New EXPERIMENTS, And Useful OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING Sea-Water MADE FRESH, According to the Patentees Invention: In a Discourse Humbly Dedicated to His Majesty the KING of Great-Britain, etc.  
By a Fellow of the College of Physicians, and of the Royal-Society.  
Printed Anno Dom. 1683   

TO THE KING'S Most Excellent Majesty  
May it please your Majesty,  
THe making Sea-water Fresh, hath of late been much discoursed of, and is of great Consequence, not only with respect to Merchant-ships, but also, as I conceive, to your Majesty's Navy and Garrisons, and to Sea-Port-Towns in all parts of the World, where good Water is wanting.  
All that is proper to be said upon the Matter, will lie in making good these three Assertions.  
I. That Sea-water may easily, safely, commodiously, in sufficient quantities, be made Fresh for all common Uses at Sea.  
II. That so done, it is as wholesome to be Drunk, and used about Diet, as any other Water now in use at Sea.  
III. That being so, the advantages are such, as will much more than countervail the charge and trouble about it.  
FOR the Truth of the First, we have the Reputation of the Gentlemen who have your Majesty's Patent for it, and their Interest also to assure Us. By an Instrument scarce a yard over, which may stand under the Deck of any Ship, or very well in the Cook-room, and all Smoke and Fire avoided; they can make about ninety Gallons in twenty four hours: Which at the largest Allowance, of three quarts to a man, being kept at constant working, will serve about a hundred and Twenty men; although two quarts a day, or three pints, in time of scarcity, is counted a good allowance for one man.  
We are likewise assured, that it may be done with ease and ordinary attendance: For although the Sea be Salter in some places than in others, yet the Operation is the same; neither is there any difference betwixt that which comes first, and last. And whatever is to be put into the Engine with the Water, may as easily be done, as Salt or Oate-Meal into Pottage: So that one man may serve both to make the Drink, and for other uses of the Ship.  
By Mr. boil we are also assured, That Sea Water thus made Fresh, is as Wholesome to be Drank, as any Water about the Town, in its best condition. And by an Ingenious Physician of the College, a proper comparison hath been made betwixt This, and the best Water. And so many of the College, as were desired, have not doubted to give it under their Hands, That they were satisfied of the Wholesomeness of this Water.  
Notwithstandi● which, to give the World a little more express proof of the matter; I shall, with your Majesty's leave, undertake the same; which I think, I may the more properly do, because I have no share either in the Profit of it, or in the Credit of the Experiment.  
Now, all the Signs, which either Physicians, or common Experience, have given of the best Water, are these; viz. Clearness, Thinness, Sweetness, Softness, Lightness, Durableness, and Pureness or Simplicity; with all which good qualities, if this Water stands in the first rank, I suppose no rational man will further d●●●te whether it be Good, or Oo.  
The Clearness hereof, although it may be pretty well observed in a good Flint-Glass; yet I considered, that as there are degrees of Heat and Cold, of which our Bodies being unsensible, can only be judged of by a Weatherglass: So there may be degrees of Perspicuity, which the Eye, unless assisted, will not easily reach; as may appear by this easy Experiment.  
If a few drops of Claret be put into Fresh Sea-water, (such as is made by the Patentees, and with which I made This, and all the following Experiments) they will give it a kind of Light Hiacynthine Red▪ But if the same quantity of Claret be dropped into as much Riverwater, and that after the Water hath stood in a Cistern to settle a considerable time, it will look Muddy; as if a drop of Ink had been put into it; the Claret discovering those Opacous parts, which before were not easily discerned.  
The same is likewise an argument of the Thinness of this Water. As is also the Preparation of it by Fire; for the very Boiling of Water, is one way recommended by Hippocrates, and commonly used for the Attenuating of it; that is, the Separation of any Gross and Heterogeneous parts, which swim therein, and upon Boiling use to Subside: And the greatest part of Rain-water, which is as Thin as any, is Distilled from the Sea.  
It's Sweetness recommends it, both as to the Smell and Taste; for the best Water hath no Scent, neither hath this any. And so for the Taste; 'tis true, a little Alkaline Salt, in the opinion of some Water-Drinkers, gives a kind of Sweetness or Savouriness to Water, as Salt to their Pottage; for which cause, I have known them to prefer Pump-water before any other sort. But the best Water, and that which is generally, both by Water-Drinkers and others most esteemed, is no otherwise Sweet, than in being very Soft upon the Tongue, and rather Insipid; and such is this Water.  
Neither doth it excel in Sweetness or Softness to the Taste alone; but also to the Touch: Of which quality, Dyers and Laundresses (who are very Critical at their Finger-ends) make the best Judgement in mixing their Water with Soap. But a different degree of Heat, or proportion of Soap, will alter the Case: And therefore, to make the Trial exact, let half a Pint of Pump-water be Warmed to a convenient degree, and half a Drachm of Common Soap dissolved therein; in doing of which, it will be very difficult to raise a good Lather; the Water underneath it will look muddy and unequal, as if it were Curdled, and when the Lather falls, it lies on the Water, or any thing it is put upon, like Grease, yet feels Harsh.  
The same quantity of Soap and Riverwater, and the Water Heated to the same degree, make a high Lather, and that in a short time, and the Water also under it, is equal and Clear.  
In all which respects, this Fresh-Sea Water doth not only equal that of the New-River or Thames, but excels it: For besides, that, it is rather Clearer when the Soap is dissolved; it also makes as strong a Lather, in a shorter time, and with less Soap; insomuch, that the Woman I caused to make the Trials, and compare them, not knowing whence I had any of the Waters, guessed that above a pound and a quarter of Soap, would not go so far with Thames Water, as a pound would do with this Fresh-sea-water.  
Another Circumstance is, That if the Water be extraordinary Good, it will make a very good Lather without being Heated, which this Water will also do.  
This same Water is also as Light as any common Water whatsoever; as may best be proved by a Water-Poise, which the Italians commonly use, when they would try the Lightness, and therein the Goodness of their Water. For this purpose I marked the neck of one with several Degrees equally distant, Immersed it in the seven following Waters; wherein it sunk less or more, according to the Gravity or Lightness thereof.  
In the Pump-water in Chancery-lane, (a Heavy Water) it hardly dips to the first, or lowermost Degree.  
In the Pump-water in Christ's-Hospital, just to the lowermost.  
In the Conduit-water in Cheapside, to the second, or near it▪  
In Thames-water, New-River-water, Water distilled from Spring-water, and in Fresh Sea-water, to the third, or there about. So that it is as Light, as common Water distilled,  
Neither is there any Water more Durable or Uncorruptible: For all Corruption in Water, showeth itself one of these four ways; either by some ill Taste or Smell, or by becoming Muddy or Turbid, or by gathering some Skin, or Bubbles at the Top, or by letting some Sedement fall to the Bottom; none of all which happeneth to this Water, though some of it hath been kept, both in and out of the Sun for nine Months; and without all doubt, would continue so much longer.  
The last mentioned quality of the best Water, was, its Purity; that is, Simpleness, or Homogenity of Parts.  
I deny not, but rather contend, That there is a certain Aereal Nitre incorporated with all Water; of a different nature from Nitre commonly so called, and such as by no means yet known, can be visibly separated from the Water: From hence, chiefly it is, I conceive, that Water obtains its Cooling quality; and that when it Freezes, it is not because it is then only impregnated with this Nitre; but because then the Air being Surcharged, throws off a greater quantity into it: As when Water is Sweetened or Seasoned with a little Sugar, it doth not follow that there is none in it, because not enough to make it Candy▪ So there is of this invisible Nitre in Water, always enough to Season it, though not to make it Candy, or turn to Ice.  
Now allowing this Nitre, that Water which in all other respects is the most Simple; is also justly to be esteemed most Wholesome, and always hath been so. For as the Humours of the Eye, which is the Instrument, and the Air the Medium, by which we discern all Colours, aught to be themselves perfectly Transparent and Colourless: So Water, which is only a Vehicle to our Food, should be itself the most Simple, and freest from all manner of Qualities, besides those proper to it as Water. For if it be desired at any time to be Embued with any other Quality; it is with respect to some Medicinal Use, and not Common Diet.  
Now this Purity, or Homogenity of Parts, doth eminently belong to this Fresh Sea-water, as I shall make it appear several ways; and therewithal, show the Reason of its other Good Qualities; especially, of its Softness, Lightness and Incorruptibility.  
And first, the reason of its Softness, is its Purity; or its being undefiled with any kind of Corrosive Salt, whether Alkaline, Marine, or Acid.  
For upon Evaporating of any hard Pump-water, most Spring-waters, and River-waters, in a Glass-Vessel, or one very well Glazed; it is evident, that the former contains a considerable quantity of Salt: A Gallon from the Pump in Chancery lane, which is the Saltest-Water in this City, will yield near three Drachms: Not of an aluminous Salt, as is commonly thought, but an Alkaline, with the Taste and other properties of a lixivial Salt.  
That Spring-waters, though they yield more or less of the same Salt; yet in a far less quantity, and that River-waters yield the least of all: Of which three sorts of Waters, the first are the Hardest, the last the Softest of any in common use; yet excelled by Fresh Sea-water, as appears by one of the foregoing Experiments.  
Neither is there any Marine-Salt herein. For whereas half a Pint of this Fresh Sea-water, or of Riverwater, and half a Drachm of common Soap, will of themselves make a very good Lather: If but twelve or thirteen Grains of common Salt be added to the Water before the Soap be dissolved therein, it will Curdle, and the Lather fall like Grease upon it, as if it were some Harsh Pump-water.  
Nor yet any Acid: For if you put but seven or eight drops of Oil of Vitriol into half a Pint of Riverwater, though you increase the former quantity of Soap, yet it will never make any Lather at all.  
Or to come yet nearer; should any suspect that some kind of Spirit of Salt may come off with the Water; if but seven or eight drops of Spirit of Salt be put to half a Pint of Riverwater, it will, in the same manner, hinder it from making any Lather. Nay, if but two or three drops be put into it, they will have the same effect.  
So the reason why Fresh Sea-water, as prepared by the Patentees, is so extreme Soft, is its Purity, or freedom from all manner of Salts, save only that Aereal Nitre, which is common to all Water, and chiefly contributes to its Cooling quality.  
Or if any one should be so Pertinaceous, as to say, that yet there may be one Grain, or part of a Grain of Salt, or one drop or part of a drop of Spirit of Salt; should thus much be granted, then in the same quantity of Thames-water, there is as much, or more; this being a Softer Water, than even Thames-water itself.  
The Purity of this Water is also argued from its Lightness. The perfect Dissolution of any Salt, or Earth, in Water, in never so small a quantity, adding weight to it. So, for Example, if half a Drachm of common Salt be dissolved in a Pint of Riverwater, the Water-Poise will dip no lower into it, than into any Harsh Pump-water. So that in a Pint of such Water, there is about half a Drachm of Salt and Limy-Earth, more than in Riverwater: For although such Water be as Clear or Transparent as any Distill'd-Water; yet in the Evaporation, some portion of Earth is always precipitated together with the Salt.  
So likewise, if half a Drachm of Oil of Vitriol, or Spirit of Salt, be put to a Pint of Riverwater; the Water-Poise will dip therein, but to the same Degree, as if the same quantity of Salt had been put into it.  
Since therefore the Gravity or Lightness of Water, dependeth upon the Dissolution of more or fewer Salt, Acid, or Earthy parts therein: And that Fresh Sea-water is rather Lighter than Riverwater, and as Light as any common Water Distilled, as hath before been proved: The one is as pure and free from all kind of Salt, Acid, or Earthy parts, as the other.  
From whence, and from its being void of any Taste or Smell, 'tis also easy to conclude how it is so Permanent and Incorruptible: For in this Case, there can be no Corruption without Fermentation; nor any Fermentation, where there is no Sulphur, nor any other Fermenting Principles to be any way discovered: So that as the Simplicity of this Water, is the reason of its Duration: So this, with the Premises, an evident proof of its Pureness and Simplicity; which still may be further confirmed by the following Experiments.  
Take about half an Ounce of Syrup of Violets be Dissolved in half a Pint of some Harsh Pump-water; in a short time, the Water turns the Syrup to a Muddy Green Colour: This I have known to happen to some Apothecaries, as much to their loss, as their wonder, from whence it should proceed. But the reason was, though they took sufficient care in picking their Violets; yet not in the choice of their Water.  
Put a few drops of Oil of Vitriol, or Spirit of Salt to the same quantity of Riverwater, and then let the same proportion of Syrup of Violets be dissolved therein, and it presently turns Purple.  
But if the Syrup be dissolved in Riverwater alone; it turns neither Green, nor Purple, but holds its Blue Colour perfect; and so it doth the like, if it be dissolved in Fresh Sea-water.  
Observing this, I proceed to make the like Experiment with Claret-wine, which I mixed with several sorts of Water, in some good quantity, as I did the Syrup: But without any discernible difference between them.  
But considering that the Colour of Claret being very full and strong, might require a much greater proportion of Water to overrule it: I put three Spoonfuls of Pump-water into a Flint-Glass, and dropped into it not above seven or eight drops of Claret; which being well mixed, I perceived, that in a little time after, the Colour, instead of being changed, was wholly vanished, and the Water become as Clear, as before the Claret was dropped into it. The Alkaline parts in this Water, destroying the Acid, and therewith the colour of the Claret▪  
The same number of Drops, being mixed with the same quantity of Lambs-Conduit-Water, in a Glass of the like Metal, Bigness and Shape; the colour in a short time, did almost, but not wholly vanish,  
Mixed in like manner with Riverwater, it gives a few Permanent Rays of Red, but Muddy; as was before observed, and is here again to the present purpose.  
But being mixed in the same proportion, and Glass, with Riverwater Distilled, gives it a Light, Clear, and Permanent Hiacynthine Red.  
And the same Curious and Durable Red, it likewise imparts to Fresh Sea-water.  
From whence, and all that hath been said before, it appears, To have the Clearness and Durableness of Spring-water; the Lightness or Softness of Rain or Riverwater, the Sweetness and Simplicity of that which is Distilled: And in a word, all the good Qualities of the best Water, without any bad one: Which may serve to satisfy any Reasonable man, not only to make Trial of it; but also to prefer it before any other now in use at Sea.  
Yet because men will hardly be brought to leave a known Road, though a bad one; for a better unknown, till they see some body go before them: Therefore, to discharge all manner of scruple, I must not omit to add, that there are several Persons of Quality, and others, who have Drunk often and liberally of this Water; and though not much used to Drink Water, yet have received no prejudice thereby. And amongst them, some Water-Drinkers; whom I take to be the most proper Judges in the Case, and who give the Character of it, To be very Wholesome; and that it will quench the Thirst, as well as any other ordinary Water.  
The Feazibleness of making sufficient quantities of Sea-water Fresh, and the Wholesomeness hereof, being granted: The Advantages which will arise from the use of it at Sea, are very obvious, with respect, both to Profit and Health.  
And first, as to Profit, Suppose the Voyage to be made to Surrat; for which, one Butt of Water, for Drink alone, is the ordinary Allowance for one man. The quantity being always laid in, not only according to the length of this or any other Voyage; but also for a Reserve in case of a Calm; which, if it happen not, they have commonly more than enough. So that if we suppose a hundred men to be in the Ship, they will require so many Butts for Drink. Whereas, if there be no Water laid in, but only an Instrument to make it, as there is need: The Coals to work it a day and half, that is, to make about a Butt (126. Gallons) of Fresh Water, may be allowed to be something more than a Bushel, which will be the most; or for a hundred Butts, to be about a hundred and ten Bushels. So that one Butt containing fifteen Bushels; a hundred and five Bushels will lie in the room of seven Butts. By which means, about thirteen parts of fourteen now taken up for Water, will be gained for Stowage; saving that there must be some few Cask for receiving the Water as it is wrought off from the Engine. And the like computation, or near it, may be made with respect to any other Fuel, which may also be used as well as Coal. Besides which, the saving the Charge of the Butts, will be very considerable; the Price of a Butt being twenty Shillings, being bound with Iron.  
Besides which, there are other particulars, relating to Profit, and the preventing of Damages both at Sea, and in Seaport Towns; upon which the Honourable Mr. Fitz-Gerald in his late Book, doth very Pertinently insist.  
I shall therefore conclude with the second great Advantage which will hence arise, and that is; in point of Health. 'Tis true, that Thames-water, when first laid in, hath the repute of no Unwholesome Drink. And generally, though not always, good care is taken in laying it in, both at the best time, which is at half Ebb: and in case of great Tides, above the Bridge, sometimes as high as Chelsey. And though it Ferments and Stinks in the Voyage, yet grows Sweet again: And, as they say, doth not Stink all at one time  
Notwithstanding which, there are very few, who would choose a Suspicious Water, that may have Spring-water, if they will, or that which is as good; or better, if it be true, which some say, That in a large Voyage, even some Spring-waters will Ferment a little. For the mixing with Wine, or any other use, it would be no small pleasure to the Captain of a Ship, to be sure of that which is the best. And it is as a Rule among the Seamen, that good Water shall be valued, and go as far as Brandy, when they Club together for a Bowl of Punch.  
In point of Health; peradventure, while the Thames-water is in the height of its Ferment, even the Seamen may forbear to Drink it. Yet we have no reason but to believe, when that is over, before the Water be throughly recovered, it often goes down well enough with them; who living in so Thick and Moist an Air, and having their Mouths always Fired with Salt-Meats, cannot be very Critical either in their Taste or Smell. So that though the Scent and Taste of the Water, with respect to the Seamen, is not much to be regarded, yet their constant Drinking of a Fermenting Liquor, though but for some days, may be of ill consequence, and for that time, the more incline them to Calentures and other Favours; especially near the Line, where they are more subject to them, and the Water to its highest Ferment. For the maintaining whereof, there is a considerable stock of Matter in the Water, how simple soever it may seem to be. Insomuch, that after any long Voyage, it will Burn or give a Flash. Whereas Fresh Sea-water, being free from all manner of Inflammatory and Fermenting Principles; it can no way conduce to the production of the forementioned Diseases, but will rather prevent them.  
But supposing Thames-water were always Wholesome; yet the Water in many other places, where Ships are often forced to take it in, is found to be very bad, and to make the men Sick. An English Ship, the Faulkon, in a late Voyage to Surrat, being upon the Coast of Malabar, was there forced to take in Water: Of which, the men who Drank, were taken with Fluxes and Fevers of that ill nature, that of about eighty five in the Ship, thirteen, or near one sixth part, died in a short time, and some languished long under dangerous Distempers.  
And sometimes Ships are brought to that want of Water as neither to have good nor bad; as in a long Calm: Which though it doth not often continue so long as to Kill the men; yet, besides the anguish of Thirst, it sometimes makes way for divers Diseases, as a Surfeit, Dysenteries, or Colic, upon the first Immoderate Drinking.  
Sometimes also, it is an occasion of great danger both to Men and Ship. Not long since, a Ship went to Sea, betwixt Chester and Dublin, pretty well provided with Water. But meeting with a Calm of some days, the Passengers were forced to Row several Leagues to the Welsh shore; in which time, if a Storm had happened, the Passengers had been lost in the Boat, and the Ship in all likelihood had been lost for want of the Hands that were made use of in the Boat.  
Nay it hath been known, that a whole Ship of men have Perished for want of Water. About five years since one came in Laden with Tobacco from Virginia, in which all the Passengers were found dead; having declared in a Writing which they had Nailed upon the Mast, That they had Perished for want of Water. All which Mischiefs will be avoided by the constant supply of Fresh Sea-water.  
And not only in point of Drink, but also in Meat; most of which now Eaten is extreme Salt. For which, all the care they have at Sea, is to Soak it before it is Boiled; not in Freshwater but in Salt. For if they should use Freshwater, they must lay in near double the quantity, the Meat being commonly shifted once in four hours, for three of four times. They say, indeed, that the Soaking of it in Salt-Water, fetcheth out the Salt better than in Fresh. And for the first or second Soaking, I believe it may; yet also, that a Soak or two in Freshwater afterwards, will do best: Which, to keep the Meat from Stinking, as at that time it is apt to do, may be done so much the sooner.  
But many times the Seamen are put to straits, as not only to Soak but also to Boil their Meat in Salt-water. Which instead of taking any Salt out of it, doth rather add to it; because the Boiling of the Sea-water, makes it to become Salter.  
Now from such Diet, as this, what can be expected, but besides the highest Scurveys, a a Foundation also for Dropsies and divers other Diseases, of which the Patients either die quickly, or are hereby so far weakened, as with respect to the Public, to be worse than dead: For a man that is dead, is but one man lost; but one that cannot work, is not only lost himself, but also spends upon the Labours of another. All which mischiefs will be very much prevented, by having of fresh Water enough for all uses at hand.  
And this, not only by emendation of bad Meat, but moreover in altering the very way of Diet: For where there is fresh Water, good Victuals may be made at any time without Flesh. This, with Biscuit, Wheat, or Rice, and a little Sugar, or Butter, will make very good Food.  
I have thus comprised all that is necessary to be said upon this matter, in as few words as I could, that I might not seem to misspend those precious minutes whereof your Majesty hath so few to spare: nor should I have presumed to have entrenched on them at all, had not your Majesty already judged this subject worthy your Royal consideration, for the great Usefulness it may be of to Your Forts on Land, and Your moving Castles in the Sea, where also You are Sovereign, and the Advantage it must certainly bring to Navigation, that great Mediu● ●hat Unites the far distant Parts of your Empire, and makes the whole World in a manne● pay Tribute to the Throne of Great Britain. Those that see the Wonders of God in the Deep, when they find Relief in a Necessity, by which they must have perished without this Art; will praise your Majesty's Goodness and Care, not only of your own People, but of all Mankind; and will justly account it a Miracle that you have raised a never failing Spring of Fresh-Waters in the midst of the Ocean.  
FINIS.