Liber hic cui titulus, The ANATOMY of Humane Bodies Epitomised, IMPRIMATUR.  


John Micklethwait, President.  
Daniel Whistler Elector and Censor.  


Censors.  
Samuel Collins,  
John Downes,  
Charles Goodall,       

THE ANATOMY Of Humane Bodies EPITOMISED.  
WHEREIN All the Parts of Man's Body, WITH Their ACTIONS and USES, ARE Succinctly described, according to the newest doctrine of the most accurate and learned Modern Anatomists.  
By a Fellow of the College of Physicians, London.  
LONDON, Printed by M. Flesher for T. Flesher, at the Angel and Crown in St. Paul's Churchyard. MDCLXXXII.   

 blazon of Gonville and Caius 
Coll. Gonu. et Caius  
Jacobus Burrough Miles.   blazon or coat of arms   

TO THE READER.  
IN relation to this Treatise I think myself obliged to account for two things; First, why I publish any thing of this nature; secondly, why in English.  
As to the first; I must confess it was not any Ambition to become an Author that put me upon it; but another occasion. The Bookseller for whom this is printed, (my particular Friend) thinking to make a new Impression of a Book entitled The Manual of the Anatomy or Dissection of the Body of Man, written by Dr. Alexander Read, a Fellow of the College of Physicians, London, desired me to peruse it, and if in any place I observed it erroneous, to alter it. Understanding that the Book had been writ many years ago, (that which was brought to me being the fifth Impression, and that printed in 55.) I was unwilling to meddle with it, suspecting that there must needs be very considerable Errors in it, so many new things in Anatomy having been discovered since that time. However at his importunity I undertook it: and before I had looked over a Sheet, I saw I was not deceived. For though I had resolved to give myself no further trouble than was necessary, yet I found that if I would mend all that was amiss, I must in effect write a new Book. Which I have really done, as any one will find that will take the pains to compare this with that writ by Dr. Read, for he will see very little of that retained except the method, which indeed is but little altered; for though it differ pretty much from the modern, yet I think 'tis every whit as convenient.  
As to the second, Why I should write it in English; I have two things to allege: First, The example of him that has gone before me, who was a person (as I am informed) eminent in his time. Secondly, to avoid the injury of a paltry Translator, if it should be well accepted. For we see there is no Man that publishes any thing in the Latin tongue, that is received with any applause, but presently some progging Bookseller or other finds out an indigent Hackney scribbler to render it into English. But with what dis-reputation and abuse to the worthy Authors, every learned person cannot but observe. So that he that shall think to redeem the noble faculty and art of Physic out of the hands of the Mechanical Quacking Tribe by publishing every thing in a language above their understanding, will not only fail of his end, but find himself abused and disgraced into the bargain.  
And now as to the Work itself, the main design of it is to pleasure those that are entering upon the study of Physic; for herein they may see in short, what afterwards they shall find more largely treated of in other Authors. And perhaps it may not be altogether unuseful even for such as have made some proficiency in that study; for it will serve at least as an Index to bring to their remembrance what they have read more fully elsewhere; and will save them the labour to make such a Compendium for their own use. There is little that is new in Anatomy, but the Reader will find a taste of it here. Which he will the rather expect to meet with, when he understands that most of these following learned Anatomists are in some measure Epitomised in it.  

Authors made use of in this Treatise.  
Adrian. Spigel. de humani Corporis fabrica.  
Isbrandi de Diemerbroeck Anatome Corporis humani.  
Thomae Bartholini Anatome.  
Dr. Willis de Cerebro.  
— de primis viis, and de respirationis organis, in the first and second part of his Pharmaceutice Rationalis.  
Dr. Lower's Tractatus de Corde.  
Dr. Glisson's Tractatus de Ventriculo & Intestinis.  
— Anatomia Hepatis.  
Dr. Charlton's Inquiries into Humane Nature in IV. Anatomic Prelections in the New Theatre of the Royal College of Physicians in London.  
Dr. Harvey's Exercitationes Anatomicae de Cordis motu & circulatione Sanguinis.  
— Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium.  
Malpighius de Viscerum structura.  
— Exercitationes Epistolicae de Cerebro, Lingua, etc.  
Dr. Grew's Comparative Anatomy of Stomaches and Guts, subjoined to his Museum Regalis Societatis.  
Dr. Brigg's Ophthalmo graphia, sive Oculi ejúsque partium descriptio Anatomica.  
Regneri de Graef Opera omnia.  
Johannis Swammerdami Miraculum Naturae, sive Uteri Muliebris fabrica.  
Dr. Walter Needham's disquisitio Anatomica de Formato Foetu.  
Dr. Crone de ratione Motûs Musculorum.  
Dr. Wharton's Adenographia, sive Glandularum totius Corporis descriptio.   
With several others.   

The First Book.  

OF THE LOWEST CAVITY, CALLED ABDOMEN.  

CHAP. I.  
Of the division of the parts of the Body of Man in general.  
ANATOMY is an artificial separation of the parts of the Body by section, 
The description of Anatomy.  practised to attain to the knowledge of the frame of it, and the use of each part.  
In Anatomical exercises, first the whole Carcase doth offer itself, than the parts.  
The whole hath four Regions, 
The Regions of the whole.  to wit, the fore and back parts, and the lateral, which are the right and left.  
I call the whole that which containeth the parts, 
What the whole and a part signify.  and a part that which is contained in the whole, according to the most ample acception of the term part; for in a more strict acception that is called a part, which partakes of the form and life of the whole; and is defined to be a body solid cohering with the whole, endued with life, and framed to perform some function.  
A part then must be first solid: 
Things required in a part being strictly taken.  humours than cannot be numbered amongst the parts, because they are fluid.  
Secondly, it must have life▪ and so the excrements of hairs and nails are not to be accounted parts.  
Thirdly, one part must not nourish another: and so the blood, fat, and spirits are not parts.  
Fourthly, it must have a circumscription.  
Fifthly, it must be united with the whole, both in respect of matter and form.  
Sixthly, it must have some function, or use.  
The principal differences of parts are taken either from their matter, 
The differences of the parts.  or end. From their matter, parts are said to be either similar, or dissimilar.  
A similar part is that whose particles are of the same substance and denomination with the whole: 
What a similar part is.  as every portion of a bone is bone. It is otherwise called a simple part.  
Of simple parts there are ten in number▪ 
The number of simple parts.  to wit, The skin, a membrane, the flesh, a fiber, a vein, an artery, a nerve, a ligament, a cartilege, a bone: they are comprehended in these two verses.  
Cartilago, caro, membrana, arteria, nervus,  
Vena, ligamentum, cutis, os, lentissima fibra.  
To these a tendon, 
Of a tendon.  which is the principal part of the muscle, may be added; for the substance of it is simple, without any composition.  
Of the former simple parts, 
The differences of simple parts.  some are simple indeed, and these are in number seven; the skin, a membrane, the flesh, a fiber, a ligament, a cartilege, a bone. The rest are only simple to the eye or sense, and not to reason; for a nerve (for example) is composed of many filaments, covered with a double membrane, made of the dura, and pia mater.  
Of the simple parts some are called spermatical, as a bone, a cartilege, a ligament, a membrane, a fiber, a nerve, an artery, a vein; these being made of the seed, if they be cut in two, or broke, are not regenerated, nor can truly be again united; but are only joined by a callus. Others are sanguineous, being supposed to be made of blood, and these are regenerated, such is all the muscular flesh. As for the skin, it seems to be partly spermatical and partly sanguineous; for though in grown men a wound in it is healed only with a cicatrix, yet in boys it has been observed to be closed with a true and proper skin. But of its nature see more in the next chapter.  
A dissimilar part is that whose portions are neither of the same substance, 
What a dissimilar part is.  nor the same denomination; as a muscle, in the which are flesh, nervous fibres, and a tendon. It is otherwise called a compound part, and an organical part.  
In an organical part four particles are commonly found; 
Things to be observed in an organical part.  as in the Eye, there is first, the chief particle, by which the action, namely vision, is performed, which is the crystallin humour.  
Secondly, that particle, without which the action cannot be performed, as the optic nerve.  
Thirdly, that which furthereth the action, as the membranes and muscles.  
Fourthly, that by which the action is preserved, as the eyelids.  
Of organical parts there are four degrees. 
The degrees of an organical part.   
The first is made only of the similars, as a muscle.  
The second receiveth the first kind of organical parts, and other similars, as a finger.  
The third admitteth those of the second degree, as the hand.  
The fourth is made of the third and other parts, as the arm.  
Parts from their end are distinguished into principal, 
The differences of parts taken from their end.  and less principal or ministering.  
The principal are the Liver, Stomach, Heart, Brain.  
The ministering are either necessary, or not.  
The necessary are those without which the Animal cannot live. So the Lungs minister to the Heart, the Guts to the Stomach.  
The not necessary are simple flesh, etc. in respect of other parts: for in consumptive persons 'tis almost wholly spent; and Infects, according to Aristotle, have none.  
There are also other divisions of the parts of the Body, as into parts containing, parts contained, and the spirits, expressed by 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or impetum facientes, by Hypocrates.  
Fernelius divides the Body also into public and private Regions. The private are such as the brain, reins, womb, etc. The public are three. The first hath the Vena portae, and all the parts whither its branches reach. The second begins at the roots of the Cava, and ends in the small veins before they become capillary. The third hath the muscles, bones, and the bulk of the Body, terminating with the skin. But this division is only of use in Physic.   

CHAP. II.  
Of the circumscription, regions, and parts of the Abdomen.  
OF all the parts of the Body we are to begin Dissection with the Cavities: First, because they offer themselves to the view in the fore region of the Body. Secondly, because they being moist, and apt to receive the impression of the external heat, soon putrefy and send out noisome smells.  
The Cavities are appointed to receive the principal parts, and those which minister unto them. Wherefore there are three Cavities, according to the number of the principal parts. The Head is for the Brain, the Breast is for the Heart, and the Belly for the Liver. And because this last Cavity is most subject to putrefaction, you are to begin at it.  
Now three things concerning it offer themselves. First the circumscription or bounds of it. Secondly, the regions of it. Thirdly, the special parts of it.  
As concerning the circumscription of it, 
The circumscription of the Abdomen.  it is severed within from the Breast by the Midriff. It is bounded above by the cartilago ensiformis, or the Heart-pit, and beneath by the Share-bones.  
The regions of it are three, 
The regions of it.  the uppermost, middlemost, and lowermost.  
The uppermost, which is bounded between the mucronita cartilago, and three inches above the Navel, about the ending of the short Ribs, hath three parts: The two lateral, which are called hypochondria, or subcartilaginea, because they lie under the cartilages of the short Ribs. In the right hypochondrium lieth the greatest part of the Liver, and part of the Stomach, but in the left the Spleen, and a greater part of the Stomach. The third part is that which before lieth between the two lateral parts, and is properly called epigastrium, because the Stomach lieth under it. In this part remarkable is the Pit of the Breast, which is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or scrobiculus cordis, by the modern Writers.  
The middlemost region extendeth itself from three inches above the Navel, to three inches under it. The fore part is where the Navel is, from whence it is called regio umbilicalis. The two lateral parts are called by Aristotle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, either from their laxity, or from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, salacitas, because they are the seat of lust; by Galen 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because being placed between the hanch-bones and Ribs they are lank and seem to contain nothing. They are called by Dr. Glisson epiçolicae, because on each side, this region investeth the lateral parts of the Gut Colon. The hindermost parts parallel to these are called lumbi, the Loins, in the right whereof is the right Kidney, and in the left, the left.  
The lowest region is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, hypogastrium. This region hath three parts, the two lateral, and the middlemost: The lateral are bounded by the ●ssa Ilia, so called because a great part of the Ilium intestinum lieth under them on each side. Besides this, in the right part are placed the beginning of the Colon, and the caecum intestinum, which latter is joined as an appendage betwixt the Ilium and Colon. In the left part are contained the ending of the Colon, and the intestinum rectum.  
The forepart of the Hypogastrium by Aristot. lib. 1. Hist. animal. 3. is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, which Gaza calleth Abdomen and Sumen. Under it lieth the pubes, which word signifieth both the hairs, and the place where the hairs grow, which appear to bud in Girls the twelfth year, but in Boys the fourteenth year, when way is made for the monthly courses, and seed begins to be generated. At the sides of the pubes appear 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or Inguina, the Groins. Under this lowest region in its middle are contained the Bladder, and the Matrix in Women.  
Behind, it is terminated by the os sacrum.   

CHAP. III.  
Of the common containing parts of the Belly.  
THE common containing parts of the Belly are four, the skarf-skin, the skin, the fat, and the membrana carnosa.  
The skin in a Man is called cutis, but in Beasts aluta; in Greek it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because it is easily flayed off; or from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, seeing it is the end and superficies of the whole Body. Of all the membranes of the Body it is the thickest.  
It hath a double substance; 
1. Cuticula, or skarf-skin.  the one is external, called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because it is placed upon the Skin as a cover. It is termed cuticula in Latin, and is as large as the Skin, and more compact; for waterish sharp humours, passing through the Skin, are stayed by the thickness of this, and so pustules are caused. In Man it is as the peeling of an Onion. It is without blood and without feeling.  
The material cause of it is a viscous and oleous vapour of the blood, raised by the natural heat of the subjacent parts, and dried and condensed by the external cold, as most Anatomists have taught; but Dr. Glisson not improbably thinks it to be a soft, slippery, viscid and transparent juice (like the white of an Egg) issuing out of the capillary extremities of the Nerves which end in the outer superficies of the true Skin, where it is coagulated, and by its viscosity sticketh upon it like glue, so that it can hardly be separated therefrom by a knife, but easily in living creatures by a vesicatory, and in dead persons by fire, or scalding hot water. It sometimes also almost wholly peels off in burning fevers, and the small pox; but a new one presently succeeds it.  
The use of it is First, 
Its uses.  to defend the Skin, which is of an exquisite sense, from external immoderate either heat or cold. In cold weather it breaketh the cold, that the perspiration should not be altogether hindered: In hot weather by its compactness it hindereth too great perspiration.  
Secondly, to be a middle between the Skin▪ and the object to be felt; for when it is rubbed off, the true Skin cannot endure the touch of other Bodies without pain.  
Thirdly, to stay the ichorous substance from issuing from the Arteries; for this we see when the cuticula is rubbed off by any means.  
Fourthly, to make the Body more beautiful; which it does by smoothing the asperities of the true Skin, and inducing a comely colour of white and red. Whiteness is natural to this part, and the redness is owing to the blood that is affused to the outward superficies of the true Skin; which being seen through the Skarf-skin makes that florid colour.  
The true skin is six times thicker than the Skarf-skin: 
2. The true skin.  in Children, Women, and those which are born in hot Countries, it is thinner; but in Men, and in those who inhabit cold Countries, it is thicker.  
It is naturally white, 
It's colour.  as other membranes; but in living and healthful persons, and such as live in a temperate or somewhat cold climate, from the afflux of the blood towards it, it is of a reddish rosy colour. But in those that live under the Aequinoctial Line and in excessively hot climates it appears black in the outer superficies, because they having a softer Skin, and large pores and loose, many vapours of the adust humours are raised with the sweat; the grosser substance whereof, (being stopped by the Scarf-skin, and) by reason of the excessive heat, being dried and burned, causeth that blackness; for their infants are not born black but radish.  
It is made up of nervous fibres very closely interwoven one with another, and of a parenchymas that fills up the interstices and inequalities thereof. That it has such a parenchymas may appear by this, that when a Sheepskin (for instance) has been some while steeped in water, one may with an ivory knife or the like scrape a great deal of mucous slimy matter off it, whereby it becomes much lighter, thinner and in some measure transparent, as we see in Parchment.  
The Skin in the Forehead and Sides is thin, thinner yet in the palm of the Hand, but thinnest of all in the Lips and Cod. In the Head, Back, and under the Heel it is thickest. Under the Heel the cuticula in some will be as thick as a barley corn, and may more truly be called a callus than a cuticula; and such it is in the palms of the Hands of such as much handle hard things, as Smiths, and the like. It is thinner in Children and in Women than in Men; in those that live in hot Countries, than those that live in cold. And this (as Spigelius observes) is the reason why those that are born in cold Countries, when they come under the Aequinoctial Line, are often taken with fevers; because that great heat that is there excited in the Body by the outward air, cannot exhale through the too thick Skin, but being retained induces a preternatural heat, and so a fever.  
The pores will appear in the Skin in the winter time, it being bared; for where they are, the cuticula will appear as a Goose's Skin.  
The Skin hath an action, 
It's action.  to wit, the sense of feeling.  
It's use is, 
Its uses.  first, to clothe the whole Body, and defend it from injuries. Secondly, to be a general vent or emunctory to the Body, by which all its exhalations may fitly transpire. Which whether it be done only through its pores, as most Anatomists have affirmed; or also through its very substance, as Dr. Glisson has of late asserted, is a controversy hardly worth the insisting on.  
In the next place appears the fat, 
3. Fat.  which is commonly taken to be something distinct from the membrana carnosa that lies under it; but is indeed only a part of it: for in its outer part it is full of membranous cells, which are filled with a yellowish fat. But however having noted this error, we shall speak after the manner of former Anatomists, and consider it as separate, and so define it to be an oleous humour of the Body elevated by the moderate heat of the parts lying under it, and concreted betwixt the carnous membrane and the Skin in membranous cells. Now though in Men this fat is immediately next to the Skin, yet in Beasts the membrana carnosa comes between, and is indeed musculous, and so close joined to the Skin that by the help of it they can (many of them) move the Skin so as to shake off flies or any thing that offends them: but it is not so in Men in any place save the Forehead, which therefore they can move in like manner.  
This Fat is properly called pinguedo, whereas that of the Caul, etc. is called sevum, Suet or Tallow. And they differ in this, that pinguedo is easily melted, but not so easily congealed; but sevum is not easily melted, but is easily congealed. Besides, pinguedo is not brittle, but sevum is.  
The uses of it are these: 
Its uses.  First, it defendeth the Body from the air; so Apothecaries, when they mean to preserve juices, pour oil upon them.  
Secondly, it preserveth the natural heat.  
Thirdly, it furthereth beauty by filling up the wrinkles of the Skin.  
Fourthly, in the Muscles it filleth up the empty places, rendereth the motion thereof more glib and easy, (so it do not abound too much) and keepeth all the parts from dryness, or breaking. Hence it besmears the extremities of the Cartilages, the jointings of the greater Bones, and the Vessels that they may pass safely.  
Fifthly, in a special manner it helpeth the concoction of the Stomach; whence the Caul being taken out, there follow flatus and belchings; and in such case it is necessary to fence the Stomach extraordinarily with outward warmth.  
Membrana carnosa, 
4 Membrana carnosa.  or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, so called in Man; not that it is in him fleshy, (but nervous, and so should rather be called Nervea;) but because in Beasts, which the Ancients used most commonly to dissect, it is endued with fleshy Fibres. In the birth it is red, but in those of ripe age white; in the Forehead and Neck it is more fleshy. Within it is bedewed with a viscous humour, to further the motion of the Muscles by keeping the superficies of them from desiccation; which otherwise might fall out by reason of their motion. It is of an exquisite sense, wherefore when it is pricked with sharp humours, it causeth shiverings, such as are felt in the beginning of Ague-fits.  
First it preserveth the heat of the internal parts. 
Its uses.  Secondly, it furthereth the gathering of the fat. Thirdly, it strengtheneth the Vessels which pass between it and the Skin.  
In the next place (according to the usual method of Anatomists) we should come to speak of the Muscles of the Abdomen with their Membranes, etc. But we have thought it more convenient to treat of the Muscles of the whole Body in a particular Book, and so shall but only name the Muscles of the lower Belly here, as they appear one after another to the dissector. And first there show themselves the obliquely descending pair; secondly, the obliquely ascending; thirdly, the Recti; fourthly, the pyramidal; and lastly, the transverse. All these being removed, there appears the peritonaeum, of which in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. IU.  
Of the proper containing parts.  
THE proper containing parts are the Muscles of the Belly, and the Peritonaeum. Of these Muscles we shall speak Book 5. Chap. 17.  
The Peritonaeum or inmost coat of the Belly (derived 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, from its office of encompassing) is tied above to the Midriff, below to the Share and Flank-bones; in the forepart firmly to the transverse Muscles, but chiefly to their Tendons about the Linea alba; behind to the fleshly heads of these Muscles loosely. The end of this firm connexion is to press equally the Belly, for the expulsion of the Ordure, and for respiration. If this connexion had not been, the Peritonaeum would have become wrinkled, the Muscles being contracted. If it had not been lose tied to the fleshly parts, the contraction of them in the compression of the Belly had been hindered.  
It's figure is oval; its substance is membranous; the inner superficies of it, which respects the Guts, is smooth, equal and slippery, bedewed with a kind of watery humour contained in the Abdomen: but the outer superficies, whereby it cleaves to the Muscles of the lower Belly, is rough and unequal.  
As for the origine of it, Fallopius will have it to proceed from that strong plexus of Nerves, from whence the Mesenterium is said to have its beginning. Some will have it to proceed from the Ligaments by which the vertebrae of the Loins and of O●s sacrum are tied together. Picolhomineus will have it to be framed of those Nerves which spring out of the spinalis medulla, about the first and third Vertebrae of the Loins. But Fallopius' opinion seems the most probable; for there it cannot be separated without tearing, and is very thick.  
It is double every where, but appears so to be chiefly about the vertebrae of the Loins, where between the duplications lie the Vena cava, the Aorta and the Kidneys. In the Hypogastrium two Tunicles are also apparently seen, between which the Bladder and Matrix lie. The umbilical Vessels also are placed in the duplicature of the Peritonaeum, that they may march the more safely. Above, where it is tied to the Midriff, it has three faramina or holes; the first on the right side, whereby the ascending trunk of the Vena cava passes; the second on the left side, for the Gullet (with the Nerves inserted into the mouth of the Stomach) to descend by; the third, by which the great Artery or Aorta, and the Nerve of the sixth pair may pass. Below, it has passages for the straight Gut, for the neck of the Bladder, and in Women for the neck of the Womb; also for the Veins, Arteries and Nerves that pass down to the Thighs. Before, in the foetus for the umbilical Vessels and the Vrachus.  
But the most remarkable are its two processes, placed before near the os pubis, on each side one. They are certain oblong productions of its outer Membrane passing through the holes of the Tendons of the oblique and transverse Muscles, and depending into the Cod, there bestowing one Tunicle on the Stones. There are also two processes in Women, but they reach only to the inguina or Groins, and terminate in the upper part of the Privity or the fat of mons Veneris. The inner Membrane of the peritonaeum (in Men) reaches but to the very holes, which it makes very straight; but being either relaxed or broken, the outer gives way, and so there follows a rupture, either the Caul, or the Guts, or both descending thereby. By the holes of the processes there descend in Men the Vessels preparing the seed, and the Muscles called cremasteres, and by them ascend the Vessels bringing back the seed. In Women there pass by them the round ligaments of the Womb, which after growing somewhat broadish, are joined to the clitoris, or else terminate in the fat of Mons Veneris.  
The peritonaeum is thickest below the Navel, for that when one either sits or stands, his Intestines bear down heavy on that part, so that unless it were there stronger than ordinary, it would be in danger of breaking. In Women with child also, it is very much extended in this region. And thus far of the parts containing.  

The Explication of the Figure.  
AA The cover of the Abdomen dissected, and turned back, that the inner parts may come to view.  
B The sword-pointed Gristle, or cartilago ensiformis.  
CC The gibbous part of the Liver.  
DD The Stomach.  
EE Part of the Colon placed under the Stomach.  
FFFF The upper membrane of the Omentum knit to the bottom of the Stomach.  
G The Navel.  
HH The umbilical Vein.  
TWO The two umbilical Arteries.  
K The Vrachus.  
L The Bladder.  
aaa The gastroepiploical Vessels dispersed through the Caul and Stomach.  
MM The Intestines.   
TAB. I. Pag. 16.   

CHAP. V.  
Of the Omentum.  
THE parts contained serve either for nutrition, 
Of the parts contained in the lower belly.  or procreation. As for the parts serving for nutrition, they either serve for chylification, or sanguification. The principal efficient cause of chylification, is the Stomach; but the adjuvants are the Caul, and the Pancreas.  
The principal efficient causes of sanguification, have been held to be the Liver and Spleen, and the other parts to be adjuvant causes. But since it has been discovered that none of the venae lacteae pass to the Liver, but that the whole chyle is conveyed by the ductus thoracicus to the Heart and so into the mass of Blood, they are discharged from the task of sanguification; though they do contribute to the refining and perfecting of the Blood already made.  
The excrements of the chylification are received by the Guts. The excrements of the sanguification have been taught to be two, viz. choler, and the serous humour. The thin choler is received by the vesica fellea; but the thicker by the meatus cholidochus. The serous humour is turned to the Kidneys, and from thence to the Bladder by the Ureters.  
The parts appointed for procreation, are the Genitals, both in Men and Women.  
Next then to the Peritonaeum is the Omentum, 
The cawl.  or Caul, in Greek it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because it seemeth to swim above the up-upper Guts. The Arabians call it Zirbus.  
It is composed of two Membranes, 
It's substance.  of Vessels, Glands and Fat.  
The uppermost Membrane doth spring from the bottom of the Stomach, 
It's connexion or origine.  and is tied to the hollow part of the Liver and Spleen.  
The inner or lowermost doth spring from the Peritonaeum, immediately under the Midriff towards the Back, and is tied to that part of the Gut Colon that passeth under the Stomach lengthways, to the Pancreas or Sweetbread, to the Midriff, and to the Duodenum intestinum.  
It's lower part doth hang loose and reacheth in most below the Navel, but in some that are fat to the very os pubis. It's bottom is close and united, so that it is fitly compared to a pouch.  
From its double origine there ariseth betwixt its partitions a notable cavity, which some very weakly have destined to divers uses; but indeed it results only accidentally, and was not for its own sake framed by Nature. For (as Dr. Glisson reasoneth) whilst Nature is solicitous about providing a fit deputy for the Mesentery (and that membranous) and stuffing it with fat, through which Vessels may be carried to the Stomach, Liver, Spleen, Pancreas and Colon, and whereby she may join all those parts after a due manner; and moreover whilst she takes care that it hang down loosely, and besmear both the Stomach and Intestines with its unctuousness; and in the mean while be every where continuous to itself: I say, whilst she diligently proposes all these ends, if she will obtain them, she must needs make the Caul hollow as it is above described, and its propending part must needs imitate the bottom of a pouch. Thus he.  
The Omentum aboundeth with Vessels of several sorts; 
Its vessels.  we shall begin with the Arteries, 
1. Arteries.  and translate hither the account that the above named Doctor gives of them, which is very exact. Its Arteries are propagated from the coeliaca; or rather the inner Leaf (as he calls it) of this Membrane, near its origine, receives and upholds this Artery, (as soon as it passes out of the Aorta) betwixt its Membranes. It is divided into two branches, the right and left. The right being joined to the vena porta in the pancreas, and fenced with the Membranes of the omentum, is carried into the cava of the Liver: but it first sends forth these branches; the pyloricus, to the hinder side of the right orifice of the Stomach; the arteriae cysticae gemellae, the epiplois dextra, a portion whereof is dispensed to the Gut colon; the intestinalis carried to the duodenum and beginning of the jejunum; the gastroepiplois dextra, which is distributed into the right bottom of the Stomach— The left branch of the coeliaca, called splenicus, is greater than the right, and being included within the Membranes of the hinder Leaf of the omentum is carried directly left-ways to the suture of the Spleen under the bottom of the Stomach. In its passage it sends forth many branches: Upwards one notable one called arteria gastrica, which washeth the bottom and sides of the Stomach and its upper orifice, and there gets the name of coronaria; also a second called gastroepiplois sinistra, whereof one portion is dispersed into the bottom of the left part of the Stomach, and both its fore and hinder parts, and the remainder is spent on the fore Leaf of the omentum; it sends forth a third also, that famous branch called vas breve arteriosum, which is inserted into the left part of the left orifice of the Stomach. Downwards also it shoots forth some branches, as the epiploe sinistra, which being divided into two rivulets waters partly the hinder Leaf of the omentum, and partly the colon itself; also another little branch, which is wholly spent on the left part of the hinder Leaf of the Caul.  
The Veins that answer to the said Arteries rise almost all from the splenick branch, 
2. Veins.  the trunk of which Veins after it is joined with the stem of the splenick Artery, puts forth branches exactly answering and proportioned to those of the said Artery; and all the branches of both Vessels are dispensed to the same respective parts, and are denominated from them, so that 'twould be needless to stay longer on their distribution: only the branch that goes to the right orifice of the Ventricle, called of some pyloricus, takes its rise from the trunk of the porta before 'tis divided.  
It has but very small nerves proceeding from a double branch of the sixth pair: 
3. Nerves.  and these, as the Veins, accompanying the Arteries, and having the same names, we shall not take the pains to trace.  
But besides these Vessels formerly known, 
4. Vasa adiposa.  there are some that think they have discovered another sort called adiposa; amongst whom Malpighius is a leading man: whether there be such or no, I leave the curious with their glasses to inquire; for, for my own part, I could never discern any such by the naked eye, or such glasses as I have made use of.  
Dr. Wharton in his Book de Glandulis, 
5. Venae lacteae.  cap. 12. declares, that he has observed some venae lacteae arising out of the bottom of the Stomach, to be received into the omentum, which being inserted into a pretty large gland do from thence spring again, and are carried obliquely downwards, crossing the right extremity of the pancreas: one would think, saith he, at the first sight, that they entered into the pancreas, but they do in truth pass by it, and make towards the common receptacle of the Chyle, into which they unload themselves.  
The same learned Physician does in the same place give an account of two Glands that are naturally found in it. 
Its glands.  One greater near its being joined unto the pylorus, and into this it is that the lacteae are inserted; another somewhat less placed towards the Spleen, and this he has observed sometimes double, triple, yea manifold. Preternaturally it has sometimes many more.  
The fat is about the Veins and Arteries, 
It's fat.  to strengthen them, and to keep them from being compressed by the repletion of the Belly, and other motions. When the Stomach is full, and the Guts empty, the upper Membrane of the Caul is raised, the lower remaining in its own place; but if the Guts be full, and the Stomach empty, than the lower Membrane riseth up, the upper remaining in its own place; for which end its lower end is free and untied, that sometimes the upper, sometimes the lower Membrane might rise up, saith Spigelius.  
The uses of it are these: 
Its uses.  First, it cherisheth the internal heat of the lower part of the Stomach, and of the Intestines.  
Secondly, it ministereth nourishment to the parts in the time of famine, Galen. de us. part. l. 2. c. 11.  
Thirdly, like the Mesentery, it serves to convey safely the Vessels to other parts, as to the Stomach, Colon, Duodenum, etc.  
Fourthly, it keeps the outer superficies of the Guts moist and glib, that they may the better perform their peristaltic motion.  
Creatures which have no Caul, 
An observation.  help concoction by doubling their hinder Legs, and resting their Belly upon them, as Hares and Coneys.  
They who have had a portion of it cut off, 
Another.  because it was corrupted by reason of a wound received in the abdomen, have afterward a weak concoction, and are enforced to cover the Belly well. See Galen. lib. 4. de usu part. 9 where he proveth this by example.   

CHAP. VI  
Of the Gula.  
THE Gullet being as it were the pipe or funnel of the Stomach, though it be seated in the thorax, and so should be considered in the next Book, yet because of its relation to the Stomach, being but an appendage of it, we shall treat of it here.  
It is an organical part, 
It's origine & descent.  round and hollow, beginning at the root of the Tongue, behind the larynx and Windpipe (where it is called pharynx) and passeth from thence directly between the Windpipe, the vertebrae of the Neck, and the four first vertebrae of the thorax, upon the which it resteth; but when it is come to the fifth vertebra, it giveth way to the trunk of the great Artery descending, by turning a little to the right side: afterward accompanying the Artery to the ninth vertebra, there it turns a little to the left again, and is raised up, by means of the Membranes, from the vertebra, and marching above the Artery, it passeth through the nervous body of the Midriff at a hole distinct from that of the great Artery, and is inserted into the left orifice of the ventricle, about the eleventh vertebra of the Breast.  
It is properly called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
The names of it.  quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, angustus & longus: see Aristot. 1. histor. animal. 16. It is also called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, quòd cibum ad ventriculum vehat.  
It is framed of three Membranes. 
It's structure.  The first is the uttermost and common, compassing the two proper; this it hath either from the peritonaeum, according to some, or from the pleura, or from the ligaments of the vertebrae of the Neck and Breast upon which it resteth. The second is the middlemost, and it is fleshy and thick, for it consists of two ranks of fleshy Fibres, (what Fibres are see B. 5. ch. 1.) which ascend and descend obliquely, and do mutually decussate one another. This hath been held by many (not improbably) to be a kind of Muscle, because it is sometimes affected with Convulsions and Palsies. The third is the innermost, and it is membranous; and hath only small and strait Fibres. It is continued to that Membrane that covereth the Palate, Mouth, Jaws and Lips; whence the lower Lip usually trembleth, when one is going to vomit; and (according to Dr. Willis) it descends three fingers breadth below the mouth of the Stomach.  
It hath Veins in the Neck from the Jugulars, in the thorax from the vena sine pari; 
Vessels.  but where it is joined to the Ventricle, it hath some twigs from the ramus coronarius, which proceedeth from the porta.  
It hath Arteries in the Neck from the carotides; in the thorax from the Intercostals, and in the abdomen from the ramus coeliacus coronarius.  
Nerves it hath from the sixth pair, which are carried obliquely, for safety, as Galen noteth, l. 6. de usu part. 6. and are very many.  
It hath four Glandules; 
Glandules.  two in the Throat, which are called Tonsillae, or Almonds, common to the Gullet and the Larynx, which prepare and separate the pituitous humour to moisten them; other two it hath about the middle of it, towards the Back, about the fifth vertebra of the thorax, namely, where it gives way to the trunk of the aorta, and turns somewhat to the right side, or at that place where the aspera arteria is divided into two branches.  
The Gullet serveth as a funnel to carry meat and drink to the Stomach; 
The use of it.  for it receiveth them by dilating its proper internal coat, and turneth them down by the constriction of the middle coat, and the Muscles of the Pharynx. But concerning its action, and in what manner, and by what help swallowing is performed, see more fully and particularly in the fifth Book, Of the Muscles, chap. 12.   

CHAP. VII.  
Of the Ventriculus or Stomach.  
THAT part which we term the Stomach in English, 
It's denomination.  in Latin is called Ventriculus, without any addition, to distinguish it from the other Ventricles, which have always some other word added to determine the signification, as ventriculus cordis, ventriculus cerebri. In Greek it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, from its Cavity.  
In Man it is but one; 
Number.  but such quadrupeds as chew the Cud, especially all that are horned, have four Stomaches; the first whereof is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in English the Paunch; the second 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in Latin reticulus; the third 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, omasus, in English the Feck; the fourth 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, abomasus, in English the Read. Such Fowl also as live upon Corn have two Stomaches; the first membranous, called ingluvies, the crop; the second carnous, called ventriculus carnosus, in English the Gizzard. Betwixt these two some name a third called echinus, but it seems rather a passage only betwixt these two than itself a distinct one. But this is not a place to be particular as to the differences of number or shape, etc. of the Stomaches of several Animals, having designed only a succinct Anatomy of Man. But the inquisitive may satisfy themselves in the learned Dr. Charleton's second prelection before the College of Physicians, entitled Historia Ventriculi; or more fully in the ingenious Dr. Grew's comparative Anatomy of Stomaches and Guts, published with his Museum Regalis Societatis.  
It is placed immediately under the Midriff, 
Situation.  which it toucheth; wherefore if it be too full it causeth a difficulty of breathing, by hindering the motion of it. In the forepart on the right side, it is covered with the hollow part of the Liver; on the left side it is touched by the Spleen; towards the Back by the aorta, the vena cava, and under it backwards by the pancreas: all which further its heat.  
The bigness of it is commonly such, as is capable to receive so much food at one time, as is sufficient for nutrition. It is less in Women than in Men, to give way to the distension of the Matrix. They who have wide Mouths, have large Stomaches.  
It is joined with the gula on the left side, 
Connexion.  where its upper orifice is: it is tied to the duodenum, where the lower orifice is, on the right side. The bottom in the whole length of it is joined to the upper part of the Caul, by whose mediation it is joined to the Liver, Back, Spleen, Colon and Pancreas.  
The substance of it is membranous, 
Substance.  that it might admit distension and contraction. It hath three Membranes. The first is common, which it hath from the peritonaeum or the Diaphragm about the upper orifice; it is the thickest of all those which spring from the peritonaeum; the Fibres of it being nervous are strait, running from one orifice to the other, and encompassing both its bottom and sides in their whole longitude. Near the orifices and towards the bottom of the Stomach, they are far thicker than in the middle, insomuch as there they seem in a manner carnous and motory. These nervous Fibres of this Membrane do cross at right angles the carnous ones lying next under them.  
The second is fleshy, and the Fibres of it are transverse, under which a few oblique, and those fleshy, lie. This Coat is believed by some to be muscular.  
The third is nervous, endued with all kinds of Fibres; strait, oblique and transverse; but the strait are most conspicuous and plentiful.  
It is something wrinkled, and its inner superficies is pulpous, porous and soft. It is always moistened with a slimy phlegmatic humour, that sticks so close to it, as if it were something that grew out of it.  
Besides these Membranes with their Fibres it hath also a parenchymas, but that not sanguineous, but of a peculiar sort. For without a parenchymas how should the inequalities, that spring from the texture of the Fibres, be filled up? And what should that be, which those that make strings for musical Instruments, scrape from the Guts, if not it? for we see after such scraping they have lost nothing of their strength, which they owe to the Fibres and Membranes. And 'tis apparent that the substance of the Guts and Stomach is the same. Some there are that think this parenchymas that I plead for, to be almost wholly glandulous.  
It hath also two orifices. 
Orifices.   
The one is in the left side, called sinistrum, wider than that in the right, that meat not well chewed might the better pass. It is called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 cor, from whence the region of the Stomach under the cartilago ensiformis is called scrobiculus cordis, or Heart-pit; and hence also the pains which happen in it are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because there is a great consent between it and the Heart, by reason that the twigs of Nerves which proceed from the same branch, springing from the sixth pair, communicate to both; so that one being affected primarily, the other must suffer by consent.  
This hath orbicular Fibres, that the meat and drink being once received within the capacity of the Stomach, it might be exactly shut, lest fumes and the heat should break out, which might hinder concoction, and annoy the Head.  
The other by the Grecians is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, janitor, or doorkeeper, because it, as a Porter, doth make way for the Chylus to descend to the duodenum: It is not so wide as the other orifice, because it was only to transmit the elaborate Chylus. Here the inmost nervous Coat is very full of wrinkles; the middle, which is carnous, hath here also two ranks of Fibres; transverse or anular, to straiten this passage; and secondly strait, viz. such as running lengthways do gather up and draw the rest of the Stomach towards this door, for the distribution of the Chyle after it has been sufficiently concocted in the Stomach.  
It hath Veins, 
Its veins.  first, from the trunk of vena porta, and this is pyloricus ramus; or, secondly, from the branches of the same, for so from ramus splenicus it hath gastrica minor, and gastrica major (the largest Vein of the Stomach) from whence coronaria springeth; gastroepiplois sinistra, and vas breve: from the ramus mesentericus, before it be divided, it hath gastroepiplois dextra. All these Veins, (as the rest of the Body) serve only to convey back again (towards the Heart) the remains of the arterial Blood which in the circulation is not spent on the refection and nourishment of the part; though some learned modern Anatomists think they do besides the arterial Blood receive some of the more subtle part of the Chyle for its readier conveyance into the mass of Blood, and thence draw a reason of the very quick refreshment that hungry and faint persons receive by eating or drinking.  
It hath its Arteries from ramus coeliacus, 
Its arteries.  which do accompany every Vein, and have the same denomination with them.  
It hath Nerves from the par vagum, 
Its nerves.  o● the sixth pair (Dr. Willis's eighth) whose trunks passing down (below the pneumonick branch) by the sides of the Gullet are each divided into two branches, the outer and inner. Both the inner branches bending to one another grow into one, which passing with the Gullet through the Midriff goes on the outer part of the orifice of the Stomach, and spreads itself in its bottom. The two outer branches in like manner inclining to each other unite into one, which descending to the Stomach by the oesophagus, and arriving at the inner part of its orifice, there turns back and creeps through its upper part. The inner and outer branches as they come one on one side, and another on the other side of the upper orifice of the Stomach, send forth many small twigs, which mutually inosculating make there the plexus nerveus like a net. From this multitude of Nerves interwoven in the mouth of the Stomach proceeds that great consent betwixt it and the Head. (So that in any great concussion of the Head there follows a vomiting, and from the foulness of the Stomach the Headache, etc.) Here at this upper orifice, from the same reason, is the sense of hunger most urgent.  
And this is a proper place to resolve the question, 
The causes of hunger.  What is the true cause of hunger? To which I shall give Diemerbroeck's answer as the most probable. It is caused from fermentaceous (or dissolving) particles partaking of acrimony, bred of spittle swallowed and other saltish or acid things eat or drunk, which sticking to the coats of the Stomach, and brought to some acidity by it, or remaining in it after the Chyle is sent off, affixed to its inmost wrinkled Membrane (especially about its upper orifice) molest it by their twitching, which twitching being communicated to the Brain by the Nerves of the sixth pair, an imagination of taking meat is excited to assuage that troublesome corrosion.] He that doubts of the truth of this opinion, may find it evinced at large in his Anatome corporis humani, cap. 6. p. 39, etc.  
The action of the Stomach is Chylification. 
It's action.  Now Chylus is a white juice reasonable thick, 
Chylus.  like Barley cream, made out of the aliments taken; the manner whereof is well expressed by the same Author. While the meat is chewing in the Mouth it is mixed with the saliva, which not only softens it, but endows it with a certain fermentative quality, unto which contributes also the drink, (whether Beer, or Wine, or some other) which often contains in it acrimonious particles and fermentaceous spirits. The Stomach by the help of its Fibres embraceth closely the meat thus chewed and swallowed, and mixeth therewith specific fermentaceous juices, bred in its inner coat, and impregnated with the saliva. Then by a convenient heat there is made a mixture and eliquation of all; for that the fermentaceous particles entering into the pores of the meat, do pass through, agitate, and eliquate its particles, dissolving the purer from the crass, and making them more fluid, so that they make another form of mixture, and unite among themselves into the resemblance of a milky cream: after which, together with the thicker mass, in which they are as yet involved by the constriction of the Stomach they pass down to the Guts, where by the mixture of the boil and the pancreatic juice, they are by another manner of fermentation quite separated from the thicker mass, and so are received by the lacteal Vessels, as the thicker is ejected by stool.] See further hereof in Dr. Charleton's third prelection before the College of Physicians, Sect. 6. p. 112.  
Of figure, 
It's figure.  it is round moderately; partly, that it should not take too much room; partly, that it might receive much. It is somewhat long, and hath two orifices higher than the bottom, lest if one should have been in the bottom, the aliment should have issued out of it unconcocted.   

CHAP. VIII.  
Of the Intestines, or Guts.  
THE Guts are called in Latin Intestina, 
Their name.  in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, from their being placed within the Body.  
They are oblong, 
Figure.  membranous, hollow, round, diversely twisted, continued from the pylorus to the podex, for conveying the Chyle, and the excrements of the first concoction.  
They are knit together by the Mesentery, 
Connexion.  by which and by the intervention of the Caul (to which, part of the Colon is affixed) they are tied to the back, and fill the greater part of the Cavity of the Abdomen, being sustained by the Cavities of the os ilium.  
They are of a membranous substance like the Stomach, 
Substance.  thinner in the small Guts and thicker in the great; and the nearer they come to an end, the thicker they are, as the end of Colon and the Rectum.  
The length of the Guts is about six times the party's length whose they are. 
Their length.  They are thus long (and winding) that the concocted aliments passing out of the Stomach, by their long stay in the Guts, might the more commodiously be fermented by the admixture of the bile and pancreatic juice, and so the more subtle chylous parts being separated from the thicker mass, might be the better and more leisurely driven into the narrow orifices of the lacteal Vessels, partly by the proper peristaltic motion of the Guts, and also by the impulsion of the Muscles of the Abdomen moved in respiration. And hereby two great inconveniencies are avoided; the one of eating almost continually, which would have followed from the Chyles having not time enough to be elaborated and distributed, before it would have arrived at the anus, whereby the Body must needs receive but small sustenance from any thing eat or drunk; the other (for the same reason also) of having almost a continual need of going to stool; as happens to such voracious animals as have a straighter passage from the Stomach to the anus.  
They have three coats, 
Coats.  as the Stomach; one common and outermost from the Peritonaeum, but mediately; for in the Duodenum, and that part of the Colon which cleaveth to the Stomach, it proceedeth immediately from the lower membrane of the Caul; and in the jejunum, ileum, the rest of the Colon, caec●●m and rectum, it proceedeth from the membranes of the mesenterium. It is all over besmeared with fat, and is truly nervous.  
They have two proper. The outer, being the middle of the three, is carnous. It has two ranks of moving Fibres, one lying under the other; The first and inner rank is annular or transverse, which encompassing the whole cavities of all the Intestines in very close order, is inserted into the hem or seam of the Mesentery as into its Tendon. The other rank is of straight Fibres, which being spread above the former, and cutting them at right angles, reach along the whole length of the Intestines; and their Tendon seems to be the outmost coat, which being wholly nervous, or as it were tendinous, is rolled about the whole rank of these Fibres.  
The innermost is nervous, although it seem to be fleshy, by reason of the crusty substance with which it is lined, which is framed of the excrements of the third concoction of the Guts themselves. This lining is called by Pecquet a spongy peristoma, by Bilsius a woolly moss; it serves as a Filtre for the Chyle to transcolate through in order to its entrance into the venae lacteae; and besides, it hindereth excoriation, which might be caused when sharp humours pass through the Guts. Some (as particularly Dr. Willis) take it for a distinct coat, and call it glandulo satunica or villosa; but I think 'tis only an epiphysis or excrescence upon the other, caused as abovesaid.  
This Membrane in the small Guts, especially the ileum, is full of wrinkles, to stay the chylus from passing too soon; which wrinkles are caused, for that this inmost coat if it be severed from the other and the wrinkles stretched open, will be (according to Fallopius' observation) thrice as long as it. And the same Membrane is expanded in the Colon into little cells, for the slower passing of the faeces. It has all sorts of Fibres, and contains the mouths of all the Vessels both sanguineous and lacteal, which are covered with that spongy crust beforementioned.  
What was said of the Parenchyma of the Stomach in the foregoing Chapter, may without repeating it here, be applied to the Guts likewise.  
As to their Vessels, 
Veins.  the Veins flow from the Porta, although not from the same branch: For the duodenalis surculus is sent into the duodenum, and the Haemorrhoidalis interna to the left part of the Colon near its ending, and thence running under the rectum is inserted into its end or anus; as the dexter mesentericus is sent to the jejunum, ileum, caecum, and the right part of the colon. Epiplois postica is inserted into the middle part of the Colon, which marcheth transversly under the Stomach: besides these, a sprig from the ramus hypogastricus of the vena cava is sent to the Muscles of the intestinum rectum, which maketh the external haemorrhoidal.  
The use of these Veins inserted into the Intestines the Ancients thought to be, both to carry venal blood to them for their nourishment, and also to receive the chyle out of them and carry it to the Liver there to be turned into blood. As to the first use, 'tis certain (by the circulation of the blood) that these Veins carry nothing to the Guts; but the blood in them, is all received from the Arteries there, to be carried back towards the Liver and so to the Heart: but as to the latter, there are some learned Anatomists that still think, though the greatest part of the chyle is received by the venae lacteae, yet that some part is sucked in by these Veins, so to be more readily conveyed into the mass of blood. But this opinion is exploded by others as learned and more numerous, who deny any such office to them, whom I believe to be in the right. Besides these sanguineous Veins there are another sort of Veins inserted (more or fewer) into all the Guts, called Lacteal, but of them we will treat in a distinct Chapter.  
The Arteries spring partly from ramus coeliacus intestinalis, 
Arteries.  partly from both the mesentericae. To the duodenum, and the beginning of jejunum, a sprig is sent from the right ramus coeliacus: but to the rest of the jejunum, to ileum, caecum, and the right part of colon, mesentericus superior; to the left part of colon, and to the intestinum rectum, mesentericus inferior is sent. This last passing along the rectum to the podex, makes the internal haemorrhoidal Arteries, as some branches from the arteria hypogastrica make the external. At the last, epiplois postica, which riseth from the lower part of arteria splenica, which is the left branch of arteria coeliaca, is sent to the middle part of colon, which lieth under the Stomach. Their use is to convey nourishment and warmth to the Guts; and when the Body is morbose, to carry thither the impurities of the blood, upon a purge taken, or critically, so to pass out by stool.  
Nerves they have from the inferior ramifications of the intercostals. 
The nerves.  The duodenum hath some twigs from the upper branch of the ramus mesentericus called stomachicus, which go also to the pylorus. All except the rectum have many twigs from the plexus mesentericus maximus, arising from under the great gland of the Mesentery; but the rectum, with the latter end of colon receive slips from that branch of the Intercostal that is called plexus abdominis infimus or minimus; and the utmost extremity of the Intercostal is inserted into the sphincter ani, whither also pass three or four that spring from the bottom of os sacrum. These Nerves serve for the feeling, and the peristaltic or worm-like motion of the Guts; which though it be obscure and slow, yet because it is continual, it had need of so great a number of Nerves or nervous Fibres as are bestowed on the Intestines. The learned and curious that would be further informed about the peristaltic motion, may consult Dr. Glisson in cap. 15. of his Book de ventriculo & intestinis, or Dr. Charleton in Sect. 3. of his third prelection before the College of Physicians.  
Though the Guts be one continued Body from the pylorus to the anus, 
The division of the Guts.  yet from the thickness of their substance, also from their magnitude, figure, and variety of office they are distinguished into several by Anatomists, and first into thin, and thick.  
The thin possess the umbilical region and hypogastrium; 
The thin.  and in respect of their figure, situation, longitude and plenty of lacteal Vessels, they are divided into three, viz. the duodenum, jejunum and ileon.  
The first is called duodenum, 
1. Duodenum.  because it is thought to have twelve inches in length. It doth pass from the pylorus under the Stomach towards the Spine, and is sustained in its passage by the Membrane of the Caul, and not by the Mesentery. It reaches as far as the left Kidney, to which and to the vertebrae of the Loins it is tied by membranous ligaments; and going a little lower it ends under the colon, where the anfractus or winding of the two following small Guts begins. It is thicker in its Membranes, but its passage (because straight) is straighter than theirs. Towards its lower end, sometimes higher, sometimes lower, it has most commonly two ducts leading obliquely into it; first the ductus choledochus communis by which the bile from the Liver enters this Gut; and secondly a little below this, ductus pancreaticus (otherwise Wirtsungianus) by which the pancreatic juice passes hither from the Sweetbread: though these two ducts are sometimes joined into one, and both open by one mouth into this Intestine. Sometimes, though rarely, they are inserted into the jejunum.  
The second is called jejunum, 
2. Jejunum.  or the hungry Gut; for it is for the most part found empty; partly by reason of the multitude of milky Veins that enter it; partly by reason of the fermentation of the acrimonious choler with the pancreatic juice, which are both poured in just before its beginning. In length it is twelve hand-breadths and three inches. It beginneth on the right side, under the colon, where the duodenum endeth, and the Guts begin to be wreathed; and filling almost the whole umbilical region, especially on the left side, it tendeth into the ileum, from which it may be distinguished first by its emptiness; secondly by its greater number of Veins and Arteries, from which it looks reddish; thirdly from the nearness of the folds or wrinkles of its inmost coat one to another, which are but about half an inch distant, whereas in the ileum they are a whole inch or more.  
The third is ileum, 
●. Ileum.  derived 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, à circumvolvendo, from its many turnings and windings. It hath thinner Membranes than the rest of the tenuia. It is seated under the Navel, and filleth both the Ilia. It is the longest of all the Guts, for in length it containeth 21 hand-breadths; but it is the narrowest of all, for it is not an inch in breadth. It hath fewer wrinkles than the jejunum, and lesser, which about the lower end of it scarcely appear.  
It beginneth where both smaller and fewer Veins appear, and endeth about the place of the right Kidney, where it is joined both with the intestinum caecum, & colon. It is easily distinguishable from the colon, for it is not joined to it by a straight dust but transverse. For the colon and caecum are so united as to make one continued canal, whose lower side the ileon ascending pierceth, and into which its inner coat hangs loosely the length of half an inch at least, making the valve itself of the colon, and is the very limit that divides the caecum from it.  
This ileum oft falls down into the Cod, whence such a rupture is called Intestinal. And in this Gut happens the distemper called Volvulus or Iliaca passio, wherein there is often vomiting of the dungy excrement. This distemper is caused herein, either when one part intrudes into another, or when 'tis twisted and twined like a Rope, or when it is stuffed with some matter that obstructs it, or lastly when it falls out of its place into the scrotum, as was noted before. And thus much of the first sort of Intestines, viz. the small or thin.  
Now follow the intestina crassa, 
The thick Guts.  the great Guts; they are three in number also.  
The first is called caecum, 
1. Cacum.  〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the blind Gut, because one end of it is shut, so that at the same orifice the chylus (or faeces rather) passeth, and returneth. In Man it is about as thick and but half as long as your larger earthworms stretched out at length; but its mouth that opens towards the colon is pretty large. It owes its origine rather to the colon than the ileum, and seems to be as it were an appendage to it. It is bigger in an Infant than in a Man. It is not tied to the mesenterium; but being couched round, it is knit to the peritonaeum, and by its end it is joined to the right Kidney, the peritonaeum coming between. In sound persons it is generally empty. In fourfooted Beasts it is always full of excrements. Apes have it larger than a Man, Dogs larger than Apes; but Coneys, Squirrels and Rats, largest of all, if you consider the proportion of their Bodies. It's use is very obscure in Men, being so very small and commonly empty. But in grown foetus or Infants new born it is full of excrement, for which it serves as a store-house till after the birth that they go to stool. And in such Animals as have it large, (according to Dr Glisson) it serves for a bag or second Ventricle, wherein the prepared aliments may be stored up, and so long retained, till a richer, thicker and more nutritive juice may be drawn from them.  
The second is colon, 
2. Colon.  〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, either quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 cavum, because it is the hollowest or widest of the Guts; or else 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, ab impediendo, because it detaineth the excrements. It hath its beginning from both the ileum and caecum, transversely from the ileum, but directly from the caecum. It ariseth at the os ileum on the right side, and ascending by its Spine it arrives at the right Kidney; to which parts it is annexed by a membranous connexion. From thence bending left-ways it creeps under the Liver by the Gali-bladder (which tinges it there a little yellowish) to the bottom of the Stomach; to the whole length whereof it is tied, only the Caul coming between, (as also to the pancreas and Loins.) Then it comes to the lower part of the Spleen, and is knit to it. Then touching the left Kidney, and adhering firmly to it by Fibres, it comes to the left os ileum; from which descending by the left Groin to the pelvises it embraceth the bottom of the Bladder behind on each side. Afterwards it ascends upwards by the right Groin near the place from whence it first took its rise; and thence marching back again towards the left side, and running itself in betwixt the ileum and Backbone it reaches to the top of os sacrum, and there unloads itself into the rectum. It's length according to Dr. Glisson is about seven feet; others reckon it shorter. It goeth almost quite about the abdomen next to the Muscles, that it may be the better compressed by them for avoidance of the excrements. Diemerbroeck has an ingenious reason why it should pass under the Stomach, viz. That as Chemists judge no digestion more natural than that which is performed by the heat of dung, so the heat of the excrements in the colon does help the coction of the Stomach.  
It hath cells which spring from the internal Tunicle of it: These cells are kept in their figure by a Ligament half an inch broad, which passeth through the upper and middle part of it all along; this being broken or dissolved, the cells stretch out and appear no more. Their use is to hinder the flowing of the excrements into one place, which would compress the parts adjacent; as also for the slower passage of the faeces, that we may not have a continual and hasty need of going to stool. On its outside from its passing by the Spleen to its joining to the rectum it has a great many fatty knots, which serve to moisten and lubricate it, that the faeces may pass the more glibly. The rectum also has such like, for the same reason.  
It hath a valve where it is joined with ilium, 
It's valve.  (as was noted before) like to the sigmoides in the sinus of the Heart, as Spigelius compares it. This valve so stoppeth the hole which is common to the ileon and colon, that flatuosities cannot ascend to the ilium, much less excrements regurgitate. If one would find this out, let him pour water into the intestinum rectum, and hold up the Guts: The water will stay when it comes to the valve, if it be sound. If this valve be relaxed or torn by any means, excrements may regurgitate, and be expelled by vomit, and clysters also ascend up to the Stomach, as hath often happened in the Iliacal passion.  
The third is intestinum rectum, 
3. Rectum.  the straight Gut: it hath its beginning at the first vertebra of the os sacrum, where the colon endeth; and passeth straight downwards to the extremity of the coccyx, and is fast tied on its backside to both by the peritonaeum, to keep it from falling out; and on its fore-side it grows in men to the neck of the Bladder, whence in the pain of the Stone there, there often happens a tenesmus or continual inclination to go to stool; and in women to the neck of the Womb: but in both there is a musculous substance that comes between. It is a span in length, not so wide as the colon, but its Membranes are thicker. The Muscle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 is at the end of it, which encompassing it round, purses it up close, so that nothing can pass out, unless it be relaxed voluntarily. This Gut (especially its inner Membrane) usually bags a little out in straining at stool, yea sometimes so much, that it requires an artificial putting up again.  
TAB. II. pag. 43  
As for the hemorrhoidal Veins and Arteries, that are inserted into the anus, we have given an account of them before in this Chapter; as we shall do of the Muscles belonging to it, in Book 5. of the Muscles, Chap. 19  

The Explication of the Figure.  
A The Stomach.  
B The Gullet or Oesophagus.  
C The left and larger part of the Stomach.  
D The upper orifice of the Stomach.  
E The right external Nerve of the sixth pair (Dr. Willis ' s eighth) encompassing the orifice.  
F The left external Nerve of the same pair.  
GG The gastrick Vessels creeping along the bottom of the Stomach.  
H The lower orifice of the Stomach, called Pylorus.  
h The insertion of the Gall-passage into the Duodenum.  
III The Jejunum and Ileum with the Vessels creeping along them.  
K The Caecum.  
LLLL The Colon.  
M The valve in the beginning of the Colon opened.  
mmm The Ligament holding together the Cells of the Colon.  
NN The Rectum.  
O The Sphincter of the Anus.  
PP The Muscles called Levatores Ani.    

CHAP. IX.  
Of the Mesenterium.  
THE Mesentery is so called from its situation. 
It's denomination.  For it has its Greek name 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 (from whence the English is derived) from its being placed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in the midst of the Intestines. And it is a membranous part, situated in the middle of the lower Belly, serving not only for conveying some Vessels to the Intestines, and others from them, but also it ties most of the Guts together so artificially, that for all their manifold windings they are not entangled and confounded. Which may be much wondered at, how the Guts being about nine or ten yards long should all but the duodenum and a piece of the rectum be comprehended by that circumference that is but a span distant from the centre; for no longer is the Mesentery betwixt those bounds. But it is almost of a circular figure, which is most capacious; and though it be narrow at its rise, (which is double, viz. at the first and third vertebrae of the Loins) yet its circumference is wrinkled and enlarged into so many folds, as to be three els in length, whereby it comes the nearer to answer the length of the Guts, and to keep them within a small compass and place likewise.  
It is framed of two common Membranes, 
Substance.  which it has from the duplicature of the peritonaeum; and betwixt these two it has a third Membrane that is proper, (which was first discovered by Dr. Wharton in a young Maid) and is thicker than either of the other two, wherein the glands are seated and by which the Vessels are conducted.  
The parts contained in the Mesentery are either common or proper. 
Parts.  The common are Veins, Arteries, Nerves and Lymphducts. The proper are Glands and the Venae lacteae. Of these last we shall speak in the next Chapter, of the rest here.  
The Veins are called Mesaraicae; 
Veins.  these spring from ramus mesentericus dexter & sinister, branches of the vena portae. (Their use, as also that of the Arteries, was shown in the Chapter before, speaking of the Vessels belonging to the Guts.)  
It hath also two Arteries, 
Arteries.  the one superior, the other inferior, branches of the arteria mesenterica, which pass as the Veins do.  
As for the Nerves, 
Nerves.  Dr. Willis describeth them very accurately in his Book de Cerebro, cap. 25. which take thus in short. As soon as the intercostal pair is descended as low as over against the bottom of the Stomach, it sends forth on each side a large mesenterick branch, each of which is again divided, and makes two plexus in each side. In the middle of these is the greatest plexus of all, which (as he speaks) is like the Sun amongst the Planets; from which twigs and numerous Fibres are dispersed into all the parts of the Mesentery, which accompanying the sanguiferous Vessels in their whole process, do climb upon them and tie them about.] Others it hath from those which spring from the spinalis medulla, between the first, second, third and fourth vertebrae of the Loins, (as Spigelius affirmeth.)  
Besides these Vessels known to the Ancients, 
Lymphducts.  about 30 years ago there were found out another sort by Tho. Bartholin (a learned Dane) and called by him vasa lymphatica, which he gives a large account of in Append. 3. to the libel. 1. de Venice, of which I shall give a compendium here, because the Mesentery abounds with them.  
They are of figure long and hollow like a Vein, but very small and knotty, having very many valves which permit the lympha or water contained in them to pass to the chyliferous Vessels (and many Veins) but hinder its return. They are of a pellucid and crystallin colour, like hydatides, consisting of a transparent and most thin skin, which being broken and the lympha flowing out, utterly disappears. Their number cannot be defined, for they are almost innumerable. As to their rise Bartholin speaks uncertainly, but Steno and Malpighius both declare that they always proceed from Glands. As to their insertion or ending, those under the Midriff do discharge their liquor into the receptaculum chyli (to be spoken of in the next Chapter.) Those in the thorax, immediately into the thoracick dust. And those of the Neck, Arms, etc. into the jugular vein. Bartholin thought they all discharged themselves into these three channels: but Diemerbroeck affirms they open also into many other Veins; and quotes Steno noting that they empty themselves into the jugular and other Veins; and also his Countryman Frederick Ruysch writing that by ligature and structure of the Valves he has plainly seen, that all the lymphducts in the Lungs do discharge their lympha into the subclavian, axillar and jugular Veins. There has been much dispute what this lympha which they carry, is. Bartholin thinks it to be the simple superfluous serum of each part, brought thither by the Arteries. Glisson, that it is a liquor condensed from the halitus of the blood (like dew) driven into these Vessels, and flowing back with the vehicle of the aliment brought by the Nerves. Segerus (and Silvius) that it is the animal spirits, or is made of them, which after they are distributed into all parts by the Nerves, are there partly consumed and dissipated, and are partly condensed into this water. Diemerbroeck quotes more opinions besides these, but rejects them all, and establisheth this of his own: viz. That it is a fermentaceous liquor separated from the serous part of the blood in the conglobate Glands, yet not simple, but impregnated with much fused and volatile salt, and also with some sulphureous particles; which when it is conveyed to the vasa chylifera, makes the chyle thinner, and apt to dilate easily in the Heart; and when to the Veins, prepares the venous blood (now too thick) for a quick dilatation in the Heart.] This lympha, whatever it be, (or be for) differs from the serum; for if one gather a little of it in a spoon, and let it stand, without setting it on the fire, it will turn to a jelly, which the serum will not do. And thus much of the Lymphducts (with their lympha) in general; as to those particularly of the Mesentery, some only pass through it from other parts, as the Liver, etc. but many have their rise in it, and both the one and other are emptied into the receptaculum chyli.  
It hath many little softish Glands fixed in its proper Membrane, 
Glandules.  covered on each side by the two common ones, and beset with fat. In number they are very uncertain; in Man fewer than in other Creatures. The biggest by much is at the rise or centre of the Mesentery, (called by Asellius, pancreas) into which all the venae lacteae are inserted. Of its use, as also of the lesser, we shall speak in the next Chapter, when we come to treat of the passage of the Lacteals. We will only note here, that when these Glands grow scirrhous, or are any ways obstructed, so that the Chyle cannot transcolate through them, there follows a fluxus coeliacus, or chylosus, which continuing there ensues an Atrophy, and the party dies tabid.  
The fat with which it is stuffed betwixt its Membranes, 
Fat.  though it happen naturally to it, yet ought not to be reputed a proper part of it. For not to mention that in Dogs, Cats, and such like Animals this part is very thin and transparent, even in humane Embryo's it is without fat; and in very lean Men there is but little, though in fat Men it be heaped up to so great a thickness.  
It is but one, 
Division.  yet because of its different thickness it is divided by some into two parts.  
The one they call Mesaraeum, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because it is placed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 (subaudi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) in the midst of the small Intestines, which it knits together; and this is the thicker part of it. The other being the thinner they call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, being seated 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in the midst of the colon, to which it is joined in its whole length save only in the colon's passage under the Stomach; and in its lowest border it adheres to the rectum.  
Diseases incident to this part are reckoned up by Dr. Wharton to be these; 
Diseases.  those of intemperies, straitness or obstruction, tumors of whatsoever kind, (Scirrhi, Scrophulae, Strumae) Inflammations, Abscesses, Ulcers, and Tone vitiated. Of all which the Reader that desires fuller information, may be satisfied by the said learned Author, in his Adenographia, cap. 11.   

CHAP. X.  
Of the Venae lacteae, Receptaculum Chyli, and ductus chyliferus Thoracicus.  
VEnae lacteae, 
Their name.  the Milky veins (so called from the white colour of the Chyle which they carry) were not discovered (as such) till the year 1622. when Caspar Asellius found them out in dissecting a Live-dog well fed. But since him many others have made a more accurate discovery of them. They are slender pellucid Vessels, having but a single Coat, dispersed through the Mesentery, infinite in number, appointed for the carrying of the Chyle.  
They spring out of the Intestins, 
Rise.  into whose inmost Membrane their Mouths are inserted, which are hid under a kind of a spongy crust or mucus, through which by the pression of the Guts the Chyle is strained and received by the mouths of these vessels. Presently after their rise they aim to that nearest part of the Mesentery, whereto the Intestine from which they arise, is knit. Then they go the readiest way to such Glandules of the Mesentery as are nearest to them: but in their passage sometimes many little branches meeting grow into one great trunk; namely, before they insinuate themselves into the Gland, to which we said they were going. But in their very entrance into the Glands, or a little before, this trunk separates again into new branches, more and smaller than the other, which are obliterated in the very substance of the Gland. Out of the Gland there spring again new capillary Veins, which by and by meeting together make one trunk again as before: which being carried towards the beginning of the Mesentery, in their march join to themselves others of the same kind meeting them, and so grow larger and larger, and at last very many enter into the great or middle Gland of the Mesentery (called improperly Pancreas) in the same manner as they entered the smaller, and some pass by over its superficies, and by and by they all empty themselves into the great or common receptacle of the Chyle, that lies under the said Gland, those that were inserted into it rising out of it, as was before spoken of the lesser Glands.  
Bartholin says that behind the great Gland there are three other smaller (which he calls Lumbares) into which the Lacteals are inserted, but assents to Dr. Wharton, that from them they pass to the Receptaculum.  
This common Receptacle is called Receptaculum Chyli Pecquetianum, 
Receptaculum chyli.  from Pecquet who first found both it and the ductus Thoracicus (whose beginning it is) about thirty years ago. It might as well be called receptaculum Lymphae, for that the Lympha passes not only with the Chyle, but after this is all distributed, the Lympha still continues to glide into it, and to ascend by the ductus chyliferus Thoracicus, which might be called Lymphaticus for the same reason. This Receptacle is seated under the Coeliack artery and Emulgents at the vertebrae of the Loins, whence there springs a duct● that presently enters the Diaphragm with the Arteria magna, where (being now entered the Thorax) it begins to be called ductus Thoracicus. And now though it be passed out of the Abdomen (of the contents whereof we are now treating) yet we will trace it through the middle Ventricle to the Heart whither it conveys its liquor, for the same reason that being to speak of the Stomach, we thought it best to speak of the Gullet, which is an appendage to it, and by which the meat descends into it.  
This Dust then having past the Midriff, 
Ductus chyliferu● thoracicus.  it marches further upward under the great Artery till about the fifth or sixth vertebra of the Thorax, where it turns a little aside from under the great Artery to the left hand; and so below the intercostal Arteries and Veins, under the Pleura and gland Thymus, it ascends to the left subclavian Vein, into whose lower side it opens, just there where the left Jugular Vein enters into it on the upper side, so that their Mouths face one another. But it opens not into this Vein with any large orifice, but by six or seven little ones, being all covered together in the interior Cavity of the Subclavia with one broad valve, looking towards the Cava from the Shoulder, whereby there is granted to the Chyle and Lympha a free passage out of the ductus Chyliferus into the Subclavia, but their return (or of Blood with them) out of the Vein into the Dust is prevented. This Dust ending thus in the subclavian Vein, the Chyle that it conveys into it passes with the Blood (returning by the Cava) into the right ventricle of the Heart, where we will leave it, and return to the Venae lacteae again; having only observed, that this Dust has many Valves that hinder the ascending Chyle and Lympha from returning down again▪ which Valves are manifest by this, that the Chyle contained in the Dust may easily by the singer be pressed upwards, but by no means downwards; or if one make a hole in it, the liquor tending from beneath upwards will flow out at it, but that which is above it, is so stopped by the Valves, that it cannot be made to descend by it. And now for the Venae lacteae of the Mesentery.  
They differ from the ordinary mesaraical Veins, 
The difference between the Venae lacteae and the ordinary mesaraical Veins.   
First, in bigness; for these are bigger, but those are more in number; for they are more than twice as many: for more Chylus must pass by them, the way that has been spoken, to make Blood of, for the nourishment of the whole Body, than there can be Blood remaining from the nourishment of the Intestins only to return by the Mesaraicks to the Liver.  
Secondly, they differ in colour, by reason of the great difference in colour of their contained liquors. The Lacteals are white and limpid by reason of the whiteness and clearness of the Chyle which they contain; but the sanguinary Veins are of a dusky blackish colour.  
Thirdly, they differ in their insertion; for the Lacteals, as has been said, are inserted into the great gland of the Mesentery called Pancreas, but the Mesaraicks all terminate in the Liver.  
They have a pretty many Valves, but not so many as the ductus Thoracicus. 
Their Valves.  They may be discovered the same ways as we intimated those of the Ductus might; viz. that if they be pressed towards the great Gland, they are presently emptied; but if one press them from the Gland towards the Intestins, the Chyle will stop and cannot be driven thither.  
That the Ancients did not find out these Veins, 
Why the Ancients did not find these out.  the cause was, either because they only dissected Beasts after they were dead, or after that the Chylus was distributed, or they did not presently take a view of the Mesentery; but made some stay about the inspection of some other part.   

CHAP. XI.  
Of the Liver.  
THE Liver is seated in the upper and chief place of the Abdomen; 
It's situation.  namely about a finger's breadth distance from under the Midriff, in the right Hypochondre, (under the short Ribs) which, being of a great bulk, it even fills, and reaches from thence towards the left side, a little beyond the Cartilago ensiformis, or pit of the Stomach. It's upper part is convex or round and smooth, the lower side is hollow, lying on the right side of the Stomach and Pylorus, etc. It's lower edge reaches below the short Ribs (in a healthful Man when he stands upright) and almost to the very Navel.  
In Dogs and many other Brutes it is divided into divers Lobes, 
Lobes.  but in Man it is continuous; only there is a little protuberance in its hollow side, whereby it is tied to the Caul, which Spigelius called a Lobe, and from him others, but it is improperly called so, and not at all like the Lobes in the Livers of Brutes.  
It has three Ligaments (properly so called) which according to Dr. Glisson (de Hepate) are these. 
Ligaments.  The first is called Suspensorium, for it ties up the Liver to the Diaphragm; it is broad, membranous and strong, arising from the ●eritonaeum, and is not only fixed to the outer membrane of the Liver, but does indeed make it, and descends even into it, and is strongly fastened to the common sheath or involucrum of the Vena cava (there where the umbilical Vein is continuous to it.) By this strong insertion it is the more able to bear up the great weight of the Liver.  
The second is the Vena umbilicalis, which after the birth, closes up and hardens into a Ligament. It is directly opposite to the former. It passes out of the fissure of the Liver and terminates in the Navel. By this the Liver is kept from ascending upon the motion of the Diaphragm upwards in respiration.  
The third is that whereby the Liver adheres to the Cartilago ensiformis. This is thin and flaccid, but yet strong, broad and doubled, arising from that Membrane wherewith the Liver is encompassed, (according to Spigelius) of which it is a duplicature (according to Dr. Glisson.) This hinders it from fluctuating to one or t'other side, or towards the Back.  
Besides these three Ligaments, it has several other connexion's to the neighbouring parts, but they would improperly be called Ligaments. Thus it is connected to the Vena cava, and Porta, to the Caul, and to several other parts either mediately or immediately.  
It is covered with a very thin Membrane, 
It's Membrane.  which springeth from the first Ligament, (as was said before) which cleaveth firmly to the substance of the Liver. If it be separate at any time by a waterish humour, issuing out of the capillary Lymphaticks, waterish Pustules, by the Grecians called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, are engendered. If these break, the water falleth into the cavity of the Belly, and causeth that kind of Dropsy called Ascites.  
It's substance or Parenchyma is red and soft, 
Substance.  almost like concreted blood, and may, when it is boiled, be easily scraped or brushed off the vessels. But though its Parenchyma look red, that is only from the great quantity of blood that is poured into it from the Vena portae: for its proper colour is pale, a little yellowish, such as the Liver is of when 'tis boiled; and yet that yellowishness seems to be caused by the Bile passing through it; so that Malpighius thinks white to be its proper colour, and gives a far different account of its Parenchyma from others, whose observations by the Microscope Diemerbroeck thus represents (out of Malpig. lib. de Hepate, cap. 2.) That 1. The substance of the Liver in Man is framed of Lobules, and these are compounded of little Glands like the stones of Raisins, which look like bunches of Grapes, and are clothed with a proper circumambient Membrane— 2. That the whole bulk of the Liver consists of these little grape-stone-like Glands and divers sorts of Vessels; and hence, that they may perform together a common work, it is necessary that there be a commerce betwixt these Glands and Vessels. 3. That the little branches of the vessels of the Porta, Cava, and Porus bilarius, do run through all even the least Lobules in an equal number; that the branches of the Porta do the office of Arteries, and that the Porta has so great society with the Porus bilarius, that both their twigs are straight tied together in the same cover. 4. That the shoots of the said Vessels are not joined by anastomosis, but that the grape-stone-like Glandules, making the chief substance of the Liver, are a medium between the importing and exporting Vessels, so that by the interposition of these, the importers transfuse their liquor into the exporters. From these observations he concludes the Liver to be a conglomerate Gland, separating the Bile— and because it is usual for the conglomerate Glands to have, besides Arteries, Veins and Nerves, a proper excretory Vessel (as in the Pancreas, etc.) dispersed through their substance, and drawing out and carrying away the humour designed for them, this kind of Vessel in the Liver is the Porus bilarius with the Gallbladder.] And this is a very probable account of it.  
It hath two sorts of Veins. 
Veins.  In its upper part the Vena cava entereth into it, and spreads itself all through it in the lower as well as upper part. Into the lower side the Vena porta is inserted, whose branches likewise run through its whole Parenchyma. Of both these Veins more fully in the two following Chapters.  
It has but very small and few Arteries, 
Arteries.  for the Porta serves it for an Artery, bringing blood to it. Those which it has, do all arise from the right branch of the Arteria coeliaca, (called hepatica) there where it is joined to the Vena portae, whence being sustained by the coat of the Caul it ascends to the hollow of the Liver just by the Porta, on whose coat, with the bilary Vessels, and the membrane of the Liver, it is wholly spent. For as was said, the Parenchyma is nourished by the blood brought by the Porta.  
It has Nerves from the Intercostal pair, 
Nerves.  namely one from the stomachical branch thereof, another from the mesenterical (called hepaticus.) But the Nerves are extended only to the Membrane and vessels of the Liver, (as the Arteries were) so that the Parenchyma has but a very dull sense.  
Till the ductus Thoracicus Chyliferus was found out, 
Lymphducts.  it was still believed that the Venae lacteae were inserted into the Liver, which was looked upon as the great organ of sanguification; but now 'tis known for certain that no Lacteae at all go to the Liver, but that those vessels which were taken for such, are Lymphatic vessels carrying from it a most lympid and pellucid juice. That they are dispersed in the Parenchyma of the Liver, has not yet been observed; but it is very probable that they arise from its Glands, and coming out of its hollow or lower side, with the Porta, they encompass it round as also the ductus Communis, passing mostly towards the Mesentery; and under the Vena cava near the Pancreas (that is knit to the Stomach and Duodenum) a great many do pass over a certain Gland (sometimes two or three) lying under the Vena porta and often adhering to it, and from thence with many others passed by the Gland, they open themselves into the receptaculum Chyli. That these vessels bring nothing to the Liver, and so cannot be Lacteals, is apparent; for if in a Live-creature you make a Ligature betwixt the Stomach and Liver, in that part of the Mesentery that knits the Liver to the Stomach and Intestins (in which Ligature let the Vena portae and ductus Communis be comprehended) these vessels will presently swell betwixt the Ligature and the Liver, but be empty on that side towards the receptaculum Chyli; and the same is evident from their Valves also which open towards the said Receptacle, but hinder any thing from coming back from thence to the Liver.  
Concerning these we shall forbear to speak here, 
The bilary Vessels.  designing a particular Chapt. for them, viz. ch. 14.  
Hypocrates in lib. 4. de Morb. says, 
Whether the Liver sanguify.  The fountain of blood is the Heart, the place of Choler is in the Liver; This comes very near the truth, as shall appear hereafter. But from Galen downwards it was generally held that the Mesaraick Veins received the Chyle from the Guts and brought it to the Liver, where it was turned into Blood, and carried from thence into all the parts of the Body by the Veins. Yea and after the Venae lacteae were found out, they would needs have them to terminate in it, thinking it the sittest Bowel for sanguification, and presuming that that task must be performed by some or other. It would be needless here to stand to confute these opinions, now that all the world is convinced of their falsity, and by what hath been already said they may sufficiently appear to be erroneous, no Chyle at all coming to the Liver. How and where sanguification is performed, we shall show when we come to the Heart, and here we shall declare the true use of the Liver.  
The Liver then being discharged from sanguification, 
The action of the Liver.  it serves to separate the Bile from the Blood brought plentifully to it by the Vena portae. Concerning the nature of this Bile there have been divers opinions. The Ancients (amongst whom was Aristotle) thought it to be a mere excrement, and to be of no other use than by its acrimony to promote the excretion of the Guts. And this opinion prevailed so long as it was believed that the Liver had a nobler action than to transcolate this Choler. But now it being found out that it has no other office, it is believed that so bulky a Bowel was never made for the separation of a mere excrement, and therefore they think it to be a ferment for the Chyle and Blood, whereby if they were not attenuated and prepared, they could not be enspirited in the Heart. This new doctrine I shall give entirely out of Diemerbroeck, p. 154. The venous Blood flowing into the Liver by the Porta out of the Gastrick and Mesaraick veins (and may be a little by the Hepatick artery) is mixed with an acrimonious, saltish and subacid juice, made in the spleen of the arterious blood flowing thither by the Arteries, and of the animal spirits by the Nerves, which is brought into the Porta by the ramus Splenicus. Now both these being entered the Liver by the branches of the Porta, by means of this said acrimonious and acid juice, and the specific virtue or coction of the Liver, the spirituous particles, both sulphureous and salt, lying hid in the said venous blood, are dissolved, attenuated, and become also a little acrimonious and fermenting; a certain thinnest part whereof, like most clear water, being separated from the other thicker mass of the Blood by means of the conglobated Glands, placed mostly in the hollow side of the Liver, is carried from thence by many Lymphducts, as has been said. But the fermentaceous spirits of greater acrimony, mixed with the thicker and more viscid sulphureous juices (for Sulphur is viscid) and more strongly boiling, whenas through the clamminess of the juices in which they inhere, they cannot enter the conglobated Glands nor from them the Lymphducts, and through their fierce ebullition are separated from the Blood (as Yeast from Beer) these fermentaceous spirits I say being severed with the juice in which they inhere, become bitter and are called Bile. Which Bile being transcolated through the grape-stone-like Glandules into the roots of the porus Bilarius and of the Gallbladder, passes through them by the ductus Communis into the Duodenum or Jejunum, wher● it is presently mixed with the pancreatic juice, and both of them with the alimentary mass concocted in the Stomach, and now passing down this way, which it causes to ferment. And because at its first entrance it is more acrimonious, and has its virtue entire, and so causes the greatest ebullition with the pancreatic juice, hence the milky juice contained in the mass concocted in the Stomach, is most readily and in greatest quantity separated in the Jejunum, and by innumerable Lacteal vessels, (which are more numerous in this than the other Guts) it is most quickly driven on towards the receptaculum Chyli, and this is the reason that this Gut is always so empty. But in the following Guts because the fermentaceous spirits are a little palled, the effervescency becomes slower and less efficacious, and the Chyle is more slowly separated from the thicker mass, and therefore they have fewer Venae lacteae. At length what remains of this fermenting matter is mixed with the thick faeces in the thick Guts, where by its acrimony it irritates them to excretion.] Thus far that perspicacious and judicious Anatomist. And this I think is the best account hereof that has been given.   

CHAP. XII.  
Of the Vena portae.  
THough it be the method of Anatomists usually to deliver the doctrine of all the Veins in a distinct Chapter or Book after the description of the three Ventricles; yet seeing all the Veins seem (and by the Galenists have been affirmed) to have their root in the Liver, of which therefore we cannot but take notice; on this account we will also describe their branchings within the Abdomen, seeing they are parts contained in it. And we will begin with the Vena portae.  
It is so called from the two eminences (called by Hypocrates 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
It's name.  Portae, Gates) betwixt which it enters into the lower side of the Liver.  
Some think that the Vena umbilicalis ought to be accounted its root or original, 
Origine.  because it is first form in the Foetus and inserted into the Porta. But this umbilical Vein after the birth ceasing from the office of a Vein, and degenerating into a Ligament, though it might be accounted its root then, it cannot properly now. Others think, that because its branches every where inserted into the Intestins bring blood from thence to the Liver, (and not vice versa) therefore those aught rather to be accounted its roots, and its divisions within the Liver its branches. And indeed strictly and properly they ought to be accounted so, but however we shall not think it absurd to speak with the Ancients, who because they thought the Porta carried blood from the Liver to the Guts for their nourishment, supposed the Liver to be its root.  
As it enters into the Liver, it is invested with another Coat, which some call Vagina portae, its Sheath, others Capsula, its Case, and Capsula communis because the Porus bilarius is involved in it as well as the Porta. This outer Coat it has from the membrane of the Liver, (as that is from the Peritonaeum) that is, it is continued from it, though it be of a clear other substance, namely more dense and carnous. It is invested with it in all its ramifications, and so having a double Coat is in that respect an Artery, as also in that it brings blood to the Liver for its nourishment as well as for other uses; and lastly in that by means of the Arteria hepatica inserted into the Capsula it has an obscure pulsation (according to Doctor Glisson.)  
When it is entered about half an inch into the Liver, 
Branching in the Liver.  it is carried partly to the right hand, partly to the left, and so is shaped into a Sinus as it were, and thence is divided into five large branches, four whereof are diffused all over the hollow side of the Liver, but the fifth ascends straight to its upper side where it disperses itself. And the said Sinus is more conspicuous in an Embryo, because the great influx of nutritious juice out of the Umbilical vein enlarges it much. Moreover in an Embryo you may easily see the Tubulus or Canalis venosus passing directly out of this Sinus into the Cava (almost opposite to the mouth of the Umbilical vein.) This Canalis or Pipe is of the same substance and texture with a Vein, and enters into the Cava just where it is knit to the Diaphragm; and there also two other great branches out of the Liver are inserted into the Cava; and in the same place this Pipe is also knit to the suspensory Ligament spoken of before, and after the Child is born grows itself into a Ligament, being in a manner opposite to the umbilical Ligament. But to return to the divisions of the Porta. The Ancients taught that they were only spread in the simous or hollow part of the Liver, but Dr. Glisson in his accurate Anatomy of it, affirms the Porta to be dispersed very equally in all its parts, upper as well as lower. And whereas it has been a constant doctrine, that the branches of the Porta open by anastomosis into those of the Cava, the same learned Author, and many others since him, have observed that there are no such anastomosis at all, but that the blood doth ouze through the glandulous Parenchyma of the Liver out of the Capillary veins of the Porta into those of the Cava. He that would be fullier informed hereof, may consult his most accurate Book de Hepate. But we will now pass to the branches of the Porta gone out of the Liver.  
This Trunk parting a little from the Liver, 
Its branches without the Liver.  before it be severed into branches, puts forth two twigs, out of its upper and forepart, which are inserted into the Cystis fellea or Gallbladder (and are from thence called Cysticae gemellae) about the neck of it, and spread by innumerable twigs, through the external coat of it.  
A third twig also that is bigger, but lower, springeth from this same forepart, yet towards the right side, and is inserted into the bottom of the Stomach: from hence it sendeth many sprigs toward the hinder-part of it, towards the Back. This is called Gastrica dextra.  
Having sent forth these three twigs, the Trunk passeth down, and bending a little towards the left side, it is parted into two remarkable branches; whereof the one is called sinister, or the left, seated above the right, but is the lesser: the other is dexter, or the right, lower than the left, yet larger. The left is bestowed upon the Stomach, the Omentum, a part of Colon, and the Spleen; the right is spread through the Guts, and the Mesenterium: the left is called Vena splenica; but the right Vena mesenterica.  
The Vena splenica hath two branches before it come to the Spleen, 
Vena sple●ica.  the superior and the inferior.  
The superior is called Gastrica, or Ventricularis. This is bestowed upon the Stomach; the middle twig compassing the left part of its orifice like a garland, is called Coronaria. From the inferior branch two twigs do spring; The one is small, and sends twigs to the right side of the lower membrane of the Omentum, and to the Colon annexed to it. This is called Epiplois, or Omentalis dextra. The other is spent upon the lower membrane of the Omentum which tieth the Colon to the Back, and upon that part of the Colon; it is called Epiplois, or Omentalis postica.  
When the Ramus splenicus hath just approached to the Spleen, it doth send out two other twigs, the uppermost and the lowermost. The uppermost is called vas breve, and is implanted into the left part of the bottom of the Stomach.  
This Vein the Ancients believed to carry an acid juice from the Spleen to the Stomach to stir up appetite and to help the fermentation of the meat; but it is certain both by Ligature (whereby it filleth towards the Stomach and emptieth towards the Spleen) and also by the general nature of Veins, whose smaller branches and twigs still receive the superfluous arterial blood from the part whereinto they are inserted, into the larger channels, and conduct it towards the Heart; I say it is certain from hence, that this same vas breve carries nothing to the Stomach, but only brings from thence into the Ramus splenicus the remains of the arterial blood.  
From the lowermost two Twigs issue.  
The first is called Gastroepiplois sinistra; this is bestowed upon the left part of the bottom of the Stomach, and the upper and left part of the Omentum.  
The second springeth most commonly from Ramus splenicus, but sometime from the left Mesenterick vein; and passing along according to the length of the Intestinum rectum, it is inserted into the Anus, by many twigs. This is called Haemorrhoidalis interna, as that which springeth from the Vena cava is called Haemorrhoidalis externa.  
Now followeth Vena mesenterica, 
Vena mesenterica.  or the right branch of Vena portae. Before it be divided into branches, it sendeth forth two twigs.  
The first is called Gastroepiplois dextra; this is bestowed upon the right part of the bottom of the Stomach, and the upper Membrane of the Caul.  
The second is called Intestinalis, or Duodena: It is inserted into the middle of the Duodenum, and the beginning of the Jejunum, and passeth according to the length of them: whence some capillary twigs go to the Pancreas and the upper part of the Omentum.  
After these twigs are passed from it, it enters by one trunk into the Mesentery, where presently it is divided into two branches, to wit Mesenterica dextra, & sinistra. Mesenterica dextra, placed in the right side, is double, and sendeth a number of branches to the Jejunum, Caecum, and the right part of the Colon, which is next to the right Kidney and to the Liver.  
It hath fourteen remarkable though nameless branches; but innumerable small twigs. One thing is to be noted, that the greater branches are supported by the greater Glandules, and the smaller by the smaller Glandules, though they enter not into them, for the Glands wait on the Venae lacteae.  
Mesenterica sinistra passeth through the middle of the Mesenterium, to that part of Colon which passeth from the left part of the Stomach, and to the Intestinum rectum.  
The use of the Porta hath been held till of late to be for the carrying nourishment to the Intestins and other parts contained in the Abdomen, 
It's use.  and also to bring back from the Guts the purer part of the Chyle to the Liver to make Blood of, and a thicker feculent part of it to the Spleen, to be by it excocted into an acid juice, and then carried to the Stomach by the vas breve venosum for the exciting of hunger. As for this last opinion, it appears by Ligature that the vas breve carries its contents from the Stomach to the Ductus splenicus, and it is nothing but the Blood remaining from the nutrition of the Stomach (that was brought thither by the Arteries) that is now a conveying back to the Liver and so to the Heart again in its circulation. And as for the Mesaraicks carrying nourishment to the Guts, or bringing back Chyle, those errors have been sufficiently laid open before in the Chapters of the Venae lacteae and the Liver. And their true use is only to bring back to the Liver from the Guts that Blood which remains after their nutrition, and which was carried to them by the mesaraick Arteries.   

CHAP. XIII.  
Of the Vena cava dispersed within the Abdomen.  
THE Vena cava is so called from its large Cavity, 
It's name.  being the most capacious of any Vein of the whole Body; for into it as into a River or Chanel do all the other Veins like Rivulets (excepting the Pulmonaria) empty themselves. Both within and without the Liver it hath but a single Coat.  
It's root may very properly be said to be in the Liver; 
It's rise.  for by its Capillaries it receives the Blood that is transcolated through the Parenchyma of the Liver from the Capillaries of the Porta, and by its ascending trunk conveys it to the Heart. Now these roots may in some regard be commodiously enough also called branches; for the roots of a Tree in the Earth, as well as its boughs in the Air are spread into many branches: only there is this difference, that roots bring juice to the trunk, but boughs carry it from the same. However we shall call them indifferently roots or branches. The capillary branches then of the Cava are spread through the whole substance of the Liver, and not its upper or gibbous part only, as has formerly been taught; even as we said before that the Capillaries of the Porta were indifferently dispersed all over it. Betwixt these Capillaries (much less betwixt their larger branches) there are no inosculations or anastomosis, but those of the Porta being quite obliterated in the glandulous Parenchyma of the Liver, these of the Cava arise out of the same, and whiles they pass towards the Cava many of them meeting together make a twig, as many twigs in like manner concurring make a branch, which still proceeding further by the accession of new twigs and branches increaseth its channel, until at length it dischargeth itself into the Cava. And thus do all the roots of the Cava in the Liver. Wherein they do not all meet together in one common trunk as those of the Porta do, but empty themselves apart into the Cava without the Liver. And still the further distance the Capillaries have their origine from the Cava, the larger their channel comes to be at their arrival towards it. The smaller twigs are innumerable; the larger roots joining immediately to the Cava are commonly but three, though two of them are presently (towards the Liver) divided into other two, as large each as themselves, so that one may account them to be five. These emptying all the Blood exhausted out of the Liver into the Cava, it is presently divided into the Ascending and Descending trunk. The Ascending forthwith enters the Diaphragm and marches up the Thorax, where we shall leave it till we come thither, and only here speak of the Descending trunk as long as it continues in the Abdomen.  
The Descending trunk is somewhat narrower than the Ascending, 
It's descending tru●k.  and passing down along with the great Artery it continues undivided till the fourth vertebra of the Loins. But in the mean time it sends forth divers slips from its trunk. As  
1. The Venae adiposae, for the Coat and fat of the Kidneys; that on the left side goes out first.  
2. The Emulgents, descending to the Kidneys by a short and oblique passage; these bring back that blood to the Cava which the emulgent Arteries carried to the Kidneys with the Serum.  
3. The Spermaticks called Vasa praeparantia. The right springeth from the trunk of Vena cava a little below the Emulgent; but the left from the left Emulgent itself. Of these more in the 20th Chapter.  
4. The Lumbares, sometimes two, sometimes three, carried to be 'tween four vertebrae of the Loins.  
All these Veins being sent forth of the trunk, by this time it is come to the fourth vertebra of the Loins, where it goes to behind the Arteria magna, above or before which it had thus far descended, and is divided into two equal branches, called Iliaci, because they pass over the Os ileon, etc. as they go down to the Thighs.  
Just about the division there spring two Veins called, Muscula superior, for the Peritonaeum and Muscles of the Loins and Abdomen; and Sacra, which is sometimes single, sometimes double, for the marrow of Os sacrum.  
Afterwards the Iliacal branches are again divided each into two other, the exterior that is greater, and the interior that is less.  
From the interior arise two Veins: Muscula media, for the Muscles of the Hip and Buttocks; and Hypogastrica, which is a notable one, sometimes double, for most parts of the Hypogastrium, as the Muscles of the straight Gut, which are the external Hemorrhoidals; for the Bladder and its neck, the Yard, and the lower side of the Womb and its neck, which last are the Veins by which the Menstrues were believed to pass, before the circulation of the Blood was found out; for since, 'tis known that they pass by the Hypogastrick arteries, and what Blood is not sent forth at those times, or at other times is not spent on the nutrition of the parts, returns by these Veins to the Cava, and by it to the Heart.  
From the exterior, three: two before it goes out of the Peritonaeum, and one after.  
1. Epigastrica, for the Peritonaeum and the Muscles of the Abdomen; the most noted branch of it ascends under the Musculi recti towards the Venae mammariae, with which they have been thought to inosculate about the Navel.  
2. Pud●nda, for the Genitals in Men and Women; this goes transversly to the middle of Os pubis.  
3. Muscula inferior, for the Buttocks.  
And now the descending branches of the Cava are passed out of the Abdomen into the Thigh, and begin to be called crural; and of them we shall discourse when we come to the Limbs, in Book 4. cap. 4.  
Now the use of this Descending trunk of the Vena cava is not to carry any thing to any part from the Liver; 
It's use.  but wheresoever its lesser twigs end into Capillaries, from thence is Blood received (being brought thither by the respective Arteries) and conveyed into the greater branches and by them into the trunk of the Cava, by which it ascends to the right ventricle of the Heart, there to be anew inspirited, and from thence to be sent forth again by the Arteries, as shall be further explained when we come to the Heart.  
For though the Descending trunk of the Aorta or great Artery pass down the Abdomen along with that of the Cava, and so is contained therein as well as it; yet because the Arteries have all of them their origine from the Heart, we will forbear to speak of them till we come to the Anatomy of it, in the next Book.   

CHAP. XIV.  
Of the Gallbladder and Porus bilarius.  
FOR the receiving and evacuating of Bile there are two vessels or passages framed in the right and hollow side of the Liver, namely the Gallbladder, and Porus bilarius. By this latter there flows a thicker but milder, by the former a thinner, more acrimonious and fermentative Choler into the Intestins.  
The Gallbladder, 
It's name, and description.  called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in Latin Vesica bilaria, or Folliculus fellis, is a hollow Bag placed in the hollow side of the Liver, and in figure representeth a Pear.  
It is about two inches in length, 
It's bigness.  and one in breadth.  
By its upper part it is tied to the Liver, 
It's connexion.  which doth afford it a hollowness to receive it; but the lower part which hangeth without the Liver, resteth upon the right side of the Stomach, and the Colon, and doth often die them both yellow.  
It hath two Membranes, 
Its membranes.  the one common, which is thin and exterior, without Fibres. This springing from the membrane of the Liver, only covereth that part which hangeth without the Liver. The other Membrane is proper.  
This is thick and strong, 
The fibres of the proper membrane.  and hath three sorts of Fibres; the outermost are transverse, the middlemost oblique, and the innermost straight.  
Within, it hath a mucous substance or crust, engendered of the Excrements of the third concoction of its Membrane, to withstand the acrimony of the Choler.  
It hath two parts, 
The parts of it.  the Neck and the Bottom.  
The Neck is harder than the Bottom, and higher in situation.  
It from the bottom by degrees growing narrower and narrower, at last endeth in the Ductus communis, or the common passage of the Choler, which is inserted into the beginning of the Jejunum, or the end of the Duodenum.  
This elongation of the neck of the Vesica fellea, is called Meatus cysticus, because it springeth from the Cystis.  
The Choler is conveyed into the Vesica by many very small roots, 
How the choler is brought into it.  dispersed in the Liver between the branches of the Porta and Cava; they are so very small that they are scarcely discernible, but when they meet together, they make one pretty notable Trunk which is inserted into the Cystis near its Neck, with a Valve before its Mouth to hinder the regurgitation of the Choler. (For in the Jaundice the Choler does not return out of the Gallbladder into the Blood again, but either for want of a convenient ferment it is not separated from the Blood, or when the neck of the Vesica is stopped that none can pass out of it into the Guts, than the Gallbladder is presently so filled that it cannot receive any more; and so the Choler being forced to stagnate in its roots, is received in by the branches of the Cava, and thereby contaminates the whole mass of Blood.) But though it be evident that the Choler is brought into the Vesica by this Pipe, yet if one open the Bladder to look for its Mouth in the Cavity, one shall hardly find where it is; which is no wonder, seeing it is so difficult to find the insertions of the Ureters into the urinary Bladder, which are vastly larger than this. But Dr. Glisson says, that near its neck in the inside, there is a little spongy protuberance, into which this Trunk is pretty plainly inserted; and this protuberancy is the same that we called before a Valve.  
It has been taught by several Anatomists, 
Its valves.  that its Neck or Meatus has sometimes two, sometimes three Valves to hinder the recourse of the Choler: but Diemerbroeck professes he could never find any, but only that the egress of the Vesica was very straight, and its Neck wrinkled. Dr. Glisson declares also that he could never discover any in it, but on the contrary, he has often with a slight compression of his fingers found, that the Choler will fluctuate to and again, out of the Cystis into the Meatus, and on the contrary, as also out of the Meatus into the Ductus communis and back again; so that he cannot believe there is any thing of a Valve in the whole passage. But one thing which he thinks has imposed upon Anatomists, is a certain fibrous Ring (or Sphincten as it were) which is seated just at the end of the Bladder and beginning of its Neck, which makes the passage betwixt them exceeding straight; but this cannot be a Valve, because as he observes the Choler will go either way through it.  
The Vesica fellea hath two Veins called Cystica gemellae, 
Its vessels.  which spring from the Porta.  
It hath sprigs of Arteries proceeding from the right branch of the Coeliaca. And it hath a small thread-like sprig of a Nerve from the Mesenterical branch of the Intercostal.  
Many times stones are found in it, 
Of the stones in it.  which being lighter and more spongy than those of the Bladder will swim above water.  
The other passage which carrieth the thicker sort of Choler, 
Porus bilarius.  is called Porus bilarius, or Meatus hepaticus, because it passeth directly from the Liver to the Ductus communis.  
Within the Liver its Trunk and Branches are invested with a double coat; its proper one, which it retains without the Liver also, and another that is common to it with the Porta called Capsula communis, which it has from the membrane of the Liver. In this common coat this Porus and the Porta are so closely enwrapped that you would take them but for one Vessel, till you either hold it up to the light, (which will discover Vessels of two colours in it) or very dextrously rip up the Capsula, and so lay them open. Its roots within the Liver are equally divided with those of the Porta every where, saving that little space where the roots of the Vesica are spread, in the simous and right side of the Liver. So that having spoken above of the divisions of the roots of the Porta, I shall refer the Reader thither for these of the Porus. I shall only observe that they are far larger and more numerous than those of the Vesica, drawing Choler from all the parts of the Liver (saving whither the roots of the Bladder reach) and that more thick and viscous, yet less acrimonious.  
This Porus seems to be a more necessary part than the Vesica; for many Creatures, as Hearts, Fallow-deer, the Sea-calf, etc. and those which have a whole Hoof, have no Gallbladder, but there is none that is destitute of this.  
Without the Liver it is as wide again as the Meatus cysticus, with which it is joined at two inches distance from the Liver, and both make the Ductus communis choledochus. It has no Valve in its whole progress; only the Ductus communis, where it enters the Intestine, having pierced the outer coat, passes betwixt that and the middlemost about the twelfth part of an inch, and then piercing that also marches down further betwixt it and the innermost coat about half an inch, and at last opens with a round mouth into the Intestine. So that this oblique insertion (as that of the Ureter into the urinary Bladder) serves instead of a Valve to hinder any thing from regurgitating out of the Gut into this Dust, especially the inmost Tunicle of the Intestine hanging so flaggy before its mouth, that when any thing would enter in, it claps close upon it and stops it.  
As to any anastomosis of the roots of either of these Bilary vessels with those of the Vena portae, such indeed have been much talked of, but without truth, for their extreme Twigs or Capillaries terminate in the Parenchyma of the Liver, out of whose grape-stone-like Glandules they imbibe the Choler there separated from the Blood; even as was said before of the Capillaries of the Cava, that they received the Blood itself imported by the Porta, in like manner, without any inosculations.  
The use of both these Vessels may sufficiently be learned by what has already been said of them. 
Their use.  As also may the use of the Bile itself from what we quoted above out of Diemerbroeck, when we were treating of the action of the Liver, chap. 12. We will only further note two things.  
First, that sometimes the Ductus communis is very irregularly inserted. For in some it is knit to the bottom of the Stomach, and then the party vomiteth Choler, and is termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉; and sometimes it is inserted into the lower end of the Jejunum, and then bilious dejections follow: and such a one is termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉.  
A second thing is concerning the colour of the Bile; that though for the most part, (in a healthful state) it be yellow, yet preternaturally and in a morbous state it is often of several other colours, as pale-coloured, eruginous, porraceous, vitelline, reddish and blackish. And when it thus degenerates and corrupts, it is the cause of most violent and acute Diseases; as the Cholera morbus, Dysentery, Colic, etc.   

CHAP. XV.  
Of the Pancreas.  
THE Pancreas (as much as to say All-flesh) or the Sweetbread, 
It's substance.  except its Membranes and Vessels, is wholly Glandulous. It seems to be compacted out of many globules or knots included in a common Membrane, and joined together by the Membranes and Vessels. Every Globule by itself is somewhat hard; but all together (because of their loose connexion) seem softish. It is of a palish colour, very little tinctured with red. It's Membrane it has from the Peritonaeum.  
It is seated under the bottom and hind-part of the Stomach, 
Situation.  and reaches from the Cavity of the Liver (namely from that part where the Porta enters it) to the Spleen, cross the Abdomen. It is knit also to the Duodenum, (sometimes to the) Porus bilarius, the Rami splenici, the Caul, the upper part of the Mesentery, and upper Nervous plexus of the Mesentery. It is not joined to the Spleen.  
It's figure is long and flat, 
Figure.  broader and thicker about the Duodenum, but towards the Spleen thinner and straighter.  
It is lesser than most of the Bowels, 
Bigness.  but by much the greatest Gland in the Body, commonly about five finger's breadth long; where it is broadest, it is about two finger's breadth; and about one fingers breadth thick.  
Its Vessels are of five kinds. 
Vessels.  Veins it has from the splenick branch; Arteries from the left branch of the Coeliaca, sometimes from the splenick; Nerves from the Intercostal pair, especially from the upper plexus of the Abdomen; it has also many Vasa lymphatica, which, as the rest, pass to the Receptaculum chyli. But besides these Vessels which are common to it with other parts, it has a proper membranous Dust of its own, which was first found out by Wirtsungus at Padua ●ight or nine and thirty years ago. This Vessel commonly has but one Trunk, whose orifice opens into the lower end of the Duodenum or beginning of the Je●unum, and sometimes is joined to the Ductus bilarius with which it makes but one mouth into the Intestine. Within the Pancreas (according to Dr. Wharton) it is divided into two Branches, which send forth abundance of little Twigs into all the Globuli above spoken of, by whose means they receive the humours from all over the Pancreas, and by their Trunk transmit them to the Guts. This pancreatic humour tho' is never found in this Dust, because it so quickly flows out into the Duodenum by a steep way; even just as Urine, passing out of the Reins by the Ureters to the Bladder, is never found in them because of its rapid transit.  
Very many have been the differences of opinions concerning the use of this Glandule. 
Office.  Some have thought it to be only of use to sustain the divisions of the Vessels, and to serve the Stomach for a Cushion; others that it ministers a ferment to the Stomach; others that it receives the Chyle, and brings it to greater perfection; and others that it serves as a Gallbladder to the Spleen, or sometimes serves in its stead. Which opinions being all very unlikely, I shall not spend time to examine them. There are two other opinions, for the former whereof let the credit of the learned Author (viz. Dr. Wharton) recommend it as it can, but to me it seems improbable, and it is this, That it receives the excrements or superfluities of the superior plexus of the Nerves of the sixth pair (Dr. Willis's Intercostal) being united with some branches from the spinal marrow, and by its proper Vessel or Dust discharges them into the Intestins. In answer unto which I shall only say this, That I cannot tell how thick Excrements should be conveyed by the Nerves that carry such pure animal spirits, and have no visible Cavity; nor secondly how these Nerves in particular should electiuè (as he speak) send the Excrements hither, and all the rest be discharged from any such Office. The last opinion, and to me the most probable, is defended by famous Physicians and Anatomists, as Franc. Silvius, Bern. Swalve, Regn. de Graef and Isbrand de Diemerbroeck, from which last I shall transcribe it. I have found, saith he, in the dissections of Brutes both alive, and newly strangled, a certain liquor sublimpid and as it were salivous, (something austere and lightly subacid, and having sometimes something of saltishness mixed) to flow out of the Ductus pancreaticus into the Duodenum, sometimes in a pretty quantity. Whence I judged— that there is excocted in the Pancreas a peculiar humour from the serous and saltish part of the arterial blood brought into it, having some few animal spirits conveyed thither by small Nerves mixed with it, and that this liquor flowing into the Duodenum, and there presently mixed with the Bile, and the meat concocted in the Stomach gliding by the Pylorus into the Guts, does cause a peculiar effervescency in those aliments, whereby the profitable chylous particles are separated from the unprofitable, are attenuated, and being brought to greater fusion (This operation of it, says he, is shown by the diversity of the substance of the aliments, concocted in the Stomach and still there contained, from that of those that have already flowed into the Intestins: for the former are viscid and thick, and have the various colours of the food taken; but the latter on the contrary are more fluid, less viscid, and more white) are withal made apt to be impelled by the peristaltic motion of the Guts, through their inner mucous coat into the Lacteal vessels, the other thicker by little and little passing down to the thick Guts, to be there kept till the time of excretion. Now this effervescency is caused through the volatile salt and sulphureous oil of the Bile meeting with the acidity of the pancreatic juice; as in Chemistry we observe the like effervescencies to be caused by the concourse of such things.] Thus he. So that he will not have this juice to be any thing excrementitious, nor to be so very little in quantity as some have affirmed; to demonstrate which he citys the experiment of de Graef, who in livedissections could gather sometimes an ounce of it in seven or eight hours' time, which he has tasted, and found it of the taste beforementioned, viz. something austere, subacid and saltish. Vide ejus Anatomen corporis humani, p. 73, etc. where you may see what Diseases it is the cause of when distempered.   

CHAP. XVI.  
Of the Spleen.  
THE Spleen or Milt in English, in Greek is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and from thence Splen in Latin, and Lien.  
The substance of it is flaggy, 
It's substance.  loose and spongeous, commonly held to be a concrete sanguineous body, serving to sustain the vessels that pass through it: but Malpighius with his Microscope scope has discovered it to be a Congeries of Membranes formed and distinguished into cells like Honey-combs. And in these cells there are very many Glands. He describes them thus (lib. de Liene cap. 5.) In the Spleen, says he, there may be observed numerous bunches of Glands, or if you will, of Bladders or little Bags dispersed all over it, which do exactly resemble a bunch of Grapes. These little Glands have an oval figure, and are about as big as those of the Kidneys: I never saw them of other colour than white; and though the Bloud-vessels of the Spleen be filled with ink, and play about them, yet they always keep the same colour. Their substance is membranous as it were, but soft and easily crumbled; their Cavity is so small that it cannot be seen, but it may be guessed, in that when they are cut they seem to fall into themselves. They are almost innumerable, and are placed wonderfully in the aforesaid cells of the whole Spleen, where vulgarly its Parenchyma is said to be; and they hang upon fibres arising from their case, and consequently on the utmost ends of the Veins and Arteries, yea the ends of the Arteries twist about them like the Tendrils of Vines, or clinging Ivy.— Each bunch consists of seven or eight.] Thus he. It has abundance of nervous Fibres.  
It is commonly but one in Men, 
Number.  though some have found two, yea Fallopius three. In Dogs there are sometimes two or three, unequal in bigness, out of each of which there passes a vessel into the Ramus splenicus.  
It is covered with a Membrane borrowed from the Peritonaeum, 
Membrane.  which is thicker than that of the Liver. First, because the Spleen hath a loser substance. Secondly, because it hath more Arteries, which require a strong Membrane to sustain their beat. Diemerbroeck says, it has two Membranes; one from the Peritonaeum which is outer and common; the other inner and proper, arising from the outer Membrane of the vessels entering the Spleen, interwoven with a wonderful texture of Fibres; and that betwixt these two the Vasa lymphatica, of which afterwards.  
In Infant's new born it is of a red colour; 
Colour.  in those of a ripe age it is somewhat blackish; and in old Men it is of a leaden or livid colour. Being boiled it looks like the dregs of Claret.  
In Man it is bigger, 
Bigness.  thicker and heavier than in Beasts; for it is six inches in length, three in breadth, and one in thickness. Sometimes it is much larger, but the bigger the worse. Spigelius has observed that it is larger in those that live in fenny places, than in those that live in dry; and in those that have large Veins, than in them that have small.  
In figure it is somewhat long, 
Figure.  like an Ox's Tongue. Towards the Stomach on its inner side it is somewhat hollow; on its outer, gibbous, having sometimes some impression upon it from the Ribs. It is smooth and equal on either side, save where in its hollow side it has a straight line or seam (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) at which place the splenick Vessels enter into it.  
It is seated in the left Hypochondrium opposite to the Liver: 
Situation.  (so Hippocrat. 6. Epidem. calleth it the left Liver; and Aristot. 3. de histor. animal. 7. the bastard Liver) betwixt the Stomach and that end of the Ribs next the Back; in some higher, in others lower: but naturally it descends not below the lowest Rib. Yet sometimes its Ligaments are so relaxed, that it reaches down lower, yea sometimes quite break, so that it slips down into the Hypogastrium: so Riolanus tells the story of a Woman that was troubled with a Tumour there, which was taken by her Physicians for a Mole, but dying of it, and being opened, it was found to be occasioned by the Spleen fallen out of its place and lying upon the Womb. And as it very much endangers life when it falls out of its place, so can it not with safety be quite cut out of the Body, whatever some have boasted of. But none but obscure Men (of no credit) have bragged of such feats; and how can one imagine that a part so difficult to come at, and that has such large vessels inserted into it, (not to mention its use) could with safety be taken out of the Body? Wounds in it are commonly mortal; inflammation, or but obstructions in it do grievously afflict the Patient and sometimes kill him: sure then the total ablation of it must be very fatal. This experiment hath indeed been tried upon Dogs, and some have lived after; but then they have grown pensive and lazy, and not lived long neither.  
It is tied to five parts; 
Connexion.  its upper part to the Midriff, and its lower to the left Kidney by small Membranes; by its hollow part which giveth way to the Stomach being distended, to the upper membrane of the Omentum, and to the Stomach by vas breve. In its gibbous or arched part it is tied to the Back, for thither it inclines.  
It hath Vessels of all kinds; 
Vessels.  as 1. Veins from the Ramus splenicus of the Vena portae, 
1. Veins.  which are dispersed throughout its Parenchyma, and come out of its hollow side in three or more branches, which unite presently into the abovesaid Ramus. The said branches at their coming out of the Spleen have each one a Valve which look from the Spleen outwards, permitting the humours to flow from the Spleen to the Ramus splenicus, but hindering them from returning back. And though one cannot discover any anastomosis of the Veins with the Arteries in the substance of the Spleen (the Blood passing out of one into the other in like manner as in the Liver, namely through and by help of the Glands) yet there is one notable one of the Splenick artery with this Ramus splenicus before it enter the Spleen. Whose use must be, partly to further the motion of the humours contained in the Ramus towards the Liver, partly that the superfluous plenty of Blood, which perhaps cannot pass quick enough through the narrow passages of the Spleen, may return back again by help of this anastomosis, through the Ramus to the Liver. There is also another Vein called vas breve, which arising out of the bottom of the Stomach is inserted into the Ramus just as it comes out of the Spleen or a little after. The error of the Ancients as to the use of this Vessel was detected before, chap. 12. and its true use declared.  
It hath two Arteries, 
2. Arteries.  entering one at its upper, the other at its lower part. These commonly spring from the left Coeliack branch, which is called the Splenick artery; but sometimes (saith Diemerbroeck) from a certain branch arising out of the very trunk of the Aorta, and proceeding by a bending Dust along the side of the Pancreas to the Spleen, where they are branched into a thousand Twigs. By these Arteries the Blood flows to it, where if it have not a free passage into the roots of the Veins and into the Ramus splenicus, it causeth a great pulsation, so high that as Tulpius relateth (lib. 2. observat. 28.) it has been heard by those that have stood 30 foot off.  
Nerves it hath from one of the mesenterical branches of the Intercostal pair, 
3. Nerves.  which are not all spent on its investing Membrane (as has been thought) but some enter into its substance, which yet has a very dull sense; but that proceeds not from defect of Nerves (for it has a pretty many Twigs) but from that stupor or numbness which that acid juice that is bred in the Spleen, must be conceived to induce upon them.  
Though Dr. Wharton in his Adenographia, 
4. Vasa Lymphatica.  cap. 4. going about to prove the Spleen to be no Gland, uses this as one argument, that there were never observed any Lymphducts to be distributed through this part; yet Olaus Rudbeck, Fr. Silvius, Malpighius, Diemerbroeck, etc. affirm it to have many, which arising from its conglobate Glands pass through the Omentum very plainly into the Receptaculum Chyli. See them expressed in the following figure of a Calves Spleen.  
The Ancients knowing neither the true passage of the Chyle, 
Use.  nor the circulation of the Blood, erred grossly as to the use of this part. They thought that it attracted a more feculent and melancholic part of the Chyle, by the Ramus splenicus, which having a little elaborated, it sent it out again partly by the vas breve, and partly by the internal hemorrhoidal; but it is certain, both that no Chyle, nor indeed Blood passeth by the Ramus splenicus to the Spleen, as neither any thing from the Spleen by the abovesaid Vessels; but whatever they contain comes towards the Spleen, namely into the Ramus, and what is in it goes to the Liver. One need add no further reason to evince the error of their opinion; nor that of those that would make it a sanguifying Bowel. Dr. Glisson (in lib. de Hepate, cap. 45. p. 434.) thinks it to make an alimentary juice or at least a vehicle for it, which being first imbibed by its nervous Fibres is from them received into the Nerves, by which it is first carried to the Glandulae renales; where being refined it is received again by the Nerves, and is carried to the Brain and Spinal marrow, and from thence by the Nerves again into all the parts of the Body. We will not here enter into a dispute about the nutritious juice of the Nerves; but supposing it, certainly this seems an odd way of conveying either it or its Vehicle thus to and again by the same sort of Vessels; not to say that so acid a juice as is excocted in the Spleen, one should think would be no very welcome guest to the Nerves, nor be suffered to march so quietly, especially passing against the current of the animal spirits that continually flow from the Brain and Spinal marrow. This opinion therefore we shall pass by as very improbable, having little else to recommend it save the credit of its learned Author. And its true use we believe to be, to make a subacid and saltish juice of the Arterial blood that flows plentifully into it, which passing by the Ramus splenicus to the Liver serves there to make (and further the separation of) the Bile. Now this juice is thus elaborated: There are a great many Glands in the substance of the Spleen (which being boiled tastes something acid.) Into these Glands is the Arterial blood poured by the capillary Arteries, wherewith are mixed some animal spirits deposited into the same Glandules by the ends of the Nerves, which bridling the sulphureous spirit of the Blood, induce on it a little acidity; and then being driven out of the Glandules by the beating of the Arteries and the pressure of the adjacent parts, it is received by the roots of the Splenick vein, and so by the Ramus splenicus it flows to the Porta and the Liver. But before it enter into the roots of the Veins, it seems to stay a little in the abovementioned Cells, (whose substance is acid) that it may acquire some more acidity by that stay in them: as Wine standing in a Vinegar-vessel sours more and more; and as the Bile by staying in the Gallbladder gets a greater acrimony.  

The Explication of the Figures. Figure I. Represents the Pancreas, from Dr. Wharton.  
AA The Parenchyma of the Pancreas opened.  
B The Trunk of the Ductus pancreaticus.  
CCC Its Branches.  
D The Ductus bilarius joining to the pancreatic Dust.  
E The Duodenum opened.  
F The insertion of these Vessels.   
TAB. III. pag. 88 Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3  

Fig. II. Represents the Lymphatic and Sanguineous Vessels of the Spleen tied.  
A The Spleen of a Calf.  
B The Sanguineous and Lymphatic vessels tied.  
C The Splenick vein.  
D The Splenick artery.  
E The Splenick nerves, whose number is uncertain.  
F The Lymphatic vessels arising out of the outer part of the Spleen.  
ffff The Valves in the said Vessels.  
G The Ligature   

Fig. III. Represents an Ox's Spleen.  
AA The substance of the Spleen covered with its proper Coat.  
B A portion of the Vena portae.  
C It's left or Splenick branch.  
D This branch opened near the Spleen that the Valve b. may appear.  
EE The Coat of the Spleen dissected and turned back, that the progress and plexus of the Vessels and Fibres may be shown the better.  
F A portion of the Splenick artery, which running through the whole substance of the Spleen, doth dispense into it the little Twigs aaa.  
b The Valve in the Splenick branch looking outwards to the Porta.  
ccc The holes which appear in the end of Ramus splenicus leading from the substance of the Spleen.  
ddd Nerves running along the sides of the Splenick Artery.  
eee The end of the Ramus splenicus.    

CHAP. XVII.  
Of the Kidneys, and the Glandulae renales.  
THE Kidney is called in Latin Ren, 
Their denomination.  from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, to flow; because the serosity of the Blood doth flow through the Kidneys to the Ureters, and through them to the Bladder. By the Greeks they are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, mingere, to make water.  
They are in number two, 
Number.  both because of the great quantity of the serous excrement that is to be discharged by them; and also that one being stopped, the serum of the Blood might be transcolated by the other.  
They are seated in the Loins behind the Stomach and Intestins, 
Places.  and under the Liver and Spleen, between the membranes of the Peritonaeum; their lower end rests on the head of the Muscle Psoas (which is one of the movers of the Thigh) just where the Nerve enters into it, which is the cause that a big stone being in the Kidney, and pressing on the Nerve, a numbness is felt in the Thigh of the same side. In Man the right Kidney is lowest, by reason of the greatness of the Liver, and commonly bigger also than the left; yet it has not so much fat about it as the left, by reason of the vicinity of the Liver, whose heat hindereth the increase of fat.  
In figure they resemble the Asarum leaf or Kidney-bean: 
Figure.  towards the Loin or outwards they are gibbous; and also in their ends on the inside; but in the midst where the Vessels enter in and go out, they are hollow.  
As for their connexion, 
Connexion.  by the external fat Membrane they are tied to the Diaphragma, and the Loins; by the emulgent Vessels, to the Vena cava, and the Aorta; and by the Ureters to the Bladder. The right hath the Intestinum caecum joined to it, and sometimes the Liver; the left hath the Spleen and the Colon.  
They are in length about five inches, 
Bigness.  reaching as far as three and sometimes four vertebrae; three fingers breadth broad, and one inch thick. In salacious or lustful Men they are commonly larger than in others.  
Their Membranes are two. 
Membranes.  The one is common and external, 
1. Common.  borrowed from the Peritonaeum; within the reduplication of which the whole Kidney is lapped; and therefore it is called Renis fascia. This Membrane is besmeared with copious fat; whence it is called Tunica adiposa; and into it entereth the Arteria adiposa from the Aorta; as also the Vena adiposa, which on the right side commonly ariseth from the Emulgent, seldom from the Cava; but on the left, always from the Cava. By means of this Membrane 'tis that they are both joined to the Loins and Midriff; the right, to the Caecum and sometimes to the Liver; the left, to the Spleen and Colon, as was noted before. Although they be exceeding fat, yet some part of the Kidney will remain uncovered about the middle.  
Their inner and proper Membrane is made of the outer Coat of those Vessels that enter into them, 
2. Proper.  (for they enter the Kidney with only one Coat) and this adhereth very close to them, having inserted into it small Nerves from the Intercostal pair, and one from that branch of it which goes also to the Stomach; whence that consent betwixt the Kidneys and it, that in the pain of the Stone in the Kidneys a vomiting is caused. But these Nerves enter the substance of the Kidneys in very few but by small slips, whence they have but a dull sense as to their Parenchyma.  
The substance of the Kidneys, 
Substance.  as it appears to the bare eye, looks fibrous, compacted of the concourse and commixture of very small Vessels joined together by a fleshy Parenchyma that has divers small channels; outwardly to feel upon, it is pretty hard, but within, it is indifferent spongy; its circumference is of a dull red colour, but towards the Pelvis it is more pale. Thus the Kidneys appear to the sight; but Malpighius with his Microscope hath made a far more accurate discovery of their substance. He says (lib. de Renibus) That though in grown Men their superficies seems commonly plain, yet it is unequal in Infants new born; and that in adult persons the conjunction of Globules does still appear within from the diversity of colour, which in the several Globules outwardly and towards the sides, to which they are joined, is red, but more pale on the inner side. And as in Brutus' these Globules being round outwards, and extended inwards into an obtuse narrowness become quadrangular, quinquangular or sexangular and so are joined together; so also in Men there may from the diversity of colour be manifestly observed a like but more firm conjunction.— If one take off the Membrane from a fresh and as yet soft Kidney, there may by a good Microscope be discovered certain round and short Bodies rolled about like little worms, not unlike those that are found in the substance of the Kidneys being cut through the middle; and under the outmost superficies one may observe wonderful branches of Vessels, with their Globules hanging at them, which run towards the Pelvis; as also certain continued winding spaces and sinus' running through all the outer superficies of the Kidneys, that become conspicuous by injecting ink through the emulgent Arteries: and moreover, innumerable small pipes which look something like fibrous or parenchymatous flesh, but are indeed membranous and hollow; these make up a great part of the substance of the Kidneys, and are the excretory Vessels of the Urine. Moreover he says, that if (after the Membrane is removed) one make injection into the emulgent Artery with the spirit of Wine tinged black, he may discern innumerable very small Glandules hanging upon forked Arteries, which by the injection are also coloured black; as also many others in the interstices of the Urinary vessels, which hang like Apples upon the Arteries, (now filled with the black liquor, and branched like a Tree.) He thinks that from these Glands into which the extremities of the Arteries end, the roots of the Veins arise, and that the Nerves reach to them too; and that it is probable that the excretory Vessels of the Ureter are extended so far also, seeing this is constant in all Glands, that every little Globule has besides the Arteries and Veins, a proper excretory Vessel, as the Bilary in the Liver, etc. And he has observed that those same Pipes or Urinary fibres do many of them terminate in one of the Papillae, (twelve into one) through which the Urine is transcolated into the Pelvis, for into it they jet out; and that the same siphons or urinary Vessels are produced from the circumference to these Papillae as to their country.] By this curious and accurate description of their substance he has greatly dispelled that mist of ignorance that Anatomists hitherto were in as to their frame and Parenchyma. But to proceed.  
The Emulgent artery, 
Emulgents.  springing from the descending Trunk of the Aorta goes into the hollow side of the Kidney, 
1. Arteries.  being first divided into two; but in the Kidney it is spread in divers branches through its whole substance, and ends in it in very small and invisible Capillaries. By it much blood is conveyed to the Reins (for it is a great Artery) partly to nourish them and the Urinary vessels, partly that in their Glandules a good part of the Serum may be separated from it, which being carried by the Urinary fibres to the Papillae ouzes through them into the Pelvis.  
The Emulgent vein is a little larger than the Artery. 
2. Veins.  Its roots spring from the Glandules in the Kidney, which being united into one Trunk comes out where the Artery goes in, and opens into the Cava, into which it discharges the Blood remaining from the nourishment of the Kidney, now freed from a good quantity of Serum in the Glands. For that there passes nothing by this Vein to the Kidney is plain, as from the general office of Veins, which always carry from the part where their Capillaries are spread (excepting the Vena portae, which indeed has the office of an Artery) so from that notable Valve that is placed at its entrance into the Cava, looking towards it from the Kidney, so that the Blood may freely pass out of the Emulgent into the Cava, but not back again. The Emulgent vein sometimes comes divided out of the Kidney, as the Artery goes in; but both the branches are presently united into one, and always open by one orifice into the Cava.  
Of the Nerves we have spoken before, discoursing of the proper Membrane of the Kidneys; and as to Lymphducts there has no certain discovery been yet made of any in them.  
Within the Kidney there is a membranous Cell or Sinus, 
The Pelvis.  called Pelvis or Infundibulum (i. e. the Basin or Tunnel) which is made of the Ureter expanded and dilated, and comes into the Cavity of the Kidney with eight or ten open and large Pipes. Into this Pelvis does the Serum issue from the Urinary siphons through the Caru●culae Papillares or Mammillares, for one of these stands at the head of each of the said eight or ten Pipes, (being of an equal number with them) and are like Glandules, of a fainter colour but harder than the rest of the Parenchyma; they are about as big as a Pease, flattish above, but round or bunching out on that side next the Pelvis; their perforations are exceeding narrow, so that they will hardly admit the smallest hair.  
The action of the Reins is to separate and evacuate the serous humour from the Blood, 
Their action.  which, as was said, is brought to them together with the Blood by the Emulgent arteries; which is done in this order. After the two branches of the Emulgent artery are entered the Kidneys, they are presently each of them divided into four or five, and those again into many more, till at last they end in the smallest Capillaries which terminate in the Glandules towards the outer superficies, whereinto they infuse their liquor. Into the same Glandules are inserted also the Capillary veins, and the Uinary siphons, each of which imbibe thence their proper liquor. By the Veins the Blood returns into the larger branches of the Emulgent veins, from thence into the single Trunk, and by it to the Cava, which conducts it to the Heart: But by the Urinary pipes does the Serum drill to the Papillae or Carunculae placed at the entrance into the Pelvis, through which it distils into it. And this Pelvis being the head of the Ureter, the Serum glides readily out of it down by the Ureter into the Bladder.  
But now it is very difficult to determine▪ whether this separation of the Serum in the Kidneys be procured by any kind of effervescency or fermentation; or whether they serve merely as a strainer, through which it is squeezed or transcolated. If it be separated only this last way, how admirable is the configuration of the Pores, that the Serum with all its contents should pass by them without the least drop or slain of blood, when yet often purulent matter, brought out of the Thorax, and throughly mixed with the Blood, and which is far thicker than the Blood itself, passes through them with the Serum, and not any thing of Blood at the same time! That such purulent matter passes by Urine, is frequently observed; but whether it be absorbed out of the Cavity of the Thorax by the mouths of the Veins gaping into it, as the Ancients thought it might; or it be bred in the Parenchyma of the Lungs apostemating, as is more probable, 'tis not a fit place here to inquire. As neither would it signify much to give you the conjectures of some learned Men, that because such Pus, and much more because Pins, Needles, an Iron nail, etc. have passed by Urine; that therefore there must be some more direct and patent way for part of the Serum to be conveyed by to the Bladder; and therefore have imagined that some Lacteals have been inserted into the Bladder, as others have supposed other ways: for as far as could ever be discovered by Anatomists, there is no footstep of any such passage, how plausible soever such an Hypothesis may seem. And therefore we shall say no further of it.  
Some have thought the Kidneys to have other Actions besides the separating of the Serum; as further to elaborate the Blood, to prepare the Seed, etc. But these opinions are grown obsolete, and therefore rather to be neglected than examined.  
Above each Kidney at about half an inch distance there stands a Gland, 
Glandulae renales.  by some called Glandula renalis; by others Ren succenturiatus; by Bartholin, Capsula atrabilaria; by Dr. Wharton, Glandula ad plexum nerveum sita. Which several names they have had given them, from the several uses the Imposers have ascribed to them.  
They are commonly but two, 
Their Situation.  and are placed over (but towards the inside of) the Kidneys, having the fat about the Kidney coming between. The left is nearer to the Diaphragm, standing higher than the right, but the right is nearer to the Vena cava.  
They are seldom of the shape of the Kidneys, 
Figure and Substance.  but are of not much an unlike substance. Their figure is often three corner'd, having the shape of a Satchel with its bottom upward. Sometimes they are oval but flattish.  
They are bigger in Children proportionably than in Men; 
Magnitude.  for in the former they are near the bigness of the Kidneys; but they do not increase as other parts do, so that in adult persons they are not above two inches long and one broad. Commonly the right is bigger than the left.  
They are covered with a thin Membrane which is knit very fast to the outer or adipose Membrane of the Kidneys. 
Membrane.   
They have a manifest Cavity in their larger end, 
Cavity.  in which is contained a black and feculent humour, that tinges the sides of the Cavity. Into it there are a great many little holes gaping out of the substance of the Gland, according to Dr. Wharton; and itself opens into a Vein, but has a Valve placed just at the entrance, that permits the humour contained in the Cavity to flow out by the Vein, but hinders its return.  
They have Veins and Arteries commonly from the Emulgents, 
Vessels.  sometimes from the Cava and Aorta, and sometimes from the Vasa adiposa. Their Nerves come from the stomachick branch of the Intercostals that runs to the proper Membrane of the Kidneys and to the Spleen also. Lacteals they have none. Bartholin affirms they have Lymphaticks.  
There have been divers conjectures of the use of these Glands, 
Use.  but none generally consented to as true. Dr. Wharton's guess is, that some humour is imbibed from the Spleen by the Nerves that are common to the Spleen and these Glandules (being both from one branch) and is deposited in their Cavity, which being not purely excrementitious (though perhaps unprofitable to the Nerves) is restored again to the Veins. Dr. Glisson also thinks they receive something from the Spleen, which being refined here is imbibed again by the Nerves, by which it ascends to the Brain or Spinal marrow, and descends again by them, being either itself a Succus nutritius, or else a Vehicle for it. Riolanus thinks they are of no use at all in Men, but only in the Foetus in the Womb. Veslingius, Bartholin and many others think that they make a ferment or Coagulum for the use of the Kidneys to help the separation of the Serum from the Blood. And this indeed were a probable use if there could be found out any way whereby aught could conveniently pass from hence to the Kidneys. But the Veins that go out of them are inserted either into the Emulgent vein or the Cava, whose Blood is flowing from the Kidneys, so that it cannot pass this way, unless one would suppose a contrary course of humours in the same Vessel, which seems absurd. And there are no other Vessels to serve this turn. Diemerbroeck conjectures that their black juice is made of the Arterial blood, and acquires a certain fermentative power necessary for the Venous blood, into which it is received by the Cava from the Veins that go out of these Glandules. But this, says he, is but a conjecture. And in truth all the other opinions are no more, nor very probable one's neither; so that we must still acknowledge our ignorance of their true use.   

CHAP. XVIII.  
Of the ureters.  
THE Ureters, in Latin Meatus urinarii, are called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, either from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, to piss, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because they keep the Urine.  
They arise out of the inner Sinus of the Kidneys, 
Their origine.  whose various Pipes (nine or ten) uniting into one make the Ureter.  
There is one in each side. 
Number.   
They are white Vessels, 
Substance.  like to Veins; yet they are whiter, thicker and more nervous. They reach from the Kidneys to the Bladder, not in a direct line, but something crooked like an Italic s.  
They have been thought to have two Coats, 
Coats and Vessels.  the one common from the Peritonaeum; the other proper: but indeed it is but one, and that proper. It is strong, nervous, strengthened with oblique and straight Fibres, having small Veins and Arteries from the neighbouring parts. As to their Nerves Dr. Willis saith, that after the Intercostals have sent forth all the Mesenterick nerves, each Trunk descending sends forth three or four several slips that are carried into the Ureters, which makes the pain so very exquisite when some viscid matter or stone sticks in them.  
TAB. IV. pag. 101.  
As they go out of the Kidney they pass over the Muscles Psoae (which bend the Thigh) between the two Membranes of the Peritonaeum, and descending as abovesaid, they are inserted in the Back and lower part of the Bladder, (not far from the Sphincter) running between the two proper Coats of it, about the length of an inch, and continued with its inner substance.  
This insertion is oblique to hinder the regurgitation of the Urine, 
Why the insertion is oblique.  when the Bladder is either compressed or distended with Urine; for here is no Valve, as some have affirmed.  
Although the Ureter doth not ordinarily exceed in compass a Barleycorn, yet when stones do pass, it becometh sometimes as large as a small Gut.  
Their use is to receive the Urine separated from the Blood in the Kidneys, 
Use.  and to convey it into the Bladder, thence at discretion at certain times to be emptied out of the Body.  

The Explanation of the Figure.  
AAA The simous or hollow part of the Liver.  
B The Gallbladder.  
C The Ductus bilarius turned upwards.  
D The Vena cystica.  
E The Artery distributed both into the Liver and Gallbladder.  
F The umbilical vein turned upwards.  
GG The descending Trunk of Vena cava.  
HH The descending Trunk of the great Artery.  
TWO The Emulgent veins.  
KK The Kidneys in their natural situation.  
LL The Emulgent arteries.  
MM The Renes succenturiati with the propagines sent to them from the Emulgents.  
NN The ureters descending from the Kidneys to the Bladder.  
O The bottom of the Bladder.  
PP The insertion of the ureters into its sides.  
QQ A portion of the Urachus.  
R A portion of the straight Gut cut off.  
SS The Venae praeparantes, the right whereof springs out of the trunk of the Cava, the left out of the Emulgent vein.  
T The Corpus pyramidale expressed on the left side.  
V The rise of the Arteriae praeparantes out of the trunk of the Aorta.  
XX The Testicles, the left whereof is divested of its common Coat.  
YY The Vasa deferentia, ascending from the Testes to the Abdomen.  
Z The Yard.  
aa The Cod, that covered the left Testis, separated from it.  
bb The Ossa ilia.  
cc The Ossa pubis.  
dd The Loins.    

CHAP. XIX.  
Of the Bladder.  
THE Bladder is called in Latin Vesica urinaria, 
It's name.  in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from its office. It is membranous.  
It is seated in the Hypogastrium, 
Seat.  betwixt the two Coats of the Peritonaeum, in that Cavity that is form of the Os sacrum, Hips, and Ossa pubis, and is called Pelvis. In Men it lies upon the Intestinum rectum; in Women it adheres to the neck of the Womb, which is placed betwixt the Bladder and the straight Gut: in both it is tied before to the Ossa pubis. Moreover it is knit to the Navel by the Vrachus.  
The Membranes of it are three. 
Membranes.   
The first is from the Peritonaeum; for it is contained within the reduplication of it. This in Man is besmeared with fat, but not in Beasts.  
The second is thicker, and endued with carnous Fibres, which Aquapendens and Bartholin will have to be a Muscle serving for the compression of the Bladder, to squeeze out the Urine, as the Sphincter serveth for constriction, to retain it.  
The third and innermost is white and bright, of exquisite sense, as they can witness who are troubled with the Stone.  
It hath all sorts of Fibres. 
Fibres.   
Within it is covered with a slippery mucous Crust, 
Crust.  which is an Excrement of the third concoction of the Bladder. This doth defend it from the acrimony of the Urine.  
It is perforated in three parts, 
Perforation.  to wit, in the Sides, where the Ureters are inserted, to let in the Urine; and before, to let it out.  
The Bladder hath two parts, 
Parts.  to wit, the bottom and the neck.  
The bottom comprehends the upper and larger part of the Bladder, to which the Vrachus being tied reaches to the Navel, which together with the bordering Umbilical arteries becomes a strong Ligament in the adult, hindering the Bladder to press upon its neck. Of the Vrachus see chap. 33.  
The neck is lower than the bottom, and straiter. In Men it is longer and narrower, and being carried to the rise of the Yard opens into the Vrethra; in Women it is shorter and wider, and is implanted into the upper side of the neck of the Womb: In both it is carnous, woven of very many Fibres, especially transverse or orbicular, which lie hid within the straight Fibres that surround the whole body of the Bladder, and these make the Sphincter muscle, which constringes the neck of the Bladder so, as no Urine can pass out against one's will, unless when it is affected with the Palsy or other malady, by which there sometimes happens an involuntary pissing. As the neck opens into the Vrethra, there is hung before it a little Membrane like a Valve, which hinders the flowing of the Seed into the Bladder, when it is emitted into the Vrethra. This Membrane is broken by putting up a Catheter into the Bladder, and sometimes corroded by a Gonorrhoea.  
The Bladder is oblong, 
Figure.  globous and round, in shape like unto a Pear.  
It's Cavity is but one ordinarily; 
Cavity.  yet sometimes it has a membranous partition, that divides it into two; which yet has a hole in it for the communication of each Cavity. Such a partition was observed in the Bladder of the Great Casaubon.  
It hath Arteries and Veins from the Hypogastricae, 
Vessels.  which are inserted into the sides of its Neck, where they are immediately branched into two, whereof one is spent upon the neck, and the other on the bottom. Nerves it hath (according to Dr. Willis) from the lowest Plexus of the Intercostals in the Abdomen, and from the Marrow of Os sacrum. For the said Plexus sending two Nerves into the Pelvis, they have each of them a Vertebral nerve joined to them, and so make two new Plexus, from one of which there passes a Nerve that, being divided into many branches, is on each side distributed into the Bladder and its Sphincter.  
The use of the Bladder is to receive the Urine from the Ureters and to contain it, 
Use.  like a Chamber-pot, until the time of excretion, when it is squeezed out of it partly by the help of its own carnous Membrane, and partly of the Muscles of the Abdomen.  
Bartholin quotes some observations of Borrichius concerning the Bladder, 
Observations.  worthy to be noted, viz. If it be boiled in acids, it turns into a Mucilage; if in salt liquors, it is thickened; if in oleous, or in the liquor of the Alkali salts of Tartar or Herbs burnt to ashes, it is neither thickened nor turns into a Mucilage, but is burnt as if it were laid on burning Coals, and may almost be crumbled to powder. By which, says he, it appears, with what great danger to the Bladder Men inject into it either acid, salt, or oleous liquors, for breaking the Stone.   

CHAP. XX.  
Of the Vasa praeparantia in Man.  
HItherto we have handled the parts appointed for nutrition, whereby the nutriments are prepared in the lower Belly for the sustentation of an individual body: Now we come to the organs of generation, whereby through procreation is conserved a perennity of Mankind, which Nature hath denied to particulars. These parts being not alike in both Sexes, we must necessarily treat of each apart, and first of those of Men.  
In Man some of these parts afford matter for the Seed, 
The parts of the genitals in man.  to wit, the Arteriae spermaticae; others bring back again the Blood that is superflous to the making of the Seed and to the nourishment of the Testicles, and these are the Venae spermaticae; and both the Arteries and Veins were formerly called Vasa praeparantia: some make the Seed, as the tones: some carry the Seed back again, as those which are called Vasa deferentia: some contain the Seed, and an oleaginous matter, as the Vesiculae seminales the first, and the Prostates the latter: some discharge the Seed into the Matrix; this is done by the Penis.  
Vasa praeparantia, 
Vasa praeparantia.  which are said to prepare matter for the Seed, are of two sorts, Arteries, and Veins.  
The Arteries are two, 
Arteries.  and spring from the Trunk of the Aorta, commonly two fingers breadth under the Emulgents, not just from its side but out of its forepart, the right whereof climbing over the trunk of the Vena cava, runs obliquely to the Vein of the same side; as also the left, marches to the Vein of that side.  
The Veins are also two. 
Veins.  The right arises usually from the trunk of Vena cava, a little below the Emulgent; the left from the Emulgent itself, for otherwise it must have gone over the Aorta, whereby it might have been in danger of breaking; or rather by the continual pulse of the Artery the recourse of the Venal blood might have been retarded. Now both these Veins and Arteries a little after their rise meet, and are invested both in one Membrane made of the Peritonaeum, and then run straight through the region of the Loins above the Muscles Psoae on each side, and above the Ureters, as they go bestowing little slips here and there upon the Peritonaeum, between whose duplicature they descend, and so arrive at its processes. The Veins divide very often into many branches, and by and by inosculate and unite again; but the Arteries go along by one Pipe only, on each side, until within three or four finger's breadth of the Stones, where each is divided into two branches, the less whereof runs under the Epididymis, the larger to the Testicle. And as I said they descended betwixt the Membranes of the Peritonaeum, so they pass into the Scrotum between them, not perforating them in the processes, as in Dogs and other Creatures, wherein the processes of the Peritonaeum are hollow like a Quill; but in Man the inner Membrane of the Peritonaeum shuts the hole lest the Intestins fall by it into the Cod; of which there is great danger in him (and we see it often happen) because of his going upright. But to return to the Vasa praeparantia. It has been generally taught that there are divers inosculations of the Arteries with the Veins in their passage, whereby the Venal and Arterial blood are mixed; but this opinion is now exploded, for that, granting the circulation of the Blood, it is impossible. For the Blood in the Arteries descends towards the Testicles, and that in the Veins ascends from them, so that if these two Vessels should open one into the other, the Blood in one of them must needs be driven back, or else, stagnating, distend and break the Vessels. But the truth is, the Blood both for the nourishment of the Testicles and the making of Seed flows down by the Arteries only, and that in an even undivided course, without any of those windings and twirling like the Tendrels of Vines talked so much of, (as the curious de Graef by his own frequent inspection testifies:) But the Veins bring back from the Testicles what of the Blood remains from their nourishment and making of Seed, and these indeed come out of the Testicles by almost innumerable roots by which they imbibe the said Blood, and are most admirably interwoven and inosculated one with another till about four or five finger's breadth above the Testicle, which space is called Corpus pyramidale, Plexus pampiniformis, or Varicosus; but these Veins are so far from preparing the Seed, as that they only bring back what was superfluous from the making of it. And indeed the Arteries in Men do no more merit the name of Praeparantes in respect to the Seed, than the Gullet in respect of the Chyle, or the Ductus thoracicus chyliferus in regard to the Blood. But however, we continue the old names, declaring only against the reason of them. And we will only note two things more. First, that these Spermatick veins have from their rise to their end several Valves which open upwards, and so suffer the Blood to ascend towards the Cava, but not to slide back again. Secondly, that though the Spermatick Arteries go such a direct course in Men, as has been said; yet in Brutes they are more complicated and twisted with the Veins, but without any anastomosis of one into the other.  
There are Nerves and Lymphducts that pass into the Testicles together with these Vasa praeparantia; of which in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. XXI.  
Of the Stones, or Testicles, and the Epididymidae.  
THE Stones in Latin are called Testes, 
Their name  either because they testify one to be a man, or because amongst the Romans none was admitted to bear witness but he that had them. In Greek they are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Twins, because according to nature they are always two.  
They have a peculiar substance, 
Substance.  (such as is not in all the Body besides) whitish and soft, made up of innumerable little ropes of Seed-carrying vessels: there is no Cavity in them; but those said Vessels are continued to one another, and carry the Seed in their undiscernible hollowness. The way to make these Vessels visible, de Graef has taught us: viz. Tie fast the Vas deferens in a Live-dog or other Brute, and then these internal Ropes of Vessels, otherways inconspicuous, will presently be so filled and distended with seminal matter, as that they may be easily discerned.  
They are in number two, 
Number, Situation, Figure and magnitude.  hanging without the Abdomen, at the root of the Yard, in the Cod. Their figure is oval, only a little flattish. Their bigness differs very much in several persons; as big as a Dove's Egg is reckoned a mean size. Hypocrates held the right to be bigger and hotter than the left, and therefore called it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the Male-getter, as the left 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the Female-begetter. But these are fancies that are obsolete, and indeed seem ridiculous, seeing there is no such difference of their bigness, and that their Vessels are common.  
They have Arteries and Veins (as was said before) from those called Vasa praeparantia. 
Vessels.  Which some have thought to reach only to the inmost Coat called Tunica albuginea, because they are not conspicuous in the inner substance of the Testicles. But that comes to pass by reason that the Arterial blood presently loses its colour, and by the seminisick faculty of the Stones is turned into Seed, which being whitish, of the same colour with the Vessels, makes them undiscernible. Yet in those Men that have died of languishing Diseases, and whose Testes have their faculty impaired, Diemerbroeck affirms that he has oft discovered Sanguiferous vessels in the inmost parts of the Stones, and has showed them to many in the public Anatomical Theatre. As for Nerves, Dr. Willis says he could never observe more to go to them than one from a Vertebral pair, and that that too was most of it spent upon the Muscle Cremaster. Diemerbroeck agrees to one Nerve, but thinks it proceeds from the sixth pair, (which is Dr. Willis's Intercostal, as distinguished from that commonly called the sixth, but his eighth.) Others will have branches from both these Nerves to go to them. Concerning the use of these Nerves there is great controversy. Dr. Glisson, Wharton, etc. will have them to convey a Succus genitalis, which makes the greatest part of the Seed. Dr. Willis, as he denies (in Cerebri anatome, cap. 27.) any Succus nutritius to be conveyed by the Nerves to other parts, so that any Succus genitalis is brought by them hither, but only animal spirit. And whereas to strengthen the former opinion 'tis usually objected, That the Seed must needs consist of a nervous juice and plenty of spirits brought from the Brain, because of the great debility and enervation that is induced upon the Brain and Nerves by the too great expense of it: he thus answers, That this comes to pass, because after great profusions of Seed, for the restauration of the same humour (whereof Nature is more solicitous than for the benefit of the individual) a greater tribute of spirituous liquor is required from the Blood to be bestowed on the Testicles: wherefore the Brain being defrauded of a due income and afflux of the said spirituous liquor, languishes; and so the animal spirits failing in the fountain, the whole Nervous system becomes depauperated and flaggy. Whereto may be added, that also the animal spirits themselves that actuate the Prostates, being derived from the Spinal marrow, are much wasted by venereal acts; so that for this reason besides, the Loins are enervated.] In this answer Bartholin acquiesces. And de Graef, Diemerbroeck, etc. confess indeed that the spirituous Arterial blood is impregnated with Animal spirits from the Nerves, but affirm that the matter out of which the Seed is elaborated is only the said Blood; and to these we subscribe. Lymphducts▪ they have also arising from betwixt their Coats, and ascending upwards into the Abdomen with the Vasa deferentia. These have many Valves looking upwards, which hinder any thing from descending by them to the Testes, but permit the Lympha to ascend, which they convey into the Chyliferous vessels.  
They have two sorts of Coats, 
Coats.  proper and common.  
The common invest both the Testes, and are two. The outermost consists of the Scarf-skin and True skin (here●thinner than in other places.) This is called Scrotum, hanging out of the Abdomen like a Purse. It is soft and wrinkled, and without fat. This on the outside has a Suture or Seam that runs according to the length of the Cod, and divides it into the right and left side. The other common Coat is the Membrana carnosa, here also thinner than otherwhere▪ this is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, growing to the proper Coat next under it (called Vaginalis) by many membranous Fibres.  
The proper Coats are also two, and these enclose each Stone apart. The outer is called Elythroides, or Vaginalis; because it contains the Stone as a sheath. It is a thick and strong Membrane, having many Veins. In the outside it is uneven, by reason of the Fibres by which it is tied to the Dartos; but in the inner side it is smooth. This is nothing else but the production of the Peritonaeum, even as the Scrotum is of the Skin of the Abdomen. Into this Coat is inserted the Muscle Cremaster, of which presently. The inmost is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the Nervous membrane, called Albuginea, from its colour. It is white, thick and strong, framed of the external Tunicle of the Vasa praeparantia. It immediately enwraps the Stone, towards which it is rough, but on the outside next the Vaginalis it is smooth; and between these two the water is contained in an Hernia aquosa.  
Into the outer of the proper Membranes (as was said) is inserted the Muscle Cremaster. 
Muscles.  These Muscles (to each Stone one) in Men have their rise from the Ligament of the Ossa pubis; and almost encompassing round the processes of the Peritonaeum descend with them to the Testicles; where their carnous Fibres run through the whole length of this same Tunica vaginalis, especially in its lower part, and so keep the Stones suspended, from whence they have their name (from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 suspendo.) These pull up the Stones in the act of generation, that the Vessels being slackened, may the more readily void the Seed.  
These Muscles in sickness and old age become slaggy, and so the Scrotum relaxeth itself, and the Stones hang low.  
Upon the Stones, 
Epididymidae.  as yet clad with the Tunica albuginea, are fixed the Epididymidae (called also Parastatae) enwrapped in the same Coat with the Spermatick vessels. They adhere closer to the Testicles at their ends than in the midst. De Graef defines them to be Vessels making with their various windings that Body that is fixed on the back of the Testicles. To find out their substance he directs us thus. First take off the Membrane that encompasses them and knits them to the Stones, and then there will appear many windings, which with the edge of a knife may without hurting the Vessels be so easily separated from one another, that they may be drawn out into a length like a thing folded: for they are only folded from one side to the other, and are kept in that site by the Membrane received from the Tunica albuginea, (or Spermatick vessels.) But when you have unravelled half of them you must cut another very thin Membrane, and then you will see the Vessels lie just like these, and may be dissolved like them. And the whole being unravelled, the thicker they are by how much further from their origine, which is implanted into the upper part of the Testicle by six or seven ramifications: which having run so far as where they join into one dust, make it as thick as a small thread; and this by degrees so thickens, that being increased like a cord it makes the Vas deferens, (of which in the next Chapter.)  
So that (saith he) it is clear from hence, first, that the Testes do not differ from the Epididymidae (or Parastatae) saving that those consist of divers ducts; but these, after their 
TAB. V.  six or seven roots that arise out of the Testicle are united, (which they are in a short space) but of one, only a little thicker. Secondly, that the Epididymidae differ not from the Vasa deferentia, saving that those go by a serpentine winding passage, and these by a straight, and that those are a little softer and narrower. And so (concludes he) following this Ariadne's thread we have happily made our way out of the Labyrinth of the Testes and Epididymidae.  
The uses of the Stones are two: 
Use.   
The first is to elaborate the Seed by the seminifical faculty resident in them. For they turn the Blood, which is brought by the Arteriae praeparantes, and impregnated with Animal spirit, into Seed, for the most part; some is spent on their own nutrition; and what remains from both is carried back by the Veins called Praeparantes.  
The second is, to add heat, strength and courage to the Body, as gelding doth manifest, by the which all these are impaired.  

The Explanation of the Table. Figure I.  
A The Artery preparing Seed, running from the Trunk of the Aorta to the Testicle.  
B Its division into two branches.  
CC The lesser branch thereof, which runs to the Epididymidae.  
DD The greater, which is implanted into the upper part of the Testicle and descends along its back towards its lower part, to which the smaller end of the Epididymis is annexed; then it goes back again along the Belly of the Testicle, where it is divided into many branches.  
E The greater end of the Epididymis knit close to the upper part of the Testicle.  
F The middle part of the Epididymis turned up, that the ramifications of the Artery that run along its lower part, may be seen.  
G The smaller end of the Epididymis sticking firmly to the lower part of the Testicle.  
H The end of the Epididymis, or beginning of the Vas deferens.  
I The Vas deferens cut off, before it come to behind the Bladder.  
K The Testicle placed so as that its Vessels may best be seen.   

Figure II.  
A The Vein said to prepare Seed running from the Trunk of the Vena cava to the Testicle.  
BB The branches of the Vena praeparans tending to the Caul and Peritonaeum.  
C The first division of it into two branches, which afterwards are wonderfully subdivided and united again.  
DDDDD The Valves of the Venae praeparantes, about which the Veins being blown up appear knotty.  
EEEE Very many divisions and unions of the Venae praeparantes, that the Blood superfluous from the generation of Seed, being detained in one ramification, may return to the Heart by the other.  
F The upper part of the Testicle into which the ramifications of the Vena praeparans are implanted.  
G The ramifications of the Venae praeparantes creeping along the sides of the Testicles through their white Coat.  
H The body of the Testicle.  
I The bigger end, K the middle, and L the smaller end of the Epididymis.  
M The Vas deferens cut off almost in the middle.   

Figure III.  
A The Preparing vessels cut off.  
B The Preparing vessels as they run to the Testicles.  
C Their ramifications tending to the Epididymidae.  
D The greatest branch of the Arteria praeparans running along the Belly of the Testicle.  
EE The ramifications of the Venae praeparantes.  
F A Dog's Testicle swelled with Seed.  
G The bigger end of the Epididymis turgid with Seed.  
H The lesser end likewise turgid with Seed  
I The end of the Epididymis or the beginning of the Vas deferens.  
K The Vas deferens of a Dog tied before the Coitus the Preparing vessels being unhurt, that the Seminary vessels being filled with Seed may be seen more apparently.    

CHAP. XXII.  
Of the Vasa deferentia, Vesiculae seminales, and Prostatae.  
OUT of the Epididymidae at their smaller end arise the two Vasa deferentia, 
Vasa deferentia.  or Ejaculatoria, being but a continuation of them. They are white, hardish bodies, like a pretty large Nerve, with a Cavity not very discernible, but which may be made so, if one open one of them six or seven finger's breadth above the Testicle, and then either blow into it with a small pipe, or squirt some coloured liquor into it with a Syringe towards the Testis, for then the Vessel will be distended, and the colour will run along its Cavity towards the Epididymidae: Or if you either blow, or squirt liquor by a Syringe the other way towards the Vesiculae seminales, the said Vesiculae will be distended. Now from the Epididymidae these Vasa deferntia ascend, and pass out of the Cod into the Abdomen the same way by which the Vasa praeparantia came down, viz. by the process of the Peritonaeum. When they are entered the Abdome●, they are carried presently over the Ureters, and turning back again they pass to the backside of the Bladder; between which and the Intestinum rectum they march till about the neck of the Bladder, being somewhat severed, where they grow wider and thicker; and then just as they are going to meet, their sides open into the Vesiculae seminales, in which they deposit the Seed; but not terminating here, but coming close together and growing smaller and smaller, they go on and end at the Vrethra betwixt the Prostatae.  
These Vesiculae are little Cells like those in a Pomegranate, 
Vesiculae seminales.  or something like a bunch of Grapes; De Graef compares them to the Guts of a little Bird diversely contorted. They consist of one thin Membrane, through which some small twigs of both Veins, Arteries and Nerves run. They are about three fingers breadth long, and one broad; but in some places broader and some narrower, as they run in and out. They are two, (one for each Vas deferens) divided from one another by a little interstice; and they do severally by a peculiar passage emit the Seed contained in them into the Vrethra. They are very anfractuous and winding, and (as was said) consist of many little Cells, that they should not pour out all the Seed contained in them, in one act of copulation, but might retain it for several. They have no communication one with another; not even in their very opening into the Vrethra; but the Seed that is brought to the Vesiculae seminales on the right side by the right Vas deferens, issues by its proper passage into the Vrethra; and that which is brought to the left, likewise. So that if by any accident the Vesiculae on one side be burst or cut (as in cutting for the Stone they must needs be) yet those on the other being entire may still suffice for generation. Now when the Seed is emitted out of these Vesiculae in the act of generation, it passes out the same way it came in; which in this case may easily be, (though it be unusual there should be a contrary motion in the same Vessel) for as it comes in from the Vasa deferentia, it drills along gently without any force; but in Coitu when the Muscles of the Yard and all the bordering parts are much tumified, it is expressed or squirted out of them with some violence, and passing along their neck, (which is a continuation of the Vasa deferentia) ouzes through a Caruncle (like Quicksilver through Leather) into the Vrethra, or the Dust of the Yard that is common both to the Seed and Urine. I say it ouzes from the necks of the Vesiculae through a Caruncle into the Vrethra, for there is one placed as a Valve before the orifice of each of them; partly to hinder the coming of the Urine into them, partly to hinder the involuntary effusion of the Seed.  
Now though naturally the little holes through which the Seed passes out of the necks of the Vesiculae into the Vrethra be almost imperceptible; yet if they be either eroded by the acrimony of the Seed (such acrimony as is contracted by impure embraces, or in Claps as we call them) or if of themselves they be debilitated and so become more lax (as sometimes happens to old or impotent Men that meddle too much) then there happens a Gonorrhoea or continual efflux of Seed. And so Vesalius and Spigelius have observed them much dilated, in dissecting such as have died with a Gonorrhoea upon them.  
The Prostatae (in English standers by or waiters) are placed near to the Vesiculae seminariae; 
●rostatae.  de Graef calls them Corpus glandosum, supposing them to be one body, and only divided by the common Ducts of the Vesiculae seminales and Vasa deferentia coming through the midst of it. They are of a ●hite, spongy and glandulous substance, about as big as a small Walnut, encompassed with a strong and fibrous Membrane from the Bladder, to the beginning of whose neck they are joined at the root of the Yard. In shape they come nearest to an oval, save that on their upper and lower part they are a little depressed, and in that end by which the Vasa deferentia enter, they are something hollow like a Tunnel. The Sphincter muscle of the Bladder encompasses them, so that for so far as they cover the neck of the Bladder, the Sphincter touches it not, they coming between. They have all sorts of Vessels, which run mostly on their outer side. In their inner part they have ten or more small Ducts which all unload themselves into the Vrethra by the sides of the great Caruncle (through which the Seed passes from the Vesiculae into the Vrethra) but themselves have each one a small one to stop its orifice lest the liquor that is contained in the Prostates should continually flow out, or the Urine should flow in. And these small Ducts I suppose are continued from those small Vesiculae which appear in the Prostates of those that die (any way) suddenly after having had to do with a Female. For in such, the spongy part of the Prostatae is very turgid with a serous liquor, and in their inner part may be found these same Vesiculae, like to Hydatides, which if you press upon, they will discharge themselves into the abovesaid Ducts.  
What the liquor they contain should be, 
Their use.  or what is their use, there is great variety of opinions. Some think that the Seed that flows from the Testicles is further elaborated here. But that cannot be; for that the Vasa deferentia deposit nothing in them, but all into the Vesiculae seminales. Others think that from the Blood there is separated in them an acrimonious and serous humour, which serves for titillation or causing the greater pleasure in venery. As to this, de Graef appeals to the taste of it, which has nothing of acrimony. Dr. Wharton thinks they make a particular kind of Seed, as the Testicles do another, and the Vesiculae seminales a third. That these last make a Seed different from that made in the Testicles is grounded on a mistake in Anatomy, viz. that the Vasa deferentia have no communication with the Vesiculae, whereas they apparently open into them, and deposit in them all the Seed they contain. That the Prostatae make a peculiar sort, he endeavours to prove, because gelded Animals emit some Seed. But that is but precarious; for though they emit something, 'tis not necessary it should be any true Seed. Or if it be, it may well be supposed to proceed from the Vesiculae seminales that have been full when the Animal was gelt. For, for this reason it has been observed that presently after gelding they have sometimes got the Female with young, but not afterwards when that stock was spent. Bartholin with many others thinks they make an oily, slippery and fat humour, which is pressed out, as there is need, to besmear the Vrethra, whereby to defend it from the acrimony of the Seed and Urine, and lest it should dry up. Diemerbroeck confesses that it is necessary the inside of the Vrethra should be kept moist and slippery, but thinks that that is done here as in the Bladder, Intestins and many other places, namely from some mucid part of the nourishment of the Vrethra itself; and concludes that the Vasa deferentia deposit not all the Seed into the Vesiculae seminales, but carry a smaller part to these Prostatae. De Graef denies that the Vasa deferentia convey any thing to them or have any communication with them; and therefore believes, that the humour that is separated in the Corpus glandosum (as he calls the Prostatae) serves for a Menstruum or Vehicle of the Seed, which flowing but in small quantity through small pores into the Vrethra, it was necessary that this humour should be mixed with it that it might better reach the Womb. Whatever this humour be, it is squeezed out partly by the intumescence and erection of the Penis, and partly by the compression of the Sphincter of the Bladder that girds the Prostatae about.  
These Prostates are often (at least partly) the seat of the Gonorrhoea; and the humour that they contain, that which is shed: for, if it were true Seed, they could never endure a Gonorrhoea so long (some, thirty years) without more notable weakening and emaciating, the flux being so large as sometimes it is.  
I shall here omit all philosophical inquiries into the nature of the Seed, contenting myself purely with the Anatomical part.  
The distance betwixt the root of the Cod and the Podex is called Perinaeum, 
Perinaeum.  à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
Why these parts in men are hairy.  circumfluo, because it is still moist with sweat. The Pubes, Scroton, and Perinaeum in Men, are furnished with Hair, because Glandules are placed there, which receive plenty of superfluous moisture: a part whereof they send to the Skin for the generation of Hair.   

CHAP. XXIII.  
Of the Yard.  
THE Seed being elaborated and treasured up in the aforesaid Organs, there was need of a peculiar Instrument whereby it might be conveyed into the Womb of the Female; and to this purpose Nature has furnished the Male with a Yard which we come now to anatomize.  
It is called in Latin Penis, 
It's name.  à pendendo, because it hangeth without the Belly. Also Virga, Membrum virile, Veretrum, Mentula, and by many other names invented by lustful persons and lascivious Poets.  
It is an Organical part, 
Description.  long and round, yet somewhat flat in the upper part, seated about the lower part of Os pubis, appointed partly for making of water, but principally for conveying the Seed into the Matrix.  
As to its thickness or length, 
Magnitude.  it differs much in divers Men. But it is generally observed to be larger in short Men, and such as are not over much given to Venery; also in those that have high and long Noses, and that are stupid and half-witted.  
It is neither bony, as in a Dog, Fox, Wolf; nor grisly nor fleshy; but is framed of such a substance as might admit of distension and relaxation.  
The parts of it are either common or proper. 
Parts.   
The common are three, the Scarf-skin, the Skin, and the Membrana carnosa.  
It hath no fat, 
Why it hath no fat.  for that would have hindered its erection into that stiffness that is necessary; and secondly would have occasioned it to grow too bulky; and lastly would have dulled that great pleasure that in Venery the Male is affected with in this part.  
The proper or internal parts are these: the two Nervous bodies, the Septum, the Vrethra, the Glans, four Muscles and the Vessels.  
The Nervous bodies (so called) are encompassed with a thick, 
The nervous bodies.  white, nervous and very firm Membrane (like an Artery) but their inner substance is spongious, being mostly a contexture of Veins, Arteries and Nervous fibres, woven one with another like a Net; and when the Nerves are filled with Animal spirit, and the Arteries with hot and Spirituous blood, than the Penis is distended and becomes erect: but when the Spirits cease to flow in, than the Blood and remaining Spirits are absorbed by the Veins, and so the Penis becomes limber and flaggy.  
They spring from the lower side of the Os pubis at distinct originals, where they appear like two horns, or are of a figure resembling the Letter Y, that the Vrethra may have room to pass between them. When they leave the Os pubis they are each covered with a several Membrane, and are afterwards joined together with only the Septum between, which the nearer it comes towards the Glans, is the thinner, so that before it come to the middle of the Penis its Fibres extend towards the back of the Yard from the Vrethra in order like a Weaver's Slay, and while it still goes further, its Fibres by degrees grow so very small, that near the Glans the Septum is almost obliterated, and the two Nervous bodies grow into one. Whence it is that the Penis is equally erected; for if the Septum had exactly distinguished one part from the other, it might sometimes have so happened by the compression or obstruction of the Arteries of the one or the other side, that one part of it would have been extended, and the other remained flaggy.  
Dr. Wharton affirms, these Nervous bodies have Glandulous flesh within them, which keeps the Yard something plump even when it is not erect. But de Graef denies this, and demonstrates that they have no other substance than beforesaid, thus. Let the Yard be prepared thus: First gently squeeze the blood out of it, which it always has in greater or lesser plenty, and then put a little Tube into the spongy substance, namely in at that end that is next to the Os pubis; and let the Cavity of the Penis be half filled with water by the help of a Syringe, and shake the Penis with the water in it: pour out that bloody water, and fill it again with clear, and so three or four times till the water is no longer stained with blood. Then betwixt two Linen clothes squeeze out what water is in the Nervous bodies, and at length blow up the Penis so long till it have its natural bigness; in which posture if you will keep it, you must tie it hard. When the Penis is thus distended and dried, you may examine it as you please, and will find no other substance than was mentioned. Diemerbroeck says that their substance is not a mere texture of Vessels, but is fibrous, fungous and cavernous (such as is the substance of the Lungs) receiving in their hollow Interstices' Blood and Spirits out of the Vessels that are dispersed through their substance.  
Below these Nervous bodies lies the Vrethra, 
The Urethra.  being of a much like substance to them, saving that its spongy part, which is outer and lower, hath less pores because of its smaller and more plentiful Fibres. This part does tumefy whensoever the Nervous bodies do. It's inner part is membranous, round and hollow, and exceeding sensible. It is of an equal largeness from one end to the other, save in its forepart, where the Glans is joined to the Nervous bodies, for there it hath a small Cavern, into which the acrimonious Urine lighting in the Stone of the Bladder, while it wheels about in it, causeth pain, and is a great sign of the Stone. Sometimes also the acrimonious eroding liquor in a Gonorrhoea staying here, doth cause a most tormenting ulceration.  
It is continuous to the neck of the Bladder, but has not its rise from it, nor is of the same kind of substance. If you boil the Bladder and it, it will easily separate, and appears of a clear other substance and colour. It begins at the neck of the Bladder and reaches to the end of the Glans, which it seems to bestow a Membrane upon from its own inner one, for it is plainly continued from it.  
It's use is to convey along the Seed and Urine. And to that end there open into it small pores that transmit the Seed into it from the necks of the Vesiculae seminales (of which in the foregoing Chapter;) and also the neck of the Vesica Vrinaria which pours out the Urine into it, at which place it has a membranous Valve, of which likewise before in Chap. 19  
The Muscles are two in each side, 
Muscles.  and so four in all. Of these one pair are called Collateral muscles, by others Erectores. These are shorter and thicker, and spring from the appendix or knob of the Coxendix, under the beginning of the Nervous bodies, and are inserted into the same, a little from their beginning. These serve for erection of the Penis.  
The second pair is longer and smaller, proceeding from the sphincter of the Anus.  
These pass straight by the sides of the Vrethra, and are inserted about the middle of it, which they serve to dilate for miction and ejaculation of the Seed, and are called Dilatantes, wideners, and Acceleratores or hastners.  
These have been generally held to be the uses of these Muscles, but the Graef (as also Swammerdam, not. in prodr. p. 35.) assigns a clear contrary to them, and that with great show of reason. For seeing the action of a Muscle is contraction, how should the former pair extend the Penis, and not rather draw it back towards their original? Or how should the latter serve to dilate the Vrethra, and not rather straiten it, seeing in the action or contraction of a Muscle its Belly or Middle swells? Therefore he says that the Muscles only contribute thus far or in this respect to the extension or erection of the Penis, in as much as by their swelling (partly by blood and spirit flowing into them, partly by their proper action) they serve to straiten and compress the roots of the Nervous bodies and the spongy part of the Vrethra, and so drive the Blood that flows in by the Arteries towards the Glans, and hinder its returning back again by the Veins: even as we daily see in a piece of a Gut, which if we fill with wind or water, and then compress one end, we shall see the other strut out and be more distended.  
The end or head of the Penis is called Glans, 
Glans.  and Balanus. Into this the Nervous bodies terminate, and being a little thicker (on that side next them) than they, it encompasses them with a circle like a Crown. On its forepart it is smaller and sharper. It has a peculiar substance (Dr. Wharton says glandulous) soft and spongy, and being covered with a very thin Membrane produced from the internal one of the Vrethra (which coming out of its hollow, dilates itself so as to cover all the Glans) it thereby and from its proper substance, much interwoven with Nerves, becomes most tightly sensible, and is the principal seat of pleasure in copulation. Which if it had not been very great, who would have taken delight in so brutish a thing as Venery? To this purpose Andreas Laurentius elegantly, (Anat. lib. 7. cap. 1. q. 7.) Who (most strange!) would have solicited or accepted of so vile and filthy a thing as lying with a Woman? with what face would Man, that divine Animal, full of reason and counsel, have handled the obscene parts of Women polluted with so much filth, which is discharged into this low place as into the common sink of the Body? On the other side, what Woman would have accepted of the embraces of a Man, considering the toil and tediousness of going 9 months with Child, the most painful and often fatal bearing of it, and its education full of care and anxiety, unless the Genitals had been affected in the act with transporting pleasure?  
The Glans is covered with the Praeputium, 
Praeputium.  or Foreskin, which is framed of the reduplication of the Skin.  
It is called Praeputium, because it is placed prae pudendo before the Yard: or rather à praeputando, from being cut off, for this is that which the Jews cut off in Circumcision, from whence they are called Apellae and Recutiti. And it is reported by divers persons from their own inspection, that in Jewish Children it is six times as large as in Christians, and hangs a great way over the Glans, before it be cut off.  
The Ligament by which the Foreskin is tied to the Glans in the lower part of it, 
Fraenum.  is called Fraenum, the Bridle.  
Of the Vessels, 
The Vessels.  some are cutaneous, some pass to the inner parts of the Penis.  
The cutaneous veins and arteries spring from the Pudendae; 
Veins and Arteries.  these entering at the root of the Yard, pass by the sides towards the back of it, and are conspicuous enough. The Vessels which are bestowed upon the inner parts of it, come from the Venae and Arteriae hypogastricae, and enter just at the meeting of the two Nervous bodies, through whose length they run, and are mostly dispersed in them, and in the fungous' part of the Vrethra, sending forth little twigs at the sides.  
It has two Nerves from the lowest Vertebral. 
Nerves.  The greater of them, that is very large and long, is distributed into the Nervous bodies, Vrethra and Glans; the lesser upon its Muscles. Concerning which Dr. Willis thus discourses. This Member (says he) having only Nerves from the Spinal marrow, should only have a spontaneous motion according to our Hypothesis (viz. that the Nerves from the Brain serve for natural, and the Vertebral for voluntary motion.) And yet through the turgescency of the Genital humour, it is often erected and filled with Spirit against ones mind; which is from hence, because from this Vertebral pair, whence the Nerves of the Penis spring, a sprig is reached forth to the Vertebral pair next above it, viz. in which is radicated the Plexus that is placed in the Pelvis and bestows Nerves on the Prostatae, into which Plexus also a notable Nerve is implanted from the Intercostal pair. Seeing therefore there is a communication between the Prostatae, (which depend much on the Intercostal Nerves) and the Penis itself (by reason of the insertion of the aforesaid sprig into the Plexus from whence the Prostatae have their Nerves) hence it comes to pass that it acts accordingly as they are affected. But they, (viz. the Prostates) are not only apt to be moved by the turgescency of the Seed; but, by the communication of the Intercostal nerve, according to the impressions made on the Senses or Brain, are wont to be irritated by too importune an action; into consent wherewith the Penis is presently excited.  
It's principal use is to convey the Seed into the Vterus of the Female; 
Use.  and its use to piss withal, is but secondary, for many Creatures (as Fowls in general) make no water by it, yet have a Penis for the use abovesaid.  
That part that is next above it towards the Belly is called the Pubes, and its lateral parts are called the Groins; both which places in the Mature are covered with hair, whereby Nature would in some measure veil the Privities, seeing natural modesty requires it.  

The Explanation of the Table. Figure I.  
AA Parts of the Vasa deferentia, which appear thick, but have only a small Cavity.  
BB The parts of the Vasa deferentia of a thin substance and large Cavity, being widened.  
CC The extremities of the Vasa deferentia narrowed again, and gaping each with a little hole into the neck of the Seed-bladders.  
DD The neck of the Seed-bladders parted from each other by a Membrane going between, so that the Seed of one side cannot be mixed with that of the other, before it come to the Urethra.  
EE The Vesiculae seminales or Seed-bladders blown up, that their wonderful widening and narrowing may be seen.  
FF Vessels tending to the Seed-bladders.  
GGG The Membranes whereby the Seed-bladders and Vasa deferentia are kept in their places.  
HH The Sanguinary vessels running by the sides of the Vasa deferentia.  
I A Caruncle-resembling a Snipe's head, through whose eyes as it were the Seed issues out into the Urethra.  
KK The Ducts of the Corpus glandosum or Prostatae opening into the Urethra by the sides of the Caruncle.  
LL The Corpus glandosum divided.  
MM The Urethra opened.   
TAB. VI 

Figure II.  
A The upper or forepart of the Bladder.  
B The neck of the Bladder.  
CC Portions of the ureters.  
DD Portions of the Vasa deferentia.  
EE The Vessels running to the Seed-bladders.  
FF The Vesiculae seminales or Seed-bladders.  
GG The forepart of the Prostatae or Corpus glandosum.  
H The Urethra adjoining to its spongy part.  
KK The Muscles called the Erectors or Extenders of the Penis.  
LL The beginnings of the Nervous bodies separated from the Ossa pubis, which puff up like Bellows when the Yard is erected.  
MM The Skin of the Penis drawn aside.  
NN The duplicature of the Skin making the Praeputium.  
OO The Skin that was fastened behind the Glans.  
PP The back of the Penis.  
R The urinary passage whereby the Glans is perforated in its forepart.  
SS The Nerves running along the back of the Penis.  
TT The Arteries running along the back of the Penis.  
U The Nervous bodies meeting together.  
WW Two Veins which unite together, and run along the back of the Penis in a remarkable branch.  
X The Vein opened, that the valves in it may be seen.      

Of the GENITALS in Women.  

CHAP. XXIV.  
Of the Vasa praeparantia.  
THough it has been the method of divers Anatomists to begin with the description of the outer parts of the Privity; yet because we would observe, as much as may be, the same order in Women as we have in Men, we shall first begin with the Spermatick vessels, which are of two sorts, Arteries and Veins.  
The Arteries are two, 
Spermatick arteries.  as in Men. They spring from the great Artery a little below the Emulgents (very rarely either of them from the Emulgent itself) and pass down towards the Testes not by such a direct course as in Men, but with much twirling and winding amongst the Veins, with which tho' they have no inosculation, as has been generally taught. But for all their winding, when they are stretched out to their full length, they are not so long as those of Men; because in them they descend out of the Abdomen into the Scrotum, but in Women they have a far shorter passage, reaching only to the Testes and Womb within the Abdomen.  
The Veins are also two, 
Veins.  arising, as in Men, the right from the trunk of the Cava a little below the Emulgent, the left from the Emulgent itself. In their descent they have no more bend than in Men, and therefore are considerably shorter.  
Both the Arteries and Veins as they pass down are covered with one common Coat from the Peritonaeum; and near the Testes they are divided into two branches, the upper whereof is implanted into the Testicle by a triple root; and the other is subdivided below the Testes into three twigs, one of which goes to the bottom of the Womb, another to the Tuba and round Ligament, the third creeping by the sides of the Womb under its common Membrane, ends in its neck, where it is woven with the Hypogastrick vessels like a Net. By this way it is that the Menstrua sometimes flow in Women with Child for the first months, and not out of the inner Cavity of the Vterus: but yet that Blood does not flow at that time so much by the Spermatick Arteries as by the Hypogastrick.  
The use of these Spermatick vessels is to minister to the (generation of Seed, 
Their use.  according to the ancient doctrine; but) nutrition of the Eggs in the Ovaria or Testes (according to the new) the nourishment of the Foetus, and of the solid parts, and the expurgation of the Menses; inasmuch as Blood is conveyed by the Arteries to all those parts to which their ramifications come, in which parts they leave what is to be separated according to the law of Nature, the remaining blood returning by the Veins.   

CHAP. XXV.  
Of women's Testicles or Ovaria.  
women's Testicles differ much from men's both in their situation, figure, greatness, covers, substance, and also use.  
First, 
Their Situation.  their situation is not without the Body, as in Men, but in the inner Cavity of the Abdomen, on each side two fingers breadth from the bottom of the Womb, to whose sides they are knit by a strong Ligament, that has used to be called and accounted the Vas deferens; as if the Seed were carried by it from the Testes to the Womb. Of which afterwards.  
They are flat on the sides; 
Figure.  in their lower part oval, but in their upper (where the Bloud-vessels enter them) more plane. Their superficies is more rugged and unequal than in those of Men. They have no Epididymides, nor Cremaster Muscles.  
They differ in bigness according to age. 
Greatness.  In those newly come to maturity they are about half as big as those of Men; but in those in years they are less and harder. Preternaturally they sometimes grow to a vast bigness from Hydropical tumors, in which several quarts of serous liquor have been found to be contained.  
They have but one Membrane that encompasses them round; 
Tunicle.  but on their upper side, where the Vasa praeparantia enter them, they are about half way involved in another Membrane that accompanies those Vessels, and springs from the Peritonaeum.  
When this cover is removed, 
Substance.  their substance appears whitish, but is wholly different from the substance of men's Testicles. For men's (as was said above) are composed of Seminary vessels, which being continued to one another are twenty or thirty els long if one could draw them out at length without breaking: But women's do principally consist of a great many Membranes and small Fibres loosely united to one another; amongst which (in the outer superficies of the Testes) there are several little Bladders (like to Hydatides) full of a clear liquor, through whose Membranes the Nerves and Vasa praeparantia run, and are obliterated in them. The liquor contained in these Bladders had always been supposed by the followers of Hypocrates and Galen to be Seed stored up in them, as if they supplied the place of the Vesiculae seminales in Men. But from Dr. Harvey downwards many learned Physicians and Anatomists (according to Aristotle) have denied all Seed to Women. Of which the said Dr. Harvey thus discourses, De ovi materia, Exercit. 34. Some Women send forth no such humour as is called Seed, and yet is not conception thereby necessarily frustrated; for I have known several Women (says he) that have been fruitful enough without such emission; yea, some that after they begun to emit such humour, though indeed they took greater pleasure in copulation, yet grew less fruitful than before. There are also infinite instances of Women, who though they have pleasure in coitu, yet send forth nothing, and notwithstanding conceive. I greatly wonder that they that think this emission necessary to generation, have not observed, that the humour is cast out, and issues most commonly from about the Clitoris and orifice of the Privity; very seldom from any depth within the neck of the Womb, but never within the Womb itself, so as that it should there be mixed with the Man's Seed; and that it is not ropy and oily like Seed, but serous like Urine. Now to what purpose should that be cast out, whose use is necessarily required within? Ought that humour to be sent to the mouth of the Privity, (bidding farewell as it were to the Womb) that it might be drawn back again with the greater kindness and welcome?] And indeed whatever that humour be that the more salacious Women emit in copulation, (of which afterwards) it cannot be that which is contained in these Vesiculae, both because it is sent forth in greater quantity than that it can be supplied from them, and also the Vesiculae are destitute of any such poor or passage whereby the liquor contained in them might issue out; for if you press them never so hard, unless you burst them, there will nothing pass out of them. We must therefore subscribe to that new but necessary opinion that supposes these little Bladders to contain nothing of Seed, but that they are truly Eggs, analogous to those of Fowl and other Creatures; and that the Testicles (so called) are not truly so, nor have any such office as those of Men, but are indeed an Ovarium wherein these Eggs are nourished by the Sanguinary Vessels dispersed through them, and from whence one or more (as they are fecundated by the Man's Seed) separate, and are conveyed into the Womb by the Tubae Fallopianae, of which by and by.  
That these Vesiculae are analogous to the little Eggs in the Ovarium of Fowl, de Graef evinces by this Experiment, That if you boil them, their liquor will have the same colour, taste and consistency with the white of Birds Eggs. And their difference in wanting shells is of no moment; for Birds Eggs had need of a shell, because they are hatched without the Body, and therefore are exposed to external injuries; but these of Women being fostered within their Body, have no need of other fence than the Womb, by which they are sufficiently defended.  
Having compared these Vesiculae to the Eggs of Fowls, I might here follow the method of Doctor Harvey and de Graef, and describe the Ovarium, etc. in Hens, etc. that from thence these in Women might the better be conceived of and apprehended; but to the curious and learned Reader I shall recommend the said Authors for satisfaction, and avoiding all unnecessary and (to this Epitome) unsuitable excursion, I shall only further note two things: First, that these Eggs in Women are commonly towards the number of twenty in each Testicle or Ovarium, of which some are far less than others. And secondly, that the objection of the Galenists against the Aristotelians, (viz. that the Testes of Females must needs make Seed, because when they were cut out, barrenness always followed) will be sufficiently obviated by this new Hypothesis, that agrees to the necessity of the Testicles so far as to affirm that the Vesiculae contained in them become (when they are impregnated by the Masculine Seed) the very conceptions themselves, which therefore it would be in vain to expect if the Female were castrated.  
Besides the Vasa praeparantia, and Nerves, (of which in the 27th Chapter) they have also Lymphducts, according to Dr. Wharton.   

CHAP. XXVI.  
Of the Vasa deferentia in Women, or their Oviducts.  
GAlen with most of the Ancients reckoned those short processes that go straight from the Testes to the bottom of the Womb, to be Vasa deferentia; and that the Seed was emitted from the Stones through them into the Fundus uteri. And Fernelius, Riolanus, etc. thought they found a small Pipe passing on each side out of these processes by the sides of the Womb to its neck, into which they were inserted and opened near its orifice. By the former it was supposed Women not with Child did emit their Seed into the bottom of the Womb; and by these latter such as were already impregnated: for that, if it should have issued into the Fundus where the conception was, it would there have corrupted to the great prejudice of the Foetus.  
But as to these latter ducts, Veslingius, Diemerbroeck, de Graef and many other accurate Anatomists, have not been able to find the least footstep of them. And as for the former, seeing they are not pervious, nor have any Cavity, (and therefore can have nothing of Seed in them) we must conclude with de Graef that they are only Ligaments of the Testicles to keep them in their place; which he evinces further by observing, that they come not to the inner Cavity of the Vterus, but are knit only to its outer Coat: for he says, there are only two holes in the Fundus uteri that admit a Probe, and those lead to the Tubae Fallopianae and not to these Ligaments.  
Seeing therefore that those which have been accounted Vasa deferentia either are not to be found at all, 
Tubae Fallopianae.  or are found uncapable of such an office; and having withal rejected the opinion of women's having Seed, and affirmed that that which makes the conception is one of those Vesiculae in the Testes, dropping from thence and conveyed into the Womb, we must inquire by what way they can pass. For if the abovesaid Ligaments (reputed Vasa deferentia) have no passage whereby even the Semen, if there were any, might pass; much less could one of these Vesiculae be conveyed that way. And therefore for Vasa deferentia we assign those ducts that Fallopius in his Anatomical observations calls Tubae, and describes thus: They are very slender and narrow ducts, nervous and white, arising from the horns (or sides) of the Womb, and at a little distance from it they become larger, and twist like the tendrel of a Vine, till near their end, where ceasing their winding they grow very large, and seem membranous and carnous. Which end is very much torn and jagged like the edge of rend Clothes: and has a large Foramen, which (says he) always lies closed, because those jags fall together; but yet being opened they are like the utmost orifice of a Brass Trumpet.] But de Graef says, though they grow very large towards their end, yet of a sudden the very extreme part is narrowed before it is divided into the aforesaid jags, which he resembles unto leaves. Who also appeals unto experiment for these Tubae's being pervious, affirming that if one put a little Tube into the beginning of one of these same Trumpets and blow it, the wind will presently break through it, which he saith he has observed in all the kinds of Animals that he has dissected.  
These Tubae (according to Dr. Harvey) are the same in Women that the Cornua or Horns of the Womb are in other Creatures. For they answer to those both in situation, connexion, amplitude, perforation, likeness and also office: for as other Animals always conceive in the Cornua, so it has been sometimes observed (as by Riolanus from others; and by himself) that a conception has in a Woman been contained in one of the Tubae.] Which must have happened, when the Ouum being received out of the Testis into it, has been stopped in its passage to the Womb, either from its own bigness, or some obstruction in the Tubae.  
Their substance is not nervous (as Fallopius in the above-recited description affirms) but membranous. 
Their substance.  For they consist of two Membranes, the outer and inner. The inner springs from (or at least is common with) that which covers the inner substance of the Womb; but whereas it is smooth in the Womb, it is very wrinkled in the Tubae. The outer is common with the outmost of the Womb; and this is smooth.  
The capacity of these ducts varies very much: 
Width.  for in the beginning as it goes out of the Womb, it only admits a bristle, but in its progress where it is largest it will receive one's little finger. But in the utmost extremity where 'tis divided into jags, it is but about a quarter so wide.  
They are very uncertain also in their length; 
Length.  for from four or five, they sometimes increase to eight or nine finger's breadth long.  
Their use is, 
Use.  In a fruitful copulation to grant a passage to a more subtle part of the Masculine seed (or to a seminal air) towards the Testes, to bedew the Eggs contained in them; which Eggs (one or more) being by that means fecundated (or ripened as it were) and dropping off from the Testis (in the manner as shall be described Chap. 30.) are received by the extremity of the Tubae, and carried along their inner Cavity to the Vterus. For Dr. Harvey affirms that they have a worm-like or peristaltic motion like that of the Guts (de Cervarum & Damarum Vtero, Exercit. 65.) And the same is affirmed by Swammerdam, Not. in Prodr.  
Against this use two objections may be made; First, that the end of the Tuba not adhering close to the Testis, when one of the Vesiculae, (or Ova, as we think they are) shall drop off from the Testis, it would more probably fall into the Cavity of the Abdomen, than light just pat in the mouth of the Tuba. Secondly, That when it is received by it, its dust is so narrow, that 'tis hard to conceive how it can pass by it.  
As to the first; the same objection may lie against the use of the Oviduct or Infundibulum in Hens, for neither in them does it join quite close to the Ovarium, (as Swammerdam, etc. truly observes) and yet it is certain that the Vitelli or little Yolks (or rudiments of the Eggs) do all pass by them to the Vterus. The same, Swammerdam observes also in Frogs, in one of whom there are many hundreds of Eggs, which all pass one after another from the Ovarium by the Oviduct or Infundibulum, and yet the mouth of the Oviduct is almost two fingers breadth from the Ovarium, and besides is immovable, whereas the Tubae in Women are at liberty (and are more than long enough) to embrace the Ovarium with their orifice: and we must believe that they do so when a conception is made; for it is not improbable that when all the other parts of the Genital are turgid in the act of Copulation, these Tubae also may be in some measure erected, and extend their opened mouth to the Testicle, to impregnate the Ova with the Seminal air steaming through their dust, and if any one be fecundated and separate, to receive it afterwards by its orifice.  
As to the second objection, which urges the narrowness of these Tubae; He that considers the straitness of the inner orifice of the Womb, both in Maids and in Women with Child, and yet observes it to dilate so much upon occasion as to permit an egress to the Child out of the Womb, cannot wonder that to serve a necessary end of Nature the small dust of the Tubae should be so far widened as to give passage to an Ouum, seeing its proportion to their dust is many times less than of the Child to the usual largeness of the said orifice.   

CHAP. XXVII.  
Of the Uterus or Womb, and its Neck.  
HAving treated of the Vasa praeparantia (so called) that bring nourishment to the Testes or Ovaria, as also of these and their Ova, and lastly of the Tubae through which the Ova pass to the Vterus; we now come to the Vterus itself which receives the Ova, and in which the conception is form, and the Foetus nourished till it acquire its due maturity and be fit for the birth.  
The Vterus or Womb is usually divided into four parts, the Furdus or bottom, Os internum or Cervix, the Vagina, and the Sinus pudoris or outward Privity. Of each of these in order. And first of the Fundus.  
This in a special manner is called the Womb, 
It's name▪  because all the rest seem to be made for its sake. It is also called the Matrix, from its being as a Mother to conserve and nourish the Foetus; and likewise Vtriculus from Vtris a Bottle.  
It is seated in the Hypogastrium or lowest part of the Abdomen, 
Situation▪  in that large hollow that is called Pelvis, and is form out of the Ossa Ilii, the Hip, the Ossa pubis, and the Os sacrum. In this Cavity it is placed between the Bladder and the straight Gut; so that Man being bred betwixt piss and dung, if he would but consider his origine, might hence draw an argument of humility.  
It's hindmost part is loose, 
Connexion.  that it might be extended as the Foetus increaseth. But its sides are tied fast by two pairs of Ligaments.  
The first pair are further from the Os internum, 
Ligaments.  and are broad, arising from the Peritonaeum. They have a membranous, loose and soft substance, and for their shape are resembled to Bats wings. They tie the sides of the Fundus, the Testes and a good part of the Tubae together, and are fastened to the Ossa Ilii, whereby the Womb is kept from falling down. But if they be either immoderately relaxed, or by any violence broken, than the Womb descends and sometimes falls out (turning inside outwards) if the substance of the Womb happen to be relaxed also.  
The second pair arise nearer to the inner orifice of the Vagina, about where the Tubae do, and are called the round Ligaments, or worm-like. From their origine which is broad, they ascend on each side between the duplicature of the Peritonaeum towards the Groins, and running out of the Cavity of the Abdomen become round, and then pass obliquely above the Os pubis towards the fat that is plentiful there (and makes the Mons Veneris) in which they terminate near the Clitoris, being divided into many parts. They consist of a double Membrane, the inner whereof has all sorts of Vessels, Nerves Arteries, Veins and Vasa lymphatica; and are about a span long. Vestingius, Diemerbroeck, etc. say that they receive a small Seminal vessel from the Testes and Tubae, which they conduct to the Clitoris into which they are inserted, and ought rather to be accounted Vasa deferentia than Ligaments. So that what Women emit from about the Clitoris in copulation, they think to be true Semen conducted hither by those seminal ducts. But de Graef denies any such ducts, and affirms that these Ligaments reach not the Clitoris, but are terminated in the aforesaid fat. And that humour which Women emit (sometimes) he thinks doth issue out of the Lacunae in the orifices of the Vagina and urinary passage, or also from the Meatus' in the neck of the Womb. Which humour is supplied to the former parts from the thick and membranous body that is about the urinary passage; and to the latter from the nervose-membranous substance of the neck of the Womb. And indeed who can think Nature so prodigal of so spirituous and noble a liquor as Seed, as to ordain it to be shed at the orifice of the Pudendum, and so to be quite lost, and never mixed with the Man's, which is ejected into the bottom of the Womb? But we have above denied all Seed to Women; and therefore believe that the liquor they emit is only for the lubricating of the Vagina to cause the greater pleasure in coitu. But to this purpose more before.  
It's substance is whitish, 
Substance.  nervous or rather membranous; dense and compact in Virgins, but in Women with Child a little spongy and soft.  
It hath two Membranes. 
Membranes.  The outer is strong and double, arising from the Peritonaeum: the inner, being proper, is fibrous and more porous. Betwixt these Membranes there is a certain carnous and fibrous contexture, which in Women with Child, together with the said Membranes, does imbibe so much of the nutritious humours that then slow thither, that the more the Foetus increaseth, the more fleshy, fibrous and thick doth the Womb grow; so that in the last months it becomes an inch thick, and sometimes two fingers breadth, though it be extended to so much greater compass than it has when a Woman is not with Child. And yet (which is strange) within sixteen or twenty days after a Woman is brought to Bed, it becomes as thin as before (viz. about half a finger's breadth) and the whole contracts into so little a compass as to be held in one's hand.  
In Virgins it is about two finger's breadth broad, 
Bigness.  and three long. In those that have lain with a Man it is a little bigger, and something larger yet in those that have born Children.  
In shape it is something like a Pear, 
Figure.  only a little flattish above and below. But in Women with Child it becomes more round.  
In Maids its Cavity is so small that it will hardly hold a large hazel nut. 
Cavity.  In those that have had Children it will hold a small walnut. It is divided into no Cells as it is in most viviparous Brutes, but only into the right and left side by a Suture or line that goes lengthways, much like that in a Man's Cod. Its Cavity is not quite round, but jets out a little towards each side; which jetting some call its Horns, but improperly: for though Galen (and many after him) having never dissected any Woman, presuming that their Womb was like that of other viviparous Creatures, attributed Cornua thereto, yet in truth they have none, but the Tubae Fallopianae (as was noted before) answer to them and do their office. Only in Brutes (viz. such as have Cornua) the conception is always form in the Cornua, as being the greatest part of the Vterus (which from the very orifice of its Fundus is presently divided into them, as when one parts the forefrom the middle finger as wide as one can) but very rarely in the Tubae in Women, but most an end in the Fundus itself. Of which more in Chap. 30.  
Its Arteries spring partly from the Spermatick or Praeparantes, 
Arteries.  and partly from the Hypogastrick. These two Arteries do on each side by a notable branch inosculate one with the other. And both their branches that run on one side the Womb, do inosculate with those of their own stock on the other. Which may plainly be seen by blowing into the trunk of either of them on which side you will, for then the branches on the other side will be puffed up, as well as those on that side you blow.  
They run along the Womb not with a straight or direct course but bending and winding, that they may be extended without danger of breaking when the Womb is enlarged to so great a bulk by the Foetus. By these Arteries it is that the monthly Courses flow, in greatest quantity out of those that open into the Vterus itself, but in lesser out of those branches that reach and open into the Cervix or neck of the Womb, and in least (if at all) out of the Vagina. Now whether the Blood be sent forth this way at such times only from the two great quantity of it; or whether at such stated seasons there is also a fermentation of the Blood whereby the orifices of the Arteries are unlocked, is a controversy of two large consideration for this place. We will only say that the latter is more probable, because when a Woman feeds high, and so breeds much Blood, they flow never the sooner (though it may be in greater quantity) and when she uses the greatest abstinence and spareness of diet (if she be healthful) they will be never the longer of coming. So that when through such effervescency the Blood flows plentifully into the Uterine vessels, and the Veins of the Womb being too few (for they are fewer than the Arteries) to return it all back again by the circulation, it bursts forth of the extremities of the Arteries so long, till the too great quantity of the Blood be lessened and the fermentation ceases, which it does after three or four days, and so the flux stops till the next period. In Women with Child they seldom flow, because then the redundant Blood is bestowed on the nourishment of the Foetus: and it is the wanting of the Menses at the usual season, that commonly gives Women the first Item of their having conceived. But of this also more in Chap. 30.  
The Veins do likewise spring from the Praeparantes and from the Hypogastrick. 
Veins.  There are many anastomosis of these Veins one with another, (as there was noted of the Arteries) but especially in the sides of the Vterus, which do more readily appear by blowing of them up, than those of the Arteries above spoken of. The Blood brought hither by the Arteries, that is not spent on the ordinary nutrition of the Womb, or is not cast out when the Menses flow, returns by these Veins back to the Heart.  
It has Nerves from the Plexus mesenterii maximus of the Intercostal pair, 
Nerves.  and from the lowest Plexus of the same. As also from the Nerves of Os sacrum. And the same run also to the Testes or Ovaria. Now it is these Plexus of Nerves that are chiefly affected in the Hysterical passion, or Fits of the Mother. For these Fits are merely Convulsive, and often happen without any fault of the Womb at all. And that symptom that in such Fits is usual, namely when something like a Ball seems to rise from the bottom of the Belly and to beat strongly about the Navel (which is usually taken by Women for the rising of the Womb or Mother) is nothing but the convulsion of these Plexus of Nerves: which one will the rather believe, when he considers that some Men are afflicted with the same symptom. Of which see more in Dr. Willis (in Cerebr. anat. p. 201.) who derives the pain of the Colic also from the same cause.  
De Graef says there are many Lymphducts that creep through the outer substance of the Vterus, 
Lymphducts.  which one after another meeting into one empty themselves into the common Receptacle: And these he says, Bartholin mistakes for Venae lacteae.  
The use of the Womb is to receive into its capacity the principles of the formation of the Foetus, 
Use.  to afford it nourishment, to preserve it from injuries, and at length when it is grown to maturity and requires the light and a freer air, to expel it forth.  
The Cervix or Os internum of the Womb being contiguous to it and coming betwixt it and the Vagina, 
The neck of the Womb.  we will treat of it in this Chapter. It seems to be a part of the Fundus or of the Womb properly so called, only it is much narrower, for its Cavity is no wider in Virgins than a small Quill, and in Women with Child its inner orifice doth either quite close its sides together, or is daubed up with a slimy yellowish humour, so that nothing can then enter into the Womb, unless in very lustful Women it be sometimes opened in superfoetation. It is an inch or more in length. It's Cavity as it opens to the Vagina is compared to the mouth of a Tench; Galen likens it to the Glans of a Man's Penis; for its Cavity is not round, but long and transverse. It is wrinkled, and has many small ducts opening into it, out of which one may press a pituitous serous matter. It has the same Membranes and the same Vessels with the Vterus itself. De Graef says that amongst its wrinkles he has often observed Hydatides or little watery Bladders; and thinks that abovesaid serous matter serves only to moisten the Vagina, etc. and to excite to Venery.   

CHAP. XXVIII.  
Of the Vagina, and its Contents, viz. the Hymen and Carunculae myrtiformes.  
IT has its name Vagina or Sheath, 
I●s nam●.  because it receives the Penis like a Sheath. It is called also the door of the Womb, and its greater Neck, to distinguish it from the lesser, just now described in the foregoing Chapter.  
It is a soft and loose Pipe, 
Description.  uneven with orbicular wrinkles, of a nervous but somewhat spongy substance (which lust causes to puff up a little, that it may embrace the Yard more closely) about seven finger's breadth long, and as wide as the straight Gut: all which yet, both length, width and looseness differ in respect of age, etc. and as a Woman is inflamed more or less with lust. So also the aforesaid wrinkles are much more numerous and close set in Virgins, and in Women that seldom accompany with a Man, and that have never born Children, than in those that have born many Children, and in Whores that use frequent copulation, or those that have long laboured under the fluor albus, for in all these three sorts they are almost obliterated.  
It has very many Arteries and Veins, some of which inosculate one with another, and others not: By the Arteries that open into it do the Menses sometimes flow in Women with Child that are plethoric: for they cannot come from the Womb itself, unless abortion follow, as sometimes it does. These Vessels bring plenty of Blood hither in the venereal congress, which heating and puffing up the Vagina increaseth the pleasure, and hinders the Man's Seed from cooling before it reach the Vterus. They spring not only from the Hypogastrick but also from the Hemorrhoidal, but these latter run only through the lower part of the Vagina. Its Nerves spring from those that are inserted into the Vterus, but most from those of Os sacrum. De Graef says that all along the Vagina there are abundance of pores, out of which a serous pituitous humour always flows to moisten it, but especially in coitu, when it is sometimes offensive to the Man through its quantity, but increases the pleasure of the Woman, and is that which is taken for her Seed, as has been noted already.  
Near its outer end, under the Nymphae (of which in the next Chapter) in its fore and upper part it receives the neck of the Urinary bladder encompassed with its Sphincter; opposite whereto in its hinder or lower part it is strongly knit to the Sphincter of the straight Gut.  
In Virgins its dust is so straight, that at their first congress with a Man they have commonly more pain than pleasure through the extension of it by the Penis, whereby some small Vessels break, out of which Blood issues as out of a slain Victim (to speak with Diemerbro●ck:) unless we should rather think that the Blood proceeds from the rupture of the Hymen, which we now come to describe.  
The Hymen is a thin Nervous membrane interwoven with carnous Fibres, 
Hymen.  and endowed with many little Arteries and Veins, spread across the dust of the Vagina, behind the insertion of the neck of the Bladder, with a hole in the midst that will admit the top of ones little finger, by which the Menses flow. It is otherwise called the Zone or Girdle of Chastity. Where it is found in this form described, it is a certain note of Virginity; but upon the first admission of a Man's Yard it is necessarily broke and bleeds, which Blood is called the Flower of Virginity; and of this the holy Text makes mention in Deuteron. 22. verses 13.— 21. And when once it is broke, it never closes again.  
But though a Bridegroom when he finds these signs of Virginity may certainly conclude he has married a Maid; yet it will not follow on the contrary, that where they are wanting, Virginity is also wanting. For the Hymen may be corroded by acrimonious fretting humours flowing through it with the Menses, or from the falling out or inversion of the Vterus or the Vagina at least, which sometimes happens even to Maids. Or if a Maid be so indiscreet as to become a Bride while her Courses flow or within a day after, than both the Hymen and the inner wrinkled Membrane of the Vagina are so flaggy and relaxed, that the Penis may enter glibly without any let, and so give suspicion of Unchastity, when indeed she's unblameable saving for her imprudence to marry at that season.  
Sometimes in elderly Maids the Hymen grows so strong that a Man is glad to make many essays before he can penetrate it. Yea in some naturally it is quite closed up, and these by this means having their Menses stopped, are in great peril of their life if they be not relieved by Surgery, viz. opening it with some sharp Instrument.  
Close to the Hymen lie the four Carunculae myrtiformes, 
Carunculae myrtiformes.  so called from their resembling Myrtleberries. The largest of them is uppermost, standing just at the mouth of the urinary passage which it shuts after water is made. Opposite to this in the bottom of the Vagina there is another, and on each side one, so that they stand in a square. But of these there is only the first in Maids; the other three are not indeed Caruncles, but little knobs made of the angular parts of the broken Hymen rolled into a heap by the wrinkling of the Vagina, according to Riolanus and Diemerbroeck. These three when the Vagina is extended in a Woman's labour, lose their asperity and become smooth, so that they disappear, until it be again contracted to its natural straitness.  
De Graef affirms, that the Vagina near its outer orifice has a Sphincter muscle almost three fingers broad, that upon occasion constringes or contracts it. So that he says Men and Women need not be solicitous concerning the Genitals being proportionable one to the other; for the Vagina is made so artificially (affabrè is his word) that it can accommodate itself to any Penis, so that it will give way to a long one, meet a short one, widen to a thick one, constringe to a small one: so that every Man might well enough lie with any Woman, and every Woman with any Man.] Thus he.  
Having thus described the parts of the Vagina, its use is easily declared to be, to receive the Man's Yard being erect, to direct and convey the Seed into the Womb, to serve for a Conduit by which the Menses may flow out, and to afford a passage to the Foetus in its birth, and to the Afterbirth.   

CHAP. XXIX.  
Of the Pudendum muliebre, or Woman's Privity.  
THE parts that offer themselves to view without any diduction are the Fissura magna or great chink, with its Labia or Lips, the Mons Veneris and the Hairs. These parts are called by the general name of Pudenda, because when they are bared they bring pudor or shame upon a Woman.  
The great Chink is called Cunnus by Galen, 
Fissura.  à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to conceive; by Hypocrates, Natura. It is also called Vulva, Porcus, Concha, and by many other names that fancy has imposed upon it.  
It reaches from the lower part of Os pubis to within an inch of the Anus: being by Nature made so large, because the outward Skin is not so apt to be extended in travail as the membranous Vagina and Collum minus are. It is less and closer in Maids than in those that have born Children. It has two Lips, which towards the Pubes grow thicker and more full or protuberant, and meeting upon the middle of the Os pubis make that rising that is called Mons veneris, the Hill of Venus, which all those that will war in the Camp of Venus must first ascend.  
It's outward substance is Skin covered with Hair, 
Mons veneris.  as the Labia are, which begins to grow here about the fourteenth year of age. The inner substance of this Hill, which makes it bunch so up, is most of it fat, and serves for a soft Cushion as it were in copulation to hinder the Ossa pubis of the Man and Woman to hit one against the other, for that would be painful and disturb the venereal pleasures. Under this fat lies that Muscle that we spoke of from de Graef in the last Chapter, that constringes the orifice of the Vagina, and springs from the Sphincter ani.  
By a little drawing aside the Labia there then appear the Nymphae and the Clitoris.  
The Nymphs are so called because they stand next to the Urine as it spouts out from the Bladder, 
Nymphae.  and keep it from wetting the Labia. They are called also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or Wings. They are placed on each side next within the Labia, and are two carnous and soft productions, beginning at the jointing of the Ossa pubis or upper part of the Privity (where they are joined in an acute angle, and make that wrinkled membranous production that clothes the Clitoris like a Praeputium or Foreskin) and descending, close all the way to each other, reaching but about half the breadth of the orifice of the Vagina and ending each in an obtuse angle. They are almost triangular, and therefore, as also for their colour, are compared to the thrills that hang under a Cock's throat.  
They have a red substance, 
Their substance.  partly fleshy, partly membranous; within soft and spongy, loosely composed of small Membranes and Vessels, so that they are very apt to be distended by the influx of the Animal spirits and Arterial blood. The Spirits they have from the same Nerves that run through the Vagina, and Blood from that branch of the inner Iliacal artery that is called Pudenda: Veins they have also from the Venae pudendae which carry away the Arterial blood from them when they become flaccid. They are larger in grown Maids than in younger, and larger yet in those that have used Venery or born Children. They never according to nature reach above half way out from between the Labia.  
Their use is to defend the inner parts, 
Use.  to cover the urinary passage, and a good part of the orifice of the Vagina. And to the same purposes serve the Labia above described.  
Above betwixt the Nymphae in the upper part of the Pudendum does a part jet out a little that is called Clitoris, 
Clitoris.  from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, that signifies lasciviously to grope the Pudendum. It is otherwise called Virga, for it answers to a Man's Yard in shape, situation, substance, repletion with spirits and erection, and differs from it only in length and bigness. In some it grows to that length as to hang out from betwixt the Lips of the Privity: yea there are many stories of such as have had it so long and big as to be able to accompany with other Women like unto Men, and such are called Fricatrices, or otherwise Hermaphrodites; who it is not probable are truly of both Sexes, but only the Testes fall down into the Labia, and this Clitoris is preternaturally extended. But in most it jets out so little as that it does not appear but by drawing aside the Labia.  
It is a little, 
It's substance.  long and round body, consisting (like a Man's Penis) of two nervous and inwardly black and spongy parts, that arise on each side from the bunching of the Os Ischium, and meet together at the jointing or conjunction of the Ossa pubis. It lies under the fat of Mons Veneris, in the top of the great fissure. In Venery by means of the two nervous bodies it puffs up, and straitening the orifice of the Vagina contributes to the embracing of the Penis the more closely.  
It's outer end is like to the Glans of a Man's Yard, 
Glans.  and has the same name, as also Tentigo. And as the Glans in Men is the seat of the greatest pleasure in copulation, so is this in Women: whence it is called Amoris dulcedo and oestrum Veneris. It has some resemblance of a Foramen, but it is not pervious. It is most of it covered with a thin Membrane from the conjunction of the Nymphae, which for its likeness to the Praeputium in Men is also called so.  
The Clitoris has two pair of Muscles belonging to it. 
Muscles.  The upper are round and spring from the Bones of the Coxendix, and passing along the two nervous bodies above-described are inserted into them. These by straightening the roots of the said bodies do detain the Blood and Spirits in them, and so erect the Clitoris, even as those in Men do the Penis. The other arise from the Sphincter ani, and are those we mentioned above in the end of the foregoing Chapter: for though they have been thought to serve for the erection of the Clitoris, yet we think with de Graef that they rather contribute to the pursing up or constringing the outer orifice of the Vagina.  
It has Veins and Arteries from the Pudendae, 
Vessels.  and Nerves from the same origine with the Vagina, which are pretty large.  
It's use may be known from what has already been discoursed. And we will note further, that in some Eastern Countries it uses to be so large, that for its deformity and the hindrance it gives to copulation, they use to cut it quite out, or hinder its growth by searing it, which they improperly call Circumcision.  

The Explanation of the Table. Figure I. Representeth the Genital parts of a Woman taken out of the Body, and placed in their natural situation.  
AA The trunk of the great Artery.  
BB The trunk of the Vena cava.   
TAB. VII  

C The right Emulgent vein.  
D The left Emulgent vein.  
E The right Emulgent artery.  
F The left Emulgent artery.  
GG The Kidneys.  
HHHH The ureters cut off.  
I The right Spermatick artery.  
K The left Spermatick artery.  
L The right Spermatick vein.  
M The left Spermatick vein.  
NN The Iliack arteries.  
OO The Iliack veins.  
PP The inner branches of the Iliack artery.  
QQ The outer branches of the Iliack artery.  
RR The inner branches of the Iliack vein.  
SS The outer branches of the Iliack vein.  
TT The Hypogastrick arteries carried to the Womb and Vagina.  
UU The Hypogastrick veins accompanying the said arteries.  
XX The branches of the Hypogastrick artery tending to the urinary Bladder.  
YY The branches of the Hypogastrick vein carried to the Bladder.  
ZZ Portions of the umbilical arteries.  
a The Fundus uteri clothed with its common Coat.  
bb The round Ligaments of the Womb as they are joined to its Fundus.  
cc The Tubae Fallopianae in their natural situation.  
ddd The Fimbriae or jags of the Tubae  
ee The Foramina or hollows of the Tubae.  
ff The Testicles in their natural situation.  
g A portion of the straight Gut.  
h The neck of the Womb, divested of its common Coat, that the Vessels may be better seen.  
i The forepart of the Vagina of the Womb, freed from the urinary Bladder▪  
k The urinary Bladder contract●●  
ll The Bloud-vessels running through the Bladder.  
m The Sphincter muscle constringing the neck of the Bladder.  
n The Clitoris.  
oo The Nymphae.  
p The urinary passage.  
qq The Lips of the Pudendum.  
r The orifice of the Vagina.   

Figure II.  
Exhibiteth a Woman's Testicle or Ovarium with the end of the Tuba annexed to it.  
A The Testicle opened lengthways in its lower part.  
BB Eggs of divers bigness contained in the membranous substance of the Testes.  
CC The Bloud-vessels in the middle of the Testes, proceeding plentifully from its upper part, as they run to the Eggs.  
DD The Ligament of the Testicles, whereby they are knit to the Womb, cut off.  
EE A part of the Tuba Fallopiana cut off.  
F The Cavity of the Tuba cut off.  
GG The hole that is in the end of the Tubae.  
H The levy ornament of the Tubae.  
I The levy ornament of the Tubae knit to the Testes.    

CHAP. XXX.  
Of a Conception.  
HAving described all the parts that serve for Generation both in Man and Woman; order would, that we should speak of the efficient causes, matter or principles from whence that which is generated by and in them, doth proceed. And in the first place there occurs the Man's Seed, which is the active principle or efficient cause of the Foetus; but when we discoursed of the Testes, we showed what the matter of it was, viz. Arterial blood and Animal spirits; and as to the manner of its fecundating the Ouum, we omit that as being too philosophical for this place. In the next place therefore we must come to the matter or passive principle of the Foetus, and this is an Ouum impregnated by the Man's Seed. And here because in Women it cannot be observed by what degrees and in what time an Ouum in the Ovarium or Testis becomes a Conception in the Vterus, we must be forced to guests at that by the analogy in other Creatures. To this purpose Dr. Harvey de generatione Animalium is worthy to be read of the curious; especially concerning the manner and order of the generation of the parts of a Chicken in an Hen's Egg, in his Exercit. 56. But when he comes to apply this to the Conceptions of viviparous Animals, being ignorant that there was any formal Ouum pre-existing in them, and only then secundated, he runs into great errors and odd notions about Conception: imagining an analogy betwixt the Brain's forming its Phantasms or Conceptions, (which he calls Animal) and the Wombs forming hers, which he calls Natural. He rightly indeed rejects the Hypothesis of the Woman's having true Seed, as also the notion that the Man's Seed is any part of the Conception: but then he gives an unsatisfactory account of it when he says it is form of the primeval albugineous humours that transude into the Cornua in Brutes or Vterus in Women, after they are impregnated or matured, as he speaks. I shall not therefore rehearse the history of generation in Hearts that he has given us, for an analogical explication of that in Women; but shall transcribe the observations of the curious de Graef concerning the generation of Rabbits, as being more adapted to our purpose.  
We made the first trial, (says he) on a female Rabbit that had not yet accompanied with the male. Dissecting which we observed a very wide Vagina and about eight fingers breadth long, which being opened lengthways, there stood out two narrow mouths in its upper part divided with a semilunar partition, namely the beginning of each Cornu: for the Womb in Coneys is presently from the very Vagina divided into two parts, one of which bends towards the right hand, the other towards the left about three fingers breadth asunder, where they are presently contracted and continued with the Oviducts, which in these Animals have a peculiar situation (or make) because if you lightly blow up the Cornua these will not swell, nor the wind penetrate them because of some loose Fimbriae or rags closing like the valve of the Gut Colon. These Oviducts being small at their rising from the Cornua, for five fingers breadth run with a winding dust beyond the Testicles, widening more and more by degrees, and then they turn back towards them and end in the form of a Tunnel ..... The Testicles are small, but contain very many limpid Eggs, which being cut open there issued out a clammy liquor like the white of an Egg. This being premised,  
We opened another half an hour after the coitus, the Cornua of whose Vterus looked a little redder, but the Ova in the Testicles were not yet changed, unless they had remitted a little of their clearness: but neither in the Vagina nor in the Cornua could we perceive any Seed or any thing like it.  
About six hours after the coupling we dissected another, in whose Testicles the Folliculi (or Cases) of the Ova inclined to redness, out of which being pricked with a needle a clammy and clear liquor issued first, but blood followed, flowing out of the Sanguinary vessels dispersed through the Folliculi: We could find no Seed neither in this Coney.  
Four and twenty hours after the coitus we opened another, in one of whose Testicles we found three, and in the other five Folliculi of the Ova very much changed; for being before limpid and colourless, they were now turned duskish and of a faint red, in the middle of whose superficies a little Papilla (or Teat) as it were discovered itself: when the Folliculi were cut open, there appeared a little limpid liquor in their middle, a●d in their circumference a certain thicker and reddish matter.  
Twenty seven hours after the coitus we inspected another, the Cornua of whose Vterus with the Oviducts looked more bloody, also the extremity of the Oviduct did on every side embrace the Testes like a Tunnel; in the middle superficies of the Folliculi, as in those before, there stood out little Papillae, through which by pressing the substance of the Testicles there issued a limpid liquor, which was followed by another redder and thicker. Opening the Cornua of the Womb we found no Eggs, but the inner wrinkled tunicle of the Cornua was a little more tumid.  
Eight and forty hours after the coitus we examined another, in one of whose Testicles we found seven, in the other three Folliculi changed, in whose middle the Papillae were something more eminent, through which, by pressing the substance of the Testicles, there issued a little liquor like the white of an Egg, but the remaining reddish substance of the Ova, being now become something thicker, was not so easily pressed forth as in those before.  
Two and fifty hours after the coitus we viewed another, in one of whose Testicles we found one, in the other four Folliculi altered; cutting open which we found a glandulous-like matter, in the middle of which there was a little Cavity, wherein finding no notable liquor, we begun to suspect whether or no their limpid substance, which is contained in proper Membranes, were burst forth or expelled: wherefore we searched carefully both the Oviducts and the Cornua, but we could find nothing; only the inner tunicle of the Cornua being much puffed up shined.  
Seventy two hours (or three days and nights) after the coitus we inspected another, which exhibited a far other and most wonderful change; for the Infundibulum did embrace the Testicles on every side most closely, which being pulled off we found in the Testicle of the right side three Folliculi a little greater and harder, in the middle of whose superficies we saw a tubercle with a little hole in it like a Papilla; but dissecting the said Cases through the middle, their Cavity was quite empty; wherefore we searched the ways through which the Ova must pass, again and again, and found in the middle of the right Oviduct one, and in the outer end of the Cornu of the same side two very small Eggs, little bigger than small pins heads, which notwithstanding their smallness are clothed with a double Coat; out of these Eggs being pricked there issued a most limpid liquor ...... In the very beginning of the Cornu of the left side we found only one Egg, just like those small ones of the other side: whence it is clear that the Ova excluded out of the Testes are ten times less than those that yet stick in the Testes; which seems to us to come to pass inasmuch as those that are still in the Testes contain as yet another matter, namely that of which the glandulous substance of the Cases is made.  
The fourth day from the coitus we opened another, in one of whose Testicles we found four, in the other three Globules or Cases emptied; and in the Cornua of the respective sides we found as many Eggs, greater than the former, which did not stick in the Oviducts or beginnings of the Cornua, but were now rolled on towards their middle: in their Cavity we beheld as it were another Egg swimming, far clearer than in the other before .....  
The fifth day from the coitus we dissected another, in whose Ovaria or Testicles we told six emptied Folliculi, that had each a notable Papilla, through whose Foramen we easily put an ordinary bristle into their Cavity: we found also the same number of Eggs (bigger than those the day before) in divers parts of the Cornua, in which they lay so loosely, that by blowing only, one might drive them this way or that way. The inner tunicle of these (or the Egg within an Egg as it were) was become yet more conspicuous.  
The sixth day after the coitus we examined another, in one of whose Testicles we observed six Cases emptied, and in the Cornu of the same side we could light of but only five Eggs near the Vagina, brought as it were upon a heap: but in the Testiole of the other side we found four Folliculi emptied, and in the Cornu of that side only one Egg: The cause of which difference we suppose to be, either because some Eggs by the wave-like motion of the Cornua (not unlike the peristaltic motion of the Guts) being carried downwards towards the Vagina were driven forth; or because being consumed in the Folliculi they came not to the Vterus; or light on some other mischance. These Eggs were as big as small Pease.  
The seventh day from the coitus we examined another, in whose Ovaria we found some Folliculi emptied that were greater, redder and harder than the foregoing, and saw as many transparent tumors or Cells in divers parts of the Vterus; out of which being opened we turned Ova as big as Pocket-pistol Bullets, in which we beheld nothing but the Inner tunicle very conspicuous and a most limpid humour. It is to be wondered at, that in so short a space of time the Eggs should imbibe so great plenty of liquor, that whereas before they might easily be taken out of the Womb, now they could very difficultly.  
The eighth day from the Coitus we opened another, in the right Cornu of whose Vterus we saw one, in the left two Cells; one of these was almost twice as big as the other: for Nature doth sometimes so vary, that there are Eggs of divers bigness found not only in divers Animals of the same species dissected at the same distance from the coitus, but also in one and the same Individual. In the horns of the Womb being opened we saw the Eggs a little bigger than the day before, but all of them, their tunicles breaking, poured out their clear liquor before we could take them quite out: for which reason we tried another dissected likewise the eighth day after the coitus; the right Cornu of whose Vterus we saw swelled up into two, and the left into four transparent tumors or Cells, out of which that we might take the Ova we used the greatest diligence and attention; but as soon as we came to them, their tunicles were so very tender that they burst as the former: which when we saw, the Eggs that remained we boiled with the Vterus, whereby their contents hardened like the whites of Hens Eggs. The inner substance of the Cells, on that side whereon it receives the Hypogastrick vessels, was become more tumid and red.  
The ninth day after the coitus we dissected another that was old; the Testicles of this were almost as big again as those of younger: in the right we saw two, in the left ●ive Folliculi lately emptied, and besides these, others that looked very pale, which we judged to be those that had been emptied the coitus before this, although for the most part they leave only some palish points or specks, to which the increase of the Testicles is owing. The Folliculi of the last coitus were each beset with a Papilla, but the others were smooth. In the right Cornu there were two, and in the left five Cells, whose substance being more rare and pellucid than the other parts of the Vterus was interwoven with many twigs of Veins and Arteries. Opening some of these Cells, we could see the Ova, but could not take them out whole; wherefore being compelled to examine the content of the Eggs in the very hollow of the Cells, we found it clear like Crystal; in the middle whereof a certain rare and thin cloud was seen to swim, which in other Coneys dissected likewise on the ninth day after the coitus for its exceeding fineness escaped our sight. The inner substance of the Cells, namely that which receives the Hypogastrick vessels, being more tumid than the rest, exhibited the rudiments of the Placentae.  
The tenth day after the coitus we inspected another, in whose right Testicle we found one only Folliculus emptied, which by reason of the Sanguineous vessels dispersed plentifully through it was redder and had a less Papilla; in the middle of this pale substance there appeared as yet a very small Cavity: but in the left Testicle we found six such Folliculi. In the Cornua of the Vterus we found also so many Cells, namely one in the right and six in the left distant a finger's breadth one from another, in the middle of which Cells lay a rude mucilaginous draught of the Embryo like a little Worm▪ one might also plainly discern the Placenta to which the Egg by means of its Chorion was annexed. The matter of the Eggs boiled with the Womb hardened like the white of an Egg, and tasted like the boiled congealed substance of the Eggs in the Testicles.  
The twelfth day after the coitus we opened another, in one of whose Testicles we found seven, in the other five Folliculi emptied, and as many Cells in the Cornua much bigger and rounder than the foregoing, in the middle of which the Embryo was so conspicuous, that one might in a sort discern its Limbs, in the region of whose Breast two sanguineous specks and as many white ones did offer themselves to view: in the Abdomen there grew a certain mucilaginous substance inclining here and there to red. We could not discern more in this shapeless little Animal because of its tenderness.  
The fourteenth day after the coitus we disse●ted another, the Cells of whose Vterus we beheld to be yet greater, and the Sanguineous vessels more, and more turgid: we also noted that the Cells the larger they grew, came also nearer to one another, and their Interstices were lessened. The Membranes Amnios and Chorion were knit together, which though they appear thicker and stronger, are yet more hard to be separated from one another than in the Ova taken entirely out of the Womb; tearing these we saw an Embryo with a great and pellucid Head, with the Cerebellum copped; it's goggle Eyes, gaping Mouth, and in some sort its little Ears might be discovered also. It's Backbone was drawn out, of a white colour, which bending in about the Sternum resembled a Ship; by whose sides most slender Vessels run, whose ramifications were extended to the Back and Feet. In the region of the Breast two sanguineous specks greater than the foregoing exhibited the rudiments of the ventricles of the Heart; at the sides whereof were seen two whitish specks for Lungs. In the Abdomen being opened, there first showed itself a reddish Liver; then a white Body, to which was knit a mucilaginous matter like a writhed thread, being the rudiments of the Stomach and Guts. All which in those that we dissected afterwards had acquired only a greater bulk and perfection. And therefore to prevent tediousness by repeating the same things, we will on purpose pass by all the other dissections we made in this kind of Creature, excepting only one which we made the day before the kindling; that those things that in the former were only confusedly discerned, may appear plain in this.  
At length on the twenty ninth day after the coitus we inspected another, that had kindled six weeks before, and in the coitus by which she was impregnated had voided all the thicker part of the Seed of the Male, which in some measure did resemble the consistence of a most limpid jelly. In her Ovaria we found eleven little whitish Folliculi; and besides these, others far less, little or nothing differing from the substance of the Testes. The Folliculi of the Ova in the Testes seem not to vanish wholly, but to leave a certain speck in them; whence it certainly comes to pass, that Coneys, the oftener or the more young ones they bring forth, have the greater and whiter Testicles; so that one may guests by only viewing the Testes, whether they have had many young ones or often. Having viewed the Ovarium we passed to the Vterus, which we found no longer distinguished into Cells, but all along distended like a Pudding; which was so agitated with a wave-like motion like the peristaltic of the Guts, that the young ones nearest the Vagina as yet included in their Membranes were excluded, and that so hastily, that if we had not cut out the whole Vterus, they had all certainly gone the same way. The Womb was no thicker than when they are not with young, otherwise than we have said it to be in Women. In its Cavity we saw eleven Foetus sprawling, which were all so closely coupled together by the Membrane Chorion (wherein all are severally involved) as if they had all been included in one and the same Chorion—  
Thus much I thought fit to translate of that accurate Anatomists observations concerning the generation of this sort of Animal, because it gives so very great light into the manner of the generation of a humane Foetus. For there is an exact analogy betwixt them, abating some circumstances; as First that in Women the Conception is not form in the Cornua, seeing her Womb has none, nor in the Tubae very seldom and according to Nature, for they are only the Infundibula or Oviducts to convey the Ova from the Testes to the Fundus uteri, though they bear some resemblance to the Cornua in Brutes; I say the Conception is not form in these, but in the Fundus uteri or Womb properly so called, whereinto the Ouum being received presently begins to swell and grow bigger, and there appears as it were an Egg within an Egg, by means of the two Membranes with which it is clothed; which Membranes are originally in the Ouum while it is in the Testicle, and imbibe the moisture that is sent now plentifully into the Womb, even as the little Yolks in Hens, etc. gather the white about them in the Oviduct and Vterus, which they have none of in the Ovarium; or as Seeds in the Ground do imbibe the fertile moisture thereof to enable them to sprout. Another considerable circumstance wherein they differ is the slow procedure of the formation of the Foetus in Women in comparison of that in Coneys now described. For seeing these go with young but 29 or 30 days, and Women nine months, we must imagine that the Embryo is as perfectly form in the former on the tenth day as in the latter in the tenth week, or longer. But I say abating these or if there be any other such like circumstances, there is so great a likeness betwixt the one and other, that without insisting more on the matter or manner of the Conception, we shall pass on to the description of the parts that encompass the Foetus, then show how it is nourished, and lastly what parts there are in a Foetus that differ from those in a Child born.   

CHAP. XXXI.  
Of the Placenta Uterina or Womb-liver, and Acetabula.  
IN dissecting the Womb of a Woman with Child the first thing that offers itself is the Placenta uterina or Womb-cake, otherwise called Hepar uterinum or Womb-liver, from the likeness of substance, and also use according to those that imposed the name.  
It's substance is very like that of the Spleen, 
It's substance.  only that is more brittle and this more tenacious, so that it cannot so easily be separated from the Vessels. It is soft and has innumerable Fibres and small Vessels. It's Parenchyma is partly glandulous, by means of which Glands the separation of humour that is made in it, is performed.  
It is of very different shapes in several Creatures, 
Shape and situation.  but in Women it is circular, yet with some inequalities in its circumference. It is two fingers breadth thick in its middle (but thinner near the edges) and a span or a quarter of a yard over from one side to the other when the Foetus is come to maturity ready for the birth. On that side next the Foetus it is smooth and something hollowish like Navel-wort, and is knit to the Chorion; but on that next the Womb it is very unequal, having a great many tubercles or bunchings whereby it adheres fast and immediately to the Womb. But to what part of it, is not agreed among Anatomists, some affirming it to grow to the forepart, some to the hinder-part; some to the left side, others to the right. Dr. Wharton (assenting to Fallopius) says, it always adheres to one of the two corners of the Womb (that answer in some manner to the Cornua in Brutes) whereinto the Foramen of the Tuba opens; so that he says the said Foramen is as it were the centre to the Placenta. De Graef thinks it is most commonly fastened there, but not always, because the Ouum for a while being loose in the Cavity of the Vterus, may be tumbled to this or the other part, and wherever it fixes, there is it joined to the Womb by the Placenta.  
When there is but one Foetus in the Womb it is but one, 
Number.  but if there be Twins, then according to Dr. Wharton, etc. are there two Placentae, either distinct in shape, or if they appear in the shape of one, then are they separated by a Membrane one from the other; and a particular rope of Umbilical vessels, is inserted into each from each Foetus.  
It grows not out of the Womb originally, 
Origine.  but its first rudiments appear like a woolly substance on the outside of the outer Membrane that invests the Embryo (called Chorion) about the eighth or ninth week, upon which in a short while a red, carnous and soft substance grows, but unequally and in little knobs, and then it presently thereby sticks to the Womb, and is very conspicuous about the twelfth or thirteenth week. Till now the Foetus is increased and nourished wholly by the apposition of the crystalline or albugineous liquor wherein it swims loose in the inner Membrane (called Amnios) having no Vasa umbilicalia form, by which to receive any thing from the Placenta. But when it waxes bigger and begins to need more nourishment, the extremities of the Umbilical vessels begin to grow out of the Navel by little and little, and are extended towards this Placenta, that out of it, as Plants by their Roots out of the Earth, they may draw a more firm nutritive juice, and carry it to the Foetus. But of this more in the 33d Chapter.  
It has Vessels from a double origine, 
Vessels.  some from the Womb, and some from the Chorion. The former are of four kinds, Arteries, Veins, Nerves and Lymphducts: all which though they be very large and conspicuous in the Womb, and are so even in that very place where the Placenta is joined to it; yet they send but the smallest Capillaries into the Placenta itself (namely that half that is next the Womb.) Those that come from the Chorion are Arteries and Veins, and Dr. Wharton supposes also Lymphducts. The Arteries and veins that come from the Womb spring from the Hypoga●tricks, and also that branch of the Spermaticks that is inserted into the bottom of the Womb. Those that come from the Chorion are the Umbilical vessels of the Foetus. Of the use of both the one and other we shall speak in Chap. 33. when we come to discourse how the Foetus is nourished, as also of the use of the Placenta itself, of which we shall only observe this further here, That after it is joined to the Womb, it sticks most firmly to it for the first months▪ as unripe Fruit do to the Tree: But as the Foetus becomes bigger, and riper and nearer to the birth, by so much the more easily will it part from the Womb, and at length, like to ripe Fruit, after the Child is born, it falls out of the Womb and makes part of the Afterbirth.  
It was an old tradition continued for many hundred years, 
Acetabula.  that the Placenta adheres to the Womb by certain parts called Cotyledones or Acetabula. That there are such in some Creatures it is certain; Dr. Needham says they are only properly so called in Sheep and Goats, in whom being with young the Uterine glands are hollow like a Saucer or an Acorn-cup, and are adapted to the little Prominences (or Digituli) of the Placentulae that grow on the Chorion; (though Diemerbroeck say, that on the contrary the Placentulae are hollow (and so are truly the Acetabula) and the Uterine glands protuberant) and doubts not but these names were first given by those that dissected these kind of Creatures, and were afterwards applied in following ages to other Animals. So that no wonder there have been so great contests even about the signification of the word Cotyledon (which is the Greek word for the herb Vmbilicus Veneris or Navel-wort) and what that was that was so called in the several Creatures that were said to have them. But because such Controversies are now obsolete, and that 'tis generally confessed that Women have them not, we shall not in this Epitome run out into needless Disputes; but only observe one singular opinion of Diemerbro●ck, who ascribes Cotyledones to Women. He thinks that each Woman (unless she go with Twins) has but one Cotyledon, and that the foresaid Placenta uterina is it. And indeed it must be confessed that it resembles much the shape of that from which the Cotyledones have their name; and therefore seeing he form this opinion to defend our great Master Hypocrates, who had ascribed them to Women, (that is, as Diemerbroeck expounds it, one Cotyledon to one Woman) we shall not oppose it, but confess it to be, if not true, yet both ingenious and ingenuous.   

CHAP. XXXII.  
Of the Membranes involving the Foetus, and of the humours contained in them.  
NEXT to the Placenta follow the two Membranes that involve the whole Foetus, Chorion the outer, and Amnios' the inner: betwixt which two, after the Foetus is perfectly form, Dr. Needham, etc. affirms there is a third, viz. Allantois, which in Women likewise includes the whole Foetus. Of each of these in their order, with the liquors they contain.  
The outer Membrane is called Chorion, 
Chorion.  it is pretty thick, smooth on the inside, but without something unequal or rough, and in that part of it that adheres to the Placenta and by it to the Womb, has very many Vessels which spring from the Placenta itself and the Umbilical vessels. It is but one even when the Mother goes with Twins: for as in a Nut that has two Kernels in it, they are both included within the same Shell, but are each invested in their proper Membrane; so Twins are both enclosed in one Chorion, but have each a particular Amnios. It invests the Ouum originally, which Ouum being brought into the Womb and becoming a Conception, this Membrane imbibes the moisture that bedews the Womb plentifully at that time. For whiles the Conception is loose in the Womb, and has no Vessels that reach out of itself, nor is fastened to any part, it must have its increase after the same manner as the Egg has in Hens, which while it is in the racemus or knot, attains no other substance but Yelk; and when it drops off from thence and descends through the Infundibulum, it receives no alteration; but when it comes into the Cells of the process of the Vterus, it begins to gather a White, although it stick to no part of the Vterus nor has any Umbilical Vessel; but (says my Author, the immortal 
* De generat. Animal. Exercit. 9 de generat. Ovi.  Harvey) as the Eggs of Fishes and Frogs do without, procure to themselves Whites out of the water; or as Beans, Pease and other pulse, and Breadcorn being steeped in moisture swell, and thence acquire aliment for the bud that is springing out of them: so in like manner out of the plicae or wrinkles of the Womb (as out of a Dug or Womb-cake) does there an albugineous moisture slow, whence the Yelk (by that vegetative and innate heat, and faculty wherewith it is endued) gathers and concocts its White. And therefore in those Plicae and the hollow of the Womb does there plentifully abound a liquor resembling the taste of the White. And thus the Yelk descending by little and little is encompassed with a White, till at last in the outmost Vterus having assumed Membranes and a Shell, it is perfected] Thus I say does the Chorion imbibe that albugineous liquor that from the first Conception increases daily in it (and transudes through the Amnios wherein the Embryo swims) till the Umbilical vessels and the Placenta are form, from and through which the Foetus may receive nourishment.  
This liquor that it imbibes I take to be nutritious juice that ouzes out of the capillary orifices of the Hypogastrick and Spermatick arteries, 
It's liquor.  and is of the same nature with that which afterwards is separated in the Placenta and carried to the Foetus by the Umbilical vein, and with that also which abounds in the Amnios even till the birth. For the plastic or vegetative virtue is only in the Ouum itself, and the augmentation that the first lineaments of the Embryo receive, is only by apposition of this nutritious albugineous juice. But this Membrane Chorion by that time the Umbilical Vessels and Placenta are form, is grown so dense and compact, that it is not capable of imbibing more; but that which at this time is in it, does in small time transude into the Amnios, and so itself becomes empty, and gives way to the increase of the Allantois, (which thenceforward begins to appear) whose liquor augments daily as the Foetus grows nearer and nearer to the birth. This is my conjecture, which I submit to the censure of the learned.  
The Amnios' is the inmost Membrane that immediately contains the Foetus. 
Amnios'.  It is not knit to the Chorion in any place save where the Umbilical vessels pass through them both into the Placenta. It is very thin, soft, smooth and pellucid, and encompasses the Foetus very loosely. It has Vessels from the same origines as the Chorion. It is something of an oval shape.  
Before the Ouum be impregnated, 
It's liquor.  this Membrane contains a limpid liquor, which after the impregnation is that out of which the Embryo is form. In it resides the plastic power and the matter also out of which the first lineaments of the Embryo are drawn. But because its liquor is so very little, there transudes through this Membrane presently part of that nutritious albugineous humour that is contained in the Chorion, which it had imbibed out of the Vterus, as was but even now shown, and this Dr. Harvey calls Colliquamentum. And by the juxta-apposition or addition of this humour to the undiscernible rudiments of the Embryo, it receives its increase. But though the Amnios have its additional nutritious liquor at first only by transudation; yet when the Umbilical vessels and the Placenta are form, it receives it after another manner. For then being separated from the Mother's Arteries by the Placenta and imbibed by the Umbilical veins of the Foetus, it passes directly to its heart, from whence being driven, a great part of it, down the Aorta, it is sent forth again by the Umbilical arteries, out of whose capillaries dispersed plentifully through the Amnios it issues into its Cavity, even as far more gross and viscid juices in taking a purge (or sometimes critically) ouze out of the small mouths of the Arteries that gape into the Intestins.  
There are some that think they have observed Venae lacteae to come directly to the Placenta, and that out of it (as out of the Glands in the Mesentery) there arise others that convey the Chyle into the Amnios: and this indeed were a plausible opinion, if it were grounded on any certain or frequent observation of such Lacteals, and were not rather invented to avoid some difficulties with which the former opinion seems to be pressed.  
A third Membrane which invests the whole Foetus (according to Dr. Needham, 
Allantoides.  etc.) is that called Allantoides, though improperly as to Women. For it is so called from its likeness to a Pudding (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, Farcimen) which indeed it does resemble in Sheep, Does, Hogs, etc. but in Women, as also in Mares, it has the same figure as the Chorion and Amnios, betwixt which it is placed in their whole circumference. Now though it must be supposed that this as well as the other two, is originally in the Ouum, yet there is no appearance of it till after the Umbilical Vessels and Placenta are form, and the albugineous liquor (so often mentioned) ceases to be imbibed by the Chorion out of the Vterus. But assoon as the Foetus begins to be nourished by the Umbilical vessels, and the Vrachus is permeable, then presently this Membrane begins to show itself, containing a very thin liquor, which is the Urine of the Foetus brought into it by the Vrachus from its Bladder, and with which it is filled daily more and more till the birth. It is very thin, smooth, soft and yet dense. It may be known from the Chorion and Amnios by this, that they have numerous Vessels dispersed through them, but this has not the least visible Vein or Artery. It is very hard to separate the Chorion from it, because when it appears, the Chorion becomes void of all liquor, and so claps close to it. But towards the birth of the Foetus it becomes so turgid with Urine, that the Amnios (immediately containing the Foetus) swims in it, and so may most easily be distinguished and separated from it.  
The liquor that it contains is (as has been said) the Urine of the Foetus brought hither by the Vrachus. 
It's liquor.  For assoon as the Foetus is perfectly form, its Kidneys must needs perform their office of separating the Serum from the Blood, for otherwise it would be affected with an Anasarca. I say the Serum is separated in the Kidneys and glides down from thence into the Bladder, in which it is found pretty plentiful when the Foetus is five or six months old. Now it flows not out of the Bladder by its orifice, because at that time the Sphincter is too contracted and narrow, and if it should pass that way, it would mix with that nutritious juice in which the Foetus swims in the Amnios, and wherewith, by taking it in by its Mouth, it is partly nourished, and so would defile and corrupt it, and make it unfit for nourishment. Nature therefore has provided it another exit by the Vrachus, inserted into the bottom of the Bladder; which though after the Child is born it grow solid like a Ligament, like as the Vena umbilicalis does, yet while the Foetus is in the Womb it is always pervious, and conveys the Urine into the Allantoides that is placed betwixt the Chorion and Amnios, where it is collected and preserved till the birth.   

CHAP. XXXIII.  
Of the umbilical vessels, and of the nourishing of the Foetus.  
HAving opened the Membranes that enwrap the Foetus, 
The navel-string.  there appears the Navel-string or Rope, which is membranous, wreathed and unequal, arising out of the middle of the Abdomen, (viz. the Navel) and reaching to the Womb-liver or Placenta, of a notable length, being three spans or half an Ell long, and as thick as ones finger. It was convenient to be so long and lax, that when the Foetus in the Womb grows strong, it might not break it by its sprawling and tumbling about; and after it is born, the Secundines or Afterbirth might be drawn out the better by it.  
The way that it passes from the Navel to the Placenta is very unconstant; 
It's situation.  for sometimes it goes up on the right hand to the Neck, which having encompassed, it descends to the Placenta, and sometimes it goes on the left hand up to the Neck, etc. Sometimes it comes not to the Neck at all, but goes first a little up towards its Breast, and then turns round its Back, and from thence passes to the Placenta.  
The Vessels contained in this string (and which are enwrapped in a common Coat called Funiculus or Intestinulum) are four, 
Vessels.  one Vein, two Arteries and the Vrachus.  
The Vein is larger than the Arteries, 
Vein.  and arises from the Liver of the Foetus, (viz. out of its fissure) at the trunk of the Vena porta (of which it seems to be but a branch) and from thence passing out of the Navel it runs along the Funiculus to the Placenta, into which it is implanted by innumerable roots; but before it reaches it, it sends some little twigs into the Amnios.  
The Ancients that thought the Foetus was nourished by the Mother's Blood only, 
It's use.  taught the sole use of this Vein to be, to carry Blood from the Placenta to it: and since it has been found out and believed that it is nourished also (if not only) by Chyle or Succus nutritius, some have continued the same office to this Vein, and think that the Chyle is brought by Lacteal vessels arising out of the Placenta, as (they say) it was brought thither by the Mother's Lacteals. And indeed if any certain discovery had been made of these same Lacteae, we should have embraced this opinion as the most probable. But we are not to form hypotheses out of rational notions only, but much rather from what appears to the Eyes of the Dissector. We do affirm therefore that the Umbilical vein serves for conveying to the Foetus the nutritious juice separated in the Placenta from the Mother's Arteries. How this separation is made, and how it is first of all turned into Blood, we shall consider by and by.  
But together with this juice there returns so much of the Arterial blood (that comes from the Foetus) as is not spent upon the nourishment of the Placenta, or of the Chorion and Amnios.  
Besides this Vein which is common to all Creatures, there have been observed in Whelps (and may perhaps in others) two small Veins more that pass directly from the Vmbilicus to the Mesentery, as the other great one does to the Liver; which may strengthen the opinion that the Chyle or Succus nutritius is brought to the Foetus by the Sanguinary vein (or Veins) from the Placenta.  
In the Funiculus are included also two Arteries, 
Arteries.  which are not both of them together so big as the Vein. They spring out of the inner Iliacal branches of the great Artery, and passing by the sides of the Bladder they rise up to the Navel, out of which they are conducted to the Placenta in the same common cover with the Vein and Vrachus, with which they are twined and wreathed not unlike a Rope. I say they are inserted into the Placenta, and with the Vein make a most admirable texture, and net-like Plexus. Dr. Harvey says, the Vein is conspicuous a pretty while before these Arteries appear.  
Blood and Vital spirit are not carried by them from the Mother to the Foetus, 
Their use.  as many, from Galen, have taught; but on the contrary, Spirituous blood is driven from the Foetus, by the beating of its Heart, to the Placenta and the Membranes for their nourishment; from which what Blood remains, circulates back again in the Umbilical vein together with the Succus nutritius afresh imbibed by its capillaries dispersed in the Placenta. But besides Arterial blood, there flows out of the Navel by them part of the Succus nutritius that was imported by the Umbilical vein, namely that of it which is more crass and terrene, which by one circulation through the Heart (or it may be many) could not be changed into Blood: this part I say flows out by these Arteries, which by their branches that are dispersed through the Amnios disimbogue it by their little Mouths into it; for what use, shall be declared presently.  
And here I shall transcribe a material objection with the answer to it, 
How the vessels pass through the membranes.  out of Diemerbroeck. Obj. How can these Vessels (Vein and Arteries) when they have grown from the belly of the Foetus to that length as to reach the Membranes, penetrate and pass through them to the Placenta? Answ. This is done in the same manner as the roots of Herbs, Shurbs and Trees penetrate into the hard Ground, yea often into thick Planks, Walls and Stones, (which water cannot enter) and root themselves firmly in them. For just so the first sharp-pointed and most fine ends of the Umbilical vessels insinuate themselves by little and little into the pores of the Membranes (for the figuration of those pores are fitted for their entrance) and pass through them, and yet the liquors contained in these Membranes cannot flow out by them: and when those Vessels inhering in the pores grow more out into length, by little and little the said pores are more and more widened, (according to the increase of the Vessels) and are inseparably united unto and grow in them.  
The fourth Umbilical vessel is the Vrachus or Urinary vessel, 
Urachus.  and it is a small, membranous, round Pipe, endued with a very straight Cavity, arising from the bottom of the Bladder up to the Navel, out of which it passes along within the common cover, and opens into the Allantoides. It is more apparently pervious in many of the larger Brutes than it is in Man, in whom some have denied it any Cavity: but that it is hollow in him, is confirmed by many Histories of persons adult, who having the ordinary urinary passage along the Penis stopped, the passage in this Vessel has been unlocked, and they have made water by the Navel, which could not have been imagined to have happened, if it had been originally a Ligament without any Meatus. Bartholin and others have affirmed that the Vrachus in Men reaches no further than the Navel; How then comes that humour into the Allantois that has perfectly the same taste with the Urine in the Bladder? But their error sprung from hence, that they thought an humane Foetus had no Allantois, and that humour that is found in it, they thought had been contained in the Chorion. But this is in short refuted above, but more fully and accurately by Dr. Needham, lib. de formato Foetu, cap. 3. As to the perviousness of the Vrachus I shall add this further, that in abortions of five or six months old, the Bladder of the Embryo is always full of Urine, out of which if in the following months it should not be emptied by the Vrachus, the Bladder would soon burst, seeing there is daily some Serum separated from the Blood in the Kidneys, and sent to the Bladder; and the more the Foetus increases, the more must needs be separated.  
It's use has been sufficiently declared in the preceding Paragraph; 
It's use.  as also above, when we delivered the use of the Allantoides, which we shall not repeat.  
These four Vessels (as has been said above) have one common cover, 
Funiculus.  which also keeps each of them from touching other. It is called Intestinulum, and Funiculus (by which it with its Vessels is sometimes understood.) It is membranous, round and hollow, indifferent thick, consisting of a double coat, (the inner from the Peritonaeum, and the outer from the Panniculus carnosus.) Sometimes itself only is wreathed about like a Rope, the Vessels included in it running straight along its Cavity; and sometimes they are wreathed together with it.  
It has several knots upon it here and there, 
Its knots.  which Dr. Wharton thinks to be Papillae or little Glands through which the lacteal (or nutritious juice) distils out of the capacity of the Funiculus into the Cavity of the Amnios. I cannot tell whether this be so or no, but that use that doting Midwives make of them, to guests by their number how many Children more the Mother shall have, and by their colour, whether those Children shall be Male or Female, is most ridiculous and superstitious.  
When the Infant is born, 
How to tie the navel-string and cut it off.  this Navel-rope is used to be tied, about one or two fingers breadth from the Navel, with a strong thread cast about it several times, and then about two or three fingers breadth beyond the Ligature to be cut off. What is not cut off, is suffered to remain till it drop off of its own accord. Which the longer or shorter while it is a doing, the longer or shorter-lived, Women prophesy the Children to be.  
There have been great disputes among both Philosophers and Physicians, 
Of the nutrition of the Foetus.  with what and by what way the Foetus is nourished. Some affirm by Blood only, and that received by the Umbilical vein; others by Chyle only, received in by the Mouth: each of which are in an extreme. The truth is, according to the different degrees of perfection that an Ouum passes from a Conception to a Foetus ready for the birth, it is nourished diversely.  
For first, 
First, by apposition.  assoon as an Ouum impregnated is descended into the Womb, it presently imbibes through its outer Membrane some of that albugineous liquor that at this time plentifully bedews the internal superficies of the Vterus; so that assoon as the first lineaments of an Embryo begin to be drawn out of that humour contained in the Amnios, they presently receive increase by the apposition of the said liquor filtrated out of the Chorion through the Amnios into its Cavity. And this same liquor that thus increaseth the first rudiments of the Embryo is called by Dr. Harvey Colliquamentum (as was noted above.) That this way of nutrition or augmentation of the Embryo is possible, need not be doubted by him that considers, that the Foetus of a Sow have no other possible way of being nourished till she is near gone half with Pig; for even till then, saith Dr. Needham, the Chorion cleaves not to the Womb, but look as many Foetus as there are, there are so many Eggs as it were without Shells, neither sticking to the Womb nor to one another; but when one opens the Matrix, they all tumble out of their own accord. There are no Glandules, no Placenta. But the Chorion which is soft and porous, does like a Sponge imbibe or suck up the serous liquor that sweats out of the inmost Membrane of the Vterus, to be afterwards swallowed by the Veins, (I suppose he means the mouths of the Umbilical vein, after the said Vein is so perfectly form as to receive it.) But of this more in the beginning of the foregoing Chapter.  
But when the parts of the Embryo begin to be a little more perfect, 
2. By the umbilical vein.  and the Chorion becomes so dense that not any more of the said liquor is imbibed by it, the Umbilical vessels begin to be form, and to extend to the side of the Amnios, which they penetrate, and both the Vein and Arteries pass also through the Allantois and Chorion, and are implanted into the Placenta, that at this time, first gathering upon the Chorion, joins it to the Vterus. And now the Hypogastrick and Spermatick arteries, that before spewed out the nutritious juice into the Cavity of the Vterus, open by their orifices into the Placenta, where (whether by mere percolation through it, or by some sort of fermentation also, I will not determine, but) they deposit the said juice, which is absorbed by the Umbilical vein, and by it conveyed first to the Liver, then to the Heart of the Foetus, where the thinner and more spirituous part of it is turned into Blood. But the more gross and terrene part of it descending by the Aorta enters the Umbilical arteries, and by those branches of them that run through the Amnios, is discharged into its Cavity. They that will laugh at this passage of the nutritious juice, because it is made by this doctrine to choose its way as if it were some animal or even rational Creature, let them avoid the like treatment if they can while they deliver, that the Chyle passes immediately either from the Mesentery, the Receptaculum or Ductus communis to the Placenta, when a Foetus is in the Womb. Pray how should the Chyle know, or the Lacteals by which it passes, that there is any Foetus in the Womb, that the one should offer to go that way, and the other give it way to go thither at that time, whereas the passage is shut at all other times? yet this my Opponents maintain. As also how comes the Chyle presently to turn its course after the Foetus is born, and instead of descending to the Vterus, ascend to the Breasts? What mechanical cause can be assigned to these and many other the like Phaenomena? We must therefore be content to resolve some things into the admirable and unintelligible disposal of our wise Creator.  
But there lies another objection against this opinion, Because it allows none of the Mother's Blood to be received by the Foetus through the Umbilical vein, but only Succus nutritius; how should Blood be first bred in the Foetus, seeing it has Blood, before the Liver or Heart, or any other part that conduce to sanguification, are in a capacity to perform their office?  
I confess it is inexplicable by me how Blood should be made so soon; but that it may be and is made, out of the Succus nutritius or Colliquamentum, without the mixture of any from the Mother, is apparent from the most accurate observations of Dr. Harvey concerning the order of the generation of the parts in a Chicken, (which from first to last receives nothing from the Hen.) Says he, 
* De generat. Animal. exercit. 51.  there appears at the very first a red leaping Punctum or Speck, a beating Bladder, and Fibres drawn from thence containing Blood in them. And as much as one can discern by accurate inspection; blood is made, before the leaping speck is form; and the same is endowed with vital heat, before it is stirred by the Pulse: and as the pulsation begins in the blood and from it; so at length, at the point of death it ends in it.— And because the beating Bladder and the sanguineous Fibres that are produced from it, appear first of all; I should think it consentaneous to reason that the blood be before its receptacles; namely the content before its container; and that this is made for the sake of the other. He confesses it to be a paradox, that blood should be made and moved, and endued with vital spirit before any sanguifying or motive organs are in being; and that the Body should be nourished and increased, before the organs appointed for concoction (namely the Stomach and Bowels) are form: but neither of these are greater paradoxes than that there should be sense and motion in the Foetus before the Brain is composed; and yet, says he, 
* Exercit. 57  The Foetus moves, contracts and stretches out itself, when there is nothing conspicuous for a Brain but clear water. I say if all these unlikely things do certainly come to pass in an Egg, that has nothing to set the vegetative, or vital principle thereof on work, but the warmth of the Hen that sits upon it; why should we think it strange that nutritious juice impregnated with the vital spirits of the Arterial blood, with which it circulated through the Mother's Heart (it may be more than once) should be turned into blood in an humane Foetus (fostered with such kindly warmth in the Womb) though it neither receive any humour under the form of blood from the Mother, nor have itself as yet any organs of sanguification so perfect as to perform their office? But to proceed.  
The grosser nutritious juice being deposited by the Umbilical arteries in the Amnios, 
3. By the Mouth.  assoon as the Mouth, Gullet and Stomach, etc. are form so perfectly that the Foetus can swallow, it sucks in some of the said juice, which descending into the Stomach and Intestins is received by the Venae lacteae, as in adult persons.  
That the Foetus is nourished this way, Diemerbroeck evinces by these reasons.  
1. Because the Stomach of the Foetus is never empty, but is found possessed of a milky whitish liquor; and such like is contained even in its Mouth.  
2. Because there are Faeces contained in the Intestins, (which Philosophers call Meconium) which the Infant assoon as 'tis born voids by stool. Without doubt these are the excrements of some aliment taken in by the Mouth.  
3. Because the Stomach could not presently after the birth perform the function of concoction, if it had not at all been accustomed to it in the Womb.  
His fourth reason, supposing the Foetus to be nourished in part by the Mother's blood, I shall not recite, because I think that to be an erroneous opinion, as I think to make appear by and by.  
5. Because the Infant assoon as it is born knows how to suck the Breast, which it could not be supposed to be so dextrous at, if while it remained in the Womb it had taken nothing by suction.  
6. Because many Infants assoon as they are born, before they have sucked any Breast, or taken any thing by the Mouth, vomit up a milky aliment: which therefore must needs be received into their Stomach in the Womb. This he gives an instance of in one of his own Children.  
These Arguments I think sufficient to prove what they are alleged for; but when ●he would afterwards prove that the Foetus is also nourished by the Mother's blood conveyed by the Umbilical vein, I think his reasons are invalid. For he says it must be so, first, because the said Vein is implanted into the Placenta; (but this is but begging the question, for 'tis necessary it should be implanted into it though it receive nothing from it but nutritious juice.) Secondly, because of the great quantity of blood that will issue out of the Umbilical vein, if one tie the Navel-rope and then open the said Vein betwixt the Ligature and Placenta: for he says there will flow out four times as much blood as could be supposed to be contained in the small Arteries on that side the Ligature next the Placenta. I answer, that first one would be well satisfied that the Ligature was made so straight, that there could no blood pass through it from the Foetus to the Placenta. And secondly it cannot exactly be guessed how much blood may be contained in the Foetus' Arteries in the Placenta, so as that one should be certain that there does four times more flow out by the Vein. But lastly, suppose there do four times as much more blood issue out of the Vein as is contained in the Foetus' Arteries that are on that side the Ligature next the Placenta, and this blood come from the Damns Hypogastrick and Spermatick arteries; I say there will not only four times, but forty times as much issue therefrom, for all the blood of the Dam might then be drawn out this way. Wherefore I think this experiment makes much more against his opinion than for it. His third reason is the necessity of it; because as the Foetus increases, it needs much aliment, and its weak Bowels can concoct but little, it must therefore have some purera liment, and which is already concocted (he means blood) to nourish it, and by its commixture to help forward the changing the aliment received by the Mouth into blood. Answ. This reason himself invalidates in the next Paragraph, 
* Anat. corp. hum. p. 367.  where he confesses that the Foetus in the Womb is nourished in the same manner as the Chicken in an Egg, which receives increase first by the inner White (as he distinguishes) by way of apposition; secondly it receives nourishment in by the Mouth from the outer White, and at the same time its Umbilical vessels enter the Yelk (to draw nourishment from thence) which, he says indeed, resembles the Mother's blood, but seeing it has not the least form of blood, why would it not be more plausibly said that it is instead of the Succus nutritius that the Foetus in viviparous Animals receives by the Navel-vein? And seeing these several liquors are turned, part of them, into blood in a Chicken, without any of the Hen's blood to ferment them (as he speaks;) why should not the same power be granted to the vegetative or animal soul of the Foetus in the Womb, without any assistance from the Mother's blood? To which I shall add another Argument (out of Dr. Harvey) taken from Caesarean births, when living Infants are cut out of the Mother's Womb, after she is dead. For if it had its life and heat from the Mother's blood; surely it should die assoon as she at least, if not sooner: for when death approaches, the subordinate parts do languish and grow cold before the principal; and therefore the Heart fails last of all. Wherefore the blood of the Foetus would first lose its heat, and become unfit for its office if it were derived from the Mother's Womb; seeing her Womb is destitute of all vital heat, before her Heart. But enough of this.  
But some may object, If the Foetus be nourished by none of the Mother's blood, why should her Menses be stopped all or most of the while she is with Child? To which I answer, that 'tis for the same reason that Nurses that give suck commonly want them also; for as in Nurses the chyle passes in a great proportion to the Breasts, whereby the blood being defrauded of its due and wont share does not increase to that degree as to need to be lessened by the flowing of the Menses; so in Women with Child, there is so great a quantity of the Succus nutritius (which is only chyle a little refined and impregnated with vital spirit) that passes to the Placenta by the Hypogastrick and Spermatick arteries for the nourishment of the Foetus, that unless the Mother be very sanguine, her Menses intermit after the first or second month.  
I shall conclude therefore, that the Foetus is nourished three several ways, but only by one humour: first by apposition of it whiles it is yet an imperfect, Embryo and has not the Umbilical vessels form; but after these are perfected, it than receives the same nutritious juice by the Umbilical vein, the more spirituous and thin part whereof it transmutes into blood, and sends forth the grosser part by the Umbilical artery into the Amnios, which the Foetus sucks in at its Mouth, and undergoing a new concoction in its Stomach is received out of the Intestins by the Venae lacteae, as is done after the birth.   

CHAP. XXXIV.  
What parts of a Foetus in the Womb differ from those of an adult person.  
HAving delivered the history of the Foetus, we will only further show in what parts a Foetus in the Womb differs from an adult person. And this we cannot do more exactly than in the manner that Diemerbroeck has reckoned them, whom therefore we shall here translate, with little alteration.  
This diversity, he saith, consists in the difference of magnitude, figure, situation, number▪ use, colour, cavity, hardness, motion, excrements and strength of the parts.  
Now this diversity is conspicuous either in the whole Body, or in the several Ventricles, or in the Limbs.  
There is considerable in the whole Body,  
1. The littleness of all the parts.  
2. The reddish colour of the whole.  
3. The softness of the Bones; whereof many are as yet gristly and flexible, and that by so much the more, by how much the Foetus is further from maturity.  
In the Head there are several differences. As  
1. The Head in respect to the proportion of the rest of the Body is bigger, and the shape of the Face less neat.  
2. The bones of the Skull are softer, and the Crown is not covered with bone, but only with a Membrane.  
3. The bone of the Forehead is divided, as also of the under Jaw: and the Os cuneiforme is divided into four.  
4. The bone of the Occiput or hinder part of the Head is distinguished into three, four or five bones.  
5. The Brain is softer and more fluid, and the Nerves very soft.  
6. The bones that serve the sense of Hearing are wonderfully hard and big.  
7. The Teeth lie hid in the little holes of the Jawbone.  
There is no less diversity in the Thorax● For,  
1. The Dugs swell, and out of them in Infants new born whether Male or Female, a serous Milk issues forth sometimes of its own accord, sometimes with a light pressure: yet there are no Glandules very conspicuous, but there is some fashion of a Nipple.  
2. The Vertebrae of the Back want their spinous processes, and are each one made of three distinct Bones, whose mutual concourse form that hole whereby the spinal marrow descends.  
3. The Heart is remarkably big, and its Auriculae large.  
4. There are two unions of the greater Vessels, that are not conspicuous in adult persons: viz. 1. The Foramen ovale, by which there is a passage open out of the Cava into the Vena pulmonaris just as each of them are opening the first into the right Ventricle, and the latter into the left Ventricle of the Heart. And this Foramen just as it opens into the Vena pulmonaris has a Valve that hinders any thing from returning out of the said Vein into the Foramen. 2. The Canalis arteriosus, which two fingers breadth from the basis of the Heart joins the Arteria pulmonaris to the Aorta. It has a pretty large Cavity, and ascends a little obliquely from the said Artery to the Aorta, into which it conveys the blood that was driven into the pulmonary Artery out of the right Ventricle of the Heart, so that it never comes in the left Ventricle; even as that blood that is sent out of the left Ventricle into the Aorta never came in the right, (except a little that is returned from the nutrition of the Lungs) but passed immediately into it out of the Vena cava by the Foramen ovale. So that the blood passes not through both the Ventricles as it does after the Foetus is born, for than it must have had its course through the Lungs, which it cannot have, because they are now very dense and lie idle and unmoved. Yea they are so dense and heavy that if one throw them into water they will sink, whereas if the Foetus be but born and take only half a dozen breaths, they become so spongy and light that they will swim. Which (by the way) may be of good use to discover whether those Infants that are killed by Whores, and which they commonly affirm were stillborn, were really so or no. For if they were stillborn the Lungs will sink, but if alive, (so as to breath never so little a while) they will swim.  
5. The Gland Thymus is notably large, and consists as it were of three Glands.  
In the lower Belly there are these differences.  
1. The Umbilical vessels go out of the Abdomen.  
2. The Stomach is narrower, yet not empty, but pretty full of a whitish liquor.  
3. The Caul is hardly discernible, being almost like a Spider's web.  
4. The Guts are seven times longer (or more) than the Body.  
5. In the small Guts the excrements are pituitous and yellow, but in the thick somewhat hard and blackish, sometimes greenish: the Caecum is larger than usual, and often filled with Fae●es.  
6. The Liver is very large, filling not only the right Hypochondre, but extends itself into the left side, and covers all the upper part of the Stomach. It has a passage now more than in the adult called Canalis venosus, which arising out of the Sinus of the Por●a carries the greatest part of what is brought by the Umbilical vein directly and in a full stream into the Cava above the Liver; but assoon as the Infant is born, and nothing comes any longer by the said Vein, this Canalis presently closes, as the Vein itself turns to a Ligament; as also do the Vrachus and the two Umbilical arteries.  
7. The Spleen is small.  
8. The Gallbladder is full of yellow or green choler.  
9 The Sweetbread is very large and white.  
10. The Kidneys are bigger and unequal in their superficies, and look as if they were compounded of a collection of very many Glandules.  
11. The Renes succenturiati are exceeding large; they do not only border upon the Kidneys, as in the adult, but lie upon them, and embrace their upper part with a large Sinus as it were.  
12. The Ureters are wide, and the Bladder distended with Urine.  
13. In Females the Vterus is depressed, the Tubae long, and the Testes very large.  
The difference in the Limbs consists  
1. In the tenderness and softness of the Bones.  
2. The little bones of the Wrist and Instep are gristly and not firmly joined together.   

XXXV.  
Of the Birth.  
THE Foetus swimming in the liquor of the Amnios, and the Navel-rope being so long, it must needs have scope enough to change its situation, and that is the reason that Anatomists differ so much about it. But according to Doctor Harvey its usual posture is thus.  
Its Knees are drawn up to the Belly, 
The posture of the Foetus in the Womb.  its Legs bending backwards, its Feet across, and its hands lifted up to its Head, one of which it holds to the Temple or Ear, the other to the Cheek; where there are white spots on the Skin as if it had been rubbed upon. The Backbone turns round, the Head hanging down towards its Knees. It's Head is upwards and its Face commonly towards the Mother's Back.]  
But towards the birth (sometimes a week or two before) it altars its situation, 
At its birth.  and tumbles down with its Head to the neck of the Womb, with its Feet upwards. Then the Womb also settles downwards and its orifice relaxes and opens. And the Foetus being now ill at ease sprawls and moves itself this way and that way, whereby it tears the Membranes wherein it is included, so that the Waters (as they call them) flow into the Vagina, which they make slippery for the easier egress of the Infant: though sometimes the Membranes burst not but come forth whole, (as they do commonly in Brutes.) At the same time the neighbouring parts are loosened and become fit for distension: the jointings of the Os sacrum and Pecten with the Coxendix, as also of the Ossa pubis are so relaxed, that they yield very much to the passage of the Foetus. And its motion gives that disturbance to the Vterus, that presently the animal spirits are sent plentifully by the Nerves to its constrictory Fibres, and the Muscles of the Abdomen, which all contracting together, very strongly expel the Foetus, which (in the most natural birth) goes with the Head foremost: and if the Feet or any other part (besides the Head) do offer itself first, the travail is always more painful and dangerous.  
The several sorts of Creatures have sundry terms of going with young: 
The term of going with child.  The stated and most usual time of Women is nine months; though some bring forth some weeks sooner and others later. But when it is given out that perfect and sprightly Infants are born at seven months' end; it is either to hide the faults of some new-married Woman, or from the mistake of the ignorant Mother. As also when sometimes the Mother has affirmed herself to go eleven months or upwards, it is either through mistake, or to keep fast some fair Estate, when the pretended Father's dead without an Heir, for which the cunning Widow plays an aftergame.  
Divers reasons are given why the Foetus at the stated time of birth is impatient of staying any longer in the Womb. 
The reason of the birth.  As the narrowness of the place, the corruption of its aliment or the defect of it, the too great redundance of excrements in the Foetus, and the necessity of ventilation or breathing. All these are plausibly defended by their several Authors. But without blaming ingenious Men for exercising their wits on such a Subject, we choose however rather to be content with resolving all into the wise disposal of the great Creator, whose power and wisdom were not more eminent in creating Man at first out of the Dust of the Earth, than out of those principles and in that method whereby he is produced in ordinary generation.  

The Explanation of the Table. Figure I.  
Representeth the usual situation of the Foetus in the Womb.  
A It's Head hanging down forwards, that its Nose may be hid betwixt its Knees.  
BB Its Buttocks, to which its Heels close.  
CC It's Arms.  
D The umbilical rope passing by its Neck, and wound round over its Forehead.   

Figure II.  
showeth the Foetus taken out of the Womb and as yet tied to the Placenta, the Umbilical vessels being separated at their rise.  
AAA The Abdomen opened.  
B The Liver of the Foetus.  
C The urinary bladder.  
DD The Intestins.   
Tab. VIII. p. 206. Fig 1. Fig 2.  

E The umbilical vein.  
FF The umbilical arteries.  
G The Urachus.  
H The umbilical vessels united and invested in their common Coat.  
I The Funiculus umbilicalis reaching to the Placenta.  
KKKK The Veins and Arteries dispersed through the Placenta.  
LLL The Placenta of the Womb.   
The end of the First Book.     

The Second Book.  

OF THE BREAST.  

CHAP. I.  
Of the common containing parts of it.  
HItherto of the Lower Belly or Abdomen, 
The Breast.  and of the parts contained in it, whether appointed for Nutrition or Procreation: Now it followeth that we describe the middle Cavity, called Thorax, which containeth the Organs of elaborating the Blood and Vital spirits, and the rise of the Vessels whereby they are distributed into all the parts of the Body, for their instauration, and the preservation of their natural heat.  
It is bounded above by the Claviculae or Chanel-bones, 
It's limitation.  below by the Diaphragm or Midriff (whereby it is severed from the Abdomen;) in the forepart by the Breastbone and Cartilages; in the Sides by the Ribs; behind by the vertebrae of the Back.  
The figure of it is in a manner oval, 
Figure.  somewhat flat before and behind, (whereas in Beasts it is somewhat sharp:) So that only Man lieth on his Back.  
The parts whereof it is composed, 
Parts.  are either containing, or contained. The parts containing are either common or proper.  
The common containing parts are in number four, 
The common containing parts.  Cuticula, Cutis, Pinguedo, and Membrana carnosa. Of which having at large discoursed in Book I. Chap. 3. when we treated of the common containing parts of the Lower Belly, we shall not here repeat what is there delivered, but only show some small matters wherein they differ. As  
First, 
1. Cuticula.  the Skin and Scarf-skin are hairy under the Armpits, 
2. Cutis.  and above the pit of the Heart; the Skin of the Back is both closer and thicker, and so is less hairy.  
Secondly, the Skin of the backparts is of a more exquisite feeling: first, because many twigs of Sinews are bestowed upon it from the Nerves proceeding from the Spinalis medulla; secondly, by reason of the Muscles of the Thorax that lie under it, which being tendinous are very sensible.  
As for the fat, 
3. Pinguedo.  it is not so plentiful here, as in the Belly: first because the natural heat here is sufficiently preserved without it; secondly, because it would have hindered the motion of the Breast. Only here it is somewhat yellowish.  
The Membrana carnosa hath nothing peculiar, 
4. The membrana carnosa.  saving that in the forepart of the Neck it is more fleshy, and assumes the nature of a Muscle where the Musculus quadratus is framed, which pulleth aside the Cheeks and Lips, (according to Spigelius.)   

CHAP. II.  
Of the proper containing parts; and first, of the Dugs.  
THE proper containing parts are either external or internal. 
The proper containing parts of the breast.  The external are in number three, the Dugs, the Muscles, the Bones. The internal proper containing parts are three in like manner; the Pleura, the Mediastinum, and the Diaphragm.  
Dugs are granted to both the Sexes, 
The paps.  and are seated in the middle of the Thorax, on each side one, upon the pectoral Muscle that draweth the Shoulder forwards.  
In Men they are framed of the Cutis, 
1. Of Men.  the Membrana carnosa, Fat, and the Nipple, and serve only for beauty, and are called Mammillae.  
In Women, 
2. Of Women.  besides these parts, they have remarkable Vessels, Glandules, and Pipes to contain the Milk separated by the Glandules, and are called Mammae.  
They differ much as to their bigness in several Women, 
Their bigness.  and in the ●ame Woman in regard of age and other circumstances: for before they have their Menses, and when they are very old, they bunch out but very little. And in the middle or flower of their age, when they give suck or are with Child, they are bigger than at other times.  
They are made up of many glandulous bodies of a different bigness, 
Glands.  and are not of one continued glandulous substance (as Dr. Wharton affirmeth, lib. de Gland. p. 236.) there is one in the middle just under the Nipple that is bigger than the rest. The spaces between the Glands are filled up with fat, and there are abundance of Vessels that go from one to another. They are all enclosed by the Membrana carnosa, and make up as it were an half globe. They are whiter of substance in Women than in Brutes. Through these Glands the Milk is separated from the Blood, being nothing but the Chyle issuing out of the left Ventricle of the Heart with the Blood (to which it is not as yet assimilated) and driven hither along the Thoracick arteries. Unless we will admit Venae lacteae to come hither, which opinion we shall examine afterwards.  
Upon the middle great Gland standeth the Papilla or Nipple, 
Papilla.  which is round and of a spongy substance, covered with a very thin Skin, and has many little holes in it for the Milk to distil out by when the Child sucketh it. It is of an exquisite sense, and resembles something the Glans of a Man's Penis, in that by handling or sucking it becomes erect or stiff, being otherwise commonly ●laggy. It is red in Virgins, livid in those that give suck, and blackish in old Women. All the Tubuli lactiferi or Milk-conduits end in it.  
It differs in bigness, 
It's bigness.  being as big in some as a Mulberry, in others as a Raspberry, in others less: when Women give suck, it is longer than at other times.  
It's use is, 
Use.  to be like a Pipe or Tunnel, which the Child taking in its Mouth may suck the Milk through out of the Breast: And it is of so exquisite sense that the Milk passing through it may cause a kind of titillation, whereby Mothers and Nurses may take the greater delight and pleasure to suckle their Infants.  
There is a little circle that surrounds it called Areola, 
Areola.  which in Virgins is pale and knotty; in those that are with Child or give suck, brown; and in old Women, black.  
The Breasts have all sorts of Vessels, 
Their vessels.  Veins, Arteries, Nerves, Lymphducts, which are common to them with other parts; and Tubuli lactiferi proper to themselves, and, according to some, Venae lacteae. Of all these in order.  
The Veins are of two sorts, 
Veins.  for some are external, some internal. The external spring from the Axillar branch, and run only under the Skin which covereth the Dugs, and are called Thoracicae superiores, or the uppermost Breast-veins. And these are they that look so blue in the Breasts of fine-skined Women. The internal, called Mammariae, spring from the Rami subclavii: They are in number two, on each side one. These enter in among the Glands of the Mammae, where they send forth a great many branches; but descending thence by the Mucronata cartilago, they pass out of the Breast, and go downward under the Musculi recti. When they are come to the umbilical region almost, they are said to be joined by sundry inosculations with the Venae epigastricae, which meet them there; though most late Anatomists deny any such inosculation.  
These Venae epigastricae spring from the external Ramus iliacus, and by a straight way pass upward under the aforesaid Muscles. And from the internal branch of the said Ramus spring the Venae hypogastricae, which are inserted into the neck and bottom of the Matrix. Of which in Book I. when we treated of the Womb.  
They have the same number of Arteries as Veins, 
Arteries.  and of the same denomination, viz. Arteriae thoracicae superiores which are sent forth from the Axillar, and Arteriae mammariae in like manner which spring from the Subclavian, and from the Breasts descend to about the Navel. Whither when they are come, they are said (but erroneously) to be united by inosculation with the Arteriae Epigastricae ascending. The use of both Veins and Arteries shall be shown by and by when we come to the use of the Breasts.  
They have Nerves (according to Spigelius) from the fourth Intercostal nerve springing out of the vertebral marrow of the Thorax, 
Nerves.  which about the middle of the Rib, perforating the Intercostal Muscle, is divided into four branches, which are sent afterward to the pectoral Muscle, and so into the Breasts, the thickest passing to the Nipple.  
They have very many Lymphducts. 
Lymphducts.  Doctor Wharton saith they are very conspicuous and numerous in the Vbera of Cows, but one can hardly trace them into the Parenchyma. Wherefore (saith he) 'tis likely that they carry back all the exhalations resolved into sweat by help of the Membranes— which they rather minister to than to the Par●nchyma.  
Besides these four sorts of Vessels that are common to them with most other parts of the Body; 
〈…〉.  they have proper to themselves certain ●actiferons (or milk-carrying) Pipes, which are the Storehouses wherein the Milk is reserved, and through which as by Conduits it flows to the Nipple when the Child sucks. Bartholin has observed ten or more of them, full of Milk in Women giving suck, with their outer ends encompassing the Papilla circular-wise, each of which as they pass further into the Breasts, are divided into sundry branches, which end in the Mammary glands (above spoken of) from whence they bring the Milk, and pour it into the common dust of the Papilla.  
The several branches of these Tubuli amongst the Glands many do take for true Lacteals, 
Venae lacteae.  and therefore do believe that there are some Venae lacteae that conduct the Chyle directly to the Mammae. But from whence those Lacteals have their origine, is not agreed among the defenders of that opinion. Some affirm them to rise from the Stomach, some from the Pancreas, and some from the Ductus thoracicus. The truth is, it is no wonder they should not agree concerning their rise, seeing the opinion is grounded more upon rational conjecture, than ocular discovery. For as was said in the former Book (Chap. 32.) discoursing of the Venae lacteae their being said to convey the liquor into the Amnios, That that were a plausible opinion, if such could be demonstrated by Anatomy; so we may say as to their conveying the Chyle to the Breasts, where it comes to be called Milk. But with all due respect and deference to the Espousers of this Hypothesis (such as the most learned Sir George Ent, Caspar Martianus, Diemerbroeck, etc.) we must crave leave to descent therefrom (with Doctor Wharton, Doctor Needham, etc.) till there shall be observed more certain footsteps of such Vessels.  
The use of the Breasts in Women is to prepare or separate Milk for the nourishment of the Child. 
The use of the Mammae.  Which how it is done, we shall show in as few words as may be.  
It was an old opinion that Milk was made of Blood sent from the Womb by the Epigastrick vessels ascending, and as was thought inosculating with those branches of the Mammariae that descend towards the Navel. But as later Anatomists have found those anastomosis only imaginary (invented to serve an Hypothesis;) so it is generally denied that either Blood sent from the Womb, or from wheresoever, is the true matter out of which Milk is made. For not to mention (which yet is very considerable) that it is incredible that the Mother could every day endure the loss of so much Blood (suppose a pound and half) as the Child sucks daily Milk from the Breasts; I think the argument urged by Dr. Wharton may satisfy any Man. Viz. Nature does nothing in vain; she goes not forward and backward by the same path. But if she make Blood of Chyle (which is certain) and then make Chyle of Blood again, she goes so. For Chyle is a sort of Milk, as appears by the opening of the Lacteal veins. If therefore that Chyle be first excocted into Blood, and then return again to the nature of Milk, Nature should certainly frustrate her first work.] We shall not therefore spend further time to refute so improbable (and now obsolete) an opinion; but shall avow, that Chyle is the true matter out of which Milk is made, which is done after this manner.  
The Chyle being received into the common receptacle from the Venae lacteae of the Mesentery, 
How milk is made.  ascends up by the Ductus thoracicus, and by it is conveyed into the subclavian Veins, where it is mixed with the Blood, and from whence it is circulated with it through the ventricles of the Heart. And when it comes out of the left Ventricle by the Aorta, a good part of it (as yet not assimilated to the Blood) is sent to the Breasts by the Mammary and Thoracick arteries, whose Capillaries are inserted into the Glands, through which it is strained or filtrated into the Tubuli lactiferi, even as the Serum of the Blood is separated from it by the Glands of the Kidneys into their Tubuli or Syphons. And as those Syphons of the Kidneys carry the Serum into the Pelvis, so do these of the Mammae, the Milk into the common dust of the Nipple. As for the Blood that came along with the Chyle to the Glands, that returns back again into the Subclavian and Axillar veins, and so to the Heart.  
Besides this matter of the Milk (viz. Chyle) Dr. Wharton (suitable to his Hypothesis of the Succus nutritius of the Nerves) thinks that the Nerves contribute their share, which he calls spermatick, for the nourishment and increase of the spermatick parts of the Child. But if it should be supposed that the Nerves have such Succus in them (which we do not believe) what weakness must it needs induce upon the Mother to have so much of it (with the animal spirits) daily drained out of them? whereas we see that many Women are more cheerful and healthful when they give suck, than at other times. We cannot therefore consent to that opinion.  
And here a most difficult question may arise, why the Chyle (whether it be brought by some Venae lacteae, or by the Arteries) flows only to the Breasts at some certain times, and not always, seeing the Vessels that carry it are not obliterated, nor itself exhausted.  
They that taught, 
Why it flows to the breasts at some times only.  that the Milk was made of Blood, and that that Blood was sent from the Womb by the Hypogastrick vessels inosculating with the Mammary; these I say deriving the Milk from the Menstrual blood as its matter out of which it is made, thought that the stopping of the Menses (as commonly happens to Nurses, unless very plethoric) occasioned the regurgitation of the Blood by the said Vessels up to the Breasts, where so free a vent was found for it, after it was first changed into Milk by their Glandules. They assigned the same blood for the nourishment of the Foetus in the Womb, and that after the birth it ascended up to the Breasts. But having in the former Book (Chap. 33.) shown that the Foetus is not nourished at all by the Mother's blood, as also in this Chapter that Milk is not made of it; we need not (though it were easy to) show how ill this Hypothesis would satisfy the question, if Blood should be supposed the material cause of the Milk. And indeed it is far easier to invalidate the reasons that have been urged for it, than to produce any new ones that are more satisfactory. For as above (in Book I.) discoursing of the manner and matter of the nourishing the Foetus in the Womb, we scrupled not to expose ourselves to the smiles of our so oversagacious Virtuosos, in resolving all into the wise disposal of the Creator; so we shall not be ashamed to profess our (I think invincible) ignorance in this also, and acquiesce in the wise providence of Nature. However we will not omit to give Diemerbroeck's opinion, which if it cannot satisfy, may for its ingeniousness delight.  
The cause of it (says he) is a strong imagination, or an intense and often thinking of Milk, Breasts and their Suction, which worketh wonderful things in our Bodies: not indeed simply of itself, but by mediation of the appetitive power, or of the passions of the mind, which induce various motions on the spirits and humours. So the imagination and thinking of a great danger maketh a Man tremble, fall, be cold, fall into a swoon, yea hath sometimes turned all the hairs grey in a short time: The imagination of a joyful matter causeth heat and animosity of the Body: thinking on a shameful thing, or a view of it, causeth blushing; thinking on a terrible thing, paleness; on a sad thing, cold. Lustful thoughts make the Body hot, relax the strict Genitals of Women, erect the Penis, and do so open the seminary ways that are otherwise invisible, that Seed issueth out of its own accord in involuntary or nocturnal pollution. The same intense imagination (adds he) and a desirous cogitation of suckling the Infant, is the Cause that the Chyliferous vessels (by which he means Venae lacteae properly so called) are loosened and opened towards the Breasts, especially if some outward causes tending that way favour and further incite that strong imagination, as wanton handling of the Breasts, the moving of the Foetus in the Womb, the sucking of the Papilla, etc. For according to the different influx of the Animal spirits, the parts are sometimes straitened, sometimes relaxed, as every one knows; and according to that different constriction or relaxation the Blood and other impelled humours, flow sometimes more, sometimes less into the parts; and sometimes beget heat, softness, redness; sometimes constriction, cold and paleness. Amongst these impelled humours is the Chyle, etc.—] To confirm this opinion he gives several instances wherein nothing but imagination could move the Chyle to tend to the Breasts. His first is that known story of Santorellus, That a poor Man's Wife dying, and not having Means enough to hire a Nurse for the Infant she had left behind her, he used, (to still it a little) often to lay it to his Paps (without doubt (says Diemerbroeck) with a great desire to yield it some Milk) and so at length by that intense and continual thought, and often repeated sucking of the Papillae, his Breasts afforded Milk enough for the suckling the Infant. (Which▪ by the way, seems to make much against his opinion of the Chyles being conveyed to the Mammae by the Venae lacteae; for seeing Men according to Nature give no suck, to what purpose should Venae lacteae be distributed to their Mammillae? and yet here is an instance of a Man giving suck, and therefore the Chyle is more likely to be brought by the Arteries, which Men have as well as Women: unless we will grant that force to imagination, to make Venae lacteae as well as to send the Chyle by them, which would be an equal force of imagination to imagine. But to proceed.) He tells another story of an old Woman that came to give suck, and he delivers it with such circumstances as may create a belief of the truth of it. At Vyanen a Town not far from us (viz. from Vtrecht, in which Province it is) about thirty years ago there was an Hostess that kept the Bores-head Inn without the Gate, who was brought to bed a little after her Husband's death, and died in Childbed or very soon after, leaving a healthful Child behind her: and having left very little Estate, her Mother whose name was Joan Vuyltuyt, being also poor and not able to put it out to Nurse, yet had such pity on her Daughter's Child, as to undertake to nourish it, and she was now threescore and six years old. Now having sometimes used, with the greatest commiseration, to hold it to her Breasts when it cried, and offered it the Nipple to suck; by that strong imagination, and desirous cogitation of nourishing the Infant, her Breasts began to give Milk, and that in a few days so plentifully, as was abundantly sufficient to feed the Child, so that it had scarce any need of other sustenance: and so, to the admiration of all, the Infant was well nourished with the Milk of this old Woman, whose Breasts for many years had been withered and flaggy, but now became plump and full like a young Woman's. There are many still alive in that City that remember the thing very well.] I confess the story is very odd, but whether to be resolved into the force of imagination I leave the curious to meditate. However he very plausibly answers several objections that may be made against it, which it will be worth the while for the Latin Reader to peruse, in his Anat. corp. human.. lib. 2. cap. 2. p. 409, 411, etc.  
The two other proper containing parts of the Thorax are the Muscles and the Bones.  
As for the Muscles, they are set down in the Treatise of Muscles, Book 5. cap. 15.  
The Bones are set down in the Doctrine of Bones, Book 6. cap. 11, 12, 13.   

CHAP. III.  
Of the proper internal containing parts.  
THese are in number three, the Pleura, the Mediastinum with the Thymus growing to it, and the Diaphragm.  
The Pleura hath its denomination from the Ribs under which it is placed, 
Pleura.  (for a Rib is in Greek called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) and so it may be termed in English, the Costal membrane.  
It is a Membrane, 
It's substance.  white, thin, hard, resembling the Peritonaeum, and lining all the cavity of the Thorax.  
Spigelius de human. corp. fabr. lib. 6. cap. 3. will have it to be thicker and stronger than the Peritonaeum, contrary to the opinion of Riolanus, who affirmeth the Peritonaeum to be thicker and stronger, because it is appointed for the sustaining the weight of the Guts.  
It is every where double: 
Parts.  The inner part is thickest, smoothest, and as it were bedewed with a waterish humour, that it should not offend the Lungs by its roughness: This waterish humour doth spring from the vapours raised from the Blood, condensed by the respective coldness of the Membrane. The outer part is thinner, yet is rougher; that it should cleave the more firmly to the Ribs, and Muscles.  
As for its figure, 
Figure.  without it is arched, within hollow; above it is narrower, below broader, chiefly towards the Sides. From it sometimes spring some sinewy Fibres, by the which the Lungs are tied to it. If these be too straight, the motion of the Lungs is hindered, and so an incurable difficulty of breathing procured.  
Above, 
Holes.  it is perforated in six or seven places, to give way to the Vena cava, and the Aorta ascending, the Gula, the Windpipe, Lacteals, Lymphducts and Nerves. Below, where it covereth the Midriff, it is perforated in three places, to give way to the Vena cava, and the Aorta descending, as also to the Gula.  
It is said to be framed of the Membranes covering the Spinalis medulla, 
Rise.  from whence it comes forward on each hand by the sides to the Breastbone, under which the Membranes of each side are joined together, and so being doubled it goes back again straight from the middle of the Breast to the Back, dividing the cavity of the Thorax, and the Lungs also, into two parts, like a partition-wall, and this is called Mediastinum, of which by and by.  
Its Veins spring from the superior Intercostal branch, 
Veins.  and from the Vena sine pari.  
The Arteries in like manner proceed from the superior Intercostals, 
Arteries.  (which arise from the Subclavian) and these descend to about the fourth Rib, below which it has its Arteries from the hinder part of the Aorta descending.  
It hath twelve Nerves according to the number of the vertebrae of the Thorax; 
Nerves.  from betwixt each of which there springs a pair of Nerves, and each pair is immediately divided into the fore- and hinder-branches: The fore-branches are they which serve the Intercostal muscles, external and internal, and also the Pleura: as for the hinder, they are bestowed upon the Muscles which are placed upon the Back.  
The Veins and Arteries according to Spigelius run between the two Membranes of the Pleura, and therefore he thinks that when an inflammation of the Pleura (called a Pleurisy) imposthumates, the matter is rather gathered betwixt its Membranes than betwixt the Intercostal muscles and it.  
The second proper internal containing part is the Mediastinum: 
Of the Mediastinum.  so called because it standeth in the middle of the Breast, and divideth the right side from the left.  
It springeth from the Membranes of the Pleura meeting at the Sternum, 
It's rise.  (as was said before) so that at its rise it consists of four Membranes, because the Pleura, of the duplicature whereof it is made, consists of two. But as the Mediastinum tends from the Sternum through the middle of the Thorax towards the Back, it's duplicated Membranes are so severed, that the Heart with its Pericardium are contained in its Cavity. Yet when they arrive near the Back, they join again as close as they did at the Breast, though they presently part again, (saith Diemerbroeck) and make another narrower Cavity, but as long, for the Gullet, etc. to descend by. Some have formerly imagined a third Cavity at its origine under the Sternum, wherein they thought there were sometimes collected corrupt humours, that were the cause of many occult Distempers. And indeed if the dissection be begun at the Sternum, when one has pulled it off from the Mediastinum, one would think at first sight that there were as great a distance betwixt the Membranes of the Mediastinum, as the Sternum is broad. But it is a great error, for if one begin the Section at the Back and lose the Ribs there, and so come to the Sternum, he will see the Pleura doubled knit close to the Sternum without any Cavity.  
The substance of it is membranous; 
Substance.  where it is parted, it is thinner and softer than the Pleura. The outer side towards the Lungs is smooth, and hath fat about the Vessels; but the interior is rougher, by reason of the Fibres whereby it adheres to the Pericardium in some places, and its own two Membranes at their meeting are united.  
It reacheth from the Throat to the Midriff. 
Length.   
As for its Vessels: 
Veins.  Veins and Arteries it hath from those called Mammariae internae, 
Arteries.  but small; and Veins besides from Vena sine pari.  
It hath moreover one special Vein called Mediastina, which springeth from the lower part of the Ramus subclavius.  
The Nerves called Phrenici, 
Nerves.  and Stomachici, springing from the sixth pair, (Dr. Willis's eighth) descend betwixt its Membranes, and send forth small twigs into it.  
Bartholin says it has Lymphducts, 
Lymphducts.  which rising here and there in many Rivulets, enter the Ductus thoracicus at last in one channel. These imbibe the water that is condensed betwixt its duplicature, and convey it into the said dust.  
It hath three uses: 
use.  First, it divideth the Breast and Lungs into two parts, that one being wounded or any way hurt, the other might perform the task of respiration.  
Secondly, it holdeth up the Heart enclosed in the Pericardium so, that it may not rest upon the Backbone, when we lie upon our Back; or fall upon the Breastbone, when we bend ourselves towards the ground; or touch the Ribs, when we lie upon our Sides.  
Thirdly, it giveth a safe passage to the Vessels which pass by it, and holdeth up the Diaphragm so that it is not pulled too much down by the weight of the Bowels that hang by it, viz. the Liver and the Stomach.  
To the upper part of the Mediastinum at the Throat there groweth a Kernel called Thymus, 
Thymus.  seated between the divisions of the Subclavian veins and arteries. It is a whitish, soft, spongy, glandulous body, (in shape resembling a Tyme-leaf, from which it has its name.) It is larger in Children and Women than in Men. In Infants it consists of three Glands, and is in substance something like the Sweetbread; but in adult persons it dries up and contracts into one continued substance.  
The Jugular Veins and Arteries pass through it as they go up to the Neck, 
Its vessels.  but if they send forth any twigs into it, they are so small as not to be discovered in dissecting it. Dr. Wharton says it has Nerves from the sixth pair and from the subclavian Plexus, which deposit their Succus nutritius in it, whose superfluous or impurer parts are separated from it in this Gland and conveyed away by the Lymphducts, and the refined liquor is resumed by the Nerves dispersed in it, for the use of the nervous parts of the whole Body. And because he foresaw how open this opinion (which himself calls scruposa sententia) lay to the objection, that it is very improbable that the Nerves should bring the Succus nutritius to this part, and after depuration should resorb it; he answers that either the Nerves must do it, or it cannot be done at all, seeing there are no other Vessels fit for the resuming of it. But he had better have suspected his supposed office of the Thymus, when he saw himself so hard set to maintain it. For it is more probable that when there is found any whitish liquor in it, (as there is in Infants, and in Calves, etc.) that liquor is Chyle which is brought thither by Lacteals, and descends from thence into the Subclavian veins; seeing if one kill a Calf about two hours after it has been plentifully suckled, the Thymus abounds with this juice, as Diemerbro●ck affirms; who also denies that there are any perceptible Nerves inserted into it, but grants Lymphducts.  
Its uses are, 
Use.  first, to prop and strengthen the divisions of the Vessels, namely of the Vena cava and great Artery; and secondly, to defend them from compression by the Claviculae, in stooping forward. In adult persons it seems to be of little other use; but in Infants, in whom it is larger and has liquor like Chyle in it, it seems to contribute something towards the re●ining or depuration of it.  
The third and last internal proper containing part is the Midriff or Diaphragm (derived 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
The Diaphragm.  to distinguish, because it divides the trunk of the Body into two Ventricles, the Abdomen and Thorax.) It is also called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the mind, because when it is inflamed or otherwise much distempered, the mind and senses are disturbed, through the great consent it has with the Brain, as being a very nervous part. The Latins call it Septum transversum for the same reason as the Greeks call it Diaphragma.  
Now this part being truly a Muscle assisting respiration, we might on that account have deferred to treat of it till we come to describe the Muscles of the Thorax: but because it is wholly an internal part, and serves to make up the cavity of the Breast, we rather choose to discourse of it here, and omit it in the treatise of Muscles.  
It is almost round, 
It's figure and situation.  (excepting its two appendages whereby it is fastened to the Muscles or vertebrae of the Loins) and is seated transversly or across the Body, only sloping a little backwards. It is as broad as the width of the Thorax, for its edges are fastened to the lower part of the Sternum, to the ends of the lowest Ribs, and to the lowest vertebra of the Thorax.  
It's circumference is carnous, 
Substance.  but in its middle or centre (as it were) it is nervous and membranous, for thither do all the carnous Fibres run from the edges. Wounds in the nervous part of it are mortal, because the party presently falls into Convulsions, and respiration faileth; but if it be wounded in its fleshy part, the patient oft escapes. It is clad with two Membranes, the upper from the Pleura, to which the Mediastinum and Pericardium are joined, and sometimes the lowest tips of the lobes of the Lungs; the under, from the Peritonaeum.  
It is perforated on the right hand near the nervous centre by the trunk of Vena cava ascending from the Liver, 
Holes.  and on the left hand near the said centre by the Gullet and two Stomachick nerves springing from the par vagum. Behind at the Vertebrae there descend betwixt its two appendages or productions the Aorta, a branch of the Vena azygos, and the Intercostal nerve (distinguished from the par vagum by Dr. Willis) for the use of the parts of the Abdomen.  
It has two Arteries, 
Vessels.  called Phrenicae, from the Aorta descending, and as many Veins from the trunk of Vena cava ascending through it. Nerves it hath first from the second pair of the vertebrae of the Neck which (according to Dr. Willis) communicate with the Intercostal pair. By this communication of the Intercostal nerve with that from whence this Nerve of the Diaphragm springeth, yea with this Nerve itself, (for the said Author says that two or three Nerves are sent from the cervical Plexus of the Intercostal into the trunk itself of the Nerve of the Diaphragm) he very ingeniously gives a reason of the great consent of the Midriff with the Heart, Brain and Face, when a Man laughs. For, says he, as often as the imagination is affected with some pleasant or wonderful conceit, the Heart would presently fain triumph (ovare) and be lightened by throwing off its burden as it were: wherefore that the Blood may the quicklier be emptied out of its right Ventricle into the Lungs, and consequently out of the left into the Aorta, the Diaphragm being instigated by the Nerves that go to it from the abovesaid Plexus, is drawn upwards with a more rapid Systole, and often repeating its jumps as it were, it bears up the Lungs, and causes them the quicker and frequenter to discharge the Air and Blood: and then inasmuch as the same Intercostal nerve, that communicates below with the Nerve of the Diaphragm, is also continued above with the Maxillar nerves, when a cackling is begun in the Breast, the gestures of the Mouth and Face pathetically answer thereto.] And when the Diaphragm is wounded in its nervous part, than the Muscles of the Face suffer Convulsions, and the laughter called Risus Sardonius (which is involuntary) is caused. Besides the abovesaid Nerves it has secondly small twigs from the Stomachick nerves and Intercostal as they descend through it.  
It's use is first to divide the Thorax from the Abdomen, 
Use.  that noisome and impure vapours may not ascend from the more ignoble parts as the Guts, to offend the more noble as the Heart, etc. Secondly, to help the Muscles of the Abdomen in compressing and excluding the excrements, and (in Women) the Foetus. But thirdly, its chief use is to assist respiration, in which it is the principal Muscle. In inspiration it is stretched out plain; in expiration it grows slaggy. It's motion seems to be a kind of mixed motion, but rather animal than natural; for though we move it in our sleep, and so it may seem natural, yet seeing when awake we can stop, slacken or hasten its motion as we please, it seems to be voluntary or animal.  
And thus much of the parts containing, now to the parts contained.   

CHAP. IU.  
Of the Pericardium, and the Humour contained in it.  
THE parts contained are either Viscera or Vasa, Bowels or Vessels.  
The Bowels are the Heart and Lungs. But the Heart being enclosed in a membranous cover called Pericardium, we will first treat of it, in this Chapter.  
It is called Pericardium because it is placed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 about the Heart. 
It's denomination.  It is called also Capsula cordis, the Heart-case, and Involucrum, the Cover, etc. It is membranous and encompasseth the whole Heart, whose shape it therefore resembles, but is larger, both to grant a free motion to the Heart, and to contain its proper liquor.  
It springs at the Basis of the Heart from the outer common Coats (that are borrowed of the Pleura) of those Vessels that enter into the Heart. 
Origine.  Whence it has five holes according to the number of Vessels that go in or out of the Heart. 
Holes.  As first one made by the ascending trunk of the Cava, another by the Vena subclavia, both which enter the right Ventricle of the Heart, from whence there goes out Vena arteriosa into the Lungs, which makes a third hole. A fourth is made by the Arteria venosa entering the left Ventricle of the Heart, and a fifth by the Arteria magna going out of the same.  
It's outside adheres to the Mediastinum by many Fibres, 
Connexion.  and is continued to it at the basis of the Heart, where the Vessels perforate it. It's lower end is knit firmly to the centre or nervous part of the Diaphragm, which (Bartholin says) is peculiar to men, for in all other Creatures it hangs loose.  
It has Veins below from the Phrenicae, 
Vessels.  above from the Axillares. Its Arteries are so small that they can hardly be discovered. It receives Nerves from the pair commonly called the sixth. Bartholin affirms it to have Lymphaticks also; which is very probable, that they may absorb part of the liquor contained in it, lest it abound too much, seeing it receives continual supply: for I am not of opinion that this liquor is spewed out of the Lymphducts, as Steno thinks, but that they rather imbibe it and convey it to the Ductus thoracicus.  
It contains in it a serous liquor, 
It's liquor.  that in healthful Bodies is a little radish, much like water wherein flesh has been washed. It is bred of vapours exhaling out of the Heart, which are stopped by this dense Membrane, and condensed into humour. Dr. Lower opposing this opinion brings for argument, that if it were collected this way, because it would be continually a gathering, it would soon increase so much that this Capsula could not hold it. But the abovesaid Lymphducts absorbing what is superfluous, wash away this objection; which if they did not, his own opinion, that it drops out of the Glands seated at the basis of the Heart, would be liable to the same inconvenience. For such distillation would be as continual as this condensation is supposed to be. Naturally it is not in quantity above two spoonfuls. This is that liquor that is supposed to have slown from the Side of our Saviour when the Soldier pierced it with a Spear, for saith the Text (John 19 34.) There came forth blood and water.  
The Pericardium is some sort of fence to the Heart, 
Their uses.  but it seems to be chiefly made for the sake of the liquor it contains, which serves for the moistening of the Heart and making it slippery, that it may move more glibly.   

CHAP. V.  
Of the Heart, in general, and of its Motion.  
THE Heart (in Latin Cor, in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, to burn, because it is the source of vital heat) is the principal Bowel of the whole Body, which no perfect Animal does want, nor can long survive its wounds. Vital spirit and natural heat are communicated from it to all the parts of the Body, though perhaps not so much owing to its substance as to the fermentation of the humours in it; as shall be discoursed hereafter.  
It is seated in the middle of the Breast, 
It's situation.  encompassed with the Pericardium and Mediastinum, it's lower tip or Mucro bending a little to the left side. Neither its Mucro nor sides are knit to any place, but it hangs loose in its case, only suspended by the Vessels that go in and out of its upper part or basis. It's situation in Beasts that feed upon Grass is near the middle of the whole Body, reckoning from the Head to the Tail; but in Man (and most carnivorous Animals) it is nearer the Head; whereof the learned Dr. Lower gives an ingenious reason. Seeing, says he, the trajection and distribution of the Blood depends wholly on the Systole of the Heart, and that its liquor is not driven of its own nature so readily into the upper parts as into vessels even with it, or downwards into those under it: if the situation of the Heart had been further from the Head, it must needs either have been made stronger to cast out its liquor with greater force; or else the Head would want its due proportion of Blood. But in Animals that have a longer Neck, and which is extended towards their food as it were, the Heart is seated as far from the Head as from the other parts; and they find no inconvenience from it, because they feed with their Head for the most part hanging down, and so the Blood, as it has farther to go to their Head than in others, so it goes a plainer and often a steep way.  
It has a firm, 
Substance.  thick, dense substance, thinner and softer in the right side, thicker and more dense in the left, but most compact and hard at its tip; only on the left side of the tip it is thin, as consisting mostly of the concourse of the inner and outer Membrane. It's Parenchyma is for the greatest part made up of musculary Fibres so that itself may truly be reputed a Muscle.  
It's Fibres are a few of them straight, 
Fibres.  but far more oblique. Both are inserted into a Tendon that is spread over its basis under the Auricles. Part of which Tendon at the egress of the Aorta in some Creatures becomes bony, as in a Stag, etc. On the outer superficies of the right Ventricle there run a few slender Fibres straight upwards and are terminated in its basis. In which also terminate the oblique ones next under these, ascending from the left side towards the right, spiral-wise. The Fibres that lie under these, go clean contrary. For they arise every where from the right side of the Heart, whence being carried obliquely towards the left, and having embraced each Ventricle of the Heart, they rise to the basis of the left side spiral-wise as the other. But they run not all of them the whole length from the basis to the cone; for than would the Heart be as broad or thick at the lower end as the upper: but some reach not above half way, others a little further, etc. and some to the very Apex. The Fibres of the left Ventricle differ not from those of the right as to kind, only they are considerably stronger. Which they are for this reason, that whereas the right Ventricle only promotes the circulation of the blood through the Lungs, the left must cast it forth with that force as that it may circulate through the whole Body.  
The curious Reader may find a most accurate description of these Fibres in Dr. Lower's treatise the Cord, whither I refer him; for, to insist too long on such minute similar parts, would not be suitable to this Epitome of Anatomy. Though by a view of those Figures that I have borrowed of him, their structure may be pretty plainly apprehended.  
It's shape is like a Boy's Top (save that it is flattish behind) or a Pyramid turned topsy turvy; 
Figure.  whence it is divided into its basis, which is its broader part and upper; and into its cone or apex, or narrower and lower part, which ends in a tip or mucro.  
It is bigger in Men than in other Creatures, 
Bigness.  considering the proportion of their Bodies. It is lesser but more dense in hot and bold Men, than in the cold and cowardly. In adult persons it is commonly six fingers breadth long, and four broad at the basis.  
Outwardly it is covered with a proper Coat, 
Coat.  which is thin, but strong and dense, and very hard to separate from it; it is the same with the outer Coat of the great Artery, as that which clothes the Ventricles on the inside is continued and common with that thin skin that covers the inside of the Arteries like a Cuticula: and hence 'tis likely (says Diemerbroeck) that the Arteries borrow these Coats of the Heart, as the Nerves borrow their two Tunicles from the Pia and Dura mater of the Brain. Upon this Membrane that invests the Heart, there grows some hard fat about the basis, which serves to moisten it.  
It is not nourished by the blood or nutritious juice received into its Ventricles, 
Vessels.  but by Vessels running through its Parenchyma.  
Its Arteries are two, 
Arteries.  springing out of the Aorta before it pass out of the Pericardium, and are called Coronariae, because their trunks do not presently sink into the Parenchyma of the Heart, but fetching a circuit on its surface the better to branch out themselves towards its cone, they encompass its basis. And though at their rise they turn one on one side and tother on the other of the Heart, yet at their ends they meet again and inosculate one with the other: so that if one inject any liquor into one, it will run into the other.  
It has also two Veins called Coronariae which encompass its basis in like manner, 
Veins.  and communicate one with the other. These receive and carry back the Arterial blood that remains from the nutrition of the Heart, and refund it into the Cava.  
Nerves it has from the sixth pair (Dr. Willis's eighth) which passing between the Arteria pulmonalis and the Aorta do send forth divers twigs on each side into the Auriculae, 
Nerves.  and then are branched out into the substance of the Heart. Dr. Lower says they are manifestly apparent over all the outer superficies of the Heart of a Calf or other Animal newly brought forth.  
Great controversy hath been and still is about the motion of the Heart, 
The motion of the Heart.  whether it depend on the influx of the animal spirits, or on the dilatation, ebullition, or accension of the blood in its Ventricles, or partly on one, partly on the other. Plausible Arguments are produced on every side, but such as rather tend to show the shortness and insufficiency of the contrary opinions to solve this Phaenomenon, than pretend to demonstrate any certain reason of it. That the immediate instruments of its motion are its Fibres, none can doubt; but what sets these Fibres on work is all the question. That it cannot be the Animal spirits conveyed by the Nerves (only) is apparent, first, because the Heart moves in the Embryo before either Brain or Nerve are so perfectly form, that the Animal spirits can be elaborated out of the Blood by the former, or transmitted to the Heart by the latter: yea seeing they are made of Arterial blood, that must be sent to the Brain by the pulsation of the Heart before they can be generated. And secondly, because those muscular motions that depend on the influx of the Animal spirits, are voluntary, which this of the Heart is not, for we can neither stop it nor hasten it at our pleasure. Lastly, because the Heart of living Foetus' (as of young Puppies) and of Eels, being cut out of the Body and from all the Nerves by which any Animal spirits should flow into it, will continue beating as long as 'tis warm: yea when it has ceased beating, if one throw warm blood or but warm water upon it, it will recover some kind of pulsation again. Which may serve also to convict the second opinion of error; for if its motion depended only on the dilatation of the blood, it would cease assoon as the blood flows no longer into its Ventricles.  
And as to ebullition or accension, Dr. Lower's experiment, or his observation, are a sufficient confutation of their being the reason of this pulsation. His experiment is this: He drew out of the Jugular vein of a Dog about half of his blood away, injecting by turns into the Crural vein a like quantity of Beer mixed with a little Wine; and this he repeated alternatively so often, till instead of blood there flowed out of the Vein only a paler tincture like water wherein Flesh had been washed, or Claret diluted with very much Water; and yet the Heart in the mean time remitted but a little of its former pulsation ..... His observation, which he had from a Physician worthy of credit, is this: A Youth about sixteen years old, continuing bleeding for two days together, his friends and those that waited on him gave him good store of Broth to keep up and recruit his Spirits; which swallowing down greedily, his bleeding was now and then increased thereby, so that at length having poured forth almost the whole mass of his blood, that which now run out was dilute and pale, neither of the nature nor colour of blood, but liker the Broth he had drunk so much of: And this kind of flux continued a day or two, (the Heart the mean while retaining its pulsation) till at length being stopped, the Youth was restored by degrees to entire health, and grew to a robust and lusty Fellow.] This experiment and observation I say do make it apparent, the motion of the Heart depends not on the ebullition or accension of the blood, for then when in the first the Beer and Wine, in the second the Broth flowed into its Ventricles instead of Blood, its motion must either have been more notably altered, or rather have quite ceased, these liquors being so far distant from the nature of blood, especially the Broth.  
And lastly, that this motion is not caused partly by the influx of the animal spirits, and partly by the ebullition or accension of the blood, may be evinced by the Arguments produced against each opinion apart: and yet if a reason could be given, this seems the most probable. Namely, that the blood destilling into the Ventricles of the Heart, is in them accended and rarefied, and wanting more room expands or bears against their Sides: and then the Parenchyma of the Heart being molested by that expansion, calls in the Animal spirits for help, which coming in in convenient plenty contract the muscular Fibres that make up the Parenchyma of the Heart, and so by straightening its Ventricles drive forth the blood contained in them into the Arteries. But we had rather ingenuously confess our ignorance of the reason of so admirable an action, and profess with Dr. Lower that it is too hard for Man to conceive of, and that it is the prerogative of God only, who searcheth the secrets of the Heart, to know the reason of its motion also.   

CHAP. VI  
Of the Pulse, and the circulation of the Blood.  
THE motion of the Heart is called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
The Pulse.  in Latin Pulsus, pulse or beating. And this is performed by Diastole, or Dilatation, in which it receives Blood into its Ventricles; and Systole, or Contraction, by which it expels it.  
Contraction being the proper motion of a Muscle, 
Systole and Diastole.  the Systole is the proper motion of the Heart, and the Diastole is but a ceasing or restitution from that motion. For in the Diastole the Fibres of the Heart are relaxed, so that the Blood distils down into its Ventricles out of the Veins, whereby when they are filled and in some measure distended, the Fibres both straight and oblique begin to contract themselves, and compress or straiten the Cavities of the Ventricles, and also draw up the cone nearer its basis, whereby the Heart becomes rounder and harder, and the Blood is expelled with force out of the Ventricles into the Arteries; which motion is called the Systole. But why the Heart should keep such stated turns of Systole and Diastole, and continue them for (may be) fourscore years together, that (as we said above) we cannot conceive the reason of, but admire the wisdom and power of the Creator, in beginning and continuing such a motion. 
The circulation of the blood.   
Now seeing by this continual reciprocation of the Pulse there is a constant expulsion of Blood from the Heart; there must needs be a continual influx of Blood into the Heart out of the Cava. And seeing the Cava from whence the supply is, is never drawn dry, and on the other hand seeing the Arteries that receive the Blood continually from the Heart, are not unduly swelled with it, it necessarily follows that this motion proceeds circularly, viz. that the Blood is continually driven out of the Heart into the Arteries, out of these into the Veins and parts to be nourished, then from the lesser Veins returns to the Cava, and so at length to the Heart again. The invention of which circulation is owing to our Countryman Dr. Harvey, and may be proved invincibly by these reasons.  
1. The great quantity of Blood that is driven out of the Heart into the Arteries at every Pulse. For though the Ancients who knew not this circulation, imagined that only a drop or two were expelled by every Systole, which they were necessitated to suppose, to avoid the great distension that the Arteries must be liable to, if any considerable quantity issued into them; yet it is certain and demonstrable that there must needs an ounce or more be driven into them each time. For (taking it for granted that there is no other way for any liquor to pass from the Stomach to the Kidneys but through the Heart, along with the Blood) seeing if some Men at some times drink three pints of Drink, they shall piss it out again in half an hour, yea more of Tunbridge Waters in that space; and seeing secondly, that there is commonly as much Blood as Serum that flows to the Kidneys (the Blood returning back by the Emulgent veins) it is clear that by the two Emulgents (which are none of the largest Arteries) there must pass in half an hours time six pounds of liquor, all which must come from the Heart; and how much more than may we conceive to be driven through all the other Arteries that run through the whole Body? This is more accurately evinced by Dr. Lower's experiment, which is this: I cut asunder (says he) both Cervical arteries in a large Dog, and at the same time through an hole made in the left side of his Breast over against the Heart, I compressed the trunk of the Aorta below the Heart with my finger, to hinder any Blood from descending by it; and lastly I took care also to straiten the Brachial arteries under the Axillae, by which means almost all the Blood was driven out of the Heart through the Cervicals (besides that which was sent into the Vertebrals) and which is wonderful to be related, within the twentieth part of an hour the whole mass issued out; so that it is not to be denied but that it all past through the Heart in that space.] And though it may be granted that amidst such wounds and tortures the Heart does beat somewhat quicker in such a case than at other times; yet the same thing is partly evident from wounds in the Limbs when some notable Artery is cut asunder, for 'tis strange in how small a time a Man will bleed to death even at that one Artery. Yea we may give a great guess how much Blood is sent out at every Pulse, even from the ordinary opening of one Vein in the Arm, from whence a notable quantity of Blood will issue in a short time; how much than may we suppose would flow out of all the Veins, if they were opened at one time? Seeing then 'tis evident that so great a quantity of Blood is expelled out of the Heart at every Systole, and that for all that the Arteries are not unduly distended nor any part swelled by it, neither yet the Cava and other Veins emptied, 'tis certain that the Blood that is driven into the Arteries flows back to the Heart by the Veins, in a constant circulation.  
2. A second Argument to prove it, may be taken from the Valves in the Veins, which are so framed that Blood may freely flow through them out of the lesser Veins into the greater, (and so into the Cava) but not on the contrary out of the greater into the less. Yea if one blow into the Cava through a Pipe, there will no wind pass into the smaller Veins; but on the contrary, if you blow up the lesser Veins, the wind will readily pass to the larger and so to the Cava.  
3. And lastly, The same thing is most clear by the Ligature in blood-letting. For whether you let blood in the Arm or Foot, you always tie the Fillet above where you intent to make the Orifice, and then the Vein below the Ligature will presently fill and grow tumid, but above it will fall and almost disappear. Which must needs be from hence, for that the Blood being driven along the Arteries towards the extreme parts, returns by the Veins and ascends upwards, which coming to the Ligature and being stopped there, swells the Vein below the Ligature, and spurts out assoon as the Orifice is made: but when the Fillet is loosed again, the Blood flows no longer out thereat, but holds on its wont channel, the Vein, and the Orifice closes up again.  
Having sufficiently demonstrated the circulation of the Blood we will show two things further, first, how the Blood passes out of the Arteries into the Veins, and secondly in how long a time the whole mass of Blood may be supposed to pass through the Heart in its ordinary circulation.  
As to the first, it was the opinion of Riolanus that the Blood circulated only through the larger Vessels, by anastomosis or inosculation of the Veins with the Arteries, and that that which run into the smaller, was all spent on the nutrition of the parts. But it is clear that there must be a circulation even in the smallest, from the great quantity of Blood that will flow out of the least Artery in the Hand or Foot, when it is cut; which it were very absurd to imagine to be all spent on the nourishment of the respective part. Now there are but two ways whereby the Blood can be supposed to pass out of the Arteries into the Veins, viz. either by the former opening into the latter by inosculation, or else by the Capillary arteries letting out their Blood into the pores of the substance of the parts, on whose nutrition part is spent, and the remainder imbibed by the gaping mouths of the Capillary veins. And it seems necessary to admit both these ways; this latter, because if part of the Arterial blood did not issue into the substance of the parts, they could not be nourished by it, for while it is in the vessels it may add warmth indeed to the parts through which it flows, but cannot nourish them, seeing even the vessels themselves are not nourished by that stream of Blood that glides along their Cavity, but by Capillaries running through their Coats; and if the Blood be driven into the substance of the parts, and that in a greater quantity than suffices for their nourishment (as was just now shown) what is superfluous must needs enter the mouths of the Capillary veins, from which it goes forward to the larger and so to the Heart: But seeing this way of transfusing the Blood through the substance of the parts answers not to that hasty circulation of the Blood we above demonstrated; it is necessary also to admit of the former way, namely anastomoses, in which the Veins are continued to the Arteries, and that not only in their larger branches (as that notable one of the Splenick artery with the Splenick vein) but also in their smaller twigs in the extreme parts.  
And secondly as to the space of time in which the whole mass of Blood may ordinarily circulate through the Heart, it is probably much shorter than many have imagined. For supposing that the Heart makes two thousand pulses an hour (which is the least number any speak of, and some have told twice as many) and that at every pulse there is expelled an ounce of Blood (which we may well suppose, seeing the Ventricles are wide enough to contain two ounces, and that it is probable both that they are filled near full in the Diastole, and that they are near if not quite emptied by the strong constriction of the Heart in the Systole) seeing the whole mass usually exceeds not four and twenty pound, it will be circulated six or seven times over through the Heart in the space of an hour. And by so much the oftener, by how much the Blood comes short of the supposed quantity, or the pulse either naturally, or by a Fever or violent motion is rendered more frequent. By which quick motion the Blood itself is kept from coagulation and putrefaction, and the parts are cherished with vital heat, which heat of the parts is much according to the slowness or rapidness of the circulation; so when we sit still and the pulse is slow or rare, we grow cold, but when upon running or any violent exercise the pulse becomes more frequent and quick, we become hot.   

CHAP. VII.  
How Blood is made of Chyle, of its Colour, and whether the Body be nourished by it.  
ACcording to Dr. Harvey's observations there appears in an Embryo a punctum saliens, or red beating speck, which is Blood, before any the least lineament of the Heart. So that whatever instrument of sanguification the Heart may appear to be afterwards, it contributes nothing to the elaborating of the first Blood; but it seems rather to be made for the blood's sake to transmit it to all the parts of the Embryo or Foetus, than the Blood to be made by it. But it must be confessed that things proceed in the grown Foetus far otherwise than they do in the first formation. For the parts of an Embryo are nourished and increased before it have a stomach to concoct any thing, and yet in a perfect Foetus none can deny that the Stomach does concoct and prepare nourishment for it: so it moves before the Brain is form so perfectly as to be able to elaborate Animal spirits; and yet after it is perfected, every one knows that the Brain does elaborate such spirits, as being sent into all the parts of the Body by the Nerves enable them to move. In like manner though there be Blood in the Embryo before the Heart be form, yet after it is perfected, nothing will hinder but it may at least contribute something to sanguification.  
We will suppose then, that as all the other parts are form by the Vis plastica or generative faculty of the (first) vegetative and (then) animal Soul, seated in the Ouum, but assoon as they are perfected and the Foetus excluded, are nourished by the Blood; so the Blood itself being at first made in like manner, assoon as the Veins, Heart and Arteries are completed so as it can circulate by them, may, not improperly, be said to be nourished by the Chyle, the Heart assisting the assimilation of the one into the other. And this is done in this manner. 
How chyle is turned into blood.  The Chyle ascending by the Ductus thoracicus (as was described Book 1. Chap. 10.) and flowing into the Subclavian vein, together with the returning venal Blood is poured into the right ventricle of the Heart in its Diastole or Relaxation, then by its Systole or Contraction it is driven out from thence into the Lungs, from whence it ascends again into the left ventricle of the Heart, out of which it is expelled through the Aorta, and passing along with the Blood through the Arteries of the whole Body, returns again with it by the Veins to the Heart. For it undergoes many circulations before it can be assimilated to the Blood. Which is evident, both because it is the Chyle (but little altered) that is separated in the Placenta uteri for the nourishment of the Foetus, and in the Breasts for the Infant to suck, in the form of Milk; and also from hence, that if one be let blood four or five hours (or later) after a full meal, there will a great quantity of the milky Chyle itself swim a top the coagulated Blood. But every time the new infused Chyle passes through the Heart with the Blood, the particles of the one are more intimately mixed with those of the other in its Ventricles, and the vital spirit and other active principles of the blood work upon the Chyle; which being full of salt, sulphur and spirit, assoon as its Compages is loosened by its fermentation with the Blood in the ventricles of the Heart (especially, but also in the Arteries) these principles having obtained the liberty of motion do readily associate themselves, and are assimilated with such parts of the Blood as are of a like and suitable nature. Now whether this alteration that happens to the Chyle, especially in the Heart, should be said to be by fermentation, or accension, or by what other action, is a thing not yet (nor likely to be) agreed upon, it is so full of difficulty. But it seems to be by fermentation, from the considerable heat observable in the Arterial blood; and if there be any thing of accension, that seems to proceed, not from any part inherent either in the Blood or Chyle, nor to be effected so much in the Heart and Arteries, as in the Lungs, whiles the Blood passes through their Parenchyma out of the Vena arteriosa into the Arteria venosa, and is inspirited or impregnated with nitrous air drawn into them by inspiration. Which will be more evident by what follows.  
Why the Blood should be of a red colour rather than any other, 
The colour of the blood.  no reason can be given but the will of the Creator, though some attribute it to the Heart, others to the mixture of salt and subacid juices with sulphureous; even as the Oil of Vitriol being poured upon Conserve of Roses, or other thing that is of a palish red (if it contain any thing of sulphur) makes it of a most deep red. We will not spend time to show in how many respects this similitude falls short of explaining the reason of the Phaenomenon, but shall content ourselves with enquiring from whence the difference of colour arises between the Venal and Arterial blood. Every one knows that Blood let out of a Vein into a Porringer, is indeed of a florid scarlet colour in its surface, but all that coagulates is of a dark red colour from the superficies to the bottom, and of such a colour it appears as it streams out of the Orifice of the Vein. But if an Artery be cut, the stream than looks of a far brighter colour, like the superficies of the Venal blood when it is congealed in a Porringer. Now the Arterial blood receives not this florid colour in the Heart but in the Lungs. For if it received it in the Heart, then might the right Ventricle be supposed to give it as well as the left: but that it does not do so, is clear by this experiment of Dr. Lower's. If you open the Vena arteriosa which receives the Blood out of the right Ventricle, the Blood differs nothing in colour from the Venal, but its curdled part looks every whit as black. But if one open the Arteria venosa as it is entering into the left Ventricle, it has the perfect colour of Arterial blood; which shows, that as it owes not that colour to the left Ventricle any more than to the right, (being not yet arrived at it) so it must receive that alteration of colour in the Lungs, in which the nitrous air being diffused through all the particles of the Blood is intimately mixed with it, and (if you will) accends it. For if there be any such thing as a Flamma vitalis (properly so called) in Animals, though the Blood be to it instead of the Oil or other matter whereon it feeds, yet it oweth the continuance of its burning to the Air, without the continued inspiration of which the Animal cannot live, but instantly dies, even as a Candle is presently extinguished if you put it in a close place where the air cannot come to it, or by some Engine be sucked from it. But this by the buy. For I must confess that (notwithstanding the plausibleness of the opinion) this alteration of the colour of the Blood by the Air in the Lungs, is no sufficient argument to prove any such vital flame, seeing the Arterial blood being extravasated, retains its florid colour, when no doubt if there ever was any accension, the flame is extinguished. But this scarlet colour is merely from the mixture of the particles of the Air with the Blood, from which it transpires, in a great measure, through the pores of the Skin, while the Blood circulates in the habit of the Body out of the Arteries into the Veins, whence the Venous blood becomes so much darker in colour than the Arterial. And yet the Venous blood itself when extravasated appears of a scarlet dye in its surface, which is merely from its being exposed to the Air; for if one turn the congealed Blood in a Porringer upside down, the bottom which at the turning is blackish, will in a little while turn red.  
Though we have confessed that the Chyle does circulate through the Body several times before it be perfectly assimilated to the Blood; 
Whether the body be nourished by blood.  yet we do not think that it passes into the nourishment of the parts in the form of Chyle. And therefore when speaking of the nutrition of the Foetus in the Womb (Book 1. Chap. 33.) we often mentioned a nutritious juice (which was Chyle a little altered) we did not call it so with respect to the solid parts of the Foetus, but to the Blood itself whose Pabulum or nourishment it is, assoon as the Umbilical vein is form, as the Blood is of the Body. For as to the increase of the first delineated parts of an imperfect Embryo, that is far different from ordinary nutrition.  
The Blood then consisting of particles of a different nature, each particle passes into the nourishment of that part which is of the same nature. So the salt and sulphureous particles being equally mixed, are agglutinated and assimilated to the fleshy or musculous parts; the oily and sulphureous to the Fat; the salt and tartareous to the Bones, etc. Now this is not done by any election or attraction of the parts, as if they picked and choosed (with a kind of discretion) such particles of the Blood as are suitable to their own nature: For the mass of Blood is equally and indifferently carried to all the parts: But there is that diversity of figure both in the several particles of the Blood and in the pores of each part, that in the circulation through the habit of the Body some stick in these, and others in those, where they are fastened and united to the substance of the respective parts; and those which through their peculiar figure are unapt to adhere to one or other, return again to the Veins and so to the Heart, where they receive some new alteration. So that as the Life of the Flesh is in the Blood (according to Levit. 17. 11.) so has it its vital heat and nourishment from it also.   

CHAP. VIII.  
Of the parts of the Heart, viz. the Auriculae, the Ventricles and the Septum that divideth them.  
HAving treated of the Heart in general, and of its Action, etc. we now come to discourse in specie of the parts which it is compounded of, viz. it's two Auriculae, two Ventricles and the Septum.  
The Auriculae or Ears of the Heart are so called from some similitude of shape they have with those of the Head; 
Auriculae.  for they rise from a long basis, upon the basis of the Heart, and end in an obtuse point, making an obtuse triangle. They are as it were two appendages of the Heart, seated at its basis over the Ventricles. They are of the same fabric and use, being both Muscles, and made up of the same order of Fibres, which are carried into opposite Tendons, whereof that at the basis of the Heart is common to it and these Auriculae, and the other runs along their upper part. The right is larger and softer, the left is less, but more firm. Their superficies is smooth when they are filled; but when empty, it is wrinkled, and the left more than the right. When they are cut open, there appear in their Cavity many fleshy columns running from the upper to the lower Tendon, and betwixt them there are pretty deep Ditches or long Cavities, but fewer in the right than the left.  
They are dilated and contracted in like manner as the Heart, 
Their motion.  but at different times: for the Systole of the Ventricles is at the same time with the Diastole of the Auriculae; and on the contrary, the Systole of the Auriculae with the Diastole of the Ventricles. So that the Auriculae are a receiving their Blood from the Veins, while the Ventricles are expelling theirs into the Arteries; and when the Ventricles are relaxed and empty in their Diastole, the Auricles force their Blood into them by their Systole.  
They serve to receive the Venal blood immediately out of the Vena cava, 
Use.  and Pulmonalis, and to measure it as it were into the Ventricles. Whither that they may expel it with the greater force, the internal Fibres or Columns of their cavity arising from their root where they are joined to the basis of the Heart, reach directly outwards towards the Vena cava, and Pulmonaris, and in the Systole of the Auriculae grasp the Blood contained in their cavity like so many fingers, and squeeze it into the Ventricles whilst they are relaxed in their Diastole.  
The Heart hath two Cavities, 
The ventricles.  called Ventricles, whereinto it receives the Blood from its two Auricles, and out of which it expels it into the Arteria pulmonaris and Aorta. The right is wider and not exactly round but almost semicircular, nor reacheth down to the Mucro or tip of the Heart; the left is narrower but rounder and longer, reaching down to the very tip. Now though the outside of the Heart be smooth, yet these Ventricles are very unequal, having their sides hollowed into divers interstices or furrows, and interwoven with carnous Fibres reaching this way and that way. They are more numerous in Men's Hearts, than in those of any other Animal; though such as are big, as Horses and the like, have them larger. These Fibres or fleshy Columns serve to straiten or constringe the Ventricles, and the clefts or furrows betwixt them help their sides to close more exactly in their Systole than they could have done, had they been smooth. The Fibres are more and stronger and the furrows deeper in the left Ventricle than in the right, yea they are also in that side of the Septum that makes part of the left, though that side that looks to the right be well nigh smooth. For there was need of greater and stronger constriction in the left than in the right; seeing the right expels the Blood to no greater circuit than through the Lungs, but the left to the extremest parts of the Body.  
They are divided from one another by the Septum, 
Septum.  or a partition that stands like a Wall betwixt them. It is hollow towards the left Ventricle, and (as was just now said) has such like Fibres and Clefts as the rest of the Cavity; but towards the right it is convex or bunching out, and has but very little inequality. Many have been of opinion that it has some wider pores through which part of the Blood does pass immediately out of the right into the left Ventricle; but he that searches for them diligently will find none, unless he first make them with his Probe. And indeed if there were any in grown persons, we may much more suppose them to be in Foetus' in the Womb, in whom are several passages that after the birth are obliterated. But if these were in the Foetus, then should Nature have made those two other passages in vain, namely the Foramen ovale, whereby the Blood passes out of the Cava into the Vena pulmonaris as it is entering the left Ventricle; and the Canalis arteriosus, which carries the Blood out of the Arteria pulmonaris into the Aorta. I say if the Blood could have passed out of one Ventricle into the other (without going through the Lungs) by any pores that perforate the Septum, these other passages had been superfluous. And therefore we may suppose, that as in grown persons they cannot be found by any Probe or Bristle, so they were not there even while the Foetus was in the Womb, seeing there was no occasion for them.  
As to the use of the Ventricles, it may be learned partly by what has been discoursed in the three former Chapters, and partly by what shall be said further in the following, wherein we are to describe the Vessels opening into and out of them. Whither also we transfer the treating of their Valves that are placed at their Orifices.   

CHAP. IX.  
Of the Ascending trunk of Vena Cava.  
BEcause the Vessels contained in the Thorax either open into the Heart or run out of it, having finished the description of It, we shall discourse next of them as appendages to it. But we shall not need to repeat here what we said Book 1. Chap. 10. of the Ductus chyliferus thoracicus, that runs up the Thorax by the Spine, and opens into the Subclavian vein, but shall desire the Reader to look back thither for the description of it. And now shall only meddle with the Sanguiferous vessels that are four in number, viz. Vena cava, Arteria pulmonaris (or Vena arteriosa) Vena pulmonaria (or Arteria venosa) and the Aorta or Arteria magna; and in this Chapter of the first, viz. Vena cava.  
In the former Book Chap 12. 
Vena cava.  and 13. where we discoursed of the Vessels contained in the Abdomen, we supposed (with the Galenists) that both the Vena portae and Cava had their rise from the Liver, not dogmatically asserting it, but supposing it for methods sake. And in Chap. 13. describing the branches of the Cava in the Abdomen, we found it presently dividing itself (after its rise out of the upper part of the Liver) into the Ascending and Descending trunk; the description of the branches of the latter (in the lower Belly) we there finished; but traced the Ascending trunk no further than its penetrating through the Midriff up into the Thorax, deferring the further prosecution of it till this place that we come to treat of the Vessels contained in the Thorax.  
As it ascends through the Midriff it sends forth a small sprig on each side, 
Venae phrenicae.  called Venae phrenicae; these run through the Midriff, the Mediastinum and Pericardium. If at any time matter gathered in the cavity of the Thorax be afterwards discharged by Urine, (which many Physicians have affirmed) it is probable that it is absorbed by the mouths of these Veins gaping in the upper side of the Diaphragm, (upon which such matter must be supposed to fluctuate) whereby it is brought into the Cava, and so in the circulation is separated by the Kidneys out of the Emulgent arteries, and descends by the Ureters to the Bladder.  
From the Diaphragm it passes undivided to the right ventricle of the Heart, 
Venae coronariae.  but before it enter it, having pierced the Pericardium it sends forth sometimes one, sometimes two twigs called Venae coronariae, which compassing the basis of the Heart bring back into the Cava the Blood that is superfluous from its nutrition. As these open into the Cava there is a Valve placed, which permits the Blood to return by them into the Cava, but hinders any to pass out of the Cava into them.  
Before this trunk of Vena cava open into the Ventricle it is joined to that other trunk that descends from the Claviculae, (though for method's sake we must consider that as a continuation of this, by and by) and both of them discharge the Blood contained in them by one mouth into the said Ventricle. As they are going to join, there comes a Tubercle or Protuberance betwixt them, that hinders the one from opening into the other in a direct line, but makes them both go obliquely towards the left hand as they enter the Auricula; without which provision, that Blood that is a descending from the Claviculae would have fallen so full on that which is ascending by this trunk of the Cava, we have been a describing, as must have made it either to stagnate (if not regurgitate) or however would have retarded its motion.  
Now immediately below this protuberance, out of the united trunk there goeth a passage along the basis of the Heart to the Vena pulmonaria in Foetus' in the Womb, which assoon as they are born closes up and becomes obliterate. The reason of this passage of the Blood in them is, because their Lungs having either none or but a very obscure and imperfect motion, the Blood does but little of it pass through them, but a good part of it through this Foramen out of the Cava into the Vena pulmonaria just as it is entering into the left Ventricle, into which this Blood is discharged together with that little that is returning by the said Vena pulmonaria from the nutrition of the Lungs. For though there be expelled out of the right Ventricle a pretty quantity of Blood at every pulse into the Arteria pulmonalis, yet there is but a little of it that goes to the Lungs (though all do in adult persons, that it may be there impregnated with Air) but the greatest part by a Pipe called Canalis arteriosus runs into the Aorta, which Pipe does degenerate into a Ligament after the Foetus is born. So that the Foetus in the Womb liveth after the manner of Fish or other Creatures that have no Lungs and but one ventricle of the Heart; for there is but very little of its Blood that passeth any more than one of its Ventricles in one circulation, that which circulateth through one missing the other. But to return:  
The united trunk of the Cava opens by one large Orifice into the right ventricle of the Heart, into which is poured all the Blood that returns from all the parts of the Body (except the Lungs) in its circulation. And lest in the Systole or constriction of the Heart, the Blood should be expelled the same way that it comes in by; at the Orifice of the Cava there grows a membranous circle, which is cleft into three membranous Valves, looking inwards, called Tricuspides (or three-pointed) which permit the Blood to come in, but not to go out. And this office these Valves perform in this manner, (as is most ingeniously described by Dr. Lower.) Out of the sides of the right Ventricle there grow certain Papillae or round and long Caruncles (called before, fleshy Columns) from whose top there proceed certain tendinous Fibres that are knit to these membranous Valves. Now these Membranes encompass the orifice of the Cava round about, so that whereas the Mucro or tip of the Heart is in every Systole drawn up towards the basis, the Papillae being also moved upwards do slacken their Fibres (like Bridle-reins) whereby it comes to pass that the Membranes (or Valves) also, to which they are tied, hanging loose are driven upwards (like sails filled with wind) by the Blood that is squeezed in every Systole of the Heart, and thereby they shut this inlet into the Heart so closely, that not a drop of liquor can flow back again into the Auricula or Cava, but is expelled all into the Arteria pulmonalis that is now open: But, as in every Systole of the Heart (its tip being brought nearer its basis) the Papillae do much relax their Fibres; so in the Diastole the tip receding from the basis again does also draw down the Papillae and their Fibres with it: whence it comes to pass that the Membranes or Valves being also drawn down do presently unshut this Orifice, and open the door as it were for more Blood to come in, what came in before being expelled in the last Systole.  
The united trunks of the Cava discharging themselves thus into the right Ventricle, that which ascends towards the Claviculae (for so we must consider it for order's sake, though in truth it descends from thence) assoon as it is gone out of the Pericardium, sendeth forth a notable branch called Vena sine pari, (or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) because it is but one, having no fellow.  
It ariseth out of the hinder part of the Cava, 
Vena sine pari.  but more towards the right hand, and descends through the right side of the cavity of the Thorax. After its beginning, which is betwixt the fourth and fifth vertebra of the Breast, it bends a little forward toward the right hand, till it be descended as far as the eighth or ninth vertebra, where it begins just to keep the middle. It sends forth on each side Intercostal branches to the Interstices of the eight lowest Ribs; and at the eighth Rib it is divided into two branches: One whereof, being the larger, descends toward the left hand betwixt the processes of the Diaphragm, and is inserted sometimes into the Cava above or below the Emulgent, but oftener into the Emulgent itself: The other being the right is joined also to the Cava, commonly a little above the Emulgent, but seldom into the Emulgent itself.  
It was formerly held, before the circulation of the Blood was found out, that in an Empyema of the Thorax, the matter was absorbed by the mouths of this Vein, and carried directly to the Emulgent veins, where it was separated with the Serum by the Kidneys. But seeing the Blood does indeed ascend from the Emulgents by this Vein, and that at its insertion into them there is commonly a Valve that hinders any thing from issuing out of the Vena sine pari into the Emulgent, but permits the contrary; it is certain that if this Vein be at any time an instrument to evacuate such Pus, it must first ascend to the Cava and pass through the Heart, and so be carried to the Kidneys by the Aorta and the Emulgent arteries arising out of it. But though it is difficult to conceive how the mouths of this Vein should open so wide into the cavity of the Thorax, as to imbibe slimy roapy Pus, and yet not let forth the Blood that is more fluid; so that one would hardly assign this office to it: yet when the Pus is collected betwixt the Pleura and Intercostal muscles and the Tumour does not burst, I see not why it may not be supposed that the Intercostal branches of the Vena sine pari do imbibe the matter out of the Tumour, and carry it that way which was just now spoken of. And if ever Pus be imbibed out of the cavity of the Thorax, because it floats upon the Diaphragm, the Venae phrenicae are liker to do it than this, as was noted before in this Chapter when we described those Veins. Of this Vena sine pari we shall say no more, but that at its rise out of the Cava it has a Valve that opens towards the Cava, which having sent forth this Vein, ascends on towards the Claviculae strengthened and sustained by the Mediastinum and Thymus, and before it is divided into the two Rami subclavii (sometimes after) sends out yet two other small Veins called  
The superior Intercostals, 
Intercostales superiores.  on each side one, each of which has a Valve where it joins to the Cava, permitting the influx of the Blood into it, but hindering its relapse. These run along the Interstices or intervals of the three or four uppermost Ribs. Yet sometimes the Vena sine pari sends twigs to these four Interstices of the Ribs as well as to the eight lower, and then these superior Intercostals are wanting.  
Afterwards the trunk of the Cava is divided into two large Veins, 
Venae subclaviae.  one of which goes to the right hand, the other to the left. These while they are within the Breast are called Venae subclaviae, running along the Channel-bones; but assoon as they are gone out of it, Axillares. They send forth several branches both upwards and downwards. Sometimes the superior Intercostals just now mentioned (though seldom) arise out of them. Next, the  
Mammariae descend from them, 
Branches arising from them.  (though these sometimes spring out of the trunk of the Cava; so uncertain is the origine of some of these Veins.) 
1. Mammariae.  These send forth double branches, Internal and External. The Internal run to the gristly ends of the Ribs and their Intercostal spaces, and some of their twigs also are terminated in the glands of the Mammae. The external pass down on the outside of the Breast, and send many twigs into the said Glands, and marching further by the sides of the Cartilago ensiformis descend out of the Thorax, continuing their course down the Abdomen, under the straight Muscles thereof, till about the Navel, where it hath been an old Tradition that they inosculate with the Venae epigastricae; but this was a mistake, as has been noted more than once already. Bartholin says that sometimes there is but one Mammaria.  
The second Vein that ariseth out of the Subclavian is the Mediastina; 
2. Mediastina.  this sends twigs to the Mediastinum (from which it has its name) to the Pericardium and to the Gland called Thymus. This also sometimes springeth out of the trunk of the Cava.  
The third is Cervicalis or Vertebralis; 
3. Cervicalis.  this turns backwards towards the vertebrae of the Neck, into whose lateral holes it enters by some small twigs, which disperse themselves through the Membrane that invests the marrow contained in these Vertebrae; and other twigs it bestows upon the Muscles that lie next upon the Vertebrae.  
The fourth is Muscula inferior; 
4. Muscula inferior.  this is spent upon the lower Muscles of the Neck and the upper of the Thorax. It riseth sometimes from the external Jugular.  
All these spring from the lower side of the Subclavian veins; but these that follow from the upper. As  
The Muscula superior, 
5. Muscula superior.  which is dispersed through the Muscles of the Neck.  
Then the Jugulars, 
6. Jugulares.  which are double, External and Internal. As they go out of the Subclavians there is placed sometimes one thin Valve, sometimes two, to hinder the return of the Blood out of these into them.  
The External ascend on the outside of the Neck, and these are they which are opened when any one is let blood in the Neck for any Distemper of the Head, or Quinzy, etc. They ascend but just under the Skin, and provide for the outward parts of the Neck, Chaps, Head and Face. They make the Temple-veins and the Forehead-vein, both which are wont sometimes to be opened. Yea they send small Capillaries through the sutures of the Skull into the Membranes that cover the Brain.  
The Internal, in Men, are larger than the External. They ascend from the Subclavian by the sides of the Windpipe, on which they bestow small twigs. Assoon as they are come to the basis of the Skull, they are each divided into two, the greater and less. The greater is carried backwards, and by that hole of the Os occipitis by which the sixth pair of Nerves (Dr. Willis's eighth) comes out of the Head, they enter in, and are dispersed through the Dura mater, etc. The less enters in by the holes made for the third and fourth pair of Nerves, and is also bestowed on the Dura mater, etc.  
When the Subclavian veins have sent forth all these branches, they then pass out of the Thorax, and begin to be called Axillar, of which we shall treat in the fourth Book, Chap. 1.  
Into the Vena subclavia are inserted also the Ductus chyliferus thoracicus (of which in the first Book Chap. 10.) and Lymphaticus ramus, which returns the Lympha from the Arms, Neck, etc. but sometimes this opens into the Jugular.   

CHAP. X.  
Of Vena arteriosa, and Arteria venosa.  
THE second vessel in the Breast is called Arteria pulmonaris, 
Vena arteriosa.  otherwise Vena arteriosa. It is an Artery from its office: for it carrieth Blood out of the right Ventricle of the Heart to the Lungs. It's Coat is double also like that of other Arteries.  
As it riseth out of the right ventricle of the Heart, 
Its valves.  there stand at its orifice three Membranous Valves looking outwards, called Semilunares, because they make as it were a half circle; as also Sigmoides or Sigmoideae, from the shape of the Greek letter Sigma, which of old was of the same figure with an English capital C. In the Systole of the Heart they open, and permit the Blood to issue out of the Ventricle into this Artery; but in the Diastole they shut, so that none can return back again.  
Assoon as it is passed out of the Pericardium, 
Branching in the Lungs.  it bends towards the Aspera arteria or Windpipe, and is divided into the right and left branch, which applying themselves to the like branches of the Aspera arteria do every where accompany them on the under side, and as they run along send out very many twigs on every side, which presently associate with those of the Windpipe, and of the Vena pulmonaris. And where the small Pipes of the Aspera arteria end into the little round Cells (which we shall describe in the Chapter of the Lungs) the twigs of this Artery being complicated with those of the Vein do embrace them like a Net. Whence one may guests that the reason why the sanguiferous vessels do so exactly accompany all the branches of the Windpipe and it's annexed little Bladders, is, that the whole mass of Blood passing this way may be inspired or impregnated with the particles of the nitrous Air. For there is but a very little spent on the nutrition of the Lungs, but the greatest part of it is driven into the small twigs of the Vena pulmonaria which inosculate with those of the Artery in all its ramifications.  
The third vessel is called Vena pulmonaria or Arteria venosa; 
Arteria venosa.  this has but a single Coat as the other Veins have. After it has accompanied the Windpipe and Arteria pulmonaris in all their branchings in the Lungs, and by its small twigs has received the Blood by anastomosis out of the Artery, it unites first into two trunks (viz. the right and left) afterwards into one, and opens into the left ventricle of the Heart.  
At its orifice there are placed two membranous Valves called Mitrales, 
It's valved.  because when they are joined together they do in some manner resemble a Bishop's Mitre. They are of a stronger contexture than those called Tricuspides at the orifice of the Cava in the right Ventricle; and so are the Fibres that ascend to them from the Papillae or fleshy columns, stronger. For seeing the Blood is expelled more impetuously out of the left Ventricle than out of the right, (for the Blood sent out of the one is to circulate only through the Lungs, but that out of the other, through the whole Body) it was convenient that the Valves and Fibres should be stronger, to sustain the violent motion of the Blood, and hindering it from returning into this Vein again, to direct its course into the Aorta whose orifice opens in the Systole of the Ventricle.  
Just as this Vena pulmonaria is entering into the left Ventricle, there is, in a Foetus in the Womb, a Pipe called Foramen ovale that opens into it coming from the Cava, as was noted above. To which we shall here add, that at its orifice into this Vein there is a Valve placed, that hinders any Blood from returning into the Foramen out of the Vein.  
And here there is one thing worth noting concerning the pulmonary Artery and Vein, That whereas in all the other Arteries and Veins through the whole Body besides, the Blood contained in the Arteries is of a bright scarlet colour, and that in the Veins of a black purple; on the contrary, the Arteria pulmonaris containeth black purple Blood, and the Vein scarlet-coloured. The reason whereof was shown before, Chap. 7. viz. That the scarlet colour of the Blood is wholly owing to the mixture of Air with it in the Lungs. And therefore that Blood which the pulmonary Artery brings into the Lungs out of the right ventricle of the Heart, being the Venal blood that was brought thither from the circulation by the Cava, changes not its colour till it passes out of the small twigs of the said Artery into those of the pulmonary Vein, where the airy particles insinuate themselves into it, and so alter its colour.  
The pulmonary Vein hath no Valve in it, except that at its opening into the left Ventricle. Of which Dr. Willis giveth this reason, That the Blood within the Praecordia may always, because of the Impetus of the passions, freely fluctuate and regurgitate both ways, backwards and forwards. And lest the left ventricle of the Heart should at any time be suffocated by the Blood rushing too impetuously into it, the fleshy Fibres in the root of the Vein (for both this and the Cava have such there) by the instinct of Nature contracting themselves invert its course, and make it flow backward towards the Lungs.   

CHAP. XI.  
Of the great Artery, or Aorta.  
THE fourth vessel is the great Artery called Aorta (arcula, a little Chest) and by way of eminency Arteria magna, because it is the greatest Artery of the whole Body, from which all the others (except the pulmonary) are derived.  
It springeth out of the left ventricle of the Heart, 
Its valves.  and at its rise hath three Valves looking outwards, called Semilunares, being altogether like those at the orifice of the Arteria pulmonaris in the right Ventricle. These hinder the Blood from returning out of the great Artery into the Heart again. The orifice of the Aorta (or else the Tendon of the Heart that adheres to it) in some Creatures (especially in Hearts) does often grow bony; and sometimes in Men, according to the observations of Bartholin and Riolanus.  
Assoon as the Aorta is gone out of the Heart, it ascends not in a direct course towards the Head; for if it had, seeing it openeth straight upward out of the Ventricle, it would have poured the Blood in too rapid a stream into the Brain, and the lower parts of the Body would have been defrauded of their due share: but it first bends arch-wise, so that its bowed corner sustains the first Impetus of the expelled Blood, and directs the greatest torrent towards its descending trunk, and a lesser quantity passes up by the ascending, being to convey the Arterial blood to fewer and smaller parts.  
In a Foetus in the Womb there comes a Pipe out of the Arteria pulmonalis into the Aorta, called Canalis arteriosus, which brings out of it the greatest part of the Blood that was expelled out of the right Ventricle; little more passing into the Lungs than may serve for their nourishment: of which we gave the reason before, Chap. 9 After the Foetus is born, this Canalis degenerates into an impervious Ligament.  
Before the Aorta come out of the Pericardium, it sendeth forth sometimes one, but oftener two small twigs, from each side one, which compass the basis of the Heart like a Garland, and send down according to the length of the Heart other twigs: These are called Coronariae. When these two twigs have encompassed the basis and meet, they inosculate with one another, but not with the Veins. At their rise out of the Aorta there is a Valve placed, that permits the Blood to flow out of the great Artery into them, but hinders its reflux.  
When it hath pierced the Pericardium, 
The division of the Aorta.  and bended a little arch-wise backwards, it is divided into two Trunks, whereof the one is called Truncus ascendens, the ascending Trunk; the other descendens, the descending.  
Of these two, the descending is largest, because it ministereth to more parts.  
The ascending Trunk running up under the Vena cava lies upon the Windpipe, 
The branches of the trunk ascending.  and is presently divided into two branches, whereof one passeth to the right, 
1. Subclavia.  the other towards the left Arm: They are called Rami subclavii, because they march under the Channel-bones; and assoon as they are gone out of the Breast are called Axillares. The right is the larger, and arising higher goes a more direct way towards the Arm; the left is less, and arising lower ascends more obliquely towards the left Arm. They send out several branches both from their lower and upper side.  
From the lower proceeds the superior Intercostal, 
2. Intercostalis superior.  which runs along the interstices or intervals of the four uppermost Ribs, and sends slips to the neighbouring Muscles and spinal marrow. These sometimes arise from the cervical Arteries, coming out through the holes of the Vertebrae.  
From the upper side of each subclavian springs first Mammaria, 
3. Mammaria.  which descends towards the Breasts through the Muscles that fill up the interstices of the cartilages of the true Ribs; and a considerable branch of each descending out of the Thorax by the sides of the Cartilago ensiformis, run down the Abdomen under the Musculi recti, spreading there into many twigs: which are said to inosculate with the extremities of the like twigs of the epigastrick Artery ascending. But that opinion is so opposite to the circulation of the Blood, that it is impossible to be true. For no Blood can ascend by the Mammariae, nor descend by these ascending twigs of the Epigastricae.  
The next is Cervicalis (otherwise called Vertebralis) which sendeth slips to the Vertebrae and Muscles of the Neck, 
4. Cervicalis.  at whose seventh Vertebra it enters in by the holes of the transverse processes and pierceth the Membrane that invests the spinal marrow, bestowing twigs both on the Membrane and marrow, and runs up therewith in at the great hole of the Occiput, and being entered the Skull, both branches (the right and left) join under the marrow, and then are divided into innumerable most small twigs which make wonderful net-like Plexus in the Pia mater about the Cerebellum, and run into the substance of the Cerebellum itself; and some of them being united with those of the Carotides make part of the very Rete mirabile.  
The third Artery that rises out of the upper side of the subclavian is Muscula; 
5. Muscula.  this bestows branches on the muscles of the Neck, and sometimes on some of the Arm.  
After the Subclavians have had all these pairs of Arteries going out of them, they pass out of the Thorax, and begin to be called Axillar, of which in Book 4. Chap. 2.  
At the same place, 
Carotides.  or very near, where the ascending trunk of the Aorta sends out the Subclavians side-ways, it ascends directly upwards, divided into two, called Carotides, (though the right sometimes arises from the right Subclavian.) These at their rise are sustained by the Thymus, and having bestowed twigs on the Larynx, Tongue, the Muscles of the Os hyoides and the neighbouring Glands, pass up on each side by the sides of the Windpipe to the Jaws with the internal Jugular vein, and there are each subdivided into the external and internal branches.  
The external is smaller, and is dispersed into all the Muscles of the Cheeks, Forehead, Temples, Lips; and in general, through all the outer parts of the Head and Face.  
The internal, which is larger, sends first some more twigs to the Larynx, Tongue, etc. as also to the Glands behind▪ the Ears, and the spongy parts of the Palate and Nose. Then it entereth the upper Jaw, and bestows a small slip on the root of each Tooth (as the external did to the Teeth of the lower Jaw) whereby sharp humours flowing in upon them sometimes cause a very painful Toothache. The remainder of it climbs upon the Skull, being about its basis divided into two branches. The less and hinder whereof having sent one slip to the inner Muscles of the Neck, and another through the hole of the uppermost Vertebra into the Membrane that invests the spinal marrow, ascending further enters the Skull at the hole by which the sixth pair of Nerves (commonly so called) comes out, and creeping along the Dura mater ends near its Sinus, (which yet some say it enters.) The larger branch, tending upwards is carried through the bony channel in the wedge-like bone with a winding dust to the Sella equina; at whose basis, after it has sent out a twig on each side into the Dura mater, it opens itself into many small slips, which being enfolded with those of the cervical Artery (abovementioned) make the Rete mirabile, which is more observable in Beasts than in Men. Yet it is not all spent on the said slips, but perforating the Dura mater, it enters the Pia mater with two notable branches, which being divided into very small twigs are mingled with those of the cervical Artery, with which they pass out of the Skull and accompany the spinal marrow even to the Loins. Afterwards it sends a small branch through the second hole of the wedge-like Bone with the optic Nerve, out of the Skull, to the Eye. And yet still supplying more twigs to the substance of the Brain and Pia mater, and being united with some other twigs of the cervical Artery, it makes the Plexus choroides.  
The descending trunk of the Aorta, 
The branches of the trunk descending.  which is larger than the ascending, goes down by the Gullet, to which it cleaveth. And hence is a Man that is hot, so much cooled with a draught of cold drink; for the Gullet being cooled thereby, the Blood in the Aorta contiguous to it must needs be cooled likewise.  
Before it arrive at the Diaphragm it sends out of its hinder side the inferior Intercostals which run along the interstices of eight or nine of the lower Ribs, 
1. Intercostalis inferior.  namely those which the superior Intercostals did not supply. They likewise send sprigs by the holes of the Vertebrae made for the Nerves, to the marrow of the Back, and to the Muscles which rest upon the Vertebrae▪ and also to those of the Thorax. Sometimes above this and sometimes below it, there arises also out of the hinder part of the Aorta, an Artery called Bronchialis, first found out and so named by Frederick Ruysch, which accompanies all the Bronchia of the Windpipe.  
When it comes to the Midriff, 
2. Phrenica.  there spring out of it the Phrenicae, one on each side: these running through the Diaphragm, pass up into the Mediastinum, and sometimes into the Pericardium.  
Then having penetrated the Midriff it descends in one trunk to the fifth vertebra of the Loins; 
3. Coeliaca.  in which passage it first sendeth forth Coeliaca which ariseth single, and is so called, because it sendeth twigs to the Stomach. This springeth from the forepart of the Trunk, at the first vertebra of the Loins, and descending under the hollow of the Liver, upon the trunk of the Vena portae it is divided into two branches, the right and left.  
The right which is smaller, 
Its branches.  ascending, produces in its upper part the Gastrica dextra, 
Gastrica dextra.  that comes to the Pylorus, whence Spigelius calls it Pylorica. 
Cysticae gemellae.  And besides, the Cysticae gemellae, which are very small, and are dispersed through the Gallbladder. And out of its lower side there spring out of it.  
1. Epiplois dextra, 
Epiplois dextra.  which runs through the right side of the lower leaf of the Caul and the Colon that is annexed to it.  
2. Intestinalis, 
Intestinalis.  bestowed on the Duodenum and beginning of Jejunum.  
3. Gastroepiplois dextra, 
Gastroepiplois dextra.  on the bottom and middle of the Stomach, and also on the Caul that is knit to its bottom.  
4. Hepaticae, 
Hepaticae  which are two small ones: these are spent on the investing membrane of the Liver (for its Parenchyma is nourished by the Porta) the Capsulá communis, the Gallbladder and Porus bilarius.  
The remainder of this right branch enters the Mesentery with many twigs.  
The left branch of the Coeliaca, 
Splenica.  which is called Splenicus (sometime springing immediately from the Aorta) is larger than the right, and as it goeth towards the Spleen it sendeth forth of its upper side Gastrica major, 
Gastrica major.  which after it hath bestowed a slip on the higher and middle part of the Stomach, is divided into two others; the first whereof is called Coronaria stomachica, 
Coronaria stomachica.  which encompasses the upper orifice of the Stomach like a Garland, and sends many twigs to the body of the Ventricle itself. 
Gastrica sinistra.  The other is called Gastrica sinistra, and this is carried towards the right hand into the upper part of the Stomach and the Pylorus. 
Epiplo's postica.  Out of its lower side spring, first Epiplois postica, which runs to the lower leaf of the Omentum, 
Epiplois sinistra.  and the Colon annexed to it; secondly Epiplois sinistra, which is bestowed on the lower and left side of the Omentum.  
Just as this splenick branch is entering into the Spleen, 
Vas breve arteriosum.  there arise out of its upper part Vas breve arteriosum, which goeth straight to the left part of the bottom of the Stomach; 
Gastroepiplois sinistra.  and the Gastroepiplois sinistra, which being sustained by the upper leaf of the Omentum sends some twigs thereto, and also to the left part of the bottom of the Stomach, and to both its fore and hinder sides. Then it enters into the Spleen, whose branchings therein we described in the former Book, Chap. 16. of the Spleen.  
All these Arteries spring from the Coeliaca, and accompany the Veins of the Porta of the like denomination.  
The next that arises out of the trunk of the Aorta is the upper Mesenterick, 
4. Mesenterica superior.  which springs from the forepart of it as the Coeliack did. It accompanies the Vena mesaraica of the Porta, and runs through all the upper part of the Mesentery, and bestows many branches on the Guts Jejunum, Ileum and that part of Colon that lieth in the right Hypochondre.  
Immediately below this, 
5. Emulgentes.  about the second vertebra of the Loins, there go out of each side of the descending trunk of the Aorta an Emulgent artery, each of which being after its rise divided into two and sometimes three branches, enters the Kidney of its own side. The right springs out of it a little lower than the left. Both are subdivided into innumerable twigs in the Parenchyma of the Kidneys, and their Capillaries end in the Glands, wherein the Serum that these Arteries bring with the Blood is separated therefrom, and carried from them by the urinary Siphons' into the Pelvis, of which more in the former Book, Chap. 17. of the Kidneys.  
Next to these arise the Spermaticae (called Arteriae praeparantes.) 
6. Spermaticae.  These go out of the forepart of the Trunk very near together (very seldom either of them out of the Emulgents, as the left Spermatick vein does) and the right passes over the trunk of the Vena cava. About two finger's breadth from the Emulgents they are each joined with the Vena praeparans of their own side, and descend with them in Men through the process of the Peritonaeum to the Stones, being divided into two branches a little before they arrive at them, one of which runs under the Epididymis, and the other to the Testis. In Women, when they come near the Testes, they are divided also into two branches, one whereof goes to the Testis, and the other to the bottom of the Womb.  
Next below the Spermaticks springs the lower Mesenterick out of the Trunk a little before it is divided into the Rami iliaci. 
7. Mesenterica inferior.  This entereth the lower region of the Mesentery, and distributes many branches to the left part of the Colon and to the straight Gut, and lastly descending to the Anus, makes the internal hemorrhoidal Arteries.  
Very near to this, 
8 Lumbares.  out of the Trunk still, arise the Lumbares, reckoned four in number. These go out of the backside of the Aorta, and are distributed not only to the neighbouring muscles of the Loins, and to the Peritonaeum, but enter in at the holes of the vertebrae of the Loins, and run along the Membrane that involves the spinal marrow, and penetrate into the marrow itself.  
Besides these some reckon other two, on each side one, called Musculae superiores, (which run to the Muscles of the Abdomen) unless these be two of the four called Lumbares.  
When the Trunk is descended as low as the last or fifth vertebra of the Loins and the top of Os sacrum, it begins to climb upon the Vena cava, under which it passed thus far. But as it begins to get upon it, it is divided into two equal branches called Rami iliaci, 
Rami iliaci.  and at its very division there springs out of it Arteria sacra, whose small twigs entering in at the holes of Os sacrum penetrate into the marrow contained in it.  
The Trunk of the descending Aorta being divided into the Rami iliaci, 
Their branches.  these are subdivided presently into the interior and exterior branches.  
From the interior, which is less, proceed three others.  
First, 
1. Muscula inferior.  the inferior Muscula (called otherwise Glutea) which is bestowed on the Muscles named Glutei that make the Buttocks, and also on the lower end of the Iliack muscle and the Psoas.  
Secondly, 
2. Hypogastrica.  the Hypogastrick, which is large, and at the lower end of Os sacrum runs to the Bladder and its Neck, and the Muscles that cover the Ossa pubis. In Men it goes also along the two nervous bodies of the Penis as far as the Glans: and in Women it is distributed in numerous branches into the bottom of the Womb and its Neck, out of which for the greatest part issue the Menses in their monthly purgation. It goes also to the Podex, where it makes the external hemorrhoidal Arteries.  
Thirdly, 
3. Umbilicalis.  the Umbilical artery, which ascending by the sides of the Bladder, and being inserted into the duplicature of the Peritonaeum, proceeds to the Navel, out of which it passes in a Foetus in the Womb, and runs into the Placenta uterina, of which before, Book 1. Chap. 33. But after the Infant is born, when there is no more use of it, it closes up, and hardens into a Ligament, sustaining the Bladder, and hindering it from pressing on its Neck.  
From the exterior branch of the Ramus iliacus two Arteries arise.  
First, 
4. Epigastrica.  the Epigastrick, which turning upwards on the outside of the Peritonaeum runs betwixt it and the Musculi recti of the Abdomen as high as the Navel, where the Mammary artery meets it, and according to tradition (though false) inosculates there with it. Of which before, in this Chapter.  
Secondly, 
5. Pudenda.  Pudenda, which sends forth a notable Artery on each side into the nervous body of the Penis in Men, and into the Clitoris in Women. Hence it is carried inwards by the jointing of the Ossa pubis to the Pudenda and Groins, and their Glands, and is spent on the Skin of those parts, and of the Yard.  
When all these pairs of Arteries have arisen out of the Rami iliaci, they run down out of the Peritonaeum to the Thighs, where they begin to be called Crurales, where we shall leave them till we come to speak of the Arteries of the Limbs, Book 4. Chap. 5.  
Having now traced all the Arteries springing out of the Aorta (whether out of its ascending or descending Trunk) in the Thorax and Abdomen, taking occasion to do so, because the great Artery out of which they all arise, has its origine in the Heart, to which we have considered it as an appendage; we shall pass on to the description of the remaining parts in the Breast, not yet spoken to.  
Pag 281. Tab. IX.  
Fig. 1.  
Fig. 2.  
Fig. 3.  
Fig. 4.  
Fig. 5.  
Fig. 6.  
Fig. 7.  

The Explanation of the Table.  

Figure I.  
Representeth the Vessels that go into and out of the Heart.  
a The Basis of the Heart.  
b The Mucro or Cone of the Heart.  
c The trunk of the Cava ascending from the Liver.  
d The trunk of the Cava above the Heart descending from the Claviculae.  
e The uniting of these two Trunks as they enter into the right auricle of the Heart.  
f The Arteria pulmonaris rising out of the right Ventricle, and passing towards the Lungs.  
g The Canalis arteriosus from the Arteria pulmonaris to the Aorta, pervious in a Foetus in the Womb.  
h The Vena pulmonaria coming from the Lungs, and entering into the left ventricle of the Heart.  
i The Aorta ascending out of the left ventricle of the Heart.  
k The ascending trunk of the Aorta.  
j The descending trunk of the Aorta.   

Figure II.  
Representeth the oblique Fibres of the Heart (lying under the straight, which are outermost, but here removed) which ascending from the left side towards the right obliquely, terminate in the basis of the Heart, (from Doctor Lower.)  
a The basis of the Heart.  
b The Cone.  
c The Fibres that encompass the left Ventricle.  
d The Fibres encompassing the right Ventricle.  
e A Sinus in the interstice of the Ventricles made for receiving the vessels of the Heart.   

Figure III.  
Representeth a second rank of oblique Fibres lying under the former, and running clean contrary, from the right side of the Heart to the left, (also from Dr. Lower.)  
a The basis of the Heart.  
b The Cone.  
c The right side of the Heart.  
d The left.  
e The Fibres of the right Ventricle.  
f The Fibres of the left.   

Figure IV, V, VI, VII.  
Represent the Valves of the Vessels that go into and out of the Ventricles of the Heart.   

Figure IU.  
A The orifice of the Vena coronaria.  
B A print of the Anastomosis between the Vena cava and Pulmonaria, by means of the Foramen ovale.  
CC The Valvulae tricuspides with the Fibrillae by which they are tied.   

Figure V.  
A The right Ventricle of the Heart opened.  
BBB The Valvulae sigmoides of the Arteria pulmonaris.   

Figure VI.  
AA The Vena pulmonaria laid open.  
B A print of the Foramen ovale opening into it.  
CC The two Valvulae mitrales.  
D The left Ventricle laid open.   

Figure VII.  
A The Aorta cut open near the Heart.  
BBB The Valvulae semilunares in the orifice of the Aorta.     

CHAP. XII.  
Of the aspera Arteria and Lungs.  
AS in the first Book, being to treat of the Stomach, we first described the Gullet, which serves as a Tunnel to it; so the same reason induces to begin with the Windpipe, called Trachea or aspera Arteria, thereby to usher in the description of the Lungs, to which it performs the same office as the Gullet to the Stomach, this receiving in Air, as that does Meat and Drink.  
The Aspera arteria then is a long Pipe, 
The windpipe.  consisting of Cartilages and Membranes, which beginning at the Throat or lower part of the Jaws and lying upon the Gullet descends into the Lungs, through which it spreads in many branchings.  
It is commonly divided into two parts, 
Its parts.  the upper which is called Larynx, 
1. Larynx.  and the lower, that is named Bronchus. Of the former we shall speak in Chap. 14. where we shall treat of the parts contained in the Neck; of the other here.  
By the Bronchus we mean all the Trachea besides the Larynx, 
2. Bronchus.  as well before as after it arrive at the Lungs. It is joined immediately to the Larynx, to whose lowest Cartilege all those of the Bronchus are assimilated. These Cartilages are like so many Ribs, Hopes or Rings, seated one below another at equal distances, and kept in their places by the inner membrane of the Trachea, which fills up their interstices and ties them one to another like a Ligament. Yet these Rings have not their circle entire, but on the backside of the Bronchus next the Gullet, that they might give way to the Meat in swallowing, they pass into a Membrane, which is the same with the inner Membrane that ties them together. So that they are in figure like the letter C.  
Besides the inner there is also an outer Membrane that helps to connect these Cartilages the more firmly one to another, and the whole Trachea to the neighbouring parts, that it may more safely and firmly descend into the Thorax. This is much thinner than the other: for the inner (according to Dr. Willis) has two rows of muscular Fibres, the outer straight, the inner oblique; the first by their contraction shorten the Trachea, the latter straiten it: so that he thinks they assist expiration, especially when it is violent, as in coughing, hawking or the like. It is also of most exquisite sense, as every one knows, being the least thing offends it and causes a Cough, which is a sort of Convulsive motion. And this it owes to the recurring Nerves of the sixth pair (Dr. Willis's eighth) creeping along it more than the outer. It is usually besmeared with a fattish and mucous humour, to hinder its drying, and to make the voice smother: for when this humour is fretted off in Catarrhs, or it becomes unequal from any cause, the voice becomes hoarse; and when it is dried by too much heat, as in Fevers, it becomes squeaking.  
The aspera Arteria has Veins from the external Jugulars. 
Its vessels.  Arteries from the Carotides, and from the Arteria bronchialis, (first found out by Frederick Ruysch) which springs from the backside of the descending trunk of the Aorta, a little above the lower Intercostals. Nerves it receives from the recurring branches of the par vagum, as abovesaid.  
When it is descended as low as the fourth vertebra of the Thorax, 
Division.  it is divided into two Trunks, whereof one goes into the right lobe of the Lungs, the other into the left, and each is presently again divided into two, and those into others, till at last they end in very small branches, which are dispersed among the roots of the pulmonary Artery and Vein, and end into and are continued with the little Bladders that make up the greatest part of the Parenchyma of the Lungs. For  
Though the Lungs (called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
The Lungs.  à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to breath) have been held to be of a carnous substance, 
Their substance.  not much unlike the Liver or Spleen; yet Malpighius hath discovered them to have a far other Parenchyma, namely soft, spongy and rare, made up of most thin and fine Membranes continued with the inner coat of the Trachea, which Membranes compose an infinite number of little round and hollow Bladders, so placed that there is an open passage from the Trachea out of one into another, and all are terminated at the outer Membrane that encloseth the whole Lungs.  
These Bladders though they are continued to the Bronchia, yet they have no Cartilages as those have; but though they are very fine, yet they have muscular Fibres, whereby they contract themselves in expiration, but not so close as to expel all the Air included in them; for if the Parenchyma of the Lungs had fallen flat and close in expiration, it would have given some stop to the circulation of the Blood through them out of the pulmonary Artery into the Vein; whereas now that there remains still so much Air in these Vesiculae as to keep the Lungs a little puffed up and rare, the Blood can pass the more easily and swiftly through them.  
That there are such Bladders annexed to the Bronchia, Diemerbroeck shows by two notable Stories: The one of a Stone-cutter's Man that died of an Asthma, in whom he found these Vesiculae so stuffed with the dust of the hewn Stone, that when he cut his Lungs open, his Knife seemed as if it went through an heap of Sand: The other of one that being employed to pick and cleanse Feathers, died of a long continued Asthma, and had these Bladders quite filled with the fine Dust or Down of the Feathers. From whence he concludes, That whereas in a natural state the Air in inspiration is received as well into these Bladders as the Bronchia, seeing they could not now admit any Air, being stuffed with the aforesaid matters, the Patients were necessarily Asthmatical, and died so.  
We said before that all these Vesiculae were invested with a common Membrane in the superficies of the Lungs; 
Investing membrane.  and this Dr. Willis will have double: The outer tunicle is thin and smooth, which seems to be a fine texture of nervous filaments; the inner rough and thicke●, consisting almost wholly of the extremities of the Vessels and Vesiculae; and through the little pits that are all over made in it by them, its inner superficies looks like an Honeycomb. This investing Membrane consisting thus of two Tunicles has many large pores, but such as admit not any thing to pass from within outwards; for if one fill the Lungs newly taken out of a Sheep or the like (before they are cold) with a pair of Bellows never so full of wind, there will none pass out of the Membrane, not so much as to make the flame of a Candle to wave: but on the other side they do admit even liquors to pass from without inwards; so when the Breast has been opened to let out matter in an Empyema, (which was too thick to be absorbed by the too narrow pores) and bitter cleansing injections have been squirted into the cavity of the Thorax, to clear it from the purulent matter stagnating in it, it has been observed that a good part of such injections have been hawkt and coughed up. And though some think that whensoever Pus is coughed up, it is certainly bred in the Lungs themselves; yet I am of opinion that in an Empyema when it is thin, these pores may be so large as to imbibe it even out of the cavity of the Thorax; otherwise I see not how any labouring of an Empyema should ever be cured without tapping: for of the two I think this a far more probable way to discharge the matter by, than that it should be imbibed by the mouths of the Veins gaping (as is supposed) either in the superficies of the Pleura or Diaphragm. But to proceed.  
The Lungs are divided into the right and left part, 
Division.  being parted by the Mediastinum, and each part is otherwise called a Lobe. And because they are two, that have no communication one with the other (save in one Trachea, by which the Air comes into and goes out of them) hence in common speech we say Lungs in the plural. Each of these parts or Lobes is subdivided into two, sometimes three others, and those into many lesser Lobules, as may be seen in the following Figure taken from Dr. Willis.  
The Lungs hang by the Aspera arteria that runs through the middle of their substance, 
Connexion.  and so by its means adhere to the Neck. Preternaturally (though pretty often) they cleave by their outer superficies to the Pleura, and sometimes with their lower end to the Diaphragm.  
They have all sorts of Vessels, 
Vessels.  that are common to them with other parts; 
1. Trachea.  but peculiar to themselves they have Bronchia or the branches of the Windpipe, for bringing in and carrying forth of Air.  
Their Arteries and Veins are the Arteria and Vena pulmonaris, 
2. Arteries and Veins.  that accompany all the divisions of the Aspera arteria within their several Lobes. These open one into the other by many anastomosis, and are interwoven one with another all through the coats of the Vesiculae. But of these we discoursed so largely before, Chap. 10. that we shall say no more of them here. Besides these, that were all the sanguiferous vessels Anatomists had observed to reach to the Lungs, there has of late been found out an Artery by Frederick Ruysch (which he calls Arteria bronchialis) that seems to convey Blood for the nourishment of the Lungs and Bronchia. But of this likewise before (in this Chapter.)  
They have abundance of Lymphducts that attend upon the Veins and Arteries. 
3. Lymphducts.  Their small twigs running upon the outer superficies of the Lungs, towards their root unite into several greater trunks; which being inserted into the common thoracick dust, discharge thereinto the Lympha imbibed by them in the Lungs. They may be made to appear very plain in the outward surface, if in dissecting a Live-dog, one press upon the top of the thoracick dust, so as nothing be poured from thence into the Subclavian vein: for then the Lymphducts of the Lungs, seeing they cannot unload themselves into the common dust that is now stopped and full, will swell very much and be very conspicuous. If these Lymphducts at any time be obstructed or broken, Dr. Willis thinks there often proceeds from thence a Dropsy of the Breast or Lungs, yea Coughs and Phthisical distempers.  
The last sort of Vessels dispersed in the Lungs are the Nerves. 
4. Nerves.  And these proceed from the recurring Nerves of the Par vagum, usually called the sixth pair, but Dr. Willis's eighth, who says they are distributed all over the Lungs along with the sanguiferous Vessels and ducts of the Bronchia, to supply animal spirits to the muscular Fibres of their Coats.  
Their Action is respiration, of which in the next Chapter.  

The Explanation of the Table.  

Figure I.  
Representeth the Sternum cut off and lifted up, the Mediastinum, Thymus, Lungs, Diaphragm, etc.  
AAA The inner superficies of the Sternum and of the Cartilages knit to it.  

Tab. X Pag. 290  

Fig. 1.   

Fig. 2.   

Fig. 3.   BB The mammary Veins and Arteries descending under the Sternum.  
C The glandulous body called Thymus.  
DDDD The sides of the Mediastinum pulled asunder from the Sternum.  
EE The space between the Membranes of the Mediastinum, arising from the tearing of it from the Sternum.  
GG The Lungs.  
HH The Diaphragm.  
I The Cartilago ensiformis.   

Figure II.  
Representeth the Diaphragm with its processes.  
A The left Nerve of the Diaphragm.  
B The right.  
C The upper membrane of the Diaphragm a little separated.  
D The carnous substance of the Diaphragm bared.  
E A hole for the Gullet to descend by.  
F A hole for the Vena cava.  
GGG The membranous part or centre of the Diaphragm.  
HHH Its processes or appendices, betwixt which the great Artery descends.   

Figure III.  
Representeth a piece of one Lobe of the Lungs, (according to the ramifications of the Aspera arteria) divided into many lesser Lobules, (from Dr. Willis)  
A The muscular Villi or Fibres running straight lengthways in the inside of the Aspera arteria, upon which other circular ones lie.  
BBB A part of the trunk of the Trachea, as also its branches that make the lesser Lobules, uncut open, that their annular Cartilages may be seen.  
CCCC The secondary Lobules hung upon the stems of the Bronchia like Grapes (which might yet be divided into lesser Lobules) all whose inner ducts pass out of the Bronchia into the Air-bladders, or vesiculary cells.  
dddd The sanguiferous vessels creeping along the superficies of the Lobules.     

CHAP. XIII.  
Of Respiration.  
THE Action for which the Lungs are appointed by Nature is Respiration, which is an alternative Diastole and Systole, or dilatation and contraction of the Breast, whereby the Air is received in, and driven forth of the Lungs.  
Now the Lungs do not dilate themselves by any proper power or faculty of their own, 
How respiration is performed.  being destitute of instruments to perform such an action; nor do they attract the Air by any magnetic property, in inspiration: But the Muscles of the Thorax being so framed, that though contraction be the only and proper action of a Muscle, yet the Thorax is dilated by certain of them, as it is contracted by others; whilst it is dilated, there is greater space given for expanding the Lungs, and then the Air by its proper elastic virtue does of its own accord issue in at the Trachea, and insinuates itself into all its Bronchia and into the Vesiculae, and puffs them all up; namely to the end that its nitrous particles may every where meet with the Blood as it glides through all the parts of the Lungs: And when the Breast receding from that dilatation is contracted, the Lungs, being partly compressed thereby, and partly by the muscular Fibres of the Vesiculae and of the inner coat of the Trachea and Bronchia, expel the Air out again.  
The Muscles that assist the dilatation of the Breast, 
Muscles ministering to respiration.  are those that lift up the Ribs and draw them backwards; which shall be described Book 4. Chap. 15. And besides these there is another internal Muscle, namely the Midriff, that contributes towards it, as was showed Chap. 3. of this Book, where we treated of it. And as for the straitning or concidence of the Thorax, that it is not only a motion of restitution, or a cessation of the foresaid Muscles from their action, as evident, seeing sometimes expiration is performed more laboriously and violently than inspiration, as in coughing, hollooing, or the like. And therefore Nature has provided peculiar and proper Muscles for that purpose, described in the same Chapter of the fourth Book; and these are assisted partly by some Muscles of the Abdomen, and partly by the muscular Fibres of the Vesiculae, Trachea and Bronchia, as abovesaid.  
There hath been great controversy among Philosophers whether respiration be an Animal or Natural motion. 
What kind of motion respiration is.  That it is natural, is thought to be proved, both in that it is performed as well when we are asleep, as awake; and also that though it be continued through a Man's whole life, yet we are never wearied with it as we are with animal and voluntary motions. On the other side some prove it to be animal, first because it is performed by such Instruments as serve for animal motion, namely Muscles; and secondly because at our pleasure we can make it quicker or slower, stronger or weaker, or alter it how we please. Others thinking the arguments on either side convincing, take both in, and suppose it a kind of mixed action, partly natural, and partly spontaneous. But I think there is no necessity from the arguments alleged to grant this motion to be natural, or any more than animal or spontaneous. For as to the first argument, that the motion is as well performed when we sleep as when we are awake, and therefore it cannot be voluntary; if this were allowed to be of force, we must also grant walking and talking to be natural motions, because many perform them both, when they are asleep. And as to the second, from our not being wearied by it, in answer to it we may distinguish of animal actions, into such as are done by instinct and are free, and into such as serve the affections of the mind: the former proceed always and without impediment, even when we think not thereon, but may notwithstanding be directed and moderated when we do think of them, and such is respiration; the latter is not performed continually, as to run, leap, write, etc. In the former there is a plentiful and continual influx of animal spirits into the Muscles, of custom or course; whence there follows no weariness, though they be continual: In the latter, seeing by the determination that is made in the Brain the spirits now flow in and anon cease, sometimes in greater plenty and sometimes in less, from this mutation and unaccustomedness does the weariness proceed.  
Respiration is so necessary to the continuance of life, 
The use of it.  that after once the Foetus comes into the open Air and begins to breath, it can hardly live two minutes without it. But upon what account it becomes so necessary is not agreed among learned Men, each party exhibiting such reasons of it, as may best suit with their hypotheses. Hence some (and those the most) think that respiration serves for the cooling and ventilating of the Blood that acquires a great heat in the right Ventricle of the Heart, and also for the carrying out fuliginous streams therefrom. Others, that it serves for the better mixture of the particles of the Blood as it passes through the Lungs, as also to further its circulation. Others, that the Air is inspired for the greater subtilization of the Blood, and enkindling of the vital spirits, or (to continue the metaphor) vital flame. More opinions there are, but this last is (if not the truest) the most ingenious, and is very learnedly maintained by Dr. Willis, Dr. Charleton, etc. whom the Reader may be pleased to consult for further satisfaction.  
A secondary use is to form the voice; for such Creatures as breathe not (as Fish, etc.) are mute.   

CHAP. XIV.  
Of the Neck and the parts contained in it, viz. the Larynx, Pharynx, Tonsillae, etc.  
HAving now dispatched all the parts of the middle Venture or Thorax, we should next proceed to the highest, viz. the Head; but betwixt these two is the Neck, like an Isthmus between them, which therefore we must take in our way, and describe the parts contained in it.  
It is called Collum, 
It's name.  either à Colendo, because it used to be adorned with Chains, etc. or because it riseth out of the trunk of the body instar Collis like an Hill. Collum is a general name for the whole Neck; yet the hinder part of it is particularly called Cervix.  
The parts of it are either containing, 
Parts containing.  or contained. The containing are the same which are found in the rest of the Body, saving that the Membrana carnosa seemeth to be more fleshy.  
The parts contained are these. 
Contained.   
1. The Larynx, 
1. Larynx.  which is the upper part of the Windpipe, and the instrument of forming the voice.  
It is almost round and circular in figure, 
It's figure.  only jetting out a little before, and something flattish behind, to give way to the Gullet in swallowing.  
It's bigness differs according to age, 
Bigness.  sex, and temperament, whence proceeds the great diversity of voices. Such in whom it is narrow, as in younger people, have shrill and small voices; such as have it wide and are come to maturity, have fuller and more hoarse. The voice is altered also in respect of the length or shortness of the Larynx, and as the Air is more strongly or weakly expelled.  
It has Arteries from the Carotides, 
Vessels.  Veins from the external Jugulars, and Nerves from the recurring branches of par vagum.  
Besides the Membranes which are common to it with the rest of the Trachea (described before, 
Substance.  Chap. 12.) it is made up of five Cartilages and thirteen Muscles.  
The first Cartilege is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 scutiformis, 
Cartilages.  or Buckler-like; for within it is hollow, but without embossed or convex: that part which sticketh out is called pomum Adami, from an idle fable, that part of the fatal Apple by God's judgement stuck in his Throat, and that this Cartilege being thereby distended was made to jet out, and the protuberance propagated to posterity. It is greater in Men than in Women. The second Cartilege is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 annularis, because it is like a Turkish ring, and compasseth the whole Larynx; in the hinder part it is broad and thick. The third and fourth because of the Membrane that invests them, seem but one, but it being removed they appear to be two. However they have but one name which is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 guttalis, because when their two processes are joined together, they are instar gutturnii like to that part of the neck of a Jug or Ewer at which we pour out the water. For by their juncture they frame a rimula or little chink for the modulating of the voice, called Glottis. The fifth is called Epiglottis, because it is placed above the Glottis or Chink, and covereth it. It is of the form of a Tongue, and is appointed to hinder the falling down of any thing which may prove offensive unto the Windpipe, when we eat or drink. It is pressed down by the weight of the things which are swallowed, and turneth them down to the Gula.  
The Muscles by which these Cartilages are moved in forming the voice, 
Muscles.  are thirteen in number; but as for their names and description, the Reader may please to consult Book 5. Chap. 11.  
The second part contained in the Neck is the upper part of the Gullet, 
2. Pharynx.  which is called Pharynx, from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, because it conveyeth the Meat and Drink towards the Stomach. It is continued to the Fauces, (●or indeed is the greatest part thereof) reaching up behind to the Wula, on the sides to the Tonsillaes, and before to the Epiglottis. It is membranous, but not purely so, for it is thick and in some sort carnous. It has seven Muscles, to assist it in swallowing, three pair to open it, and an odd one, which is called its Sphincter, to straiten it, of which Book 5. Chap. 12.  
The next parts are the Tonsillaes, 
3. Tonsillae.  commonly called Almonds, which are two Glands seated at the root of the Tongue, on each side of the Wula, and at the top of the Larynx, covered with the common Membrane that invests all the Mouth. They are of a yellowish colour, and Dr. Wharton compares their substance to concreated Honey, only they are of a more firm consistency, but they look sandy like it: They have small vessels from the Jugular Veins and Arteries, and Nerves from the fifth and sixth pair.  
They have each a large oval common Dust or Sinus that opens into the Mouth, 
Their dust.  so wide in an Ox that one may put the top of ones little finger into it. Into this many lesser open, and by it discharge into the Mouth, etc. the liquor that is separated in the Gland.  
The use of these Glands is to separate a certain mucous or pituitous matter from the Blood, 
Use.  for the moistening and lubricating of the Larynx, Tongue, Fauces, and Gullet. Dr. Wharton ascribes a more noble use to them, viz. to make a Ferment to further the concoction of the Stomach, yea thinks that they are the chief Instrument of taste.  
There are several other Glands that are near to these, as 1. the Thyreoideae that are seated towards the lower part of the Larynx at the sides of the Cartilages Thyreoides and Cricoides, etc. 2. The Jugular, placed by the Jugular vessels; of which Dr. Wharton has told fourteen on each side: 3. Parotides, situated at the root of the Ear; which whoso would see accurately described, may consult the said Dr. Wharton, in his Adenographia, cap. 18, 19, 20. for they are too minute and inconsiderable parts to fill up any large room in this Epitome. Neither shall we mention the Veins and Arteries that pass through the Neck to the Head, having described them before in Chap. 9 and 11.  
As to other parts that make up the Neck, viz. the seven Vertebrae, and eight Muscles, those will come to be treated of in their proper Books: And therefore we shall pass immediately to the highest Venture, the Head.  
The end of the Second Book.     

The Third Book.  

OF THE HEAD.  

CHAP. I.  
Of the Head in general, and its common containing parts.  
NOW followeth the third and highest Venture of the Body, called Caput, the Head. This is the most noble Cavity of the three, containing the Brain, wherein the rational Soul more especially operates, and whereby all the animal motions of the whole Body are moderated and determined; as well as performed by means of the spirits elaborated in it, and sent into all the parts by the Nerves.  
It is placed in the highest region, 
It's seat.  most fit for the organs of the Senses, but chiefly for the Eyes; for they ought to be placed there as in a Watchtower: and besides having but soft Nerves which could not endure a long passage, it was requisite that the Brain should be near them.  
Of figure it is spherical; 
Figure.  yet somewhat flattish, and longish.  
It is bigger in Man than in other Creatures, 
Bigness.  considering the proportion of their Bodies; as his Brain also is.  
The parts are of three sorts, 
Parts.  for they are either 1. distinctive, or 2. expressive of the regions, or 3. constitutive of the whole.  
The parts distinctive are two, the hairy scalp called Calva, and that without hair called Fancies.  
The parts which express the regions (of the first,) are four: 1. Sinciput or the forepart, reaching from the Forehead to the coronal future. 2. Occiput the Noddle, or hinder part, beginning at the future Lambdoides, and reaching to the first vertebra of the Neck. 3. Vertex, the Crown, which is situated on the top of the Head between the bounds of the Sinciput and Occiput. And 4. the lateral parts descending from this on each side between the Ears and Eyes are called Tempora, or the Temples.  
The parts constitutive are either containing, or contained. the containing are either common or proper. The common are those we treated of in Chap. 3. of the first Book, viz. the Cuticula, Cutis, Pinguedo, and Membrana carnosa. The Cuticula is thinner and softer; but the Skin thicker than in any other part of the Body, yet porous, to give way to the nourishment of the Hair. The Membrana carnosa in some cleaveth so to the Skin, that they can move it at their pleasure.  
We shall not need to say more here of these common containing parts, but refer the Reader to the above-cited place; and now proceed to the proper, having first discoursed a little of the Hair.   

CHAP. II.  
Of the Hair.  
THE Hairs of the Head are called in Latin Capilli, 
It's name.  quasi Capitis pili, and differ not from the Hairs in any other part of the Body, save in length.  
Now an Hair may be defined to be a body cold and dry, 
Definition.  small, thread-like, hard and flexible, budding from the Skin.  
The Hairs are seldom round, 
Figure.  but generally four square, as the stalks of some Plants; sometimes triangular, but always porous, the pores running lengthways. All these things may be observed in a good Microscope. They are sometimes curled, and sometimes hang lank.  
Hairs are commonly divided into Congeniti, such as we bring into the World with us, as those of the Head, Eyelids, and Kickshaws; and Postgeniti, such as begin to grow at certain seasons in our life-time, as the Beard, the Hairs growing about the Pudenda, on the Breast, in the Armpits, and the like.  
They are no parts of the Body, 
Life.  and therefore have no Animal life; yet they have a Vegetative life, and that peculiar to themselves, and not owing to the life of the Body, seeing they continue to grow after a Man is dead, as has been observed in embalmed Bodies.  
The matter out of which they are bred and nourished is commonly reputed to be a moist, 
Matter.  fuliginous, crass, earthy and somewhat viscid excrement of the third concoction. Spigelius thinks they are nourished by Blood: which opinion he grounds on an analogy he supposes there is between Hair, and the Feathers of Fowl; and these latter he says are apparently nourished by Blood, for if one pull one from off a young Fowl, its end is bloody. Diemerbroeck dissents not much herefrom, but thinks the Blood to be prepared and concocted in a specifical manner into a crass, earthy and viscid juice. Whatever the matter be, it is attracted by the white roots of the Hairs, and is carried even to their very ends by the pores; just as Plants receive nourishment out of the Earth by their Roots, and communicate it to their outmost parts.  
The colour of them is answerable to the Climate, 
Colour.  or to the natural constitution of the party, or to the diversity of those humours that are mixed with the juice whereby they are nourished. In those of cold phlegmatic constitutions they use to be of a light colour, in choleric, reddish, etc. They are most commonly straight in those which are born in cold Countries, but curled in those who inhabit hot Climates.  
And as the reason of the difference of the colour of the Hair in several persons is from different temperaments, 
Why hair turns white.  etc. so the reason why Men in old age grow grey, whenas their Hair before was of another colour, seemeth to be the predominance of phlegm in that juice that nourisheth them: whence also the Hairs of the Head and Face soon turn white, because the Brain does more abound with pituitous humours than any other part of the Body. But it is not so easy to give a reason of some Men's turning grey in one night's time, when they have been under great fears; of which there are many instances credibly reported.  
The Hairs have three uses: 
Their use.  for they serve 1. for defence, 2. for beauty, and 3. show the temperature of the whole Body and Skin.   

CHAP. III.  
Of the proper containing parts.  
THE proper containing parts are five; to wit, the Muscles, the Pericranium, the Periosteum, the Cranium, and the meanings. Look for the Muscles in the fifth Book, and for the Cranium in the sixth. Of the other here. And First  
The Pericranium is a Membrane thinnish, 
The Pericranium.  dense and white, of exquisite sense, immediately seated under the Membrana carnosa. It covereth the whole Skull, except where the temporal Muscles lie upon the Cranium, for it is stretched over them, and seeing it is very sensible and tender, it causeth horrible pain and inflammation, when the temporal Muscle is wounded.  
It is tied to the Dura mater by some nervous Fibres, 
It's connexion.  which pass within the Skull by its Sutures, to stay firmly the Dura mater, and also the Brain which it invests, from inordinate moving. And although in Infants new born these be strongly united, insomuch that the Pericranium is said by some to spring from the Dura mater; yet in process of time they part, and become joined only by some fibrous ties, by which, inflammations may be communicated from the Pericranium to the Brain.  
Next under the Pericranium is spread the Periosteum, 
Periosteum.  which immediately cleaveth to the Skull and gives it that sense which it hath. Itself is a very thin and nervous Membrane, and of very acute sense. All the Bones of the whole Body (except the Teeth) are invested with such alike Membrane, and owe their sense to it. Some deny it to be found here, affirming that the Pericranium supplieth its place: But that cannot be so, for the Pericranium (as was noted above) goeth above the temporal Muscles, whereas the Periosteum always cleaveth close and immediately to the Bone, as here it doth to the Skull under the said Muscles.  
These two Membranes outwardly investing the Cranium have Arteries from a branch of the external Carotides, 
Their vessels.  and Veins from the external Jugulars.  
The meanings follow, 
The meanings.  called by the Arabians, Matres; as if all the Membranes of the Body were propagated from them. These are immediately within the Skull as the other were without; but adhere not close thereto, as those do. They are two in number: the Crassa meninx or Dura mater, and the Tenuis meninx or Pia mater.  
The Dura mater is the outer, 
Dura mater.  that is, is next to the Skull, through whose Sutures sending Fibres to the Pericranium, it is suspended thereby; for in other places it is loose from the Cranium, saving in its basis, to which it is so firmly knit, that it can hardly be pulled from it; or where it is suspended by Vessels entering into it from the perforations of the Skull. It is thicker and harder than the inner, whence it has the epithet of dura, hard. It consists of a double Membrane, the outer of which is more rough, towards the Cranium; and the inner is more smooth and slippery, and as it were bedewed with water. It is knit to the Pia mater by many vessels that pass from it thereto.  
It has many foramina or holes for the transit of the Vessels; 
Its holes.  and besides, one very large one at the descent of the spinal marrow, and another toward the Glandula pituitaria: And where it adheres to the Os cribriforme, it is perforated like a Sieve.  
It has Arteries from the larger branch of the Carotides, 
Vessels.  entering into it through the holes of the wedge-like Bone, and that of the Forehead. These in some places run out of it into the Pia mater, by means whereof they are in some measure knit together. Veins it has from the internal Jugulars.  
At the Crown of the Head it is doubled, 
Falx.  from whence its duplicature descending inwards, divides the Brain into the right and left side. This duplicature, because it is broader backwards, and grows narrower forwards, and so resembles in some manner a Reaper's Sickle, is called Falx. Now this Falx reaches as far forwards as to the top of the Nose, where it grows to the Partition-bone that distinguishes the Processus mammillares, and is called Galli crista or Cock's comb. But it's hinder and broader part towards the Occiput, being severed, descends towards both the right and left side, and distinguishes the Cerebellum from the Cerebrum.  
In the said duplicature are form four Sinus or Cavities, 
Sinus.  three pretty large, and one little one. The first which is the highest and longest, runs along the upper part of the Falx, from the top of the Nose lengthways of the Head towards the Occiput, where it is divided into two lateral Sinus descending by the sides of the Lambdoidal future to the basis of the Occiput. And at the said division the fourth short Sinus proceeds inwards to the Glandula pinealis. Into these Cavities the Mouths both of Arteries and Veins are said to open; by the former whereof Blood is extravasated into them, and absorbed again out of them by the latter. Whence if one open the Skull of a live-Creature, one may observe a beating in the long uppermost Sinus, from the Blood discharged into it by the Arteries. And some are of opinion that the Veins also convey some Blood into them, which being superfluous to the nourishment of the Brain and meanings is poured in hither by the Veins from the respective parts, and is imbibed again by other Veins opening into them, namely the inner branches of the Jugulars, to be returned to the Heart. The place where all these Sinus meet together at the Occiput, is called torcular Herophili.  
The second (and inner) Membrane investing the Brain is called Tenuis meninx or Pia mater. 
Pia mater.  This is of most exquisite sense, and endowed with very many Arteries and Veins. It immediately clothes the Brain and hinders it from running about, and also involves all its windings and circuits, and tying their summities together makes all the superficies of the Brain plain as it were: which upper connexion being loosed, the windings of the Brain, because they are invested with this Membrane, may easily be separated and laid open. From this same Meninx proceeds also a most thin Membrane investing the inner Ventricles of the Brain.  
This Membrane is interwoven with many admirable Plexus or Nets of most small Vessels, 
The Plexus of its vessels.  springing from the Carotides and cervical Arteries and Jugular Veins joined every where by mutual inosculations, that by so great a number of Vessels there might on every hand be affused Blood enough for the nourishment of the Brain, and making of Animal spirits. Dr. Willis writes that he has observed very small Glands intermixed among these Plexus of Vessels, which he saith may be easily perceived in a moist or hydropic Brain, but not so well in others.  
Both the spinal marrow extended to the bottom of Os sacrum, and all the Nerves that arise out of it, and out of the Brain, have a double Coat from these two meanings, with which being clothed they run to their designed parts.   

CHAP. IU.  
Of the Brain in general.  
THE Pia mater being taken away, the Brain offereth itself, called by the Greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. It is the general organ of sense, in which the Soul, the governor of the Body, perceives and judgeth of the sensations of all sentient parts, and out of which, as out of a fountain, it communicateth the beams of its benignity (namely the Animal spirits bred in the Brain) by the ducts or rivulets of the Nerves to all the sentient parts of the Body, and thereby endows them with the faculty of performing Animal actions.  
It's substance is thick, 
It's substance.  viscous, soft, and white. It is not a Glandule, for it is the Workhouse and Seat of the Animal spirits; but Glandules are appointed to receive excrementitious humours, and it is more curiously framed than any Glandule. Neither is it of a marrowy substance; for marrow swimmeth in water, but this sinketh. Besides, marrow nourisheth the Bones; but the Brain nourisheth no part. And lastly, Marrow being cast into the fire flameth, but so will not the Brain. It seemeth therefore to be a Viscus or Bowel, endowed with a peculiar sort of a Parenchyma, part of which Malpighius by the help of his Microscopes has observed to be of this substance, viz. That all the white part of the Brain (called the Corpus callosum) is evidently divided into flattishly round little Fibres, which in the Brains of Fish are so apparent, that if you hold them betwixt you and the light, they represent the small teeth of an Ivory comb. These Fibres he saith are inserted by their ends into the Cortex or the ash-coloured outer part of the Brain, through which abundance of sanguiferous vessels are dispersed, and out of which therefore the aforesaid Fibres seem to draw their nourishment. Dr. Willis calls these Fibres Canales or Striae, whence the Corpus callosum might as well be called Striatum.  
For nutrition and confection of Animal spirits it receives Blood by Arteries derived from the Carotides and Cervical, 
Vessels.  whose Capillaries are dispersed through its substance: and what is superfluous to the said uses is partly imbibed by the Veins of the meanings, and partly deposited in the Sinus' by the Arteries themselves, to be carried to the internal branches of the Jugulars, and thereby to the Heart. The Arteries inosculate one with another (i. e. the right Carotides with the left) as well as with the Veins. And it is from the Pulse of the Arteries altogether, that the beating (or Systole and Diastole as it were) of the Brain proceedeth.  
A Man of all other living Creatures hath the biggest Brain; 
Bigness.  for it weigheth four or five pound in some; and is as big again as an Ox's Brain.  
The outer surface is full of windings, 
Figure.  like those of the Guts, which are severally invested with the Pia mater, as also tied together by it. The whole Brain is much of the same shape with the Head, viz. roundish, but with bunchings out towards the Forehead.  
Of its Action we shall speak in the 9th Chapter.   

CHAP. V.  
Of the parts of the Brain properly so called, viz. Cortex, Corpus callosum, Septum lucidum, Fornix, three Sinus, Infundibulum, Glandula pituitaria, Plexus choroides, Rete mirabile, Nates, Testes, Anus, and Glandula pinealis.  
THE Brain taken in a large signification hath three parts, Cerebrum, that which properly is called the Brain: the Cerebellum, or little Brain: and that part of the Spinalis medulla, which is within the Skull.  
Now there are several methods of dissecting the Brain, some beginning behind, as Dr. Willis; some on the right side, as Silvius; and some at the Crown, which is the old way, and this we shall follow, beginning with the Cerebrum properly so called, which lieth uppermost.  
The Brain differeth from the Cerebellum; 
It's difference from the Cerebellum.  first, in substance, for it is softer; secondly, in colour, for it is whiter; thirdly, in bigness, for it is three times as big.  
The upper part of the Brain is divided into two parts by the Falx above-described, 
The division of the Brain.  to wit, into the right and left. But this partition descendeth no deeper into the Brain than the thickness of the ash-coloured part of it, which is called its Cortex. 
It's Cortex.  For if this be removed, that which lieth under it, 
Corpus callosum.  being of a whiter substance, is a continued body, commonly called Corpus callosum, whose substance we described above in the foregoing Chapter out of Malpighius. Dr. Willis says, it is wholly medullar: whence some divide the Brain (properly so called) into Cortex and Medulla.  
The inferior part of the Corpus callosum maketh a partition, 
Septum lucidum.  which is called Septum lucidum. It is loose and wrinkled; but if it be spread out, and held to the light, it appeareth clear. It cleaveth above to the Corpus callosum, but below to the Fornix. Some will have it to be a reduplication of the Pia mater; others a portion of the Brain.  
Under the Corpus callosum, 
Fornix.  the Fornix or Vault is seated, of the like substance. In the upper part it is arched; but in the lower part convex: in figure it is triangular. It holdeth up the weight of this upper part of the Brain from bearing down on the subjacent parts.  
There are several Sinus or Cavities in the Brain, 
Sinus.  that are continued indeed to one another, yet because at the first view they seem separate, are considered by Anatomists as distinct, and they commonly reckon four of them: three of which are seated in the Cerebrum, of which in this Chapter; and the fourth is common to the Cerebellum and Medulla oblongata, of which in the next.  
The Brain being taken away as far as the Corpus callosum, 
The two anteriour.  there appear two of the said Sinus, which are called the superior, lateral, or anteriour, and which are divided into the right and left by the Septum lucidum just now described. They are something of the shape of Halfmoons, or Horse-shoes, and being invested with a very thin Membrane, they descend forwards by a pretty large dust to the Processus mammillares. And backwards they descend to the basis of the Brain, in which place branches of the Carotides enter their Membrane, 
Plexus choroides.  and make in it the Plexus choroides, together with some twigs of Veins interwoven with them. The Membrane wherein this Plexus is form, has very many small Glandules, which separate a pituitous matter or phlegm from the Vessels into the Sinus. Along which it has been supposed to flow to the Processus mammillares, and from them to distil through the Os cribriforme into the Nose. But Dr. Lower denies any such office of the Os cribriforme, affirming that the holes in it are only for the transit of the Nerves and Membranes going forth from the Processus, and that these fill them so close that nothing can flow through them. And says, that flux of Rheum through the Nose, upon the Wula, and into the Mouth, etc. in Catarrhs, falls not from the Head, but is separated from the Arteries in the Glands of the respective parts, as into the Nose through the Glands of its investing Membrane, etc. And as to the serous matter that is infused into these Sinus in the Brain, he says it is all absorbed again by the Vessels opening into them, and returns by the Jugular veins to the Heart.  
The third Ventricle is nothing else, 
The one posterior.  but the meeting of the former two, towards the hinder part. In it there are two passages: the first in the forepart, which marcheth strait-ways down to the Infundibulum. The second passeth under the Testes and Nates to the fourth Ventricle, and is called Foramen ani or Vulva.  
The Infundibulum, 
Infundibulum.  or Funnel, is a certain Cavity under this third Ventricle, passing down from about the middle of it, say some, but Doctor Wharton says out of the fourth. It is framed of the Pia mater, which being wide at its beginning, and becoming narrower towards its end, representeth a Funnel. 
Glandula pituitaria.  It endeth in the Glandula pituitaria, which is placed in the cavity of the Sella equina, and upon the wedge-like Bone, through which it has been thought to destil upon the Palate, the phlegm poured upon it by the Infundibulum. But Dr. Lower denies this, appealing to the structure of the parts, and his often experiments upon Calf's heads: In which, he says, the wedge-like Bone lying under the Glandula pituitaria is sometimes perforated in divers places, at least by one large dust, which being divided into two does on each side open into the Jugular veins: so that if Milk or Ink be injected through those ducts by a Syringe, it presently passeth through on each side into the said Veins; and nothing of tincture will appear about the Palate, Nostrils, Mouth, Fauces or Larynx. So that in a Calf the humour that proceeds from the Brain, returns all again into the Veins. And the same thing he says he has lately tried in a Man's Skull, wherein though the wedge-like Bone be never perforated, yet Nature has framed other ducts whereby all the Serum may be again derived out of the Ventricles of the Brain into the Blood: for there are two Vessels seated on each side the Sella Turcica (to be described Book 6. Chap. 6.) which with gaping Mouths as it were receive all the water destilled out of the Glandula pituitaria, and deposit it on each side into the Jugular veins without the Skull; whose ducts will easily appear if water or milk be squirted forcibly out of a Syringe into either Jugular vein near the Skull, for the liquor will by and by break out near the Glandula pituitaria, which makes it evident, that whatever Serum is separated into the ventricles of the Brain, and issues out of them through the Infundibulum, destils not upon the Palate, but is poured again into the Blood and mixed with it.] So that according to this opinion, the Rheum that issues so plentifully sometimes into the Mouth and Fauces, etc. falls not from the Brain, but, as was noted above, is separated from the Arteries immediately by the Glands of the respective parts.  
About this Glandule, all over the sides of the aforesaid Cavity, there is a membranous Plexus framed of innumerable twigs of Arteries; which spring from the largest branch of the Carotides, that passeth by a proper hole in the bones of the Temples, into the capacity of the Cranium: it is called Rete intrabile, 
Rete mirabile.  representing a Net spread abroad.  
About the hindermost passage of the third Ventricle which leadeth to the fourth Ventricle, certain round bodies appear, being small protuberances or portions of the Medulla oblongata. As first, and uppermost, there are the two ends of the roots of the said Medulla, which are called Corpora striata, being of such a like substance as the Corpus callosum before described. The rest lying under these have their denomination from those things which they resemble. The first is Glandula pinealis, 
Penis.  or Penis; because it representeth the Pine-nut, or a Man's Yard. It is seated in the beginning of that Pipe, by which the third and fourth Ventricles are united. It's basis is downwards, and its apex or end looks upwards. It is of a substance harder than the Brain, of a pale colour, and covered with a thin Membrane. This Gland des Cartes thinks to be the primary seat of the Soul, and that all animal operations draw their origine from it. But Bartholin has sufficiently confuted that opinion; for it seems to be but of the same use as other Glands, and particularly the Glandula pituitaria placed near it, viz. to separate the Lympha from the Arterial blood; which Lympha is resorbed by the Veins (or it may be by Vasa lymphatica) as was shown above from Dr. Lower. Near to this on both the sides of this third Ventricle four round bodies appear. The two upper are lesser, and are called Testes: 
Testes.  the two greater are lower, and are called Nates. 
Nates.  The Chink betwixt the Nates is called Anus. 
Anus.   
The use of these Ventricles is first for the more easy passage of the Blood; 
The use of the ventricles.  for it were not convenient for the sanguiferous vessels to be carried through the soft substance of the Brain; lest being compressed by the weight of it, the passage of the Blood should have been hindered. Whereas now it has no such let, seeing the Vessels are interwoven in the Membranes that invest these Sinus, and make the Plexus choroides and Rete mirabile abovementioned. Another use is for the reception of the serous excrement of the Blood separated from it by the glandulous Membrane of the Plexus choroides, and Glandula pituitaria; which according to the old doctrine was discharged out of them by the sievelike Bone at the top of the Nostrils, and through the wedge-like Bone upon the Wula, Fauces, etc. but according to the new, is absorbed again by the Veins and descends by the Jugulars to the Heart.   

CHAP. VI  
Of the Cerebellum, and the fourth Ventricle.  
THE second part of the Brain is called Cerebellum, or the little Brain.  
It is seated in the hinder and lower part of the Head or Skull, 
It's seat.  and is separated from the Cerebrum by the two Membranes wherewith it is wrapped, namely the Dura and Pia mater.  
It differeth not much from the Brain properly so called, 
Substance.  saving that it is harder. It does not run in such windings as the Brain, but its substance is made up of Lamellae or Plates that lie one upon another, and are each kept apart from other by the Pia mater, that invests each one singly, and is much interwoven with Arteries. Within, it is very white, but outwardly more dusky or greyish.  
It is framed of four parts, 
Parts.  whereof two are lateral, the right and the left: these are spherical. Two are in the middle; to wit, the foremost and hindermost: these are round, and are framed of sundry orbicular portions; which because they are like unto the Worms that are in rotten Timber, 
Processus vermiformes.  are called Processus vermiformes, or worm-like processes.  
The one is in the forepart of the fourth Ventricle; the other in the hinder part.  
The use of the Cerebellum seems to be the same as of the Brain. 
Use.  Only Dr. Willis not content with this general opinion, distinguishes their uses: writing that in the Brain are elaborated those spirits that perform voluntary motion, and in the Cerebellum those that assist natural, as that of the Heart, etc. But against this new hypothesis of his, lie many objections; as first, that Fowl have no Cerebellum, and yet their Heart, etc. moves. Secondly, The motion of the Heart, etc. called natural, depends at least partly on the Animal spirits brought by the par vagum, which arise out of the Medulla oblongata, and therefore one cannot easily conceive how they should receive spirits from the Cerebellum; or if they did, why thirdly, not only the natural motion of the Heart should be performed by the said pair of Nerves, but voluntary motions also, as those of the Larynx, etc.  
Between the lower part of the Cerebellum and the Crura or roots of the Medulla oblongata, 
The fourth ventricle.  is the fourth Ventricle form. This is commonly called the noble Ventricle, from an opinion that the Animal spirits are elaborated unto perfection herein, as they were prepared in the three other. But as we have assigned other uses to the other, in the foregoing Chapter; so we cannot grant any such office to this, as shall be further showed in the eighth Chapter. It's lower part that runs in betwixt the forked roots of the Medulla oblongata, from its shape, ending in a point, is called Calamus scriptorius, or a Writing pen.   

CHAP. VII.  
Of the Medulla oblongata and Spinalis.  
NOW followeth the third part of the Brain, 
It's name.  called Medulla oblongata within the Brain, and assoon as it is descended out of it into the Spine, Spinalis, or Dorsalis medulla.  
The substance of it is fibrous, 
Substance.  being composed of many slender long Filaments, which whether they are hollow or no, cannot be discovered through their fineness.  
It hath two parts; 
Parts.  viz. that which is contained within the Brain, and that which is included within the vertebrae of the Backbone, or Spine. That which is within the Skull is about four inches in length. That which is without, and beginneth at the great hole of the Occiput, reacheth to the Coccyx, growing smaller and smaller in the Os sacrum towards its end.  
If one cut through its substance, 
Vessels.  there will innumerable little specks or sprinklings of Blood appear, but the Vessels are so small, that they cannot be discerned. But there are plainly discoverable very many twigs of Arteries and Veins running through the Membranes that invest it; from which Arteries the Blood is infused into the pores of the Medulla, as it is imbibed again from thence by the Veins.  
It seems not to be a separate part from the Brain, 
Rise.  but rather a production of it and the Cerebellum together, out of both which it seems to rise by six roots; the two uppermost and foremost are the most considerable, and are called Corpora striata, being the ends of its two Crura, by which it is joined to the Brain; the four lower and backer are the protuberances of the Nates and Testes, by which it adheres more to the Cerebellum.  
It hath three Membranes. 
Membranes.  The first is that which immediately toucheth it. This springeth from the Pia mater, and passeth between both the parts of it, alone without the outer. The twigs of Arteries and Veins run mostly through this. The second covereth the first, and springeth from the Dura mater. There is no distance between them, as there is in the Brain, but one toucheth another being knit together by Fibres. The third proceeding from the Ligament which joineth together the Vertebrae, covereth both these.  
It is divided all along from the very first meeting of its Crura within the Skull, 
It's division.  to the end of Os sacrum, by a membranous partition parting it into two; but this division is not apparent in the Spine, because of the Dura mater that covers it; but it may be discovered if that be taken off, and the Medulla severed in the middle. The partition is made of the Pia mater, and by means of It it is that the use or motion of one side only is sometimes taken away in the Palsy.  
From this Medulla within and without the Brain proceed all the Nerves of the whole Body.   

CHAP. VIII.  
Of the Processus mammillares.  
TReating above of the two lateral Sinus of the Brain, we said they descended forwards to the two Processus mammillares, which we shall now describe.  
They are called Mammillares or Papillares, 
Their name  because in their end they are round like the Nipple of a Woman's Breast. But they are hollow within and pretty full of moisture.  
Anatomists are not agreed from whence their rise is, 
Rise.  some affirming it to be from the Brain, others from the Crura of the Medulla oblongata, amongst whom Dr. Willis is a leading Man. From which soever it is, they proceed as far forwards as the sievelike Bone, seated at the top of the Nostrils.  
Dr. Willis takes them to be truly the smelling Nerves, 
Use.  and calls them the first pair. He says they are very marrowy and soft, till they come to the Os cribriforme, but then they borrow Coats of the Dura mater, with which being divided into many Fibres and Filaments, and passing through the holes of the said Bone, they go out of the Skull: whence being carried into the Caverns of the Nostrils, they are distributed all through the Membrane that invests them. Yet besides this use of smelling, he thinks they may destil some of their moisture into the Nostrils through the holes of the Os cribriforme by the dust of the Fibres and Filaments. Diemerbro●●k thinks they have only this latter use; only that the Rheum or Lympha destils from them as well upon the Fauces and their Glands, as into the Nostrils. Dr. Lower grants only the former use; and says, that It is incredible that the humour that is contained in the cavity of these processes should issue out by the Nerves into the Nostrils, for if it did, the sense of Smelling must needs be much prejudiced thereby. And besides, if this water could destil by and out of the Nerves, much more might the spirits, that are thinner and more subtle, fly away. And as to the humour contained in the cavity of the processes, he supposes it to be of very great use: namely, that when Effluvia or most subtle particles exhaling from an external object are delivered to the olfactory Nerves, that their species may reach the Brain the better, it was necessary that those Nerves or Processes should be made hollow from their very rise, and be filled with a limpid humour: Not that I believe, says he, that the species themselves are conveyed through their cavities into the ventricles of the Brain, or that the Animal spirits are lodged in those Ventricles, as the Ancients thought; but that they are therefore hollow and moistened within with water, that their marrowy bodies may serve the better both for retaining and conveying smells into the Brain: For as things smelled are better perceived from moist bodies and in a moist 〈◊〉 in a dry season from the parched ground (as Huntsmen know too well) so it is likely that in the same manner as they are best perceived outwardly, they are also best conveyed ●nwardly, etc.] And indeed if we will allow them to be olfactory Nerves, it is very incongruous that they should serve for an Emunctory to the Brain, to discharge its superfluous Serum. And therefore we think it fit to acquiesce in this learned Physicians opinion: and to believe that the Lympha gathered in the ventricles of the Brain is emptied by those ways we before observed out of the same Author, and not at all by the nervous Filaments that pass from these processes through the Os cribriforme into the Nostrils.   

CHAP. IX.  
Of the Action of the Brain, and the supposed Succus nutritius of the Nerves.  
IT is generally agreed that the proper Action of the Brain (in a large sense) is the elaborating of Animal spirits; and that they are sent from it by the Nerves into the several parts of the Body, for performing both natural and animal actions. But what these Animal spirits are, and in what particular part of the Brain they are generated, is not agreed upon by learned Men.  
Some are of opinion that the Animal spirits differ in no other regard from the Vital, 
The animal spirits what, and of what made.  but only as they are conveyed by proper Vessels, and minister to other purposes, and are of a cooler temperament; but that there is no specifical difference betwixt them. Others on the other side think they differ in specie, and agree in nothing, but only that the Vital spirits and Blood are the matter from whence the Animal spirits are form. A third sort deny the Arterial blood to be the matter of these Spirits, and affirm that the Nerves absorb a part of the Chyle, of which they are made, and besides, a Nutritious juice, (of which by and by.) And some there are that suppose Air also to be an Ingredient, which ascends into the Brain through the Os cribriforme. We cannot stand upon the examination and refutation of several of these opinions here; but upon a due consideration of the Arguments urged for each, we think that the Animal spirits are specifically distinct from the Vital, but that the Vital, with the Arterial blood, their Vehicle, are the true and only matter, out of which they are elaborated.  
And there is no less difference in what part of the Brain the Animal spirits are made. 
Where elaborated.  Some thinking in the Sinus of the Falx. others the four ventricles of the Brain, especially the fourth, a third sort the Plexus choroides and Rete mirabile; des Cartes, that they are separated out of the Arteries of Plexus choroides in the Glandula pinealis into the Ventricles; and others lastly assign the whole substance of the Brain for the place of their confection. As to the Sinus of the Falx, the use of that was shown above Chap. 3. And as to the Ventricles, seeing they are often almost quite full of waterish humour, but always have some, they seem very unfit for the making or receiving such subtle and volatile Spirits as the Animal are. As for the Plexus choroides and Rete mirabile, there is no Vessel in either that contains any thing, but under the form of Blood; so that seeing there are no Vasa deferentia (or call them what you will) to convey the Spirits to the origine of the Nerves, these also seem improper for such an action. We must therefore subscribe to the last opinion that ascribes this work to the very substance of the Brain, and is performed in this manner. The Heart is like the Primum mobile of the Body, to which the motion of all the humours, that have once past it, is owing. This by its Systole impells the Blood, as into all other parts, so into the Brain by the several branches of the Carotides, whose innumerable twigs run partly through the outer Cortex or greyish part of the Brain, and partly into the inner medullar or white substance. These twigs of Arteries spring partly from the Plexus choroides and Rete mirabile, and partly from the Carotides themselves immediately. The superfluous Serum of the Blood is separated by the Glands above described; and that which is not elaborated into Animal spirit, is returned again to the Heart, by the Veins. But those particles that are fit and proper to be converted into them, are extravasated into the very Parenchyma of the Brain, or at least are distributed through it by invisible Capillaries, in which being perfected into Spirits, these by help of the Fibres or Filaments which the inner substance of the Brain chiefly consists of, are conveyed to the Corpora striata (or other processes of the Medulla oblongata that adhere to the Brain) which consist of the like Filaments, and by them to the Nerves, whose inner substance is fibrous like the Medulla from whence they spring. And the reason of this successive motion from one to another, is the Pulse of the Heart, whereby that which comes behind, always drives forward what is before. Whence the true cause of an Apoplexy (wherein motion and sense are almost quite abolished) is from the obstruction or compression, etc. of the Arteries in the Brain; whereby both little Blood and Vital spirit can be conveyed thither to make Animal spirit of, and also when it is made, it is not impelled out of the Brain along the Fibres into the Nerves, to enable them to perform their functions.  
There is no less controversy about the Nutritious juice of the Nerves: 
The succus nutritius of the Nerves.  some contending for it to that height, as to affirm that all the parts of the Body are only nourished by it, and not at all by the Blood, which by its rapid motion they say is liker to wear and carry away something from the parts through which it passes, than to adhere to them for their restauration. Others are more moderate, and suppose that nourishment is dispensed only to the spermatick parts by the Nerves, which the Nerves receive not from the Blood, but imbibing the most thin part of the Chyle out of the Stomach and Guts do carry it up to the Brain, from whence it is conveyed again by the same Nerves to the parts to be nourished by it. Diemerbroeck is of opinion, that the juice of the Nerves (which is as a Vehicle to the Spirits) being somewhat acid, does contribute or yield assistance to the nourishment of the spermatick parts, not as it is the matter of, but as it separates from the Blood such particles as are fit for, their nourishment. Whence it is, he says, that such parts of the Body as are most exercised, and by consequent into which most Animal spirits flow, grow the strongest, having more of such particles of the Blood as are fit for their instauration, separated in them. So they that are used to walk, will endure it better, than others that are not so used, though otherwise much stronger. And hence the right Arm is usually stronger than the left, in those that are right-handed (as we say.) But he thinks that the Nerves have no juice in them which they did not first receive from the Blood. Dr. Willis is much of his opinion, saving as to this last particular; for he says, it is without doubt that the nervous Fibres and Filaments which cloth the sensory of the taste, and the Bowels that serve concoction, do immediately take some taste of the Aliments for the supply of the Brain, especially at such times as the Spirits are much wasted in too long fasting or over much exercise. But then that juice that may be supposed to be made thereof in the Brain, and to be dispensed by the Nerves into all the parts of the Body, he believes not to be the matter of the nourishment of any part whether spermatick or sanguineous: but that it is as the form only, and the Blood the matter, whose several particles being analysed or severed by the said juice, are directed and adapted by its directive faculty or plastic power as it were, to such parts respectively as they are suitable for. And from hence he draws a reason why paralytic parts do waste so much, though the Blood flow plentifully enough into them, because the Nerves being obstructed and no Animal spirits (with their Vehicle) passing by them, the particles of the Blood are not separated for the supply of such parts.] As for the nervous juice, it must needs be very little in quantity, seeing if one make a Ligature upon the Nerve, it will not swell betwixt the Head and Ligature, nor if one cut the Nerve in sunder will any thing destil out of it. So that 'tis very absurd to think that it should be sufficient for the nourishment of all the parts of the Body, according to the first opinion. Nor does it seem reasonable to imagine that the Chyle should ascend from the Stomach, etc. to the Brain by the Nerves, whiles this nervous juice that is contended for, with the Animal spirits, is descending by the same; for one cannot conceive how such contrary motions of liquors in the same Vessel can be at the same time. Though from the sudden refection that persons ready to faint receive from spirituous liquors, etc. it be probable that certain Effluvia or subtle and spirituous vapours do enter the nervous silaments of the Mouth and Stomach, and recruit the Animal spirits immediately, without fetching that compass that I believe all the Chyle does. And as the Nerves imbibe no Chyle from the Stomach, etc. so receive they no more from the Arteries, than some of its most spirituous and volatile particles elaborated in the Brain into Animal spirits, which have indeed some little moisture accompanying them as a Vehicle, but which is neither of a suitable nature nor of proportionable quantity for the nourishment even of the spermatick parts only. For seeing the Nerves have no conspicuous Cavity, but only imperceptible Pores, by which any liquor can drill along them; such liquor must needs be most thin and watery, and therefore unfit to be assimilated to any part. And lastly, as to the opinion that it separates the particles of the Blood, and so distributes those that are respectively proper for, unto, each part, as the sulphureous to the fat, etc. or is to the Blood as the form is to the matter; it is an ingenious hypothesis I confess, but whether true, I dare not affirm.   

CHAP. X.  
Of the Nerves arising within the Skull, and first of the first and second pair.  
SO much of the substance of the Brain and of the Animal spirits, etc. It follows that we show the Nerves which proceed from it. Of them there have been reckoned seven pair, comprehended in these Verses: 
Optica prima; oculos movet altera; tertia gustat:  
Quarta, & quinta audit; vaga sexta; at septima linguae est.  But assenting to Dr. Willis, that most accurate describer of them, who holds the Processus mammillares to be the olfactory Nerves, and the Par vagum and Intercostale to be two distinct pairs, we reckon nine in all: of the two first of which in this Chapter.  
Of all the pairs of Nerves that rise within the Skull, 
Nervi olfactorii, the first pair.  the olfactory or smelling pair are the first, otherwise called Processus mammillares. They spring from the Crura of the Medulla oblongata betwixt the Corpora striata and the little hillocks or eminences out of which the optic Nerves rise (called by Galen, their Thalami.) Though Diemerbroeck, that denies them to be Nerves, affirms that they spring not from the said Medulla, but from the globous marrow of the Brain (properly so called) and its fore Ventricles. But having discoursed of these in a particular Chapter, (viz. Chap. 8.) we shall add no more of them here.  
The second pair the Optici or Visorii nervi make; 
Nervi optici, the second pair.  these bestow upon the Eyes the faculty of seeing. They spring from the Crura or Trunks of the Oblongata medulla behind the Corpora striata, as was noted in the foregoing Paragraph. They march on from thence drawing nearer one to another, until they meet at the sella of Os sphenoides; where they are united by the closest conjunction, but not confusion of their Fibres, which run lengthways in these Nerves as they do in all other. These of all the rest are biggest and thickest, but softest. In their beginnings they are softest, but in their progress become harder, that they may pass the more securely so long a way. Dr. Willis says they have many Fibres from the third pair of Nerves, and many sanguiferous vessels running along them.  
They are hollow until they be united; 
The hollowness of the optic Nerves.  but after, their hollowness cannot be discerned. This hollowness may be showed in a large Beast newly killed, and in a clear light.  
After their unition they are separated again, 
Their insertion.  and each of them, passing through the first hole of Os cuneiforme, are inserted obliquely into the centre of the Eye.  
These Nerves have two Membranes, 
Their membranes and marrowy substance.  and the inner soft marrowy substance, or Fibres. The Membranes spring from the two meanings. The inner substance from the Medulla oblongata.  
From the whole substance of these Nerves are the Tunicles of the Eyes framed; 
These make the tunicles of the Eyes.  for the Cornea or Sclerotica doth proceed from the thick Membrane or Dura mater, the Wea from the thin Membrane or Pia mater, and the Retina from the marrowy substance.   

CHAP. XI.  
Of the third and fourth Pair.  
THE third pair is termed Motorium oculorum, 
The third pair.  because it moveth the Muscles of the Eyes. 
It's beginning.  It hath its beginning at the innermost part or basis of the Medulla oblongata behind the Infundibulum.  
This pair is united at its rise; 
Why both the Eyes are directed to the same object.  whence is commonly drawn a reason why one Eye being moved towards any object, the other is directed also to the same.  
It is smaller and harder than the former, 
It's substance, and branches.  and being presently divided passes along by the optic pair, and penetrating the second hole of Os cuneiforme, is carried towards the globe of the Eye, where it is divided into four branches. The first whereof mounting above the Optic, is bestowed upon the attollent Muscle, and the Eyelid. The second easy to be seen is bestowed upon the adducent Muscles by sundry small twigs. The third by many Fibres is inserted into the depriment Muscle. The fourth is inserted into the middle of that Muscle that draws about the Eye obliquely downwards to the inner corner. So that this pair only moveth four Muscles.  
The fourth pair proceedeth from the top of the Medulla oblongata, 
The fourth pair.  (contrary to all others, which arise either from its basis, 
It's beginning, marching, and insertion.  or sides) behind the round protuberances called Nates and Testes: whence bending forwards by the sides of the Medulla oblongata, it presently hides itself under the Dura mater; under which proceeding a while, it passes out of the Skull at the same hole with the others designed for the Eyes, (communicating with no other Nerve in its whole progress) and is bestowed wholly (as Dr. Willis affirms) on that Muscle of the Eye called Trochlearis.   

CHAP. XII.  
Of the fifth, sixth, and seventh Pair.  
THE Author last mentioned says, 
The fifth pair.  the fifth pair arises out of the sides of the annular process jetting out from the Cerebellum: 
It's rise.  but I think it is more probably affirmed by others, that this pair arises also from the Medulla oblongata a little below the former Nerves. It's trunk is very large, consisting of very many Fibres, some soft and some hard: so that it seems to be not one single Nerve, but a collection or bundle of many small ones, some of which are designed for one part, some for another; some serving for motion and others for sense. And the reason why they are all united together in their rise, Dr. Willis thinks to be, that there may be a sympathy and consent of actions in the several parts to which they are distributed. Hence it is that seeing or smelling what is pleasing to the appetite makes one's Mouth water, etc.  
It's Trunk is divided into two notable branches, 
Division and progress.  sometimes before but oftener after it has penetrated the Dura mater. The first whereof tending straight downwards, and passing out of the Skull by its proper hole, in its descent towards the lower Jaw (for whose parts 'tis chiefly designed) is divided into many lesser branches, which provide for the temporal Muscle, as also for the Muscles of the Face and Cheeks. From these also there go twigs to the Lips, Gums, roots of the Teeth, Fauces, Tonsils, Palate and Tongue. The second branch of this fifth pair, being the larger, goes a little straight forward by the sides of the sella Turcica, and over against the Glandula pituitaria sends little twigs to the trunk of the Carotides; then inosculates with the Nerve of the sixth pair, and afterward sends back a slip or two, which being united with another slip returned from the Nerve of the sixth pair constitute the trunk of the Intercostal pair, which we shall reckon for the ninth, and speak of it by and by. After this it is divided into two notable branches; The less and upper whereof tends towards the globe of the Eye, and being again divided sends forth two other, the first of which is parted into two more, that go one to the Nose and the other to the Eyelids; and the second into four or five slips, that are mostly spent on the Eyelids, but partly on the Wea tunica and the Glands of the Eye. The greater branch (of its second division) being carried towards the orbit of the Eye is divided into two new branches. The lower whereof bending downwards is bestowed on the Palate and upper region of the Fauces; and the upper being carried beyond the orbit of the Eye passes through an hole of the upper Jaw with the Vein and Artery which it twists about, and sends many slips to the Muscles of the Cheeks, Lips, Nose, and roots of the upper Teeth. From its twisting about the sanguiferous vessels designed for the Cheeks and other parts of the Face, may a reason be drawn why one blushes when he's ashamed: for the Animal spirits being disturbed by the imagination of some uncomely thing, as if they took care to hide the Face, enter this Nerve disorderly; so that its twigs embracing these sanguiferous vessels, by compressing and pulling of them, cause the Blood to flow too impetuously into the Cheeks and Face by the Arteries, and detain it there some time by constringing the Veins.  
The sixth pair rises just by the fifth, 
The sixth pair.  and presently sinking under the Dura mater goes out of the Skull by the same hole with the Nerves of the third and fourth pair, 
It's rise and insertion.  and is carried by a single trunk towards the orbit of the Eye; but so, as by the side of the sella Turcica it inosculates with the second or greater branch of the fifth pair, (as was noted in the former paragraph:) whence sending back sometimes one, sometimes two twigs, these being united with the recurring twigs of the fifth pair (abovementioned) make the beginning of the Intercostal nerve. Afterwards going forwards, near the orbit of the Eye it is divided into two branches; of which one is inserted into the abducent Muscle of the Eye placed in its outer corner; and the other being cleft into many Fibres is bestowed on the seventh Muscle proper to Brutes, whereby they defend the Eye from external injuries without closing the Eyelids, when they are said nictitare, which I think we have no word to express in English.  
The seventh pair, 
The seventh pair.  by the Ancients commonly reckoned for the fifth, 
It's rise and insertion.  ministers to the sense of Hearing. It has two Processes, one soft, and the other harder, which might seem to be two distinct pairs, but are usually accounted one. They have been held to spring from the sides of the Medulla oblongata, but Dr. Willis says (I cannot tell how truly) from the annular protuberance of the Cerebellum that lies by the sides of the said Medulla. The soft part or process that is properly the auditory Nerve, is carried through an hole of Os petrosum into the caverns of the Ear, which it clothes with a most thin Membrane. By this are sounds conveyed to the common sensory. The harder process serves rather for motion than sense; which passing out also through its proper hole, presently admits a twig from the par vagum or eighth pair, after which it is immediately divided into two branches; one whereof tending downwards, is bestowed on the Muscles of the Tongue and Os hyoides; and the other winding about the auditory passage, and bending upwards, is divided into three twigs; of which the first corresponding to the Nerve of the first division bestows certain slips on the Muscles of the Lips, Mouth, Face and Nose, and so actuates some outward organs of the Voice, as the former some of the inner; the second is distributed to the Muscles of the Eyelids and Forehead, and the third on the Muscles of the Ears. Whence upon some unusual and astonishing sound, by a certain natural instinct the Ears prick up and the Eyes open.   

CHAP. XIII.  
Of the eighth and ninth Pairs.  
THE next pair in order is the eighth, which has used to be called the sixth, and par vagum, or wand'ring pair, from its being distributed to sundry parts.  
It springs below the auditory Nerves, 
The eighth pair.  out of the sides of the Medulla oblongata, its root consisting of twelve Fibres at least (in Man) to which a notable Fiber, 
It's rise.  or rather Nerve (much greater than any of these twelve) coming from the spinal marrow about the sixth or seventh vertebra of the Neck, is joined, and invested with the same Coat from the Dura mater as if they grew into one Nerve; but if their common Coat be removed, this accessary Nerve, and many of the other Fibres remain still distinct, and after they are gone out of the Skull together, are dispensed to several parts; the accessary Nerve to the Muscles of the Neck and Shoulder; and one notable Fiber of the eighth pair to the harder process of the Auditory or seventh pair, as also two others to the Muscles of the Gullet and Neck. But the other Fibres of this par vagum continue united, and instead of those companions they have parted with, they entertain a new one, namely a branch from the Intercostal or ninth pair, whereby is made a notable Plexus (which in a Nerve is like the jointing of a Cane, or the knot upon the trunk of the Tree where a Bough goes out) and out of the same Plexus there springs a considerable branch, which being carried toward the Larynx is divided into three twigs, of which one goes to the sphincter of the Gullet, a second to the upper Muscles of the Larynx, and the third going under the Cartilago scutiformis, meets the top of the recurring Nerve and is united to it. Below the aforesaid Plexus of this par vagum, 
Progress.  its trunk goes straight down by the side of the ascending Carotides, on which it bestows some slips. And at the bottom of the Neck it receives a second branch from the Intercostal, (viz. from its first Plexus) and near thereto sends out another twig into the recurrent Nerve, but only on the left side. From hence the trunk of this eighth pair descends without any notable ramification, till it be come over against the first or second Rib; where out of a second Plexus (or knot) many twigs and Fibres go towards the Heart and its appendage, but not altogether in the same manner on both sides. There is one notable difference (which we cannot but note) of the two recurring Nerves that spring out of the trunk of this eighth pair, viz. that that on the right side arises out of it higher and winds about the axillar Artery; whereas that on the left springs much lower therefrom, and twisting about the descending trunk of the Aorta returns back from thence. Dr. Willis says that the recurring Nerve is really a distinct Nerve from the par vagum from the very original, and was only included in the same case or cover for the more convenient and safe passage. The branches of the par vagum do frequently unite with others of the Intercostal pair about the Praecordia. And many twigs go out of the eighth pair into the Lungs, etc. Whence each of its trunks descending by the sides of the Gullet are divided into two branches, outer and inner: The outer unite with the outer, and the inner with the inner, and both descend to the Stomach, in which they terminate. As for their more particular distribution, we have spoke thereof while we treated of the parts themselves on which they are bestowed.  
Tab. XI. p. 341.  

Fig. 1.   

Fig. 2.   
And thus we have done with all the Nerves that proceed from the Medulla within the Brain, in describing of which we have followed Dr. Willis for the most part, that most accurate tracer of them.  

The Explanation of the Table.  

Figure I.  
Representeth the outer or upper superficies of the Brain taken out of the Skull; where the Limbus of the Brain being loosed from its coherence with other parts by Membranes, is lifted up and bend forwards, that the Crura of the Medulla oblongata, the Fornix, Nates and Testes with the Glandula pinealis, and other processes may be clearly and distinctly seen, (from Dr. Willis.)  
AA The Limbus of the Brain, which in its natural situation was contiguous to the Cerebellum.  
B The border or margin of the Corpus callosum spread over both hemispheres of the Brain, which in its natural situation lay upon the Glandula pinealis.  
C The Fornix.  
DD Its Arms embracing the Crura of the Medulla oblongata.  
EE The Crura of the Medulla oblongata, (out of which the optic Nerves proceed) whose ends (being placed further, out of sight) are called Corpora striata.  
F The Glandula pinealis, betwixt which and the root of the Fornix is the chink that leads to the Infundibulum.  
GG The orbicular protuberances called Nates.  
HH The lesser protuberances called Testes, which are processes of the former.  
TWO The Medullary processes, which ascend obliquely from the Testes to the Cerebellum, and make a part of each of its Meditullia.  
K The joining of those processes by another transverse process.  
L The rise of the pathetic Nerves (or fourth pair) out of the joining of the foresaid processes.  
MM A portion of the Medulla oblongata lying under the foresaid processes and protuberances.  
N The Foramen of the Ventricle of Cavity that lies under the orbicular protuberances.  
OO A portion of the annular protuberance let down from the Cerebellum and embracing the Medulla oblongata.  
PP The outer and upper superficies of the Cerebellum.   

Figure II.  
Representeth the Eye cleft in two (from behind forwards) that the divers situations of the humours may appear, (from Dr. Briggs.)  
bab The Tunica cornea, or fore and more convex arch of the Eye.  
ee The Tunica uvea (whose Foramen o is called 
Tab. XII. p. 343  the Pupilla) swimming in the watery humour cccc.  
d The crystalline humour in situ.  
ff The Tunica choroides, which in this Figure (as being too much separated from the Sclerotica mm) cannot be duly represented.  
g A portion of the Optic Nerve.  
h Some of its small Fibres cut off near the exit of the Nerve.  
I The centre of the Humour Vitreus, and of the Retina.  
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. The Capillamenta of the optic Nerve, whose ends on each side being cut off did adhere to the Ligamentum ciliare (namely by the region of the crystalline humour.)    

The Table  

Representeth the basis of an humane Brain taken out of the Skull, with the roots of the Vessels cut off short, (from Dr. Willis.)  
AAAA The fore and hinder Lobes of the Brain.  
BB The Cerebellum.  
CC The Medulla oblongata.  
DD The olfactory Nerves, or first pair.  
EE The optic Nerves, or second pair.  
FF The motory Nerves of the Eyes, or third pair.  
GG The pathetic Nerves of the Eyes, or fourth pair.  
HH The fifth pair.  
TWO The sixth pair.  
KK kk The auditory Nerves, and their two Processes on each side, the seventh pair.  
LL III, etc. The Par vagum or eighth pair, consisting of several Fibres.  
MM The spinal Nerve coming from a far to the origine of the Par vagum.  
NN The ninth or Intercostal pair, consisting also of many Fibres (that tending downwards, unite into one trunk) which emerges a little above the process of the Occiput.  
OO The tenth pair tending downwards.  
PP The trunk of the Carotid Artery cut off, where it is divided into the fore and hinder branch.  
QQ Its branch passing betwixt the two lobes of the Brain.  
R The fore branches of the Carotides, being united, part again and proceed to the fissure of the Brain.  
S The hinder branches of the Carotides united, and meeting the vertebral trunk.  
TTT The vertebral Arteries, and their three ascending branches.  
U The branches of the vertebral Arteries uniting into the same trunk.  
WW The place where the vertebral and Carotid Arteries are united, and a branch on either side ascends to the Plexus choroides.  
X The Infundibulum.  
YY Two Glands placed behind the Infundibulum.  
aaaa The annular protuberance which proceeding from the Cerebellum embraces the root of the Medulla oblongata.     

CHAP. XIV.  
Of the Nerves of the Spinalis medulla; and first of the Nerves of the Neck.  
WE observed above, Chap. 7. that the Medulla oblongata seemed not to be any separate part, but only a production from the Cerebrum and Cerebellum: and that when it is descended out of the Skull into the Spine, it loses its name of oblongata, and acquires that of Spinalis, which name it borrows from the Spine through which it passes, but is of the same fibrous or filamentous substance as it was within the Brain. And now we come to describe the Nerves that spring out of it, which assist the motion of all those parts, which those nine pair already described that arise within the Skull, reach not to.  
In its whole progress from the Skull to the Coccyx, 
Nerves springing from the Spinalis medulla.  there spring out of it thirty pair of Nerves: seven of which are of the Neck, twelve of the Breast, five of the Loins, and six from the holes of Os sacrum.  
The first and second pair of the Neck come not out of the sides of the Vertebrae, as all the rest do; but because of their peculiar articulation spring out before and behind.  
The fore Nerve of the first pair cometh out between the bone of the Occiput and the first vertebra of the Neck, 
Seven of the Neck.  and is bestowed upon the Muscles which bend the Neck, 
The first pair.  and lie under the Oesophagus. The hinder Nerve cometh out of the hole which is common to the Os occipitis and the first vertebra of the Neck. This hath two twigs: The smaller is bestowed upon those Muscles which stretch out the Neck; The bigger is inserted into the beginning of the Muscle which lifteth up the Shoulder-blade.  
The fore Nerve of the second pair (which is smaller) cometh out between the first and second Vertebrae, 
The second.  and is bestowed upon the Skin of the Face. The hinder cometh out at the sides of the hinder process of the second Vertebra, but presently is parted into two twigs. The thicker of which is bestowed upon the whole Skin of the Head even to the Crown; The smaller upon the greater straight, and the lower oblique Muscles which stretch out the Head. Dr. Willis says, that the first and greatest root of the Nerve of the Diaphragm ariseth from this second pair of the Neck: of which Nerve we shall speak more by and by.  
The third pair cometh out of the lateral holes, 
The third.  which are between the second and third Vertebrae, and each is immediately divided into two branches; the formore whereof hath four twigs: The first cometh to the long Muscle or the first of the benders of the Neck; The second descending is bestowed upon the Muscles which lie under the Oesophagus, being first united to a twig of the fourth pair; The third ascending goeth to the Skin of the backpart of the Head, having first joined with the thicker twig of the hinder Nerve of the second pair; The fourth is bestowed upon the transverse Muscles of the Neck, and the Muscle which lifteth up the Shoulder-blade. The hinder branch is bestowed upon the second pair of Muscles which heaveth up or wideneth the Breast.  
The fourth pair cometh out of the holes common to the third and fourth Vertebrae, 
The fourth.  and each hath two branches, like the third pair. The formore hath three twigs: The first of which uniting with a twig of the third pair is bestowed on the first of those Muscles which bend the Neck, called Longus; The second upon the transverse Muscle of the Neck, and the Cucullaris of the Shoulder-blade: The third being slenderer than the other two, is joined with a twig of the fifth pair, and both with one of the sixth, and lastly all three (according to Dr. Willis) with that of the second pair abovementioned: and the Trunk made up of all these descendeth by the sides of the Gullet down the Neck and Thorax without any branchings till it come to the Diaphragm, where it is divided again into three or four twigs, on each side, and is inserted into its fleshy or musculous part, being known by the name of Nervus diaphragmatis, or Phrenicus. The hinder branch goeth back to the Spine under the Muscles of that part, upon which it bestoweth twigs, and going down between the Muscles of each side of the Neck it is carried to the Musculus quadratus that draweth the Cheek down.  
The fifth pair marcheth out between the fourth and fifth Vertebrae, 
The fifth.  and hath likewise two branches on each side. The formore of which hath four twigs: The first goeth to those Muscles that bend the Neck: The second is that which joineth with the twigs of the second, fourth and sixth pairs, and makes up the Nervus phrenicus: The third goeth to the Deltoides: The fourth goeth to the same Deltoides, and to the Coracohyoideus, or the third pair of the Muscles of Os hyoides. The hinder branch bendeth back to the Spine, and is bestowed upon the Muscles there, as the like branch of the fourth pair was.  
The sixth pair cometh out under the fifth Vertebra, 
The sixth.  and hath, as the rest, two branches. The formore sendeth first one twig to make the trunk of the Nervus phrenicus; then proceeding further it is united with the three following, namely the last of the Neck and two first of the Thorax, making one Plexus with them, out of which those Nerves proceed that are carried to the Arm. The hinder branch goeth to the Muscles behind, which stretch out the Neck and Head.  
The seventh pair cometh out of the hole common to the sixth and seventh Vertebrae. 
The seventh.  The formore and larger branch is joined with the sixth of the Neck and two first of the Thorax, as aforesaid, and is carried to the Arm. The hinder and smaller is bestowed upon the Muscles of the Neck, and quadrat Muscle which pulleth down the Cheek.  
About where this sixth or seventh pair of Nerves rise, 
Nervus ad par vagum accessorius.  there springeth another, described by Dr. Willis, and by him called Nervus spinalis ad par vagum accessorius. It rises small out of the side of the spinal marrow, and ascends up by the side of it, growing thicker as it goes, (but without being inserted any where into the marrow) till having entered the Skull it is joined to the Fibres of the par vagum or eighth pair. It's progress from thence we observed in Chap. 13. when we described the eighth pair.   

CHAP. XV.  
Of the Nerves of the Vertebrae of the Breast.  
FROM the marrow of the vertebrae of the Thorax twelve pair spring. 
Twelve of the Thorax.  In all of which the formore branch is bigger; and the hinder, which is bestowed upon the Muscles seated in the Back, smaller.  
The first springeth out of the hole which is common to the seventh vertebra of the Neck, 
The first pair.  and the first of the Breast, and therefore 'tis indifferent whether it be esteemed to belong to the Neck or Thorax, some reckoning it to be the eighth of the Neck, and others (as we do here) the first of the Breast. Each Nerve is presently divided (as all the rest are) into two branches; the formore of which is united to the sixth and seventh of the Neck as was noted in the foregoing Chapter, and so is all spent on the Arms, except one little twig that springing out of its beginning marcheth forward towards the Sternum, and bestoweth twigs on the Musculus subclavius, and those Muscles which arise from the top of the Sternum; and another that goes to that Muscle which fills up the hollowness of the Shoulder-blade. The hinder branch creeping under the Muscles which cleave to the Vertebrae, is bestowed upon the Muscles of the Neck, Head and Shoulder-blade.  
The second issueth out of the space between the first and second vertebrae of the Breast; 
The second.  and its fore branch is united with the first of the Thorax, and together with it is joined to the sixth and seventh of the Neck, which all together make one Plexus that sendeth forth all the Nerves to the Arms that they have, (as shall be further explained Book 4. Chap. 3.) But besides that branch by which it unites with these, it sends a twig also to the Intercostal nerve (or ninth pair) descending down the Thorax, (as also does every one of the remaining ten pair) and from that twig before it join with the Intercostal there proceed small slips to the Muscles that lie upon the Breast. The hinder branch hath the same distribution with the hinder of the foregoing pair.  
The rest of the ten pair come out of the lateral holes of the Vertebrae, 
The rest of the pairs.  and are all immediately divided into two branches; whereof the formore being larger, always sendeth one twig to the Intercostal nerve, and the remainder of it is bestowed on the Intercostal Muscles internal and external, and on those that lie on the Thorax; as also on the obliquely descending Muscles of the Abdomen, etc. The hinder bend backward to the Spine, and are spent upon the Muscles and Skin of the Back.   

CHAP. XVI.  
Of the Nerves of the Vertebrae of the Loins.  
ALthough there be but four lateral holes in the vertebrae of the Loins; 
Five of the Loins.  yet there are five pair of Nerves. The fore branches being greater go to the Muscles of the Belly: The hinder to those which rest upon the Vertebrae. The formore are joined together, the first with the second, the second with the third, the third with the fourth, and the fourth with the fifth, as the two last of the Neck and two first of the Breast were.  
The first cometh out of the lateral hole between the last vertebra of the Breast, 
The first pair.  and the first of the Loins. The fore branch is bestowed upon the fleshy part of the Midriff, especially it's two processes, and on the Muscle Psoas. This Nerve being compressed by a Stone in the Kidney, there is caused a numbness in the Thigh of the same side. It sendeth also a twig along with the Arteria praeparans to the Stone, according to Spigelius. From whence it is partly, that too immoderate Venery causeth a weakness in the Loins. The hinder is bestowed upon the Musculus longissimus of the Back, Sacrolumbus, etc.  
The second cometh out between the first and second vertebrae of the Loins, 
The second.  under the Muscle Psoas, which is the first of those that bend the Thigh. The formore branch is bestowed upon the second Muscle of the benders of the Thigh that fills up the cavity of Os Ileum, and on the Musculus fascialis and the Skin of the Thigh. The hinder is bestowed upon the Musculi glutaei, and the membranous Muscle which stretcheth out the Leg. That twig which from this pair joineth with the Intercostal, goeth to the Testis of its own side (according to Vesalius, etc.  
The third marcheth out between the second and third Vertebrae, 
The third.  under the Psoas also. The formore sendeth one twig to the Knee and Skin thereof, and another which doth accompany the Saphoena. The hinder turneth back, and is bestowed upon the Muscles which rest upon the Loins.  
The fourth being the largest of the Muscles of the Loins, 
The fourth.  marching under the Psoas and Os pubis, doth accompany the Vein and Artery which pass to the Leg.  
The fifth cometh out between the fourth and fifth Vertebrae. 
The fifth.  It's fore branch passeth through the hole that is between the bones of the Coxendix, Pubes and Ileum, and is bestowed upon the Obturatores musculi of the Thigh, the Muscles of the Penis, and on the neck of the Bladder, and of the Womb. The hinder is bestowed upon the Muscles and Skin which are above the Vertebrae.   

CHAP. XVII.  
Of the Nerves which come from the marrow of O● sacrum.  
FROM the marrow of Os sacrum six pair of Sinews spring. 
Six of Os sacrum.   
The first issueth out between the last vertebra of the Loins, 
The first pair.  and the first of Os sacrum, in the same manner as those that spring out of the vertebrae of the Loins, and like them is divided into two branches. The fore branch is a great part of it mixed with those other of the Loins that go towards the Legs, yet it sends one twig to the Muscles of the Belly, and the second which bendeth the Thigh. The hinder is bestowed upon the Skin of the Buttocks, and the greatest Glutaeus.  
The other five pair spring after a different manner from the foregoing. 
Of the other five pair.  For before they come out of the Os sacrum, they are every of them double on each side; and so from each on either side there arise two Nerves, one of which is carried into the fore or inner, and the other into the hinder or outer side. The three uppermost formore Nerves go towards the Leg, as the greatest part of the first pair did: The two lower to the Muscles of the Anus and Bladder; in Men to the Penis, in Women to the neck of the Womb, and in both to the external Privity. All the five hinder Nerves are distributed to the Muscles of Os Ilium and Sacrum, towards the back part, which are Longissimus, Sacrolumbus, Sacer, and the Glutaei.  
And thus we have done with all the thirty pair of Nerves that arise out of the Spinal marrow, having shown which way they pass and to what parts they are distributed: which should be diligently noted and well remembered, that we may the better know to what place to apply remedies, when from any outward cause, as from a fall, bruise or the like, any part has lost either sense or motion or both. For the Medicine is to be applied always to the beginning or rise of that Nerve that passes to that part, and not to the place in which the symptom appears. And the same thing is to be observed in Palsies, when the use of some particular Limb is taken away from an inward cause.   

CHAP. XVIII.  
Of the Face and its parts.  
IN the former Chapters we have discoursed of that part of the Head that is decked with Hair, of the Brain, etc. contained within it, of the Medulla oblongata arising out of it and prolonged into the Medulla spinalis, with the Nerves that spring out of the same both within the Skull and in the Spine of the Back, all which we have considered as appendages to the Brain, seeing both the marrow out of which they arise, springs out of it, and also all the Nerves have their Animal spirits from it. And now we come to speak of that part which is not altogether garnished with Hair. In Latin it is called Fancies, the Face, and Vultus, the Countenance.  
Now though all the parts of the Body sufficiently show the wisdom of the Creator; yet both the beauty of the Face, and its admirable consent with the mind doth epitomise as it were the comeliness and dignity of all the other parts, and exhibits their affections as in a Glass. For from it are not only taken signs of health, diseases, and imminent death; but also most clear tokens of the very disposition, manners and affections of the mind. For as shame and frightedness betray themselves in the Cheeks, so do anger, joy, sadness, hatred, and especially love, in the Eyes. So from the Forehead are known ones gravity and humility; from the Kickshaws (or Supercilia) pride; from the Nose, sagacity or blockishness; etc. from the motion of the Face, wisdom or foolishness, honesty or wickedness, civility or incivility, goodwill or hatred; from its colour, the temperament of the whole Body. Besides, the sex, the age, the stock, and one Man from another may be distinguished by the Face.  
The parts of the Face are either containing, 
The parts of the Face.  or contained.  
The containing are proper or common.  
The common are the Cuticula, Skin and Fat. The Membrana carnosa from the Eyes to the Chin is so thin that some have affirmed there is none: but in the Brows it is thicker and cleaves very close to the Skin. Of these common parts we have discoursed Book 1. Chap. 3.  
The proper are the Muscles, Bones and Cartilages, which shall each be described in their proper places.  
The parts contained are the organs of the four Senses, viz. the Eyes, Ears, Mouth and Nose.  
The Face is divided into its upper and lower part. The upper is from the Hair to the Eyebrows, and is called Frons the Forehead. This while the Body is entire belongs to the Face, but in a Skeleton to the Skull. The lower is extended from the Kickshaws to the Chin, and includes all the parts betwixt them.   

CHAP. XIX.  
Of the Eye in general, and its outward or containing parts.  
THE Eyes (in Latin Oculi, from occludo to shut, or occulto to hide, because they lie hid under the Eyelids) are the organs of sight, consisting of many similar parts; and are as the two Luminaries of the Microcosm, to afford us light; or like two Watchmen placed in the upper part of the Body as in a Watchtower, to give notice of any approaching danger. To lose them is the greatest misery can befall a Man: for 'tis the same as to be thrown into a Dungeon, when these windows of the Body are shut up.  
They are in number two, 
Their number.  partly to make the sight stronger, and partly that one being hurt, the other might perform the office in some measure, though more imperfectly.  
The Eye alone, 
Figure.  devested of its Muscles, is of a round or spherical shape, both that it might move the better, and also that it might more conveniently receive the visible rays.  
The colour of the Eyes in Men is sometimes grey, 
Colour.  sometimes brownish, sometimes black: which variety is most conspicuous about the Pupilla in the Iris, and proceeds from the colour of the Wea. Brutes of the same species have not that diversity of colours.  
Some have much larger Eyes than others; 
Bigness.  but those which are largest and stand much out, have not so acute and piercing a sight as those that are less and stand further in.  
They are each placed in a large Cavity, 
Situation.  called Orbita (or the Socket) on each side the Nose, which is hollowed out of the bones of the Skull. And these orbits are invested on their inside with the Pericranium, to which the fat and origins of the Muscles cleave firmly. These may be reckoned the first containing parts of the Eye; as may also in the second place  
The Palpebrae or Eyelids, 
The Eyelids.  which serve as Curtains to the Eyes, by which dust and troublesome smokes and vapours, too much light and the injuries of the air are kept out, and the outward membrane of the Eye called Cornea is moistened, wiped and cleaned. They consist outwardly of a very thin Skin which has no fat under it; inwardly they are lined with the Pericranium, that is here most thin and smooth. Betwixt these parts comes the Membrana carnosa, which is also very thin. Each Eye has two. In Man the lower is less, and is but very obscurely moved in comparison with the upper: but in Birds the lower is the larger, and in most seems only to be moved, the upper remaining unmoveable. As for their Muscles to which they owe their motion, those may be seen in the fifth Book. At their edges they have little soft Cartilages, (called Cilia in Latin) to strengthen them, and that they may meet the more exactly. Upon these Cartilages there grow Hairs, which having grown to a certain length, will naturally grow no longer, so that they never need to be cut. Those on the upper Eyelid turn something upwards, and those on the lower downwards. Above the upper Eyelid grow also a set of Hairs, betwixt it and the Forehead, out of the Supercilia or Kickshaws; these lie pretty flat bending from within outwards, and hinder sweat, dust or other things from falling into the Eyes.  
The Eyelids have two corners called Canthi. 
Canthi.  The outer of these is less, and in its upper part it has a Gland placed (usually called Innominata, or nameless, but might be named Lachrymalis, as affording the most of that Lympha that makes the Tears.) This Gland is conglomerate, being made up of many lesser, and has small twigs of Arteries that creep to it and deposit Serum or Lympha in it to supply matter for Tears upon occasion. But the ordinary use of this Lympha is to moisten the inner side of the Eyelids and th● superficies of the Eyes, that they may move more glibly. Diemerbroeck having reckoned eight opinions concerning the cause, origine and matter of tears rejects them all, and this we have mentioned with the rest: and thinks that their matter is the more serous and thin particles of the pituitous humour gathered in the Brain, and flowing to the Eyes, upon its contraction, through the Foramen lachrymale. Which the learned Reader may see defended in his Anat. lib. 3. cap. 15. There is another Gland in the inner canthus or corner, which helps the former in its office. Dr. Briggs says, there are two or three lymphatic vessels, that receive Lympha from it, and end in the inner part of the Eyelid; and that eight arise out of the former Gland and end in the Tunica adnata, where they continually deposit something of Lympha, to keep the Eye moist. Nerves come to them from the fifth pair, which communicating with the Intercostal, are much irritated in the passions of sudden joy or of sadness, and so twitch and compress these Glands that the Lympha is squeezed or milked as it were out of them, as Dr. Willis ingeniously supposes.  
As for the Muscles of the Eye, they shall be described in the fifth Book.   

CHAP. XX.  
Of the Tunicles of the Eye.  
HAving done with the outward or containing parts of the Eye, we come now to the Eye itself, and first of its Tunicles.  
The outmost Tunicle of the Eye is common, 
The tunicles of the Eye, one common▪  and is called Adnata. It springs from the Pericranium and is spread over all the White of the Eye above the Sclerotica, reaching as far as the Iris. By this the Eye is kept firmly within its orbit, from whence it is also called conjunctiva. It is of very exquisite sense, and has many capillary Veins and Arteries creeping through it, which are most conspicuous in an Ophthalmy or inflammation of the Eyes. Under this Tunicle are the Tendons of the Muscles extended and expanded to the circumference of the Iris, which increase its whiteness; and some take them for a second Tunicle, calling it Innominata.  
The proper Tunicles of the Eye are three, 
Three proper.  according to the threefold substance of the optic Nerve. 
1. Sclerotica.  For this Nerve (as all the other) consists of two Tunicles springing from the Dura and Pia mater, and an inner marrowy substance. From the Dura mater springeth the outmost coat of the Nerve, and from this the Tunicle that is spread next under the Adnata, called Sclerotioa from its hardness; but in its forepart where it covereth the Iris and Pupilla, it is named Cornea, from its transparency; though sometimes this latter name includes the whole Tunicle, as well behind as before.  
That which lieth next under the Cornea is much thinner than it, 
2. Choroides.  and is called Choroides, from its resembling the Membrane Chorion wherein the Foetus is included in the Womb. Its forepart is otherwise called Wea, because it is somewhat of the colour of a Grape. This springs from the Pia mater, and is spread from the bottom or centre of the Eye, behind all over the Eye to the Pupilla; to whose circumference when it is come, it becomes double, making with one part the Iris, with the other the Ligamentum ciliare. On the inside it is of a duskish colour, (in Man) but blacker on the outside. But where it makes the Iris, it is of divers colours resembling the Rainbow, from whence it borrows its name: yet in some it is more blue, in others black, in others grey. This Tunicle is perforated before as wide as the Pupilla (or sight of the Eye) to permit the rays of visible species to pass in to the crystalline humour. Next unto which crystalline humour lies the Ligamentum ciliare, the second part of the duplicated Wea. This consists of slender Filaments or Fibres, (like the Hairs of the Eyelids) running like so many black lines from the circumference of the Wea to the sides of the crystalline humour, which they encompass and widen or constringe as there is occasion, by contracting or opening the Foramen of the Wea.  
The third Tunicle is made of the medullar substance of the optic Nerve, 
3. Retiformis.  and is called Retina or Retiformis (Net-like:) This seemeth to be the principal organ of sight. For as Dr. Briggs well argues, neither the crystalline humour, through which the rays pass much refracted; nor the Tunicle Choroides, are at all fit for this use. For this latter part (as rising from the Pia mater) cannot communicate the impressions of the rays to the medullar part of the Brain, which it does not at all touch. Whereas the medullary Fibres of the Retina have communication therewith, and therefore can well perform that office. The Fibres of this Tunicle are extended from the bottom or inner centre of the Eye, where the optic Nerve enters it, as far as the Ligamentum ciliare, (to which it affords Animal spirits for the continuance of its motion.) If one take this Tunica Retina and put it into warm water, shaking it a little, to wash off the mucous substance that cleaves to it, and then hold it up to the light, these Filaments will appear very numerous like the threads of the finest Lawn.   

CHAP. XXI.  
Of the Humours and Vessels of the Eye.  
NEXT to the Tunicles of the Eyes are the Humours contained in them to be considered. 
The ●●mours of the Eye three.  And these are in number three, viz. Aqueus, Crystallinus', and Vitreus. The second weighs as much again as the first, and yet not so much as the third by a sixth part. The Crystalline is the most d●nse of consistence by much; and the glassy more dense than the watery.  
The Aqueous humour is outermost, 
1. Aqueus.  being pellucid and of no colour (as neither are the other two.) It fills up that space that is betwixt the Cornea and the Crystalline humour before. If any thickish particles swim in it, than Gnats, Flies, Spider's webs and the like will seem to be ●lying before the Eyes. But if those particles grow still thicker, and close together so as to make a film, and this be spread before the hole of the Pupilla, then is the sight quite taken away, which disease is called a Cataract.  
The Crystalline humour (so called from its being as clearly transparent as Crystal) is placed betwixt the aqueous and the vitreous, 
2. Crystallinus'.  but not exactly in the middle or centre of the Eye, but rather towards its forepart. It is enclosed in the bosom as it were of the vitreous humour, and is flattish on the foreside, but rounder behind. It is more bright and solid than either of the other two. It has been the common opinion that it is enclosed in its proper Membrane, which is called either Crystallina from its transparency, or Aranea from its most fine contexture. But Dr. Briggs, a very accurate Anatomizer of the Eye, denies any such Tunicle, affirming that it is merely adventitious when the humour is exposed for some while to the Air, or is gently boiled. As to the collection or reception of the rays of things visible, this humour is the primary instrument of sight: though as was said before, the Tunica retina is the principal as to perception, because through it the rays are communicated to the common sensory.  
The third and last humour of the Eye is the Vitreous, 
3. Vitreus.  so called because it is like to molten glass. This is thicker than the Aqueous, but thinner than the Crystalline; and much exceeds them both in quantity, for it fills up all the inner or hinder hemisphere of the globe of the Eye, and a pretty deal (toward the superficies) of the formore. It is round behind, but hollowed in the middle forwards, to receive the Crystalline into its bosom. This humour is also said to be separated from the other two by a proper Tunicle, called Vitrea, which the aforesaid ingenious Author likewise denies.  
See the situation of these Humours represented in Fig. 2. of the Table inserted p. 341.  
The Eyes have Arteries from the Carotides, 
The vessels of the Eye.  which bestow twigs on their Muscles, and on their Tunicles. And these are accompanied with Veins springing from the branches of the Jugulars. As for their Nerves, they either assist the sense of seeing, and are called the optic Nerves, which we have reckoned for the second pair and described before Chap. 10. or serve for the moving of them, being inserted into their Muscles, and to this purpose serve the third and fourth pair, and some twigs of the fifth. As to their Lymphducts, we have spoken of them above Chap. 19 when we discoursed of the Glands placed at each canthus or corner of the Eyelids.   

CHAP. XXII.  
Of the Auricula.  
AS the Eyes are placed in the upper part of the Body like two Watchmen to descry approaching danger; so are the Ears there seated also, that they might give information of what the Eyes cannot discover either in the night for want of light, or through some thick and opaque Body which the sight cannot penetrate. And as the Eyes contemplate the wonderful works of God, whereby the mind may conceive of his Infinity; so the Ears are the Inlets or Receivers of verbal instruction in all wisdom and science. For they are the organs of hearing, and are in number two, that the one failing, yet we might hear with the other. They are placed in the Head, because sounds ascend.  
The parts of the Ear are either outward or inward. The outward is called Auricula, which is only an adjuvant instrument of hearing, being spread like a Van to gather and receive the sounds. It's upper part is called Ala or Pinna the Wing; 
The names of its parts.  and its lower and soft Lobe, usually Infima auricula. It has several protuberances or eminences, and cavities. It's outer protuberance that makes its circumference, from its winding is called Helix; and that which is opposite to it, Anthelix: but that next the Temple, because in some it is hairy, is called Hircus or Tragus; and that which is opposite to it, to which the soft lobe of the Ear is annexed, Antitragus, which likewise in some is hairy. Its Cavities are three. The inmost, because of the yellow Earwax (as we call it) that is gathered in it, is named Alvearium; as also Meatus auditorius: the next to this outwards which is bigger, from its tortuosity or winding is called Concha. The third is that betwixt the Helix and Anthelix, which has had no name imposed on it.  
The constituent parts of the Auricula are either common or proper. 
It's constituent parts.  The common are Cuticula, Cutis, Membrana nervea, and fat in the Lobe. The proper are the Muscles, Veins, Arteries, Nerves and the Cartilege. As concerning the Muscles, they are set down in their proper treatise. The Veins come from the external Jugulars; the Arteries from the Carotides; the Nerves from the second pair of the Neck, being joined with the harder process of the seventh pair. As for the Cartilege, it is a substance that is fittest for this place. ●or if a Bone had been here, it had been troublesome, and might by many accidents have been broken off: if Flesh, it had been subject to con●usion. It serves to keep this outer part of the Ear expanded and open, and is tied to Os petrosum by a strong Ligament which riseth from the Pericranium.  
The uses of the outward Ear are these: 
uses.  First, it serveth for beauty. Secondly, to help the receiving of the sounds. For first, it gathereth them being dispersed in the Air. Secondly, it doth moderate their Impetus, so that they come gently to the Tympanum. Such as have it cut off upon any occasion, are very much prejudiced in their hearing, which becomes confused with a certain murmur or swooing like the fall of waters.  
Both behind and below the Ears there are several Glands outwardly under the Skin, that are called Parotides. But there are two more notable than the rest, near one another; of which one is lesser, and is conglobate; but the other bigger, consisting as it were of many lesser, and is conglomerate. These serve to sustain the vessels that ascend this way, and are usually reckoned as Emunctories of the Brain. In the conglomerate Gland the Saliva is separated.   

CHAP. XXIII.  
Of the inward part of the Ear.  
THE inward part of the Ear is that which we properly call Auris, and begins at the Meatus auditorius, or that inmost cavity in which the Earwax is collected. This cavity ascends something with a winding dust, partly that if any thing fall into it▪ it may more easily be got out again; and partly that the vehement Impetus of the sound may be a little infringed. The Wax that is gathered in it is an excrement of the Brain, and by it Infects are hindered from creeping in, entangling them as Birdlime.  
Before its inner end is spread the Tympanum or Drum, 
The Tympanum.  which is a nervous, round and pellucid Membrane, of most exquisite sense. Some will have it to spring from the Pericranium, others from the Pia mater, a third sort from the Dura mater, a fourth from the softer process of the Auditory nerve expanded. And lastly, some think that it has a proper substance, springing from no other Membrane, but made in the first conformation of the parts. It is very dry, that it might give the better sound. It is strong, that it should the better endure external harms. It hath a cord behind it for strength and stretching of it, even as the military Drum hath, which some take to be a Nerve, others a Ligament. It hath two Muscles to move it, which shall be described in the fifth Book.  
When it is taken away, 
Four little bones.  in the first cavity on the inside of it (which also by some is called Tympanum) there appear four small Bones. These have no marrow in them, nor are covered with any Membrane or Periosteum, yet at their extremities where they are joined, they are bound with a small Ligament that proceeds from the Cord or Ligament of the Tympanum abovementioned. And ●●ey have this also peculiar to themselves, that they are as big in Infants as in grown persons.  
The first is called Malleolus, 
1. Malleolus.  the little Hammer. It hath a round Head, which is inarticulated into the cavity of the Anvil by a loose Ligament. This Head is continued into a small Neck, which reaching beyond the ●iddle of the Tympanum, adhereth to it. About the middle it hath two processes: The one of which, b●ing shorter, has the Tendon of the internal Muscle inserted into it; and the other, being longer, the Tendon of the external, the Tympanum coming between.  
The seconds is called Incus, 
2. Incus.  the Anvil, having one Head, and two Feet, being somewhat like one of the grinding or double Teeth that has two roots. The Head is somewhat thick, having in the top of it a little smooth cavity, which receiveth the knob or head of the Hammer. The smallest and longest Foot is tied to the top of the Stirrup by a loose but firm Ligament; but the thickest, broadest and shortest resteth upon the Os squamosum.  
The third is Stapes, 
3. Stapes.  or the Stirrup. In figure it is triangular, in the middle hollow, to give way to the passing of the Air to the Labyrinthus. In the upper part of it is a very small and round knob, upon which the longest foot of the Anvil resteth. It's shape is much adapted to the Fenestra ovalis (which opens into the Labyrinth) about which it is tied round somewhat loosely, so that it may be driven to within its Sinus, but cannot without violence be pulled outwards.  
The fourth Bone was found out by Franc. 
4. Os orbiculare.  Silvius, and from its round shape is called Orbiculare. It is tied by a slender Ligament to the side of the Stapes, where the Stapes is joined to the Incus.  
From the lower side of this first inner cavity, wherein these Bones are contained, there is a round Meatus to the Palate of the Mouth near the root of the Wula, and another that runs to the cavity of the Nostril, by which pituitous matter collected in it is discharged. And by the help of that which opens into the Mouth it is, that deafish people are assisted in hearing, for we commonly observe such to open their Mouth when they listen attentively.  
In the middle also of this cavity there are two holes, the greater and higher of which is shut by the basis of the Stapes (when no sounds penetrate the Ear) and is of an oval figure, 
Fenestra ovalis.  whence it is called Fenestra ovalis, and opens inwards or backwards pretty wide into the Labyrinth. The other is less and lower, and is of a round shape, whence it is called Rotunda. 
Rotunda.  And this is always open, having no covering, and is divided into two pipes divided by the Os squamosum, one of which tends to the Cochlea, the other to the Labyrinth.  
This Labyrinth is the second inner cavity, 
Labyrinthus.  being far less than the former, and was first so called by Fallopius, from the hollowed bony semicircles (clothed with a thin membrane) returning circularly into the same cavity. The Fenestra ovalis opens into it out of the first cavity: and besides this hole it has five others, one of which opens into the end of the larger Gyrus or winding of the Cochlea: The other four are so small that they hardly admit an hair, through which the most slender Fibres of the auditory Nerve proceed to the inner membrane that encompasses this cavity.  
The third and last inner Cavity is called Cochlea, 
Cochlea.  because in its spiral winding it resembles a Snail's Shell. It is less than the Labyrinth, and has two, sometimes three or four such windings, which are clothed inwardly with a most thin Membrane, into which, as into the Labyrinth, the slender Fibres of the auditory Nerve enter, through three or four very small holes.  
These three inner Cavities are all form within the inner Processus petrosus of the Temple-bone. And in them is contained a most pure and subtle Air, which some think to be included in them in the very first formation of the parts, and therefore call it Aer Insitus and Congenitus. Some suppose it to be Animal spirit, effused into them by the auditory Nerve.  
This inner part of the Ear has Veins, Arteries and Nerves from the same origines as the outer: only the harder process of the auditory Nerve goes to the outer, and the softer to this inner, which coming by the hinder Meatus of the Os petrosum is inserted into and dispersed through the circles of the Cochlea and Labyrinth.  
All the parts of the Auricula and Auris concur to the perfecting the hearing, 
Hearing what.  which is a Sense whereby sound is perceived from the various trembling motion of the external Air, beating upon the Tympanum, and thereby moving the internal Air with the Fibres of the auditory Nerve, and communicated to the common Sensory. Now sound that is the object of it is nothing else but a quality arising from the Air or Water beat upon and broken by the sudden and vehement concussion of solid bodies. And the diversity or greatness of such sound is distinguished by the four Bones that stand on the inside the Tympanum: For as from the greater or less, gentle or harsh impulse of the external sonorous Air (fluctuating like Waves caused by a Stone thrown into the Water) the membrane of the Tympanum is accordingly driven or shaked against the Malleus, the Malleus against the Incus, and the Incus against the Stapes; so, as the same Stapes and Os orbiculare open the Fenestra ovalis more or less, is there a freer or straighter passage granted to the internal Air into the Labyrinth and Cochlea, in whose tortuous and unequal windings it is variously infringed and modulated, from whence the species of sound that is made thereby, (according to the diversity of the external impellent) is sometimes more acute, sometimes more full, sometimes more harsh, sometimes more gentle, sometimes bigger, sometimes less: the idea of which species is carried to the common Sensory (and so represented to the mind) by the Auditory nerve that expands itself through the Membrane that invests the said Labyrinth and Cochlea.   

CHAP. XXIV.  
Of the Nose.  
THE organs of Seeing and Hearing being described in the foregoing Chapters, we come now to the instrument of the third Sense, viz. Smelling, which is the Nose.  
The parts of the Nose are either external or internal. 
It's external parts.  The external parts are these, the Skin, Muscles, Veins, Arteries, Nerves, Bones and Cartilages. First, the Skin cleaveth so fast to the Muscles and Cartilages, that it cannot be severed without renting. Secondly, as for the Muscles, they are set down in the description of the Muscles Book 5. Thirdly, the Veins come from the external Jugulars, as the Arteries from the Carotides. Fourthly, the Nerves come from the third pair, on each side one. Fifthly, the Bones of the Nose are set down in Book 6. Chap. 6. Sixthly, the Cartilages are in number five; the two upper are broader, and adhere to the lower side of the Bones of the Nose where they are broader and rough, and being joined to one another pass from thence to the tip of the Nose, making up one half of the Alae; the two under make up the other half; the fifth divideth the Nostrils. These Cartilages are moved by the Muscles.  
The inner parts of the Nose are these: 
It's inner parts.  First the Membrane which covereth the inside of the Nose, which proceedeth from the Dura mater, and passeth through the holes of the Os cribriforme. This Membrane on its backside hath abundance of little Papillae or Glands; in which the Serum or Rheum is separated that runs out by the Nose. Secondly, the Musculous membrane, which draweth together the Nostrils. Thirdly, the hairs which disperse the air, and hinder the creeping in of Infects. Fourthly, the red fleshy spongious substance, with which the holes of the Os spongiosum are filled up; from which the Polypus springeth.  
The length of a comely Nose is the third part of the length of the Face.  
The upper part of the Nose which is bony, is called Drosum nasi, 
The denomination of its parts.  or the ridge. The lower lateral parts, where the Cartilages are, Alae, or Pinnae. The tip of the Nose, Globulus, and Orbiculus. The fleshy part, that at the bottom of the Septum reaches from the tip of the Nose to the upper Lip, is called Columna. And the two holes that are caused by the partition, Nares the Nostrils. And these about their middle are each divided into two, one of which goes up to the Os cribriforme, to convey scents thither; the other descends down upon the Palate to the Fauces, by which Rheum falls down either of its own accord if it be very thin, or by snuffing the air up strongly in at one's Nose, if it be thick, which we may hawk and spit out at pleasure.  
The Nose is an external adjuvant organ of Smelling, 
Its uses.  as the Auricula is of Hearing. For when smells exhale out of odoriferous bodies into the air, by taking our breath in at the Nose, the scents accompanying the air ascend up the Nostrils to the top of their Cavity, viz. to the Os cribriforme, through whose holes the olfactory Nerves (otherwise called Processus mammillares) issue out by their Fibres, and are the inward immediate and adequate organ of Smelling. Other inferior uses the Nose has also; as first, sometimes to take in our breath by, that we may not keep our Mouth always open for that purpose. Secondly, to help the Speech, which is very much impaired by the loss of it. Thirdly, it serves for the separation and discharge of the superfluous humours in the Blood. And the like.   

CHAP. XXV.  
Of the Lips.  
AS to the Cheeks, their substance being Muscular, this is no proper place for the description of their parts (but Book 5.) only we shall note that their upper part next under the Eyes, that jets out a little and is commonly highest of colour, is called Malum or Pomum faciei, in English commonly the Ball of the Cheek; and their lower part that is stretched out in blowing of a Trumpet or the like, is called Bucca. Therefore we shall pass on to the Mouth, wherein is contained the Tongue the instrument of Tasting, etc. The use of it is fourfold; for it serveth for breathing, taking of food, speaking, and discharging of the excrements of the Brain, Lungs, etc.  
The parts of the Mouth are either external or internal. 
The external parts of the Mouth, viz. the Lips.  The external are the Lips: these are framed of a carnous soft fungous' substance, and of the Muscles, covered with a thin Skin. They are in number two, the upper and the lower. (Of their Muscles see Book 5.) The upper Lip has a little dimple in its middle which is called Philtrum; and its sides are named 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, whence the hair that grows thereon is called Moustaches. The inside of the Lips is covered with a Membrane common to the Mouth and Stomach; and from hence cometh the trembling of the lower Lip before vomiting.  
The uses of the Lips are these: 
The uses of the Lips.  First, they help to retain the meat in the Mouth while it is chewing. Secondly, they serve for beautifying of the Face, if they be well fashioned. Thirdly, for the containing of the spital in the Mouth, that it should not run out at unseasonable times. Fourthly, to keep the Gums and Teeth from external injuries. Fifthly, for framing of the Speech.   

CHAP. XXVII.  
Of the inner parts of the Mouth.  
THE inner parts of the Mouth are these: The Gums, the Teeth, the Palate or Roof of the Mouth, the Almonds, the Wula, the Tongue, and Ductus salivales.  
The Gums (Gingivae) are two, 
1. Gums.  made up of a hard fleshy substance, destitute of motion, set like a Rampire about the Teeth for the keeping of them in their Sockets. 
2. Teeth.  As for the Teeth, look for them in Book 6. Chap. 8. 
3. Palate.  The Roof of the Mouth is its upper part, something concave like a Vault, form in the Os sphenoides, and serves partly for perfecting of the voice by repercussing the air, and partly assists the sense of Tasting. It consists of Bones (of which, Book 6. Chap. 6.) of a peculiar glandulous Flesh and a thick Tunicle, with little holes for the Saliva that is separated in the Glands to destil through into the Mouth. Of the Tonsillaes or Almonds we have spoken before in Book 2. 
4. Almonds  Chap. ult.. 
5. Uuula.  The Wula is a red, spongy and longish Caruncle, that being somewhat broad at its basis hangs down from the middle of the Palate (where the Nostrils open into the Mouth) with a small but bluntish end. It is covered with a very lax and soft Skin, and is often swelled with defluxions of Rheum, hanging down flaggy, which is called the falling of the Wula, and by ignorant people, the falling of the Roof of the Mouth. 
6. Tongue.  The Tongue (Lingua, à Lingendo, from licking) is the instrument of Taste and Speech. It is long and broad, thicker at the root than towards the tip. It is clothed with two Membranes; The outer covers only the upper part of the Tongue, and is very porous, being pretty smooth in Men, but in Brutes it is rough with abundance of copped bodies arising out of it, (and bonding towards its root) like the Teeth of Wool-cards, of something a cartilaginous substance. This Membrane has a line that runs lengthways of it in its middle, dividing the Tongue into two parts. The inner covers the whole Tongue, the lower side as well as the upper. This is thin and soft, and has many Papillae protuberating out of it, which are inserted into the pores of the outer. As to the substance of the Tongue there is great diversity of opinions. Some think it to be a Gland; others, that it has a peculiar substance; Spigelius, that it is truly a Muscle; and so does Dr. Wharton call it verus Musculus, though towards its root (he saith) it hath something of a glandulous substance. Malpighius (exercit. Epistol. de lingua, p. 9) says it is rather musculous than glandulous; and describes its substance thus. Immediately under the aforesaid Membranes there lie straight fleshy Fibres, whereby the Tongue is drawn inwards and shortened. But the centre of the Tongue consists of a manifold kind of Fibres, long, transverse and oblique, which riding one upon another are interwoven like a Mat.] But though this be its substance, yet it cannot properly be called a Muscle, both because no Muscle serves to move itself, but some other part; and also because one Muscle is not moved by another, as the Tongue is by several pair, described Book 5. It is connected to the Os hyoides, Larynx, and Fauces, and by a membranous Ligament to the parts under it. The extremity of which Ligament is called Fraenum, which being too short, or extended to the top of the Tongue, hindereth sucking in Children, when they are said to be Tongue-tied.  
Its Veins proceed from the external Jugulars, 
Its vessels.  and are very apparent under the Tongue, where they are called Ranulares. The Arteries come from the Carotides. Nerves it hath from the fifth and eighth pair.  
The actions and uses of the Tongue are these: 
Its actions and uses.  First, it is the instrument of Tasting; especially the Papillae in its inner Membrane, which have the extremities of the Nerves inserted into them. Secondly, it formeth or modulateth the Speech. Thirdly, it helpeth the chewing of meat, by tossing of it to and fro, and turns it down to the Stomach.  
Besides the several Glands in the Membrane that invests the inside of the Mouth, 
Ductus salivales.  there is a very notable one that lies deep under the Tongue, from whence two Pipes, called Ductus salivales, ascend obliquely to the sides of the Fraenum of the Tongue, where each is inserted into another small Gland, through which they pour that Saliva into the Mouth which they first received from the foresaid notable Gland. These were not unknown to the Ancients, but are more particularly described by Dr. Wharton. Besides these, Steno about twenty years ago found out two more, which arising out of the greatest (conglomerate) Gland at the root of the Ear run on the outside of the Jawbone to the centre of the Musculus buccinator; and there end into the cavity of the Mouth, into which they discharge the Saliva they had imbibed out of the Glands. Now this Saliva or spital is first separated from the Arteries by the Glands, and is not a mere excrement, but serves for the furthering of the fermentation of Meats in the Stomach, if it be not the main ferment of it. That it has a fermentative quality Diemerbroeck proves by this experiment, That if a piece of white Bread be chewed and moistened with much spital, and then be mixed with Wheatpaste kneaded with warm Water, it will make it ferment.  
The end of the Third Book.     

The Fourth Book.  

CONTAINING A Description of the VEINS, ARTERIES and NERVES OF THE LIMBS.  

CHAP. I.  
Of the Veins of the Arms.  
IN Book 2. Chap. 9 treating of the Ascending trunk of the Vena cava we showed that when it arrived at the top of the Thorax it was divided into two branches called Rami subclavii; which running obliquely under the Claviculae, assoon as they were past them and come to the Armpit, were called Axillares; and each of these parteth itself into two Veins, the Cephalica, and Basilica. But before their division they send forth two small Veins, viz. Scapularis interna and externa; whereof the first passeth to the Muscles that lie in the cavity or inside of the Scapula, the latter to those on the outside.  
The Cephalica passeth through the upper and outward part of the Arm, to the bending of the Elbow, where it is divided into two branches; of the which one, joining with the Basilica, makes the Mediana, which is very frequently opened when one is let blood in the Arm: The other, marching according to the length of the Radius, reacheth to the Hand, through which it is spread; but chiefly in that part which is between the Ring-finger and the little Finger, where it is called Salvatella.  
The Basilica passeth through the inner and lower part of the Arm, accompanied with the Artery and Nerves.  
About its beginning there spring out of it the Thoracica superior and inferior, (though sometimes these arise from the Axillar before its division) of which the former runs to the inside of the pectoral Muscle, etc. the latter to the Musculus latissimus of the Back, and all over the side of the Thorax, where 'tis said to inosculate with the twigs of Vena sine pari.  
Basilica about the bending of the Elbow is divided into that which is called Subcutanea, and that which is called Profunda.  
Profunda, the deeper, is annexed to the Artery about the bending of the Elbow, not under. Then passing between the Vlna and Radius it is carried to the Hand by the outer part of the Vlna.  
The Subcutanea, or the shallowest branch, near to the bending of the Arm being turned up to the outer part of the Vlna, is carried along it to the Hand.  
The Mediana is also double, Profunda and subcutanea; both which run by many twigs through the Muscles of the Cubit to the Hand and Fingers.  
Note, that since the circulation of the Blood has been generally believed, it is held indifferent which of these three Veins (the Cephalica, Basilica or Mediana) are opened in blood-letting; for they all receive their Blood from one common Artery, viz. the Axillar, which returns by them all indifferently towards the Heart: only it is best to open that which is fairest.   

CHAP. II.  
Of the Arteries of the Arm.  
ASsoon as the subclavian branches of the ascending trunk of the Aorta are passed out of the Thorax, they are called Axillar, (like the Veins) as we showed in Book 2. Chap. 11.  
This Artery before it arrive at the Arm sendeth out of its upper part the Humeraria, which is bestowed on the Muscles of the Shoulder: and out of its lower, Thoracica superior, inferior, and Scapularis, which run to the same parts with the Veins of the like denomination in the foregoing Chapter. Then having communicated small twigs to the Glands in the Armpit, it accompanieth the Basilica along the Arm, (for there is no cephalick Artery.) When it is come to the bending of the Elbow, it is parted into two branches, which pass almost wholly to the inner side of the hand; for the backside hath no Artery but from a small twig that runs betwixt it and the bone of the Thumb.  
The one of these resting upon the Radius, is that which beats about the Wrist, and is commonly felt by Physicians.  
The other marcheth by the Vlna, and with the former is spread through the Hand.   

CHAP. III.  
Of the Nerves of the Arm.  
THE Nerves that spring from betwixt the three lowest vertebrae of the Neck, and the first three of the Back do every one send a branch towards the Arm; all which for their greater strength uniting with one another, and again separating are carried under the Claviculae to the Armpit, where they are interwoven together like a Net; but they pass out of it again separate one from another. The first of them that springs from the fifth pair goes to the Muscle Deltoides, to the second Muscle of Os hyoides, and to the Skin of the Arm. All the other five are bestowed wholly on the Muscles and Skin of the Arm and Hand.   

CHAP. IU.  
Of the Veins of the Thigh, Leg and Foot.  
THE Iliacal branches of the Vena cava after they are descended as far as the Thigh (where we left them B. 1. Ch. 13.) are called Crurales, which being past the Groins are each divided into six more notable Veins, viz. Saphoena, Ischias major and minor, Muscula, Poplitea and Suralis. The first called Saphoena descends down on the inside of the Thigh and Leg betwixt the Skin and Membrana carnosa, and appears pretty large on the inside of the Ankle, where it is frequently opened in Diseases of the Womb, and may with great safety, having neither Artery nor Nerve accompanying of it. The Ischias major is that which runs down on the outside of the Ankle; but the minor goes no further than the Muscles of the Hip. The other three are spent on the Muscles, Skin, etc. of the Thigh, Leg and Foot.   

CHAP. V.  
Of the Arteries of the Thigh, Leg and Foot.  
IN B. 2. Ch. 11. describing the descending branches of the Aorta, we traced them to the Thighs, where the Rami iliaci begin to be called Crurales, as was said of the Veins. The Crural artery is less than the Vein, and before it arrive at the Ham sendeth forth three branches, viz. Muscula cruralis exterior, interior, and Poplitaea. The first enters the fore Muscles, the second the inner Muscles of the Thigh; and the third runs down the hinder Muscles as low as the Ham, whence it has its name. When the trunk of the Crural artery is passed the Ham, it sends out three more called Tibiaea exterior, posterior elatior and posterior humilior, which are bestowed on the Muscles, Skin, etc. of the Leg and Foot; and what remains of it descends to the Foot, upon which it is spent.   

CHAP. VI  
Of the Nerves of the Thigh, Leg and Foot.  
THE three lower pair of Nerves of the vertebrae of the Loins, and the four uppermost of Os sacrum constitute the Crural nerves. For all these very near their rise joining together, and proceeding united for a while, make four Nerves. The first and third enter the Muscles that lie upon the Thigh-bone whether for its motion, or of the Leg. The second accompanies the Crural Vein and Artery down by the Groins and the inside of the Thigh, on whose formore Muscles it is most of it spent, but sends one notable branch down the Leg, as far as to the great Toe. The fourth is the thickest, hardest and strongest of all the Nerves in the Body. This distributeth twigs to the Skin of the Buttocks and Thigh, to the Muscles of the Thigh and Leg, and being descended to the Ham is divided into the outer and inner branches, which bestow twigs on all the Muscles and Skin of the Leg and Foot, to which there comes no other Nerve, but the foresaid branch of the second.  
The end of the Fourth Book.     

The Fifth Book.  

CONTAINING A Treatise of all the MUSCLES Of the BODY.  

CHAP. I.  
The description of a Muscle.  
A Muscle in Greek is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a mouse, 
The description of a Muscle.  of which Musculus in Latin is but a diminutive; as if it resembled a fleyed mouse: or else from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to contract. It is a dissimilar or organical part, (framed of its proper membrane, a fibrous flesh, a Tendon, Veins, Arteries, and Nerves) appointed by nature to be the instrument of free motion.  
The parts than are either common or proper. 
The parts constitutive.  The common are three: The Vein, the Artery, and the Nerve. The proper as many, viz. the fibrous flesh, the Membrane, and the Tendon.  
The Arteries bestow on the Muscles, 
Arteries.  (as on all the other parts of the Body) Vital heat and nourishment; 
Veins.  the Veins carry back from them what blood is not assimilated to them; 
Nerves.  and the Nerves bring Animal spirit whereby their action is performed. And these Nerves spring either from the medulla oblongata within the brain; or from the spinalis, so called after it is descended out of the skull into the spin. The Nerve is implanted either into one end, or about the middle of the Muscle; but at what part soever it is inserted, that is the head or beginning of the Muscle. As soon as it hath entered into the substance of the Muscle, it is dispersed into a number of twigs, which end in it, and are continued or elonged into Fibres.  
A fiber is thus defined by Dr. Glisson in cap. 4. de Ventric. 
Fibrous flesh.  A body in figure like a thread, slender, tenacious, tensile, and irritable, made of spermatical matter, for the sake of some motion and strength. Which he thus explains: In figure like a thread] i. e. oblong and round; slender] like a spider's web; tenacious] whose parts firmly cohere and are not easily broken; tensile] viz. that may be extended as to longitude, its latitude being lessened, and in like manner that may be thickened as to latitude, its longitude being shortened; irritable] i. e. which by irritation may be excited to contract itself, and the irritation ceasing, to be remitted of its own accord; made of spermatick matter] namely if it be a bare Fiber; but if it be stuffed with a parenchymas, perhaps it is not always made of only spermatick matter; (for the stuffed Fibres may be divided into sanguineous and spermatick; of the former kind are those of the Muscles; of the latter, those of the stomach and guts:) for the sake of motion and strength] for in that it is tenacious it adds strength to the part, and that which is apt to be extended and contracted is destined for some motion.] These Fibres being stuffed in their interstices with a sanguineous parenchyma, are that which we properly call flesh (without fat.) For (saith Dr. Croone) all the flesh of a Muscle (which makes the greatest part of it, and of which the bulk of the whole body chiefly consists) seems to be nothing else but that portion of the blood that flows through the intervals of the Fibres, which thickening by their coldness is stayed amongst them, and makes the musculous flesh. The Fibres are commonly straight; wherefore the Muscles of the belly (called oblique and transverse) have not their denomination from their Fibres, for they are all straight; but from their own position and situation: so the Muscle called Masseter, is accounted double, because it hath two sorts or ranks of Fibres, one lying upon another.  
Every Muscle hath a proper membrane that invests it, 
Membrane.  and distinguishes it from others. It is continued unto the Tendon in such Muscles as have one.  
The last proper part of the Muscle is the Tendon. 
Tendon.  It is a similar body, of a sinewy-like substance, (yet it hath a peculiar substance differing from a sinew) white with a kind of brightness, dense, hard, and smooth, extended according to the length of the Muscle. 
It's beginning.  It's beginning may be reckoned to be at the head of the Muscle, whence passing through the belly of it, it endeth in the tail.  
All Muscles which are appointed for the moving of bones, 
Which muscles have tendons.  have Tendons which are inserted into them; but commonly those which move other parts, as the Tongue, Lips, etc. as also the Sphincter of the Bladder, and anus, have none, or however such as are not easily discoverable; for indeed some affirm (as Dr. Croone) that every Muscle has its Tendon.  
It is not framed of the Nerve and Ligament mingled together, 
Of what a tendon is framed.  as many have imagined: First, because a Nerve being lax and soft, will not admit commixtion with the Ligaments being hard. Secondly, because the Nerve is not carried in the form of a Nerve to the Tendon, but is either continued to or makes the Fibres of the Muscle. Thirdly, Ligaments are insensible, but Tendons are of exquisite sense; as appeareth by the great pain which ensueth if they be pricked. But either it is framed by nature out of the first matter of the Embryo, as other parts called Spermatick are, and so is an independent part: or else it is a coalition of the Fibres of the Muscle, being emptied or freed of their parenchymas.  
The Tendons are sometimes round, 
The figure of tendons.  as in the musculus biceps; sometimes broad, as in the oblique and transverse Muscles of the Belly.  
These are the parts constitutive of a Muscle. 
The parts from the position.  It hath besides these, parts derived from the Position; and those are three: The Head, the Belly, and the Tail. The Head is the beginning, or that part unto which the Muscle is contracted: the Belly is the thickest part and the most fleshy: the Tail is the ending of it, and is inserted into the part which is moved. It is called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, and commonly Tendo.  
The use of a Muscle was set down in the last part of the description, 
The use of a muscle.  in that it was said to be the instrument of free motion; which word we rather make use of than of voluntary, because beasts have Muscles and motion, unto whom will properly so called is denied, because it presupposeth reason.   

CHAP. II.  
Of the differences and actions of the Muscles.  
THE differences of Muscles are taken from sundry things: 
The differences of muscles.  First, from their substance: so some are fleshy, as sundry of the Tongue and larynx: some are membranous, as the constrictores or internal adducents of the nose: and some are partly fleshy, and partly nervous, as the temporal.  
Secondly, from the quantity. Some are long, as the straight Muscle of the abdomen, the longest of the back, etc. others short, as the pyramidal at the bottom of the abdomen: some broad, others narrow; some thick, others thin and slender, etc.  
Thirdly, from the situation: from hence some are called external, some internal; some oblique, some straight, some transverse.  
Fourthly, from the figure: as deltoides, because it resembleth the Greek letter 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 delta. Some round, others square, etc.  
Fifthly, from their beginning: so some proceed from bones, one or more; some from cartilages or gristles, as those of the larynx.  
Sixthly, from the variety of parts; so some are called bicipites and tricipites, having two and three heads; others biventres, having two bellies.  
Seventhly, from their composition; so some are single, some double; because some have more heads, 
The causes of the unity and plurality of muscles.  some more tails than one. The unity of the Belly and Membrane which enwrappeth the Muscle, causeth the unity of it; and the plurality of the Membranes and Bellies, the plurality of Muscles.  
Eighthly, from their action. Four differences of Muscles are taken from hence: for first, some are hence called fraterni or congeneres, brotherly; some antagonistae, adversaries. Secondly, some only move themselves, as the sphincters; some other parts, as the rest. Thirdly, some have one only action, as the greatest part of the Muscles; some have divers actions, as the masseter and trapezius. The fourth difference is taken from the variety of the action; so some are called flexores, others extensores; some elevatores, others depressores; some adductores, others abductores. Others suspensores, rotatores, etc.  
As for the proper action of a Muscle, 
The proper action of a muscle.  it is nothing else but the contraction of it towards its beginning.  
The diversity of the action proceedeth from the diversity of the situation of the Muscles: 
The cause of the diversity of the action.  so a straight Muscle hath a straight motion; a transverse, a transverse motion; an oblique, an oblique motion; and that which compasseth a part hath an orbicular motion as the sphincters. So all internal Muscles serve for bending; all external for stretching out.  
Now of the motion of the Muscles there are four differences; 
The difference of the motion of muscles.  first, the contraction: secondly, the perseverance of the contraction: thirdly, the relaxation of the contraction; and fourthly, the perseverance of the relaxation. This perseverance is called motus tonicus, 
Motus tonicus.  whenas the member is still kept in the same posture.  
The efficient cause then of the action is the soul, 
The efficient cause of the motion.  moved by its appetite. It useth three Instruments, the Brain, the Nerve, the Muscle: the Brain receiveth the charge, the Nerve carrieth it to the Muscle with the animal spirits, and the Muscle doth perform the action. So that a Muscle from its action may thus be described: 
A description of a muscle from its action.  A Muscle is an organical part of the body, appointed for the free contraction of itself towards the beginning, for the moving of the part into which it is inserted.   

CHAP. III.  
Of the Muscles of the Eyelids.  
THE Lids of each Eye have three Muscles: 
Rectus.  the first is called rectus or aperiens, to lift it up. This is placed in the upper region of the orbit of the Eye, and springeth from the same origine with the elevator of the Eye, (above it) namely at the hole through which the optic Nerve passes into the orbit, and holds the same course with it, being of the same figure and substance, viz. fleshy, till at last parting from it with a pretty broad but thin Tendon, it is inserted into the cartilege of the upper Eyelid, which it serves to lift up, and so to open the Eye.  
The two others are called Claudentes, 
Semicirculares.  or shutters of the Eyelids, as also semicirculares (others call them circulares taking them for one.) They are placed between the membrana carnosa and that Membrane that is extended from the pericranium. Each Eyelid has one, the upper a larger, the lower a less. That which draweth down or shutteth the upper, ariseth from the inner corner of the Eye and that part of the supercilium that is next to the Nose, with a sharp beginning: from whence it passes transversly toward the outward corner, growing presently fleshy and broader, so that it filleth up all the space betwixt the Kickshaws and the lowest edge of the Eyelids on which the hairs grow, (which is called cilium or tarsus) and at length is inserted into the outer corner. That which moveth the lower (though but obscurely) in order to shut it, is membranous and thin, arising from the side of the Nose with a sharp beginning as the other; whence being carried transversly it comes to the middle of the Eyelid, where becoming something fleshy it continues its course to the outer corner which it turns about, and ascending to the upper Eyelid is inserted into it with a broad end. These two Muscles being contracted shut the Eye, the greater drawing down the upper Eyelid, and the less pulling up the lower.  
But it is to be noted that besides the Rectus aforesaid to open the Eye, 
Frontales.  there sometimes concur, when we would open them very wide, the musculi frontales, (on each side one) which springing from the Skull near the coronal future, and having one side knit to the temporal muscles, do meet one another with the other side upon the forehead, and descend with straight Fibres to the Kickshaws, where they terminate. By the help of these we draw up and wrinkle the forehead, and by consequence pull up the upper Eylid a little. The skin grows very close to these Muscles.   

CHAP. IU.  
Of the Muscles of the Eye.  
THese are in number six; four straight, and two oblique. The straight move the Eyes upwards and downwards, to the right hand and to the left: the oblique move them obliquely. The straight are more thick and fleshy than the oblique. As to their beginning, 
The straight muscles.  (viz. of the straight) they have all the same origine; as to their progress, the same structure; 
Their rise and insertion.  and as to their end, the same insertion. Their origine is contiguous and acute, being at the hole through which the optic Nerve enters the orbit of the Eye, from whose Membrane they spring. Their middle, or Belly, is fleshy and almost round. Their end is a most thin and membranous Tendon, whereby they are inserted into the tunica cornea, where it is pellucid, near the Iris, and so do encompass the whole Eye before as far as it is white.  
The first of the straight is called attollens, or superbus; that which pulleth up the Eye. The second is deprimens, or humilis, that which draweth down the Eye. The third is adducens, or bibitorius, that which pulleth the Eye to the Nose. The fourth is called abducens, or indignatorius, that which pulleth it from the Nose towards the outer corner.  
The first is placed in the upper region of the orbit, the second in the lower, (opposite to the upper) the third in the inner corner of the Eye, the fourth in the outer.  
The oblique Muscles are called circumagentes, 
The oblique muscles.  winders or rollers about, and amatorii, or amorous; 
Their rise and insertion.  and are in number two. The first is obliquus major, or superior, the uppermost and largest. This beginneth within the orbit of the Eye, by the hole of the optic Nerve, and passing to the upper part of the inner corner of the Eye, endeth in a small and round Tendon, which passeth through a transverse cartilege there placed, (called by Fallopius trcchlea) as a cord through a pulley, and is inserted into the upper side of the cornea. The second is obliquus minor, or inferior, the lowermost and smallest. This springeth from the lower and almost outer part of the orbit; about the chink which doth unite the first bone of the upper jaw to the fourth, with a carnous beginning. It is slender but not quite round, and passeth obliquely to the outer corner of the eye, which having turned about, it ends in a short, roundish and nervous Tendon, which meeteth with the Tendon of the other oblique Muscle, and is inserted in an oblique line near the Iris betwixt the Tendons of the attollens and abducens, with the other, so that both seem to have but one Tendon. This bringeth the apple of the Eye to the Nose, as the other draweth it from it.  
Before you show the Muscles of the eye, 
How these muscles are to be showed.  cut off the fat with the scissors, then show first the obliquus major, than the obliquus minor, and last of all the four straight Muscles. Nevertheless let the obliquus major remain last, when all the rest are taken away, that you may show how the Tendon of it passeth through the pulley the more plainly. And it will not be amiss here to describe this same pulley or trochlea, 
Trochlea.  which we shall do out of Spigelius: It is a little round cartilege, hollowed like a pipe or piece of a straw, that is suspended by a Ligament in the inner corner of the eye, from which the said greater oblique Muscle has the name of Trochlearis.   

CHAP. V.  
Of the Muscles of the Nose.  
THE Nose is not all of it movable, but only its lower gristly parts, which are called Alae or Pinnae. And these are either drawn together to shut the Nostrils, which is performed by the adducent Muscles; or drawn asunder to open the Nostrils, which is done by the abducent. And there are two Pair to serve each Office. So that in all there are Eight Muscles that belong to the Nose.  
The first Pair of the abducent or opening Muscles is small, 
The abducent muscles.  rather Carnous than Membranous, arising from the upper Jawbone, near the first proper pair of the Lips; this is inserted partly into the lower part of the ala of the Nose, and partly into the upper part of the upper Lip, and is called Philtrum. The second pair covering each side of the Nose, begins at its top near the foramen lachrymale, with an acute and fleshly Origine, and descending obliquely by the bones of the Nose it ends in a broad Basis, and still remaining fleshy is implanted into the Alae. It is near of a threesquare or triangular shape, like the Greek Letter delta, whence it is called by some deltoides. These two pair by drawing the Alae upward widen and open the Nostrils.  
The abducent or closing Muscles are very small ones, 
The adducent muscles.  so that they can hardly be discovered or distinguished exactly but in them that have large Noses. The first pair of these is external and fleshy, rising about the root of the alae, which it ascends creeping transversly over them to the ridge or tip of the Nose, into which it is inserted. The second is internal, and is hid in the cavity of the Nostrils under the inner coat that covers them: it is membranous, and arises from the bones of the Nose, where they end about the gristles, and is inserted into the Alae. The former being contracted depresses the Alae; the latter draws them inwards, and so closes or constringes the Nostrils. And to the same end or purpose there is another that serves (which is common) namely the orbicularis of the upper Lip, which by drawing the Lip downwards, doth at the same time constringe the Nostrils.  
Bartholin writes, that besides these Muscles, he has sometimes found a small carnous Muscle reaching straight down from the frontal Muscle with a broad Basis, but presently growing narrower, to end about the cartilege of the Nose.   

CHAP. VI  
Of the Muscles of the Lips and Cheeks.  
THE Muscles of the Lips are either common to the Cheeks and Lips, 
The common muscles.  or proper only to the Lips. The common are two on each side. The first is called detrahens quadratus: 
1. Detrahens quadratus.  this is a thin but broad Muscle, resembling a Membrane interlaced with fleshy Fibres. It hath its beginning from the vertebrae of the neck in the outer side, the shoulder-blade, the clavicula and the breastbone, and mounting up by oblique Fibres to the face, is implanted in the Chin, Lips, and root of the Nose; which parts it draws obliquely downwards. Sometimes it proceeds also to the root of the Ear, and is reckoned for one of its Muscles. It is called quadratus or foursquare from its shape. When a convulsion happens in this Muscle, it causes the spasmus cynicus, which we can imitate voluntarily by drawing down one side of the Mouth. The second is called Contrahens, 
2. Contrahens.  or Buccinator the Trumpeter. This lieth under the former, in the upper part of it. It doth make up all that part of the Cheek which is blown up when a Trumpet is sounded. It is round, and springing from the brims of the upper jawbone circularly, doth end in the brims of the lower jawbone. It is wholly membranous, and interlaced with divers Fibres, and is knit so close unto the Membrane which covereth the inside of the mouth, that it hardly can be severed from it. This Muscle is not only of use to move the Cheeks with the Lips, but when it is contracted, it turneth in the meat upon the Teeth again, that had got to betwixt them and the Cheek, in chewing of it.  
The Muscles proper to the Lips, 
The proper muscles.  are five pair, and one odd one. First, par attollens. If both of these act together, 
1. Attollens.  they draw all the upper Lip directly upwards and outwards; but if only one, then is but one side of the Lip drawn up obliquely. This pair springeth from the first bone of the upper-jaw, or os jugale, where the Ball of the Cheek is. At its rise it is broad and fleshy: from thence marching obliquely to the forepart, each is inserted into its own side of the upper Lip near to the Nose. 
2. Abducens.  The Second is called Abducens, and assisteth the motion of the former, or rather draweth the upper Lip more to one side. It ariseth out of the Cavity that is under the Ball of the Cheek with a fleshy but slender and round beginning, and being covered with much Fat, it is implanted into the fraenum or little dimple in the middle of the upper Lib. 
3. Jugale.  The third pair is called by Riolanus Zugomaticum or Jugale, arising outwardly from the Jugal Process. It is fleshy and round, and descending obliquely through the Cheeks, is terminated near the corner of the Mouth on each side; and serves to draw both Lips upwards sideways; 
4. Deprimens.  for it is common to them both. The fourth pair is Deprimens, which pulleth down the lower Lip. It springeth from the sides of the Chin, where the two small bunchings are: there it is fleshy. From thence marching obliquely, it is inserted into the middle of the under Lip. It is every where broad. 
5. Obliquè detrahens.  The fifth pair may be called oblique detrahens, for it draws the lower Lip obliquely downwards and outwards. It springs from the sides of the lower Jaw with a fleshy and broad beginning, (being sometimes extended to the middle of the Chin) from hence it goes upwards, and growing narrower by degrees it is inserted obliquely into the lower Lip near its corner. Some make but one of this and the immediately foregoing; as also of the second and third, but they are indeed distinct. And these are all of them pairs, one on each side: but this which follows is single, namely the Orbicularis or Constringens, 
Constringens.  and is common to both Lips. It is otherwise called Osculatorius, because it contracteth the Lips in kissing. This is that which makes the proper figure and soft substance of both the Lips, encompassing the whole Mouth like a Sphincter, which by its orbicular Fibres it constringes or purses up when one is said to simper. It is closely knit to the red skin of the Lips.   

CHAP. VII.  
Of the Muscles of the lower Jaw.  
THE lower Jaw (for the upper is immovable, and therefore has no Muscles) is moved upwards, downwards, towards the right side, towards the left side, and towards the backpart. To procure these motions five pair of Muscles are appointed, 
The lower jaw hath five pair of muscles.  of which there is only one pair that draweth the Jaw downwards, all the others in some measures upwards: whence one may be easily made to shut his Mouth, there being only one pair of Muscles to oppose; but it is difficult to open it against one's will, through the great strength of the Muscles that shut it.  
The first pair of Muscles is called temporale, 
1. Temporale.  and is the strongest and largest: It springeth from the bones of the frons, synciput, temples and sphenoides, with a fleshy, large and semicircular beginning, and on its outer side is covered with the pericranium, its inner lying next the periosteum. It's Fibres the further they are from its middle, the more obliquely are they carried towards its Tendon, for the further it descends, the narrower (but thicker and more carnous) it grows; and at length passing under the os jugale, it embraceth and is inserted into the acute process of the lower Jaw (called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉) with a short but very strong Tendon. Spigelius says, this Tendon is extended through the whole Muscle, in its middle fleshy substance. Wherefore if this Muscle be wounded, fearful symptoms ensue, 
Why the wounds of the temporal muscle are dangerous.  partly because the Tendon passeth so; partly because it is covered with the pericranium. This Muscle forcibly pulleth up the lower Jaw, and so shutteth the Mouth. The Second pair is called deprimens, digastricum, or biventre, because it hath two bellies, 
2. Deprimens or biventre.  between which a Tendon lieth: this doth pull down the Jaw, and so openeth the Mouth. Wherein it is partly assisted by the Quadratus described in the foregoing Chapter. It hath its beginning from the process of the bone of the Temple, called Styloides, where it is nervous and broad; and afterward becoming fleshy, small, and round, it passeth downward, and in its middle, where it comes to the flexure of the lower jawbone, it loseth its fleshy substance, and degenerates into a nervous and round Tendon; but by and by it becomes carnous again, and goes along the inner side of the lower-jaw, to its forepart that is under the Chin, where it is inserted. 
3. Masseter or laterale.  The third is called masseter, because it serveth for chewing by moving the Jaw to the right and the left side: from its situation it may be called laterale. This hath two beginnings: one is nervous, springing from the suture where the first bone of the Jaw is joined to the fourth. This beginning is large and strong. The other beginning is fleshy, proceeding from the os jugale, and so marcheth towards the Chin, and is implanted into the whole breadth of the lower Jaw strongly. The Fibres of this Muscle, by reason of the two beginnings, cross one another; so that these Muscles do not only move the Jaw laterally, 
4. Aliforme externum, or maxillam abducens.  but backward and forwards also.  
The fourth pair is called pterygoideum externum, aliforme externum, or maxillam abducens. This hath also a double beginning, partly nervous and partly fleshy; springing partly from the upper external sides of the wing-like process of the os sphenoides, partly from the rough and sharp line of the same bone. Whence marching down by straight Fibres, it becometh greater and thicker. And at length is inserted by a strong Tendon into the internal lateral part of the lower Jaw, which is under the Tendon of the temporal Muscle. This moveth the Jaw forward, which appeareth when the lower Teeth are stretched further out than the upper.  
The fifth pair is termed maxillam adducens, or pterygoideum internum. 
5. Alitorme internum, or maxillam adducens.  This draweth the Jaw towards its head, or backward. This, in the beginning being nervous, doth spring from the inner cavity of the wing-like Process of the os sphenoides; then becoming fleshy, large and thick, and marching down by a straight passage, it is inserted into the inner and hinder part of the lower Jaw by a nervous, broad and strong Tendon. Besides its more proper Action of drawing the Jaw backwards, it also helps the temporal Muscle to draw it up.   

CHAP. VIII.  
Of the Muscles of the Ear.  
THE Ear consists of an outer and an inner part: and each has its proper Muscles.  
The outer part is moved but very obscurely, because in Men the Muscles are exceeding small; so that Galen calls them, only lineaments or resemblances of Muscles. 
The auricula hath four muscles.  There are four of them, which by their situation seem fit to move this outer part of the Ear (called auricula by Spigelius, to distinguish it from the inner part called auris) four manner of ways.  
The first is called attollens. This is seated in the forepart of the Face, and lies upon the temporal Muscle that draws up the lower Jaw. It arises at the outer end of the frontal Muscle (where it is contiguous to the temporal) with a thin and membranous beginning, but by degrees becoming narrower as it goeth down, it is inserted into the upper part of the Ear, which it moveth upwards and forwards. The second is called detrahens. This ariseth broad and carnous from the mammillary Process, and growing narrower is inserted into the root of the cartilege of the Ear sometimes by two, sometimes by three Tendons. It draweth the Ear upwards and backwards. The third is called adducens ad antericra, whereby the Ear is drawn forward and downward. This is but a particle of the musculus quadratus, that pulleth down the Cheeks, described before, which ascending with its Fibres, is implanted into the root of the Ear. The fourth is abducens ad posteriora, which draws the Ear backward. This hath its beginning in the backpart of the Head, from the Tunicles of the Muscles of the occiput, above the processus mammillaris, where it is narrow, but waxing broader it is carried downward transversly, and is inserted into the Ear behind. All these Muscles in Horses, Oxen and the like, are very large to what they are in Men (yea they have more than these) whereby they can move their Ears more strongly and apparently, to shake off Flies or any thing that offends them.  
In the inner part of the Ear (called Auris) there are two. 
The auris two.  The first is called externus. It is small, springing pretty broad from the upper part of the passage of the Ear; then becoming narrower it grows into a very fine and small Tendon, which is carried on the outside of the Membrane, called tympanum, till it arrive at its centre or middle, into which it is inserted, just there where on the inside of the said membrane the little Bone called malleus sticketh, which with the Membrane this Muscle draweth a little outward and upward. The second is called internus. This is very small, and is placed within the os petrosum. It hath its beginning in the basis of the wedge-like Bone, there where it is joined with the processus petrosus, and at about its middle it is divided into two small Tendons, whereof the one is inserted into the upper process of the malleus, and the other into the neck of it. This draws the head of the malleus obliquely forward, and pulls it inward from the incus.   

CHAP. IX.  
Of the Muscles of the Tongue.  
THE Tongue being the chief Instrument of Speech, and a part which serves to roll the Meat in the Mouth this way and that way, has all manner of motions, being moved forward (when we put out the Tongue) and backward, upward and downward, to the right hand and to the left; it is also stretched out broad, or contracted. Its Muscles are either proper to itself, or common to it with the os hyoides (to be described in the next Chapter.) 
The tongue has five pair.  It has five pair of proper Muscles. The first is genioglossum, so called from its rise and insertion (〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the Chin, and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the Tongue) as most of the rest are. This pulleth the Tongue without the Teeth and Lips. It springeth from the ruggedness which is in the middle of the Chin, in the inner and lower part of it, and is inserted into the lower side and towards the root of the Tongue. The second is called Hypsiloglossum (on the same account.) It ariseth from the middle and upper part of the os hyoides, and ends in the middle of the Tongue, which it draws straight backwards or inwards. The third is called Myloglossum. This springeth from the inner part of the lower Jaw, where the farthest grinding Teeth are, and is inserted into the ligament by which the Tongue is tied to the fauces. Authors differ about the use of this pair; some thinking that it draws the Tongue downward; others, that if both of them act together, they draw the tip of the Tongue straight upward and backward to the Palate and upper Teeth; if but one, that it draws it obliquely upward toward its own side. The fourth is called Ceratoglossum, because it ariseth from the two horns of the os hyoides. It is inserted into the sides of the Tongue. If both of these be contracted at once, they draw the Tongue straight downward and inward; but if only one, then is the Tongue drawn obliquely to that side. The fifth pair is called Styloglossum, because it ariseth from the styloides processus; from which springing fleshy and small, but afterwards becoming broader and thicker, it is inserted into the sides of the Tongue, at about the middle of its length. If both these act together, they pull the Tongue upward and inward; but if one only, then to the right hand or to the left.   

CHAP. X.  
Of the Muscles of the Bone of the Tongue, called os Hyoides.  
THis Bone is moved upwards, downwards, forward, backward, and toward the sides, as the Tongue is; for it is moved according as the Tongue is, seeing it is joined to it, and its Muscles are common to both.  
To perform these motions it hath four pair of Muscles. 
Os hyoides hath four pair.  The first is called Sternohyoideum. This springing from the upper, but inner part of the sternum with a broad and carnous beginning, and ascending under the Skin of the Neck by the Windpipe, still keeping the same largeness and substance, is inserted in the root or basis of the hyoides, which it moveth (and the Tongue with it) downward and backward. The second is opposite to this, and is called geniohyoideum. This springing from the inner part of the Chin, (by the genioglossum) fleshy and broad, is inserted into the upper part of the root of the Bone, where a cavity is made to receive it, and draweth it straight upwards and a little forwards. The third is Coracohyoideum. It riseth from the upper side of the scapula near the Coracoides processus, having a carnous beginning, and passing under the Levator of the shoulder-blade, called musculus patientiae, it ascends under the par mastoides that bends the Head, where it loses its fleshy substance, as giving way to one more worthy than itself, and degenerates into a nervous and round Tendon. But as soon as it is passed this, it becomes carnous again, and so continues till it is inserted into the horns of the hyoides. Considering its slenderness it is the longest Muscle of the Body, and has two Bellies like the par deprimens that pulls down the lower Jaw. It pulleth the Bone obliquely downwards. The fourth is styloceratohyoideum. This riseth from the root of the processus styloides, and endeth in the horns of the hyoides, which it draweth obliquely upward.   

CHAP. XI.  
Of the Muscles of the Larynx.  
THE Muscles of the Larynx are either common▪ or proper. 
The common muscles are four.  The common are four; two called par sternothyreoideum, and as many called par hyothyreoideum. The Hyothyreoideum springeth from the whole basis almost of the Bone of the Tongue, having a broad and carnous beginning; from whence descending with straight Fibres, and covering all the outside of the cartilege thyreoides, it is inserted into its lowest part. When this is contracted, it draws the buckler-like (or thyreoides) cartilege upwards and inwards, and thereby straitens the Chink of the Larynx. The other pair called sternothyreoideum (vulgarly Bronchium) springing from the upper and inner part of the sternum with a carnous and broad beginning, ascends with straight Fibres up by the sides of the Windpipe (continuing the same largeness and substance) and is at last inserted into the lower side of the buckler-like cartilege, by drawing down which it opens or widens the Chink. Diemerbroeck assigns clear contrary actions to these Muscles, viz. that the former widens and this latter straitens the rima of the Larynx.  
The proper Muscles are in number nine. 
The proper muscles nine.  The first pair is called Cricothyreoideum anticum. This springeth from the forepart of the cricoides or ring-like cartilege, and is inserted into the lateral parts of the Thyreoides. It extends the cartilege and so widens the rimula, for the forming of a big Voice. Bartholin, from the insertion of the Nerve, says it arises from the thyreoides, and is inserted into the cricoides. Also if this pair be very broad, he says, it may be divided into two pair (which Riolanus has done) and then the second may be called Cricothyreoideum laterale. The second pair is called Cricoarytaenoideum posticum, springing carnous from the hinder and lower part of the Cricoides, whose cavity it fills, and ascending with straight Fibres it is inserted with a nervous end into the lower side of the Arytaenoides, which it pulls upward and backward, and thereby opens and widens the Larynx. The third is Cricoarytaenoideum laterale, which springeth above from the sides of the Cricoides, with a slender beginning, but growing presently larger, it is implanted into the sides of the arytaenoides, in that part that the foregoing did not cover. This openeth the Larynx by drawing the cartilages obliquely aside. The fourth pair is called Thyreoarytaenoideum. This is internal, carnous and broad, arising from the fore interior part of the Thyreoides, and is inserted into the sides of the guttalis or arytaenoides, which make the glottis. It draws these Cartilages one to the other and so straitens the Larynx. The fifth and last is reckoned to be but one Muscle, and is called Arytaenoides, because it has its rise from the Cartilege so called, namely from its hinder Line, from whence being extended with transverse Fibres, it is also inserted into its sides, and by constringing of it shuts the Larynx.   

CHAP. XII.  
Of the Muscles of the Uuula and Throat.  
THE Uuula is said by Veslingius, 
The Uuula said to have two muscles.  Riolanus, etc. to have two Muscles to hold it up; of which one is called Pterygostaphilinus externus, which springeth from the upper Jaw, a little below the furthermost Grinder, and is inserted into the side of the Uuula: The other Pterygostaphilinus internus, proceeding from the lower part of the internal wing of the pterygoides Processus, and inserted into the Uuula in like manner. But these Muscles are very hard to discover: and indeed there seems no occasion for them, seeing the Uuula has no apparent motion, and its own frame seems sufficient to suspend it.  
The Throat, 
The throat hath seven.  or the beginning of the oesophagus, called pharynx, hath seven Muscles, to wit, three pair and a sphincter. Of the pairs, the first is Sphenopharyngaeum. This springeth from the sharp point of the sphenoides with a small and nervous beginning, and passing downward, ends in a fine Tendon, which is inserted obliquely into the lateral parts of the Palate and Pharynx, which it widens in swallowing. The second pair is called Cephalopharyngaeum, and springeth from that part where the Head is joined to the first vertebra of the Neck, and marching down it is spread about the Pharynx with a large plexus of Fibres, and seemeth to make its Membrane. This straitens the Throat in swallowing. The third is Stylopharyngaeum. This springing from the styloides Process, is inserted into the sides of the Pharynx to dilate it. That which hath no fellow is called oesophagiaeus, which springing from one side of the thyreoides, and circularly compassing the Pharynx with transverse Fibres, is inserted into the other side of the Thyreoides; and serves to contract the Mouth of the Gullet, as the sphincters of the anus and Bladder do those parts.   

CHAP. XIII.  
Of the Muscles of the Head.  
THE Muscles of the Head are either common, or proper. 
The common.  The common are those which together with the Neck move the Head. These are to be described in the next Chapter. 
The proper are eight pair.  The proper are those which only move the Head when the Neck remaineth unmoved, and these are in number sixteen, or eight pair. The first pair called Mastoideum bend the Head forward, if both act together; but on one side obliquely, if but one. These have each a double beginning; one nervous from the top of the sternum, the other carnous from the upper side of the clavicula; which origines joining, it becomes wholly carnous, and ascending obliquely by the Neck, at last is inserted with a carnous end at the hinder part of the Head into the Process called Mastoides, or mammillaris. This is the only pair that is placed in the forepart and bows the Head forward; all the rest are seated behind, and bend it backward or to the sides. Of which the first pair is called splenium or triangulare. It rises with a nervous beginning from the five uppermost vertebrae of the Thorax, and five lowermost of the Neck; from whence ascending and becoming thick and carnous, it is implanted into the occiput with a broad and fleshy end. If both the Muscles of this pair act together, they draw the Head directly backward; if one singly, than a little to one side. The second is called complexum or trigeminum, because it has so plainly a threefold beginning, that it seems to be compounded or made up of three Muscles. One beginning is from the transverse Process of the fourth and fifth vertebrae of the Breast, a second from the first and second of the same, and a third from the spin of the seventh vertebra of the Neck: All which in their ascent being united into one, are inserted into the occiput sometimes by one and sometimes by a triple Tendon. This has the same action with the foregoing, as have also the three following. The third pair is called parvum & crassum, because it is small and thick. This lieth under the second pair. It arises nervous from the transverse Processes of the six uppermost vertebrae of the Neck, and is inserted into the hinder root of the mammillary Process. The fourth pair is rectum majus. These springing from the edge of the second vertebra of the Neck, are inserted into the occiput. The fifth, rectum minus. These lie under the former, and proceeding from the backpart of the first vertebra end into the occiput. The sixth is obliquum superius. This pair lies under the two recta, answering to them in substance and form. It springs from the Process of the first vertebra of the Neck, and is implanted into the occiput by the outer side of the recta. Some say its rise is here, and its insertion into the vertebra. The seventh, obliquum inferius. This is longish, fleshy and round, rising from the spin of the second vertebra of the Neck, and is inserted into the transverse Process of the first vertebra of the same. These oblique Muscles serve to turn the Head about.   

CHAP. XIV.  
Of the Muscles of the Neck.  
THE Head is not only moved by the proper Muscles abovesaid primarily, 
The neck hath four pair.  but secondarily also by these of the Neck, which are eight in number, on each side four. The first and second pair bend the Neck backward, or obliquely; the third and fourth forward, or to one side, as both or one act. The first is called Spinatum. This proceeding from the spinae of the upper seven vertebrae of the thorax, and of the five lowest of the Neck, is inserted strongly into the lower edge of the second vertebra of the Neck. The second, Transversale. This rising from the transverse Processes of the six upper vertebrae of the Thorax, is inserted outwardly into all the Processes of the vertebrae of the Neck. The third, longum. This being placed under the oesophagus, doth spring from the fifth and sixth vertebrae of the back, and as it ascends is knit to the sides of all the vertebrae, till it come to the first or highest of the Neck, where each touching other, they are both inserted into its Process. The fourth, triangulare, or scalenum. It proceeds carnous from the first rib, and is inserted into the inside of all the transverse Processes of the Neck, except sometime the first and second. It is perforated to make way for the Veins, Arteries and Nerves which pass to the Arms.   

CHAP. XV.  
Of the Muscles of the Breast.  
HAving done with the Muscles that belong to the Head, the highest Venture, we come now to those of the middle or Thorax, which assist respiration. Of these some dilate the Breast in inspiration, 
The dilaters.  some contract it in expiration. Of the Dilaters the first is called par Subclavium. This ariseth fleshy from the inner part of the clavicula, and passing obliquely is inserted into the first Rib, near to the Sternum. The second is serratum majus. This doth arise from the inside of the Shoulder-blade, and the two upper Ribs, and is inserted into the lower five true Ribs, and two upper short Ribs, before they end into cartilages. It is called serratum or Saw-like, because its unequal extremities being intermixed with the like unequal beginnings of the obliquely descending Muscle of the Abdomen, imitate the Teeth of a Saw. The third is serratum posticum superius. This lying under the rhomboides, springeth membranous from the spines of the three lower vertebrae of the Neck, and of the first vertebra of the Back, and is inserted into the three of four upper Ribs. The fourth is serratum posticum inferius. This ariseth from the spines of the three lowest vertebrae of the Back, and of the first of the Loins, and is inserted into three or four of the lowest (short) Ribs. Fifthly, The eleven external intercostals, which perform the office but of one Muscle. These spring from the lower part of the upper Rib, and are inserted into the upper part of the lower Rib obliquely.  
There is another Muscle besides these, that assists the widening of the Breast, namely the Diaphragm: but of it we spoke at large in Book 2. chap. 3. where the Reader may find its Description and Use.  
These that follow contract the Breast. 
The contracters.  First, the par triangulare. This arising from the middle Line of the sternum, is inserted into the bony ends of the third, fourth, fifth and sixth true Ribs (where they are joined to the Cartilages.) The second is sacrolumbum. This arises from the os sacrum, and the Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins; and ascending up to the Ribs, is implanted into each of them in their lower side, about three Finger's breadth from the spin, by a particular Tendon. (Diemerbroeck describes another pair opposite to this (which he calls cervicale descendens) springing from the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh vertebrae of the Neck, and is inserted into the upper side of each Rib as the sacrolumbum is into the lower. And says, that this pair by pulling the Ribs upwards in inspiration widens the Breast, as the other by drawing them down in expiration straitens it.) Thirdly, The eleven internal intercostals, which are as one Muscle. These pass obliquely from the lower to the upper Rib. Their Fibres run opposite to those of the external, representing a St. Andrew's Cross, or the Letter X.  
These Muscles are much assisted in their action, secondarily, by the Muscles of the Abdomen, scapulae and Arms.   

CHAP. XVI.  
Of the Muscles of the Back and Loins.  
THE Back, but especially the Loins being moved diversely, viz. backward and forward and to the sides, into every vertebra there are Tendons of the Muscles inserted, as if there were a great many Muscles in all. 
The back and loins have four pair.  But there are but four (proper) pair to assist the motion of both. The first pair are two triangular Muscles, which being joined together make a kind of a quadrature, and are therefore called par quadratum. These arise broad and thick from the hinder upper cavity of os Ileum, and the inner side of os sacrum, and are inserted into the transverse Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins even up to the lowest Rib. If both these act together, they bow the vertebrae of the Loins straight forward, if one alone, obliquely forward. The second and principal pair are the musculi longissimi, which springing at the bottom of os sacrum and Ileum, and ascending up the spin, reach as far as to the processus mammillares near the Temple-bones, bestowing Tendons on the Processes of all the vertebrae of the Loins and Back, (whence some have divided this pair into as many as there are vertebrae) being almost confounded with the two following from their rise till the lowest vertebra of the Thorax, where this pair begins to be separated from them. And hence because these three Muscles are something hard to separate, some account them for one. The third pair are the Muscles called sacri, which arise behind from the os sacrum, with an acute and fleshy beginning, and end in the spin of the lowest vertebra of the thorax, and for the most part also are inserted, by the way, into the spines and oblique Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins. This pair helpeth the action of the former. The fourth and last pair are the semispinatis, which springing by a nervous beginning from all the spines of os sacrum and the Loins, end in the transverse Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins, and of the lowermost of the Thorax. This pair erects the Thorax.  
Now there are none of these Muscles but the first pair, that bend the Loins and Back forward; but these are much assisted in that action by the recti of the Abdomen, which we shall describe in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. XVII.  
Of the Muscles of the Abdomen.  
IN the first Book, Chap. 3. where we discoursed of the common containing parts of the Abdomen, or lowest Venture, we only barely mentioned its Muscles, deferring the further description of them till this place, where it seems more proper.  
The Abdomen then hath ten Muscles, 
The Abdomen hath five pair.  five on each side. The first pair is oblique descendens. It's rise is parted into seven or eight fleshy Portions, like Comb-teeths, which being intermixed with the Tendons of the serratus major of the Breast divided in like manner imitate a Saw. It springeth from the lower side of the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh Ribs, and the transverse Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins, adhering also to the edge of os Ilium; from all which places its Fibres descend obliquely, and it endeth by a broad Tendon in the middle of the Belly in the Linea alba; which Tendon cleaves so fast to that of the obliquely ascending (lying next under this) that they cannot be separated without tearing. (The Linea alba in which these Tendons end, is a white part or Line running from the mucronata cartilago at the pit of the Stomach down the middle of the Belly by the Navel to the ossa pubis, and is made of the concourse of the Tendons of the Muscles of the Abdomen; namely of this pair already mentioned, and of the oblique ascendens, the transverse and pyramidal. The second pair is the oblique ascendens. These lie next under the former, and their Fibres ascending obliquely cross those of the other like an X. They spring from the transverse Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins and the spines of os sacrum with a membranous beginning, and from the edge of os Illum with a fleshy. Ascending carnous from hence they are joined to the cartilages of the eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh Ribs, and end in the linea alba with a broad and nervous Tendon. The third pair is the rectum or straight. These arise fleshy from the lower part of the sternum, from both sides of the cartilago mucronata, and from the cartilaginous ending of four Ribs; and so marching straight down along the Belly, it is inserted by a strong Tendon into the ossa pubis. Each hath sometimes three, sometimes four transverse inscriptions or intersections, that appear tendinous: whence some divide them into four or five Muscles, accordingly as they have three or four Intersections. And indeed if Galen's Rule be true, that wheresoever the Nerve is inserted into the Muscle, there is its head; we must confess they are distinct Muscles. For Nerves are inserted into both their upper and lower parts, and into each of those that lie betwixt the Intersections. And by supposing them thus distinct, we may conceive how they may better perform their primary action, which is strongly to compress the Belly for the expulsion of the faeces or foetus. Under these Muscles do the Arteriae and Venae mammariae descend to about the Navel, as the Arteriae and Venae epigastricae ascend under them to near the same place; and these were held to inosculate one with another, (the descending with the ascending) till of late that such inosculation is discovered to be merely imaginary. The fourth pair is the pyramidal. These are placed above the lower part of the musculi recti. They spring from the ossa pubis, small and carnous, where they receive their Nerves. They are broader at their basis, and grow narrower as they ascend, whence they have their name of pyramidal. They climb up upon the recti about four Finger's breadth (the left being shorter and narrower) and insert their acute Tendon into the linea alba. They are said to assist the recti in their action, and are for that reason also called succenturiati. But they seem more particularly to serve to compress the Bladder in making Water. Sometimes one, and sometimes both of these are wanting, and then the ending of the recti is broader and more carnous. The fifth pair is the transverse, which is firmly knit to the peritonaeum, and whose Fibres run cross or athwart the Belly. They spring from a Ligament that grows from the transverse Processes of the vertebrae of the Loins, from os Ileum, and the cartilaginous ends of the lower Ribs, (having the same Arteries, Veins and Nerves with the obliquely ascending) and end in a broad and membranous Tendon in the linea alba. The use of all these Muscles hath been held to be, first, while the Body is at rest, to strengthen the parts subjacent, and to increase their heat: and secondly, when they are in action, first, to further the excretion of the Excrements; secondly, to help the delivery of the Infant in labour; thirdly, to assist the Breast in strong expiration and expectoration; and fourthly, to help to bend the spin in stooping, etc. Diemerbroeck thinks that the straight, pyramidal and transverse do serve for the compression of the Belly, but that the oblique do elevate or dilate it; for in inspiration the Abdomen is elevated as well as the thorax: and an alternate elevation and depression seems necessary for the furthering the motion of the Aliments and Humours through the Parts contained in the lower Belly.   

CHAP. XVIII.  
Of the Muscles of the Genitals, both in Men and Women.  
IN the first Book, chap. 23. of the Yard, we described its Muscles and their action, whither the Reader may please to turn, and here we shall but just name them. 
The penis hath two pair.  They are two pair. The first are the erectores or directores, which arise from the inner knob of the coxendix, and are inserted into the nervous Bodies of the Penis. The second are the acceleratores, which arise from the sphincter of the anus, and passing on the under side of the Penis (by the sides of the urethra) end about its middle.  
The Clitoris in Women, 
The clitoris hath also two pair.  (something resembling the Penis in Men) hath also two pair of Muscles, which having described Book 1. chap. 29. we shall not insist on here, but remit the Reader thither.  
As to the Cremaster Muscles by which the Testes are suspended in Men, see them described Book 1. chap. 31. As for women's Testes, they have no Cremasters.   

CHAP. XIX.  
Of the Muscles of the Bladder and Anus.  
THE Bladder hath but one Muscle, 
The bladder hath one muscle.  called sphincter, which doth compass round its Neck, and the prostates. In Men it is about two Inches broad, and is nothing else but the middle membrane here grown more carnous than in the rest of the Bladder. It's Fibres are orbicular, whereby it constringes or purses up the Neck of the Bladder, that the Urine cannot pass out without a voluntary relaxing of this Muscle. In Women it reacheth to the Hole by which the Urine passeth into the vagina uteri, and seemeth to form it.  
The Anus hath three Muscles. 
The anus three.  The first is sphincter: this is fleshy, and encompasses the end of the straight Gut, being two Inches broad. It's Fibres are orbicular. It doth not spring from any adjacent Bone, but only adheres to the coccyx. It serves to purse up the Fundament. The second and third are called levatores. These spring from the Ligaments of the coxendix and os sacrum, being broad and membranous, from whence passing by the sides of the straight Gut, they stick to it, and are inserted into the upper part of the sphincter. These hinder the falling out of the Fundament, which sometimes happens when they are too much relaxed.   

CHAP. XX.  
Of the Muscles of the Scapula or Shoulder-blade.  
THus we have done with the Muscles of all the three Ventures: now we come to those of the Limbs. And first of the Scapula or Shoulder-blade. It is moved forward, backward, upward and downward. 
The scapulae have four pair.  Each Scapula hath four proper Muscles. The first is called trapezius or cucullaris, because it with its fellow covering the Back resembles a Monk's Cowl. It hath its beginning from the lower part of the occiput towards the Ear, fleshy; but from the posterior Processes of five vertebrae of the Neck, and the eight upper vertebrae of the Breast, it springeth membranous and broad, and growing narrower in its progress, is inserted into the whole spin of the Scapula, the top of the Shoulder, and broader part of the clavicula. The second is levator, or patientiae musculus. This hath its beginning from the transverse Processes of the first, second, third and fourth vertebrae of the Neck; which beginnings being united about the middle of the length of the Muscle, it is inserted into the upper corner of the Shoulder-blade. The third is serratus minor anticus. This lies under the pectoral Muscle, and springs from the four uppermost Ribs (except the first) before they become cartilaginous, by four fleshy portions representing the Teeth of a Saw, and is inserted by a broad Tendon near to the Anchor-like Process of the Scapula. The fourth is rhomboides. This is placed immediately under the cucullaris. It springeth fleshy from the hinder Processes or spines of the three lowest vertebrae of the Neck and so many uppermost of the Breast; and is inserted by as broad a fleshy ending, as the beginning was, into the basis of the Shoulder-blade.  
These are the four proper pair of Muscles belonging to the Scapulae: Of which the first pair, because of its several Origines and several Fibres, moves them diversely, upward, or downward, straight backward, or obliquely, according as these or those Fibres are contracted. The second draws them (with the Shoulders) upwards; the third forward toward the Breast; and the last a little upward and backward.  
It hath other Muscles that are common to it with other Parts, which in some measure assist its Motions, as the serratus major, described above, chap. 15. and the deltoides, which we shall describe in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. XXI.  
Of the Muscles of the Arm.  
THE Arm in common acceptation is meant of all the distance betwixt the top of the Shoulder-blade and the Wrist; but we take it more strictly here for that part only that reaches from the Shoulder to the Elbow, (which itself is otherwise called humerus) and consists of one Bone, which we shall call the Shoulder-bone. 
Each Arm hath nine muscles.  It hath five motions, for it moveth backward, forward, upward, downward and circularly.  
It is moved upward by two Erectors, 
Erectors.  deltoides and supraspinatus. First, deltoides (so called because in shape it resembleth the Greek Letter Delta) springeth nervous and broad from the middle of the clavicula, the top of the Shoulder, and the whole spin of the scapula, and is extended as far as to the middle of this Shoulder-Bone, where it is inserted. This besides its raising up the humerus, helps also to draw up the Scapula. The second is supraspinatus, or superscapularis superior. This arises from the basis of the Scapula, and fills up all that cavity that is betwixt its spin and upper Edge, and passing over the jointing of the Scapula with the Shoulder-bone, by a broad and strong Tendon is inserted into the Neck of the latter. Some think this doth not only lift the Arm upward, but help to turn it round.  
It is pulled down by latissimus, 
Depressors.  and rotundus major. Latissimus is so called from its largeness; for with its fellow it covereth almost the whole Back. It is called also any scalptor, or tersor; for without it those Offices could not be performed. It springs by a broad membranous beginning from the hinder Processes of all the vertebrae of the Backbone, that are betwixt the sixth of the thorax, and the middle of os sacrum, as also from the upper part of os ilium: then passing upwards, when it is come to that part of the Back, where the Ribs begin to bend, it becometh fleshy, and is carried over the lower corner of the scapula; where becoming narrower, it is inserted under the upper head of the Shoulder-bone, by a short broad Tendon, between the musculus pectoralis, and this that follows, viz. Rotundus major, or more properly, teres major. (For rotundus means a thing spherical, but teres long and round, like a Thread, as this is.) It springeth carnous from the whole lower costa of the scapula, and is inserted by a short and strong Tendon into the Shoulder-bone, a little below the Neck of it.  
It is drawn forward by pectoralis and coracoideus. 
Movers forward.  Pectoralis hath a very large and for the greatest part membranous beginning, arising from divers parts, yet is one and continuous. In its upper part it rises from the middle of the clavicula on that side next the Breast; in its middle, from the whole length of the sternum and the cartilages of the Ribs annexed to it; in its lowest, from the cartilages of the sixth, seventh, and eighth Ribs. It presently becomes carnous and thick, but narrower, and running towards the Shoulder it is inserted into the Shoulder-bone, a little below its Head, between the deltoides and the biceps of the Cubit. Coracoideus beginneth at the coracoides Process of the Scapula, and endeth about the middle of the Shoulder-bone.  
It is moved backward by three: 
Pullers backward.  Infraspinatus, subscapularis, or immersus, and Rotundus minor. Infraspinatus or suprascapularis inferior springeth from the lower basis of the Scapula, and filleth up all that space that is betwixt its spin and lower edge, as the supraspinatus did that between the spin and upper edge. It is inserted by a broad and short Tendon into the fourth Ligament of the Shoulder-bone. Subscapularis or immersus possesseth the whole inner cavity of the Scapula. It springeth from the inner part of its basis, fleshy, and so continuing, passeth forward (but becoming still narrower) to the Neck of the Scapula, and at the last by a broad Tendon is inserted into one of the Ligaments of the Arm. Rotundus minor ariseth from the lowest corner of the Scapula by a fleshy beginning, and is implanted into the Neck of the Shoulder-bone. Some make but one Muscle of this and the Rotundus major.  
As to the circular motion of the Arm, that is not performed by any particular Muscle, but several of these contribute towards it, namely the supraspinatus, infraspinatus and subscapularis, and in some measure the others also.   

CHAP. XXII.  
Of the Muscles of the Ulna.  
THE lower part of the Arm from the Elbow to the Wrist is called Cubitus, which consisteth of two Bones, called ulna and radius. The ulna serveth for flexion, and extension; but the radius turneth it inward or outward, so as to make the back or palm of the Hand look upward or downward.  
The ulna is bended by two, 
Benders of the ulna.  to wit, biceps, and brachiaeus internus. Biceps hath two beginnings from the Shoulder-blade. The first is that which is outward, tendinous and round, springing from the upper brim of the hollowness of the scapula; The second is broader, and is framed partly of a Tendon, and partly of Flesh: it springs from the Anchor-like Process of the Shoulder-blade; then descending by the inner head of the Shoulder-bone, it meeteth with the former, and becometh a strong fleshy Muscle: which lying on the inside of the Arm, afterwards ends in a thick, round, and strong Tendon, which is inserted into the inner Prominence or knob of the Ulna. This is that Tendon which causeth great pain if it be pricked in Phlebotomy. Brachiaeus internus lieth under the biceps, being shorter than it, and altogether fleshy. It riseth where the deltoides endeth, viz. from the middle of the Shoulder-bone, unto which it cleaveth firmly, and is inserted between the ulna and they radius where meet, in their foreside.  
The ulna is extended by four Muscles, 
Extenders.  longus, brevis, brachiaeus, externus, and cubitalis. Longus has two beginnings; the one is partly fleshy and partly nervous, at the lower brim of the scapula, near its Neck, (where it hath a peculiar hollowness to receive it:) this descends on the inside of the Shoulder-bone, and when it is come as far as the insertion of the any scalptor (described in the foregoing Chapter) there arises another carnous beginning towards the outer side, that (according to Spigelius) joins with it and makes up one Muscle, which is inserted into the inner side of the hinder Process of the olecranus (or gibbous knob of the ulna.) Brevis rising from the hinder part of the Neck of the Shoulder-bone, endeth in the outer side of the olecranus; namely, in that part of the Elbow that we lean upon. Brachiaeus externus (so called by Riolanus to distinguish it from, the internus) is placed on the outside of the Shoulder-Bone, and is confounded with the other two and endeth where they do. This seemeth to be Spigelius' second beginning of the longus, which he says grows into one Muscle with it. Cubitalis or anconaeus ariseth from the lower and hinder part of the Shoulder-bone, and passing by the jointing of the ulna, it endeth by a nervous Tendon in its lateral part about an Inch below the olecranus or ancon, whence it is called anconaeus. Some make one Muscle of this and the brevis.  
Note that both these benders and extenders of the ulna have only straight Fibres, and so only move the Cubit streightwise.   

CHAP. XXIII.  
Of the Muscles of the Radius.  
THE Radius, the other Bone of the Cubitus, hath two sorts of Muscles: for some are called pronatores, such as turn it inwards, and the Palm of the Hand downwards; and some supinatores, which turn the Radius outwards, and the Palm of the Hand upwards.  
The pronatores are two in number. 
The pronatores.  The first is, pronator superior rotundus or teres. This springeth from The Root of the inner knob of the Shoulder-bone, and from the inner side of the ulna, where it is joined to the Shoulder-bone; and running obliquely on the inside of the Radius endeth about its middle by a membranous Tendon. The second is pronator inferior quadratus, which is altogether fleshy. It springeth from the lower and inner part of the ulna two Inches broad; then marching transversly above the Ligament which joineth the radius to the ulna, it endeth in the inside of the radius. The ending is as broad as the beginning; wherefore it is called quadratus or foursquare.  
The supinatores are in like manner two. 
Supinatores.  The first is supinator longus, so called, because of all the Muscles which march by the ulna, it hath the longest Belly. This springeth fleshy from the edge of the outer knob of the Shoulder-Bone; and marching obliquely under the radius, is implanted by a membranous Tendon into the upper part of the lower appendix of the radius, bending somewhat to the innerside. The second is supinator brevis. This springeth from the outward part of the ligament in the jointing of the lower end of the Arm-bone, and from the hinder Process of the ulna; from whence it passeth on obliquely, being without membranous, and within fleshy, and is inserted into the middle of the radius.  
Note that though for order's sake we have described the Muscles of the radius next to those of the ulna; yet when one would show them in Dissection, the Muscles of the Fingers, Thumb and Wrist are first to be raised, and then these of the radius after those are taken away.   

CHAP. XXIV.  
Of the Muscles of the Wrist.  
THE Carpus or Wrist has three Motions: It is either bended, extended, or moved side-ways. For its flexion and extension it has proper Muscles: but as for its motion sideways, that is not performed by any proper Muscles, but as one, or two of the same side (of the benders and extenders) act; for than is it moved upward or downward accordingly.  
It is bended by two Muscles in the inside. 
Benders.  The first is cubitaeus internus: this ariseth by both a fleshy and nervous beginning from the inner knob of the Shoulder-bone; then passing fleshy the length of the ulna or cubitus, it doth end by a Tendon, partly nervous, and partly fleshy, in the fifth, some say the fourth Bone of the first rank in the Wrist. The second is Radiaeus internus: this arising from the same place, and passing along the radius, is inserted into that Bone of the back of the Hand which sustains the forefinger.  
Two External Muscles stretch out the Carpus. 
Extenders.  The first is radiaeus externus, or bicornis: this ariseth from the sharp edge of the outer knob of the Shoulder-bone in the upper part of it, by a broad beginning: then becoming fleshy, it passeth to the middle of the radius, where it becometh a strong Tendon, which presently is divided into two almost round Tendons. Both these pass a little asunder by the radius under the Ligament, whereof one is inserted into that Bone of the back of the Hand which stayeth the forefinger, and the other into the Bone which stayeth the middle Finger. The second is cubitaeus externus: this hath its beginning from the root of the external knob of the Shoulder-bone: it passes along the ulna, and when it is come to the Wrist, it endeth in a strong round Tendon, which is inserted into the upper part of that Bone which stayeth the little Finger, not far from the Wrist.   

CHAP. XXV.  
Of the Muscles of the Palm of the Hand.  
THis is thought to have two Muscles. 
The Palm hath two muscles.  The first is palmaris, which ariseth from the inner knob of the Shoulder-bone, round and nervous, but presently becoming fleshy it continues its course along the Cubit, under all the other Muscles, till at length it turns into a round Tendon, which passing over the ligamentum annulare of the Wrist, is afterwards dilated into a broad nervous membrane, which cleaveth firmly to the skin of the Palm of the Hand, for firm apprehension or griping, and quickness in feeling, and endeth at the first Joints of the Fingers.  
The second is caro quaedam quadrata, or a foursquare fleshy substance: this springeth from the membrana carnosa under mons luniae, where the eighth Bone of the Wrist is placed. From thence it is carried under the musculus palmaris, to the middle of the Palm of the Hand, and is inserted into the outside of that Tendon which moveth the little Finger outwards. This representeth two or three Muscles, and serveth for the hollowing of the Palm of the Hand, to form Diogenes his Cup by, bringing the fleshy eminence under the little Finger, unto the Tenar.   

CHAP. XXVI.  
Of the Muscles of the four Fingers.  
THE Fingers are bended, extended, and moved laterally. But seeing the motion of the Thumb differs very much from that of the other four Fingers, we shall describe its Muscles in the next Chapter, seeing they are altogether distinct from those of the Fingers.  
The Fingers are bended by three Muscles. 
Benders of the four fingers.  The first is called sublimis, or perforatus. This springeth from the inside of the inner knob of the Shoulder-bone; and about the Wrist it produceth four Tendons, which end in the second joint of the Fingers. Near their end they are cleft, to give way to the Tendons of the profundus passing through. The second is named profundus. This ariseth from the upper parts of the ulna and radius, a little below the Joint of the Elbow, and being separated at the Wrist into four Tendons, these run through the Clefts of the Tendons of the sublimis, and are implanted into the third Joint of the Fingers. The third sort of Muscles are called Lumbricales. These are very small, and arise from the Tendons of the musculus profundus, and end in a round Tendon in the first Joint of the Fingers, being confounded with the Tendons of those Muscles that move the Fingers laterally; yea sometimes they proceed further along with them, by the sides of the Fingers, to the third Joint, and assist their lateral Motion.  
The Fingers are extended by three Muscles, 
Extenders.  whereof one is common to all the four Fingers, and two proper to two particular. 
One common.  The common is extensor magnus. This arising from the outer knob of the Shoulder-bone, about the Wrist is divided into four Tendons, which are inserted into the second and third Joints of the Fingers; some make two of this. 
Two proper.  The proper are two. The first is called indicator, because it belongeth to the forefinger. It ariseth from the outward and middle part of the ulna, and by a double Tendon it endeth in the second Joint of the fore-Fingers: but one of the Tendons becometh one with the Tendon of the extensor magnus. The second is named auricularis, because it belongeth to the little Finger. It ariseth from the upper part of the radius, and marching between the ulna and the radius, it is inserted by a double Tendon into the outside of the little Finger.  
The Fingers are laterally moved two manner of ways: for either they are brought to the Thumb, or they are carried from it. 
Movers laterally, eight.  These Motions are performed by eight Muscles, called interossei, because they are placed between the Bones of the metacarpium. They are fleshy and round, and spring from the Bones of the metacarpium, to which they adhere, passing straight along them. When they are come to the Roots of the Fingers, they pass into Tendons which cleave to the sides of the Fingers, and end in the last Joint of the Fingers near the root of the Nails. When the Tendons of the Lumbricales join with these, they may be reckoned amongst the Movers of the Fingers laterally; and then there will be twelve in all, the Lumbricales being four, and these interosse● eight.  
Besides these Muscles, 
Abducing muscles, two.  the forefinger and the little Finger have each one proper Muscle. That of the forefinger may either be called abducens in respect of the middle Finger from which it draws it; or adducens, in respect of the Thumb towards which it draws it. It springs from the inside of the first Joint of the Thumb, and ends in the Bones of the forefinger, which it pulls towards the Thumb. That of the little Finger is called Abductor (by some hypotenar) and springs from the third and fourth bone (of the second rank) of the Wrist; whence proceeding along the palm of the hand, It is implanted by a small nervous tendon into the outside of the first joint of the little Finger, which it draws outwards from the rest.   

CHAP. XXVII.  
Of the Muscles of the Thumb.  
THE Thumb is extended by two Muscles. 
Ex●enders.  The first is that which is called longior. This ariseth fleshy from the outer and upper side of the ulna, near the membranous ligament which tieth together the ulna and radius. From thence it is carried obliquely upon the radius, and before it come to its appendix, turneth into a round Tendon; which passing under the annular ligament of the Wrist, marcheth along that side of the Thumb, which is next to the forefinger, and is inserted into its third bone. The second is named brevior. This ariseth from the same origine with the other, and passeth obliquely above the radius. By one Tendon it is implanted into the root of the first joint of the Thumb; the other becoming membranous, cleaveth fast to its second and third bone.  
It is bended also by two Muscles; 
Benders.  one of which springing from the upper part of the radius, is implanted into the first and second joint of the Thumb; the other being less, proceeds from the bone of the carpus, lying under the other, and reacheth to the middle of the Thumb. These two Spigelius, de hum. corp. fabric. l. 4. c. 19 divides into five Muscles, 
Monticulus lunae.  which together with the abducens of the Thumb, make the monticulus lunae.  
It is moved laterally by two Muscles. 
Movers laterally.  The first is called thenar or abducens. This springeth from the inner part of that bone of the Wrist, which stayeth the Thumb, by a nervous beginning: then becoming fleshy, it is inserted into the first joint of the Thumb by a membranous Tendon, and draweth it from the forefinger. Some make three of it. The second is antithenar, or adducens, which lieth in the space between the Thumb and forefinger. This doth arise from the outside of that bone of the metacarpium which sustaineth the first finger; and being fleshy is inserted into the whole inner side of the first joint of the Thumb, and sendeth a membranous Tendon to the second. This draweth the Thumb to the forefinger. Some describe a second arising from the inner side of the bone of the Wrist that sustaineth the Thumb, and ending in its second joint.   

CHAP. XXVIII.  
Of the Muscles of the Thigh.  
THE Thigh has four manner of motions: It is either bended (and that forwards, or backwards) or drawn inward, or outward, or moved round. 
Be●ders forward.  It is bended forward by three Muscles. The first is called psoas, or lumbaris: this lieth in the inner part of the abdomen, upon the vertebrae of the loins, etc. It ariseth fleshy from the transverse processes of the two lowermost spondyls of the thorax, and two or three uppermost of the Loins, from whence descending by the inside of os ilium, it is inserted by a round and strong Tendon into the lesser rotator. The second is iliacus internus: This springeth with a slender and fleshy beginning from the inside of os ilium, and being joined to the Psoas by its Tendon, it endeth before between the greater and lesser rotator. The third is pectineus': this arising broad and carnous from the upper part of the os pubis, is implanted a little below the neck of the Thigh-bone, on the inside, and draweth the Thigh upward and inward, and so helps us to lay one Thigh over the other when we sit crosslegged.  
It is bended backward or extended by the three glutaei, 
Benders backward.  which make up the Buttocks, and serve to go backward withal. The first is the outermost and the greatest, called glutaeus major. It springeth very carnous from the coccyx, from the spin of os sacrum, and from all the circumference of the spin of os ilium, and is inserted by a strong Tendon four inches below the great rotator. The second is the middlemost, called glutaeus medius: This springeth from the foreside of the spin of os ilium a little lower than the former, and is inserted into the outer and upper side of the great rotator. The third is the lowermost, called glutaeus minor: This springeth a little lower, from the outer or back part of os ilium, lying wholly under the second, and is implanted into the upper and inner part of the great rotator.  
It is drawn to the inside by the musculus triceps: 
Drawers to the inside.  this is the thickest of all the Muscles of the Body, and might more justly be called quadriceps, seeing it has four beginnings; but they that imposed the name of triceps, made a particular Muscle of the fourth Head, and called it pectineus', or lividus. The first head doth proceed nervous from the upper part of the share-bone, and is inserted into the rough line of the thigh-bone. The second springing from the lower side of the same bone, being lesser, is inserted a little higher up into the said line. The third arising from the whole lower part of the coxendix, is inserted a little under the lesser rotator. The fourth springing from the apex or tip of the coxendix is implanted into the inner and lower tubercle of the Thigh by a round Tendon, which is joined with the slender Tendon of the first part of this Muscle.  
It is turned towards the outside by four small Muscles called quadrigemini. 
Turner's towards the outside.  They are placed above the articulation of the thigh one by another. The first is called from its situation Iliacus externus, and from its figure pyriformis; it is longer than the rest, and ariseth from the lower and outer part of the os sacrum. The second ariseth from the knob of os ischium. The third ariseth from the same part. These three are inserted into the hollowness of the great rotator. The fourth is called quadrigeminus quadratus, more fleshy and broad than the rest: it lieth two inches distant from the third, and ariseth from the inner part of the knob of the ischium, and is implanted into the outward part of the great rotator.  
It is turned about obliquely by two Muscles called obturatores. 
Turner's about obliquely.  The first is obturator internus, this turneth it outward. It ariseth from the inner circumference of the hole that is between the ischium and os pubis, and is inserted into the cavity of the great rotator. The second is obturator externus: this ariseth from the external circumference of the said hole, and turning about the neck of the thigh-bone, as about a pulley, it endeth in the cavity of the great rotator, under the fourth quadrigeminus, and turneth the Thigh inward.  
Note, that though for order's sake we have described the Muscles of the Thigh before those of the Leg, yet the Dissector cannot so easily nor conveniently raise and show them, till those of the Leg are first raised and removed.   

CHAP. XXIX.  
Of the Muscles of the Tibia or Leg.  
THE Leg is either bended, 
Benders.  extended, or moved obliquely. There are five that bend it. The first is longissimus or fascialis. This ariseth from the inner knob of os Ilium, and descends outermost just under the skin on the inside of the Thigh, being slender, and near the Knee it ends in a Tendon, which is inserted under the Knee, into the fore and inner side of the tibia. The second is called gracilis, and springeth with a nervous and broad beginning at the jointing of the ossa pubis; from whence it runs down the inside of the Thigh, and is implanted by a round Tendon into the inner side of the tibia, near the insertion of the first, but a little lower. The third is named seminervosus: This beginneth nervous and slender at the knob of the ischium, and descending obliquely to the back and inner part of the Thigh endeth in the inner side of the tibia, towards the backside, about the middle of its length. The fourth is semimembranosus: it proceedeth from the same knob, partly nervous, and partly membranous; and marcheth by a broader Tendon than the third to the hinder part of the tibia. The fifth is biceps: this ariseth from the same knob of the ischium; and being carried on the outside of the Thigh, about its middle it becometh fleshy, as if it begun there with a second head; from whence descending it is inserted by a notable Tendon into the outer side of the upper process of the fibula.  
The Leg is extended by five Muscles. 
Extenders.  The first is membranosus: this proceeding fleshy from the upper part of the spin of os ilium, on the outside near the great process of the Thigh-bone it turns into a broad membrane, wherefore it is called fascia lata, for it covereth almost all the Muscles of the Thigh and tibia, and at last is inserted a little below the Knee, into the outer and foreside of the tibia and fibula. The second is longus: this ariseth from the upper and forepart of the appendix of os ilium, and passing by the inside of the Thigh obliquely, it endeth in the inside of the Leg a little below the Knee. It extends the Leg, drawing it inwards; and because it helps to lay one Leg upon the other when we go to sit crosslegged, some call it sutorius, the Shoemakers or Tailor's Muscle. The third is rectus: this springing from the lower brim of the os ilium, and passing with a carnous and round belly straight down the Thigh before, when it is come to the patella, it ends in a broad and strong Tendon, by which it adheres close to the patella, as if it would end in it; but it passes further, and is inserted into the foreside of the tibia a little below the Knee. The fourth is vastus externus: this springeth from the root of the greater trochanter, and endeth a little below the patella, near the same place with the former. The fifth is called vastus internus: this ariseth from the root of the lesser trochanter, and endeth a little below the patella with the other. The vastus externus descends on the outside of the rectus, and the internus on the inside thereof, whence they have their name. To these some add a sixth Muscle called crureus, which springeth from the forepart of the Thigh-bone, between the two trochanters, and endeth in the same place with the former.  
Note that these four last Muscles being joined together about the Knee, make one common broad and strong Tendon, by which they involve the patella or Knee-pan, and which being inserted into the Tibia, ties it and the Thigh-bone together like a strong ligament. Note also that the Muscles which extend the Leg are stronger than those which draw it in, that the weight of the Body may be the more firmly upholden when we stand.  
There is also a single Muscle called poplitaeus, 
Mover obliquely.  or subpoplitaeus, which moveth the Leg obliquely: this lieth in the hollow of the ham, and springeth from the lower and outer knob of the Thigh-bone, and is carried obliquely to the hinder and inner root of the upper appendix of the tibia.   

CHAP. XXX.  
Of the Muscles of the Tarsus or Instep.  
THE Foot is bended, extended and moved side-ways, 
Benders.  according to the motion of the Instep, which first is bended when it is drawn upwards. To perform this motion it hath two Muscles. The first is tibiaeus anticus: this ariseth from the upper appendices of the tibia and fibula, and cleaving unto the whole os tibiae, about the middle of it, it becometh narrower, and turneth by degrees into a Tendon, which passing under the annular ligament of the Instep, that springs from the lower appendices of the tibia and fibula, is commonly divided into two; whereof the one is inserted into the first of those bones which are called innominata, and the other into that bone of the metatarsus that is set before the great Toe. If the Tendon continue one, than it is implanted into the inner side of this last Bone. The second is peronaeus anticus: this ariseth from the outer and upper part of the fibula, and being carried through the chink of the outer ankle, it is inserted into that bone of the Metatarsus which sustaineth the little Toe. It descends all along by the outside of the foregoing Muscle, and hath sometimes two Tendons.  
The foot is extended when it is drawn backwards. 
Extenders.  To perform this motion it hath three Muscles. The first is gemellus externus, or gastrocnemius externus: this Muscle hath two heads, the first of which arises under the ham, from the inner part of the end of the thigh-bone, fleshy and broad. It marcheth down by the back and inner part of the tibia, and when it is come to the middle of it, it becometh tendinous. The other head likewise ariseth under the ham, but from the outer part of the end of the Thigh-bone, and passing down by the outward and back part of the Leg, becometh tendinous a little above the former, and joining with it they both grow into one strong, broad, and sinewy Tendon, which is inserted into the Heel. This is the Muscle that maketh up the greatest part of the Calf of the Leg. The second is gemellus internus, or gastrocnemius internus, or soleus. This lieth under the former, and is of a livid colour. It springeth from the hinder appendix of the fibula by a strong nervous beginning, and growing pretty bulky it continueth so till it hath passed the middle of the tibia, when it becometh narrower, and tendinous; and a little above the Heel it is so united to the Tendon of the former gemellus, that both seem to be but one, and is inserted with it into the Heel. The third is plantaris. This springeth from the outer part of the end of the Thigh-bone in the ham, being very small but carnous. It descends but a little way before it ends in a very long and slender Tendon, which joining very closely with those of the two former is fastened to the Heel, but reaches as far as the middle of the sole of the Foot; Spigelius says, as far as the Toes, and is inserted into each of them, imitating the palmaris of the hand. The three Tendons of these three Muscles thus uniting make one most strong and thick Tendon, usually called the great cord; and this being implanted into the Heel makes a wound there so very dangerous.  
The Foot is moved sideways by two. 
Movers sideways.  The first is tibialis posticus, adducens pedem, or Nauticus, because Sailors use it much when they go up by the Ropes. It springeth both from the tibia and fibula, and from the Ligament which tieth them together, whence descending among the hinder Muscles, near to the inner Ankle it becometh tendinous: then passing by it, it goeth to the sole of the Foot, and is inserted into the lower part of that Bone of the tarsus which is next to the cubiforme. This moveth the Foot inwards. The second is peronaeus or fibulaeus posticus: this ariseth from the upper and hinder part of the fibula or perone, by a nervous and strong beginning; and cleaving to the outside of the fibula, it passeth down round and fleshy: the outer part is of a livid colour, but the inner of a red. When it is come to the middle of the fibula it becometh tendinous, and descends with the pernoaeus anticus by the fissure of the outer Ankle, but joins not with it, for it goes under the sole of the Foot, and is inserted into the root of the greater os cuneiforme that is seated before the great Toe. Sometimes, though seldom, there is another Muscle, called peronaeus tertius, which being very slender accompanies the posticus in its whole progress, and is inserted into the same place, assisting its Action.   

CHAP. XXXI.  
Of the Muscles of the Toes.  
THE great Toe is moved by its proper Muscles, 
Extenders.  as the Thumb of the Hand was: but the other four, by common; which we will first describe. They are extended by two. The first is tensor longus. This ariseth by a nervous and sharp beginning from the upper and fore appendix of the tibia, and presently becoming carnous, it goeth straight down, and being come to the Instep it is divided into four Tendons, which passing under the annular Ligament, go each to one of the lesser Toes, and are inserted into their second and third joint on the upper side. The second is tensor brevis. This lieth under the former, having its beginning from the transverse or annular Ligament, fleshy and broad, and by its four Tendons is inserted into the first joints of the four Toes.  
The benders of the Toes are in like manner two, 
Benders.  and four Lumbricales. The first is flexor longus, or perforans: it lieth under the gemellus internus, and ariseth from the upper and hinder part of the tibia by a long and fleshy beginning; and passing down lengthways of the Tibia, (unto which it cleaveth) when it is passed the middle of it, it becometh tendinous: then running by the inner Ankle, under the Ligament of the tibia and Heel, to the sole of the Foot, it is there divided into four Tendons, which passing through the holes of the flexor brevis, are inserted into the third and last joint of the four Toes.  
The second is flexor brevis, or perforatus: this springeth from the lower and inner part of the Heel-Bone, and when it hath passed the middle of the Foot, it is parted into four round Tendons, which are inserted into the second joint of the four Toes, being perforated to give way to the Tendons of the former Muscle to pass to the third joint.  
They are also bended by four Lumbricales, 
Four Lumbricales.  which agree altogether with the Lumbricales of the hand both in their use, figure and rise. These spring from the Tendons of the two former small and round, and are inserted by a small Tendon into the side of the first joint, which they help to bend. The fleshy substance, which riseth with two sharp beginnings from the fore part of the lower side of the Heel-bone, and reacheth to the rise of these Muscles, seemeth much to further their Action, and to afford them their carnous Substance.  
The Toes are moved obliquely by the Interossei, 
Movers obliquely.  which are so called, because they are placed between the bones of the Metatarsus. They are ten in number, whereas there are but eight in the Hand, because the Metatarsus hath one bone more than the Metacarpus. Each of them doth spring from the under side of that bone where it is placed; and all marching according to the length of the bone fleshy, they are inserted the outer into the first joint, the inner into the second of the Toes, by short and somewhat broad Tendons. If the inner be contracted, the Toe is moved inwards; but if the outer be moved, the Toe is carried from the rest outwards. But if they both act together, then are the Toes extended. In the four distances between the bones, there are eight such Muscles; at the outside of the great Toe one, and another at the outside of the little Toe. But besides it, the little Toe hath a proper Abductor to move it outwards, which arising from the Heel passes on the outside of the fifth bone of the Metatarsus, and is inserted into the outside of its first joint.  
The great Toe hath five peculiar Muscles. 
Extender of the great toe.  The first is Extensor: this springeth by a fleshy beginning from the outside of the Tibia, where it parteth from the Fibula. It cleaveth fast to the Ligament which ties the Tibia to the Fibula, and marching along the upper part of the Foot, it is inserted into the whole upper part of the great Toe.  
The second is Flexor: 
Bender.  this springeth from the upper and back part of the Fibula, and descending by the side of the Flexor longus to the inner Ankle, it there becometh tendinous, and is inserted into the third or last bone of the great Toe, by one strong Tendon. But sometimes it is divided into two Tendons, whereof one is inserted as abovesaid, and the other into the second Toe: and when this happens, the Flexor longus sends but three Tendons to the three last Toes, and none to the second.  
The third is Abducens pollicem, 
Movers side-ways.  which draweth the great Toe from the rest, to the inner part of the Foot. It springeth nervous from the Ligament which tieth together the Heel-bone and the Talus, (or according to some from the inner side of the Heel itself) and running forwards on the inside of the Foot, it is inserted by a round Tendon into the outside of the first joint of the great Toe.  
The fourth is Adducens pollicem major. This springeth from the Ligament of that bone of the Metatarsus that sustains the little Toe and the next to it, and proceeding obliquely over the other bones it is implanted into the inner side of the first joint of the great Toe.  
The fifth and last is Adducens pollicem minor (otherwise called Transver salis.) This ariseth from the Ligament of the little Toe that tieth its first joint, and passing cross the first bones of the Toes it ends in the inside of the first bone of the great Toe. Some think this serves only to tie together the first bones of the Toes (like a Ligament:) But Casserius (who first found it out) says it draws the great Toe to the little one, and so makes the Foot hollow, grasping the ground as it were, when we go in stony and uneven places, to fix the Foot more firmly.  
The end of the fifth Book.     

The Sixth Book.  

OF THE BONES.  

CHAP. I.  
Of the Nature of a Bone.  
A Bone is called in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, 
It's name.  from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to stand; for according to Hypocrates, 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, it affords stability, straightness and form to the Body.  
It may be defined to be a similar part, 
Definition.  most dry and cold, inflexible, void of sense, affording stabiliment and form to the whole Body.  
Bones have been commonly taught to be made of the more crass, 
Matter.  tartareous or earthy part of the Seed, in the Womb, and that they are nourished with the like particles of the Blood, and moistened with their contained Marrow. And I see no reason to recede from this doctrine, unless one would commence litem de nomine, brangle about a term: for though Women have no true Seed, and the Man's being only an active principle of generation affords nothing of matter to the parts of the Foetus, but only impregnates the Ouum, (as was shown in Book 1.) yet if we will but grant the name of Seed to the humour in the Ouum, (which we may do without absurdity) we may continue the old manner of speaking. Now though they are continually nourished, yet towards Manhood, by the increased heat of the Body, the primigeneal moisture is so lessened, that the Bones through their hardness are not apt to be any longer extended; and so Men cease to grow any higher of stature.  
Their nourishment is brought to them by the Arteries, 
Vessels.  and what is not fit for their use returns back by the Veins. Several of them, as the Shoulder and Thigh-bones, have apparent holes for the entrance of the vessels into their Marrow: and such as have no Marrow and so want such holes, they are commonly of a more spongy or fungous substance, into which no doubt some nutritive particles of the Blood pass from the Arteries, though their branchings therein are not so apparent. There are no Nerves that are inserted into them (except into the Teeth) but these only run through the Membrane or Periosteum that invests them.  
The efficient cause of the Bones is the same vivisick spirit or plastic power seated in the Ouum, 
Efficient and formal causes.  that forms all the other parts of the Body; Galen call it Facultas 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, the ossifick faculty: some think this same spirit might be called the essential form of the Bones; though commonly that is said to be their cold and dry temperature; as their accidental form is their figure, which is commonly either round or flat. But these are too dry notions to be insisted on in this place.  
Their substance is whitish and hard, 
Substance.  (in some Bones, and at some ages, more, and in others less) not altogether dry in living persons, but bedewed with a fat and unctuous moisture, which the more it abounds, the Bones are the tougher and less apt to break; and when they are broken, they are the apt to grow together again with a Callus, which such viscous juice contributes very much to. And it is only by a Callus that any Bone is joined after fracture; for a Bone being of the number of those parts that are called spermatick, can never be generated anew.   

CHAP. II.  
Of the natural affections of Bones.  
THE Affections of Bones are either common to all, or proper to some only.  
The common are seven. 
Common affections.  For first, a Bone must be hard, the more firmly to sustain the Body. Secondly, of a whitish colour, because it is a spermatick part. Thirdly, destitute of feeling, for avoiding of pain in motion. Fourthly, it must be either hollow to contain Marrow in its Cavity for moistening of it; or spongious and porous, that some nutritive particles of the Blood may pass through its very substance. Fifthly, its ends must be covered with a Cartilege, and that bedewed with an unctuous humour, to procure an easy motion. Sixthly, it must be covered with a Membrane, to preserve it from cariosity; except the four Bones of the Ear, and the parts of the Teeth above the Gums. Seventhly, it must be equal. Wherefore the Callus wherewith a broken Bone is united, and nodes in the Pox, are not natural affections.  
These tokens that follow, show a Bone to be preternaturally affected: First, if it be soft; because that must cause the Member to be too flexible. Secondly, if it be too dry; for than it is distempered. Thirdly, if it be black; for than it is carious. Fourthly, if its figure be altered; for than it must hinder the action of the part.  
The proper affections are four: 
Proper.  The first is a Cavity; and it is twofold: for it is either deep, as in the Hip-bone, and is called Cotyle; or shallow, as in the Knee, and is called Glene. The second is a Protuberance, of which there be two kinds: for it is either a continued part of the Bone jetting manifestly above its plain superficies, for the more commodious insertion of the Muscles, etc. and is called Apophysis, a Process; or else it is like an additional Bone growing to another by simple and immediate contiguity, (and generally softer and more porous than it) and is called Epiphysis, an Appendage. If the Protuberance of the Bone be round, it is called its Caput; under which is the Cervix, as in the upper end of the Thigh-bone: If it be flat, it is called Condylus: If pointed, Corone. Other Protuberances are named from the similitude they have to other things; as Styloides, Coracoides, etc. The third is Inequality: this is seen in the outside of the Occiput for the insertion of the Muscles. The fourth is Smoothness, as in the outside of the rest of the Skull.   

CHAP. III.  
Of the differences of the joining of Bones together.  
THEY are coupled together either by Articulation or jointing; or else by Symphysis or growing together.  
Articulation is either for manifest, 
Articulation.  or obscure motion. The jointings which serve for manifest motion are three. First, Enarthrosis, which is when a large head of a Bone is received into a deep Cavity, as the Thigh-bone into the Hip-bone. Secondly, Arthrodia, which is when the Cavity which receiveth is shallow, and the head of the Bone which is received, flattish: such is the articulation of the lower Jaw with the Temple-bone. The third is Ginglymos; when the same Bone receiveth, and is received. This falleth out three manner of ways. First, when the Bone is received by another, and receiveth the same; this is seen in the articulation of the Shoulder-bone with the Vlna. Secondly, when a Bone receiveth one Bone, and is received by another: this may be seen in the Spondyls or Vertebrae of the Back, where the middle Bone receiveth the upper, and is received by the lower. The third is, when the process of the Bone being long and round, is inserted into another upper Bone, and so is turned in the Cavity like an Axletree in a Wheel; so is the second vertebra of the Neck jointed with the first.  
Articulation for obscure motion is called Synarthrosis; and such is the jointing of the Ribs with the Vertebrae, of the Bones of the Carpus and Metacarpus, and of the Talus with the Heel-bone.  
Bones grow together either without some middle heterogeneous substance, 
Symphysis.  or with it. Without some middle substance they are joined three manner of ways. First, by a simple line, as the Bones of the upper Jaw and Nose: this is called Harmonia. Secondly, by a suture, as the Bones of the Skull. Thirdly, when one Bone is fastened in another, as a nail in wood; and so are the Teeth fastened in the Jawbone: this is called Gomphosis. If Bones grow together by a middle substance, it is either by a Cartilege, as the Share-bones are joined; which unition is called Synchondrosis: or by a Ligament, and so the Thigh is joined with the Hip-bone; this is called Syneurosis, or more properly, according to Spigelius, Syndesmosis: or last of all by Flesh, and so is the Bone of the Tongue by its Muscles to the adjacent parts; this is termed Syssarcosis.  
Spigelius reckons two other heterogeneous middle substances by which Bones are united; one when they are joined by a Tendon, as the Knee-pan to the Thigh-bone and Tibia, which unition he calls Syntenosis; the other by a Membrane, as in Infants the Bones of the Synciput with the Os frontis; and this he calls Synymensis.   

CHAP. IU.  
Of the Sutures of the Head.  
THE Bones of the whole Body belong to these four parts of it; the Head (and Neck) the Breast, the lower Belly, and the Limbs.  
The Head is that part which is above the vertebrae of the Neck: of it there are two parts, the Skull and the Face. The Skull is that bony substance which containeth the Brain, and is decked with hair.  
In the description of the Bones of the Head these two things are to be noted; the Sutures, and the number of the Bones. 
Sutures proper or common.  The Sutures are either proper, or common.  
The proper are those which join the Bones of the Skull one with another; 
Proper sutures true or counterfeit.  and they are either true Sutures, or (mendosae) counterfeit.  
The true are those which represent two Saws joined together by their Teeth; 
Three true.  and these are three in number: the first is Coronalis, which is seated in the fore part, and passeth from one Temple to the other transversly, joining the Os frontis to the Synciput. The second is Lambdoides, opposite to this, resembling the Greek letter Λ. This beginning at the basis of the Occiput ascends obliquely to either Ear, and joins the Bone of the Occiput to the Bones of the Synciput and Temples. The third is Sagittalis, which beginning at the top of the Lambdoides comes straight forward by the Crown to the middle of the Coronalis, and in Children for some years (sometimes in the adult) it runs to the top of the Nose, dividing the bone of the Forehead into two.  
The counterfeit or mendosae resemble a line only, 
Two counterfeit.  and might more properly be called Harmoniae than Sutures. They are two in number. The first passing from the root of the Processus mammillaris upwards with a circular dust, circumscribes the Temple-bone on each side of the Head, descending down again to the basis of the Ear: this joins the Bones of the Synciput, Occiput and Sphenoides with the Temple-bones, these lying upon those like the Skales upon Fish, whence these Sutures are called Squamosae. The second runs from the top of this squamous conjunction obliquely downwards towards the orbit of the Eye, to the beginning of the first common Suture, and joins this Bone above with the Bones of the Synciput, below with the Bone of the Forehead.  
The common Sutures are those which belong to the Skull, 
Common sutures.  the wedge-like Bone, and the upper Jaw. The most remarkable are these: first, Frontalis, by which the outer process of the Os frontis is joined with the first Bone of the upper Jaw. The second is Cuneiformis, by which the wedge-like Bone is joined with the first Bone of the upper Jaw. The third is Cribrosa: this is common to the wedge-like Bone, and the Septum or partition of the Nose.  
The Sutures have three uses. 
The uses of the sutures.  The first is to help to stay the Brain from tottering, and its parts from being misplaced in violent motions, by permitting some Fibres to pass through from the Dura mater to the Pericranium, by which the said Mater and the Brain invested in it are suspended as it were. The second is to permit the steams and fumes in the Brain to evaporate. And the third, to hinder the fissures that happen in the Skull from knocks or falls, etc. from extending any farther than through one Bone, for they generally stop at the next Suture.   

CHAP. V.  
Of the proper Bones of the Skull.  
THese are in number six, one of the Forehead, another of the Occiput, two of the Crown, and two of the Temples.  
First, 
Os frontis.  Os frontis, the Forehead-bone. It is bounded by the Coronal and first common Suture, before; and in the sides by the temporal Bones. It is but one in those of ripe age, but double in Children, being divided by a Suture passing from the Coronal to the Nose.  
Betwixt the Laminae of this Bone in the upper part of the Eyebrows at the top of the Nose, 
It's cavity.  there is a large Cavity, (often two) from whence two holes pass to the Nostrils. The outer Lamina that constitutes this Cavity, makes the upper plane part of the orbit of the Eye; but the inner, on each side above the Eyes forms a bunchy protuberance uneven with many jetting out like little Hills. The Cavity is invested with a very thin greenish Membrane, and contains a clammy humour. What its use may be is hard to say; some think it gives an Echo to the Voice, making it more sonorous; others that it receiveth the odoriferous air drawn in by the Nose, to stay it awhile before it be sent to the Brain. It hath two holes in the middle part of the Eyebrow, which go to the orbit of the Eye, by which the first branch of the Nerve of the fifth conjugation of the Brain goes to the Muscle of the Forehead, etc. It hath also four processes; the greater two are seated at the greater corner of the Eye, but the lesser two at the lesser, making the upper part of the orbit.  
The Bones of the Crown are in number two. 
The bones of the Synciput.  Before, they are joined with the Bone of the Forehead, by the Coronal suture; behind, with the Os occipitis by the Suture Lambdoides; and on each side to the Temple-bones, by the Suturae squamosae. They are joined to one another in the middle of the Crown by the sagittal Suture. On the outside they are smooth, but on the inside uneven, for they have a great many furrows running along them for the passage of the Veins of the Dura mater. Their substance is thinner and more rare even in the adult than that of the other Bones (for the better exhalation of vapours) but in Infants that abound with much humidity, they are membranous and soft, hardening by degrees.  
Under these on each side are the Bones of the Temples. 
The Temple-bones.  They are joined in their upper part to the outside of the Bones of the Crown by the Suturae squamosae; before, to the first Bone of the upper Jaw, by its first process; behind, to the Os occipitis, by a counterfeit Suture. These Bones are even and thin in the upper part, like a Scale; but below thick, hard and unequal or eraggy; wherefore they are called Petrosa.  
They have each two Sinus; 
Their Sinus.  the outer greater, lined with a Cartilege, betwixt the Meatus auditorius and the process of Os jugale, that receives the longer head of the lower Jaw; the inner less, common to the Bone of the Occiput, placed on the hinder side of the said process.  
By these Sinus there stands a slender, 
Os styloides.  sharp and longish Appendix, from its shape called Styliformis, which in Infants is cartilaginous, but in the adult becomes bony.  
Besides this Appendix they have three other Processes, two external and one internal.  
The first external is blunt; 
Processus mammillares.  thick and short, a little hollow within, and because it somewhat resembles a Cow's Pap is called Mammillaris.  
The second is carried forward from the Meatus of the Ear, and is joined with the Bone of the upper Jaw, both of them framing the Os jugale, of which in the next Chapter.  
The third, that is internal, is pretty long, jetting out to the inner basis of the Skull, within which it has two holes, through one of which an Artery, and through the other the auditory Nerve pass to the inner Cavities of the Ear, that are excavated in this Bone, namely the Tympanum, Labyrinthus and Cochlea; and without the Skull it hath three holes; the first of which is the Meatus auditorius; the second is narrow, short and oblique, near to the first, by which the Jugular vein enters the inner Cavities; the third is seated betwixt the Processus mammillaris and the Styloides appendix, and ends into that passage that goes from the Ear to the Mouth.  
As to the four little Bones that are contained in its Cavities, viz. Incus, Malleus, Stapes, and Os orbiculare, we have spoken of them before in Book 3. Chap. 23.  
The Os occipitis, 
Os occipitis.  that makes the hinder and lower part of the Head, is five-cornered, by two of which corners it is joined in its upper part to the Bones of the Synciput by the Lambdoides Suture, by two other in its foresides to the Temple-bones by a counterfeit Suture, and by its fifth corner to the Os cuneiforme, (according to Spigelius.) It is but one in the adult, but it consists of four or more in Infants. It is the thickest and most compact of all the Bones of the Skull. It is said to have nine Sinus, two external, and seven internal. Of the internal the two largest are those that receive the protuberances of the Cerebellum. It has also five Protubernances, and five Foramina, of which the lowest and largest is that by which the Medulla oblongata passes out of the Skull into the Cavity of the Vertebrae. The rest are less, and are for the transit of the Vessels.  
These Bones of the Skull consist of two Tables or Laminae, all but the squamous part of the Temple-bones. The uppermost is hardest, thickest and smoothest: The lower is unequal, and pitted, to give way to the Vessels dispersed through the Dura mater. Between these two Tables there is a certain spongious substance, containing a marrowy and red juice, for the nutrition and humectation of the Bones, and is called Diploe. It is red, by reason of the many small Veins and Arteries passing that way. Many times in the Pox a virulent humour is gathered herein, which eats through and corrupts the Laminae, and causes most tormenting pains in the Periosteum and Pericranium.   

CHAP. VI  
Of the Bones common to the Skull and upper Jaw.  
HItherto of the Bones proper to the Skull: Now follow those which are common to it and the upper Jaw. These are three: First, the wedge-like Bone, 
Os cuneiforme.  Sphenoides or Cuneiforme; so called, not that it is like a Wedge, but that it is seated betwixt the Bones of the Skull and the upper Jaw. Before, it is joined with the Forehead-bone; behind, to the Os occipitis. At the sides it doth accompany a good way the Os petrosum. Above, it doth touch the first, fourth, and sixth Bone of the upper Jaw; and below, the Bones of the Palate of the Mouth by the wing-like Processes. It is thick in the middle, but thinner at the edges, and in the adult it consists of two Laminae and a Diploe, like the other Bones proper to the Skull. In Infants it consists of three or four. It has four external Processes, of which two, that are contiguous to the upper Jaw, are called Aliformes Wing-like; and four internal also, that compose the sella Turcica, upon which the Glandula pituitaria lieth, that receiveth the pituitous excrements falling from the Brain by the Infundibulum. But this sella Turcica is not perforated, as we intimated from Dr. Lower in Book 3. Chap. 5. though that has been generally taught, supposing that the pituitous matter did destil through its holes upon the Palate, etc. whereas it is resorbed by the Veins, as that learned Doctor affirms. It hath sundry perforations, by which the motory and optic Nerves of the Eye, and other Nerves for the motion of other parts, as also Veins and Arteries do pass.  
The second common Bone is Os cribriforme, 
Os cribriforme.  because, like a Sieve, it hath many holes, by which smells pass to the Processus mammillares or olfactory Nerves. It is covered with the Dura mater, and seated in the middle basis of the Forehead at the top of the Nostrils, and is joined by the Sutures called Harmoniae to the Os frontis, the second Bone of the upper Jaw and to the Cuneiforme. On its upper side in the middle it has growing upon it a kind of triangular process, like to the Comb of a Cock, which is therefore called Crista galli. And opposite to this in its lower side it has another that is thin and hard, dividing the Nose into two parts or Nostrils, the right and the left, and is called Septum nasi. To this Os cribriforme, in the cavity of the Nostrils, there adhere two other Bones called Spongiosa, because they are full of holes like a Pumice-stone. But most Anatomists consider them as parts of the Os cribriforme, confounding their names one with the other, calling this, Os spongiosum or cribriforme indifferently.  
The third common Bone is Os jugale, or the Yoke-bone. It is placed on each side of the Face between the Meatus of the Ear and the first Bone of the upper Jaw, being framed of two Bones, of which the hinder is a process of the Temple-bone that is carried from the Meatus auditorius; and the fore-bone is a process of the first bone of the upper Jaw, which maketh the lower side of the lesser corner of the Eye. These two Processes are joined by an oblique Suture, and make the Os jugale. It sustaineth the Tendon of the temporal Muscle which passeth to the lower Jaw, and that of the Muscle Masseter.   

CHAP. VII.  
Of the Jaws.  
NOW follow the Bones of the Face, which are the Jawbones with their Teeth; to which we shall subjoin the Bone of the Tongue.  
The Jaws are two, 
The upper Jaw consists of 〈◊〉 bones.  the upper and lower. The substance of the upper Jaw especially on its inside is not solid but spongious; and unequal, because it is framed of sundry Bones. They are six pair, six in each side. The first is Zygomaticum: this maketh up the best part of the Os jugale, and the outer corner of the Eye. The second is Os lachrymale. It is a round, little and thin Bone in the inner corner of the Eye, whereon the Caruncula lachrymalis resteth. In the lower part of it there is a hole which passeth to the cavity of the Nose: by this a branch of the fifth pair of Nerves passeth to the inner Membrane of the Nose. The third is thin as the former, but quadrangular. It is placed between the two former in the inner side of the orbit of the Eye, and is continuous to the Os spongiosum of the Nostrils. The fourth is Os malae, the Cheekbone, the greatest and thickest. This maketh up the greatest part of the Cheek and Palate, and containeth all the upper Teeth in its caverns. It is joined above, on that side next the Nose, to the Bone of the Forehead, but below with the wedge-like Bone; before with the Os lachrymale, behind with the third, and last of all with its fellow. Under the Eye it has a hole for the passage of a branch of the fifth pair of Nerves that is bestowed on the Face; and another near the bottom of the Nose, by which an Artery and a Vein pass from the Palate to the Nostrils. The fifth is long, hard, and reasonable thick; it with its fellow maketh up the bony part of the Nose. It is joined with the Cartilages of the Nose below, (to which purpose it is very rough and unequal on that side) but to the internal process of the Os frontis above. The sixth doth make up the Roof of the Mouth, (with its fellow.)  
Six Bones than make up the orbit of the Eye. The first is Frontale, which maketh the upper vaulted part. The second is placed in the outside, where the lesser corner is, and is a portion of the wedge-like Bone. The third is the first Bone of the upper Jaw, and maketh up the outside, concurring with the former portion of the wedge-like Bone. The fourth and fifth are the second and third of the said Jaw, and make up the inside. The sixth maketh up the lower part. These are joined one to another partly by common, and partly by proper Sutures.  
The lower Jaw in those of ripe age is but one Bone, 
The lower Jaw.  but in Children, till they are a year or two old, it consists of two, which are joined together at the Chin by Synchondrosis, and afterwards grow into one. This is movable, but the upper immovable. It resembleth in shape the Greek letter v. At both the ends of it there are two processes, whereof the one from a broad basis grows sharp, and is called Corona: this receiveth the Tendon of the temporal Muscle, which is also the first of the lower Jaw. The other may be called Articularis, because it serveth for Articulation. This has a Neck and a longish Head (called Condylus) that is covered with a Cartilege for its easier motion. By this Head it is inarticulated into the Sinus of Os petrosum that is also lined with a Cartilege, and is knit strongly thereto by a membranous Ligament. This Bone has a cavity within, especially in the fore part toward the Chin, which contains a marrowy juice for its nourishment. It has four Foramina; of which two are at the roots of the Processes, by which a branch of the fifth pair of Nerves together with a Vein and Artery pass to the Teeth; and two other in its forepart by the sides of the Chin, by which two twigs of the said fifth branch pass out again to the lower Lip and its Muscles and Skin.  
Both the Jaws have Alveoli or Sockets for the Teeth, in number equal with the number of the Teeth. But when in old age the Teeth fall out, the Sockets close together, so that in time there remains no print of them, but the Bone becomes sharp.   

CHAP. VIII.  
Of the Teeth.  
THE Teeth are called in Latin Dentes, quasi Edentes, from their office; and are fixed in the Jawbones as a Nail into a Post, by Gomphosis. Their root is tied to the Mandible by a Nerve, by Syneurosis; and the upper part as far as 'tis compassed by the fleshy substance of the Gum, by Syssarcosis.  
Their substance is the hardest of all other Bones. 
Their substance.  That part of them that stands out naked above the Gums is smooth and covered with no Periosteum; but that part within the Sockets of the Jaws is rough and invested with a thin Membrane or Periosteum that is of exquisite sense. The Grinders have a manifest cavity within, (but the Incisores and Dog-teeths but an obscure one) whereinto by the very small holes of their roots they each receive a Capillary artery from the Carotides, a Vein from the Jugulars, and a twig of a Nerve from the fifth pair (as abovesaid) which last being expanded through the thin Membrane that invests the said cavity gives it a most acute sense; but the bony substance of itself is wholly insensible. The Vein, Artery and Nerve are united together and clad with a common Membrane when they enter the Jaw, within which they have a proper channel to run along in under the roots of the Teeth, sending twigs to each as they pass under them. 
Origine.   
The rudiments or principles of the Teeth are bred with the other parts in the Womb, but lie hid for some months within the Jaws and Gums, in which they increase and are perfected by degrees, some breaking through the Gums sooner, others later, as every one may observe in Children. But though after such a term of man's life, no new Teeth spring; yet they grow continually as long as a Man lives, else would they be soon worn to the stumps by their daily use; and we see that when a Tooth is lost out of either Jaw, that which is opposite to it in the other Jaw, will grow longer than the rest, having none to grind against.  
When Children come to be seven or eight years old, 
Change.  they change several of their Teeth; but very rarely, if ever, all. The Incisores or Foreteeth, the Canini, or Eye-teeths, and the foremost Double-teeths most change; but the rest of the Double-teeths very few. Now concerning this changing of the Teeth we must note, that the old ones do not come out by the roots, but their upper part only drops off, their root remaining still in the Socket of the Jaw, which (being like seed for the new ones) by degrees grows up above the Gums to supply the place of that which was fallen off. Commonly about the twentieth year (or upwards) there spring out two Double-teeths behind the rest, which till then had lain hid in their Sockets. These are called Genuine teeth, or Dentes sapientiae, because Men are then come to years of discretion.  
As for the number of them, 
Number.  commonly there are found sixteen in each Jaw; if there fall out any difference in number as to individual persons, it commonly falleth out in the Molares.  
There are three ranks of 〈◊〉▪ 
Sorts.  Those of the first rank (or the foremo●●) are called Incisores, Cutters. Most commonly 〈…〉 found in each Jaw: they have but one root o● phang, and so easily fall out. These first make way out of the Gums in Children, because the tops of them are sharpest. Those of the second rank are called Canini, or Dog-teeths, from their length, hardness and sharpness above the rest. In each Jaw there are two, at each side of the Cutter's one. They are commonly called Eye-teeths, either from an opinion that their roots (viz. of the upper) reach as far as the Eyes, or that the same Nerve that moves the Eye sends a twig to these Teeth; neither of which conceits are true. The roots of these are single as those of the Incisores, but they are both sometimes crooked; and if such people in whom they are so, chance to have one of them drawn, they can hardly be pulled out without breaking off a piece of the Alveolus in which they are sixth. Those of the third rank are called Molares, Grinders; because like Millstones they grind the meat. Most commonly they are twenty in number▪ five in each side of both Jaws. The two foremost that stand next to the Dog-teeths, are less than the rest, having but two knobs at the top, but the three hindmost are larger and have four, being in a manner foursquare. The two foremost also have but two roots at most, but the three hindmost commonly three or four. But those of the upper Jaw have for the most part one root more than those which are opposite to them in the lower. The reason whereof may be, first, because they hang; and secondly, because the substance of the upper Jaw is not so firm as that of the lower.  
The ●se of the Teeth is principally to chew the meat to prepare it for the Stomach, 
Use.  that it may the easilier concoct it into Chyle. The Incisores by't off the morsel, the Dog-teeths break it, and the Grinders make it small; wherefore they are flat in the top, that they may the better receive and keep the meat, and rough, that they may grind it the better. The Teeth contribute also to the formation of the Sp●●●h, especially the Foreteeth; for those that have lost them, lisp as we say, and cannot pronounce plainly such syllables as have C. X. etc. in them.   

CHAP. IX.  
Of the Bone of the Tongue called Os hyoides.  
THIS Bone is seated under the lower Jaw, in the uppermost part of the Larynx. It is shaped like the Greek vowel ●, (whence it is also called Os Ypsiloides) or to the lower Jaw; because it is arched before, and extended with two points like horns behind. It is commonly compounded of three Bones. That in the middle is gibbous forwards and hollowinwards, and by its gibbous side is joined to the basis of the Tongue. The other two are lateral, and are called Cornua, or Horns. Each of these has a Cartilege adhering to it; and the middle, two. They are all tied to the adjacent parts, partly by a fleshy, partly by a nervous substance. In its Sinus it receiveth the Epiglottis. It moves together with the Tongue, and serveth to keep the Throat open, that the meat may descend into the Stomach, and the air have passage to the Windpipe while we speak and breath.   

CHAP. X.  
Of the Bones of the Neck.  
HItherto of the Bones of the Head, now follow those of the Neck.  
They are of two sorts, to wit, the Claviculae or Channel-bones, and the Vertebrae.  
As to the Claviculae, 
Claviculae.  some reckon them to the Thorax, others to the Shoulder; but considering their situation, they may as fitly be reckoned as pertaining to the Neck. They are called Claviculae from their resembling the shape of old-fashioned Keys, which were of the figure of an Italic s; such as Spigelius says he has seen belonging to old Houses at Milan. They are not so crooked in Women as in Men. Their substance is thick and spongy, but more about the heads than about the middle. In number they are two, one on each side. Near the Throat they are round; but towards the Shoulder flattish. They are joined to two Bones, to wit, one end to the Shoulder-blade, and the other to the top of the Breastbone. The use of them is to uphold the Shoulderblades, that they should not fall upon the Breast together with the Shoulder-bone; which falleth out, when there is a fracture in them.  
The Vertebrae of the Neck are in number seven. 
Vertebrae seven.  The Bones of these are less, but harder than those of the other, because they are more moved. These have first a large hollowness to give way to the Spinalis medulla to descend by: then two holes in their transverse Processes, one in each side, through which Veins and Arteries pass to the Head. Their Bodies have Processes oblique, transverse and posteriour; which last are forked, except in the first and last Vertebrae.  
The first Vertebra is called Atlas, because the Head stands upon it, like a little World. It hath no Spine behind (only a little blunt knob) lest the two small Muscles of the Head springing from the second Vertebra should be hurt, when the Head is extended. It has two ascending and also two descending Processes, (otherwise called oblique) and both of them a little hollowed; the upper receiving the tubercles of the Occiput, and the lower the ascending. Processes of the second Vertebra. Upon these the Head is moved forwards and backwards. The substance of this Vertebra is harder, solider, but thinner than that of the rest, because it is the least, and yet its cavity is biggest. Within on the foreside of its great Foramen, it has a semicircular Sinus lined with a Cartilege, whereby it receiveth the tooth-like Process of the second Vertebra.  
The second is called Vertebra dentata, because out of its upper side between its two ascending Processes, there springs a round, longish and hard Process, in shape like a Tooth, which being invested with a Cartilege is jointed into the foresaid Sinus● of the first Vertebra, upon which as upon an Axis the Head turns round. And when a luxation happens here▪ the Neck is said to be broken. This tooth-like Process in that part which enters not into the said Sinus, is environed with a Ligament, by which it is knit to the Occiput. The hinder Processes of this Vertebra are cleft into two, as those of the four following are, for the better connexion of the Muscles and Ligaments. It's transverse Processes are less than theirs, and have also smaller holes.  
The four that lie under these, in all things are like them, save that their lateral Processes are larger, and divided into two as well as the hinder. The seventh is the largest of all. It is liker to the Vertebrae of the Thorax than of the Neck; for neither are its transverse Processes like the foregoing, nor is its hinder one forked, but both are like those of the Thorax, to be described in the next Chapter.   

CHAP. XI.  
Of the Vertebrae of the Thorax.  
THE Bones of the Thorax are the Vertebrae of the Back, the Ribs and Breastbone.  
As for the Vertebrae, 
Vertebrae twelve.  they are twelve in number, unto which so many Ribs answer; whereof seldom doth one abound, more seldom lack. Their Spines or hinder Processes are not divided into two as those of the Neck, but are solid and simple. The transverse are short and blunt, and have each a shallow Sinus for the inarticulation of the Ribs; but are not perforated like those of the Neck. The oblique Processes are four, two ascending, and two descending: these serve for articulation. The descending are a little hollowed, and receive the (something protuberant) heads of the ascending Processes of the next Vertebra below them, successively. The forepart of their body next to the cavity of the Thorax is round. As for their holes, they have a large one in the middle, which containeth the marrowy substance; and two lesser besides, on each side one, betwixt their jointings one with another, for the egress of the Nerves, and ingress of the Veins and Arteries.   

CHAP. XII.  
Of the Ribs.  
THE Ribs are twelve in number. Their substance is partly bony, partly cartilaginous; the first serving for firmness, the second for articulation, and the easier motion of the Breast in respiration. The bony substance towards the Vertebrae of the Back is thick and roundish, but towards the Sternum flat and thin. Within, it is fungous or spongy, whence the Ribs being broken are more readily joined together by a Callus than most other Bones. The Cartilages in bigness answer the bigness of the Ribs: for the bigger Ribs have the bigger Cartilages; and on the contrary. The Ribs in the upper side are blunt or broadish, but in the under sharper. In the lower and inner side they have a furrow that runs along them to receive the Intercostal vessels, the Veins, Arteries and Nerves.  
The Ribs are of two sorts; for they are either long, or short.  
The long (otherwise called the true Ribs) are seven in number (being the uppermost) and by their cartilaginous productions are immediately knit to the Breastbone by the articulation called Arthrodia; 
Seven verae.  for in the Breastbone there are an equal number of Cavities, which receive their cartilaginous heads. Their bony end is covered with a Cartilege and articulated into the shallow Sinus of the transverse Processes of the Vertebrae of the Back by Synarthrosis; and is knit to the said Vertebrae by very strong Ligaments.  
Note that the Cartilages of these true Ribs are usually observed to be harder in Women than in Men; which may seem to be for the better sustaining of the weight of their Breasts that lie upon them.  
The short (otherwise called Nothae or Spuriae, 
Five nothae.  bastards Ribs) are five in number; of which the four uppermost having their Cartilages bending upward and cleaving one to another are joined before to the lower side of the Cartilege of the seventh true Rib: but the last, which is the least, grows sometimes to the Diaphragm, and sometimes to the Musculus rectus of the Abdomen, as also sometimes does the lowest of the four next above it. Behind they are joined to the Vertebrae of the Back, like as the true Ribs were.  
Their use is first, 
Use.  to keep the Breast and the upper part of the Abdomen distended, that in the former the Heart and Lungs may have free space for their motion; and in the latter, the Stomach and Liver might not be pressed upon by the circumajacent parts. Secondly, to preserve those parts from external injuries, as from bruises or the like. And lastly, to sustain the Muscles that serve for respiration, and to promote their motions; for if the Breast had been environed with one continued Bone, it had not been capable of dilatation in inspiration, nor of contraction in expiration.   

CHAP. XIII.  
Of the Breastbone or Sternum.  
THIS Bone is seated in the middle of the Thorax before, serving as a Breastplate, and having the cartilaginous productions of the true Ribs inarticulated into it. It is of a red fungous' substance, and in children almost wholly cartilaginous, only its uppermost part is somewhat more bony than the rest, perhaps because one end of the Clavicula is jointed into it. In Infants it consists of seven or eight, but after some years they so coalesce one to another, that in the adult it is compounded but of three, and in aged persons it seemeth but one Bone, yet it is distinguished by two transverse lines, showing the former division, which are more conspicuous in the former division, which are more conspicuous in the inside than outside.  
The uppermost Bone is thickest and broadest; it hath in each side a longish cavity, lined with a Cartilege, to receive the points of the Channel-bones; between these in its middle and upper part is a pit called Jugulum. It has also a small cavity on the inside, to give way to the Windpipe descending. The second bone is neither so thick nor broad, yet four times as long. It is joined to the former by an intervening Cartilege, and in each side has five or six cavities for the inarticulation of so many of the true Ribs. The third is least of all, yet it is broader than the second, unto the lower end of which it is joined. What Ribs were not jointed into the middle Bone, are received by this. To its lower end is annexed the Cartilege called Mucronata or Ensiformis, Sword-like. This Cartilege is triangular, about an inch long, and on the outside of it there is form a cavity in the Breast, called Scrobiculus cordis or Heart-pit; and the gnawing pains felt there, Cardialgiae; though those pains are not from any affection of the Heart, but of the upper orifice of the Stomach, which lies under this Cartilege.   

CHAP. XIV.  
Of the Vertebrae of the Loins.  
THE Bones belonging to the Abdomen are these; five Vertebrae of the Loins, five or six of Os sacrum, Os cocoygis and Os ischii.  
The five Vertebrae of the Loins are larger than those of the Breast, and the lowest of them are biggest. They are jointed with the last Vertebra of the Back and the first of Os sacrum, and with one another, by an intervening clammy Cartilege, but more loosely than those of the Back, because the Body bends more upon them. They have each one large hole, to give way to the Spinalis medulla; and two small, by which Nerves pass out to the adjacent parts, and Veins and Arteries come in. As for their Processes, their posteriour (or Spines) are shorter and more blunt, but broader and thicker than those of the Vertebrae of the Thorax, and turn something upwards; but their lateral are longer. They also differ in their inarticulation, one with another; for whereas in those of the Thorax the upper Processes were knobby, and the lower hollow, to receive them; in these the contrary is seen; for the upper Processes are hollow, and the lower knobby. Only the last or twelfth Vertebra of the Thorax has both its ascending and descending oblique Processes hollowed to receive the heads or knobs of the Processes of the last but one of the Thorax, and the first of the Loins.   

CHAP. XV.  
Of the Os sacrum, and Os coccygis or Rump-bone.  
THE Os sacrum is the broadest of all the Bones of the Back, and doth sustain all the other Vertebrae. On the inside it is smooth and hollow, on the outside convex and uneven, being of something a triangular shape. In its upper part on each side it is knit firmly to the Ossa Ilia by an intervening Cartilege. It consists of five or six Bones, plainly distinguishable in Infants, but more obscurely in grown persons. These Bones have the resemblance of (and are usually called) Vertebrae, for each of them hath a Body and Processes, and a large hole to receive the Spinalis medulla. In this, these differ from the other Vertebrae; because in those, the lower part is bigger, but in these the lesser; wherefore the uppermost of them is the biggest, and the lowest the least. Besides the large cavity to receive the Spinalis medulla, they have other lesser for the egress of the Nerves; and these are not in their sides, as those of the Vertebrae of the Neck, Thorax and Loins, but before and behind, between their jointings: of these holes those before are much larger than those behind. As for their Processes, the oblique can hardly be discerned, except in the first. The transverse are pretty long, but so united, that all seem but one. The hindermost are like the Spinae of the Loins, but less, and still the lower the lesser; insomuch that the lowest hath no Process, but only a round Protuberance.  
To the Os sacrum the Os coccygis or Rump-bone is joined by a Cartilege, somewhat loosely, that it may bend a little backwards in Women in travail for the freer passage of the Foetus, etc. It is compounded of thr●● or four Bones, of which the first hath a small hollowness which receiveth the last Vertebrae of Os sacrum. The rest of its Bones grow each less than other, so that the lowest ends in a cartilaginous point. It is called Os coccygis, because in shape it resembleth the cuckoo's Bill. It's lower end bends inward, to stay the straight Gut and the sphincter Muscle, which are tied to it. The Bones of it are spongious and soft, and have neither Process nor any hollowness, for the spinal marrow descends no further than the bottom of Os sacrum.   

CHAP. XVI.  
Of the Hip-bone.  
THIS Bone was by Galen called Os innominatum, because it had then no proper name imposed upon it, that he had met with. But Homer had long before him called it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, from whom it is now generally known by that name. There is one on each side, and they are knit to the sides of Os sacrum (through the intervention of a Cartilege) by a most strong Ligament, and together with it frame the Pelvis, or that cavity in which the Womb, Bladder and part of the Intestines are contained. In Children it plainly appeareth to be framed of three Bones (called Os Ilium, Coxendicis, and Pubis) joined by a Cartilege, until the seventh year; but in Men of ripe age these three, the Cartilege being dried and hardened into a Bone, seem but one entire Bone. However for the more exact description of its parts, we must consider it as consisting of three.  
The first is called Os Ilium, 
Os ilium.  because under it lieth the small Gut called Ilium. This is the uppermost and broadest; in figure, semicircular; arched without, within hollow. It's edge which makes the semicircle is called Spina, the arched part Dorsum, the hollow part Costa. It is joined with the Os sacrum by a common membranous and most firm Ligament, with a Cartilege intervening, as abovesaid.  
The second is called Os coxendicis, 
Coxendix.  by some particularly Os ischium, and in English the Hip-bone: though more commonly both these last names are taken in a larger signification, and include all the three. This Bone is the lower and outer part of Os innominatum, and has a large cavity in it (which is called Acetabulum coxendicis) which receives the round head of the Thigh-bone, by the articulation called Enarthrosis. The brims of this Cavity are tipped as it were with a Cartilege, called its Supercilium. It's lower end has a large Appendix which we lean or bear upon when we sit.  
The third Bone is called Os Pubis, 
Os pubis.  and Pectinis, or the Share-bone. It is seated in the forepart, and in the middle it is joined to its fellow by a Cartilege, which is much thicker, but loser and softer in Women than in Men. It has a very large Foramen in its middle, which makes it the lighter. And above, it has a Sinus, by which the crural Veins and Arteries pass to the Thighs. The Pelvis that is composed by these three Bones and the Os sacrum, is bigger in a Woman than in a Man, to make the larger room for the Foetu●.   

CHAP. XVII.  
Of the Scapul● or Shoulder-blade.  
NOW follow the Bones of the Limbs, which are the Legs and Arms. The Bones of the Arms are either above the joint of the Shoulder, or under.  
Above the joint lieth the Shoulder-blade, in Greek called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉, in Latin, Scapula.▪ The substance of it is for the greatest part thin, but hard and solid. The outside is somewhat arched, but the inside hollow. It is somewhat of a triangular figure, and joined to sundry parts by means of the Muscles; which sort of union we called above, Syssarchosis. Thus it is joined with the Bone of the Occiput by the cucullar. Muscles or the first pair that move the Scapula; to the Vertebrae of the Neck by its second pair; and to the Back by the Muscle Rhomboides. It has three Processes: of which the first is extended along its middle, and is called its Spine; and that end of it that by a shallow Sinus receives the Clavicula, Acromium, its point or tip. The second is lower, less and acute, something like a Crow's Bill, whence it has the name of Coracoides; by others it is called Ancyroides, Anchor-like. The third is the shortest, called Cervix its Neck, which ends in a Sinus that in its upper part is acute, but in its lower round: this cavity being but shallow of itself has its brims tipped with a Cartilege, which makes it the deeper, in which the head of the Shoulder-bone is jointed. This jointing is strengthened by very strong Ligaments and Tendons, and is partly hindered from luxation by the top of the second Process.  
The Shoulder-blade hath a threefold use. First, it receiveth the Os humeri in the cavity of its third process by the articulation called Arthrodia; as it does the Clavicula in the Sinus of its first process by Synarthrosis. Secondly, sundry Muscles spring from the Shoulder-blade, which serve for the motion of the Shoulder-bone. Thirdly, it defendeth the Back, so far as it reacheth, from external injuries, like a Shield.   

CHAP. XVIII.  
Of the Os humeri or Shoulder-bone.  
THE Bones of the Arm under the joint of the Shoulder are the Shoulder-bone, the Cubit-bones, and the Bones of the Hand.  
The Shoulder-bone is but one in each Arm, reaching from the Shoulder to the Elbow. In figure it is round, only a little flattish behind towards the Elbow; of a hard and solid substance. It is hollow all along like a Pipe, wherein a marrowy substance is contained. That end that is jointed to the Scapula has a great and round head, covered with a Cartilege, which is received into the cavity of the Scapula by that kind of articulation which is called Arthrodia. On the hinder side of this head there stand two rough and uneven Prominences, into which the Ligaments are inserted. And betwixt these two Prominences there is a round and long chink through which the nervous head of the Musculus biceps doth pass. It's lower end is articulated with two Bones, viz. the Vlna and Radius, by Ginglymus, for it both receives them and is received by them, having three Processes and two Sinus betwixt them; so that by these it resembles a Poultry, whence it is called Trochlea. The Vlna is jointed with its inner side, and the Radius with the outer. On its inside, besides the three foregoing, it has a large Process or Tubercle from whence those Muscles arise that lie on the inside of the Cubit; and another less on its outside, from which those Muscles spring that lie on the outside. On the hinder side of the Trochlea there is one deep large cavity, and on the foreside two small ones, into which the Bones of the Cubit hit, when they are moved backward or forward, and are stopped from being carried further. About the middle of this Bone in the inside, you may perceive a hole, through which Vessels pass to the marrowy substance for nourishment.   

CHAP. XIX.  
Of the Bones of the Cubit.  
THese are in number two; to wit, the lesser above called Radius, and the larger below called Vlna. Their substance is firm and solid, all but their appendages. They are near of the same length (but the Vlna is the longer of the two) and both have a cavity in which they contain a marrowy substance. They are somewhat rough in their superficies by reason of their lines that are appointed for the rise or insertion of the Muscles.  
The Vlna is larger in its upper end that joints with the Os humeri, 
●lna.  and grows smaller and smaller towards the Hand, ending into a round Tubercle, with a round Sinus in it, (having on its hinder side a small sharp Process, from its shape called Styloides) whereby it is knit (by Arthrodia) to the little Bones of the Wrist, by Ligaments, (a Cartilege intervening.) It's upper end is articulated with the Os humeri by Ginglymus, to which end it has two Processes, of which the hinder enters into the hinder cavity of the Shoulder-bone behind the Trochlea, (by which the Cubit is stayed from further extension than to a straight posture) and is called Ancon or Olecranum. And at the same end it has also two Sinus, by the outer and less whereof it receives the head of the Radius, and by the hinder and larger one of the Processes of the Os humeri, which moves in it as a Rope in a Poultry. As it receives the Radius in its upper end, so is it received by it in its lower: but in the midst it bends or recedes a little from it, yet is knit to it by a long Ligament.  
The second Bone is upper and something shorter, 
Radius.  called Radius. It's upper end is slenderer, having a round head, one side of which is received by the Vlna; but its tip has a round shallow cavity in it, which receives a Process of the Os humeri, by Diarthrosis. It's lower end is thicker, which by a little Sinus in its side receives the Vlna; and at its extremity it has two other small Sinus, into which it admits the two first and highest Bones of the Carpus.   

CHAP. XX.  
Of the Bones of the Hand.  
THE Hand is divided into three parts: the Wrist, called Carpus; the distance between the Wrist and Fingers, called Metacarpus; and the Fingers themselves.  
The Bones of the Wrist are eight in number, 
Bones of the Carpus eight.  whereof there are two ranks or orders. The upper rank hath three Bones so joined together, that they seem but one; these are articulated to the Vlna and Radius by Arthrodia: but the fourth being the least of all, is placed a little out of its rank on the outside of the third. The inferior hath four Bones; they are joined to one another by Harmonia, but to the Bones of the Metacarpus by Arthrodia synarthrodes, having some motion though but obscure. They are firmly knit to one another by both a membranous and cartilaginous Ligament; and besides, by another called annular, which compassing the Wrist, comprehendeth both them and the Tendons of the Muscles which pass to the Fingers.  
The Metacarpus hath four Bones; 
Of the Metacarpus four.  they are of a solid substance, round, hollow within like a Pipe, being full of marrow. They are bigger than those of the Fingers: that which answereth the Forefinger is thickest and longest, and the rest grow each shorter and slenderer than the foregoing. Between each two a distance is left for the Musculi interossei of the Fingers. Both in their upper and lower end they have an Appendix; by the upper they are joined to the little Bones of the Wrist, by the lower to the Fingers: the upper hath a cavity, and so receiveth the Bones of the Carpus; but the lower a round long head, covered with a Cartilege, and is received by the Sinus of the Fingers.  
In the Palm of the Hand there is a transverse Ligament, which doth tie the Bones of the Fingers to the Metacarpium.  
The Fingers (taking in the Thumb) have fifteen Bones, 
Of the finger●●ifteen.  each three. The first are largest, the second less, and the third the least On the outside they are round, but on the inside plain and a little hollow, that they may lay the firmer hold upon things. Each has a Process at each end. The upper Processes are round, and those of the first Bones have one round Sinus in them whereby they receive the round head of the Bones of the Metacarpus: but the upper Processes of the second and third Bones have each two Sinus, parted by a small Protuberance. The lower Processes have two heads divided by a Sinus, which are received by the double Sinus of the upper Process of those Bones that join to them: except only the last or third Bone, which is received by none, but is fenced by a Nail. The second Bone is joined to the first, and the third to the second by Ginglymus, and by them the Fingers are only stretched out and contracted. For as for their motion sideways, that depends only upon the articulation of the first Bones with the Bones of the Metacarpus, which is done by Enarthrosis, or at least by Arthrodia. The jointings of the Thumb answer to these of the Fingers, saving that its upper appendix is not joined to any Bone of the Metacarpus (with which it has no communication) but immediately to the Wrist; and its lower has but one head, whence the second Bone has but one Sinus in its upper appendix to receive it.  
Besides these Bones there are in the inside of the Hand, 
Ossa sesamoidea.  at the joints of the Fingers, some small Bones called from their figure and bigness sesamoidea, like the Grains of Sesame, (a sort of Indian Corn so called by Pliny.) They resemble in figure the Knee-pan, and seem to serve for the same use; for in strong extensions of the Fingers they strengthen the Tendons of the Muscles upon which they are placed▪ and hinder the luxation of the joint. Authors differ very much as to their number, because being so small they are seldom all found: but most agree upon the number of 12 to each Hand, placing them thus. At the second joint of the Thumb there are two. The second and third joint of the Forefinger have each one; but its first joint, as also the first of the other three have each two. In Children they are of a cartilaginous substance, but grow bony by degrees, (being invested with a Cartilege) yet not solid but fungous or porous.   

CHAP. XXI.  
Of the Thigh-bone, and Patella.  
THE Leg (in a large sense) is divided into three parts, the Thigh, the Shank (or Leg strictly so called) and Foot.  
The Thigh hath but one Bone: 
Os femoris.  but of all others it is the longest and thickest. Before, it is round: but behind, something depressed and hollow. In the upper part it has a round head; the slender part under this is called its Neck, and is pretty long and oblique. The Neck is an Apophysis or process to the Bone itself, and the round Head an Epiphysis or Appendix to the Neck. This Head is received by the large Cavity or Acetabulum of the Coxendix, and is detained therein by two strong Ligaments; one that encompasses the brims of the Acetabulum, and another that springs out of its bottom, and is inserted into the tip of this round Head or Appendix. At the lower end of the Neck there spring two Prominences; which, because the Muscles called Rotatores are fastened to them, are called Trochanteres. The hinder and lower is the lesser Trochanter; and the lateral or uppermost, the bigger. The lower end of the Thigh-bone growing thicker by degrees hath two pretty large Prominences or Heads, leaving a cavity in the middle which receiveth the Apophysis of the Tibia: And again these Prominences are received by the cavities of the Tibia, by a ●oose Ginglymus, both the Prominences and Cavities being lined with Cartilages. The forepart of this articulation is called the Knee, the hindermost the Ham.  
Upon the Knee appeareth a Bone, 
Patella.  not joined with any other Bone, called the Pan, or Patella: it is roundish, about two inches broad, plain without, having many holes; but within bunched, covered with a Cartilege. It is set before the Thigh-bone and the Tibia, to strengthen the articulation; for otherwise the Thigh-bone would be in danger to slip out forward in going down a Hill, or the like. It cleaveth to the Knee by the thick Tendons of the second, third, and fourth Muscles that extend the Tibia, which pass under the Patella to it, and are implanted into its fore-knob. Two Ligaments fasten the articulation of the Thigh-bone with the Tibia: the one fastens the Cartilege that environs the brims of the Sinus of the Tibia, the other rises out of the Apophysis of the Tibia, and is inserted into the Sinus of the Thigh-bone.  
Behind there are two Ossa sesamoidea, which adhere to the two beginnings of the first Muscles which move the Foot, to strengthen them. Great wounds of the Ham are mortal, by reason of the great Vessels which pass that way.   

CHAP. XXII.  
Of the Bones of the Shank.  
THE Shank (or Leg strictly so called) is composed of two Bones. The greater is called Tibia, the lesser Fibula. These are slightly articulated into one another near each end; but in their middle they recede one from the other, yet so as they are tied together by a strong Ligament that comes between them.  
The Tibia (commonly called Focile majus) is partly triangular, 
Tibia.  by its sharp edge before making what we call the Shin. It has an appendix at each end. That above is bigger, and in its upper part hath one Process, which is received by the Sinus of the Thigh-bone; and two longish Cavities for the receiving of the two Prominences of the Thigh-bone, (so that the articulation is by Ginglymus) as was said in the foregoing Chapter. About the brims of these Sinus there is joined by Ligaments a movable Cartilege, soft, slippery, and bedewed with an unctuous humour, called Cartilago lunata, the Moon-like Cartilege. It has also a little Head behind (below the foresaid appendix) which enters into the Sinus of the upper appendix of the Fibula. It's lower appendix is less than the upper, jetting out with a notable Process toward the inside of the Foot, making the Malleolus internus or inner Ankle. It has two Cavities; one less in its side, by which it receives the Fibula; another greater and lower, divided as it were into two by a small Protuberance in the middle, and lined with a Cartilege, receiving the convex head of the Talus that lies under it; as the said Protuberance is received by the shallow Sinus in the convex head of the Talus: the one being articulated into the other by Ginglymus, so that the Foot moves upwards and downwards upon this joint.  
The lesser and outer Bone of the Leg is called Fibula (or Focile minus;) 
Fibula.  it is as long as the former, but much slenderer. This has also an appendix at each end: the upper of which reaches not so high as the Knee, nor is it jointed to the Thigh-bone; but in its inner side has a shallow Cavity which receives the little hinder (or lateral) Head of the Tibia, that is seated under its upper appendix which is jointed with the Thigh-bone. Below, the Fibula is received by the Sinus of the Tibia, and extends its appendix with its process to the side of the Talus, making the Malleolus externus or outer Ankle, which is lower than the inner.   

CHAP. XXIII.  
Of the Bones of the Tarsus.  
OF the Foot (as of the Hands) there are three parts, Tarsus, Metatarsus, and the Toes.  
The Tarsus is the distance between the lower end of the two Focils, 
The Tarsus hath seven bones.  and the beginning of the five Bones which are articulated with the Toes. It hath seven Bones much differing from one another in bigness and shape.  
The first is called Talus or Astragalus (in English the Ankle or Hucklebone.) 
1. Talus.  This is of a various figure: above, it has something a convex head with a shallow Sinus in it, articulating with the Tibia, as is described in the foregoing Chapter. By the process of the Tibia that makes the inner Ankle it is hedged in as it were on the inside, as it is by that of the Fibula on the outer. Before, it has a long neck, on which grows a round head that enters into the Sinus of Os naviculare; upon which jointing the Foot is moved sideways. It's hinder side is rough, and in its upper part has a transverse Sinus for the receipt of the Ligament of the Tibia, and in its lower a little descending Sinus, by which the Tendons of the Muscles pass. Below, it has a Sinus behind and a Protuberance before, by which it is articulated with the Heel-bone by Ginglymus. Betwixt the Sinus and Protuberance there is a long and pretty deep Cavity, and over against it another such in the Heel-bone. In these is contained a mucous substance which moistens the cartilaginous Ligaments that join the Talus to the Heel-bone, keeping them from drying by continued motion.  
The second Bone of the Tarsus is called Os calcis or Calcaneus, 
2. Os calcis.  the Heel-bone, and is the biggest of the seven. It lies under the Talus, with which in its upper side it is articulated in the manner just now described. Behind, it receiveth the great Tendon called Nervus Hectoreus, composed of the Tendons of three Muscles of the Shank. It's fore end is received by the Os cubiforme. On its inside it has a large Sinus, by which the Tendons and larger Vessels descend to the lower parts of the Foot; and on its outside it is uneven with several knobs, for the firmer connexion of the Ligaments and Tendons.  
The third is called Os Naviculare or Cymbiforme, 
3. Os naviculare.  from its figure. Behind, it receiveth the Talus in a large Sinus; but before, it is convex, with three flattish smooth heads that are admitted into the very shallow Sinus of the three Ossa cuneiformia or lesser Bones of the Tarsus.  
The remaining four are less than the three already described, and stand all in one rank; the first of them articulates with the Heel-bone, the other three with the Os naviculare. There is no Cartilege betwixt them, but they are knit one to another on the outside by a cartilaginous Ligament; and are covered both in their hinder and forepart with a smooth Cartilege where they are jointed with other Bones. The first is called Cubiforme or Die-like, 
4. Os cubiforme.  having six sides. This is bigger than the other three that follow, and is seated on the outside of the Foot. In its foreside it is joined to the fourth and fifth Bone of the Metatarsus; in the hinder with the Heel bone; and in the inside, to the third Bone of the Cuneiformia: but it's other three sides, viz. the outer, upper and lower are joined to none.  
The three ensuing are called Cuneiformia, 
5. Three Cuneiformia.  or wedge-like Bones; for above they are thick, and below thinner, so that being joined, they represent a Vault, being convex on the upper side, but on the under hollow; in which hollowness the Tendons and Muscles are lodged, so that one does not press upon and bruise them in going. The first of these Bones is the greatest, seated in the inside of the Foot; the second is the least, placed in the middle; the third is in the mean between both in bigness. These three behind are joined to the Os naviculare, and before to the three first Bones of the Metatarsus.   

CHAP. XXIV.  
Of the rest of the Bones of the Foot.  
THE Metatarsus, 
The bones of the Instep five.  or Instep, hath five Bones: for one is appointed for the sustaining of the great Toe, as well as others for each of the rest; though in the Hand it is not so, where the Thumb has no Bone in the Metacarpus answering to it.  
They are solid without, but hollow within; and are longer than the Bones of the back of the Hand. That which stayeth the great Toe is thickest, but the longest is that which stayeth the next Toe: the other three grow each shorter than other, but are almost of an equal thickness. Their lower ends being round are inserted into the Sinus of the first joints of the Toes: but the upper in their own shallow Sinus receive the Bones of the Tarsus.  
The Bones of the Toes are in number fourteen; 
Of the Toes fourteen.  for the great Toe hath only two, but the rest three. These bones are solid without, and hollow within like those of the Instep. Their articulation is altogether like that of the Fingers, so that we shall not need here to describe it over again.  
Each Foot has twelve Ossa sesamoidea, as well as the Hands: but seeing they are seated wholly alike in both, the Reader may please to turn back to their description in Chap. 20.  

The Explanation of the Figure.  

It representeth the Sceleton of an adult Body on the foreside, that the mutual contexture of all the Bones may appear.  
A The Forehead-bone.  
bb The Coronal Suture.  
C The Temple-bone.  
d The Mammillary Process.  
E The Os jugale.  
F The upper Jaw.  
GG The lower Jaw.  
hhh The Vertebrae of the Neck.  
iiiii The Ribs.  
KK The Breastbone.  
LL The Channel-bones.  
MM The inner side of each Shoulder-blade.  
NN The Shoulder-bone.  
OO Its Head jointed with the Shoulder-blade.  
PP It's lower end that is inarticulated with the Ulna & Radius, where  
q points at the inner Tubercle, and  
r at the outer.  
SS The Bone of the Cubit called Ulna.  
TT The other Bone of the Cubit called Radius.  
YY The Wrist consisting of eight little Bones.  
ZZ The Metacarpus having four Bones.  
〈◊〉 The Fingers.  
〈◊〉 The Thumb.   

The following Letters point at the lower Bones of the Sceleton.  
Aaaaa The ●ive Vertebrae of the Loins.  
BB The inner side of Os sacrum.  
CC The cavity of Os Ilium, making a great part of the Pelvis.  
DD The Coxendix.  
EE The Ossa pubis.  
F The middle line that joins the two Bones of the Pubes together, by the mediation of a Cartilege.  
GG The Thigh-bone.  
hh Its round Head.  
two Its Neck.  
kk The outer Process of its Neck, or the greater Trochanter.  
ll The inner Process, or lesser Trochanter.  
mmmm The lower heads of the Thigh-bone.  
NN The Patella or Knee-pan.  
OO The Tibia.  
pPPP It's upper Processes.  
rr It's Spine that makes the Shin.  
ss It's lower Process that makes the inner Ankle.  
TT The Fibula.  
vu It's lower Process that makes the outer Ankle.  
XX The Tarsus consisting of seven Bones.  
The Astragalus.  
The Heel bone.  
d The Os cubiforme.  
YY The Metatarsus consisting of five Bones.  
ZZ The Bones of the Toes, in all fourteen, viz. two of the great Toe, and three of each of the rest.     

CHAP. XXV.  
Of a Cartilege.  
AS an Appendix to the Doctrine of Bones we will add a word or two of the Cartilages and Ligaments of the Body; because the former come nearest to the nature of Bones; and the latter, as they tie several other parts one to another, so especially the Bones.  
A Cartilege is a similar part, cold, dry and void of sense, flexible and not so hard as a Bone. But when by age its glutinous particles are dried up, it many times degenerates into a Bone.  
As for the Cartilages of the Eyebrows, Ears, Nose, Larynx, etc. we shall not need here particularly to describe them, having done it where we treated of the respective parts; only we will note in general, that all the Bones in their articulations one with another, are covered or lined with Cartilages, whereby their motion becomes more easy and glib: and sometimes themselves are the medium by which Bones are joined, which articulation is called Synchondrosis, such as that of the Ossa pubis: and lastly, by tipping as it were the brims of the Cavities of the greater joints, they make the Sinus deeper.   

CHAP. XXVI.  
Of a Ligament.  
A Ligament is a similar part, cold and dry, of a middle substance betwixt a Cartilege and a Membrane, appointed for the tying of sundry pa●●s together.  
Note, that as it is either harder or softer than is suitable to its proper nature, it acquires the epithets of cartilaginous or membranous respectively: so, that which proceeds out of the top of the Thigh-bone and is inserted into the cavity of the Coxendix is called a cartilaginous Ligament, for its hardness; and that which environeth the joint of the Shoulder, is called membranous, from its softness.  
Those which tie Bones together are without sense, (for otherwise upon every motion we should have been in pain:) but those that knit other parts together, (as those that tie the Liver, Womb, etc. to the neighbouring parts) are sensible.  
Ligaments are found in several parts of the Body. As first, the Head being moved upon the first and second Vertebra of the Neck, there are four Ligaments to strengthen the articulation. Secondly, a common membranous Ligament begirts the whole articulation of the lower Jaw with the Temple-bone. Thirdly, the Bone at the root of the Tongue has four, by which it is tied to the neighbouring parts; and the Tongue itself has one strong one on its under-side, (otherwise called its Fraenum) which being two short or running too near its tip, hindereth its motion. Children being so troubled, are said to be Tongue-tied, and must have it cut. Fourthly, both the Bodies and Processes of all the Vertebrae of the Back are knit together by Ligaments, as also are the Ribs with the Vertebrae behind, and with the Breastbone before. Fifthly, sundry are to be seen in the Abdomen. The first tieth the Os ilium to Os sacrum. The second knitteth the Os sacrum to the Coxendix. The third and fourth knit the Share-bones together, one of them compassing them circularly, and the other, which is membranous, possessing their very Foramen. As for the Ligaments of the Liver, Bladder, etc. those were discoursed of when we described those parts in Book 1. Sixthly, in the Arm these appear. 1. Five tie the Os humeri to the Shoulder-blade. 2. The Bones of the Cubit, Vlna and Radius, are tied first one to another; secondly, to the Shoulder-bone; and thirdly, to the Wrist by (mostly) membranous Ligaments. 3. There are annular Ligaments at the Wrists, which being transverse, confirm and make steady the Tendons which pass to the Fingers. They are two; one in the outside, for the Tendons of the extending Muscles; the other in the inner side, for the Tendons of the contracting Muscles. 4. The Bones of the Wrist, back of the Hand and Fingers, have membranous Ligaments. Seventhly, In the Leg are these. 1. The Thigh-bone is tied to the Coxendix by two Ligaments. 2. The lower end of it is tied to Tibia and Fibula by six Ligaments. 3. The Tibia is joined to the Fibula by three membranous Ligaments, viz. two common and one proper. 4. Tibia and Fibula are joined to the Talus by three Ligaments, and there are three other for the strengthening of the Tendons. 5. The Talus is tied with the other Bones of the Foot by five Ligaments. 6. The Bones of the Instep and Toes are tied with such Ligaments as those of the Hand are.   

CHAP. XXVII.  
Of the Nails.  
IN the last place we will say something of the Nails, which though they are not truly parts of the Body, yet for their usefulness ought not to be omitted.  
They are of an horny transparent substance, coming nearest to that of Bones, fastened upon the ends of the Fingers and Toes for their defence. They are endued with no sense, nor is that colour which they appear to be of upon the Fingers, owing to their proper substance, but to the colour of the parts that lie under them; whence they sometimes look ruddy, sometimes pale, blue or yellow, and thereby give some intimation of the state of the Body. They grow very firmly to the Flesh that lies under them; and to fasten them the better, they are tied about their root with a Ligament, and on their sides the Skin closes them in. The parts that lie under them are very sensible, for there are several twigs of Nerves and tendons of Muscles that run to the very Fingers ends; so that upon handling any hard or rugged thing we should have been continually in pain, if these so sensible parts had not been thus defended by the Nails.  
They may in some sense be reputed parts of the Body, so as that it would not be perfect and entire without them: but that is but an improper notion of a part. For if they were properly parts, they should live by the common life of the Body; but that they do not, seeing they as well as the hair continue to grow after a Man is dead: and their growth seems merely to be by apposition of new particles to their roots, which drive on successively those before them; as we may see when there is a black or white speck on any of them, for it still goes forward together with the Nail, till it arrive at the Finger's end beyond the Flesh.  
FINIS.     

THE CONTENTS.  

Book I.  

Of the lowest Cavity called Abdomen.  
CHAP. I. Of the division of the parts of the Body of Man in general. Page 1  
II. Of the circumscription, regions and parts of the Abdomen. 5  
III. Of the common containing parts of the Belly. 8  
IU. Of the proper containing parts. 13  
V. Of the Omentum. 17  
VI Of the Gula. 22  
VII. Of the Ventriculus or Stomach. 25  
VIII. Of the Intestines or Guts. 32  
IX. Of the Mesenterium. 44  
X. Of the Venae lacteae, Receptaculum chyli, and Ductus chyliferus thoracicus. 49  
XI. Of the Liver. 53  
XII. Of the Vena portae. 61  
XIII. Of the 〈…〉 dispersed within the Abdomen. ●7  
XIV. Of the Gall blad●● and Porus bilarius. 72  
XV. Of the Pancreas. 77  
XVI. Of the Spleen. 81  
XVII. Of the Kidneys and the Glandulae renales. 90  
XVIII. Of the ureters. 100  
XIX. Of the Bladder 103  
XX. Of the Vasa praeparantia in Men. 106  
XXI. Of the Stones or Testicles, and the Epididymidae. 109  
XXII. Of the Vasa deferentia, Vesiculae seminales, and Prostatae. 1●8  
XXIII. Of the Yard. 124  
XXIV. Of the Vasa praeparantia in Women. 134  
XXV. Of women's Testicles or Ovaria. 136  
XXVI. Of the Vasa deferentia in Women, or their Oviducts. 140  
XXVII. Of the Uterus or Womb, and its Neck. 145  
XXVIII. Of the Vagina and its Contents, viz. the Hymen, and Carunculae myrtiformes. 152  
XXIX. Of the Pudendum muliebre or Woman's Privity. 156  
XXX. Of a Conception. 163  
XXXI. Of the Placenta uterina or Womb-liver, and Acetabula. 175  
XXXII. Of the Membranes involving the Foetus, and of the humours contained in them. 179  
XXXIII. Of the umbilical vessels, and of the nourishing of the Foetus. 185  
XXXIV. What parts of a Foetus in the Womb differ from those of an adult person. 199  
XXXV. Of the Birth. 204    

Book II.  

Of the Breast.  
CHAP. I. Of the common containing parts of it. Page 209  
II. Of the proper containing parts; and first, of the Dugs. 211  
III. Of the proper internal containing parts. 222  
IU. Of the Pericardium, and the humour contained in it. 231  
V. Of the Heart, in general, and of its motion. 233  
VI Of the Pulse, and the circulation of the Blood. 241  
VII. How Blood is made of Chyle, of its Colour, and whether the Body be nourished by it. 247  
VIII. Of the parts of the Heart, viz. the Auriculae, the Ventricles and the Septum that divideth them. 253  
IX. Of the Ascending trunk of Vena cava. 257  
X. Of Vena arteriosa, and Arteria venosa. 266  
XI. Of the great Artery, or Aorta. 269  
XII. Of the Aspera Arteria and Lungs. 284  
XIII. Of Respiration. 293  
XIV. Of the Neck and the parts contained in it, viz. the Larynx, Pharynx, Tonsillae, etc. 296    

Book III.  

Of the Head.  
CHAP. I. Of the Head in general, and its common containing parts. Page 301  
II. Of the Hair. 303  
III. Of the proper containing parts. 305  
IU. Of the Brain in general. 310  
V. Of the parts of the Brain properly so called, viz. Cortex, Corpus callosum, Septum lucidum, Fornix, three Sinus, Infundibulum, Glandula pituitaria, Plexus choroides, Rete mirabile, Nates, Testes, Anus, and Glandula pinealis. 312  
VI Of the Cerebellum, and the fourth Ventricle or Sinus. 318  
VII. Of the Medulla oblongata and Spinalis. 320  
VIII. Of the Processus mammillares. 322  
IX. Of the Action of the Brain, and the supposed Succus nutritius of the Nerves. 324  
X. Of the Nerves arising within the Skull, and first of the first and second pair. 330  
XI. Of the third and fourth pair. 332  
XII. Of the fifth, sixth, and seventh pair. 333  
XIII. Of the eighth and ninth pair. 337  
XIV. Of the Nerves of the Spinalis medulla; and first of the Nerves of the Neck. 345  
XV. Of the Nerves of the Vertebrae of the Breast. 349  
XVI. Of the Nerves of the Vertebrae of the Loins. 350  
XVII. Of the Nerves which come from the marrow of Os sacrum. 352  
XVIII. Of the Face and its parts. 354  
XIX. Of the Eye in general, and its outward or containing parts. 356  
XX. Of the Tunicles of the Eye. 359  
XXI. Of the humours and vessels of the Eyes. 361  
XXII. Of the Auricula. 364  
XXIII. Of the inward part of the Ear. 366  
XXIV. Of the Nose. 371  
XXV. Of the Lips. 373  
XXVI. Of the inner parts of the Mouth. 375    

Book IU.  

Containing a description of the Veins, Arteries and Nerves of the Limbs.  
CHAP. I. Of the Veins of the Arm. Page 379  
II. Of the Arteries of the Arm. 381  
III. Of the Nerves of the Arm. 382  
IU. Of the Veins of the Thigh, Leg and Foot. 383  
V. Of the Arteries of the Thigh, Leg and Foot. ibid.  
VI Of the Nerves of the Thigh, Leg and Foot. 384    

Book V.  

Containing a Treatise of all the Muscles of the Body.  
CHAP. I. The description of a Muscle. Page 385  
II. Of the differences and actions of the Muscles. 389  
III. Of the Muscles of the Eyelids. 391  
IU. Of the Muscles of the Eye. 393  
V. Of the Muscles of the Nose. 395  
VI Of the Muscles of the Lips and Cheeks. 397  
VII. Of the Muscles of the lower Jaw. 400  
VIII. Of the Muscles of the Ear. 403  
IX. Of the Muscles of the Tongue. 405  
X. Of the Muscles of the Bone of the Tongue, called Os hyoides. 406  
XI. Of the Muscles of the Larynx. 408  
XII. Of the Muscles of the Uuula and Throat. 410  
XIII. Of the Muscles of the Head. 411  
XIV. Of the Muscles of the Neck. 413  
XV. Of the Muscles of the Breast. 414  
XVI. Of the Muscles of the Back and Loins. 416  
XVII. Of the Muscles of the Abdomen. 418  
XVIII. Of the Muscles of the Genitals, both in Men and Women. 421  
XIX. Of the Muscles of the Bladder and Anus. 422  
XX. Of the Muscles of the Scapula or Shoulder-blade. 423  
XXI. Of the Muscles of the Arm. 425  
XXII. Of the Muscles of the Ulna. 428  
XXIII. Of the Muscles of the Radius. 430  
XXIV. Of the Muscles of the Wrist. 431  
XXV. Of the Muscles of the Palm of the Hand. 433  
XXVI. Of the Muscles of the four Fingers. 434  
XXVII. Of the Muscles of the Thumb. 436  
XXVIII. Of the Muscles of the Thigh. 438  
XXIX. Of the Muscles of the Tibia or Leg. 441  
XXX. Of the Muscles of the Tarsus or Instep. 444  
XXXI. Of the Muscles of the Toes. 447    

Book VI  

Of the Bones.  
CHAP. I. Of the Nature of a Bone. Page 451  
II. Of the natural affections of Bones. 453  
III. Of the differences of the joining of Bones together. 455  
IU. Of the Sutures of the Head. 457  
V. Of the proper Bones of the Skull. 459  
VI Of the Bones common to the Skull and upper Jaw. 463  
VII. Of the Jaws. 465  
VIII. Of the Teeth. 468  
IX. Of the Bone of the Tongue called Os hyoides. 471  
X. Of the Bones of the Neck. 472  
XI. Of the Vertebrae of the Thorax. 474  
XII. Of the Ribs. 475  
XIII. Of the Breastbone or Sternum. 477  
XIV. Of the Vertebrae of the Loins. 479  
XV. Of the Os sacrum, and Os coccygis or Rump-bone. 480  
XVI. Of the Hip-bone. 481  
XVII. Of the Scapula or Shoulder-blade. 483  
XVIII. Of the Os humeri or Shoulder-bone. 484  
XIX. Of the Bones of the Cubit. 486  
XX. Of the Bones of the Hand. 487  
XXI. Of the Thigh-bone, and Patella. 490  
XXII. Of the Bones of the Shank. 492  
XXIII. Of the Bones of the Tarsus. 493  
XXIV. Of the rest of the Bones of the Foot. 496  
XXV. Of a Cartilege. 499  
XXVI. Of a Ligament. 500  
XXVII. Of the Nails. 502   
The end of the Contents.