, that it may be felt by the hand, and sometimes being empty, it is in Dissections hardly discerned at first, by reason of its smallness, being no bigger than a large Pear.  
The XXI TABLE.  
This TABLE expresses the Coats of the Bladder, as also the Seed-bladders seated in the Hinder-part thereof.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The common Coat of the Bladder.  
BBB. It's middle Coat, furnished with musculous Fibres.  
C. It's inmost wrinkled Coat.  
DD. The Neck of the Bladder.  
E. The Sphincter Muscle of the Bladder.  
FF. The Kernels called Prostarae.  
GG. A Portion of the Ureters.  
hh. Their Insertion between the two Coats of the Bladder.    
FIG. II. 

A. The inner Coat of the Bladder being opened.  
BB. Part of the Ureters.  
CC. The Orifices of the Ureters widened in the Bladder.  
DD. A Portion of the Vasa deferentia, or carrying Vessels.  
EE. The Seminal Bladders displayed.  
FF. The Kernels called Prostatae divided.  
G. An Hole going from the Bladders into the beginning of the Piss-pipe, furnish with a Valve.  
H. The common Passage of Piss and Seed.    
FIG. III. 

A. The Hinder side of the Bladder, with its External Coat taken off.  
BB. The Ureters.  
CC. A Portion of the Vessels which carry away the Seed.  
DD. The Seed-cases, or Capsulae Seminales.  
dd. Their End.  
EE. The Seed-bladders expressing divers Cells.  
FF. The Kernels called Prostatae.  
G. The Piss-pipe.    
page 52  
The Bottom is fastened to the Peritonaeum, also to the Navel, by an intermediate 
Its Connexion.  Ligament, called Urachus, and the two Navil-arteries dried up, lest when a man walks upright, the bottom should rest upon the Neck. Hence is the Sympathy between the neck of the bladder and the Navel. The neck of the bladder is fastened in Women to the Neck of the Womb, and the neighbouring Hip-bones; in Men to 〈…〉 Rectum Intestinum.  
It's Substan● ●…tly membranous for strengths 〈…〉 because of exten●… 
It's Substance.  and w●…ether, ●…ly fleshy, because of motion. For it hath two Membranes, and one Muscle infolding the whole bladder, which all other Anatomists except Aquapendent, do make to be a third Membrane, and not a Muscle.  
The first Membrane is outmost and common, from the Peritonaeum, strong 
Membranes.  and thick.  
The other is inmost, and proper, thin, of exquisite sense, interwoven with all kind of Fibres, that it may admit of much distension and contraction [wherein there are very many wrinkles, in persons troubled with the stone, and little cavities are engraven which hold stones, being caused through long want of distension] And it is covered with a 
The Crust of the Bladder.  fleshy Crust, or wrinkled Coat as it were, made of the Excrements of the ●…igestion, lest the innemost Coat should be by the sharpness of the Urine.  
That which is in the middle, betwixt this proper and the outmost Coat, is by others called the second proper Membrane, which nevertheless they grant to be thick, and furnished with fleshy Fibres.  
But it is rather a Muscle encompassing the whole Bladder: because it hath Fibres 
The expulsive Muscle of the Bladder.  visibly fleshy, inserted into the beginning of the bladder: So that, as the circular Muscle called Sphincter, does close the bladder, that our water may not pass from us against our wills, so this Muscle does help the avoidance of our water, whilst by contracting itself, it squeezes the bladder. And this is, indeed, the Opinion of my Master Aquapendent; the truth whereof Walaeus was wont thus to prove in the Dissection of live Dogs: having cut off all the Muscles of the Abdomen, he makes a small piercing wound into the bladder, out of which wound or hole, the urine spins out as far, as naturally it does from the Yard: yet I shall not refuse to grant thus much to other Authors: Viz. that the Muscles of the Abdomen or Belly, do also help forward the Expulsion of Urin. It makes nothing against us, that the stomach, and Guts, and Womb, have the like fleshy membrane; for they also did need such an one, that they might more easily be widened and contracted. Hence, though the Membrane of the Bladder be more fleshy, yet in a large sense, the Membrane of these other parts may likewise be termed musculous. But the condition of Spirituous blood, forcibly issuing forth, and of a dull and lazy urine are different. Moreover, in the Veins, the precedent blood is forced on by that which follows, according to the Laws of Circulation, and the inbred Faculty.  
The Bladder hath three Holes: Two a little before the Neck, where the Ureters 
It's Holes.  are inserted, of which before, the third is in the Neck, to let out the Urin.  
Now the Neck of the Bladder, is its narrower 
It's Neck.  part, through which the Urinal is voided. In Men this Neck is more long-round, narrow, and a little writhe, because being placed under the bodies which compose the Yard, it is carried upwards, under the Share-bones, from the Fundament to the Original of the Yard: To which in the hinder part two Kernels are adjoined, called the Prostatae. In Women the Neck of the Bladder is short and broad, stretched forthright downwards, and implanted above into the Neck of their Womb. In both Sexes the Neck is fleshy (which therefore heals, being wounded, whereas wounds in other parts of the bladder are deadly) interwoven with very many Fibres, especially such as run athwart, which purse up the Neck of the bladder, that our water may not pass from us against our wills, and this orbicular Muscle is 
The Sphincter Muscle.  therefore called the Sphincter. Which if it be over cooled, or troubled with the Palsy, or any other Disease, the Patient cannot hold his water.  
The Bladder hath Veins, termed Venae Hypogastricae, implanted into the sides of its 
Its Vessels.  Neck, which being variously distributed through the bladder, are mutually conjoined one with another, and with the Arteries, and are penetrable by mutual holes from one to another, so that the blood may easily pass out of one branch into another, according to the Observation of Silvius, that the nutritive blood brought in by the Arteries, may return by the Veins. Now the reason why the Bladder hath Veins, is, because it draws a mere Excrement, viz. the Urinal, with which it cannot be nourished.  
It hath Arteries from the Hypogastrica in Men, in Women from the Vessels which go into the Neck of the Womb.  
It hath considerable Nerves from the sixth pare, and from the Medulla of Ossacrum.  
It's Use is, to contain Urinal, and to be the 
It's Use.  Body's Chamber-pot; also Stones it contains and Gravel, and sometimes other things, as Hairs, Witness Galen, Donatus, Hollerius, Shenkius, Tulpius; Worms, by report of Hollerius, Mundanella, Dodonaeus, of which there was a late Instance at Hafnia, Pinns, and which is most strange, Potherbs, according to the late Observation of John van Horn. And its next use is to expel the said Urinal contained.   

Chap. XXI. Of the Seedpraeparatory Vessels in Men.  
HItherto we have handled the Organs of Nutrition; those of Procrea ion or Generation come next to be spoken of, which are different in Men from those in Women. In Men those which first present themselves, are  
The twofold Spermatick Vessels, viz. 
The Spermatick Vessels and their Original.  the two Spermatick Veins, and the two Spermatick Arteries.  
The right hand Vein, arises from the Trunk of Vena cava, a little below the Rise of the Emulgent: The left springs from the Emulgent, for otherwise it should go over the Aorta, and there would be danger of breaking, or ●ather lest by the Pulse of the Artery, the motion of the blood in the Vein, should be in some sort stopped and hindered. Therefore it hath its Rise seldom from the Cava, and sometimes from both places.  
Both the Seminal Arteries do arise from the Arteria magna, or great Artery: Almost two fingers breadths distance from the Emulgents.  
These Vessels are in Men greater 
Their Magnitude.  than in Women; and the Arteries are larger than the Veins, because very much Heat, and Vital Spirit, and Arterial blood are requisite, for to make the Seed. Sometimes one Artery is wanting, and sometimes both, peradventure in such as cannot engender.  
These Vessels are somewhat distant 
Their Passage.  one from the other; they are obliquely carried above the Ureters to the groins, but in their progress, these Veins and Arteries are joined by infinite anastomosis (so that the Arteries are so coupled within the Coat of the Veins, as if they were but one Vessel) and they are knit together by a Membrane arising from the Peritonaeum, and are afterwards carried to the beginning of the Stone, like the tendrils of a Vine, being so interwoven, that a curious eye cannot distinguish a Vein from an Artery.  
The XXII. TABLE.  
This TABLE comprehends the Kidneys, Bladder, Yard, and Seminary Vessels, as they are wont to be showed, taken out of the Body.  
The FIGURE explained.  


AA. The Auxiliary Kidneys, or Deputy-kidneys.  
BB. The true Kidneys.  
CC. The Emulgent Veins.  
DD. The Emulgent Arteries.  
EE. The Spermatick Veins.  
FF. The Spermatick Arteries.  
GG. The trunk of Vena cava, divided into the Iliack Branches.  
HH. The trunk of the great Artery, divided in like manner.  
FOUR The Ureters.  
KK. The Vessels which prepare the Seed.  
LL. The same Vessels where they make the Vasa pampiniformia.  
MM. The Stones covered with all their Coats.  
NN. The Vessels which carry away the Seed going behind the Bladder.  
O. The Piss-bladder.  
P. The Neck of the said Bladder.  
QQ. The Kernels called Prostatae.  
RR. The Muscles which raise the Yard.  
SS. Two other Muscles which widen the Piss-pipe.  
T. The Body of the Yard.  
V. The Foreskin covering the Nut of the Yard.    
page 54  
These Praeparatory Vessels of Generation, when they come unto the Stone, are not changed into the carrying Vessels, as if one continued body with them as many imagine. But they pierce through the proper Coat of the Stone, and are spread through the substance thereof, and so obliterated.  
The use of the Spermatick Arteries, is to carry Blood and Spirit to the Stones, and 
Their Use.  in those various interweavings to prepare the same, by a virtue which they fetch from the stones, by reason of its long stay and accurate Concoction, and sifting in those crooked Mazes, that it may become Seed, and may nourish the Stones, for which nourishments sake, in those that are not yet of ripe age, these Arteries carry blood, before they can labour and make Seed. Now the use of the Spermatick Veins, closely interwoven with the Arteries about the Stones, and joined to them by mutual anastomosis, is, to carry back that blood which remains superfluous, after the Stones are nourished, and the Seed made, unto the left Emulgent, or to the Vena ●…ediately, on the right side, where the S●…in is commonly propagated from t●… there an● need to fear, lest this return of the blood through the Veins should withdraw matter from the Seed, or that the generating Spirit, should return upwards from the stones. For by reason of the intricate mixture and intertexture of the Vessels, no part goes back, save what the stones dismiss, as not necessary for themselves, nor the whole Body. And therefore we do for the most part find the Arteries which bring the blood greater, and the Veins which carry it back lesser, because the Stones do not return so much as they receive. And that the Spirit is retained, the silent course of the blood through the Veins, is a token. Which blood, verily, is retained in the stones from flowing back, by the same power whereby it is retained in other Parts of the Body.   

CHAP. XXII. Concerning the Stones.  
THe Stones or Testicles so called, as witnessing 
The Stones.  the courage and strength of a man, without which a man was no sufficient witness in the Roman Court, are also called Did●●●i or Gemelli Twins, because commonly  
They are in Number two. Seldom one great one and no more, as in Sylla 
Their Number.  and Cotta, Witness A●rianus; seldomer three, as in Agathocles the Tyrant of Sicily, and some Families of Italy of the Colci, especially at Bergoma, and others at Paris, according to the Observation of Fernelius, which is also proper to a renowned Family in Germany,; and four, which Aristotle partly observed, and Riolanus the Father, so small that they proved barren, because either they do not sufficiently digest the matter of Seed, or they do not easily receive the same, because of the straitness of their passages.  
They are seated externally in Men, 
Why placed without in Men?  without the Abdomen, under the Belly, at the Root of the Yard, in their Cod or Covering. 1. For Chastities sake, if we believe Aristotle. For such live-wights as have their Stones hid within their Body, are very lecherous, do often couple, and get many young ones. 2. That by reason of the longer passage, the greater stay of the Seminal matter, may cause the better preparation. 3. Laurembergius would have them nearer that external place wherein they were to generate, viz. the Womb. But that nearness, doubtless, helps nothing to Generation, though the nearness of the Yard does: Nor do we find this observed in many Animals which generate out of themselves.  
That the Stones have lain hid in the Cavity of the Abdomen, until Puberty or Ripeness of Age fit for Generation, Martinus Rulandus proves in two Histories, Pareus in one, and Riolanus in a story not unlike. In which kind of persons, if the Yard should also lie hid, we should ever and anon have an appearing change of Sexes.  
The Epididymides rest athwart upon the Stones, and compass them as it were, being a kind of little Stones, oblong, round, white, and wreathed, but at both ends, somewhat sharp, of which see the following Chapter.  
Their Magnitude in men does commonly answer that of a small 
Their Greatness.  Hens Eg. And in men the Stones are greater than in women.  
The Figure of the Stones is Oval. 
Their Figure.  Which Figure varies sometimes, by reason of the neighbouring Vessels more or less turgent: And therefore some say the right Testicle is more full veined, and it is thought to be more hot, and have seed better digested. Whence Hypocrates calls it the Boygetter, because it receives more pure and hot blood and Spirits out of the great Vessel, viz. the great Artery. The left Stone is 
Whether the left Stone be colder than the right.  thought to contain colder Seed, more wheyish and and weak, because for the most part, the matter is believed to be brought from the Emulgent, and therefore Hypocrates calls this Stone the Girl-getter. Whence that common Saying, Wenches are begot by the left Stone in the left side of the Womb; Boys by the right Stone in the right side. And Hypocrates says, there is in a man as well as in a woman both male and female Seed, that is to say, hotter and colder. But I am not of Opinion, that wenches are always begotten by the left Stone, and that it receives a colder sort of Seed, for, 1. There are ever and anon Viragoes or manly Women, which exceed Men in strength and courage. 2. Blood is communicated from the great Artery, as well to the left Stone as to the right. 3. The Arteria Spermatica is oftener wanting on the right side then on the left. But the Generation of the fra●ler Sex, depends not so much upon the coldness of the left Testicle, as upon the cold Constitution of both the Stones, or rather of the whole body, which administers Matter for the Seed. Howbeit the left parts of the body are generally said to be colder than the right.  
Moreover the right Stone is fuller of Seed, doth swell more, and hath a greater Vein and Artery, so that Nature seems to design the Generation of Foemales more than of Males. It was therefore ill said of Aristotle, that Nature of herself did always 
The Error of Aristotle.  intend the Generation of Males, as being most perfect, and that a Female is engendered, when Nature being hindered, could not engender a Male, so that a Woman is in his account a kind of Monster in Nature. Howbeit Nature seems more solicitous for the 
Whether Nature always intends to beget Boys.  Generation of Women then of Men, for the Causes aforesaid, nor does Nature always regard that which is best or most perfect, but that which is most necessary, as a woman is: For many of them are but enough for one man. For women when they are big with Child, are useless to a man; also they are short lived, nor can they bear so long, as a man can beget. But of this, I have discoursed more fully, in my 12. Anatomical Controversy de patribus.  
The Testicles have Coats and Cover, 
Their Coats.  some proper, others common.  
They have two Coats common to them 
Common.  and other parts, to defend them from external injuries.  
The first is form of a thinner skin 
The Cod.  and scarf-skin, then is to be found in other parts of the Body, and is called Scrotum or Scortum, hanging out like a purse or bag, and subject to the touch. 'tis soft and wrinkled, void of Fat, that it might be more easily extended and 
Why void of Fat.  wrinkled together: because the oily matter which should make Fat, goes into the Stones to make Seed. In the lower part it hath a line running out according to the length thereof, which divides it into a right and left part, and is called a suture or seam,  
The second Coat consists of a fleshy Pannicle, which is also thinner than is found in other places, full of Veins and Arteries, and called dartos. Which Covering is by others comprehended under the term Scrotum.  
The proper Coat or Cover, which on 
Porper.  either side do clothe each Stone are three.  
The first proper Coat is called Vaginalis the scabbard Coat, and by some Helico●ides, by reason of its shape, which is thin, but yet strong, full of Veins, arising from the processes of the Peritonaeum. It cleaus to the Dartos, by many membranous Fibres, which others have reckoned for a peculiar Coat. Whence it is externally rough, internally smooth.  
The second is termed Eruthroeides the red Coat, being furnished with some fleshy Fibres, bred out of the Cremaster, and inwardly spread over the former. Rufus names this in the first place, and Riolanus and Veslingus following him, account it the first Coat, because it compasses the former, and is propagated from the Cremaster.  
The XXIII. TABLE.  
The Coats of the Stones, their Substance, and Vessels are propounded in this TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Skin of the Cod separated.  
BBB. The fleshy Membrane which ●● here called Dartos.  
CC. The first Coat of the Stones called Elythroeides.  
DD. The Muscle Cremaster.  
E. The second Coat of the Stones, which the Author calls Erythroides.  
FF. The Coat of the Stones called Albuginea.  
G. The kernelly Substance of the Stone.  
H. The Pyramidal or Pampiniform Vessel.  
II. Epididymis.  
DD. The Parastates variciformis.    
FIG. II. 

A. A Portion of the preparatory Vessels.  
BB. The Pyramidal Vessel.  
CC. Epididymis.  
DD. Parastates variciformis.  
E. The Stone covered with its proper Membrane.  
F. A Portion of the Vas deferens.    
FIG. III 

AA. The Veins and Arteries in the Pyramidal Vessel laid open.  
B. The Epididymis.  
CC. The Parastates variciformis.  
D. The Vas deferens.    
Page 56  
The Substance of the Stones is glandulous, white, soft, loose and spongy, by 
The Substance of the Stones.  reason of very many Vessels there dispersed and loose, though without Cavity, as the Liver also and the Spleen have no Cavities. They have Vessels of all 
Vessels.  kinds. Veins and Arteries from the Seminary Vessels: An indifferent large Nerve from the sixth pare; sometimes also they have two Nerves from the one and twentieth pare of the Spinal Marrow, conjoined to the Seminal Vessels, carried with them through the production of the Peritonaeum, and disseminated into the Tunicles.  
They have on each side one Muscle, arising from a strong Ligament, which is in the 
Muscles.  Share-bone, where the transverse Muscles of the Belly end, of which they seem to the Parts. They go along through the production of the Peritonaeum, which they compass about well-near, and grow to the beginnings of the Stones. They are ●●●●ed Cremasteres or Suspensores, hangers or sustainers, for they hold up the Stones, that they may not too much draw down the Seminal Vessels. Also in the Carnal conjunction, they draw back the Stones, that the Seed-channel being shortened, the Sperm may be sooner and easier conveyed into the Womb. In some persons these Muscles are capable of voluntary motion, who can draw up, and let down their Stones as they list: where these Muscles are doubtless stronger than ordinary, that they may not only hold the Stones suspended, but move them from place to place.  
The Use of the Stones is, by their 
The Efficiens cause of the Seed.  Heat and inbred Faculty, to make seed. For the Efficient cause of Seed is the proper flesh or substance of the Stones, both in regard of their hot and moist temper of their specific Property; since no flesh in the Body is found like that of the Stones. Now they turn the blood being prepared into Seed, which is requisite to preserve the Species of Mankind: And that which remains over and above, either goes back by the Spermatick Veins into the Heart, or turns to nourishment for the Stones. Nor can Seed be ordinarily 
Without the Stones there is no Generation.  bred without the Stones, nor perfect Animals without them, for from them the Seed receives both its form and colour. That some have engendered without Stones, though not according to the ordinary Course of Nature, Smetius in his Miscellanies, Fontanus in his Physica, Cabrolius, Hofmannus de Generatione, and others, do testify. Now the place wherein the Seed is bred, is not any large Cavity in the Stone, but certain very small Vessels therein form, covered with a very delicate thin Coat, as Vesalius rightly teaches. Now these following Authors after Aristotle, have taken away the faculty of Seed-making from the Stones, viz. Fallopius, Cabrolius, Posthius, Casparus Hofmannus, Caesar Cremoninus, Adrianus Spigelius, Regius, and others, because the Matter of Seed does not go into the Stones, nor is there ever any Seed found in them. But they will have them principally to be Receptacles for the wheyish Humour which flows in with the Blood; which they collect from their glandulous substance, and the largeness of the left Stone. But they are confuted by Eunuches and gelt persons, whose Stones being cut out or bruised, they become unable to engender. Also Seed hath been frequently observed in the Stones. Witness Dodonaeus in his 39 Observation touching a Spanish Soldier, Hoffman de Generatione Chap. 18. Carpus and Riolanus. It is indeed not to be found in some Bodies, because it was not bred, by reason of some sickness, or Imprisonment, or upon Death the Spirits being dissipated, a watery Liquor appears instead thereof. Nor can the Seed come to the Vasa deferentia otherwise then by the Testicles, which begin at the Stones, as the praeparatory Vessels end in them, by the Observation of very many Anatomists, and why the left Stone is greater than the right, another reason is alleged by learned men.  
Also the Stones seems to give strength and courage to men's bodies, as may 
The Sympathy of the Stones with the whole Body,  be seen in gelded persons, who are changed well-near into Women, in their Habit of Body, Temperament, Manners, etc. And doubtless the stones do exceedingly sympathise with the upper Parts of the Body, especially with the Heart. For we see that cordial and cooling Epithems in fainting Fits and bleeding at the Nose, being applied to the Stones, do help as if they were applied to the very Heart and Part affected. The Cause hereof is hard to tell; Jaccbinus, Laurentius, Hofmannus, conceive that it comes to pass by reason of Passions of the Mind, which are joined with fleshly Lust. But Eunuches also are lustful, for they are great Lovers of Women: And Eunuches are often transported with anger and other Passions of the Mind, but they receive not never the more the Habit of Men. Galen seems to have been of Opinion, that a Spirit was bred in the Stones and diffused thence all the Body over. But glandulous Bodies of the number of which the Stones are, are unfit to engender an hot Spirit; nor are there any Passages about the Stones, for the distribution of that new Spirit, according to the Opinion of Galen. Nor is therefore the Opinion of Mercatus allowable, viz. that those Spirits are not indeed bred there; but that the Vital Spirits are collected in the Stones in great quantity, that from them they may return back into the whole Body; for those which are there collected, are collected to engender Seed. But the Opinion of Thomas a Vega does better please me, till I shall find a more probable, viz. that a Seminal Air is raised up in the Generation of Seed, which thus changes the whole Body. The flesh truly of ungelt Creatures, hath a rammish taste of the Seed, which the flesh of such as are gelt hath not. This Vapour or Air of the Seed is carried to the Heart, either by the inner Pores of the Body, or by the Veins which reconveigh to the Heart the superfluities of the generated Seed. Helmont imagines the Stones do act by a ruling power, at a distance, as the stomach does upon the Womb, the Womb upon the upper Parts, and that without any right ways or marks; which nevertheless an Anatomist seeks to find, if it be possible. Vestingus ingeniously makes the reason of the change of voice, temperament, strength, etc. in persons gelded, to be the oppression of their inbred Heat by plenty of Matter, which ought to turn to Seed. Now their Sympathy with the Heart, depends partly upon the Nerves, partly (for we hold the Circulation in the Stones) from the foresaid Veins, returning back to the Heart, by which both the virtues of Cordials ascend, and of cooling Medicaments, even as we apply Cordials and Coolers to the Hands, with like success.   

Chap. XXIII. Of the Vasa deferentia, the Ejaculatoria, the Parastatae, Seminal Bladders, and the Prostatae.  
WE have propounded the Spermatick praeparatory Vessels above, which end into the Stones, to which they carry Matter to make Seed.  
Now there are other Vessels, which begin at the Stones, and end at the Root of the Yard, whither they carry and there squirt out the Seed, which hath been made in the Stones. And these are termed Vasa deferentia, or Vessels that carry away the Seed; and they are two in number, on each side one.  
Now we divide these Vessels into the Beginning, Middle, and End.  
The Beginning are termed Parastatae, 
The Parastatae.  as if you would say idle attenders upon the stones, ceremonious waiters, also Corpora varicosa or variciformia, because they are twisted and wreathed, like those crooked black Veins called Varices. Galen in his Interpretation of hard words used by Hypocrates calls them Epididymides, 
Names.  because they rest upon the stones, which nevertheless others distinguish by a peculiar use, as that they prepare the seed; and the Parastatae do add more perfection thereto: Others invert the Matter, and persuade themselves that the Parastatae prepare the seed, and the Epididymides finish it, which Opinion of theirs they have received, I know not how well, from the ancient Physicians. And they are oblong Vessels, placed upon the stones, white, thick, and round, a little depressed, and solid, growing narrow by little and little.  
As for their Substance, 'tis of a middle nature betwixt that of the stones 
Their Substance.  and that of the Vasa deferentia. For their substance is softer than the latter, and harder than the former, because they are glandulous within, and fungous; and externally membranous.  
As to their Original, the Opinion of 
Their Rise.  Spigelius and other late Anatomists, does against all former Authority thus determine: viz. that they arise by continuation from the Seminary Vessels, so that both the Praeparatory Vessels, and the Parastatae, and the Out-carrying Vessels, are but one continued Body, receiving divers Names according to its different Parts, and their respective Offices and Situations.  
But Walaeus conceives, that it is more suitable to what appears in Dissection, to say, that these Vessels do not arise from the praeparatory Vessels, but are rather mixed with them, fastened to, and opened into them: and that as he supposes, to the end that the blood forced in by the Praeparatory Vessels, may deposit that Matter which it contains fit to breed seed, into the little branches of the Vasa deferentia. But the rest of the blood, which is unfit for Nutrition and Generation of Seed, is by other Anastomoses shed into the Veins, and by Circulation returns to the Heart.  
Now they have their Original from the stones. by means of innumerable small Pipes or white Fibres. And there is no communion at all between the Vessel that carries away the Seed, and the Veins, and Arteries of the stones, which Vesalius conceives to be apparent in Dissections. Yet are they fastened to the inmost Coat of the stones, though they have a proper Coat of their own.  
The Use of the Parastatae, is to perfect and finish the seed, by a power which they 
Their Use.  receive from the stones. Moreover, while the seed abides in them, it comes to pass that vehement and frequent Lust is not provoked.  
The Ejaculatory or squirting Vessels, are simply termed the Middle, because they carry seed from the stones and the Corpora varicosa, to the seminal bladders: for they are seen to carry a whiteish Humour, yea and the Parastatae are frequently found full of seed.  
They have a Substance white and nervous; and their Figure is round and long: They have an obscure Cavity, because the seed by means of the spirits whereof it is full, does easily pass.  
Their Situation is partly in the Cod, partly in the Cavity of the Belly, above the Os pubis or Share-bone. For they are carried upwards, and are knit to the Praeparatory Vessels, by a thin Membrane, and so pass along to the Flanks and the Share-bone, which for that cause have a slight Cavity. And afterwards being turned back downwards, they are carried above the Ureters, and under the hinder part of the Bladder, above the rectum Intestinum, they are on each side widened at the Neck of the Bladder, where  
Their End is, and these Vessels so widened do constitute  
The seminary Bladders, which are many in number like little Cells, and seem 
See Fig. III. Tab. XXI.  to make on each side one remarkable, great, and winding one, because one goes into another, which you cannot compare to anything better then to a bunch of Grapes. The Cavities do neatly represent the Cells of a Pomegranate in order and figure. Rondeletius did first of all describe these Bladders, and after him Fallopius. These nervous Bladders are seated between the Ligaments of the Piss-bladder and the Arsegut, by the sides of the deferent Vessels, a little before the said Vessels grow thick, and unite.  
Their Use is, to contain the seed being wrought, and to reserve the same till time of Copulation, so that there may be seed sufficient to beget many Children. And therefore that ●…ouder which Aristotle relates of a Bull that engendered 
Whether a Bull may engender after he is guel  after his sto●●s were cut off: though others attribute this effect to the Prostatae, as Archangelus and Columbus. Now the seed may be contained in these Cells many months together, and in regard of the multitude of these little Bladders, seed may be voided in many Acts of Copulation; and all not spent at one Essay.  
And that seed is contained in these 
Whether seed is contained in the Bladderkies.  little Bladderkies, besides the Authority of Fallopius, Platerus, Laurentius, Aquapendent, and Casserius, it is manifest by this Experiment: If you squeeze them, presently feed is forced into the Pipe of the Yard, just like Milk out of the Dug, or piss out of the Piss-bladder, etc. But if you press the Prostatae with your finger, yet nothing comes 
Whether in the Prostatae?  away, unless you press the Bladders also. And that the seed does not continually distil and drop out of them, into Urinary passage, a little Caruncle hinders, which stops their hole▪ The perpetual seat of a virulent Gonorrhaea, hath been by the Observation of late Anatomists found to be in these Bladders, for upon Dissection there hath been found an evident Imposthumation in these parts. From the situation of these Bladders and of the stones, without the Cavity of the Abdomen, Riolanus would give a reason why men are not so cruelly infested with the filthy vapours of corrupt seed, as women are. But the Peritonaeum does not hinder the evaporations of the seed, because the Veins do inwardly open upwards. Also Viragoes or mannish women, are not troubled with the said vapours. The reason must therefore be sought in the quality of the seed, which being in men and manly women more benign, does neither go to, nor infect the Heart.  
After the Constitution of the seminary Bladders these deferent Vessels are united into one small passage which goes into the Prostatae.  
Now the Prostatae, as if you 
See Tab. XXII. Let. QQ.  would say the Waiters, are two Kernels, manifesty differing from the seed bladders, in use, form, situation, and magnitude, though Hoffman think otherwise; their  
Situation is at the Root of the Yard, above the Sphincter or Muscle of the Bladder, on each side, at the neck thereof. Columbus calls them Prostatae, Vesalius glandulosum corpus, Fallopius glandulosion assistens, others call them the little stones, to difference them from the true stones. Before and behind they are flat, on the sides round.  
They are commonly as big as a Walnut.  
Their Substance is spongy, and yet harder and whiter than that of other Kernels, and they are covered with a thicker Membrane; all which is to hinder the oulie substance, of itself apt to run, from passing out. And because they are of exquisite sense, therefore they cause pleasure in Copulation. These Kernels are open by certain Pores into the Urethra or Piss-pipe, which is evidently apparent in such as have died of the Gonorrhaea, of which Gonorrhaea these Pores being dilated are many times the seat.  
Their Use is to contain an oily, slippery, and sat Humour, which is pressed forth when need requires, to daub the Urinary passage, to defend it from the acrimony of the seed or urine, and that it may not fall in through dryness, but may remain slippery; because through it in Copulation, the said Humour does suddenly flow out of the seed.  
This is that which Galen meant, when he said that they contained a certain Humour like seed, but much thinner, the use of which Humour, is to excite Lust, and to cause Delight in Carnal Copulation.  
Mean while, Spigelius, Riolanus, and others do conceive that they contain 
Whether the Prostatae do make seed.  seed, which is there collected, and thence voided, having attained some further perfection, as Veslingus conceives. Others as Laurentius, conceive they do both; for he will have the Prostatae both to thicken the seed, and to breed a thin humour, and excite titillation. But that they do not contain seed, their compression shows, which voids none, unless the Vesicles or seed-bladders be withal compressed. And seeing the seat of the Gonorrhaea is here, 
The seat of the Gonorrhaea.  which we frequently observe to continue many years, without any remarkable Detriment to Health, it is unlikely that the seed flows from the Prostatae. I saw a man at Milan, who was troubled thirty years with the Gonorrhaea, and hath it still, being otherwise in Health. The seed therefore is not contained in them, nor does it stay there, though it may pass through.  
Others do conceive, that they help to make the seed, yea that they and the 
The Prostatae do not help to make seed.  bladders are the only seed-makers, as Regius endeavours to prove. Which if it were true, gelded persons might engender. Gelded persons do indeed send forth a moist matter resembling seed, and they are provoked to Venery, but they can get no Children. And if they have been observed at any time to engender, according to what is related of gelded Horses and Bulls; there was doubtless remaining in the seed-bladders, so much seed made by the stones, as might serve for one bout of Generation. But if they engendered more than once, doubtless one stone was left behind, when they were gelded.   

Chap. XXIV. Of the Yard.  
THe Genital Member of a Man is commonly 
Its Names.  called in Latin Penis a pendendo, because it hangs, also Virga the Rod or Yard, Colis, etc. Many other Names are wont to be put upon it, which are better passed over then mentioned. In English 'tis most usually termed the Yard or Prick. Plato in his Timaeus compares it to a certain living Creature, because it hath an Appetite to Generation. Howbeit, it is indeed the Part and Instrument of a Livewight, and the Faculty of Appetite is seated in the Brain.  
'tis seated at the Roots of Os pubis, that carnal Copulation might more conveniently 
Situation.  be accomplished, and that it might be no impediment to other parts▪ it is placed in the middle, because only one in number. Yet there was once a man dissected at Bononia who had two Yards. Which also Obsequens relates of a Boy, among his Prodigies. Another named Anna, being lately a vagrant in Italy, had no Yard, but instead thereof a certain piece of spongy flesh under his Navel, which Nature had provided him to piss withal.  
It's Figure is round and long; but not exactly, because it is broader on the upper ●ide, 
Figure.  which they call the Back of the Yard.  
It's Magnitude consisting in thickness and 
Magnitude.  length, does vary, both in the several sorts of Animals, and in the Individual Creatures of the same sort. Particularly, 'tis in Man so great as was necessary to propagate his species or kind: But proportionally shorter than in many Brutes, because Mankind couples after another manner than those beasts do. In particular Men, there is exceeding great variety. For it is for the most part greater than ordinary, 1. In little Men. 2. In such as abstain from carnal Embracements, if we believe Galen. 3. If the Navil-strings be not tied close to the Navel in Infants; for otherwise, by reason of the Urachus or Piss-pipe, the Bladder and neighbouring Parts, are drawn more upwards. Yet Spigelius is herein of a quite contrary mind. 4. In such as have large Noses. For the proportion of the Yard answers that of the Nose very much, if we will believe Physiognomists. 5. In Blockheads and dull-pated Asses. Some Nations have this Member larger than ordinary, as the Aethiopians or Blackmores.  
It consists of the Scarf-skin, Skin, fleshy Membrane, and a proper substance of its own.  
It is void of Fat, even in the fattest 
Why the Yard is void of Fat, the first Opinion. Laurentius his Error.  men. And it is a great question why there is no Fat found either in it or about it. Some, as Laurentius, think it is because fat through its softness would hinder its erection: But the Yard will stand, as long as the Bodies thereof are blown up. Others make the Cause to be least the weight thereof should do hurt, and that the Yard might not grow too great. But if there were a little Fat, it would add nothing to the weight, nor would it enlarge the Yard over much. The truer Cause therefore is this, that there is therefore no Fat, that its sense might not be dulled, and the pleasure of Copulation abated, when the Fat should melt by rubbing the Yard.  
It's proper Substance is not boney as it is in a Dog, a Wolf, a Fox, a Whale, 
It's Substance.  etc. but peculiar and proper to itself, such as is no where to be found in any 
The four Parts of the Yard.  other Part of the Body. Now there are four proper Parts of the Yard, the Urethra or Piss-pipe, the Nut, and the two nervous Bodies.  
The URETHRA or Piss-pipe, is a nervous 
Urethra.  Pipe or Channel, always of the same size, from the neck of the bladder (to which it is joined, but does not arise therefrom, nor communicate therewith) like a long neck, to the End of the Yard; save where the Nut is joined with the nervous Bodies. For there indeed it hath a superficial Cavern or Hollowness, in which an Ulcer and intolerable pain does sometimes happen▪ when some corrosive humour is th●●● collected, by means of a Gonorrhaea, or some other occasion. It is exceedingly widened in persons troubled with the stone. Alpinus saw it so wide in Egypt, that it would receive a large Hazelnut. And therefore it is easily blown up, to draw out the stone.  
In the beginning thereof are those Pores, through which we said before the seed stills forth. There is also a little Membrane or Caruncle like a Valve stretched before it, to keep the seed and urine from returning into the spermatick Vessels. It is eroded or fretted by sharp Humours, or by use of the Catheter, whence follows a perpetual Gonorrhaea. Riolanus observs that it is found in Boys, till the twentieth year of their Age, but I see no cause why it should not remain in their after Age, when the increase of seed, makes it more necessary then formerly.  
The Bodies of the Yard do embrace and touch this Urethra, and it is ●…d back with them, and so reaches to the N●… the figure of an S.  
The XXIV. TABLE.  
All the Parts of the Yard are represented in this TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
FIG. I 

AA. The inner Surface of the Urethra being dissected.  
B. A Part of the Urethra which makes its way into the Nut.  
CC. The Nut of the Yard.  
DD. The two Nervous Bodies of the Yard.    
FIG. II. 

A. The Membrane of the Nervous Body separated.  
B. The blackish Pith of the said Body.  
C. The Nut of the Yard made ●are.    
FIG. III. 

AAA. The inner Part of the Nervous Body, all the spongy Substance being taken out of it.  
B. The Nerve which goes into the said Body.  
CCC. The Artery of the said Body.  
DD. The transparent Partition, by Spigelius so called.    
FIG. IV. 

AAA. Veins running along the Back of the Yard.  
BB. Arteries.  
CC. The Nerves of the Yard.  
D. The Nut of the Yard.    
FIG. V. Shows the Muscles of the Yard in their places. 

AA. The Parts about the Buttocks.  
B. The Region of the Share.  
C. The Yard with its Skin ●●ead off  
DD. The two Nervous Bodies.  
E. The Urethra or Piss-pipe.  
FF. Two Muscles which widen the Piss-pipe.  
GG. Two Muscles which raise the Yard.  
aa. Their Beginning cut off from the Hip-bone.  
H. The Fundament.  
I. The Sphincter Muscle of the Fundament.  
KK. Two Muscles which draw up the Arsegut.    
page 60  
One Membrane is internal and thin, of exquisite sense, as those can witness who are troubled with the stone. With which also the Nut is covered; and it is bred out of the thin Membrane, which clothes the Nerves of the Yard. The other is external, more fleshy and furnished with transverse Nerves. The middle part of its proper substance, is loose, spongy, and black, that it may be distended together with the nervous Bodies.  
The Use of the Urethra●…mon passage for the Urinal, Seed, and o●…  
The Nut or Head of the Yard, is the 
The Nut of the Yard. ●  outmost swelling part thereof, roundish or pointed, even and compassed with a Circle like a Crown.  
It hath Flesh more sensible and solid than the rest of the Yard, covered with an exceeding thin Membrane.  
It is soft and of exquisite sense, for Titillations sake. In some Men it is more sharp, in others more blunt.  
It hath a Coat or Covering called the Foreskin, or Praeputium a putando, from cutting off, for the Jews and Turks cut it off, and therefore they are nicknamed Apellae and Recutiti, skinless or skin-cut. In which Nations 'tis wonderful what Vestingus told me himself saw, viz. that in young Boys it grows out so long and pointed, that it resembles a tail. Hildanus observed it in a certain person very great and fleshy. At the lower end it is tied to the Nut by a Membrane or Band termed Fraenum the Bridle, which is terminated in the hole of the Nut. Some will have it to be made up of the extremities of the Nerves. Carolus Stephanus thinks it is composed of a Combination of the Tendons of the Muscles of the Yard, and a Nerve.  
The two nervous Bodies, on each side 
The nervous Bodies.  one, do make up the remaining and greatest part of the Yard: the whole substance whereof is like a most thick spongy Artery, stuffed with flesh.  
For the substance thereof is twofold, the first external, compact, hard, and nervous; the other internal, spongy, thin, and hollow, and of a dark-red colour inclining to black; and therefore Vesalius says 'tis filled with a great deal of black Blood, like a Pudding.  
Now this substance is rare and pory, 
Whence the hardness and Erection of the Yard proceeds.  that it may be filled with Spirit, and Venal and Arterial Blood; by which means the nervous substance thereof is the more stretched, and the Spirits are not soon dissipated, whence proceeds the hardness and stiffness of the Yard, not so much for Copulations sake, as that the man might squirt his seed right out as far as might be, even to the Orifice of the Womb, after the Yard hath been moved in the female Privity.  
These two Bodies have their Original from the lower parts of the Hip-bones, as from a firm and stable Foundation, to which they are strongly tied with two Ligaments; where in their Rise they keep some distance, that place may be allowed to the Urethra; and then they are carried upwards, and grow into one about the middle of the Share-bone (like the two horns of the letter y) but so as they do not both remain perfect, but they lose near a third part of their nervous substance. Howbeit they remain distinct, by the coming between of some membranous partition (which consists not of a double Membrane, as at the Rise of the Bodies, but of one single one) very thin and transparent, strengthened with nervous and strong transverse fibres; which fibres are ranked and ordered like a Weavers Comb.  
All kind of Vessels enter into the Yard, Nerves, Veins, and Arteries. 1. External ones running in the Skin, very frequent, from the Pudenda, and also internal ones spread through its Body. They are therefore mistaken, that think the Yard is destitute of Veins. It's internal Arteries are two remarkable ones, arising from the Hypogastrica, which are inserted at the beginning of the growing together of the Bodies, and are spread up and down, according to the length of the Yard, But in the middle, where the Septum or partition is thinnest, they send branches up and down, through the spaces of the Fibres, the right Artery into the left Body, and the left Artery into the right Body, carrying Spirit and Blood, to blow up, erect, and nourish the Yard. The Nerves also are disseminated from the Marrow of Os sacrum, through the Yard, as well the external and Skin-nerves, as the internal, and those remarkable ones, which ascend through the middle of the forked division, and are thence disseminated into the Muscles, the whole Body, and the Nut; that there might be an exquisite sense and delectation.  
Also the Yard hath two pare of Muscles. 
The Muscles of the Yard.   
The first pair short and thick, are the Yard Erectors; this pare arises nervous, under the beginning of the Yard, from an Appendix of the Hip, and growing fleshy, it is carried to the bodies of the Yard, into which it is inserted, not far from their Original.  
Their Use is to raise and keep the Yard up in Copulation.  
The second Pair which widens the Urethra is longer, but thinner or leaner. These two fleshy Muscles arise from the Sphincter of the Fundament, following the length of the Yard: then they are carried beneath and inserted into the sides of the Urethra, about the middle thereof.  
It's Use is to widen the lower part of the Piss-pipe, both in pissing, and especially in Copulation, when the bodies of the Yard are full, that the Egress of the Seed may not be hindered. And in these Muscles is the place where Surgeons do commonly take out stones. The Line of the Cod being drawn to one side, according to their length, and not according to their breadth as Marianus sanctus notes against the Ancients, an hollow Catheter being thrust into the Ureter, upon which, the Incision is to be made, which manner of cutting Aquapendent describes and approves of.  
The Use of the Yard is for Copulation: 
Copulation.  which a man cannot rightly perform without the Erection of his Yard, and the squirting out of the Seed which follows thereupon. For the man squirts his Seed right out into the Mouth of the Womb, where being afterward joined with the woman's Seed, an drawn in, and retained by the Womb, Conception is said 
Conception.  to be made.  
A secondary Use thereof is to void urine, yet was it not therefore made, seeing women do make water without it. By reason of this twofold use of the yard, the Arabians make two passages, as Vesalius tells us, who observed such a like Conformation in a certain person.  
In some the Nut of their Yard is not bored through in the sore part where it ought to be, but in the lower part, as Hoffman hath noted out of Aristotle and Paulus, who cannot make water if their Yard do not stand, or when they sit. Others, and that more frequently, have it imperforated in the upper part. They are both unapt for Generation. Sometimes the Yard hath no passage at all as Julius Obsequens hath observed.   

Chap. XXV. Of the Parts serving for Generation in Women, and first of the Spermatick Praeparatory Vessels.  
THe Parts serving for Generation in 
The Genitals in Women quite different from those in men.  Women, do some of them agree after a sort with those in Men, as the spermatick Vessels, the Stones, and the Vasa deferentia, or Vessels that carry away the Seed. Others are wholly different, as the Womb with its Bottom, Orifice, and Neck, the Hymen, the M●●tle-shap'd Caruncles, the Vulva with its Wings, t●…itoris, and the little Hillocks.  
The XXV. TABLE.  
The Parts which in Women serve for Generation are represented in this TABLE, in their Natural Order and Situation; also the internal Structure of a Woman's Dug, is represented in the same TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AA. The Liver in its proper Place.  
B. The Gallbladder with the Porus bilarius or Gall-passage.  
C. A Part of the Gut Duodenum.  
DD. The Pancreas or Sweetbread in its proper Situation, through which Vessels go into the Spleen.  
E. The Body of the Spleen.  
FF. The descendent Trunk of Vena cava with its Branching.  
GG. The descendent Trunk of the great Artery, which is variously branched beneath.  
HH. The Emulgent Vessels.  
II. The true Kidneys.  
KK. The Auxiliary or Deputy Kidneys.  
LL. The Ureters going down to the Bladder.  
MM. The Bottom of the Piss-bladder.  
N. The Insertion of the Uracbus into the bottom thereof.  
O. A Portion of the Arsegut.  
PP. Praeparatory Vessels from both sides.  
Q. The Rise of the Praeparatory Vessels from the Trunk.  
R. The Place where the Trunks of the Cava and Aorta do branch themselves, where an Artery goes over a Vein.  
SS. Portions of the Navil-arteries.  
T. The Bottom of the Womb.  
VV. The Woman's Stones.  
XX. Vessels which carry the Seed from their Stones to the Womb.  
ZZ. The Trumpets of the Womb, by Fallopius so called, or the blind Passage of the Seed.  
YY. The two upper Ligaments of the Womb, resembling the Wings of Bats or Flittermices.  
aa. The two lower Ligaments of the Womb, round, cut off from the Share.  
bb. The Hollow of the Flank-bone or Os Ilij, which is in Women larger than in Men.    


The Characters of the Dug explained.  
ccc. Vessels spread over the Surface of the Dug.  
d. The greatest and middlemost Kernel.  
e. The Nipple.    
page 62  
For we must not think with Galen, Archangelus, Fallopius, and others, that these Female Genital Members, differ from those of Men only in Situation. Which Opinion was hatched by those who accounted a Woman to be only an imperfect Man; and that her Genital Members could not be thrust out by reason of the coldness of her temper; as in Men they are thrust out by virtue of their greater Heat.  
Howbeit, the generative Parts in Women differ from those in Men, not only in Situation, but in their universal Fabric, in respect of Numbe●▪ Surface, Magnitude, Cavity, Figure, Office, and 〈◊〉 sufficiently manifest to a skilful 〈◊〉 to any 〈◊〉 that will compare what follows to what went before.  
And the falsity of their Opinion is 
The similitude of the Yard and of the Womb ridiculous.  sufficiently apparent, by means of the sundry Conjectures which they bring. For some liken the Womb to the Cod of a Man, and some to the Nut of the Yard. Some will have the Neck of the Womb to answer the Man's Yard, and others will have the Clitoris. Which Conceits falling to the ground by their own weakness, I shall proceed to explain the Parts.  
The Spermatick praeparatory Vessels 
The praeparatory Vessels in women.  in Women agree with those of Men, in their Number, Original, and Office, etc. I must now therefore only tell you wherein they differ.  
They differ first in Magnitude. These Vessels in women are shorter, because 
How they differ from those in Men.  of the short way they are to go, but therefore they have many turnings and windings which make up the Corpus varicosum: to the end the seed may stay long enough to receive due preparation. In the next place they differ in their Implantation. For in women they are not totally carried to the stones, but they are divided in the middle way: and the greater part goes to the stone, and makes the Corpus varicosum, and the lesser part ends into the womb, into whose sides it is disseminated, especially to the upper part of the bottom, for to nourish the Womb and the Child therein; and that by those Vessels some part of the menstrual blood may be purged forth in such as are not with Child. For the lesser branch being tripartite, is below the stone divided into three branches, one of which, as was said, runs out into the womb, the other is distributed to the deferent Vessel or Trumpet of the Womb, and to the round Ligament; the third branch creeping along the side of the Womb through the common Membrane, ends near the trueneck of the womb, insinuating itself also among the Hypogastrick Veins, with which and the Arteries, they are joined by anastomosis. Of which see Zerbus, Fallopius, Platerus, and others, who have shown Riolanus and myself the way. That is a rare case, which is figured out by Beslerus, viz. for the spermatick Arteries to be joined by way of Anastomosis with the Emulgent Artery. For this cause in women these Vessels go not out of the Peritonaeum, nor reach to the Share-bone: because the Stones and Womb are seated within.  
These seminal Veins and Arteries are intertwined with many wonderful anastomosis, for the preparation of seed. Yea and the Veins do receive into themselves the Hypogastrick Arteries of the Womb, according to the Observation of Arantius and Riolanus. Yet I remember the Arteries were wanting in a woman that had bore male Children, and Franciscus Zanchez relates how they were turned into stone in a woman of Tolouse.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of women's Stones.  
NOw the Stones of Women, though 
How the Stones of Women differ from those of Men.  as to their use, they partly agree with those in Men; yet in many things respecting their structure, they differ from them. And  

1. in respect of their Situation; which they have within in the Cavity of the Belly, two fingers breadth above the bottom, in such as are not with Child, and are knit by means of certain Ligaments above the same: viz. to the end they might be hotter, and 
Why women's stones are placed within their Bodies.  consequently more fruitful; since they were to work a matter of which alone Mankind was to be generated, the seed of the man being added not as a material, but an efficient Cause.  
2. In Magnitude, which is not so great in women as in men, unless very seldom. For by reason of the increase of Heat, they are contracted after a woman is past fourteen, whereas they are before that time distended more largely being full of a white Juice.  
3. In their external Surface which is more uneven, then that of a man's stones.  
4. In Figure, which is not so round, but broad and flat on the fore and hinder-parts. Also the stones are within more hollow, and more full of spermatick moisture.  
5. In Substance which some conceive to be harder than that of men's stones, but others conceive, and that more truly, that it is softer, and if you take off the Membrane, you shall find them conglomerated or knobbed together of divers little Kernels and Bladders, but seldom like those of men. In some great sea-fish, there is no difference of the stones of the Males and Females, in substance, but only in the size.  
6. In Temperament, which is commonly accounted more cold, and that the seed contained in them, is more moist, thin, and waterish.  
7. In Coats. For they are covered with one only Coat, because they are otherwise in a close place. And that Coat sticks exceeding strongly to them, and is by Galen termed Dartos. Howbeit, where the stones receive the seminal Vessels, they are covered half over with the Peritonaeum.  
8. In Connexion; for they are knit unto the womb by two manifest passages, or rather the one of them is an obscure one, out of which during carnal Copulation, there is shed, not a wheyish substance, but the woman's seed.   
Their Use is to make seed which helps to generate after its way and manner: which Aristotle against all Reason and Experience, was bold to deny to women, in some places of his Writings, contrary to the express Doctrine of Hypocrates de Genitura, where he tells us that women also send forth seed out of their Bodies, sometimes into their womb, whereby it is moistened, and sometimes without, if the Orifice thereof do gape over much. Now that in the Womb it helps to the Generation, he thereby demonstrates, in that if after Copulation. The woman shall not conceive, the seed which they have both of them voided, does flow out of the womb. But some other Anatomists deny that these stones do make seed. But they will have them to be meet Kernels, to receive that moisture which needs abound in the womb, which is the Opinion of Cremoninus; or that they are only made for a mark and sign, which was the Conceits of Rhodiginus, and of Hoffman since him, who account them rather Carcases of stones then true stones, because they are small, void of Juice, and uncompact. But as for what concerns Humidity we deny that Argument, and say 1. That there was no need of so much preparation to water the womb. One Vessel gently carrying a wheyish Humour, might have served that turn, yea the Pores alone might have sufficed, as it is well known to happen in a clammy humour distilling into the Knee. 2. They may answer both Intents, viz. Generation and Irrigation. 3. Experience tells us that seed and no other humour hath issued out of the stones of women being dissected. Guinterius was hindered in his Dissection, by the plentiful eruption thereof. The nocturnal pollutions of women testify the same, and women became barren, when in ancient times they were gelded or spayed, Witness Athenaeus. Galen experimented the same in Sows. Varro writes that Cow's being guelt, do conceive if they go to Bull presently after. 4. The said seed is found in the Dissections of women, if they are lusty and free from D●●ases▪ In them and in Women with Child, Beslerus ha●…und the stones swelling with seed, which he hath expressed by a neat Picture. 5. That it is true seed, we may gather from a real and sensible effect thereof, like that of the seed of men, as Moles, and imperfect Eggs, by reason of the difference of Sex, to which the Male adds Life and Perfection. 6. Women have sufficient heat to make seed, and sufficient instruments to that end; yea, and some of them are better provided then men. Their stones are indeed small and little, but not void of Juice. Their number does recompense their smallness, even as we sometimes see more Juice pressed out of a Bunch of Grapes, than a solid and whole Apple.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the Vessels that carry away the Seed, especially the Trumpet of the Womb.  
COncerning the Vessels which carry away the Female-seed, the Doctrine of Anatomists hath been hitherto somewhat intricate, partly through variety of opinions, and partly the obscurity of the matter itself, which nevertheless I shall endeavour to reduce, and as much as may be to illustrate the same.  
The deferent Vessels are taken either in a large or a strict signification. Strictly for those same obscure Passages and Vessels only, which carry part of the seed bred in the stones, into the womb. Largely and generally, 1. For the preparatory Vessels also, 2. For them and the Womb-trumpet, which others refer to the servatory and jaculatory Vessel. I shall speak of both briefly and distinctly.  
The deferent Vessels are properly those small passages derived from the stones, either to the bottom of the womb, with a very short passage, or disseminated at the trumpets of the womb, with sundry, and those exceeding small Twigs, resembling the Venae lacteae, arising from the spermatick preparatory Vessels, and continued with them, however here they change their name and use, because they immediately pass over, and lick the stones.  
Galen conceives that the former is only inserted into the sides of the womb, which are termed Cornua, or the wombs horns, and other Anatomists are of the same opinion, who profess they could find no other Insertion. But Zerbus, Fernelius, Laurentius, found another Branch herefrom, which goes not into the bottom as the former, but into the Neck, so that one part of this deferent Vessel which is the shorter but larger, is inserted into the middle of the Horn of the same side, and there pours out such seed as it hath, into the Cavity of the womb: but the other part being the narrower and longer, is carried along the sides of the womb, below the Mouth, to the beginning of the Neck. Varolius hath also made mention of this Part, and says it is so small in such as have never conceived, that it cannot be found, save by a skilful Anatomist, but in Women with Child it is very large. Spigelius, because he could not sometimes find it, did count it a sport of Nature. Vestingus does seem to allow of it, seeing he brings seminal Matter from the stones, to the bottom and sheath of the womb, this way. I should willingly assent to the Opinion of Spigelius, because it is seldom seen. Little Branches indeed are always disseminated unto the neck of the womb, but the● 〈…〉 directly from the preparatory Vessels, and bring blood rather than seed, of which see other Anatomists, especially Platerus, Riolanus, and my Father Bartholinus beneath.  
The Use of these Vessels is, partly to carry the seminal Matter to the Trumpets, that it may be there further accomplished, and better wrought, and reserved for further use, and partly to the bottom of the womb. Where another Branch ends into the Neck, the seminal Humidity is voided this way also, causing greater delight by reason of the length of the way.  
The other deferent Vessel, which ought to keep the Seed before it be squirted out, is the Trumpet of the Womb, by Fallopius so called, from the likeness it hath to a Trumpet of War, which he thus describes. There arises a seminal Passage, small and very straight, nervous, and white, from the Horn of the womb itself, and when it hath gone a little therefrom, it grows broader by little and little, and crisps itself like the tendrel of a Vine, till it comes towards the end. Then dismissing its wrinkled Crispations, and becoming very broad, it ends into a certain Extremity, which seems membranous and fleshy, by reason of its red Colour, and at last becomes very torn and ragged, like the jagged edges of worn clouts, and hath a large hole, which lies always shut, those jagged ends always falling in upon it, which nevertheless if they be diligently opened and widened, they represent the broad end of a brazen Trumpet.  
I shall handle the Particulars more distinctly. The Trumpets arise from the bottom of the womb by one end, nor do they reach with their other end to the Stones, or any other remarkable Part. And therefore they are not manifestly passable in this other Part, but shut up and blind, so that they are like the Intestinum caecum, and are as it were an Appendix of the Womb. But this shutting up may be made according to the Opinion of Fallopius, which Riolanus who was since him, challenges for his own, by the fringes and jagged ends of the Trumpets, falling together, like Rags of Cloth.  
They are two in Number, on each side one.  
They are seated so as to compass half the Stones, but they are distant from the Stones, on every side, near half a finger's breadth, unless the womb be diseased, by which they are drawn up nearer to the Stones. They are ordinarily fastened only by very thin Membranes, not unlike the wings of Bats or Flittermices, through which many Veins and Arteries are disseminated, carried from the Stones into these Passages, and carrying Seed out of the Stones.  
Their Substance is nervous, white, thick and hard.  
Their Figure is round and hollow. Sometimes their Cavity so praeternaturally widened, as to contain a Mole, which Marquardus relates in his Empirica Praxi; sometimes a Child, Examples whereof are recited by Riolanus. Nor could he see any other ways for the man's seed to enter, save the turning and winding Passages of those Vessels. But in a living woman, the man's seed full of spirits, might easily be drawn thither, by the widened ways of the womb misaffected, which Passages being afterwards (Conception being made, and the Trumpets distended) shut up, were not seen by Dissectors. Or whether hath there not been a shapeless Mole, or a Child without life been shaped, without the seed of a Man, of the Mother's seed only contained in the Trumpets; which having received no life from any Father, and the passages being shut up, it grew great, and killed the Mother?  
In the Natural Figure let us consider the Beginning, Middle, and End. The Insertion o● Beginning is at the bottom of the womb large, where it attains a nervous Pipe, stretched out to the middle well-near of the Trumpet, hollow, that it may transmit the Seed to the bottom of the womb. The Middle being capacious, shows certain little Cells, containing white seed. The End is narrower, though it carry some wideness with it. Howbeit before the End, it is wreathed and crisped like the tendrel of a Vine, as is visible in Men and Beasts.  
The Passage therefore of the Trumpets, is not in all parts strait, but winding, because the way is short from the stones to the womb. But the pleasure ought not to be short, when the seed is poured plentifully out of the stones into the horns of the womb in Copulation. And look what the Seed-bladders are in Men, as to preserve the seed, these blind passages may be the same in Women, when they couple oftentimes, and still void seed. For they may be so termed, because they are annexed to the stones by little Membranes, that by Vessels brought to them from the stones, as by the milky and mesaraick Veins, they may easily draw the seed by them concocted, and lay it up within themselves for future occasion, and send it forth when need requires.  
Their Use is, 1. According to Fallopius to serve as Chimneys, by which the sooty vapours of the womb may exhale. Which I for my part cannot believe. For the sooty Vapours are condensed, and being resolved into water, are reserved till the time of Childbirth, or ascend by insensible Pores, or breath out at the mouth of the womb, both in Women with Child, because the mouth of the womb is never so close shut as to hinder, as the Examples of Superfoetation testify, as in such as are not with Child. Nor can I well tell how the sooty vapours should find way through these crooked Passages. 2. According to the said Fallopius in his Observations, they make seed, because he always found seed in them, but never saw any in the stones; to which I answered before. 3. Their true Use is, to draw seed out of the stones, by blind passages of the Vessels dispersed through the Membrane, and when it is drawn to perfect the same by some tarriance in the Tendrels and Cells, by the irradiation of the virtue of the stones; that it may be more fit for a Child to be made of; finally to carry it to the womb, especially in the Act of Copulation, by those little Pipes implanted in the Horns of the womb, that it may meet the man's seed in the Cavity of the womb or its Neck, to cause Conception.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the Womb in General.  
THe Womb is by the Latins termed Uterus, from Uter a Bottle by reason of its hollowness, in which Sense Tacitus does use Uterum Navis for the Keel of a Ship. Isidorus says 'tis so called, because 'tis on each side one: in a more large signification 'tis termed Venture in the Digests and Institutes. Also 'tis called Matrix, Utriculus, and Loci muliebres, where consist the beginnings of Generation, according to Varro. In other Animals, according to Pliny, 'tis termed Vulva, especially in Sows, which the ancient Romans did account a delicate Dish: Of which see Plutrach, and Langius in his Epistles, also Martial, Horace, Apitius, Athenaeus, and among late Writers Castellanus. Hoffman conceives that Vulva is corrupted from Bulga, and Bulga a Word used by Lucilius and Varro, is originally French, if we believe Festus, who renders it a Bag. Nonius interprets it to be a Satchel or Knapsack hanging about a Man's Arm. See hereof Vossius. But the term Vulva is approved by Celsus, and the Authors formerly commended.  
It is situate in the Hypogastrium, or 
Why the womb is placed in the Hypogastrium.  the lower Part of the lower Belly, which is framed in the Cavity termed Pelvis, by the Ossacrum and the Flank-bones. And therefore that Pelvis or Basin, is larger in Women: and therefore they have Buttocks greater and wider. Now it was requisite that it should be so placed, that the Womb might be distended according to the greatness of the Child, and that the Child might be conveniently excluded.  
Moreover the Womb is placed in the middle inclining to no side, save sometimes when a Woman is of Child with a Boy or a Girl: for then the Child lies more to the right or left side, though that be no certain Rule.  
Now it lies between the Intestinum rectum or Arsegut, which is beneath it, and the Bladder which lies upon it, as between two Pillows. Why therefore should we be proud who are bred between Dung and Urinal?  
It's Magnitude is considered in length 
It's Magnitude.  depth, and thickness, and all these vary in respect of Bodies, Age, and Venery.  
It's Length in those of a middle stature, who use Venery, from the external Privity to the bottoms end, is commonly eleven fingers; the bottom is three fingers.  
The Breadth of the bottom, is two or three fingers, because in Women not with Child the latitude of the bottom and neck is one and the same. And hence the amplitude may easily be conjectured.  
But in Virgins, which have not attained to ripeness of Age, it is little and less than the Bladder: in such as are full of Age it is greater: yet if they abstain from Venery it is small enough, though thick, as it is also in very old Women. But it is greater in such as have oft conceived, and bore Children: that a man may well near grasp it in his hand, unless when the Women are great with Child: for than it is more and more enlarged, and whereas before Gravidation, the bottom of the Womb did not pass beyond the beginning of Ossacrum, it reaches afterward to the Navel and beyond, so that it rests upon the thin Guts.  
The XXVI. TABLE▪  
This TABLE presents t●● Generative Parts of Wome● taken out of the Body.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A. The right side deputy-Kidney.  
B. The left deputy-Kidney.  
CC. The Kidney on both sides.  
DD. The right side emulgent Veins.  
EE. The right side emulgent Arteries.  
F. The Trunk of Vena cava.  
G. The left emulgent Vein.  
HH. The left emulgent Arteries.  
II. The right spermatick Vein.  
K. The right spermatick Artery.  
L. The left spermatick Artery.  
M. The left spermatick Vein.  
NN. The Trunk of the great Artery.  
OO. The Stones in Women.  
PP.. A broad Ligament, like the wings of Bats or Flittermices.  
QQ. The Trumpets of the Womb.  
R. The Bottom of the Womb.  
SS. The round Ligaments of the Womb, cut off at the Share.  
T. The Neck of the Womb.  
VV. The Hypogastrick Veins on both sides.  
XX. The Hypogastrick Arteries on both sides, carried unto the Neck.  
Y. The Sheath or Scabbard of the Womb.  
Z. A Portion of the Intestinum rectum, or Arsegut.  
aa. The Ureters cut off.  
bb. The Vasa pampiniformia, or Vessels crisped like the Tendrels of a Vine.  
cc. A Passage or deferent Vessel to carry from the Stones to the Horns of the Womb.    
page 66  
The Figure of the Womb is by some 
The true Figure of the Womb.  counted round, by others Pear-fashioned. But though the Womb incline to roundness that it may be of the greater capacity; yet we conceive with Soranus and Fallopius, that its bottom may best of all be resembled to a Gourd; because it is by little and little straitened downwards. But the Neck of the Womb resembles an oblong and round Pipe or Channel.  
The Connexion is either of the Neck of the Womb or of the Bottom.  
The Neck is tied by its own substance, and by membranes; but the Bottom by peculiar Ligaments.  
On the foreside the Neck grows to the Piss-bladder and the Share-bones, by Membranes arising from the Peritonaeum. In the hinder part to the Ossacrum, and the rectum Intestinum, with some Fatness. But about the Privity it grows together with the Fundament. On the sides, it is loosely knit by certain Membranes to the Peritonaeum.  
The Bottom is not fastened by its 
The Ligaments of the Womb.  Substance, but is free, because it ought to be moved, as shall be said in its Action (wherefore a Venetian woman died of pains in her womb, the bottom thereof being tied by the Call) but in the sides it is knit by two pare of Ligaments, whose use is to hold the womb suspended or dangling.  
One upper pare is broad and membranous, and is held to arise from the Muscles 
The upper Ligaments of the Womb.  of the Loins; and it ends into the bottom of the womb, near the horns. It is loose and soft, that it may be distended and contracted. Aretaeus likens it to the wings of Bats or Flittermices. And by help of this pare, the bottom is fastened to the Bones of the Flank. But because it is interwoven with fleshy Fibres, therefore Vesalius and Archangelus have, perhaps not unjustly, reckoned them to be Muscles. Now they carry along the praeparatory and deferent Vessels, even as they contain the Stones. Now this pare of Ligaments or Muscles, is sometimes loosened 
The falling down of the Womb.  by violence, difficult Labour in Childbed, weight of the Child in the Womb, etc. so that the Bottom of the Womb falls into the Privity, sometimes with the Neck inverted; also sometimes it hangs out, and is cut off; in which case also it is necessary that there be a Solution of the Connexion of the Neck.  
The other pare is lower, being round like Earthworms, reddish like Muscles 
The Lower.  (whereupon some have conceived them to be Muscles, that perform the Office of the Cremasters in Men, so that the Womb is by them moved up and down, or at least is established and strengthened, in carrying Burdens, expelling the Child, Outcries, and Labours, in Deflux of Humours into this Part, which Opinion Pinaeus embraces. Also it is hollow, especially in the end. It arises from the sides of the Bottom of the Womb, and at its beginning touching the deferent Vessels, it ascends to the Groins, and as the spermatick Vessels in men, so these Ligaments in Women, pass along through the productions of the Peritonaeum, and the Tendons of the obliquely descendent Muscles of the Belly, and there they are obliterated into Fat, or Membranes of the Bones near the Clitoris, to which they are fastened, and degenerated into a broad and nervous thinness. Where two other Muscles begin, without the Belly, being thin and broad, clothing the whole inner face of the Lips; by help of which, some women move the Lips. The remaining part of the foresaid Ligament, runs to the Knee, and afterward into a Membrane of the inner part of the Thigh. Hence it is, as Riolanus acquaints us, that women with Child do in their first months complain of a pain in the inside of their Thighs.  
The Use of this Part is, 1. As hath been said, to draw the Bottom of the Womb upwards, lest it should fall down in relaxations, in bearing of weights, and in taking off pains; which nevertheless be more rightly said of the pare. 2. To hinder the ascent of the womb towards the upper parts, which of itself cannot happen, unless withal the Privities which are continued therewith, and the sheath be drawn upwards, but in the womb relaxed, and distended, it often happens. 3. Riolanus suspects that the excrementitious Humours of the womb are sometimes carried into the Kernels of the Groins, by these Ligaments, where also he hath found venereous B●bo's raised. Otherwise, Hypocrates draws the Bubo's in the Groins of Women from their Courses, which Aurelius Severinus refers to critical Abscesses, and Arantius seeks out their Passages in the Veins, by which the turgent Humer is carried from the womb to the Groins. I put the Arteries in place of Veins, whereby Excrements are both here and in other parts, carried to the extremities or outmost places in the Body. 4. Spigelius in a Woman killed with over much carnal Copulation, observed these Ligaments near the Womb, full of Seed. Which makes me suspect that these Ligaments, having received a Seminal Moisture, do moisten the neighbouring Parts in Women with Child, that all Parts may more easily be loosened and stretched in Virgins and barren Women, they are mere Ligaments, and by their Moisture defend the womb from the violence of burning Heat.  
The Substance of the womb is membranous, 
It's Substance.  that it may be dilated and contracted, as need shall require, furnished with many pleits and folds, which in Women with Child are stretched our, to widen the womb, but they are contracted when the Child is excluded, and in aged women. Besides these pleits, it hath in women with child Pipes and large Cavities, or Cells exceeding manifest. Now the Substance of the womb is made up of a common and proper Membrane.  
The common is doubled, and grows 
Its Membranes.  to the sides on each hand, arising from the Peritonaeum, being exceeding thick, and most firm for strength, smooth every where, save where the Spermatick Vessels enter, or the Ligaments go out.  
The proper and internal is also double; though it is hard to discern so much, by reason of its close adhaesion, save in Exulcerations. And between both there were fleshy Fibres, such as are found in the Stomach: which some call the proper Substance and Parenchyma of the womb (whereinto a spongy Body is here and there strewed) and the use thereof is to heat the womb. But these Membranes are not of the same thickness always: as was said before, when I spoke of the Magnitude.  
The Vessels of the womb are Veins, Arteries, 
Its Vessels.  and Nerves.  
The Veins and Arteries accompanying one another, are carried between the Coats of the womb, and pour forth their Blood into those membranous Pipes of the womb, but are not carried into the inmost Cavity of the womb. And they are twofold: some arise from above, others from beneath. For, from the upper and lower parts, that is to say, from the whole Body, the Blood ought to come, both that in the monthly terms, the whole Body may be purged, and also that in the time of a woman's going with child, her Fruit might be nourished. Those which come from above, do creep all the womb over, but especially in the bottom thereof, and they are Branches derived from the Seminal Vessels, before the praeparatory Vessels are constituted, and also from the Haemorrhoidal Branch, whence there is so great a Consent between the Womb and the Spleen. The left ends of the Veins and Arteries are joined with the right ends: that 
Why the left Veins of the Womb are joined to the right  the right part may also be augmented with plenty of Blood. The Menstrual blood is shed forth by the Arteries in Women not with Child: and therefore according to the Observation of Walaeus, if about the time of the Menstrual Flux, the Pulse of the Heart and Arteries may be made greater, than the blood is more vehemently forced into the womb by the Arteries, and so the Menstrual Flux furthered. We see also when we have given Cordials appropriate to the womb, and stirring the Spirituous part of the Blood, that then the Courses incline to flow. Finally, the colour of the Menstrual blood in healthy women, declares that it is Arterial blood. Now it r●ns back again to the Heart, by the Veins▪ ●…d to the Arteries▪ for all that Blood neither can, nor must be voided out of the Body, when they are obstructed, because the blood cannot freely pass upward out of the lesser Veins of the womb into the greater, the Menstrual blood is collected in great quantity, and makes great commotions of the womb. Those Veins and Arteries which come from beneath and ascend, do arise from the Hypogastrick Branches of the Cava and the Aorta, and creep through the neck of the womb, and the lower part of the bottom, where they are every where joined with the superior ones. For very broad Vessels are united through the bottom, both without, and 
anastomosis in the womb.  in the substance of the womb, which anastomosis do more appear in menstrual women, and in such as are with Child. And they may be easily observed, if in dead Bodies some of them be blown up. For they all swell by that blast into one. The Mouths of these Vessels or Pipes rather, do enter into the Cavity of the bottom, and are called Acetabula or Cotylidones Cups or Saucers: which gape and are opened, when the Menstrua are purged. And in Women with Child, when the womb-liver is joined to them (in Beasts the Verticilli or Tufts) drawing blood for the Child. And because Branches are carried into the neck of the womb from these Vessels, by them women with Child that are Plethoric, may void Menstrual blood in their first months, when there is more blood than needs to nourish the Child. For it is not probable, that that blood comes out of the womb: for the Child would be suffocated, and through too great opening of the internal mouth of the womb, Abortion might follow.  
Now it is observable, that the Vessels 
The Largeness of the Uterine Vessels.  of the womb, do in the time of a a woman's going with Child so swell with blood, especially about the time of Childbirth, that they are as big as the Emulgent Veins, or half as big as the Vena cava or Aorta.  
Nerves very many in number, are carried from the pares of the Nerves of Os sacrum, and from the sixth Conjugation of the Brain, to the Neck of the Womb, and the parts about the Privities for pleasures sake: as also to the lower part of the Bottom. Whence there is a great Sympathy betwixt the Womb and the Brain. To the upper part of the Bottom few Nerves are carried, and they are intertwisted like a Net.  
The XXVII. TABLE▪  
The Womb taken out of the Body, with the Stones, and all kind of Vessels fastened thereunto, and the Piss-bladder.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
FIG. I. 

A. The Piss-bladder turned upside down.  
BB. The Insertion of the Ureters into the Bladder.  
CC. The Neck or Sheath of the Womb into which very many Vessels are disseminated.  
D. The Bottom of the Womb.  
EEEE. The two low and round Ligaments of the Womb cut off.  
FF. The Vas caecum. or trumpet of the Womb, as yet fastened to this upper and broad Ligament.  
GG. The same Vessel on the opposite side, separate from the broad Ligament.  
HH. The deferent Vessels of both sides, ending from the Stones to the Bottom of the Womb.  
II. The upper and membranous Ligament of the Womb, resembled to the wings of Batts, through which very many Vessels are disseminated, arising from the praeparatory Vessels.  
K. The praeparatory Vessels of one side, as yet not freed from the membranous Ligament.  
L. The praeparatory Vessels of the other side, freed from the membranous Ligament, that their Insertion into the Stone may be discerned.  
MM. The Stones of which the right is covered with its Membrane and the left quite naked.  
NN. Very many Veins and Arteries spread abroad into the Neck and Bottom of the Womb, serving for the monthly Purgation and the Nourishment of the Child.  
OO. Nerves spread up and down through the Body of the Womb, which are represented by the Graver too large.    
FIG. II. 

A. The bottom of the womb.  
BB. The lowermore round Ligaments of the womb cut off.  
C. The Region wherein the inner Mouth of the womb is placed.  
D. The right Stone covered with its Membrane.  
EE. The deferent Vessels reaching from the Stones to the Horns of the womb.  
F. The upper and membranous Ligament of the womb, fastening the deferent Vessels to the Stones.  
G. The Membrane of the Stone separated therefrom.  
H. The glandulous or kernelly Substance of the Stone.  
I. The Neck of the womb, commonly called the Sheath.  
KK. Passages arising from the deferent Vessel, and carried into the Neck of the womb, into which they say Women with Child do squirt their Seed.    
page 69  
That Conception hath been made, and a Child form out of the womb, some Examples testify. Touching the Trumpet of the womb, I spoke before, from the Relation of Riolanus. 
A Child conceived in a woman's Stomach.  That a Child was conceived in the Stomach of a young woman the Wife of an abominable Tailor, and voided by her mouth the length of a man's finger, but well shaped in all Parts external and internal. Salmuth informs us, describing the Story from the Letters of Komelerius to Gothofredus Hofmannus, nor does he doubt of the truth of the Story. That the same may be performed in the neck of the womb, those Superfoetations, seem to demonstrate, which are voided in the first place to make more room for the larger Conception in the womb. But these are to be accounted very rare and preternatural cases, if true. But Superfoetation, whether in the womb or without, depends from the virtue of the womb, reaching all over the whole Body thereof.  
The womb is therefore necessary to preserve the Species or kind. Howbeit it contributes also to the health of the Individual, as the emunctory or cleanser of the whole Body. Howbeit very many women have lived very long, and happily without it, witness Abenzoar, Aegineta, Wierus, Zacutus. When it hath fallen out putrified, it hath been all in a manner cut off without danger, according to the Observations of Rhases, Carpus, Mercurialis, Langius, a Vega, Paraeus, Baubinus, and others. Fernelius tells us he saw a childing woman, who voided with her Child her whole womb, plucked away by the roots, without danger of life. Saxonius relates other Stories of like Nature. Saronus says that Sows are made more corpulent in Galatia, by cutting out their wombs. Pliny tells us that Sows were hung up by their sore Legs, and had their stones and wombs cut out, that so looseing the use of Venery, they might become more fat and delectable to the Palate. Nor is it without reason, because the womb is the Mother of many Diseases, by reason of the Obstruction of the narrow Vessels, and the ready falling down of Humours, which when the womb is away, are more readily purged out by a larger passage.  
Moreover another action of the womb is said to be a certain Natural motion: 
The wombs motion.  whence Plate would have the womb to be a certain Animal or Livewight, and Aretius says it is an Animal in an Animal, because of its motion. For in carnal Copulation, and when it is poffessed with a desire to conceive, it is moved now up and then down, and gapes to receive the Yard, as a Beast gapes for its Food. And sometimes it is moved downwards, to expel the Child and Secondine, with so much violence, that it falls out.  
Moreover it is moved with, rejoices in, and is delighted with sweet smelling things: but it shuns stinking and strong smelling things, as Castoreum, Asafoetida, etc. Hence Aristotle says, that women with child will miscarry at the smell of a Candle-●●uff.  
But the womb is sensible of C●… not under the formality of Odours, but is only affected by the delicate and subtle vaporous matter conjoined. Even as we see all the Spirits recreated, by sweet smelling things, not in respect of the smell precisely, but of the vapour conjoined therewith, which is familiar and acceptable to the Spirit. And therefore the Genital parts of women are the sooner affected, because they have an exceeding quick Sense. And because sweet smelling things have good and pleasing Vapours joined with them; and stinking things have filthy and ugly Vapours; therefore by the latter, the Spirits are made more impure, and because the womb is full of Spirits, therefore she is delighted with sweet and fragrant things, and abominates such as are stinking.  
And nevertheless, some women are 
Why sweet smelling things do hurt some women.  found whose wombs are badly constituted, who are put into Fits of the Mother by sweet smelling things, and cured by such as stink: because Nature being provoked to Expulsion by the latter, does with the stinking Vapours expel the morbific Matter. But with the former filthy Vapours are stirred up in the womb, which before lay hid, so that they ascend to the Midriff, Heart, Brain, etc. whence proceed strangling Fits of the Mother. Now these Vapours ascend partly by the sensible Pores, and partly by the Veins running back, and carrying the said Vapours with the uterine Blood: for I cannot allow of the power Helmont assigns to his ruling Parts, without manifest and known Passages. Now the womb itself does not ascend, nor is it moved out of its place, unless being distended, it takes up more room then ordinary, nor does it roll up and down like a Bowl or Globe in the Cavity of the Belly, as Hypocrates and Fernelius have imagined. Nor do the horns of the womb being swelled, move any more than the womb itself, as Riolanus suspects, for they are fastened by their Membranes, and they cannot shed their Seed into the Belly, the ways being stopped, but Vapours have an ●asie motion, which being dissipated, the Swelling of the Belly presently falls.  
Besides its Sense of Smelling, Tasting, Feeling, it is furnished according to Helment, with a kind of brutish Understanding, which makes it rage, if all things go not according to its desire. But these things favour of the Opinion of Plato, who improperly did compare the womb to a living Creature. Whence that fury proceeds, I have already declared. As for what that same novelist Helmont says, that it lives many times, and keeps a coil after a woman is dead, no man will easily believe it. For its life depends upon the life of the whole Body; and if it stir after death, either that motion proceeds from winds, or from a Child seeking its way out, after the Mother is dead, as sundry Examples demonstrate. Sphinx Theologico-Philosophica, tells us that the Mother being dead, a Child suddenly issued out of her womb, and cried lustily. After which manner Laurentius describes the Birth of Scipio and Manilius. Eberus hath two Examples of a Child born after the Mother's death, as also Johannes Matthaeus, and the like cases are fresh in the memory of many here at Hafnia. But in opposition to Winchlerus, Sperlingerus, and others that deny it, we must observe, 1. That the Child must necessarily be strong. 2. That the Orifice of the Mother's womb must be large. 3. That the Mother being dead, the mouth of the womb must be widened, and her Thighs spread, or else the Child will be strangled before it can come forth.   

Chap. XXIX. Of the Bottom of the Womb, and its Mouth.  
WE have treated hitherto of 
See Tab. XXVII.  the Womb in General, and its similar Parts. The dissimilar Parts follow, into which we have divided the same: viz. the Bottom, the Neck, and the Privity, with the Parts annexed.  
The Fundus or Bottom of the womb, is that part which reaches from the internal Orifice to the End upwards. We divide it into the lower and narrower part and the larger upper part; to which we add a third part viz. the Mouth.  
The lower and narrow part, is that between the Mouth of the womb, and 
The short Neck of the womb.  the beginning, largeness thereof, and it may be called the short Neck, to difference it from the true and long Neck. For before the wideness of the womb begins, between it and the inner Mouth, there intercedes another Neck as it were, or narrower Channel, than the largeness of the Bottom, and this is observed both in Man and Beast. And Fallopius is of Opinion, that this part was called the Neck of the womb by the Ancients, as Galen, Soranus, etc. Pinaeus reckons this part to be as long as a man's thumb, I have observed it to be five fingers breadth, long in a do.  
The Cavity hereof is not large, but such as will admit a Probe or large Quill. 
Some Cause of Barrenness.  It is rough, lest the Seed which hath been drawn in, should flow out again, as happens in some barren women, which have this part slippery, by reason of bad Humours. This roughness arises from wrinkles, which according to the Observation of Pinaeus, have their Roots situate beneath, and their Edge tending inwards or upwards, that they may easily admit, hardly let go any thing.  
The large and upper Part is chiefly termed Fundus or the Bottom, and this Part 
The Bottom.  is properly called the Womb or Matrix, and it is the principal Part for whose sake the rest were made, being wider and larger than the rest.  
It is seated above the Os pubis or Share-bone, that it may be there dilated and widened.  
The womb hath in a woman only one Cavity, not distinguished into any 
No Cavities or Cells in the womb of a woman.  Cells, as some falsely attribute thereunto seven Cells. In Brutes it is commonly divided into two parts, and therefore those parts are called the two Horns of the womb: though the 
Why Horns are said to be in the wombs of women.  form of Horns is not conspicuous in all Brutes, but in Cows, Does, Sheep, Goats, etc. Howbeit in imitation thereof, Authors have attributed horns to the wombs of women, because on the sides of the bottom thereof, there is on each side some protuberancy, where the deferent Vessels are inserted. But the womb of a woman is very seldom divided into two parts, as it is in Beasts, as it hath been observed in some by the Brother of Baubinus, Silvius, Riolanus, and Obsequens before them. And I doubt whether their wombs be so divided, who bear two or more Children at a Birth. The last year many women at Hafnia bore Twins contrary to their custom, yea and some three Children at a Birth, which they never did before nor since. We must not therefore account that to be proper to Families, or attribute the same to the wombs being double, which properly belongs to the Seed. Also that they are not conceived in a double womb, the womb-cake testifies, which alone is sufficient for many Children, only it hath so many strings fastened to it in several places, as there are Children, as Besterus hath lately described it in a like History.  
Yet is it divided into the right and left part. In the former Boys are for the most part engendered: in the latter Girls. And it seldom happens otherwise, if we believe Hypocrates and Galen. Hunter's have this sign whereby they known whether the Beast they hunt have a male or female in her belly, for if when she is struck dead, she fall on her right side, they conclude she is big of a Male, because the burden she goes with is most weighty on the right side; if on the left she fall, they judge it is a Female. 'tis reported that women with child of a Boy, do lift their right foot higher than their left, as they walk, as Salmuth gives us to understand, all which signs are nevertheless fallacious. Hypocrates and his followers do reckon other signs, which are not proper for this place.  
The right and left side are differenced by a Line or Seam which sticks up obscurely, which Aristotle terms the Median Line. The like Line is seen in the lower Belly under the Navel, dividing that Region into two parts, which they conceive to be then more visible, when women bear twins. But in some women with child I have seen this Line manifest, who bore afterwards only one Child.  
The outward Surface is smooth and even, and covered as it were with a watery Humour. The inner part hath many Porosities, which are Mouths, through which in the time of a woman's going with child, blood easily passes out of the Veins of the womb to nourish the Infant.  
It's Use is to receive the Seed, contain the Child, nourish it, etc.  
The Orifice or inner Mouth of the womb 
The inner Orifice of the womb.  is oblong, and transverse, but very narrow (but when it gapes, it is round and orbicular, which is perhaps the cause why the Germane Midwives call it the Rose, and the French Midwives, the Crown of the Mother) like the Hole of the Nut of the Yard, that no hurtful thing may enter in, nor the Seed drawn thither, easily pass out. If at any time it fall out of the Privity, or be turned inside out, it resembles exactly the Mouth of a Tench.  
If the Situation thereof be changed, so that it be not just in the middle, looking towardst he bottom, 'tis conceived a Man cannot squirt his Seed thereinto, and that the Seed will sooner flow back, than the woman conceive. If it be quite absent, which seldom falls out, an uncurable Barrenness 
Some Causes of Barrenness.  is thereby caused. As also Barrenness is caused, if it be otherwise affected, viz. with Cancers, scirrhous Tumours, Obstructions, Callosity, over much Fatness: especially through over much Humectation and Relaxation, either through over much Copulation as in Whores, or through too great a Flux of Humours.  
In women with child a glewish clammy Matter grows to the Orifice, and fills the short Neck well-near; that these Parts being moistened, may more easily be opened in the time of Travel.  
Within the Channel of this Mouth to the lower part thereof, grows its little bunch, which does more exactly shut ●…ole, according to the Observation of Riolanus▪ He also informs us that about this little bunch, there are to be seen Pores or little Holes, which seem to be the ends of the deferent Vessels, ending at the Neck. Columbus found those Vessels implanted like the teeth of a comb, full of Blood.  
By this Orifice, the womb draws the Seed into it, which being conceived, it is 
The Use of the Orifice of the womb  said to be shut so close, that the point of a needle cannot enter. And therefore Physicians do vainly squirt Liquors thereinto with a Syringe, and Whores endeavour in 
When the Mouth of the womb is opened.  vain to draw out the Conception. But it is opened in Superfoetation, in the Ejection of a bad Conception without hurt to the Child, which sometimes happens in the Emission of Seed, but it is especially opened after a wonderful manner at the time of Childbirth, when it ought to be widened according to the greatness of the Child, so that the wideness is in a manner equal from the bottom of the womb to the Privity, whereout the Child passes. And this says Galen we may wonder at, but we cannot understand. And he admonishes us upon this occasion, that it is our duty to acknowledge the Wisdom and Power of him that made us. But this Orifice as well as the womb, does chiefly consist of wrinkled Membranes, which being smoothed out, will admit of unimaginable Dilatation.   

Chap. XXX. Of the greater Neck of the Womb.  
IN the Bottom of the Womb we have 
See Tab. XXVII.  observed three things; the Bottom itself, the lesser Neck, and the Orifice. In the greater Neck also, three things are to be noted. The Neck itself, the Hymen, and the Mouth of the Bladder. Of the Hymen we shall treat in the following Chapter.  
The Neck or Channel of the womb, is by Aristotle also sometimes called Matrix, and the Door of the Womb, Fallopius calls it Sinus pudoris, the Privity. It is a long Channel, being hollow even when the Child is in the womb, admitting both a Probe and a man's finger, as may be seen in such as are new born.  
It is situate between the external and the internal Mouth, receiving the Yard like a sheath.  
It's Figure. The Neck is somewhat writhe and crooked, also it is shorter and straighter, when it is loose, and falls together; that the internal parts may not be refrigerated. But it is strait and widened 1. In carnal Copulation. 2. In the monthly Flux. 3. In the time of Childbirth, when it is exceedingly stretched according to the Shape of the Child; whence also proceeds the exceeding great pains of women in travel: and then as also during their Courses, women are very much cooled.  
It's Magnitude. The length thereof is eight fingers breadth commonly, or seven; so as to be as long as a Man's longest finger. It is as wide as the Intestinum rectum or Arsegut. But the longitude and latitude of this part are so various, that it is hard to describe them. For in carnal Copulation, it accommodates itself to the length of the Yard, and this Neck becomes longer or shorter, broader, or narrower, and swells sundry ways according to the lust of the woman. And when that happens, the Caruncles swell with Spirits which fill them, as appears in Cows and Bitche●… desire Copulation; but the Channel is made narrower and less, as also in the Act of Generation, that it may more close embrace the Yard: and therefore its  
Substance is of an hard and nervous flesh, and somewhat spongy, like the Yard; that it may be widened and contracted within, the upper part is wrinkled, when it is not distended, but 
Wrinkles in the Neck of the womb.  being widened, it is more slippery and smooth. Howbeit in the Neck of the womb also when it is distended, there are many orbicular wrinkles in the beginning of the channel near the Privity, most of all in the fore part next the Bladder, less towards the Intestinum rectum on which it rests; and they serve for the greater Titillation caused by the rubbing of the Nut of the Yard against the said wrinkles. And in young Maids these wrinkles are straighter, and the Neck narrower, through which the Menstrual blood is voided; also in grown persons that are yet Virgins. But the wrinkles are worn out, and the sides become callous, by reason of frequent rubbing, 1. In old women. 2. In such as have used much Copulation, or have frequently bore Children. 3. In those that have been troubled with a long Flux of the Courses, or of the Whites. And in all these the substance does also become harder, so that it becomes at last gristley, as it were old women, and such as have born many Children. But in young Maidens, it is more soft and delicate.  
The Use of the Neck is to receive the Yard being raised, and to draw out the Seed.  
Finally, beyond the middle towards 
The Orifice of the Bladder.  the end of the Neck, in the fore and upper part, not far from the Privity, comes the Insertion of the Bladder into sight, that the Urinal may there be voided by the common Passage. It is as long as a knucle of ones finger, without fleshy, or rather covered with a fleshy Sphincter. Pinaeus observes that it is black within, of the same substance with the Piss-pipe in Men, as any man may see, now Riolanus that told us so.  
Wierus hath noted in his Observations, that the outer extremity of the Neck of the Bladder, does not in all women appear in the same place, in many 'tis seen above the outer straits of the neck of the womb, under the Nymph; in some few it lies hid inwardly, in the upper part of the Privity. But the entrance into the Bladder, is sound on the backside, when the Membrane called Hymen is there: of which we are now to speak.   

Chap. XXXI. Of the Membrane called Hymen.  
THe Hymen or Membrane called 
See Fig. IU. and V. of Ta●. XXVIII.  Eugion, is by others called the closure of Virginity, and the Flower of Virginity, because where it is, there is a sign of Virginity.  
Now whether or no there is any sign of 
That there is some true sign of Virginity.  Virginity, ought not to be doubted. For all Men find that marry Virgins, that there is somewhat that hinders their Yard from going in, unless it be thrust forward with great force and strength. Whence Terence says the first Copulation of a Virgin is exceeding painful. And at that time for the most part, blood issue with great pain, more or less; which Blood is also called ●…er of Viro.  
For by reason of the widening of the 
Why Virgins are pained in their first carnal Copulation.  straight Neck of the Womb, and the tearring of the Hymen, all Virgins have pain and a Flux of blood in their first Copulation. Younger Virgins have more pain and less Flux of blood, because of the dryness of the Hymen and the smallness of their Vessels; but those that are older, and have had their Courses, have less pain and greater flux of blood, for the contrary causes.  
But if her Courses flow, or have flowed a little before: the Yard is easily 
An Exception.  admitted, by reason of the Relaxation of those Parts, whence there is little or no pain, and little or no flux of blood. And therefore Maids ought not to be married at that season, lest the Bridegroom come to suspect the Virginity of his Bride.  
Now what it is that hinders the Yard from entering, that is to say, in 
What is the token of Virginity.  what part the token of Virginity consists, there are sundry Opinions and Differences.  
I. The Arabians say the Hymen is 
The I. Opinion of the Arabians.  a piece form of five Veins at the middle of the Neck of the womb, inserted on either side, so that the Mouths of the rightside Veins are joined with those on the left.  
These are Fancies.  
II. Others (among whom are Fernelius and Ulmus) do say that the 
The II. Opinion.  sides of the Neck grow together, and when they are separated and widened, the Veins are broken which run in those Parts. But this is contrary to Experience, which witnesses, that in little Girls the Neck hath its Cavity, nor do the sides thereof stick together.  
III. Others say it is a transverse Membrane. 
The III. Opinion.   
And herein they are right. But they are deceived, who have feigned it to have Holes in it like a Seive, and placed it in the lowest end of the Neck: through which they would have the Urinal to be voided.  
IV. The newest Opinion of all, is that of Severinus Pinaeus, a most 
The IV. Opinion.  expert Surgeon of Paris, who hath wrote an whole Book of the Notes of Virginity, not unprofitable to be read. Now he accounts the four Myrtle-shaped Caruncles to be the Hymen, tied together by a small Membrane, placed in the outer part of the neck of the womb; of which hereafter. And some learned men are at this day of his Opinion, as Bauhinus for one. I could find no other in a young Girl, lately dissected in this place.  
V. The more common Opinion is, that the Hymen is a transverse Membrane 
The V. Opinion strengthened by many Authors.  going athwart the neck of the womb, a little above the Neck of the Bladder, which resists the first Entrance of the Yard. And many Experiments and Authorities stand up for this Opinion. And in the first place of four most renowned Anatomists, of Milan, Vesalius, Fallopius, Aquapendent, and Casserius. And all Antiquity had some knowledge hereof. Hence the Author of that old Friar's verse, or rhyming verse.  Est magnum crimen perrumpere virgins hymen. 'tis a huge sin to break the skin of a Virgins Gim. 
Archangelus, Alexander Benedictus, and Wierus assent hereunto. Carpus also knew as m●…ger seem to have been ignorant hereof in the 1. Sect. of his 175. Exercitation, where he speaks of a Root that extremely excites Lust. For he says; If any shall piss thereon, they say he will presently be full of fleshy desires: Virgins that look to Cattle in the fields, if they sit thereon or make water, 'tis said the skin in their Privity will break, as if they had been deflowered by a Man. Columbus and Sebizius did three times find it, Baubinus twice, as he averrs in his Book of the similar Parts, and Wolfius seems in his Institutions to assent thereunto, who witnesses that he found it at Milan. Adrianus Spigelius affirms that he found it in all the Virgins that ever he did cut up, and I myself and Veslingus at the same time saw it at Milan. Nor is it necessary to bring all the Authorities which might be had in this subject to this place.  
And whereas Columbus and Paraeus 
The Confutation of such as deny it to be always found in Virgins.  deny that it is always found, and Laurentius says he could never find it: the reason was that they wanted Bodies to dissect, or were negligent in their work: or they might dissect supposed Virgins who had been deflowered. Or if they dissected young Virgins, they through wantonness do sometimes with their fingers break the said Skin or Membrane. But if they shall say they did cut up abortive Births, Girls of two or three years old etc. I answer 'tis incredible that the Hymen should be wanting in such, seeing the Authorities and Experiences of skilful Anatomists forecited, are against it. Again, if in some by them dissected, it was wanting; by the same right that they say this Membrane is praeternaturally present, we shall say it was praeternaturally absent. For it is seldom absent, and for the most part present. And others that are for Laurentius against us, such as Capivaccius and Augenius, are to be rejected as persons not skilled in Astronomy.  
VI There is a middling Opinion 
The VI Opinion.  of Melchior Sebizius, viz. that all the signs of Virginity must be joined together, when they are present. And when the Hymen or Skin so called is absent, we must rest in the straitness of the Neck and other marks, which being widened in the first Copulation, pain and effusion of blood follows by reason of the Solution of Continuity.  
These things thus promised, let us come to the Structure of this Hymen or thin Skin which goes cross the neck of the womb.  
'tis situate in the neck of the womb, near the end thereof, just behind the Insertion of the Neck of the Bladder, or a little more inward. For the Situation does now and then vary, though the difference is but little. And there this Membrane goes cross the Cavity, like the Diaphragma or Midriff.  
It's Figure. In the middle it hath an hole like a ring, so that in grown Maids, it will admit the top of ones little finger, through which hole the Courses flow.  
But Aquapendent hath many times found this hole in a threefold difference. 
The hole in the middle of the Hymen, is of several fashions.   
I. As being Naturally constituted, and just opposite to the external Privity.  
II. Higher, and not just against the Privity.  
III. That in the middle was no round hole, but a chink somewhat long. Sebezius' likens it to the horned Moon a little full. For Nature sport's herself in the variety of Shape.  
But seldom is the Hymen without any holes 〈…〉 then the Courses cannot come away, whence f●… last Dis●… Death, unless it be ope●…  
Its Magnitude. On its sides, where it grows to the neck of the womb, 'tis thicker than in the middle.  
It's Connexion. It is continued to the Substance of the Neck, as if it grew out of the same.  
It's Substance is partly membranous, partly fleshy, nor yet very thick. And in some it is thinner and weaker than in others. As in the Prayan Virgins of Campania, who are there all devirginated after twelve years of age, partly by the Heat of the Sun, partly of their own Bodies breaking the Membrane, as I was told by Relation of Friends there. In some it is more soiled and thick, and sometimes so strong, that it must be cut open, especially when the Bridegroom is lazy and impotent: for if he be a lusty Carl, he is wont after some month's labour, to make his way through.  
This Membrane is furnished with many little Veins, which being broken in the first Copulation, pain and bloodshed arises. Finally, it wears away at last, either through Copulation, or wanton rubbing; even as in men the Fraenum or bridle of the Yard is sometimes torn.  
But there is a great and serious Question, whether or no in the first carnal Act, all 
A Question touching the shedding of blood in the first Copulation.  Virgins must needs void Blood, as a certain sign of their Virginity?  
I answer, that it happens so for the most part, and aught always so to happen. And therefore in 22. of Deuteronomie, at Marriages the bloody cloth was showed to the Elders, as a witness of the Virginity of the Bride. Leo Africanus says the same custom was used in Mauritania, and I was told by a Syrian, that it is observed at this very day in Syria. Augenius indeed out of Rabbi Solomon and Lyranus, do understand this Text Metaphorically, as if the spreading of the Garment did signify, the words of witnesses, by which the Chastity of the Bride was diligently enquired into and declared. But the best Interpreters retain the Litteral Sense of the Words. Sebizius proves that it was to them a perpetual sign, because 1. Their Virgins were married very young. 2. Every one was careful of himseif because of the Law of Jehova●. Others contrariwise conceive that it was a sign for the most part. Marius excepts when the Bridegroom is impotent, and a Surgeon may easily judge in such a case. Sennertus says in that Law the affirmative Inference is good, but not the negative; and that nothing else can be concluded, but that where it is, it is a sign of Virginity. Therefore it may be hindered, and not appear.  

1. If Virgins break it through wantonness with their fingers, or some other Instrument. Hence it is that some Nations, sow up the Privities of Girls new born, leaving a little way for the Urinal to come forth; nor do they open it till the time of Marriage: and then the Bridegroom causes it to be opened, that he may be sure he hath a Virgin.  
2. If it be the time of her Courses, or she have had them a little before.  
3. If the Chink in the Hymen be very long, for then there happens only a Dilatation and no breaking.  
4. If the Neck of the Womb be very wide, and the Yard not sufficiently thick.  
5. If the Man thrust in his Yard cleverly.  
6. If the Virgin have had the falling down of the womb, whereby the Hymen was broke.  
7. If the Virgin be in years before she is married.  
8. If by continual Deflux of sharp Humours, the ●n be either moistued or fretted, which frequen●…pens in sickly men, through fault of their Con●… badness of the Climate 〈…〉 healthly Hebrew Virgins, being in a good Climate, and of a strong Constitution, did easily by care avoid these Inconveniences.   
The Use of the Hymen is, to defend the internal Parts from external Injury. 2. To testify a Maid's Virginity.  
Now a Maid may conceive without 
Whether Conception may be made without hurting the Hymen.  hurting the token of her Virginity, which Americus Vesputius relates to have been common in the Indies, and Speronus and Peramatus prove the same. 'tis reported that at Paris a certain woman in this present Age wherein we live, was got with Child, without any Detriment to her Virginal Parts, and a like History is related by Clementina. Which we may conceive to be done five manner of ways, reckoned up by Plempius and Sinibaldus, which for Honour's sake, I shall here omit. Nor does this any ways prejudice the Conception of our Saviour, which was performed without any of these ways, without the Embracement of any Man, and only by the overshadowing of the Holy Spirit, of which it belongs to Divines to treat. If we believe Suidas, the Membrance was by the Midwives found in the Virgin Mary, when it was questioned, whether she had lost her Virginity or no; which I conceive to have been inconsistent with the Modesty of that blessed Virgin. The living Simon Magus, that he might be reputed for a God, boasted that he was born of his Mother Rachel, she being a Virgin. St. Augustine conceits that in the State of Innocence, the Seed of the Man might be conveyed into the Womb of the Woman, her Virginity remaining uncorrupted, even as now Menstrual blood comes out of the womb of a Virgin, without any Detriment to her Virginity. Which Opinion Vives does explain and approve.  
But that Women can become fruitful without the Seed of a Man, is incredible. For Caranza judges that Story of Pomponius Mela, of certain hairy women in an Island, which are fruitful without any Copulation of Men, to be a Fable. Touching Incuboe, the Question is different, which I have handled in another place. It was lately reported in France, that Magdalena ●● A●vermont the Wife of Hieronymus Augustus de Montelione a French Knight, did conceive a Son called Emmanuel, only by imagination, which the Lord a Professer at Monpelier, made to be suspected, and P. Sanchius in the same place did wish me not to believe it. Old Authors relate that Mares in Portugal, do conceive by the wind, Ludovicus Carrius does justify their report. But Justinus the Epitomiser, does more rightly explain their meaning to have been only to note the fruitfulness of those Mares, and the speediness of their Conception   

CHAP. XXXII. Of the Woman's external Privity in General.  
WHere the Neck of the Womb ends, there begins the last and outmost part of the womb, viz. The Woman's Privity, or the outward Orifice, or Mouth of the Neck of the womb; others call it Vulva quasi valva, as if you would say a folding Door, also Cunnus a cuneo from a wedg, or from an Impression [whence in a Manuscript of English Receipts, I have found it called the Print] Plautus calls it Saltus, a Wood or Grove, or strait. Also by another Metaphor he calls it Concha the Shellfish, and Na●●● the Ship; others commonly call it Natura muliebris, the Woman's Nature. Varre tells us the Romans called it Porca the Furrow or Parsley-bed, the Sow. And what Experience of biting made, Suidas and Eustathius call it cuneiron or cuona, the Dog, let those judge that can speak by Experience.  
It is only one in Number. Obsequens tells of a Woman that had two Privities, and Licetus hath observed many such as Monsters.  
It's Situation is external, in the former Region of the Share-bones, where very 
Parts of the Privity.  many parts are to be seen without Dissection, and some without drawing open the Lips; as the Hairs of the Share, the Lips, and the Hillocks themselves; the great external Chink, the Wings, the Tentigo; but some parts cannot be seen without drawing the Lips aside, as the fossa navicularis, the two smaller Chinks by the Nymphs, the bodies of the Clitoris, the Hole of the Neck of the Bladder, with with a fleshy Valve, the wrinkled Chink or immediate Mouth of the Neck, with four Caruncles, and as many Membranes: where afterwards the Channel begins of which we have spoken.  
The Hairs of the Share in such as are ripe, break out about the Lips, the better to close the Chink. And they are in Women more curled then in Maids; of sundry colours, being produced by Nature, partly the shelter, and partly to cover these parts, which she judges aught in decency to be covered. But the Italian and Eastern Women out of a desire of cleanliness and neatness, do by Art remove these Hairs as unprofitable.  
The Lips being drawn open, there appears 1. MAGNA FOSSA the large 
See Fig. II. and III. of the XXVIII. Tab.  Trench or Ditch, with the outer GREAT CHINK, and we may call the foresaid Ditch Fossa navicularis the Boat trench, because of its likeness to a little Boat or Ship. For it is backwards more deep and broad, that the lower and after-end might degenerate as it were the Ditch or Trench. In this Ditch the Lips being opened, two Holes appear, but hardly visible, save in live bodies, out of which a good quantity of wheyish Humour Issues, which moistens the Man's Share in the time of Copulation. The Orifice or Beginning of the Neck of the Womb, is in the middle of this Ditch.  
Now this Ditch with the external Chink were to be large, that the Child might in the external part come out more easily, seeing the Skin cannot be so stretched, as the membranous Substance within may be.  
Then we meet with two COLLATERAL CHINKS, which are less: the right and the left, and they are between the Lips and the Wings.  
Now in this large Ditch, there are first of all to be seen certain Caruncles or little Parcels of flesh, of which we are now to discourse.   

CHAP. XXXIII. Of the Myrtle-shaped Caruncles.  
IN the Middle of the Ditch or 
See. Fig. IU. of Tab. XXVIII.  Trench aforesaid, appear four CARUNCLES or little Particles of flesh, presently after the Wings.  
They are so situate that each possesses a corner, and oppose one another in manner of a quadrangle.  
One of them is before in the circumference of the hole of the urinary Passage, to shut the same (it being greater than the rest, and forked) lest after the water is voided, any external thing as Air, etc. should enter into the Bladder.  
The secon opposite to the former, is situate behind, the two remaining ones are Collateral.  
Their Shape resembles the Berries of Myrtle.  
Their Size varies, for some have their shorter, longer, thicker, and thinner than others. Howbeit they abide till extreme old Age, and wear not away so much as in those that have used frequent Copulation and frequent Childbearing.  
They have some Membranes joined to them, which Pinaeus together with the Caruncles terms Valves: so that their substance is partly fleshy and partly membranous.  
The Hole in the middle between these Caruncles, is of various size, according to the age of the Party. Howbeit Riolanus hath observed, that in Virgins it equals a third part of the great Chink.  
Also He conceives, these Caruncles are made by the wrinkling of the fleshy sheath of the Privity, that the external part being narrower than the sheath, may in time of travel be widened as much as it. And therefore in a Childbed Woman, after she was brought to bed, he observed them for seven days quite obliterated, by reason of the great distension of the Privity, nor is there any appearance of them till the Privity be again straitened and reduced to its Natural form.  
Their Use is, I. to defend the internal parts, while they immediately shut the Orifice of the Neck, that no Air, Dust, etc. may enter. To which end also the Nymphs and Lips of the Privity do serve.  
II. Fortitillation and pleasure, while they are swollen, and strongly strain, and milk the Yard as it were, especially in young Lasses.  
But Pinaeus will have their use to be far different. For he says these Caruncles, whose Extremities are fleshy Membranes, are so bound together, as to leave only a little hole, and so to make the Hymen or true Mark of Virginity. Nor will he have it seated across or athwart, but longways, so that the figure of the whole Hymen should make an obtuse cone, or a cone with the sharp end cut off.   

CHAP. XXXIV. Of the CLITORIS.  
FAllopius arrogates unto himself the Invention or first Observation of this Part. And Columbus gloriously, as in other things he is wont, attributes it to himself. Whereas nevertheless Avicenna, Albucasis, Ruffus, Pollux and others, have made mention hereof in their Writings.  
The XXVIII, TABLE  
This TABLE comprehends the Sheath of the Womb, the Body of the Clitoris, and the external Female Privity, both in Virgins, and such as are deflowered.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Bottom of the Womb dissected cross-ways.  
BB. The Cavity of the Bottom.  
C. The Neck of the Womb.  
D. The Mouth of the Neck in a woman that hath boar a child.  
EE. The rugged inside of the Neck cut open.  
FF. The round Ligaments of the Womb cut off.    
FIG. II. 

A. The Nymph or Clitoris rather in its proper Situation.  
BB. The Hairs of the Privities.  
C. The Insertion of the Neck of the Bladder near the Privity.  
DD. The Privity.  
EE. The wings of the Privity.  
FF. The Neck of the Womb cut off.    
FIG. III. 

A. The Body of the Clitoris sticking up under the Skin.  
BB. The outer Lips of the Privity separated one from another.  
CC. The Alae or wings, and the Nymphs likewise separated.  
D. The Caruncle placed about the Urin-hole (a)  
EE. Two fleshy Myrtle-shaped Productions.  
FF. Membranous Expansions which contain the Chink.    
FIG. IV. Presents the Privity of a Girl. 

a. The Clitoris.  
bb. The Lips of the Privity.  
cc. The Wings or Nymphs.  
d. The Orisice of the Urethra or Piss-pipe.  
●. ff. h. Four Myrtle-shaped Caruncles.  
e. The upmost Caruncle which is divided into two, and shuts the Passage of the Piss-pipe.  
●. The Hole of the Hymen or Virginity-skin.  
●. The lowest Caruncle.  
●. The Fundament.  
k. The Perinaeum.    
FIG. V. Letter A. Shows the Membrane drawn cross the Privity, which some have taken to be the Hymen or Virginal-skin.  
FIG. VI Shows the Clitoris separated from the Privity. 

A. The top of the Clitoris resembling the Nut of a Man's Yard.  
B. The Foreskin thereof.  
CC. The two Thighs of the Clitoris cut off from the protuberancy of the Hip or Huckle.    
FIG. VII. The Clitoris cut asunder athwart, its inward spongy Substance is apparent.  
page 76  
Now the CLITORIS is a small Production. 
See Tab. XXVIII.   
It is seated in the middle of the Share, in the upper and former end of the great Chink, where  
Its Size is commonly small; it lies hid for the most part under the Nymphs in its beginning, and afterward it sticks out a little. For in Lasses that begin to be amorous, the Clitoris does first discover itself. It is in several persons greater or lesser: in some it hangs out like a man's Yard, namely when young Wenches do frequently and continually handle and rub the same, as Examples testify. But that it should grow as big as a Goose's neck, as Platerus relates of one, is altogether preternatural and monstrous. Tulpius hath a like Story of one that had it as long as half a man's finger, and as thick as a Boys Prick, which made her willing to have to do with Women in a Carnal way. But the more this part increases, the more does it hinder a man in his business. For in the time of Copulation it swells like a man's Yard, and being erected, provokes to Lust.  
It's Substance is not boney (though it was so in a Venetian Courtesan, who 
It's Substance.  had it cut off, and the hardness whereof did inflame the Yards of the Lovers) but as that of a man's Yard, it consists of two nervous Bodies hard and thick, within porous and spongy (that this part might rise and fall) arising distinctly from the Hip-bones, about the brims of the said Bones. But they are joined together about the Share-bone, and make up the Body of the Yard. Its Muscles are, according to Pinaeus three, according to Riolanus 
Its Muscles.  and Veslingus four, like as in a man's Yard, and serving to the same Intent. The two uppermost round ones, rest upon longer Ligaments, and proceed from one and the same place; the two others being lower, broad, and fleshy, proceed from the Sphincter of the Fundament.  
The outmost End or Head, sticking out like the nut of a man's Yard (the rest lying hid) is called TENTIGO, having an hole as a man's 
Tentigo.  Yard, but no thoroughfar.  
It seems to be covered with a Foreskin as it were, which is made of a small Skin arising from the Conjunction of the Wings.  
Also it hath Vessels of all sorts brought unto it. 
Its Vessels.   
Veins and Arteries common to it and the Privity, a Nerve from the sixth Conjugation, all more large than the Nature of its Body might seem to require, to cause an exact Feeling and Erection.  
It's Use is to be the Seat of Delectation and Love. And it is like the Froenulum or Bridle 
It's Use.  on the Nut of a man's Yard. For by the rubbing thereof, the Seed is brought away.  
Howbeit Aquapendent conceives that the Use of the Clitoris, is to sustain the Neck of the Womb in the time of Copulation.  
Bellonius and jovius do conceive that this is the part wherein the Aethiopians were wont to circumcise women. Aetius and Aegineta do show us how to cut it off, confounding it with the Nymph. And even at this day, the Eastern Nations, in regard of its bigness extraordinary, do sear it, that it may grow no more. And they hire ancient women to perform this Piece of Surgery, which they improperly term Circumcision. And it is to those people as necessary, in regard of the deformed greatness of the Clitoris, as it is comely; for at Alcair in Egypt, Wenches go naked after this Circumcision, and when they are married, they wear a Smock only. Of which things is also this kind of Circumcision, I have discoursed at large in my Puerperial Antiquities.   

CHAP. XXXV. Of the Wings and Lips.  
TWo red Productions offer themselves to our view between the Lips, which they term pterugia and ALAS, that is the Wings.  
Galen calls them NYMPHS, either 
See FIG. III. and IV. of the Tab. XXVIII.  because they do first admit the bridegroom, or because they have charge of the Waters and Humours issuing forth. For between them as it were two walls, the urine is cast out to a good distance with an hissing noise, without wetting the Lips of the Privity. Others call them the Curicular Caruncles.  
They are seated between the two Lips.  
Their Magnitude is not always alike: for sometimes one Wing, otherwhiles both, seldomer in Virgins then in women, do grow so big, especially being frequently drawn by the fingers, or otherwise by an Afflux of Humours▪ that by reason of the impediments thereby happening, 'tis necessary to cut them. And Galen tells us that this Disease is frequent among the Egyptians; so that they are fallen to cut them in Virgins that are to marry, and in other women also; and Aeetius and Aegineta do speak to the same purpose, which others will have to be understood of the Clitoris. And they are in the right as I conceive, because the Clitoris being over long, may hinder the amorous Embracement, and may be raised like the Yard; but the Nymphs cannot be this way troublesome, which are softer, and in some do hang down very long, yea in Whores that trade with these Parts.  
They are in Number two; the right and the left, now they are in the beginning commonly joined together, where they make a fleshy Production, like a Foreskin clothing the Clitoris.  
Their Figure is triangular, but one angle is blunter than the rest, viz. that which comes without the Lips. It is like a Coxcomb: and for that cause haply by Juvenal termed Crista.  
It's Coloi● is red like a Coxcomb under his throat.  
'tis covered with a thin Coat rather than Skin, as the Lips and other parts of the Mouth.  
It's Substance is partly membranous, soft, and spongy (bred peradventure of the doubling in of the Skin, at the sides of the great Chink) and partly fleshy.  
Their Use is the same with that of the Myrtle-shaped Caruncles. And moreover that the Urinal might be conveyed between them, as between two walls. Some conceive they serve as a Ligament, to suspend and straiten as it were, in Virgins, the lower part of the external Chink, which seems unlikely. The Lips perform that Office, and the Nymphs should rather straiten such as are deflowered, in whom they are longer.  
The two LIPS, between which the external Chink consists, have certain 
The Lips and Venus' Hillocks.  risings adorned with hair, which are termed Monticuli Veneris, the Hillocks of Venus. In women they are flatter then in maidens. This Part is that which is properly termed the Privity. These Hillocks are longish, soft Bodies, of such a Substance, the like whereof is not to be found in the whole Body again▪ for it consists partly of Skin, and partly of spongy Flesh, under which is placed a parcel of hard Fat.  
〈…〉 Juncture of the Lips, is in Virgins right, straight, as it were a ligamentish Substance for firmness; but in such as have lost their Maidenhead, it is loose, and in such as have had a Child, yet loser; as Riolanus hath found by Experience, and any body else may find that covers the Glory of such Experiments.  
The Use hath been hinted before.   

CHAP. XXXVI. Of the Membranes which enfold the Child in the Womb.  
ALL the Parts serving for Generation, both in Men and Women are explained. But because my design is to discourse of what ever comes under knife of an Anatomist, I must also propound some things which are contained in the Womb of a woman with child, such as are  
I. The Infant, whose Structure differs 
Wher●●n the Child in the Womb differs from a grown person  only in some things, from that of a grown person. Which I shall briefly recount, as I did publicly, not long since demonstrate the same, at the Diffection of a Child. Now the parts of a large Child differ from those of a tender Embryo, and the parts of both these from those of a grown Man. 1. In Magnitude, either proportionate to the whole Body, or less proportionate. 2. In Colour, some parts are more red, some more pale than in a grown person. 3. In Shape, as may be seen in the Kidneys and Head. 4. In Cavity, as in the Vessels of the Navel and Heart. 5. In Number, either abounding, as in the Bones of the Head, Breast, and Sutures of the Skull; or deficient, as in the Call, some Bones, of the Back, Wrist, etc. 6. In Hardness, as in the said Bones. 7. In Situation, as the Teeth. 8. In Use, as the Navil-vessels, and those of the Heart, the Gut Caecum, etc. 9 In Motion, as the Lungs, etc. 10. In Excrements. 11. In Strength and Perfection of the Whole.  
The XXIX. TABLE.  
This TABLE shows how the Parts of a Child in the Womb differ from those of a grown Person.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Deputy-kidneys.  
BB. The true Kidneys, as yet distinguished into sundry Kernels, il expressed by the Graver, in respect of their Situation.  
C. The Arteria magna, out of which branches go to the Deputies and the Kidneys.  
D. The Vena cava out of which the Emulgents proceed, and the little Veins of the Deputies.    
FIG. II. Shows the Posture of a Child in the Womb, which does nevertheless sometimes vary. 

A. The Head of the Child hanging downwards, so as its Nose is bid between its Knees.  
BB. The Buttocks to which the Heels are applied.  
CC. The Arms.  
D. The Cord drawn along its Neck, and turned back over its Forehead, which is continued with the Womb-cake, expressed in the next Figure.    
FIG. III. 

AAA. The Membrane Chorion divided.  
BB. The Membrane Amnios', as yet covering the Cord.  
CC. The hollow and inner side of the womb-cake which looks towards the Child, with the Twigs of Vessels.  
D. A Portion of the twisted Cord.    
FIG. IV. Shows the outside of the Placenta, which cleaus to the Womb, though here separated, with the Cliffs and Chinks [EEEE] which vary in Number and Depth.  
FIG. V. Shows the Skeleton of a young Child, in very many things differing from that of a Person grown up; as appears by the Text  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Deputy-kidneys.  
BB. The true Kidneys, as yet distinguished into sundry Kernels, il expressed by the Graver, in respect of their Situation.  
C. The Arteria magna, out of which branches go to the Deputies and the Kidneys.  
D. The Vena cava out of which the Emulgents proceed, and the little Veins of the Deputies.    
FIG. II. Shows the Posture of a Child in the Womb, which does nevertheless sometimes vary. 

A. The Head of the Child hanging downwards, so as its Nose is bid between its Knees.  
BB. The Buttocks to which the Heels are applied.  
CC. The Arms.  
D. The Cord drawn along its Neck, and turned back over its Forehead, which is continued with the Womb-cake, expressed in the next Figure.    
FIG. III. 

AAA. The Membrane Chorion divided.  
BB. The Membrane Amnios', as yet covering the Cord.  
CC. The hollow and inner side of the womb-cake which looks towards the Child, with the Twigs of Vessels.  
D. A Portion of the twisted Cord.    
FIG. IV. Shows the outside of the Placenta, which cleaus to the Womb, though here separated, with the Cliffs and Chinks [EEEE] which vary in Number and Depth.  
FIG. V. Shows the Skeleton of a young Child, in very many things differing from that of a Person grown up; as appears by the Text  
These things will be more evident, if we shall run over all the particles which are in a Child different from the parts of our Bodies,  

1. The Umbilical or Navil-Vessels, vulgarly called the Navel strings, are three, and hollow throughout to pass and repass the Mother's blood, which in grown persons turn to Ligaments.  
2. There is little or no appearance of the Call, because there is as yet no public digestion of the Stomach or Guts, and they are sufficiently cherished by the Members of the Child folded together and the hear of the Womb.  
3. The stomach is small, no bigger than a Walnut, and for the most part empty, there being no public Concoction, or it is moistened with a clammy Humour.  
4. The Caecum intestinum is large, sometimes thick, other whiles long, for the most part full of Excrements, of which I spoke before.  
5. The thin Guts appear contracted, coloured with yellow Excrements descending through the Gallbladder.  
6. The thick Guts especially the Rectum, do contain thick black Excrements, from the private digestion, of the Stomach, Guts, Liver and Spleen or of the Spleen only, voided hither by the Caeliaca, or of the Liver alone, purged out by the Choler-passage. They are black, through their long stay.  
7. The true Kidneys, are compacted of very many Kernels. The deputy Kidneys are large and more hollow.  
8. The Liver with its 〈◊〉 fills both the Hypochondria. The Spleen is small, because there is yet no fermentation in the Stomach and Veins. The colour of both, is more bright and red, then in a grown person.  
9 In the Dugs there are no kernels, only a little sign of a Nipple.  
10. The Thymus growing to the Vessels, is visible beyond the Heart with a threefold large kernel.  
11. The Ears of the Heart are large, especially the right Ear, and pale.  
12. The Unions of the Vessels in the Heart, by Anastomosis and a little Channel, are singular, of which we shall speak in the following Book.  
13. The Lungs shine with a yellow redness, which is afterwards allayed by their motion. Because they are at present immovable, because transpiration alone and the Ventilation of the Mother's Blood do suffice the Child in the Womb, unless it happen to cry in the Womb.  
14. In the Head all things are large. The Eyes stick out, the skull is exceeding big, but divided into many parts, the brain is soft and commonly overflows with moisture; the Pericranium continued with the Dura mater, passes through the Sutures.  
15. In the Skeleton, the Bones of the whole Body are soft in the first months, afterwards some are hard, according as they are of use, as the Ribs; some are gristly, as the Brest-bone, the Wrist-bone, and the Tarsus or beginning of the Foot (all without any hard Apophyses or Epiphyses) which nevertheless in tract of time do grow to a bony hardness, the middle parts growing heard first: and after their hardening some remain one continued bone, others are divided into many Particles.  
16. The Crown of the Head remains very long open, covered only with a Membrane, which by little and little with age grows close up. The Sagittal future reaches to the Nose. The greater Conjunctions of the bones are movable, placed one upon another, that in the coming out of the Womb, the skull being pressed, may give way to the straitness of the passage. The Os Cuneiforme is divided into four parts. The Bones of the Nose and both the Jaws are divided, a Gristle coming between. The Teeth lie hid in their sockets, covered with the Gums. The Vertebrae of the Back, have no sharp productions, that they may not hurt the Womb. The Breastbone being soft, hath in the middle according to the length thereof, four little round bones, Plane and Pory. Also the Plank, Hippolito and Share-bones are distinguished by Gristles. The Carpus and Tarsus are Gristly, and afterward as the Child grows bigger, they are spread out into divers bones, when there is a necessity of using the Hands and Feet, to handle and go.  
17. In the outward parts, as the Skin, Hairs, Nails, etc. there is some difference, known to all.   
II. The Membranes which invest the Child, cloth and cover it: of which in this Chapter.  
III. The Navil-vessels, of which in the Chapter following.  
The MEMBRANES which enfold the Child; are the first thing bred in the Womb after Conception, to fence the nobler part of the Seed as may be seen with the Eyes, even in the smallest Conceptions, and as the Authority of all Authors well-near does testify.  
Their Efficient cause, is the formative faculty, and not only 
Whether the heat of the Womb only ●e the Efficient cause of the Membranes.  the Heat of the Womb; as the Heat is wont to cause a crust upon Bread or Gruel. For then,  

I. The Crust would stick hard to the Child and could not be separated.  
II. The Heat of the Womb is not so great, as to be able to bake the substance of the Seed in so short a time; whereas these Membranes are bred well near immediately after the Conception. And if there were so great Heat in the Womb, no Conception could be made, according to Hypocrates in the 62. Aphorism of his fifth Book.   
We conceive their matter to be 
Sundry opinions concerning the matter of the said Membranes.  the thicker part of the woman's seed. Others, as Arantius, will have them to be productions of the inner Tunicles, the Chorion of the Peritonaeum, and the Amnion of the Membrana 〈◊〉. Others that the Mother's seed alone makes these Memibranes: others, that they are made as well of the man's as the Woman's seed.  
These Membranes in Mankind 
Their Number. What the Secondine is, and why so called?  are two, in brute Beasts three: which being joined and growing together, do make the SECUNDINE so called.  

1. Because it is the second tabernacle of the Child, next the Womb.  
2. Because it comes away by a second birth, after the Child. [Hence in English we call it the Afterbirth.]   
The first Membrane is termed AMNIOS because of of its softness and thinness, also Agnina, Charta Virginea, Indusium, etc. And it is the thinnest of them all, white, soft, transparent, furnished with a few very small Veins and Arteries, dispersed within the foldings thereof. It compasses the Child immediately and cleaves every where almost to the Chorion, especially at the ends, about the Womb-Cake, united in the middle thereof, where the Umbilical Vessels come forth. Yet we can easily separate it from the Chorion. There is in it plenty of Moisture and Humours wherein the child swims which proceeds in Brutes from Sweat, in Mankind from Sweat and Urin. But Aquapendent having observed that in Brutus' 
Whence the Liquor proceeds that is in the Amnios.  the Sweat and Urinal were contained in several little Membranes, the latter more low and externally in the Chorion, the former higher, and more inwardly in the Amnion; he thought it was so in Mankind much more. But Experience and Reason are against it, because there are no Passages to the Chorion. And because we do not find the Urachus open in Mankind, therefore the Urinal cannot be thence collected in the Amnios, but is voided by the Yard if it be troublesome, and the remainder is kept till the time of the Birth, in the Bladder, which in Children new born is for the most part distended and full, but in Brutus' empty. Nor does the sharpness of the Urinal offend the Child in the Womb, because 1. It is but little in a Child in the Womb, because of the benignity and purity of its Nourishment. 2. The Skin is daubed with a clammy Humour, and Brutes are defended by their hairiness. Therefore the Use is  
I. That the Child floating therein as in a Bath, may be higher and less burdensome to the Mother.  
II. That the Child may not strike against any neighbouring hard Parts.  
III. That in the Birth, the Membrane being broke, this Humour running out, may make the way through the Neck of the Womb, smooth, easy, and slippery.  
Part of the Amnios does ever and anon hang about the Head of the Child when it comes forth, and then the Child is said to be Galeatus or Helmeted. This Helmet the Midwives diligently observe for divers respects, and they prognosticate good fortune to the Child, and others that use it, if it be red; but if it be black, the praesage bad fortune.  
Paraeus, Lemnius and others, conceive that the happy and strong Labour of the Mother, is the cause that the foresaid Helmet comes out with the child, but in a troublesome Labour it is left behind. Spigelius contrariwife, thinks that when the Mother and child are weak, it comes away. Besterus makes the Reason to be the roughness of the Amnios, which the child is not able to break through, or the weakness of the child, for which cause it seldom lives to ripeness of Age. I have seen both those that have come into the world with this Helmet, and those without it, miserable; and by chance it comes to cleave both to the Heads of strong and weak children.  
The second Membrane is termed Chorion, because it compasses the child like a Circle.  
This immediately compasses the former, and lies beneath it in a round shape like a Pancake, whose inner or hollow part it covers and invelops, spreading itself out according to the measure thereof. It is hardly separated therefrom, and it strongly unites the Vessels to the Womb-liver, and bears them up. Towards the child it is more smooth and slippery, but where it is spread under the Womb-cake, and fastened thereto, it is more rough: also it is sufficiently thick and double. In Brutes the Cotyledons 
What the Cotyledons are.  cleave hereunto, which consist of a fleshy and spongy substance. But in Mankind, this Membrane cleaus immediately to the womb, by a certain round and reddish lump of flesh, fastened to one part only of the womb (commonly the upper and former part) nor does it compass the whole child; being framed of an innumerable company of Branches, of Veins, and Arteries, among which bl●●d out of the Vessels seems to be shed and interlarded.  
That same round Mass is called PLACENTA UTERI the Womb-pancake, by reason of its Shape; also the WOMB LIVER: which I will now exactly describe according as it hath been my hap to see it.  
It's Figure is circular, but the Circumference unequal, in which I have observed five Prominences ranked in due order, and the Membrane Chorion in the intermediate spaces, thicker than ordinary. Where it looks towards the Womb, it is rough and waved, like baked bread that hath chinks in it; and being cut in this part, it discovers an infinite number of fibres, which if you follow, they will bring you to the Trunks of the Veins.  
It is one in Number, even in those who bear two or more children at a burden. For into one Womb-cake, so many Cords are inserted in divers places, as there are children.  
It's Magnitude varies according to the condition of the Bodies and the children's Yet it is about a foot in the Diameter.  
The Substance thereof seems to be a Body wove together of infinite little fibres, blood as it were congealed being interposed, which is easily separated. Seeing therefore it hath a Parenchyma, it is no wonder, if like a kind of, Liver it make or prepare blood to nourish the child.  
The Nature and Appearance of the Substance, is not every where alike. For here and there it is glandulous, especially in the tops of the Hillocks, as being the Emunctories of the child's Workhouse, placed in the outmost Verges. It is thicker in the middle of the hillocks; and thin about the brims, variously interwoven with the Capillary Veins: For,  
It hath Vessels, viz. Veins and Arteries running through the same, from the Umbelical Vessels, which by little and little are all extenuated about the brims of the Womb-cake, making wonderful contextures, closely sticking to the Substance thereof, so that no part of the Branches is void. They are joined together by various anastomosis, which shall be hereafter described, through which the blood in the child runs back, out of the Arteries into the Veins. For I have observed in the Veins of the Womb-cake, how that the blood contained, may easily by ones finger or an instrument, be forced towards the Trunk or Cord, but not towards the Womb-cake. The contrary where to happens in the Arteries, which by impulse of the finger, do easily send the blood to the Womb-liver, but hardly to the Trunk.  
It's Use is 1. To support the Navil-vessels, under which it is spread as a Pillow.  
The XXX. TABLE.  
This TABLE presents a Child in the Womb naked, all the Coats both proper and common being divided.  
The FIGURE Explained.  


AA. Portions of the Chorion dissected and removed from their place.  
B. A portion of the Amnios.  
CC. The Membrane of the Womb dissected.  
DD. The Womb-cake or womb-liver, being a Lump of Flesh furnished with divers Vessels, through which the Child receives its nourishment.  
E. The Branching of the Vessels, which in this place make one Ligament to cover the Umbilical Vessels.  
FF. The Band or Ligament, through which the Umbelical Vessels are carried from the Womb-cake to the Navel.  
GG. The Situaton of a perfect Child in the Womb, ready to be born.  
H. The Implantation of the Umbilical or Navil-vessels into the Navel.    
The third called ALLANTOIDES the Pudding-membrane, does not clothe the whole conception, but compasses it round like a Girdle, or a Pudding.  
It's Use is, to receive Urinal from the Urachus in Brutes. For in Mankind there is no such Membrane: for the child in a woman, its Urinal is received by the Amnios' mingled with Sweat: or is kept in the Bladder till the Birth-time. And therefore Spigelius cannot be excused, for admitting this Membrane in Mankind; whose Description (because it belongs not to this Anatomy) he that desires to see, let him look in Aquapendent.   

Chap. XXXVII. Of the Vmbelical or Navil-vessels.  
THe Membranes being diffected and removed, the UMBELICAL Vessels come in view, so called, because in the Region of the Navel, the child being excluded, and the blood a little forced up to nourish the s●me, they are cut off, and being tied in a knot, do make  
The NAVEL which is in the 〈…〉 
What the Navel is, and of what parts it consists.  of the Belly, yea and of the whole Body, if you measure it with a circle, the Arms being stretched out.  
Now there are four Navil-vessels: ONE VEIN, TWO ARTERIES, and the URACHUS. Which are covered and veiled as it were with a certain common  
Coat or Crust, which some call Intestinulus, Funiculus, Laqueus, etc. which does not only wrap up all the Vessels, but also distinguishes them one from another.  
And the Use of this Coat, is to keep the Vessels from being entangled one within another, broken, or any other way hurt.  
The VENA UMBILICALIS, much 
The Vena umbilicalis.  greater than the Artery, being carried through the two Coats of the Peritonaeum, is bred in the first place before all other Veins, in respect of Perfection, because it ought to afford nourishment to the rest.  
It is seen inserted into the Liver by a 
It's Insertion.  Cleft, and goes through the Navel, sometimes simple, otherwhiles double, and divided into two Branches, the length of about an F●ll and half, as far as to the Womb-cake. And it is variously coiled or rolled about, that its length-might prove no hindrance. From the Navel it goes over the Breast, and from thence it is obliquely carried over the right and left side of the Throat and Neck, turning itself back at the hinder-part of the Head, and so over the middle of the Forehead unto the Womb-cake; sometimes also by this simple flexure on the left hand, it compasses the Neck like a chain. All which is to be understood of the whole Cord, and the rest of the Vessels contained therein. And this Journey being finished, it spreads infinite Branches through the Secondine, till it lose itself into exceeding delicate fine hairy thirds.  
It's Use is to draw Blood to nourish the Child, and to carry it into its Liver, Now 
It's Use.  the way is doubtful. Most men persuade themselves, that the Veins and Arteries of the Womb, are joined with the little Veins and Arteries of the Womb-cake, and that from them jointly blood is derived into the Navil-vessels to the Child. But the Arteries are to be excluded from this Office, because they are not joined to the womb, nor ought they to carry any thing to the child, but to carry back from the child to the womb-cake. The Veins do only bring thither, and that by a twofold way, either immediately from the womb, or mediately. Immediately, when they are joined to the Vessels of the womb; mediately, when by the interceding or going between of any fleshy Substance whatsoever, both in Mankind and Beasts (which is always for the most part glued to the womb, and violently broke off in the Birth) it is sucked through Pipes, first out of the womb into the outer parts of the womb-cake, and thence into the Capillary Veins thereof, out of the least into the greater, till at last it is carried to the Umbilical Trunk, and to the Liver. Nor does it slip through the Veins of the womb into the Pipes, because the Blood of the Veins does not nourish, but it is brought in by the Arteries in a woman with child, and goes up back again by the Veins, in a woman not with child.  
This Vein seems full of certain Knots: which are nothing but a more thick and 
The Knots.  fleshy Constitution of the Membrana carnosa in those Parts; and a wider opening, wherewith as a spoon, the Blood is drawn in, in its long Journey, and is by little and little stopped, lest it flow too violently; that the Blood may be there the longer laboured, as we see in the Spermatick Vessels: and that the Vessels may be stronger.  
By the Number of these Knots, the Midwives do guests the number of Children that a woman shall bear: and if the Knot which first follows, be white and narrow, they foretell that the next child will be a Girl, if red, round, and swelling, that it will be a Boy. The first Divination is vain; for there are as many Knots in the Navel of the last child, as of the first. But the latter may be excused by the defect or abundance of Natural heat, whence the Diversity of Sexes arises. From the distance of the Knots one from another, they foretell that the Conceptions will be sooner or longer one after another, and that there will be Twins, if one Knot rest upon, or be near to another. Which we have often found to be false, though chance, do now and then confirm the hope of credulous women.  
Two ARTERIES are inserted into the Iliack Arteries, and are carried with the Vein 
Arteries.  after the foresaid manner to the womb-cake, where it is spread about in divers Branches, whose Use is not, as hath hitherto been believed, to bring to the child vital Spirit with Arterial blood, because these Arteries are not joined to the Arteries of the Womb, according to the most certain Observation of Arantius; but to carry back part of the Arterial blood, which is superfluous to the Nourishment of the Child, by the two Iliack Branches into the Placenta or Womb-cake, partly to nourish the same, and fill it with vital Spirit. Partly that the Blood may there be made more perfect, being weakened by a long Journey, and nourishing the Membranes; which afterwards runs back again to the Child, by the hairy twigs of the veins joined thereto, with that new blood coming out of the womb.  
This Motion is confirmed by Experience. I have often pressed the swelling veins with my finger, and have observed that the blood is easily forced out of the vein towards the Child, not to the Womb-cake, where the knots like valves do stop the same; chose, it is easily forced out of the Arteries into the Womb-cake. The same is manifest by Ligatures. For the Umbilical Arteries of a live Child being bound, as yet cleaving to the Mother being alive, Walaeus hath observed and others after him, that they pulse between the Ligature and the Child, but have no Pulse between the Ligature and the Mother's womb.  
For this Motions sake the venal and 
anastomosis of the umbilical Vessels.  Arterial branches are joined together by anastomosis, within the Womb-cake, that the Passage might be ready for the blood to run back out of the little Arteries, into the little Veins.  
I have here, following my own sight, observed several ways of anastomosis. For sometimes the twigs of the Veins and Arteries, do go one over another crosswise, both internally and externally. Sometimes they are joined by Insertion, sometimes they couple side to side, and sometimes they are wreathed. The smallest Twigs of the Branches are inoculated into the greater, united in like manner, but with more blunt anastomosis, till the Arteries are reduced to four Branches, the Vein to two, which at last grow into the trunks of their own kind, springing out of the Womb-cake. The Arteries go about the veins, and do partly accompany them, and partly creep alone by themselves. I suspect that there are anastomosis only in those places, wherein they are necessary for the passing Blood out of the Arteries into the veins, and that the solitary veins do suck fresh Blood out of the Womb.  
Without the Navel and Womb-cake, 
Their Twisting.  these vessels being united, as they pass along like a Rope, they are well twisted one with another, yet for the most part by an orderly Circumvolution, even as a larger Rope is made of smaller cords twisted together, representing the wreathe of our Unicorns Horn, which we could easily perceive by holding it to the light. Which is so contrived 1. Lest by the winding passage of the Navil-vessels, the motion of the Blood should be hindered, seeing every vessel that is twisted, keeps it course. 2. That the Child in the womb might receive its pittance of Nourishment by little and little, without danger of choking. 3. That by this wreathed and crooked Journey, the future A●●ment of the Child, might be by little and little purged and clarified.  
Moreover, it is to be noted in the twisting of the cord 1. That knots and spots are transparent in the vein and not in the Arteries, by reason of the Blood appearing through a thinner Coat. 2. That a spans distance from the Conjunction there appears, a wonderful contexture, and a rougher and more confused twisting then in other Parts. 3. In the outer Coat of the Intestinulum, infinite cuts and lines are seen imprinted as it were, according to the length thereof, coloured on the outside with blood, such as are to be seen in the Cerebellum.  
It's Length was before noted, viz. an ell and an half, in a grown child, or three 
The length of the Rope.  spans, that the child may stir more easily, the blood may be better prepared, and the secondine drawn out. If this cord be sometime either overtwisted, or by motion wrapped about the Neck of the child, there is danger that the child will be strangled, and the Mother have an hard labour, because the child is drawn back by reason of the shortness of the cord, nor can it bear the violence of an indiscreet Midwife. I have seen it twisted divers times about the Neck of a child, whereby the birth was retarded for divers hours, and when the child came forth it could hardly breathe: if in such a case the child's Face be red 'tis a good sign, but a deadly token if the Face be black and blue.  
'Tis as thick as a man's Finger, because 
It's thickness.  strength and a just capacity is requisite to sustain the Vessels. When it is dry it becomes smaller, and it is kept to procure other births,  
The XXXI. TABLE.  
It shows the Child taken out of the Womb, but fastened still to the Womb-Cake, the Umbilical Vessels being separated about their Rise.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


AAA. The Abdomen or Belly opened.  
B. The Liver of the Child.  
C. The Piss-bladder.  
DD. The Guts.  
E. The Umbilical Vein.  
FF. The Umbilical Arteries.  
G. The Urachus or Piss-pipe.  
H. The Umbilical Vessels out of the Body joined together by one Membrane.  
III. The Umbilical or Navil-vessels extended from the Chorion to the Child.  
K. A Ligature which makes the Veins beneath it full and the Arteries lank and empty.  
LLLL. The Veins and Arteries dispersed through the Womb-cake.  
MMM. The Womb-cake.    
page 83.  
The Child being 
The binding of the Navel.  born, the rope must be tied near the Belly, the distance of two or three Fingers breadths, with a strong thread wound often about, and about three Fingers from the binding, it must be cut off, and the Navel must be looked to, till it dry and fall off, of its own accord. Now the times of its falling of are uncertain, in respect of the Constitution of the child, and the plenty of Blood which flows thereto, from whence the Midwives Prognosticate how long the child shall live. If it fall of the fifth day from the hour it was tied, they foretell the children will be long-lived; if on the third day, they say they shall be short-lived.  
The Navel being thus shaped and confirmed, is covered with a strong Skin, which may be preternaturally stretched to an immense degree, to receive the Guts in a Rupture of the Navel, such as Severinus hath described in a Picture, and as myself have seen at Hafnia in an ancient Woman.  
In some there is a passage through the Navel into the Belly. Alpinus reports that the Egyptians cure a bloody Flux, by thrusting their Fingers into the Patient's Navel, and turning it divers times about. Dung came out of the Navel of a Student, and Worms like Earthworms with quittor came out of the Navel of a Boy, according to the Observation of Salmuth. Tulpius saw quittor which Nature sent from the Chest, come out at the Navel, and Folius found Stones bred here. I. D. Horstius observed blood flow from the Navel in a certain Gentleman, monthly. And he tells us of a Boy who had a wheyish liquor like Urinal dropping from his Navel, and sometimes fresh blood. For the inner Vessels are many times opened, by the Acrimony of the blood and wheyish humours. Also the Navel doth insensibly open itself when purgatives, Medicines for the Mother and to kill the Worms, etc. are applied thereto.  
Now these Vessels, after the Child is born, do within the Belly degenerate into Ligaments: the Vein to a Ligament of the Liver, the Arteries into lateral Ligaments of the Bladder. Because their use is now lost, and there is no longer any passage of the Mother's blood, unless they be sometimes preternaturally opened as in the examples alleged. Yet are they not of so great moment, that 
The Dignity of the Navel is not much.  their breaking or cutting off, should cause death, as some and among them Laurentius imagine, being questionless abused by some Fabulous story. For they report that the Egyptians punish Robbers by flaying them alive, and that they leave the Navel untouched, that they may be tormented the longer: for they think when the Navel is cut off a man must needs die, the four Vessels being destroyed. But Riolanus a man of great experience saw contrary examples, and any man may judge by a Rupture of the Navel. If death follow, it is by accident, the inner parts being also hurt, and a wide door opened for all hurtful things to enter. Sperlinger conceives that they are choked, because the Navel being cut off, the Liver falls down and draws the Midriff, the Organ of breathing. But 1. This shortness of breath doth not cause sudden death. 2. The Liver is held up by another strong Ligament from the Peritonaeum.  
The fourth Vessel, the Urachus or Piss-pipe, which is half as little again as the 
Urachus.  Artery, consists of two parts, according to the Observation of Riolanus; the inner, which is Nervous, arising from the inner coat of the Bladder the outer which is more Membranous, from the bottom of the bladder. It is not after the same manner in Beasts as in Mankind.  
In Beasts 'tis carried without the Navel between two Arteries, and is at last spread out and widened into the Coat which is termed Allantoides, where Urinal is collected and reserved, till the young one is brought forth. And therefore this Vessel is termed Urachus, that is to say the Piss-pipe.  
In Mankind, 1. It doth not go without the Navel, and therefore it doth not make the Coat Allantoides, for which cause the Child hath only two Coats.  
2. The Urachus is not hollow throughout according to the experiments 
The Urachus is not hollow in Mankind.  of Carpus, Arantius, Cortesius, Riolanus and others, whom I have found to be in the right, in such Bodies as I have dissected both old and young, though Aquapendens and Spigelius would▪ persuade us otherwise. But it is a little Cord or Ligament, wherewith the bladder is fastened to the Peritonaeum and sustained, lest when it is distended with Urinal, its Neck should be squeezed: Though I deny not but that the same thing is done by the Arteries.  
But a Child in the Womb voids Urinal by its Yard into the Membarne Amnios (which makes it so full of Liquor) and a great part is retained also in the bladder, which is the cause that new born Children, for the first days are in a manner continually pissing. Aquapendens denies this because, 1. The motive faculty doth not exercise itself in a Child in the Womb. 2. No Muscle Acts. 3. Neither doth Nature use so different a manner of voiding Urinal in Men and Beasts. But I answer, 1. That the various moving of a Child in the Womb, which Big-bellied Women feel, doth witness that the Child hath a moving faculty though imperfect. 2. The bladder is provoked to excretion, by the over great quantity and sharpness of the Serum, or wheyish humour. 3. The Coat called Allantoides which is not in Mankind, doth show the difference between Man and beast.  
Uarolus will have all the Urinal to be contained in the bladder, till the birth time. But than it would be broken with over stretching; and whence comes all the liquor which is in the Coat Amnios.  
Aquapendens, Spigelius and almost all others will have it go out by the Urachus, and be collected between the Amnios and Allantoides, as in beasts. But seeing it is not perforated, but solid in Mankind, it cannot admit the Urin. For it cannot be strained through, without a manifest passage, because it is thick, and the same way might hold in grown Persons. Veslingius propounds both these opinions and determins nothing. Now it is no more Porous in a young child then a grown person. And Laurentius eagerly defends this opinion out of Galen, bringing the examples of some, who when their Urinal was stopped, did void it at their Navel.  
But I answer: This is done praeternaturally, 
The Error of Laurentius.  as it is also a known opinion of many, that the Umbilical Vein hath been preternaturally opened in Hydropical persons, and voided the Water. And Laurentius himself confesses, that all the four Umbilical Vessels do turn to Ligaments; wherein he is right, for they are dried. How therefore can they be opened unless preternaturally? So it was I conceive preternaturally opened in the same Italian called Anna, who hath no Yard, in stead whereof a spongy bit of flesh hung out under his Navel, whence the Urinal dropped. Fernelius and others have other examples of the Urachus opened.  
Before the Production of all the Umbilical Vessels in the Womb, the seed being curdled in the top of the hinder part, two certain Roots are inserted, on each side one from the horns of the Womb, first observed by Varolius and called Radices Dorsales, the back Roots which are obliterated, when the rudiments of the Child are framed, touching which Riolanus explains Abensina.    

THE SECOND BOOK; OF THE Middle Venture or Cavity.  
THe middle Venture or Belly termed Thorax the Chest, and by 
The middle Venture what it is.  some absolutely Venture, is all that which is circumscribed above, by Clavicles or Channel-bones; beneath the Midriff; on the foreside by the Breastbone; on the hinder part by the Bones of the Back, and on the sides by the Ribs.  
The forepart is called Sternon and Pectus, etc. the Hinder-part, the Back; the Lateral Parts are termed the Sides.  
Howbeit the Ancients as Hypocrates and Aristotle, etc. did comprehend all 
Hypocrates and Aristotle.  from the Channel-bones as far as to the Privities, that is to say, the middle and lower Belly under the Name of Chest. And therefore in this Sense Hypocrates did well write, that the Liver is seated in the Chest: which other unskilful persons not understanding, did imagine that Hypocrates was ill versed in Anatomy.  
It's Figure is after a sort Oval, though not exactly, and Hypocrates compares it 
It's Figure.  to a Tortoise or the Belly of a Lute. In Mankind, it is more bunching in the forepart, but in the middle of the Brest-bone it is flatter, about the sides round, because of the bowing of the Ribs, in the Back more flat.  
It's Magnitude in General, varies according to the different degree of Heat: 
Magnitude.  for by the wideness of the Chest we measure the Heat of the Heart. But in particular persons it is larger towards the lower Belly, where the vital bowels are concealed, and grows narrower by little and little at the beginning of the Neck.  
It's outer Substance is partly bony, partly fleshy. 
Substance.   
This middle Belly is not wholly fleshy as the lower is, 1. Because it was not to contain any Parts, that were very much to be stretched. 2. That overmuch Fat might be bred there, and hinder Respiration.  
Yet is it partly fleshy, because it contains Parts which-ought to be moved, as the Heart and Lungs, and for the same Cause,  
It could not be altogether bony, like the Skull; for that is a very rare case which Cardan mentions in his 11. Book of Subtleties, Page 458. in my Edition, of a Man that instead of Ribs, had one continued Bone ●rom the Throat to the Flanks.  
Yet is it in part bony, for to safeguard the noble Parts. For,  
Its Use is, to contain the vital Parts as the 
It's Use.  lower and first Belly contains the Natural.  
Now the Parts likewise of this Belly are 
Its Parts.  either containing or contained: and the former either common or proper.  
The Common are the same which are in 
Common.  the lower Belly. Howbeit these things following are here to be observed.  
The Skin of the middle Belly is hairy 
The Use of the hair under the armpits.  under the Armpits. These Hairs are called Subalares Pili, being useful to keep those Parts from wearing and fretting, in the Motion of the Arms, seeing they exceedingly and quickly sweat, because they are termed the Emunctories of the Heart, receiving the Excrements thereof (in some also that are hotter of constitution and strong-hearted the breast is hairy) as the Groins are called the Emunctories of the Liver.  
Moreover, there is little Fat found in the Chest, if you except the Dugs, that 
Why there is little Fat in the Chest.  Respiration may not be hurt by the weight thereof. For by reason of its bony part, so great plenty of the matter of Fat could not flow into it, as in the lower Belly, which is wholly fleshy, and therefore always the fattest part of the body; the middle belly or Cavity is indifferently stored with Fat; the Head is least fat of all. But the fat itself being otherwise white, is wont in the chest to appear a little more yellow than ordinary, by reason of the heat of the vital Parts which lie under the same▪  
The proper Parts besides the Muscles, Bones, etc. are the Dugs of both Sexes, 
The proper Parts.  the Midriff, the Membrane of the Sides termed Pleura, and the Mediastinum or Partition-wall.  
The Parts contained are the Bowels and Vessels. The Bowels, are the Heart with its Heart-bag or Pericardium, the Lungs and part of the Weasand or Windpipe, o● aspera Arteria. The Vessels are the Branches of the Venae cava and Arteria magna, underpropped with the Thymus or Kernel in the Throat. and sundry Nerves.  

Chap. I. Of the Dugs.  
ACcording to our Anatomical Method, 
See Tab. XXV. Lib. I.  the first Parts in the Chest which we dissect, as soon as we have done with the lower Belly, are the Dugs. Now we shall treat of the Dugs of Women, casting in between while, wherein those of Men differ therefrom.  
The Situation of the Dugs, is in the middle of the Breast, above the Pectoral 
Why the Dugs in Mankind are seated in the Breast.  Muscle, which draws to the Shoulder. 1. Because of the nearness of the Heart, from whence they receive heat. 2. For Comeliness sake. 3. For the more convenient giving of suck: because the Infant cannot presently walk after the manner of Brutes, but being embraced in his Mother's Arms, it is applied to the Dugs. No other Creatures have Dugs in their Breasts saving the Apes, who hold their young ones in their Arms likewise. Laurentius tells us the Elephant does the like, and Riolanus says as much of the Bat or Flittermouse. Some great Sea-fish of the Whale-kind have Dugs on their Breasts, full of Milk, as we lately observed in a Whale that came out of Norwey.  
They are two in Number: not because of Twins; but that one being hurt, the 
Number of the Dugs  other might supply its Office. Howbeit Varro reports, that Sows will have so many Pigs as they have teats. Walaeus in a certain woman observed three Dugs, two on the left side of her Breast, and one on the right. And Cabrolius observed in a certain woman four Dugs, on each side two.  
As to their Magnitude. In Girls new born, there is only a Print or Mark visible 
Magnitude.  on the breast, and afterwards by little and little it swells, and in little wenches hardly any thing appears beside the teats, until by degrees they grow to the bigness and shape of Apples; and when they are raised two fingers high, their Courses begin to flow. In old women they whither away, so that nothing appears but the Nipples, the Fat and Kernels being consumed.  
In women they swell more, and in women with child the last months, they are more and more increased.  
In men they do not rise so high as in women, because ordinarily they were 
The difference of the Dugs in men and women.  not to breed milk [yet because of the equality of the kind, it was convenient that men should have them as well as women.] And therefore in men, the Dugs are commonly without Kernels: yet in burly people, the Fat which is under them raised the breasts. In the Kingdom of Sengea, the Dugs of women hang as low as their Bellies; and in the Isle of Arnabo, 'tis said they turn them over their shoulders to their backs, and there suckle their children.  
Their Shape is roundish. They represent as it were an half Globe. And in 
Their Shape.  some because of their overgreat weight they hang down.  
The Dug is divided into the Nipple 
Their Parts.  and the Dug itself. For in the middle of the Dug there is to be seen a peculiar Substance, which,  
Is called Papilla, the Teat or Nipple, being spongy, like the Nut of a 
How the Nipples come to have so exquisite Sense.  Man's Yard, and therefore it will fall and rise when it is sucked or handled. For it hath an excellent and exquisite Sense of feeling, because it is as it were the Centre, into which the ends of the Nerves▪ Veins, and Arteries do meet. Which is apparent from the Delicacy of its Sense, and the redness of its colour, a sure token of Blood brought in by the Arteries, by reason of the Concourse whereof, Surgeons do judge Cancers and other Tumours about the Nipple pernicious.  
Riolanus believes that the Skin is doubled, and as it were compressed: but the doubling would make it thicker. But the Skin is exceeding tender, easily rubbed off, and apt to be pained when the Child sucks very freely. Only in old women it grows thick. Not is the Nipple any other where made of the Skin straitened or folded.  
If the Nipples turn upwards, a Male child is in the Mother's womb, if downwards a Girl according to the Tradition of Hypocrates, which hath not been as yet ratified by the confession of women with child.  
As to Number, there is one Nipple on each Dug. Hollerius saw two Nipples upon one Dug, which both yielded Milk.  
Their Colour in Virgins is red, in such as give suck it inclines to black and blue, and in them also they are more sticking out, by reason of the Infants sucking; in such as are passed Childbearing, the Nipples are of a black colour.  
They have a Circle round about them which is called Areola the little Parsley-bed, in Virgins pale and knotty, in such as are with child and give suck, brown, in old women black.  
'Tis bored through the middle, with very small holes for the Milk to pass through: For  
The Use of the Nipple is to be instead of a Pipe or Funnel, to put into the Mouth of the Infant, whereout it may suck the Milk: Secondly, to serve for a pleasing Titillation, whereby Mothers and Nurses are enticed the more willingly, and with a certain Sense of pleasure to give their children suck.  
The Dugs do inwardly consist of a Membrane, 
The Dug.  Vessels, Kernels, or rather kernellish Bodies, and Fat: though the two last do chiefly make up the Dugs; the Kernels and Fat lie concealed between the Membrane and the Skin.  
Now the fleshy Membrane does fasten the kernellish Substance which it compasses, unto the Muscles which lie thereunder.  
The Kernels are many: In Virgins more hard, in old women consumed, in such as are with child and give suck, more swelling and pappie. Yet there is one great one, just under the Nipple, which the other lesser ones do compass about, and infinite textures of Vessels lie between them. Riolanus hath observed a woman's Dug to consist of one continued Kernel, and not of many, the contrary whereto we see in scirrhous and cancerous Tumours.  
The Use thereof is, to turn Blood into Milk. And the use of the fat of the Dug is to increase heat, and to make the Dug of an even round shape. And therefore such as have the Fat consumed by some Disease or old Age, they hang ill favoredly like empty Bladders, and are unfit to make Milk.  
The Vessels. The Dugs receive their Skin and external Veins from the Axillary, which are called the Thoracicae Superiores, the upper Chest-veins, which in women with child and such as give suck, are often black and blue visible. They receive other internal Veins, brought thither a long way, that the Blood might be the longer therein wrought, which are termed Mammariae Venae or Dug-veins, which descend 
The Venae Mammariae.  on each side one, from the Trunk of the Axillary Vein, under the Brest-bone, to the Glandules or Kernels of the Dugs. These are met by other ascendent Veins, by the right Muscles, of which before: and therefore the Infant being born, the Blood is carried no longer 
Why Milk is bred after the child is born.  to the womb, but to the Dugs, and is turned into Milk. And hence it is that women which give suck, have seldom their Courses. Hence also, when the Children suck overmuch, Blood comes out at the nipples. Yea, it hath been observed that a woman's courses have come away through her Dugs, and Milk by her womb; howbeit, this is a rare chance.  
But the Matter of Milk, be it what it will, cannot according to the Principles of the Bloods Circulation, be carried by the Veins to the Dugs. The Venae mammariae or Dug-veins, do only carry back what remains superfluous, after the Child is nourished, and Milk made. Moreover, they are seldom joined with the Epigastrick Veins, and they are too few and small, alone to carry so much blood from the womb, as may suffice a Child that is a liberal Sucker.  
Their Arteries proceed from the upper Trunk of the great Artery: and 
Their Arteries.  from the Subclavian branches, which are joined after the same manner with the Epigastrick Arteries, as was said of the Veins. The Th' racicae Arteriae or Chest arteries, so plentifully and evidently, that in cancerous Tumours of the Dugs, a woman hath bled to death by them, of which case I remember some Examples. Hence it seems more likely, blood is carried to the Dugs to make Milk, which blood being consumed in fat and elderly women they are therefore none of the best Nurses. Hence it is that women which give suck, receive great damage by losing their blood; chose they are advantaged, by whatever may draw and provoke their blood to their Dugs, as by rubbing them, etc.  
Now Prosper Martianus and Petrus Castellus do maintain out of Hypocrates, that 
The matter of Milk is not Blood as Martianus holds.  the matter of Milk is twofold, viz. Blood and Chyle: and that the greatest part of the matter thereof, is pressed out of Meats and Drinks, not yet digested in the Stomach, into the Dugs, by the Child swelling in the womb, and after the Child is born, by the passages made wide by sucking: and that another small part is made of blood ascending from the womb, which is rather to be reckoned as an Efficient cause, by reason of its Heat, then of a Material cause.  
That Blood alone is not the matter of Milk, besides the Authority of Hypocrates, they prove, because  

1. Otherwise it were impossible that a woman should live, voiding two pounds of blood every day, in the form of Milk.  
2. When a woman gives suck, her Courses flow, which in the first months of her going with child, are suppressed.  
3. When a woman left breeding Milk, she would fall into a dangerous Pl●thory, or fullness of Blood.  
4. There would be no Childbed Purgations at all, the Milk being so violently carried into the Dugs, the second day after Childbirth, that it causes a Fever.  
5. Nature would then have framed greater Vessels from the womb unto the Dugs.  
6. The Milk would not retain the smell, and virtue or operation of the Meats eaten, because these things are changed in the blood.  
7 The Blood collected into the Dugs, does breed Madness. Aphor. 40. Sect. 5.   
But that it depends upon the Stomach 
But arises from the Stomach & the Chyle.  and the Chyle, these following Reasons evince.  

1. The force and efficacy of Purgatives, is after some hours violently carried into the Dugs, as divers Experiments do teach. Yea and our Country-women, when children that have the cough, suck at their breasts, they drink pectoral Decoctions, and believe that the sucking child does presently draw them.  
2. If a Nurse do swallow an hair in her meat and drink; it comes into her Dugs according to Aristotle, and sticking in the Nipples, it causes the Disease Trichiasis or Hair in the Nipple.  
3. A branch of Cichory according to the Observation of Martianus, hath come out of a woman's Dug, which she had eaten the night before at Supper: and bran hath been seen in the Excrements of a child that only lived with sucking.  
4. Nurse's perceive as soon as ever they have eaten and drunken, the going down of the Milk, and the swelling fullness of their Dugs. Yea, and our Nurses are extraordinary careful not to eat, while they give their children suck, for otherwise the children should suck undigested Milk.  
5. Castellus pleads their Situation over the Stomach, not near the Liver or Womb, excepting in beasts.  
6. The Milk is colder than the Blood, and leaves more Excrement in her that gives suck, than blood does in the Embryo or child in the womb.   
Howbeit we find many difficulties in this new Opinion, and those of no small moment.  

1. There are no manifest passages from 
The said Opinion refuced.  the Stomach to the Dugs, which if any man can find, I shall willingly acknowledge myself convinced. Martianus, indeed, Castellus, Vestingus, and Horstius do talk of invisible passages, like the milky Veins, which cannot be discerned in a dead body; or at least they conceive the Pores of the flesh may suffice to admit a passage for milky Vapours. But the Pores seem too narrow for thick Chyle to pass through, which in the Mesentery did require large milky Veins, which any body may discern. A subtle Spirit and thin Vapours with smoky steams, do pass through the Pores, and not the Chylus, nor blood, according to Nature; for if so, then there were no use of Vessels. Nor is the Infant satisfied only with Vapours. I willingly acknowledge, that Nature endeavours the translation of Humours from one part to another by unknown ways, but she does it compelled, and besides her customary Course, whereas the breeding of Milk is a constant and ordinary thing.  
2. The Dugs being heated by any other cause whatsoever, do not breed Milk, but the action is hindered by the said Heat.  
3. Nurse's confess, that after they have drunk, the Milk does manifestly descend out of their backs, and from about their Channel-bones, and puts them to some little pain. For there the Chest-arteries are seated, and not the Stomach.  
4. A tender Infant should be ill nourished with undigested meat, having been used to be nourished with blood before.  
5. Out of the Nipples of Children newly come out of the Womb, before the use of meat, a wheyish matter drops like Milk, before they have eaten any meat.  
6. What shall we say to that Aphorism of Hypocrates? If a Woman want her Courses, neither any shivering o Fever following thereupon, and she loath her Meat: Make account that she is with Child.  
7. Cows, when they eat grass after hay, or hay after grass, before the fifteenth day, there is no perfect change either in the Constitution or colour of their Milk or Butter, according to the Observation of Walaeus; yet they perfectly change their Chyle the first day, but their Blood more slowly. Also our Nurses observe, that after they have slept, and their Meat is digested, their Dugs make Milk, which does not so happen, if they want sleep.  
8. Hogeland proves by Famines and Seiges, that when all the Nutriment of the Nurse is turned into perfect blood, yet nevertheless Milk is bred in the Dugs.   
Wherefore until some diligent hand shall have found evident ways and passages, 
And the Argument of Martianus and others are answered▪  for the Answering of the contrary Arguments: You are to Note. 1. That we admit of the Chyle as the remote matter of Milk, but not as the immediate matter thereof. 2. That the Blood being plentifully evacuated by the Milk, is bred again by plentiful meat and drink; and therefore the plenty of Milk ceases when there is little drink taken in, as all Nurses do testify. Morcover, such as are of a Sanguine complexion afford most Milk, whereas those that are of a tender constitution grow lean by giving Suck. 3. That all the blood which is poured out of the Arteries into the Dugs, is not turned into Milk, but only the more wheyish part, a great deal running back by the Veins into the Heart. 4. That Women which give suck have their Courses, because the Vessels of the Womb are then more enlarged, then in the first months of their going with Child: and ever and anon they flow sparingly from Nurses, and leave off by fits. Also Women that give suck seldom conceive, unless they be of a Plethoric habit of body, that is to say full of good blood. Our Women when they would wean a Boy, if their Dugs swell, they do by certain Medicines keep back the Milk, by straightening the Vessels, that the matter thereof may not enter nor be drawn that way. 6. That the Breast and Dug-Arteries are large, and are more and more widened by continual sucking. 7. That the Milk doth drink in the faculty of Meats and Purgatives, even by mediation of the Blood, which conserveses the colour and faculty of the meats, though sundry digestions have preceded; though vapours alone be raised, and the substance ascend not. 8. That many things are performed in the body, according to the singular constitution of particular persons, yea and many things which rarely happen, which is to be understood of the Milk, which was in the Dugs of that Man at Cous, and of other things thence voided.  
Nerves are carried from the Nerves of the Chest, especially the fifth, for to cause 
Their Nerves.  sense, and they end in the Nipple.  
Besides these Vessels, the Dugs have also white Pipes, according to the observation 
Their Pipes.  of later Anatomists, springing from the whole Circumference of the lower part which growing narrower, do always meet together, wherein Milk being made, is preserved for use. Whether or no they are nothing but widened Arteries, becoming white, because of the change of the milk and the bordering kernels (which I am willing to believe) I leave to acuter Eyes and Wits to determine. They treasure up the Milk, when there is occasion of omitting to give the Infant suck: and when that use is over, they grow as small as the most Capillary Veins.  
Their Use is, 1. General in Women and Men, to be safeguards to the 
The use of the Dugs.  Heart: hence Nature hath given Men of cold Complexions larger Dugs then ordinary; and Women that lose their Dugs become rough-voiced, according to Hypocrates. Nor doth the pectoral Muscle hinder, which performs the same Office, which is Riolanus his Objection; for the more noble parts require great fencing, even by the smallest thing, as the Eyes from the Eyebrows, the Heart from the water in the Heart-bag or Pericardium, etc.  
II. In women their use is to breed Milk, to nourish the young Infant. For the Child was nourished by blood in the Womb, and milk is the same blood only whitened, so that Nature seems to have put a trick upon living Creatures by obtruding upon them the gentler appearance of white milk, in place of red blood, as Plato hath it. Which is the Cause that the People of Savoy and Dauphin did anciently prohibit their Priests, the use of milk, as well as of Blood.  
Now the Efficient Cause of milk, 
The Efficient cause of Milk.  is not the Womb, where milk was never observed, nor do the Dugs breed milk, by that virtue thereof which itself wants; nor of the Veins or Arteries, unless it be the nearest, can the virtue be communicated from the Dugs. For as for what Baronius relates of St. Paul, how when he was beheaded, not blood but milk ran from his Neck, either it was a miracle, if true; or a serous humour flowed out, which sometimes flows from the Arm, when a Vein is opened, and I have seen it very like to milk, or finally the Liquor of Kernels being cut, did resemble milk. But the true efficient cause of the milk, is that same kernelly flesh of the Dugs, unto which there is none like, in the whole body. Now it works this moderate Concoction by the propriety of its substance, and by reason of its proper temperament. Aulus Gellius conceives the milk becomes white, by Reason of plenty of heat and spirit Book 12. Chap. 1. But I am more inclined to believe, that milk is white, because it is assimilated to the Dugs that are of the same colour.  
Sometimes therefore (though it 
Milk may breed in Virgins, Men, Women not with Child, etc.  happen seldom) milk may be bred in Virgins, and in Women not with Child, according to the Observation of Bodinus in his Theatre of Nature, of Joachinus Camerarius in Schenkius, of Petrus Castles touching one Angela of Messina, of A. Benedictus and Christopher a Vega concerning a Girl of Bridges, and of others. In Scania in our Country, a maid was lately accused to have played the Whore, because she had milk in her Dugs, which nevertheless she proved to be a propriety of her Family, by producing her young brother who likewise had milk in his Breasts. Infant's new born shed a wheyish milky liquor out of their Nipples. These examples are confirmed by the Authority o● Hypocrates in the 39 Aphorism of his fifth Section, where Women have milk though neither with Child, nor lately delivered. And this happens, when the Dugs are filled with abundance of spirituous blood, and suppression of Courses be joined thereto: for then the Glandulous substance digests more than is necessary to nourish the Woman. Yea, in men that are fleshy, large-duged, and cold, of constitution, a milky humour, and as it were milk is frequently seen; especially if their Nipples be frequently suck'r, and their Dugs rubbed, as the examples of many do testfie. Aristotle writes of a certain Hee-goat in the I stand Le●…s, who yielded so much milk, that C●rds were made thereof. Matthiolus, tells us that in sundry places of Bohemia, three Goat-Bucks were found, that gave milk, by which persons that had the Falling-sickness were Cured. Others have seen Men, out of whose Dugs store of milk came. Abensina saw so much milk milked from a Man, that a Cheese was made thereof. C. Schenkius relates that Laurentius Wolfius had store of milk in his Breasts, from his youth, till he was fifty years old. Jo. Rhodius had such an Host in England, and Santorellus knew a Portuguese, who his Wife being dead, and he unable to give wages to a Nurse, did nourish his own Child with his own milk. Walaeus saw a Fleming of like Nature, who being even forty years of Age, could milk abundance of milk out of huge Dugs which he had. A. Benedictus relates the story of a Father that gave his Son suck. And Nicolaus Gemma, Vesalius, M. Donatus, Aquapendens, H. Eugubius, Baricellus, do witness the same thing, and I have already told you as much of a Boy of Scania in our Country of Denmark, and Cardan saw a man thirty four years old, out of whose Dugs so much milk did run, as would have sufficed to suckle a Child. They relate how that in the new world, all men well-near abound with milk. Now that this was true milk which we have related did run from men, is hence apparent because, it was as fit to nourish children, as that of Women.  
III. The use of the Dugs in Women is to adorn them, and render them the more delectable to Men.  
IV. They serve to receive Excrementious moisture. Whereupon their Dugs being cut off, womans incur sundry Diseases; because the blood which ascends finding no Vessels to receive it, runs hastily into the principal parts, the Heart, Lungs, &c, Which danger I conceive the Amazons did study to avoid, by their so vehement exercising themselves in warfare. Some cut the Dug off when it is cancered, but the operation is dangerous, by reason of the bleeding which follows.   

CHAP. II. Of the Intercostal, or Rib-between Muscles.  
SUndry Muscles which we meet 
See the Figure of the following Chapter.  within the Chest shall be first of all explained in the fourth Book, by reason of the Method of Section. But the Intercostal or Rib-between Muscles, so called; because they are interwoven between the Ribs, must be explained in this place.  
Now they are totally fleshy, forty four in number, on each side two and 
Their Number.  twenty; eleven external; and as many internal. For evermore between two Ribs, two Muscles rest one upon another: and there are eleven Intervals or Spaces between the Ribs. Others have done ill to make their Number 
The Error of others.  sixty eight. For in the Intervals of the true Ribs, they have made divers Muscles lying hid between the boney parts of those Ribs, differing from those which are found between the Gristley parts.  
The External ones arise from the lower parts of the upper Ribs, and descending obliquely towards the backparts, they are inserted into the upper parts of the lower Ribs. The Internal contrary wi●e.  
The External end at the Cartilages: The Internal fill the spaces, both of the Ribs and Gristles.  
They have oblique Fibres and mutually cross one the other like this Le●●● X, because the Muscles are otherwise short, because of the smallness of the Intervals. Hence in the opening such as have a suppuration in their Chest, Section is to be made strait according to the Course of the Fibres, nor overthwart,  
They have received sundry Vessels. Veins from the Azygos and upper Intercostal, Arteries from both the Intercostals. Nerves from the sixth pare; joined to them which proceed from the Marrow of the Back.  
Their use, is to Dilate and Contract 
Their use.  the Chest; the external imitate the drawing of the Subclavius: By raising the Ribs, and straightening the Chest, and help towards Expiration. The internal draw away the Ribs, and by enlarging the Chest help the Drawing in of the breath. Galen, contrariwise, makes the external serve for drawing in, and the internal for blowing out of the Air, whose opinion is favoured by Vestingius,  
Others with Vesalius, will have the external Muscles to thrust the lower Ribs upwards, and the internal ones to draw the upper Muscles downwards, that they might so mutually assist one another in straitning of the Chest. But we should rather think, that when the Internal ones are quiet, the External do act by themselves.  
Fallopius, Arantius, Riolanus, do account them only to be fleshy Ligaments of the Ribs, whereby they are knit one to another, because the Ribs cannot be moved of themselves, save by the Muscles of the Chest. But the Thorachick or Chest Muscles being unmoved, the Ribs are often moved by help of these Muscles, receiving some impulse also from the Diaphragma or Midriff. The Ligaments of a Muscle are never bare. The Ribs may be fastened one to another, and likewise moved by these, which is common to all other Muscles. Howbeit the motion of the Ribs is obscure, because they are inarticulated in one part only, and the parts between the Ribs are narrow; But their Number supplies their smallness.   

Chap. III. Of the Diaphragma or Midriff.  
The I▪ TABLE▪  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
This Figure presents the External proper Parts of the Breast, also Delineates the Situation of the Midriff in the Body.  


A. The Pectoral Muscle in its proper place.  
B. The same out of its Situation.  
C. The Muscle Serratus major Anticus, or Greaterfore-side-Saw-muscle in its own place, being partly visible.  
D. The same out of its place.  
E. The Serratus anticus minor, lesser foreside-Sawmuscle.  
FF. The Claviculae or Chanel bones.  
G. The Subclavian Muscle.  
HHH. The Intercostal, or Rib-between Muscles.  
III. The Diaphragma or Midriff.  
K. Part of the great descendent Artery.  
L. An Hole for the Vena Cava descendent.  
M. An Hole for the Gullet passing through the Diaphragma.  
nn. The Venae Phrenicae or Phrenick Veins so called.  
oo. The Phrenick Arteries.  
PP. The two Appendices or Appurtenances of the Diaphragma.  
QQ. The Muscles termed Psoas.  
RR. The Musculi Quadrati or square Muscles of the Loins.  
SS. The internal Cavity of Os Ilium, or the Flanck-bone.    
page ●●  
It's Situation is overthwart, or across 
It's Situation.  the body, and because it inclines a little downwards, oblique.  
It's Figure is circularly round, saving 
It's Figure.  the long Appurtenances.  
This Muscle is in Number only one, because 
It's Number.  of the unity of its Action common to both sides, but it is a great one. Meyssonerius saw a double Midriff at Lions.  
It's Magnitude answers the Diametral 
Magnitude.  wideness of the lower Belly, which is comprehended between the lower Vertebrae of the back and the Ribs. Hence great and whaley flesh, because they have longer and more Ribs than we have, have a larger midriff, creeping meanwhile as far as to the extremities of the Ribs. For,  
For it seems to arise from the Vertebrae of the Loins, by two somewhat 
An Head and Tail in the Midriff.  long fleshy parts (which cleave to the muscles of the Loins, at the sides of the great Artery, and growing by little and little wider, about the lowest Vertebrae of the Chest they grow together, where this Muscle begins to grow Circular) and is fastened to the Chest round about, beingknit where it is fleshy to the extremities of the Ribs: though we should do peradventure more rightly, to make the beginning thereof, in its whole Circumference, as well from the Loins as the Ribs, which Galen doth also somewhere insinuate: For seeing it could not be knit to the eleventh Vertebra, because of the great Artery, and the beginning of the Lumbal muscle, it is strongly inserted, by its two small appurtenances to the Vertebrae of the Loins.  
Galen somewhere (whom Silvius, Vesalius, Aquapendens, Spigelius and many more follow) will have the middle of the Diaphragma to be the Head thereof, because the Nerves are there inserted, and the Centre in a Circle, upon which one point of the compass doth rest, while the other is carried about, may be well taken for the Head of the said Circle. But as it is a peculiar muscle, in Situation, Action, Figure, Nobility, etc. so hath it somewhat peculiar in this point. But the beginning or Head cannot be in this Centre, because it is movable, and the Ribs and Vertebrae of the Loins, in respect thereof immovable. Moreover, the Nervous or Tendinous part, is the End of the muscles, and not their Head.  
It's Substance is fleshy, in the middle 
It's substance.  Nervous and Membranous, where a Membranous Centre shows itself and a Nervous circle in stead of a Tendon, to which fleshy Fibres do run, from the Circumference of the Chest, as to their Centre. Whence necessarily the middle part of the motive muscle is Nervous, for otherwise it could not be moved. Secondarily, it helps to strength, in a perpetual motion, and in the suspension of the bowels which adhere thereunto; moreover it serves to secure the Vessels which pass through. To sustain the beating of the Heart, it was not to be strong, as Riolanus suspects, because 1. A soft part doth easily give way and yield to a blow. 2. The point of the Heart doth not strike against the Midriff in its pulsation, for the Heart smites the breast when it is erected in the Systole, and is contracted at the sides; in the Diastole when it descends to the Diaphragma, it becomes soft and flaggy, and gives no pulsation.  
Note that Wounds in the Nervous Centre of the Diaphragma, are by all accounted deadly, whether because a Nervous part being offended, doth induce a Convulsion, or because it cleaves to the Pericardium or Heart-bag and to the Liver, or because respiration perishes, and the Heart placed over the same is likewise hurt; for the Pericardium and Liver being hurt, do admit cure. A wound is more safely made in the fleshy Circumference thereof.  
It is clothed with a double membrane, for strength. The upper is 
It's Membrane.  from the Pleura, to which the Pericardium or Heart-bag is firmly fastened, and sometimes also the Lobes or Laps of the Lungs by little small Fiberkies; the lower is from the Peritonaeum. Also it hath its proper substance, formerly described.  
It hath Holes: some being very exceeding 
It's Holes.  little, and others great. Those very little ones are the Pores, through which vapours arise from the inferior parts. They are widened by the perpetual motion of the Diaphragma, not by Odours and Fumes, as Helmont believes. Otherwise, because the Membrane is thick, it hinders the drinking in of thick vapours, and will not let them ascend without the Vessels. Among the greater, there is one on the right hand, in the middle of the Nervous part, to give a passage to the Vena Cava: Another on the left hand greater and somewhat backwarder, for the letting through of the Gullet or Oesophagus with tw●… Nerves which go unto the Stomach. And where it arises about the Vertebrae of the Loins, there appears a division, for the thoroughfare of the great Artery, and the Vena sine Pari, or Vein without fellow. These wide holes do admit from the inferior parts, the passage of thick Vapours with the blood, which cannot be prohibited by the Diaphragma. Hence in the 29. Aphorism of the fifth Section 'tis said, in a Fruitful Women, her lower parts being perfumed, the scent goes up to her Nostrils.  
As to its Vessels. It has Veins and Arteries 
Vessels.  from the Neighbouring Vessels vena cava and Arteria magna, called Venae phrenicae: and sometimes from the Vena adiposa  
Nerves are spread through its whole Substance, being▪ brought from the spinal marrow of the Neck, between the fourth and fifth Vertebra: which is proper to this part, and common to no other internal part under the Channel bones, because according to the Conjecture of the renowned Hoffman, it was not to lie open to external wounds or Blows, lest we should be masters of our own Life or Death. But instruments of death are every where obvious, which the Love of Life and Fear of God hinders us from making use of. Now they are carried through the Cavity of the Chest, and are propped up by the mediastinum. Other Anatomists have observed other Nervs passing that way from beneath, proceeding from the costal and stomachick Branches. And because the Nervs of the Diaphragma or Midriff are 
Sardonian Laughter▪  in their passage mingled with certain little twigs, which are spread abroad into the muscles of the Jaws and Lips; hence when the Diaphragma is smitten there arises a kind of Laughter, which is no real Laughter, but a counterfeit one such as they call Risus Sardonius the Sardonian Laughter, because the muscles of the Face suffering a Convulsion at the same time, and the Jaws and Lips being moved this way and that way, the party seems to laugh. Such was the laughter of Thycenis in Hypocrates and of Agnerus in our Countryman Sarco his relations, who was cut asunder in the middle with a sharp sword: also of that man in Aristotle whose Midriff being in the fight pierced with a Dart, made him die laughing. Pliny relates as much of other Fencers, and Homer tells us that Juno laughed with her Lips when her Forehead scowled.  
Galen makes the Cause of the Sardonian Laughter▪ to be in the Musculus latus quadratus, the broad square Muscle. But it reaches not to the Lips, Laurentinus Politianus, makes the spirits to be the cause of this Convulsion, which because of the sense they have of some troublesome thing, run back to the upper parts. Mancinius will have the Heart to be widened, and the face drawn into the posture of laughing, by the hear which is raised by tickling and wounds, because he will have the Heart to be the seat of Laughter, in defence of Aristotle whom Physicians have confuted. Riolanus has sometimes observed laughter to arise in the gelding of a man, which was the forerunner of a deadly Convulsion; for which cause he condemns our reason drawn from the Nerves, not giving us in the mean time any better reason viz. why laughter should arise upon the wounding or hurting the nerves of the Midriff and Privities, and not when any other nerves are wounded.  
It's Use is 1 To help free Respiration; for violent respiration is assisted by the muscles 
Use.  of the Chest; the former Respiration Galen ●erms gentle or small, which depends only upon the Midriff, the other strong, the intercostal muscles assisting thereto, a third sublime, where the Diaphragma, intercostal or rib between muscles, and muscles of the Chest do act all together. Birds indeed, though they breathe have no Midriff, but their breathing which is light and scarce perceptible, because of the lightness of their bodies, is performed by their Lungs and Chest. chose Fishes which breathe not have a Midriff, but membranous, to separate one Belly from another. In the greater sort of Sea fishes of the whaley kind, I have observed a fleshy Midriff like that of Creatures which live on the Land.  
Now the motion thereof is thus: when the Breath is drawn in, the 
How the motion of the Diaphragma is performed.  Midriff is stretched, when it is blown out, it is remitted or slackened, contrary to the Opinion of Arantius and Laurentius. Of whom the latter will have the Midriff contrary to all other muscles to draw towards its end, and he will have the fibres which run out from the Circumference of the Chest, to be equally contracted, and the ribs to be drawn to the nervous Circle, and so to cause respiration. But how can the membranous Centre of the Septum, draw the ribs to its self and contract the whole Chest unless haply because it is fastened to the Mediastinum. But I have observed more than once in dissections of living Bodies, that the Midriff is stretched out, when the Creature draws in its Breath. For the Guts are driven downwards by the Midriff when the Breath is blown out, and they ascend again when the Breath is drawn in, which also any man without Anatomical Section, may perceive in himself, by laying his Hand upon his Belly. In Wounds of the Diaphragma, the Guts and Stomach, when the Breath is drawn in ascend into the Chest, which Paraeus twice observed, which differs only according to more or less, from the natural course of breathing. Now the motion of the Midriff ought to be such, because the Chest when the Breath is drawn in, must be widened to receive and contain the Air and swollen Lungs; and contrariwise, when the Air is breathed out, the Chest ought to be straitened, because then the sooty vapours are expelled, and the Lungs flag and become small again, and therefore in the former case the Midriff is lifted up, and in the latter depressed.  
Jo. Walaeus besides that motion, whereby the fleshy part gives way inwardly, has observed another motion in the Diaphragma during the drawing in of the breath, whereby the fleshy part thereof being contracted into itself, comes to have folds in it, so that one portion of the fleshy part is placed upon another: and he observed that this folding is chiefly about the Appendices or Appurtenances, and when the breath is strongly drawn in: and he conceius that by this means the Midriff is the more shortened, and the Chest by the lifting up of the Ribs, more widened.  
II. To assist the muscles of the belly, in their compression, when they would force out the Excrements and the Child in the womb: for from above it thrusts the Guts downwards. Hence, according to the Observation of Platerus, when the belly is costive, Sneezing and Coughing do help, because thereby the Midriff and Dung contained in the Guts, are driven downwards, because of the Struggling of the said Midriff and its bearing down, the Excrements of the belly and Urine come away of themselves in live Anatomies and in such as are put to death by hanging.  
III. To distinguish the lower belly with the natural parts, from the middle belly with its vital parts, lest from the Ignoble parts frequent vapours should ascend, to the parts more noble, as the Heart etc.  
IV. According to Hypocrates, it is the Fan of the lower belly, which fans and cools the Hypocondria or parts under the snort ribs.  
V. Others suppose it causes natural respiration, because it depends not upon our will and pleasure, and moves when we are asleep, and never so much as think of it, and by help thereof, Men in Apoplexies do for a season breathe. But Piccolhomineus does more rightly assign a voluntary motion thereunto, howbeit only when some necessity constrains, as in easing of the belly, pissing, and fetching of breath, because it is a Muscle of a nature by itself; but not a motion absolutely or simply voluntary, which is discerned in progression & apprehension, that is to say in going and handleing.  
It's motion ceases in a strong Apoplexy, only transpiration does then remain: but in a light Apoplexy, we see the Diaphragma also moved with the Chest muscles.   

CHAP. IU. Of the Pleura, Mediastinum, and Thymus.  
THe PLEURA or Rib-coate, which the Greeks call Chitòn 
What the Pleura is, and its Original.  hupezocòs, or absolutely bumèn, is a membrane which on the inside clothes the cavity of the Chest, hard and white, but in some pleuretick persons according to Hypocrates, black and blue, whence it is that Practitioners conceive that this is affected in the Pleurisy, which notwithstanding is demonstrated to happen secondarily, by Manelphus, Cletus, Platerus, Zacchius, Vitaglianus, Benedictus. It is somewhat thicker and stronger than the Peritoneum. 
It's Thickness.  Ariseing from the Coats, which cover the intercostal nerves which proceed out of the Backbone, by means of which it is continued with the Coats of the Brain. And therefore it is thicker in the Back, to whose vertebrae it cleaus as it were inseparably. Hofmannus will have it arise from the Breastbone rather than the vertebrae of the Back, wherein he is out, as I have proved in my Animadversions upon Hoffman, and in my Anatomical College. In diseases of the Chest, it becomes many times tenfold thicker: though others say it is so attenuated in pleuritic persons, that it can hardly be discerned. Fallopius saw it of a thick callous substance, in a Dropsy of the Lungs, and Platerus saw it in like manner swollen by a Scirrhous Tumour.  
It is every where double, that the Vessels may be carried within the folding thereof. The outer part which looks towards the Chest, is harder and thicker, the inner part being 
The place of the matter which causes a Pleurisy.  fastened to the Ribs is thinner. Between these the matter of the Pleurisy is often collected, and not only between the Pleura and Muscles. Galen makes it to be single, and will allow it to be double, only about the Mediastinum. Riolanus explains that same Duplicature to mean its thickness, which cannot be showed without tearing. The contrary whereto is manifest in the swollen sides of such as have the Pleurisy.  
It hath its inner surface smooth, lest it should by its roughness hurt the Lungs; its outer more rough that it might be the stronglyer fastened.  
Sometimes it is found furnished with a little fat (as there is also now and then in the Peritonaeum) near the Vertebrae of the back, where the Vessels are greater than ordinary.  
The Ribs also have their Periosteum or Membrane so called, which some call the third coat of the Pleura, and others Membrana Circumossalis the bone-about Membrane.  
It hath very many Holes, the lowermore 
It's Holes.  of which I have reckoned up in the History of the Diaphragma, the upper are there where it affords passage to the Vena Cava, the Arteria aorta, the Weazand or Aspera arteria, the Gullet and the Nerves of the sixth Pare.  
As for its VESSELS. It hath Veins from the solitary Vein or Vena fine Pari, and the upper Intercostal or Rib-between Vein; Arteries from the Intercostal or Rib-between Artery, and from the great Artery; Nerves, twelve in number, proceeding from the foreside of the Vertebrae of the Chest. And therefore wounds in this part are attended with most grievous pains.  
It's USE is. 1. According to Galen to plaster over the whole Cavity of the Chest and to render it smooth and even, that the Lungs might not be hurt in their motion. 2. To clothe the Chest and its parts on the inside (even as the Peritonaeum affords coats to the parts of the lower Belly) and to constitute the Partition Membrane. Or,  
MEDIASTINUM, Which is an offspring of the Pleura, being a doubl● Membrane; separating the Cavity of the Chest and the Lungs into two parts. For after that the Pleura having taken its Original about the Back hath ascended by the sides to the Brest-bone, taking its course again towards the Backbone, it is carried right out from the middle of the Breast to the Back. Being fastened on each hand to the sides of the Brest-bone, this Membrane is not obscurely double, as is the Pleura, but visibly, being constituted of the Pleura doubled; and there seems at first sight to be as great a space between both, under the Brest-bone, as the breadth of the Breastbone comes to. But this is only in appearance and not really so; for that same Cavity under the Breastbone, is then only caused, when the Breastbone is in dissection, plucked from the Mediastinum, for before the Membranes of the Mediastinum are most closely united one to another. Which it is strange that no Anatomist did observe before Ad Falcoburgius. After him, I have often made the Experiment, in grown persons and Children new born, in Land-beasts and large Sea-fish; nor could I show any Cavity betwixt the Mediastinum and Breastbone, no not to the most expert Spectators, but I found the Membranes of the former sticking close by certain Fibres to the latter, which we forcibly separated with a Penknife. Which that it might be more apparent, the inwards of the Belly and the Midriff being taken away, I made it visible to the Eyes of all that were present. These things are to be understood of the lesser Cavity (to satisfy Riolanus who is my Adversary in this point) between the Membranes of the Mediastinum and the sternum: For the greater, wherein the evermoveing Heart is seated, no man in his right wits will ever deny. In this greater Cavity, or in this Duplicature● if a wound inflicted on the foreside shall penetrate, lightly, so that the Heart settling beneath remain unhurt, it is sufficiently void of Peril and safe enough; which one unskilful in Anatomy would pronounce deadly, But towards the Vertebrae, the Cavity grows narrow by little and little, and the Membranes meet together. But in the middle the Cavity is wider, and in the fore part of the said Cavity, the Heart and Vena Cava are placed; in the latter part the Gullet, with the Stomach Nerves. If in this Cavity humours praeternaturally assemble and putrify, they may safely be let out by boreing an hole in the Breastbone, if we believe Columbus and Hofmannus, which Nicolaus Fontanus doth notwithstanding deny.  
It is of a thinner and softer substance than the Pleura; and about the Vessels 
It's substance.  'tis frequently full of fat like the Call.  
For Vessels, it hath Veins and Arteries from the Dug-vessels and the solitary Vein or Vena 
Vessels.  sine Pari, applied inwardly to the breastbone, which being taken away they become visible: Also it hath its own proper Vein called Mediastana, which is sometimes one and large, other whiles double and small.  
Also the Phrenick and Stomachick Nerves are carried through this Duplicature, and afford branches to the Mediastinum.  
The use of the Mediastinum is, I. To 
The use of the Mediastinum  divide the Chest into two parts, that one Division of the Lungs being hurt by a wound or otherwise, the other might perform its office.  
II. To hang the Heart and Heart-bag dangling in so free a posture, as to strike against no part of the Chest.  
III. To sustain the Vessels running through the same, as also the Midriff in Mankind, lest it should by the weight of the Bowels be drawn too much downwards.  
The II. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE represents the Brest-bone cut off and lifted up, also the Mediastinum and the Lungs, with the Midriff.  
FIG. I. 

AAA. The inner surface of the Brest-bone and the Gristles interwoven therein.  
BB. The Dug-Veins and Arteries descending beneath the Brest-bone.  
C. The Glandulous Body called Thymus.  
DDDD. The sides of the Mediastinum pluck● asunder.  
EE. The distance between the two Membranes of the Mediastinum which is caused by its forcible separation from the Brest-bone.  
F. The Protuberancy of the Mediastinum, where the Heart is seated.  
GG. The Lungs.  
HH. The Midriff.  
I. Cartilago Ensiformis, the Sword-like Gristle.    
FIG. II. 

A. The left Nerve of the Midriff.  
B. The right Nerve thereof.  
C. The upper Membrane of the Midriff a little separated.  
D. The naked substance of the Midriff.  
E. The Hole for the Gullet to descend through.  
F. The hole or the Vena Cava.  
GGG. The Membranous part or Centre of the Midriff.  
HHH. The Portions or Appendices thereof, between which the great Artery descends.    
FIG. III. Represents that same Glandulous Body, seated by the Larynx▪ 

AAA. The Glandules or Kernels which naturally breed upon the Larynx.  
B. A portion of the jugular Vein, out of which two small twigs proceeding, do spread themselves through the substance of the Glandules or Kernels.    
page 94  
Blood-conveighing Vessels do pass through this Thymus or Sweetbread; howbeit in the substance thereof, being dissected, we cannot manifestly disscerne any.  
The use therefore of the Thymus is 1. To underprop those great Vessels which ascend that way, as the Vena Cava, Arteria magna, and their branches passing along to the Arms and Shoulderblades. 2. Also for safeguard, as is usual, and that the Vessels may not be hurt by touching upon the bones. 3. That it may be as it were a cover and fence for the Heart, for I have seen it as a Bulwark to the Heart, which the Heart of a Child in the Womb stands in need of, because as yet it stirs not. And therefore it hath a large Thymus, as a Sturgeon also hath and other Creatures which live in the Water, by reason of the external cold.   

Chap. V. Of the Heart-bag and the Humour contained therein.  
THe Pericardium which some term 
The Pericardium. See Tab. 3. of Book 2.  the Coat, Case, Box, Chamber, Cover of the Heart, or Heart-bag, etc. is a Membrane compassing the whole Heart, whose Figure it therefore Emulates, as also its Magnitude: But it is so far distant from the Heart, as is necessary for the Heart's motion, and the reception of the Liquor contained in this Bag. Columbus assures us, that a Scholar of his had no Pericardium.  
It arises at the Basis from the Coats which compass the Vessels of the 
It's Original.  Heart, which proceed from the Pleura (for this Coat is not between the Basis of the Heart and the Pericardium) where for their sakes.  
It hath five Holes; viz. for the ingate and outgate of the Vena Cava, and for the 
It's Holes.  letting out of the other three Vessels.  
It's Situation is more to the left side then the right; and more to the fore then the 
Situation.  hinder part of the Body.  
It is knit circularly to the Mediastinum, with very many Fibres, and to 
It's Connexion.  the neighbouring parts, but especially the Nervous circle of the Midriff, it cleaves exceeding close, which is a thing peculiar to Mankind: For herein a Man differs from Dogs and Apes, and in all other Creatures likewise, the difference holes.  
It's External Surface is Fibrous, the Internal slippery, and both void of fat. 
It's Surface.   
It's Substance is thick and hard, and so much harder than the Lungs, as it is 
It's Substance.  softer than a bone.  
Its Vessels. It hath small Veins. below 
Its Vessels.  from the Phrenick Vessels, above from the Axillary.  
It hath no Arteries that can well be seen; peradventure, because it is so near the Heart. Yet doubtless it hath some although hard to be discerned.  
It hath very small Nerves, from the left Recurrent, and the little twigs of the Septum.  
It's Use is I. To be a firm tabernacle for the Heart, that in its motion it might not 
It's Use.  strike against the hard parts of the Body.  
II. To contain a wheyish or Watery Humour, like Urinal to see to, though neither sharp nor Salt, transparently clear, in some like water, wherein flesh hath been washed; Guil. Toletus in Burgensis calls it a phlegmatic Humour of an unpleasing taste. And because of this Liquor Galen resembles the Heart to a Bladder.  
This Humour is found in all Animals naturally constituted, both 
Whether all Live-Wights have this wherish Liquor in their Heart-bags.  living and dead, yea and in the Child in the Womb, as appears by the dissection of bodies both living and dead: But in some more in others less; in persons that are in a Consumption, it is very little and inclining to yellowness. In person's Pleuritic it is now and then of a quittorish nature, according to the Observation of Salmuth.  
In dead bodies 'tis more plentiful: Because then very many Spirits are 
Why more plentiful in dead Bodies.  in the cooled parts of the body condensed into water. In Women▪ Children, and aged persons, 'tis more plentiful, by reason of the debility of their heat.  
If it happen to be in two great a quantity, Palpitation of Heart, and a suffocating death follows therefrom: if it be quite consumed, a Consumption of the body happens. But that it may be bread a fresh when it is spent, we see clearly in those whose Heart-bag being wounded, the said Liquor hath run out; for in Johannes Saviolus, his Heart-bag being wounded with a Dagger, water issued at every Pulse of his Heart, out of the wound, yet was he happily cured by the Renowned Veslingus.  
Whence this water should have 
Whence the liquor in the Heart-bag proceeds? The first Opinion.  its original, the opinions of learned men are different.  
I. The first Opinion is of those, who will have it to be sent out of the Vessels of the Heart, seeing Blood-letting cures the Panting of the Heart proceeding from the Super abundance of this Liquor: And they conceive that this waterish Liquor is forced out by the fervent heat of the Heart, as in a stick of wood when it burns the sap runs out. Of kin to this is the Opinion of Nicolas Massa, which will have it to proceed from the strainings of the blood, which come from the Liver to the Ear of the Heart. And Hoffman is much of his mind, who maintains that it is part of that wheyish moisture which ascends to the Heart with the blood; but because the motion thereof is perpetual, there would no small danger arise, from so large an Afflux of Humours. I let pass, how that the stronger persons, whose blood is moved most swiftly, have less quantity of this Water then those that are weaker.  
II. Others, and among them Hypocrates seems to make one, will have it to proceed from our drink, some portion whereof they conceive peirces like Dew out of the Asperia Arteria, into the Arteria Venosa.  
III. Some conceive it proceeds from a Watery matter in the Seed, as the inbred Air of the Ears, is thought to proceed from a windy matter in the said seed.  
IV. Of kin hereunto is the opinion of Jasolinus, who will have it to be a select, most perfect and Elaborate portion of the serons Humour, sent thither by Nature itself, haply in the first formation of the Child, through the Veins and Arteries, besides another part of the drink, of which Hypocrates speaks, and he has experiments touching the same.  
V. Some say it proceeds from the watery Excrements of the third digestion.  
VI Others from the spittle, slipping out of the Kernels of the Tongue into the Weazand, and from thence into the Arteries and Heart.  
VII. Others, from the fat of the Heart, by agitation turned into water.  
VIII. Others from the thicker part of the Air which we draw in, being changed into water.  
IX. And lastly, some think (which I conceive to be most likely) that it proceeds from moist Vapours and Exhalations, forced out of the Humours of the Heart by the motion and Heat thereof, and thrust forth into the Heart-bag and there congealed into water, in regard of the compactness of the said Heart-bag.  
It's Use is, I. To moisten and cool the 
It's Use.  Heart, and to facilitate the motion thereof. And therefore those in whom it is consumed, have their Hearts roasted: As it happened to Casimire the Marquis of Brandenburg: And to that young man of Rome, mentioned by Panarolus. Hofmannus being of a contrary mind, will needs have it to be as a Spur and Incitement of Heat; as Smiths are wont to dip their wisps of Straw in Water that they may burn the longer: And as Wood is sprinkled with Water to make it burn more lustily. But those bundles of Straw are preserved by the water, because their substance being made more moist and Tenacious, is not so soon consumed. But the heat of the Heart is preserved by its radical moisture, and by the blood continually flowing in, nor doth it need any Incitement from the Water, for if so, than the Heart would be more hot and lusty in old persons, who have most water in their Heart-bags, II. It serves to make fat by congelation. III. That the Heart by swimming therein, may be less ponderous, and may not strike against any part.  
An HUMOUR likewise is commonly found in the Cavity of the Chest, resembling blood and water mingled together, wherewith the parts of the Chest are smeared, that they may not be overheated nor overdryed. Hence the side of our Saviour being opened, blood and water flowed out, which by the suddan flux, and mixture of blood and the Authorities of the Ancients, I have at large proved, in my Dispute of the side of Christ, against Laurentius, Arias Montanus, Bertinus, Nancelius, Poza, Tremellius, Beza, Tirinus, Grotius and others, who would have it to proceed from his Pericardium or Heart-bag, also against Collius, Tarnovius, Brentius, Laurenbergius among the late writers, and Cyprianus, Prudentius, Brigitta, Vida, Sannazarius, Vigerius, etc. who would fetch it from the Vessels of the Heart being wounded. Now the Objection of P. Laurenbergius is not worth a button, who says there was not enough of the said Liquor in the Cavity of the Chest; because 1. The natural quantity might suffice, seeing the Evangelists do not record that it come away in a great quantity. 2. It might be augmented in that last conflict for life, notwithstanding the great perfection of his Body, which being for our Redemption made liable to temporary passions, underwent death itself. 3. I have at Milan sometimes observed so great a quantity of Water in this part, that it hung down like a great purse, the Midriff being depressed by its weight. Jasolinus in wound of the Chest (the inner parts being unhurt) did sometimes collect every day five measures of water called Heminae, for thirty days together, which the Membranes being inflamed, was dried up and diminished, but when the Inflammation was cured, it returned in its former Quantity.  
In a Boy at Paris, who died of the small pox, I being present, store of water was found in this part, but of a green colour, of which elsewhere.   

Chap. VI Of the Heart in General.  
THe Heart is called in Latin COR à currendo from running, because of its motion; some peradventure will derive it from the Greek name Kêr which they derive from céo which signifies to burn: the Greeks term it cardia, we the Heart, quasi bieròn a sacred thing. It is the principal part of a living Creature, which none is found to want according to Aristotle, and by the hurting whereof the Creaure does for the most part immediately die, because it is the fountain of Life, and labours the vital Spirits, which having made, it distributes, by the Arteries arising from itself, into the whole body, Yet may you find examples in Schenkius of those that have had no Hearts. See also Gellius book the 16. Chap. 15. Galen relates that beasts sacrificed have lowed at the Altar, after their Hearts were taken out; and the Lord Verulam tells of a man who spoke three or four words of a prayer, when his Heart was plucked out of his Body, and in the hand of the Executioner. Pliny tells us the entrails were twice found without any Heart, when Caesar sacrificed, and Julius Obsequens says the same. The Lives of such persons were maintained by the remainders of arterial Blood. And Spigelius suspects that among the Bowels, the Heart was rather hid, and unfound then wanting, who saw so much fat in an Ostrich, that a man might easily have been deceived, so as to think the Fowl had no Heart. Peradventure those Hearts of the sacrifices were stole away by the Devil.  
A Livewight dies not with every hurt of the Heart. For the Heart undergoes all kind of diseases. 1. Putrefaction, witness Galen, in a pestilential and a putrid Fever. 2. The Consumption according to Pliny, to be dried like a roasted warden, according to Jordanus. to be wholly consumed by immoderate Heat, as Tileseus averr's. 3. Inflammation, in which Case it cannot live a natural day, as Saxonius found by experience in a certain Reader. 4. Filthy hollow Ulcers have been found therein by Fernelius, Trincavellius, Riverius. 5. Divers kinds of Tumours, Columbus saw an hard Tumour in the left ventricle of a Cardinal, as big as an Egg. Benevenius saw a swelling of black flesh. Massa, Hollerius, Bauhinus, and Joubertus, have other like Stories. I lately found in the Parenchyma of an Ox's Heart on the left side a swelling as big as a Pigeons Egg, in a double Coat, full of Whey and Phlegm.  
On the out side Gesner saw an Excrescence of Flesh, in the Basis the quantity of an ounce and six drams Bavius makes mention of the Membrane eaten and fretted away round about.  
Also Histories show that it will bear wounds for a season. Paraeus tells of one wounded in the Heart who ran two hundred paces. Jacotius tells of an Hart that carried an old arrow fixed in its Heart, which is confirmed by Thomas à Vega and Alexandrius. Galen saw an Hare wounded in the Heart, run a darts cast after the wound received. Of a Student at Ingolstade, Sennertus and johnstonus tells us, who had both the ventricles of his Heart pierced through with a weapon, and Nicholas Mullerus of a Soldier who lived fifteen days after he had received a wound in his Heart, of which he hung up a Table at Groeningen. He recounts many like examples seen by himself, and Tulpius tells us of one that lived two days, being wounded in the right ventricle. Glandorpius tells us after Sanctorius, that the Heart of a Rabbit was pierced with a sharp Instrument, and yet it lived many months after.  
We must therefore note  

1. That the Heart can endure Diseases, but because it lies far from the way of medicines, it cannot hold out so well as other parts.  
2. That, as Galen tells us, if the wounds do pierce into the belly thereof, the party or Creature wounded dies, of necessity, but if they be in the Substance thereof, it may live a day and a night, but then Inflammation arising death follows.  
3 That the right Ventricle does more easily bear an hurt, because upon the left depends the life of the whole Body.  
4. Both Ventricles may endure a small time after they are hurt, if the Vessels that continue the motion of the blood, be undamnified.   
The Heart is one in Number, Theophrastus writes, that in Paphlagonia Partridges have two Hearts, an example whereof Galen relates in a man, in his anatomical administrations.  
It is situate in the middle of the body, not considering the legs, as it is 
Why the Heart ●● in the midst of the Body.  in brutes; in which the Heart is in the middle, for moveableness and Securities sake, and in the middle of the Chest likewise, where it is on all sides compassed with the Lungs. Now the Heart in respect of its basis, is exactly in the middle, that nourshing blood and spirit might more commodiously be distributed into the whole body.  
Howbeit the Motion thereof is more discernible in the left side.  
1 Because in its left Ventricle the vital spirit is contained, and from 
A vulgar Error that the Heart is in the left side.  thence arises the Arteria magna, hence the common people imagine that a Man's Heart resides in his left Side, but Practitioners apply Cordials to the left side.  
2 Because the point of the Heart inclines towards the left side, under 
Why the point of the Heart inclines to the left side.  the left nipple, that it may give way to the Diaphragma: now to the right hand it could not decline, by reason of the Vena cava, which ascends there through the midst of the Chest. Sometimes the upper part of the Heart inclines to the left side, and such persons are left handed if we believe Massa, those whose Heart is exactly in the middle, use both hands alike.  
As to its Magnitude. In a man proportionably the Heart is greater than 
Who have the greatest Hearts.  in other Creatures, as also the brain and Liver. According to the common Course of Nature, it equals six finger's breadths in length, and four in breadth. Otherwise, the greatness of the Heart differs according to the Difference of the Age and Temperament. For persons cold of Constitution, and fearful have great Hearts, but such as are more hot and confident, have little Hearts: Of which see Donatus. Hence Aristotle says of fearful Creatures, as the Hare, Deer, Mouse, Hyena, Ass, Weazel, etc. that they have a great Heart, considering the proportion of their bodies. The Philosiphers of Egypt, in ancient times, as appears by Herodotus in his Euterpe, have dreamt these things of the greatness of the Heart. That the Heart of such Persons, as are not wasted by any violent disease, does every year grow two drams heavier, till they become fifty years old, so that a man of fifty year's Age, his Heart weighs an hundred drams: but from the fiftyeth year to the hundredth, by a retrograde or back motion, it loses every year two drams, till it vanish away, and the party die.  
It's Figure is conic, because it ends in a point. It's upper part by reason of the full vessels therein, is broad and round, although not exactly, and is called the Root and Head, and Basis of the Heart: the lower part being sharper is called conus, mucro, vertex, cuspis and apex Cordis; the cone, point, top of the Heart. Hypocrates calls it the end and tail. On the foreside the Heart is more bossie, on the hinder side more flat. In the contractions the whole Heart is longer as some hold, but broader and more drawn together according to others; in its Dilatations or Widening it is greatest, and of a globous figure, of which I shall speak more exactly hereafter.  
It's Connexion is to the Mediastinum and the Midriff by the Pericardium; but to 
Connexion.  other parts by its Vessels, they are joined to the Basis. the point being free, and hanging dangling like a bell in the Steeple, that it may the more easily be drawn back to its Basis, or moved to the Sides.  
It's Substance is first membranous, like a Bladder, in the Child in the Womb, afterward from the mother's blood there grows flesh or a solid, thick and compacted parenchymas.  

1. That it might endure the perpetuity 
Why the Substance of the Heart is so thick.  of the Motion: for a fence, and that it might more forcibly drive the blood to places far distant in the whole Body.  
2 Lest the subtle and lightfull Spirits contained even in the movable blood should exhale together with the inbred heat.   
In the right side the wall is less thick, because it sends blood only to the Lungs, which have their venal blood not so subtle. The strength of the left side is greater, by reason of stronger motion to drive on the blood, to supply the necessity of the whole body. In the point, the flesh is thicker and harder not so much because it ought not to be moved, as Riolanus conceives, as because it is free, contracting the whole Heart in a brief manner, and destiture of Vessels and Ears. In its Basis, it is not so much softer as thinner. whose Vessels and Ears do recompense what it wants of firmness. Now this flesh hath all kinds of Fibres, so mingled one with another, and so compact, that they cannot be easily discerned; partly for strength, partly for motion. For all these Fibres being stretched in the Systole of the Heart they draw together the Ventricles and the inner sides, to help the Protrysion or thrusting forward of the blood.  
This substance is clothed with a Coat 
It's Coat.  hardly separable, for the greater firmness, to which it grows in respect of the matter, not of the efficient Cause.  
There is Fat about the Paces of the Heart but hardly about the Cone or sharp End thereof, because it is moistened by the liquor of the Heart-bag, 1. To anoint the Veins about the Heart. 2. And to moisten the Heart, that it may not be dried by motion. 3. To heat the water in the Heart-bag, as the fat of the Kidneys doth, according to the conjecture of John Daniel Horstius. Sometimes it is quite hid with the said fat, which Spegelius, Riolanus, Jessenius observed in a prince of Lunaeburg, so that the bystanders are apt to be deluded and think there is no Heart.  
It was nevertheless rightly said by 
Whether Fat is found about the Heart?  Aristotle, Galen and Avicenna, that fat called Pimele could not grow about any hot part, as the Heart, the Liver, the Arteries, the Veins, etc. For this kind of Fat is easily melted by heat; but in the mean while, to stea● Adeps or Tallow, which differs much from Pimele or Greasy fat, in substance, consistency and place, as I have demonstrated in my Vindiciae Anatomicae from Pollux, Suidas, Erotianus and others, may grow about such parts, because it is not easily melted. Which makes a sputtering when it is put to the flame of a Candle, because of a watery substance mingled therewith, according to the Observation of Jasolinus, which hinders it from sudden congealing: so that it is no wonder that it is not melted by the heat of the Heart. Now this same Tallow is bred about the Heart, either because the Heart being of a very hard substance is nourished with thick blood, of which suet is bred; or because Excrementitious dregs are bred of the Nutriment of the Heart; or because the blood is much stirred, as by the great Agitation of Milk, better is extracted, which is the opinion of Achillinus.  
As for Vessels. The Heart hath a Vein which is termed Coronaria the 
The Coronary Vein of the Heart.  Crown-vein, because it incircles the Heart, and is sometimes double. It arises from the Cava, without the right Ventricle, about whose Basis it Expatiates in a large tract from the right Ear, and with a wide Channel it compasses about externally to the left Ear, which it doth not enter, but turns aside into the Parenchyma of the Heart. Hence it spreads its branches downwards through the surface of the Heart, but the greatest store through the left side thereof, because the flesh is there thicker. A small valve is fastened in its original, which grants entrance to the blood into the right Ventricle, but will not suffer it to go out.  
The III. TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE shows the Situation of the Heart in the Body and the going out of certain Vessels therefrom.  


A. The Heart in its natural Situation enclosed in the Heart-bag.  
BB. The Lungs.  
CC. The Nervous part of the Midriff.  
DDD. The flesby portion thereof.  
E. A portion of the Vena Cava above the Heart, going upwards.  
F. Part of the said Vein piercing the Midriff.  
G. The great Artery arising out of the Heart.  
HH. Its branches to med Carotides, the Drowsie-Arteries.  
I. The point of the Heart inclining to the left side of the Body.  
KK. The Nerves of the sixth Conjugation, from which the recurrent Nerves do spring, which distribute five branches to the Heart-bag & the Heart.  
L. The left Ear of the Heart.  
M. The right Ear.  
N. The Vessels of the Heart-bag.  
O. The Cartilago Scutiformis, Sheild-fashioned Gristle.  
P. The first pare of the Muscles of the Larynx in their proper place,  
Q. The Situation of Os Hyoides.  
R. The Aspera Arteria or Weazand.  
S. The Axillary Artery, about the Original whereof, the Right-hand Recurrent Nerve begins.    
page 98  
As for its Use. Some have persuaded themselves, that it serves to nourish the external part, because it is lesser than ordinary, creeps about the external surface only, and the Heart is nourished with Arterial blood. Others will have it to nourish the whole Heart. Licetus assigns its Office to strain the blood to the left Ventricle of the Heart, which I wonder at, Because 1. It is exceeding small. 2. It creeps about the External parts. 3. It arises externally from the Vena Cava. and not from the right Ventricle of the Heart. Botallus seems to have acknowledged the same way, whose opinion examined by Walaeus. Others, as Riolanus, make it serve not so much for Nutrition, as to repair the fat; but, first it reaches farther than the fat. 2. No branches thereof are to be seen in the fat. 3. The fat may be generated from Vapours of the Heart, without any Veins. The true Use of the Coronary Vein is, to bring back the blood of the other Veins, when it returns from nourishing the heart, into the right Ventricle again, which the Situation of the Valves doth hint unto us, and the unfitness of this blood to nourish the solid substance or Parenclyma of the heart.  
It hath two Coronary Arteries from the great one, at the same place, in its original, before it passes out of the Pericardium, furnished with a Valve which prohibits the regress of the Blood. Through these, because they are moved and Pulse, blood is carried to nourish the heart and Ears, and here is made a peculiar kind of Circulation, as Harvy teaches, out of the left Ventricle into the Arteries, out of them into the Coronary Veins, out of which it slides into the right Ventricle, being to be forced again through the Lungs into the left Ventricle.  
Now some men persuade themselves, and especially Hogelandius, that the Blood which remains after Nutrition, doth not all pass back through the Veins, but that some particles thereof sweat through the Parenchyma into the Ventricles, and cause Fermentation in the Generation of Arterial blood. But 1. The Fermentation, if there be any, may be made by the relics contained in the Cavities. 2. The coronary Vessels, do not reach unto the Ventricles. 3. 'tis hard when the body is in health, for the blood to sweat through so hard and compact a flesh, unless the blood be very wheyish, and the body of a thin Texture. 4. Why doth not the blood sweat through the Skin, which in some parts is very thin? 5. No particle remains in the flesh, save what is ordained for the nourishment thereof.  
Nerves it hath likewise, obscure ones, from the sixth conjugation, inserted into three places: One being terminated into the heart itself: Another into its Ears; A third among its greater Vessels, to cause sense and not motion according to Piccolhomineus, because the Nerve being cut asunder the heart moves nevertheless. The heart hath not many Nerves, but a great Contexture of Fibres like to the Nerves, which Aristotle perhaps reckoning for Nerves, said the heart was the Original of the Nerves. But that may be Materially true, not formally. Yet I have seen in the heart of a Sow, the branches of the Nerves with entangled twigs towards the Cone or Point, carried from the Septum to the Wall of the Belly.  
Yet that is false which Fallopius tells us, that a great Squadron of Nerves is 
An Error of Fallopius.  spread up and down the Basis of the heart, resembling a Net: For the motion of the heart, is no Animal motion, but a natural motion, because the heart is no Muscle: For the heart is moved without our will, and it beats in the Child in the Womb, before the Child hath received the Animal faculty. And Galen did rightly deny that the heart was a Muscle. 
Whether the Heart be a Muscle?  1. Because it hath all kind of Fibres. 2. Because a Muscle is the Instrument of voluntary motion. But if any one shall say the heart is a Muscle subservient to natural motion, I shall oppose such an improper manner of speaking: And so that of Hypocrates may be true, that the heart is a muscle. For he defines a Muscle to be flesh made up into an Orbicular shape. Others conceive that being long boiled it resembles a Muscle, and that then it is not one, but divers Muscles, by reason of divers motions contracted into themselves. Others grant it to be a Muscle of a nature by itself, as the Midrifl, which is perpetually moved. Walaeus most rightly of all others calls it not a Muscle, but says it is contracted in its motion like a Muscle, by Fibres interwoven in the flesh, and especially in the Ventricles, like the temporal Muscle in such as chew their meat.  
The Temperament of the heart in respect 
The Error of Averro.  of active Qualities is hot, yea the hottest of all the parts of the Body. How beit with a gentle and light-ful heat, not scorching and burning, if it be rightly disposed. And therefore 'tis no wonder, that in live dissections, sometimes we feel so little heat in the heart with our Finger, especially when our Skin is thick, we hold it but a little while, and the external Air is not rightly prepared before hand. It communicates the same heat to other parts, and renders this Arterial blood fit to nourish, which heat being assuaged in the Veins by reason of the long journey, it must of necessity run back again to the heart, that it may be refurnished and restored with the same heat. But vain is the opinion of Averro, that the heart is cold, because of the cold parts which it contains, viz. its Vessels and Valves: Unless haply he meant the heart void of Spirit, as many will have it.  
Those whose heart is hotter than ordinary 
An Hairy Breast what it signifies?  have their Breast rough with hair, and the parts near their Hypochondria; and those men are angryly inclined, and daring.  
Seldom is the heat of the heart so 
An Hairy Heart what it signifie●?  great, as that itself should thereby become rough with hair, such as Pliny and Valerius Maximus tell us was found in Aristomenes a Micenian; and in Hermogenes● a ●…cian, Coelius Rodiginus relates: and Benevenius, Z●… Lusitanus and Murelus avouch that they saw such ●●●●ry heart in certain Famous Theives. Now such 〈…〉 are audacious in the highest degree, extreme 〈…〉 crafty, and for the most part wicked. Riola●●● ●●us, that the matter of these hairs, is the thi●●●or things of that wheyish humour which is in the Heart-bag. But I am more apt to believe, that it is the plenty of Fuliginous Excrements springing from an hot heart.  
As to the passive Qualities, the Heart is moist, viz. more moist than the Skin, but drier than the Muscles, because harder: for the parts of the body, look how much softer they are then the Skin, by so much are they moister than it. It is a most rare Case for a man's Heart to be so solid, dense and compact, as that it will not burn, such as was the Heart of Germanicus the son of Drusus; or cartilaginous, such as Riolanus observed in a wicked fellow.  
The primary Use of the Heart.  
1. According to Harvey, Baccius, and other of his followers, is no other than to be the Instrument of the Soul, to force and urge the venal blood received from the Ears into the Arteries, by whose assistance it dispenses Nutriment to the whole body, and is rather joined as an Assistant to the Ears, that being of greater force, it may supply the defect of the Ears.  
But this is a secondary use of the Heart. For 1. Nutriment was to be prepared & filled with vital heat, which it has not else where save from the heart. 2. Nature might have provided for this passage of the blood, by some other member not so laboriously framed, 3. The necessity of the Heart would not be so great as it is. 4. It is a sign that some farther thing is performed i● the Heart, in that venal blood does not nourish, before it enters the Heart.  
Now the primary action of the Heart is to be.  
II. The Fountain of Heat, whence it is spread into the whole body, whereby the parts are animated and sustained. Swowneing teaches so much and other defects of the Heart, in which the heat of the Heart being intercepted, the Members of the Body begin to flag and being destitute of heat, become stupid. And therefore cordials do good in such cases, which stir up the languishing and numbed heat of the Heart. Also the Dissection of living Creatures does show, that the Heart is hot, yea that the heart of a Creature being taken out and newly dead, a warm finger, or some other warm thing being laid upon it, is seen to come to its self again and to stir, which the Lord Bacon Constantine, Harvey, and others have observed in a Dove, an Eel, a Salmon, and a Man.  
It is therefore the Fountain of Heat, both in respect of its Substance and of the Blood contained in it. I join both together. For the Heat springs not from the blood alone, as Harvey would have it, for the Heart in an Egg, and a Child in the Womb, before it is perfect and hollowed with ventricles, is hot and moves, and the same heat remains in Hearts taken out of the Body and cut up. The blood which flows thither from the Coronary Vessels, flows thither for Nutritions sake and to preserve the Heat. Nor are the rest of the sanguine parts, therefore judged to be hotter than other parts because they more abound with any heat, but because they have Arteries full of arterial blood, and depend upon the influence of the heart, wherewith the blood is heated. So that unless all the blood did pass through the heart, the parts would never grow hot, and the further the blood goes from the heart, by so much the sloer in its motion, and the colder it grows. That the coldness of the heart makes the parts of the Body cold, though full of blood, the slowness of the Pulse is a sign.  
Nor do the Blood and Heart grow hot only from the motion of the Heart, as the followers of Des Cartes will have it, for 1. they grant that the fiery atoms or indivisible particles of fire, are excited and put into action by motion, though they are only brought into play, but not produced by the said motion. 2. Many things are moved without waxeing hot, as water, unless they have an inbred principle of heat. 3. Before motion there was heat proceeding from the seminary original, which is afterwards preserved by continual motion.  
III. Not so much to make as to perfect the Blood.  
It makes Arterial Blood and perfects the venal, or that which 
Whether the Heart do perfect the Blood.  is contained in the Veins. For they are out who attribute too much to the heart, as if the heart alone did make blood of the Chylus, they also are mistaken, who maintain that the heart contributes nothing to blood-makeing. I go in a middle way. The Liver challenges the first making of the blood of the Chylus, as I have formerly demonstrated, which because it is not there perfected, being to thick and unfit to nourish, it is necessary that it should receive its perfection from other parts. No part is fit for this work save the heart, which is one of the first parts generated in the Womb, and through which in a grown person all the blood in the body has its passage. That the Lungs and heart-ears should perform their Office, no man will believe.  
The heart perfects two sorts of Blood, that of the Liver and that of the Veins. That of the Liver is twofold, the ●●● of the Vena portae, the other a cruder sort newly ●…f Chyle. The Vein blood i● likewise twofold one of the descendent trunk of vena cava, and the other of the ascendent trunk of the said vein. It receivs the Liver blood through the Cava, to which another joins itself out of the lower and upper Truuk, which remaining over and above after the parts are nourished, by its long journey is become pauled and sluggish, and has lost its heat, which is necessary for pulsation and nutrition.  
This perfection which the Blood receivs from the heart, is hereby confirmed, in that the blood when it comes out of the left Ventricle, has not altogether the same Consistence nor Colour, which it had when it entered the right Ventricle. The diversity consists in Heat and plenty of Spirits, wherewith it is furnished when it goes out of the heart, and which it wants when it enters thereinto; and in Effect or Operation, for that which goes out is fit to nourish, but that which enters in is most unfit, Vital Spirits are added by the inbred faculty of the heart, and the sooty vapours are taken away by that most short Concoction, being evacuated by the Lungs and Pericardium or heart-bag.  
For what parts does the heart perfect and renew the blood.  
The ancients did believe that the Heart made blood only to nourish the Lungs. But the Vessels of the lungs are greater than is requisite only for their Nutrition, and there is continually more blood forced thither by the pulsation of the right Ventricle, then could any ways be useful for the Lungs, unless they were to be nourished with as much blood as is sufficient for the whole Body. And that all is not consumed upon the substance of the Lungs, the blood which returns is a witness, which runs in great plenty at every pulsation, to the left Ventricle, through the Arteria venosa, which in live anatomies being tied, is seen to swell betwixt the ligature and the Lungs. For there is no way for it to return into the right Ventricle, the passage being stopped by the close shutting of the mitre-fashionned Valves.  
The right Ventricle therefore is busied about blood which is to be sent to nourish the Lungs; the left doth perfect the blood which flows back from the Lungs, being there impregnated with air, for the Nutrition of the whole Body. For the arterial blood alone is that which nourishes, because it is only fit for nutrition, and it alone is forced through the Arteries into the utmost parts of the Body.  
To perfect this blood many things 
What things are requisite to perfect the Blood?  concur. 1. Heat, which is very dull and lazy, as well in the crude blood of the Liver, as in the returning blood of the whole Body. 2. Vital Spirit which by the confession of all men, aught to be joined therewith, 3. Light the companion of the Spirits, by which the blood receives a more Illustrious colour, is moved and made fit for Nutrition. 4. A certain light and momentary Concoction, sweetening the crude: parts, attenuating the whole substance, and drawing forth the latent flame. 5. The whole Fabric of the heart, internal and external, and the Vessels both receiving and expelling. 6. The separation of Excrements, though the receptacles of the said Excrements are not very manifest. The sooty Vapours of the right Ventricle do evaporate through the Vena Arteriosa. The Watery Vapours of both the Ventricles, are congealed into the water of the Heart-bag, and are spent into the substance of the Hairs under the Arms. The remaining Excrements continue mixed with the Blood, and are carried into the Arteries, and the wheyish parts are purged by the emulgent Arteries into the Kidneys, and by sweats into the habit of the Body, the thicker parts by the Hemorrhoidal Arteries and the Ramus Mesentericus. Some parts return with the blood through the Veins into the Heart, that by several repeated courses, there, they may be at last mastered and overcome.  
Whether or no is the Blood equally perfected in the right and left Ventricle? 
In which Ventricle the Blood is perfected.   
Although the heat of both the Ventricles doth seem to be equal, because in Mankind they are both made of spiritful seed, and as much is afforded to the right Ventricle by the Liver-blood, and the returning blood of the Veins, as to the left by the Lungs; moreover in Live Anatomies we can hardly perceive that the one is hotter than the other.  
Yet that in the left the blood receives greater perfection, these signs and tokens do persuade me; because  

1. It receives the Blood in some measure prepared from the Lungs.  
2. It ought to perfect it for the whole Body, whereas the right perfects it only for the Lungs.  
3. It hath thicker Walls, more compacted fleshy Pillars, wherewith the heat is both more easily preserved and reverberated, and the blood more strongly driven.  
4. The blood is therein more frequently clottered by heat, and Cartilaginous and boney substances appear being dried by heat.  
5. When the left Ventricle is hurt, there is greater danger of death, then when the right is hurt.  
6. Many Live-wights want the right Ventricle.  
7. In dying persons it is sooner dead and void of motion than the right.  
8. The Cavity thereof is more narrow, and therefore it doth more easily preserve and perfect that which is contained therein.   
We cannot exactly define the place. It is the whole Cavity, endued with the virtue of the Parenchyma, because the blood fills the whole in the Diastole, and the inbred spirit, is every where diffused. Nor is there any token, of any stay which the whole blood makes in one place more than another, nor of any peculiar virtue of any particle.  
The Time. It is perfected in a Moment, because  

1. It is forthwith received and expelled, and makes no tarriance.  
2. From its abidance there, the blood would not be perfected but become adust.  
3. The flame on the Candle snuff, lights another Candle in the twinkling of an Eye.  
4. The Arterial Blood doth continually run to the extremities of the Body, and therefore it ought to be continually and suddenly perfected in the Heart.   
IV. A fourth use of the Heart is perpetually to move. 1. That it might preserve the Blood and all parts of the Body from putrefaction. 2. That it may help the heat and Elaboration of the Blood. 3. That it might kindle and stir up the vital Light. 4. That it might send fitting nourishment to all parts.  
This motion of the Heart is termed PULSUS the PULSE, which is continual 
What the Pulse is.  without ceasing, raised by the influent Blood, and the Pulsifick or Pulsative faculty, there resident.  
It consists of a Systole, Diastole ●…systole. 
Its Parts.  Which must be diligently ●…ned by all their causes, according as Oc●… Inspection of living Bodies and reason shall Dictate.  
Systole, being the proper and natural motion of the heart, is a contraction and drawing of the heart into a narrow compass, that the blood may by that means be forced out of the right Ventricle through the Vena Arterialis, into the Lungs, and out of the left Ventricle through the Aorta into the whole Body.  
Diastole, being an accidental motion, is the widning of the heart, that Blood may be drawn in through the Vena Cava into the right Ventricle, and through the Arteria venosa into the left,  
Peri-systole is a certain rest and stop going between both motions, when the Blood is about to enter into or go out of the Ventricles, so small in healthy persons that it cannot be discerned, being very manifest in such as are at the point of death, It is only one between the Systole and Diastole, or between the Diastole and Systole. This is the natural state of the heart.  
Besides these motions two others are Observed.  
1. A certain Undation or waving towards one side according to the carriage of the right Ventricle, as if it did gently wreathe itself, as we see in an horse when he is drinking; of which Harvey speaks. 2. A trembling motion of the Heart, when it is cut in sunder. The former depends upon the Situation of the right Ventricle: The latter is preternatural to the heart, not arising from other particles or small Bodies, sent in by the Coronaria, which is then cut in sunder, but from the remainders of the vital Spirits.  
We are taught by the testimony of 
The Heart takes in Blood in the Diastole.  our Eyes, that in every Diastole blood is plentifully received in, and in every Systole plentifully expelled, both into the Vena Arteriosa and the Aorta. This appears I say to our Eyesight.  
1. By Ligatures or bindings in live Anatomies. If the Cava and the Aorta with the Vessels of the Lungs shall be bound or pressed down with the Finger or any other Instrument on either side; we shall manifestly perceive that the part of the Cava which is inserted into the Heart is made empty; that in the Diastole of the Ear, it is filled, and thereby the Heart; and that the other part of the Ascendent and Descendent Vein, on this side the Ligature, doth swell. In like manner, the Arteria Venosa being tied near the heart, by the Diastole of the left Ear, it is made void and empty on this side the Ligature where it looks towards the heart, but towards the Lungs it arises and swells. The Arterial Vessels of the heart, do show themselves in a contrary fashion: For the Vena Arteriosa being tied, it swells towards the heart, because it is filled by the Systole of the right Ventricle; the Arteria Magna being bound, swells between the heart and the Ligature, being filled by the Systole of the left Ventricle.  
2. Besides the Ligatures, we may gather as much from the vessels being opened or wounded. The Vena Arteriosa and the Aorta Arteria being opened by a Lancet, at every Systole or Elevation and Contraction of the heart, it pours forth plenty of blood, as long as the heart continues strong, for when it languishes, it intermits some Pulses, before it voids any Blood. Now we observe no such thing, when the Cava or Arteria Venosa, are opened between the heart and the Ligature.  
The IV. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE doth in some measure express the Systole of the Heart in a Living-Creature, and the Circulation of the Blood.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Lungs drawn back.  
B. The Aorta Artery bound, and swelling towards the Heart.  
C. An Orifice made in the swollen part.  
D. The Vena Arteriosa tied, in like manner swelling towards the Heart, growing yellow where it looks towards the Lungs.  
ee. The Ears on both sides.  
FF. The Fore-side of the Heart, being in the Systole somewhat hard, and bend, and with its sides extended, its point being drawn back to the Basis or broad End.  
gg. The Coronary Vessels.    
FIG. II. Shows the form of the Heart in its Diastole, and the motion of Humours in its vessels. 

aa. The Arteria Venosa without binding, being full towards the Lungs, empty towards the Heart.  
b. The left Ear, which receives blood from the Arteria Venosa.  
C. The Vena Cava tied, empty towards the Heart, full towards the Liver.  
d. The right Ear swollen or heaving.  
E. The hinderside of the Heart, as it is in its Diastole, flagging.  
ff. The hinder part of the Lungs, which are bunching or Bossie.    
FIG. III. and IV. Represents the Inside of the Earlets or little Ears of the heart. The third Figure Represents the left Earlet; The fourth, shows the Right 

aaa. 3. 4. The Plane Membrane of the Earlet.  
b. 3. The Orifice of Arteria venosa. 4. The Orifice of Vena Cava.  
cccc. 3. The three-pointed Valves with seven Fibres, in 4. the same with five only.  
ddd. The larger fleshy Pillars.  
eeee. The lesser fleshy Pillars, Interwoven one within another with wonderful artifice.  
fff. Manifold Cavities form between the Pillars.    
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4. The swelling of the Heart and the Flagging thereof, being Palpable and visible to the external sense, do sufficiently demonstrate, when it is made straight in the Systole, that of necessity somewhat must be squeezed out as it were forcibly, and that when it is widened in the Diastole, it must needs be filled with humours.  
5. The Ventricles in the Diastole appear greater, and in the Systole lesser.  
6. From the largeness of the Vessels of the Heart: the Vena Cava and Arteria Venosa, do open into the heart with wider mouths, then to suffer only a small quantity of blood to enter. Also the Arterial vein and the Aorta are larger, then to send forth nothing, or only Spirits.  
The Quantity of Blood which fills 
The Quantity of blood in the Heart.  the Heart in the Diastole, and which goes out by the Systole at every pulsa●… not be exactly measured▪ be●…ies according to the different state of the heart, and the temper of Animals, their Age, Sex, course of Diet and Life, etc. It is apparent to our Eyes in live Anatomies, that much is received and expelled. But it moves not in and out in so great quantities in persons that are well in health, when the Heart is more quiet and hath the command of itself. The Ancients supposed that a drop or two was enough at a time, and that the blood did freely pass and repass the same way. But one drop of blood unaltered, is not able to fill the heart, nor doth provoke it to pulsation, not to speak how the foresaid experiments do show the plenty that passes to and fro. Now the Valves do hinder the free passage and repassage of the blood by the same ways, of which the three pointed ones or Tricuspides so called, do hinder the blood which enters the heart from passing back the same way, and the Mitre-shaped Valves do hinder the blood which goes out of the heart from returning the same way.  
Later Physicians, are divided in their opinions. Some suppose that a drop or two is either so rarified as to fill the heart, amongst whom is Des Cartes; or is turned into spirit, as Riolanu's Primrose, Leichner and others suppose, who measure it by grains, whom we shall answer when we come to the Causes: Others being Patrons and favourers of the circular motion of the blood, as Harvey, Walaeus, Conringius, Slegelius, etc. do calculate the quantity, by ounces, drams and scruples.  
To clear up this Question, three things are to be considered, 1. How much blood is contained in the Diastole of the heart. 2. How much is expelled or driven out of the heart, in its Systole; whether all that enters the Heart in its Diastole, is squirted out in the next Systole. 3. How many pulsations the heart makes in one hour; or how often the heart receives somewhat by its Diastole, and expels somewhat by its Systole, in the space of an hour.  
1. In the heart being in its Diastole, Harvey hath found above two ounces of blood. Also Plempius found near upon two ounces of blood, in the left Ventricle of the heart of a man that was hanged. Riolanus will hardly allow half an ounce in the left Ventricle of one that was hanged, and says there was more blood in the right Ventricle. Hogeland also will have half an ounce or a dram at least, to enter, at every opening of the Ear.  
Now the quantity of all the blood contained in the body, doth seldom exceed twenty four pounds, or come short of fifteen.  
2. In the Systole there is expelled either a fourth part, or a fist, or a sixth, or at least an eight, or all together that is contained in the heart.  
Harvey supposes half an ounce in a man, or three drams, or one dram, in a Sheep and a Dog he says a scruple. And he proves the same by that sudden effusion of all the blood, if the very lest Artery be cut, and because in the space of one half hour, all the blood may be passed through the heart, he certainly concludes, that in every Systole of the heart, much blood is expelled. Conringius approves of his Computation. Walaeus admits of half an ounce, but he supposes only one scruple, as doth Slegelius. Regius has many times observed half an ounce, sometimes two or three drams, in the heart of a Dog dissected. Hogeland contents himself with a dram. I being more sparing suppose half a scruple, in the smallest proportion to the quantity which issues in such as ●…ded. For there goes not out so much i●… free heart, ●s in one that is bound and forced; 〈…〉 there so much expelled in the following Systole, as was drawn in by the Diastole, some part sticks in the hollow pits of the heart, much states in the Cavity form by the production of the three pointed Valves and Distinct as it were from the Ventricle; finally, the heart cannot be so straight contracted in the Systole, as to squeeze out every jot of the Blood therein contained. Therefore Conringius doth rightly suspect that abides there the space of one or two Pulses, till by little and little it raise itself, which I understand of the relics and part of the Blood, not of the whole received by the foregoing Diastole.  
3. Primrose numbered in one hour 700 pulsations of the Heart. Riolanus 2000 Walaeus and Regius 3000, Harvey, 2000 in some 4000, 6000, 8000. Cardan 4000 Plempius 4450. Slegelius 4876. I have told upon mine own wrist about 4400, But the number varies according to the Age, Temperament, Diet etc. of every person. So many Systoles therefore and so many Diastoles there will be in one hour, as long as the Heart is vigorous, for a languishing heart has more Diastoles than Systoles.  
From these three Praemises I have calculated, how much blood may in an hour be squirted out of the Heart, by its sundry pulsations.  
From 1 scruple 3000 times repeated, arise. 10l. 5 ounces. 1 scruple 4000 13l. 10 owned. 5 dr. 1 scr. 1 scruple 4450 15l. 5 owned. 3 dr. 1 scr. half a scruple 4400 7l. 7 owned. 5 drans, 1 scr 1 dram 2000 20 l. 10 ounces. 2 drams 2000 41 l. 8 ounces. half an ounce 2000 83 l. 4 ounces. 1 ounce 2000 166 l. 8 ounces.  
Now supposeing all the blood contained in a man's body to be fifteen pounds, if that be taken away which goeth into the Nutriment of the parts, the defect whereof is suplied by new blood bred in the Liver, it will follow,  

1 That more blood passes through the Heart every hour, then can be afforded by the Concoction of the Liver and the Stomach.  
2 That all the Blood in the Body passeth through the Heart, in the space of a quarter of an hour, or half an hour, or an hour, or an hour and an half, or two hours at the most. For I cannot agree to Riolanus his conceit, that the blood is circulated only once or twice in a day, because he builds upon a false supposition of drops, and that only half the blood is circulated.  
3 That the parts to be nourished do not need so much blood for their nourishment.  
4 Because neither the Vessels are broken, nor the Arterial blood can run back again because of the valves nor is elsewhere dissipated, of necessity it runs back through the Veins into the Heart, and the Circulation is performed, of which I shall speak more in my book of Veins and Arteries.   
What the form of the Heart is in its Systole and Diastole, is known by 
The form of the Heart in the Systole.  three tokens. 1 By the Anatomy of living Creatures 2 By the Commodity and Convenience of motion and Rest. 3. By the carriage of the fibres and the situation of the parts.  
In the Systole  

1 The Point of the Heart draws up to the basis or broad end, and it becomes broader because it is busied in expelling the blood, the length 〈…〉 being changed, into breadth, because the basis ●●● broad ●nd is immovable in respect of the point, which is tied to no Vessels. But according to the observation of Walaeus in those living Creatures, whose Aorta Arteria does not proceed from the Basis, the broad end or basis of the Hea●t withdraws itself from the Point. Riolanus will have the Paces of the Heart always to draw towards the Cone or Point thereof, because the said Cone is harder than to be drawn or bended backwards. But else where, he denies that the Basis being strongly fastened to the vessels, can be drawn towards the Point. And therefore other, whom he and Slegelius do follow, conceive that it is extended longways, that its walls being contracted, it may expel the Blood. But then the Orifices of the Vessels being drawn downwards in the lengthening of the Heart, would be shut, and a contrary motion would happen; besides that living Anatomies do show, that the heart becomes shorter in its Systole. Nor can it appear longer but shorter, if either the point draws to the Basis or the Basis to the point. Both forms serve for expulsion of the blood, for whether you press a bladder full of water longwaies or broadwaies, you will squeeze out the water as soon one way as another.  
2. The inner walls are on each side, drawn up to themselves towards the Ribs, because they are contracted and straitened, as we find by putting our Finger in: But the outer parts being swelled, seem to be made broader, by reason of the contraction of all the parts, blown up in the distension. It differs therefore from Galens Systole, which Leichnerus will have to be drawn likewise into itself, the Longitude of the Heart being changed into Latitude. For indeed and in truth the Diastole is, when the heart is made wider, either longways or broadways, to the intent that it may be filled, unless the inner parts be straitened.  
3. The foreside of the heart is lift up towards the Breastbone, especially obout the Basis. For the Broad end or Basis of the heart, smites the Breast where the Pulse is felt, because that part is raised, and nearest the Breastbone; in the Systole the Heart is, vigorated and mettlesome, not in the Diastole, and then the Arteries are dilated and filled, whereas the heart is emptied in the Systole, and at the same time the Pulse is felt, in the Wrist and the Breast, at one and the same time. But the Pulse is most of all discerned, in the left side of the Breast, because there is the Orisice of the Arteria Aorta.  
4. The whole heart becomes every where tied and hard.  
5. It is more contracted and straiter than within, and less in bulk, which we judge by our sight and feeling.  
6. It appears white, especially in the more imperfect sort of Animals, by reason of the avoidance of blood in its Systole.   
In the Perisystole, when the heart is loose and soft, before the Diastole follows, and the heart is in its properstate.  

1. The point withdraws itself from the Basis, and the Basis from the point in some persons.  
2. The lateral parts internal and external do extend themselves towards the Ribs.  
3. The foreside falls in, the hinder part is depressed, especially above at the Orifice of the Aorta, according to the accurate Observation of Walaeus.   
The other Perisystole which goes before the Systole, is hardly by any notes discernible from the Diastole▪  
In the Diastole, which Backius tells us 
The shape of the Heart in the Diastole.  begins in the middle way to Dilatation, and ends in the middle way to contraction,  

1. The upper side is lifted up and swollen by blood flowing in on either hand by the Venal Vessels, the swelling proceeding by little & little to the point. But it doth not then smite the Breast, as Laurentius and Rosellus would have it, because the Arteries undergo the Systole, and the heart ceases from expulsion, for which cause it is not Vigorated.  
2. It is more flagging and softer, because it suffers in its reception of blood.  
3. The fides remain more lank and extended, and the Cavities remain wider, and therefore when a man puts his Finger into a living heart, he feels no constriction.  
4. It is red, because of the thinness of the walls, and the Blood received in, which is Transparent.  
5. The Cone departing from the Basis in the Perisystole, renders the heart more long. that it may be more capacious to receive the blood. That it is drawn back towards the Cone, as many write, our Eyesight will not allow us to believe, nor can it or ought it so to be. It cannot because the Fibres are relaxed and not bend; nor ought it, because it must be enlarged to receive, which you may in vain expect, the Ventricles being straitened and reveled. Nor do I assent to Des Cartes and Regius men of most subtle wits, that in the Diastole the point draws near to the Basis, in the Systole it departs therefrom; for they confound the Perisystole or quiet posture of the heart, in which the heart is soft, loose and void of blood, before the Diastole is performed, after the Systole is ended. Moreover, Walaeus believes, that those men were deceived, who in a wounded living heart, pretend to have seen blood expelled in the Diastole; because they took that to be the Dilatation, which was indeed and in truth the contraction. The blood which goes out of the wound, goes out in the Diastole, not driven by the Pulse, but because the way lies open downwards, it gently slides out, drop by drop.   
The Efficient Cause of the motion 
The next Efficient Cause of the motion of the Heart.  of the heart, is either immediate or remote. The Immediate is twofold, the Blood and the Pulsifick faculty. Pulsifick or Pulsative faculty.  
The Blood either remains in the same quantity as it flowed in, or it is changed in quantity by boiling, working and rarifying.  
1. Pure blood and sincere, flowing in through the Vena Cava and Arteria Venosa, and remaining such, only becoming more perfect and vital, raises the heart into a Tumour like water in a Bladder or Skin-bottle, which being for the greatest part distended, because the plenty of blood is burdensome, it raises its self to expel the same, by gathering together its Fibres; and this motion happens to the heart in this case, as the motions of other Members, viz, the stomach, Guts, Bladder, Womb, which are extended by the reception of Chylus, Whey, Wine, Blood, etc. which being expelled they fall again; and like the Muscles, which are stretched being swollen with Animal Spirits. By this Blood the Heart is continually moved, as a Mill-wheele is by the perpetual falling down of the Water, which ceasing the Wheel stands still. There is plenty of blood enough to distend it, no● so much furnished from the Liver, as from the 〈◊〉 and descendent branches of the Cava, running back from the remotest Veinulets or smallest branches of the Veins, and it is continually forced along, with Celerity and Vehemency, according to the Demonstrations and Doctrine of Harvey and Walaeus. I shall justify what I now say with only one experiment: If the Vessels which bring into the heart be tied and so stopped, the Heart's motion ceases, and there remains nothing but a Wavering and a Palpitation; but the Ligature being loosened, it recovers its motion.  
Aristotle makes the Cause to be Blood which is not pure, nor in so great quantity as to be able of itself to distend the Heart, but boiling and working, which boiling of the blood many have followed, though explained after a different manner. Caesar Cremoninus makes the cause to be the resistency of the Heart, and the swelling thereof by reason of the Ebullition, which afterward falls, by reason of the inbred heavyness of the heart, as parts puffed up with wind, do of their own accord settle when the wind is out, and the heaving of the Earth caused by repletion and blowing up of wind, settles again, by the peculiar heavyness of the Earth. Caspar Hoffman flies to the inaequality of the boiling blood, which is like boiling water, part whereof ascends and part descends.  
Others do interpret the matter with greater subtlety saying that the blood is changed into an Airy spirit. Primrose says, that blood just as Milk, Honey, and very many things besides, doth exceeding swell and rise, so as to become nothing but a kind of Spirit or light Air. Leichnerus saith that of one grain of good blood a great quantity of Cordial Balsam is made: even as by one grain of Odoriferous Gum cast upon a Coal, an whole Chamber is filled with a delicious smell.  
But many difficulties stand in the way of this Opinion.  

1. No boiling is of itself equal, but the Pulse is sometimes equal.  
2. The Pulse should be greater according as the Boiling is greater. But the boiling of the blood is greatest in burning Fevers, by reason of the extremity of bubbling heat and the various nature of the Blood, yet is the Pulse in such cases very small, and in Putrid Fevers it is evermore little in the beginning according to Galen.  
3. In live Anatomies, if you wound the heart or the Arteries near the heart, pure blood leaps out abundantly, not frothy, nor boiling, nor heaving, and it continues as it came forth. Nor can it in a moment of time, either boil in the Heart or Leave boiling, if it did boil. Yea and if in two Vessels you shall receive the veiny blood out of the Cava near the heart and the Arterial blood out of the Aorta near its original, you shall find no difference: neither at the first, nor afterwards. This Harvey, Walaeus, and as many as have made trial can witness with me.  
4. It cannot all be turned into pure spirit by the heart, nor ought it so to be. Not the former, because there is not so much heat in a sound heart, nor can the blood taken out of the Arteries set over a great fire be all extenuated, as Conringius hath observed. Not the latter, because the parts for whose nourishment it is ordained, are not merely spiritual.  
5. Plunging into cold water would assuage the boiling. But the Arm being hard bound till it swell and grow red again, and then thrust into most cold Water or Snow, when you unbind the same you shall perceive how much the Blood returning to the Heart doth cool the same, as Harvey hath taught us.   
The most subtle Renatus des Crates and Cornelius Hogelandius, and Henricus Regius who tread in his footsteps, with equal commendation, do after another manner demonstrate the motion of the Heart to proceed from a Drop or two of blood rarified: when the Ventricles of the Heart are not distended with blood, of necessity two large drops do fall thereinto, one out of the Cava into the right Ventricle, another out of the venosa Arteria into the left, because those two Vessels are always full, and their Mouths towards the Heart are open, which drops because of their aptness to be dilated, and the heat of the Heart, and the remainders of blood therein burning, presently they are set on fire and dilated by rarefaction, by which the Valves through which the drops entered are shut and the Heart is distended. But because of the straitness of the Ventricles, the blood rarifying more and more cannot there abide, therefore at the same moment of time, it opens in the right Ventricle the three Valves of the Vena Arteriosa which look from without inwards, and being agitated by heat, it breaks out through the said Vena Arteriosa, and by distending the same and all its branches and driving on the blood, makes them beat the Pulse: but in the left ventricle it opens the three valves of Arteria magna looking from without inwards, and through them breaks into the great Artery, which it widens, and drives the next blood warmed and ex●…led by the former pulsations, into the rest of the Arteries of the whole body, that they might be thereby distended. And so they conceive the Diastole is caused. And they say the reason of the Systole is, because the blood being expelled out of the ventricles of the Heart, the Heart is in part evacuated, and the blood itself in the Arteries cooled, wherefore of necessity the heart and Arteries must flag and sink, whereupon way is again made for two drops more to enter, that so the Diastole may be repeated.  
I dare not deny a light Rarefaction from a gentle heat, such as we observe in the opening of a Vein, and I grant that it may be sometimes praeternaturally augmented; but that a few drops should be rarified into so great a bulk, as to cause the motion of the Heart, and that they should be cooled in the Arteries, many Arguments, besides those before those opposed to the Ebullition of the blood, do dissuade.  

1. Living Dissections, in which neither when the Heart, nor when the Arteries are wounded, does the blood come out drop by drop or rarified, but pure, such as the Ear had forced out.  
2. The Heart being cut in pieces or pricked, is seen to pulse, without any rarefaction of blood, which is but imaginary.  
3. In strong Dogs the point of the Heart being cut off, Walaeus observed, that when by reason of the Efflux of Blood, it was not half full, it was nevertheless erected, but not filled by rarefaction: but when it was contracted, that portion of blood which remained in the Heart, was cast out to the distance of more than four Feet. It is in vain to call in the outward Coldness of the Air as an assistant cause: for the blood in the Heart doth not grow cold in a moment, the heat thereof being yet Vigorous, as a boiling pot taken from the fire and uncovered doth not immediately cease to boil but after some time.  
4. Jacobus Back doth elegantly devince the same from the structure of the heart and its Vessels. For the Musculous flesh of the heart being firm and strong, is unapt to rise and fall by the bare Rarefaction of the blood. A more vehement action is requisite to move this vast bulk. Also the Arteries of the heart should have had a greater Orifice, and the rarefied blood being to go forth would require a larger space, than then was necessary for its entrance.  
5. A Confusion would arise in the motions of the Heart and valves, as he observes. The Diastole of both of them would be performed in the same time, and so the valves should be useless, both which is repugnant to experience. Moreover the valves must, be both shut and open, in the Systole of the Artery.  
6. That it should be cooled in the Arteries, neither reason or ocular inspection will permit. It is drawn hot out of the Arteries, differing little or nothing from that which is contained either in the Heart, or near it. In the small Arteries there is indeed no Pulse felt, but that is to be imputed to the smallness of the vessels and their distance from the Heart which forces the blood. Nor ought it because it enters into the Capillary Vessels, that it may nourish the parts with hot Blood, not with such as is cooled and thickened, before it is changed into the secondary humours. And what use is there of rarefaction, if it presently settle again.   
The Experiments and Reasons which learned men bring to the contrary, from an Eel and an hunting dog, from the contraction of the members by Cold from palpitations, from spirit of wine resembling the Pulse, from vehement protrusion etc. are easily answered if you consider  

1 That a certain motion is restored even in Hearts that are dead, by exciteing their heat as in Muscles.  
2 The Fault is in the Vessels contracted by Colds not in the Blood. when they fall in and flag.  
3 Palpitations arise from plenty of blood, as examples testify, suppression of the Courses, and the cure by blood-letting.  
4 In the Heart there is an even motion, different from that which raised by spirit of wine or any thing else.  
5. The protrusion by pure blood is more vehement, if the faculty concur, and the Fibres of the Heart be united.  
6. The Heart is in its Perisystole or very near it, when in the point cut off, no dilatation is observed, if it continue still in the Systole, the dilatation is not felt, till the Diastole follow.   
The pulsifick Faculty implanted in the Heart, must needs be joined with 
Whether there be a pulsifick Faculty.  the blood as the cause of its motion, either that it may guide the influx and egress of blood, and assist the same, which would otherwise proceed disorderly, as I explain the matter; or that it might of itself produce the motion, according to the Opinion of the Ancients, which cannot be conserved, if the perpetual flux of the blood should be stopped. That the Heart stands in need of such a faculty I prove  

1. Because the Pulse would be always unequal, the influx being unequal, unless directed by some Faculty.  
2. When the Heart in Fevers is more vehemently moved then ordinary, through the urgency of heat, and in dying persons Nature being at the last pinch, and using all her might, yet is the motion of the heart weak, as appears by the Pulse, because the inbred Faculty is either lost or weakened. chose, though the said Faculty be strong, and the influx of the blood cease or be hindered, after large bleedings, or by reason of Obstruction of the Vessels, either in the whole Habit of the Body, or the passages thereof, or near the Heart, the Motion of the Heart fails. And therefore both are to be joined together as primary Causes.  
3. Any Particles of the Heart being cut off, do pulse by reason of the relics of this Faculty or Spirit remaining.  
4. The Heart being taken out of the Body, or cut in pieces, lightly pricked with a pin, does presently pulse, as Walaeus hath observed.  
5. It were contrary to the Majesty of the principal Part, to be moved by another whether it will or no, without any assistance from itself, and so to receive a violent Impression.   
Regius hath substituted the influx of Animal Spirits into the fibres of the Heart instead of Animal Spirits, and Hogeland the little petite Atoms of the blood moved in the Parenchyma. But we must know in the first place 1. That the motion of the Heart is Natural which lasts perpetually, yea against our wills, and when we are asleep, and not Animal. 2. That we exclude not the Spirits, which are the Souls Servants and Instruments. 3. The small Boddikies or indivisible Particles of the Blood, have all dropped out in dis●ected Hearts, because the Vena coronaria was cut asunder. And that if any relics of the said Bodikies did remain, they could not be excited to motion, either by pricking alone, or by raising heat, unless a Spirit or Faculty be allowed, which being extinguished, though the pieces of the Heart be laid in never so hot a place, they will never pant.  
Among the Remote Causes there is  
1 The vital Spirit, as well that 
Remote Causes of the motion of the Heart.  which is implanted in the Heart, as that which comes thither from without, with beat sufficiently manifest in live dissections, and which warms the whole Body. And that either not shineing with light, as most will have it, or▪ shineing. That a lightfull heat of the Heart is requisite in this case, many things argue. 1 The motion of the Elements is simple, never circular, and light moves itself and the humours with a circular motion. 2 The Heart and the Blood are more quickly moved by light then otherwise they could be, which in the twinkleing of an eye, dazzles all things, illuminates all things. 3. There is in all particular parts besides the obscure principles of the Elements, also a lightfull part propagated from the seed, which ought to be preserved by a like flame, kindled from the Heart 4 In Hypocrates to dream of pure and brightly shining stars, signifies Health of Body. 5 No Homor although hot, does pant and move itself, unless a burning flame, as we see in spirit of wine, a Candle, and other things. 6 In Glow-worms their hinder-part only pants and shines, where their Heart is, of whose light I have discoursed in my Second Book of the light of Animals Chap 11 and 12. That the vital spirit is really endued with light, and that there is an inbred light in the Blood and Heart, which helps forward the circular motion of the blood, I have demonstrated in my said Treatise Lib. 7. Cap. 5. 23. H●●mont consents that the animated spirit, in the left Ventricle of the Heart, enlightened by the former light, is the Mover of the Heart. After Caimus and other ancient Authors, Ent asserts the same thing touching the flame, raised out of the Seed in the first bladder of the Heart raised by the heat of the Hen which hatcheth, and first of all shineing forth, when the Lungs perform their office. yet he errs, that in the external widening he begs, in the Construction more inwardly he tends to the beginning: for in the Systole all that illuminats is expelled, and then it is vigorated in a narrow heart, which is evident in optic tubes and hollow glasses. I add that in the Diastole of the left Ventricle, it sets on fire and kindles by the Systole from the Lungs, the vital flame.  
2. The Shape and Conformation of the Heart and Vessels being exceeding well fitted to receive and expel the blood. Especially the fibres of the Heart, and the fleshy columns. These make not so much for the Strength of the Heart alone, as for the motion. For all the fibres being contracted greater and lesser, in the walls and septum, which according to Harvey are circular, as in an artificial Net, or Purse squeezed, the contents are expelled. They are stretched in the Systole, and remitted in the Diastole. By help of the smaller fibres, wherewith the flesh is interwoven, a languishing constriction is made, but to a stronger, those greater fleshy ones concur contained in the Ventricles, which Walaeus often observed in live Bodies dissected.  
3 The Pulse of the Heart, the Blood and the extreme parts, the pulse is from the Heart, which ceasing, the motion also ceases. Now it begins from the vena cava, and is continued from the Auricula dextra, by and by from the right ventricle into the Vena arteriosa, or if the point be cut off, externally from the Arteria venosa into the left Earelet, thence into the left Venricle, out of which the Pulse is felt by a manifest constriction to go into the Aorta, in the Anatomy of living Creatures.  
They drive, because 1 The Blood is offensive by its Quantity. 2 They are moved being irritated by any external force. 3 Blood is continually suppeditated. For Blood thrusts and drives on Blood, so that even after the Heart has been taken out of Bodies, Walaeus has seen a quick motion of the blood in the veins. Which nevertheless did not happen by any proper power, which the Blood has to move itself, but partly by the driveing of the external parts, which remit or send back that which remains after nutrition as bur●…ensome and superfluous, partly by a spontaneous contraction of the Vessels filled with Blood, whose Arteries in living Bodies being bound towards the Heart, do swell; towards the extreme parts they are empty: But the Veins too near the smallest branches and the parts from which they bring back the Blood are puffed up, but are flat where they look towards the Heart, to which they drive the Blood; in a word, partly by the contraction of the muscles and their driving, in the fleshy and outward parts, as Harvey observes.  
4 The Attraction of the Heart and Parts, lest they be destitute of aliment profitable and sufficient for them, which we observe according to Nature in those parts that are nourished; but besides nature in wounds, Ulcers, Tumours, etc. And this may easily be done, because the blood dispersed in all places, is immediately fastened to the Heart and Parts which draw it, the Pulse of the cava and Arteries assisting the same.   

Chap. VII. Of the parts of the Heart in special, viz. the Earlets, Cavities, Septum, Vessels, and Valves.  
THe parts of the Heart which are specially to be considered are either externally seen as the Earlets; or within only, as the Ventricles or two Cavities, the Septum or partition, and the Vessels with the Valves.  
The Earlets or little Ears, were so termed, not from hearing, but because 
The Earlets of the Heart why so called?  of some resemblance in their shape. For from a long Basis they end in a blunt point (howbeit the left is more accumulated) of an obtuse triangle; and they have a Cavity, that the Ventricles might be produced before the Heart. For that same pulsing Bladder in an Eglantine, is the Earlets, 
What pulses first in an Eg.  because they were necessary in the Child in the Womb, though the Heart were not so soon necessary, which afterwards grows upon the Bladder. Others give another reason, because the Earlets observe the same proportion in their pulsing as the Bladder had. But this is very hard to distinguish in the first Generation. Others take the Bladder for the Heart, whose Expansions or Earlets appear red, because they are transparent, but the Heart is not seen by reason of the plenty of Seed, and Pulse intermitted. I suspect that both may lie hid under the Vesicula or bladderkie, but that the Earlets are presently drawn and moved, because of their use. Otherwise it would seem inconvenient that the Appendix should be greater than the whole Body. Nor is the Heart a bare Parenchyma or affusion of blood. It hath Cavities produced doubtless out of the foresaid Bladderkie.  
Now the EARLETS are Processes or Appendices; and according to Hoffman, nothing but the Substance of the Heart attenuated and widened. Which I know not how true it is. I should rather say they seem to be the substance of the neighbouring Vessels dilated, although they are made first of Seed out of the bladder, and are the first motion, and the last in dying.  
They are situate at the Basis of the Heart, before the Orifices of the vessels 
Their Situation.  venal to which they cleave, and whereby they are mediately joined to the heart. They are on each ●ide one  
For two they are in Number, answerable 
Number.  to the number of the Hearts Ventricles, the right Earlet being greater, and the left smaller. And both are large in an Embryo or Child in the Womb: the former is joined to the Vena cava, with which it seems to be one common body; the latter to the Vena arteriosa.  
The Substance of the Earlets is peculiar, 
Substance.  such as there is none in any other part; by reason of their singular use. Howbeit they are thin and soft, for their more easy contraction and nervous for strengths sake. But the left is more hard, a little more fleshy and thicker: yet the Heart is not so. Howbeit they answer in a certain proportion to the Ventricles of the Heart.  
Their external Surface, when they 
Their Surface.  are extended and full, is even and bossie or bunching (but their circumference unequal) when they are contracted, it is wrinkled; and in the left it is more wrinkled then in the right, because the inner fabric is more turning and winding, and hath more pits in it, for  
The Earlets being inwardly dissected and spread open, do discover unto us 1. a certain flesh-membranous plain, stretched out to the extremities of the treble pointed Valves, to which the fibres of the Valves are fastened. 2. About the whole circumference fleshy Columns grow out, first the great crooked ones, out of which Spring many lesser ones, with a wonderful and neat contexture, sometimes single, sometimes wreathed, and enfolded either with the great ones, or with one another. 
See Tab. IU. of Book II.  3. Between these Columns deep Pits are seen, more in the left, fewer in the right. In the middle partition of each Earlet. Folius hath found out many little Holes, which I have also seen, through which he conceives the blood is carried into the left Ventricle, when there is need of less matter. But seeing they are rarely to be seen, nor do they penetrate into the Ventricles, yea they are less, I am more apt to think they are Pores common to many, serving for motion, or the nutrition of the Part.  
Botallus hath found a Passage sufficiently visible near the right Earlet, which goes presently right out, into the left Ventricle. This Walaeus explains to be meant of the oval hole, or that passage by him observed, which goes obliquely out of one Earlet into the other. Such an one I have often seen in Oxen and Goats, but it is the coronal Vein, nor does it pierce into the left Earlet, but descends into the Parenchyma of the heart.  
The V. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
FIG. I. Shows the Heart cut in sunder athwart. 

A. The Basis of the Heart.  
B. The Point of the Heart.  
C. The right Earlet.  
D. The left Earlet.  
EE. The Shape of the left Ventricle like an half Moon.  
FF. The Cavity of the left Ventricle.  
GG. The partition between the Ventricles.    
FIG. II. Shows the Vena cava with the right Ventricle dissected. 

A. The Orifice of the Coronary Vein.  
B. The Appearance of an Anastomosis, between the Vena cava & Vena pulmonalis.  
CCC. The trebble-pointed Valves with the Fiberkies wherewith they are fastened.  
D. The Ventricle cut longways.    
FIG. III. 

A. The right Ventricle of the Heart opened.  
BBB. The Sigma-fashioned Valves, visible in the Vena arteriosa.    
FIG. FOUR 

AA. The Arteria venosa dissected.  
B. The Print of an Anastomosis between the Arteria venosa and Vena cava.  
CC. The two Mitre-shaped Valves.  
D. The left Ventricle opened.    
FIG. V. 

A. The great Artery cut asunder near the Heart.  
BBB. The Semilunary Valves, in the Orifice of the great Artery.    
page 108  
Their Motion is manifest to the sense in live Anatomies, by reason of the 
Their Motion.  blood rushing in, and filling them, wherewith they swell in living bodies, and by their contracting themselves, by means of their fleshy fibres contracted into themselves, endeavouring to force the blood out into the Ventricles.  
There are three parts of their motion; Systole, Diastole, and the rest or pause which comes between them, which cannot be discerned, save in persons ready to die, for they are performed so swiftly in sound persons, that they seem to be confounded, and to be performed all at once, as in the discharge of a Gun, all seems to be performed in the twinkling of the eye, and in swallowing, as Harvey informs us.  
The Diastole is caused by the blood received from the Vena Cava and Arteria Venosa. The Systole is performed, when the Earlets being filled, do by contracting themselves, expel the Blood into the Ventricles.  
The Diastole and Systole of both the Earlets, do happen at one and the same time. When the right Earlet undergoes its Diastole, at the same time the left Ear undergoes the same; when the latter is contracted in the Systole, the former also expels. But the Diastole of the Heart and Earlets, happens at different times, as also both their Systoles. The Systole of the Earlets happens at the same time with the Diastole of the Ventricles, and contrarily, and the constriction of the Earlets doth always forego the Diastole of the Ventricles, both in healthy persons and in such as are at the point of death. But the motion of the former is more lasting than the motion of the latter, When the left ventricle ceases, the left Earlet still continues pulsing, which being extinct, the remaining motion is in the right ventricle, and that ceasing, the right Earlet proceeds panting, being the last that dies, save that when it ceases, a certain trembling motion doth as yet continue in the blood which flows in, by reason of the driving of the extreme parts.  
Their use, is  

I. To be Storehouses to the Heart; for they first received the 
Their use.  Blood and Air, that they may not suddenly rush into the heart, whence the heart might be hurt, and the Animal faculty suffocated. And hence it is that they are placed only at the vessels which pour into the heart, and not at the Arteries which void the blood forth.  
II. To safeguard the vessels to which they are joined.  
III. To be instead of a cooling Fan to the Heart, according to Hypocrates.  
IV. According to Walaeus, to be in place of a measure, by which the vena Cava and Arteriosa do measure the blood into the heart, for seeing all the blood was not to go out, at every pulse, but the greatest part was to stay behind to be further perfected, nature joined the Earlets to the heart, as vessels which should give in so much blood to the Heart, as was naturally to be cast forth at every pulsation. For which cause he thinks it is, that the right Earlet is greater than the left, because the right Ventricle is more Capacious than the left, and like-more is voided therefrom then from the left, viz. sooty Exhalations and the Nutriment of the Lungs.   
The CAVITIES of the Heart or its Ventricles, Chambers, or Caves etc. 
The Ventricles of the Heart. Aristotle's Error.  are not three, as Aristotle falsely ascribes to greater Beasts, for three are not found, no not in a Whale, but only two, as Walaeus and Silvius have observed in the dissection of a young Whale. Nor did Galen at Rome find more in an Elephant. And by a very rare chance three were observed by Aemilius Parisanus at Venice in the Heart of a certain Coverlid-maker. And Veslingius twice observed the like. Also Walaeus saw a third Ventricle in the Heart of an Ox. Caesalpinus observed three in Birds and Fishes, and the right Ventricle doth easily appear to be divided into two near the point, by a certain thin Partition, yet in truth both come into one. Licetus understands that same third Ventricle of Aristole, to be the Prominency of the right Ventricle, turned in beyond the left, so that the left Ventricle commonly so called is Aristotle's middle Ventricle. Conringius doth otherwise excuse Aristotle, viz. that the right Ventricle in his account is whence the Cava arises, the middle whence the Aorta springs and the left, whence the Arteria Venosa or left Earlet arises, which being the least of all, is in small Live-Creatures hardly visible. But so there should be four Ventricles, the Vena Arteriosa being added, as at first sight may seem, not three only. There are therefore only two Cavities found in the Heart of a Livewight, the right and the left, having their inner surface uneven and rough, especially the left. The Heart of a certain Polander cut up by Riolanus, was perfectly solid, having no Ventricles at all.  
Many Pits are form in them by the fleshy Fibres, in the right more, but narrower, in the left fewer, but deeper, that they might contain the blood received in, hence in the Constriction of a Living Heart they are lesser, in the Dilatation wider. The Pits are constituted and fenced by  
Those fleshy Particles termed La●ertuli Musclekies, sometimes round, sometimes 
Fleshy Pillars in the Ventricles of the Heart.  thin, being five or more in the right, two only visible in the left, but very thick ends. Veslingus observes that the larger have Pores which pass through them. The use of them, is according to some, to be Ligaments of the Heart. Massa counts them little Muscles. Vesalius and Riolanus call them Columnae carneae, fleshy Pillars, which being contracted, do further the Diastole of the Heart. Parisanus says by help of them the Heart contracts itself, Walaeus also hath observed in live Dissections, that they assist the Contraction or Systole of the Heart, especially when it is strong and vehement, at what time their swelling begins at their Basis, and goes on by little and little unto the point. Harvey says they draw the Cone or Point of the Heart to the Basis or broad end thereof, by their obliqne fibres. And he is apt to think that heat is carried through all of them. A. Benedictus and Ent, that they hinder the blood from going into Clotters, while it is shaken and agitated by them. Ba●●●us, that they are instead of Ropes and Bands, to hinder least in the Contractions of the Heart, the Valves being forced beyond their pitch and overshot, should be unable to retain the Blood. Slegelius will have it that they are contracted, that they may shut the Orifices of the Vessels of the Cava and Vena Arteriosa by their Fibrekies. All these Opinions are true and must be joined together, as will manifestly appear to him that shall accurately consider the times of the motions of the Heart.  
Many things are preternaturally 
Things preternatural found in the Heart.  found in the ventricles of the Heart. Bauhin hath sound bits of far, and our most expert Countryman Wormius hath took out of both the ventricles certain Caruncles or small particles of Flesh, whiteish within, but of a shining red colour without; which I also have long since found, at Milan and at Hasnia in my Dissections, both of Men and Beasts, Erastus hath found a Phlegmatic concretion, like yellow marrow, which is found, in the boiled bones of Oxen. Vesalius two pounds of Glandulous and blackish flesh, Benivenius a Gobbit of flesh like a Medlar.  
Salvius hath observed Worms, as also I. D. Horstius at Confluentia; May a twibladed Snake like a Whip at London, and M, A. Severinus much such another at Naples. Hollerius found stones (with an Impostume) in a woman troubled with the stone; and Wierus stones as big as Pease.  
Bones are more rarely found in the Hearts of Men. Yet Gemma did once 
A Bone in the Heart.  find some, and Riolanus twice, in the dead body of precedent Nicolas being eighty years of Age, at the beginning of the Aorta, and in the Queen Mother of Lewis the thirteen King of France, being after her decease opened to be Imbalmed. Johannes Trullus sound one in the Heart of Pope Urban the eighth of a triangular Figure representing the letter T. Simon Pauli my Renowned Praedecessor in the Anatomical Theatre, took a bone as hard as a stone of a Figure of the Pythagoraean letter Y, out of the Heart of a Man of Hasnia forty years of Age, the bigness of a Walnut, and the shape not unlike the Heart. I conceive they are all bred through the dryness and slow motion of the Humours in aged and sick Persons. Yet nature makes use of this defect to provoke and quicken the motion of the blood, when it passes slowly, as waters flow more easily when a piece of wood is cast in, or that all the blood may not clotter, as our Women and Butchers stir their blood about with a stick, when they intent thereof to make Puddings, that it may not go into Clotters.  
The right Ventricle receives blood out of the Vena cava, which Vein it receives into 
The right Ventricle.  itself: And therefore it hath not so thick a flesh or wall, as the left hath, that their might be an even poise, seeing it contains more matter, and bears a greater weight than the left. Nor is there so perfect a Concoction made in this Ventricle, as in the left in which there is more heat.  
It is not exactly round but semicircular, resembling the Moon increasing, nor does it reach to the End of the Point, but it seems to be as it were an Appendix to the left Ventricle, which when the left is taken away, seems still as it were to represent an whole Heart.  
Yet is it deeper and larger than the left, by reason of the store of blood, which it was to contain, both to nourish the Lungs, and to make vital Spirits in the left Ventricle. For  
Its Use is  

1. To receive blood out of the vena cava, to nourish the Lungs, the said blood being poured into the Lungs through the Vena arteriosa. Therefore Fishes which have no Lungs, and draw no Air in at their Mouths, are without this Ventricle, having no more than one. This right Ventricle therefore, does concoct and attenuate the Blood, for the Nourishment of the Lungs.  
II. To send the thinner part of the Blood through the Septum or partition, into the left Ventricle, to make vital Spirits; and the thicker part through the Lungs, both to nourish them, and that it may return to the left ventricle, for the Nutriment of the whole Body.  
III. Further to perfect and prepare the blood which runs back as superfluous after the extreme parts are nourished, and the crude blood which is bred in the Liver.   
The left Ventricle is narrower, but more noble; having a round Cavity, 
The left Ventricle.  and which reaches unto the point of the Heart. It's flesh or wall is three times as thick as that of the right ventricle. Also it is harder, that the vital Spirits may not exhale, and that the motion of the blood might be stronger, being to be forced into the farthest parts of the body.  
It's Use is to make vital Spirit and Arterial blood, of a twofold matter, I. Of blood prepared in the right ventricle, and passed through the Septum and the Lungs. II. Of Air drawn in by the Mouth and Nostrils, prepared in the Lungs, and transmitted through the Arteria venosa with the blood into the left ventricle of the Heart, to kindle and ventilate the vital flame, yea and to nourish the same. The latter fishes stand in need of and Leucophlegmatick persons, the former such as are seated in a narrow or infected place, or are under extreme heat, for fear of suffocation and extinction of the flame in the Heart.  
The Use therefore of both ventricles is in a manner the same, viz. to generate Arterial blood, and to perfect the venal, and to receive the same running back from all parts of the body through the veins, and to expel the perfect blood through the Arteries into the farthest parts of the body, that they may be thereby nourished. This is proved by the Conformations of the ventricles, which in part are like one to the other, in the right two vessels, a Vein and an Artery carrying out, and bringing back and as many in the left. In the former are two sorts of Valves the treble pointed, and Mitre-shaped, and the like in the latter. The left expels and receives as much as the right, save that it is consumed in nourishing the Lungs and the Heart. Yet their different Constitution and Magnitude, argues some difference. Whence 1. There is a different Coction in the one and other, as hath been demonstrated above. 2. The right works for the Lungs the left for the whole Body. 3. The right sends sooty Exhalations and blood to the Lungs; the left receives from the Lungs Blood Impregnated with Aire.  
There is a Septum or Partition between the two Ventricles, which is thick like the other Wall of the left ventricle (which Columbus once observed to be Gristley) hollow on the left side, on the right bunching, full of hollownesses and holes. which some suppose to be the third ventricle of Aristotle; which hollownesses or Caves are more large towards the right side, but their utmost ends towards the left side are hardly discernible. Helmont describes them to be triangular, whose Cone ending in the left ventricle, is easily stopped, but the Basis of the said triangle in the right ventricle, is never stopped save in Death. But I have seen them Circular so that they could easily admit a Pease, but▪ obtuse towards the left Hand.  
That they are open is the opinion 
Manifest Pores in the Septum of the Heart.  of the Ancients and of many Anatomists which follow them. Gassendus▪ saw Payanus at Ajax show the Septum of the Heart to have thoroughfares, by reason of sundry windings and crooked Con●-holes as it were, and that by lightly putting in his Probe, without any violence, which he wreathed gently and turned it upwards and downwards and to the sides. And although by a Probe breaking the tender flesh of the Septum, we may easily make a way, yet we may not doubt of the Eyewitness of Gassendus nor of the Dexterity of Payanus; seeing I also of late found the partion of a Sow's Heart, in many places obliquely perforated with manifest great Pores, which were open of themselves without the use of a Probe, so as to admit a large Pease; but when I put in my Probe, it brought me to the left ventricle, where a thin Membrane as it were an Anastomosis was placed, hindering any regress. Riolanus also hath seen it bored through towards the point, where it is most thin. Walaeus in the Partition of an Ox's Heart, did sometimes find a Cavity in the upper part according to the length of the Heart, open into the left ventricle about the point of the Heart, the length and breadth of a Man's Forefinger, which he conceives to be the third Ventricle mentioned by Aristotle.  
Yet are they not always open in dead bodies, because in living bodies they are kept open, by the continual agitation of the Heart, which ceasing, they are not so visible to the Eyesight, even as we see no manifest passages, when the sweat breaks out plentifully through the Skin, nor when the seed breaks out of the Kernels and Spermatick vessels, into the Urinary passage: nor the Pores by which the Empyema or out of the blood out of the vena Arteriosa peirces into the Arteria venosa, through the substance of the Lungs, or the blood in the Liver, out of the branches of Porta into the Cava. Caelsus is in the right, where he says, that nothing is more foolish, then to think that look what and how it is in a living Man, so it must needs be in one that is dying, Yea that is dead. Whence many (as Columbus, Spigelius, Hoffman, Harvey, etc.) have denied that any thing passes through this Septum or Partition. But it is no wonder that they make a doubt of it: For,  
I. They are so crooked and winding, that a Probe cannot easily pass through them. Howbeit these Pores become more conspicuous, in the Heart of an Ox long boiled, as Bauhinus, Riolanus, myself with others can witness. And you are to observe, in opposition to Hoffman and Plempius that deny it. that in the boiling a moderation must be used, and that the Fibres in living Bodies do never stick so close together, but that they leave Pores, as the Nerves do show, finally, that the quickest-sighted Anatomists can see no Membrane in the boiled Hearts of Oxen. II. In dead Bodies all passages fall in and shrink together. III. That an extreme straitness was requisite in the End; because the thinnest part of the Blood, is strained as it were in that part: And in the mean time, because these holes are not in vain, therefore,  
The Use of the Septum or Partition of the Heart, is, that the thinner 
Whether the Blood pass through the partition of the Heart?  blood may pass therethrough into the lef ventricle, for the Generation of vital blood and spirit, which is afterwards distributed through the Arteries into the whole Body, for to preserve and stir up the life and natural heat. But the thicker and greater part of the blood, by a natural and ordinary way, and not a violent only, is communicated to the Arteria venosa, through the vena Arteriosa, by mediation of the Lungs, that in the left ventricle it may be mingled with that which sweats through the Septum. The thicker part is ordained to nourish the Lungs, and that it may return back to the left ventricle 'tis tempered with Air. The thinner part passing through the Septum, nourishes the same in its passage, because the external Coronary vessels do only creep through, and in that long and dangerous journey through the Lungs, it would vanish away and come to nothing. By this way only such as dive deep into the Sea, and those that are hanged for a small while, do live a while and come to themselves, after the motion of their Lungs is ceased.  
The Motion of the Septum or Partition doth help forward this passage, which that it is moved according to the motion of the Ventricles, I have these signs and tokens; Because 1. It is furnished with Circular Fibres, as well as the Walls, in a boiled Heart, such in a manner as are in the Sphincter Muscle, as Harvey testifies, which seeing them move the Ventricles, they must as well move the Septum. 2. A certain Palpitation is felt, if you put in your Finger into a living Heart, according to the observation of Walaeus. 3. In Creatures ready to die, when the motion of the left ventricle ceases, the Septum follows the motion of the right Ventricle, as the same Harvey observes: and if the right Ventricle be wounded, Riolanus tells us, that the motion remains in the Septum in his Observations. Yet the same Riolanus in another place being wiser, denies that it is movable, unless towards the Basis where it is soft gives way a little, and that so it ought to be that the passage may be maintained, because when the Ventricles are dilated above the through-fared Septum, and straitened again like Bellows, the little holes would be shut up. But there is no fear. For in the Systole, when the point is drawn back to the Basis, the Pores are opened in the Septum moved upwards, that the blood may at once pass both the Septum and the Lungs. Contrariwise in the Diastole, because the Heart is distended long ways, the pores are drawn back with the Septum, and are shut up, until the Heart be filled.  
As to the Heart-vessels there are found 
Vessels of the Heart.  four remarkable ones going out of the Heart which Hypocrates calls the Fountanes of Humane Nature. Into the right Ventricle are inserted two Veins; the Vena Cava and Vena Arteriosa; into the left, as many Arteries; Arteria Venosa and Arteria Magna. Before all which are placed within eleven Valves or little doors, made of the Tunicles of their Vessels widened and stretched out. The Veins which bring in to the Heart, viz. the Cava and Arteria venosa, have trebble-pointed valves, looking from without inwards; the Arteries which carry away, viz. the Aorta and the Vena Arteriosa, have Sigma-shaped or Mitre-fashioned valves open inwards, shut outwards. The former admit blood into the Heart; being open they suffer the blood to flow out, being shut they hinder it from returning the same way. The trebble-pointed valves do not only wink, but they are close shut by the blood distending the Heart, and by the constriction of the Heart which straitens the vessels. The Sigmoides or Sigma-shaped are shut by the Relaxation and falling in of the Heart in the Diastole, whereby the Fibres being stretched out longways, they are drawn downwards with the Walls and so shut, like the Chains in Draw-bridges.  
The Trebble-pointed or Tricuspides, are opened by the impulse of new blood through the Cava, and Arteria venosa, and the Diastole of the Heart, whereby the Fibres being drawn downwards, they are opened; But the Mitre-shaped valves, are opened in the Systole by the Constriction of the Heart, and the blood urgeing its way out. Also they may be praeternaturally shut, by the blood expelled and standing seated in the full vessels, to which, endeavouring to run back, they make resistance by reason of their conformation, which Artifice of Nature, we see every where imitated by the Floodgates and Locks made upon Rivers. But that according to nature they are not shut by the returning of the expulsed blood, as some conceive Walaeus proves, Because 1. Our senses observe that the blood is carried from the Heart, not to the Heart by the Arteries. 2. In a rare and languishing Pulse, the Artery doth not rise or swell last in the upper part towards the Heart, but it swells there first. 3. If an Artery be tied two fingers from the Heart, and it be so opened betwixt the Ligature and the valves, that the blood may freely pass forth, yet the valves will divers times straight be shut, and the Heart is orderly moved.  
TABLE VI.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
This first FIGURE shows the right side of the Heart entire, and withal the Earlet cut off, and the Vessels which go out of the Heart, but especially the Anastomosis by which Folius will have the Blood to flow from the right into the left Ventricle.  
FIG. I. 

AAA. The Heart in its proper posture, over the Surface whereof, the Vena Coronaria is disseminated.  
BB. The right Earlet of the Heart, partly dissected, partly entire.  
C. A certain white and circular place between the Earlets, in which on one side, under a certain little skin like a valve, an Anastomosis is found, that is a wreathed winding hole, through which Folius will have the Blood to pass, into the left Ventricle.  
D. The vena cava dissected, as far as to the Situation of the Liver.  
E. The Vena Aorta which goes to the Throat and Arms dissected.  
F. The Arteria magna ascending.  
G. The same descending near the Backbone.  
H. An Arterial Pipe, which joins the great Artery with the Arteria venosa.  
I. The Arteria venesa yssuing out of the right Ventricle of the Heart.  
K. The Vena Arteriosa, Nurse of the Lungs, yssueing out of the left Ventricle.  
aaaa. The Vena coronaria radicated and diffused through the surface of the Heart.  
b. The beginning of this Vena coronaria, in the Earlet near the Vena cava.  
cccc. A certain portion of the Earlet dissected.  
dd. The other part remaining yet entire.  
ee. A Probe thrust into the Anastomosis.  
f. A little skin like a Valve placed at the mouth of the Anastomosis.  
gggg. The Branches of vena cava, spread up and down and rooted in the Liver.  
hhh. Ascendent branches of the Arteria Magna.    
FIG. II. This other Figure shows the left Ventricle of the Heart, as also the Earlet dissected, together with the going out of the Probe, demonstrated in the first Figure. 

AA. The Heart cut open through the whole left Ventricle.  
BBB. An exact Representation of the said Ventricle.  
C. The Egress of the Probe, through the Anastomosis, from the right into the left Earlet.  
D. A Valve placed at the mouth of the great Artery.  
EE. The left Earlet of the Heart dissected, being less than the right.  
FF. The Arteria Venosa going out of the right Ventricle of the Heart.  
GG. The Arteria Magna ascending.  
H. The said Artery descending near the Backbone.  
I. The Arterial Pipe knitting the Vena Arteriosa to the Magna Arteria.  
K. The Trunk of the great Artery, ascending to the Arms and Throat.  
aa. A certain part of Vena Coronaria dispersed through the surface of the Heart, the smallest part thereof is visible.  
bb. The Arteria Coronaria dissected.  
cccc. The left Earlet cut open as far as to the Vena Arteriosa.  
dddd. Certain Nervous particles, in the very Ventricle of the Heart, accounted Nerves by Aristotle.  
ee. The Probe thrust in through the Anastomosis.  
fff. Certain small holes, through which Folius will have the blood to pass, while the Anastomosis grows together, and there is need of less matter.  
g. A Valve on the side also set before the Anastomosis.    
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And therefore many of the Ancients and later writers are deceived, who imagined that the blood did freely pass out of the Heart, and back again thereto. And that the valves do not naturally close and open, appears by a Tumour in the Arteries between the Ligature and the Heart, and the emptying of the veins near the Heart.  
The first vessel is the VENA CAVA inserted into the right Ventricle, with a very large and 
Vena Cava.  gaping Orifice, three times greater than the Orifice of the Aorta, and therefore it seems rather to arise from the heart, then from the Liver, especially seeing it sticks so firmly to the right Ventricle, that it cannot be separated therefrom.  
Whether it hath any motion is hard to determine. Aristotle and Galen seem to have been of that opinion; but the Interpreters expound those places to mean an obscure motion. But Walaeus hath discovered a manifest motion therein, from the Jugulum as far as to the Liver, but most evident near the heart: and that therefore even in that place the Vena Cava is furnished with fleshy Fibres, whereof it is destitute in other places. Also Ent hath observed that the vena Cava of a dead Beast, being with a man's Finger lightly touched in the Belly near the Thighs of the Beast, did express a trembling motion.  
It's Use is, to bring in Blood from the Liver, and the whole body, by its ascending and descending Trunks.  
A Membranous Circle grows to the Orifice thereof, to strengthen the heart: Which is presently split into three strong Membranous.  
VALVES, termed Janitrices, Gatewarders, looking from without inwards, that the blood may indeed enter; but not return back into the Cava.  
They are termed TRICUSPIDES, trebble-pointed, by the Greeks Trichlochines, 
It's treble pointed Valves.  because they are like the Triangular heads of Darts, when they are shut, and fall close one to another.  
They grow, as also the rest of the valves do, to many shreds (in the Cava commonly each one to five remarkable Threads, intertwisted with many little ones) whereby they are joined to that fleshy particle, before explained; which some call the Ligaments of the heart, others as Aristotle perhaps, the Nerves of the heart.  
The VENA ARTERIALIS or vas Arteriosum, the Arterial veins or Arterial vessel. 
The Vena Arteriosa, why called a Vein?  Others call it Arteria Pulmonaris, the Lungs Artery, because it is in truth an Artery, both in Substance and Use.  
'twas called a Vein first by Herophilus and afterwards by most other Anatomists, before the Circulation of the blood was found out, from its Office, because it sends blood to nourish the Lungs.  
'tis termed an Artery, I. By reason of its Substance, which consists not of a 
Why called an Artery?  single Coat, as a vein doth, but of a double one. II. Because in a Child in the Womb it performs the Office of an Artery, and Pulses as shall be said in the next Chapter, As also in a grown person, because it carries Nutritive blood to the Lungs, which is partly wrought in the right ventricle.  
This vessel passes out of the heart with a smaller Orifice, and yet greater 
It's Original and Progress.  than the Lungs stand in need of: For Columbus and Arantius observe, that two Fingers have been thrust thereinto; and it ought to be the greater, because it receives blood from the continual pulsation of the right side of the heart. Moreover, resting upon the Arteria Magna and inclining to the left side, it goes to the right and left parts of the Lungs with a double branch, a right and a left: Which afterward spend themselves into sundry branches in the Lungs.  
It Use is, to receive blood out of the 
It's Use.  right Ventricle, and to carry it to the Lungs for their nourishment, and according to the observations of latter Authors, to pass over the rest of the blood through the Arteria venosa into the left Ventricle of the Heart, and to hinder the blood from sliding back again into the heart.  
Three VALVES are placed therein, 
The Sigma-fashioned Valves.  arising from the Coat of the vein itself, looking from without inwards, and resembling an half Circle, or the letter Sigma, as it was anciently figured, and did resemble the Latin letter C.  
The ARTERIA VENOSA, which others 
The Arteria venosa, why an Artery?  call Vena Pulmonaria, is the third Vessel of the heart, which is seen in the left Ventricle.  
It is termed an Artery because of its Office: For I. It Pulses in a grown person, because it is united to the left Ventricle, but it moves not by a proper motion of its own, because it is neither an Artery, nor doth it carry pure Arterial blood. II. It is implanted into the left Ventricle.  
'tis called a VEIN, 1. Because of its 
Why a vein.  Substance. 2. Because in a Child in the Womb, it performs the office of a vein. And it is produced as it were from the Cava, to which it is joined, by way of Anastomosis. Yea and in a grown person, it carries blood also to the heart, as doth the Cava.  
It Arises with a round and great Orifice (greater than that of the Arteria Magna) divided into two parts presently after its egress, just in a manner as if it arose with a twofold mouth; and it is disseminated into the right and left part of the Lungs.  
The Use.  
I. In its Dilatation to draw Air to 
Whether Air enters into the Heart?  the heart, not bare and simple Air, but mixed with the blood which returns from the Lungs, for the Generation of vital spirits and Arterial blood, and to nourish and kindle up the vital flame. For the Arteria venosa being opened in living Anatomies, doth pour blood and not pure air into the heart, which for the most part we observe thicker than ordinary in the Carcases of Men and Beasts, because the motion of the left ventricle ceasing, the blood received in this vein, cannot be driven or drawn to the heart. And when the Arteria venosa is cut or opened, there appears no air, because the air is not pure and simple, being mixed throughout with blood. And when the Lungs of a living or dead Creature are by Art blown up, not a jot of air is perceived to come thence to the heart, because the Carriage of blood is wanting, and the natural Drawer and Driver is also wanting. But that the air such as it is, doth come into the heart, their Examples do testify, who have been stifled with the sums of Quicksilver. Coals, Lime, etc. And otherwise the Lungs and Lung-pipes were made in vain.  
II. In the Contraction of the Heart to thrust out a portion of vital blood, into the Lungs, together with sooty exhalations; which is an old opinion. But that in the Systole of the heart, blood or sooty steams should be carried this way. 1. The Valves hinder, which will not suffer any thing to return. 2. The Arteria venosa being tied, doth swell towards the Lungs, and is lank and emptied near the heart. 3. Being opened it pours forth blood on this side the band, but beyond it being opened it voids neither blood nor sooty exhalations. 4. The sooty steams of the right Ventricle, do evaporate through the vena Arteriosa, turn into water in the Pericardium or Heart-bag, breed the hairs in the Armpits, and exale into the whole habit of the Body, through the Aorta. 5. The air which goes into the heart, and the sooty steams which go out with the blood, should be carried the same way, in contrary motions, which is a thing unusual in the natural course observed in the body. For though ever and anon Excrements are driven from and Nutriment is drawn to the same part, yet the way is different, especially where the afflux is continual, as in the Arteria venosa from the Lungs; or at least they are performed at different times. Therefore.  
III. In the contraction of the heart, it drives blood which is superfluous after the nourishment of the Lungs, or that which runs back, out of the vena Arteriosa, into the left Ventricle of the heart.  
Two VALVES only are placed at the Orifice of this vessel, which look from 
The Mitre-shaped Valves.  without inwards (bred out of the Nervous circle which grows out of the substance of the heart) which being joined together do resemble a Bishop's Mitre, They are greater than the Valves of the Cava, have longer threads (and each hath seven large ones, besides little ones annexed to them, which from a broad Basis do commonly end into a sharp point) and for strengths sake very many fleshy Explantations. Therefore two were sufficient to shut the Orifice close, because they are greater than others, the Fibres longer and larger, the Columns or Pillars stronger, and the Orifice itself is more Ovall-shaped, then that of the rest.  
The ARTERIA MAGNA or great Artery so called, because it is the root of all others, 
The Arteria Magna.  is another vessel of the left Ventricle, from whence it proceeds and arises.  
At the Orifice hereof, is placed instead of a Prop, not in Men, but in certain Beasts, as Hearts, Oxen, Horses, etc. a certain hard substance, which is sometimes Gristly, sometimes Boney, according to the greatness and Age of the Beasts. In man the most noble and strongest, Harvey saw a portion of this Artery turned into a round bone, near the Heart, whence he concludes that the Diastole of the Arteries, is caused by the blood alone, not by any Pulsifick faculty, derived through the Membranes. Also Johannes Schroderus writes that the meeting together of the Arteries in the Basis of the Heart, was in an heart degenerated into a bone.  
The Use thereof is, to communicate the Vital spirit, with the Nutritive Arterial 
It's Use.  blood, received from the heart, unto all parts of the Body, for Nutrition and life; which that it may not pass back again into the heart, Three Valves are placed (like those in the vena Arteriosa exactly shut) looking from 
Its Valves.  without inwards, which are termed Sigmiodes or Sigma-shaped Valves.   

Chap. VIII. How the Vessels are united in the Heart of a Child in the Womb.  
THe Vessels in the heart are otherwise 
In the Child in the Womb.  disposed when the Child is in the Womb, than they are after it is born; which though Galen knew and made mention thereof; yet the greatest part of Anatomists have either neglected the same, or have delivered falsities thereabout, by saying that the Unions of the vessels were some of them only made by a Channel, others only by way of Anastomosis.  
But the Conjunctions or UNIONS 
The Union of the Vessels of the Heart.  of the VESSELS of the Heart in a Child in the Womb, are twofold:  
One is made by an Anastomosis, another by a Channel.  
By Anastomosis an Union is made of the Vena Cava and the Arteria Venosa, under the right Earlet, near the Coronaria, before the Cava doth absolutely open itself into the right Ventricle. The hole is large and of an Oval Figure.  
Now Nature contrived this Union by way of Anastomosis, 1. By reason of Vicinity. 2. Because of the likeness of substances.  
Before this hole in the Cavity of Arteria venosa is placed a Pendulous, thin, hard, little Membrane, larger than the hole.  
It's Use is, I. According to the Doctrine 
It's various Uses.  of Galen and his Clients, that the blood may be carried through this hole, out of the Cava into the Arteria venosa (not into the right ventricle, for vital spirit is not yet bred, nor do the Lungs need blood so attenuated) to nourish the Lungs; because they could not otherwise be nourished in a Child in the Womb, because in it the heart hath no motion whereby the blood might be forced out of the right ventricle into the vena Arteriosa: And therefore this Arteria venosa, is a vein in the Child in the Womb. But that it serves the turn of the Heart, and not only to nourish the Lungs, divers things Evince observed by the favourers of the Circular Motion. For 1. The Heart is moved even in an imperfect Child, after the third month, as Eggs and Embryo's do testify. But before the third month only a little Bladder of the Earlet pants, as in Infects before the Heart is perfectly hollowed. But this motion were in vain, if the Heart should not receive or expel any thing. 2. The blood by the Anastomosis is immediately poured into the left Ear, and is necessarily thence conveyed by the Systole of the Heart, into the left ventricle. 3. All the blood is carried through these Unions, doubtless not for the sake of the Lungs alone, which might be nourished after the same manner as in grown persons, although void of motion, the veins in part gaping. 4. The Child in the Womb is nourished with Arterial blood, which can come from no place but the Heart, as shall be demonstrated hereafter. Therefore,  
II. The true use is, that it might convey part of the blood in a Child in the Womb, out of the Cava of the Liver, into the left ventricle of the Heart, which cannot go thither the ordinary way, the Lungs neither dilating themselves nor Respireing. In which passage the right ventricle also draws somewhat to itself▪  
And that the blood may not slide back into the Cava, a little Membrane 
The use of the little Membrane.  there placed hinders, when it falls in and settles.  
A little while after the Birth this 
'Tis shut after the Birth.  Hole grows together and is dried up, so that a man would think the place had never been perforated, and that by reason of the plenty of blood in a grown person, forced out of the Lungs now opened and enlarged directly to the left Earlet, which suffers not a small quantity of blood to flow out of the Anastomosis, whereupon being shut it grows together. Howbeit in grown persons, it remains for a season open. Pinaeus observed it thrice, Riolanus once, and myself more than once. Botallus most frequently in Calves, Sows. Dogs of a large size, and therefore he would have it to be always and naturally open, that blood might pass this way out of the right to the left Ventricle. Caecilius Folius treading in his Footsteps, thinks it is open in all Men, to the same end, as in a Child in the Womb, but contrary to experience. For it is then only open, when Nature hath shut up other passages, as I saw at Milan in that old Man, whose Arteria venosa was stopped with Phlegm. In Waterfowl and other Animals that live in the Water, as Ducks, Castor's, Swans, Bitturns, etc. it is always open, because they live now and then in the Water, without the Use of their Lungs. And I have sometimes observed in dead bodies the little Membrane winking, and receiving the Probe without any violence, but I cannot allow that it is so always. And that light opening would be unprofitable. For the passage of so much blood.  
Another Union is by a longish Channel, 
By a Channel or Pipe.  viz. that of the vena Arterialis, and the Arteria Magna, because they are distant one from another.  
The VII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
In this TABLE are presented the Unions of the Vessels of the Heart in a Child in the Womb, also the Heart encompassed with the Lungs, and the small twigs of the Weasand or Windpipe called Aspera Arteria.  
FIG. I. 

A. The Heart.  
B. The Ascendent Trunk of Vena Cava.  
C. The Descendent Trunk thereof.  
D. The Ascendent Trunk of Arteria Magna.  
e. The Axillary Artery.  
f. The Descendent Trunk of the great Artery.  
g. The Earlet of the right Ventricle.  
K. An Anastomosis as it appears in Vena Cava.    
FIG. II. 

A. The little Heart of a Child in the Womb.  
B. The Trunk of the Arteria Magna, springing out of the Heart.  
C. A Portion of the said Artery going downwards.  
D. The Vena Arteriosa drawn out of the Heart.  
ee. The Channel between the Vena Arteriosa and Arteria Magna.  
ff. The Rise of the Arteries termed Carotides or drowsy Arteries.  
g. The beginning of the Subclavian right Artery.    
FIG. III. 

A. The right Nerve of the sixth Pare going towards the Lungs.  
B. The same Nerve on the left side.  
C. The middle Branch between the two Nerves.  
D. The Offspring thereof, which is carried to the Pericardium.  
EE. The two greater Branches of Aspera Arteria, which on the backsides are Membranous.  
FF. The hinder part of the Lungs.  
G. The proper Membrane of the Lungs.  
HH. A remaining portion of the Pericardium or Heart-bag.  
I. The Heart in its proper place.    
FIG. IV. 

A. The Aspera Arteria or Weasand, cut off under th● Larynx.  
B. It's right Branch, divided first into two.  
C. The left Branch of the Arteria Aspera, distributed in like manner into greater and lesser Branches.  
ddd. The Extremities of the Branches,    
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by the Arteria venosa] where it is divided into two, as if it had three parts; the least whereof notwithstanding is the Channel.  
In Infants of three or four years old, it is still to be seen, but without any through-passage: 
Which is dried up.  in grown persons 'tis by little and little attenuated and dried, being destitute of all Nutriment, because no Humours pass any longer through the same, until through absence of Life and Nourishment, it Putrifies and Consumes quite away.  
The use thereof is, I. According to the Mind of Galen, that the vital Spirit being received 
It's use.  from the Navil-Arteries into the Arteria Magna, may from hence be carried, through that Channel into the vena Arteriosa and so strait into the Lungs, to maintain Life. But, 1. It serves not the Lungs alone. 2. The Navil-Arteries do bring out of the Arteria Magna, but carry nothing thereinto. 3. The Pipe is greater than to serve only to carry Spirits. 4. The Lungs of a Child in the Womb being red, are not nourished only with Spirits.  
II. According to Petrejus and Hofmannus, to bring Arterial blood to nourish the Lungs. Who had said well, if they had not omitted the good of the whole body.  
III. According to late Writers, that the blood which slides out of the upper Trunk of Cava into the right ventricle may pass through this Pipe, the greatest part thereof indeed to the Aorta, that so with the rest it may nourish and enliven the whole body of the Embryo; but the least portion of all goes up to the Lungs by the ordinary way.  
Both the ventricles in the Child perform one and the same thing, and part the blood which is to be carried, because the more perfect blood is supplied by the Mother, and therefore the Walls are a like thick. And the two ventricles in the Child which doth not respire, perform the same, which in imperfect Animals void of Lungs, is accomplished by one ventricle.  
This Pipe therefore assists the Anastomosis in transporting the blood of the Heart, because either of the ways would otherwise be two narrow. For I have observed in a Girl new Borne, by me publicly dissected, that the Pipe was wanting, because the Anastomosis was larger than ordinary: and there is reason for it. The Lungs must be nourished and the whole body must be nourished. Which can never be effected, unless the Arterial Blood be distributed out of the Aorta. It comes not from the Mother through the Iliack Arteries, because they are not joined to the Arteries of the Womb, besides their motion is contrary, as the binding of the Navel Arteries doth show. For the Navil-Arteries derived from the Child, do swell towards the Heart thereof, and towards the Placenta or Womb-cake they are empty; for the Arterial blood in the Child▪ after it is nourished, runs back through the Iliack veins to the Placenta, as a part of the Child which must be nourished, out of which it passes again into the Navil-veins, and is mixed with that other blood which comes out of the veins of the Womb, and runs jointly back again to the Liver and Heart of the Child, that the Circulation may be repeated. Now it flows conveniently out of this vena Arteriosa through the Pipe or Channel into the Aorta, by reason of its Situation downwards, and its crooked insertion into the Aorta. Therefore seeing the Arterial blood, is not carried fr●● the Mother, upwards to the Heart, neither can the Lungs be nourished thereby.   

Chap. IX. Touching the Lungs.  
THe Lungs called i● Latin Pulmones 
The Reason of their Name.  in Greek Pneumoe●'s or Pleumones, have their name from Respiration or drawing in and blowing out the Air: because they are given to Animals living in their Air and breathing, but not to fishes which have neither Neck nor Voice.  
They are seated in the Cavity of the 
Their Situation.  Breast or Chest, which they fill, when they are distended.  
They are divided into the right and 
Division.  left part by means of the Mediastinum: that one part being hurt, the other may 
Into Lobes.  yet perform the Office. Each of these parts is divided into two Lobes, Laps or Scollups, about the fourth Vertebra of the Chest, of which the upper is shorter than the lower; seldom is one part divided into three Lobes, as in Brutes; because a man goes bolt upright, Brutes looking downwards▪ nor by reason of the shortness of the Chest, could any thing lie between the Heart and the Liver, except the Midrif. Yet oftentimes Piccolhomineus, Riolanus and myself, have after Hypocrates and Russus Ephesius observed three. Now the Lungs embrace the Heart with their Scollups as with certain Fingers.  
Their shape resembles that of an 
Their Figure.  Ox-hoofe. On the outside towards the Cavity of the Chest, the Lungs are Bossie or bunching out, on the inside they are hollow, where they embrace the Heart.  
Their Colour in the Child is red like 
Their Colour.  that of the Liver: by reason of the nourishment is receives from its Mother; in grown persons 'tis yellowish Pale; sometime Ash-colored: in such as have died of a long sickness blackish. In some persons healthy enough. I have seen them Party coloured, like Marble. In that part where it is knit unto the Chest by Fibres, 'tis red, as in a Child in the Womb.  
'tis Knit in the Forepart to the Brest-bone 
Connexion.  by the Mediastinum, behind to the Vertebrae; sometimes the Lungs at the sides grow to the Pleura by certain Fibrous bands, whence arises a lasting shortness of Breath. Now this Connexion doth frequently deceive Physicians, nor knowing or discerning Penetrating wounds of the Chest. Nicolas Massa conceives this Connexion profitable to the Heart, lest it should be oppressed with the bulk of the Lungs, or the facility or breathing should be hindered, and Riolanus says he evermore found this adhesion. I have chiefly observed it about the lower Ribs. near the Diaphragma, lest they should press and bear upon it. Others say the Lungs are bound to Fibres, that in the wounds of the Chest, they might follow the motion of the Chest, though with a weaker motion. Hypocrates in his second Book de Morbis calls it the Lungs slipped 
A certain Cause of long lasting Short-windedness.  down to the side; and this comes to pass either from ones Birth, or after a Pleurisy, or by reason of Tenacious and clammy phlegm interposing itself; o● from some external cause, as negligent Curing of a wounded or suppurated Chest. Also the Lungs cleave to the Heart, by the Vena arteriosa and the Arteria venosa.  
The Substance in a Child in the Womb is compact and thick; so that 
The Substance.  being cast into Water it sinks, which the Lungs of grown persons will not do. But after the Birth, because it begins to be moved with the Heart, by heat and motion the Heart becomes light and soft, lax, rare and spongy; so that the Lungs will be easily raised and fall again, and easily receive the Air: Which may be seen by the use of a Pair of bellows in dead bodies. Helmont hath seen the Lungs hard and stoney, in an Asthmatical person, and Salmuth observes that little stones have been there generated in shortness of Breath. Also touching stones we have the Testimony of Galen, Trallianus, Aegineta.  
The Lungs are compassed with a thin light Membrane, furnished with many 
Membrane.  Pores which Pores are sufficiently visible, when the Lungs are blown up with a pair of bellows, and Job. Walaeus hath observed the said Pores in live Anatomies, as big as a large Pease. This way the Sanies or Corrupt matter of the Chest may Penetrate and come away by Coughing. This Membrane is produced from the encompassing Pleura. For when the Vessels enter into the Lungs, they divest themselves of their Coat, which grows out of the Pleura, which doth afterwards invest the Lungs.  
The Vessels. The Substance of the Lungs is interwoven with three sorts of 
The Vessels.  Vessels, which make not a little also for strength. Two proceed from the Heart, of which before: The Vena Arterialis and Arteria Venalis.  
The third is proper, viz. The Trachea or Aspera arteria so called, of which in the following Chapter.  
If these Vessels be fretted asunder as in persons Phcisical, or having the Consumption of the Lungs, many time's plenty of blood is cast forth, or some Cartilaginous substance; yea and the Vessels themselves of the Lungs entire, which I have seen, and Tulpius hath two examples. And oftentimes persons in a Consumption die suddenly, because the greater Vessels being fretted asunder, the Heart is strangled with blood issuing there from.  
These Vessels of the Lungs are great, not so much because they wanted 
Why the Lungs ●at● so great Vessels?  much blood, for their substance is very small, setting aside the Vessels, nor needed they so much blood as is sufficient to nourish the whole body; but they are great, because the greatest portion of the blood is carried this way out of the right Ventricle of the Heart into the left by those wide passages, for the more subtle blood can find its way through the obscure Pores of the Septum. This passage is proved.  

1. By the greatness of the vessels. For the vena arteriosa and the arteria venosa are most large. And because the former is a vessel which carries out of the Heart, it is furnished with the Mitre-fashioned valves, which hinder the blood from passing out of the Lungs the same way; and the latter bringing blood out of the Lungs into the Heart, has the treble-pointed valves, hindering the blood from returning.  
2. Great Quantity of Blood is continually sent by the Pulse of the Heart, through the vena arteriosa and thence through the arteria venosa unto the left ventricle, which is further confirmed by Ocular Inspection.  
3. By Ligatures in living Anatomies. For the Vena arteriosa swells towards the 
See Tab. 4. of Book 2.  Heart; but near the Lungs it is empty; the Arteria venosa contrariwise, swells towards the Lungs, but is empty towards the Heart.  
4. The left Ventricle of the Heart being wounded, or the Arteria aorta, great plenty of blood will issue, as long as life remains, till all the blood in the body be run out. And from what other place can it come, seeing so much is not contained in the Heart, but out of the Lungs through the Arteria venosa, which had drawn the Blood out of the Vena arteriosa by the anastomosis.  
5. In the Arteria venosa as well of a living as a dead Body, so much Blood is found, that it hath often hindered me in my public Dissections.  
6. By the similitude of the Vessels one with another. The Vena arteriosa carrying out of the Heart into the Lungs, is just like the Aorta in substance, largeness, neighbourhood, and Valves. The Arteria venosa doth in like manner resemble the Vena cava by straitness of Connexion, substance of a Vein, Earlets and treble-pointed Valves.   
This Circulation through the Lungs 
How Circulation is caused in the Lungs.  is furthered, 1. By the widening of the Lungs when Air i● drawn in, which being every where filled, the vessels are distended, as when they cease, the motion of the Blood is either retarded, or quite ceases. 2. By the Situation of the vessels of the Lungs. The Vena arteriosa is Disseminated in the hinder or Convex part of the Lungs, because it is strongly moved by the Pulse of the Heart, the Arteria venosa doth chiefly possess the foremore and hollow part, that the Blood might more readily slide into the Heart. In the Midst of which the Branches of the Windpipe are seated, that in the blowing out of the Air, they might receive sooty Exhalations from the Vena arteriosa, and in drawing the Air in, they might communicate the same to the Arteria venosa. 3. The anastomosis, by which the vessels are joined together, both the branches which join mouth to mouth (though in dead bodies they cannot be discerned by the Eyesight) and the Pores of the Parenchyma which is light and Porous.  
It is to be noted for the answering 
Contrary objections answered.  the objections made against this Circulation.  
1. That the Lungs are not oppressed or burdened so long as they being sound, the Blood perpetually glides through by Peice-meal.  
2. That the blood doth not drop out through the Pipes of the Weasand, because partly they draw in only Air or sooty Exhalations, and in no wise Blood of a thicker nature than they, unless they be preternaturally fretted in persons that have the Consumption, partly because nature never ceases to drive found humours through the passages ordained for them, and retains what is necessary, which would otherwise go out at the passages of the Body being opened.  
3. Although the Lungs of Dead bodies are whitish, yet the vessels do manifestly transpire through the external Coat. The Parenchyma itself is frequently full, in persons strangled with blood, in others it is found emptied, because in the Pangs of Death it is forcibly excluded.  
4. In burning Fevers, both the Lungs are hot, and thereupon the voice is Hoarse and dry, and they are oppressed, as appeared in the Epidemical Fever which raged up and down this year, by which many were strangled.  
5. It is no good judging of the healthy state of the Body, from the preternatural state thereof.  
Very small Nervulets from the sixth Pare are spread only through the Membrane 
Why Ulcers of the Lungs are without pain.  thereof (which if it be inflamed, a pain will be felt, and communicated to the side itself and to the Back) not through the substance of the Lungs, lest by Reason of their continual motion they should be pained. Hence the Ulcers of the Lungs are without pain. Howbeit Riolanus allots very many Nerves to the substance of the Lungs also, drawn from the Implication and Contexture of the Stomach Nerves. I also have seen many spread abroad within the Lungs, proceeding from the sixth Pare, and always in a manner accompanying the Bronchia or Lung-pipes, derived from the hinder part, and only a little twig conveiged to the Membrane from the forepart.  
What the Action of the Lungs is, Author's Question. That they never move at all is helmont's Paradox, but serve only as a seive, that the Air may pass pure into the Chest, and that the Muscles of the Belly alone do suffice for Respiration. But that they are indeed and in truth 
Whence the motion of the Lungs proceeds.  moved, the cutting up of live bodies shows, and Wounds of the Chest, that they move long and strongly. Moreover that they may be moved, any one may try with a pair of Bellows. Finally, They ought to be moved, for otherwise both the Heart would ●e suffocated, and the motion of the blood in the Lungs, would be hindered. The Muscles of the Belly do indeed concur, but secondarily, because they are not joined to the Heart, and when they are moved Respiration may be stopped, Yea, and when they are cut off in a living Anatomy, the Lungs are moved nevertheless. But whether they are moved by their own proper force, or by some other thing, is a further Question. Averrhoes who is followed among the late writers by John Daniel Horstius, conceives the Lungs are moved by their own proper force, not following the motion of the Chest, for otherwise says he we must grant that a violent motion may be perpetual.  
But we are to hold, that though the Lungs are the Vessel of Respiration, yet they are so not by doing, but by suffering. For they have no motive force of their own, as Averrhoes will have it (because at our pleasure we can stop our breathing, or quicken or retard the same) nor do they receive the principle of their motion from the Heart, or from the blood raising them, as Aristole conceives, and his followers, For 1. The efflux of the blood 
Aristotle's Error.  out of the Heart, is made by the orninary motion, but the Respiration is voluntary. 2. The Cause of the Pulse and Respiration would be one and the same, and they would be performed at one and the same time. But thirty Pulses answer one Respiration. 3. While we draw in our Breath strongly, and hold the air drawn in for a season, the swelling of the Lungs should compel us to let our breath go, because it lifts up the Chest, according to their opinion. 4. The Blood of the Heart doth not abide in the Lungs by an unequal retention, so as to distend them, but it is forthwith expelled according to nature. 5. When it tarries longest in diseased Lungs, it makes shortness of Breath or difficulty in breathing, but no Tumour. 6. In a strong Apoplexy, the motion of the Lungs ceases, the Pulse being safe and the Heart unhurt.  
Nor are the Lungs raised up, by the 
The Opinion of Falcoburgius.  air forced in, which when the Chest is lifted up, because it hath no other space whither it can go to, it is carried through the Aspera arteria or Weasand into the Lungs, as Falcoburgius and Des Cartes conceive, and Hogelandius, Regius, and Prataeus who follow him: For 1. The air may easily be condensed, as may be proved by a thousand experiments, as by Cupping-glasses, Weather-glasses, Whips, Trumpets, Winds and infinite things beside; and therefore it may be most straight compacted about the Chest, and compressed within itself, as well by the internal subtle nature of the air and dispersed by Atoms, easily recollected one within another, as by the external impulse of the Chest, whereby it may more easily be condensed, then driven into another place. 2, By the motion of the Chest or such a like body, we do not see the lightest thing that is, Agitated. By an hole in a Wall all Chinks and Dores being closely stopped, our Nostrils being stopped, we may with our Mouths draw air out of the next Chamber, to which it is not credible that the air moved by the Chest, can reach with a strong motion; and though air may penetrate into the Chamber, through some chinks and Rifts, yet is it not in so great quantity, as to stretch the Chest so much as it ought to be stretched, in free Respiration. The same experiment may be made in a Glass or Silver vessel applied close to ones Mouth. 4. While I have held my Breath, I have observed my Belly to be moved above twenty times the while. But whether is the Air then driven? Must it not needs be, because all places are full of bodies, that the air next the Belly is compressed and condensed? See more of this subject in my Vindiciae Anatomicae, and in a peculiar Discourse.  
Therefore the Lungs do only follow the motion of the Chest to avoid Vacuum: And therefore only they receive the air drawn in, because the Chest by widening itself, fills the Lungs with air.  
Now that the Motion of the Lungs 
The motion of the Lungs is proved to arise from the Chest.  arises from the Chest experience shows. For 1. If air enter into the Chest, being pierced through with a Wound, the Lungs remain immovable, because they cannot follow the widening of the Chest, the air insinuating itself through the wound, into the empty space. But the Chest being sound, the Lungs follow the widening thereof, to avoid Vacuum; as in Pipes, Water is drawn upwards, and Quittor, Bullets, Darts and other hard things are drawn out of body through the avoidance of Vacuum. 2. If the Midriff of a live Creature be pierced through with a light wound, Respiration is stopped, the Chest falling in.  
But somewhat there is which hinders 
An Observation in live Anatomies.  many worthy men from assenting to this cause of the Lungs motion, because after the Chest is perfectly opened, the Lungs are oftentimes moved along time, with a vehement motion. But according to the Observation of Johannes Walaeus, Franciscus Silvius, and Franciscus Ʋander Shagen, that is not the motion of Constriction and Dilatation, which is the natural motion of the Lungs; but it is the motion of an whole Lobe upwards and downwards, which motion happens, because the Lungs are fastened to the Mediastinum, the Mediastinum to the Midriff, and the Lungs are also seated near the Midriff: whence it happens, while the Creature continues yet strong, that either the Lungs with the Mediastinum are drawn, or by the Midriff driven, the Diaphragma or Midriff, not yet falling down nor losing its motion, which I observe in contradiction to the most learned Son of Horstius. Now that this motion proceeds not from the inbred force of the Lungs, doth hence appear, in that always when the Chest is depressed, the Lungs are lifted up, being forced by the Midriff, which at that time rises a good height into the Chest; and contrariwise the Chest being lifted up, the Lungs are depressed. And because the Lungs are the Instrument of Respiration, Hence it hath these following,  
Uses,  

I. According to Plato, Galen, and Abensinae, to be a soft Pillow and Cushion 
It's Use.  under the Heart.  
II. According to others who follow Columbus▪ to prepare and wellnigh generate the vital Spirits (which are afterwards to receive their perfection in the heart) whiles in them the blood is as it were Circulated, first boiling with the heat of the Heart, and afterwards settled by the coldness of the air.  
III. It hath more proper uses when it is Dilated, and when it is contracted.   
When the Lungs are Dilated, they receive in the Air like a pair of Bellows through the Branches of the Windpipe.  
I. To prepare Air for the Heart, for the convenient nourishment of the 
All kind of Air is not a friend to man's Spirit.  lightful Spirit. For every quality of the Air is not a friend to our Spirit, as is seen in such, as are killed with the smoke of Charcoal, and the steam of newly whited Walls.  
Helmont conceives that the Air is united to the spirit of the Heart, and that it receives a fermentation in the Heart, which accompanying the same they do both dispose the Blood to a total transpiration of itself, which is the reason why in the extremity of cold weather and at Sea, we eat more heartily, because the thinness of the Air disposes the blood to insensible transpiration. Backius is somewhat of the same mind, who conceives that by the moist and thin body of the Air, the blood is made apt to run, so as that it may be diffused into the smallest passages of the Body. Others ascribe both these effects to the abundance of Serosity in the Blood. Therefore Hypocrates says that water is hungry; and we see that such as are given to drink, are inclined to sweat much, as also Scorbutic persons.  
II. To fan and cool the heat. For we see that the heat of our Bodies stands in 
Our heat doth want a Cooler.  need of somewhat that is cold, without which it is extinguished, as is apparent in such as stay long in very hot Baths, as the flame of a Candle in a close place, wanting Air goes out. And 
Why Fishes need no Lungs.  therefore the Lungs are called the Fan and cooler of the Heart, and the Fishes in the Water and other Animals that have but on Ventricle in their Hearts, are without Lungs, because they do not want such a cooling. As also Infants in the 
The Lungs of Children in the Womb move not.  Womb, being fanned by their Mother, and the wide anastomosis, have their Lungs without motion. Hence it is that having seen only the Lungs, you may judge how hot any Creature is; for Nature makes the Lungs the larger, by how much the Heart is hotter. Therefore the Lungs are not absolutely necessary to Life, but serve to accommodate the Heart. For instead of Lungs a boy of Amsterdam four years old, had a little Bladder full of a Membranous wind, as Nicolas Fontanus a Physician of that City doth testify, which being guarded with very small Veins, had its original from the Aspera Arteria or Weasand itself, whose office it is to cool the Heart. Who nevertheless died of a Consumption, because haply, his Heart was not furnished with a sufficient quantity of Air.  
When the Lungs are contracted in Expiration, they do again afford us a twofold use. I. Sooty Excrements do pass away through the same, being carried out of the Heart with the blood, through the Vena Arteriosa. II. To make an articulate voice in Men, and an inarticulate sound in Beasts, by affording Air to frame the voice. And therefore Creatures that have no Lungs, are mute, according to Aristotle.   

Chap. X. Of the Lung-Pipe or Weasand.  
THe Pipe or Channel of the Lungs, 
The Weasand.  is by the Ancients called Arteria, because it contains Air: Galen and others 
Why called Trachea or Aspera Arteria?  call it Trachea arteria or the rough Artery, because of its unevenness, and to difference it from the smooth Arteries. Lactantius terms it Spiritualis Fistula, the Spirit or Air-Pipe, because the Air is breathed in and out thereby, Now it is a Pipe or Channel entering into the lower part of the Lungs, with many branches, which are by Hypocrates termed Syringae and Aortae, whose head is termed Larynx, of which in the following Chapter; the rest of its Body is termed Bronchus, because it is moistened with drink. For that some part of the drink doth pass even into the Windpipe and 
Whether any part of our drink doth pass into the Weasand and Lungs.  Lungs, Hypocrates doth rightly prove by an Hog new killed, in whose Lungs matter is found just so coloured as the the drink was, which he drunk immediately before he was killed. And that some drink may be carried through the Windpipe, may be proved out of Julius Jasolinus an Anatomist of Naples, who seeking in the body of a Noble person, the Cause of his death, found his Pericardium or Heart-bag, so distended with Humour, that it being squeezed, some of the said Humour came out at his mouth.  
As to its Situation: in Mankind it 
It's Situation in Mankind.  rests upon the Gullet, for it goes down from the mouth strait along to the Lungs: and at the fourth Vertebra of the Chest, it is divided into two branches, each of which goes into the Lungs of its respective side: they are again subdivided into two other branches, and these again into others till at last they end into very small twigs in the surface of the Lungs. But the branches thereof which are greater than the rest of the Vessels of the Lungs, entering into the Lungs, do go through the middle thereof, between the Vena Arteriosa which is hindermore, and the Arteria venosa which is before it: with which it is joined by obscure anastomosis, or conjunctions of Mouths, hardly discernible by our Eyesight.  
In Bruits 'tis Situate much after the same 
In a Swan.  manner. Yet we must note that it is different in a Swan, and after a manner altogether singular. For being longer, it insinuates itself by a crooked winding into a case of the Breastbone, and soon after from the bottom of the case, it returns upwards, and having mounted the Channel-bones, it bends itself towards the Chest. But before it reaches the Lungs, 'tis propped by a certain boney Pipe, broad above, narrow beneath, which in a Duck is round, than it is divided into two branches, which swell in the middle, but grow smaller where they tend to the Lungs, till they enter into them.  
'Tis clothed with a double Membrane: one External, another Internal. 
Its Membranes.   
The External is a thin one arising from the Pleura, and sticks close to the intermediate Lingaments of the Gristles, and Ushers along the recurrent Nerves.  
The Internal being furnished with strait Fibres is thicker and more solid (most of all in the Larynx, lest of all in the branches of the Lungs, indifferently in the middle Pipe) to the end it may not easily be hurt by Acrimonious drinks, or other Liquors voided by Coughing, or falling down from the Head.  
It arises from the Coat which compasses the Palate, and therefore is continued with the Mouth.  
It is smeared with a fat Humour to hinder its being dried up by motions, loud cry, drawing in of hot Air, going out of sharp sooty Exhalations, etc. And by the Superaboundance 
The Voice hurt.  or Deficiency hereof the Voice is hurt. For in the former contracted by Distillations, it becomes Hoarse; in the latter through burning Fevers, etc. It becomes squea●ing. If it overabound, we are quite Dumb and unable to speak, and the moisture being consumed our Speech returns again: which might happen in that same dumb Son of Croesus' mentioned by Herodotus, and in Aegle a Samian wrestler, mentioned by Valerius Maximus, and Zacharias Orphanus a Fool, of whom Nicolas Fontanus tells a story in his Observations.  
This Coat is of exquisite sense, that it may raise itself to expel what ever is troublesome thereunto.  
Between these two Membranes is the proper substance of the Trachea arteria, which is partly of the nature of a Gristle, and partly of a Ligament.  
The VIII. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE represents the Aspera Arteria, the Oesophagus, the recurrent Nerves about the Arteria Magna and the Arteria Axillaris, behind  
FIG I 

AA. The Muscle contracting the Oesophagus.  
BBB. The Oesophagus or Gullet.  
CCC. The Aspera arteria or Weasand placed under the Throat.  
D. The Membrane between the Weasand and the Gullet.  
EEEE. The Nerves of the sixth Conjugation.  
FF. Nerves of the Tongue inserted behind.  
GG. The right recurrent Nerve, turned back to the Artery of the Shoulder.  
HH. The left recurrent Nerve about the Descendent Trunk of the Arteria Magna.  
II. A Nerve tending to the left Orifice of the Stomach and to the Diaphragma.  
KK. A Nerve descending to the Diaphragma.  
L. The jugular Arteries on each side one.  
M. The left humeral Artery.  
N. The right Humeral or Shoulder Artery.  
OO. The Arteria Magna or great Artery.  
PP. The Trunks of the Arteries descending to the Lungs.    
FIG. II. This Figure shows the upper part of the Gullet with its Muscles. 

AA. The Musculi Cephalopharyngaei s● called.  
BB. The Musculi Spheno-pharungaei.  
CC. The Musculi S●●lopharyngaei.  
DD. The S●luncterd awn from the Gullet.  
E. The In●de of the Gullet.  
F. The Descending part of the Gullet.    
page 120  

I. For the Voices sake: because that which makes a sound must be solid. 
Why the Wefand is in part Gristly?   
II. Otherwise by reason of its softness it would always fall together, and would not easily be opened in Respiration.   
It was to be partly Ligamental, and not wholly of a Gristly substance: for if it 
Why in part Ligamental.  should consist of one only Gristle, or many circular ones,  

I. It would be evermore open, and not sometimes widen and then fall together.  
II. It would bear hard upon the Gullet, to which nevertheless, it ought to give way, especially in the swallowing down of solid meats, that the Throat or Gullet might be sufficiently widened. And so the Gristles help to frame the Voice; and the Membranous Ligaments for Respiration.   
The Gristles are many, round like Rings, but not exactly. For on their backside, where they touch the Gullet, a fourth part of a circle is wanting, in place whereof there is a Membranous substance.  
From their shape they are termed Sigma-shaped resembling the old Greek letter C, till they are fixed in the Lungs, for then changing their Fignre, they change their name. For the Wind-Pipes do there consist of perfect Gristles, Round, four square, or Triangular, but where they are joined to the rest of the Vessels of the Lungs they become Membranous.  
These Gristles are joined together by Ligaments going between, which in Men are more fleshy, in brute Beasts more Membranous; and in men the show like little Muscles. And the Gristles do every where keep an equal di●…n from another, and the higher, the ●…ey ●hey are.  
It hath Vessels ●●mmon wi●● others. Veins from the the external Jugulars; Arteries from the Carotides; Nerves, from the Recurrent Nerves of the sixth pair.  
It's Use is, I. In drawing in the Air, that by it as a Pipe, the Air may be received 
The Use of the Weasand.  from the Lungs, as from a pair of Bellows. Hence comes that same Wheezing in such as have the Phthisic, the Pipes of the Weasand being stopped, so that the Air coming and going and not finding a free passage makes that Hissing noise.  
II. In blowing the Air out, I. That through it Fuliginous Excrements may be voided at the Mouth and Nostrils. For which intent the mouths of the Vena arteriosa do so artificially join with the Mouths of the Aspera arteria, that there is passage only for sooty steams but not for blood, unless it come away by force and violent Coughing. In the next place, that it may help to form the voice, which it doth by expiration likewise, though some Juggler's frame their Voice by inspiration only or drawing in of their Breath. And therefore Hypocrates calls it the breathing and vocal Organ. A wonder therefore it is that some Men can live long in the Water like Fishes, by Nature and not by Art, if Cardan is to be believed in the second Book de Subtilitate, when he makes relation of one Calanus a Diver in Sicily, who would lie three or four hours under the Water. And how in the West-indies everywhere, such as dive for Pearl-oysters, will lie an hour together under the Water. If they did this by some art, it were not so wonderful. So the Egyptians are most perfect divers, and exercise Robberies that way. For as appears by the Description of Nicolus Christophori Radzivilij his journey to Jerusalem, they lie lurking under the Waters, and not being content to steal on land, what ever they can catch they draw into the water, and carry it away: and frequently they catch a man as he lies upon a Ships deck draw him under the water and kill and strip him of his clothes: So that such as sail are said many times to watch all night armed, And in the same parts, abundance of fisher men will dive under the water and catch fish with their hands, and they will come up with a fish in cach Hand and a third in their mouths. These persons doubtless, do either live only by Transpiration, as such do that have fits of the Apoplexy and the Mother; or they have anastomosis open in their Hearts, by means of which as in the Womb, the blood is freely moved▪ without any motion of the Lungs.   

Chap. XI. Of the Larynx.  
THe Head or beginning of this 
The Larynx.  Lung-Pipe, is termed LARYNX, which is the voices Organ.  
'tis Situate in the Neck, and that in 
It's Situation.  the middle thereof, for it is  
In Number one, that there may be only 
Number.  one voice.  
It's Figure is round and almost circular; 
Shape.  because it was to be hollow for the voices sake; but on the foreside it is more Extuberant, on the hinder side depressed, that it may give way to the Gullet, especially in the time of swallowing, in which while the Oesophagus is depressed, the Larynx runs back upwards, and so assists the swallowing, both by giving way and bearing down that which is to be swallowed.  
It's Magnitude varies according to 
Magnitude.  the Ages of persons. For in younger persons the Larynx is straight which 
How the voice becomes shrill, or big?  makes their voice shrill: in grown persons 'tis wider, and therefore their voice is bigger. To which also the length or shortness of the Larynx doth contribute: and if plenty of Air or Spirit be drawn and expelled, the Voice becomes big; if little, it becomes small.  
And therefore according to Galen there are two causes of a great Voice: 
What the Causes are of a great Voice?  the Largeness of the Aspera arteria, and the strong blowing out of the air, and Hypocrates says both these are caused by great hear. And therefore 
How the Voice comes to change.  in his Book of the Seed, he teaches us that the stones do contribute to the formation of the Voice, Hence Males when they grow of ripe years change their voice. A Gelded Horse loses his neighing. A Capon leaves his crowing or crows after a weaker fashion, different from his former crowing.  
The Parts of the Larynx or about the Larynx: are Gristles, Muscles, Membranes, Vessels and Kernels.  
Its Muscles do first of all offer themselves, which move the Gristles, which 
Its Muscles.  the Larynx is possessed of, that it may be moved with a voluntary motion, seeing we utter our Speech, as we please ourselves.  
Now the Muscles of a Man's Larynx, are but thirteen, four common and nine proper: though some make twenty, other eighteen, others fourteen.  
The IX. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE Represents the Larynx, with its Muscles and Gristles.  
FIG. I. 

A. The Gristle called Shyroides or Scutiformis, Sheild-fashioned.  
BBBB. A Pair of common Muscles called Sternothyroides.  
CC. Another pair of common Muscles called Hyothyroides.    
FIG. II. 

A. The Epiglottis lying yet hid under the Scutiformis.  
B. The Scutiformis or Sheild-fashioned Gristle.  
CC. Its Process.  
DD. Two Muscles proper to the Larynx, of which that on the left Hand is removed from its place, that the Ring-fashion ● Gristle E. may be seen.  
F. The Extuberancy of the Ring-fashoned Gristle, or Cartilago Annularis.  
G. A portion of the Aspera Arteria.    
FIG. III. 

AAA. The Bone Hyoides with three Extuberancies.  
B. The Epiglottis.  
CC. The Sheild-fashioned Gristle, hollow on the Backside.  
DD. The two Muscles called Cucullares, or the hinder pair of the Cricoarythenoides so called.  
E. The hinder and Membranous part of the Aspera Arteria.  
FF. The Muscles called Arytenoides, by some the ninth pair.    
FIG. IV. 

A. The Concave part of Cartilago Scutiformis dilated.  
B. The third pair of proper Muscles called Cricoarythenoides laterale.  
C. The first pair of proper Muscles.  
D. The fourth pair called Thyroarythenoides internum.  
EE. Insertion of the recurrent Nerve.  
FF. The hinder and Membranous part of the Aspera Arteria.    
FIG. V. 

AA. The Cartilago Thyroides or Scutiformis.  
BB. The inferior processes thereof.  
C. It's Concave Part.    
FIG. VI 

A. The inside of the Cartilago Annularis.  
B. It's lower and fore-side.  
C. It's hinder and upper-side.    
FIG. VII. 

A. B. The Cartilago Arythenoides according to its hinder side joined, as yet to the Annularis.  
C. The broader and Backpart of the Annularis.    
FIG. VIII. IX. Shows the Gristles which constitute the Arythenoides, Separate from the Annularis.  
page 122.  
The Common are those which are implanted into the Larynx, and yet 
The Common.  do not arise therefrom.  
The Proper have both their original 
The Proper.  and termination in the Larynx.  
The first pair of the common, called by the Ancient Sternothyroides, being lower more, arises within from the Breastbone, its original being broad and fleshy, and going a long by the Weazand, it is inserted beneath into the sides of the Sheild-fashioned Gristle.  
It's Use is to straiten the Chink of the Larynx, by drawing down the Scutiformis.  
The second Pair called Hyothyroides, being the uppermore, arises from the lower side of the Os hyoides, being broad and fleshy, and touches the Scutiformis, being implanted into the Basis of the said Scutiformis.  
It's Use is to widen the Chink, by lifting up the Scutiformis,  
Spigelius and Vestingius assign contrary offices to these: for they will have the first pair to widen and the second to straiten the Chink of the Larynx.  
Others do here add a third pair, which Columbus nevertheless and Casserius do account but one Muscle.  
But this is rather Musculus Deglutitorius, or a Swallowing muscle, because arising from the Scutiformis tis wrapped about the Gullet.  
It is judged, by contracting the sides of the Scutiformis, to straiten the Chink: but it is no Servant to the Larynx unless by accident.  
The first proper Pair, arises on the foreside, from the lowest part of the 
The Proper.  Scutiformis, as the Insertion of the Nerves doth show, and ends at the Annularis. And therefore this pair may be termed Thyrocricoides; but not, as most Anatomists will have it, Cricothyroides. Some will have it to arise from the fore-side of the Cricoides, and to end into the lowest side of the Scutiformis. If it be broad and spread out sideways, it may be divided into two pair, the foremore and the side pair, and so Riolanus divides it. But it is for the most part single and small enough.  
It's Use is to draw the Cartilago Annularis to the Scutiformis. (lightly, because it is almost immovable) so that they may be joined together, and kept in that posture. Others who differ about its original, will have it to widen the Chink or the Scutiformis.  
The second Pair rises from the back side of the Annularis, with a fleshy original, and is implanted into the lower part of the Glottalis or Arytaenoides, with a Nervous end, opening the Larynx, by drawing asunder the two Gristles called Arytaenoides. And therefore they are called Par Cricoarythenoides posticum. Casserius calls them Par Cucullare.  
The third pair, Cricoarythenoides laterale, arises above from the sides of the Annularis, and is inserted at the sides of the Glottalis, into the joint, there where it is not touched by the former, and opens the Larynx, with the same oblique carriage of the Gristles.  
The fourth pair, called Thyroarytenoides, being inward and very broad, proceeds from the Scutiformis, viz. from its inner and fore part, and from the Cricoides likewise, as Riolanus suspects, and ends into the sides of the Glottalis, or the Arytaenoides, which while it contracts and draws to the Thyroides, it shuts the Larynx, by a strait passage. When this pair is inflamed in a Sq●…ie, it makes the Disease deadly, because it exactly shurs the Chink.  
The ninth Muscle, which others term Quintum par Arytenoides, arises from the hinder line of the Guttalis, and being carried along with transverse Fibres, it is inserted into the sides thereof, shutting the Larynx, while it straitens the Cartilago Arytaenoides.  
For it is to be noted, that all the proper Muscles of the Larynx, are ordained either to contract or widen the Chink, which that it may be the more conveniently accomplished, some of them widen and straiten the Thyroides, others the Arytaenoides, which Gristles do compass the Chink, which being drawn in, or widenest, the Chink is withal made narrower or wider. Whence it appears, that I have not unskillfully propounded the Muscles of the Larynx, as Riolanus upbraids me.  
The Epiglottis in Mankind has no Muscle; for it is not voluntarily moved in Men, as some vainly persuade themselves; but is only depressed by the weight of such things as are swallowed.  
But in brute Beasts, the Epiglottis hath Muscles, because they are continually eating, and chewing the Cud, and they have a very great Epiglottis. And in them some Muscles arise from the Hyoides, and are implanted into the Basis of the Epiglottis, which they lift up; (and this pair Vesalius reckons to be the fifth common pair) and others are seated between the Coat of the Epiglottis and the Cartilege, shutting the same.  
The Gristles of the Larynx are five: 
Its Gristles.  which in elderly persons do sometimes attain a boney hardness; by means whereof, some have scaped the danger of suffocation, when they hung upon the Gallows.  
The first Gristle is termed Cartilago Thuroides, or Scutiformis, Scutalis, Clypealis, Peltalis, etc. from its shape; because it resembles a shield, being in a manner foursquare, hollow within, Bossie and bunching without, but more in Men then in Women: because their Necks are made even, for beauty's sake, by those Kernels placed by the Larynx. That same bunch which is seen on the foreside 
Adam's Apple is more bunching out in Men then in Women.  of the Nec●…s called Adam's Apple, because 〈…〉 common people have a belief, that by the judgement of God, a part of that fatal Apple, abode sticking in Adam's Thro●●, and is so communicated to his posterity. It is distinguished in the middle with a line, and therefore some have made it double, whereas in truth it is very rarely found otherwise then single.  
In its Corners it hath processes, above two long ones, wherewith by help of a Li●…ment, it is joined to the lower sides of Os hyoides; and beneath two likewise, by which 'tis j●…d to the following Gristle.  
The second is the Cricoeides or Annularis, because it is round like a Ring, and compasses the whole Larynx. Now it resembles the Turks Ring, wherewith they Arm their Thumbs when they shoot, for the hinder part is broad and very thick. The fore part is straighter and drawn in like one of our Rings. 'tis vulgarly termed Innominata, or the nameless Gristle, because the ancients gave it no name. 'tis the Basis of the rest of the Gristles, by help whereof they are joined to the Aspera Artera, and therefore it is immovable.  
The third and fourth, which others count for one, when the Membrane is taken of appears to be double. 'tis called Arutainoeides, Guttalis, by reason of its resembling the spout of an Ewer, whereout the Water is poured, if the two processes of the upper part are considered, which being joined together do make up that little Chink which modulates the voice, which others term ●…gula, Parva Lingua, or Glottis, the 〈…〉 Tongue, for the voice 
The Glottis.  cannot be 〈…〉 through a narrow passage. This rests upon the upper and hinder side of the Cricoides, in the Cavity of the Thyroides.  
In this place is to be observed a certain Hollowness, which is form between the Guttalis and the Scutalis, by the Membranes which gather up the Cartilages; into which if peradventure while one is speaking or laughing, and the Epiglottis is open, a cru●● of bread or a drop of drink do happen to fall, it causes Coughing, because it goes against the Course of the wind. But if any thing slide leisurely down the Chink, by the Walls of the Larynx, it hinders not the wind, and so causes no Coughing.  
The fifth is termed Epiglottis, which covers and shuts the Chink, lest an considerable 
Epiglottis.  quantity of meat or drink should fall into the Weasand, but that the Epiglottis being shur, they might pass down the Gullet. But it is not exactly shut, so that some small quantity of drink may slip down the sides. For when we say that drink passes not into the Weasand and the Lungs, it is to be understood of the greatest part; for that some is carried thither, I have showed you before. And therefore in Diseases of the Chest, we prescribe Electuaries and Lozenges, which are to be held in the patient's mouth, his Head leaning backwards, till they melt away, that some portion of them may slip in by the Walls of the Weasand. 'tis opened when we Laugh, and therefore Men must be careful that the● do not Laugh when they are supping of broth 〈…〉 the like. Also let such as are greedy eaters take ●…eah, any meat get between the Epiglottis and the 〈…〉 whence immediately suffocation follows, as I have se●● in a young man of Hafnia, who was suddenly choked by a piece of Neats-tongue weighing an ounce and an halt, greedily eaten.  
Now the Substance of the Epiglottis is soft, and its Shape resembles a Tongue, or an I vie leaf, according to Hypocrates. And on either side a Membrane is fastened to the common mouth; such an one as that which being daubed with a clammy Humour, doth compass the inner Cavity of the Larynx, and the outside thereof is likewise covered thereby.  
As for Vessels. 
Vessels   
The Larynx hath Veins from the internal Jugular.  
It hath Arteries from the larger branch of the Carotides.  
It hath Nerves which Galen terms Vocales, for the motion of the Muscles, from the recurrent branch of the sixth pair.  
Two parcels of Kernels attend the same. 
Kernels.   
One Parcel at the upper part of the Larynx, viz. at the sides of the Uuula 〈…〉 Gargareon which are called Tonsilla or Amyg●… also Paristhima and Antiades the Almonds of the Ears: which being Spongy (on each side one) ●o 〈…〉 the moisture of the Brain, t●●● it into spital and therewith moisten the Throat, Larynx, 
spital  Tongue and Oesophagus; though it helps also our Tasting, which cannot be performed without moisture. These Kernels are about the Root of the Tongue, and are covered with the common Coat of the Mouth, and receive Veins from the Jugulars.  
They have placed by them two little white Bladderkeys, which receive ●ero●ity out of the Kernels, and void forth into the Mouth. Riolanus doth acknowledge no such in a Man, but Sustitutes in their stead Ligamental Membranes, stretched out from the Uuula to the Almonds.  
Others stand by the lowerside of the Larynx, on each side one, at the sides of Cricoides and of the first ring of the Weasand, being great and spongy, through which Veins are spread, from the Jugularis externa. In Women it is more Perspicuous; in a Man and in an Ox, more fleshy and red.  
The Use is, to bedew the Larynx, with a clammy and fat, but not fluid moisture, that the Gristles may be more fit for motion, and the voice may be made sweeter: which is imitated by those who anoint their pipes with Oil.  
The Use of the Larynx is to be the Organ of the Voice.  
For the Organs of the Voice are either Remote or Immediate.  
The Remote are the Chest and the Lungs, without the Assistance of the Heart; for if the four Vessels of the Heart should be tied, and the Heart cut off, yet a Dog can both run and bark, as besides later Authors, Galen did often experiment: and the illustrious Sr. Francis Bacon, in his History of Life and Death, Article 15. tells of an unboweled Man, who after his Heart was taken out, uttered three or four words of his Prayers.  
The Immediate are either preparatory, as the Trachea; or assistant as the Muscles and Nerves; or conservatory, as the Mouth and Throat. But the most principal part is the Larynx: and that part thereof termed Glottis is the next and adequate Organ of the Voice.  
Now the Voice is made after this 
How the Voice is made?  ma●●er: the Air is suddenly and strongly blown out by the Lungs, and the Chink is moderately straitened, where by the smiting of the Air the Voice is made, as we perceive the wind to whistle through the Chink of a Dore. And therefore Aristotle calls the Voice a smiting of the Air; understanding, in a causal way of expression, the Acton for the quality springing therefrom. And if the breath go out, the Organ being wide open, it causes a Sig●. 
Sig●ing.   
And therefore, that noise which Animals make cannot properly be termed a voice, they wanting this Organ; as the noise which some sishes make, the croaking of Frogs, and the ●re●king of Grass-hoppers. Aristotle tells us that the croaking of a Frog is made, when the Lip of the lower Jaw being equally let down, and a little water being in their Throats ' the upper Jaw which remains immovable, is so forcibly bend, that their Eyes seem to sparkle. But, it is evident, that a Frog hath Lungs, and a Chink in stead of a Larynx. And therefore the Voice is an Animal sound, made by the Glottis through 
What is properly a Voice?  smiting the Air as it is breathed in and out, being produced to signify the Conceptions of the Mind. And therefore Voice is only in living Creatures, nor is every sound in them a Voice, but that which is made in the Glottis; not Coughing, nor hawking, If any Fishes make a noise, it is by their Gills or some such thing, but not by their Mouths. Creatures without Blood and Infects, as Bees Wasps, Locusts and the like, utter no Voice, but as Aristotle rightly observes in his fourth Book de Historia Animalium, they make a noise which proceeds from their Back, as for example sake, a Grass-hopper makes a noise, by rubbing its wings one against another; For in these infects there is contained a certain Spirit and Air, in a Membrane beneath the Septum Transversum. Others will have it that infects make such noises by beating the Air after sundry manners with their wings.  
The Differences of Voices are infinite, 
The differences of Voices, or Speeches.  which are made, 1. By the Figuration of the Mouth. 2. By the different Percussion and Modulation of the Air, as we see in Pipes. 3. From the largeness and other qualities of the Instruments, viz. the Larynx, Weasand, Lungs and Chest. 4. According as the Voice comes to the Ear, entire or mangled. And besides these differences, every particular Beast hath a voice of its own, which the Brutes themselves can accurately distinguish, having herein a better hearing then Men. For a Lamb newly brought forth, knows its Mother's bleating among a thousand Sheep, and the Ewe likewise knows the bleating of her own Lamb from all others. Which is also true of Hens and Chickens. For the same voice never happens, because the Instruments do never agree in all things: even as Bells made of the same matter, the same weight, the same form, and by the same workman, do nevertheless always differ in sound.  
The Parts of the Voice or Speech, are 
Parts of Voice or Speech.  Vowels and Consonants. We represent the Vowels only by five Letters, because the root of the Tongue is only moved by so many motions. But when a Vowel is further cut and modified, in the fore part of the Tongue, by the Lips and Teeth, it becomes a consonant, which therefore cannot be uttered without a Vowel, because that is its matter, seeing it arises only from a Vowel modified and cut: just as from the confused sound of a Pipe, an Articulate and Harmonious sound is made, when after a certain Method, the sounding Air is again stopped and cut by the Fingers.   

Chap. XII. Of the OESOPHAGUS or Gullet.  
THe OESOPHAGUS which some term Gula, others stomachus, and Coelius Aurelianus Via stomachi and Ventris the way of the Stomach and Belly, in English the Gullet, is the Pipe or Funnel of the Stomach, as the Weasand is the Pipe of the Lungs.  
'Tis so Scituate, as that it begins in the Throat, where it is termed Pharynx, 
It's Situation.  and from thence goes down right forward, under the Weasand, into the Stomach. And when it is come as far as to the fifth Vertebra of the Chest, giving way to the Aorta, which passes through the middle thereof, it bends to the right Hand; afterwards it rises again to the left great Artery, and at the eleventh Vertebra, through the Diaphragma or Midriff it enters the left mouth of the Stomach, accompanied by two Nerves arising from the sixth pair.  
It hath a few Veins from the Cava, the Azygos, Intercostal and Jugular 
Its Vessels.  Veins.  
It hath Arteries from the Intercostal Arteries, and the internal Carotides.  
And Nerves from the sixth pair.  
It's Connexion is, at the beginning with the Jaws and Larynx, by the Coat of 
Connexion.  the Mouth, which is common to it and the Stomach. To the Vertebrae, the Trachea and neighbouring parts 'tis joined by Membranes arising out of the Ligaments of the Back. And because it lies upon the Spina 
When the Gullet is diseased, Medicaments are applied to the Back.  or Backbone, therefore when it is Diseased, we apply external remedies to the Backbone.  
A Glandulous Body grows to the hinder part of it, which affords 
It's Kernels.  moisture, to wet the Cavity thereof, the better to assist the swallowing of things. And sometimes it swells so much, as to hinder the swallowing of all liquid meats and drink.  
It's Substance consists of a triple Coat, that it might more easily be stretched 
Substance.  long-ways and broadwayes.  
The first is common with the Stomach. This some will have to arise from the Ligaments of the Vertebrae, others from the Pleura, who are therein both mistaken. For it hath its rise, there where the Membrane of the Stomach arises, viz. from the Peritonaeum, for it is one continued Body with the Membrane of the Stomach, it is exceeding thin and in a manner destitute of all Fibres.  
The second is the first Proper one, the external being more fleshy, thicker and softer, than the other; being as it were a Muscle bored through, being commonly reputed to be interwoven with round and transverse Fibres. Also Hoffman doth thereby prove it to be a Muscle, because it suffers Convulsions and Palsies.  
The third is the second Proper one, internal, more Nervous, somewhat subtle and harder, being commonly said to be interwoven with straight and long Fibres. It is contained with that Membrane which covers the Palate, Throat and Lips, and therefore when a Man is ready to vomit, his lower Lip trembles.  
Howbeit, contrary to the vulgar opinion aforesaid, our Eyes can witness, that the inner Coat is furnished with transverse and circular Fibres, the external with strait and longish ones.  
The Muscles of the Gullet which other 
Muscles.  have passed over in silence, are four.  
The first, is the same I spoke of before, treating the Laring. It is only one like a Sphincter Muscle compassing the Gullet. And therefore Riolanus, Spigelius, and Ves●ingus term it Musculus Oesophagus, being the Authors of that name.  
The second, is the Sphaenopharyngaeus by them so called, arising from the internal acute process of the Sphaenoides, and being obliquely implanted into the sides of the Oesophagus, that it being drawn upwards and widened, it may be the more wide to receive in meat.  
The third is Stylopharyngaeus, which arising from the Bodkin-shaped acute process, is stretched out to the sides of Oesophagus; which both Dilates and Amplifies.  
The fourth, is Cephalo-pharyngaeus, commonly said to arise from the Chin, but according to late Authors, from the lowest part of the Heads-top where it is nearest the Neck; and is inserted with a various contexture of Fibres into the beginning of the Oesophagus, where it is larger: and therefore because of its Latitude and Fabric, it seems to be two.  
The Action therefore of the Oesophagus 
Whether Swallowing be a Natural or Animal Action?  is Animal; seeing it is performed by Muscles and not natural, as the vulgar opinion is of all Authors, and swallowing doth doubtless depend upon our free will and liberty.  
Now swallowing is performed after this manner: when any thing is to be swallowed, that same first Muscle which Galen terms Sphincter doth every way contract itself, whereupon its oblique Fibres, which reach from the Oesophagus to the Larynx, are made transverse, which being done, the Larynx is lifted up, and the Gullet is depressed; and the Cavity of the Gullet so depressed, is made more narrow. Hereunto the fourth Muscle is assistant. For as the first being contracted, embraces the meat which by chewing is brought into a round Mass, and so bears it down: so this fourth Muscle also contracting itself, comes out as it were to help, and that the meats received in at the Mouth may not go back, it straitens and repels them on every side, and transmits' them into the Gullet, so that by both these Muscles contracted, and the Semicircular joined therewith a perfect circle as it were and Sphincter is made, viz. by the fourth in the upper part of the Pharynx, and by the first in the lower.  
The Use of the Gullet is, that by it as by a Funnel, meat and drink may be passed into the Stomach. And liquid things are indeed more easily swallowed then solid; contrariwise in 
Why sometimes solid meats are more easily swallowed then liquid.  some sick persons solid meats are more readily swallowed then liquid, because the faculty is more provoked by a stronger object, being otherwise lulled a sleep as it were; especially in the Palsy.   

Chap. XIII. Of the Neck.  
AN Appendix or Appurtenance to the 
The Neck.  middle Belly. is the NECK, as a medium between the Head and the Chest.  
'Tis termed Collum a Colendo, because it is wont to be adorned: or a Colle 
Why called Collum.  from an Hillock, for it arises out of the Body, as an Hill out of the rest of the Earth.  
'Tis oblong for the modulation of the 
It's Magnitude.  Voice; and therefore Animals which utter no true Voice, as Fishes and Frogs, have no Necks: and those which make the greatest Voice, have the longest Necks, as Cranes and Geese, etc. By the use of Venery the thickness of the Neck is altered, because heat distends the Aspera Arteria, the Carotides, and the Jugular Veins. Whence it was an ordinary Practice among the Romans to measure the Bride's Neck the day after the Wedding, by which they knew whether she were a Virgin or Corrupted, as we learn out of Catullus and Mercurialis.  
The hinder part of the Neck is properly termed Cervix. Now the parts of the 
Its Parts.  Neck are either external, as the Skin, Muscles, etc. or internal; as the Vessels which run through the Trachea and Oesophagus: of the latter I have spoken, of the rest I shall speak in their proper places.  
The Use of the Neck is, 1. For the Oesophagus, Weasand, and Lungs. Hence Creatures 
It's Use.  that have no Lungs, as Fishes, have no Necks. 2. To be instead of an Hand to some Creatures, to take their meat with, according to Galen. 3. That it may afford Nerves to the foreparts, the Shoulder, Cubit, Hand, Midriff; for those creatures only have these parts who have Necks.    

THE THIRD BOOK OF THE Uppermost Cavity, VIZ. THE HEAD.  
THe third or upper Venture or Cavity is the Head, the chief mansion-house 
Why the Head is placed so high.  of the sensitive Soul which is placed in the top of the Body, for the Eyes sake, which are there placed as in a Watchtower; and requisite it was that the Brain should be near the Eyes, because they have soft Nerves, which cannot be carried far.  
The Head is round like a Globe, but a little flatned withal, and longish. 
It's Figure.   
'Tis greater in Man then other Creatures, because of the Largeness of his 
Greatness.  Brain.  
And for more safeguard, the Head is 
Substance.  altogether bony.  
The Head is divided into the Hairy 
Division.  part, and that which is without Hair.  
The former is termed Calva, the latter Fancies.  
The external parts of the Calva are these following. 
Calva.   
Sinciput, which is the forepart reaching from the Forehead to the coronal Suture.  
Occiput, which is the hinder part, reaching from the Lambda-fashioned Suture, to the first Vertebra of the Neck.  
Vertex, which is the part situate between the two former, bunching out.  
Tempora, the Temples, which are the Side-parts, between the Eyes and the Ears.  
Now the parts which constitute the Calva, are some of them external and clothing, others internal and contained. The former are either common, as the Scarf-skin, the Hairy-skin, the Fat, the fleshy Membrane: or proper as the Pericardium, Periostium, the Muscles, the Bones, the Mening. The contained are the Brain, the Petty-brain, and the Marrow, which is partly in the Skull, partly in the Backbone.  
The smooth part of the Head, called the Face besides the parts containing, hath 
The Face.  parts proper to itself, viz. the upper part which is called the Forehead, and the lower in which are the Organs of the Senses; as the Eyes, Nostrils, Ears, and Mouth, wherein the Tongue and other parts are concealed.  

Chap. I. Of the Hairs.  
IN the Head there is the greatest plenty of Hair, therefore the Nature of the Hair may conveniently be delivered in this place: though considered as an Excrement, it does not belong to this place.  
Hairs are found well-near in all Creatures 
What creatures have Hair.  that engender their young ones within their bodies, as Aristotle assures us: instead whereof Fishes have scales, Birds feathers, and some Beasts as the Hedgehog, have long sharp prickles.  
Now the Hairs are indeed Bodies, but not parts of the body, unless in a very large signification, as when we say some parts serve only to adorn the body.  
The immediate material Cause of which the hairs are made, is certain fuliginous and excrementitious Vapours, thick and earthy, yet somewhat glewish and clammy.  
It's therefore false, which some affirm, 
Whether Hair & Nails grow of good nutriment.  that the Hairs and Nails are nourished and generated of good and laudable nutriment. For they grow even in persons consumed and pined away, and being cut, they grow again in all ages of a man's life; and the oftener they are cut, the sooner they grow again. Yea in dead men, as on thiefs upon the Gibbet, etc. they grow. See Paraeus at the end of his Book, who had an embalmed body in his house twenty four years together, the Hairs and Nails whereof grew again as often as they cut them. They are therefore bred of sooty Steams and Vapours, of the third Concoction, or of the fleshy substance itself, by whatsoever heat resolved into vapours.  
The remote Matter, is nothing 
The remote matter of Hair.  seminal out of which the hair sprouts as a flower, nor any fat substance inclining to the Nature of the Seed or Blood, but a superfluous moisture; especially that which is contained in the Kernels. And therefore where there are Kernels, in those places there 
Where Hair breed.  are commonly Hairs, as at the Ears, in the Armpits, in the Groins, etc. And if sometimes there are Kernels without Hairs, this want of hair springs from a too great quantity of humours.  
For the Matter in which, or the Place where hairs are bred, ought not to be too moist, nor too dry; as we see nothing grow in a wet fuliginous Soil, nor in ground over dry and parched.  
And therefore the Skin, because it is a temperate part, as the place of Generation 
Why crusted Animals have no hairs.  of hairs; but if it be too moist, or too dry, as in some persons it is, the hair does not shoot forth: and therefore crusted Animals, as Crabs, Lobsters, Oysters, etc. have no hairs.  
The Skin therefore on which hairs must be bred, aught to be moderately dry, lest the hair should fall from its root; but it must not be immoderately, but lax and rare, lest otherwise the hair should not make its way through. And therefore hairs may grow all over the skin, because it is every where porous, and every Poor hath the root of an hair fastened therein, excepting the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, which parts because of their continual motion and wearing, have no hairs, and because they were to be of an exquisite sense. And for this cause there grows no hair upon a Scar, because it hath no Pores.  
Hairs also do sometimes grow on the inner Membranes of the Body, in the Heart as was said before, in the Womb, in the Urinary passages, Witness Hypocrates, Galen, Schenkius. Hair was found in the stomach by ●●eer, and lately in Norway bairs were voided by vomit from the Stomach, whether bred there, or taken in. At the Danish Hellespont red hairs were lately taken out of the musculous flesh of an Ox leg.  
The Efficient Cause of hair, is not the Soul, nor any vegetative hair-making faculty, but moderate heat, drying up those fuliginous vapours, and thrusting them forth into the pores of the Skin.  
These three things already explained, are the chief Requisites for the Generation 
Requisites to the Generation of hair.  of Hair, viz. The Matter, the Place convenient, and Heat.  
From whence by the Rule of Contraries, the Cause of Baldness may be 
'Cause of baldness.  gathered, viz.  

1. When Matter is wanting.  
2. When the Skin is Originally too dry, and afterwards grows drier, and is not moistened by any neighbouring part. Now the forepart of the Head is here to be understood, which is commonly the only bald place; for no man, according to Aristotle, becomes bald on the hinder-part of his Head. For either Fat or other moisture in the hinder-part and the Temples keep them from baldness; fat in the forepart, the Skin becomes dry and hard like a shell, and therefore is bald.  
3. By reason of too much or too little heat. For weak heat does not sufficiently dry the matter, as in cold and moist persons, and such as are in years. And therefore the humour growing over hot by carnal Copulation, is the cause of baldness, and for this cause Boys and Eunuches do not become bald.  
4. Also four Husbandmen near Brussels became bald by poison, as Franciscus de Paz the King of Spain's Physician observed, and wrote thereof ●o Nicholas Fontanus; And Hamelmannus in his Annals tells of an Horse of the Count of Oldenburg, which by poison was made bald hither, because this poison had some specifical contrariety to the Hairs, or because the Spirits being extinguished, and the vigour of the Body quelled, the roots of the hairs could not be retained in the Skin. Such a poison is the fat of a certain Whale in the Island of Feroe, newly taken out, by which Copper-vessels are also broken.   
The Hairs are commonly divided into such as are bred in the womb, and such as grow afterwards.  
Those bred in the Womb are threefold, those of the Head, of the Eyelids, 
Hairs bred in the womb.  and the Eyebrows.  
The Hairs which grow afterwards, are such as spring up when a man comes to a just age; that is, in a boy when he begins to breed Sperm, and in a Maid when her Courses break forth, for then the Skin grows open.  
Also these are threefold: for 1. Hairs breed on the Share, seldom in the Womb and the Heart. 2. In the Armpits, also in the Nostrils and Ears. 3. On the Chins of men but not of women; for in women their Courses spend the matter of hair which should make a beard, and therefore sometimes, when their Courses are poxed, women have hairs growing on their Chins. It was a rare case for a young woman of thirty years of age, one of the Arch-dutches of Austria's Women, to have ever since she was a Girl, before her courses broke forth, a long beard with mustachioes like a man. And I saw such a like Girl not long since in the Low-countries, who was also hairy all her Body over. Lately Helena Marswin in Fionia, had a Girl with a long beard of a reddish yellow colour.  
The End or Use of Hairs, 
Use of Hair.   

I. Is to cover the Parts.  
II. To adorn them. And this is chiefly seen in the Hairs of the Head and Face. For 

1. The Hairs of the Head do shield 
Why a man hath plenty of hair?  the Brain from external injuries of cold and heat, etc. So in Aethiopia by a peculiar thrumming of their hairs, they are defended from the heat. And as a man hath the greatest Brain of all Creatures, so hath he thereon most plenty of hairs.  
2. They moderately heat, as otherwise in the Head there is no Fat to keep it warm: but rather a bony substance, and that far distant from the Heart. Now the hairs according to the advice of the Physician, are to be let grow, or to be cut off in this or that person, but they must not be shaved off, because thereby Defluxions are caused. So also the beard does cherish and moderately warm the Chin. In persons that are recovering out of sickness, the hair must not be cut off, for fear of a relapse, touching which Question see Sitonus.  
3. They adorn: for bald persons and 
The Beard adorns.  thin-haired are deformed. So the Beard also adorns a man, and makes him venetable, especially if the hairs be spread all about. But in women there was no need of so venerable an appearance.    
III. To purge the Humours and Spirits, and the whole Body of superfluous sooty steams. And therefore frequent cutting the hair, quickens the ●ight, and Celsus in a long Defluxion of Rheum, bids us cut the hair to the skin. C. Aurelianus says that in the Frenzy, when the hair is cut off, the parts transpire, being freed from a great burden. Hence a reason may be drawn why Helmont. ●asting an Ass' milk, could tell whether she had been curried and combed that morning or not.  
IV. To afford signs whereby to know the Temperament, Manners and hidden Diseases of every person.   
The Form of Hairs is not the Soul, as many would have it, because in persons 
Their Form.  that consume, and such as are dead, the hairs grow; and those who conceive with Plempius, that there is a Soul in persons dead twenty four years, I leave the Readers to make an estimate of their Wisdom. Nor do they retain a vegetative life in dead persons, for so the whole man should not die, nor is there any thing in a dead Carcase, that should rather preserve this life, than the sensitive or rational, not to say that these ignoble Parts by the long-lasting of their lives, should excel all other parts. Plants indeed spring living from the lifeless Earth, but out of a living Seed, which I deny to be in the Hairs, and therefore they stick not in the Body like Plants, nor are bred thereout. Nor must we say with Plotinus, that certain relics of life remain after death, as warmed rooms remain hot, when the fire is out; for such Relics of life could not remain so many years. The form therefore of the hairs may be described by their accidents, which are these following.  
I. Magnitude: Now the Head-hairs are longest, because the Brain is greater 
Magnitude.  than the rest of the Kernels: also they are thickest, because the Skin of the Head is most thick, howbeit it is lax and open, and contains sufficient moisture.  
According therefore as the Skin is thick or thin, rare or compact, and the humour plentiful or scanty, and the heat weak or strong, the hairs become thick or thin, hard or soft, plentiful or scanty, etc. He had store of hair on his Head, who could suffer himself to be shot in the head with a bullet, and had no hurt, whom Busbequius saw in his Voyage to Constantinople. Yet they grow not infinitely, because the Exhalations are not so plentiful, nor does the expulsive Faculty work infinitely.  
2. Their Figure: The hairs are strait and flat, in such as abound with moisture, but curled 
Figure.  in such as are dry. Therefore curled hair is harder than that which lies flat. Hence all Blackmores are curl-pated, because of their dry Temperament. But the Scythians and Thracians have long flat hair, because they are moist, according to Aristotle. Again the hairs are strait because of the straightness of the passages through which they break forth; and crisp because of the crookedness of the said passages. The augmenting Glass informs us that the hairs are quadrangular; though others will have them to be round because of the roundness of the Pores.  
Also they are porous or hollow within, as the Disease Plica in Poland does show, and the hairs of an Elk. Again because they may be split, they have Pores, according to Aristotle's maxim.  
III. Their Colour: which in Brutus' follows the colour of the Skin; and in 
The cause of the colour of the hair.  men is exceeding variable, according to the Country, ambient Air predominant Humour, Age, etc.  
For those that dwell in hot and dry Countries, have their hair not only dry, crisp and brittle, but also black, as the Aegypians, Arabians, Indians; also the Spaniards, Italians, and part of the French have their hair for the most part black. They who dwell in cold and moist Countries, have their hairs not only soft and strait, but for the most part yellow or white, as the Inhabitants of Denmark, England, Norway, Swedland, Scythia, etc.  
Again the predominant Humour makes the Colour of the hairs: as in phlegmatic persons, the hairs are for the most part white, and so of the rest.  
Also the Variety of Heat makes variety of Colours: for immoderate heat makes black hairs: for a vaporous Excrement is raised by the heat, and is changed into an exact sooty stream. But temperate heat makes the hairs yellow; more temperate makes them red; a weak heat makes them white. But both these causes of Colours do easily concur in the hair, as when phlegm abounds, weakness of heat is joined therewith, and when Blood abounds, heat is moderate, etc.  
Also a change in the Colour is made in respect of Age, as also of other accidents. For grown persons have their hair not only thicker, harder, stronger and more plentiful, but at length also grey and whiteish.  
But no Hairs on the Body of Man are Naturally green, or blue, though there are both green and leek-coloured Choler in Man's Body; the cause whereof is not the thickness of the hair, uncapable of light, as Cardan imagined, because the hair is capable of being yellow, its thickness nothing hindering; but, as Scaliger rightly philosophizes, seeing, ●ry colour is not agreeable to every Plant, no more is it to the hairs. Yet I have seen green haired men at Hafnia, and those as work Metals have their hair commonly green. Marcellus Donatus relates of Antonius Maria Catabenus, grey haired through Age, how that much Choler mixed with blood abounding in his Body, not only his Skin became of a Verdigreese or yellow-green colour, but his grey hairs were also died of the same hue.  
The Ancients conceived that grey hairs 
The cause of grey hairs.  did proceed from dryness, as the Leaves of Trees when they are dried, look white.  
But Aristotle confutes them. For those who go with their heads covered, do sooner grow grey, and yet are not so dried, as those that expose their heads bare to the air. Again some are grey as soon as they are born or quickly after, which cannot proceed from Dryness.  
Now they grow soon grey that go 
Why they are soon grey-haired that go with their Heads covered?  always with their Heads covered, because the heat cannot be fanned, but is overwhelmed and strangled, which being extinguished, an external heat is introduced; so that putrefaction is the cause of grey hairs, which sprung from scarcity of innate heat, which cannot so digest the humours as in youth. And the outmost and smallest end of the hair is whitest, where there is least heat.  
Now why a white Humour should arise from putrefaction, the Cause is, 
Why Men are soon grey about their temples?  according to Aristotle, because a great part is turned into Air, which being well mixed with an earthy and marry Substance makes whiteness. Hence also it is apparent, why men are soon grey about their Temples, because there great and fleshy Muscles are placed under the Skin, which through moisture do easily putrify. Add hereunto, that the Bones of the Temples are very thin, and therefore extraneous heat can easily pass through them.   

Chap. TWO Of the Membranes without and within the Skull.  
THe EXTERNAL MEMBRANES which compass the Skull, are two: The PERICRANIUM and the PERIOSTIUM which compass the Brain; also there are two meanings or Matres so called, viz. DURA MATER and PIA MATER, that is to say a thick Membrane and a thin one, which perform the same Office in their Cavity, which the Pleura performs in the middle Cavity and the Peritonaeum in the lowest.  
The PERICRANEUM is a Membrane thin and soft, compassing the Skull, and 
The Pericraneum.  springing from the dura Mater coming out at the Sutures of the Skull.  
That it springs from the dura Mater, the extraordinary Consent between the Brain with its meanings and the Pericraneum, does sufficiently prove, which cannot be by any other way more conveniently made forth. Moreover, this production of the Pericranium from the dura Mater, is manifestly visible in Infants, in whom the Moles of their Heads are not yet sufficiently closed. Those Fibres wherewith Horstius, Spigelius, and Laurenbergius do conceive that the Pericraneum is only fastened to the dura Mater, do not go unto the Throat: for the Bones being by little and little hardened and compressed, that same Continuity of the Pericraneum and dura Mater, was broken off with Age, from whence arose that appearance of Fibres which hath deceived some.  
The PERIOSTIUM is a most thin and nervous Membrane, and therefore exceeding 
Periostium.  sensible, by help whereof, all the bones saving the teeth being compassed therewith, become sensible.  
I distinguish these two Membranes with Vesalius and Bauhinus against Fallopius, Laurentius and others, who confound them, seeing they may be accurately separated by a skilful Anatomist.  
Now the various Muscles about the Head shall be explained in their proper place.  
The CRASSA MENINX or harder Membrane called also DURA MATER, 
Crassa Meninx.  because of its thickness and hardness, and because many conceive all the Membranes of the Body do arise out of this and the tenuis Membrana or pia Mater, does cover the Skull all over on the inside, and all its Cavities and hollowness; and sticks strongly to its Basis, so that some have thought it took its Original from thence.  
Now it compasses the Brain also loosely, on the upper side, and covers the inside of the Skull. (For whereas Hildanus and Varolius have observed that it is straight fastened to the Skull, that was besides the ordinary Course of Nature) that there may be some distance between, as there is between the Heart and the Heart-bag, both in living and dead bodies, though in the latter it is greater, by reason of the defect of Spirits and the falling in of the Brain, which I grant Olbafius and Hofmannus; and this is so contrived that the swelling Vessels of the Brain, may not be compressed, and that there may be no hindrance of the  
Motion of the Brain, which is made up of Systole and Diastole, and is continual, 
The Brain moves.  as may be seen in Wounds of the Head, newborn Children, and most vehement pains of the head, as Fabricius Hildanus hath observed: And I myself have frequently seen this motion in wounded persons. Strange therefore it is that some learned men will needs deny this motion. But it is a very hard task to assign the true Cause of this motion: Some make it to be the Meninge; others the Arteries; others the Substance of the Brain. But it is ill ascribed to the Meninge: for a great portion of the brain being taken away, and the meanings themselves, the brain was observed to move in a living Sheep, by the renowned Riolanus. They judge better who ascribe the same to the Arteries, for the motions of the Brain and Arteries do happen both at one and the same time, as may easily be observed in Fractures of the Skull, and in the Heads of Infants. Yea and Walaeus observes that in those who being wounded in the Head to the Brain, have extreme anguish, only certain conspicuous Arteries do move, and not the Substance of the Brain; and when the parties wounded gather strength, the motion of their Brain evidently returns. Also Coiter hath observed in living Lambs, Kids and Dogs, that the brain itself hath no motion but only the Arteries. To him Olbafius gives consent, because the motion is most observable about the Cavities of the dura mater, where are most Arteries. And therefore I conceive we must not have recourse to the substance of the brain: which is also soft and flaggie, and sufficiently indisposed for motion. But the chiefest motion is observed at the full of the Moon, by reason of the working of the humours at that season. But that also springs from the Arteries, which are more distended with blood: for the motion of the Heart becomes quicker or slower, according to the various Influence of the Stars. That the motion of the brain should answer the motion of the Lungs, I have no sufficient sign to prove.  
Now it is fastened to the pia mater and the brain, by Vessels; to the Skull by thin membranous fibres springing out of itself, passing out through the future's, and constituting the Pericranium.  
This Meninx or Coat is double, as the rest of the Membranes are. The external part respecting the Cranium, is hard, rough, and of a small sense, because of the hardness of the Skull which it was to touch.  
The inner part is smooth, slippery, brightly shineing and white, being more drenched with a waterish moisture.  
It is fourfold where it distinguishes the Brain from the petty-brain, in which place Dogs have a bone underpropping their brain, that it may not bear hard upon the Cerebellum, Branilet, or petty-brain.  
But on the Crown of the Head it is doubled, 
The Sickle.  where it divides the brain into the right and left part: and because the Reduplication is in the hinder-part broad, and grows afterwards narrow by degrees, yet not to a point, so as to represent a Reaper's Sickle, therefore 
See Tab. 11.  they term this Body Falx the Sickle. And while it is thus multiplied, it constitutes.  
Cavities hollownesses, being receptacles of abounding blood and Spirits, and they 
The upper Cavities.  are four in number; which Galen sometimes calls the Ventricles of dura Mater; and others call them Sanguiductus, Cisterns of Blood.  
The I. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE Represents the Cover of the Brain both proper and common, in the same order in which they are represented in Anatomical Dessections.  
FIG. I. Shows the enternal Parts. 

AAA. The Skin and the Scarf-skin with the Roots of the Hairs.  
B. The true Skin separated from the Scarf-skin, C.  
DDD. The Membrana Carnosa furnished with little Veins.  
EE. The Muscle of the Forehead out of its own proper place, receiving the Nerres which come out of the hole, O.  
FF. Fat spread over the Skull.  
G. The Pericranium lying upon the Periostium in its natural Situation.  
I. The same separated from the Periostium and turned inside out.  
K. The Periostium spread out upon the Skull.  
L. The same plucked of from the Skull.  
MM. The Skull naked.  
N. The Coronal suture.  
PP.. The Sagittal suture.  
QQ. The temporal Muscle as yet covered with the Pericranium.    
FIG. II. The Skull being taken away this Figure discovers the Coats of the Brain. 

AA. The dura Mater covering the left side of the Brain.  
bbb. Veins and Arteries sprinkled up and down the same.  
CCC. The Brain covered only with the p●a Mater.  
dd. The turnings and windings of the Brain.  
eeee. Vessels sprinkled up and down the pia Mater.  
F. The dura Mater drawn downwards.  
GGG. The upper Cavity engraven in the dura mater.    
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Cavities, as Walaeus suspects, or knit immediately to the Cavities themselves, do disburden themselves, into the Cavities, And these two being afterward united, do make up.  
The third which is longest of all: For it goes all along the Head to the tops of 
The third.  the Nostrils. Galen sometimes calls it a Vein, because it contains store of Blood. And when these Cavities are opened, an immeasurable quantity of Blood comes out by the Nose, which is supplied from the Arteries.  
The fourth Cavity, not reaching to the Skull as the former, is short, and goes inwardly between the Brain and the Brainelet, unto the Glandula pinealis.  
It arises, where the three former meet together, and this beginning some from Herophilus call Torcular the Wine-prest; and Nymmannus conceives that this part is chiefly obstructed in the Apoplexy. But 1. We do sometimes allow thereof, as a remote Cause▪ for all that accident is to be referred to the noble Ventricle. 2. Vital blood may be brought to the Brain by the rete Mirabile, whence Vessels go for Nutriments sake, to the substance of the Brain  
The third, or the uppermost of the sickle; and the fourth Cavities, do seem to me to end into the two former, or greater lateral ones; in which I follow Fr. Silvius exceedingly versed in the Anatomy of the Brain: and that not by a straight passage, but inclining to the sides; so that there is no common concourse of these four Ventricles; though these greater lateral ones are joined by an intermediate passage or Channel. Yet here also I have found some diversity according to the variety 
See Tab. II.  of subjects, so that they have sometimes met, and sometimes been separated. Riolanus makes the Torcular with Galen to be in the third longitudinal Cavity, because it distributes blood into all parts of the Brain and Brainlet or Cerebellum, which Reason holds truer in reference to the Arteries.  
Besides those four Cavities or Ventricles already described, three others, by the Information 
The lower Cavities.  of Silvius have in dissection presented themselves to me; which nevertheless, I have not always, and I tell you so much, lest any man not finding them presently in one or two Bodies, should accuse me of falsehood. Riolanus accounts them to be Coherences of the Duglicated Brain, spread under the greater once▪ by the intercedency of the pia Mater. Which is nothing, for they have Cavities as the others have, nor are they naked Coherences.  
The one of these, which was also observed by Vesalius, is carried through the 
See Tab. II.  lowest part of the Sickle, and therefore I have termed it, the lower Ventricle of the Sickle; and for distinctions sake, I have termed that which is commonly called the third, the upper Ventricle of the Sickle. This lower Ventricle of the Sickle, ends into the fourth Ventricle.  
The other two smaller lateral ones, on each side one, are distant about a thumbs breadth from the greater, situate in the dura Mater which distinguisheth the Brain from the Brainlet, not being so long as they. The one of them goes into the great lateral Cavity; I have also seen them ending into the fourth.  
From the Cavities▪ arise the branches or creeping jugular Veins, and into them the Arteriae Carotides, being distributed upwards and round about, and opening into them by mutual anastomosis.  
The II. TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This Figure Represents the right side of the Brain, cut away to a great depth, according to the passage of the Ventricle.  


A. The Nose.  
B. The right Ear.  
CCCC. A portion of the Skin of the Head hanging down.  
D. A Rudiment of the Muscle of the Hind-part of the Head.  
E. The Socket of the Eye.  
F. The Forehead Bone.  
G. The Bone of the Hinder-Head or Occiput.  
HH. The left side of the Brain, covered as yet with its dura Mater.  
III. The dura Mater of the right side hanging down.  
KKK. The Falx or Sickle.  
L. The End of the Sickle at the Galli Crista or Coxcomb.  
MMM. The upper Cavity of the Sickle.  
NN. The lower Cavity of the Sickle.  
O. The greater Right-hand lateral Cavity.  
P. The ingress of the upper Cavity of the Sickle into the greater lateral Cavity.  
Q. The fourth Ventricle between the Brain and the Brainlet.  
R. The ingress of the fourth Ventricle into the greater Lateral one.  
S. The common passage of the greater lateral cavities.  
TT. A portion of those great Vessels which pass into the upper cavity of the Sickle.  
VV. Part of the great cleft in the Brain.  
● The lower and outer part of the right Ventricle, where a little twig of the corotick Artery, peirces as far as the Plexus Choroides.  
y. The hinder and larger part of the right Ventricle.  
z. A roundish cavity of the right Ventricle resembling the finger of a Glove.  
a. The upper and inner part of the right Ventricle, under the Corpus callosum.  
b. The descent and orifice of the right Ventricle going into the third or middlemost.  
ccc. The Glandulous intertexture called Chorocides.  
dd. The Root of the spinal Marrow.  
e. The Brain continued to the root of the spinal Marrow.  
ff. The Corpus callosum so called.  
gggg. The hinder and lower part of the Brain, continued to the Corpus callosum, and forming the cavity of the right Ventricle.  
hh. A portion of the left side of the Brain appearing under the Falx or Sickle.  
two Little Arteries creeping along the Surface of the right Ventricle.    
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The Use therefore of the Ventricles, is not so much to contain the two sorts of 
The Use.  Blood, received from the Veins and Arteries; as only to receive the Arterial blood, by means whereof they Pulse. For the Arterial blood communicated to the Brain by the Arteria Cervicalis, which remains over and above after the Nutriment of the Brain and Brainlet, and the Generation of Animal spirits, is voided into these Caveties, either immediately or mediately, by the little twigs of the Cavities, as Walaeus suspects; and from thence through the jugular Veins which are joined to the Ventricles, together with a thin Skin cleaving to their Walls, it runs back downwards to the Heart, that it may be wrought over again. For that the blood is circularly moved in the Brain also, appears likewise by the Ligatures of live Creatures; seeing the jugular being bound, swells towards the Head, but is empty and lank towards the Cava and Heart.  
P. Laurenberg conceives ●●● Animal Spirits are generated in the Cavities, without any firm judgement or probable Reason.  
A. Kyperus a most learned Man, conceives that a special use of these Cavities is, to ventilate and cool the blood, for the better service of the Brain and the Generation of Animal Spirits; seeing the extremities of the Arteries do end in them, and the Ventricles themselves are closed in by a single, cold Membrane. But in my Judgement the Arterial blood does not come into the Cavities, before it be cooled, when it returns from the Generation of Spirits. And then it needs no cooling, being to return immediately through the Veins into the Heart.  
The Use of the dura Mater is, I. To cover the brain with the Marrow and Nerves thence arising.  
II. To distinguish the Brain from the Brainlet, and the Brain itself into two parts.  
III. To constitute the Pericranium, while it sends Ligaments therefore, through the Sutures.  
Th● pia Mater called so because of its thinness, doth immediately enclose the 
Pia Mater.  Brain, and its Parts and Ventricles, lest they should run about; therefore it was to be thin and soft; and it is of most exquisite sense. It is thicker in the third Ventricle, than the rest, if we will believe Olhofius. The sense of this Membrane was more dull in him that had three bones growing thereto without hurt, which were seen at Paris by my Cousin-german Henricus Fuiren: & in that Venetian, who had a pretty large tooched Bone, growing in False or the Duplicature of the Meninx, which Folius did show me.  
It's Use is; To clothe the Brain, the Brainlet, the Marrow and the Nerves.   

Chap. III. Of the Brain and its Marrow in General.  
WIthin the Skull a threefold soft and white substance is to be considered: the BRAIN or foremore Part, the BRAINLET or Cerebellum the hindmost part, and the inmost partwhich lies deep under the Brain being a white MARROW; which because others do ignorantly confound with the Brain itself; I do thus truly set down the truth of the matter.  
The Brain commonly so called hath two parts, the one Internal the other External.  
The External part is properly and 
What is properly the Brain.  strictly called the BRAIN and is all that which appears outwardly soft, of an Ash colour or yellowish white; which colour some conceive to arise from an innumerable company of Veins there disseminated; and this External substance is as it were the bark.  
The Internal is the remaining substance 
The Marrow what?  which lies hidden beneath the the former, being more hard compact and white, which we may call the MARROW, in which are seated the Ventricles commonly so called, but not in the Brain itself; so that  
The Brain and Marrow itself Differ, 
How they differ?  1. In Situation. 2. In Color. 3. In Consistency. 4. By the going between of Lines. 5. In Magnitude. 6. In Figure. 7. In Cavities, which are in the Marrow, not in the Brain. 8. In Nobility.  
The white part therefore of the Brain seems to be buried in the Ash-colored part, as the Crystalline Humour is in the Glassy. And though these two substances, the White and the Ash-colored, do in dead Carcases putrified seem very closely united and continued one to another; yet in the fresh bodies of healthy persons suddenly killed, they are separated with sundry lines, so that they may be very well actually severed, if great Dexterity be used, and Dissection be begun presently after the party's death, otherwise they are overflowed with much moisture and fall in.  
This middlemost white substance or 
Parts of the Marrow.  Marrow, I divide into the round and long Parts.  
The Globous or round part, which I 
The Head of the Marrow, what?  shall call the Head of the Marrow, resembles the Figure of the Skull, and is of great bulk, having in it three Cavities or Ventricles commonly so called.  
The long part, which I will call the Tail of the Marrow, arises immediately out of the former like a certain Tail, wherein is engraven the Calamus Scriptorius or fourth 
A new opinion concerning the place where the Animal spirits are made.  Ventricle so called by some; wherein I hold the true Generation of Animal Spirits to be affected.  
And this long Portion of the Marrow, is the beginning and original of all Nerves whatsoever that are in that place; contrary to what is commonly thought.  
Also this lengthened Marrow may be considered in a twofold manner: either as it remains still within the Skull, and then the Nerves arise therefrom, which are vulgarly; attributed to the Brain: or as it is without the Skull, and slides into the Backbone, gaining the title of the Spinal Marrow.  
But that young Learners may not be confounded, I shall now propound the structure of the whole Brain commonly so called.  
The greatness of a Man's Brain is 
The Magnitude of the Brain.  remarkable in proportion to the rest of his body, as Aristotle observes. And for the most part a man hath twice as much Brain as an Ox, viz. the quantity of four or five pound weight, because he is a more noble Creature, and perpaps because he goes bolt upright: for when when we would have any thing that is movable to stand upright we put a great weight on the top, to prevent its falling. Yet the scull of a monstrous beast lately found in Scania, might preternaturally contain twice that quantity of Brain. The Skull itself is kept in the study of Wormius. And among Mankind, Men have 
Who have most Brains.  more Brains than women. For to them the greatest brain is given, that have most need of brains, and greatest use of them, for the exercise of sundry excellent Animal faculties. Yet Spigelius or Bucretius will not allow of this difference of the brains of the two Sexes, moved doubtless by Ocular Inspection, and the great Minds and Endowments of some Women, which the foregoing Age and this of ours have brought forth. But Women are therefore said to have less brains than men, because for the most part they have less bodies.  
The III. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE  
This FIGURE presents the left side of the Brain bowed back into the place of the right, which according to the foregoing Figure is taken away, as also the great Clift of the said Side.  


aa. The left Ear.  
bb. The Skin of the Head hanging down.  
cc. Part of the ●●rehead-Bone.  
d. The Socket of the Eye.  
eee. The Hollowness of the Skull, wherein the lower part of the Brain was contained.  
ff. The dura Mater hanging down.  
hhhhh. The left side of the Brain invested with the pia mater  
iii The great Clift of the left side of the Brain, seated over the Root of the Spinal Marrow.  
kk. The left Root of the Spinal Marrow, appearing in the Bottom of the great Clift, with new Rudiments of the winding, and Vessels there distributed.  
llll. The windings of the Brain, according to which the Branches of the Carotick Artery are distributed.  
mmmm. The Branches of the Carotick Artery, ending into the larger left-side Ventricle.  
nn. The greater left-side lateral Cavity or Ventricle.  
oo. The smaller lefthand lateral Ventricle.  
p. The Entrance of the smaller lateral Ventricle into the greater    
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The outward surface of the brain is full of turnings and windings like 
Why the Brain hath windings.  those of the Guts: which we must not say were made for understanding with Erasistratus, seeing Asses also have them; nor for lightness sake as Aristotle would have it; nor that they are without End or Use, as others conceit; but that the Vessels of the brain might be more safely conveyed through those turnings and windings, lest they might by continual motion be in danger of breaking, especially at the full of the Moon, when the brain doth most of all swell within the Skull.  
The windings of the brain (which I first learned of Fr. Silvius a great Anatomist) 
The winding Clift of the Brain  if you diligently examine the matter, you shall find to descend a good depth, & that the brain doth gape on each side, over & above that same middle division made by the Sickle, with a winding cleft, which begins in the forepart, about the roots of the Eyes, 
See Tab. 3.  whence according to the bones of the Temples, it goes back above the Root of the spinal Marrow, and divides the upper part of the brain from the lower part. Yet now and then, that same great Chink cannot be found or very hardly. Instead thereof I have found a certain small lateral cleft on each side easily separable, even in the common section, near the Ventricles, full of the Carotick Arteries.  
The inner Surface hath sundry Extuberances and Cavities, as shall be said in the following discourse▪  
The Colour is white, because the brain, as all other parts hath its original from 
The Colour.  the Seed, but so, that it hath less of Amplification then of Constitution: and therefore in extreme fastings the brain suffers no diminution.  
It's Temperament is cold and moist, which appears from its whiteness and 
It's temperament.  moistness. And therefore Hypocrates says the brain is the seat of cold and clammy humours. For the overgreat heat of the brain is an hindrance both to Reason and Sleep, as appears in Phrenetick persons. Yet is it by reason of the spirits hotter than any Air, as Galen rightly says; yet is it not so exceeding hot▪ as the Heart  
Its substance is proper to itself, such as is not in the whole body besides. 
Why the substance of the brain is moderately soft?  Hypocrates doth liken it to a Kernel, by reason of the Colour and plenty of moisture. It is soft and moist for the more easy impression of Images and Conceptions, for it is the seat of Imagination: Yet is it not so soft as to run about, but hath a consistent softness, so that what is imprinted therein, may continue for a season: for the brain is also the seat of Memory.  
The followers of Descartes doth wove the brain together of soft and pliable Fiberkies, mutually touching one another, with intermediate spaces of the pores, by which Fiberkies the Images of Objects are imprinted upon the brain. They do indeed excellently explain the reason of Sense, if this Hypothesis of theirs were true. But such Fiberkies are not found in the soft substance of the brain, unless we shall mean the beginning of the Spinal Marrow, out of which the little Ropes of Nerves do arise.  
It is a rare case for the substance of the brain to be quite wanting, but Horstius saw it sometimes much diminished by over great use of carnal Embracements, as his Epistles show. Howbeit Schenckius, Valleriola, Carpus, etc. saw a Boy without any brain; as also Nicolas Fontanus at Amsterdam in the year 1629, who instead of a brain and spinal marrow, found a very clear water enclosed in a Membrane.  
Sundry Vessels are Disseminated through the brain. For if you 
There are Veins in the Brain.  squeeze the substance thereof, many little Dripplekies of blood do sweat out: and therefore I conclude with Galen that very many capillary Veins and Arteries are there disseminated: which I have also divers times beheld with mine Eyes. Which will then principally happen, as Fr. Silvius observes, when the brain is Flaccid and Friable, because he observed that then it would come of itself from the Vessels, in dissection; and especially if the Vessels by means of Age, or any other ways, are become more solid than ordinary.  
Now there are no Nerves Disseminated through the Brain and therefore it is Void of all Sense.  
The Veins which are carried through the substance of the brain are, 1. The five branches of the jugular Veins, some of which go into the Cavity of the dura mater, others are spread up and down through the Coats and substance of the brain. But they, according to the Observation of Walaeus, are no other than, 2. very small twigs, which on either side go into the substance of the brain, out of the Cavities of dura mater.  
There are four Arteries from the Carotides and Cervicales, whereof the former are disseminated into the brain upwards and downwards, the latter into the Brainlet or Cerebellum. In the Chinks the same Carotick Arteries are carried in very great number, both in the surface and the bottom, which Fr. Silvius conceives to be the cause of that same troublesome pulsing about the Temples in some kinds of Headache: though in the judgement of A. Kyperus the pulsation of the external Arteries adds somewhat hereunto, as the Cure of the pain doth show, by opening the said Arteries.  
The Use of the Brain according to Aristotle, 
The Use of the Brain.  is to cool the Heart, which Galen justly refutes, because the brain is far from the Heart. But there are some peripatetics who deny that Aristotle dissents from the Physicians, while he saith the brain is made to temper the heat of the Heart, and they will have it made to produce Animal spirits: In as much as the Animal spirits cannot be generated, unless the vital Spirits be first cooled But,  
The Use thereof is, 1. To be the Mansion of the sensitive Soul, for the performance of Animal Functions. Now the brain is no particular Organ of Sense, as the Eyes, Ears, etc. but an universal one: for judgement is made in the brain of the Objects of all the Senses.  
Also it passes judgement touching 
Of the brains Motion.  Animal Motion, whereas itself hath no Animal Motion: But it hath a Natural Motion, communicated from the Arteries, and that a perpetual one of widening and contracting itself, as appears in Wounds of the Head and newborn Children, in the forepart of whose Head, the brain is seen to pant, because their bones are as yet exceeding soft and pliable.  
In its Dilatation the brain draws vital Spirit with arterial blood out of the Carotick Arteries, and Air by the Nostrils.  
In its contraction it forces the Animal spirits into the Nerves, which like Conduit pipes carry the said Spirit into the whole body, and therewith the faculties of Sense and Motion. And by the same Contraction, the blood is forced out of the Ventricles through the Veins unto the Heart.  
The Matter therefore of the Animal 
The Matter of the Animal Spirits.  Spirits is two fold; viz. Arterial blood full of vital Spirit, and Air. Touching the place of its Generation we shall speak hereafter. For I am not of their opinion who confirm that this Spirit is Generated in the substance of the Brain, or in those Ventricles in the forepart thereof.  
2. That the Animal spirit may be contained and kept in the brain as in a Storehouse, after it is generated. And the substance, truly, of the Brain is a convenient House and Receptacle for the Animal spirit, seeing it is the same with the internal Marrowy substance of the Nerves, which also contains the said Animal Spirit.  
Now I am of Opinion that in the 
A new opinion of the Author, touching the use of the Brain and the Marrow.  Brain, properly so called, or the Rind, is contained Animal Spirit for Sense; and that in the whole Marrow Head and Tail, Spirits is kept for Motion, which shall be made manifest in the following Chapter.   

Chap. IU. Of the Parts of the Brain in Particular, and I. of the lengthened and Spinal Marrow, and its noble Ventricle.  
SOme with Galen, Vesalius, Fallopius, 
The right Dissection of the Head must begin at the lower Part.  intending to contemplate what is contained in the Brain, begin their Dissection in the upper part and proceed to the lower, and therefore they do unfitly propound 
See the Figure of the Section in the Manual of Nerves.  and explain many parts. ay, treading in the steps of Constantinus Varolus, shall take a quite contrary Course, yet such as is true and accurate, beginning at the lower part of the brain and so passing to the uppermost: and I shall afterward propound the order of parts from top to bottom, for their sakes that will needs follow the vulgar and common way of Dissection; where also a third way of Dissection shall be propounded.  
Beginning therefore at the lowest part of the Brain, we meet 
The beginning of the Spinal Marrow.  first with the beginning of the lengthened Marrow; the progress whereof because it is contained in the Vertebrae of the Spina or Backbone, therefore it is termed Spinalis and Dorsalis, Medulla, the Spinal or Back-marrow.  
And if any one shall think we 
An Objection.  ought therefore to begin with the brain, because the Spinal Marrow is said to take its beginning therefrom; 
The Answer.  we answer, that we make the Marrow both as it is within the Skull and in 
A new Opinion of the Author, that the Marrow is the Original of the brain.  the Backbone, to be the beginning rather of the brain; and that the brain being divided into two parts, is as it were a certain double process or production of the Marrow itself.  
Which is yet more manifest to those that 
A proof hereof.  behold the Anatomy of Fishes; for there the Head and Tail of the Marrow, is very great, but the process of the Marrow, or the brain is very little: the Cause whereof is, that Fishes use motion more than sense, intimating that the brain or bark contributes more to sense▪ and the Marrow itself to Motion. Hence Fish are dull of Sense, but very nimble in motion. And according to this opinion of ours that saying will be verified, than an hard body is fittest for motion, and softer for sense.  
The IV. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE presents the fourth Ventricle of the Brain, the Brainlet, and the Corpus Callosum, in several Figures.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Brainlet or Cerebellum and its Globes.  
B. The Worm-like process of the Cerebellum or Brainlet.  
CCCC. The processes of the Brainlet, which make the bridge of Varolius.  
D. The beginning of the spinal Marrow.  
EE. Two roots or smaller Processes of the spinal Marrow arising from the Brainlet.  
F. The fourth Ventricle likened to a Pen▪  
GG. A portion of the Brain cleaving to the Brainlet.    
FIG. II. 

AA. The inner whiteish substance of the Brainlet.  
BBB. The outer and more duskish substance compassing the white about.  
CCCC. An Elegant structure of the Brainlet Representing the branchings of Trees.    
FIG. III. 

AA. The appearance of the brain cut off in the middle as far as to the Ventricles.  
BB. The corp●s callosum drawn a little to the left ●ide.  
C. A portion of the Sickle turned backwards.  
DD. The right fore Ventricle uncovered above.  
EE. The left Ventricle open in like manner.  
FF. The Plexus choroides.  
G. A portion of the Speculum or Septum Lucidum.  
HH. The dura Mater drawn away on both ●ides.  
●●. The two Thighs or portions of the Fornix.    
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The lengthened Marrow arises as some conceive from the brain alone, according to others from the Brainlet or Cerebellum. But it hath both (to speak now at a vulgar rate) for its beginning.  
For it arises from four Roots or Foundations; two of which are greater from the forepart of the brain commonly so called, two are lesser from the inner part of the Brainlet or petty Brain. From these united, the spinal Marrow seems to be constituted. But it is peradventure a more true opinion to think, that those originals are processes of the Marrow itself, as was said before.  
The Substance of the Medulla oblongata or lengthened Marrow, is a little harder than that of the brain.  
One part thereof is within the Skull, four Fingers breadths above the great Hole of 
The spinal Marrow divided.  the Hind-part of the Head. Another and the longest part thereof is without the Skull in the Vertebrae, from the first of the Neck to the last of Os sacrum.  
It's Figure is longish and round, The Scripture calls it the Silver Cord. In its beginning it is thicker and larger than elsewhere.  
It is further divided into the right and left part, even as the brain is, by the pia Mater 
Another division.  which immediately invests the same, which may be seen in the Marrow of an Ox indifferently boiled. Hence there may be a Palsy of only one side of the body.  
Now it is divided into many little Cords as it were, about the sixth and seventh Vertebra 
Another division.  of the Chest: and if the spinal Marrow of a body newly dead▪ be presently plunged in cold water, and a separation of these cords made, you may see the shape of an Horse's tail, (especially towards the end) divided into many long Hairs: so that according to Laurentius, the Nerves also of the Back and Loins, do spring from the Marrow of the Neck.  
It is covered with a triple Membrane, the first which immediately 
The Coats of the Marrow.  covers it, is from the pia Mater.  
The second is from the dura Mater and cleaves to the former, Which two, according to the Observation of Spigelius, are not separated any distance one from another, as they were within the Skull, but touch one the other.  
The third being external springs according to Galen from a strong Ligament, which binds together the foreparts of the Vertebrae, and in the hinder part ends into a strong Coat, least in bending or extending the Backbone, the Marrow should be hurt.  
A thick and clammy humour is poured round about this Coat, to moisten the same.  
Afterwards the Marrow is shut up in the Vertebrae, lest it should be hurt (as the brain is shut up in the Skull) seeing it is a noble part, and the original of the Nerves. Therefore the Ancients called the Cavity of the Spina or Backbone Hieran Surigga, the holy Pipe.  
In the beginning of this Marrow, while it is yet in the Skull, there appears engraven.  
An Hollow Cavity, which Galen calls the Ventricle of the Brainlet; others 
A noble Ventricle in the Marrow.  call it the fourth Ventricle of the brain, though it is not in the brain. But I shall term it the noble Ventricle of the Marrow. This is most solid, most pure, most subtle, but least of all, for it contains a matter of geater force and faculty than the rest, as Galen says.  
And because, after a strait even progress, it is widened on each side, and sharpened afterwards into a point, because of this shape 'tis called Calamus Scriptorius, the Writing Pen or Quill.  
Now from the Cerebellum or 
The cover of the noble Ventricle is from the Brainlet.  Brainlet, which is joined to this Marrow, another and middle half of this Ventricle is constituted, as it were a cover; so that all this Cavity is between the brainlet and Medulla oblongata, or production of the Marrow, but the chief Cavity is the lowermost, which is in the Marrow.  
The Use of this Ventricle I hold to 
The true place where Animal Spirits are generated according to our Author.  be this, viz. that it should be the place where Animal spirits are Generated and Elaborated. For this Ventricle is 1. The most pure and subtle. 2. It hath a Cavity sufficient for that purpose. 3. It is seated in such a place, that it can pour forth Animal spirits, into all the Nerves round about it. And therefore Herophilus did rightly judge, that this was the most principal Ventricle.  
Nor can I devise how it came to pass 
A Proof.  that certain learned Men could not see these weighty Arguments, who have written without cause, that I assigned the Generation of Animal Spirits to the Calamus Scriptorius, without any reasons moving me thereto.  
Now must we think with Spigelius, that this Ventricle did only result by consequence, out of the round particles of the Brain, touching one another without any design of Nature: for Nature doth nothing to no end, no not when she seems most of all to do so.  
Others conceive that the Animal Spirit is bred in the fore Ventricles of the Brain.  
But they are full of Excrements, whose receptacles they rather are, as appears by the Glandula Pituitaria unto them, and in that they are often found filled with Phlegm, and abundance of water.  
Others in the Rete Mirabile, others 
The preparation of the Animal Spirits where it is?  in the Plexus Choroides.  
But in these we hold the Animal Spirit is prepared, but not Generated, For nature is wont to provide intertwinings of Vessels for the preparation of any matter: and seeing these Vessels are so small, how can it be generated in them, especially seeing so many Excrements of the brain flow through the Ventricles.  
Others will have them to be wrought in the substance of the brain. Others in the lengthened body of the spinal Marrow. But the Generation of so subtle a Spirit, did require some Cavity, which is also allowed to the Generation of the vital Spirits.  
For which cause some have been induced to allot the making of the natural spirit to be in the right Vencle of the Heart, because there is no Cavity in the Liver.  
I am therefore of opinion that the Animal Spirit is prepared in the Rete Mirable, and yet more in the Plexus Choroides, and that is generated and wrought up in this Cavity of the Medulla Elongata, or in the noble Ventricle; and afterward, as much of it as not derived into the spinal Marrow and the Nerves of the brain, is preserved and retained in the whole brain, as in a Storehouse.  
The Use of the lengthened and spinal Marrow, is to be the original of all the 
This Marrow the beginning of all Nerves.  Nerves. For from that part thereof within the Skull, those Nerves arise which are commonly attributed to the Brain, being usually reckoned to be seven pair. But from the longest part thereof which is in the Backbone, Anatomists do reckon thirty pair of Nerves to arise, viz. as many as there are holes in the Vertebrae.  
Mean while we must not so understand the matter, as though only so many branches or Cords did thence arise. For every Nerve arise▪ with many little strings or Fibres, which going out at the hole of any Vertebra, are there joined together by the Membranes, as if the Nerve came out of one branch.   

Chap. V. Of the Cerebellum Brainlet, Or Petty-Brain.  
THe Brainlet being as it were a little 
The Brainlet what it is?  and private kind of Brain, is a certain smaller portion, placed under the Brain in the lower and after-part of the Occiput or Minder-Head: In Brutes it takes up commonly the whole Region of the Occiput.  
It hath the same Substance, Consistency, Colour, Motion, etc. with the Brain.  
In the Turnings and Windings it differs from the Brain. The brain 
It's Structure.  hath sundry Circumvolutions with out any Method or Order; the Brainlet hath circular and ordinate ones, stretched one over another like Plates. They are differenced partly by interposed Vessels, partly by the pia mater, which being separated, the several Circles may be taken out after another.  
The inner Substance is various, whiteish and Ash-coloured, which distributed certain Vessels as it were.  
The Vessels interposed betwixt the several plates, are carried through the pia mater like nets, which according to the accurate Observation of Francis Sylvins, arising from the Branches of the Arteria cervicalis, do at last end into the fourth Ventricle.  
It is constituted chiefly of two lateral parts, on each side making a Globe as it were.  
It hath two Processes or Excrescences, termed Vermiformis or Worm-like, because they are variously orbiculated, and consist of many transverse portions, coupled with a thin Membrane. Their Extremity being thin and convex, is as big as a small ●a●e.  
And they are situate at the seat of the noble Cavity, one before, the other behind.  
About the hinder-part of the Trunk of the Spinal Marrow, in the Circumference of the noble Ventricle, out of the same brainlet there proceed two other globous processes, sometimes two of each side, sometimes three. Those are greatest which are seated by the Vermiformis, the rest are 
See Tab. 4. Fig. 1.  smaller. Varolius calls it the bridge of the brainlet.  
The Use of all the Processes is to hinder the noble Ventricle from being obstructed, by pressure of the brainlet. Laurentius says they help the motion of the Ventricles like a Valve, because the Vermiformis being shortened opens the way, which goes from the third to the fourth Ventricle; when it is extended it shuts the Chink, lest the Spirits should go back into the upper Cavities. Riolanus dissents but little from him, for he will have it to open and shut the entrance of the fourth Ventricle. But it is not moved of itself, because, as the brain, so is it void of any proper motion, unless you assign it to the Vessels or pia Mater, which are very small, or at least to the neighbouring Animal Spirits.  
Now I believe the use of the bridge is, to combine and keep in compass the Circles of the brain, and as a bulwark to defend the noble Ventricle. And therefore it would more properly be called a Sconce or Fence, than a bridge.  
The Use of the brainlet is the same with 
The Use.  that of the brain. But Galen would have it to be the Original of the hard Nerves; which is false. For no Nerves have their Original from it.   

Chap. VI Of the rest of the Parts observed in the Brain; viz. the Rete mirabile, Glandula pituitaria, Infundibulum, Ventricles of the Brain, Corpus callosum, Fornix, Plexus, Choroides, Glandula pinealis.  
THe precedent parts being considered, we must come now to those things, which are presently visible, about the Conjunction of the Optic Nerves, such as are; the Rete mirable, Glandula pituitaria, and the Infundibulum.  
The Rete mirable or wonderful Net, 
Rete mirabile  which some call Plexus retiformis, is so called by reason of its artificial and wonderful structure, for it shows like many Nets heaped together. Now it hath another structure in Calves and Oxen, in which Creatures it is also more manifestly discernible then in mankind, though we must not say that it is not in Men as Vesalius doth, 
Vesalius his Error.  though hard to discern. I remember nevertheless that it hath been wanting.  
This Net lies under the Basis of the Brain, encompasses the Glandula, at the sides of the Cavity of Os Sphaenoides.  
It consists (not of the Nerves of the third Conjugation as Volcherus would have it, but) of the Carotick and Cervical Arteries, carried up from the Heart, to the Basis of the Brain, which convey blood and Spirit in to this Net.  
Riolanus places the Rete mirabile at the same Basis of the Brain, viz. The offspring of the Plexus Choroides, which creeps through the former Ventricles.  
The Use of this Net is, that therein the blood and vital Spirit may be a very long time detained, that the first preparation towards the Generation of Animal Spirits may there be made. Also Waloeus hath observed that this Net doth consist of small twigs of the jugular Veins; that they may doubtless carry back such blood as is superfluous after the preparation of the Animal Spirits.  
The Glandula pituitaria or Rheumkernel, 
Glandula pituitaria.  is so called from its use, because it receives the Excrements of the brain out of the Ventricles through the Funnel. And 
It's Seat.  therefore it is placed at the end of the Funnel in the saddle of the Sphaenoides. Galen calls it barely Glandula.  
On the upper-side it is hollow, beneath bossie or bunching. 
It's Figure.   
It's Substance is harder and more compact than that of other Kernels. 
It's Substance.   
It is clothed with the Pia Mater.  
It's Use is the same, with that of other 
It's Use.  Kernels, viz. by its drinking spongy flesh to receive grosser Excrements (for the thin Vapour out at the Sutures) collected in the Ventricles of the brain, many times in great quantities. For the brain being of 
The Brain full of Excrements.  great bulk, did need much Aliment, and therefore it breeds many Excrements, especially when it is in any measure disordered. These Excrements the Kernel doth sometimes cast into the Palate of the Mouth, and sometimes suffers them to drain away by the holes in the basis of the Skull.  
Others suppose the use of this Kernel to be, to shut the Funnel, lest the Animal Spirits should go forth. For just over the Glandula Pituitaria or Rheumkernel, is  
Infundibulum or Funnel, so called 
Infundibulum.  from its shape, for above the Head thereof is large, the lower part is a long and straight pipe. Others call it Pelvis the Basin, which words doth more properly belong to the Head, or beginning of the Funnel then to the whole body thereof.  
The Funnel therefore is an Orbicular Cavity (sometimes triangular with sharp or blunt Angels) made of the pia Mater, where it ingirts the basis of the brain. It's beginning is large, at the hole of the third Ventricle, as they call it; through which the Excrements are packed away out of the Ventricles into this Funnel.  
Riolanus informs us that it hath four little pipes, which distil Rheum or Phlegmatic serum through the four holes resting upon the Sellae Sphenoideae.  
It's of a dark Colour, and if you open it you shall find it full of thick Phlegm.  
The V. TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
The Fornix being removed the Glandula Pinealis is here to be seen as also the third Ventricle of the Brain, which is in the middle between the two foremore Ventricles.  


AA. The Brain cut smooth off through the middle.  
B. The Fornix took away and turned back.  
CC. Its Expansions or binder Thighs.  
DDDD. The bottom of the right and left Ventricles, wherein the Vessels appear before.  
EE. Their Walls or Sides.  
F. The foremore hole of the third Ventricle, which some call Vulva.  
G. A chink denoting the third Ventricle.  
HH. Bunching of the Brain called Nates, the Buttocks.  
II. The Protuberances or bunchings called Testes the Stones.  
K. The Glandula Pinealis or Pine-kernel-●●●p'd Glandulae.    
page 139  
Two little whiteish Kernels or Portuberancies of the brain are placed before this passage, which are to be seen, the brain being turned upside down, there where the Funnel receives wheyish E●c●●men●●●●● of the Ventricles.  
These things being thus handled, the Original of the Nerves follows in course the Section to be observed, which every where arise from the Marrow; of which I shall speak in our Manual of the Nerves.  
The Ventricles or Cavities of the Brain do follow.  
These according to the common manner of Section, beginning from above, are thought to be three: two foremore and uppermore as they call them, and one in the middle, to which some add a fourth, of which we spoke before.  
But if dissection be made after the new manner, beginning from beneath; there appear only two, so that the third is common, being a portion of the other two.  
I conceive that there is but one Ventricle of the brain, which is in the 
The Author's opinion that there is but one Ventricle of the Brain.  middle, but the beginning thereof is divided into two; or there are two processes, which receiving the Excrements, carry them into the middle itself, which they call the third. For there is one continued Cavity of the brain, and the two Ventricles so called, do end into a common Cavity.  
Mean while, because this and that part of the Cavity seem diversely form, some distinction may be allowed for Doctrines sake.  
Those two Ventricles which are ill termed the foremore and uppermore (because 
The foremore Ventricle described.  they consist also in the hinder and lower part of the Brain, perhaps they might better be called the lateral Ventricles, and with Vesalius the right and left) are the largest of all, crooked, full of windings, Semicircular, and clothed with the pia Mater.  
They are commonly and not unfitly likened to the Moon when she is in the Wane; although they are hardly ever demonstrated to be such in dissection. But seeing they are both oblong, and very large in their hinder part, they may also be likened to Horse-shoes. This round form of the Ventricles was first discovered by the most accurate Fr. Silvius, and after him I have often demonstrated the same. But if you would find the true Figure, you must cut the brain deep towards the Skull, or the Temples, on each side, because it is deeply sunk into the Corpus Callosum. For that part of the Ventricles towards the Septum lucidum is higher, and that which is towards the lateral part of the Skull is lower. The foremore and deeper parts, are near to the Mammillary processes, and if we believe Piccolhomineus, Bauhinus, Riolanus, they are in some manner transpassable, especially in elderly persons.  
Moreover they run out in their hinder part by a strait Course, where they form a Cavity which is somewhat round, not unlike the Finger of a Glove; this I remember hath been sometimes wanting.  
Moreover it is to be noted, that these Ventricles do environ the lateral and hind parts of the Roots of the Spinal Marrow, which also, under the Plexus Choroides, a part of the brain being wreathed and attenuated inwards, and upwards making the Concameration of the Ventricles, doth embrace with a selvidge as it were and a Fringe or lace, which the praise worthy Silvius wont so to call for likeness sake, it being knit to the was foresaid roots by exceeding thin threads. If gently lifting up the Plexus, you shall remove this lace from the Root, you shall find little Arteries creeping through the lower surface of the Ventricle, continued to the Ne●-like Coronet of little Arteries investing the root; by help of which, this Lace seems to stick more close to the Root.  
But here you shall observe, that there is an easy outgate for the Humours contained in the said Ventricles, which may descend down along the spinal Marrow.  
They are therefore form, not in 
Corpus Callosum.  the Brain, but in the marrow, where they call it Corpus Callosum, because the substance is there harder like a Callus, where the Ventricles seem to rest upon the two foremore Extuberancies.  
The Conformation of the Ventricles 
The Conformation of the Ventricles of the Brain.  of the brain, which all cannot easily discern, I have by Anatomical Inspection and the Guidance of Silvius, learned to be thus.  
Two Roots of the Spinal Morrow do penetrate a good depth into the substance of the brain; to the upper and former whereof, especially where it looks inward, the brain being continued (now I mean the whiteish and Ash-coloured part by the term Brain) it spreads itself every way, especially outwards and backwards and by little and little wreathes and contracts its lower extremities inward and upwards, till at last being attenuated, it doth on all sides embrace the Root of the spinal Marrow with a lace, a little below the place where it springs therefrom, as was said before; and so forms the lateral Ventricles.  
But in the foremore and inner part, and whiteish substance ascending from each Root, and making one body called Corpus Callosum, it is carried back; and covering the middle distance between the Roots, which is the third Ventricle, and the wide mouths of the lateral Ventricles opened thereinto▪ framed by itself, it makes the Fornix, Arch or Vault; and is continued to the hinder and inner part of the Limbus or edge of each Ventricle.  
Regius adds many pores in the Ventricles; looking into the Fiberkies of the substance of the brain, in which the Animal spirit is bred. But those pores and Fiberkies are invisible to the Eyes of Anatomists.  
They are distinguished by a loose and 
Septum lucidum.  wrinkeld Partition-Skin: which if it be stretched out and held against the light, it shines because of its transparency, and is therefore called Septum lucidum: which some will have to spring from a most thin portion of the brain itself, others from the pia Mater doubled. But the former opinion is truer, which you may perceive, if after the manner of Silvius having removed the brain and sickle of the other side, you shall search the Ventricle of the opposite part, and shall lift up that part of the brain which is continued with the Corpus Callosum, at the Orifice of the third ventricle; for than it may easily be seen, and discerned to be a small portion of the brain.  
The lower, whiteish part, where the ventricles 
Fornix.  are joined, is termed  
FORNIX the Arch, or Testudo the Belly of a Li●e, being of a Triangular Figure, consisting of three shanks, one before and two behind. In the common Method of Dissection, this body is supposed to be spread out over the third ventricle, and to lie beneath the Corpus Callosum.  
Under the Fornix according to the observation of Silvius the Cheroides plexus of both sides, is immediately carried, tending towards the Glandula pinealis; under which Plexus, in its upper part, the two Roots of the spinal Marrow grow together; so that here the Testudo, is not seated immediately under the third ventricle.  
The VI TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This Figure presents the left Ventricle of the Brain, being bend back, as it is represented in the fifth Figure.  


a. The right Ear.  
b. The left Ear.  
cccc. The bone of the Forehead.  
dd. Part of the Skin of the Head hanging down on either side.  
eeeeeee. The dura Mater of both sides hanging down.  
fffffff. The Brain according to the passage of the left Ventricle, divided from that part which lies over the Root of the spinal Marrow, and turned backwards.  
ggg. Part of the Brain resting upon the spinal Marrow.  
hh. A great chink of the Brain going over the Root.  
iiiiiii. The inner face and form of the left Ventricle resembling the sharp corner'd Moon.  
k. The Cavity of the Ventricle like a Gloves-finger.  
l. An orifice going into the third Ventricle.  
mmm. The lace sticking to the Root of the spinal Marrow  
nn. The lace removed from the said Root.  
ooo. The Plexus Choroides.  
ppp. The Root of the spinal Marrow raised up.  
qqq. Vessels creeping up and down the inner surface of the Ventricle, and springing for a great part, from the small Arteries which compass the Root.  
r. The Septum lucidum.    
page 141  
The third Ventricle commonly so called, 
The third Ventricle.  or the long Chink, is the meeting together of the Ventricles aforesaid, which is form in the Centre, as it were of the Marrow of the Brain, by reason of the Conjunction of two round Trunks proceeding out of the Brain. It hath in it two passages, the first foremore, going downwards to the Glandula pituitaria, that it may there void its Excrements: the other is hindermore, clothed with a Membrane; which hole some call Anus, the Fundament; it goes beneath the Buttocks to the noble Ventricle, that the prepared matter of the Animal spirits, may pass into the place and Womb as it were of their Generation.  
This hole is nothing else but a space arising upon the mutual contact of the 
The Anus, what it is?  four Trunks of the spinal Marrow,  
Now the Nates or Buttocks, and the Testes or Stones are four Orbicular prominences, 
The Nates and Testes.  which they say are in the Brain, which is falf. They call the two portions of the Roots of the Medulla oblongata, which arise from the Brainlet, Nates; and those two little ones of the Roots from the Brain, they call Testes. And these parts are lower, the other upper.  
These differences, as Fr. Silvius notes, between the Testes and the Nates, have place in Brutes rather than in Men; for the Men they are commonly equal, and many times the Testes are the bigger.  
But it is a trifling piece of business to impose such Names as these; as also when they 
Penis. Vulva.  call the Glandula pinealis, Penis, and a certain long ditch between the Eminences they term Vulva.  
Between the fore-more Ventricles so called, and the Seat of the Testudo, there 
The Plexus Choroidis, what?  is, the Plexus Choroidis or Reticularis so called, being a contexture of very small Veins and Arteries, sent partly from the Arteries, partly from the Vessels of the dura Mater in the fourth Ventricle. There is a glandulous substance interwoven within this Plexus, and a portion of the pia Mater. The Plexus Choroides being truly glandulous, does receive a little branch of the Carotick artery, which pierces into the lower part of the brain, which ends about the Glandula pinealis, where it branches up and down through the lower Surface of the Ventricle.  
The Use hereof is the same with that of the Rete mirabile.  
At the beginning of that hole, which passes from the middle Ventricle into the noble 
Glandula pinealis.  Ventricle, there is placed a certain Glandule or Kernel, termed Pinealia the Pine-kernel Glandule, because it is fashioned like the Kernel of a Pineapple. The Greeks call it conarion or som● cono●ides, some term it the Yard of the brain▪ It is of an hard substance, of a yellowish and sometimes dark colour, and is covered with a thin Membrane. In Creatures newly killed 'tis large, in old karcasses, being melted it is scarce apparent, or is very small, as also in men, whose brains cannot be opened whilst they are warm. And therefore they say it spends like Camphire exposed to the air, being also partly melted, as Salt is in a moist place.  
According to the Observation of Silvius a nervous little string does fasten this Kernel as it stands betwixt the Testes.  
Who also observed more than once certain grains of sand in this Kernel, and sometimes also a little stone as big as the fourth part of a pease, and somewhat round.  
The Use of this Pine-kernel is like that of other kernels, and especially to help the distribution of Vessels through the brain. Some will have it placed like a Valve before the hole which passes into the fourth Ventricle.  
Des Cartes and his Followers Meyssonerius, Regius, Hogelandius, do conceive that this Kernel being placed in the middle of the Ventricles, which when a man is awake are distended with Spirits perpetually, does 1. Receive the motions of all Objects. 2. That the Soul in this part done by these motions, does apprehend all external sensible Objects, and all the Ideas proceeding from the five Senses, as in a Centre, and discern the same, and does afterward by help thereof send Spirits into all parts; as in a small Spherical glass, all things are received in the same order in which they are either in a Field or Chamber.  
For this cause Meyssonerius will have it to be of a conic Figure, because Individuals require more space than sorts or kinds of things. And that these Ideas are diversely moved by the motion of the animal spirit, but are always found joined by the Verb EST, and according to their equality or inequality, truth or falsehood is compounded, being compared together like two Lines.  
And that for this cause Infants do not presently speak nor reason, because the slappiness of their brain gives not passage to the Ideas. And that the overgreat and confused motion of these Ideas in the Pine-shaped kernel, makes ravenings, as in persons drunk, frantic, etc.  
But many things there are which will not suffer me to embrace this new and witty Opinion. For  

1. It is too small and obscure a body, to be able to represent clearly the Species of all things.  
2. The Species of all Senses do not come hither, because the Nerves do not touch the Kernel.  
3. It is placed in the Quarter of Excrements, whether they are purged out, by the third, and two foremore Ventricles, where the Species or Representations of things would be defiled.  
4. The Species of things are perceived rather there whereto they are carried. But every sensory Nerve each in its place carries the Species to the beginning of the spinal Marrow, and therefore each in their place are judged and received by the Soul, in the beginning of the spinal Marrow. Moreover this Marrow is big enough, globous, hard, and of a brighter colour.  
5. Several Ideas would be confounded in this little body. The Eye indeed being likewise very small, receives the Species or Representations of things without Consusion, but they are only the visible Species; whereas in this Kernel the divers Species of different Senses are to be received.  
6. There is hence no open or known passage to the Nerves, as from the beginning of the Marrow, nor any communion with some Nerves of the external senses.   
The Use of the Cavities or Ventricles 
That the Ventricles of the Brain serve to receive Excrements.  of the brain is, to be the Receptacles of Excrements, which is apparent.  

1. From their Structure: for an hole goes from the Cavities to the Glandula pituitaria.  
2. The Surface of the Ventricles is continually moistened with a watery Humour.  
3. They are often found topful of phlegm and watery moisture.   
Howbeit in this new Section after 
The order of the parts to be shown in the new way of Dissection.  the neck of the funnel is showed with the Glandula: the Marrow being lifted up, first of all the Nates and the Testes are seen, and then the hole into the noble Ventricle; afterwards divers Nerves, the, Ventricles of the brain with the hole into the funnel the Corpus callosum, the Fornix, the Plexus Choroides, and the Glandula pinealis.  
But in the old and common way of 
The order of the parts in the old Dissection.  Dissection, these parts of the brain are showed in order: The Corpus callosum, the Septum tenue, the two Extuberances, upon which the Ventricles rest; the two Ventricles, commonly called the foremore; the Fornix, the Plexus Choroidis, the third Ventricle, it's two holes, the Glandula pinealis; and the brainlet being a little removed, the Nates and Testes the brainlet, the worm-fashioned Processes, the noble Ventricle, the Pelvis, Glandula pituitaria, and Rete mirabile.  
But if you will use the middle way of Dissection, familiar to Fr. Silvius, thus 
The order in the middle way of Dissection.  you shall proceed. Take off the Skull as deep as conveniently you can. Then suffering the left side of the brain to remain untouched, with its Membrane; begin your Dissection on the right side, first of all cutting asunder and removing the dura Mater; then take away some particles of the brain with the pia Mater, till you come to the Cavity of the Ventricle, and then follow both its upper and lower passage with your Dissection, as you see 
The Dissection of the right side.  it done in the second Table. Separate the Limbus if you please, with a blunt probe, from the root of the Spinal Marrow, and show it; though that may be more conveniently done in the opposite side of the Brain. The greatest part of the right side of the Brain being thus taken away, the upper and lower Cavities of the Sickle are to be shown, as also the greater right side lateral Cavity, and the oblique descend of the upper Cavity thereinto, all which you have expressed in the foresaid Table.  
These things being thus done, go to the left side, and therein first cut asunder 
The Dissection of the left side.  the dura Mater, and remove it with the Falx or Sickle; then gently remove the left side of the Brain, into the place of the right side newly removed; and as you are doing this observe from Tab. 3. the Vessels going into the lateral Cavity, and how they rise up about the optic nerves, and are distributed into very many branches, creeping every where up and down the inner Substance of the brain, and especially the winding Surface thereof, till at last they end into the Carotick Arteries. Then search out that same notable chink or cleft, between the windings, which is figured out in the Table aforesaid; and having cut the pia Mater, open the sides thereof a lit-little with a Spa●●er, that the branches of the Carotides may better appear, which are carried through the bottom of the turnings, with the Rudiments of new windings. But if, before you shall begin to show the brain, you shall free the 
An excellent Argument for the Circulation of the Blood.  Carotick Arteries and the jugular Veins from the parts adjacent in the Neck, and bind them distinctly; and then by a Wound made in an Artery shall put in a crooked hollow probe and blow; the vessels disseminated through the whole brain will swell, as being branches of the Carotick Arteries, until the air with the forced blood shall at length empty itself into the Ventricles: if by the foresaid hollow probe, you shall in like manner blow into the Ventricles, you will perceive their continuation and communion with the jugular Veins, by the swelling and distension of the said Veins; and will acknowledge that the Circulation of the blood, is not a little confirmed by this pleasant Spectacle.  
Hence, returning to a farther search into the fabric of the brain, and a wary Incision being made in the hinder part of the side propounded, search there for the larger Cavity of the Ventricle, and follow it with your Dissection to both the Ends; then turn back every way the outer part of that which is dissected, the middle part being kept upright, which rests upon the root of the Spinal Marrow, and is continued therewith, which is excellently well expressed in Table the sixth, in the Explication whereof, what you see set down, weigh in order.  
Finally, taking away the Brain, observe again all the Cavities and that more distinctly; and then when you have seen the third Ventricle, the Funnel, the Glandula pituitaria, the pares of Nerves, after the usual manner; go back again to the Penis, Anus, Testes, Nates, etc. and examine the brainlet and its parts.  
Nor will it be unprofitable, as often as a new occasion of Dissection is offered, so often to change the section in some part; for so it will come to pass, that you will always observe somewhat which was unobserved before, or neglected, or not distinctly enough considered.   

Chap. VII. Touching the Forehead.  
THe Hairy part of the Head being 
Why men's Face, is void of Hair?  explained, the smooth part or FACE follows, which in man is void of Hairs, otherwise then i● is in Beasts, for Beauty's sake; it is also called Vultus because of the judgement of the will, which is Conspicuous of the Face.  
The upper part thereof, viz. the Forehead is termed Frons a ferendo from carrying, 
Frons why so called?  as some conceive, because it carries in it tokens of the mind: the rest thereof, from the Eyebrows to the Chins end, is the lower part, in which are many other parts, which are hereafter to be explained in order, external and internal, the Organs of the Senses, Muscles of the Eyes, Nose, Lips, etc.  
The Skin of the Forehead, because it is moved, therefore it hath Muscles, which 
It's Skin.  Platerus terms the signifiers of the Affections of the Mind. Now the Muscles of the 
Muscles.  Forehead do lift up the Eyebrows, and are thickest at the said Eyebrows.  
They arise from the Skull, near the coronal Suture, and are knit at the sides to the temporal Muscles, but in the middle they are distinguished a little above, but beneath they are so nearly associated, that they seem to be one Muscle, and end at the Eyebrows. Yet I have observed in a large nosed person, that an Appendix of the said Muscles did reach to the Gristles of the Nose.  
They have strait Fibres. Surgeon's therefore must not cut them athwart, lest they destroy the lifting up of the Eyebrows; but upwards, according to their length. Hosman after Aquapendent stands for oblique fibres, on the right side from the right hand to the left, on the left side from the left hand to the right. But this they do against Experience, ocular Inspection, and Reason. For the skin of the Forehead is by a strait course, either elevated or depressed by help of right fibres, which are the cause of strait motion. In the point of right fibres, we have the Consent of great Anatomists Vesalius, Laurentius, Bauhinus, Platerus, Veslingus, etc.  
And because the skin of the Forehead grows close to these Muscles, therefore both the Forehead and the Eyebrows are moved.  
Howbeit there are sometimes also two Muscles in the binder part of the Head, which move the skin thereof, short, thin and broad, with strait fibres, ending above into a broad Tendon, and touching the hindermore Muscles of the Ears, in their sides. Some men that are furnished with these Muscles, can draw the skin of their Heads backwards.   

Chap. VIII. Of the Eyes.  
THe Eyes are termed Oculi ab occultando 
The Eyes why called Oculi?  or occludendo from shutting or hiding, because they are hid under the Eyelids; they are the Instruments of Sight made of Humours, Membranes, Muscles, Vessels, and other Parts.  
They are seated in an eminent place 
Their Situation.  like Watchmen, in boney Sockets covered with the Periostium for better Safeguards sake.  
They are in Number two, for the 
Their Number.  perfection of Sight, and that one being defective, the other may supply its place and office. Howbeit both-Eyes see but one Object, at one and the same time, and not a double one, whether because the knowing and judging Faculty is one, as Aquapendent conceives, or because the Axletree of the two visual Pyramids, do pass along upon the same Surface of a plane as Galen expounds the matter; or because of the exact similitude they have received from particular things from whence they came, the internal sense judging only one and the same species, as Aquiloniu● does philosophise. They are in Mankind very little distant one from another, both for the Nobility and perfection of their Action, and the Reception of visible species.  
They are round; but a little longish, 
Their Shape.  like bulbous Roots whereupon  
Two Angles or Corners are made, at the Socket of the Eyes, which are termed Canthi; the inner and greater at the Nose, the outer and lesser at the Temples.  
In and about the Eye, there are sundry parts, some without the Eye, for safeguard 
Its Parts.  or commodities sake, as the Eyelids with their Hair and the Eyebrows, also Caruncles in the Corners of the Eyes; other parts there are which con●… the Eye itself, and they are Fat, Muscles, Membranes and Humours.  
Palpebrae the Eyelids are parts which cover and shut the Eye, which cleanse 
The Eyelids.  and putrify the Cornea Tunica, and likewise by their overshadowing render the Picture in the Retina more illustrious, according to the opinion of Averrhoes, Varolius▪ Plempius.  
The are made up of the Skin, the Membrana carnosa, Muscles, a Coat, the Tarsi and Hairs: and therefore their substance is soft,  
The Eyelid, is either the lower which if we believe Galen, is of itself immovable, 
Whether the lower Eyelid be moved?  save in some birds. Yet Bauhin and Aquapendent do aver that they are really moved, and Fallopius proves it by the example of a Sea-Calf, and any one may prove the same in a Looking-glass, wherein he may see his lower Eyelid meet the upper. But either this motion is obscure or we must say with Vesalias' and Silvius that the upper part of the circular Muscle doth lift up the upper part of the Eyelid, and that the lower part is drawn down, by the other part of the Muscle, which notwithstanding is not true, because the strait Muscle lift up; or we must say with Piccolhomineus that they follow the motion of the Cheeks; or finally, the Orbicular Muscles only moves the upper Eyelid, and doth but embrace the lower, and knit it is a coupler. The other is the upper, which is moved and that most swiftly. so that we compare a quick motion to the twinkling of the Eye.  
The VII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURES.  
This TABLE represents the Muscles of the Eye in their natural Situation, and the Muscle of the Eyelid by itself.  
FIG. I. 

AAAA. The hollow part of the Skull cut off.  
BB. The inner and whiteish portion of the Brain dissected.  
CC. The Brainlet or Cerebellum  
D. The meeting and union of the Optic Nerves.  
EE. The parting of the said Nerves going to each Eye.  
F. The Caruncula Lachrymalis drawn out of its place.  
GG. The first Muscle of the Eye called Attollens.  
H. In the right Eye, shows the second Eye-muscle, or the Musculus deprimens.  
II. In both Eyes shows the Musculi recti interni or Adducentes.  
KK. In each Eye shows the recti externi or Abducentes.  
L. The Musculus quintus, or obliquus externus, is showed in the right Eye.  
MM. The sixth Muscle or the obliquus, internus, whose Tendon passes through the Poultry, N.  
O. Shows the optic Nerve in the right Eye.  
P. The Cornea Tunica, in the midst whereof is the Pupilla.    
FIG. II. 

A. The optic Nerve.  
B. The Nerves which moves the Eye.  
C. The Trochlearis Musculus, whose Tendon, E. goes through the Pulley, D.  
F. G. The Musculi recti, internal and external.  
H. The Muscle proper to the upper Eyelid, contained within the Socket of the Eye.  
III. The Eyelids cut out off.  
KK. The Cilia, that is the Ends of the Eyelids adorned with Hair.    
page 144  
The Membrana carnosa is thin in this place, together with the Muscles, like 
The Membranes.  another simple thin Membrane; and therefore Aristotle said that the Skin of the Eyelid was without flesh, and being cut off, like the Foreskin, it grows not again.  
They are clothed with an inner Coat springing from the Pericranium, exceeding thin and soft, lest they should hurt the Eyes, which they touch.  
The Extremities of the Eyelids are hard and Gristley; but soft like small Gristles, and Semicircular, the Greeks term them Tarsous, the Latins CILIA whereon the Hairs are fastened 
The Cilia, what?  (which some term Cilia) being strait because situate in an hard place, keeping all ways in a manner the same greatness hindering small and light matters from falling into the Eye, and serving to direct the fight which Galen proves from such as have them fallen or pulled off, who can hardly discern things afar off, especially if they be of a dark colour, which Montaltus doth prove by the example of a youth at Lisbon.  
The SUPERCILIA or Eyebrows, are Hairs growing at the bottom of the 
The use of the Eyebrow.  Forehead, above the Eyes, intercepting such things, as fall from the Head that they may not light into the Eyes.  
CARUNCULA a small portion of flesh, is placed at each great corner of the Eye, containing Humour to moisten the Eye; and it is placed over an hole bored in the Nose-bone, which is 
Punctum lachrmyale  called Punctum lachrymale (distinct from these two holes in the edge of the Eyelids, which Galen call Tremata, and are most visible in living bodies, especially of such as are inclined to weeping) lest we should continually weep. But in an Ox there is moreover a movable Membrane, which can shut the Eye, though the Eyelid be open, by help whereof Brutes wink and cover their Eyes, when they fear any thing should fall into or hit them.  
In the spaces between the muscles and sundry Vessels, there is fat, which 
The use of fat in the Eye.  heats, moistens, and so helps the motion of the Eye, and makes it round and even.  
The MUSCLES of men's Eyes are 
The Eye muscles.  six. Because they have so many distinct motions: four strait and two circular: all are seated within the Cavity of the Skull, and accompany the optic Nerve. All their Tendons being joined together at the tunica Cornea, under the Adnata, do make that Coat which Columbus call Tunica innominata, the Nameless coat, as if it 
Columbus his Error.  had not been known to the ancients, whereas Galen hath made mention thereof, in his tenth Book de Usu partium Chap. 2. & 8. though it be not properly a Coat, but only divers Tendons of Muscles, nor doth it compass the whole Eye. Yet by some it is called Tunica Tendinosa or Tendinea, the Tendinous Coat.  
The first Muscle being the upper and 
The first Muscle of the Eye.  thicker is called Attollens the lefter up or Superbus, the proud Muscle.  
The second opposite to the other, being the smaller in the lower part, is termed 
The second  Deprimens the depresser, and Musculus humilis the lowly Muscle, because it draws the Eye downwards towards the Cheek-balls.  
The third placed in the greater Angle is 
The third.  called Adducens, the drawer to, and Bibitorius the drinking Muscle, moving the Eye inwards towards the Nose.  
The fourth is called Abducens the drawer 
The fourth.  from, drawing the Eye towards the side of the Face to the small cornerward; 'tis also termed Indignatorius the Muscle of indgnation.  
All these four Muscles have the same beginning, the same progress and end: for the beginning of them all is acute, near the hole where the optic Nerve enters into the Socket of the Eye, from the Membrane whereof they do arise: they have all a fleshy and round belly: their end is a very small Tendon, as was said, at the Cornea.  
By these four acting together the Eye is drawn inwards, and is kept from strring, which holding is by Physicians called Motus tonicus.  
The fifth is lean, round, short, oblique, 
The fifth.  seated between the Eyes and the Tendons of the second and third Muscle, and ascending by the outer corner of the Eye, to the upper part of the Eye, is inserted into the Cornea tunica by the Region of the Iris. It whirls about the Eye obliquely downwards to the external Angle, or corner.  
The sixth being the smallest of all, and 
The sixth or pulley Muscle.  having the longest Tendon, wheels the Eye about unto the inner Corner. For arising from a common beginning with the first four, it is carried right out to the inner Corner; there it passes through the Pulley, and ascends in a right Angle to that place where the fifth was inserted. 'Tis called Trochlea Musculus the Pully-muscle, because it wheeled about as it were through a Pulley which Pulley is a Gristle in the Eye sticking out, first observed by Fallopius, though Riolanus do also attribute the Invention thereof to Rondeletius who lived at the same time with him. 'tis situate at the upper Jawbone, by the inner corner of the Eye, and therefore in the Cure of Fistula lachrymalis, the Surgeons ought to have a great care, lest they wrong this Poultry,  
These two last are termed Amatorij, love Muscles, and Circumactores, rolling Muscles the upper and lower. For by the help of these Muscles lovers cast Sheeps-Eyes one at another.  
There is yet a seventh Muscle in Brutes, 
A seventh Muscle in Brutes.  which may be divided into two, three, or four.  
This is a short Muscle, compassing the optic Nerve, fat coming between, and being fleshy it is inserted into an hard Coat.  
It's Use is; to hold up the Eyes of Brutes which look down towards the Ground, and to enwrap the soft optic Nerve.  
An vl membranous Muscle may be added, wherewith Brutes do wink.  
Some Animals have no Muscles. Scaliger proved it by Dissection in Cats, yet Casserius pictures out the Muscle of a Cat's Eye. A Chameleon indeed hath no Muscles, and yet moves his Eyes every way, and either of them backwards, and that by a wrinkled membrane furnished with Fibres, as Panarolus does aver.  
Vessels are sent to the Eye, a Vein from the Jugulars, an Artery from the Caroticks, 
Vessels of the Eye.  disseminated through the Muscles, Fat, and Membrane.  
The Eyes have the two first pair of Nerves, as they are commonly reckoned: 
The Nerves.  The first is the Optic or seeing pare being thick and porous, carrying from the Brain the Faculty of seeing with the Spirit, or carrying the visible Representations of things to the Brain. It is inserted behind, into the Centre of the Tunica cornea, to which from the hard Tunicle or external Membrane it communicates a Coat, and passes more inward to the Centre of the Retina, into which its marrowy substance is spread abroad; and sometimes a portion of the vitrea tunica, sticks to the inner part of the Marrow. In Brutes it is inserted obliquely, and not into the Centre of the cornea tunica, but into the side. The second is the Moving pare, which goes into the Membranes, and sends a little Branch into every muscle. ●ut touching these Nerves I shall discourse more largely in my Manual of the Nerves.  
The Membranes besides the external and the conjunctive (which is 
The Membranes of the Eyes but three.  common) are but three and the Humours three. And as in a Nerve, there is a threefold substance which enters the Eye: so these three substances do make the three Coats of the Eye. For the first Coat arises from the dura Mater; the second from the pia Mater; the third from the marrowy substance in the Brain.  
The Tunica adnata alba or conjunctiva is smooth and thin, arising from 
Adnata Tunica.  the Pericraneum. Some will have it arise from the Periosteum, and end at the Circle of the Iris, after it hath communicated a Coat to the Eyelid. It is the outmost Coat of all, next the bone. Hypocrates calls it the White of the Eye.  
It fastens the Eye to the Socket and inner Bones like a Ligament. 
It's Use.   
It is of exquisite Sense.  
It is sprinkled about with very many little Veins and Arteries, not appearing 
The Seat of the Ophthalmia or Blearey'dness.  save when there is an Afflux of Humours, for than they swell and are very red as in the Opththalmia or Bleareyed soreness, which Disease is seated in the Part.  
This Adnata being removed, the first that offers itself, is the Sclirotica or dura 
1. Tunicle of the Eye.  so called, which arises from the dura Mater, and it is thick, stretched, equal, and dark on the back part. The forepart of this they call tunica Cornea, because 
Cornea.  it is polished and transparent like an horn: for it may be scaled into four plates, over which the Epidermis is placed, and involves the whole forepart of the Eye. It is next the sclirotica or dura, firmly cleaving in the hinder part of the Choroides, yet joined with the Crystalline in the middle, that it may separate the watery and glassy Humours.  
The second is called Choroides, because it is like the Chorion, and Vessels are 
2. Tunicle of the Eye.  sprinkled up and down. It arises from pia Mater, being from the first Original blackish, especially within, that the Ideas received in a dark place, might be the more illustrious. In Brutes it is of several Colours, sometimes watchet, etc. Under the transparent Cornea it is in men sometimes sky-coloured, sometimes blue, or grey, which Colours are seen through the Cornea. This in its forepart is termed Uvea, by reason it is of the colour of a Grape, in which part it is thick and doubled: it is movable and according to the diversity of the Object or Light, it is contracted and dilated, as we may very well discern in Cats. This forepart is also perforated in the middle, to let in the Species or Representations of visible Objects, where  
The Pupilla or sight of the Eye is form, 
The Pupilla.  which in Mankind is round: in some Brutes of an oblong shape, or long and round. Riolanus hath observed the compass of this hole or the Crown thereof, being drawn with the point of a Penknife, to have been cut off orbicularly, which may better be seen in an Ox eye boiled, which makes him think this Circumference to be a distinct Membrane from the Uvea, since it hath peculiar fibres. But this is confuted by Plempius, and because the Verge of the uvea tunica hath divers colours, hence arises  
The Iris or Circle, which Galen, Casserius, Riolanus 
Iris.  reckon to be sixfold, and Plempius but threefold: a double narrow one at the White of the Eye, a third at the Sight true and larger, illustrated with a constant colour. This Circle is seen variously coloured, and where it makes the Iris, it is sometimes sky-coloured, otherwhiles fiery, grey, black, etc.  
From the Circumference of the Uvea, where it's duplicated Membrane 
Ligamentum ciliare.  bends itself back to the Crystalline, there arises a Ligament or Interstitium ciliare so called, which are certain then filaments produced out of the Uvea representing the black Lines of the Eyelids, like Hairs, and they compass the Crystalline humour, which by help of these is knit to the neighbouring parts: it is moved with the Uvea being movable. Cartesius will have its use to be to move the Crystalline, that the Situation thereof may be changed, according to the various necessity of sight.  
The third is the Retina or Amphiblestroides as the Greeks call it, that is the Netfashioned 
The third Coat.  Coat, made of the inner substance of the Brain or of some Nerve spread out as it were, the pia Mater withal accompanying in the same, if we believe Galen and Casserius. Therefore this soft, and as it were snotty matter may be gathered together, compassing the vitreous Humour and its vitreous Coat like a Net. It is an exceeding thin coat, but more dark than lightsome, mixed with an obscure Redness, because the Species received, are here stopped and represented; yet is it a little snotty, with which Snot is sometimes white, for the illustration of the Species received. In my Judgement, it is the sliminess of the marrowy Substance.  
It's Figure is semicircular, like a Mitre, and its sides are near the Crystalline, for the distinct Representation of the Species.  
Platerus says it hath no Vessels; contrary to Galen, Casserius, Silvius and others, and Experience itself: for the hinder part of the Choroides and the sclirotica tunica, have Vessels manifestly apparent in this Coat, and there they ought to be, that it may be nourished with its contents. This compassing yet farther becomes the Aranea or Chrystalloides, 
Aranea.  the proper Tunicle of the Crystalline Humour, clothing the fore and hinder part thereof, white, most thin and transparent, so that it is called the Looking-glass.  
The VIII. TABLE.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
The TABLE shows the Muscles of the Eye, the Tunicles and the Humours.  
FIG. I. 

A. The horny tunicle with the Pupilla or sight to be seen through it.  
B. The right Muscle that lifteth up the Eye.  
C. The internal right Muscle or the Muscle drawing to, or shutting.  
D. The right internal Muscle or the drawing from, or opening.  
E. The right external or opening Muscle.  
F. The internal crooked Muscle called Trochlearis.  
G. The external oblique Muscle below.    
FIG. II. Shows the Muscles in a Sheep's Eye. 

A. The Optic Nerves.  
BB. The seventh Muscle that is about the Optic Nerve proper to Beasts.  
CCCC. The strait Muscles.  
D. The trochlear Muscle.  
E. The lowest oblique Muscle.    
FIG. III. 

aa. The adnata tunicle in its place.  
bb. The Cornea or horny tunicle.  
cc. The uvea tunicle.  
dd. The tunicle sclorotis.  
ee. The hard Membrane of the Optic Nerve.  
ff. The tunicle Choroides.  
gg. The thin Membrane of the Optic Nerve.  
hh. The Net-tunicle called Retina  
two. The marrowy Substance of the Optic Nerve.  
l. The inward Marrow affixed to the Vitrea.  
mm. The Crystal tunicle.  
nn. The Pupilla.  
oo. The shineing part of the Cornea.  
A. The watery Humour.  
B. The Crystalline Humour.  
C. The glassy Humour.    
FIG. IV. The adnata Tunicle separated from its place, with many Veins and Arteries.  
FIG. V. 

A. The Nerve Optic taken from the dura Mater.  
BB. The dura Mater going about the Optic Nerve.  
CC The Sclerotis opened, through which the Uvea is seen.    
FIG. VI 

A. The Optic Nerve covered only with the pia Mater.  
BB. The Choroides taken from the Sclerotis.  
CCCC. The Veins of the Sclerotis.  
DD The Sclerotis turned inside out.  
EE. The Rupture of the Sclerotis.    
FIG. VII. 

A. The Nerve Optic.  
BB. The Uvea unfolded and separated in part from the Retina.  
CC. Part of the Retina laid bare from the Uvea, made too obscure.    
FIG. VIII. 

A. The Retina laid bare.  
BB. The White of the Eye or tunica conjunctiva.  
C. The Cornea.  
D. The Pupilla.    
FIG. IX. The glassy tunicles with the Hairs of the Eyelids.  
FIG. X. The watery Humour thickened in the middle of which there is a hollow to receive the forepart of the Crystalline.  
FIG. XI. The glassy Humour with the Crystalline in the middle.  
FIG. XII. The Crystalline tunicle.  
FIG. XIII. The Crystalline Humour in its proportion.  
page 147  
I add the tunica Vitrea, which covers the vitreous 
Vitrea.  or glassy Humour on all sides, that it run not about, and separates it from the Crystalline Humour. It is of exceeding smoothness and thinness, shed about the Humour like a thin Skin, not only in the convex part of the said Humour, but also in its concave part, where it receives the Crystalline, where indeed it cleaves close to the Crystalline Coat, but is different from it. It is furnished with many, but very little Veins, and the inner portion of the marrowy Substance of the Optic Nerve, cleaves to the Centre thereof. The form is such as that of the glassy Humour, large and convex behind, and concave before.  
The Humours of the Eyes are three, the watery, the glassy, and the Crystalline: of 
Humours of the Eyes.  which the last is the most noble, and by some termed the Soul and Centre of the eyes.  
The watery because thin and fluxive like 
The watery Humour.  water, occupies the whole space between the Tunica cornea, and the fore part of the Crystalline. Riolanus also proves that it is poured round about the vitreous Humour, and that all of it is contained within the whole uvea tunica; because the Eye being cut in the hinder part, water flows out as much as if it were cut before. But if the vitrea tunica be also cut with a large Wound, no wonder if water flow from thence, which Plempius also notes; not to say how easily the inner parts are broken, when they are rudely fingered. In the Humour Suffusions are made.  
This Humour is no animated part, 
The watery Humour is no animated part, the other Humours are.  but seems only to be an Excrement remaining after the Nutrition of the Crystalline Humour: for it is both consumed in Diseases, and lost in Wounds of the Eyes; the other two humours are animated parts, seeing they have their proper circumscription, are nourished with blood brought Veinlets, when perished they are not restored, and are bred in the Womb: and the Crystalline of the most pure lightful part of the Seed.  
The Use of the watery Humour is to defend the bordering parts from dryness: others add, that as a medium it serves to break the brightness continually flowing in, and to greaten the Representations of the Objects, being straitened in the Pupilla or Sight.  
The Vitreous or glassy Humour is seen behind, like molten Glass, softer than 
The vitreous of glassy bumor.  the Crystalline, than which it is nevertheless five times bigger, and twice as big as the watery Humour. It is round in its hinder part, plane before, but being concave in the middle, it makes an hollowness wherein the Crystalline Humour is placed as in a Pillow. It's Use is not barely to nourish the Crystalline, as Galen conceived, but to prepare and communicate Nourishment thereto. According to Aquapendent from whom Riolanus had the notion, that the light carried beyond the crystalline may not return defiled by dark and other coloured tinctures, and so disturb the Sight. Platerus more rightly, that the splendid vitreous Humour might fill up a necessary space between the Crystalline and the Retina, which others explain more clearly, that the glassy. Humour may give a passage to the Species to the Retina, and may refract them from Perpendiculars.  
The Crystalline (which some call the icy because of its firmness) is so called 
The Crystalline.  from its exceeding bright and shineing colour, which it hath, being free from all other colours, that it may receive all colours, it is shineing, indifferently ●●rd round behind, with some longness, flat on the foreside: howbeit according to the sundry affections of the Eye, this form is variously changed.  
It's Use is, to be the chief Medium of sight, as a glass held before the hole, receives the external species into a dark Closet, even so the Crystalline Humour, both receives and collects the Species or Representations of things. And because the humour is transparent, the Species are no● stopped therein, nor colours perceived, which most Anatomists have believed after Galen; for otherwise there were no reason why they should not be as well perceived in the Cornea, and vitreous Humour, both transparent and animated. Therefore the sight is not primarily made in this Humour, but the Species are discerned in the retina tunica, because there they are stopped by a dark Body, as we seen on the Wall of a Chamber, when the Windows are shut.  
Scheinerus conceives, that the Species which did represent all things the bottom upwards, are corrected and refracted in the Crystalline Humour, so as to represent all things in their due posture. But according to the Observation of Job. Walaeus, Fr. Silvius, and Fr. Ʋander Schagen, the Choroides, the Sclirotica, and Retina tunica, being taken away from behind, all things are seen by the Eye, and represented with the bottom upwards; very small in an Ox's Eye, somewhat greater in a Mans. Plempius proves the same by an Experiment of a glass Instrument filled with the three Humours, placed before the hole of the Window, where all things appear on the Wall with the wrong side upwards. And doubtless the Species must needs be represented with the bottom upwards in the Retina, otherwise we should see all things the wrong end upwards, and not right, which Keplerus hereby demonstrates, because in passion the Patients must be just opposite against the Agents.  
Others will have it, that our Judgement corrects the depraved Figure, which discerns the just Magnitude of things by very small Species received. Others allege the common Sense, which seeing the inverted species, behind and above the Cavity of the Retina, apprehends them in their true posture. Finally others say that a true Judgement is therefore made, because it is made by a right Line.   

Chap. IX. Concerning the Ears.  
THe Organ of Hearing, viz. the EARS are either external or internal.  
The external which are by some termed Auriculae the Earlets, are in Mankind of a semicircular Figure, convex without, concave within.  
The outer Ear is divided into the upper and lower part.  
The upper is broader, and by some 
Names of the parts of the outer Ear.  called Pinna, by others Ala. The lower is soft and hanging down, termed Fibra, Auricula infima, Lobus.  
The outer Circumference of the Ear is called Helix, also Capreolus, because of its wreathed formed. The inner part opposite to the former, is termed Scapha or Anthelix. In the middle hereof is a large Cavity, the principal part of the external Ear, called Concha. But the Cavity near the Meatus auditorius or Hearing-passage, where Earwax is collected, is called Alvearium. Towards the Temples there grows a certain eminency like a covering, which either receives or hinders things that would go into the Ear, and is termed Hircus the Goat, because Hairs grow thereon.  
The Parts whereof the external Ear is composed, are either common, as the Skarf-Skin, the Skin, a Nervous Membrane, Flesh, and a little Fat in the Lobe: Or Proper, as Muscles, Vessels, and a Gristle.  
The Skin is exceeding thin, cleaving to a little Flesh with a firm Gristle; and as in 
It's Skin.  the Palms of the Hands a Nervous Membrane is firmly fastened thereto; by the sense whereof it happens that cold water sprinkled on the Lap or Lobe of the Ear doth cool the whole Body. In the Lobe it is so mingled with Flesh, that it becomes thereby fattish, fleshy and spongy: Hence the Lobe is soft and flexible, so that it may be bored with no great trouble, and therefore some hang Jewels and Earrings thereon.  
As to Vessels: it hath Veins from the Jugulars. 
It Vessels.   
Arteries from the Carotides.  
Little Nerves, two from behind, and two from the sides, arising from the second pair termed Cervicale.  
Muscles rightly conspicuous in such as move their Ears, are common or 
The Muscles.  proper. which it was my luck once to see, and such Justinian must have had, whose Ears could move as Procopius describes him. But in most people the Ears are unmoveable, both because of the smallness of the Muscles, and 
Why few move their Ears?  because there was little need of their motion, because a Man can do that with his Hands which Beasts do with their Ears, wherewith they drive away flies.  
The first Muscle is common to the Ear 
The use of the first  and each Lip; and it is a part of the first Muscle which moves the Cheeks, and the Skin of the Face, and it is termed Quadratus, the square Muscle, sufficiently thin and broad. It is implanted into the Root of the Ear under the Lobe, that it may draw the Ear to one side downwards.  
The second is proper and seated more forward, leaning upon the temporal 
The use of the second Muscle.  Muscle, from the end of the Muscle of the Forehead (from which it differs by the carriage of the Fibres) arising sometimes with a round, otherwhiles with a corner'd beginning, and being Tendinous, it is implanted into the upper part of the Ear, where it is narrower, that it may move the Ear upwards and forewards.  
The third and hinder more arises above the Processus mammillaris, from 
The use of the third Muscle.  the hind-part of the Head and its Muscle, with a narrow beginning; afterward growing broader and divided as it were into three parts, it goes hindlongs to the Ear, that it may draw it, somewhat backwards and upwards.  
The fourth arising from the Processus mammillaris, being broad, grows narrower 
The use of the fourth,  by little and little, till at last it ends in a Tendon. This Muscle is rather threefold, because it hath three Insertions, yet all spring confused from one place. Some of these are sometimes wanting, otherwhiles they are all found; sometimes there are more, nature variously sporting herself in the Muscles of the Ear.  
The Ears Gristle, is a substance tied to the Os petrosum, by a strong 
The Ear Gristle.  Ligament springing from the Pericranium.  
Certain Kernels there are outwardly 
The Kernels calid Parotides.  about the Ears, thick and large, which are termed Parotides, though this word do also signify the swellings of the said Kernels.  
They are not only behind the 
Their Situation.  Ears, as is commonly imagined, but on both sides and under the Ear, but not above.  
These Kernels by the Ears are called the Emunctories of the Brain, because they receive the Excrements thereof.  
There are also many other Kernels in 
The s●at of Kings-Evil swellings.  the whole space which is under the lower Jaw, in which many Diseases are bred, and swellings called Scophulae in some Creatures, as wild Swine. The common people count these Kernels a dainty dish and call them Sweetbreads.  
Their Use is, to moisten the parts, and to assist in the divisions of the Vessels.  
The Use of the External Ear is,  
I. For Ornament, and therefore the English, Dutch and other Nations punish Malefactors by cutting of their Ears.  
II. To saveguard the Brain, that it may not be hurt by the Air suddenly rushing in.  
III. To be the Organ of Hearing, 
The External Organ of Hearing.  not principal, but assistant. The true Organ lies within, as doth that of the swelling. And as the Nose being cut off a Man can smell though imperfectly; so if the Ears be quite cut off close to a Man's Head, he can Hear, but dully, confusedly, with a mammering noise, so that Articulate words will seem as the noise of Water-streams, or the screekings of Grass-hoppers, as they know who have lost their Ears. Yea, and the Hearing of that Ear which is not cut off, is dammaged, unless the cut Ear be stopped.  
The Use therefore of the External Ear, is more readily and rightly to receive sounds; and to gather them when they are scattered in the Air into the Cavity of the Ear, that they may come unto the Drum without violence, being first moderated and allayed in the hollow and winding passages. Hence, least sounds which are diven towards the Ears, should slip beside, Beasts turn their Ears this way and that way to sounds. Hence also the Emperor Hadrianus; that he might heat more distinctly, would hold the hollow of his Hand before his Ears, which also deaf persons frequently practise. Hence some Scythians, whose earlets are mortified and rottted of with cold, doth apply a Fish-shell to their Ears, that the Air being detained in the Cavity thereof, may be more easily received, that so they may hear the better. Hence, they hear most exactly, whose Ears stick furthest out from their Heads, and if our Ears were not too much pressed down, what by long lying upon them. what by the binding of Nurses, we should hear better than we do.  
The Internal Ear hath also sundry parts 
The Internal Ear.  contained in the Os petrosum, and besides the parts and little caverns of the Bones, there are: The Drum, two Muscles, the Vessels and inbred Air.  
In the auditory passage clothed with Skin, through which sounds are carried, is found a Choleric clammy humour, which the Ancients called Cerumen. Earwax, being purged from the Brain▪ but Intrinsically it is obliquely placed before this hole or passage of Hearing.  
There is a certain Partition, or little Orbicular Menbrane, compassed with a boney circle, which some call Myrinx, others Sextum Membraneum and Mediastinum, others Tympanum, but some rightly mympani Membranula. For it is 
Tympanum.  stretched before the internal Cavity containing the congenit Air, as the Parchment or Velam on a Drum Head. Casserius conceives that it arises from the Pericranium, but Veslingius believe that it is an expansion of the Periosteum, who hath also observed it to be double, and also frequently crusted over by thickened Excrements.  
It is exceeding dry, that it may sound the better, for dry bodies are fittest for sound.  
It is Transparent thin and subtle, that the sounds may more easily pass through 
A cause of Deafness.  to the implanted Air: For those that have it thick from their birth, have an incurable Deafness, as those also who have a thick Coat growing over the same without, the Cure whereof is nevertheless taught by Paulus; and if this happen from the birth, such persons continue for the most part Dumb, because they can neither conceive in their mind nor utter with their Tongue such words as they have never hard. But if a Snotty matter cleave thereto within, or a thick Humour 
A Cause of thickness of Hearing.  flow thereto, a thickness of Hearing or a Deafness incurbale is thereby caused. If a thin Humour flow thereto, there arise tinklings and noises in the Ears.  
Finally it is Nervous, of so exquisite a Sense that, it can neither bear the putting in of a Probe, nor sharp Humours; yet is it strong so as to endure against external Injuries; for being hurt or corroded it causes thickness of Hearing or Deafness, as they find by experience, who have it hurt by the noise of great Guns or Bells, or in whom it is broken by swimming. For the safeguard therefore hereof, there are three little Bones added within (of which, the Hammer sticks fast to the Drum, and is seen through the same) and two Muscles.  
The Use thereof is, to shut the passage of hearing, and to separate the innate Air from that which is external, and to keep it within. Also to save it from Dust, Water, creeping things, etc.  
Within the Membrane of the Tympanum, thereiss an Internal Cavity in the 
The Cavity of the Drum.  Bone, containing a certain Air, which some term the inbred, Congenit and complanted Air, because it is placed in the Ears at the first formation, being pure, subtle and immovable: which some count the internal Medium of Hearing, others the Organ itself of that Sense.  
There are two Muscles of the inner Ear according to Anatomists. 
Muscles of the inner Ear.   
They call the first the Internal, seated in the Os petreum, with a double Tendon: The one being fixed to the higher process of the Hammer, the other to its Neck.  
It's Use is to draw the Head of the Hammer obliquely inwards, and to carry it inwards from the Anvil, and the process of the Hammer being bowed back, to drive the little Membrane inwards.  
The second is external, found out by Casserius, though Aquapendent doth likewise attribute to himself the Invention thereof; it is exceeding small, fleshy, and consisting in the upper Region of the Auditory passage, with its Tendon implanted into the Centre of the Membrane, there where the Hammer is inwardly joined to the said Membrane. So that Parisanus labours in Vain by denying this Membrane in contradiction to Casserius.  
It's Use is to draw the Membrane with the Hammer outwards.  
A certain small Gristly passage is to be observed, which goes from the Concha of the Ear near the sides of the Pterygoidean process, to the Palate. Fallopius says it is a conveyance of Water, furnished with a small Valve, Riolanus in the mean while, an old Master of Anatomy, denying that there is any such Valve to be found.  
The Use hereof is, 1. To purge the 
Why Masticatories help in Diseases of the Ears?  inbred Air, for this way Excrements pass from the Ear into the mouth, but, not back again, because there is a Valve to hinder. And this is the Reason that Masticatories are very helpful in Diseases of the Ears.  
II. To let in sound in Deaf and stopped Ears.  
Varro writeth and Pliny with Archelaus, that Goats draw in Breath at their Ears, which Aristotle reports of Alcmeon. And such as are somewhat thick of hearing, do perceive words more distinctly when they Gape, and when our Ears are stopped, we can hear our own Speech though weakly. Such as have the Venereal Disease, are hurt not only with cold Air, but with any other uneven noise, passing through their Mouth into their Ears, as Tulpius observes, who also hath observed that two persons troubled with the Orthopnaea, were saved from choking, by voiding their Breath out at their Ears, by means of this passage. Those do abuse this passage, who render the smoke of Tobacco which they take, through their Ears.  
Finally, we meet with the Nervous Auditories or Hearing Nerve, which proceeds from the fifth pair of the Brain, entering the Ear through the hole of Os Petrosum. It touches the Cochlea and the Labyrinth with a double branch that it may in both places perfect the Hearing. To which a Branch is added to move the Muscles, proceeding from the fourth pair, and cleft in two.   

Chap. X. Of the Nose.  
ANother Organ of Sense follows, viz. The Nose the Instrument of smelling, given to Men and fourfooted Beast that bring fourth living Creatures.  
Now it is divided, as the Ear, into the External and Internal Nose.  
The Internal hath Bones and Nerves, 
The Names of the parts of the Nose.  with the Mammillary processes, of which in their place.  
The External is Extrinsecally divided into the upper and lower part.  
The upper part which is boney and immovable, is termed the Back of the Nose, and it's Acuminated part, Spina. The lower part is Gristley and movable, the utmost end whereof is termed Globulus and Orbiculus, by the only feeling whereof Michael Scotus pretends to tell whether a Maiden have lost her Virginity. The lateral or side parts are termed Pterugia alae, Pinnae; that is Wings or Pinnacles, that fleshy part which sticks out in the middle near the Lips, is called Columna the Pillar.  
The Nose is divided within, by a partition Wall, into two Holes or Cavities which they call Nares the Nostrils: that one hole being stopped, we may draw in and pass out the Air by the other. And when both are stopped, the Mouth supplies the Office of the Nostrils. Now each hole is again divided about the middle of the Nose into two parts: the one ascends upwards, to the Os Spongiosum; the other goes above the Palate into the Throat and upper part of the Mouth. Hence drink sometimes comes out at the Nostrils: and things put into the Nostrils, the Nose being shut, are wont to slip into the Mouth. Hence also the thicker Excrements also of the Brain, while they are carried downward to the Nostrils, may slide into the Mouth, or be brought thither by Hawking, and so purged out at the Mouth.  
It is situate in an high place, viz. between the Eyes. 1. For comelyness Sake. 2. Because all smells mount upwards.  
The Magnitude varies, as also the Figure, for some have great Noses, others little Noses, some Hawkenoses and Roman-noses, and others saddle-noses etc. Touching which Physiognomists Discourse.  
It's Substance consists of the Scarf●-Skin, 
The parts of the Nose.  Skin, Muscles, Bones, Gristles, Vessels, and Tunicles.  
It's Skin is thin, and void of fat, that 
The Skin.  it may not grow too much; under the partion in the Colomme it is thick and Spongy; so that it is like a Gristle and is compassed with Hairs termed Vibrissas.  
There are eight Muscles of the Nose, 
Muscles of the Nose.  especially in large Nosed people, but they are small because the motion of the Nose is little. Four serve to widen the Nose, while the Alae or Wings being drawn upwards, they open the holes of the Nostrils. And there are four more which straiten the Nose.  
The two first widners being fleshy, do arise from the Cheekbone, near the Muscle of the Lips, which they make a third. They are inserted partly into a part of the upper Lip, partly into the lower Wing. Casserius found them resembling the leaves of Myrtle.  
The IX. TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE represents the Muscles of the Forehead, Eyelids, Nose, Cheeks, Lips, lower Jaw and Ear-let.  


a. The Pericranium.  
b. The Periosteum.  
c. The Hairy Skin or Scalp.  
d. The Skull made bare.  
e. The temporal Muscle.  
f. The upper Muscle of the Ear.  
g. The Muscle of the Hind-part of the Head, stretched out to the hinder Muscles of the Ears.  
h. The Muscle of the Forehead.  
i. A frontal Appendix spread out upon the Back of the Nose.  
kkk. The orbicular Muscle of the Eye.  
l. The triangular Muscle of the Nostrils.  
m. The common muscle of the Lips, which lefts up.  
n. The first proper muscle of the upper Lip.  
o. The second proper Muscle of the upper Lip.  
p. The trumpeters Muscle.  
q. The chewing Muscle.  
r. The common Muscle depressing the Lips.  
s. The proper Muscle of the lower Lip, called Mentalis deprimens.  
tt. The third common Orbicular Muscle of the Lips.  
u. The Circular Muscle of the Nose.  
xxx. The part of the Earlet termed Helix.  
y. The opposite Part called Anthelix.  
z. The part of the Ear-let called Tragus.  
A. The Antitragus.  
V. The Lobe or lap of the Earlet.    
page 151  
The other two which are commonly triangular, and like the Greek letter Δ on each side one, with a sharp and fleshy beginning, do grow from the Suture of the Forehead by the Foramen lachrymale or Tear-hole, and are implanted into the Spina or the Pinnae of the Nose. I have sometimes observed an Appendix thereof to have descended to the upper Lip, viz, in such as cannot lift up their Nose without their Lips. Casserius against the mind of all Anatomists, draws its original from the Pinnae of the Nose; but they are movable.  
The two first Str●itners, which are little do arise fleshy, about the Root of the Pinnae, are carried along transversly, and inserted into the corners of the Alae. Casserius did first of all observe a portion thereof and describe it, which is not always found; for more often the circular Sphincter involves the Pinnae of the Nose orbicularly. The Use thereof is a little to shut the Nostrils, depressing the Pinnae.  
The remaining two are exceeding firm and membranous, lying hid under the Coat of the Nostrils, in the inner part. They arise from the Extremity of the Nose-bone, and are implanted into the Pinnae or Wings.  
Besides these Muscles of the Nose aforesaid, I have found on the Nose-back of a certain person, a fleshy Muscle, thin, stretched right out from the frontal muscle, with a broad Basis, and ending soon after, narrower about the outmost Gristle of the Nose.  
Gristles do make up the Substance of the lower part of the Nose, and are five 
The Gristles of the Nose.  in number.  
The two uppermost being broad ones, do stick unto the Bones of the Nose, and the more they descend, the softer they grow, so that the end of the Nose hath a substance, partly gristly and partly ligamental.  
The third being in the middle of the other two, make sthe partition-wall between the two Nostrils.  
By these are placed the other two, of which the Pinnae of the Nose are constituted, and they are tied together by membranous Ligaments.  
As to Vessels. It hath Veins from the Jugulars. 
Its Vessels.   
Arteries from the Carotides.  
Nerves from the third pare, on each side one, which goes through the holes common to the Nose and eyes, at the greater corner into the Coat of the Nose, and the Muscles, and the Palate.  
The Coat which clothes the Nostrils is from the dura Mater, and common to 
The Coat of the Nostrils.  the Mouth, Palate, Tongue, Larynx, Gullet and Stomach; but in the Nostrils it is thinner and of exquisite sense; for being vexed it causes Sneezing: it is 
The cause of Sneezing.  bred with many little holes which go into the Os cribrosum.  
Riolanus informs us that within the Cavities of the Nostrils, there are spongy parcels of flesh to be seen, of a reddish colour, wherewith the spongy bones of the Nose are filled, of which being swelled, the Disease in the Nostrils, called Polypus, is bred, touching the pulling out and cure whereof, read Tulpius.  

The Use of the outer Nose is  
1. That through it air may enter into 
The use of the Nose.  the Brain for the needs of the Animal Spirits.  
2. That by it air may enter into the Lungs, for the cooling of the Heart, and to breed vital Spirits.  
3. That by the Nostrils Odours may be carried to the Mammillary processes, which lie concealed above the Os cribrosum. And therefore they whose Nose is cut off at the Roots, cannot smell at all, or badly.  
4. That the Excrements of the Brain may flow down there through, as by a Channel. Which is but a secondary use of the Nose, because Jo. Walaeus, Jo. Dom. Sala my Masters and myself, have known some persons that never voided any Excrements at their Nose  
5. It is also sometimes assistant to the Voice.  
6. It adds an Ornament to the Face. It is storied in the Chronicles of England, how a company of honest Maidens of that Country, in the time of the Daneish War, did cut off their own Noses, that they might preserve their Maidenheads from the violence of the Daneish Soldiers, by this deformity. This was the punishment of Adulterers in Egypt, which also Jebovah threatens to the Inhabitants of Jerusalem, by the Prophet Ezekiel. In our Historiographer Saxo, we read how Hialto deformed a Courtesan by cutting off her Nose, when she asked him who should be her next Lover. And therefore because it makes much for the Ornament of the Face, the Chirurgia Curtorum was invented, teaching how to supply a Nose in the room of that which is cut off, of which see Tagliacotius.    

Chap. XI. Of the Mouth, Cheeks and Lips.  
THe last Organ of Sense remains, viz. the Tongue the Organ of Tasting, which before I explain, I must propound the external parts about the Mouth, and the internal parts in the Mouth.  
The external parts about the mouth are sundry. The upper part under the 
The Names of the outward parts about the Mouth.  Eyes, between the Nose and the Ears, by reason of its usual Redness, and the unusual by reason of blushing, is called Pudoris sedes the Seat of shamefacedness, Maium or Pomum the Apple, also Circulus Faciei, the Circle of the Face.  
The lower and loser part which may be blown up, as we see in Trumpeters, is termed Bucca the Cheek, the upper part of the Lip is called Mystax. The Cavity imprinted therein and dividing the same, is called Philtrum, from its loveliness. Now the Lips are two, the upper and the lower, and the chink between both, is termed Os the Mouth. The outer parts of the Lips which hang over, are called Prolabia. The lower part under the lower Lip is called Mentum the Chin; the fleshy part under the Chin is termed Buccula.  
Now the Mouth consists of parts, partly boney, as the upper and lower Jaw with the teeth; partly fleshy, as the Lips, Lip-muscles, Cheek-muscles, and lower Jaw-muscles.  
The whole inner capacity of the Mouth is cloarhed with a thick Coat, which goes also about the Gums and Lips, and is thought to be doubled when it constitutes the Uuula.  

The Uses of the Mouth are: 
The use of the Mouth.   
1. To receive in Meat and Drink, and to prepare the same, or begin Chylification the beginning, of which is performed in the Mouth.  
2. To receive in and let out the Air.  
3. To speak and frame the Voice.  
4. To give passage to the Excrements of the lungs, the Head and Stomach, by hawking, spitting, and vomiting.   
Two pare of Muscles there are, common 
Two pare of Muscles common to the Cheeks and Lips.  to the Cheeks and Lips, on each side two Muscles.  
The first is that same broad and square muscle lying under the skin of the neck, which the Ancients did not distinguish from the Skin.  
It arises about the Channel-bones, and the hinder-part of the Neck; and with oblique Fibres (which a Surgeon must diligently observe, lest he cut them freely and athwart, and so make the Cheeks to be pulled away to one side) it is implanted into the Chin, the Lips and Root of the Nose, and sometimes of the Ears: which parts also it moves to the part, and this is first cramped in 
Spasmus Cynicus.  the Spasmus Cynicus.  
The second lies under this, which makes the Cheeks with its Bulk, and therefore is termed Buccinator the trumpetting Muscle, which is most conspicuous in Trumpeters.  
'tis round like a Circle, thin and membranous; interwoven with sundry Fibres, 
The Figure of the Muscle Buccinator.  inseparably clothed with the coat of the Mouth.  
In the Centre hereof Casserius hath observed a certain strong band, breeding from without, and creeping to the Cheekbone, where it is terminated into a certain small and lean Muscle, directly opposite to the Bucca.  
This Muscle arises from the upper Cheekbone, is inserted into the lower, at the Roo●s of the Gums.  
It's Use is to move the Cheeks and Lips: and it is to the teeth instead of an hand, while it thrusts the meat this way and that way to the teeth, that it may be more exactly chewed.  
The Lips consist of undigested spongy flesh (Fallopius reckons it for the ninth pare 
The Lips.  of Muscles which move the Lips) whose Skin is so mingled with Muscles, that it seems to be a musculous Skin, or a skinny Muscle.  
They are covered with a Coat common to the Mouth and Stomath: 
Trembling of the Lip in such as are ready to cast, how caused?  and thence it is that in such as are ready to vomit, the lower Lip trembles.  
The parts of the Lips which touch one another are red, because of the afflux of blood.  
Their Use is,  

1. To shut in the Mouth and Teeth, and to defend the inner parts from cold and external Injuries.  
2. For the conveniency of Eating and Drinking.  
3. For the Voice and Speech.  
4. To cast out the spital, and therefore that Servants might not spit nor speak, they were bound with Skins, as Ammianus Marcellinus informs us.  
5. For Ornament.   
There are some proper Muscles of the Lips besides the common ones aforesaid, which nevertheless may vary in respect of number. Some reckon fewer, and others more: for some are by some Authors counted simple, which others reckon to be manifold.  
The proper Muscles which move the upper Lip, are on each side two. Three there are which move both Lips. The lower Lip is moved only by one proper pare.  
The first pair proper to the upper lip, is a remarkable pare described by Fallopius, 
Four pare of muscles moving the upper Lip.  which slipping down from the corner betwixt the Eyes and Nose, is strait way sunk into the Substance of the upper Lip.  
The other pare, arising from the upper Jawbone, just in the Cavity of the Cheeks under the Socket of the Eye, thin but broad, fleshy, sunk into store of Fat, is carried down wards right on, to the upper Lip, which moves it directly upwards with the first pare. Sometimes also it is obliquely inserted into the confines of both the Lips, wherefore some do make two pair thereof.  
The first pair common to both Lips, is long, fleshy, broad at the 
Muscles common to both Lips.  beginning; arises outwardly from the Jugal process, and descending obliquely through the Cheeks, it is terminated in the space between the two Lips. Sometimes I have seen it from the beginning drawn out as a Rope to the first proper pare. It's Use is; to draw both the Lips obliquely upwards towards the Temples.  
The second common pare of the Lips, from the lower Jawbone to the sides of the chin, fleshy, arises with a broad beginning, and sometimes stretched out to the middle of the chin, grows by little and little narrower 'till it is obliquely inserted into the same confine of each Lip, but lower, which draws away the Lips obliquely downwards and outwards, in such as grin and gern for anger.  
The third Muscle common to the two Lips is circular like a Sphincter encompassing and constituting the whole Mouth, spongy, and firmly sticking to the ruddy Skin, it draws the Mouth together, when people simper as Virgins are wont to do.  
The proper pare of the lower Lip is called 
Muscles of the lower Lip.  Par Mentale, the Chin-pare; arising from the middle of the Chin with a broad beginning, and aseends directly to the middle of the lower Lip, which it moves downwards.  
Now all the Muscles of the Lips, are so mixed with the Skin, that the Fibres do cross one another mutually, and therefore the motions of the Lips are very divers.  
To cause that exquisite Sense which is in the Lips, Branches of Nerves are sent thither, and Veins and Arteries from the neighbouring places: from whence that same ruddy splendour of the Lips proceeds, a note of Beauty and of Health.  
The Muscles of the lower Jaw (for it is 
Muscles of the lower Jaw.  moved) the upper being immovable) some reckon eight, others ten, called Masticatorij, Mansorij, Molares, Chewers, Eaters, Grinders, because they serve for the chewing or grinding of the meat. One only pair depresses the Jaw, because it is apt to go downwards of itself: the other pares fetch it up, which are exceeding strong ones. Hence it is that some can take heavy weights from the ground with their teeth, and so carry them. Hence frantic and otherwise distracted persons do shut their mouths with so much stubbornness and strength, that they can hardly be opened with great force and iron Instruments. chose, the stubbornest person in the World may be compelled without much ado, to shut his or her mouth.  
The first Muscle is termed Crotaphites, 
Temporalis.  the temporal Muscle from its Situation, because it possesses the Cavity of the Temples.  
This is the greatest of them all, firm and strong, yet firmer and stronger in some Beasts, as Lions, Wolves, Dogs, Swine, etc. which were naturally to bite hard▪  
Forth End of the temporal Muscle, is in the beginning of the lower Jaw, which 
The use of the temporal● muscle.  it moves and draws upwards, and so shuts the mouth; and it is terminated in a sharp process, with a tendinous Nerve short and strong.  
Now it arises from the Temples which a beginning broad, fleshy, and semicircular, and by little and little grows narrower as it descends.  
Three Nerves are on each side inserted 
Why 'tis dangerous to hurt the temporal muscle.  thereinto, two from the third pare, another from the fifth pare. And therefore this Muscle being wounded or bruised, there is great danger of Convulsion and of Death in conclusion; especially if the lower part be hurt which is most Nervous. And because of the distension hereof, Hypocrates did pronounce the Luxation of the lower Jawbone to be deadly; unless it were put presently in joint again.  
For safeguard sake, Nature hath given it, 1. A Membrane thick and hard, and black and blue in colour, wherewith it is covered, and shines with a neat colour; the Pericraneum, so that the inner part of the Muscle being all fleshy, doth there stick to the bone without the Pericranium. 2. The Os jugale over the lower part Tendinous and Nervous. 3. She hath fenced the Tendon with flesh above and beneath.  
The second Muscle is the Mansorius primus, first chewer, called Masseter, Molitor, 
Mansorius primus.  and Mandibularis, or Lateralis, seated in the Cheeks.  
It arises from a double Head: the one fleshy, the other Nervous, from the Os jugale, and the first bone of the upper Jaw. It is implanted into the lower part of the Jawbone (by a Connexion sufficiently broad and strong) which it turns this way and that way, in such as are eating. For the Fibres of the Head do so interfere and cross one another, that they move the Jaw both forwards and backwards and sideways.  
The third pair is the Pterygoides or Alare externum, the outward Wing-muscle, the 
Alaris.  finding whereof we owe to Fallopius; but Vesalius accounts it a part of the temporal Muscle. 'Tis seated under the temporal.  
It arises from the Os Sphaenoideum and the external processus Alaris, with a beginning partly Nervous and partly fleshy. 'Tis implanted into the Neck of the lower Jawbone, and the inner seat of the Head thereof.  
It's Use is to move forwards and thrust out.  
The fourth is termed Mansorius alter, the other Chewer, or Alaris internus, being 
Mansorius alter.  thick and short.  
It arises Nervous from the Productions of Os Sphaenoideum called Alatae internae; and is inserted into the inner and hinder part of the Jaw, with a broad and strong Tendon.  
It's Use is to draw the Jaw upward and backward, to assist the temporal Muscle.  
The fifth is termed Graphyoides, because 
Graphyoides.   
It arises from the Appendix Styloides, Membranou, s and broad, and soon becoming round and fleshy, 'tis inserted into the Chin. Hence it is seen to have a double belly, and therefore 'tis also termed Digastricus, twibelly. 'Tis fastened to a Ligament lest it should go too far back. For,  
Its Use is to draw the Jaw downwards and so to open the Mouth.  
Others do reckon for another pair, part of the Musculus quadratus, fixed in the middle of the Chin. Which broadest Muscle, arising from the upper part of the Brest-bone, the Channel bone and the Shoulder tip, and covering the Neck and the whole Face, after Galen, Silvius, and Theophilus, Riolanus describes in this place. I spoke thereof, in the beginning of the Chapter.   

Chap. 12. Of the Parts contained in the Mouth, viz. the Gums, Palate, Uuula, Fauces, and Throat-bone.  
PArts contained in the Mouth besides the Teeth: are the Gums, Palate, Uuula, Fauces, Tongue-bone, Tongue, Almonds or Tonsillaes, Larrnx, and beginning of the Gullet. Of the three later I spoke in my second Book, because of the Connexion of Parts. Of the five former, we will treat in this Chapter and of the Tongue in the Chapter following.  
GINGIVA the Gum, is an hard flesh compassing the Teeth like a Rampart, and in 
Gingiva.  such as have lost their Teeth, serving in some measure to chew their meat: which being either eaten away, or too much relaxed, or overdryed, the Teeth become loose, or fall out.  
PALATUM the Palate, is the upper part of the Mouth moderately hollow, like the 
Palatum.  Roof of an House, whence it is called the Heaven of the Mouth, and is the Basis or Foundation on which the Brain rests, being made of the Os Sphaenoideum.  
'Tis invested with a thick Coat arising from the dura Mater, which covers the Cheeks and whole mouth on their Insides, and is common to the Gullet and Stomach, and therefore there is also a consent between these parts. Nor can we purge the Head with Masticatories, unless we purge also the Stomach by the Palate.  
'Tis furnished with small Nerves for Sense.  
The UUULA hangs from the Palate further into the Mouth near the passages 
The Uuula how seated.  of the Nostrils, over the Chink of the Larynx among the Almonds or Kernels so called. Some call it Gargareon, from the noise it makes when we Gargoyle any Liquor; 'tis also called Gurgulio and Columna.  
It is a Process made of a Glandulous, Spongy and red Substance, which Columbus doth suppose to be made of the Coat of the Palate Reduplicated in that place. Riolanus rather believes that it is flesh, arising from the extremity of the Muscles, which are carried to the Body.  
It is roundel' long, thicker above, and ends in an acute Figure obtusely. It is 
Its Muscles.  suspended and held up by two little Muscles, an Internal and an External pair, either to stir the Uuula Forward and Backward in the time of swallowing, or when it is relaxed with Humours and falls down, to draw it up again.  
Riolanus, from Aretaeus, the Author of Anatomia Vivorum, Abensina and Carpus, describes two broad Ligaments fastening the Uuula on both sides, like to wings spread abroad, which the Arabians term Galsamach of which he is worthy to be consulted.  
Sometimes by reason of Humours too much flowing in, it hangs two much 
The falling o● the Uuula.  down, which is called Casus Uuulae the falling down of the Palate of the Mouth. Which if it cannot be restored to its place by Medicaments nor manual operation, s it is wont to be burnt and cut by Skilful Chirurgeo●u.  
The X. TABLE.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
In this TABLE are shown Os Hyoides, Uuula, and certain Muscles of the Tongue.  
FIG. I. 

A. The Gargareon or Uuula, in English the Palate of the Mouth.  
BB. An outward pair of Muscles.  
CC. Its tendon.  
DD. An inner pair of Muscles, a little compressed.  
E. Part of the Roof of the Mouto, at which the Uuula bangs.    
FIG. II. & III. 

AA. The Basis of Os Hyoides.  
BBBB. The sides or borns of the said Bone.  
CC. Two Gristly Appendices.    
FIG. IV. 

A. The first Muscle of the tongue, arising from the external Face of the Styloides.  
B. The second Muscle of the tongue.  
C. A Muscle of the third pair called Genio-glossum.  
DD. The fifth pair Cerato-glossum, situate without.  
EE. The tasting Nerves.  
FF. The tongue moving Nerves.  
G. A muscle of Os Hyoides.  
H. The Processus Still formis.  
II. The Os Hyoidis.  
K. The Cartilago Scutiformis.  
LL. Two muscles proper to the Larynz.    
page 155  
It's Use is to moderate, the coldness of the Air, that it may not suddenly rush into the Lungs: and therefore those that have lost the Palate of their Mouths die of a Consumption.  
Some think it helps to modulate the Voice, and therefore they call it Plectrum vocis, the 
Vulgar Error.  striking quill of the Voice. But though it be wounded or quite cut off, yet is not the voice hurt, unless some neighbouring parts, which assist the voice are also damaged: for then by the roughness of those parts, caused by those Catarrhs, which have eaten the Uuula, the Voice becomes Hoarse.  
A second Use is, to hinder drink from passing out of the Mouth into the Nostrils. And therefore Salmuth tells of the Son of a Man called John, who being born without any Uuula or Almonds, voided the Milk which he sucked, out of his Nose, and did not live long.  
By FAUCES sometimes we understand the whole wideness of the Mouth: but more strictly it is meant of the hinder and lower part, which cannot be seen, but when the Mouth is wide open and the Tongue held down, the Greeks term it Pharynx, howbeit that word in Hypocrates doth oftentimes signify the Diseases of this part, as Inflammation, etc. Galen calls it Isthmus because of the narrowness of the place.  
In the Fauces is that Bone which from the shape of the Greek letter v is 
Names of the Os hyoides.  called Hyoides, Hypsiloides, also from resemblance to the letter Λ Lambdoides, that is the Upsilon or Lambda-shaped Bone. 'Tis also called Os gutturis, the Throat-bone, and Os linguae, the Tongue-bone, of which I must treat in this place, and not in the History of the Bones, because it is not fastened to the other parts of the Skeleton.  
Now the Bone is the Basis and Foundation of the Tongue, upon which it is placed and moved: and it is set before the Larynx.  
It consists of sundry little bones, three at least, sometimes of five, seven, 
It's Construction.  nine.  
The middle Bone is the greatest, bunching without, hollow within, under which sticks the Epiglottis; it hath processes termed Cornua, borns two in Number, consisting of Bones more or fewer, greater or lesser.  
Four Gristles are added, two are somewhat great, long and round, in the Belly of Os hyoides, two also besides the Horns, which in some persons become bony.  
Its processes are fastened to the Ligaments and ends of the Styloides, also with the Cartilago guttalis.  
This Bone is moved, but not except the Tongue be moved; and therefore it 
Its Muscles.  hath four pair of Muscles common to the Tongue, nor can the Muscles of the Tongue be showed till they are removed.  
The first pair lies concealed in the forepart, under the Skin, resting upon the Weasand and the Cartilago Scutalis.  
It arises with a broad and fleshy beginning, from the higher and inner Region of the Breastbone; and therefore this pair is called Sternohyoides. It's End is fleshy, in the Basis of Os hyoides. And in the middle according to their length, these Muscles are divided with a line.  
Their Use is to draw right down.  
The second being under the Chin and the fifth pair of the lower Jaw; is large, short and all fleshy.  
It arises from the inner part of the lower Jaw, with a various carriage of Fibres: it is ended in the middle seat of the Hyoides. Some call it Geniohyoides.  
It's Use is to draw right upwards and a little forwards.  
The third is lean and round, seated under the Chin, arising from the Root of the Appendix of Styloides; it ends into the horns of the Hyoides. Sometimes they are bored through the middle, for the Muscle which opens the Jaw.  
The Use is, to move sidewayes, and a little obliquely upwards. 'Tis called Stylo-cerato-hyoides.  
The fourth being lean and long, lies concealed under that Muscle of the Scapula which they count the fourth, moving downwards and obliquely sideways.  
It arises from the upper side of the Scapula, near the processus Coracoides, and therefore 'tis called Coraco-hyoides: it is carried upwards obliquely to the sides of the Os hyoides, under that Muscle of the Head which is counted the seventh. And this pair is long, hath two Bellies, and is extenuated in the middle like a Tendon, like that which draws down the lower Jaw.  
Some add to these a fifth pair, which is indeed proper to the Tongue, Riolanus indeed the Myloglossum and therefore he terms it Mylo-hyoideum; but Vestingus the Genio-glossum, and therefore he calls it the Geniohyoides internum: which arising inwardly from the Chin under the Par Genio-hyoideum, is inserted into the Basis of the Hyoides, which it draws strait upwards.  
The Use of this Os hyoides, is 
The Use of Os hyoides.   
I. To be the Basis of the tongue, and yet but obscurely movable: lest as Walaeus conceives, it should perpetually hang in the Throat, and hinder the swallowing of Meat; but it moves forward in swallowing, and so makes the Orifice of the Guller more wide.  
II. That from it many Muscles might arise of the tongue and Larynx.   

Chap. 13. Of the Tongue.  
THe TONGUE called Lingua a lingendo 
The tongue.  from licking.  
Is placed in Mankind, in the Mouth 
It's Situation.  under the Palate thereof:  
Is in Number one, in Sea-calfes' two, in 
Number.  Serpents divided into three parts, in Lizards and Snakes divided into two parts.  
In Man 'tis long, broad and thick, and 
Figure.  thicker at the Root, thinner and sharper at the End.  
It's size is moderate answerable to the mouth, which if it be too great, so that 
Magnitude.  it cannot move readily, it makes a man Lisp and Stutter; and if it be oversoft and moist as in young Children, they cannot speak plainly. Galen, Carnerarius, Zacutus Lusitanus and M. Donatus, have observed the tongue grown to so monstrous a greatness, that it could not be contained within the mouth.  
As to the Connexion, in fishes the whole tongue cleaves to their mouth; 
It's Connexion.  in mankind, it is in its hinder part fastened to the Larynx, and the Os hyoides, also to the Fauces and Tonsillae. Beneath in the middle of its body 'tis fastened with a strong membranous Ligament for strength and stabilities sake; also for the insertion of its proper muscles, whose extremity is termed Fraenulum; nor can any other string be found different from this. This in many new born Children, doth so tie the whole tongue, that it is wont to be torn by the Nail of the Midwife (which is nevertheless a Pernicious course and 
A Pernicious Practice of midwives.  not to be allowed) or the small Knife of a Chirurgeon, that it may not hinder the Child's sucking or future speaking, and that it may freely turn and move itself. Howbeit for want of skill, they cut it in all Infants indifferently, whereas not one of a thousand, when it is let alone, doth stammer.  
'Tis clothed with a Coat (hard in such 
It's Coat.  as use to swallow very hot Liquors) ordinarily thin, soft, and porous, that tastes may easily pierce into the tongues fleshy  
Substance, which is a peculiar kind of 
Substance.  flesh, such as is not in the Body besides (and it is the Organ of taste, not the Coat, as Galen would have it, nor the Nervus Gustatorius, as some from Columbus) soft, loose, rare and spongy, to drink in the tastes brought to it with some humidity. In Fishes and some other Animals 'tis bony. It is rather of a kernelly then a Musculous substance, especially about the Basis thereof.  
For the tongue is no Muscle, seeing 
Whether the tongue be a muscle.  it hath no Fibres, nor moves any other part, but is moved by its Muscles. Others add this Reason, because then motion would be made towards the end of a Muscle, and the tail of a Muscle should be movable▪ the head immovable. But this Reason is false. For the beginning of the tongue is near the Larynx, and arises as it were from the Os Hyoides.  
As to Vessels. Two remarkable Veins 
Its Vessels.  are to be seen under the tongue, which are wont to be opened in Quinzies and Diseases of the Fauces, termed Raninae from their colour, arising from the external Jugulars, these  
Two pretty big Arteries do accompany, from the Carotides.  
Nerves are inserted into the Tongue, both those of motion, and those of Sense: a thicker pair creeping through the inner parts, from the seventh conjugation, which being obstructed or not reaching to the Tongue, the taste is lost according to the observation of Columbus. A thinner pair runs through the outer parts of the Tongues Coat, arising from the fourth conjugation, or as some say, from the third.  
The Tongue is distinguished in the middle of its surface, into the right and 
The line of the tongue.  left part, by a certain white line, which Hypocrates terms Mediana.  
The muscles proper to the Tongue, ending 
Its muscles  in its substance, are by some Anatomists reckoned to be six, by others nine, by some ten, by others eleven, which move the Tongue, upwards and downwards; forewards and backwards; to the right hand and to the left.  
The first pair, which in Oxen is double fleshy and thick, arises from the out side of the Appendix Styloides, being Maugre in Mankind: it ends with transverse Fibres, into both sides of the Tongue, about the middle thereof.  
It's Use is to move the Tongue inwards. But by reason of the Fibres interwoven, they lift the Tongue upwards if they act both together; but upwards only to one side, if only one of them act. This pair is called Styloglossum.  
The second pair is called Myloglossum, arising from the sides of the lower jaw, at the Roots of the grinding Teeth. 'tis inserted under the Basis of the tongue, into the tongues Ligament. Riolanus will have it belong to the Os hyoides, because it touches not the tongue. But it suffices to move the tongue, if it be affixed to the Ligament thereof.  
It's Use; when one acts, the tongue is moved obliquely upwards; when both act, it moves with its point right to the Palate and upper teeth.  
The XI. TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE expresses the Muscles of Os Hyoides and of the Tongue.  


AAA. The Body of the lower Jaw.  
BB. The Body of Os Hyoides.  
CC. The first pair of Muscles called Sternohyoides.  
D. One Muscle of the second pair in its situation, the other removed therefrom.  
EE. The third pair bored in the middle.  
FF. The fourth pair Coraco-hyoides.  
G. A Muscle of the fourth pair of the Muscles of the tongue.  
HH. The Parenchyma of the tongue into which the Nerves are inserted.  
I. A Muscle of the fifth pair of tongue Muscles.  
KK. A Muscle of the first pair of tongue Muscles.  
LL. The common muscles of the Larynx, called Sternothyroidei.  
MM. Other common muscles of the Larynx, Hyothyroidei.  
NN. The Gristles of the Aspera Arteria.  
OO. A muscle of the lower Jaw called Digastricus, Twibelly.  
PP.. Portions of the processus Styloides.    
page 157  
The third pair arises inwardly at the middle of the Chin, whence 'tis called Geneoglossum; it ends, well-near into the middle of the tongue inwardly. Veslingius will have it fastened into the Basis of the Os hyoides, and therefore he reckons it amongst the Muscles thereof. And by reason of the diversity of its Fibres, it seems to perform contrary actions: for the greatest part of the Fibres, which is towards the Root of the tongue, being drawn towards the Original, the tongue is thrust without the Lips; but the smallest part of the Fibres acting, 'tis drawn inwards. This pair hath inscriptions as if it were many Muscles.  
The fourth pair arises fleshy out of the upper and middle Region of the Os hyoides, and is terminated in the middle, after it is drawn out according to the length of the tongue. It is sometimes obscurely divided, as if it were many Muscles.  
It's Use is, to draw the tongue right in, and so to depress the same. And it is called Basioglossum, or Hypsiloglossum.  
The fifth pair is called Cerato-glossum, because it arises from the upper horns of the Hyoides, and is obliquely inserted into the sides of the tongue, near the Root thereof.  
Its arises sometimes from the lower horns, viz. when the higher are wanting, especially in Women. And this pair is double in Oxen.  
It's Use is, to move the tongue directly downwards towards the inner parts, when both act; but if only one be contracted, it moves it to the right or left side.  
By others an eleventh Muscle is added, which yet is no Muscle, because it consists not of fleshy Fibres; but it is a parcel of flesh, consisting of very many Kernels and far, situate at the Root of the tongue, and appearing when the foresaid Muscles are taken away.  
It's Use is, that the tongue may be moistened by this plenty of Kernels.  
The Use of the Tongue is: 
The use of the Tongue.   

I. To be the Instrument of Taste.  
II. Of Speech.  
III. To further the chewing of Meat, by turning it this way and that way.  
IV. To lick with.   
By all which it appears, that the tongue is not necessary to the very being of life, but to the well being: for the part thereof may be cut off without danger of life or health, Zacutus, Walaeus and others after Galen, have found by experience. Abenzoar, Joubertus, Forestus, have observed that Stones have bred under the tongue, hindering Speech, till they were cut out; and I remember that long since such stones were taken out at Milan.    

THE FOURTH BOOK OF THE LIMBS.  
BY Limbs we understand those Members which grow as it were 
The Limbs what?  out from the Trunk of the Body, viz. the ARMS above, the LEGS beneath. In which are chiefly considered the Muscles, Veins, Arteries, Nerves 
Why the muscles also of the Head, Neck, Back etc. are handled in this Book?  and Bones. Of the four last I shall treat, in the four following Manuals: but of the Muscles of the Limbs in this Book, as also of the neighbouring Parts, viz. the Head, Neck, Chest, Back, etc. their Muscles; not because they appertain to the Limbs, but because in the Order of Dissection, an Anatomist cannot show them before the Muscles of the Limbs.  

Chap. I. Of the Arm and Hand in General with the Nails.  
ARistotle calls the Arm with its Hand, 
The use of the Hand.  Organon Organón, the Instrument of Instruments, wherewith Man otherwise naked and unarmed is guifted, that he may not be inferior to the Brute-beasts and conquered by them; but may overcome them, making for himself Weapons, and other necessary Instruments. Man therefore hath received Reason and Hands, which Beasts have not; and the Hand is his Servant and Instrument.  
Now the old Writers Hypocrates and Galen by HAND did understand that 
Manus what?  Part of the Body, from the top of the Shoulder to the ends of the Fingers, and this is termed summa Manus.  
And it is divided into the Arm and Hand strictly so called, or the extrema manus.  
And the Arm is divided again, into the Shoulder and Cubit, the Shoulder is the part of the Arm from the Shoulder-tip to the bending of the Elbow.  
The Cubit is that part from the bending of the Elbow unto the Wrist.  
The Manus extrema or Hand properly so called, is divided into the Brachiale or Wrist, which is the part between the Elbow and Palm; into the Postbrachiale or Metacarpum, after-wrist, which is the part between the Wrist and beginning of the Fingers, and into the Fingers. The Postbrachial part internal is called the Palm of the Hand, the external part is called the Back of the Hand.  
There are many Fingers, that the action 
Why many Fingers on the Hand?  of the Hand might be the better performed, which is laying hold: also that we might be able to take up the smallest matters, which we do by two fingers, and other things of many-shaped Figures: and because all things could not be comprehended with one hand, two were made that meeting together, the one might help the other.  
The right Hand is more active commonly and more ready for motion, not 
Why the right Hand is more active than the left?  for those causes which others childishly cite, but 1. Because in a man's right side is the Vena sine pari so called, which peradventure is double in such as can use both hands alike. 2. Because the bones are more heavy in the Shoulder, Shoulderblade and whole arm, then on the other side, as some men know for certain; which may proceed from an impression of more plentiful Heat in the Mother's Womb, the right part whereof is hotter than the other. Hence Aristotle teaches, that naturally the right hand excels the left; and in another place, he tells us the first endeavour of motion is on the right side; so that when a man is about to walk, first moves his right Leg; a Bird about to fly, moveth first its right wing. 3. Because the trunk of the Subclavian Artery is greater on the right side then the left, as they know that have diligently considered the matter in opposition to Riolanus, though the difference is not, neither needed to be very great. Plato conceives that all men are naturally ambidexters, viz. that they can use both hands alike, and that it is men's unskilfulness and ignorance that makes them right handed only or left handed. But Aristotle is of Opinion, that from our first Formation, the right sides of our Bodies, are always in a manner hotter and stronger than the left, unless any man by much custom, and much exercise, do draw much Heat and Spirit to his left Hand that he may become Ambidexter, and able to use it as his right.  
Now the Fingers for perfection of Action 
The number of the Fingers.  are made five in number, differing in length and thickness. 'tis besides nature, if either the Fingers be quite wanting, which I have seen at Malta and at Florence; or if in place of true Fingers there appear only certain soft marks as big as Peason, which I lately observed here at Hafnia.  
The first is called Pollex a Pollendo because of its strength, and it alone is opposed to the whole four, when any thing is to be taken up, and therefore it is thick.  
The second is called Index and Demonstrator, the shower, or pointer: because therewith we point at any thing.  
The third is the longest and middlemost, called Impudicus the shameless, because Physicians use it in filthy and stinking places; not is it wont to be adorned with Rings.  
The fourth is termed Medicus, also Annularis, the Ring-finger, because it is adorned with a Gold Ring before any of the rest, by reason of a common bu● false opinion Repugnant to Anatomy, viz. that a Vein should come from the Heart to this Finger above all the rest; now the Heart is comforted with Gold.  
The fifth called Auricularis the Ear-finger, because fittest to pick the Ears, is smallest, and by us called the little Finger.  
The Cause therefore of laying hold, which is the action of the Hand, or 
Laying hold.  as others speak less accurately, its chiefest use, is the apt composition of the 
How the Hand is compounded?  whole Hand. Yet the chief Organ of this motion is a Muscle: the strength is in the Bones, which are three in every finger, the lower of which as the sustainer is always greater than that which is above it and stronger, and in the Joints they are furnished on each fide with a Gristle, on which an Oily moisture is poured out for Hummectations sake, and to Facilitate the motion.  
A secondary use of the Arms and Hands as Kyperus learnedly Discourses, is the better to help our going by their weight and balancing; Yea and to speed our going; and therefore dancers on the Ropes, whose Foot is broader than that which they tread on, do bear themselves up with long Poles, and when they dance a pace, they balance themselves with their Hands, which they move this way and that way.  
The Nails are placed externally on the tops of the Fingers, as also of 
Of the Nails.  the Toes: whose upmost part being white, is called the Root of the Nails, the white half Moon, and the little Skin which grows to the Root.  
Their matter is not Alimentary Humours; as Aemilius, Parisanus and Plempius would have it, and others, but thick Excrements, not which ascend from the Heart, as Rosa Anglicana conceives; or from the Arteries, but from the Bones and Gristles, as the great Hypocrates doth affirm.  
The Efficient is that heat which the Soul directs to this rather than any other part of the Body. But the Nails are not made by the Soul, as Parisanus and Plempius contend, because in Cacochymick and Phlegmatic persons they grow more abundantly, in such as have been twenty five years dead, according to the observation of Pareus. Nor are we moved when they say that there is a great variety of colours in horns and shells of Fishes, for they no more prove the action of the Soul in such things, then in party coloured and speckled Marble.  
Their End and Use is,  

I. To fence the ends of the Fingers and Toes which are exceeding soft, and to saveguard them by their hardness, so that they may more easily take up any thing. So in the Feet, that they may be able to resist the hardness of the Ground and stand firm. And therefore it was ill said by him of old, that the Gods had erred in their placing the Nails.  
II. For ornament: and therefore we cover our Fingers when the Nails are impaired.  
III. To rub, scrarch and defend, which is a secondary use.  
IV. To free the Body from superfluous Humours and steams Fuliginous.  
V. To afford Physiognomists and Physicians tokens of Life and Health, which may be seen in divers authors. And Achmetes ch. 74. 75. interprets dreams concerning them, according to the Tradition of the Indians, Persians and Egyptians.   
Their form we gather from the Accidents.  
Their Figure is somewhat convex, that they may apply themselves to the Fingers.  
They have a substance indifferently hard that they may resist, but yet flexible, that they may yield a little and not break.  
They are Transparent and therefore 
Colour of the Nails and signs from thence.  variously coloured: for according to the flesh beneath them, they are red, bluish, etc. And therefore Physicians are wont to observe the Colour of the Nails; for the Nails, for example's sake, grow pale when the heat of the Heart is deficient; in such as are at death's door they are livid and brown. Those same white spots which in young people sometimes appear in their Nails, spring from a vigorous heat, which drives hidden Excrements to the Nails, and separates them from others of a different Nature.  
They are knit about the Root with a 
Whence the sense of the nails proceeds  Ligament, and Skin grows about them without; and flesh grows under them, or rather the tendons of Muscles, there dilated: there is therefore in that place an exquisite sense, and great pain when they are hurt.  
And so much may suffice to have spoken of the Nails, briefly, and by way of Compendium.   

Chap. II. Of the Muscles of the Humerus, or of the Brachium, peculiarly so called.  
THe common containing Parts being removed, viz. the Scarf-skin, the Skin, the Fat, the Membrana carnosa, etc. the MUSCLES show themselves, by which the motion is made, of which I am to treat in this whole Book; in a convenient place, though Hoffman think otherwise, especially because the Doctrine of the Muscles is useful and necessary, by reason of Issues, Wounds, etc. And in the other parts they could not be treated off.  
Now touching the action of the Muscles of the Arm in general, it is to be noted, that the inner Muscles do mostly serve to bend, and the outer to extend. And in the whole Arm the internal Muscles are more and stronger than the external, because bending is more worthy than the extension.  
The Humerus is variously moved, 
The Muscles of the Humerus how many?  and therefore it hath sundry Muscles, partly lying upon the Chest, and partly growing to the Scapulae or Shoulderblades, etc. Some reckon them seven, others  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE represents all the Muscles of the Body described by the Author, which are to be seen before.  


AA. The Muscles of the Neck, called Musculi long.  
B. The Muscles Scalenus.  
C. The Muscle Mastoides which bends the Head.  
dd. The Vertebrae of the Neck.  
E. The Levator Scapulae, lifter of the Shoulder.  
FF. The Claviculae or Chanel bones.  
G. The Breastbone, called Sternum.  
H. The Acromon or Shoulder-tip.  
two. The Musculus Subclavius.  
K. The Pectoral Muscle.  
L. The Muscles Deltoides.  
MM. The Muscle Biceps.  
N. The Musculus perforatus, or bored Muscle.  
O. The Serratus minor, or Smaller-saw-muscle.  
PP. The greater Saw-muscle, or Serratus ma●or.  
qqqq. The Intercostal or Rib between Muscles.  
RRRR. The branchiaeus on each Arm, conspicuous from each part of the Biceps.  
SS. The first Arm extender, or the Longus.  
TT. The Musculus Radij pronator rotundus.  
V. Radij Pronator Quadratus.  
W. Supinator Radij primus.  
X. Carpi flexor primus or externus.  
Y. Musculus palmaris.  
Z. Carpi flexor alter, or the internus.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Os Radij.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Os Cubiti.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Ligament which fastens the Cubitus to the Radi●●?  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Digitorum flexor sublimus or Perforatus.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Profundus or Perforans, under the former.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Musculi Lumbricales.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Flexor pollicis or Thumb-bender.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Muscles which draw the Thumb towards the Hand.   

The following Characters serve to point out those Muscles, which run out from the Region of the Loins to the End of the Feet, in the forepart of the Body.  
A. The Muscle Ps●as or Lumbaris.  
B. The Muscle Iliacus.  
C. The Obturator internus.  
DDDD. The Musculus Triceps, or Tripple-headed Muscle.  
EE. The Musculus Lividus.  
FF. The Rectus in its situation, but on the right Leg hanging by its End.  
GG. The Vastus internus.  
H. The Vastus externus, which on the right Leg hangs separated.  
H. The Musculus membranosus, or the Fascia lata.  
KK. The Musculus Crureus.  
LL. The Musculus longus, Fascialis or Sartorius.  
MM. The Musculus gracilis.  
NN. The Musculus Tabiaeus anticus.  
O. The Musculus peroneus Biceps.  
PP. The Muscle which extends the four Toes of the Foot.  
Q. The Muscle which extends the great Toe.  
R. The Musculus Gastroenemius.  
rrrr. The Musculi Interossei.  
S. The transverse Ligament of the Foot.  
T. The Tibia.  
V. The Fibula.  
X. The Patella.    
eight and Casserius nine. For the Arm is said to be lift up by two Muscles, Deltoides and Supraspinatus; and downwards by two, the Any scalptor and Rotundus major: forewards by one alone, viz. the Pectoralis; backwards by three, the Infra-spinatus and Sub-scapularis, and the Transversus brevior. But they conceive the circular motion thereof is caused by all of them acting one after another: but others will have the Arm to be wheeled about by the Infra-spinatus, Supraspinatus, and Sub-scapularis. But I shall in recounting them follow the order of Dissection.  
The first is termed Pectoralis, because it takes up the Breast or forepart of the Chest being great and fleshy; which Galen conceived might be divided into three or four.  
It arises from wellnigh the whole Brest-bone, and the Gristles thereto annexed; where it is a little tendinous in part of the Clavicula, and the fifth, sixth and seventh true Ribs. 'Tis implanted with a short, broad Nervous and strong tendon, into the Os Humeri, between the Deltoides and the Biceps.  
It's Use is, to move the Arm to the Breast, and as the Fibres are contracted more to the upper or lower part or right forward, so doth the Arm incline this way or that way. This is the Muscle which suffers in that torment which the Italians call Tratta de corda, the Strappado. For it is very much haled and drawn a sunder, when the Arms are pulled forcibly backwards.  
The second is called Deltoides, from its likeness to the Greek letter Δ also Triangularis Humeralis, which is fleshy and so abides, and is spread upon the Head of the Shoulder.  
It arises from the middle of the Clavicula, looking towards the Scapula, and from the top of the Humerus, with a fleshy end indeed, but yet a strong tendon lies concealed therein.  
It's Use is to lift up the Arm. In the 
The place of an Issue in the Arm.  middle hereof the Ancients were wont to make Fontanels or Issues; but others in the external part of the said Muscles: but an Issue is better made in the space between the Deltoides and the Biceps, as I show in my Treatise of Issues, because 1. There is the Cephalick or Head Vein. 2. It is between two Muscles. 3. It may be very well seen and dressed by the Patient. Now the place is exactly found below the Shoulder joint, four or five Finger's breadth, where when you bend the Arm you may feel the space between the two Muscles, and the Arm being lift up, it is Circumscribed in fat persons with a small Cavity, as Claudinus, Solenander and others observe. Ferrara measures four Fingers breadth from the Elbow upwards. See also Glandorpius.  
The third is broadest of all, and with its fellow covers almost the whole Back. 'Tis called Any Scalptor, Clawbreech, because it draws the Arm backwards and downwards.  
It arises with a membranous and very broad beginning, from the points of the Vertebrae of the Back bone, from the Os sacrum and Ilium, as far as to the six: Vertebra of the Chest. It is inserted between the Pectoral and the round Muscle, with a strong, short and broad Tendon. It's shape is triangular.  
Fallopius out of Galen against Vesalius, doth teach that this Muscle is furnished with a new, but very small beginning, while from the lower Corner of the Shoulderblades, it receives very many fleshy Fibres. This Muscle because it hath a large beginning, and therefore divers Fibres; according as they are variously contracted, so the Shoulder is either drawn more upwards or depressed more downwards. And because it also passes through the lower corner of the Shoulder blade therefore it lightly draws the same also away with the Shoulder.  
The fourth is called Rotundus major, and it is obliquely seated behind, under the Axilla, being fleshy, thick, and rounder than the rest.  
It arises fleshy from the Rib of the lower Scapula, and ascending a little with its tendon, short, broad, and strong, it is implanted with the Pectoral, into the upper and lower part of the Humerus.  
It's Use is, to draw the Arm downwards and backwards, and to work contrary to the Deltoides.  
The first is short and round, quite fleshy, which arises with a sharp beginning out of the lowest corner of the Scapula; after it grows thicker and thicker to the middle of its belly, and thence growing smaller by little and little, it terminates with an acute end into that Ligament, wherewith the Head of the Shoulder is involved.  
It hath an oblique Situation, and some call it Transversus musculus brevior, others Rotundus minor. And it is the eighth in Fallopius his account: which Muscle others suppose to be a certain portion of the fourth.  
The sixth is called Infra-spinatus, also Superscapularis inferior, because it covers the whole external bunching part of the Scapula, whose form also it bears; but becoming more narrow, it is with a broad and short Ligament inserted into the Shoulder.  
It is thought to wheel the Arm backwards and outwards. 
It's Use.   
The seventh is the Supraspinatus, also Superscapularis superior, also Rotundus minor; it is fleshy and somewhat longish, over the Armpit; it fills the Cavity between the upper Rib of the scapula, and the Spina thereof, out of which it grows.  
Now it is inserted with a broad and strong tendon, into the Neck of the Humerus, at the Ligament of the joint, being carried above the first joint.  
The Use of this is thought to be the same with that of the former. Others conceive it moves upwards with the Deltois.  
The eighth is termed Subscapularis or Immersus; being very fleshy, it quarters betwixt the Scapula and the Ribs, and takes up the inner part of the Scapula; but it is inserted with a broad tendon, internally, into the second Ligament of the Humerus.  
It's Use is to bring about the Arm inwards.  
The ninth Muscle was first observed by Arantius and Placentinus, being in the former part of the Arm and called Perforatus.  
It arises from the Coracoides Processus of the Scapula (and is therefore by Riolanus called Coracordeus, or Coracobrachiaeus) it is inserted into the inner part of the Shoulder about the middle, by the tendon of the Deltoides. It hath a beginning nervous and short, a long round Belly sufficiently corpulent, and a strong tendon. It's Belly hath an hole bored in it, and giveth passage to the Nerves, which are distributed to the Muscles of the Cubit. This Muscle others have only termed a Musculous Portion of the Biceps.  
'Tis useful to draw the Arm to the Process of the Scapula; or draw it forward upon the Breast.   

Chap. 3. Of the Muscles of the Scapula or Shoulderblade.  
BEcause the Scapula is moved forward and backward; upward, and downward; therefore it hath received four Muscles. To which nevertheless others add two more, 
The Error of other Anatomists.  viz. the Serratus major and the Digastricus, but they do not well. For the later is proper to the Oshyoides, the former to the Chest.  
I. The first is called SERRATUS MINOR, and it is spread under the Musculus pectoralis.  
It arises from the four upper Ribs, excepting the first and ascending obliquely upwards, with an end partly fleshy, and partly tendinous, it is inserted into the Scapula by the Proceslus ancoriformis.  
It's Use is to draw forward into the Breast.  
II. The second is by Galen called Trapezius, others term it Cucullaris, because it resembles a Friar's Cowl. But that this Muscle was given our first Parents, as the Badge of a religious life, as Riolanus conjectures, I do not believe, because others are religious that wear no Cowls, and many are irreligious that wear them, whether you look at their Profession or Manners. However this Name was given this Muscle by Christian Physicians, because of its likeness to a Monk's Cowl.  
It arises fleshy and thin from the hinder-part of the Head. From whence it descends to the eighth Vertebra of the Chest, and from thence as also from the hinder part of the Head growing small by little and little, it is inserted into the Backbone, the Scapula, the top of the Shoulder and the Clavicula.  
But because of its various Original and various Fibres,  
It variously moves the Scapula, upwards, obliquely, by reason of Fibres obliquely descending from the hind-part of the head to the Omoplata, which Riolanus denies in vain; downwards, by reason of the carriage of fibres, ascending from the eighth Vertebra of the Back; and right out to the Back, by reason of right fibres in the middle of the Muscle, stretched out to the Scapula.  
III. The third is the Rhomboides from its figure like a Diamond, situate under the Cucullaris, thin and broad.  
It arises from the three lower Vertebrae of the Neck and the three upper Vertebrae of the Chest, and with, the same latitude is inserted into the Basis of the Scapula.  
It's Use is to draw back a little obliquely upwards.  
IV. Is the Levator, which others call the Muscle of Patience; because those whose Affairs go cross, are wont to lift up their Shoulders: it is above the Clavicula.  
It arises from the five transverse Processes of the Vertebrae of the Neck, with sundry beginnings (which makes it seem divers Muscles) which soon grow into one: and its Insertion is in the higher and lower corner of the Scapula, with a broad and fleshy tendon. It's Use is, to draw forward and lift up the Scapula and the Humerus.  
With these Muscles the Scapula is moved directly or of itself, and the Brachium per accidens, accidentally; as the Scapula is accidentally moved by the Muscles of the Brachium.   

Chap. 4. Of the Muscles of the Chest, or which serve for Respiration.  
VEry many Muscles serve for Respiration; as the Midriff, all the Intercostal Muscles, some of the Belly (of which I have treated in the first and second Book) and some  
Proper to the CHEST, which are reckoned on each side six; to which nevertheless Fallopius adds three in the Neck; which in Vesalius are parts of Muscles possessing the Breast and Back.  
The proper Muscles of the Chest do grow thereto: two in the forepart, subclavius and triangularis; Serratus major possesses the Sides; the rest are in the hinder-part, viz. the two Serrati postici and the Sacrolumbus.  
I. The SUBCLAVIUS, because 'tis seated under the Clavicula, fills the place between it and the first Rib. Platerus reckons it amongst the Intercostals.  
It arises fleshy from the inner and lower part of the Clavicula: it is inserted fleshy into the upper part of the first Rib, which it draws upwards and outwards. And this is the first muscle which dilates or distends the Chest. To this Spigelius assigns a contrary use, viz. to draw the Clavicula downwards▪ which nevertheless is of itself immovable, and therefore he ascribes thereunto a Rise and an Insertion contrary to it.  
II. The SERRATUS MAJOR, is a great, broad, and every way fleshy muscle, with the oblique descendent of the Abdomen, it makes a Saw-like Combination.  
It arises fleshy, from the internal Basis of the Scapula. Riolanus hath observed an higher Original thereof, from the two upper Ribs, as far as to the Clavicula, which two Ribs seem immovable. It is carried by its tendon, with five unequal ends, to the five true Ribs, and sometimes to two bastard Ribs; which it lifts up. Spigelius also and Veslingus do ascribe a contrary Use hereunto, and consequently a contrary Original, and Insertion,  
III. SERRATUS POSTICUS SUPERIOR minor, does quarter under the Rhomboides in the Back, between the two Shoulderblades.  
It arises membranous from the lower Spines' of the Neck, and the first of the Back: it is inserted into the three Intervals of the four upper Ribs, being tripartite: and it draws those Ribs upwards.  
IV. SERRATUS POSTICUS INFERIOR major, is membranons and broad almost in the middle of the Back, under the Musculus latissimus or Any scalptor arising from the Spines' or sharp points of the lower Vertebrae of the Back. It is inserted into the Intervals of the four lower Ribs, being parted as it were into Fingers. It's Use to widen the lower part of the Chest.  
V. Is spread under the former, and by others supposed to be common to the Back and Chest. 'Tis called SACROLUMBUS, because it arises from the lower part of Os sacrum, and the sharp points of the Vertebrae of the Loins. It is fleshy within, nervous without. It is inserted into the lower Ribs, with a double tendon, one external which is strongest, the other internal. It is not easily separated from the lowest muscle of the Back, so that it seems to be a parcel thereof. It's Use according to Veslingus, to contract the Chest. Spigelius conceives as I do, that because it grows out of one beginning with the Musculus longissimus of the Back, that therefore it extends and raises up the Chest.  
VI Is the TRIANGULARIS, small and subtle, in lean persons scarce fleshy, it lies inwardly concealed under the Breastbone, out of the lower part whereof, it hath its Original. And therefore it may conveniently be called the Muscle of the Breastbone. It's obliquely inserted into the lower Gristles, which it draws to, and straitens the Chest.   

Chap. V. Of the Muscles of the Head.  
THe HEAD is moved, either secondarily by the muscles of the Neck, according to the motion thereof; or primarily upon the first Vertebra, to which it is immediately and closely joined, bein bend forward and backward. It is turned round upon the tooth-fashioned Process of the second Vertebra (on which the hind-part of the Head rests, and to which it is firmly fastened) as it were upon an Axletree; which motion is performed by nine pare of Muscles.  
The first pare is long and thick, by some called Splenium, spread out on each side upon the Vertebrae. It arises from a double beginning, one from the Spinae of the upper Vertebrae of the Chest, another from the five lower Spinae of the Vertebrae of the Neck, from which it is carried to the middle of the Occiput. It's Use is, to draw the Head directly backwards. But if only one do act, the motion is thought to be made circularly to one side.  
The second is implicated and complicated, and therefore termed Complexum. It seems to consist as it were of three Muscles. It hath divers beginnings, at the seventh Vertebra of the Neck, at the first, third and fourth of the Chest, and it is after a different manner implanted into the Occiput.  
Riolanus observes touching the Fibres of the Splenium and the Complexus, that they are cross-ways intersected, and disposed for the strength of both the Muscles.  
The third Pare is situate under the second, small and thick, which Vesalius would have to be the fourth part of the former Muscle. It is inserted into the hindermore Root of the Processus mammillaris Its Use is, lightly to bring the Head backwards; and if but one act, to bring it backwards to one side.  
The fourth pare is called Rectum majus, being small, fleshy and lean. It arises from the second Vertebra of the Neck; ends into the middle of the Occiput.  
The fifth pair called Rectum minus, lies concealed under the former pare. It's Rise is from the first Vertebra of the Neck, its insertion and Use is as of the third and fourth.  
The sixth is the Obliquum superius, which lies also beneath. It rises according to some, out of the middle of the Occiput, and descending is inserted athwart, into the points of the Processes of the Neck. But others among whom Veslingus do rightly think it arises from the Process of the first Vertebra, and ends into the Occiput▪ by the outward side of the Recti.  
The seventh called Obliquum inferius, arises from the second Vertebra of the Neck, and is inserted into the transverse Process of the first Vertebra.  
The Use of the two oblique Muscles, is to bring the Head about to the Sides.  
The eighth called Mastoides, arises long and round in the forepart of the Neck, for the most part double, from the upper part of the Brest-bone and the Clavicula: it is inserted with a fleshy and thick End, into the Mammillary Process, which it embraces. It's Use is to turn the Head.  
A ninth pare is added by Fallopius, under the Throat, in the forepart of the Neck, lying near the first pare of the Neck. It arises nervous from the Ligaments of the Vertebrae of the Neck; and is inserted into the Basis of the Head, which it turns in like manner with the former.   

Chap. 6. Of the Muscles of the Neck▪  
THe Muscles of the Neck are on each side four. The two first extend, the two others do bend the same.  
I. The two LONG ONES lie hid under the Oesophagus or Gullet, arising from the first Vertebra of the Chest, with a beginning fleshy and sharp, they ascend into the extuberant Process of the first Vertebra, with an acute tendon, and sometimes are inserted into the Occiput, near its great Hole.  
It's Use is, to bend the Neck right forwards and the Head withal: and if but one act, it turns it on the one side.  
The SCALENI so called, which some count Muscles of the Chest, have a peculiar Hole, through which Veins and Arteries enter into the Arms. They arise fleshy, at the side of the Neck, from the first Rib; they are inserted inwardly into all the Vertebrae for the most part of the Neck, and especially into their transverse Processes.  
III. The TRANSVERSALES duo, seated in the back, do rise from the six Vertebrae of the Chest which are uppermost and outmost: they are inserted externally into all the transverse Processes of the Vertebrae of the Neck. And between these Nerves go out. Their Use is, to extend or to bend backwards, but if one act alone, to move obliquely.  
IV. The two SPINATIS possess the whole Neck between the Spinae, and are long and large. They arise from five Spines' of the Vertebrae of the Neck, and seven of the Chest. They are strongly implanted into the whole lower part of the Spine of the second Vertebra. Their Use is the same as of the third pare.   

Chap. 7. Of the Muscles of the Back and Loins.  
THe Spine of the Back or Backbone is moved forward, backward, to the right and to the left, and circularly. Yea, and in tumblers we may see infinite motions of the Back. For tendons are brought to all the Vertebrae, as though the Muscles were many and infinite; which tendons nevertheless many Anatomists do refer to some one great Muscle, and say that one Muscle hath many tendons. But commonly, they make four pair of Muscles of the back: where it is to be observed, if only one act, the backbone is moved sideways, if the pair acts, it is either bended or extended.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE presents certain Muscles which do first offer themselves to sight, in the Hinder-part of the Body.  


aa. The Muscles of the Head called Complexi.  
BB. The Muscles called Splenij.  
CC. The two Levators Scapulae.  
D. The Trapezius or Cucullaris out of its place.  
E. The Supraspinatus.  
F. The Infra-spinatus.  
G. The Rotundus major.  
h. The Rotundus minor.  
II. The Rhomboides.  
KK. The Dorsi latissimus.  
L. The Serratus posticus superior.  
M. The Serratus posticus inferior.  
NN. The Dorsi longissimus.  
OO. The Sacrolumbus.  
P. The Quadratus.  
Q. The Sacer Dorsi musculus.  
R. The Musculus longus which extends the Arm.  
S. The Musculus brevis, the other Arm-extender.  
TT. The Supinator Brachij alter, according to our Author, see the first pare in the next Table.  
V. The Extensor Carpi primus, which some term Bicornis hear hanging down▪  
W. The Extensor Carpi secundus.  
XXxx. The two Extensores Digitorum.  
Z. The External Apophysis of the Shoulder.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Deltoides.  
T. The Brachieus.   

These following Characters demonstrate the Muscles of the lower Limbs.  
A. The Glutaeus major out of its place.  
B. The Glutaeus medius in its place.  
C. The Pyriformis Musculus.  
D. The Ob●uratus internus or Marsupialis.  
EE. The Biceps which bends the Leg.  
●g. The Seminervosus.  
hh. The Gracilis.  
III. The Triceps of the left Side.  
K. The Vastus externus.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Triceps of the right Side.  
LL. The Popliteus.  
MM. The two Castro●nemij, which on the left side are ●● their proper Situation, on the right side out of the same.  
NN. The Musculus soleus.  
O. The Musculus plantaris.    
between 164 and 165  
The second being called LONGISSIMUM, arises with an acute and strong Tendon, without tendinous, within fleshy, from the end of Os sacrum, the Vertebrae of the Loins, and the Os Ilij; having the same beginning with the Sacrolumbus, wherewith it is in a manner confounded, till in the Progress it is separated the refrom, by the lowest Vertebra of the Back. And it is joined afterward to each transverse process of the Vertebrae of the Loins and Back, unto which it affords tendons like Clasps, and at length ends sometimes into the first Vertebra of the Chest, sometimes at the mammillary processes, near the Temples-bone. It's Use is, to extend the Chest, Loins, and their Vertebrae.  
The third under this, is that which is called SACRUM, because it arises from the Os sacrum behind, being fleshy, and ends into the Spina of the twelfth Vertebra of the Chest (or as others say, into the Spines' also, and oblique processes of the Vertebrae of the Loins) with sundry tendons. The Use is as of the former.  
The fourth the SEMISPINATUM, arising where the former ends, and embracing all the Spines' of the Vertebrae of the Chest, and giving them tendons; and it ends into the Spine of the first Vertebra of the Chest. It's Use is to rear up the Chest.  
If all eight act, they hold the Back strait, and do as it were sustain a man. Nor are there any muscles of the Loins, save these, and what have been explained before, which I have omitted, as Riolanus objects, or whereof I have been ignorant.   

Chap. 8. Of the Muscles of the Cubitus and Radius.  
THe Muscles of the CUBIT, according 
An Order in Dissection.  to the arbitrary Method of Dissection follow. Yet I do advise the Dissector, that the Muscles of the Radius are not to be showed immediately after those, but last of all; but after the Muscles of the Cubit, those of the fingers, thumb and wrist; because the Muscles of these parts being shown and removed, the Insertions of the Muscles of the Radius, are more couveniently discerned. Otherwise the Brachium may follow next after the demonstration of the Muscles of the Cubitus and Radius, by an Order free for any one to follow.  
The Muscles of the Cubit are four, and of the RADIUS as many.  
There are two Benders of the Cubit, as the Biceps and Brachiaeus: two Extenders, viz. the Longus and the Brevis.  
There are two Pronators of the Radius, the Rotundus and the Quadratus, and two Supinators, the Longior and Brevior.  
For the proper Motion of the Cubit is flexion and extension. But the Radius makes the whole Arm prone or supine.  
The first of the Cubit is termed BICEPS; because of its double distinct Beginning, which is from the Scapula, the one tendinous and round, from the upper lie of the Acerabulum, the other broader and less tendinous, from the Processus ancoriformis. And it is inserted with the Head of the Radius, and possesses the inner part of the Arm with its Body. The tendon of this Muscle ought in Blood-letting to be taken heed of.  
The second lying under this, and spread out upon the bone itself, being short, is called BRACHIAEUS; 'tis all fleshy, less than the former; artses from the middle bone of the Brachium, and is before inserted into the common beginning of the Cubitus and Radius, and the Ligament of the Joint.  
The third is the EXTENDENS primus and LONGUS, it arises with a double beginning, from the lower Rib of the Scapula, is ended being fleshy in the Olecranum.  
The fourth is the EXTENDENS secundus and BREVIS; it arises from the Neck of the Humerus, is behind mixed with the precedent, and occupies the Os Humeri; and it ends into the part of the Olecranum on which we lean.  
Casserius adds a fifth called tertius extendens, which others count a portion of the fourth Muscle; but he counts it a distinct Muscle, as later Anatomists Riolanus and Veslingus do, which they term Anconeus. But he would have it to be a portion of his Brachiaeus, because it sticks sometimes close to the fleshy Extremity thereof, and to answer to the Poplitaeus, that an equality may be maintained between the foot and the hand. It springs out of the hinder extremity of the Shoulder, by the end of the fourth and third Muscle, and passing beyond the Joint of the Cubir, it is also inserted by its hinder and lateral part, yet not above a finger's breadth beyond the Olecranum, into the Os Cubiti.  
Moreover Galen seems to add a sixth, which is the fourth Extender, viz. a fleshy Lump huddled up of the two former, which Riolanus calls Brachiaeus externus, to difference it from the Brachiaeus intern is flectens, because being spread out upon the outside of the Brachium, it is placed under the two former.  
The first Muscle of the Radius is termed ROTUNDUS, or Teres; from the inner Apophysis of the Arm by a strong and fleshy beginning, it ends obliquely very near into the middle of the Radius, with a fleshy end, and likewise a membranous tendon, which Spigelius writes, does go again to the middle of the Radius, and is knit to the outward side of the said Radius.  
The second QUADRATUS, reaching from the lowest part of the Cubita, into the lowest of the Radiu●s, wholly fleshy, every where two fingers broad; it goes above that Ligament common to the Radius and Cubitus. These are the Manus pr●natores.  
The third is the SUPINATOR PRIMUS, from the lower part of the Brachium growing sharp, till it reach into the lower part of the Radius, fleshy, where it is inserted with a tendinous End.  
The fourth is the SUPINATOR ALTER, growing from the outward Apophysis of the Arm, fleshy, membranous without, fleshy within, and is inserted into the middle welnear of the Radius.  
Among the Muscles of the Radius Casserius once found two little ones, and very small, about the Joint Cubit, and proceeding in an opposite fashion, and moving the Radius Prone and Supine like a Pulley. Howbeit, I found them not as yet. I have sometimes seen in their place, in a musculous man, one triangular Muscle, arising from the top of the Shoulder, and ending about the middle of the same, with a fleshy and narrow end, nor was it the portion of any Muscle, all which we had before diligently separated.   

Chap 9 Of the Muscles of the Wrist and Fingers.  
TO the Muscles of the WRIST and the Hollow of the Hand, is the Musculus PALMARIS referred, arising from the inner Apophysis of the Arm, with a round and tendinous beginning, spread almost over all the Muscles of the Hand, it is stretched out over the Hollow of the Hand, and cleaves exceeding fast to the Skin: where under the Skin in the hollow of the hand is a broad Tendon; whence proceeds that exquisite Sense which is in that part: and it ends into the first Intervals between the Joints of the Fingers: it seems to have been made, that the Hand might take the better hold, when the Skin of the Palm is wrinkled.  
To this they add the Membrana carnosa which they will have to open the Palm of the Hand when it is contracted; also a four squa e Parcel of Flesh growing out of that Membrane, resembling certain Muscles; either to extend the Palm when the Hand is open, as Spigelius conceives, or to make it hollow, which Riolanus would have.  
The Muscles of the Wrist or CARPUS are four; two Benders which are internal; two Extenders, which are external.  
The first Bender (which Riolanus calls Cubiteus internus, to whom we are beholden for these Names) arising from the internal Apophysis of the Arm, and being stretched over the Elbow, it is implanted with a thick Tendon, into the fourth Bone of the Wrist.  
The other, Radius internus because it is drawn along the Radius, arising from the same beginning, ends into the first Bone of the Metacarpium, under the forefinger.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
This TABLE shows the rest of the Muscles, which are visible in the Hinder-part of the Body, those which lay by them or over them being removed.  


aa. The Muscles of the Head called Recti minores.  
bb. The Recti majores so called.  
cc. The obliqui Superiores.  
dd. The obliqui Inferiores.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Levator Scapulae.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Rotundus minor.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Serratus major.  
EE. The Musculi transversales belonging to the Neck.  
ffff. The Spinari duo.  
GG. The Sacrolumbus.  
HH. The Dorsi longissimus in its proper Situation.  
II. The same out of its place, that it may be seen.  
K. The Semispinatus of the Back.  
LL. The sacer Musculus of the Back.  
MM. The Musculi Quadrati of the Back.  
N. The first Supinator Brachij,  
O. The first Extensor Carpi, or the Bicornis out of its proper place.  
P. The other Extensor Carpi.  
QQ. The two Extensores Digitorum out of their place.  
R. The Extensor Indicis.  
SS. The two Pollicem extendentes.   

These following Characters design the Muscles of the lower Limbs.  
A. The Glutaeus medius out of its place.  
B. The Glutoeus minimus in its place.  
CC. The same out of its place.  
DD. The Pyriformis on both sides.  
E. The Marsupialis, or Obturator internus.  
F. The same in the left side out of its place.  
G. The Marsupium neatly expressed.  
HH. The Obturator externus.  
K. The fourth of the Quadragemini, by the Author called Quadratus.  
LL. The Biceps which bends the Leg.  
MM. The Semimembranosus.  
NN. The Seminervosus.  
OO. The Gracilis.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Musculus triceps.  
●. The Crureus.  
PP.. The Tibieus posticus.  
QQ. The Flexor Digitorum Pedis, Magn●● or Perforans.  
R. The Flexor minor or Perforatus.  
SSS. The Flexor Pollicis,  
t. The Pollicis Adductor.  
u. The Pollicis Abductor.  
x. The Abductor minimi.  
z. The fleshy Mass in the Sole of the Foot.    
The other, Cubiteus externus, from the same beginning, through the length of the Cubit, goes with one Tendon into the fourth Bone of the Metacarpe under the little Finger.  
The FINGERS are bended, extended, drawn to, and drawn away.  
bended by the Muscles Sublimis and Profundus.  
The former from the inner Apophysis of the Arm, before it comes to the Wrist, is divided into four Tendons, enclosed in a Ligament, as it were in a Ring: they are inserted into the second Jointing of the Fingers, a Cleft being first made, which the Tendons of the following Muscle do pass through, whence it is termed Perforatus, the bored Muscle.  
The later spread out under the former and like unto it, is inserted through the Cliffs of the former Tendons, into the Jointing. And therefore it is called Perforans, the Borer.  
Concerning these Ligaments of the Fingers, it is to be observed. 1. That by an elegant Workmanship of Nature, a long slit is made in each of them, that the Ligaments of the third Jointing may pass through them as through an Arch. 2. That the membranous sheath does straight embrace and keep in the said Tendons, lest in the bending of the hand; they should be removed out of their place. 3. That a strong membranous Ring does in the wrist bind together all the Tendons internal and external, which being cut asunder, they are easily removed out of their places.  
jacobus Silvius reckons the Extensores for one Muscle; and calls it Tensor Digitorum, whereas both their Originals and Insertions do vary. They are two and arise commonly from the external Apophyfis of the Arm, and the ring-fashioned ligament, and with their bored ligaments, being first collected, they are then inserted confusedly into the second and third joint.  
The Fingers are drawn to by four muscles called Lumbricales or Vermiculares wormfashioned muscles, from their shape and smallness. They arise from the tendons of the Musculus profundus, and being drawn out along the sides of the fingers, they are obliquely carried unto the third jointing. Spigelius and Vestingus will have them to be inserted by a round tendon only into the first jointing, whom I have sometimes found to be in the right, their tendon being mixed with the membranes of the interjuncture.  
The Abductores interossei are six, in the spaces of the Metacarp, three external and three internal, which joining with the vermiculary do go along the outsides and insides of the fingers, and stretch their tendons to the three inter-joyntings. They serve in some measure for extension. The External rest upon the Palm, the Internal upon the hollow of the Hand, between the bones of the Metacarp.  
The Muscles which bend the Thumb are two.  
The first arising from the upper part of the radius is inserted into one of the joints.  
The other arising from the wrist bone, under the Thumb, is inserted into the middle of the said Thumb. It lies wholly under the former.  
There are two Extendentes or stretchers out, which arise from the Cubit. The first reaches unto the third Interjuncture, the other unto the second, and the rest, with many tendons; sometimes one, sometimes two, and otherwhiles three.  
The Abducentes are three; two arising from the Metacarpium, and the third from the bone of the Metacarp, which looks towards the forefinger: which Riolanus calls Autithenar, as the other the former of the bringers to, Hypothenar Pollicis.  
The Abducentes or drawers away are three nameless muscles, save that the said Riolanus calls one of them Thenar.  
The Forefinger has two proper muscles, which some confound, the first is the Abductor, arising from the first Interjoynting of the Thumb, and terminated into the bones of the Forefinger, wherewith the said Forefinger is drawn from the rest of the Fingers, towards the Thumb.  
The other is the Indicis extensor the stretcher of the Forefinger which Riolanus calls Indicatorem the pointer, as also Veslingus, though he confound it with the Abductor. It arises from the middle and external part of the Cubit, and ends with a double tendon, into the second interjointure of the forefinger.  
There are also two muscles proper to the smallest finger, the Abductor and Extensor. The former may be parted into many: It arises in the hollow of the hand▪ from the third and fourth wrist bones of the second rank, and ends externally into the side of the first joint of the said finger. Aquapendent and others that have since followed him, do hold that it draws the little finger outwardly, from the rest. Extensor proprius, which Riolanus exactly separates from the great one, arising from the upper part of the radius, and carried along Cubitus and the Radius, is externally inserted into the finger, with a double tendon,   

Chap 10. Of the Leg and Thigh in general.  
PES the Leg and Thigh, is all between 
Pes what?  the Buttocks and the Toes of the Feet: Others call it magnus pes, the great Foot, and Crus. It is divided into its parts, as the Arm, in a manner not unlike, viz. Into the Fem●, Tibia, and Parous Pes.  
Again the Parous Pes is divided into Pedium, Metapedium, and Digiti.  
The Use of the Leg and Thigh, is to be the Instrument of walking: which is performed by stirring and sitting. For one Leg being firmly set upon the ground, we move and bring about the other, and our Foot being firmly fixed, keeps us from falling: and so we come to walk. The setting therefore of our Leg is the Motion of the whole Body, but the motion proceeds from the Leg, which the length or shortness of the Leg does either help or hinder; and therefore birds because they were to fly, that their bulk might not hinder them, they have a short Thigh and long Feet, which makes the going be slow. But Men go slower than Dogs, because the successive putting on of their Foot from the Heel to the Toes, slackens their motion; whereas Dogs with one motion of their little Feet do pass along. Some do conceive that the length of a woman's Leg helps to generation. Now there i● an Incision made into our knees and heel, that we might not go leaping.  
This Motion is variously made by the muscles of the Thigh, Leg and Foot. We are therefore now to treat of the Muscles of the whole Leg.   

Chap 11. Of the Muscles of the Thigh.  
THe Thigh is bent by two Muscles.  
The first is in the Belly, and is termed Psoa or the Musculus Lumbaris it arises with a fleshy beginning from the upper Vertebraes of the Loins, and is inserted into the forepart of the small Trochanter, with a round and strong tendon.  
The other muscle called Psoas minor I found in a strong fleshy body at Hafnia, 1651. differing from that which Riolanus brags to have seen. For the greater part i●●ay under, but outwardly inclined more to the sides. The beginning was fleshy, and the whole muscle was three fingers broad. It was inserted fleshy, into the upper brim of Os Ilij backwards, where the Iliacus internus arises. I conceived that its use was to spread as a pillow under the greater muscle, because the Os Ilij is of itself immovable, or to hold the Os Ilij upright, that it might not burden a man too much when he stands. Michael Lyserus a most expert Anatomist can witness the same with me.  
The Ilia us secundus is inserted in the same place, with a tendon which grows to the tendon of the precedent muscle, arising from the whole internal cavity of the Os Ilij, by a small and fleshy beginning.  
The Thigh is extended by three muscles of the Buttocks termed Glutaei.  
I. Is the Major, externus & amplissimus, beginning at the Crupper, the spina of Os Ilij, and the Os sacrum; and ends into the Os Femoris, under the great Trochanter.  
II. The other is the medius or middlemost in Situation and Magnitude. It arises from the inner side of the Spina of Os Ilij, ending into this great Trochanter with a broad and strong tendon.  
III. The third called minimus the smallest, lies concealed under the middlemost; It arises from the back of Os Ilij near the Acetabulum with a broad and strong tendon, and Ends into the great Trochanter.  
These three do make up the fleshy Substance of the Buttocks.  
The Thigh is drawn to, and wheeled about inwards by three muscles, which many do reckon for one, and call it triceps triple headed, because of its threefold beginning. 1. Is from the upper jointing of the Os pubis. 2. Is from the lowest jointing of Os pubis. 3. Is from the middle part of the said bone. They are inserted first of all into the inner head of the Thigh bone, near the Ham, with a round tendon or into the rough line of the Thigh. 2. To the upper, partly. 3. Partly to the lower, at the Rorator minor. Riolanus has other insertions: For he will have the first to be inserted into the middle of the Thigh, the second to be produced with a very strong Tendon as far as to the End of the Thigh, the third below the neck of the Thigh-bone.  
To these Spigelius and Veslingus do add one which they call Lividus arising at the joining of Os pubis, near the Gristle, and implanted with a short tendon, into the inner side of the thigh: but they grant that this is a portion of the Triceps. But they do ill to reckon it among the bending Muscles. But Riolanus calls it Pectineus and reckons it for a bender, yet acknowledges that it is the uppermost and fourth portion of the triceps, which with Fallopius he divides into four Muscles, and indeed it seems to have so many parts.  
It is drawn away and turned about outwards by six Muscles▪ the Quadrigemini and the two Obturatores.  
The Quadrigemini are in a manner one like another, and little, placed as it were athwart, arising from the lower and outer part of the Os Sacrum, the bunch of Os Ischij, and the Appendix of the Hip-bone. They are inserted into that space which is between the two Trochanters. The first Quadrigeminus is called Pyriformis Pear-fashioned, because of its shape, and Iliaeus externus from its Situation; the rest want names, save the fourth, which is called Quadratus.  
The Obturatores stoppers, take up the wide hole between the Os pubis and Os Isehij. And they are external or internal, the former arising from the outer Circle of the hole of the share: the latter from the inner and they are inserted into the great Trochanter: the inner may be termed Bursalis or purse-fashioned because it hides the fourfold tendons in a fleshy purse as it were, nearly shaped by the third and fourth quadrigeminal Muscles.   

Chap. 12. Of the Muscles of the Leg.  
THe Leg is bend by the four musculi postici.  
One of them has two Heads, termed Bioeps, the first from the joining of the Os pubis, the second from the outer part of the thigh, and both of them are inserted with one tendon, the fleshy substance being first increased in the middle, into the hinder part of the Leg.  
The second called Semimembranosus arises from the swelling of the Ischium, and is inserted into the inner side of the Leg, backwards.  
The third is the Seminervosus, and has the same beginning and the same end with the former, save that in the hinder parts it is carried little forward obliquely, before it terminates at the inside of the Leg.  
The fourth is the Gracilis, which is inserted into the same place, and arises from the joining of the share-bone.  
Four Muscles extend the Leg.  
The first is the Rectus, arising with an acute tendon from the outer and lower Spine of the Ilium.  
The second and third are the two Vasti, the external arising from the whole root, the great Trochanters, and the bone of the Thigh which lies under: the Inner from the small Trochanter: they are terminated on each hand at the side of the Rectus.  
The fourth is the Crureus, fixed to the Thigh bone, as the Brachiaeus is to the Brachium.  
These four Muscles, are terminated into one tendon, which embracing the substance of the flesh into itself, it is inserted before into the beginning of the Leg, and is there instead of a Ligament for it.  
Two Muscles, pull it to, innards.  
The first is the longus, fascialis or sartorius which Spigelius and Veslingus reckon among the benders, on which Tailors or Borchers rest themselves when they sit crosslegged. It is well nigh the longest of all muscles, arising from the former Spina of Os Ilij, and descending obliquely unto the inner and forepart of the Leg.  
The other is the Popliteus arising from the lower and outer extuberancy of the Thigh, and being inserted foursquare into the inner and upper part of the leg obliquely.  
The Abductor is one, which is called Membranosus and fascia lata.  
It arises fleshy from the Spina of Os Ilij, and is carried obliquely, into the outer part of the Leg, and with its most broad and long tendon, invests well-near all the Muscles of the Thigh.   

Chap. 13. Of the Muscles of the Feet.  
THe Foot is bended and extended. Two muscles bend it forwards.  
The first is termed tibiaeus anticus, affixed to the Leg arising from the upper process thereof, it is inserted into the Os Pedij, before the great Toe, with a tendon which at the end is divided into two.  
The other is Peroneus biceps, which others count for two muscles, one head arising from the upper Epiphisis of the Fibula, the other from the middle of the Perone. It has a double tendon the lesser carried into the bone of the little toe; and the greater going obliquely under the sole of the Foot, is inserted into the Os pedij just against the great toe.  
'Tis extended backwards by the four Postici, duo gemelli, the internal and the external, called Gastrocnemij, because they constitute the ankle, and arise from the inner and outer head of the thigh under the Ham. The third being called soleus is added to these beneath, arising from the hindermore appendix of the fibula. These three muscles are terminated into a most thick and strong tendon, to be inserted into the beginning of the Heel and Pterna, by which beasts being killed, are usually hung up. Hypocrates did term it chorda: where by reason of the fracture of the Heel, he says that hiccuping and convulsive fevers do follow.  
The last is called plantaris and answers to the palmaris in the hand; it is lean and meager, and degenerates into a long tendon, and covering the whole sole of the foot, it arises from the outward head of the Thigh bone, under the Ham: and is inserted into the five toes, and has the same use here which it has in the Hand: though the comparison of one to the other holds not out very exact. Veslingus has observed that this muscle has sometimes been wanting.  
The Tibiaeus posticus must be added to these, which Spigelius reckons amongst the oblique movers, and Riolanus among the extenders.   

Chap. 14. Of the Muscles of the Toes.  
THe Toes of the foot are moved by muscles, as well as the fingers of the hand.  
Two muscles bend the Toes, the Magnus which answers to the profundus, arising from the upper Epiphisis of the Tibia, under the sole is divided into four tendons, which boreing through the minor, they are implanted into the third Articulation of the four toes. The Minor answering to the sublimis, is the midst of the sole of the foot, arising from the lower part of the pterna or heel bone, it is carried into the second articulation of the four toes, to which before it comes it is bored through, that it may transmit the tendons of the foremost Muscle: and therefore this is called perforatus, the other perforans.  
One muscle extends the four toes of the foot, which is by some divided into two; arising from the upper and outer part of the tibia, and having four tendons, which are inserted into the second and third Interjuncture.  
The four wormfashioned Muscles do draw them to, answering to those in the Hand, some flesh being intersprinkled from the Heel: They are fastened by so many tendons to the first interjoynting.  
The ten Interossei do draw them away, arising from the bones of the pedium, and falling the void spaces of the Metapedium, they are external or internal, the former with a broad tendon do arise by the sides, to the first interjoynting of the toes by the sides; the latter at the second interjoynting: but the ninth serves for the drawing-to of the great Toe, the tenth for the drawing to of the little toe.  
The great Toe has peculiar muscles.  
It is bend by one only, proceeding from the upper part of the fibula, and inserted into the third interjointing (Riolanus says the first) of the great toe.  
It is extended by another, arising from the middle of the Fibula (or as some say from the outside of the tibia, where it recedes from the Fibula) which is oftentimes divided into two tendons.  
It is brought to, with one, inwardly fastened to the greatest bone of the pedium.  
It is drawn away by one arising fleshy from the inner part of the heel, and entering extrinsecally into the first bone of the great toe.  
Now there is a new muscle found out above the Interosseans, the first Inventor whereof is Casserius; who calls it tranversalis, because of its situation. Veslingus call it the Adductor pollicis minor, which use nature seems to have intended.  
It arises nervous and broad, from the ligament of the first interjuncture of the little Toe, and sometime from one of the toes next the little toe; and by and by becoming fleshy and so continuing, it is carried athwart over the first joints of the fingers, and with a short and broad tendon, it is implanted into the first joint of the Great-toe, a little inwards.  
The Use hereof is, to secure our walking, when we pass through rough ways, full of round flints, or over any other small, slippery, or rolling passage. For by help of this muscle, the foot does accommodate itself, to the figure of the Bodies we tread on, and lays hold thereon as it were, that it might make its passage more stead-fast.  
The Abductor of the little toe, sticking in the outside of the foot broad and vast, arising from the same part of the heel, is inserted into the outside of the first Interjuncture.  
I have observed a peculiar bender of the little toe, long, round, arising from the head of the Tibia, and divided with two tendons about the insertion of the toe.  
Finally a fleshy mass is to be observed in the sole of the foot, as well as in the Palm of the hand, wherewith our footing is fastened as with a cushion, and the tendons of the muscles do lie hidden, in a soft Pillow.    

THE FIRST MANUAL Concerning the Veins, Answering to the FIRST BOOK OF THE Lower Belly.  
ABove, in the Proaem of this Anatomical work, I promised four Books, and four little Books or Manuals. Four Books touching the three Cavities and the Limbs; Four Manuals, viz. touching the Veins, Arteries, Nerves and Bones. Now every Manual answers to its Book. Because from the lower Cavity, namely, the principal part thereof, the Liver arise the Veins; from the Heart in the middle Cavity the Arteries; from the Marrow in the third Cavity the Nerves, and to the Limbs the Bones do answer. And even as the Bones joined together do make a peculiar Fabric or Skeleton, representing the form of the whole Animal; so also do the Veins, Arteries and Nerves. And Gulielmus Fabricius Hildanus a Famous Chirurgeon hath such a Frame of all the Veins of the Body artificially separated; and at Milan by the Instruction of Ad. Spigelius, and John Veslingius, and John Leonicenus such Frames of the Veins Arteries and Nerves separated from the body, are commonly to be seen at Milan; and the like is to be seen here at Hafnia acurately made, and explained in four very great Tables, in the Custody of the renowned D. D. Henricus Fuiren my Cousin German.  
The Veins, Arteries and Nerves are Organs or common vessels of the Body, through which some spirit, with or without Blood, is carried from some principal member, into sundry parts of the Body.  

Chap. 1. Of a Vein in General.  
AVein is a common Organ, round, long, 
What a Vein is?  hollow like a channel or Conduit pipe, fit to carry or bring back Blood and Natural Spirit.  
The term Vein was by the Ancients given both to Veins and Arteries; but they called the Arteries pulsing Veins, and the Veins not pulsing Veins, and some called Vein, the greater Vein, and an Artery the lesser Vein and the Aorta.  
The Efficient of a Vein, is the proper vein-making power or faculty.  
The Matter according to Hypocrates is a clammy and cold portion of the Seed. And this is the principle of a Veins Original.  
But the Principle of Dispensation 
'Tis proved against Aristotle that the Liver, not the Heart is the Original of the Veins.  from whence the Veins arise, is the Liver (not to speak of some ancient triflers, who would derive the Veins from the Brain) and not the Heart, as Aristotle would have it. For,  

1. Blood is made in the Liver. And 
Blood is not made in the Heart.  therefore 'tis like the original and rise of the Veins is there▪ and that the first sanguisication is not made in the Heart is apparent, because there are no passages to convey the Chylus to the Heart; again there are no receptacles for the Excrements of the first concoction placed by the Heart. But all these requisites are found in the Liver.  
2. Blood is carried from the Liver to the Heart, but not from the Heart immediately to the Liver. For Blood cannot go out of the Heart into the Liver, because of the Valves; though mediately when it runs back out of the Arteries, it may be carried thither.  
3. Fishes have no right Ventricle in their Hearts, in which they would have Blood to be made; and out of which they would have the Veins to arise, and the Fishes have both Veins and Blood.  
4. The Vena portae touches not the Heart but the Liver, which the Cava also touches: which two Veins are the greatest in the whole body. But according to Aristotle all Veins ought to be continued with the Heart. You will say; the Vena arteriosa does not touch the Liver. I answer, neither aught if so to do: because it hath the substance of an Artery, and therefore arises from the Heart. But Arteria Venosa, is a Vein in substance and use, and in the Child in the womb, was continued with the Cava.  
5. In the Child in the womb, the Navil-vein with Blood goes into the Liver, not into the Heart.  
6. If the Veins should arise from the Heart, they would pulse as the Arteries do, for the whole Heart pulses.  
7. Sanguification is never hurt, but when the Liver is hurt, as in a Dropsy, etc.   
These are the chief reasons for this Opinion: but many other reasons of other men against Aristot●● I reject as weak and easily refuted, as also many weak reasons of the Peripatetics, against this Opinion which we assert, which any one may easily answer, if he be at least but lightly skilled in Anatomy.  
The End and Use of a Vein is,  
I. According to the Opinion of the Ancient● 
The Use of the Veins. According to the Ancients.  to carry Blood and Natural Spirit with the Natural faculty, from the Liver into all parts of the Body to nourish the same.  
But Nature hath revealed otherwise to their Posterity: for neither do the Veins 
According ●o later Authors the Primary Use.  carry any thing from the Liver to nourish the parts with, nor is the Venal Blood useful for nutrition. But they bring▪ back all the Blood, only to the Heart by Circulation, either mediately by the ●iver, as the Mesaraick Veins, or immediately, as the Cava; and that either from the whole body, from the smallest branches to the greatest, by the upper and lower branch; or from the Liver whether it be there generated, or is derived from the Mesaraicks and Arteries.  
And that they bring the Blood to the Heart as to the Centre, and that they bring it from the smallest parts as from the Circumference, is evidently provided by ocular Inspection, Experiments, and Reason.  

1. In Blood-letting, the Arm being bound above the Elbow, beyond the Ligature, the Vein swells not, nor if you should open a Vein would the Blood flow out (which is to be observed in opposition to the Authority of Scribonius Largu●) unless very little, or if there were some Anastomosis of a Vein, with an Artery in some parts above. But on this side the Ligature under the Elbow, both the Veins of the Arm swell, and being opened they void as much Blood as you will, yea all that is in the body. Likewise if with your finger you press the Vein below the Orifice, the blood stops, if you take away your finger it runs again: whence we gather that the blood runs from the outmost small Veins of the body upwards unto the great Veins and the Heart; and not from the upper and greater Veins into the lower, smaller, and more remote.  
2. Without Blood-letting, the Veins being pressed with the finger show as much: for if in an Arm either hot, or whose Veins naturally swell, you force the blood downwards with your finger towards the fingers, there follows no blood in the upper part of the Vein, but it appears empty. chose, if you force the blood from the Fingers-ward upwards, you shall presently see the Veins full, more blood following that which you forced up.  
3. If you shall plunge your Arms and Legs into cold Water or Snow, being first bound, when you unbind the same, you shall perceive your Heart offended and made cold, by the cold blood ascending thereunto; and it will be warmed if you put your Legs or Arms as aforesaid into hot water. Nor is it any other way by which cordial Epithems applied to the Wrists and Privities do good.  
4. In persons that are hanged, their Heads and Faces become red, the Veins being distended, because the recourse of the Blood into the Heart i● hindered▪ as in opening of the Veins of the Head, the upper parts in the Head swell, the other parts towards the Heart being empty. But the Halter being loosed from the dead body, the swelling and redness of the Face does fall by little and little, unless the Blood which is forced into the smallest Veins cannot run back again because of the coldness of the parts.  
5. In Dissections of Live-Animals, the matter is most evident. For in what part of the body soever you bind a Vein, it appears lank and empty on that side of the Ligature next the Heart, and on the other side it swells where it is furthest from the Heart, and nearest the extreme parts of the Body.  
6. In a living Anatomy, if you lift up a Vein and open it being tied, beyond the Ligature plenty of Blood flows out, on this side nothing at all, which you shall find true in the crural and jugular Veins of any Creature whatsoever, though you cut the Veins quite in sunder, as I have often experimented with the great Walaeus, and Harvey was not ignorant thereof.  
7, The Valves of the Veins do conspire to this end, which are so contrived, that they stand all wide open towards the Heart, and afford an easy passage from the smallest Veins to the greatest, and from thence to the Heart. But from the Heart and great Veins, being shut they suffer nothing to go back, no not Water driven by force, or a Probe, unless being hurt they gape.  
8. The Liver sends only to the Heart; the Heart only to the Lungs, and all the Arteries; as hath been already demonstrated concerning the Heart. Seeing therefore the Blood by continual pulsation is sent in so great quantity in all parts, and yet cannot be repaired by Diet, nor can return back to the Heart by reason of the Miter-fashioned Valves of the Aorta, nor abide still in the Arteries which are continually driving the same, nor finally is there so much spent by the parts to be nourished; it follows, that what remains over and above is brought back again to the heart, and enters the Veins by Circulation. Whereof although some dark Footsteps are extant in the writings of the Ancients, as I have proved in my Book de Luce Animalium, and Walaeus and Riolanus do afterward declare the same at large; yet it hath been more ●●●erly manifested in this Age of ours to that most ingenious Venetian Paul Sarpias Fulgentius as relates from his papers, and soon after to Harvey an Englishman, to whom the commendations and praise of first publishing the same to the World and proving i● by many Arguments and Experiments, are justly due, finally to Walaeus and others approving the same.   
The Primary End therefore of the Veins is to carry and recarry Blood unto the Heart the secondary ends may be these following.  
II. A little to prepare the said Blood, 
Their secondary Use.  as do the Rami Lactei, or to finish and perfect the same, as a small portion of Vena Cavae between the Liver and the Heart.  
III. To perserve the Blood, as the proper place preserves that which is placed therein, as much as may be in a speedy passage, and to retain it within its bounds. For extravenated Blood, or Blood out of its natural place, viz. Veins and Arteries, curdles and putrefies. Also in the Veins themselves, when they are ill affected, and the course of the Blood is▪ stopped, sometimes the Blood is found congealed, witness Fernelius: sometimes a fatty substance is found instead of Blood, as in the Nerves, which Bontius saw among the Indians.  
IV. Some would have the red veins to make Blood, and the milky veins to make Chyle, but they are quite mistaken.  
The Form of the Veins is taken from sundry Accidents.  
It's Figure is that of a Conduit pipe. 
Figure.   
It's Magnitude varies. For the Veins are great in the Livet, as in their Original; in the 
Magnitude.  Lungs because they are hot, soft, and in perpepetual motion, and theresote they need much nourishment, because much of their substance spends; but especially because all the Blood in the Body passes this way, out of the right into the left Venrricle of the Heart, as hath been proved already. In the Heart by reason of its heat, and because it is to furnish the whole Body with Arterial Blood, received in and sent out by continual pulsings. Also the emulgent Veins are great, by reason of plenty of blood and serosities, which is brought back from the Kidneys to the Vena Cava. But where the substance of a part is lasting, and is not easily dissipated, by reason of the small quantity of Heat, the Veins are lesser as in the Brain, where the Veins do not always easily appear, and in the Bones, where they never manifestly appear, though the Animal be great.  
In all parts towards the ends they are very small, and are divided into Capillary Veins, sprinkled into, & commonly confounded with the flesh, that the superfluous Blood may be better received into them; which is one way, by which the Arterial Blood is mediately passed through the porous flesh to the Veins, which way also Blood made of Chyle in the Liver, is infused into the little branches of the Venae Cava. The other is, by the Arteries immediately. For,  
The Connexion is such with the Arteries, that every Vein is for the most part attended 
Connexion.  with an Artery, over which it lies and which it touches. Gale● tells us a a Vein is seldom found without Arteries; but no Artery is ever found without a Vein.  
But there is in the Body a mutual Anastomosis of Veins and Arteries: that 
Anastomosis of Veins and Arteries.  they may conspire together, and the Veins receive out of the Arteries Spirit & Blood; which is apparent from reason, because, 1. If the Veins be quite emptied, the Arteries are empty also. Moreover out of a Vein opened in the Arm or Hand, all the Blood in the Body may be let out, which, because it cannot be contained or generated in the Hand, it must necessarily come out of the Arteries beneath and round about, by means of the anastomosis: whereof this also is a token, that if the Vein and Artery of the Arm be tied very hard, the Blood ceases running and the pulse stops it beating, till the band be slackened. 2. They are necessary in respect of the Circular motion of the blood, seeing the pores of the Flesh are not sufficient, save in a slow course, and subtle Blood.  
Moreover they may be demonstrated in many places to the Eyesight, where the Conjunctions of the Veins with the Arteries are visible, viz. in the Brain, in the Plexus Chorides, the Cavities, in the Lungs of the Vena Arteriosa. and the Arteria Venosa, with the Branches of the Aspera Arteria or Weasand. Of the Thoracick branches descending, with the intercostal Veins. Also the Hypogastrick Veins and Arteries, with the Mammary vessels are joined mouth to mouth under the Musculi Recti in the Abdomen. But the anastomosis or mutual conjunction of the mouths of the Cava and Portae in the Liver, and of the Veins and Arteries in the Spleen, are in a special manner manifest; so in the Veins of the Womb, the seminary vessels, the Navil-strings, and the extemities of the Hands and Feet.  
Though the anastomosis or conjunctions 
anastomosis of the Veins in the Liver.  of vessels, are in reason necessary, and manifest to the Eyesight, yet are they not all manifestly discernible by the Sight.. I made experiment in the Liver of an Ox and of a Man, diligently separating all the substance from the vessels; yet could I not either with a Probe, or a Knife, or a pair of Bellows find the anastomosis of Vena Cavae and Vena Porta open, but all blind, in dead bodies, though it is not to be doubted, but that they are open in in living bodies, where all the passages are enlarged by Heat.  
This TABLE presents the Anast●mases of Vena Cava and Porta in the Liver.  
TABLE I.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A The descending Trunk of Vena Cava and Porta in the Liver.  
BB. The Vena porta.  
C. The Gall-Badder.  
dddddd. The greater branches of Vena Cavae Dissemina●●d through the Liver.  
●●●. The branches of Vena Porta.  
ffff. The first Parallel Anastomosis of the Vena Cava with the Vena Portae.  
gg. The second Anastomosis of Trunk wi●h Trunk.  
hh. The third cross Anastomosis.  
two. The fourth Anastomosis mixed.  
kk. The fif● Anastomosis, which is oblique or angular.    
page 303  
I found them to be of divers kinds. The first Parallel when the utmost twigs are joined 
Of sundry kinds.  one to another in right lines. The second is of Trunk with Trunk, a transverse vessel going between. The third is cross-fashioned, when either the Branches go over the Trunk, or the Trunk go over the Branches crosswise, or the Branches over the Branches in the same manner. The fourth is mixed of the Cross-fashioned and the oblique. The fist is oblique or angular, when the Branches are mutually inserted obliquely. I have before explained the anastomosis of the Navil-vessels. Now the anastomosis between the Veins and Arteries, are either in the Trunks or the Capillary Vessels.  
The Veins are sometimes invested with a common Membrane, or some external 
Why the Veins are in some places invested with Coats, in others not.  thick one, borrowed from the Neighbouring parts, when either they are suspended and carried a long way, and are without the Bowels and Muscles; or when they rest upon hard bodies. This happens in the lowest Belly, to the Veins and Arteries from the Peritoneum, and in the Chest from the Pleura.  
But where a Vein is inserted either into some Bowell or a Muscle, it needs not this common coat, because 1. It is otherwise sufficiently sustained. 2. Otherwise the ready sweeting through of the blood would be hindered. 3. And the laying down of the Excrements of the Vein. 4. It would not so soon be sensible of the force of the substance of any Bowell. 5. It would more hardly imbibe the Blood which is superfluous after the nourishment of the parts.  
Now the Veins being so compassed with Membranes do not feel (unless they have Nerves near them) of themselves and by their own Nature, neither the acrimony of the Humours contained, nor cutting or burning. And therefore Aristotle says in his third Book de Historia Animalium chap. 5. A Nerve cannot endure the Fire, but a Vein can. And Galen in his sixth de usu partium chap▪ ●●. says that if Veins and Arteries be cut, burnt, or tied, they feel it not at all.   

CHAP. II. Of the Substance of the Veins and of the Valves.  
THe Substance of the Veins is Membranous, that they may more easily stretch and shrink in again.  
They have only one Coat, which is proper to them (the Arteries have two) being thin and rare; because through it the blood is to be received after the parts are nourished. it carries not back such stirring and hot blood as the Arteries carry; because it is grown cold and returns quietly to the Heart without any beating of the Pulse that it may be there again perfected.  
Some conceive that a Vein is interwoven 
Whether the Veins have Fibres.  with a triple kind of Fibres: but they add, that those fibres are there obscurely, and only potentially, nor can be moved out of their place, by reason of the most straight contexture. But I rather conceive with Vesalius, that others imagine Fibres to be there, which are no more there than in Leather. for when we pull the substance of the Reins all in pieces, no fibres are there to be seen. But some Author's attribute fibres to the Veins, because they have praeconceived this opinion, that Attraction, Expulsion and Retention are performed by sundry sorts of fibres, whenas the fibres if they have any are to strengthen them.  
Harvey and W●… do suspect that the Blood in the Veins is driven to the Heart, by the fibres, which nevertheless I conceive to be done, by the motion and contraction of the Muscles, with which the Veins are mingled, they not resisting. Yea, and it may be driven by the blood continually following, from the parts and Arteries moved by the Pulse. But others allege attraction to be made by heat, without the fibres.  
Within the Veins are found certain 
Who first observed the Valves in the Veins.  Valves or little folding Gates, which Bauhine says are mentioned by Avicenna, under the name of Cells. Aquapendens says himself was the finder of them in the year 1574. to whom Paulus Servita or Sarpi the Venetian gave the first hint though it seems apparent by his Isagoge, that Jacobus Silvius had also some knowledge of them. But after him or with him mention was made of these Valves by Solomon Albertus, Axc●●ng●l●s Pi●holhomineus, and Casper●● Bauhinus; Laurentius doth hardly once speak of them.  
The occasion of Aquapendents finding of them was this: he observed that 
How the Valves of the Veins were found.  if he pressed the Veins, or by rubbing endeavoured to force the Blood downwards, its course did seem to be stopped. Also in the Arms of persons bound to be let Blood, certain knots appear to swell by reason of the Valves; and in some persons, as Porters and Ploughmen, they are seen to swell in their Thighs like the Varices.  
And here seems to consist the Cause of the Varices; because thick Blood and by 
The Cause of the Varices.  its heaviness unapt to move upwards, being long retained in the Valves, makes a dilatation of the said Valves: for without the Valves the Veins would swell uniformly and all of an equal Bigness, and not in the manner of Varices.  
And because this Doctrine of the Valves in the Veins, is known to few, I shall propound the same more exactly, according to my manner of handling rare subjects.  
These Valves are most, thin little Membranes (thicker in the Orifices of 
The Valves of the Veins what?  of the Veins of the Heart) in the inner Cavity of the Veins; and certain particles as it were of the coat of the Veins; because there the body of the Veins is most thin, where th●se Membranes do go from it.  
They are seated in the Cavity of the 
Where they are not found at the original of the Veins?  Veins, but especially in the Veins of the Limbs, viz. of the Arms and Legs, after the Kernels of the Armpits and and groins. Beginning presently after the rise of the Branches, not in the Rises themselves. Now there are two found in the inner orifice of the jugular Vein, looking from above downwards; the rest look from below upwards, as many in the Cephalica, the Basilica, and in the Veins of the Legs and Thighs.  
TABLE II.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE in Fig. 1. shows the Valves of the Veins in a bound Arm, in Fig. 2. and 3. The crural Veins the inside outward, with their Valves.  


A. A Branch of the Vena Cephalica.  
BF. A part of the Vena Basilica.  
D. The Vena Mediana.  
E. A Branch of Vena Cephalica, to which the Mediana was joined.  
HHHH. Represent the knots in the Veins, caused by the Valves there placed.  
IK. One Crural Vein.  
LM. The other Crural vein.  
NNNN. The valves of the Veins filled with Cotton-wool.  
OOO. The said valves of the Veins empty.  
FIG. V. Shows the single valves of the Vena Basilica looking upwards.  
FIG. VI In the Crural vein opened double valves are seen.    
page 30●  
Now the Valves are so situate, that they have their Orifices upwards towards the roots of the Veins, and are shut beneath, and always look towards the Heart. And the workmanship of Nature is remarkable in their situation, in that they have their postures looking the same way one following another, as knots in the Branches and Stalks of Plants. that is to say, they are not in a right line one against another, or placed on the same side, lest the whole Blood should flow straight in through the free part of the vessel. So the lower Valves do stop, what the upper have let slip: and if all the doors of the Valves had been disposed in one right line, there had been little or no delay made in the regress.  
Moreover they are situate at Distances, according to the length of the vessel, sometimes two, three, four, or five finger's distance; that if the Blood by some default should be compelled to flow backwards, and should pass the upper Valves, falling on upon the other Valves following, it might be stopped and hindered.  
As to their Magnitude they are greater where by reason of the plenty of Blood 
Their Magnitude.  the Recourse is most vehement, and therefore greater inconvenience was to be feared to happen, either to the parts which would be too much oppressed, or to the Heart lest it should be destitute of Blood; as we see in the Basilica and in the Crar●● Vein at the groins.  
The Number of all the Valves varies, 
In what Persons there are most Valves.  as also their distances; for there are more Valves in those▪  

1. Who abound with melancholy Blood, or contrarily with very choleric and thin Blood; because both those humours do not only easily resist the Driver, but when they are driven, by their weight and tenuity, they easily flow back.  
2. In great or more fleshy Bodies and consequently having more Veins.  
3. In such as have the broadest vessels.  
4. In such who have long and straight Veins; for in such as are oblique, the crookedness of the vessels gives some stop to the running back of the Blood.   
Moreover, the number of Valves in one and the same place doth not exceed two. For they are seated at distances, sometimes one, otherwhiles two at most; not a● any time three, as we find in the Vessels of the Heartt▪ because in the Heart a greater orifice is to be shut, and the Ventricle underneath is larger, yea and the greate● violence of the Blood in the hot Heart, did require more stops, But in the progress of the Veins, their Branching diminishes their Magnitude, and the blood is slower in motion. Therefore where the Veins are yet pretty big, and there is danger from the plenty of Blood, there are two doors, but otherwise but only one.  
It's Figure likens the Nail on a Man's finger or the horned Moon, such as you see in 
It's Figure.  the sigma-shaped Valves of the Heart.  
It's Substance is exceeding thin, but withal 
Substance.  very compact, lest they should break by a strong incourse of the blood. And this is apparent from the Varices, where they can contain the blood a very long time.  
The Use is I. To strengthen the Veins, whereas the Arteries are otherwise made strong by the 
Use.  doubleness of their coats.  
II. The chief use according to Aquapendent and most Anatomists following him, is to stop the motion of heavy and fluid Blood, which runs violently into the Arms and Thighs, and Legs, because of their downward position; but especially in most vehement motion and exercise, where through the power of exceeding heat, the Blood would rush impetuously into the Limbs, and so 1. The inner and more noble parts would be defrauded of their nutriment. 2. The Veins of the Limbs would be too much stretched, and in danger of breaking, and consequently the Arms and Legs would be always swelled.  
But this use is rejected by Harvey, because 1. In the Jugulars they look downwards. 
According to Harvey.  2. In the emulgent and Mesenterick branches, they look towards the Porta and Cavae. 3. There are none ●o the Arteries. 4. Dogs and Oxen have the same, in the division of the crural Veins, in whom because of their going downwards, there is no such thing as aforesaid to be feared. 5. The Blood of its own accord is slowly enough driven, out of the greater Veins into the lesser Branches, and out of hotter into colder places. And therefore according to his principles, and the principles of Circulation, the use of the Valves is,  
III. Lest the Blood should move out of the great veins into the little ones and so tear them; or from the Centre of the Body into the outmost parts, but rather from the extremities to the Centre. And therefore they do the same thing in the Veins, which the Sigma and Mitershaped Valves do in the Heart.  
But in the Orifice of the Jugular Vein internal they perform the same Office, lest in the bowing back of the Head, the Blood should return into the Brain, and like a Flood oppress the same, disturb the Animal Functions, and breed a sanguine Apoplexy.   

Chap. 3. Of the Division of the Veins of the Body, and of the Vena Portae and the Venae Lacteae.  
ALL the Veins of the whole Body are referred unto two as their Mothers; viz. the Vena Portae and the Vena Cava, to which is joined a third kind of vessels found out by Asellius viz, the Milky Veins, of which we shall speak by and by.  
The Ven● Portae its Original and Root is the Vena Umbilicalis, of which I spoke in the first Book, the first of all the Veins, arising from the Seed.  
Now it is termed Vena Portae, or Quae ad Portas est, the Gate-vein, and 
The Vena Portae, why so called.  Vein at the Gates, and Vena ostiaria, the Door-vein; because through the roots thereof, or, as others will have it, its branches, viz. the Mesaraick Veins, the Chyle being su●t out of the Stomach and Guts was anciently thought to be carried, as it were by Gates into the Liver. The Arabians called it Vena Lactea, because they thought it drew the Chyle, white like Milk.  
This is the greatest Vein in the Body next the Cava, and is commonly said to arise out of the hollow part of the Liver. And it is not so compact as the Cava, but more loose and soft.  
It is divided into the Trunk and Branches.  
The Branches are upper and lower: 
The Branches of the Portae in the Liver, termed Roots.  and some call the former Roots, others the latter.  
They call the former Roots▪ because this Vein is said to have its original out of the Liver: the latter, because as Roots suck matter out of the Earth, and carry it into the Trunk of the Tree: even so also the Venae Mes●raicae, which are the lower branches of Portae, do suck Chyle like Roots (according to the Ancients, but according to out late opinion blood out of the Mesentery) and carry it to the Liver by the Trunk and upper Branches; and therefore the Meseraick Veins are termed the Livers Hands. We may therefore call them all, both branches and roots, in a different respect.  
The upper Branches, four or five of them are spread up and down the hollow part of the Liver, which afterwards, beneath and without the Liver, grow into one Trunk. Touching these and their anastomosis, see above, in the Chap. of the Liver, Book the 1.  
The Trunk before it is divided into lower Branches, sends two small Veins to the Gallbladder which are termed Cysticae gemellae; another Vein to the Stomach, which is therefore called Gastrica dextra.  
Afterward the Trunk inclining to the left hand, it is divided into two remarkable lower Branches: the one higher and lesser, going towards the left side; the other lower and larger on the right side.  
The former is called Splenicus, because it 
The Spleen-Veins of the Stomach.  goes into the Spleen, & before it is divided it spreads from itself two upper Branches to the Stomach, the Gastrica minor and Gastrica major, the largest of all the Stomach Veins, which afterwards constitutes the 
Call. Pancreas.  the Coronaria. Then it sends lower branches to the Call and one to the Pancreas.  
These being thus constituted, the Truncus 
Spleen.  Splenicus is divided, into the upper and lower Branch. The ●o mere produces the 
Call.  Vas breve and other little branches carried into the Spleen. The latter produces 
Stomach.  two Veins for the Call and Stomach which are termed Epiplois sinistra and Gastroepiplois sinistra. Finally, the rest of its small branches, are spent up and down in the Spleen.  
The Ramus dexter of the Vena portae, before it is divided, produces two Veins, 
Of the Stomach. Call. Guts.  1. To the right side of the Stomach and Call. 2. To the Guts, viz. the middle of Duodenum, and the beginning of the Jejunum: whence certain capillary twigs go through the Pancreas and Call upwards.  
Afterwards an whole large Branch goes into the Mesentery, and being carried between 
Of the Mesentery.  the two coats thereof, it is distributed into three notable Branches, called Rami mesenterici, the Mesenteric branches.  
The right-hand mesenteric branch is twofold, which spends itself into fourteen nameless branches, and these again into innumerable Offsprings of Veins termed the Mesaraick Veins in the Guts, jejunum, Ileon and Caecum and part of Colon. 
The Meseraick Veins.  whos's  
TABLE III▪  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE shows the Branching of the Vena portae within and without the Liver.  


AAA. The Trunk of the Vena port● going out of the Liver.  
bbbbb. Its branchings in the Liver.  
C. The Umbilical or Navil-vein.  
D. The Venae Cystica.  
●. The Implantation of the Coronary Vein of the Stomach.  
FF. The right Branch of the Venae portae.  
G. The left splenick Branch thereof.  
h. The Rise of the Coronaria of the Stomach, which after it hath bestowed many branches upon the Stomach itself, being turned back towards the Pylorus, it is implanted into the Trunk of the Venae portae itself, where the letter ● stands.  
iii Little branches of the Vena splenica, distributed through the Pancreas.  
kkkk. The manifold ingress of the said Ven● splenica into the Spleen.  
L. The Vas breve so called.  
m. The Gastroepiploica sinistra, which runs out upon the bottom of the Stomach, and affords many branches both to to the Stomach itself, and to the Call.  
n. The Vena Epiploica sinistra.  
ooo. Little branches disseminated through the bottom of the Stomach.  
ppp. Branches which run out through the Call.  
q. Another Epiploica superior to the precedent, for it runs before it, through the lower part of the Call, which comes nearest the Loins.  
R. The Rise of the internal Haemorrhoidal Vein, which  
SSS. Diffuses Branches through the Mesentery, and at last where this mark stands it sends forth the Haemorrhoid Veins so called.  
V. The Gastroepiploica dextra, from which many branches arise that are disseminated through the Call and Stomach.    
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Harvey to refute the milky veins, and withal to maintain his Circulation in the 
According ●o Harvey.  Mesentery, does suppose that as the Navil-veins draw in alimentary juice from the Liquors of the Egg, and carry it to nourish and increase the Chick●… even so the Mesaraick Veins do suck Chyle out of the Guts, and carry it into the Liver, even in a grown person. But then they should carry Chyle and Blood together, and so divers juices would be jumbled together, such as were digested with those that are indigested. And what need is there to confound Vessels that Nature hath distinguished. And every one knows, that the use of the Navil-vessels, is different in a Child in the womb and, grown person.  
2. According to the same Ancients, to prepare the said Chyle in some measure, and to give it the rudiments of Blood. which would be true if the Hypothesis were true.  
TABLE IU.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
This TABLE represents the milky Veins in the Fish called Orbis, or the Lump-fish.  


AA. The Stomach.  
BB. Appendices of the Stomach in which the Venae Lacteae or milky Veins are evident.  
CCCC. The Guts drawn to one side.  
D. The Intestinum Rectum or Arsegut.  
E. The Liver.  
F. The third Lobe of the Liver, into which the milky veins are inserted.  
G. A white kernel of the Mesentery swelling with Chyle, out of which Veins are carried unto third the Lobe.  
hhh. The milky Veins.  
iii The Branches of the Mesaraick Veins.  
k. The Trunk of the Vena portae.  
lll. The Mesentery.  
m. The Gall-Blidder.    
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4 According to others and my Father Bartholinus amongst the rest, to carry thick blood made in the Spleen from thence to the Guts to nourish them. which were true did not the Circulation teach otherwise, which hath been found out since his time. And that same blood would be more fit to nourish, by reason of the abundance of Arteries in the Spleen. The Vessels being changed, this Opinion would be absolutely true.  
5. Asellius, who rightly assigns the milky veins to carry Chyle to the Liver, hath shown that these common mesaraick Veins do serve to no other intent, then to bring blood out of the Liver to nourish the Guts. which use, being before refuted, he is therein to be excused, who was likewise ignorant of the true motion of the blood.  
6. Their true Use is to bring the Blood back after the the nutriment of the Guts, into the Liver, which had been carried to the Guts, by the mesaraick Arteries. This is apparent by Ligatures in living Creatures, which Walaeus practised, in which they swell towards the Liver, but are empty towards the Guts. The Valves show as much, which were by Harvey found out in the mesaraick veins, looking towards the Cava and the venae portae, which Columbus also observed, and which hinder the blood of vena portae from passing into the Guts. Nor does the Conflux of humours out of the Body about the Guts hinder, whither the Humours flow thither of their own accord or provoked by medicaments; because this passage of the Humours is certainly through the mesenterick Arteries which neither Spigelius denies, nor those that maintain the Circulation of the Blood.  
The left Mesenterick branch is spread abroad into the left and middlemost part of the mesentery, and part of the Colon from the left side of the Stomach, and to the Iniestinum rectum. Hence arises the Vena Haemorrhoidalis interna so called, of which in the following and proper Chapter.  
This Age of ours being clearer sighted than the former, has found 
The History of the Milky Veins.  out the milky Veins in the Mesentery so called, from the white colour of the Chyle in them, which besides the Mesaraicks, make a fourth kind of vessels, through which the Chylus is carried into the Liver. Erasistratus in Galen had a glimpse of these veins, but after him, the first that discovered them was Caspar Asellius an Anatomist of Ticinum, in the dissection of a living dog well fed, on the twenty third of July in, the year 1622. In whose footsteps accurate Anatomists treading, who prised nothing more than truth, have found by testimony of their eyes, that those same vessels full of a milky juice, are peculiar passages different from the Mesaraicks. For in living Creatures they are always to be seen, if they be dissected about four hours after they have been well fed, viz. when the Chylus is distributed: for after that time they are not to be seen, howbeit, though empty, they always appear like little fibres which have deceived some, making them to take these vessels for nervs: but they are out, because nervs neither have such a Chyle as this, nor Valves nor any cavity. Nor are the Mesentery and Guts so sensible, although they have a few nervs from the sixth Conjugation. Some have conceived these vessels to be Arteries, but contrary to sense, which acknowledges here a simple coat, and no motion. Only the not knowing of their Trunk, does keep some learned men as yet in suspense, which if it could be demonstrated to be in the Liver, they would be of out mind. But although their Trunk and Original be unknown yet no man should doubt of the existency of these Veins any more than the Inhabitants about Nilus' doubt of the Existency of that River, whose Head is unknown. And others account it no impossible thing, that they may by their twigs be implanted into the Liver without any Trunk. Yea and it seems not improbable to the renowned Kyperus and Regius, that the milky veins being confounded with the Mesaraicks in the Pancreas or great kernel, do there empty their Chyle into the Vena Portae, and so it is carried by the Veins into the Liver, that it may be mixed with the Fermentum brought from the Spleen, and so receive the Rudiments of Blood. But I shall by and by show that the milky veins have branches which reach into the Liver, where they are inserted.  
But I will briefly relate the History of these milky veins, following the guidance 
The History of the Vena Lacteae.  of Asellius and others, and mine own Experience, who have diligently viewed them, in live Animals, and Men newly hanged and choked.  
These vessels are termed Lactes or Lactea 
Their Name.  Vasa also Venae lacteae either from Lacio a word out of date, signifying Allicio, I draw, or a lacte from Milk, which they resemble in whiteness, softness and fatness; even as the Ancients and later Writers have given the same name, to the small Guts, the mesaraick Veins, and the Mesentery, for the same cause, though the agreement and verity be not the like.  
They were quite unknown to the Ancients, if you except Erasistratus, who in Kids that had lately sucked, saw certain obscure Arteries which were soon filled with milk, yet most Ancients were ignorant, that there were one sort of vessels to carry the Chyle, and others to carry the Blood. But they may be easily excused, by indifferent Censurers, because they commonly dissected Animals that had been strangled, in which bodies, unless they ●e tied, they suddenly disappear. Galen who had made more than six hundred live Anatomies, did without doubt take them for Nerves.  
Their Situation is in the lower Belly, where they are for the most part 
Their Situation.  accompanied with Fat, which cherishes that Heat which is necessary for the attraction and preparation of the Chylus.  
They are carried through the Mesenterium, from the Guts, by an oblique passage, between its two coats, partly separate from the other vessels, partly together with them, sometimes straight along, otherwhiles going over the same, and cutting them crosswise as it were, through many Kernels, placed chiefly at the parting of the branches; they are carried, I say as far as to the Pancreas. In the Pancreas or great kernel of the Mesentery, which Asellius after Fallopius calls Pancreas, they are wreathed and wrought together like a Lattice, this way and that way, into very many and those inexplicable wreathe and Labyrinths.  
From thence again, having sent greater branches by the sides of Vena portae, and sometimes also twigs to the Vena Cava, they enter with small Branches into the Cavity of the Liver. From thence, being carried to the Liver itself, and split into very small fibres, they are so long spread up and down into the flesh thereof, every way, till they are at length quite obliterated.  
But into what part of the Liver, either the Trunk or Branches are inserted, 
Their Insertion in the Liver.  I have not found by any as yet determined, by reason of the sudden Efflux of the Humours. ay, in the dissection of the fish called Orbis, by our Countrymen Steenbud, by G●s●er Sea-Hare, by Clusius the frog-mouthed Orbis, by the Islanders Roemaffue from the colour of its Belly; both Male and Female here at Hasnia frequently repeated, in the presence of the most learned Wormius, Sperlingerus, Simon Pauli, Fuerinus, and others, have found and demonstrated not only many days after, great plenty of milky veins, full of the white milky humour, but also the true place of their Insertion. which was the third Lobe of the Liver, that same little soft one described by Spigelius, into which there entered a milky branch sufficiently great, from the large kernel seated not far off, and swelling with the milky humour, unto which kernel, the most of the milky veins out of the Mesentery, and the appurtenances of the Stomach, had their Course. Nor is it to be doubted, but that the same betides in men and other Creatures Nature so sharing the business, that to each Lobe its Trunk may be assigned. Now from this they go further, with the branches of Vena portae, inwardly to the rest of the Lobes, and their Parenchyma. And it is to be observed, that about this third Lobe, where the milky veins are inserted, the Gallbladder is placed, either to assist Concoction which begins there, or to receive the choleric Excrement, which in the Concoction of the Chylus is separated therefrom.  
Now they are inserted into all the Guts, vea even the Duodenum, but especially into the smaller Guts, not so many into thick ones, nor are any of them carried to the Stomach or the Spleen. And lest the Chylus once received should slip back again into the Guts, they are furnished with Valves which look from within outward, which will not admit the Chyle though driven back with Violence.  
It's Substance is of a Vein, which it resembles 
It's Substance.  in structure and all things else, excepting the milky juice. Of which there are th●●● compounding parts, Fibres, a Membrane, and Flesh. They have but one single Membrane, wherein they differ from Arteries, neither are they here clothed with so thick a coat, no more than in other remote parts, though in the Mesentery they receive from it another external coat. Asellius doth attribute to them all kinds of fibres, Right, Transverse, Oblique, for Drawing, Retaining, and Expelling; though Walaeus by Ligature do teach, that the Chyle is rather thrust in them to the Liver, by the Guts contracted and driving the same; and others conceive that it is drawn by the Liver itself.  
The Flesh which grows to the Membrane, fills up the spaces between the fibres, whose use besides is, to prepare the Chyle before it comes to the Liver.  
As for Quantity they grow continually 
Their Quantity.  one to another, being all of one Trunk though their magnitude be not equal, some being greater others lesser. Now they are small, lest the thick and unprofitable parts of the Chyle, should go into them together, and least distribution should be made too suddenly and tumultuously, which Frambesarius observes.  
They are infinite in Number, dispersed 
Number.  through the Liver, Guts, Mesentery and Pancreas, and so much more in number than the vulgar Mesenterick Veins, that their plenty may make amends for their smallness.  
As to the first active Qualities, they are colder than ordinary Veins, because the Chyle which they carry is colder than Blood. In respect of the passive qualities, they are dry, yet moister than the common Veins.  
TABLE V▪  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
This TABLE Represents the milky Veins, or Venae Lacteae.  


AA. etc. The Mesaraick branches of the Venae portae, and the branches of the Arteria Coeliaca, which accompany the same.  
BB. etc. The Venae Lacteae or milky Veins, which being bound in the lower parts do discocover the Valves.  
CC. The Nerves running up and down through the Mesentery.  
D. The Bottom of the Stomach.  
E. The Pylorus.  
F. The Gut Duodenum.  
G. The Gut jejunum.  
H The Gut Ileum.  
I. A Vein and Artery creeping through the bottom of the Stomach.  
K. Pa t of the Call.  
L. The great Kernel in the rise of the Mesentery which Asellius calls the Pancreas.    
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Their Action and proper 
Their Use.  Use is 1. To deliver up the Chylus to the Liver, not by the Mesaraicks as hath been hitherto believed, by which neither the Chylus ascends to the Liver, nor the blood descends to the Guts, as was said be●ore. Nor let the abundance of the said Mesaraicks trouble us, which the cold and bloodless Guts do not need; because doubtless they need ●ore of Heat and much nourishment, administered by the abundance of mesaraick Arteries, and therefore plenty of Veins ought to answer the plenty of Arteries, that they might carry back the superfluous blood to the Liver.  
TWO To render the Chyle more fit to receive the form of Blood in the Liver. But they are deceived who do assign to them the blood-makeing faculty, for the Chylus is not at all changed in colour till it come unto the Liver, where it begins by little and little to grow reddish or paleish.  
III They much conduce to facilitate the Art of Physic. For 1 They discover a ready way for distribution of the Chylus, which has hitherto been very much controverted, without any fear of a contrary motion or confu●●on. 2 They show that the Blood is made in the Liver and its flesh, and not in the veins. 3 That the sucking of the Veins is no cause of Hunger, because none are carried to the Stomach.  
IV They declare the Causes of some Diseases of the Body which were before obscure, viz. of the chylous flux of the Guts; of pineing away of the Body, for want of N●…, by reason of the kernels of the Mesentery 〈…〉 with ●…s swellings, of intermitting Agues ●…d in the Mesar●um, Hypocondriacal Melancholy etc.  
V The learned Gassendus conceives that by the milky Veins the white juice contained in them is carried over the whole Body, to breed Fat; and that the true Chylus is brought the nearest way by the Porus biliarius, out of the Stomach unto the Liver; But neither of these may be granted. Not the former, because of the reasons brought before, Book the 7 against Folius, touching the matter of Fat which Riolanus approves and commends; nor the latter, because the Chyle would be infected by meeting with bitter Choler, though that renowned man allows in case of necessity, the Jejunum being obstructed, it may so be done.  
And so much may suffice touching the History so the Venae Lacteae, to which there is hardly any thing remainning to be added, unless the cause of their sudden disappearing, which is sufficiently controverted▪ which is not to be imputed to the spiritual disposition of the Chylus which suddenly vanishes away, as Asellius did at first believe, because the Chylus being drawn out of the Veins does keep its colour a very long time, not vanishing away, but becoming waterish. But to that which did afterward seem probable to Asellius viz. the strong drawing of the Liver, in so great Anxiety of the Ainmal, all this may be attributed, by which the spirits being consumed, they need new Blood and Chyle speedily to be digested. And hence a reason may be rendered, why the Venae lacteae in a man hanged at Amsterdam cut up by Dr. Tulpiu●, remained visible many days after; such as have been divers times s●en by Veslingius at Milan, and Folius at Venice: For by reason of the pains broke off by choking, there could be no drawing of the Liver. For whereas in a Girl ten months old, Veslingus found these Veins swelling: I ascribe that to a like weakness of the Liver, or the thickness of the milky humour. I also saw at Hafnia the last year, the milky veins in Sueno Olai of Vardberg (who was immediately choked with a piece of neats-tongue, having before eaten and drank plentifully) visible in the Mesentery, because respiration being hindered by the bit of tongue, and his heart being suffocated, there was no necessity for the Liver to draw any Chylus. But P. Laurembergius as a man ignorant of this Anatomy does vainly imagine with himself, that these veins do disappear, because of the recourse of the Chylus to the Guts, the Valves being loose and flaggie: for, 1 Do all you can, you shall never bring the Chylus back, in dead bodies into the Guts. 2 If a vein be tied in the middle, so that a passage is left open on both sides, both towards the Liver and the Guts: where it looks to the Liver it is empty, but it swells exceedingly towards the Guts, and if it be left in that posture for some days together the Chyle will not slip back into the Guts.   

CHAP. IU. Of the Haemorrhoid Veins.  
THe Haemorrhoidal Veins are those which are in the Fundament, 
The Haemorrhoid Veins what?  or Intestinum rectum, and are also extrinsecally visible, which in some men at set times do open of their own accord, and void forth dreggie Blood, which evacuation does much conduce to Health.  
These Veins are not of one kind, as the Ancients and many 
The Error of other Anatomists.  later writers have Imagined: But some are termed internal, which arise from the Vena portae, others external, from the Cava, with which the haemorrhoidal Arteries are associated, through which the Humours to be evacuated, are carried.  
The Ancients knew only the Internal ones, as being commended in melancholic and spleenetick diseases: and they may be opened about the fundament, or leeches may be applied to them, whereas otherwise no branches of the Vena portae which lies concealed within, do go out to the skin, which can be opened.  
The internal and external Haemorrhoid Veins differ one from 
The Differences between the internal and external Haemorrhoides.  another.  
I In their Original. For the Internal arises as was said before, From the Vena portae, and descends along the end of the Colon, under the right gut, the end whereof or Fundament, it circularly embraces with certain small twigs. It arises sometimes from the Ramus splenicus, from whence is the Vas breve. But seldom which Casserius once observed, from the Spleen itself. Veslingus observed it twice or thrice, and therefore Robert Flood is out, who condemns the opening of the Haemorrhoid Veins, because they void not from the Spleen▪ but rather from the mesentery, to the great damage of the Guts and Stomach.  
But the external Haemorrhoides arise from the Hypogastri●k branch of the Cava.  
TWO By their Insertion For the internal is inserted into the substance of the Intestinum rectum, which is membranous, and required thick Blood made in the Spleen, and communicated by the Arteria Coeliaca or Splenica.  
The external are inserted into the Musculous Substance of the Fundament, which required purer Blood, elaborated in the Heart, and brought hither by the branches of the Arteries.  
III In Number, the Internal is one in number, the external is threefold.  
IV In the Quality of the Blood contained. The Blood of the inner is thick and black, the Blood of the outer is thinner and redder.  
V In their Use The internal empty the Vena port● successively, but first the Spleenick Arteries, and help the Obstructions of the Spleen: the external empty the Vena Cava, the Liver by accident, but primarily the great Artery, and the Heart; yea their evacuation cures diseases springing from Blood, of the Head, Chest, etc. Which Hypocrates hints in his Aphorisms, and therefore the internal are said to cure the Cacochymia, or badness of Humours, the external the Ple●horia or fullness of good Blood.  
VI In the plentiful profusion of Blood. The flux of the internal ones is not so plentiful; that of the external is sometimes so large, that men die by the extremity thereof, or fall into grievous diseases.  
VII In the Evacuation of the external ones, there is no Pain nor Gripeing of the Eelly; and some times also no pain in the Fundament; but in the flux of the inner Haemorrhoides, there is grievous pain.  
VIII The Internal do alone descend, unaccompanyed with the Arteries, howbeit either the Arteries are hidden, or they depend of Arteries in the uppermore.  
The external descend with the Arteries to the Muscles of the Fundament, manifestly; and therefore the external are more properly called Vasa Haemorrhoidalia, to include the Arteries with the Veins.   

Chap. V. Of the ascending Trunk of Vena Cava, especially of the Vena sine pari.  
VEna Cava called also Vena magna 
The Vena Cava what?  and maxima, the great vein and the greatest vein, by the Ancients, because of its exceeding largeness, and by Aurelianus, Venae crassa the thick Vein, is the largest Vein in our whole Body, and the Mother of all other Veins which do not proceed from the Vena Portae; coming out of the bunching or convex side of the Liver, and therefore by Hypocrates termed the Liver vein, having spread many Veins through the 
It's division into great Trunks.  upper part of the Liver, which about the top are collected into one Trunk it is presently divided into the upper or ascendent, and the lower and descendent Trunks.  
The Ascendent Trunk peirces the Midrif, 
The ascendent Trunk what?  is spread about through the Chest, Neck, Head and Arms. Now it is carried undivided, as far as to the Jugulum. Mean while four branches arise there from.  
1 Phrenitis or the Midrif vein, on 
The Vein of the Midrif pericardium and mediastinum.  each side one, whence also branches are sent to the Pericardium and Mediastinum. That Quittor in such as have the Empyema, is carried by this Vein to the Kidneys and Bladder M. A. Severinus ingeniously proves, because 1. The quittor must needs rest at the bottom of the Midriff. 2. By the motion of the Septum it is easily made thin. 3. By the same motion the mouths of the vessels are opened. which may more truly be said of the Arteries, which carry Blood to the Kidneys by their emulgent Branches, and with the Blood sundry excrements, as quittor, Serum etc.  
Afterwards the Vena cavae ascends by the Septum, and boring its passage through the Pericardium, it goes a little towards the left hand, and insinuates itself into the right Ventricle of the Heart, with a large hole, where it is joined on all sides to the left Ear-let: and there is made,  
2 The Vena Coronaria, which is sometimes double, compassing the Basis of the Heart, at the Rise whereof a little Valve is placed, not suffering the Blood to return into the Trunk. For it is joined with a continued passage to the Artery, that it may therefrom receive blood, which is to return to the Cavae.  
Afterwards the ascendent Trunk does at last, bore its way through the Pericardium, and taking the former shape, it had under the Heart, but smaller, thorough the middle division of the Lungs (no more upon the Vertebrae of the Chest, where now the Gullet and Weasand rest) it ascends to the Jugulum. Mean while there is bred  
3. A remarkable Vein above the Heart called Ayzgos, sine pari, the Vein without a fellow, because in a Man and a Dog, it is commonly but one, quartering on the one side, without another on the other side. But there are two in some Creatures which chew the cud, as Goats, and in Swine etc. And in the Body of Man I have often seen two, once I found none at all, instead whereof on each side there descended a Branch from the Vena Subclavia.  
It arises from the hinder part of the Cava but more towards the right hand, and descends through the right Cavity of the Chest: but in Sheep chose, it arises from the left side of the Cavae, and descends through the left. In a Man after its Beginning, which is between the fourth and fist Vertebra of the Chest, it bends a little back towards the right side and outwardly, unto the eighth or ninth Vertebra of the Chest; where it begins to possess the very middle space. Howbeit, I have observed it presently after its rise, to descend right forward, above the middle of the Backbone, and to send out branches on each side.  
This Truncus sine pari, for the space of eight lower Ribs, sends out on each hand Intercostal branches, which are sometimes here and there joined by way of Anastomosis, with the branches of the 
Anastomosis.  Thoracica inferior which arises from the Basilica, and with the Intercostal Arteries. And therefore a Vein is not always 
The Error of Vesalius.  to be opened in a Pleurisy of the right side, as Vesalius would have it.  
Near the Eighth Rib, it is divided into two Branches.  
The one being sometimes the greater, ascends under the Diaphragma to the left side, and is inserted sometimes into the Cavae above or beneath the Emulgents, sometimes into the Emulgent itself. This way, according to the vulgar Doctrine, pleuritic 
How pleuritic persons are purged by Urine.  persous, are many times critically purged by Urine, and void out that way abundance of Quittor: which matter may more truly be said to be purged out by the emulgent Arteries, by mediation of the Heart.  
The other on the right hand, goes to the Cavae and is joined thereto, seldom to the Emulgent, sometimes 'bove, the Emulgent. Often times it is implanted into the last sometimes into the first lumbal Vessel; for which cause, in the beginning 
Why the Ham-vein is profitably opened in a Pleurisy.  of a Pleurisy, the Ham-vein may be opened, to draw away the Blood, which would otherwise ascend out of the Arteries and small Veins, into this Vein.  
And whereas Hollerius and Amatus dream that this Vein hath Valves in its 
The Error of Amatus Lusitanus and Hollerius touching Valves.  Beginning, it is false. and therefore false it is, that the Cavae being evacuated, the Vena sine pari is not evacuated, because the Regurgitation is hindered by the Valves. Fallopius denies them, because he saw both Wind and Blood regurgitate from thence.  
4. The Intercostalis superior, on each side one, which is sent to the Intervals of the four upper Ribs, when the Azygos hath not sent branches to all the Intervals of the Ribs.   

Chap. 6. Of the Vena subclavia and its Branches, and the Jugulars.  
THe Branches aforesaid being constituted, 
The Error of other Anatomists.  the Cavae ascends to the Claviculae, underpropped with the Thymus, where it is commonly thought to be divided, and in many Anatomical Tables is so represented, into four parts, on either side into an upper part and a lower. whence a common Error of 
An Error of Practitioners in Blood-letting.  Practitioners arises who scrupulously open the Basilica Vein, in parts affected beneath the Neck; the Cephalica in Diseases of the Head. But at the Claviculae ● channel-bones the truncus vena cavae is divided not into four branches but two only, on each side one, the right and left, which are termed Subclavij and by some Axillares.  
Wherefore it matters not in Diseases below the Neck, whether you open the 
The most apparent Vein is to be opened.  Basilica or Cephalick Vein: for the Trunk of Vena Cavae is alike emptied, for the Cephalica and Basilica proceed from one root. The Chirurgeon ought to cut that which of the two is most apparent.  
Howbeit in Diseases of the Head (if the Circulation did not persuade the contrary) the opening of the Cephalick Vein would help a little more, because there is a branch inserted thereinto proceeding from the external jugular; which I have observed more than once in divers Bodies. But the Case is all one, because the Carotick Arteries exclude all this Difference.  
From the Subclavian Veins there arise both upper and lower Veins; and the lower both before and after division: before the division, four.  

1. The Mammaria (whose original doth notwithstanding many times vary) on each side one, sometimes without a fellow, descending into the Duggs, of which I have made frequent mention. This by way of Anastomosis, is sometimes joined to the Epigastrica under the right Muscles of the Abdomen.  
2. The Mediastina which comes to the Mediastinum and the Thymus.  
3. Cervicalis for the Muscles which lie upon the Vertebrae and for the Marrow of the Neck.  
4. Muscula inferior, for the lower Muscles of the Neck and the upper of the Breast. and this also arises sometimes, from the external Jugular.   
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE propounds the chief distribution of Vena cavae through the whole Body.  


A. The Trunk of Vena Cavae below the Heart.  
B. Its Trunk above the Heart.  
C. An hole whereby it gapes into the Heart.  
DD. The Subclavian Branches.  
ee. The mammary Veins.  
f. The Vena Mediastina.  
gg. The Venae cervicales.  
hh. The Venae Vertebrales.  
iiii. The Jugulares externae.  
kkkk. The Jugulares internae.  
Lllll. The Vena Azygos or sine Pari.  
mm. The Intercostalis superior.  
nn. The Rami phrenici.  
ooooo. The Branches of Cava through the Liver.  
p. The Scapularis intern.  
q. The Scapularis extern.  
r. The Thoracica superior.  
s. The Thoracica inferior.  
T. The Cephalica.  
V. It's external Branch.  
X. It's internal branch which in part constitutes the Mediana.  
ZZ. The Basilica Vein.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Its first Bough.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The external Branch of the second Bough.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The internal branch of the second Bough.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The third Bough constituting the other part of the Mediana.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Salvatella.   

These following Characters design the lower Veins.  
AA. The Emulgent Veins.  
BBBB. The Spermatick Veins.  
ccc. The Veins of the Kidney-kernels.  
dddd. The Lumbal Veins.  
EE. The Rami Iliaci.  
ff. The Muscula superior.  
gg. The Sacra.  
HH. The Ramus Iliacus externus.  
II. The Ramus Iliacus Internus.  
kk. The Muscula media.  
LL. The Venae Epigastricae.  
mmmm. The Hypogastricae Venae.  
nn. The Muscula inferior.  
oo. The Vena pudenda.  
PP.. The Crural Branch.  
Qqqq. The Venae Saphaena.  
rr. The Ischias minor.  
ssss. The Muscula.  
ttt. The Poplitaea.  
vu. The Suralis.  
xx. The Ischias major.    
page 313  
Basilica, as shall be said in the following Chapter touching Veins of the Head.  
From the Axillary after its division from the Trunk of the Basilica arise two Veins.  
1. Thoracica superior spent into the Muscles spread upon the Chest, and into women's Dugs.  
2. Inferior which sometimes grows out of the superior creeping all over the side of the Chest, whose branches are joined by 
Anastomos●s.  way of Anastomosis with the Branches of Vena sine pari which proceed out of the Chest.  
From the upper part of the subclavian trunk, there first arises muscula superior, spread out near the jugularis externa, into the skin, and muscles of the hinder-part of the Neck. And afterwards,  
The jugular Veins, so called, because they ascend in the Jugulum at the sides of 
Jugular veins why so called.  the Neck; and they are internal or external.  
External, which sometimes, either in its original, or in the middle of its passage, is twofold, creeping upwards under the Skin, and provides for the external parts of the Head, Face, Neck, and Fauces. For under the root of the Ear, it is divided into the internal and external branch. The internal goes unto the muscles of the Mouth, Fauces, Hyoides, etc. The exterior being under the Ear propped with kernels, is divided into two parts; one part is carried into the foreparts of the Face, the Nose and Cheeks, and in the middle of the Forehead being joined with a Branch of the other side, it makes the Vein of the Forehead which is usually opened. The other is carried through the sides, the Temples, and the Occiput. This the wise Severinus opens with very great success, in the Headache, Hoarseness, Shortness of Breath, Pleurisy, pain of the Spleen, Tetters, Squinzy, and which I was present and saw, in Varices of the Face. Mean while these branches are variously mingled in the Head and the Crown of the Head.  
The internal Jugular in men is the greater, because of their abundance of Brains, but in Beasts it is contrariwise 'tis called Apaplecta, and does ascend to the side of the Trachea, to which it sends branches. Reaching to the Basis of the Skull in its hinder-part, it is divided into two branches. The one which is the greater, is carried backwards with the lesser branch of the Carotick Artery, through the hole of the Os Occipitis, which is made for the sixth Pair of Nerves, and enters into the cavity of the dura mater. The other being lesser, entering at the hole of the third and fourth pare, is spent into the Dura Mater.   

Chap. 7. Of the Veins of the Arms and Hands.  
THe axillary Vein as we have observed in the foregoing Chapter, is divided at the beginning of the Arm, into two remarkable Branches: the upper and lesser, or the Vena Cephalica, and the lower and greater or Easilica.  
The upper is called Vena humeraria Cubiti inferior, Cephalica or Capitalis, the Head-vein, because it is wont to be opened in Diseases of the Head, by the Ancients, and by later Surgeons also either out of Ignorance or Superstition.  
In Brutes it arises from the external Jugular, in Men always from the axillary, yet so that from the external Jugular a short twig may be inserted into the Cephalica.  
It is carried in the Surface of the Body, between the fleshy Membrane and Coat of the Muscles.  
It's external branch termed Funis Brachii, at the middle of the wrist, in the lower part, is joined to a branch of the Basilica, and afterwards arising into the outer side of the wrist, passing along between the ring finger and the little finger, it is called Salvatella, which is that which the Arabians term Siele, who as others at this day, commend the opening thereof in the left hand, against melancholic diseases, acute Fevers, and tertian Agues, but in vain, and upon no ground at all. As Joh. Bap●. Sylvaticus has proved in a distinct Treatise, and Severinus lately, whatever Spigelius may dispute touching anastomosis of the Arteries, in the extreme parts, wherewith the Spleen abounds: For the Spleen is more remote, and any other part may be as well opened for there are anastomosis in a manner every where.  
They make that the inner branch of the Cephalica which constitutes the mediana.  
Basilica by some called Cubiti interior, Epatica, Jecoraria, etc. the Liver vein, because in diseases of the Liver it is usually opened: but in the left side 'tis termed Lienaris the Spleen vein because the opening thereof is commended in Diseases of the Spleen, upon no ground at all.  
But let Surgeons take heed when they open this Vein, lest they 
A Caution in opening the Basilica or Liver vein.  wound a Nerve of the third and fourth pare, which lies near the same, whence follows great pain, a Fever, Convulsion, and Death. Also Arteries lie beneath the same, which being hurt, causes au Aueurisma and effusion of Blood.  
This Vein is divided into more Boughs than the Head vein. Under the tendon of the pectoral muscle it is divided into three Branches.  
I The first goes along with that Nerve of the Arm, which they call the fourth.  
TWO The next is termed Medius and Profundus, beneath the Elbow Joint divided into an external and an internal branch, separated but a little way one from another. The former provides for the Thumb, Forefinger, and Middlefinger; as also for the external muscles of the Hand. The latter being stretched along the middle bone of the Cubit, servs the Middlefinger, the Rinfinger, and the little finger, as also the internal Muscles of the Hand.  
III The Subcutaneus is divided at the inner swelling of the Arm, is divided into a foremore and hindermore Branch: The latter descends under the Ulna by the little finger, where it is joined to a Branch of the Cephalica. The former as it passes along the Cubit, produces another remarkable Vein, which proceeds sometimes directly, otherwhiles with various turnings unto the wrist. And then as it is carried along the Cubit, with the inner Branch of the Cephalica, it makes a common Vein which is called  
Mediana by Avicen nigra, 'tis called the mediana or middle Vein because of its Sitnation in the midst of the Arm. It is frequently opened without danger, because there is no Nerve beneath it, but only the Tendon of a Muscle. From this or rather from that part of the Basilica, whence this arises, a branch is sent forth, which being divided above the Radius, produces an exterior branch, between the Thumb and the Forefinger, which some call Cephalica, others Occularis, and some again as Mundinus, Salvatella, and another more inward, betwixt the middle finger, and the Ring finger, which some as Rhasis count the Sielc or rather Seilem of Avicenna.  
But touching the Distribution of all these Veins it is to be observed, that 
The Variation of the Veins of the Arm.  they differ in several Bodies, and are seldom in one man, as they are in another; yea the right side of the same man does rarely agree with the least; and in like manner they vary in Magnitude, in several persons.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Trunk of Vena cava descending as far as to the Thighs.  
THe lower Trunk of Vena Cava proceeding out of the Liver, called the descendent Trunk, is more narrow than the upper or ascendent (which servs very many parts) and proceeds undivided accompanied with with a great Artery, as far as to the fourth Vertebra of the Loins. Mean while it sends forth these following Boughs.  

I The Vene adiposae which servs the Coat of the Kidneys and their Fat, the left of which, is commonly higher than the right.  
TWO The emulgent Veins, descending to the Kidneys by a short and crooked passage, sometimes with a threefold Rise, bringing back the wheyish Blood being purified from the Kidneys into the Vena Cava.  
3. The Spermatick Veins of which in the first Book.  
4. The Lumbaces or Loyn-veins sometimes two, sometimes three, which are carried betwixt the four Vertebrae of the Loins. From these some write that they have observed two Veins ascending, within the Vertebrae, on each hand to the side of the spinal marrow in the Brain, which makes them conjecture, that a portion of the seminary matter is brought from the Brain.   
These being thus constituted, the Trunk going towards Os sacrum, at the fourth Vertebra of the Loins, it goes under the Aorta, which before was under it, and is divided into two equal Branches, termed Rami Ilij or Iliaci, because they go over the Os Ilij and Os pubis unto the Thighs.  
About the division itself, there arise two Veins; the Muscula superior serving the Peritonaeum and the Muscles of the Loins and Belly, and the Sacra, sometimes single, otherwhiles double, for the Marrow of Os sacrum.  
Afterward the Ramus Iliacus is forked out on each side into the external greater, and the internal lesser.  
From the inner two Veins sprout; the Muscula media without, serving the Muscles seated on the outside of the Hip, and the skin of the Buttocks; and the Hypogastrica which is remarkable, sometimes double, serving very many parts of the Hypogastrium, as the Muscles of Intestinum rectum, whence are the Haemorhoides externae; the Bladder and its Neck, the Yard, the lower side and neck of the womb. whence are those Veins by which menstrual Blood is many times thought to be purged in Virgins and Women with Child; which nevertheless seldom happens, when the Venae Hypogastricae do cumulate thick Blood, and send it not back unto the Trunk, than they may be opened, but otherwise, they are indeed suppressed; but they ascend unto the Heart by the Vena Cavae, and cause palpitations and other symptoms. But when they are right, the Courses are naturally voided by the Arteries, which appears by their florid colour, and the common Office of the Arteries, which is to carry unto the parts of body. Walaeus proves this also by other tokens in his Epistles. This branch when it is joined with the crural branch internal, doth cease.  
From the outer, three: two before it goes out of the Peritoneum, and one afterward: the first is the Epigastricae (which seldom arises from the crural) to serve the Peritoneum and Muscles of the Belly; the chief part ascends, under the right Muscles to the Mammariae, to which they are often joined about the Navel.  
2. The Vena pudendae, which serves the Privy Parts in Men and Women; it goes athwart to the middle of Os pubis.  
3. Muscula inferior, going over the side of the Hip-joynt, to serve the Muscles and skin of that part.  
Afterwards its Branches are termed Crurals.   

Chap. 9 Of the Crural Veins.  
THe Venae Crurales, as also the Arteries and Nerves passing along, are in the bending of the Thigh interwoven with frequent kernels, for firmness sake. Afterwards there arise from the crural Ve●● six branches.  

1. Saphaeda (so called because of its apparency more than other foot-Veins) or Venae m●leoli the Anckle-vein, is long and remarkable, it is carried along in the Inside of the Thigh, with a Nerve stretched by it, between the Skin and Membran● Carnosa to the Knee, and along the inner part of the Leg, it goes to the inner Ankle. And it is variously distributed into the upper parts of the Foot, towards the Toes, especially the great Toe. This is opened about the Ankle, in Diseases of the Womb, especially when the Courses are stopped, and in the Gonorrhaea to evacuate or revel the Blood which otherwise would ascend too plentifully unto the Womb and Genitals. Now it must be opened where it is most apparent, whether it be on the Back or side of the Foot.  
2. Ischias minor is opposite to the former. for it is a short outer branch, springing from the crural: it is carried outwardly and athwart into the skin of the Hip, and the Muscles of that place.  
3. Muscula, arises from a Trunk, which lies hid among the Muscles: it is a double and remarkable Branch, distributed among the Muscles seated in the Thigh.  
4. Poplitea the Ham-vein, is made of a double Crural branch mingled together, and runs straight along under the Skin, behind, through the midst of the bending of the Ham, as far as to the Heel, sometimes to the Skin of the Outer Ankle. This Vein is commonly supposed to have been frequently opened by the Ancients, under the Knee, and Paulus Magnus a Chirurgeon of Rome, did once open it. But because it lies exceeding deep, and cannot be seen, we must suppose it cannot be opened: and perhaps this is not the Venae poplitea of the Ancients, especially seeing Galen is exceeding various in his description thereof, and calls it sometimes the Vein in the Ham, sometimes about the Ham, sometimes at the Knee, otherwhiles under the Knee; peradventure he meant the Ankle-vein, which descends to the inner bunching of the Leg, and is indeed conspicuous enough under the Knee.  
5. Is called Suralis, which is a great Vein; and is divided into the external and lesser, and the internal and greater branch, and each of them again into exterior and interior. It is distributed amongst the Muscles of the calf of the Leg. On the back of the Foot, being mixed with the branches of the Poplitea, it makes that same various texture of Veins, which is apparent under the Skin.  
6. Ischias Major gives a part to the Muscles of the Calf, and then spends itself into ten branches, bestowing a couple upon each Toe.   
Touching all these it is to be noted:  

1. That all these branches, do send divers tigs outwards to the Skin, which are termed Skin-veins.  
2. That all these branches are diversely disposed in different men, as was said in the Arms; nor is there always the same carriage of Veins, in both the Legs of the same person.  
3. That there is also no great choice to be made in opening the Veins of the Feet; seeing they are all derived from one Trunk, and the Blood ascends from the extreme parts and Arteries.     

THE SECOND MANUAL Of the Arteries, Answering to the SECOND BOOK Touching the Middle Cavity or Chest.  

CHAP. 1. Of the Arteries in General.  
ARteria an Artery so called from containing 
The name Artery.  and preserving Air or spirit; was by the Ancients Hypocrates, Plato and Aristotle the name of the Windpipe, which also Hypocrates calls Arteria magna. Galen makes a distinction and calls the Windpipe Aspera Arteria the rough Artery, and those whereof we are now to treat Arteriae leves the smooth Arteries, which Hypocrates calls Arterias parvas, Aristotle sometimes Venam Aortam, otherwhiles simply Aorta.  
Now an Artery properly so called, is a common Organ, round, long, hollow like a 
What an Artery is.  pipe; consisting of a double Coat, proceeding from the Heart, fit to carry Blood and vital spirits to all parts.  
The Efficient is the proper Artery-making faculty, which may be called Artoropoietice.  
The matter whereof it is made, is a clammy and cold part of the seed, according to Hypocrates. And this is the Beginning of its Generation.  
The Beginning of its Dispensation, is not the Brain, as Pelops Galen's Master would have it, but the Heart by the Consent of all Philosophers and Physicians. And indeed the Arteries proceed out of the left Chamber or Ventricle of the Heart, not the middlemost, which Aristotle seigns to himself, and would have the Aorta to proceed therefrom. And therefore the Arteria magna proceeds from the Heart, as also the Venosa Arteria, and the Vena Arteriosa, but these out of the right Ventricle; of which we have spoken already in the second Book.  
Their End or Use is, 1. Inasmuch as 
The End of the Arteries.  they are Conduit-pipes, they carry the Blood and vital or arterial spirit made in the Heart (for Spirit alone without Blood is not contained in the Arteries) to all parts of the Body. 1. To communicate life or vital faculty, that the vital spirit implanted in the parts, and their Native heat may be sustained and cherished. 2. That animal spirit may be bred, in the noble Ventricle of the Marrow. 3. For the nourishment of all the parts, which are nourished by these only and their Blood and not by the venal Blood or Veins. 4. To carry the Excrements of the Body and the Blood therewith mingled, either to the outer parts of the body to the Kidneys, or the Mesentery, or the Womb, or the haemorrhoid Veins, etc.  
II. Inasmuch as they are moved and 
Why the Arteries pulse.  pulse perpetually; they afford this benefit. 1. That the heat of the parts is fanned, cooled and tempered, and so a symmetry or due proportion of Heat is preserved. which is caused, not so much by the Airs being drawn in, when the Artery is widened, to avoid Vacuum, as by the arterial Blood continually flowing in, impregnated with Air. 2. That this nourishing arterial Blood, may be continually poured into the smallest Arteries, and from thence into the parts of the Body. For in the first place, the Heart by continual pulsing, drives the Blood into the greater Arteries, which because they cannot let it return because of the Valves, and are too strong to break, it must needs be driven to to the very smallest Arteries and the parts of the Body. And those parts not being nourished with all that is forced in, do send back that which is superfluous into the Veins, that so it may be circulated. Moreover, an Artery being bound in any part of the Body, it is filled towards the Heart, otherwise than the Veins; chose towards the smallest Arteries and the parts it is emptied. Thirdly, In Blood-letting, the Arm being indifferently hard bound and the pulse remaining, the Arm is filled, and a Vein being opened below the band, Blood plentifully issues, which because it cannot come out of the Veins which lying higher are stopped by the Ligature, it must needs be brought from the Arteries beneath. Fourthly, in live-Creatures dissected, this Tumour of the Arteries is observed near their Original, and a lankness towards the extreme parts of Body, into which they go; and when they are opened, there is a mighty flux of blood, on this side the band, none beyond it. Lastly, the same is to be seen by an Aneurisma. 3. Lest the Blood of the Veins to which they are joined, should be still, and putrify like standing waters, and that the Heart may not be destitute of Blood in its continual expulsion, by the driving Arteries it is continually filled again through the Veins.  
This Motion of the Arteries called the Pulse, is caused, either by the faculty alone, 
The Pulse how caused.  whether seated in the Arteries themselves, as Praxagoras would have it, or flowing from the Heart by the coats of the Arteries, as Galen and infinite Physicians after him have taught, especially by reason of a little Reed put into the Arteries, under which they are not moved, by reason of the Intercepton of their coat, till it be taken away. again, because as the Heart is contracted and widened, so are the Arteries, as appears by laying one hand to the region of the Heart, and the other to the Wrist, and by wounds in the Heart and Arteries: or by the Blood either boiling according to Aristotle, or rarefied according to Des Cartes, or merely distending as Harvey hath proved: or from both the Blood filling, and the faculty directing, which is my opinion. For that the Arteries are moved and distended by the Blood, I prove. 1. The Heart by its perpetual pulsing, expels great store of Blood, as I have demonstrated in my Chapter of the Heart. 2. That the same Blood doth fill and move the Arteries, the Artery itself shows, being laid bare, into which at every pulse, you shall feel with your fingers the Blood driven in to flow down, with which it is dilated. 3. When an Artery is opened, Blood leaps out, at every pulse, as out of the Heart. 4. Harvey saw a portion of the descendent Artery with two crural branches a span long taken out of the Body of a Gentleman, which was turned into a fistulous hollow bone, and nevertheless the Blood which when he was living, descended through the the Cavity thereof into his Legs, did move the Arteries beneath, by its impulse. The same hath been observed by others in the Arteria Aorta 5. In an Aneurisma the flesh is manifestly seen to pulse, as formerly the Artery being sound was wont to do by the afflux of Blood. 6. The waving, Worm-creeping pulse, do argue the same, in the judgement of Walaeus. 7. Harvey gives us another rare experiment, made with the Guts of a Dog, Wolf or other Creature dried, blown up and filled with Water. For if we smite one end with our Finger, and lay our fingers to the other end, we may clearly perceive every stroke, and the difference of the motion. Howbeit I conceive the faculty ought to be joined hereto, communicated to the Coats from the Heart, by help whereof, they are contracted and widened; because, 1. Otherwise the Flux of the Blood would be inordinate, and the pulse always unequal. 2. All the Arteries are dilated or contracted in one moment, but the Blood alone fills the Arteries successively and moves them part after part. Indeed, Gloves being blown into, all the fingers are puffed up at once, which Harvey objects, and in a Basin the blow and motion are at once in both ends: but corporeal blood is of another Nature, which cannot be moved like species or Winds. 3. The Faculties or Irradiation of vital light, may run through all parts in the twinkling of an Eve, like the Light of the Sun. See more of this in the Chapter of the Heart. 4. Hence within Galen his Reed the Artery is obscurely moved, because the swift motion of the Blood ceases when the Faculty is hindered. Howbeit, Harvey and Walaeus argue differently about this difficult Experiment.  
Now all the Arteries are widened 
Whether the Arteries are dilated together with the Heart or no.  when the Heart is contracted, and contracted when the Heart is widened, which is certain from the dissection of an Artery and the Heart, and from Ligatures, nor was it so long ago unknown to Erasistratus, and reason confirms the same, because when the Heart expels, then are the the Arteries filled with its Blood. Yet have they not contrary pulses, as we find by laying our hand to the wrist and the Region of the Heart, at one and the same time, for the pulse of the Heart is perceived by us in its Systole, but that of the Arteries in the Diastole, when they are filled, because the two motions, are at one and the same time. The smallest capillary Arteries are not perceived to pulse, because there is not so much force in them, and therefore we can hardly discern them from the Veins. also they have thin Coats, so that the Blood is seen through them, as through the Veins.  
The Form is apparent from the Accidents; howbeit the form of an Artery is the substantial Soul, as it is of the whole Body besides.  
It's Situation is deep, always under the Veins, that they might be more safe, and that not only in the external, but the internal parts also, if you except the Belly, a little below the Kidneys: For after that the Vena Cava and the Aorta, descending from the Diaphragma, have passed the Region of the Kidneys, the Cava hides itself under the Aorta through all that region, till they pass out of the Abdomen; for then the Artery does again side itself under the Cava. The Cause whereof Plempius conceives to be this; that otherwise there would have been danger, lest the bending of the Body often happening in that place, the Vena cava having but a single Coat, would have resisted the said motion.  
It's Magnitude is sufficiently great, but 
It's Magnitude.  the descending part of the Arterle is greater, the ascendent lesser, because the Number of the internal parts is greater than of the external.  
The Number of the Arteries is fewer than of the Veins, because the passage of the Blood is quick through the Arteries, slow through the Veins, and therefore there are many receptacles provided for that Blood which is collected by certain pulses. Yet there are more Arteries than we think, or can be discerned by us, because the capillary Arteries are exceeding like to Veins.  
Their Shape is like a Pipe or Channel, smooth, round, and long.  
As to their Passages. Some Arteries are terminated into the Guts, by which expulsion of Excrements is caused; some have their mouths terminated into the Skin, through which the external air is attracted (in Transpiration which is performed also by the Veins) and sooty steams expelled. Platerus denies that they are inserted into the Bones, but Spigelius observed at Milan, in a great corruption of the O● Tibiae, that the substance of the Bone was bored through by an Artery. which perhaps Aristotle had likewise seen, because he says that Arteries end into a solid Substance.  
They are compassed (like the 
Whether the Arteries do feel.  Veins) sometimes with a membrane thick and common, from the Neighbouring parts, when they are without the Bowels and the Muscles; and such Arteries as have a membrane joined to them with Nerves in it, do feel; whence Galen said the Pulse was inflamed, also that an Artery did feel, and was pained, which one at Milan found in his inner parts, who dying with a mighty pain in his Loins, Stones like a Man's Nails were found in his Lumbal Arteries. But other Arteries are without Sense.  
The Substance of the Arteries is membranous, 
Their Substance.  so that they may be distended and compressed more than the Veins. Fallopius thought their Substance to be gristly, because he observed that it did degenerate into a boney nature; which also Vestingus, saw, as well as Harvey, in the great Artery above the Valves, near the Heart of an old Man. But that many things are changed into a boney substance, which were not grisley 
How many Coats an Artery hath.  Columbus teaches in the septum Cordis. Now an Artery consists of two peculiar Coats.  
The Exterior is thin, soft, rare, as the Coat of a Vein is.  
The interior is compact, hard, and very thick, viz. five times thicker than the Coat of the Veins: And therefore Herophilus said, that the Arteries were six times thicker than the Veins, for this Cause, that they might be strong in their perpetual motion, and that their thin Blood should not soon vanish and fly away, being spirituous and vaporous. And therefore in the opening of an Artery, the incision must be made deep, with a broad and sharp Lancet, because of the deep Situation of the Artery, and thickness of the Skin. The opening of an Artery is allowed of by these 
Whether an Artery may be opened, and how.  ancients Oribasius, Aegineta, Aetius, Actuarius, Aurelianus, Abensina. With good success Galen practised it, in a disease of the Eyes proceeding from hot Blood, full of vapours, and in pains of the Hips. Panarolus at Rome uses the same kind of remedy in a Frenzy, and Alpinus writes that it is frequent in Egypt, which Paraeus did likewise exercise in France, M. Aurelius Severinus at Naples, and Paulus Moth with us, excellent Physicians and Surgeons, do happily open them, to the great good of their Patients, especially in diseases of the Head; in which nevertheless, the opening of an Artery may seem usless, because 1 Vaporous and hot Blood is as well carried by the inner carotick Arteries unto the Brain, from the Basis to the plexus retiformis, as well as by the external ones, which are opened. 2 The same Blood returns through the jugular Veins, according to the sure Laws of Circulation. But seeing it did certainly profit the Patients, I conceive it was practised rather by way of preservation, then of Cure. For the antecedent cause being somewhat evacuated by the outer Arteries, the conjunct cause is easily extruded by the jugular Veins. More over, some external Vein or Artery may be obstructed, so that neither the latter can send, nor the former receive, unless they be opened.  
Galen adds a third Coat, in their inner Surface, like a Cobweb for Thinness, appearing in great Arteries about the Original.   

Chap. 2. Of the ascendent Trunk of the great Artery.  
THe distribution of the Arteries which always in a manner, accompany the Veins, will be more easy and short; because the dessemination of the Veins is already understood from what has been said before.  
The Arteria magna or crassa, the great or thick Artery the mother of the other Arteries, comes out of the left Ventricle of the Heart with a gapeing Orifice or vvide mouth; where within the Pericardium or Heart-Bag, it breeds from itself the Arteria  
Coronaria, compassing the Basis of the Heart sometimes single, sometimes double, afterward, going out of the Heart-bag, 'tis divided into the lesser Trunk ascending, and the greater Trunk descending.  
The lesser and upper Trunk resting upon the Weasand, does provide for all parts quartered above the Heart: and is divided into the Subclavius Ramus dexter, which is higher and much the larger, and the sinister, rising more low and going obliquely to the Arm.  
Afterward the whole Trunk sustained by the Thymus, divides itself into two Carotides or Sleep-arteries unequal, which go right upwards.  
The Arteriae subclaviae before they go out of the Chest (for then they are termed Axillares when they are out) from their lower part, do produce the Intercostales superiores to the Intervals of three or four of the upper Ribs; from their upper part. 1. The Mammariae. 2. The Cervicales. 3. The Musculae.  
From the Axillaris before it comes to the Arm, in the lower part, doth arise the Thoracica superior, Thoracica inferior, and Scapularis: in the upper part, the Humeraria. The remainder, goes from the Axillary on each side to the Arm.   

CHAP. III. Of the Arteria Carotides.  
THe Arteriae Carotides do ascend upwards right to the Head by the sides of the Weasand, being knit unto the internal Jugulars: for the internal Veins do not accompany the Arteries. When they come to the Fauces, before they enter the Skull, they give branches to the Larynx and the Tongue: and then a division is made into the outer and inner branch.  
The outer being the smaller, furnishes the Cheeks and Muscles of the Face; and then at the root of the Ears, 'tis divided into two branches; the one is sent to the hinder parts of the Ear, whence arise two branches entering the lower Jaw, to furnish the Lip, and the roots of all the lower Teeth: the other goes to the Temples, the Forehead, and the Muscles of the Face.  
The inner at the saddle of Os Sphaenodes under the dura mater, makes the Rete mirabile, and then passes through the dura mater, and sends forth two branches. 1. The lesser with the Nerve optic to the Eyes. 2. The greater ascending to to the side of the Glandula pituitaria, and distributed through the pia maior and the substance of the Brain.   

Chap. 4. Of the Arteries of the whole Hand.  
THe Axillary Artery, is carried along through the Arm, descending between the Muscles, with a Vein and Nerve of the Arm which they count to be the fourth.  
Under the bending of the Elbow, it is divided into two fair branches; the upper and the lower.  
The upper goes right on through the middle to the Wrist, where Physicians feel the Pulse; afterward proceeding under the ring-shaped Ligament, it bestows branches upon the Thumb, Forefinger, and Middle-finger.  
The lower running through the Ulna to the Wrist; furnishes the Mid-finger Ring-finger and little finger: and so it proceeds to the Wrist, whence we feel the motion of the Pulse beneath, especially in lean persons, or such as have a great Pulse. But we better perceive the pulsing of the former branch, because it is less obscured and hid by Tendons.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE presents the distribution of the Arteria Magna or Aorta, through the whole Body.  


A. The Beginning of the Arteria magna arising cut of the Heart.  
aa. It's Trunk ascending, from whence arise  
CC. The Arteriae Subclaviae, and from these  
dd. The Arteriae carotides, which afterwards produce  
ee. The Ramus exterior and  
ff. The Ramus interior.  
gg. The Arteriae Vertebrales or Cervicales.  
hh. The Arteriae Musculae.  
two. The Arteriae Mammariae.  
kk. The upper intercostal Arteries.  
ll. The Scapularis interna.  
mm. Scapularis externa.  
nn. Thoracica superior.  
oo. Thoracica inferior.  
pp. The Ramus axillaris.  
Qq It's upper branch dispersed through the Arm to the Wrist.  
Rr. It's inferior branch going also to the Hand.   

These following Characters denote the Arteries which spring from the descendent Trunk.  
B. The Trunk of the Artery descending.  
aaaa. The lower Intercostal Arteries.  
bb. The Phrenicae Arteriae.  
C. The Arteria Caeliaca.  
d. The right branch thereof.  
e. It's left branch or Arteria Splenica, sprinkled with very small twigs through the Spleen.  
f. The Arteria Gastrica dextra.  
g. The Arteria Gastrepiploica.  
h. The Arteria Epiploica.  
kk. The Arteria Mesenterica superior.  
ll. The emulgent Arteries.  
mm. The Spermatick Arteries.  
nnnn. The Arteriae Lumbares.  
oo. The Mesenterica inferior.  
pp. The Rami Iliaci.  
Qq. The Arteria Iliaca externa.  
Rr. The Iliaca interna.  
S. The Arteria Sacra.  
tt. Arteriae Hypogastricae going to the Arse-gu▪ and the Privities.  
vu. The Hypogastricae which go to the Womb.  
XX. The Umbilical Arteries.  
ZZ. The Arteria Epigastricae.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Arteria Cruralis.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Arteria pudenda.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Muscula inferior.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Arteria Muscula, Cruralis, external  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Muscula cruralis interna.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Poplitaeus Ramus.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Ramus Suralis.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Branches spent upon the Foot and its To●s▪    
page 319   

CHAP. V. Of the descending Trunk of the great Artery.  
THe Trunk of the Aorta or great Artery descending is greater, because it sends out branches from itself, into the middle and lower belly, as also into the Thighs.  
In the Chest or middle Belly, two Arteries proceed from the greater Trunk.  
I The Intercostales inferiores which go unto the intervals of eight Ribs, and the neighbouring Muscles. For it seldom happens, that the Vein sine pari, has to accompany it an Artery sine pari, ariseing from the Trunk. By these intercostals if we believe Spigelius, quittor and water collected in the Chest, are received into the great Artery, and thence by the▪ emulgent Veins carried into the Bladder, which has also reason to back it, because the congested matter is more easily hurried through the Arteries, and the way is shorter. I add that quittor more readily follows the natural motion of the Arterial Blood then of the venal.  
II. The Phrenica to serve the Midriff and Pericardium, or Heart-bag.  
The rest of the Trunk peirces through the Clift of the Septum, and spreads branches through the lower Belly, some of which accompany the branches of vena portae, others the Branches of Vena Cava. Those which accompany the Branches of vena portae are three;  
Coeliaca Arteria, Mesenterica Superior & Inferior.  
The Caeliaca, so called because it sends many branches unto the Stomach, proceeds forward from the Aorta, being under propped by the Call, and is divided into the Ramus dexter which is the smaller, and the Sinister Ramus which is the larger, which under the hinder region of the Stomach, are knit to the Vena Portae in the Pancreas.  
The Dexter ascending to the Cavity of the Liver, and proceeding a little forwards, on the higher side produces Gastrica dextra, and the Cysticae gemellae; from its lower part, Epiploe dextra, Intestinalis, and Gastroepiploïs' dextra, in imitation of the Vena portae. therefore let what was said there, be here repeated. The Remainder from the Ramus dexter goes into the hollow surface of the Liver.  
The Sinister or Arteria Splenica, is greater than the Dexter, lest it should be easily obstructed by thick juices, and that it may pour sufficient vital blood, into the Spleen. This Artery drawn out into the Vena Splenica, by a bending and crooked Course goes to the Spleen, and then spreads branches after the same manner as the Vena Splenica.  
The Mesenterica superior is distributed well-nigh into the whole Mesentery, and constitutes the Arteriae Mesaraicae, in the Gut Jejunum, Ileon and part of Colon: whose use is, 1. To communicate native heat into the neighbouring parts, and those whereinto they are inserted. 2. In a sickly state to receive the Excrement- of the whole body, as the Mesaraick Veins do, to empty them into the Guts, which use was first found out by Spigelius. 3. Some conceive the Mesaraick Arteries draw Chyle. 1. Because of their Carriage. 2. Because of their Ends. 3. Of their Contents. 4. The Authority of Galen in his 4. de usu partium and in his Treatise An in Arteria sit sanguis ch. 5. whom Hoffman follows. But they cannot draw Chyle, because Chyle was never seen in them, and the Arteries receive nothing from the parts, but communicate somewhat to those parts whereinto they are inserted. Nor do they draw to the Heart, as Varolus would have it, for the valves hinder: and the Chyle is not natural to the Heart. Nor to the Liver or Spleen, as others suppose, because only the Splenick Arteries do carry vital Blood to the Spleen, and there is only one little Artery implanted in the Liver. Nor is it returned out of the Arteries into the Veins, as Spigelius imagines, for so there would be labour in vain; Nor do they carry this Chyle to the Caeliaca: because nothing ascends by the Arteries, but all descends by them to the parts. Therefore 4. The true use of the Mesaraick Arteries according to the Principles of Walaeus is, to carry Arterial blood to the Guts, for their nutriment. Which motion of the Humours, Ligatures do show in live-Anatomies. For the Mesaraick Arteries being bound, do swell towards the Trunk and the Heart, and are empty towards the Guts, which suck in the blood, and send back what is superfluous, through the mesaraick Veins to the Liver.  
For the Blood is also circularly 
Whether the Blood of the Belly be circulated.  moved in the Abdomen, out of the coeliac and mesenterick Arteries, into the Vena portae, notwithstanding Riolanus his denying the same, by his motion through the Trunks, because  

1. There is the same Necessity which is in the Heart and other parts, the same Profit and the same Urgency.  
2. Seeing there is an impulse of Blood without intermission, into the Meseraic and Coeliack Arteries, of necessity, they must either break, or Tumours and other Diseases must arise in the Mesentery, or it must run back again to the branches of the Portae  
3. Ligatures demonstrate the same here, as in other places.  
4. The Valves observed by Harvey in the Ramus splenicus, permit the Blood to run back by the Vena portae.   
As to the contrary reasons it is to be observed.  

1. That the Blood of the Vena portae is not so impure, if it be compared with that of the Cava, but that it is sometimes purer than it; and though it be more dreggy, there is the more need for it to run back, to be made more pure by the Liver and Heart.  
2. That there are in the Liver Anastomoses either of the Vena portae and Vena cava (though they are not so apparent in a dead body) or such as open into the parenchymas of the Liver.  
3. Sometimes there is a remarkable palpitation of the Arteria coeliaca in hypochondriacal disorders, which also Mercatus and Fernelius have observed, without any mutation of the Pulse, viz. the Hypochondrium being ill affected with Wind, or with some distemper, whereby the same Blood coming from the Heart, may be changed in this Region: but that by the Palpitation of the lower parts, the Heart is many times changed, Tulpius hath an Example. See also other Arguments, learnedly resuted by Slegelius.   
The Mesenterica inferior, is distributed into the lower part of the Mesentery, and the left side of Colon.  
But the other Arteries which accompany the Branches of Cava, are these following, excepting the Mesenterica inferior. For in this order the branches break forth from the Arteria magna, in the lower Belly. 1. Caeliaca. 2. Mesenterica superior. 3. The Emulgent. 4. The Spermatick. 5. The Mesenterica inferior. 6. The Lumbares; from which two Arteries are thought to accompany two Veins of the Brain. 7. Muscula superior.  
Afterwards the Aorta at the beginning of the Ossacrum, goes above the Vena Cava and no longer under, least smiting against some Bone in its perpetual motion, it should be hurt; also that the foreparts, the shops of generation, because of their need of Heat, might be near the great Artery. And in this place it is called▪  
Iliaca, where it is divided like the Cava into the two Iliac Trunks, and each of them into the inner and and lesser branch, and the outer and greater which go to the Thigh.  
But before they become crural, they send out on each side six branches. The Sacra presently after the bipartition: from the inner Trunk the Muscula inferior, the Hypogastrica and umbilical Arteries: from the Epigastrica and Pudenda; The rest of the Artery is carried into the Thigh ●nd makes the Crural Arteries.   

Chap. 6. Of the Crural Arteries.  
OF the Crural Arteries, on each side, are constituted these following Arteries.  
Above the Ham, for the exterior parts of the Trunk, Muscula curalis externa, to the foremore Muscles of the Thighs, from the inner, the Muscula crutalis interna, to the inner Muscles of the Thigh; and this is mingled at the Knee, with a small branch or twig of the Hypogastrica.  
Under the Ham arise three branches:  

1. The Popliteus, into the hinder Muscles of the Thigh.  
2. The Suralis, which is divided into the Tibicus exterior, the posterior altus and posterior humilis, ●●● the Muscles of the Leg.  
3. The rest is spent upon the Foot and its ●oes▪     

THE THIRD MANUAL Of the Nerves, Answering to the THIRD BOOK OF THE HEAD.  

CHAP. I. Of the Nerves in General.  
BY the Term Nervus the Ancients did 
The significations of the term Nervus.  sometimes signify a Ligament or Band, hence the Comedian says, He will come to the Halter, in Nervum ibit: but it properly signifies a common Organ, which together with animal spirits, carries the faculty of moving and feeling, wherefore Aurelianus calls the Nerves seasuales vi●.  
A Nerve therefore is a common Organ long and round, to carry the Animal faculty 
A Nerve what.  lodged in the Animal spirit, into the parts of the Body.  
The Efficient is the Nerve-making faculty.  
The Matter according to Hypocrates, is a clammy and cold part of the Seed, heated but not burnt: and Galen says 'tis a matter white, thick and roapie. And this is the Beginning of its Generation.  
The Beginning of the Dispensation of Nerves or the part whence the Nerves immediately 
The Beginning of the Nerves.  arise, is the Medulla oblongata, partly as it is within the Skull, and partly as it is in the Backbone. Within the Skull arise those which are commonly said to arise from the Brain, viz. the seven pair of Nerves: and in the Backbone thirty. And this most true opinion is confirmed, not only by the similitude of the Marrowie and Nervie Substance, but also by ocular experience.  
Aristotle would have them arise from the Heart, who is followed by Alexander, Averro 
The Error of Aristotle.  and Apo●easis, who nevertheless say it comes by mediation of the Brain.  
Others would have the Nerves to be nothing else but the Veins and Arteries continued, and degenerating into Nerves: as Praxagoras of old, in our days Cesalpinus, Reusnerus, Hofmannus, and Martianus, but they are out; seeing 1. In the Brain there is no Conjunction of Arteries and Nerves by anastomosis. 2. An Artery being hurt or cut in the Head, no Convulsion follows. 3. The distinct Rise of the Nerves in the Brain is apparent, as of the Arteries in the Heart.  
Erasistratus did conceive they came from the Dura Mater.  
At this day many Physicians conceive with Galen, that some Nerves arise from the Brain, others from the Spinal Marrow: who are all confuted by Ocular inspection.  
Their End and Use is, to carry the Animal faculty with the Animal spirit, from the Brain, like conduit pipes, into the parts.  

1. Sensory, as the Eyes, Ears, etc.  
2. Motive, as the Muscles.  
3. All in a manner, that they may in general perceive and understand what causeth pain.   
And therefore the Nerves inserted into the parts, do give to the said parts either Sense alone, or Motion alone, or both Sense and Motion: nor is there any voluntary motion or sense without the help of a Nerve; and therefore a Nerve being cut, that part is presently deprived of Sense and Motion.  
The Nerves therefore, I say, do afford 
Whether the moving Nerves and the sensitive differ.  to the parts either Sense or Motion, according as they are disseminated into such and such parts, because the Nerves of themselves are not sensitive or motive. So that if they be implanted into Muscles the Organs of Motion, they are termed motive Nerves; if into the Instruments of sense, sensitive. Many times also according to the Nature of the Parts, one pare of Nerves affords both sense and motion. As the sixth pare of the Nerves of the Brain, commonly so called, is communicated to the Bowels of the middle and lower Belly to cause the Sense of Feeling; and when it becomes recurrent, it bestows motion upon the Muscles of the Larynx. The optic pare so called, gives only sense, because implanted into the Eyes only. But the other pair which is termed motorium par●, the moving pare, and arises from the marrow as well as the former, causes motion because it is implanted into the Muscles of the Eyes.  
The Situation of the Nerves, for security's sake, is more profound and deep than that of the Arteries.  
The Magnitude is various, according to the condition of the Organs and dignity of the Actions, their Assiduity and Magnitude. The optic Nerves are great, because the action of the Eyes is so; also those Nerves are most thick which are sent to remote and many parts, as the Limbs; indifferent in the sensory parts; for because they were to be soft, they could not be very small: the Nerves of the nearest parts are smallest of all, as in the Muscles of the Face.  
The Nerves are commonly said to be seven and thirty pair in number; seven pare 
A new opinion of the Author touching the number of the Nerves.  from the Brain, which I say arise not from the Brain, but from the Medulla oblongata within the Skull, and thirty from the Marrow in the Backbone. But I say that indeed & in truth, those seven pare, are ten pair, as shall be made apparent in the following Chapter: and so I make forty pair of Nerves: ten arising within the Skull, and thirty without in the Backbone.  
The former were indeed by the Ancients reckoned to be only seven in number, and to arise from the Brain, which they comprehended in this verse.  
Optica prima, Oculos movet altera, tertia gustat  
Quartaque Quinta audit, vaga sexta est, septima linguae.  
First sees, next moves the Eyes; third, fourth do taste,  
Fist hears, sixth roams, seventh moves the Tongue too fast.  
But the smelling pare was by them omitted, and that which they make the third pare, is double and distinct; so the fist is double; one pare of which duplicity, some have made to be an eighth pare, for Archangelus reckoned eight pare, Columbus nine, and I ten, as stall be said hereafter.  
Now the thirty pair of the Marrow of the Back are so divided, that seven are of the Neck, twelve of the Chest or Back (others say eleven) five of the Loins (sometimes four) and six of the Os sacrum.  
All these Nerves do sprout out of both sides, and therefore they are termed Pares of Nerves, Susug●●● conjugations or coupling of Nerves. And it is necessary for a Physician to know their originals 
The use of this Doctrine in Physic.  and distinctions, that he may understand to which part of the Backbone Topics are to be applied, when motion or sense, or both are impaired in the Face, Neck, Hands, Muscles of the Belly, Yard, Fundament, Womb, Bladder, etc.  
Moreover as to number, you must know that every Nerve hath its mate or Companion, 
The Nervus sine pari.  except the last or lowest proceeding from the spinal Marrow.  
The figure of the Nerves is long, round, and 
Why the Nerves are not hollow.  smooth like Conduit pipes; but without any hollowness as the Veins and Arteries have: because the later with Spirit were to carry Blood, but the Nerves carry only Spirit.  
Riolanus the Father excepts the Nerves of the Privity manifestly hollow, which nevertheless his Son excuses to have been meant of the hollow Ligaments of the Privity, who is better versed in Anatomy than his Father was, and so also Laurentius spoke. Severinus in his Zootome, says, the Nerves of a Bull's pizzle are hollow. Galen also adds the Optic Nerves, 
Whether the Optic Nerves are hollow.  which he will have to be hollow and perforated, sensibly and manifestly: for the discerning whereof he conceives three things are necessary, viz. That 1. The Animal be great. 2. That it be cut up as soon as killed. 3. That the Air be clear and bright. Plempius doth also require three things more, that the Nerve be cut asunder with a most sharp Knife, that it be not squeezed nor stretched, and that it be cut beyond the growing together of the two Nerves. Cornclius Gemma subscribes to Galen, who attributes rather a passage to be seen like a prick in the inner substance of the Nerves.  
Others conceive the porosity is better seen in the optic Nerves being boiled. Fallopius says that Galen thought thus, because in the Bodies of Apes which he dissected, all Nerves are pervions. Howbeit Spigelius admits only certain passages in the beginnings of Nerves, where they grow together, and soon after towards the Eyes it vanishes. I also saw a Cavity and Publicly did show the same in a dead body, after they were joined, and before they entered into the Eye.  
But Vesalius, Eustachius, and Coiterus, deny these Nerves to have any Cavity against Galen, and so do others, and produce experiments which succeed not, unless the conditions aforesaid be observed.  
All the rest of the Nerves do want a manifest Cavity, but they have Pores, through which the subtle spirit● pa●s, lest we should grant penetration of bodies which is impossible. These pores are double according to Hogeland, lesser and greater, through the former subtle aerial bodies pass to move the parts; by the later, bodies less subtle. Neither of them is discernible to the Sense. Nor are there two sorts of Spirits in the Brain. I am rather apt to believe that according to the Indigence of every part and the pleasure of the will and the Imagination, sometimes more spirit passes through the greater, sometimes less through the lesser, which the more plentiful or scanty influx of the Spirit doth make.  
Moreover all the Nerves do consist, none excepted, of many nervous fibres or filaments which grow mutually together by little Membranes. I myself, with Johannes Leonicenus, a right diligent Anatomist, have observed the Trunk of Nerves near the Hips, if it be dissected, to show a Cavity as it were, consisting of an infinite contexture of fibres, like little Worms, whereas elsewhere it is one continued body, with cohaering and continued fibres.  
The Substance of the Nerves is thought to be threefold: the internal, white, and marrowish (by which as the Centre the action is performed) from the marrow of the Brain, but more compact and thickened; and an external, being a twofold coat; the outer harder, proceeding from the Dura Mater; the inner finer, from the Pia Mater. Which Membranes do the same for the Nerves, which the Dura and Pia Mater do for the Brain. Howbeit this distinction of Substances, is to be searched out, rather by Reason than by Sense.  
Cartefius supposes that there are Valves in the Nerves, which stop the Spirit that it may not flow back, otherwise the parts cannot be moved. But it seems to me, the Spirits may not be retained in the parts, which the Soul that directed the Spirit as far as to the Valve, shall direct it into the very parts. For no Anatomist as yet hath observed any Valves. Nor can subtle Spirits be stopped by Valves. Nor would Apoplexies or Palsies so easily happen, if the Spirits could be detained in the parts by Valves.  
Besides Valves H. Regius introduces likewise a circulation of the animal Spirits in the Nerves. For after they are distributed from the Brain to the whole Body, he conceives part is dissipated by insensible Transpiration, and part being insinuated into the Veins, is mingled with the Blood, and returns with it into the Heart, and thence again into the Brain and Nerves. He proves this by the example of a Snail enclosed in a glass, in which the spirits through its transparent Body, are seen to move and pass from the Tail through the Belly, to the Head; and from the Head through the Back, to return to the Tail, and from thence to the Head again▪  
But some doubts withhold me from assenting to this witty conjecture, because  

1. Walaeus searching out the Motion of the Animal spirits with all his diligence, could find nothing but the motion and distension of the Muscles. For the Nerves being bound, do not swell, nor are distended, and being cut asunder, they show no other motion, but that they are contracted into themselves.  
2. There is no need that the spirits should run back to the Veins, because being subtle they are easily consumed, and by his own Confession do insensibly exhale.  
3. New spirit is evermore supplied from the Brain, which may supply the Defect of that which is consumed.  
4. The Veins need none, because they possess that spirit which is proper to the Blood, nor are they moved with animal motion.  
5. The Nerves themselves are not moved by Systole and Diastole, nor of themselves as was said, because it appears not when they are bound, and they move with a voluntary motion by the Muscles, and not by the arteries because they are smaller and go not into them: finally the Nerves are unfit for such a motion because of their Slipperiness.  
6. In a Snail the Spirit aforesaid is instead of Blood, which Snails have not.  
7. I have seen those who had their senses perfect, and the motion of all their parts free to the last gasp, whose Pulse did nevertheless intermit for certain days, where there was no regress of the Spirits to the Veins, freely passing nevertheless from the Brain to the parts of the Body, as long as there was any left.   
It is now to be observed that all the Nerves are not alike hard or soft; whence Galen reckons 
Nerves hard or soft.  some Nerves soft, others hard: the former he calls sensitive, the later motive. Now the Nerve become harder,  

1. Because of their Production, as being to go a great wav● or through some hard Body, or by a crooked way. And by how much they are further from the Brain, by so much the harder they are. Hence the short Nerves, as those of the Sight. Taste, Hearing are soft, and those of the Smelling softest of all.  
2. For use, for hard Nerves are held to be fitter for motion, soft ones for sense. And therefore the Organs of the Senses have received soft Nerves, that they might be the sooner affected by a sensible object occurring. Now all parts which have voluntary 
Why the moving Nerves are hardest.  motion have hard Nerves, because that which is hard is fittest to act, that which is soft to suffer.   
The ●se therefore of all the Nerves is,  

1. To carry animal Spirits to all parts for sense and motion, which appears when they are hurt. For if they are obstructed in the beginning or totally, they both perish and an Apoplexy is caused: or in part, and then one part of the Body is deprived of sense and motion. If they are cut asunder, the motion of that part is lost, into which they were inserted.  
2. To diffuse Animal light into the parts. For the animal Spirits could not so soon be taken away, either in a Ligature, or Obstruction of the Nerves, but that those Spirits which remain in the part, might cause motion or sense. Therefore the direction of the Brain proceeds from some what else, which being taken away, the parts presently cease from performing their functions, even as the Hammer is by the Hand directed unto the Anvil, and a Staff is directed when it is hurled, which others endeavour to explain by some hot Accident beside the Animal Spirit. But I suppose these things are done by a light which irradiates from the Brain, with the spirits, which being intercepted, the parts are immediately deprived of Sense and Motion, as the light of the Sun is taken away by a Cloud, and the light of a Candle, by holding a man's hand before it. For,   

1. No other influent cause, can slow in so suddenly, and be withdrawn so suddenly.  
2. Light is the cause of all motion wellnear in the Universe and nothing is swifter than it is.  
3. Sometimes it remains after interception, but not long, as light received into the Bononian Stone, and a Stick by me violently darted, and broken in the middle way, does fly yet further, by the motion impressed from my hand.  
3. The Temper of the Body follows the Figure and Temper of the Nerves, and therefore Jo●. Damascenus in the seventh Aphorism to his Son, advices, in giving of Medicaments to avoid such as dissolve the force of the Nerves.    

Chap. 2. Of the ten Pair of Nervs, which arise within the Skull, from the Medulla Oblongata, and their progress.  
I Make the first Pair to be Par Olfactorium the Smellingpare, whose processes are termed Mammillares. And these processes have been sufficiently known to all: but the Nerves, to which they are fastened behind, and well near continued, to none or very few.  
These Nerves slip out of the Marrow about 
Whether there be any smelting Nerves.  the Saddle of the Sphaenoides, near the foremore Ventricles, and have the carriage, colour, and use of Nerves, and therefore I reckon them for Nerves.  
For they must not therefore be robbed 
A Praeocupation▪  of the Name of Nerves, because they pass not without the Skull, and Dura Mater, and are not afterward invested herewith, for then all the other Nerves as long as they are within the Skull, must not be called Nerves, which were absurd.  
To these Nerves are adjoined two thick 
Processus Mammillares.  portions or processes called Processus Mammillares, papillares: the Teat-like processes.  
They are in Number, two, white, soft, broad, longish, in men thin and sruall, in Brutus' greater, especially in Dogs, and other Creatures that have an exquisite Smell.  
For,  
The use of these Processes, is to be the true 
The Organ of Smelling.  Organs of Smelling▪ and not the Nose nor its coat.  
These Processes are placed in the forepart of the Brain, behind the Colander-bone, and to it being covered with the Dura Meniax they put a face. Through the Colander-bone the Odours ascend.  
The Second Pair, which others count the first, is the Optic or seeing pare, because it carries the seeing Spirits to the Eyes, or the representations of visible objects to the Brain, but not humours from the Brain to the Eye to nourish it, which is the fiction of Caesalpinis. Hicro●hilus calls them poros opticos or meatus, the optic pores or passages, because they are thought to be hollow.  
These Nerves, of all the ten pare, are the greatest and thickest, but softer than the rest.  
They arise, not as the common Opinion is, 
The Error of others about the rise of the Optic Nerves.  from the forepart of the Basis of the Brain; for their original must be sought further, towards the hinder part of the Head, where they are carried between the Brain, and the beginning of the spinal Marrow, and arise out of the beginning of the first Trunks of the Medulla oblongata, growing out of the Brain. But Riolanus demonstrates, that they are turned round about those great Eminencies of the Brain, which G●●● c●●s Thata●os nervorum opticorum, which reach unto the foremore Ventricles, that they may fetch optic spirits from thence.  
And having proceeded a while, they are near the middle way united above 
The Union of the optic Nerves and the true Cause thereof.  the saddle of Os Sphaeno●des, not by a simple touch or intersection, in Mankind, but a total confusion and mingling of their Substances, that they might suffer the less, in the middle of a long passage, by reason of their softness. Vesalius, Aquapendens and Valverda have observed that they have sometimes continued divided, in their whole Course. Vesalius also observed that in a Woman they were joined only by mutual Contact, whose right Eye had been withered from a Child; because the right Nerve was smaller than the left, beyond the Conjunction. But in most bodies the inner substance of the Nerves is confounded, as I have observed by accurate Inquisition.  
The growing together of the optic nerves, was therefore contrived by Nature, either left the sensible object being received in by both Eyes should seem double, or that the Visive spirit might, if need were, be all conveyed into one Eye which are the conjectures of Galen, or finally for strength and stability here necessary, least in Concussions of the Brain they might hap to be broken or distorted, or least through the softness and moistness of the Brain and optic Nerves, by reason of distillations and other Excrements they might become flaggie, and so driven out of their right station; which is the opinion of Plempius.  
Soon after being separated they go out of the Skull into the Centre of the Eyes in Mankind, but much lower in Beasts, because they look more sidewaies.  
Within the Skull they are clothed only with the Pia mater; but from the holes, which pass to the Eyes, they are covered with the dura mater. Afterward it spreads the latter to the Sclirotica tunica, the former to the Tunica choroïdes, and its inner marrowy substance to the Retina.  
The third pare, which others count the second, is the motorium oculorum, the Eye-mover, next unto the former.  
This pare is thought by vulgar Anatomists to arise from the Brain, 
The Error of others about the Rise of the Eye-movers.  near the original of the first pare. But it reaches to the middle of the Head, goes beneath the Optics crosswise, and  
Arises at the inmost part of the 
Why one Eye being moved, the other moves also.  Beginning of the medulla oblongata, where in their Rise, these two motive-nerves are so united as to touch one another, yea to become one continued Body, which is the cause, that when one Eye moves, the other is moved also.  
This Pare is lesser and harder than the former and stretched out by the visive 
Why sometimes when the temporal muscle is hurt, the Eye is hurt likewise.  pare; goes out of the Skull at other holes to the Muscles of the Eyes and Eyelids. It sometimes though seldom sends a branch to the temporal Muscle; and that is the Cause that the said Muscle being hurt, the Eye is hurt, and the Eye being hurt that is hurt.  
The Fourth, fifth and sixth pares are much confounded by Anatomists. For some make the fourth and fifth Pair one, and call it the third Pare, consisting of two roots; the lesser of which some do make the third pare, and they themselves do make the fifth and sixth pare one, viz, the fourth pare by them so called. But those who reckon it for one, they count the fourth pare, according to my reckoning, for the lesser root of the third pares and the sixth pare for the fourth. whereas we distinguish all these pares.  
The fourth pair therefore, which others as Bauhin● count the third; others as Fallopius the eighth pare; others badly, the lesser root of the third pare: for it hath nothing common with the following pare, is not joined to it, either in the Beginning or the Progress, and grows out of the order of other pares ● according to some  
From the side of the Beginning of the Medulla oblongata; according to others it grows with a very small Nerve, out of the lowest and hinder seat of the Medulla Cerebri or marrow of the Brain: than it is carried forwards, and fastened to the second pare, it goes with it out at the common hole, enters the socket of the Eye and sends one from itself branches  
Into the fat of the Eye, the fifth Muscle, and by a peculiar hole of the Bone of the Forehead, it goes out to the Skin of the Forehead, and the upper Eyelid. And these are furnished by its first branch.  
The second furnishes the Muscles of the upper Lip, and some of the Nose, and the Lip itself and Gums.  
The third by the Cavity of the Nostrils serves the coat of the said Nostrils.  
The fourth serves the inner part of the temporal Muscle. All which branches Fallopius doth attribute to the two following Conjugations: but my distribution is propounded by Vesalius, Columbus, P●uerus, and Bauhinus.  
The fifth Pare, which others count the thicker root of the third pare; is commonly thought to furnish the Tongue with the sense of Tasting.  
This arises near the following Conjugation, out of the sides of the Medulla oblongata, and presently after its passage through the Os sphenoïdes, a writhe branch comes out like a tendrel of a Vine (which some think is done to make it harder) and is united with two little twigs of the auditory Nerve.  
It furnishes the Muscles of the Face, the Temporal Muscle, the chewing Muscle of the Cheeks, the Skin of the Face, the Gums and Teeth (for by their means the Teeth have all the sense they have) the Muscle that lies concealed in the mouth and the lower Lip.  
The sixth pare, which some call Quarta Conjugatio, others the smaller root of the fourth Conjugation,  
Hath a smaller Original, next the former, and somewhat harder than it.  
It goes through a common hole with 
Whether the sixth pare be the same with the fifth.  the former, and yet it doth not therefore become one pare with the former: for the third, fourth, and seventh pare, as I reckon them, do also pass through one and the same hole.  
It is carried into the Palate. Others would have this pair also to serve the sense of Tasting.  
The seventh pare, which others count the eighth, others the ninth, others the smaller portion of the fifth pare, when as in the mean while it is a peculiar pare smaller and harder than the fifth, also distinct therefrom in its original and progress:  
For it arises a little before the fifth commonly so called, in the midst of the Medulla oblongata, and going over the third pare, and cutting the same, it proceeds along between the third and fourth pare, where it is carried upwards and forewards, towards the sides.  
It goes out of the hole with the third and fourth pare, and is commonly quite spent upon the Musculus abducent of the Eye. But that is a question, which others say, that it is carried into the temporal Muscle, and into that which lies concealed in the Mouth.  
The Eighth pair which others count the fifth, which is called Auditorium, the Hearing pare, arises close by the sides of the former, only a little below. It enters the Os petrosum, and is divided into the greater branch, which being spread out, they will have to make the Drum, and the lesser broad below, as if it would accompany the sixth Conjugation.  
TABLE▪ ●▪  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  
This TABLE presents the Original of the Nerves to be seen in the Brain turned underside upwards.  


AA. The Smelling Nerves reckoned by our Author for the first pare.  
bb. Their mammillary processes, or Teat-like productions.  
CC. The optic Nerves cut off near the Eye-holes; the second pare.  
D. The Glandula pituitaria.  
E. The Inf●ndibilum or Funnel.  
ff. Two white kernels set before the passage of the Brain.  
GG. The greater Branch of the Carotick Artery.  
HH. The Arteria Cervicalis.  
III. The Beginning of the spinal marrow within the Skull.  
Kkk. The small branches of the Arteries, which others call the Ret● mirabile,  
LL. Nerves of the third pare according to our Author.  
MM. The Beginnings of the Nerves of the fifth pare.  
OO. The Nervi Auditorij, or the eighth pare.  
PP.. The Beginnings of the ninth Pare.  
QQ. The Rise of the tenth Pare.  
SS. The Cerebellum or Brainlet.    
page 326  
It sends branches through the first and 
Why we cough when the Earpicker goes far into our Ear.  second Vertebra to the proper Musces of the Larynx: and therefore it is that picking our Ears too deep, a dry Cough is caused. It is thought sometimes to send branches to the Arm, with the fourth, fifth and sixth of the Arm; and sometimes into the whole Foot, with the Nerves of the Backbone, after it hath accompanied the Spinal Marrow going downwards.  
The ninth pare which others call par sextum and vagum, the fixed and roaming or wand'ring pare; because it furnishes very many parts here and there, yea and all the internal parts seated in the middle and lower Bellies, which receive branches for sense, seeing they are soft bodies, nor can away with the harder sort of Nerves springing from the spinal Marrow. And because of the long way they go, they are clothed with strong Membranes, and are carried united to the neighbouring parts.  
This Pare arises a little beneath the foregoing, sundry fibres being presently united.  
It goes out through the hole of the Occiput, through which the Ramus major jugularis internae had ascended: and not fa● from its egress it provides for the Muscles seated in the Neck, especially the Cucularis. Then the Trunk descends, and is knit with the last pare, the Carotick Artery, and Jugular Vein; and sends branches athwart, through the Membrane and Muscles of the Larynx, also the Muscles of the Hyoides and the Fauces, as also to the Tongue.  
Then descending between the Carotick and Jugularis, to the side of the Weasand above the Jugulum, it is divided on each side into the exterior and interior branch.  
The Exterior constitutes the recurrent 
The Recurrent Nerves.  Nerves or vocal Nerves so called, because they being wounded the living Creature loses ●●● voice; so that if one be cut asunder, half the Voice is los●▪ if both, the animal becomes dumb. they are also termed reversivi or recursivi, running-back; for first they descend, and they turn afterwards back again as it were about an Axletree on each side, the right about the Arteria axillaris, the left about the descending Trunk of the Artery: and afterward they ascend as high as the Muscles of the Larynx, to which they give numerous branches▪ which recursion was to be made, because th● Muscles of the Larynx have their Heads, not above but beneath.  
And therefore the Exterior dexter of the sixth pare, presently after the division, furnishes the Muscles arising from the Breastbone and Clavicula; then the right Recurrent being constituted for the most part of three little twigs bended back and united, it descends obliquely under the Jugulum, and in its passage shoots out little branches for the Coat of the Lungs, the Pleura, the Pericardium and the Heart; and then makes the right stomachic, under the Gullet joined to the least; and passing through the Septum, it goes into the right Ventricle of the Stomach to the least branch.  
The Exterior Sinister, furnishing the Parts in the same manner as the former, and constituting the left Recurrent, it sends forth the Stomachicus ●sinister▪ which with its fellow compasses the orifice of the Stomach and the remainder goes to the Pylorus and hollow of the Liver.  
The Interior dexter first of all gives a Branch of itself, at the roots of the ribs, to every intercostal Nerve; and then with the great Artery it passes through the Septum, and furnishes the whole lower Belly, till it reach as far as to the Os Sacrum. And then it goes into three Branches.  

I. Goes to the Call, from whence arise other three twigs, 1 To the Colon, 
How Hoarseness comes after the Colic.  hence after a long Colic comes hoarseness. 2 the smallest scarcely visible, to the beginning of the Guts. 3 To the right side of the Bottom of the Stomach, the upper Membrane of the Call, the Coat of the Liver, and the Gallbladder.  
II. The inferior to the right Kidney. Hence they assign the cause 
Why Vomiting in the stone of the Kidney.  of Vomiting, in fits of the Stone in the Kidney.  
III. The greatest to the Mesentery, Guts, and right side of the Bladder.   
The Interior sinister in its side is distributed after the same manner, save that in stead of the Liver part thereof goes unto the Spleen. But from both the interiors, sometimes Branches are sent unto the Womb.  
This is the distribution of the sixth Pare according to the vulgar computation, the Ninth according to my account.  
The II. TABLE.  
The FIGURE Explained▪  
This TABLE presents the lower Branching of the sixth pare of Nerves, which our Author calls the Ninth others the wand'ring or roaming pare.  


aa. The coming of the said Nerves out of the Skull.  
bb. The Ramus externus on both sides.  
cc. The Ramus internus on both sides.  
dd. A remarkable Branch spread into the Tongue.  
ee. A Branch ariseing from the same on each side, which goes to the Muscles of the Larynx.  
ff. Another twig which goes with the former to the Larynx.  
gg. Twigs ariseing from the external Branch, and propagated to the Muscles of the Neck.  
hh. The conjunction externi Rami singularis, with Nerves which arise from the plexus of the Neck.  
two. The recurrent Nerve on each side▪  
k. The more internal Branch ariseing near the first Rib of the Chest, which bestows the twig thus X marked upon the Trunk of the Weasand, and then descending ends into the Pericardium or Heart-bag.  
l. A little Branch arising from the recurrent, which descending produceth another twig out of itself, and goes into the pericardium, and at last is implanted into the external Branch  
m. The twig arising, as was said, from the same, and diffused into the pericardium.  
nn. Two twigs arising from the external Branch, the one of which is implanted into the Substance of the Heart, and the other tends to the Beginnings of the Vessels▪  
o. The aforesaid Branch implanted into the pericardium.  
pppp. The Plexus or contexture of both Branches, viz. of the right and left, about the Gulls, near the upper Ori●●●● of the Stomach.  
qqqq. Twigs spread abroad into the Lungs.  
rrrr. Branches propagated into the upper parts, especially of the Stomach.  
ffff. Four remarkable Branches, which descending into the Mesentery, are spread abroad ●● the gu●●s.  
tt. The right and left Nerve-twig of the Kidneys.  
u. The Neru-twig of the Spleen.  
x. The Nerve of the Liver.    
page 327  
The tenth and last pare of Nerves, arising within the skull in the hind part of the Head, out of the Medulla oblongata when in is ready to slide into the Backbone, is as others reckon the seventh pare.  
This is harder than the rest, and it springs from divers roots afterwards united, and goes out of the Skull at a crooked hole proper to itself. And soon after it is with strong membranes joined, not mixed with the precedent pair, for safeguard sake. And then it is separated again, and goes the greatest part of it into the tongue, and some small part into the Muscles of Os hyoïdes and the Larynx.   

CHAP. III. Of the Nerves which proceed from the spinal Marrow, and first of the Nerves arising from the Neck, and so of the Nerves of the whole Arm.  
ANd so much for those ten pare of Nerves, which proceed from the Medulla oblongata within the skull: the other pares do now follow, which are thirty in number, sometimes nine and twenty, from the same beginning, viz. the Medulla oblongata being passed out of the Skull into the Backbone: where it is termed Medulla▪ spinalis or Dorsalis, the Marrow of the Back. Now the little Nerves proceed out of the holes of the Backbone, in a continued course bending themselves inward, from the uppermost to the lowermost.  
Out of the Marrow, while it is in the Neck, there arise seven pare of Nerves as some reckon, eight pare as others count, disseminated into the whole outward Head and the neighbouring Muscles.  
The first and second pare have this peculiar above all the rest, that they proceed not from the sides, but from the fore and hinder part, by reason of the peculiar Articulation of the first and second Vertebra.  
Now the first pare arises between the hinder-part of the Head and the first Vertebra. Joh. Leonicenus of Milan, a dextrous Anatomist in taking out of the Nerves, denied that there was any such pare as this, because he could neither see it, nor can ●● come out of the first Vertebra having no hole, and sticking closely to the second Vertebra and the Occiput.  
The second pare arises between the first and second Vertebra, and so of the rest in order.  
The first and second pare are disseminated into the Muscles of the Head, and to the Ears.  
The third and fourth into the Muscles of the Cheeks, also those which are common to the Head and Neck.  
The fifth with the branches of the fourth and sixth, do make the remarkable midrif Nerves: and the fifth with the foresaid, sends a part backwards, and a part forward into the Muscles bowing the Head; those of the Arms, Shoulderblades, and the Skin there.  
The sixth to the Arms and the hollow of the Shoulderblades.  
The seventh is joined with two of its Neighbours, viz. the sixth of the Neck and first of the Chest, whose greatest part goes to the Arms and as far as the Hands.  
For there are carried into the Arms five or six pare of Nerves, viz. from the fifth, sixth, and seventh pares of the Neck, also from the first and second pares of the Chest. which when they first break forth, they are all mixed and united, nor are separated without damage, and soon after they are severally divided into the foresaid Pares; to the End haply, that by that light concourse, a collection might be made of animal spirits. Hence Topick Medicaments, in a Palsy, or Convulsion of the Arm, the upper part of the Arm being affected must be applied on the side of the upper part of the Back and the Neck, from whence the Nerves proceed, not directly in the middle, either of the Back or Neck, unless by reason of the common beginning of the Nerves.  
The first Pair, from the fifth pare of the 
The Nerves of the whole Arm.  Neck, goes chiefly into the Deltoides Muscle, and the Skin of the Arm, leaving a part which accompanies the Vena humeraria.  
The second being thicker, is carried through the Middle and Forepart of the Cubit, where it furnishes the Musculus biceps, whereupon it is joined with the third Nerve, and afterwards going downwards, it salutes the Supinator longior with a twig: but at the bending of the Cubit, it is divided sometimes into Two, otherwhites into three branches.  

1. The upper and lesser, goes along the outside of the Arm, to the outer part of the first or second Interjuncture of the Thumb.  
2. The middle and thicker descends obliquely within the Cubit to the Wrist.  
3. The lower, being stretched along by the inner branch of the Basilica, is spent into the Skin of the Cubit and Hand.   
The third is joined with the former, under the Muscle Biceps, it provides for the Brachiaeus and the inside of the Hand.  
The fourth being the thickest, goes along with the Vena profunda and the Artery, Afterwards is variously divided. Now it furnishes the Muscles which extend the Cubit, the Wrist, the Thumb, the fore and the middle Finger, and the Muscles which stretch the Fingers out.  
The fifth stretched along by the former, between the Muscles of the Cubit, which it furnishes descending through the lower and hinder part of the Cubit (where when we strike against any thing or compress the Nerve, we feel a nummedness in our fingers) in the middle thereof it is divided into two.  
One branch goes externally through the Ulna to the Middle Finger, Ring-finger, and little Finger. On the Inside of the Fingers for security's sake, that they may give place in laying hold of any thing, for there Wounds are more pernicious than in the middle.  
The other goes inwardly through the Ulna betwixt the Finger-bending Muscles as far as the Wrist, and sends branches to the same parts as the former sent to.  
The sixth is spent into the Skin of the Cubit, going betwixt the Skin and the Membrane.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This FIGURE presents the spinal Marrow and the Nerves derived therefrom to the Limbs.  


A. The beginning of the spinal Marrow ●e●r the Skull.  
bbbb. The Boughs orderly propagated from the Medulla.  
ccc. The Body itself of the Marrrow, half included within the Vertebrae, above which little Veins and Arteries spread themselves.  
DDdd. Branches arising from three pare of Nerves of the Neck, and two of the Chest, to be distributed into the Hand.  
E. The Contexture and Commixion of those Nerves.  
ff. The first pare of Nerves of the Hands.  
gg. The second Pare.  
hh. The third Pair.  
two. The fourth Pair bigger than the rest.  
kk. The fifth pare.  
l. The sixth pare which is under the Skin.  
M. The first Nerve of the Thigh.  
N. The second Nerve.  
ooo. The branch of the second Nerve which accompanies the Saphaena.  
PP.. The third Nerve of the Thigh.  
QQQ. The fourth Nerve of the Thigh, thickest of all.  
rr. The Ramus externus.  
ss. The Ramus internus.    
page 333   

CHAP. IU. Of the Nerves of the Chest, the Back and Loins.  
FRom the Marrow of the Back arise twelve pare, or as some reckon eleven all and every of which after their▪ Egress are divided into the greater and lesser branches: the one of which is carried forward, the other backward, being bowed backwards.  
The foremore branches, are sent into all the Intercostal spaces, the internal and external ones (both which I have sometimes seen divided into two branches) for the Muscles which lie upon the Chest, also for the oblique descendent of the Belly.  
The hindermore and lesser branches go backwards to the spines of the Back, betwixt the Muscles which grow to the Vertebrae, into which they are partly consumed, and partly into those which grow from these points of the Spines', as into the Rhomboides, Cuculares, etc.  
Out of the spinal Marrow when it is in the Vertebrae of the Loins, there arise sometimes five, sometimes four pare of Nerves: which pares are greater than those of the Back. And each of these is divided into the foremore and hinder branches, which are disseminated, partly into the Muscles of the Loins and Hypogastrium, and partly into the Thighs. For  

1. This Pare gives a branch to the fleshy parts of the Midriff; and then provides for the Muscles of the Belly and Loins.  
2. It affords branches to some of the Muscles of the Thigh and Leg, and as many suppose, a branch to the Spermatick Vessels.  
3. It goes to the Knee and its Skin, and part accompanies the Saphaena, and part goes to the Muscles which rest upon the Loins.  
4. Among the Lumbal ones, it is the greatest, proceeding to the fore Muscles of the Thigh and Leg, as far as to the Knee.  
5. I passes through the hole, which is betwixt the Hip-bone, the Share and Flank bones, and bestows branches upon some of the Muscles of the Thigh, Yard, neck of the Womb and Bladder.   
But the greatest branches go from these three parts, unto the Thighs as shall be said in the following Chapter.   

CHAP. V. Of the Nerves which proceed from the Marrow of Os sacrum, and of the Nerves of the whole Foot.  
OUt of the spinal Marrow contained in the Os sacrum, there arises five pare of Nerves, or as some reckon them six pare, out of the four, uppermost of which, and the three lowest of the Loins, arise the crural Nerves, descending between the Feet, which being in their Rise joined like a little Net, do soon after sprinkle three branches from themselves, as shall be said by and by touching the Nerves of the Feet.  
Now the first par● of Nerves of Os sacrum, is divided like the Lumbal Nerves, into a foremore and hindermore branch. But the five following Pares otherwise. For before they go out, they are on each side double, and on each side one Nerve goes into the fore parts, another into the hinder parts. The hindermore branches are dissminated like the hinder Lumbals, viz, into the hindermore neighbouring parts.  
The three foremore which are uppermost, do go into the Thigh, the two lower to the Muscles of the Fundament and Bladder; and some to the Interfoemineum and Scrotum.  
Moreover, the end of the Marrow of the 
The Nerve Sine par●.  Back, doth produce only one branch out of itself which is therefore termed Sine pari, without a Ma●e or fellow; yet sometimes it hath a fellow. It spends itself into the Skin, between the Buttocks and the Fundament, and into certain Muscles of the Thigh.  
Now follow the Nerves which go into the Thigh, which before were said to be four in number.  
The first and third are shorter, and reach only to the Thigh, the second is longer, and goes also to the Leg, the fourth is longest of all.  
The first being made up of the third and fourth pares of the Loins, descending to the small Trochanter, spends itself into the Skin and Muscles of the Thigh, and some of the Leg, and is ended above the Knee.  
The second arising from the same place, descends with the Vein and Artery to the Thigh through the groins, it goes to the foremore Muscles of the Thigh, and is spread about the Knee. But it sends a remarkable branch inwardly with the Saphaena to the Ankle.  
The third arises in the Articulation of the fourth and fifth Vertebra, passes through the hole of Os pubis, to some upper Muscles of the Thigh and Yard, arising out of the Os pubis; and to the Skin of the Thigh in the Groin.  
The fourth is the thickest, longest, hardest and driest in the whole body, made up of four pair of the Os sacrum; it furnishes the Skin of the Thigh, and certain Muscles thereof, as also of the Log and Foot. I have sometimes observed this to have a double rise, and a double progress, the one External the other Internal.  
But that same great Trunk under the Ham, is divided into an external and an internal Branch.  
The external goes to the Ham, the outside of the Foot, the Musculi peronaei, and the outer Ankle.  
The Internal and greater goes along the Leg to the Muscles of the Feet and Foes; the inner Ankle, the great Toe and sole of the Foot: and bestows two twigs upon each Toe.  
All the Nerves therefore well-neer, which go into the whole Leg and Foot, do arise from the only greatest crural Nerve.    

THE Fourth and last Manual OF THE BONES And also of the Gristles and Ligaments Answering the FOURTH BOOK Of the Limbs.  
IN the last place, I shall briefly (as I 
The reason of the Author's Method. Why he treats last of the Bones.  have done other things) explain the Doctrine of the Bones.  
In the last place, I say, because when all things else are removed and separated, then only the Bones come in view, and are subject to examination. The most diligent Riolanus treats in two places of his Enchiridion, of the Bones, once as they appear in the dead Carcase, when the Munscles are cut off, and again as they are dried in a Skeleton. But this Ostentation is superfluous in a compendium. For by the same reason we should make a new Anatomical discourse, of the Veins, Arteries, Nerves, Guts, Stomach, Womb, and other Parts taken out, and dried, and commonly hung up for show in the Anatmoical Theatres. There is no use of the latter Doctrine of the Bones, unless to help the Memory, nor is it perfectly understood without the former. And therefore other Anatomists, with the parts demonstrate the Bones lying beneath them, in the dead body. I shall therefore only busy myself with the first, and therewith.  
Join the Doctrine of Gristles and Ligaments.  
1. Because of the similitude of their substance: for these three similar 
Why he treats of the Gristles and Ligaments with the Bones.  parts are very near of kin, A Bone, a Gristle, and a Ligament, so that they seem to differ only gradually in respect of more and less one from another. For a Bone is the hardest, a Gristle, a little softer, yet so as that it may turn to a Bone, as we see in the tender Bones of Infants, which at first were gristy. A Ligament is yet softer than a Gristle, which also itself sometimes turns to a Bone, as in decrepit Persons. Hence many attribute the same matter to a Bone, a Gristle, a Ligament, yea and a Tendon.  
2. Because of the Nearness of Place; for a Bone, a Gristle, and a Ligament do for the most part accompany one another, and are found joined together. For the Bones are tied with the Ligaments, and where they are tied, they are covered about their Heads, with a Gristly Crust or Cover.  

CHAP. I. Of the Bones in General.  
THe Nature of the Bones is easily known, if we shall but orderly propound their Causes and Accidents or Adjuncts.  
The Ma●●● out of which the Bones are bred in the Womb, according to Hypocrates, is an earthy Excrement, with Fat and Moisture added thereto. Aristotle also calls it Excrementum seminale, an excrement of the Seed. Galen says it is the thicker and harder part of the Seed dried.  
Now some Bones are perfectly generated in the Womb, as those in the Ear which serve the Sense of Hearing, being the smallest in the whole body; others imperfectly, as the Teeth and all the rest of the Bones, in which at first somewhat is wanting▪ either a process, o● an Appendix, &c.▪  
Moreover, all other Bones save the Teeth have a certain determination of their growth: but the Teeth grow continually, for if one Tooth be removed, that just against it grows longer: which Nature therefore ordained, because they are always wearing through grinding and chewing the Meat.  
Their remote nutritive Matter, is thought to be the thicker and more earthy part of 
Whether the▪ Marrow be the Nutriment of the Bones.  the Blood, and that which is as it were excrementitious, flowing in through the Veins into the Marrow, where in the Caverns of the Bones it may be digested, for Platerus denies that the Bones have Arteries, wherein Spigelius contradicts him: if there be Veins, there will doubtless be Arteries, which are as inconspicuous to the sight as the Veins are. Hence it is, that in the Cavities of the Bones of Animals newly brought forth, the Marrow is as yet bloody.  
The Immediate nutritive Matter of the hollowed Bones, according to Hypocrates and Galen, is the Marrow contained in the said Bones (who are contradicted by Aristotle and other Peripetaticks, who will have the Marrow to be rather the excrement of the Bones) as in Gristles that same snotty matter which lies round about them, is their immediate nutritive Matter; and in Ligaments, Membranes and Nerves, that same clammy humour shed in amongst them.  
Of the solid Bones not hollowed, the immediate Nutritive matter, is thick Blood sent in through the pores; because 1. Being broken they are joined with a Callus, bred of the Remainders of the alimentary Blood. 2. They are liable to Imposthumation in their Substance, the superfluities of the nourishment putrifying in the pores. Hoffman allows that they are nourished with Blood contained in the Marrow, and that the Marrow serves the Blood, by carrying the solid part.  
The Efficient is the Vis o●●ifica, or Bone-making faculty, or the innate faculty, acting by the Assistance of Heat.  
The Form of a Bone is the Soul, as of the whole, and in the next place the ration formalis whereby a Bone is a Bone and no other thing, 2. de Gen. Anim. cap. 1. And therefore the Bones of dead persons are not properly but equivocally Bones. The Accidents or Adjuncts of Bones, are their sundry Figures, Solidity, Strength, etc. of which hereafter.  
The End or Use of the Bones, is,  

1. To be the Foundations and Supporters of the whole Body, like Pillars or Foundations in Houses.  
2. To be as a Safeguard for some parts, as the Skull saveguards the Brain.  
3. To serve for going, as is apparent in the Thighs and Legs. and therefore Serpents, 
Why creeping things cannot go.  Worms and other Creepers, which have no Legs, cannot go, but are forced to crawl.  
4. There are some private uses of divers Bones, of which in the special History of Bones.  
5. Certain Medicinal Uses there are of Bones. Their Powder cures a Cancer, Fevers, any Fluxes. Their Oil is good for the Gout, the Magistery of a Man's Skull is good against the Falling-sickness, as also the triangular Bones of the Occiput, etc.   
The Situation of the Bones is deep, because they are the Foundations and Upholders of the Body.  
They vary in Magnitude according to the variety of their Utilities. Great are the Bones of the Leg, Thigh, Arm, Shoulder, etc. Small those of the Ear serving for Hearing, the Sesamoidean Bones, the Teeth, the Wrist-bones, etc.  
They are many in number and not one only, because of the variety 
Why many Bones in a living Creature.  of motions; and lest that one being hurt, all should be hurt.  
Now a monstrous thing it is for a Child to be born without Bones, such an one as Hypocrates speaks of, being a Boy, four fingers big, but not long-lived the like to which Forestus also saw.  
The Number of all the Bones of the Body, is not the same in all Persons. For in Children they are more, which by degrees grow together and become fewer. Others may number the Epiphysis by themselves as distinct Bones, and so make a mighty number. Others may omit the Sesamoidean and other small Bones, or such as are seldom found, as in the Carotick Arteries: and so doth Archangelus who reckons but two hundred forty nine: others make commonly three hundred and four. Others as many as there are days in the year.  
They vary in Figure some are round, others flat, some sharp, others blunt, etc. as shall be showed when we come to speak severally of the particulars.  
The Colour in such as are naturally constituted, is white, mixed with a very little red.  
They are all of them externally enclosed (not internally) with the Periostium, excepting the Teeth, sesamoidean Bones, and the sides of the other Bones where they are mutually joined one to another. And the Periostium is tightly sensible: 
The Periostium feels, but not the Bones. The Sense of the Teeth.  but the Bones themselves want the sense of Feeling, excepting the Teeth, to whom we may attribute some Sense, seeing they feel exceeding cold Air or Water, yea with their Ends: especially when the Teeth are on Edge, before it reach to the little Membranes and Nerves, by help whereof they are thought to Feel.  
The Connexion of the Bones is various. But the mutual and artificial hanging together of all the Bones is by the Greeks called Skeleton, as if you would say a dried Carcase from Skellein to dry. Being compacted partly with the natural Ligaments dried with the Bones, & partly with artificial ones, sometimes bolt upright, otherwhiles in the posture of sitting; which doth not properly belong to Anatomy, but the other Natural Osteology, framed by Nature, and adorned with its own moist Ligaments.  
And this natural Cohaerence or Connexion, according to Galen, is made either Cat' árthron by way of Jointing; or catà sumphusin, by way of growing together.  
He makes Arthron a Joint to be double; viz. Diarthrosis or by way of Diarticulation or jointing, such as are Enárthrosis, Arthrodia and Gigglumos: or Sunarthrosis, such as he reckons Suture, Harmony and Gomphosis  
Moreover Symphysis or growing together, is said to be with or without a Medium.  
But I shall thus divide the Connexion's of the Bones.  
The Bones are fastened together either by Articulation or Jointing; or by Symphysis or growing together.  
Articulation or Jointing is with motion, and that either obscure (which others call neuter or doubtful Articulation) as that of the Ribs with the Vertebrae, also of the Bones of the Wrist and Pedium; or evident loose and manifest, and it is called  
Diarthrosis, of which there are three sorts:  

I. Enarthrosis Inarticulation, which is when there is a great quantity both of the Cavity of the Bone receiving, and of the Head of the Bone which is received: as in the Articulation of the Thigh with the Hucklebone.  
II. Arthrodia, is where the Cavity receiving is superficial, and the Head received flat: as is that of the lower Jaw with the Bone of the Temples.  
III. Gigglumos, when the same Bone both receives, so that contiguous bones do mutually enter one into another. And it is done three manner of ways: 

1. When the same bone is received by one bone which receives the same again mutually; as we see in the Articulation of the Shoulder-bone with the Cubit.  
2. When one bone receives and is received of another, as in the Vertebrae. For the Vertebra being placed in the middle, receives the upper and is received by the lower.  
3. In manner of a wheel, as that of the second Vertebra of the Neck with the first; where upon the Axletree as it were of one Vertebra, another is turned and wheeled about,     
By Sumphusis or growing together, Bones are fastened, when the Connexion is without motion, and two Bones do only touch one another, or approach mutually one to another, as in the former.  
And this growing together is either without a medium or with it.  
Without a Medium:  

1. Rhaphé a Suture as in the Skull.  
2. Harmonia, which is a joining of Bones by a single Line, straight, oblique, or circular: as in bones of the upper Jaw and the Nose. And so all Epiphyses in a manner are joined.  
3. Gomphosis that is to say Nailing, when one Bone is fastened into another as a Nail in a Post, as the Teeth in the Jawbones.   
These three sorts Galen and others following him, have comprehended under Synarthrosis as the Genus or kind. But they are out: because Bones thus joined have no motion▪ yet peradventure they may some ways pertain to Synarthrosis, because of the firmness they afford to the parts of the body.  
With a Medium there is also a threefold growing together of the Bones, by reason of a threefold body coming between as the Medium:  

1. A Gristle and the conjunction is called Sunchondrosis. as in the Bones of the lower Jaw, and the Share-bones.  
2. A Ligament and it is termed Sunneurosis, as is seen in the Union of the Hucklebone with the Thigh bone.  
3. Flesh or a Muscle, and it is called Sussarcosis, as in the Os hyoides with the Scapula.   
The Substance of the Bones is hard, but not with dryness in an healthy State, but with a shining fattiness. to which others join an acid or sharp spirit and a volatile Salt, in which regard they easily take fire and are burnt instead of Wood, as the Rogus of the Romans or their Funeral-fires did witness [and our English Bonfires, for anciently (and yet in the 
A Bonfire properly what.  North) they kept their Bones of Beef etc. till an occasion of Triumph, and then brought them out for joy to make Bonfires] otherwise they would easily be broken, as we see in calcined Bones, and in that old Woman, whose Members would break at the least touch, as Nic. Fontanus relates in his Observations. And Galen tells of some bones that would turn to Sand and Dust, like rotten wood, which is the effect of dryness.  
The Less this Hardness of the Bones is, the better do broken bones grow together and unite.  
But in Persons that are come to years, they do not truly grow together, nor are regenerated, but are as it were glued together, by the coming between of another substance like Glue, which they term Callus. Galen calls it Porus. Now a Callus sometimes happens beside the Intent of Nature, through overgreat plenty of Aliment and bad Nutrition: viz. when by a boney callus, the three upper Vertebrae of the Neck are so glued together as they seem to be but one bone: or when the first Vetebra is glued to the Skull; and such persons cannot express their consent or descent, by moving their Head forwards or backwards as the manner is.  
There is a greater hardness in some Bones than in others, as the Thigh, etc. But other Bones are softer, as of the Os Spongiosum, the last bones of the Fingers etc. Fernelius, Ruellius, Hollerius have found all the bones so preternaturally soft, that they might be bowed like Wax, and that chiefly by the venereal Pox, witness M. Donatus. The Cartilago insiformis proves sometimes so soft and flaggie, that it falls, of which see Codronchius.  
The parts of the Bones are solid or Hollow, yet Pliny tells us, that there were some that lived whose bones were solid, without any hollowness, who are by him called Cornei, and that such persons are known, in that they never sweat nor thirst. which Salinus avouches of one Lyddanus a Syracusian. But both these Authors can sometimes drop leasings.  
The Cavities are either within where the Marrow is, which cavities nevertheless are not every where conspicuous; or without at the joynting; which hollownesses if they are deep, they are called Cotúlai or Cotulides (not co●ul●dones) also Acetabula, Saucers. Cotyle was among the Ancients, a measure of Liquors, containing as much as their Hemina; also a kind of Drinking Cup, as some suppose If the Cavities are shallow, they are called Glênai and Glenoeideîs from the form of the Eyes hollowness when the Eyelids are shut.  
The solid parts of the Bones are three.  
The first and principal is called Os, and is the hardest part, seated commonly in the middle.  
The second is by the Greeks called Apophysis, also they term it Probolen and Ecph●se●in etc. the Latins call it Processus, Productio, Projectura, Extuberantia etc. It is a part of a bone, not only touching as Epiphusis, but continued bunching out beyond the plain surface of the Bone: such as many are in the Vertebrae of the Back, also in the lower Jawbone.  
It's chief Use is for the original and Insertion of parts, as Muscles.  
The third is Epiphusis, or Appendix, Adnascentia, Additamentum; being a bone growing upon a bone, by a simple and immediate Contact, though not with so very plain a Surface, but a little mutual Ingress of Heads and Hollows, like Ginglumus, though without motion.  
The Substance of the Epiphyses is rare and loose, being at first for the most part gristly; but in persons grown to years, it is hardened, and turns to a bone: yea in elderly persons, the Epiphysis is so united to the bone, as if they were but one contined bone,  
At the Ends of the Epiphysis a Gristle is placed.  
But all Bones have not these Epiphuses growing to them: yet there are divers of them; as in the Scapula, on the Bones of the Tibia and the Fibula, viz. on each side, at the Tree and Foot etc. Also the Tooth of the second Vertebra, the Rotator magnus, the Appendices Styloydes, are Epiphyses.  
The Use of Eppiphyses.  

1. In soft bones they are instead of covers, that the Marrow may not run out.  
2. They serve for firmness, for that Basis is most firm which is broadest and largest.  
3. That from them Ligaments may arise.  
4. According to Pavius, that they might be as it were an intermediate matter, to be inserted betwixt a bone and Ligaments, as the Membranes betwixt the Brain and Skull.   
The Apophysis are in some places called Capita Heads; in other places, Cervices Necks; in other places Tubercula bunches; in some place Spina thorns; in other places Mucrones sharp points. But the parts which at the round of the Cavities, stick out and hang over like Lips, are called Supercilia Brows, and Labra Lips.   

Chap. II. Of Gristles in General.  
GRistles next to Bones are the hardest similar parts▪ and almost just of the same Nature with Bones, for such Beasts as have no Bones, have Gristles instead of Bones according to Aristotle.  
But they differ, because they are softer than Bones, though harder than Ligaments: and though very many Gristles are in process of time turned into Bones [as Cardan▪ shows by the example of a Thief of Milan, whose weasand was become boney. Also many Sceletons of my Kinsman Henry Fuirenus declare, that the Cartilago scutiformis, or sheid-fashioned Gristle, is changed into the hard substance of a Bone, which I also have observed in Dissections] yet all Gristles are not so, as the Ensiformis, that of the Share, of the Spines' of the Back, of the Nostrils and Ears: which nevertheless sometime, in aged persons are turned into Bones. Moreover a Gristle hath no Marrow, no Cavities nor Caverns.  
The Efficient is the Gristl-making power or faculty.  
The Matter according to Aristotle is the same with that of the Bones, from which he will have them to differ only gradually. According to Galen it is an earthy but withal moist part of the Seed, partly clammy and glewish, partly fat: but more clammy than fat.  
Its Use  

1. Is principally to render motion more easy and lasting in the Joints, whiles it anoints the parts of the Bones, least by mutual rubbing one against another, they should wear and fret. Hence in some Joints are found Gristles which crustover two bones joined together.  
2. To defend the parts from external injuries. For they are not easily bruised and broken, because they are hard and not friable, nor are they easily cut and squeezed as the soft and fleshy parts. Hence the extreme parts of the Nose are gristly. Hence Gristles are joined to the Breastbone and Ribs, to defend the Heart and Lungs, and the Gristle Ensiformis, to defend the Midriff and the mouth of the Stomach.  
3. To make such a Connexion of the Bones as is termed Sunchondrosis.  
4. To shape parts prominent or hollow; as appears in the Ears, Larynx and Weasand.  
5. To fill up hollownesses, especially in the Joints, as is seen in the Knee.  
6. To serve for a cover, as in the Epiglottis.  
7. To be as an underpropper to sustain somewhat, as the Gristles of the Eyelids bear the Hairs.   
Their Situation is various, for Gristles are found in sundry parts, in the Eyelids, Nose, Ear, Larynx, Weazand, Spine, Chest, Earlets, of all and every of which in their places.  
Their Magnitude also varies: so also  
Their Figure is divers, as ring-fashioned, Sheild-shaped, Sword-like, etc.  
As to their Connexion. Some Gristles constitute parts of themselves, as that of the Nose, Xyphoidis, the Coccyx: others grow to bones, which knit them together, either without any other medium, as in the Share and Breast-bones, or by common Ligaments coming between, as in the Connexion by Diárthrosis.  
In Substance, some are harder, as those which in time become boney; others are softer, fastening the Joints, and resembling the Nature in a manner of Ligaments, and are therefore called Chondro-syndusmoi, Gristly Ligaments.  
Now though their Substance be hard, yet it is flexible and tough because less cold and dry than a bone, and because compassed with a snotty matter.  
And this Substance of theirs is void of sense; because it hath no acquaintance with Nerves nor Membranes. Nor was it requisite that it should feel, least in motion when the Gristles rub and strike one against another, pain should be caused.  
In other things they agree with Bones.   

Chap. III. Of Ligaments in General.  
LIgamentum a Band or Tie, is by the Greeks called Súndesmos. The Ancients, as Hypocrates, Aristotle and Galen somewhere, call it Nervum and Nervum colligatum a Nerve, and a twisted Nerve or Nerve tied together; because in shape and colour it counterfeits a Nerve: and otherwise the term Ligament, may in a large signification be applied to any part, which fastens divers parts together. Also Galen calls the beginning of a Muscle Ligamentum, part whereof is thought to turn to a Tendon. All these are improper acceptations. I shall now decipher a Ligament properly so called.  
It's Efficient is the Ligament-making Power.  
It's Matter is a clammy roaping part of the Seed.  
It's Use is, like a cord to bind together the parts of the body, especially the Bones, and so to keep them together, in the Head, Chest, Back, and Limbs, that they may not be dislocated or dispointed.  
Because of its most strong cleaving thereunto, a Ligagament is said to arise (though it be indeed made of the Seed) from the Bone primarily, sometimes from a Gristle, gristly bone or Membrane: and it's said to be inserted into a Bone, Gristle, Muscle, or some part. Or if you would rather have it so; Ligaments grow among the Bones, of in the Bones.  
Their Situation. Some are without among the Bones, as the grisly Ligaments so called, which are thick and commonly round: others are wound externally about the bones which are thin and membranous.  
As to Figure: some are broader which Anatomists term membranous Ligaments, as hath been said; others are longer, which are called Nervous Ligaments. And they call them so because of their resemblance, not as if a Ligament were truly membranous or nervous. So they are called membranous, which being broad and thin do compass the Joints, also which are wrapped about Tendons and Muscles.  
It's Substance is solid, white, bloodless, softer than a Gristle, harder than Nerves and Membranes: for it is as it were of a middle Nature betwixt a Gristle and a Nerve.  
It is without Cavity, Sense or Motion. It was to be without Sense, lest it should be always pained in Motions; when as the Ligaments are made sometimes longer and shorter, that is to say, are contracted and extended. Some nevertheless will have membranous Ligaments to feel, but they must grant it to be so, by means of membranes and not of their own proper substance.  
For this substance of theirs is as Galen tells us divisible into fibres visible to the sight, which experience also confirms.  
Now this Substance is in some places softer and more membranous than in others, as in all Ligaments well-near, which go round about the Joints; and among these, it is softer about the Joint of the Shoulder, than about that of the Hip; and yet softer where it goes about the inter-joyntings of the fingers. But in other places the substance is harder▪ and as it were in part gristly, and therefore they are in such places termed gristly Ligaments; and they are such as lie concealed among the Bones, as that which goes from the Head of the Thigh, into the Hip-joynt.   

Chap. IU. Of the Skull in General.  
WE divide all the Bones of the Skeleton 
The division of the Skeleton.  into the HEAD, TRUNK, and LIMBS; and them into the Arms & Legs.  
The whole structure of the Bones of the Head is termed CRANIUM the Skull, because it is as it were Crános an Helmet; some term it Calva and Calvaria.  
It's Situation and Magnitude follow the Brain and correspond thereunto.  
It's Figure is natural or non-natural and depraved.  
It's natural figure is round, that it may hold the more, yet a little longish towards the fore and hindparts, where it branches forth, that it may contain the Brain and Brainlet; on the sides it is flatted, but more towards the foreparts; and therefore the hind-part of the Head is of greater capacity than the forepart: of which Albovinus King of the Longbeards or Lombard's made a Drinking Cup for Festival days, as Diaconus relates in his History.  
The depraved and non-natural Figure thereof is manifold. 
Depraved shapes of the Head eleven in number.   

1. When the foremore protuberancie of the Head is wanting; and such persons are counted foolish and mad, for want of Brain, which ought to be most plentiful in the forepart of the Head.  
2. When the Hinder Protuberancy or bunching forth is wanting.  
3. When both are want so that the Head is round as a Ball, such as the Heads of the Turks and Greenlanders are thought to be. And these three depraved figures Hypocrates doth acknowledge.  
4. The fourth Figure Galen adds, which he conceives may be imagined but not really found, when the length is changed into breadth. But Vesalius says he saw such an one at Venice, and at Bononia.  

5. The fifth way may be added also out of Hypocrates, an acuminated or oval Figure, when the Head rises up like a Sugar-loaf: which shape in some Nations Hypocrates tells us had a great reputation of Gentility, and may be form by Midwives, when they swath the Child's Head into such a shape and so preserve it; and at last Nature transfers such kind of Heads from Parents to Children. The same Hypocrates in his epidemics, brings in two kinds of thus shaped Heads, one with the strength of the parts, the other with weakness of the said parts. And such a figure of Heads, is at this day more frequent in some Countries than in others.  
But now I will add other figures which I have observed in many Skulls, especially in Italy.   
6. When the right side branches out. 
Other shapes of the Head observed by the Author.   
7. When the left side sticks out.  
8. When the right part of that bunchiness which naturally should be before is wanting, and the left sticks out very much, in some more. others less.  
9 When the left side of the said Protuberancy is wanting, and the right sticks out more than ordinary.  
10. When the right part of the Hinder Prominency is away.  
11. When the left part of the said hinder Protuberancy is away.   
And thus I make twelve shapes of the Head in all, one natural and eleven depraved,  
The Substance of the Skull is boney, to secure the soft Brain. But in Children new born it is softer than ordinary, and in some places cartilaginous and membranous, especially about the Sutures, and most of all in the middle and upper region of the Head: and all these for the making the Birth more easy, that it might give a little way when it is pressed. But the Substance of the Skull is.  

1. Thick, not thin, that it may more strongly resist external injuries.  
2. Rare not compact. 1. Lest it should weigh too much. 2. That it might contain Juice for nourishment,  
3. That vapours may exhale.   
Now this Substance of the Skull doth consist as it were of a double board or plate. It is seldom simple and single without a Meditullium or middle matter, as I found it in the Dissection of a certain person, and seldomer hath it three boards, But for the most part two as hath been said. some call them Diploas, the outer whereof being unhurt, the inner may be hurt. And each of these plates is commonly polished within and without, smooth and thick. Hence it appears how thick the Skull is, seeing it is every where in a manner double.  
I say in a manner or well-near, which others do not observe: for in some places the Skull is single, thin and transparent. without any distance of plates. And therefore some Surgeons 
The Error of Surgeons  are deceived, who in taking away the first Plate do think they must so long cut and prick, till blood comes out. The external Plate is sometimes eaten off by the Venereal Disease, and sometimes it sprouts forth Gums by force of the said Disease.  
But the rarity or light composure of the Skull appears from that middle substance between each Plate, which they call meditullium. This Substance, I say, is rare or light, lax, and receives little Veins: which also Hypocrates knew, who therefore warns us that the Skull is very easily inflamed, and therefore when the Trepan is used, the Iron must divers times be dipped in Milk and Water.  
The Surface of the Skull, is external or internal.  
The upper External is smooth and even; the lower or Basis, is rough and uneven, by reason of sundry Appendices and Processes.  
The upper Internal is hollow, smooth; save that it hath the Marks of Veins, and certain Cavities, wherein the dura mater grows: the lower is very uneven by reason of divers protuberancies.  
And every where there are frequent holes in the Skull, very small and placed without order, through which small Veins and Arteries pass, to the inner Cavity of the Bones, and the dura Menynx. But sometimes they are not to be found.  
At length, that we may come to the parts of the Skull, we must know that the Skull doth not consist of one only Bone, lest by one wound the whole Skull should be broken in pieces; but of divers: which are fastened together by the Sutures, of which in the following Chapter.  
And some are Bones of the Skull, others of the Jaw.  
The Bones of the Skull in persons grown to ripe years are eight. whereof two are common to the Skull, with the upper Jawbone, viz. the cundiforme and the spongiosum. But there are six proper bones, which make up the Skull itself: One of the Forehead (in new born Children two) two of the Forepart of the Head, one of the Hind-part (in an Infant four) two of the Temples. And there lie hid in the Auditory passages, other six bones, on each side three little ones: the Hammer, the Anvil, and the Stirrup, to which a fourth is added called Orbiculare.  
And thus there are perpetually in the Skull fourteen or sixteen Bones.  
The Use of the Skull:  

1. To be the Mansion and Bulwark of the Brain, which of itself is soft.  
2. That through it Vapours may pass.   
To the former use, its thickness and hardness is subservient; to the latter its rarity and Sutures.  
On the Skull of a Man sometimes Horns grow, one whiles soft, another while hard like Rams Horns; sometimes fixed to the Skull, otherwhiles to the Skin, and they proceed from a thick, clammy and melancholic humour. There are examples hereof in Paraeus, Thuanus, Hildanus, Renodaeus, Zacutus, Severinus, and others; I also saw two horns, one at Milan in a Nun, another at Purmeraem in Holland in an old Woman, which was sufficiently long and hard: I have discoursed of these Horns in my new Observations the Unicornu, of the Unicorn.   

Chap. V. Of the Sutures of the Skull.  
A Suture is a sort of connexion resembling the putting together of two Saws, tooth within tooth, or the making up of a Garment of many torn patches.  
Such Sutures there are many in a man's Head: for an Head is seldom found without any Suture, such as Aristotle saw, and at Helmstadt and the 
An Head without Sutures.  Monastery of Heilbrun in France such an one is showed (as a Rarity) and is every where to be met with.  
And such persons have not their Heads so liable to external injuries, but very much to inward Infirmities, because transpiration is thereby made more difficult. By which distinction, Falopius and Columbus do reconcile Celsus and Robertus Constantinus, the former of whom wrote, that the Head which had no Sutures was most liable to sickness, the latter that the Head without Sutures was more subject.  
Sometimes through Age and Dryness, the Sutures do so grow together in aged persons, that they are scarce to be seen; whereas they are in the mean season, more visible in young persons. Sometimes the coronal suture is only seen obliterated; but the temporal do hardly vanish, except all the other be first defaced.  
The Number and Situation of the Sutures, is the same in a Woman and in a Man, contrary to what Aristotle thought; nor doth it vary in respect 
The Error of Aristotle.  of figures, as Hypocrates and Galen would have it, unless very rarely. For M. A. Severinus observed between the saggiteal and Lambda-fashioned suture, another over and above of a triangular shape, and near the end of the said Sutures in another Skull, a new oval Suture.  
Moreover, the Sutures of the Head of a certain Fool, did vary in figure, which all stuck up with one Hillock as it were. which I saw in three Epileptic Children at Naples, especially in the coronal Suture, which did suggest a new Cause and Cure of the Epilepsy or Falling-sickness.  
The Sutures which knit the Bones of the Skull, are some of them called true and proper, others false and Bastard Sutures.  
They are termed true, which meet together like the teeth of Combs, or like Saws, put together, which I have sometimes seen after Contusion movable, which also in most Skulls that are over dried in the Earth is common. They are also loose in Children, and therefore they open in Hydrocephalic or Water-headed Children, as I saw in a Boy at Hafnia, like to that which Severinus pictures out in his Treatise of Imposthumes, and Donatus describes.  
The bastard Sutures are joined like Scales and Tiles on an housetop, and therefore they are termed Squamosae conglu●inationes, Scaley-conjunctions, and may rather be termed joinings, seeing they are more like to an Harmonia then a Suture.  
There are three true ones.  

1. Is the foremore, and is called Coronalis. 1. Because the Ancients wore 
The coronal Suture why so called.  Crowns on that part of their Heads.  
2. Because it hath some resemblance to a Crown or Circle:   
For from the Temples it ascends on both sides, athwart, to the top of the Head. The Arabians call this suture Arcualis and Puppis.  
It's Use is to join the Forehead bone with the bones of the Hinder-head, and to distinguish them therefrom. The place of the coronal Suture is sound out in a living person, either by carrying the hand upwards from the Wrist along the Nose, or by drawing a Thread out from Ear to Ear, and another cross the same from the end of the Nose.  
2. That which is opposite to this, is behind and in the Occiput or Hinder-head. 'Tis called Lamdoeidès the Lamda-shaped, from the Greek letter A. some call it hupsiloïdes from the letter upsilon, also prorae sutura.  
This ascends obliquely, from the Base of the Hinder-head, to each Ear, grows into an Angle. Sometimes when the Hinder-head is large or otherwise, 'tis divided by a transverse suture, simple, or double: sometimes there is a double triple Suture as if a greater triangle did contain one or two lesser Triangles within the same: where the Bones so comprehended, 
The triangular Bones of the Skull.  are termed ossicula triangularia, the little three-cornerd bones, commended, in the Falling-sickness.  
Besides these triangular bones, Olaus Worm a rare man, found others in the Lambda-like Suture, which perforated both the Board's of the Skull, observed as yet by very sew. Three for the most part on the right, as many on the left side, differing in magnitude, figure and situation, which also are accurately discerned and distinguished in Infants. The lowest is seen at the Processus mammillares, the middlemost a little higher, scarce half a Finger's breadth, the third a little further distinct from the second. Pavius found only two like to these, circumscribed with their little Sutures or seams, which he doubts whether he should refer them to the Bones of the Occiput or the Bregma.  
In Shape they are Various, Triangular, Oblong, Oval. sometimes in living persons I have observed them to grow so high, that I could Feel them with my Fingers, as if they had been Epiphysis or somewhat growing upon the Bone.  
All are larger on the left side. but the greatest exceeds not the Nail of a Man's thumb.  
They appear more distinct on the inner & Concave side of the Skull, than in the outward and convex, and therefore they are all more clearly discerned when the Skull is taken away,  
We are nevertheless to observe that these bones of Worm do in divers Skulls vary, both in Number, Magnitude, Figure, Situation; so that sometimes there are four, sometimes two, and in a Right line only, sometimes in the very Juncture of the Sagittal with the Lambda-shaped; sometimes also in the Scaley temporal Sutures.  
Their Use, I believe, is 1. That the Sutures being enlarged thereabouts, might afford a more free passage for Excrements.  
2. That the Skull being made up of more bones, might be more safe in Blows and Contusions.  
The Use of this Lambda-like Suture, is to distinguish the bone of the Occiput or Hinder-head, from the bones of the Temples, and the forepart of the Head.  
3. In the middle betwixt these two is the Suture ter●red Sagittalis or Arrow-shaped, because it runs in a straight line all along the Head, like an Arrow, betwixt the Coronal and Lambda-shaped Sutures.  
Sometimes it proceeds through the middle of the Coronal Suture and the midst of the Forehead, as far as to the Nose, especially in Infants: in some also it cuts part of the Bone of the Occiput or Hinder-head. I remember it hath been sometimes wanting.  
This Suture is termed Virgata and Recta.  
It's Use is to distinguish and join together the two bones of the Sinciput or Forepart of the Head.  
Those two Suture are commonly called 
Why some Sutures are like Scales.  Nendosae or Bastard sutures, which are wont to be called Squamosae Scaly, Corticales and Temporales, because they circumscribe the Bones of the Temples. Now this Connexion like Scales was necessary, because the Temple-bones, being in the lower part very thick would have been to heavy, if they had not been made by little and little thinner in their upper part, and joined to the bones of the Sinciput atenuated by little and little like Scales.  
Now there are many spurious Sutures 
A great number of Sutures.  every where in the Skull, also many harmonies, where the bones are joined together: in the Palate bone a peculiar Suture is seen.  
The Use of the Sutures.  
TABLE I.  
The FIGURE Explained.  


A. A Portion of the Sagittal Suture.  
B. The Lambda-like Suture.  
C. The Skull cut with a Saw.  
D. The first Bone of Worm, on the left quarter.  
E. The second.  
F. The third.  
G. The first of the right Quarter.  
H. The second.  
I. The third.  
K. The great hole of the Skull.  
LL. The mammillary productions.    
page 341  

II. That by them the Dura mater may be tied and held up, lest it should squeeze the inner parts of the Brain.  
III. That the said dura mater might by them send out fibres to constitute the Pericraneum and the Periosteum.  
IV. That Vessels may go in and out, to nourish and in●iven the parts; which Vessels are by Fallopius called Venae puppis.  
V. That one Bone being broken the others might remain whole. And therefore Galen, Paulus, Guido and Fallopius, deny that there can be any contrafissure or Counter-cleft, save in a solid Head without Sutures: Hypocrates writes the Contrary, and calls it a Misfortune, as also Celsus and others, and Fallopius himself, Paraeus and Pavius relate examples, and before them Soranus, taking a similitude from a Glass Bottle, which oftentimes, being struck on the one side, is cracked on the opposite part.  
VI That Topical Medicines being outwardly applied, may more easily penetrate.    

Chap. 6. Of the proper Bones of the Skull in particular.  
THe first Bone is the OS FRONTIS, the Forehead bone, which some call Coronale, Inverecundum, Os puppis: which hath  
A Figure imperfectly circular; more perfect where it is circumscribed with the Coronal Suture, more imperfect near the Eyes.  
It's Substance is thinner than that of the Os occipitis or Hinder-head bone, and thicker than the Ossa sincipitis, or bones of the foremore part of the Head.  
It is twofold in Children newborn, distinguished by the sagittal Suture: also framed of a twofold Plate, an external and internal.  
At the top of the Nose above the Eyebrows, there are large Cavities commonly 
See Tab. 4. Fig. 1.  two in number, between the two plates, sometimes clothed with a green Membrane and separated, containing a certain soft and marrowish body. But these Cavities are not 1. In Children till they are a year old. 2. In such as have a flat and Saddle-face. 3. In such whose Forehead is divided.  
The said Cavities have holes which end into the wide spaces of the Nostrils: and another which ends into the Skull, above the Septum of the Os spongiosum to distinguish the Organs of Smelling.  
The Use of these Cavities.  

1. To make the Voice Melod●●●● and Sounding; because they are not in such who have a bad Speech.  
2. Some conceive they serve for the Air to be elaborated in, to generate animal spirits.  
3. That they may contain the Air which is drawn into the Nostrils and brings the smells of things along with it, from whence it passes leisurely to the Organs of Smelling, and to the Brain to alter the ●ame, and reduce it to its natural State, when it is disordered. And therefore it is that many times an whole day together a smell is perceived in the top of the Nostrils.  
4. Others suppose, they serve to collect Excrements, not only thick but watery, which being carried to the Glandula lachrymalis, do make Tears.  
5. some conceive that the marrowy matter therein contained, doth pass through the hole of the greater Corner of the Eye, and moisten the Eye make it glib and slippery, that it may move the Easier.   
This Bone hath Processes: one at the greater Corner of the Eye, another at the lesser, to constitute the upper pare of the Eye-hole or Socket. There are also two cornered Eminencies or risings on each side o●e, towards the Temples, which are termed Horns; by Albucasis, Dionysisci the Author of the Definitions and Heliodorus the Physician; and if that boney Tumour be only on one side Ingrassias calls it Dionysiscus.  
It hath three holes; one more inward of which before, which ends into the Skull: two outward, at the middle of the Eyebrows, for the thoroughfare, of the Nerves of the third Conjugation to the Forehead.  
The Second and Third are the two Bones of the Sincipu● or Vertex, which some call Parietalia, others Arcualia, Nervalia, Rationis or Cogitationis, of reason or thought: the Greeks Brég●a●os o●●â, because the most moist and sofe Brain, is placed under them.  
In Shape they are four square and unequal.  
Their Substance is more rare and infirm 
Why the wounds of the Sinciput are deadly.  then of other Bones, because the Head in this part, wants very much evaporation: and therefore the Wounds of the Sinciput are deadly.  
TABLE. II.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
In this TABLE are presented the Bones and Sutures of the Skull, as also the parts of both the Jawbones.  
FIG. I. 

AA. The Coronal Suture.  
B. A part of the sagittal Suture.  
CC. The scaly Suture of the Bones of the Temples.  
D. The Os frontis, or Bone of the Forehead.  
EE. Processes of the said Bone, to the grater corner of the Eye.  
F. Another process to the lesser corner.  
G. An hole for the passage of Nerves expressed on one side.  
H. Os Bregmatis.  
I. The Bone of the Temples.  
K. Its Appendix called Styloïdes.  
L. It's mamillary process.  
M. Another process thereof, which makes the Os jugale.  
N. The first bone of the lower Jaw according to our Author.  
O. The second Bone.  
P. The hole of this Bone, near which is the Caruncula Lachrymalis.  
QQ. The third Bone of the upper Jaw.  
RR. The fourth Bone thereof.  
S. The Partition of the Nostrils.  
T. The lower Jawbone.  
u. It's outer and lesser hole, the greater is to be seen within.  
X. The process of that Jawbone, termed Corone.  
Z. The other blunted Process called Condilodes.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Dent●s Incisores or Cutting Teeth.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. The Dog-teeths.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Grinders or Grinding-teeths, Molares.    
FIG. II. 

AAA. The Coronal Suture.  
BB. The Sagittal Suture.  
CC. The Lambdoidea.  
D. The Os frontis.  
EE. The Bone, of the Sinciput, Bregma, or ●or●… of ●●● Head.  
FF. A portion of Os Occipitis or Hinder-head 〈◊〉    
page 342  
In Infants, that part which is at the Conjunction of the coronal and Sagittal Sutures is found Membranous, and soft, and among all the Bones of the Head, it last receives a boney hardness, then when the Child begins to speak distinctly and intelligibly▪ while it remains Membranous and soft, it is not so thick as afterwards, but transparent. Hence in Children there is observed in that place a Gap or Chink, which some term Fontanella and ●ons pulsatilis; where also they are wont to make Issues in desperate Catarrhs. I have once observed this part in a person grown up, to have been not yet boney, but membranous as in Children, viz. in a man of years of Age. 〈…〉 Woman of twenty six years old, found it re●… open.  
There are within superficial Cavities, being the in ●…sions of Veins, and without certain small holes.  
The fourth Bone of the Occiput which some call 〈…〉 Os prorae, Os memorioe, Os pixidis, the G●… doth constitute almost the whole hinde●… part of the Skull.  
Which in grown persons is commonly b●… double or treble; in Children it con●… part of four seldom of five bones▪  
Its Figure is of a Sphaetical triangle▪  
Its Substance is the thickest and most compact of all the rest (because there the noble Ventricle is seated, and there the Nerves arise as from a Fountain) especially at the Basis of the Skull, save at the sides of the great hole, where it is most thin (and therefore in this respect Aristotle did well say, that this was the thinnest Bone of all, which Columbus taxes) and therefore for safety's sake, there is in the middle thereof a long Prominency.  
It hath five holes, one which is the greatest near the first Vertebra, through which the Medulla oblongata passeth forth; the rest are lesser serving for the going out of Nerves and the entrance of Veins and Arteries.  
It hath nine Cavities, seven within and two without.  
It hath before two broad Processes at the Basis (in Children they are Epiphyses) covered with a Gristle, within more eminent, inserted into the Cavities of the first Vertebra, for the motion of the Head. There is another small Process behind, joined to the first Vertebra.  
In the Hinder-head of Dogs, there is another small bone between the Brain 
The triangular bone in Dogs.  and the Brainlet, which is triangular: that it may as a Prop sustain their going with their heads downwards.  
The fifth and sixth, are the Temple Bones, by the Ears; some call them Lapidos●, Petrosa, Sa●ea, Squamiformia Mendofa, and others Parietalia and Aercualia.  
Their Shape is uneven (but rather circular than three square) because of their manifold Substance, which is like Rocks and craggy Cliffs; for which cause they are also called Ossa petrosa the rocky bones. But in their upper part they are attenuated, so as to be transparent, where they lie under the temporal Muscles, and are joined to the bones of the Sinciput, like Scales.  
They have six holes without, two within▪ the first external hole is large, viz. The Auditory passage; the rest are small, for Vessels to pass through.  
They have two Cavities. The outer is covered with a Gristle▪, and receives the lower Jawbone. The inner is longish, common to the Os occipitis.  
TABLE III.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE demonstrates the inner structure of the Organ of Hearing, with the little Auditory Bones.  
FIG. I. 

AA. Os temporis, the Temple Bone.  
bbb. The scaly Suture of the said Bone.  
cc. The Os spongiosum, or Spungy-bone.  
D. The Cavity into which the Auditory Nerve is inserted.  
e. The boney Circle.  
ff. The greater winding of the Cochlea.  
ggg. Three boney half-circles, which form the Labyrinth.  
h. The Malleus or Hammer in its situation.  
i. The Anvil or Incus.  
k. The Stapes or Stirrup.  
l. The external Muscle of the Ear.  
m. The internal Muscle of the Ear, of which see B. 3. chap. 9    
FIG. II. 

aaa. The Labyrinth.  
b. The Cochlea.  
c. The oval hole where the Stapes is seated.  
d. Fallopius his Aquae-ductus.  
e. The Fenestra Rotunda, round window.  
ff. Little holes to let out Veins and Arteries.    
FIG. III. 

aa. The Cochlea dissected.  
bb. An intermediate space or thing dividing the Cochlea into two wreaths.  
c. A round hole, ending into the Cavity of Hearing, and the lower wreath of Cochlea.  
ddd. The wreathe or Circumvolutions of the Labyrinth opened.  
e. The Fenestra ovalis, or oval window.    
FIG. IV. 

a. The round Head of the Malleus or Hammer.  
b. Its end whereby 'tis fastened to the Drum.  
c. The smaller process of the Malleus, Mallet or Hammer.  
d. The larger and more fine process thereof, first observed by Folius.  
e. The Incus or Anvil, whose upper part hath a Cavity to receive the Head of the Hammer.  
f. The longer process of the Anvil, to which the Stirrup is fastened.  
h. The Stapes or Stirrup.  
i. A fourth little bone fastened to the Stapes or Stirrup by a Ligament, first observed by Fr. Silvius.    
FIG. V. 

Shows the boney Circle in Infants, to which the Membrane of the Drum is fastened.    
page 343  
It hath a certain Appendix, sharp, long and small, and therefore called Styloindes, Belenoïnes, Graphioïdes, Plectrum, etc. It is soon broke off, and therefore it is not in all Skulls, especially such as are dug out of the ground. In grown persons 'tis honey, in Infants Gristly. It is a little crooked, like a Cocks Spur.  
It hath three Processes.  

1. Is external and obtuse, thick, short and cavernous, id est, having holes like a Sponge in it; it's called from its shape, Mammillaris, Dug like.  
2. Is External also, and a portion of Os jugale.  
For the Os jugale or Lygomatis, seated under the Eye, is not a peculiar bone, but is made up of the Processes of two bones; the one is that newly mentioned, the other is that of the Jaw, joined by an oblique Suture, making as it were a Bridge: whose use is to defend the Tendon of the temporal Muscle, the Skull being otherwise but thin in that place.  
3. Is Internal with a long protuberancy, wherein there is a threefold Cavity: the Drum, the Labyrinth, the Cochlea, also the bones which serve the Hearing. But if the outer passage before the Membrane of the Tympanum be reckoned, there will be four Cavities of the Auditory passage. The Ancients makes mention but of one Cavern.   
I. The first Cavity, which is the Tympanum or Concha, or as some call it Pelvis, 
The Cavities in the Ossa petrosa.  and by Aristotle termed Cochlea, is situate presently after the little Membrane of the Tympanum (about which goes a boney circle, easily separable in Infants, in elderly persons hardly) wherein is the Congenit or inbred Air, also four little bones, a Ligament and Muscles, little Windows and a water-passage; and from this Cavity a Channel goes into the palate of the Mouth. It doth not transmit the Congenit Air, which Nature studies to retain.  
The Fenestrae or Windows, are two little holes in this Cavity: the one oval, is in the middle of the Cavity, more towards the forepart, and higher, upon which the Basis of the Stapes or Stirrups rests, and in a great measure shuts the same: in the hinder part, it opens itself into the Cochlea with a large overture, and joins itself also to the hinder hole which is lower in mankind, lesser and narrower? and this is divided into two channels, divided by a very thin bony Scale: with the one it goes, together with the oval window unto the Cochlea, with the other to the Labyrinth; and the hindermore channel is called Aquae-ductus, also Meatus cochlearis, Tortuosus, Caecus, Capreolaris, by reason of the crooked winding passage, through which the greater part of the Auditory Nerve is carried with the Artery.  
II. The second being round and less than the former, is called Cabyrinthus and fodina the Maze and Mettal-mine or Cole-mine, because of its crooked manifold turnings: behind the Fenestra ovals, it joins itself to the following Cavity. From this, many ways run out▪ which they call Semicirculos osse●s excavatos, hollowed boney Half-circles, or funiculos little Ropes, three for the most part, large at the beginning, and then by little and little growing narrower, clothed with a little thin Membrane, that the sounds may become more acute, and being by little and little broken may so ascend unto the Brain. It hath four holes besides the oval, and a fifth which is terminated into the Cochlea.  
III. The third is termed Cochlea because of its wreathed turning, others call it Cavitas cochleata, Buccinata, An●rum buccinosum, etc. for it hath three or four windings (those who are thick of Hearing have only one or two) mutually receiving one another, and is clothed with a very exceeding thin and most soft Membrane, and is adorned with infinite little Veins, which being twined about the wreathe of the Cochlea, doth by many branches creep into the secret turnings of the Labyrinth.   

Chap. 7. Of the Bones which serve the Sense of Hearing.  
THere follow eight other Bones of the Head, which are least of all, on each side four, being the Bones subservient to the sense of Hearing, called from their shapes, Malleus the Mallet or Hammer, Incus the Anvil, Stapes the Stirrup, and the Orbicular bone: all which were unknown to the Ancients. The two first were found out by Jacobus Carpus, who was afterwards followed by Massa, Jacobus Silvius, and Vesalius: and he being admonished by Fallopius, at last made mention of the third, whose first finder out was Ingrassias; although Eustachius and Columbus do arrogate the Invention hereof unto themselves.  
The fourth Auditory Bone, was found out and showed to me by Franciscus Silvius, being round and small, and by N. Fontanus likened to the Scale of a Pike: annexed by a small Ligament to the Stirrup side, where it is joined to the Anvil; which you shall more easily find in the boiled Calves Heads, in which they are bigger than in the Heads of Men: howbeit in a Man it is visible enough. Pavius found in the Head of an Ox a year old, one like this, of a sesamoidean shape.  
They are situate in the first Cavity or Concha.  
They have a Substance hard and dense, hollow within, that they might be lighter, and might contain in them, Marrow for their nourishment, without any Periosteum about them: also that they might make the Ai● drie●, and carry it along, like those Ropes which are fastened to doors to make them open and shut again of themselves. They are as perfect in newborn Children as in those that are grown up; though not so hard, but more moist, for which cause Infants are dull of Hearing.  
The Connexion. The Hammer by its process sticks fast to the Membrane of the Drum, beyond the middle, like a tail turned back; the head whereof is articulated into the Cavity of of the Anvil, having a small Process, that the Tendon of the Musculus rotundus may be applied thereto; it hath also a longer Process, but smaller, first observed by Caecilius Folius, to which another Muscle is fastened, which belongs to the external Ear. It rests athwart upon the bony circle, with which perhaps it grows together in persons that are of years, for commonly in Children it is only visible, in others it is easily broken because of its fineness, when the bones are taken out.  
The Anvil resembling a grinding Tooth, lies under the Hammer, having beneath two processes; the one shorter resting upon the Os squamosum, the other longer, sustaining the top of the Stirup or triangular bone, which rests upon the Cochlea, till it is sunk into the broad Basis of the Fenestra ovalis, or oval window, to which it is fastened by a loose Ligament, so that it may be lightly raised, but not moved upwards and downwards.  
These three little bones, are joined with a very fine Ligament, which is stretched over the whole Membrane, as the strings over the bottom of a Drum.  
The Use of these little bones is not to make a sound, but that the species of sound being received, may pass to the lower parts, and that there may be a passage for the excrements of the Ears. For the Stirrup shutting the oval or upper window, is moved by the Anvil (whereupon the window is opened, that the species or representation of Sounds may pass into the Nerve, and the Anvil being smitten by the Hammer, and the Hammer by the Membrane of the Drum, through the impulse of the external Air (which the Hammer hinders from being driven too far forwards) which while it is in doing, the membrane of the Drum is droven innards▪ and becomes bunching out, whereby the inbred Air is affected, which wand'ring through the Cochlea causes, that the branches of the Auditory Nerve, do receive the species of sounds, brought in by the windows, and communicate the same to the Brain. And thus the Hammer is moved only inwards. But in the recourse, it is moved outwards, with the Membrane of the Drum, by that very little Muscle found out by Casserius.   

Chap. VIII. Of the Bones common to the Head and upper Jaw, viz. Os cuneiforme and Os spongiosum.  
THe Os Sphaenoides or Cuneiforme, or Wedg-fashioned Bone, so called because as they say, it hath the shape of a Wedg; was by the Ancients called Polumorphos or many-formed, by reason of sundry processes within and without whereby it is made rugged and uneven: others call it Os Paxillare, Os Colatorij, Os Palati, etc.  
'Tis seated in the middle of the Basis of the Head, and is placed under the Brain as a foundation, so that it touches well-neer all the Bones of the Head and upper Jaw.  
It is one Bone in grown persons: but it is at first made of four which are afterwards united.  
The Processes are sundry.  
Outwardly there are two remarkable ones, at the sides of the palate, called Pterigoeides, aliformes, Wing-fashioned, because they resemble the wings of Bats or Flittermices, and are furnished with a longish Cavity.  
Inwardly there are four little ones, on each side two, having the shape of a Turkish Saddle. and therefore this process is termed Sella Sphaenoidis, the saddle of Os Sphaenoïdes; in which process being square and broad, there is a Cavity to hold the Glandula pituitaria.  
At the Saddle, there is a Cave full of little holes, that the inbreathed Air, may be elaborated to make Spirits, and that phlegmatic excrements, may distil through the funnel, out of the Ventricles of the Brain.  
It hath sundry holes for the passage of the Vessels this way and that.  
OS SPONGOIDES, spongiosum or Spongiforme, the spunge-like bone, being seated in the middle basis of the Forehead, and filling the Cavity of the Nostrils, is also called ethmoeïdes, Cribriforme or Cribrosum, the Seive-fashioned bone: because  
It's inner side, where it joins to the Head, is pierced through with many holes like a Sieve, winding and turning, but not straight; and this part properly is, and aught to be called Cribros●, Sieve-fashioned.  
It hath in its middle a sharp Process, resembling a Cock's comb, by which as a Partition this bone is divided into two parts: And to this upper process another is opposed below, distinguishing the Nostrils, where the outer part of this bone is, which is contained in the Cavity of the Nostrils without the Skull, being light and spongy, and therefore there properly so called.  
It hath also another part thin, solid and smooth, where it is joined to the socket of the Eye, a small portion whereof it constitutes, but it is not a part of the upper Jawbone, as Vesalius would have it.  
The Use of the spongy part is, to alter the Air drawn in with Smells.  
The chief Use of the Sieve-fashioned part is,  

1. To admit the Air for Animal spirits.  
2. That the Species of odours may with the Air be carried to the mammillary processes, the Organs of smelling, which end into these holes. And therefore in the Disease Co●yza, this bone being obstructed, the smelling is lost.   
A secondary use, is the purging of the Brain▪ for phlegm is not only voided by the Glandule pituitaria into the Palate, but it drops down also into the Os cribrosum and the Nostrils, if the upper Ventricles of the Brain so called, do abound with too much Phlegm. Howbeit, this Flux is preternatural.   

Chap. IX. Of the Bones of the Jaw in General.  
THe Jawbones are the foundations of the whole Face, the upper above the mouth the lower beneath.  
For the upper, which Celsus calls Mala, is the boney part of the Face, comprehending the lower and lateral parts of the Eye-socket, the Nostrils, the Cheeks, the Palate, and the whole row of the upper Teeth.  
And this Jawbone in Mankind, is shorter and rounder than in Brutes, for Beauty's sake, also it is immovable as it is in Beasts, saving the Parrot, the Phaenicopterus, and the Crocodile as well that which lives in the water, as the Land-Crocodile; yet do they not move the upper Jaw only, but their whole Head withal being straight fastened thereto, as Vipers do, and the like is to be said of the Parrot.  
But the lower Jawbone in Mankind and other Creatures, is only movable, save in the Crocodile, which hath it so united to the Bones of the Temples, that it can no ways be stirred; but the Parrot moves both.  
The Connexion is without motion in the upper Jaw, by a Suture or Harmony whereby it is joined with many bones of its own, of which it is composed, and other bones placed round about; in the lower by way of Sunchondrosis, which is in the middle of the Chin. But in grown persons, the Gristle is so turned into a Bone, that the lower Jaw seems to be one only bone, whereas before it consisted of two.  
In the Brim or Circuit of each Jawbone, which place Galen calls Ph●●●●an, we meet with Cavities, wherein the Teeth are fastened, which Galen terms Bóthria, the Latins Alveolos, Loculos, Fossulas, Praesepiola, Mortariola.  
These holes according to the nature of the teeth in them, are sometimes single, otherwhiles threefold: sometimes they are obliterated and shut up, the Teeth being fallen or plucked out. Sometimes they breed anew, by fresh Teeth breaking out. In old Age, frequently these holes are obliterated, the Teeth being lost, and the Gums become sharper and harder, so that old folks chew their meat with them instead of Teeth.   

Chap. X. Of the Bones proper to the upper Jaw.  
THe Bones proper to the upper Jaw, are eleven on each side five, and one without a fellow.  
The first being in a manner triangular, doth make up the lower part of the socket of the Eye, the lesser Eye-corner▪ and part of the Os jugale and of the Cheekbone.  
The second makes the greater Eye-corner where there is an hole which passes into the Nostrils, by which a Caruncle is placed.  
Here those Imposthumes are made which they call aegilopas, which if they be unskilfully or negligently handled, they pierce to the Bone, and cause the Fistula Lachrymalis.  
This is a little Bone, and the least among the upper Jawbones, Thin, Transparent, Loosely, Adhering, so that it is easily broken and lost: and therefore 'tis seldom found in Skulls dug out of the Earth.  
The third is a very great one, by which are constituted the large region of the Palate, and the great lower socket containing the Teeth. It hath large Cavities (and holes through which vessels pass) on both sides remarkable, both for to make it lighter, and that it might contain Marrow to nourish the Bones and the upper Teeth. Others say to help to frame the Voice. In Children they are not hollowed till after some years, and they are then covered with a very thin Membrane.  
The fourth with its companion, doth constitute the upper and more eminent boney part of the Nose.  
It is thin, hard, solid and quadrangular.  
And these two external bones of the Nose are divided with a Suture. Within they are rough, that the Gristles of the Nose, may be the better fastened.  
There is another inner bone (which is the third of the Nose) cleaving to the process of the Os spongiosum, which is called Septum narium because it distinguishes the Nostrils.  
TABLE IU.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE presents the lower part of the Skull, to be seen within and without.  
FIG. I. 

AAAA. The two Board's of the Skull with the marrowy substance between them.  
B. The Cavity in the Forehead bone, ending into the wideness of the Nostrils.  
cc. The Os Cribrosum or Sievelike bone full of little holes.  
D. It's acute process resembling a Cock's comb.  
EE. The two inmore and foremore processes of the Os Sphaenoides or Cuneiforme.  
FF. The two inner and hindermore processes of the said Bone.  
GG. The holes of the said bone for the optic Nerves to pass out.  
H. The Cavity cut in the middle of the Saddle, wherein the Glandula pituitaria is contained.  
I. Another cavity where●●●● the conjunction of the optic Nerves doth rest.  
KK. Show the holes of the Os cuneiforme, for the passage of the vessels,  
LL. Show the holes of the Os cuneiforme, for the passage of the vessels,  
MM. Show the holes of the Os cuneiforme, for the passage of the vessels,  
NN. The Processus petrosus of the Temples-bone.  
oo. An hole in the said process, for the Auditory Nerve to pass through.  
pp. An Additament or Appendix of the Os Occipitis.  
Q. The greatest hole of the Os occipitis through which the spinal marrow passes.  
RR. The Cavities of the Os occipitis within the Skull, in which the Cerebellum or Brainlet rests.    
FIG. II. 

AA. The fifth bone of the upper Jaw, distinguished by a Suture.  
BB. The Os jugale.  
CC. Holes opening into the wideness of the Nostrils.  
D. The partition of the Nostril.  
E. The eleventh bone of the upper Jaw, which Columbus calls Aratrum.  
FF. The external processes of Os cuneiforme, like Bats wings.  
gg. The Cavity of these Processes.  
HH. The Cavity of the Temple-bone, receiving the Head of the bower Jawbone.  
I. An Additament or Appendix to the Os occipitis.  
KK. The processes of the Temple-bones, called Styloides processus.  
LL. The mammillary processes.  
MM. Two Heads or processes at the Basis of Os Occipitis, whereby it is articulated into the first Vertebra.  
N. The greatest hole of the said Bone.  
OO. The two sides of Os Occipitis, furnished with divers protuberancies.    
To these ten Columbus adds the eleventh, like a Plough, the inmost and middlemost above the Palate, shutting the lower part of the Nostrils, like a partition wall.   

Chap. XI. Of the lower Jawbone.  
THe lower Jawbone in grown persons, consists of one Bone only, in Children till seven year old of two, which are joined together by way of Sunchondrosis.  
It's Figure is that of the Greek letter u or like a Bow.  
It's Substance is exceeding hard and strong, that it may hold out in biting and chewing; within hollow, where Marrow is contained to nourish it and the teeth.  
It hath two Holes on each side, which go quite through the Jawbone like a Pipe, so that a bristle put in at one hole will come out of the other.  
The one is more inward, hindermore and greater, receiving in a part of those Nerves which we reckon to be the fifth pare, to the Roots of the teeth, with a little Vein and Artery.  
The other is more outward, less round, by which a Branch of the foresaid Nerve received in, is sent out to the lower Lip.  
It hath sundry Asperities and Cavities for the Risings and Insertions of Muscles.  
Also on each side two Processes called Horns, carried upwards.  
One goes out forwards broad and thin, whose point or sharp end is called Corone, into which the Tendon of the Temporal Muscle is implanted. And therefore Hypocrates counts the Luxation of the lower Jawbone deadly.  
The other hindermore, is carried backwards; representing a little bunch and is called condulodes, having a little Head covered with a gristly crust, under which there is a longish Neck.  
By this Process the Articulation is made with the Temple bones, where yet another Gristle is placed between the Cavity and the gristly head, to facilitate the motion. Also a common membranous Ligament doth cover this Articulation.   

Chap. XII. Of the Teeth in General.  
THe Teeth are called DENTES as if you would say Edentes, Eaters, and by the Greeks odontes as it were edôuntes' Eaters; and they are Bones properly so called, hard and solid, smooth and white, like other Bones.  
They have some things peculiar which other bones have not, which nevertheless 
How the Teeth do differ from other Bones.  doth not exclude them from the number of Bones.  

1. They are harder than other Bones, that they may bite and chew hard things; and they are little less harder than Stones, nor can they easily be burnt in the Fire, and whereas in the Sarcophagus or Flesh-eating Stone, the whole body is consumed in forty days, the Teeth remain unimpaired▪ and therefore Tertullian writes that in them is the Seed of our future Resurrection.  
2. The Teeth are naked without any Periosteum, lest they should pain us when we chew.  
3. Yet they have a Sense, but more of the first than of the second Qualities, and especially rather of what is cold than what is hot contrary to the Nature of flesh, according to Hypocrates. and hence they are so an● to be set on edge.  
But the whole Tooth doth not feel of itself, but the inner, softer and more 
Which part of the Tooth feels.  marrowy part; which is covered over with an hard external part, which is not pained, neither by Fire, nor Iron, as in a Sword under the most hard rind of the Steel, an Irony marrow less hard lies within, and the Skin through the senseless Skars-skin doth feel, so the inner part of the Tooth feels through the outmost, into which inner part being hollow, little soft Nerves enter and little clothing Membranes. Hereupon a certain Nun at Milan causing a very long Tooth she had above all the rest to be cut off to avoid the Deformity thereof, she presently fell down into a Convulsion and Epileptic fit. Now in the part of her Tooth which was cut off, there appeared the tokens of a Nerve.  
4. Hence, they receive Nerves into their Cavity which other bones do not.  
5. They grow longer than any other of the Bones, almost all a man's life, because they are daily worn, by biting and grinding; as Gutta cavat lapidem non vi sed saepe cadendo. 
The hardest Stone a dropping House-Eve hollows,  
'Cause drop upon drop, drop after drop still follows,  
But not by force.    
And look how much they wear away, so much are they still augmented▪ which hence appears; in that if any Tooth fall out and grow not again, the opposite Tooth grows so much the longer, as the empty space of the former Tooth comes to.  
Fallopius considering the praemises, and how new Teeth are thought to breed, he collects that the formative faculty remains alive in the Teeth to extreme old age.  
Helmont counts the matter of the Bone not to be merely boney, but as it were of a middle nature betwixt Bone and Stone; because the Teeth turn to Stone whatever kind of food sticks long to them, be it Bread, Flesh, Herbs, Fish, Apples, Beans, or Pease, etc. But there is no petrification or turning to Stone, unless the things eaten be of a tartareous Nature, but only a drying, the moisture being consumed by the spital; nor are the Teeth made bigger by that addition, which sometimes is scraped off, sometimes turn to clammy filth.  
The Teeth are bred in the Womb, after 
The Teeth are bred in the Womb.  the Generation of the Jawbones, twelve in each Jaw, or a few more, as I shall speak hereafter touching their number, four Cutters, two Dog-teeths, six Grinders: which lie somewhat imperfect and concealed within the Jaws (for it is rare for an Infant to be born toothed) lest the child as it sucks should hurt the Nipple. And therefore in an Abortion, or a young Infant, small teeth may be pulled out  
They break out of the Gums sooner in Brutes (though Varro be otherwise minded as touching Horses) because they are sooner capable of solid meat; in mankind at the seventh month or later, after the Child is a year old: and the upper sooner than the lower, yet in some the lowest first, and among the rest,  
The foreteeth in the first place, because  

1. They are most sharp.  
2. They are less than the rest.  
3. Because the Jawbone is there thinnest.  
4. Because there is most need of them both to speak with and to cut and bite the meat.   
And at that time when the Teeth 
Why Children are sick of Teeth-breeding.  of Infants shoot forth, Hypocrates tells us that Fevers, Convulsions, Fluxes of the Belly arise, especially when the Dog-teeeth come forth: because when the Teeth make their way through the Gums, they torment more than pricks in the Flesh.  
These Teeth have a Substance boney, hard, and hollow where they break out, but in their hinder part they have a soft substance, covered with a thin and transparent Membrane.  
And about the seventh and fourteenth year, other Teeth are wont to break out (the 
Why and when young ones lose their Teeth.  former falling away) in both the Jaws ten, four Cutters, two Dog-teeths, and four Grinders. And the former fall out in the fourth, fifth, and sixth year. because the holes grow wider, and therefore the Teeth being at that time soft, do grow loose and fall out. Nicephorus in his Interpretation of Dreams says, that for a man to dream he loses a Tooth another comes in the Rome, betokens gain and unexpected Joy. If their Teeth do not shed, the latter Teeth come out at new holes, the upper commonly on the outside, the lower on the inside, as there were new ranks of Teeth. More frequently they spring out on the sides and augment the number.  
But these Teeth are not bred anew without the Womb: for then likewise 
Whether new Teeth are bred out of the womb?  Membranes, Nerves, Vessels and Ligaments might be bred anew: but the seeds of them lie within the Jaws. For Eustachius and Riolanus have observed some smaller Teeth at the back of the rest which fall out, a very thin partition being removed which is found between the two sorts of Teeth. But a rare case it is for Teeth to breed again, after many years and in old age. As Thuanus relates of a man that was an hundred year old: in our Fionia a man of an hundred and forty years of age, had new Teeth. Helmont saw an old Man and Woman of sixty three years of age, whose Teeth grew again with such pains as Children have when breed they teeth, which was no token of their long living, for both of them died that year. Sir Francis Bacon hath the like Example touching an old Man.  
But now let us speak of the Teeth in grown persons.  
The Teeth are seated in the Compass of the two Jawbones, in Mankind, shut up within his mouth; in a Boar they stick out, as also in the Whale-fish called Narhual in our Greenland; which sends out an exceeding long wreathed Tooth, ●ut of the left side of his upper Jaw, which is commonly taken for the Unicorns horn, and is yet of great value among Noble Men and Princes.  
In Magnitude they come short of the Teeth of other Animals, because of the smallness of Man's mouth. And in Mankind some have greater, others less.  
They vary in Figure. In Man they are of a threefold figure: Cutters, Dog-teeths, and Grinders, as shall be said in the following Chapter; save that Fontanus observed in a certain Man, that they were all Grinders which he had. In Creatures that chew the Cud they are double; Cutters and Grinders. In Fishes they are in a manner all perfectly sharp, excepting one kind of Whale, which the Islanders call Springwall, whose teeth are blunt, but broad.  
The Surface is smooth and even.  
The Colour white, and shining, unless negligence, Age, or sickness hinder.  
The Number is not the same in all Men, for to let pass rarities, viz. that some men are born with one continued tooth in their upper Jawbone (which they relate of Pyrrhus, and a certain Groenlander brought hither in the King's Ships) also of a double and triple row of teeth, such as I have seen in some Fishes, and such as Lewis the thirteenth King of France had, and which Solinus writes of Mantichora, and is known of the Lamia, which hath five ranks, strangely ordered, and among them exceeding sharp teeth, resembling the stones called Glossopetrae, and therefore Columna took the teeth of a Lamian turned to stone, to be the Glossopetrae or precious Stones of Malta so called, of which I have spoke elsewhere. In a Sea-wolf, I have observed a double rank, the former of sharp teeth, the inner of grinders, close joined together, which possess the lower part of the Palate. A man hath ordinarily but one rank in each Jawbone, and twenty eight in all, sometimes thirty, in the upper Jaw sixteen, in the lower fourteen; but for the most part thirty two, sixteen in each Jaw.  
But this number is seldom changed, save in the grinders, which sometimes are on each side five, sometimes sour; otherwhiles five above, four beneath, or five on the right, and four on the left side, or contrarily.  
A great number of teeth argues length 
Many teeth argue long life.  of life, few teeth a short life, according to Galen and Hypocrates. And rightly. For the rarity and fewness of teeth is bad as a Sign and a Cause: for it argues want of matter, and the weakness of the formative faculty. As a Cause: because few teeth cannot well prepare the meat, and so the first digestion is hurt, and consequently the second. But we must understand that this prediction holds for the most part, but not always, as Scaliger well disputes against Cardan in his 271. Exercitation. For Augustus who lived seventy six years, is said to have had thin, few, and scaly teeth; and so likewise Forestus who lived above eighty years.  
Their Connexion is by way of Gomphosis, for they seem to be fixed in their holes as nails in a post. Also they are tied by strong Bands unto their nests, which bands stick to their roots; and then the Gums compass them, of which before.  
The outer Substance is more solid and hard, not feeling; the inner is a little more soft, endued with sense, by reason of the neighbourhood of a Nerve and Membrane, and hath in it a Cavity, larger in Children then Elder persons, and compassed about till they be seven years old, with a thin Scale like the Combs of Bees, and full of snotty matter; in grown persons the humour being dried up, it is diminished.  
This Cavity is clothed with a little Membrane 
The Diseases and Pains of the Teeth, how caused?  of exquisite Sense, which if it imbibes some Humour flowing from the Brain, extreme Toothache follows. In this begin Erosions, Putrefactions, and most painful Rottenness; and herein sometimes grow the smallest sort of worms, which exceedingly torment men.  
Vessels are carried to this Cavity, by the holes of the Roots of the Teeth.  
As Veins to carry back the blood after nutrition and continual augmentation. Which are not seen so apparently in Mankind (as neither the Veins of the adnata tunica of the Eyes) but they are manifestly seen in Oxen, and are gathered from the sprinkling of blood in the Cavity.  
Little Arteries to afford Natural Heat and Blood for Nutrition and Alteration. And therefore upon an Inflammation, a pulsative pain of the teeth is sometimes caused▪ which Galen experimented in himself. Hence much lightful, shineing blood, comes sometimes from a tooth that has an hole made in it, and sometimes so as to cause death.  
Little Nerves tender and fine, are carried to them from the first pare, according as we reckon, which go through the Roots into the Cavity, where they are spread abroad within, and by small twigs mingled with a certain mucilaginous Substance sound in the middle of the teeth.  
The Use of the Teeth  

In the first and chiefest place, is to chew and grind the meat. And therefore such as have lost their teeth are fain to content themselves with suppings; and therefore Nicephorus reckons that it is bad to dream of a man's teeth falling out, and says it signifies the loss of a Friend.  
2. They serve to form the voice (and therefore Children do not speak, till their mouths are full of teeth) especially the fore teeth which help the framing of some certain Letters. Hence those that have lost their teeth, cannot pronounce some Letters, as for Example T. and R. in the speaking whereof, the tongue 
Speech him.  being widened, ●ought to rest upon the foreteeth. Also the loss of the grinders hurts the Explication or plain Expression of the Words, according to Galen, so that the Speech becomes slower, and less clear and easy. Let therefore such as have lost their teeth, procure artificial ones to be set in, and with a golden wire to be firmly fastened.  
3. For Ornament. For such as want their teeth are thereby deformed.  
4. Homer conceives the teeth are an edge to the tongue and Speech, to keep in a man's words, and prevent prating.  
5. In Brutes they serve to fight withal, in which case a man uses his hands.  
6. In the said Brutes, also to show their Age. For the Age of an Horse is known, by looking into his Mouth, where before he is four years old that tooth to be seen which they term Gnomon, when he is four year old, there is another tooth seen with an hole in it that will hold a Pease, which every year grows less and less, till at eight years the tooth is filled up, becomes smooth, and no hole to be seen therein.    

Chap. XIII. Of the Teeth in Particular.  
IN respect of their threefold Shape, their Situation, and Office, there are in Mankind three sort of Teeth: The Foreteeth, the Dog-teeths, and the Grinders.  
The Foreteeth, from their Office which is to cut the meat, are termed Incisores and Incisorij Cutters, also Gelásinoi the laughing teeth, because in laughing they are first discovered.  
They are placed before, in the middle of the rest, in each Jaw four (some have only two in a Jaw, as large as four) broad and sharp like Swords, shorter than the Dog-teeths, and fixed in their Sockets with single Roots; and therefore they fall the sooner out, especially the uppermore. After these follow on either side  
The Dog-teeths, so called, because of their sharpness, hardness, and use; for what the former cannot cut these do bruise and grind. They are commonly termed the Eye-teeths, not as some think, because they do almost touch the circumference of the Eye, seeing they hardly reach the lower part of the L●ps of the Nostrils, but because a portion of that Nerve which moves the Eye, is carried unto them, and they are deeply rooted, and therefore it is counted dangerous to draw them, also when they are pained, the Eyelids do pant a little.  
These teeth are two in each Jaw, on each side one, broad and thick in their basis, and 
Why Men have few dog teeth.  sharp above. For a Man did not need many of these kind of teeth, seeing he is a gentle Creature, and hath hands to defend and offend.  
They are fastened with simple Roots as the Foreteeth are, but they are more deeply and firmly rooted: for their Roots exceed all the other teeth in depth, and they are longer than the upper teeth.  
The remaining hindermore teeth are called Molares, both from their shape resembling Millstones and their use, because they grind the meat after it is cut, they are rough and great, hard and broad. The Germans call them the Cheek-teeths.  
In men they are more in number then the Cutters; but the contrary holds in fierce Beasts, which use their sharp also to fight with.  
They are commonly twenty, on each hand in both the Jaws sive, although the number varies, as was said beor.  
The two last of these are termed Dentes Sapientiae, the Teeth of Wisdom, also the teeth of Sense and Understanding, because they do then first break out (sometimes with very great pains, and otherwailes without any pain) when men begin to be wise, about the twenty eighth or thirtieth year of their Age, and sometimes when they are very old; Aristotle saw them break out in some when they were fourscore, and Walaeus at the Age of eighty three years. Sometimes they hardly appear, and otherwhiles they are scarce created; the Latins call them Genuinos.  
These Teeth are fastened by divers roots, 
Why the upper Grinders have more roots then the lower?  either two and three, as the lower Jaw-teeths, or with three and four, as the upper Jaw-teeths, which have more roots then the other: Because,  

1. They hang of themselves, otherwise then the lower teeth which are fastened partly by their own heaviness.  
2. Because the Substance of the upper Jaw is more rare and soft.   
And so much for the first part of the 
A Transition.  Skeleton, viz. the Head: Now follows the second Part, or Trunk.   

Chap. 14. Of the Backbone and its Vertebrae in General.  
IN the Trunk or other Part of the Skeleton, all the Vertebrae of the Backbone are to be examined, also the Ossa Ischij, the Ribs, the Breastbone, the Chennel-bones, and the Shoulderblades.  
All that is termed the Spina or Backbone, 
What the Spina is?  which reaches from the first Vertebra of the Neck to the Os coccygis, or Crupper-bone. It is called Spina the Thorn, because the ●inder part thereof is all along sharp-pointed like a thorn branch.  
The Parts of the Spine or Backbone are termed Sponduloi in Greek, in Latin Vertebrae Whirl-bones, or Turningbones, because by means of them the Body is turned several ways.  
And these Bones of the Spina are divided into seven Vertebrae of the Neck; twelve of the Back; five of the Loins, and five or fix of the Os sacrum; to which is added the Crupper-bone.  
All the Vertebrae are hollowed, to contain the Spinal Marrow, they were to be many, not one, both for Motion which ought to be made forward and backward; also that the hurting of one might not draw the whole Spine into consent. The Father of Nic. Fontanus saw five Vertebrae or Whirle-bones of the Spina in a cluster like a round ball, in the Body of a Porter that carried burdens. And Pavius hath observed that in decrepit old people these Vertebrae grow together into one, the moisture being dried up, and the intermediate Ligaments hardened, which he represents by a Picture. Tulpius saw the Backbone in a Boy divided into two parts, and Salmuth hath seen it broke asunder in persons that were hanged.  
The Figure of the whole Back is, that sometimes it inclines inwards, as the Vertebrae of the Neck, to sustain the Gullet and aspera Arteria; and those of the Loins, for the Trunk of the Aorta and the Cava descending. Sometimes outwards, as of the Back, and a little of the Os sacrum; that there may be a larger space for the Heart, Lungs, Bladder, Fundament and Womb.  
And these Parts do bend more outwards in Women, for the sake of the Child in the Womb.  
The Figure of each Vertebra above and beneath, is plane and broad, that luxation may not easily be caused, round within, convex and bunching out; but in the neck broader and more even, by reason of the Weazand and Gullet resting thereupon. On the outer or Back-point, the Vertebrae are furnished with many prominencies.  
For there are three kind of Processes in every Vertebra.  

I. Four oblique ones, two on the upper part ascending, two in the neither part descending.  
II. Two transverse, for the Original and Insertion of the Muscles. And they are in the Vertebrae of the Neck broad and bored through; in the Back thick, solid and round, excepting the eleventh and twelfth.  
III. One sharp one, in the hinder part, which is properly called the Spine or Thorn, and is wanting in the first Vertebra.   
They have five Appendices. Two above and beneath at their Body; as many at their transverse Processes, and one at the extremity of the Spine.  
There is a most wide hole in the midst of each Vertebra for to keep the Spinal Marrow in. Also there are other holes in the sides, which are lesser, to let the nerves out, which John Leonicenus affirm to go out only at the jointings of the Vertebrae.  
The Substance of each Vertebra, is thicker and more spongy in the inside: to which grow the Epiphyses and Gristles. For the extreme Parts of the Vertebrae, excepting the first of the Neck, are furnished with Appendices, between which there come thick and soft Gristles, that they may be more easily moved; so that above and beneath, they have Gristles, which in the Os sacrum are harder and drier, because this Bone is immovable.  
The Vertebrae are knit together by Articulation in the hinder part, viz. by the way of Ginglumos, but in the fore part by way of Symphysis, and that by very strong Ligaments or Bands.  
Now the Ligaments of the Vertebrae are twofold.  
Some do knit the Vertebrae above and beneath, and are shaped like the half Moon, thick, strong, fibrous, and snotty.  
Others arise from the Epiphyses, as well the transverse as the sharp ones, which are membranous, by which the Processes are more strongly tied.   

Chap. XV. Of the Vertebroe or Whirl-bones of the Back in Particular  
THe Vertebrae of the Neck are commonly seven. In Brutes for the most part six only, and Busbequius relates that the Hyena hath none, who is confuted by the Skeleton of that Beast in the custody of P. Castellus. These Vertebrae of the Neck, have some Peculiarities, whereby they differ from the rest.  

I. Some of them have their transverse Processes cleft in two.  
II. Also they have them bored, for the cervical Veins and Arteries, ascending into the Brain.  
III. They have a cloven Spine or thorny Point.   
The two first are joined by Ligaments to the hinder-part of the Head, that they may stick most close to the Head, and have somewhat peculiar to themselves, which the other five have not.  
I. Is termed Atlas, because it seems to bear the Head up, which rests upon the 
Why the first Vertebra has no Spine?  two hollows thereof. Some call it Epistropheus, though more give that Name to the second. It hath no Spine or sharp Point, lest the two small Muscles of the Head which arise from the second Vertebra, should be hurt when the Head is stretched out.  
It hath a thinner, but more compact Substance. It receives, and is not received: and therefore it hath its Cavity covered with a Cartilege, to receive the tooth of the following Vertebra.  
II. Is called Epistropheus from turning: for out of the middle of its Body, there rises an Appendix (others call it a Process) round and oblong, like a Dog's tooth, about which the Head with the first Vertebra is turned.  
Hence that Appendix is called a tooth; yea and the whole Vertebra is by Hippoerates 
An incurable Squinzie by Luxation of the Tooth.  so called, by the Luxation whereof, he conceives an incurable Squinzie, is often caused.  
The Surface of the Tooth is in some sort rough, because thence proceeds the Ligament, whereby it is bound to the Occiput or hind-part of the Head, about which also is wound a solid and round Ligament, like a Nerve in shape, wondrous artificially twisted, that the Marrow may not be compressed and hurt.  
Now this second Vertebra is joined with the first, by a broad Ligament, turned round.  
The last does more agree with the Vertebrae of the Chest, and hath its last Process not always cloven.  
The Vertebrae of the Back are commonly twelve in number; to which so many Ribs on each side are articulated: seldom one is wanting; and there is seldomer one more.  
They are thicker than those of the Neck; less solid, and full of little holes, for the passage of the nourishing Vessels.  

I. Is by the Ancients called Liphiá, because it is higher, and sticks out more than the rest.  
II. Is termed Maschalister Axillaris the Armpit Vertebra.   
The rest are called Costales the Rib-vertebrae.  
The eleventh is termed Arrhep●s, because the Spine or sharp point thereof is strait.  
The twelfth is called Diazostér the Girder.  
The five of the Loins are the thickest and greatest, being full of little holes, whose motion is loser than that of the Back, that we may more easily stoop to the ground.  
The transverse Processes are longer, but thinner, excepting the first and fifth; but the Spines' are thicker and broader, to which the Muscles and Ligaments of the Back are fastened.  
1. Is termed Nephrites, from the Kidneys which re● thereupon.  
The last, is by some called Asphalites, the stablisher or underpropper.  
The rest agree with the others aforesaid.  
The Os sacrum or holy Bone follows, so 
The Os sacrum why so called.  called, because it is the biggest of the Spine or Backbone, for the Ancients termed that which was great, Sacred. Or because it lieth under the obscene or privy Parts, which Nature herself covers and hides: For Sacrum did also signify execrable, as Servius shows from Petronius, commenting upon that Expression of Virgil; Auri sacra fames: the cursed thirst of Gold.  
It is broad and immovable, being the Basis or Foundation of the Back.  
It's Figure is commonly triangular. It is in its forepart hollow, smooth and even; behind it is bunching and rough.  
Its Vertebrae so called, not in regard 
Os sacrum properly hath no Vertebrae.  of use but similitude, are five, sometimes six, in young Children easily separable, in grown persons so glued together, that they seem to be but one Bone. Solomon Albertus and Pavius have sometimes observed them to be seven in Number.  
Galen makes the Os sacrum to consist of three Bones; because he comprehends the other Bones of Os sacrum under the Crupper-bone, and calls that an Epiphysis, which others call Os Coccygis.  
The Holes are not in its sides, as those of the former, but in the forepart (which are greater, because there are greater Nerves) and the hinder-part: because at the sides in the Os Ilium or Flank-bone.  
In the three upper Cavities are engraven, where the Ossa Ilij cleave ●o it.  
OS COCCYGIS the Cockow-bone, so called from the Shape it hath of a Cuckows-bill, is under the former, consisting of three or four Bones, and two Gristles. But I conceive there was a greater number of Bones and Gristles in that Danish Boy, who had a Tail growing out at his Rump.  
Their Connexion is loose, and in Women loser than in Men, that they 
The Os coccygis may be loosened.  may give way.  
1. In the Avoidance of large Excrements.  
2. In the time of women's Travel, that the cavity may be more wide. And therefore some conceive that this Bone only gives way in the Birth, though Pinaeus be against it, and that the Pains of Women in Travel depend upon the Concourse of little Nerves in that place. Afterwards in sitting it comes forwards, and of its own accord returns into its place.  
This Bone in Men bends more inward to sustain the Intestinum rectum; in Women outwards, because of the Neck of the Womb, and that the Cavity might be wider.  
This Bone being hurt or broken, exceeding great, pains are raised, as the Stories related by Amatus and Donatus, do witness. Hoffman believes it is of no use, but is only the mark of a tail, as the Nipples in Men are only the signs or marks of Duggs. But the constant Doctrine of Galen is, that all Parts of the Body are made for some Use.   

Chap. 16. Of the Nameless Bone, or Os Innominatum.  
THe OS INNOMINATUM or NAMELESS BONE, which some term OS COXAE or ILIUM, the Flank-bone, consists of three Bones, Ilium, Pubis, and Ischium joined together by Gristles, till the seventh year it appears distinguished by a threefold Line, but in grown persons 'tis one.  
The Os Ilium so called, because it contains the Gut Ilium, is the first part, which is the uppermore and broadest, knit to the Os sacrum, by a common membranous and most strong Ligament, although a Gristle also comes between.  
It's semicircular and uneven Circumference, is termed Spina Ossis Ilij, whose inner part hollow and broad, is termed Costa, the Rib; the outer part form with unequal Lines, is termed Dorsum, the Back.  
This Bone is larger in Women, and its Spine is drawn more out sidewaies, that 
Why the Os Ilium is larger in Women?  the Womb of a Woman with Child may better rest upon it. And therefore women with Child do a little complain of this Part, as if it were pulled asunder from the Os sacrum and other neighbouring Parts to which it cleaves.  
Os pubis or Pectinis, the Share-bone, is the second middlemore and foremore 
The Share-bones are loosened in Childbirth.  Part; which Bone is joined to the Bone of the other side, by way of Sunchondrosis, that is to say, by a gristle coming between; which in Women is twice as thick and loose or wide as in Men, that these Bones in Childbirth may be (not dislocated or disjointed, but) loosened and made to gape, when the Child strives to come forth. But now and then when the Child's greatness, or the narrowness of the place requires, the Share-bones are pulled asunder, as, besides the Authority of the Ancients, Paraeus and Riolanus have observed in the Dissections of Childing-women, etc. and it is largely proved in the Anatomical Controversies of my Father Bartholinus: But this is not always so, namely when the Child is soft and apt to bend itself and comply with the straitness of the place when the way is slippery, the Bones much widened, etc. for then the loosning of the Gristle does suffice.  
But whether the Share-bones are moved is another question. Joh. Cajus affirms they are moved by help of the right Muscle of the Belly. Spigelius also says they are moved after a peculiar manner upwards, whiles the Body rolls in the bed, the Legs being lifted upwards Riolanus proves that the Share-bones are moved, not alone, but with the Hip-bone, by help of the same Muscles, this I say he proves by the Venereal Embracements, in which these Parts are moved; by the going of such whose Legs are cut off, and lastly by dancing.  
But some doubts do as yet make me scruple this Motion.  

1. Because Cajus himself confesses, that the Share-bones (I add the rest) are not moved of their own Nature, but by the bending of the Backbone.  
2. These Bones being joined together by Symphysis, can have no motion, which Riolanus himself confesses.  
3. I have assigned another Use for the right Muscles, above in Book the first.  
4. These seeming Motions of the Bones, are not proper to them, but are motions of the Thigh or Back, whose motion they follow. For in the Examples alleged, any man may experiment in himself, that both his Thighs and Back are moved; also he may by his hand perceive, that both the Muscles of the Thigh called Glutaei, and the other adjacent Muscles are moved.  
5. They ought to be immovable, because the upper Parts rest upon them as on a Foundation, and we rest by sitting upon this Part.   
In Women that have been lately delivered, these bones may be separated with the back of a thin knife, which they cannot be in others. Moreover, though the Share-bones are joined by a Gristle, yet they have likewise two  
Ligaments 1. compasses them about circularly. 2. Is membranous, which possesses the hole.  
They are thin, and for highness sake 
Why there are great Holes in the Sharebones.  furnished with very great Holes, which in women are more large and capacious, because of the Womb and Child, for the inner and lower Processes do bunch more outwards.  
With the Os sacrum they constitute that Cavity which is termed Pelvis the 
The Share-bones larger in women.  Basin or Bowl, wherein are seated the Bladder, the Womb, and Part of the Guts.  
OS ISCHION or the Hip-bone is the third part, which is lower and more outward, wherein is a large and deep Cavity, (they call it Acerabulum, the Saucer, and Pixis the Box) to receive the large Head of the Thigh-bone, which if it fall out, either by reason of some internal humour, or outward chance, a Luxation or Semiluxation is thereby caused. The gristley Process of this Cavity, is termed Supercilium, the Brow.  
The lowest Parts of this Bone are more distant in women then in men, and therefore their Pelvis or Basin is larger than that in men.  
This Bone is knit to the Os sacrum, with a double Ligament, growing out of the Os sacrum: The one is inserted into the sharp Process of the Hip, the other behind, into its Appendix, that the Intestinum rectum and its Muscles may be thereby sustained.   

Chap. 17 Of the Ribs.  
AS the Os Innominatum or Nameless Bone, is at the sides of the Os sacrum, so at the sides of the Vertebrae of the Back, are the RIBS. And therefore, ascending in the Explication of the Skeleton, these are now to be explained, as being the lateral Parts of the Chest.  
TABLE V.  
The FIGURES Explained.  
This TABLE presents some of the Vertebrae, the Os sacrum, Os innominatum, the Ribs and Shoulderblade peculiarly, and their Particles.  
FIG. I. 

AAA. The foreside of the first Vertebra of the Neck termed Atlas.  
B. The hole through which the Spinal Marrow descends.  
CC. The transverse or lateral Processes.  
dd. The lateral Holes through which the Arteries ascend to the Brain.  
EE. Two Cavities receiving the Occiput.    
FIG. II. 

AA. The backside of the second Vertebra of the Nick.  
B. Its Appendix or Process, like a Tooth.  
C. Its forked Spine.    
FIG. III. 

AA. The hinderside of the Backvertebra.  
B. It's upper Surface, less solid and full of small Holes.  
CC. It's transversal Processes.  
D. It's hinder Process or Spina.    
FIG. IV. 

AA. The foreside of the Vertebra of the Loins.  
B. It's lower Surface, for the most part covered with a Gristle.  
C. An Hole for the Marrow to pass through.  
DD. The transverse or Literal Processes.  
E. The latter Process or the Spina.  
II. It's oblique Processes.    
FIG. V. 

AAAA. The hinderside of Os sacrum, conspicuous by reason of its Knobs and Roughness.  
B. The Hole for the descent of the Spinal Marrow.  
CC. It's oblique Processes.  
ddd. It's hindermore Processes.  
eeee. It's Holes for the going out of the Nerves.  
ffff. It's hinder Process which is forked.    
FIG. VI Shows the Os coccygis or Crupper-bone, consisting of four little Bones or Gristles.  
FIG. VII. Shows the Os Innominatum or Nameless Bone. 

AA. Os Ilium one part of the Nameless Bone.  
bbb. The Spine thereof.  
C. It's Back.  
DDD Os Pubis the Share-bone, another part of Os Innominatum.  
E. It's large Hole.  
FFF. The Os Ischion or Hucklebone, a third part of the Nameless 〈◊〉.  
GG. The large Cavity or Saucer  
hh. The Brim thereof.  
I. The Knob.  
K. The Appendix of the Hucklebone.    
FIG. VIII. 

AAA. The Vertebrae of the Back.  
BBB. The Ribs.  
CCCC. The Cavity engraven in the lower part of the Ribs.  
DD. The two Knobs of the Ribs, by help whereof they are joined to.  
E. Transverse Process of the Vertebrae. The Hollowness of the Vertebrae, and to the  
F.  
G. The lowest Rib, having a simple Knob.    
FIG. IX. 

A. The Clavicula or Channel-bone.  
b. It's small Head whereby 'tis joined to the Breastbone.  
c. It's other end whereby 'tis joined to the Shoulderblade.  
D. The Scapula or Shoulderblade.  
E. Its first Process, called acromion.  
F. It's lesser, lower, and sharp Process called coracoeides.  
G. It's shortest Process called Cervix the Neck.  
hh. The Basis of the Shoulderblade.  
i. It's upper Corner.  
k. It's lower Corner.    
page 352  
The Situation of the Ribs in the Sides, and the Greeks call them pleurai, because they form the Sides.  
In Shape they resemble a bow, or the lesser Segment of a Circle, that the Chest might be the larger. Johan. Fontanus found a forked Rib; and myself at Hafnia showed the third Rib of the leftside, as thick as two Ribs, joined to the Breastbone with two shanks.  
At their rise they are narrower and rounder, but the nearer they come to the Breast, the broader they grow. In their upper part they are thicker. And the upper Ribs are more crooked, and also shorter; the middlemore are longer and broader; the lower are cut again shorter.  
The external Surface is rough, where they are fastened to the Vertebrae, because the Ligaments which tie them do thence proceed: And there they are furnished with two little knobs: 1. Is articulated to the hollow of the Vertebra. 2. Is joined to the transverse Process of the Vertebra. But the five lower are joined by a simple knob.  
The inner side is smooth, because of the Membrane Pleura.  
In the lowest part there are Cavities according to the length of the Ribs, for the Vein, Artery, and Nerve; which appears the more, by how much they are nearer the Vertebrae.  
Where let Surgeons observe in the opening of the Chest, which is made between 
An Admonition for Surgeons.  the fifth and sixth Rib, the Section must be made from the top towards the bottom, but not contrariwaies▪ lest these Vessels should be hurt.  
The Ribs have Connexion's; one with the Vertebrae of the Back, another with the Gristles of the Breastbone.  
The Substance of the Ribs, is partly bony, and partly gristly. 
The Gristles of the Ribs.   
1 That the Chest may more easily be contracted and distended.  
2 That a Fracture may not easily happen.  
'Tis bony in the part near the Back, and the lateral part.  
It's gristly near the Breastbone to which they are joined.  
For all the Ribs in the forepart, have Gristles like Epiphyses, which in women (not in men unless very old) through tract of time, do grow hard as bones, that they may more strongly sustain the Bulk of the Dugs resting upon them.  
The Gristles of the upper Ribs are harder, because they are coupled with the bones of the Sternon or Brest-bone; those of the lower are softer, because they are joined to Gristles. Moreover in its hinder part each hath a Gristle, which is articulated with a Vertebra.  
The Ribs are many in Number, that the Chest may be more easily moved. Pa●samas 
Why the Ribs are many is number?  in his Relations of Athens, tell us, that Protophanes Magnesius, had his Ribs fastened one to another's from his shoulders to his bastard Ribs. Nicholas Fa●tanus saw three united and unseparable. For the most part they are on each fide twelve, both in men and women. Seldom thirteen, more rarely eleven. But often there is only one superfluous. 'tis therefore likely that in one side 
How many Ribs Adam had.  of Adam there were thirteen ribs, one of which Jehovah took out with the musculous flesh growing thereto and turned into Eve; or he had twelve ribs on one side, and eleven on the other.  
The Ribs are divided into true, genuine and legitimate; and bastard, adulterate and illegitimate ribs.  
The true are the seven upper ones, so called, because they do more perfect the 
How many true Ribs there are.  Circle, and touch the Brest-bone, wherewith they have a perfect Articulation; and with the Vertebrae by a double knob as was said before.  
The two uppermore are called antistrophoi, retortae, turned backwards.  
The two following are termed stertai, solidae, the solid Ribs.  
The remaining three are called sternitides, the Pectoral Ribs.  
The five lowest are called bastard Ribs, because 
The bastard Ribs.  they are lesser, softer, shorter, not do they reach to the Breastbone (that dilatation may be there better made, at the beginning of the lower Belly) nor have they a perfect Articulation therewith, but being knit only to the Vertebrae, as if some part of them were cut off, they end into longer Gristles than the true ones: Which being turned back upwards, do stick one to the other, as if they were glued together, the last excepted, which is the least, and sticks to none, and therefore 'tis truly spurious, that a larger space may be for the Liver, Spleen, and upper Guts being distended. Howbeit, the eleventh sometimes and the twelfth, are tied to the Septum tranversum: Sometimes, the last grows to the oblique descendent Muscle of the Belly, without the Midriff; sometimes it hath the Circumscription of its proper Muscle, which pulls it from.  
The Use of the Ribs is:  

1. [Especially of the true ones] to defend the Breast and Bowels therein contained, as the Heart, etc.  
2. To sustain the Muscles that serve for Respiration, and some others of the Belly.  
[3. Of the bastard one,] to serve the Natural parts contained in the Belly.    

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Sternon or Breastbone.  
THe Bone of the Breast, which in the forepart of the Chest rests upon the Ribs, and is spread thereupon (whence they suppose 'tis called Sternum) is by Hypocrates termed Stethos: which Word nevertheless sometimes signifies.  

1 The whole forepart of the Chest.  
2 Its Pain.  
3 The Breastbone as in this place.  
4 The Orifice of the Stomach.  
5 The Sword-fashioned Gristle.   
Others call this bone Os Gladiale or Ensisorme the Sword-bone or Sword-fashioned bone, because of the shape of a Sword or rather such a Dagger as was used by the Ancients: for it is convex, long and broad.  
It's Substance is partly bony, but fungous and red, partly Gristly.  
It consists of divers bones, not of one, as is commonly seen in old Men, the diversity of its bones appears, when you remove its Membrances. In Infants it is wholly gristly, excepting its first bone. Moreover, the upper bones are sooner made than the lower, and the middle parts, than the outmost: so that in conclusion, eight bones are found in the Breast of a Child, which after seven years grow together, and become fewer, so that in grown persons there are sometimes three, sometimes four, sometimes more bones. But the first and last remain in grown persons as in Children; but the middle ones growing together, the number of bones comes to vary in that place.  
These Bones are distinguished by transverse lines, and are knit together by Sanchondrosis; for the Gristles are interposed like Ligaments.  
The first and uppermost bone, is large and thick, plain and uneven, of an Halfmoon fashion above, representing the joining of a Dagger blade into the haft, some term it Jugulum the Throat-pit, others call it Furculam the little fork.  
It hath on each side an hollowness in the upper part, to receive the Heads of the Claviculae or Channel-bones, in which copulation Gristles come between.  
And another Hollowness within engraven in the middle, that it may give way to the descending Trachea or Weasand.  
The second is more narrow and hath many hollownesses on each side to receive the Gristles of the Ribs.  
The third is yet less, but broader than the second, and ends into the Gristle 
The Cartilago Ensiformis.  which is termed Kup●o idès Sword-fashioned, and Mucronata pointed, because towards the end it is sharp like the point of a Sword. The Arabians term it, the Pomegranate; Avicen calls it Epiglottalis, and the common name is Scutiformis Shield-fashioned.  
This Gristle is triangular and oblong, sometimes round at the End, and sometimes broad, otherwhiles cloven, whence some call it Furc●lla the little fork; 'tis seldom double.  
Sometimes 'tis perforated, for the Dug-veins and Arteries, which are accompanied by a Nerve. Sometimes in aged persons, it attains a bony Substance, Vestingus hath found it a Finger's length not without great hurt to the Stomach, and trouble when a man bows himself. Pavius also saw here a bony Substance, in a person troubled with extreme shortness of breath.  
This if it be too much pressed and bowed inwards, the parts beneath it are hurt, viz. the Liver and Stomach, and the Infants perish for want of Nutriment: of which see Condronchius and Septalius, Zacutus, Wilhelmus Piso. This Disease is by some Women called, the Heart's compression.  
Folius hath observed two Muscles placed on the side hereof, by which this Gristle is lightly moved downwards and inwards.  
The Cavity appearing outwardly in this place, is called Fovea, or Scrobiculus Cordis.  
The Use of the Sternum or Breastbone,  

1. Like a shield to defend the Heart from external dangers.  
2. To sustain the Mediastinum.  
3. To collect the Ribs and fasten themselves one to another.    

CHAP. XIX. Of the Channel-bones and Shoulderblades.  
THe Channel-bones are called Claviculae, Cle●des in Greek, that is the Keys; because they shut up the Chest, and like Keys do lock the Shoulderblade to the Breastbone, or because they resemble the Keys used by the Ancients, which Spigelius saw in an old house at Milan. Celsus calls them Jugula a jungendo from joining, others call them Ligulas, Os furcale, Furcalem superi●rem.  
They are seated athwart under the lower part of the Neck, on the top of the Breast, on each side one.  
They have the Shape of a long Latin S, that is to say, of two Semicircles, set one to another chose, at the Throat externally they are convex, inwardly a little hollowed, that the velsels 
An sallowie ● about the channel●●nt.  carried that way may not be compressed. But in Men they are more crooked, that the motion of their Arms may be less hindered, in Women less, for beauty's sake, seeing the hollows in that place are not so visible in Women as in Men, and therefore Women are not so nimble to throw Stones as Men are.  
Their Substance is thick, but fistulous and fungous; and therefore they are often broken.  
Their Surface is rough and uneven.  
They are knit to the upper process of the Shoulderblade (by a Gristle, which nevertheless grows not thereto, that it may give way a little in the motions of the Shoulderblade and Arm, only it is detained by Ligaments embracing the Joint) by a broad and longish head, and with the Sternon or Breastbone, it is joined, by another little head, as was said before.  
It's Use is to serve the sundry motions of the Arm, which because it rests upon this bone as on a prop, therefore it is more easily moved upwards and backwards. And therefore it is that Brutes have no channel-bones, excepting the Ape, Squirrel, Mouse, and Hedgehog or Urchin.  
Os Scapulae the Shoulderblade is by the Greeks termed Omoplá●ē▪ because it makes 
What the Scapula is.  the breadth of the Shoulder, those that speak barbarously calls it Spatula. It is a bone broad and thin, especially in the midst, but in its processes thick, on each side one, resting upon the upper Ribs, behind, like a Shield.  
It's Figure is in a manner triangular.  
Its Parts are sundry. The Internal is hollow, the other part (which hath both a corner and an upper and lower Rib) is gibbous, which is termed Testudo the Tortoise, also the Back of the Shoulderblade. There is also a certain Spine or sharp-point, looking above and beneath the cavities which are termed Interscapulia.  
It hath three Processes.  

I. Is the extreme part of the Spine lately spoke of, and is called Aorommiom the Shoulder-tip, or Summus Humerus, whereby 'tis joined to the Clavicula or Channel-bone.  
II. Is lesser, lower and sharp, and from its likeness to a Crow's bill, 'tis called Coracoeid●s; also A●churod●s from the likeness it hath to one part of an Anchor, also Sigmo●idés and by this process, the Shoulder bone is contained in its place.  
III. The shortest is termed Auchè cervix, the Neck; in the end whereof there is a superficial cavity, whereunto the Head of the Shoulder is inserted, which that it may not easily slip cut, the deepness of the Cavity is increased by a thick Gristle, compassing the Lips. And by this process and Cavity, the Shoulderblade is joined with the Arm.   
It hath five Epiphyses, three at the inside, and at the Basis near the carriage of the Spina. Two of them produce Ligaments, which join its head to the Shoulder, and the Shoulder-tip to the Clavicula. But common Ligaments thin and Membranous, do compass the Joint of the Shoulderblade and Arm.  
Use of the Scapula or Shoulderblade.  

1. It serves to strengthen the Ribs.  
2. For the Articulation of the Shoulder and Channel-bones, and for their security. And therefore the Shoulder is seldom (without very great violence) dislocated or disjointed upwards, or to one side, but for the most part downwards, where no Shoulderblade hinders.  
3. For the implantation of Muscles.  
4. Primarily for the action of laying hold according to Hoffman, to which they are subservient, by inarticulation partly, and partly by the explanation of certain Muscles of the Arm.  
5. Secondarily to cover the Heart.    

CHAP. XX. Of the Bones of the whole Arm and Hand.  
THe Bones of the Arm and Hand, are divided into the Brachium or Arm peculiarly so called, Cubitus the Cubit, and Extrema manus the Hand.  
The Os Brachii or Arm-bone, is a single Bone, great and strong, long, round, and uneven. In its upper part it hath an Appendix or great Head, growing to it, which is round, covered with a Gristle, and articulated with the Scapula by Diárthrosis.  
The FIGURE Explained.  
This TABLE shows the Skeleton of a grown Body, that the contexture of the Bones may be seen one with another.  


A. The Bone of the Forehead.  
bb. The Coronal Suture.  
C. The Temple Bones.  
d. The Teat-like production or Processus mammillaris.  
E. The Os jugula.  
F. The upper Jawbone.  
GG. The lower Jawbone.  
hhh. The Vertebrae of the Neck,  
iiiiii. The Ribs.  
KK. The Sternum or Breastbone.  
LL. The Claviculae.  
MM. The innerside of each Shoulderblade.  
NN. The Arm-bone or Os humeri.  
OO. The Head thereof jointing into the Shoulder.  
PP.. It's lower part articulated with the Cubitus and Radius ' where is  
qq. The inward knob thereof.  
rr. The outer knob.  
SS. The Cubit bone called Ulna.  
TT. The other Cubit bone called Radius.  
vu. The Process of the Ulna, crooked backwards, which Galen calls olecranum.  
xx. The lesser process of the Ulna.  
YY. The Wrist consisting of eight little Bones.  
ZZ. The M●tacarpus consisting of four Bones.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Finger rows.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Thumb compounded of three bones.   

These following Characters, do point to the lower Bones of the Skleleton.  
Aaaaa. The five Vertebrae of the Loins.  
BB. The innerside of Os Sacrum with its holes.  
CC. The Cavity of Os Ilii, constituting a great part of the Pelvis or Basin.  
DD. The Os Coxendicis with its Acetabulum or Saucer.  
EE. The Share-bones with their Holes.  
F. A line knitting the Share-bones by help of a Gristle.  
GG. The Thigh-bone.  
hh. The round head of the said bone.  
two. The Neck thereof.  
kk. The external process of the Neck, or the great Trochanter.  
ll. The other process or less Trochanter.  
mmmm. The lower heads of the Thigh-bone.  
NN. The Mola ●●atella or Knee pan.  
OO. The Tibia right and left, in which  
pppp. Shows the two upper Hollownesses,  
rr. Shows the Spina,  
ss. The lower Process of the Ankle-bone.  
TT. The Fibula or other Leg-bone so called, or the Pe●one.  
vu. It's lower part constituting the external Ankle.  
XX. Seven Bones of the Tarsus.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Astragalus.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Calx, Calcantum or Heel-bone.  
〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Os cubiforme, Die-fashioned-bone.  
YY. The bones of the Metatarsus.  
ZZ. The bones of the Toes, of which two are reckoned to the Great Toe and to the other Toes three a piece.    
Place in here, The Skeleton of a grown body.  
The lower part is articulated to the Cubitus and Radius, where there are two processes; the External which is less and crusted with a Gristle; the Internal having two Hollows; representing a Pulley, whereby the Cubit being joined by way of Ginglymos, may be bend to a most acute angle, but not extended beyond a right line.  
The Boats of the Cubit are two, shorter than the Shoulder, and having Appendices on either side, resting mutually one upon another, and joined one to another by a Membranous Ligament.  
The first being lower, greater and longer than the other, is termed Ulna, Cubitus, by the barbarous Writers focile majus; the other being upper and lesser, is termed Radius, or focile minus.  
The Ulna or el, so called for some resemblance it hath to the Draper's Metwand termed an Ell, in its upper part is articulated with the Shoulder by Ginglymos, and therefore it hath there Processes, and Hollows.  
The Processes are two, longwise shaped, and as it were triangular, rough, that the Ligaments might strongly close upon the Joint and compass the same fast. They are termed Co●d●ai, that is Beaks, Bills or Acorns. The foremore and uppermore is less, and goes into the hollow of the Shoulder: the later is thicker and larger and ends in an obtuse angle, and goes into the hinder hollow of the Shoulder. Galen calls it Olecranum, Hypocrates Ancona, the Latins Gibberum.  
In the midst of these is a great Cavity or Hollow, like an half Circle, whence 'tis called Sigmocides from the letter Sigma so shaped of old by the Greeks. It hath as yet another smooth external lateral Cavity, for the head of the Radius.  
In the lower part it is articulated with the Wrist, both by a Gristle going between, as also by an acute process therefore termed Styloides, Bodkin-like; whence a Ligament arises, which fastens the Cubit to the Wrist-joynt.  
The other Bone called Radius is more oblique or crooked, and is a little distant from the other in the middle, where a thin Ligament comes between: but above, the Ulna receives the Radius; beneath, the Radius receives it.  
The upper part thereof is articulated with the outward part of the Brachium, by way of Diarthrosis, whence proceeds the forward and backward motion.  
The lower is articulated with an Appendix with the Wrist-bone, at the greatest Finger.  
The upper part of this, is thinner, the lower thicker; contrary to what is in the former.  
The Hand hath four sorts of Bones: those of the Carpus, Brachiale or Wrist; those of the Matacarpus or post brachiale, the After-wrist; those of the Fingers and the Sesamus-seedbones.  
The Carpus or Wrist, which the Arabians call Rasetta, hath eight distinct nameless Bones, very unequal, differing in Shape and Magnitude.  
At their first original they are Gristles, afterwards they become Spongy Bones.  
They are covered with very strong Gristly Ligaments and withal so fastened together, as if they were but one Bone.  
And these Ligaments arising from the lower processes of the Radius and Cubitus, do serve for Articulation.  
But there are other Ligaments, which are transverse and shaped like rings, for to strengthen and safely to carry along the Tendons, the internal, containing the tendons of the Muscles which bend the Fingers; and the external, containing the Tendons of the Muscles which extend the Fingers, which Ligaments or Bands, though they seem to be one, may be divided into many.  
The bones of the Wrist are dispersed in a certain order: for above, there are four, articulated with the Radius and the Cubitus: beneath as many, knit to the four bones of the Metacarpus or After-wrist.  
The Metacarpium, After-wrist, or Palm, hath four bones (others say five, reckoning the first of the Thumb amongst them) shaped longwise and small.  
They are joined to the Wrist by a Connexion of obscure motion, and by Gristly Ligaments: with the Fingers by way of Ginglymos.  
These Bones are fistulous containing Marrow, hollow within, bossie without.  
They have Appendices on each side, which near the fingers are round and longish heads, going into the hollowness of the Fingers. In the middle they gape one from another, where the Muscles called Inner●●ss●i do lie concealed.  
The bones of the Fingers are fiftee●, in each Finger three. For the first of the Thumb is reckoned in this number, because it hath a loser articulation than the post-brachialia.  
The row of Fingers on a hand the Greeks call Phalangas▪ because they resemble a rank of Soldiers in battle array.  
Each of the Fingers have Ligaments on their insides, according to their length like Channels, whereby they are fastened one to another.  
The bones of the Finger differ in Magnitude. For in every Finger, the first is great than the second, the second than the third: and they are all thicker at the Joint, where their knobs are termed ●…duloi, ●odi, kno●.  
Without they are bunching, within hollow and plain the better to lay hold.  
They have Processes above and beneath, besides the bones of the third Interjuncture, which they did not need above where they are joined to the Nails.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Bones of the whole Leg, Foot and Thigh.  
THe Pes or Leg (taking the word in a large sense) is divided into three pa●ts, as the Arm was: viz. into Femur the Thigh, Tibiam the Shank, and E● tr●mum pedem the Foot.  
●emur (the Thigh) is so termed a ferendo from bearing, because it bears and holds the Creature up, it consists of one only Bone, but the greatest and longest in the whole body, whose fore and external part is more bunching, the inner and hinder, more Saddle-shaped.  
For it descends obliquely inwards unto the Knee; which Surgeons are to observe, 
A Memento for Chirurgeons.  lest in the Fracture thereof they come to disorder this situation.  
The upper part hath three Processes, which are rather Epiphyses, and are easily sepaarated in young Children.  
I. Is a most great and round Head, made of an Appendix, which is inserted into the Acetabulum or hollow Saucer of the Coxendix, and is by a double Ligament fastened to the said Coxendix or Hip-bone: the o●e common, broad, membranous, but thick enough, compassing the Joint round about; the other, round, as it were a Gristle (as if it were a Gristly Nerve) betwixt the head of the Thigh and the Depth of the Cavity, lest the head of the Thigh fall out.  
The Neck hereof hath a double process furnished with an Appendix, which Appendices are easily plucked asunder in Infants, but not in grown persons.  
II. Is external, which is called Magnus' Trochanter or Rotator, the great whirler or wheeler about, having hollows, Impressions, and Lines.  
III. Is internal, called parvus Rotator.  
Whose Use is, for the original and Insertion of those Muscles by which the motions are caused ●● and therefore also it is, that they are called Trochanteres, Wheelers of Whirlers about.  
The lower part is articulated or jointed with the shank by way of Ginglymos. For at the Knees, with a double head, the inner more thick, the outer more broad and flat, it enters the Cavity of the Tibia; between which heads there is a large space, of a Thumbs-breadth, through which the vessels do pass unto the Thighs with a Nerve of the fourth pare; and wounds in this part are dangerous, by reason of Convulsions.  
Mola so called from its likeness to a millstone; is a round and broad Bone; it is in this place put upon the jointing of the Thigh and Shank, where the Knee is compassed with a membranous Ligament, all save the Mola; others call it Rotula, Patella, Mola, Scutum, Os scutiforme, etc. the Knee-pan, because it constitutes the Knee.  
It's Substance for some months in young Children, is Gristly, in grown persons it becomes bony.  
It's shaped like a Buckler, for in the middle, one part thicker than the rest, bunches out.  
It grow to, and is fastened by certain thick Tendons, of some Muscles of the Thigh.  
It is movable, and for to make the motion more easy, inwardly at the Thigh-bone, 'tis covered with a slippery Gristle.  
It's Use is: I. To strengthen the joint in that part, lest the Thigh should slip and be dislocated inwards, and so a man shall fall, especially walking downwards, and much bending his Knee. 'Tis reported, that in Nova Zembla, Men bend their Knees as well backward as forwards.  
II. To defend the Tendons of the Muscles.  
Tibia the shank, being that part which is between the Kne● and the Ankle, consists of two Bones, as the Cubitus or lower half of the Arm.  
The one being inner and greater, is called by the name of the whole, Tibia, C●●me; by some focile majus, canna major, etc. In an Elephant alone of all Creatures (as Bonitus informs us) there is a bending or jointing in the middle of the Shanks, besides the other ordinary bend common to all Creatures.  
In the upper part it hath a Process in the middle received by the Cavity of the Thigh-bone, and two cavities framed long-wise, for the Heads of the Thigh-bone; the depth of whose Hollows is increased by a Gristle, fastened thereto by Ligaments, which is movable, soft, slippery, and smeared with an Oily moisture, thick in its circuit, th●● towards it Centre, and therefore termed Lunata, Moonshaped.  
A knob growing there, doth separate the two Cavities, from the top whereof a strong Ligament proceeding, it is fastened into the hollow of the Thigh-bone.  
But from the fore and rough side come two Ligaments, which increase the Moon-fashioned Gristles.  
It's foremore part which is sharp and long, is termed Spina, where the shape of the Bone is as it were triangular, and so acute that it is like the edge of a Knife, and therefore if the Bone of the Tibia or shank be strucken on this forepart, it causeth exceeding pain, because the neighbouring Skin and the Periosteum are cut by this sharp Bone as it were with a Knife.  
In the lower part there is a Process void of flesh, sticking out with a bunch, near the Foot, and 'tis called malleolus internus, the inner Ankle-bone; as the process of the Fibula▪ is termed malleolus externus, the outer Ankle-b●ne.  
Fibula pe●●●e, the Button, because it seems to button together and join the Muscles of the shank; is also called Sura the Calf, Canna minor, Focile minus, etc. and it is a smaller and lanker bone, drawn along before the Tibia without, as the Radius before the Cubit.  
In the Upper part, its round head doth not touch the Knee, but it subsists beneath: but with its lower ●●rt, it goes beneath the Tibia, and therefore 'tis as long a bone as the Tibia is.  
In the middle the Tibia and Fibula hold a gaping distance one from another, by reason of the Muscles of the Feet there placed, in which space a thin broad Ligament joins these Bones together, according to their longitude, 'tis joined also to the Tibia, by a common Ligament, above and beneath.  
Beneath, the Head becoming sharp, hath an Appendix, which growing thick, begets a process called Malleolus externus the outer Ankle-bone which is lower than the inner Ankle-bone.  
The Bones of the Foot are divided as the Bones of the Hand, into three parts: into the Tarsus, Metatarsus, and the Toes.  
The Bones of the Tarsus are seven, though some number only the last four to be in the Tarsus, because the three first have no Bones in the Hand answering to them.  
I. It's called Astrágalos, in Latin Talus, and commonly Os Balistae the Sling-bone, also Quatrio, because of its four sides.  
'Tis placed beneath the shank bones as a Basis or foundation: for it is joined with the Appendix of the Tibia by way of Ginglumos; wherefore they have upon a long Neck, on high, round, and smooth Head, covered over with a Gristle, in the middle whereof is a smooth Cavity: whereupon it comes to have on each side a brim or brow, like a pulley or little wheel on which a Rope runs.  
At the sides it receives on each hand the Ankle-bones: it's also joined with the Os naviculare; also below to the Heel, with a double joint, where its lower part is uneven, twice hollowed, and thrice bunched. It receives the Head of the Heel-bone.  
In the midst of these Joints a Cavity is to be observed (to which the hollow of the Heel answers) wherein is contained fat and a slimy substance, to moisten the gristly Ligaments, which knit the Talus to the Bone▪ lest in their motion they should be dried. Hence I have observed as often as there is scarcity of this moist and fat Substance or none at all, either by means of a wound in that place, or any other cause, that there is a noise in a man's Foot when he walks, by the knocking of the two bones one against another, yet without pain▪ because there is no sensitive part within, but only Bones, Gristles and Ligaments.  
II. Is the greatest and thickest in the Foot, as being the chiefest stability thereof (as the Talus is chief for motion) and therefore 'tis joined by many Ligaments to the Talus or Ankle, and other adjacent Bones  
'Tis called P●er●●●alx; C●lcaneum, pedis cal●●●, the Spur of the Foot or Heel-bone▪ into which the greatest and strongest Chord or Tendon in the whole Body is fastened, being made up of the Tendons of three Muscles of the Foot.  
It's lower part is somewhat broad, where it turns backwards, that the Foot may more firmly be settled and strengthened, otherwise a man would easily fall backwards.  
In its upper part, it hath a large head, going into that shallow cavity which receives the knob of the Talus. But it is also joined to the Os Cubiforme or Die-fashioned bone with its flat head.  
III. Is called Os naviculare, Scaphoeid●s from the similitude of a Boat: 'tis knit to the Talus and the three hindermore bones  
IV. From the form of a Die or four square solid body called a Cube, is termed Cubo-eides cube-fashioned, also Os t●sserae, the Dice-bone, by the Arabians Gran li●●sum, by some others 〈◊〉 many shaped or many-faced. Being great than the rest, 'tis placed before the Heel, joined by an uneven Surface; with its other side 'tis joined to the fourth and fifth bone of the Pedium; but within, to the seventh bone of the Tarsus.  
The other three, anciently without names, called by Fallopius, Calcoide●, Cuneiformia, wedg-shioned, are articulated to the Naviculare or Boat-fashion'd-bone: and they are a greater or middlesized, and a lesser from a broad Basis growing by little and little smaller and smaller.  
The Bones of the Metatarsus or Sole, are five knit to the Bones of the Tarsus; those of the Toes are fourteen; because the great Toe is made up only of two Bones, and the Interjunctures are shorter than in the Hand, but those of the great Toe, thicker than in the Hand.  
The other are like the Bones in the Hand which answer to them; as the Ligaments also commonly answer.  
But under the sole of the Foot, the Skin and Fat being removed, there is a Ligament broad and strong; and from the lowest Bone of the Heel Sesamoidean little bones are inserted into all the ranks of Toes, for the greater firmness of the whole Foot.   

Chap. XXII. and last. Of the Sesamoidean Bones.  
IN the Interjunctures of the Hands and Feet are found certain very little Bones called Sesaminis or Sesamoidea because they answer in likeness to Sesamus Seeds and also in their smallness.  
They are round and a little flat. 
Their shape. Magnitude.   
They are less in the Feet th●●● in the Hands, excepting in the great Toe, because it is greater than the Thumb is. In ancient persons they are greater and a little plane.  
They grow to the Tendons of the Muscles 
Situation.  which move the Toes, under which they lie concealed wrapped up in the Ligaments, so that they come away with them in the cleansing of the Bones unless great Care be used.  
Sometimes they are gristly, as in Children, in which they are not very conspicuous; otherwhiles bony, covered with Gristles, and inwardly Spongy and porous.  
They are commonly twelve in number in each Foot and Hand, but sometimes sixteen, nineteen, twenty and more: sometimes there are only ten. They are more in number, greater and harder, in the inside of the hand than without, in which Riolanus ●a●es there are none. Their number therefore is uncertain: for many are so small that they are not observed: and Nature herein as in a matter of small moment, sometimes abounds, and sometimes again comes short.  
But those two are chiefly remarkable for their greatness which are joined to the first Joint of the great Toe, at the Head of the Bone Metatarsus; one which is the greater, placed under the Nervous part of that Muscle, which bends the first Bone of the great Toe, and the form and Size thereof, is like the half of a great Pease, the white skin being taken off: which little bone is by the Arabians called Albadara. Some Ancient Philosophers held that a Man should grow up again at length from this bone, as from a Seed, which Corn. Agrippa from the tradition of the Hebrews calls Luz. But another much less, is placed under the second Joint of the great Toe.  
And though most commonly these same very small bones are found in the Interjunctures of the Fingers and Toes, yet are they to be seen also in other places.  
As sometimes in the outside of the Hand, where the eighth Bone of the Wrist is fastened to the bone of the Metatarsus which sustains the little Finger▪ there is one which fills ●n hollow place there: and after the sa●ie manner here is the like Bone in the Tarsus of the Foot, at the outside of the articulation of the ●i●t Bone of the Metacarpus which sustains the little Toe, with the Os cubiforme, or Die-fashioned bone: also two little bones in the Ham by the Os fem●ri●, which grow not in the Tendons, but in the Beginnings of the two first Feet-moving Muscles, which are found in old Men and in dry Creatures, as Deer, Dogs, and Hares. Hereunto they refer that bony part in aged people, which is placed against the 〈◊〉.  
Their Use is.  

I. To defend the Tendons, and by their hardness to retain them in their motion, lest they should fall from the Joint when it bunches out.  
II. To strengthen the Joint and preserve it from Luxation.  
III. To fill up empty spaces. And while these things are performed by the said little Bones, the Hands do thereby lay firmer and safer hold upon any; and the Feet can stand and go more steadily, especially on rough ground.   
To God our Creator be Praise, Honour and Glory, who hath formed and fashioned us so wonderfully.   
FINIS.   

TWO EPISTLES OF Johannes Walaeus Concerning the Motion of the Chyle And the BLOOD. To Thomas Bartholinus The Son of CASPAR BARTHOLINUS.  

THE FIRST EPISTLE Concerning the Motion of the Chyle and Blood, TO Thomas Bartholinus the Son of Caspar. 
To PARISH.   
THe chief men in Church and Commonwealth have in all Ages contended about Primacy: but learned Men have in no Age more ambitiously striven who should seem most learned, then at this present time. And to attain their desire very many are not afraid to assist themselves by Calumnies and other worse Arts. No man can publish in Print, or communicate to his Friend any writing, which some account excellent, but he presently meets with a Detractor who will prick, cut, and tear him most cruelly. Now for a man to seek nothing else by his Cares and Labours, but Envy and Vexation of Mind, is extreme madness.  
These Causes have (I confess) hindered me from satisfying your frequent Request; and besides, because I am not willing to determine of those things, which long experience of years cannot either prove, or sufficiently limit. Howbeit you continue your Request, and I am much ashamed, always to deny you. Also a certain learned Man hath imposed a necessity upon me, in a manner, to discover to others my opinion concerning the Motion of the Blood. For certain Theses having been disputed concerning the Motion of 
The occasion of this writing  the Blood, myself being Precedent of the Dispute; though the Defendant truly professeth in his said Theses, that they are his own, yet he hath undertaken to tax and blame them, as if they were mine. And although that young man need not be ashamed of those Theses, yet I would not have another man's Theses, though disputed when I was Precedent, to be accounted mine. Neither can he be ignorant of the Reason, who is acquainted with my Liberty in Disputing, or the Custom of our University.  
Now therefore take my Opinion of the Motion of the Blood, as follows.  
That some hot blood which leaps out of the great Arteries being opened is 
What Blood it is which is moved?  thinner, more rare and of a more bright colour, than that which flows out of the Veins when they are opened: yet, I will not therefore say, that the Arterial Blood differs formally from the Venal, Blood: for the Arterial Blood may differ as aforesaid from the Venal, because it comes reaking hot as it were from the fire, and abounds with greater store of Spirits, as we see boiling Milk differs from itself being cooled, for the same▪ reason: for that Blood which is in the smaller Arteries, and so farther from the Heart, is observed to differ less from the venal Blood. And when we have taken Blood out of the greater Arteries, yea, out of the Heart itself of a living Creature, and from the same Creature, have taken some out of the Veins, and have let then, both grow cold and congeal, we could never observe any difference betwixt them. So that we can see no other, but that the Arterial Blood is of the same kind with the Venal.  
Some few will have, that the venal Blood is of two kinds, one which is contained in the Vena cava, another in the Vena porta. But we cannot see any difference of these Bloods either when they are included in their vessels, or when they are let out: and that Reason doth teach as much we shall see anon.  
Besides these, we may likewise conceive another sort of Blood, which being made of Chyle in the Liver, hath not received any further perfection in the Heart. And we are little concerned to know the Nature thereof, because we see it continues such but a very little while. So that we are to inquire 
That it is only one kind of blood.  into the motion of only one sort of Blood.  
Now the Blood may be moved either in that part of the Vein or Artery wherein it is contained, or out of that part into another.  
In one part of a Vein or Artery, the Blood is not discerned to move up and 
It is not moved up and down in the Vessels like boiled water.  down, like boiling water, neither when it is received into a Vessel, nor when let out of a living and hot Body; nor yet in the Artery itself, if it being on either hand tied, shall be opened in the upper part betwixt the two Ligatures. Ye●, when we have many times cut off the point of a living Heart, and set it upright, we have found the Blood to be hot, but never to boil.  
But that the Blood is moved from one part of an Artery or Vein into another, is 
But it is moved o●e of one part into another.  a thing very manifest. For Blood is contained in the Veins of the furthest parts of the Body, which seeing it is not bred there, it must needs come from some other place. And it is evident enough, that in living Creatures, the Blood flows out of the Vena Cava into the Heart and out of the Heart into the Aorta.  
But that this same whole Motion of the Blood may be by us the better understood, 
Which motion perfectly to understand, the motion of the Chylus must be sought into.  I conceive our best way will be to begin at the very Fountain, and Original thereof.  
I have often seen solid Meat in Dogs hold the same order in the Stomach, just as it was eaten by the Beasts; unless the Stomach being distended with too much Drink, did make the Meat to float, and so to change its order and situation.  
The Meat which the Stomach receives, although it be but two ounces, 
That meat which is first eaten hath the first place in the Stomach.  it evidently embraces the same round about; just as we see folded purses contract themselves about a Bullet or round Ball within them, also the upper and lower Orifice are both shut: which 
The Stomach closely embraces the same.  by making an hole near the same, and putting in your little finger, it is easy to try. But the lower Orifice notwithstanding, when we find it perfectly shut, seems rather to be fallen together, than straight closed, that upon the smallest pressure it may let the Chylus pass by. Also many times when the Stomach and its Orifices are weak, they fail in their natural closeness, and upon searching are found loser.  
The meat retained in the Stomach, as thoroughly moistened with the Liquor 
It is moistened with the moisture of the Stomach.  of our food, Drink and spital: and it quickly becomes porous and Spongy: because as is most likely the said Liquor hath drawn out and sucked into itself some of the substance of the Meat.  
A while after it is cut and torn as it 
It is cut and minced by an acid humour.  were into very small particles, both that of thin and that of gross Substance, yea, in Dogs the very shells themselves of Eggs: which doth questionless proceed from some acid sharp humour that hath in it a dissolving power. So we find by experience that the Stomach burdened with the quantity or grossness of meat, doth find itself eased, by taking a little Vinegar, Juice of Citrons, Oil of Sulphur, or Vitriol. Nor let any man assign the Cause thereof to spital or Choler belching back into the Stomach, when he shall see Bread steeped some hours in hot spital or the Gall of an Ox, by them not dissolved, moreover in an hundred Dogs or more which I have cut up on purpose alive, I found Choler flowed back into the Stomaches of only two of them, one of which had eaten nothing for three days, and in his Stomach, which was wonderful to behold, there was a Choleric froth so thick and full of bubbles, as that we see on the Suds of such as wash in Lye.  
Now I conceive this acid humour comes from the Spleen into the Stomach, because 
Which comes from the spleer.  there is no other part in the body which we can perceive to be sharp or acid: and because upon swallowing a bit of boiled Spleen especially of a ●ow, heaviness of the Stomach proceeding from the Quantity or grossness of Meats, is thereby holpen.  
Thus the Meat being mixed in its 
Afterward it is changed into Cream.  smallest particles with the Liquor, in tract of time by concoction it comes to the consistence of thin Barley-cream: which when it hath attained, then at last it is thrust into the Guts.  
Howbeit all Meat doth net receive 
Tom. se● 3. ●, s●●nt ●●t●r.  this change in the Stomach in the same space of tim●; it is sooner performed in the day time, with a little meat thin of Substance and well chewed; it requires a longer space in the night, where there is store of it, the meat is gross, and swallowed down in great bits: so that the meat which is well grinded with the Teeth, begins to be turned into Cream, when that continues yet solid, which was swallowed down in great bits.  
Milk and Broths in the day time are perfectly digested in an hours space or 
How soon or late it is concoctèd and distributed.  sooner, and if somewhat else hinder not, they are then also distributed; which the voiding of Urinal alone, after them, doth evidently show, without any Dissection: Herbs are more slowly changed. Bread in respect of Digestion seems to be of a middling Substance, we find in the first hour and half very little changed; in the following hour it is rare and light, just like a wet Sponge; when that hour is past, it is divided into very small particles, and mixed so with the Drink, that all appears liquid, and soon after it is most of all digested, and at last as much of the Braad as is digested, between the fourth and fifth hour after its eating, is by the Stomach forced through the Pylorus, into the Guts. But some of the said Bread stays behind, which by little and little is pertectly digested, as also if any other meat were eaten with the Bread of harder digestion than it: which meats I have observed to be digested in this order. First Beans and Pease, than Fish, than Flesh which is perfectly digested and thrust out of the Stomach between the sixth and seventh hour: Beef between the seventh and eighth: yea, and the membranous parts of the Animals are longer in digestion, as also the shells of Eggs; I have seen Bones that have abode in the Stomach unto the third day, during which space they were become like Gristles.  
Yea, and in the parts of these very meats, oft times great variety is seen, as 
All at once or by piecemeal.  of Bread and Flesh, though they seem whole in the Stomach, yet some portion though very little, is distributed sometimes the first hour, unto the Milky Veins.  
So that whatever is digested, doth not at all expect the digestion of the rest, nor is stayed by that which is undigested, but presently slips out, and is carried into the Guts: yea, and you shall seldom find a Dog's Stomach empty, although he have not eaten in sixteen hours before.  
Now I could easily make all these Observations in Dogs, which I cut up alive, at several distances after they had eaten their Meat.  
In the Guts the Chyle is of an Ash-colour, and is seldom coloured by the yellowness 
Being digested it is distributed into the Guts and milky Veins.  of Choler: and presently now from the Duodenum it begins to enter the milky Veins of Asellius, nor doth this entrance cease in any of the Guts as long as any Chyle remains in the said Guts, so that the Intestinum rectum or Arsegut itself, is endued with milky veins, which are many times seen to look white by the afflux of Chyle. And that we may not think that same milky 
See the Figure of the milky Veins, pag. 563.  juice comes elsewhere than from the Guts, I have bound these milky Veins inserted into the Body of the Guts, and observed that from the Cavity of the Guts to the Ligature they are evidently full and swollen, but from the Ligature towards the Mesentery they wax empty and fall in.  
But the Chyle hath never been observed to enter into any Vein in the body of 
Not through the Meseraick veins  the Stomach, nor any Meseraick Vein, nor yet the Blood being by the binding of Vena porta (whereof the reason shall hereafter appear) exceedingly augmented in the Meseraick Veins, hath ever been ●een to enter into the milky Veins. So that I cannot see otherwise, but that Nature hath ordained the milky Veins only to carry Chyle, and the Stomach and Meseraick Veins only to carry Blood.  
The Chyle in the milky Veins is always though it proceed from Ash-coloured 
Always white.  Chyle in the Guts or such as is died yellow by Choler.  
By these Milky Veins the Chyle goes 
By one Continued passage of the milky veins.  upwards, after what manners, is not very easy to say. This seems to me most probable, which I observed in great and lean Greyhounds; that some of the milky Veins do go right on, to the Ramus Mesentericus, some into the Vena porta itself, others into the hollow parts of the Liver, and very few do sometimes end in the Vena cava, near the Emulgents. For these Animals have not that single kernel in the beginning of the Mesentery, which Asellius hath termed Pancreas, and which is wont to obseure the passage of these Veins; but they are furnished in that place with smaller kernels, for the most part five in number, which being distant by a man fest space one from another, through that space they afford free passage to some milky Veins. But seeing that above these kernels, there are fewer branches of the milky Veins (and some of them greater) than beneath, I am apt to believe, that near those kernels, the milky Veins are divided into branches, and that the said kernels serve, as elsewhere in the body, to accommodate the divarication or branching of Vessels.  
Sometimes also I have been showed milky Veins, which entered into the 
Not to the Spleen.  Liver, but when in the presence of the Showers, I accurately examined the matter, we found them to be Nerves.  
The Chyle being carried through 
But to the Liver.  these milky Veins is mixed with the Blood in the Ramus Mesentericus, in the Vena porta, and in the very Liver also itself: for in what place soever you tie the milky Veins, they always swell, because they are hindered from passing the Chyle to these parts, and the Ligature being loosed, they manifestly infuse the same into those parts.  
The Branches of the Vena Porta in the Liver although in sundry places they are knit to the branches of Vena Cava, yet are they never opened into a great branch of Vena Cava, but the smallest branches of Vena porta do transfuse this Chyle mixed with Blood into the smallest branches of the Vena cava; as is easy to observe in the Liver blown up when the Flesh is taken off, and it swims in water. And that the same happens to the rest of the Chyle mingled with the Blood, will be hereafter manifest. Out of the little branches of the Vena Cava in the Liver, 
Gut of the Liver into the Vena Cava.  the Blood is in the Judgement of all men poured into the Vena Cava: and when in live Anatomies it is tied above the Liver, it manifestly swells with blood flowing in.  
Out of the Vena Cava it enters into 
Out of the Vena cava into the heart.  the right Ventricle of the Heart, and either part of the Vena Cava being tied, either that which is seared above, or that which is below the Heart, I have many times observed, especially in an Eell, that it is quickly emptied towards the Heart which also Harvey hath observed chapter tenth of his Book.  
Out of the right Ventricle of the 
Out of the right Ventricle of the Heart into Vena arteriosa.  Heart, it enters manifestly enough into the Vena arteriosa, and by it into the Lungs.  
But I dare not say that any of the blood passeth out of the right Ventricle of the Heart, by the partition wall, 〈…〉 the left Ventricle thereof, seeing I find open passages elsewhere, but none in this place. Purut Gassendus a General Scholar 
But not through the Sep●●●● inter●…tium or partition of the Heart  and of a candid Spirit, in his Exercitations upon Floods Philosophy part 3. chap. 1●. relates how he had seen Payanus show the Partition wall of the Heart to be transpassable, by sundry crooked and turning passages: and that they might be found out, if putting a Probe gently into one of the pits, you shall most leafurely thrust it upwards and downwards and to one side, and still seek a further passage till you meet with the end thereof. And the truth is I have divers times found it to succeed as he says; but I have withal observed, that those ways and turning passages, were not at all made by Nature, but by the Probe or point of a Penknise, while we open a way already made, and seek one farther: for the Flesh of the Heart is so tender and withal so consistent, that with the smallest touch of any thing that can bo●e, it is presently broken, and leaves a Cavity; so that we may also after this manner, find passages through the sides of the Heart.  
That the Blood being entered by the Vena arteriosa into the Lungs, doth return 
O●● of the Vena arteriosa into the Arteria venosa and the left Ventricle of the Heart.  through the Arteria Venosa unto the Left Ventricle of the Heart, I do hereby collect, in that having bound the greater branch of the Arteaia Venosa (in a live Anatomy) near the Pericardium or Heart-bag, we have seen it grow hard and swell towards the circumference of the Lungs, that part being emptiod and falling in which looks towards the Heart, and when the Ligature was loosed, we saw the Blood move to the left Ventricle of the Heart: and this is very easily observed in Rabbis. Now this Blood, because it can come from no other place, must needs come from the Vena arteriosa hither.  
Leonardus Botallus a most learned Man, at the end of his Book de Catarrho, supposeth he hath found another way, by which the Blood may continually go, out of the right, into the left Ventricle of the Heart. A little above the coronal Artery (saith he) I found a passage visible enough, nèar the right Earlet, which goes immediately and right forth into the left Earlet.  
This passage unless it be the progress of the Vena cava to the Vena arteriosa, 
But not through the foramen ovale.  which we call Foramen ovale, or another passage which I have sometimes found in a Sheep's Heart, as big as a Wheat straw, going with a crooked passage from one Earlet to another; unless, I say, it were one of these, I know not what for a passage it was.  
And as for that Ovale foramen Eg-fashion'd-hole, it is not every where alike shut up, and oftentimes there is a very thin and transparent little Membrane growing in the middle thereof, which with the smallest touch of a Probe is easily broken, but it is very seldom upon any occasion found open, in grown persons. And the Blood flowing through the Arteria Venosa out of the Lungs, doth fasten the Membrane placed before that hole, so that even when it doth not grow to, hardly any thing can pass that way.  
But that same oblique passage which I have seen in a Sheep's heart, doth many times pierce deep into the substance of the Earlet, but is very seldom carried into the other Earlet. And I conceive it was given the Earlet for its Nutrition, it not being wont to receive branches from the Coronaria.  
Now from such things as seldom happen, we cannot conclude any thing touching those things that constantly come to pass: for Nature frequently sport's herself in the Fabric of the Heart. So in the Septum Intermedium or partition wall of an Ox's Heart, in the upper part according to the length of the Heart, sometimes I have found a Cavity, opening at the left Ventricle, about the point, which was as long and large as a man's Forefinger. The like whereunto possibly Aristotle saw, when in his 3. de partibus Chap. 4. he saith the greater sort of Animals have three Ventricles in their Heart. For the greatest Animals that are, have but two Ventricles, as I observed in the Dissection of a young Whale.  
So that the Blood cannot be thought to go ordinarily any other way, then through the Lungs into the left Ventricle of the Heart.  
The Blood being thus carried into the 
And thence into the Heart, the Arteria aorta, and the rest of small Arteries.  left Ventricle of the Heart, goes from thence to the Arteria aorta, the middle and smallest Arteries: for they being bound in living Anatomies, do wonderfully swell towards the Heart, and towards the extreme parts they fall in, and the Ligature being loosed, they evidently send the Blood to the remoter parts of the Body.  
The Blood out of the smaller Arteries 
Out of the Arteries the Blood by come mouths.  may enter into the Veins; for the Arteries have a way open into the Veins, by the common mouths of one opened into another,. And to the intent we might be sure that Blood may pass by those mouths, we have freed the Vein and Artery in the Foot of a dead Dog, from such things as are wont to hinder their being seen, and we emptied the greater crural Vein, and bound it in the flank, lest any Blood might flow in that way, and in the Knee we bound both this Vein and its neighbouring Artery: and then with our fingers we forced the Blood in the Iliack Arteries, as far as to the Knee, and so we emptied the crural Artery, but the crural Vein we saw manifestly replenished; and seeing into the Vein tied above and beneath nothing could come or a very little out of its branches and yet it was much filled, and the Artery quite emptied; we did gather that the Blood wherewith the Vein was filled, was driven by the little mouths out of the emptied Arteries, into the said Vein.  
And that this Opinion is not new Galen 
Known to the Ancients.  himself shows in his 5. chap. de Usu pulsus. The Conjunctions of the mouths of the Veins and Arteries are not visible to our Eyes: and if you shall justly refuse to believe them as not credible enough, you may be brought by other reasons delvered by the Ancients to believe there are such things: and not a ●●l● by this plain token, that in case a Man shall take any of those Creatures in whom the Veins and Arteries are manifest, as an Ox, an Hog, an Ass, an Horse, a Sheep, a Bear, a Libard, an Ape● or a Man himself, and open many large Arteries in the said Creature, he may draw all the Blood in its Body out through the said Arteries. I have divers times experimented the same, and finding always that the Veins are emptied with the Arteries, I did persuade myself that the Opinion was true concerning the common mouths of the Veins and Arteries, and of the common passage of the Blood from one to another. Yea it is a received and common opinion, that the Arterial blood doth naturally enter into the smallest Veins, to the end that the part might be nourished with arterial and venal Blood.  
And that indeed and in truth the 
Goes into the Veins.  Blood doth naturally pass in living Creatures, out of the Arteries into the Veins by those little mouths, these signs do cleenly witness.  
He that in living Dissections shall 
As the store of Blood sent into the parts doth sh●●.  consider that Quantity of Blood, which by the Arteries is conveyed to the parts and Veins, can hardly persuade himself to think, that it is all consumed in nourishing the parts: especially if he shall consider that the Arterial Blood is thick enough, and not a fourth part thinner than the Venal blood, as I have often obs●●●ed▪ when I have suffered both of them to grow cold and 〈…〉 whence we may justly conclude with Harvey, that the Blood which is communicated from the Arteries to the Veins and Parts, does a great part of it, return back again to the large Veins.  
Moreover, when we open a vein in a bound Arm, if you press that 
The pressing a Vein below the orifice in Blood-letting.  part of the swelling Vein with your Thumb which is near the orifice, betwixt it and the Hand, or if you make such a ligature as the former betwixt the Hand and the Orifice, you shall see that no blood will come forth; whence it seems to follow, that the blood comes from the Hand, which flows from the orifice. And seeing some pounds of Blood are drawn away by such a Blood-letting, and so much cannot be contained in the lower part of the Veins of the Arm, it must needs come thither from the Arteries, which are not stopped by that Ligature above the orifice, as their Pulse remaining entire doth testify.  
But that we might see the same with our Eyes, we have divers times in 
The Ligature of a vein in living Anatomies.  great living Dogs, freed the large Vein and Artery in the groin, from such things as did hinder their sight; which may be easily done if they lie not beneath the Muscles: and we bound the said vein with a thread, and we observed that part of the Vein which looked towards the Vena cava to empty and fall in, and the other part towards the Foot exceedingly to swell, so that in regard of its fullness, it seemed harder than the Artery itself; but the ligature being loosed, the Blood presently moved upwards, and the fullness and hardness of the Vein was very much abated. And the Artery being bound, that part thereof did wonderfully swell, which was nearest Aorta, and the other part more remote did fall in through emptiness: nor did the Vein then bound evidently swell. And this we did many times and the effect was still the same.  
And that we might have no scruple remaining, and might observe withal, 
Dissection of a Vein in living Creatures.  what was done within in the Vein, we did lift up the Vein and Artery being thus made bare, and under them we firmly bound the Thigh itself, that the Blood might not move upwards or downwards, by any other Vein ●ave that which we had lift up. The● the Vein being held up, and also shut with a Thread, as is expressed in this Figure, we opened it above and below the Thread with a small orifice. Now immediately from that part of the Vein which was farthest from the Heart, the Blood flew out violently plentifully, and in a full stream. but that part of the Vein which was on the other side of the thread towards the Heart, did only drop out a few drops. whence it seemed to us to be a clear case, that the Blood did not come downwards from the greater Vessels, but upwards out of the smaller Vessels into the greater. Especially when having made another Ligature upon the same Vein further from the Heart, betwixt the foresaid Orifice and the Foot of the Beast, we saw no blood at all come from that Orifice, whence before it issued with such violence. For we conceived those drops which sell from the Orifice near the Heart, might proceed from Blood which possibly was in the Vein when it was opened, or which it might continually receive from some small Branch of the crural Vein situate above the thread; but this cause will anon appear more evidently.  
It is easy to make this experiment 
The emptying of the Veins appearing in the Skin.  without any opening of a Vein in such persons as have the Veins of their Arms very Conspicuous: In whom if you stop the Vein near the Hand with one Finger, and with your other hand force the blood upwards, and the whole Vein will appear empty ●▪ which will soon after be filled, when you take away your lower Finger, but not if you take only your upper; as Harvey also observed in the 13. Chapter of his Book. For the upper Blood goes into the greater Veins, and the Valve hinders it from descending, which will hardly let anything pass by, unless the vein be so far widened, that a great space remain between it and the Valves.  
Seeing therefore the Blood comes out of the Hands and Feet, and they do not breed new Blood, so as to supply the whole Body therewith, we doubt not but that the Blood in those parts continually and naturally goes into the Veins, and out of the lesser Veins into the greater.  
TABLE I.  
The Explication of the FIGURE.  


A. The right Leg of the Dog.  
B. The left Leg of the Dog.  
CD. The Ligature made under the Vein and Artery, which fast binds the Thigh, expressed in the right Thigh, lest the confusion of the lines might disturb the Spectator in the left Thigh.  
E. The Crural Artery.  
F. The Crural Vein.  
G. The String wherewith the Vein is tied and born up.  
H. The Needle through which the thread goes.  
I. The upper part of the Vein which flags upon the binding.  
K. The lower part of the Vein swelling after the Ligature.  
L. The drops of Blood which fall leisurely from the orifice in the upper part of the Vein.  
M. The stream of Blood continually spinning ●●● of the 〈…〉 part of the Vein 〈…〉    
page. 362  
Nor do I fear that the Arterial Blood cannot be contained in the single coat of a Vein, which I see contained in the smallest little Arteries, and in an Aneurisma, where the Artery hath but one coat. And whereas the Arteries near the Heart have a double Coat, that might be so contrived, least by violence of the Blood issuing out of the Heart, the Artery might be loosened; as we see it loosened by a strong palpitation of the Heart.  
But doth not the Blood flow as out of the Arteries, so out of the 
But the Blood doth not come out of the greater Veins into the lesser.  greatest Veins into the lesser? This that kind of Blood-letting seems to argue, which is ordained for Revulsion sake: for the Vein of the Arm being opened in a Pleurisy, that Blood seems to be reveled or drawn back, which flowed out of the Vena cava into the Azygos, and out of the Azygos into the Pleura. But there is no 
Sevulsory Blood-letting doth not argue it.  token that the blood is so reveled; for the Basilica Vein being opened the blood may be drawn out of the Arteries of the Arm; the Arteries of the Arm draw out of the axillary Artery, the Axillaris out of the Aorta, by whose intercostal branches it had flowed into the Thigh, and not by the twigs of Azygos, as we shall see by and by. And doubtless, except in the Pleurisy, the blood should be reveled through the Arteries, there were no reason to be given why we should for Revul●ions sake rather open the Vein of the side affected, then that on the right side always; since the Azygos arises from the right side of the Vena cava, and that a Vein to be opened for Derivation is to be opened on that side through which the blood flows into the part affected.  
But what shall we say? Doth not the Arm after a sort grow lean and fall away 
Nor the Arms falling away occasioned by a Ligature.  (and so other parts) when it is bound, as in those who have it hollowed in a Fistula? because the Vein being bound, the blood cannot descend as it ought, unto the lower parts of the Arm? There is no necessity that it should be so. For all that may happen because the Artery is bound. And really, this is an Argument that it is so, in that many times that Arm in which there is an Issue, is perceived to pulse less and more faintly than the other; the influx of the blood and spirits, being in some measure hindered, by the the binding of the Issue. Yet some part may peradventure fall away by binding of a Vein alone; because Nature cannot plentifully infuse new blood through the Artery, seeing it cannot freely go back by the Veins. And though the Veins and Arteries do then contain store of Blood, yet is it peradventure not very fit to nourish the parts as they should be, but this will better appear hereafter.  
It is nevertheless manifest, that in such as have the Varices so called, the 
Nor the Varices.  blood descends from the Vena cava to the greater, and out of the greater into the lesser Veins. For that is easy to see in a Varix of the Thigh and Foot, and in the Haemorrhoids. But that motion of Blood may happen besides Nature, because the Veins being weakened do not send the Blood upwards, but gather the same; and because the humours by that weight, do resist the Natural motion upwards, and descend, and therefore being collected in great Quantity in the lower Veins, new Blood still coming out of the Arteries; they cause their dilatation and consequently a Varix. Thus artificial Fountains about those places from which they ascend, are most frequently observed to make clefts, being at last drawn asunder and torn by the Heaviness of the Water, which ought nevertheless according to the Nature of Fountains to ascend upwards. And it is altogether most likely that Varices are caused after this manner: because humours in such as have Varices, do not enlarge the Vein, when they are violently moved in exercise, but when they have rested after exercise; because the humours can resist a smaller motion and descend by their own weight.  
So that these are not tokens, that the 
But it flows ●●● of the smaller vessels into the Vena cava.  Blood goes out of the greater Veins into the lesser, but they argue rather that the Blood goes out of the Arteries into the Veins, and out of the lesser Veins into the greater, and the Vena cava itself.  
We said before that the Blood goes 
Out of the Vena cava to the Heart again.  out of the Vena cava into the right ventricle of the Heart. But what! Doth that very self same Blood, which a little before had come out of the Vena cava into the Heart, and out of the Heart was shed into the Arteries, and from thence had returned into the Veins, doth that enter again into the Heart? or doth that alone which being newly bred in the Liver doth the first time enter into the Vena cava, and hath never yet past through the Heart? Truly both.  
For that may easily be done, seeing 
Yea that Blood which hath already past the Heart.  both are alike near to the Heart: and it ought to be done; seeing that which is returned out of the Arteries into the Cava, is more plentiful than that, which is all of it consumed in the nourishment of the Vena cava, and that is not carried to the lesser Veins. Doubtless it is a sign that this is so, in that a Vein being tied nea● the Heart, is not only a little but very much emptied, and sends all the Blood it hath, and not only some to the Heart.  
Also the Heart seems to shed more 
Because the Meat affords not so much Blood as the Heart passeth through.  Blood into the Arteria aorta, than the Liver can supply it withal, at least not in some days fasting. For I have divers times experimented that in many persons the Heart pulses above three thousand times in an hour. And the Heart as long as it hath any vigour left, expels somewhat at every pulsation: for the Arteria aorta being bound near the Heart, between the Heart and the Ligature, I opened the said Artery, and I saw some Blood come out at every pulse; till the Heart grew quite to languish, for then somewhat came away after three or four pulses only: because so little was thrust from the Heart, that it could not be moved upwards till some quantity of it was collected, nor pass out at the upper orifice of the Artery.  
Also I cut off the tip of an Heart and setting the same upright, I observed though the Ventricles were not full, at every pulse somewhat was shed forth; which also Harvey notes in his 2. Chapter. Yea and when the Heart is cut through the middle, there ceased not to come somewhat out, till either the Beast died, or the Blood congealed so in the upper part, as to make a kind of small Skin, so that the Blood could flow no more that way. And certainly somewhat must needs come out of the Heart at every pulse, because there in the Heart is always made more straight, as shall afterward appear.  
Now, how much comes from the 
Viz. about half an ounce at every pulse.  Heart at every pulse, we cannot determine. this I can witness, that out of the Heart of a Rabbit there hath come at every pulse half a dram of blood, and out of the Heart of a great Water-spaniel half an ounce: yet I conceive more comes out, when a live Creature is Diffected, than when it is in health. And if a man would determine by conjecture from what we have seen, how much may come out of the Heart of a Man in health at every pulse, I shall not be against them who say that out of the Heart of a Man at every pulse half an ounce of Blood is shed into the Arteria aorta.  
Butlet us suppose it is but a scruple; seeing the Heart makes above three thousand pulses in one hour, there must above ten pound of blood pass every hour through the Heart, which is more than we eat, and more than the Liver can supply the Heart withal.  
So that must needs be, that the Blood which hath once past the 
So that the Blood 〈◊〉 circularly.  Heart, must flow thither again, and from it return again into the Arteries. So that there is a circular motion of the Blood, from the Vena cava into the Heart, from the Heart into the Arteries, from the Arteries into the Veins, out of which it returns again into the Heart, and thence into the Arteries.  
Truly, I cannot sufficiently wonder, that in so many Ages past, this 
Which motion of the Blood was not unknown to the Ancients.  motion of the Blood hath been unknown, seeing I find sundry, and those no small intimations thereof in the ancient Writers.  
In the Volume of the Works of Hypocrates, The Author of the first Book de Victus ratione, attributes three circular motions to our Heat and Humours, whereby they are moved inward and outward from divers parts.  
Hypocrates in the middle of his Book de Ossium Natura, The Veins 
To Hypocrates in Foëtins' Edition pag. 344.  (under which he comprehends the Arteries) being spread saith he, through the Body, do cause a fluxion and motion, sending many branches from one. And 
pag. 277.  this one, whence it hath its original and where it ends I cannot find. For it keeps in a circular course, so that you can find no beginning. and it will appear plainly to him that examines the place, that he understands this Circle to be chiefly in the distribution of the Humours.  
As also in the End of his Book de Na●ura humana. The great Veins do mutually afford 
pag. 229.  nourishment one to another the internal to the external, and then again to the internal.  
And more plainly the Author of the Book de alimen●●. There is one beginning of all that nourish, and one end of all▪ and the same is the beginning and the End: and therefore a little after he subjoins these words: The Aliment 〈◊〉 into the Hair and Nails, and from the inner parts into the outer Surface; from the external parts the nourishment comes from the outer surface to the most inward parts: there is one conflux, one conspiration and one consent of all.  
And Diogenes Apolloni●●a seems not to 
To Diogi●●● Apolloniata.  have differed from this Opinion, in Aristotle his 3▪ de Historia Animalium chap. 2. The must thick Blood is sucks by the fleshy parts, and that which redounds into these places viz. the greater 〈◊〉, becomes thin, hot, and fro●●hy.  
TABLE ●.  
The FIGURE Explained.  


AAAA. The Abdomen or Pa●ch of a Dog opened  
BB. The Midriff.  
CCCC. The Call turned inside ●●●, towards the Chest, that the inner parts there of might be more visible.  
DDD. Three lobes or laps of the Liver turned a little to the right hand.  
●EE. Certain little portions of the Pancreas which is cut off, that the following Vessels might come into sight.  
F. The left Kidney covered with its Coat.  
G. The upper hollow part of the Spleen, together with the adjacent Fat.  
H. The middle part of the Spleen, about which Vessels are inserted.  
I. The lowest part of the Spleen.  
KKKK. The G●●s moved downwards, that the following Vessels might be visible.  
LLLL. The Mesentery.  
MM. The splenick Artery.  
N. Part of the Vena splenica annexed to the Trunk of Vena porta, which falls in, upon the Ligature.  
OOO. A portion of the Vena splenica and three branches arising therefrom, which are implanted into the spleen, and do very much swell upon the Ligature.  
PP.. The left Mesenterick Artery.  
Q. A portion of the Vena Mesenterica sinistra, next to the Trunk of Vena porta, falling in as empty, upon the Ligature.  
R. The lower part of the Vena Mesenterica sinistra, ready to be divided into branches, swelling by means of the Ligature.  
SSS. The Mesaraick Veins, therefore more full and swollen, because the Mesenterick Vein is tied.  
TTTT. The rest of the Mesaraicks, not so swollen, because their Trunk is not 〈◊〉▪    
page 364  
Yea and those things which Plato in his Timaeus delivers concerning the Blood, are 
To Plato.  more suitable to this Opinion than the common.  
Aristotle himself may easily be drawn to 
To Aristotle.  this Opinion. For thus saith he in his Book de Somno chap. 3. Every inability of Sense is not sleep, but that only which is caused by the v●poration of Meats, for that which is rarified, must needs after a sort be lifted up, and afterward return and flow back like an Euripus: for the Heat of every Animal, must needs naturally move upwards, and when it is come aloft, it soon after circulates and descends again.  
It is to be feared, that those Writers which followed the former did not sufficiently study the motion of the blood, yea that they obscured the same, because what the former attributed to their Veins, that is to say the Veins and Arteries, these later attributed to the Veins in opposition to, and as distinct from the Arteries. And seeing Galen a most excellent Physician, was not able to reform all things perfectly: and the later Greeks, Arabians, and Latins, have too close followed or transcribed him, hence I suppose it is, that this motion of the blood hath remained concealed till this present Age.  
Wherein that incomparable Paulus Servita the Venetian, did acurately 
But in this Age found out ●…sh by Paulus Servita.  observe the Fabric of the Valves in the Veins, which Observation of his that great Anatomist Fabritius ab Aquapendente afterwards published, and out of that constitution of the Valves and other Experiments he collected this motion of the Blood, and asserted the same in an excellent Treat see, which I understand is preserved to this very day amongst the Venetians.  
The most learned William Harvey being taught by the foresaid Paulus Servita, did more accurately search into this motion of the Blood, augmented the same with Inventions of his own, proved it strongly, and published it to the World in his own name.  
Such hath been the Invention and such the Fate of this motion of the Blood.  
And let us now further inquire, whether through all the Veins and Arteries 
Published in Print by William Harvey.  the Blood hath this Motion or whether in some others it hath some other motion? Concerning which thing, that I might be more certainly informed, I contemplated the motion of the Blood in many Veins and Arteries of living Creatures, and I have found, besides what hath been already said of the Veins and Arteries of the Arms and Legs, that the 
Now this motion is made through all the Arteries and Veins of the Body.  blood is moved through the Spermarick Arteries to the Stones; through the Veins from the Stones to the left Emulgent or Vena cava in the right side: through the Mesenterick Arteries, to the Guts: through the Veins to the ●am●s mesentericus: through the Caeliack Arteries to the Spleen; through the Ramus splenicus of Ve●a porta forthwith to the Liver: through the branches of the Arteria caeliaca, which answer to the following Veins to the Stomach and Call; through the Gastrick and Epiploick Veins, to the Ramus splenicus: that the short Arterial and Venal Vessels, are branches of the caeliacal Artery and the Vena splenica, which when they are come unto the middle space, betwixt the Stomach and the Spleen, are divided into two branches▪ one of which goes to the Stomach, the other to the Spleen; by this branch of the Artery the Blood goes to the Spleen, and by the branch of the Stomach to the Stomach; and by the venal branches to the Trunk of Vas breve, from the Stomach and the Spleen it is moved through the emulgent Arteries to the Vena cava: by the coronal Artery of the Heart into the Vein; out of the coronal vein of the Heart, into the Vena cava: by the Intercostal Arteries into the Pleura; out of the 〈◊〉 by the Veins into the Azygos, and thence into Vena cava▪ And this I found by binding the Veins and Arteries 〈◊〉 live Anatomies; which did swell in that part which di● look towards those parts, from which we have showed the course of Blood to come, and the other parts did not only grow empty but quite settle and fall in. And I was very careful, not to bind an Artery with a Vein, for then the Artery swelling towards the Heart, would have ra sed the Vein above it, and so it would have seemed that the Vein was filled on both sides the Ligature.  
Now in the Head and Neck I saw, and that in a live Goose most easily 
Yea of the Head.  and in an Hen, that the jugular being tied, did swell from the Head towards the Ligature, and was emptied from the Ligature towards the Cava, so that it is there also man fest, that the Blood returns from the Head through the Veins into the Heart. But if it should come to the jugular veins I cannot determine, since by reason of the hardness of the Skull, I could not accurately dissect the living Brain, but that the Beast would first die: but credible it is nevertheless, that it flows through the carotick and cervical Arteries unto the four Ventricles of the Brain, for they have passages open to the said Ventricles, For those most learned Men Franciscus Silvius and Franc. Ʋander Shagen, have told me, that the fibrous substance being pulled away which frequently is found congealed in the Veins and Arteries of dead bodies; when it was drawn back in the carotick Artery, it discovered a certain motion, as far as to the third Ventricle of the Brain, and veri●y, since the blood out of the Ventricles, through the jugular veins, flows back into the Heart, the Ventricles cannot receive it elsewhere, then from the Arteries. But whether the Arteries do shed it immediately into the Ventricles, or into the branches which arise from the Ventricles, is not very easily discerned▪ because the Arteries, are hardly distinguished from those little branches, seeing the Arteries also have only one Coat in the Brain: but I am apt to believe, that the Arteries empty their blood, into those little branches of the Ventricles, rather than into the Ventricles themselves; because I have observed those vessels which are inserted into the Ventricles to be greatest near the ventricles, as branches are wont to be at their Original.  
And thus it is in grown persons; but in the Child in the Womb, the Circulation 
Yea in the Child in the Womb.  seems to be somewhat otherwise, and thus I conceive it is. The Blood out of the Mother's Womb, does not go into the Umbilical Arteries, which according to the Observation of Arantius, are not joined to the Womb; but it enters into the Umbilical Vein, and from thence into the Liver, the Vena cava, and right Ventricle of the Heart; for the Heart beats in the Child though it be imperfect. Out of the right Ventricle it goes into the Vena arteriosa; but because the Lungs do not breath, and therefore are not opened, they cannot receive the blood plentifully, no● send it to the Arteria venosa; and therefore it goes out of the Vena arteriosa by a peculiar passage into the Aorta, and likewise by a peculiar passage or hole of the Vena cava getting into the Arteria venosa, 'tis poured into the left Earlet of the Heart, and into the left Ventricle thereof. Out of the left Ventricle of the Heart, just as that out of the Vena Arteriosa, it enters into the Arteria Aorta; so that in the Womb-child Nature useth the two Ventricles for one, lest in the Child in the womb, which ought to have much but no intense heat, and which must not be dry, the Blood being twice boiled should be burnt, being destitute of the cooling and Fanning action of the Lungs. Out of the Art●●ia Aorta the Blood-goes to the Umbilical Arteries; for they being bound, the part towards the Child, doth pulse and swell: the other part towards the Womb is void of pulsation. Out of the Umbilical Arteries it goes to the Placenta or Womb-cake; where the Arteries are joined to the Veins by manifest. anastomosis, and by those Anastomoses the blood entering into the Vein, is again carried through all the forementioned journey.  
These are the Vessels by which the blood flows from the Heart. But from 
It goes out of the Arteries into the Veins.  the Vessel of the Arteries it goes into the Veins after a double manner; first and most usually by anastomosis, by which the Arteries are joined to the Veins, 
By anastomosis.  which anastomosis are sometimes great and in the greater Vessels as about the Spleen, in the Bladder, in the Womb, in the Womb-liver. And the most accurate B●slerus observes the like Anastomosis of the Arteria Aorta into the Vena cava of the Belly, but I could never yet be so happy as to find it in the Body of Man or Beast. And therefore they are not all in the extreme parts of the Body, but some in the middle parts: and therefore we see in a Cripple whose limbs are cut off, the same motion of the blood continued out of the Arteries into the Veins. Secondly it seems also possible that Blood may pass out of the Arteries into 
And through the Flesh.  the Veins, through the flesh itself: for we see when a Vein is opened till the colour change, Inflammations fall, because the Blood shed out of the Vessels, is drawn out of the Flesh. But I conceive the passage of the Blood this way is but seldom and in small quantity.  
So that it is now, I conceive, clear, what the motion of the Blood is, and by 
And that motion of the Blood.  what ways it is accomplished: it follows that we inquire, what kind of motion it is, and how it is performed.  
I have observed that this Motion of 
Is continual.  the Blood out of the Heart into the Veins, from the Veins into the Heart, is continual never cleasing, nor once stopped or interrupted for a moment of time. And the truth is, seeing the said motion is made, as we shall see anon, because the Heart receives and transmits', and seeing this motion lasts perpetually all the life long, the said motion of the blood, cannot but naturally be continual.  
Also the motion of the Blood is quick, for an Artery or Vein being bound compressed, it immediately 
Quick.  swells and grows round and hard: and when the ligature and compressure are taken away, the blood is seen to be swiftly moved.  
But how soon the blood performs its Circuit from the Heart and to 
So that the whole Circuit or round is performed in less than a quarter of an hour.  the Heart again, I cannot precisely determine. We observe it is done sooner by an Anastomosis near the Heart, than by one off; nor will I be much against him that shall say the greatest Circuit from the remotest parts of the body is performed in less than a quarter of an hour; for the blood passeth with exceeding celerity. Howbeit it goeth not so swiftly, as we see it leap out when a vein or Artery is opened, because than it is moved in the free and open Air; but within the body it is compressed to lift up its vessels, and to thrust on the foregoing blood.  
And therefore we see an Artery being cut open especially if near the heart, is sooner emptied than the heart can supply it with new blood.  
But if this be true, why do Fevers return once in a quarter of an hour, 
Nor do the Fits of Agues argue any other.  seeing the Fit seems then to happen, when the corrupt matter comes to the heart? whereas now some fits come every day, others every third, and some every fourth day. Truly, I will not deny, that it may fall out, that when the Corrupt matter comes to the heart, the Fit may happen, as Harvey hath an example thereof, in the 16▪ chapter of his Book. But I do not think it is necessary, for some portion may slip out of the corrupt Seminary, or some sooty stream may arise, and go into the heart and so raise the Fever, as most Fevers are seen to arise from the Inflammation of the Parts, which the Imposthume being opened and the Quittor removed, do cease. And as such kind of symptomatick Fevers, even so also may some intermitting Fevers and Agues happen, by reason of ●ome matter shut up, within or without the Vessels, which by putrifying every day, every third day, or every fourth day, regurgitating or fuming into the large Vessels, may bring the Fit.  
In continual Fevers I confess, whose 
Nor the Exacerbations of Fevers.  matter is to stick to the larger vessels, it is harder to show a reason why there should not be a Fit or Exacerbation at every Circuit of the blood. But I conceive I may allege the same cause which is vulgarly given, why continual Fevers are not always alike fierce; because, though the matter be sufficiently near the Heart, yet it doth not cause a Paroxysm till it have attained a certain degree of putrefaction: and that the Fit lasts so long, till that putrid matter be evacuated, which touches the Heart, or sends its Fumes thereto. But I suppose no man, because of the reason of the return of Ague-fits, which is altogether abstruse and unknown, will deny the motion of the blood to be very quick, which is a very manifest thing.  
Besides swiftness, the blood hath vehemence in its motion, which appears 
This motion is also vehement.  from what we have said touching the Hardness and Tension or stretching, which the Veins and Arteries acquire when they are bound: for nothing can be distended by a liquid Substance into an extreme hardness especially upwards, unless it be vehemently driven thereinto or retained therein. But this vehemence, of motion is chiefly near the Heart, 
Not of like vehemence in the Arteries and Veins.  removed from which it grows by degrees lesser and lesser, so that the little Arteries in the remote parts, do not pulse, unless some impulse of blood greater than ordinary do happen, as we observe to happen in Fevers, therefore it is that the Veins are not seen to pulse, because the impulse of the Blood is less in them than it is in the smallest Arteries; and because the Veins soyned to the Arteries by Anastomosis, when they go from them, divide themselves into more little branches and twigs than the Arteries do, for when Rivers are divided into divers Arms the force of the waters motion is abated. And therefore when some Arms of a Vein are shut, either by something pressing them, as in certain Tumours, or somewhat which stops them, as in the Varices, the blood slipping back by its own weight, the force of the blood's motion is then again observed, and the Veins are seen to pulse: for I have often observed in the Veins which are transparent through the Skin, that most of those palpitations in the parts, which are thought to proceed from Winds, are nothing else but the pussations of the veins.  
And because the motion is more vehement 
Yet the same Quickness in both.  in the Arteries than in the Veins, it seems at first sight to be swifter also in the Arteries than in the Veins just as Men, Horses, and other Animals which move themselves with great labour, and through mistake judged many times to make the greater speed. For the Blood forced through the Arteries cannot all pass through the anastomosis, because it comes out of a wide place into a narrow, and therefore it is accumulated in the Arteries, they are dilated, in which dilation they persist a small time, wherefore in the middle of the dilation and in the whole time of the rest, that same force doth very little further the quickness of the blood's motion, which motion is in the mean time more free in the veins, because it comes out of a straight into a wide place, and is performed by more ways. Now Reason doth teach us in this Case, that in this motion of blood, the swiftness hereof must be alike in the Arteries and the Veins; for as much blood as the Liver sends to the heart made of new Chyle, and as much nourishment as the Arteries give to the parts, must be repaid, or the Heart will at last be void of all moisture, which thing also sense confirms, for the Vena cava pulses so often, in that whole Tract from the Liver to the Jugulum, and therefore drives into the heart, as the Artery is observed to pulse and therefore to receive from the heart. But we shall hereof speak more anon.  
Howbeit in the Arteries themselves, the blood is moved more 
Yet of greater quickness when the Heart beats.  aimbly when the Heart drives it; from which Quickness it departs by little and little, when the Heart begins to rest and is afterwards dilated. Yea and in the Veins themselves, the motion of blood is more vehement and quick when the Heart pulses; which as we have observed in live Anatomies, so have we often noted the same, when a Vein hath been opened in the Arm, in which the Veins were not much distended with the Ligature. Also the foresaid palpitations of the Veins, seem to proceed from no other cause then that the Veins being straitened by the Blood sliding back, or by some other means, when the blood cannot by its force make itself way, it lifts the Vein up, which falls again, when that forcible endeavour is abated or the Vein gives a freer passage to the Blood flowing through the same.  
But I do not conceive that the blood which is once carried, for 
One portion of blood doth not always go the same way.  example's sake to crural Veins, is continually carried the same ways, but that when it is returned to the Heart, it is mixed with that blood which comes out of other parts, and is so promiscuously distributed to the parts of the Body: for so the parts may be the better nourished, if they have always new blood, out of which they may draw, that which may best serve to nourish and strengthen them: so Plants do best grow, when they are transplanted into new Soils.  
This is the whole Manner of the Blood's motion: and also of 
The Vital Spirits are moved with the Blood.  the motion of the Vital Spirits, seeing they are mingled with the Blood.  
I have often endeavoured to 
The Animal Spirits motion through the Nerves cannot be observed.  search out the motion of the Animal Spirits, but I could not eisewhere observe it save in the Muscles, which seemed to them to be distended broadwayes and deepwayes, and being cut asunder to tremble and pant. For the Nerves being bound neither swell nor are they extended, and being cut in sunder they show no other motion, save that they contract themselves. And it is a very easy matter to bind the Nerves of the sixth pare, which freely wander through the Chest.  
But the motion of the Chyle through the milky Veins, is most 
But the motion of the Chylus easily through the milky Veins.  manifest. Now it is not so continual as that of the Blood, because there is not always a supply of Chylus. And▪ when it wanders 
What kind of motion that i●.  out of the Guts through the milky Veins, it goes quicker than the Blood itself, and the Veins being bound do swell immediately. And therefore they do not long appear in live Anatomies, nor are they found in dead Carcases; unless some obstacle do hinder the motion of the Chyle. And in that being bound they do not so swell as to grow hard, it seems to be a Sign that the motion of the Chyle, i● not so vehement as that of the Blood: peradventure because ●h● Chyle is to be moved through a smaller space, the ●ike violence of motion was not requisite.  
But it is now time to inquire into 
The Cause of the Blood's motion.  the Causes of these motions, and first of the motion of the Blood.  
Whatever the Cause is, either it must be moved by ●● inbred virtue of faculty, or by some motion which must ●● referred to carrying, drawing, or thrusting.  
That the Blood is moved in this manner by its own proper Virtue, we 
Is not an i●b●●● power thereof.  cannot observe, either from the Blood received in a Basin or shed into the body, which that it should be in a moment corrupted is hard to say: nor can we see such a spontaneous motion ●● any inanimate thing. And whereas Harvey relates Chap. 4. that when the Earlet was still, he observed the motion of the Blood; I likewise have observed the same, and likewise when the Heart was quiet; but withal, that motion was imparted to the Blood from the Vena ca●●, and that in the Heart from the Earlet, as we shall see anon.  
That the Blood is here carried by the 
Nor is the blood carried by the Spirits.  Spirits cannot by any Argument be proved: and they by their lightness should move the Blood upwards, which we see here to be moved downwards and sidewayes.  
And therefore it remains that either the blood must be drawn or thrust.  
That the blood is thrust forwards, 
Nor is it voided by reason of rar●faction only.  Men of excellent wits do conceive, because the Heart's heat immeasurably rarifying the same, it requires a greater place, and that therefore it dilates and lifts up the Heart; and seeing it cannot be contained in the dilated Heart, it is poured with such violence into the Vena Anteriosa, and the Arteria Aorta, that it distends all the Arteries and makes them pulse. And they bring this Argument for their Opinion, that the Heart of an Eel or any other Animal when it leaves pulsing, if it be warmed by Fire held under it, it is seen to pulse again. But whether may not that pulse happen, because the Spirit being by that heat made more lusty, can better assist that cause which moves the pulse in the Heart; just as, when the Guts and Muscles are heated in a live Dissection, in which nevertheless there is no ebullition, the motion seem▪ to be restored. For there is indeed only a certain light Rarifaction proceeding from a certain warmth in the Heart; no ebullition or sudden diffusion. And truly I have often seen in strong Do●s, that the Blood doth n●● leap out of the Heart by reason of Rarifaction; wh●●● Heart the tip being cut off; when through the Efflux of blood it was not half filled, being set upright, it was nofilled by rarifaction: but the Constriction following, that portion of blood which was left in the Heart, was spirtle out above four Foots distance, so that myself and others by me (for many were present) were bespattered there with, whence it is manifest, that the blood is driven by the part.  
It is also driven because the blood being so changed, is troublesome to the Heart and those parts. For if the whole Hearts or the tip thereof living and Dissected, or other greater particle, be pricked with a Penknife or ●● Pin; as often as it is pricked, so often it will move itself as by Natural motion, though it seem long ago to have lost all motion.  
And that the Blood is driven by the 
Put it is drive: by the Vena cava into the Earlet.  Vena cava into the right Earlet of the Heart, I have manifestly seen in the dissection of live Creatures: for in all motions of the Heart, the first beginning of Motion is s● or no, because the Cava was knit to the Earlet and the Heart, we ●ut-the Heart and the Ea●let quite off i● 〈…〉 D●●s, ●● the Vena 〈…〉, and we observe, that 〈…〉 the Vana cava did a very little pulse, and at every time did send forth a little Blood. And therefore the Vena cava hath certain fleshy fibres, for the most part, about the Heart, which elsewhere you shall not find in the Vena cava: but they may be seen very evidently in the Vena cava of a Man, an O●, a Dog. Now the motion of the Vena cava is most evident near the Heart, yet for the most part I have observed it also in live Dogs, all along that passage from the Liver and from the Jugulum, as far as to the Heart.  
The right Earlet drives that Blood which it receives, by a certain tension and 
Out of it into the Heart.  constriction into the right Ventricle of the Heart.: for also in the Earlet the motion or constriction is a little sooner than it is in the Heart. And the right Ventricle of the Heart being cut open as far as to the Earlet, at every constriction there manifestly appeared somewhat to be droven out of the Earlet into the Heart, which also Harvey observes in his fourth Chapter.  
So that the Blood comes chiefly by pulsion, into the right Ventricle of the Heart. 
Yet is it drawn also?  But is it not also drawn both into the Earlet, and the right Ventricle? I conceive so: for with part of that Blood which they receive, they ought to be nourished within: now that which must nourish, must be drawn, to the end the part may receive that Blood which is most useful to it; for by pulsion also that which is unprofitable is sent away, as Galen excellently (according to his wont manner in other Cases) doth infer in his 1, 2, and 3. Books de N●●. fac. Now this drawing is not only of that blood which is near, but also of that which is far off, as all parts have that faculty, lest they should be soon destitute of nourishment.  
But doth not the Heart also draw, because it is widened, to avoid Vacuum, as we are wont to say? It is not likely, because in its dilatation there can be no fear of Vacuum, as shall hereafter more evidently appear.  
As the Blood comes to the right Ventricle of the Heart, so also it comes to the 
The cause of the motion into the left Ventricle, is the same.  left, save that we could not observe the impulse of the Blood, when the Lungs fall, to be so strong out of the Arteria Venosa into the left Earlet, as out of the Vena cava; yet there is manifestly some.  
But the Impulse into both Earlets and 
A●d▪ happens in both places at one moment.  into both the Ventricles, happens at one and the same moment of time: save in Creatures ready to die, in which we have observed, that both Earlets and both Ventricles do not pulse at one and the same time.  
But when the Blood is thus driven into the Ventricles of the Heart; the Heart hath no motion evident to the Eye, but putting our Finger upon the Heart, we perceive somewhat to enter into the Heart, and that the Heart becomes fuller, which also Harvey hath observed, in his 4. Chapter. Yea, we have observed that the Earlet hath pulsed seventy, sometimes an hundred pulses, before any motion of the Heart followed.  
So that we see how the Blood is moved into the Heart. Let us now see how it is moved into the Arteries.  
The Blood is moved into the Arteries by way of pulsion or driving: 
The Blood is driven out of the Heart into the Arteries when the Heart is contracted.  for● an hole being made in the Heart, we saw Blood come forth, when the Heart contracted itself; also the Aorta or Vena Arteriosa being cut off from the Heart, we saw Blood poured forth when the Heart did straiten itself; the tip of the Heart being cut off and the Heart ser upright, we saw the Blood expelled and leaping out of the Heart; the Heart being cut a thwart in the middle, we saw the Blood expelled in the Systole, but we never saw it go out in the Diastole. And whereas some say they have seen in live Dissections the Blood come out in the Diastole, I conceive they were deceived, by taking that to be a Diastole, which is indeed the Systole, which also that rare Anatomist Columbus, observed in his 14. Book de Re Anatomica.  
For in the motion of the Heart, we must exactly distinguish betwixt the Constriction, Quiet, and Dilatation thereof.  
In the Constriction or Systole of the 
The Cause, of the Constriction of the Heart.  Heart, the point of the Heart draws near to the Basis, and therefore it becomes a little broader. And in his Animals in which the Aorta is inferred not into the Basis of the Heart, but a little towards the middle, as in Rabbits, E●ls and such like, the Basis also of the Heart draws towards the point. Now the sides of the Heart, seated against the right and left Ribs, do come one nearer to another, so that if you shall cut off the tip of either side, so that it may hang, in the constriction it will return unto the sound side and as it were into its place. But the side of the Heart against the Breastbone, is lifted up, and especially towards the Basis: and so the whole Heart is bend and stretched on all sides, and that part mea● the Basis being lift up, seems most of all to smite the breast, and to make that beating which we feel; although the point also may do it, which that great Anatomist Riolanus observed, in the sixth Book of his Anthropologia Chapter, 12.  
And that I might be the better assured, that this motion of the Heart now described, is the Constriction thereof. I have sometimes cut off the tip of the Heart, and sometimes cut it asunder athwart through the middle; And I manifestly saw, when it made the foresaid motion, that the Cavity of the Ventricles became less, and my Finger being put into the hole, I felt the Ventricles contract themselves to ●y Finger. And the self same motion which I have showed in the Heart makes externally when it contracts itself, it shows also inwardly; save that there seems to be no motion in the Septum intermedium: peradventure, lest the Septum to straiten the left Ventricle, should come nearer the left side of the Heart, it should leave the right Ventricle wider.  
This is the ●ension and Constriction 
Which is performed by help of the fibres.  of the Heart, whereby the Blood is forced out of the Ventricles of the Heart, into the Vena Arteriosa and the Aorta. And when it is languishing, it is made only by the help of those fibres wherewith the flesh of the Heart is furnished; but to make a stronger constriction, those greater fibres concur, which are seen in the Ventricles of the Heart, as I have often observed, in Dissecting the Ventricles of the Heart in live Anatomies.  
Now those fibres in the Ventricles and in the substance of the Heart itself, do manifestly cause the Constriction, because they are on all sides distended broadwise, and therefore they are abbreviated as to length; just as all the musculous parts of our Body, do in like manner perform their motion: and therefore when we would chew ou● meat we feel our temporal Muscle swell and grow hard. By reason of this swelling the Cavity of the Ventricles of the Heart, is made more sirait. And this Turor of the Flesh and greater fibres begins at the Basis, and proceeds gradually unto the ●ip. In regard of which Motion if Hypocrates in the Beginning of his Book de Corde, called the Heart a strong Muscle, he did truly after an elegant manner express the manner of its Motion.  
When the Heart by its Constriction 
The Heart after its Constriction returns to its Natural state.  hath forced the Blood into the Arteries, it returns to its, Natural state. For the point returns from the Basis, as also the Basis from the point, in those Animals which have no passage into the Aorta, in their basis; but the left and right side of the Heart, extends itself towards the Ribs, and that side which looks towards the Breastbone falls in, especially there where it answers to the Orifice of the Aorta, and then the whole Heart rests and is found loose and soft.  
And unless that upper side did settle and fall in, the Heart would be dilated in this return hereof to its natural state, as is easy to see and feel, when the heart is dissected. But that upper side must needs fall in, lest the heart being emptied by foregoing constriction should admit a Vaccuum. But when out of Vena Cava and the Arteria Venosa, new blood is forced into the heart, and the Blood contained therein is rarified by heat, than the upper side rises: and the other sides, as we said before, remain extended. And so the 
And then it is dilated.  heart is then in its dilatation; nor is there any other dilatation of the heart save this, to be observed.  
In the Particles of a live heart dissected and taken out of the Body, there is no other dilatation than a remission or slackening from Constriction. Indeed in those particles where constriction is ceased, there remains a seeing kind of Palpitation; but that is another kind of motion proceeding from the spirit contained in the flesh and seeking its way out; such as may also frequently be seen in the muscles whole or dissected, in Creatures dissected presently upon their death.  
So that the Dilatation and Constriction of the heart happens after the same manner as that of other parts, the Stomach, Guts, Bladder, Womb, which are distended by what is sent into them, which when they have voided, they return to their natural state.  
Now we cannot better observe this motion of the Heart, then in those Beasts which have only one ventricle in their Hearts, or if they have two, when the Animals begin to languish, otherwise when the Creatures are strong, the motion is hardly discerned because of its Swistness; also because the two ventricles present those motions doubled; and because the Cone of the right ventricle, seeing it is less high than the left, when it is drawn back to the Basis, it makes an oblique motion.  
But let us return to our business, and let us see further how the blood 
The Blood is driven out of the greater into the lesser Arteries.  out of the Arteries near the Heart, is spread through the Arteries of the whole Body, now it is done by a manifest Impulse or driveing or any Artery being bound, at the Ligature it swells very much, and is stretched to an extreme hardness.  
Notwithstanding the Heaviness of the Blood furthers its motion downwards, and therefore the Heart seems to have been placed nearer the Head then the Heels.  
It is also likely that the Blood is drawn into all the Arteries, to the end that they 
Yet it is drawn withal.  and their neighbouring parts may be nourished with convenient Blood.  
But that the Arteries should draw by 
Not necessarily by dilatation of the Artery.  being widened, there seems no necessity: for the Blood may be driven forward only by impulse, and the Arteries may drive the same: for an Artery being broke and an Aneurisma made in the Flesh, the Aneurisma in the flesh, is perceived to pulse after the same manner as the Artery; wherein manifestly the flesh doth not draw the blood by dilatation, but the blood is driven into the same. A miserable example whereof we latlely saw in the most expert Dr. Johannes Elemannus, in whom an Artery breaking, the Aneurisma possessed a fourth part of his Chest. And the like was observed by Riolanus in the 6. Book of his Anshropologia chap. 12. And that indeed the pulse of the arteries is caused by the Impulse of Blood, the waving, creeping, pismire pulses seem to show, and many others which manifestly imitate the motion of the Blood in the artery.  
True it is indeed, in that Book of Galen whether blood be contained in the 
Nor doth Galens experiment show any other thing.  Arteries, in the last words it is asserted▪ that an hollow Reed being thrust into the arteries, and the artery tied above the Reed, the artery doth not pulse beyond the ligature, though the blood may be driven through the Reed. But I suspect that place is maimed and wants somewhat, because after the manner there described, the operation can very rarely and hardly succeed▪ for a free artery is there prescribed to be opened out of which when it is open, every body knows what a world of blood leaps out, so that either the Creature will die, or through its weakness, no arteries at least not those more remote can pulse.  
But suppose the place is perfect, and that the operation shall succeed as it is there described, it may happen that the Creature quite languishing because of the flux of Blood, the pulse might be felt on this side the Reed, because the Reed being thrust in, rendering the artery more narrow, might in part stop the blood, so that it might easily fill the artery and lift it up. So I have many times seen, arreries which showed either a languishing or no pulse, manifestly pulsing, when they were compressed not very far from the Heart. But Galen observed no pulse beyond the Reed, because through the Reed much narrower than the artery, the artery received little blood. And that such a thing might easily happen, I have observed in a Rabbit, into the Aorta whereof, it being tied on each side we thrust a little Reed, but because the ligature being loosed the Beast died, we thought it not worth the while to bind the artery above the Reed and we thought we saw some pulse as far as to the Reed, but we could perceive none beyond the Reed.  
Moreover we could never make that experiment succeed, because it is not easy to find a convenient Artery, and when it is found and duly opened, the Creature most speedily dies, either because of Bloodshed, or (which may seem strange) by Convulsions.  
So that we can see no other, but that the Blood being forced may pass through the Arteries, and that by it also the Arteries may be distended▪ nor seems it necessary to call any other Cause to make the Arteries pulse, seeing the forealleadged Cause may suffice. Yet Nature is wont frequently 
Yet Galen hath certain tokens that the dilatation of the Arteries helps their motion. De usu pulls. cap. 5. An sanguis in Art. c. 8.  to call more assistances to the performance of her works than do indeed to us seem necessary, who cannot always dive into her Secrets. So here, some tokens are observed by Galen, that besides that dilatation they receive from the impulse of the Blood, the Arteries do also endeavour their own dilatation. That all the Arteries of the body both in sound persons and Creatures, and in live Anatomies, do pulse in one and the same moment: but nothing that is moved to distance, can be every where at one moment; and therefore not at the same moment make distension every where. The Guts when blown up by Anatomists, or Pudding-makers, are seen to be distended in the parts near the Blower first, before the remoter parts are distended. True indeed it is, that the Arteries are not empts as the Guts, but they are distended being partlyfilled with blood: yet, seeing that blood which comes out of the Heart must thrust forward that which is next it, and that again that which is next it, and so forward until the Arteries be filled and distended every where, it doth not seem, though the motion be performed out of a wide into a narrow place, that it can be performed in one moment▪ just as we see twenty stones which the Boys set in a row, the greatest first; when the first is beaten down, all the rest do not fall in one moment. And therefore we may suspect, that the Diastole of the Arteries, is caused by the impulse of blood, and by their own proper dilatation: and that both these causes contribute to the blood's motion.  
Hence also it appears, that this same 
But the impulse i here caused only by the Hart.  impulse of the Blood is made only by the Heart, nor does one part of the Arteries drive it into another: for that part which drives by constriction, that cannot in the same moment be dilated, but all the Arteries are dilated in a moment.  
And thus the blood is moved through the Arteries; and out of the 
Out of the Arteries into the Veins, out of the smaller Veins into the greater  Arteries into the Veins, out of the lesser Veins into the greater and the Vena cava itself, the blood is moved also by Impulse. For any Vein being bound in living Creatures, it falls in, and grows lank towards the Heart, and it is filled in that part which is more remote from the Heart,  
And this same Pulsion to the Heart, seems to happen from any part of a 
It is driven.  Vein, for a Vein bound or compressed in a living Arm it is not only sttretched in the part remoter from the Heart, but 
By every Particle of the Vein.  also in the rest there of nearer the Heart it falls in and is emptied; which nearer part if you also tie that also will be distended beyond the Ligature, and will swell. Now this Pulsion is caused by the Fibres whereof the Veins are constituted.  
We conceive nevertheless that the veins do also draw, lest they should receive 
And drawn.  the blood without choice, and that they may draw to themselves that which is most useful: howbeit they seem to receive the blood more by Pulsion then by traction or drawing, because the veins being bound, are wonderfully distended.  
In the Vena cava there is a certain Storehouse of Blood, wherein blood is treasured up for future Uses, when it is more plentiful than that all of it need be sent unto the Heart.  
And all these are Causes of the Natural motion of the blood. To which 
So also by Pulsion the Chyle is moved out of the Stomach.  the causes of the motion of the Chyle, are not unlike: for the Stomach contracting itself by its Fibres, squeezes out as much Chyle as is digested, And by that pressure it seems also to open the Pylorus: for there seems not to be any spontaneous motion in the Pylorus, such as is in the Stomach or the Guts.  
The Chyle stays not long in the Guts, but is presently driven out by the constriction 
Through the Guts.  of the transverse Fibres: and while many fibres, and which mutually follow one another, do act, the Chyle is pressed, nor can it all slip downwards, whereupon some of the pressed chyle slips into the milky Veins; yet lest that the Chylus should slip too soon to the Fundament, it is stopped by the constriction of the lower transverse Fiber: and being thus shut, and compressed above and beneath, it is pressed through the wrinkled Coat of the Gut, as it were through a strainer into the milky Veins. Now this same constriction of the transverse Fibres, happens in all the thin or small Guts, and in all the thick or round Guts, in a certain order, and at certain distances of time.  
That the Chyle is moved through the milky Veins into the Veins of the Portae, 
By the milky Veins.  into the Liver, and sometimes also into the Vena cava by pulse, a Ligature does show.  
It is also likely that Chyle is drawn out of the Guts and milky Veins, for it is 
And also drawn.  moved more swiftly out of them, than the Guts or Venae lacteae do seem to drive or force the same.  
The Chylus in the Ramus mesentericus, Vena partae and Vena cava, being mingled with the blood, is moved by the same cause, which there as we have said, does move the blood.  
Now the Chylus is carried by peculiar 
Why not through the mesaraick Veins.  Veins, rather than by the Mesaraicks which contain blood, because the Mesaraicks being to admit blood, were to have their mouths opened into the Guts, through which the blood would easily have slipped into the Guts. Nor could the drawing Faculty prevent that inconveniency, which is here much obscurer and much weaker than the expulsive Faculty.  
As this Motion of the Chylus, so also the circular motion of the blood hath its uses and conveniences, of which the principal seem to be these.  
That by the continual passage thereof 
The motion of the blood serves for the utility of the parts.  through the Heart, the blood is also continually heated, and whiles some blood goes through seldomer, other blood oftener, there is found in the Veins blood of all Qualities: which while it is carried into all parts, and Nature unlocks, and offers all the treasure to them, they may be the better heated, and receive that Nourishment, which may be most convenient to feed and strengthen them.  
But this motion does also contribute 
And that it may be preserved.  much to the preservation of the blood in its integrity, free from corruption or putrefaction: for  Vitium capiunt, ni moveantur aquae. Unstirred waters easily corrupt. 
which is also most true of the blood, as we may daily see when the Vessels are obstructed.  
It contributes also to the perfection 
And to perfect the Blood.  of the Blood, whilst by continual motion, it is rarified and attenuated. But it makes chiefly towards it perfection, in that the blood is sometimes attenuated, grows hot, and is rarisied in the Heart, and sometimes again it is condensed and congeals as it were in the Habit of the Body. For no part in the Body is horter than the Heart, and none less hot than the Habit of the Body. And therefore there happens a certain Circulation as it were, not unlike to that whereby the Chemists make their Spirits most subtle and perfect. For the blood which is attenuated by heat, after it is condensed by cold, is able to persist in that thinness, nor does it return to its old thickness: from which degree of thinness in tract of time it attains to a greater by means of heat, in which being again condensed by cold, it comes to continue; and so at last it becomes most fit for the making of vital Spirits.  
For this end the blood is moved 
The blood which is carried to nourish the part, is not moved circularly.  circularly; but hath it not therefore elsewhere another motion? Out of the smallest Arteries the blood is carried right out into the flesh, that it may constitute the nameless humour, the Ros, Gluten, and Cambium, nor does it return hither from whence it came, lest the blood flowing through the least, should hinder these humours from being gleved and assimilated to the parts.  
It flows also sometimes chiefly, because it is driven out of the Arteries into the flesh: and frequently also the chief moving cause is attraction: for the bones cannot without attraction receive the thicker part of the humour for their nourishment, and leave the remaining thinner part thereof, unfit to nourish them in the Vessels.  
TABLE. III.  
The FIGURE Explained.  


AAAA. The vulgar mesaraick Vein and Arteries, derived from the Gate-vein called Porta.  
BBBB. The milky Veins discovered by Asellius.  
C. The Glandule or Kernel in the Centre of the Mesentery which Asellius calls the Pancreas or Sweetbread, to which all the Branches of the milky Veins do go.  
DD. Two milky Branches greater than the rest, ascending by the Porta, and inserted into the Liver by the Opinion of Asellius.  
EE. The Lobes of the Liver.  
F. The Gall.  
GG. The empty Gut called Jejunum.  
HH. The Ilium.  
OO. Glandulous Flesh in Dogs, by the Duodenum and the Entrance of the Jejunum, which may be called in Dogs, the lower part of the Pancreas.    
page ●●●  
Some also there are 
Nor is there any other motion of the Blood, whereby the Valves of the Heart are shut.  who suppose, that the blood being carried out of the Heart does go back, and return again by the Arteries into the Heart. Which they are therefore moved to think, that they may be able to give a mechanic cause, why the Valves of the Heart in the Orifice of the Arteries, do fall down and are closed up. I truly have always esteem that a rare design of Erasistratus, to explain all things that happen in our Body mechanically, but I account it a rash thing in him to measure the Wisdom of God by his own Wisdom. And these are to be counted Engines, which evident reason, and especially Sense do show to be such. Here chose our Senses observe, that the blood goes through the Arteries from the Heart not to the Heart; and in a rare and languishing Pulse, that the Artery does not swell last, where it is knit to the Heart, as it should do if that Opinion were true, but first of all. Also that the Valves are not shut by the blood running back, we have this sign, that in case the Artery be bound two fingers from the Heart, and it be so opened betwixt the Ligature and the Valves, that the blood may freely pass forth, and therefore go neither backwards nor forwards; yet the Valves may be divers times well sastned, the Heart ordinarily moved, and so as not to s●ed forth the blood, save in its constriction. And therefore if I would here allow of any mechanical Motion, I should admit the common Opinion, which says, that the shutting, as of the heart, so of the Valves, is performed by contraction of the Fibres. For that same contraction of the fibres in the Heart, is every where obvious to the Eyesight.  
But we have truly no sign or ●oken 
Nor in Passion● of the Mind.  that the Blood is any other ways directly moved through the Veins from the Heart, or through the Arteries to the Heart. In Joy, truly, the Humours move outwards; but this may be betid by the Arteries alone. And in Sadness, the Humours may be moved inwardly through the Veins alone: and they must needs do so, for seeing the Pulse does not cease in Sadness, and by the Pulse there goes continually somewhat through the Arteries outwards, hardly can any thing be moved through the Arteries inwards, and to the Heart.  
Howbeit, praeternaturally the humours have another motion besides 
Yet there is another preternatural motion thereof.  that which we have here described, whilst by their lightness or other activity, they mount upwards, or by their weight descend downwards, as is manifest in such as have the Varices so called. Also that way being shut up, by which they were wont to be moved, they are compelled to seek another. So in a Duck I have divers times seen in the Vessels of the Breast, the blood particoloured, some whiteish, some radish, which the Artery being contracted, was moved to and from the Heart, in divers sides of the Artery: but that motion lasted not long, nor did the blood ever enter into the Heart by that motion.  
And thus (most worthy Friend Bartholine) I conceive I have answered your Question touching the motion of the Blood. Whereinto I did inquire more scrupulously, that I might better know the Nature of the Humours, and their Deflux: from which Flux of Humours innumerable Diseases arise. I did also believe that I might more exactly understand how good or bad blood was generated, if I knew those Parts by which the Humour passing along might be changed. Also I conceived that I should be better able to judge, how very many Diseases ought to be cured, if I knew which Vein being opened, would evacuate such and such parts, and through what parts the Remedy ought to pass, before it can come to the part affected? Also innumerable things came into my mind, diffused through our whole Art, as the Doctrine of Pulses, of Fevers, of Inflammations, their Generation and Cure, and other things, which made me desire to be acquainted with this Motion of Blood.  
And the Experiments whereby I was brought into this Opinion, are so evident, that I doubt not to affirm, that learned and discreer Physicians will henceforwards, allow of this Motion of the Chyle and Blood. Howbeit in some Causes and in certain circumstances of this Motion, I cannot promise the like Agreement: for sundry men are Naturally inclined by a disparity of their Judgements, to embrace different Opinions.  
Touching the truth of these Experiments, you cannot (my Bartholine) make Question, who have yourself seen many of them: and there were frequently present most learned Doctors of Physic not unknown to you, Franciscus Silvius, Johannes Van Horn, Ahasuerus Schmitnerus most accurate Dissecters; and those persons of solid Learning Franciscus vander Schagen, and Antonius Vockestaert: nor were they only present, but they also afforded their Counsels and Handiwork to help make the said Experiments: to whom in that respect I am very much obliged. And so farewel most learned Bartholine, and persist to love me. Dated at Leyden the 10. of the Kalends of October, Anno 1640.   

THE SECOND LETTER OF THE Motion of the Blood, To the said BARTHOLINUS.  
SUch is the Fate of Writers, that they are comcompelled to write when they are unwilling: that so they may answer their Adversaries, unless they would rather be wanting to themselves, or the cause which they defend. A certain learned Man would needs extort this from me, being busied about far other 
The occasion of this second Letter.  matters. For those Theses which he had before objected against, he hath endeavoured now lately by a peculiar Writing to refute. In which Writing there are many witty and learned Passages: but I find that fault in the Author, which the Ancients found in Albutius the rhetorician, who made it his Business in every Cause he pleaded, not to say all that should be said, but all that he was able to say. Also that Motion of the Blood which is evident in live Dissections, he hath never laboured to observe: just as if the matter might better be conceived by the Mind, than he could see it with his Eyes. But these and other things concerning those Theses, I leave to the 
Answer to the Objections.  Care of Roger Drak who is now a Doctor of Physic at London, a Man of an acute Wit and solid Learning: I shall 
That in Blood letting the Vein does swest at the binding.  only meddle with such things as shall seem to oppose the circular Motion of Blood. And in the first place, what it is that Blood-letting does teach us in this Case, concerning which that 
Not through Pain.  learned Man hath observed things worthy of Consideration.  
A Surgeon being to open a Vein, 
Not by straining the Vein;  makes a Ligature upon the Arm, that the Vein may swell. The Vein that swells, not on this fide the Ligature towards the heart, but on that side the Ligature, which is furthest from the Heart. Now the Cause of that Tumour is not Pain, caused by binding the part: for oftentimes little, and commonly no pain in the part bound. And when the Arm is pinced or pained by Burning or otherwise, it hath its Veins for the most part less swollen, then upon a simple and bare Ligature.  
Nor is it more likely, that the Veins swell upon the Ligature, because through the Veins which are straighter because they are bound, greater pienty of Blood comes and with more swiftness from the Liver; as about Bridges and in other places, Rivers being straitened do run more swiftly. For the Water of a River being gathered together in a narrow place, is manifestly lifted up into a swelling, from which when it falls, it goes the faster: but the arm being bound the contrary happens; for they are not the Veins nighest the Liver, from which blood should come, but those farthest from the Liver which are most distended.  
It remains therefore, that the Veins swell beyond the Ligature, because 
But because the motion of the Blood is stopped.  the motion of the blood running from the small veins into the Heart, is stopped by the Ligature, and being there gathered together, distends the Vein. But to the end I might be more certain hereof, I bound the jugular and crural branch, in living Creatures very strongly with a thread, so that no blood might pass by; and I opened that part of the Vein which was more remote from the Heart, it bled plentifully, swiftly, vehemently, soon after I loosed the band, and cut the Vein asunder through the middle, and the part thereof farthest from the Heart being drawn out of the body upwards, presently and swiftly fell a bleeding: whilst in the mean time the part of the Vein nearest the heart, being somewhat elevated, lest the Creature struggling with pain should easily force out the Blood; first it voided but little, and afterwards no blood at all. whence it seemed to me apparent, that the blood came out of the veins far from the heart, into those near the same, and not out of the greater Veins into the lesser; unless haply some neighbouring blood finding a way might slip away. Any one may easily try as much in opening a vein in the Arm: for if he force the blood above the Ligature upwards with his finger, so that the vein appear empty, yet shall he see the blood issue out as fast as ever below the Ligature; which could not come through the upper branch being at present empty.  
But if the Vein be thus distended with blood, which is moved from the smaller 
Nor do the Arteries swell because of the Ligature.  veins to the Heart, how can the artery be distended upon the ligature, which divers excellent Physicians relate to have been so distended, that it has been opened instead of a vein; the truth is, the Artery doth not swell upon the Ligatures being made, unless where it is near the Heart, but farther off it falls in somewhat, and is diminished, as I have an hundred times and oftener experimented in the Dissections of living Anatomies. But I do not think it was any of the authors, meaning that the remoter part of the Artery was distended by means of the Ligature, but that their meaning only was, where the Vein did not appear which was to be opened, that there the place where it lay was to be sought by feeling; and that by a pit, by motion and swelling of the Blood it was to be found: and when we feel a swelling, or otherwise discover the same, we should not presently conclude that there was the Vein; for it might be an Artery which by reason of the hard binding had lost its pulse, and which by reason of the thickness of the Coats not quite falling in, might counterfeit a certain tumour and puffing-up as it were.  
But moreover if the Vein swells by reason of the Blood returning to the 
But the Veins swell also with two Ligatures, and wherefore.  Heart, why does the vein also swell and if opened, why void Blood, when there is a Ligature made below as well as above the place phlebotomized? which Blood cannot be thought possibly to come from the lower parts, by reason of the Ligature made below the Orifice. But this does not always so happen, but but sometimes, only when the Arm is tied at a certain distance, and then the greater Veins in the place between those two Ligatures do receive that blood from the smaller Veins, which smaller Veins receive from the smaller Arteries, which are joined to the small veins by way of Anastomosis. And that indeed the blood which flows out betwixt the two Ligatures, does come by way of Anastomosis out of the Arteries, this is a sign and in that it flows more hotter and with more violence, and more easy and sooner a Lipothymia or fainting fit follows the efflux hereof. And this Ligature I am wont to make use of, when I have signs that spirituous and hot blood is in fault, and I bid the Chirurgeon seek out those anastomosis, by his Ligature: for if the Ligature be made above the Anastomosis, it stops the motion of the blood; but beneath it does not stop it, but the blood leaps out hotter to the feeling of the Patient.  
When a Vein is opened and the 
Why in blood-letting they unbind the Arm, when the blood does not run apace.  blood runs out, as soon as it begins to stop or come away sparingly, or if it did so at first, we lose the Ligature, that the blood might run out faster. Now the Ligature seems not therefore to be slacked, to the intent the blood may come from the Liver through the Veins. For though there be little or no blood above the Ligature, yea only a pit appear in the Vein, yet will the course of the Blood be increased by loosening the Ligature, which cannot possibly come out of an empty Vein. But by the loosening of the band, the Blood may the better descend by the Arteries, and pass out of them into the Veins; because the Arteries being compressed by the Ligature, by loosening the said Ligature become more free. Now that the Arteries are not always sufficiently at Liberty when the arm is bound, the patient himself can witness, who oft perceives the pulse of the Arterse at the Ligature, which perception the compressed Artery causes, when it smites against the flesh. And the Physician if he examine the matter, shall often find a less pulse in the bound a●m then in the free. And I can testify that I have divers times applied my fingers to the Patient's wrist, when the band was to be loosed, and observed, that when by losing the Ligature Blood came in more plentifully, the Pulse became greater.  
But if that Blood which flows 
Why much blood may be taken away.  out when a vein is opened, comes out of the Arteries into the veins, how can it be plentifully taken away? for all the Arteries pulse equally, and therefore they seem to afford blood to the Veins in one and the same measure: and if so be therest of the arteries afford so much to their veins as the arteries of the Arms do to theirs and is drawn out, shall not the heart be soon destitute of all blood? There is truly no danger at all: For we have said the blood comes as fast unto the heart, as it is driven thence  
Yet I cannot conceive the Blood enters all veins alike, although the Arteries seem to pulse equally; for all Liquors flow more easily and swiftly into an empty place, in which there is nothing to drive and force them, and moreover in this case the Blood is more forcibly drawn by the empty Veins then by the full ones.  
Now more store of Blood issues 
And more out of the Arm then out of the Hand.  from a▪ vein opened in the cubit, then in the Hand, because all that blood, which comes to the Veins through all the anastomosis of the Cubit of the Hand, must return through the Cubit Veins; but less runs through the Veins of the Hand, and that only, which comes through the anastomosis of the Hand.  
Out of a wounded Artery, indeed the blood presently flows, although 
Why it flows out of a wounded Artery not bound.  it be not bound. But that happens because the Blood is carried with greater vetiemence, though the arteries then through the Veins; by which vehemency, it fills the Artery, lifts up and distends the Coat, and if it be opened, necessarily flies out.  
Our of a Vein opened when Blood has flowed sufficiently, we 
The Ligature being loosed, the blood stops, and sometimes it runs, and why?  stop it by untieing the Ligature, because the Blood may be carried again its old way, now it is at Liberty and the way free. But if it so happen, that too much blood being gathered about the Ligature, the Veins cannot give it a free passage; or so large an orifice be made▪ that the Blood may now go right out that way, by which it went, when it was shut in, sometimes the Band being loosened, the blood runs out in a full stream.  
Which our Surgeons at this very day, that they may effectually stop, they frequently compress the vein with their Thumbs a little below the Orifice, and so they stop the 
But is stopped by holding the finger in the Vein below the Orifice.  blood; lest if they should compress it above the orifice, the blood contained therein should presently curdle, and hinder the healing up of the Vein. And they that deny that the blood may thus be stopped, I know not wherein we should credit them who would abuse us in a thing obvious to the Senses. And seeing the Blood is stopped by compressing the lower part of the Vein, it is truly manifest that the Blood ascends from the lower parts.  
But in case it should happen, not in Blood-letting, but by some other 
Also when the Vein is cut asunder in the middle and wherefore,  mischance, that a Vein should be so wounded, that the Blood could not be stopped, the Vein is cut asunder in the midst: Whereupon, the Vein being no longer strerched out as before, the parts cut asunder are drawn upwards and downwards into the flesh, by which flesh the mouths of the Veins are compressed and shut, and that so much the more easily because the Blood can move its self so much the more easily through the neighbouring veins which are extended and open, the former being shut up, and therefore for the very same cause a small Artery being cut asunder athwart, neither Bleeding nor Inflammation do follow.  
Which things being so, I conceive it is evident to all Men, that such things as happen in Blood-letting, do either prove the Circular motion of the Blood, or at least are not against the same.  
But seeing other Things are objected against us, we must answer 
No parts receive Blood by the veins excepting the liver.  them also. And first whereas they prove that the Blood comes through the Veins, not out of the Arteries, but from the Liver; because some parts receive Blood, and have Tumours arising from the Afflux of the Blood, which parts have no Arteries, amongst which they reckon the Pleura. But it does not follow, if the parts have not Arteries, that their veins do not receive their blood from the Arteries, but from the Liver; for as we said, the blood out of the Mesenterick and Celiack Arteries does not enter the Mesenterick and Splenick Veins, through which it is carried to the Liver: even so other veins may receive blood from the Arteries, which they may carry into a part more remote from Arteries. Howbeit there is no part of the Body of any bulk, wherein the Anatomists do not rightly acknowledge Arteries to be. And infinite Arteries do not as yet lie concealed from their knowledge, because the smallest Arteries dispersed through the flesh, have only one Coat as the Veins have. Yea, and in the Liver itself, there are so many branches of the Arteria Celiaca, as there are Branches of the Vena Porta, and as many branches also there are of the Ductus Cholidocus, all which have been by Anatomists hitherto reckoned for Branches of Vena Porta. because those three kinds of Vessels are in the Liver enclosed in a common Coat. At lest no man will ever deny the Arteries of the Pleura, that has once seen the Chest of a living Creature opened; for whilst the Chest is dissected, Blood is wont to leap out of the Arteries of the Pleura.  
Moreover they prove that Blood does not come out of the Arteries into the Veins, because the Arm being so bound, that the Arteries may still pulse, the arm is not immeasurably swelled below the ligature, whereas it ought to be so swollen and distended, if by reason of the Ligature nothing can flow back into the greater Veins, and at every pulse, the Arteries drive somewhat into the lower veins, at every contraction, of which Contractions there are more than three thousand performed every hour. Nevertheless, it may come to pass that the Arm is not extended to such a bulk when it is bound; because the veins are not totally shut up, and the blood may by some creeping holes pass under the ligature, and go into the greater veins: as we see a part being closely bound to repel Humours, for divers months or years, is nevertheless nourished by the blood which flows through; also it may come to pass that so little Blood is forced in through the Arteries of the bound Arm, as that it cannot distend, or Swell the same under a long time, for that Blood only is forced in, the veins being stretched with fullness, which is in the Arteries from the Ligature unto the Hand; for that which is above the Ligature, can enter more easily into the veins, by open anastomosis. Yea it may come to pass, when the veins being distended, do no longer permit the Blood to be forced into them by the Arteries, that the pulse of the Arteries is stopped, or that the Blood regurgitates upwards, and enters the Veins above the Ligature, through the anastomosis: the like whereto I saw in a Duck, as I formerly related. Unless one of these things happen, the Arm would presently swell after it is bound, and a suffocation of the innate Heat, by the Abundance of Blood driven in would follow. For I have often bound mine own and others Arms above the Wrist, and I always saw the veins distended, and the Flesh to swell somewhat and grow red; and oftentimes though not always, the arteries abated by little and little of their pulse, yea and sometimes intermitted; and afterward the red colour of the bound Arm was changed into black and blue: and therefore I presently undid the Ligature, being frighted with this Example. A certain Countryman being wounded in the inside of his Arm about the Cubit, when the Village Chirurgeon could not stop the blood, he bound the Arm extreme close about the Wound, whence followed an exceeding Inflammation of the lower part of his Arm, and such a swelling, that deep pits were seen in the place of his fingers joints, and within eighteen hours, the lower part of his Arm was gangrena●ed and sphacelated, which Christianus Regius an expert Chirurgeon did cut off, in the presence of my self, and E●aldus Screvelius an excellent Physician.  
Moreover they object, if the venal Blood comes out of the Arteries, 
How and why the venal blood differs from the arterial.  how can the arterial Blood differ so much from the venal? But we must know that it differs less from the venal Blood, than most men imagine, who from the violence wherewith the arterial Blood leaps forth, do collect the great plenty of Spirits therein, and the great rarity or thinness thereof: whereas that Leaping proceeds from the Force wherewith the Heart drives the Blood through the arteries; for an Artery being opened below or beyond the ligature, the Blood comes out only dropping. And the difference between these two bloods is caused by the greater or less quantity of Heat and Spirits, according as the Blood is more or less remote from the Heart the fountain of Heat. For the Blood which is near the Heart differs much from that which is far off, in the smallest arteries, which you can hardly distinguish from that which is in the small veins. And the smaller veins have more thin and hot Blood, than the great ones; which any one may easily try in opening veins of the Arm and Foot. Yea, and if the Vein be opened with a double Ligature on each side the orifice, as I said before, the Blood will come out hotter than with a single Ligature.  
Now that the Blood does not go out of the smaller veins into the 
How menstrual Blood is collected about the womb.  greater, they endeavour to prove by women's monthly purgations, which according to their judgement, are gathered one whole month together in the Veins about the Womb; and if they are carried from the Womb unto the Head, they conceive that they do not pass through the Vena cava and the Heart. Howbeit, the common and true opinion is, that about the time of the usual flux, the blood begins to be moved to the Womb, from which motion of the humours, pains of the sides and loins are wont to arise about that time, And I know by Experience, that about the time of the menstrual Flux, if the Pulse of the Heart and arteries can be made greater, the Courses will flow the better, because the Blood will through the arteries be driven more forcibly into the Womb. It may nevertheless fall out, that the Courses may be collected and make an Obstruction in the Womb, and that then the Blood may not return into the greater veins, that motion being stopped: but that is besides nature.  
And when the menstrual blood is carried out of the Womb into 
How they are carried out of the Womb into the Head.  the Head, the way is not inconvenient, through the Vena cava, the Heart, and the ascending branch of the Arteria Aorta, and that they do indeed pass through the Heart, those palpitations and light faintings do seem to argue, which are wont to attend upon the Courses stopped.  
But should we not conceive it to be a dangerous 
How it comes that the Humours passing through the Heart, do not cause great Inconveniences.  thing, if all the ill humours in our bodies must pass into and through the Heart. But we must know, that our bodies are so framed, as that they may be most convenient for us when we are in Health, and not when we are sick. Moreover the Humour which putrifies by reason of obstruction and is very bad, comes not to the Heart, because its way is stopped up. Nor is the Heart so weak as to be corrupted by an evil Humour, which stays not long therein: for those great Physicians Galen, Hollerius, Laurentius have observed that the Quittor of such as have an Empyema, and other sharp and stinking Humours, do critically and without any bad symptoms, pass through the left ventricle of the Heart which many times makes for the good of the sick Persons, in whom that bad Humour passing through the Heart, is often vanquished by the Vigour and Virtue hereof.  
The other Objections which they 
The Objections against circumstances.  make, do only respect the Causes of this motion or certain Circumstances, wherein men are wont more freely to descent, yet let us briefly consider whether or no they have in them any weight, wherewith to burden our Opinion.  
They say that at every contraction 
Nothing hinders, but that half an ounce of Blood may be forced out of the Heart, at every pulse.  of the Heart, the blood is not driven out by half ounces, nor by drams, nor by scruples, out of the Heart of a Man, for three Causes: first because that blood is too spirituous, but I have already showed that it is not so spirituous as men imagine commonly: secondly because those little Valves of the Heart, do only gape a little, and then are close shut again, which also doth not agree with experience: for an Arteric being cut off from the heart, great streams of Blood do issue from the Heart. Thirdly that the Arteries are too full then to be able to admit half an ounce, a dram, or a scruple of Blood. But that is too inconsiderately avouched; for when the Heart contracts itself, all the arteries in the body are enlarged, and that on all sides, as I have divers times perceived with my hand, holding the naked artery betwixt my fingers. And who will now say, that all the Arteries of the Body being dilated, cannot admit of a Scruple, a Dram, yea half an Ounce of blood, more than they have?  
Also they deny that in the child 
Nothing hinders but that the Blood may be circularly moved in the child in the Womb.  in the Womb, the blood out of the Vena Cava, does through the Vessels of the heart united enter into the Arteria Aorta, and go from thence out of the umbilical Arteries into the umbilical Vein, and return back by it into the Heart: because they think this great absurdity will follow, that one Vein should carry the mother's blood and withal so much blood as the two umbilical arteries do bring in. As if Rivers did not frequently carry as much water in one Channel, as many Brooks are able to bring in. And here the umbilical Vein when it is but one, is much greater than the Artery. There is often but one artery or there are two veins; that the arteries may as much as may be answer to the veins. In brute Beasts (says Fallopius a rare Anatomist) there are always two Veins and two Arteries, which with the Vrachus or pispipe do reach as far as the Navel, and the Veins do presently grow into one before they enter into the Abdomen which does reach to the Gates of the Liver, as I have observed in all Sheep, Goats, and Cows, whose young ones I have dissected, But if they speak of the Child in a Woman's Womb, I avouch that sometimes I have not seen the two umbilical Arteries, but only one Artery and one Vein ascending together with the Vrachus to the Navel: where the Artery is again divided into two, which afterwards go unto the sides of Os sacrnm. And that indeed those Vessels of the Heart are united in a Child in the Womb, that the blood may pass that way out of the Vena Cava into the Aorta, Waterfowl, 
A sign that it is so indeed.  as the Duck, Goose, and such like do seem to teach us; which because they cannot often breathe under the water▪ no● dilate their Lungs, nor consequently admit the blood that way, they have those unions of the vessels of the Heart, when they are grown up. Which also Harvey notes in his 6. Chapter.  
Also they deny the frequent anastomosis 
Though there be anastomosis of the Veins & arteries▪ yet Tumours may arise.  of the Veins and Arteries, for if such there were, they say tumours would not arise by Fluxion and Congestion of Humours. As if Rivers though they have outlets, receiving overgreat plenty of water, may not overflow the neighbouring fields; nor can the blood shed out of the Vessels, because it congeals, easily return into them again. Moreover Tumours are many times caused, for as much as by reason of Obstruction, the blood's passage is stopped; and because by heat and pain it is drawn into the flesh.  
Now those Tumours seem rather to favour the Doctrine of the bloods circular motion, because they happen through cold, bruising, and all stoppage of the passages of the Body; and because with Aqua vitae or some such medicine, the Humours and the Tumours being often made fluid, it is by this motion of the blood drawn into the Veins; and the Tumour by that means sooner cured then by repulsion, revulsion, concoction or dissipation.  
Touching the Cause of the Blood's motion, difficulties do also present themselves 
Not by Rarifaction.  unto us; and when we deny that the blood according to the Course of Nature, is so suddenly and vehemently rarified in the Heart, as to be able to move the Heart, the blood of the whole Body, and the Arteries themselves; those famous men the Ringleaders of this opinion, do suppose that they do hereby prove it, In that while we are cold, all the Veins of our Body are contracted, and can hardly be seen, where as afterwards when we grow hot, they do so swell, that the blood contained in them, seems to take up ten times so much space as before it did.  
As for me, this truly is my Opinion, and thus I persuade myself, that seeing they have now divers times, so diligently endeavoured in Public to persuade men to embrace this their Opinion of Rarifaction; and have diffected and looked into the Hearts of Living Creatures, nor have yet dared to say, that they could sensibly perceive any such Rarifaction of the blood in the Heart; I say, my Opinion is, that they could not indeed and in truth observe any such Rarifaction of the blood in the Heart, and as they would in this place maintain▪ And it will be easy for him that is a little versed in live Dissections, to see that there is no such rarifaction. And therefore though it might be proved, that such a Rarifaction of the blood, does sometimes happen praeternaturally, yet ought not the cause of the Natural motion of the Heart, Blood and Arteries be therefore attributed thereunto.  
Yet in the Example which they propound, I do not see what certainty there is that the blood by reason of its Rarifaction does possess ten times more space than before. For might not that same Tumour of the external Veins easily arise, because whereas before the veins were contracted and straitened through cold, they could not receive much blood, and therefore they could not swell: Which cold and straitning of the vessels being afterwards taken away, and the Veins being loosened by heat, they might admit much blood, which is driven into them by the heart, and so appear full and swelling. That this is not the least cause of the tumour of the Veins, persons that are feverish seem to teach us, who if they thrust their arms into the cold, have not their Veins so swelling, but if they keep them warm under the clothes, they have them very full and swelled, which tumour if it came from Rarifaction, it ought to be in both cases alike, seeing that in them, the blood's Rarifaction proceeds from an internal cause.  
Nor do I conceive that it is also void of Question and undoubted, that when we are first cold, and afterwards grow hot, the inner Veins as well as the outer do swell. For it is much to be suspected, that the inner parts do possess less blood and heat before; because by that cold wherewith before they were not hurt, if when we are so heated we drink cold drink, they are wonderfully weakened. Doubtless as the inner veins are oftentimes the treasury of the blood, wherein the blood is stored up for future uses, so may the external▪ Veins be the like treasury, and they appear to be when they so swell as aforesaid.  
These men themselves when they 
But by constriction of the heart the blood is driven in the Arteries.  observed that this also was much against their Opinion, that we asserted that the blood was manifestly poured out, at the constriction of the Heart; they avouch that that is not the constriction, but the dilatation of the heart which we mean. But that we were deluded by a certain appearance, because in our constriction, there was a constriction only at the Basis, but about the tip a true Dilatation; which Invention when others saw that it could not hold, lest they also should seem to desert their cause, they invented that there is a constriction indeed, in the Cavity of the whole Ventricle, but in the pits and passages of the sides, especially in Dogs, there is a certain kind of Extension and true Dilatation.  
But truly, the upper part of the Heart is not seen to be dilated, when the lower is contracted; save when the Creature is dying, and that the waving motion of the Heart is caused by the impulse of the blood. Nor can we observe one Dilatation or Constriction of the Pits, another of the ●avity of the Ventricles. Only a certain progressive motion is observed in a large Heart, because the Dilatation or constriction doth evidently begin at the basis, and sensibly proceeds to the tip, although 'tis performed all welnear in a moment. And that I might be perfectly assured, that the Heart was contracted within likewise, on all sides, having cut off the tip of each Ventricle, ● put my thumb and forefinger into the living heart of a Dog and a Rabbit; and I manifestly felt the sides of the Heart to press my fingers to the middle partition, equally in the middle, tip and Basis; and that the pits in greater Beasts, became to Sense, not bigger but lesser. And soon after the Constriction abating, that the sides of the heart above, beneath and in the middle were loosened, and the pits did feel evidently larger. But in the Septum or partition wall itself, no motion is felt, save that the Spirits seeking egress make a kind of Palpitation, when in Creatures at the last gasp, the motion of the right Ventricle ceases, the Septum follows the motion of the right Ventricle.  
Now they would have it nevertheless 
Not in the dilatation, though sometimes blood go out therein.  that naturally the blood is poured out in the widening of the heart, and not in the Constriction or straitning thereof, because in the wounded Heart of Living Creatures, the blood is seen to come out when the Heart is dilated. And this is sometimes true; but that which they thence collect, our very Senses teach us to be untrue. For either the Dog or other creature is placed with its Head and breast elevated, and the belly low, and so the wound is inflicted into the Heart, in which case, seeing the blood which enters through the Vena cava and Arteria venosa into the Heart, is higher than any wound of the Heart, it, as soon as it is entered, which is at the beginning of the Dilatation, flows out, not because of the Pulse, but of its own heaviness, and therefore it is not by any force made to fly out to some distance, as it happens in the Pulse of the Arteries. But if as it ought to be, the dog be laid on his back, his head and belly resting on the same plane, and the wounded Heart be raised with a man's fingers, as long as there is any strength in the Heart, it sooner by Constriction casts out the blood it hath received, at a distance, than the whole Heart is filled or widened. But when the strength of the heart decays, and that it seldom straitens itself or not at all, because the Earlets are more strong, and do still continue pulsing, even when the Heart quite gives over; the blood being driven by the Earlets enters the heart, is there collected, and when more is come in then the Heart can contain, it go out at the wound, not with violence, as it must do to cause Pulsation, but with a gentle motion, drop after drop. So that our Sense can perceive no strong motion of the blood, save in the Heart's Constriction.  
Now they will have the blood to return through the Veins into the 
And being driven by all parts of the Veins, it returns to the Heart.  Heart, only because the blood being forcibly driven to the Parts, as water poured into an horn, does regurgitate or abound back upwards, and so is carried back unto the Heart. But I have already showed tokens, that the blood is either drawn, or driven by all the parts of the Veins: besides which I have also these following: in that the Heart being taken out of the body, the motion of the blood, and that swift enough, is still seen in the Veins. And if a Vein, yea a milky one, be tied in two places, that same Ligature being only loosened, which is nearest the Heart, while the parts are yet hot, the Chule will still be moved to the Liver, the blood unto the Heart, which could neither by any step be driven from the Heart through the Arteries, nor from the Guts through the Venae lacteae; nor would it by its own fluidity more rather upwards then downwards.  
But let us answer the remaining objections: 
By this motion the Veins and Arteries may be nourished.  They suppose, if the blood should be moved so swiftly, that the Veins and Arteries could not conveniently be nourished. But a dog can quench his thirst, drinking at the River Nilus and running as he drinks; but here the parts stay at the brook side: and whatever they have drawn from the blood, they treasure up in their own substance, lest it should be washed away, by the running by of the humour.  
Also they conceit this Motion is not useful for the blood. Seeing it may 
And the blood ventilitated better.  sufficiently be conserved (since it abounds with native heat) by respiration and transpiration. Yet most certain it is, that the blood is yet more ventilated, if it be speedily moved, and its smallest Particles also agitated with this motion. So the water of a lake or standing pool, though it be gently moved and fanned on the Surface, yet is it corrupted; when in the mean while Rivers that are totally and in all parts agitated, are found to continue most uncorrupt and wholesome.  
These are the things (most excellent Bartholine) which I thought fit to join to the former, that I might satisfy those who cannot receive a new opinion, wherein they observe any difficulty or obscurity; who many times have neither mind nor time to inquire exactly into the bowels thereof. But in my Judgement, we ought not to deny things manifest, although we cannot resolve such as are difficult.  
But I never was disposed to contend and quarrel with any man about words. There are very many excellent things about which time may be spent; which many times also is not sufficient for our necessary occasions. Also from a Scoffer that seeks after her, Knowledge does hide herself away, but to him that is studious of the truth, she comes to meet, and presents herself to his view. Farewell most Learned Bartholine. From the University of Leyden in Holland, the Kalends of December 1640.   
FINIS.