AN ESSAY For the Discovery of Some NEW Geometrical Problems, (Judged by some Learned Men, Impracticable) Concerning ANGULAR SECTIONS, Beginning with the GEOMETRICAL TRISECTION of any Right Lined Angle, by Plain Geometry of Right Lines and Arches of Circles,  
With RULE and COMPASS only, without all Conic Sections, and Cubick Aequations.  
Whether the following Praxis, and apparent demonstration thereof doth not only make it Practicable, but easy to the Understanding of a Tiro, who but understands a little in true Geometrical Learning.  
Which layeth a Foundation of a Plain Method how to Sect any Angle into any other Number of Parts required, Even as 4. 6. 8. 10; or uneven, as 5. 7. 9 11. etc. As also to divide a Circle into any number Even, or uneven of equal parts.  
All which have great Uses in the Improvement of the Mathematical Sciences, some of which are here specified.  
Proposed and Submitted to the Impartial Trial and Examination of the Right Reason of such Artists, to whose Hands it may come.  
By G. K.  
London, Printed 1697. And to be Sold by the Author, at his House in Pudding-Lane, at the Sign of he Golden-Ball, near the Monument; And by B. Aylmer at the Three Pigeons over against the Royal-Exchange.   

Some New Geometrical Problems, etc.  
ALthough the Trisection of a right lined Angle and also its Section into any parts required, to a true Mathematical exactness, is denied to be practicable by plain Geometry (of right Lines and Arches of Circles, with Rule and Compass only, without all Conic Sections, and Algebra Equations) by some learned Artists; yet others as learned are not so positive, but acknowledge the Practice of it is not as yet discovered, among whom is the learned Is. Barrow, who hath writ thus, in Corol. ad. 9 1. elem. Eucl.  
Methodus vero regula & Circino angulos secandi in aequales quotcunque hactenus Geometras latuit. and in Scholar ad 16. 4. Elem. Coeterum divisio circumferentiae in parts datas etiamnum desideratur.  

The Praxis of the Trisection of any given Angle.  
1. Divide the Cord BC into 3 equal Parts, as BE = EE = EC by 10. 6. elem. Euclid. and draw the 2 Perpendiculars EF. EF.  
2. With the extent of ⅓ of the Cord as EC measure on the Arch from C to G, and draw the Line or Cord GC = EC.  
3. With another Radius less than AC, viz. AK draw a second arch as KL, until it cut the perpendicular OF, and let the Radius AK be so long, that the extent of the Cord betwixt K and L be somewhat longer than EC, and with the same extent EC measure on this second arch KR = EC.  
4. From G to R draw a strait Line by post 1. 1. elem. and produce the same by post 2. until it cut the Perpendiculars at I and O.  
5. Draw the strait lines AI and AO, and extend them to H on both sides, so that the one line shall be AIH, and the other AOH, which two Lines shall sect the given angle BAC into three parts or angles, viz. BAH, HAH, HAC.  
The Question, or Problem to be resolved is, whether these three angles are not equal, and consequently that the angle BAC is trisected into equal angles.  
The apparent demonstration that is here proposed to prove it, followeth.  
In order to the apparent following demonstration, by way of Preparation,  
1. Draw the line HEY, which shall be parallel to EE by 28. 1. elem. and extend it on both sides, from I to N on the one side, and from O to N on the other, making IN = ON = EC = HEY.  
2. With Radius IN, and ON, describe the arches on both sides NM until these arches cut the lines AC and AB, so shall the lines or cords drawn betwixt I and M and O and M, viz. IN and OM = EC.  
3. Make the angle IMP = angle MIN by 23. 1. elem. and OMP = MON, and extend the line MP, until it cut the line AI at P, and AO at P.  
4. Draw the line OPEN parallel to IN, until it cut MP, whence the perfect Rhombus OMPI shall be form, having the opposite side; parallel and equal, for PM by construction is parallel with HEY, and OPEN with IN and that the Line OPEN drawn parallel to IN can cut the Line PM no where but at P on the line AI is proved thus. Suppose it cut the line PM any where else, than on the line AI on either side, it should make PM either longer or shorter than its opposite side (for the arch drawn by the radius MI, and cutting the line AI at P proveth MP = MI by def. 15. 1. elem.) as also OPEN should be longer or shorter than IN, (as the like arch conceived to be drawn by radius HEY, and cutting AI at P, proveth HEY = OP by the same, def. 15. 1. elem.) but both these Consequences are absurd, making the opposite sides of a Paralellogram to be unequal, contrary to 34. 1. elem.  
Because the Figure OPMI is proved to be a perfect Rhombus, having all the sides equal, whereof the line PI is the diagonal, (it being proved that OPEN and PM terminate on AI) therefore the angle OIP (= OIA) = PIM = (AIM) by 8. and 4. 1. elem.  
Lastly, these two Triangles OAI and JAM shall be according to the 4th. prop. 1. elem. and so shall OAI and OAM, for HEY = IN as above proved, and AI is common to both, and the Angle OIA = AIM as is above proved, therefore by 4. 1. elem. AM am AO = AI, and consequently by 8. 1. the angles JAM = OAI = OAM, therefore the given angle BAC is Geometrically trisected by the Lines AO and AI extended to H. Q. E. D.  
Here Note, let the Radius be ever so much changed betwixt M and C, taking it at any extent from A, and let ever so many Concentric Arches be drawn from the Centre A betwixt IN and GC, their Cords terminating on the straight Lines MC on the one side, and IG on the other shall all be equal, one to another, and to the Cord GC = ABC. as the demonstration above given proveth, for the reason that proveth the Cords of any 3 Concentric Arches, terminating on two straight Lines to be equal within the limits MI and GC, being a Trapezia, proveth any other 3 to be equal within the same limits. But if we draw any Concentric Arches without the Trapezia IGCM, as with a less Radius, than AM, or with a greater Radius, than AC, the Case is altered, and the equal Cords will not terminate on the straight Line IG, but diviate or depart therefrom, as both true Reason doth prove, and even ocular inspection doth show; for though the Eye is not able to judge of a strait Line, yet when a Line is visibly apparent to make an Angle with another Line, these two Lines cannot be a strait Line. I call the Figure IMCG a Trapezia, for it is not any Paralellogram, because the side IG, is not parallel to the side MC, but very unparalel, which makes the side IG to be longer than the side MC, but this doth not hinder that all the Cords of the Concentric Arches drawn betwixt IG and MC are equal, for let them be ever so many within the limits IN and GC, they are all equal, though their Arches are unequal being from a differing Radius. And though the demonstration above given may seem sufficient to prove it, yet for a further proof, let a Line be drawn, or conceived to be drawn (as in this Figure it is only conceived) from I Parallel to AC, towards FC and beyond it, all the extreme Points of the Cords of the Concentick Arches, above mentioned, terminating on the straight line IG, do gradually still more and more depart from that parallel towards the perpendicular IF within the aforesaid limits, IN and GC, on the first Arch, which I call the primitive Arch; but if we draw any Arch, without GC by a longer Radius than AC, or within IN by a shorter Radius than AM, the Cords of those concentric Arches, if equal, shall deviate from the straight line IG, and come nearer to the Parallel above mentioned, but that within the Trapezia above said IMCG, the equal Cords of all these Arches shall terminate on the strait line IGI thus further prove. Draw, (or conceive as drawn in this Figure) a strait Line from C to H parallel to IN, and take a Cord of any of those Concentric Arches = ⅓ of the Cord BC = IN, I say it must terminate on the line IG, and neither go without it, nor within it, otherwise the same extent cutting the parallel Lines, viz. the one parallel to MC, the other to IN, shall make the opposite sides of a Paralellogram unequal contrary to 34. 1. elem. Eucl. as the due Cosideration of the Figure Will show, and the part equal to the whole.  
I have in the Example of Trisection used an obtuse Angle, because it is more commodious and easy to be done by Manual Operation in an obtuse Angle than in an Acute as Experience will show, though the demonstration is the same both in the Obtuse and Acute. Nor is it any just exception, that some acute Angles being small, can hardly be trisected by this Method; for when Angles are very acute, they can hardly be bisected. But the proper Remedy for both is, when the Angle is small, double or quadruple it, and then bisect or trisect it, as occasion requires.  
The Praxis of the Trisection hath these following great Uses.  
By the Trisection of the Angle of 120 degrees we have the true Mathematical Cord of 40 degrees, and seeing it is demonstrated in 11. 4. elem. Euclid. to find the Cord of ⅕ of the Circle, = 72 degrees the ½ = 36 by substracting 36d. from 40d. we have the true Cord of 4 degrees, that bisected gives the Cord of 2 degrees and that again bisected gives the Cord of I degree. Also 40 degrees twice bisected gives 10 degrees, and that again bisected gives 5. and thus by the Trisection of 120 or 60 degrees, and certain other bisections a line of Cords truly Geometrical or Mathematical can be made by plain Geometry, without all conic Sections or Algebra Aequations, and tedious Extractions of Roots, and also without any Table of natural Sins, which never hitherto hath been taught (so far as I ever heard or read) in a plain method, by plain Geometry, so as to be made intelligible to any Tiro or Young Artist; and yet such a method is altogether necessary for the perfection of Geometry and Mathematical Learning, that the way to trisect any Angle be known by plain Geometry, seeing many things in plain Geometry require a true line of Cords, and a true line of Cords cannot be found without the Trisection of certain Angles, or some other Section than Bisection; and to refer a Tiro, or Young Scholar, to the conic Sections, and tedious Algebra Aequations and Resolutions how to trisect an Angle, or understand how to make a true Geometrical Line of Cords is altogether immethodical, even as much or more as to refer him to some of the difficultest Problems in Euclid's Elements to understand the demonstration of one of the first Propositions in those Elements. Seeing therefore Geometry as it is one of the best natural Sciences for certainty and use, so for good Method; and the nature of good Method requireth that in reaching we proceed to the more unknown from and by the more known, therefore to presuppose the knowledge of conic Sections to the knowledge of some necessary Problems in plain Geometry, is greatly incongruous and an immethodical Hysteron Proteron, which this new Praxis doth Remedy.  
2. By this Praxis of Trisection a Foundation of Method is jaid to sect any Angle given into any other equal parts whatsoever, even as 4. 6. 8. 10. or uneven as 5. 7. 9 11. etc. and an universal Cannon is form, as by trisection of the Cord of an Angle, that Angle is trisected, so by quinquisection of the Cord of an Angle it is quinquisected, and the like of all others.  
3. By the like method a Circle is divided into any number of equal parts even or uneven.  
4. And, by the like Method, the quantity of any Right-lined Angle can be found in degrees, and odd Minutes, without any line of Cords by a line of equal parts only, as the diagonal Scale of Inch, or half Inch or ¼ to a far greater exactness than by a line of Cords.  
5. By the same, a way is taught how to protract or project any Angle, whose degrees and odd Minutes are given.  
6. Having any one Angle given in any Triangle, and the Ratio of the 2 other Angles, without any side given, to find the other 2 Angles, and truly to protract them.  
7. From a point given on any line given to raise an Isosceles Triangle, one of whose sides being produced below that line given shall terminate on any Point, given below the same, the which hath special use to solve some new Problems in Surveying, Geography, Architecture, Navigation.  
8. As this method of Praxis saveth the pains of finding out Trisection of an Angle by a conic Section, and Algebra Aequations, by teaching the same more easily by plain Geometry, so it is probable it may prove of great use, both in conic Sections, Algebra Questions, and other abstruse Theorems to improve the Mathematical Sciences.  
9 How to find the natural Cord, Sine, Tangent, Secant of any Angle given in degrees and Minutes, in true Lines, more exactly, than by any common Line of Cords.   

Here followeth another Demonstration of the same Praxis of the Trisection. In a Second Figure.  
BY the method of the foregoing Praxis, let the points I and O be found, and the lines AI and AO, which I say shall trisect the Angle NAK = BAC, Geometically into three equal parts.  
In order to the demonstration of which, extend the line AI to D on the arch BFC. and AO to X.  
Again, with the extent AI on the centre I describe the circle ASHT. and with the same Radius describe the arch KLON.  
Again, draw IH parallel to AK, extending IH to the Circumference of the Circle ASHT.  
Again, draw AS parallel and equal to HEY, which shall cut the circle at S, because HEY = AS cuts the arch KION, having the same Radius.  
Again, from the point S on the circumference, draw the line SH parallel to AI, which shall necessarily cut the line IH on the circumference at the point H, because by construction IH is parallel to AK, and KH to AI, which makes the Parallogram AKHI, whose opposite sides are equal, but if SH, and IH did meet any where else than on the circumference, as either within, or without it, the opposite sides of the Parallogram should not be equal contrary to 34. 1. Eucl. elem.  
Again, draw the line SI, and extend the line HEY from I to K until it cut SH at K, which shall form another Parallogram ASKI, which being divided by the Diagonal line SI, shall give two equal Isosceys Triangles AIS (= OAI) ISK.   

The Demonstration.  
In the Isoceles triangle ISH (whose sides IS = IH by 15. def. 1. elem.) the angle IHS = ISH by 5. 1. elem. and IHS = JAK by 8. 1. elem. therefore JAK = IS. but IS = AIS = OAI being alternate Angles betwixt Parallels by 29. 1. elem. and therefore lasty, OAI = JAK, and by the like method OAI is proved = OAN drawing the like parallel Lines on the other side of the Triangle OAI, and therefore the angle BAC is trisected by 3 equal angles NAO = OAI = JAK = BAX = XAD = DAC. Q. E. D.  
  

The Praxis of the Section of a Right Lined Angle into Six equal parts.  
BEcause of the affinity of the Figure of the Trisection with the Figure of the Sextisection, I shall begin with the Sextisection, and then proceed to the Quinquisection.  
In the 3d figure, let the given angle be BAC, as above, whose Cord is BC, and its arch BEFGC.  
1. Divide the Cord BC into 6 equal parts, which Divisions are marked with *****. and on the middle division draw the line ADI to the arch BEFGC.  
2. With the extent of one of the Divisions, on the given arch measure from C to F, and with the same extent from F to E, and from E to G, marking the points E. F. G. and with the same extent measure from B to E, from E to F, and from F to G marking the points EFG.  
3. With a less Radius than AC as AK draw a second Arch as KLHLK. which Radius must be so long that the extent of the 1 of the Cord thrice repeated, may fall short of reaching the line ADI.  
4. With the same extent on this 2d. arch, measure from AC, and from AB to K, and from K to L, and from L to H, by a threefold repartition of the same extent.  
5. From the point G on the first arch to the point H on the second arch, draw a strait line, and produce it until it cut the line ADI at the point I  
6. With the Radius AI draw a 3d. concentric Arch, betwixt the lines AB and AC, I say the extent of the 16th part of the cord BC = MC, being 6 times repeated shall cut the said 3d arch into six Equal parts to every one of which strait lines drawn from the Centre A, and produced to the outmost arch, shall divide the given angle BAC into six equal parts orangles, marked with 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.  
In order to the demonstration of the Praxis of this Section of an angle into 6 equal parts, on the point 5, making it a centre with Radius 5A describe the circle AOPQRS.  
2. From the point 5 draw the line 5R parallel to AC.  
3. From R draw the line RT parallel to 5A  
4. Draw the line AT from A to T  
5. Draw the line T5, and draw 5V parallel to AT   

The Demonstration.  
In the triangle T5R being an Isosceles, the angle 5TR = 5RT. by 5. 1. elem. and 5RT = (5R6) 5A6 therefore 5T6 = 5A6. Again 5 T6 = (5TV) A5T, and A5T = 5A4 by 34.1. and therefore last 5 A4 = 5 AU. and as these 2 angles are proved equal by the like reasoning, all the other angles can be proved equal by changing the centre of the Circle from 5 to 4, and from 4 to 3, and from 3 to 2, and from 2 to 1. This demonstration having such affinity with the former of Trisection, and which can as easily be demonstrated both ways, as that of Trisection, I shall not enlarge upon it, for he who understands and assents to the verity of the former, by the same evidence will assent to the later.   

The Praxis of the Quinquisection.  
1. ACcording to the former method, divide the cord of the given angle, BE into 5 = parts.  
2. On the middle part marked with CD, draw the lines CHANGED and DH cutting the cord at right angles and parallel one to another.  
3. On the arch of the given angle BFG take the ⅕ of the cord = CD and set it from E to F, and from F to G, also do the like from B to F, and from F to G.  
4. Draw a second arch, with a less radius as AK, so as the radius may be so long that the extent of the ⅕ of the cord twice taken on that second arch may not reach to the perpendicular DH.  
5. With the same extent twice taken, as from K to * from * to * measure on the second arch to the second *.  
6. From G to * draw a strait line, until it cut the perpendicular line DH at H; lastly with the radius AH describe the third arch IHHI, and draw the lines AH AH which shall make the angle HAH = ⅕BAE.  
The Demonstration of this, or any other Section, being after the same method with the former, as also the Praxis, it were superfluous to enlarge upon it, or to add any new Problems, showing how to sect any angle into any other parts given, as 7. 8. 9 10. 11. etc. for he who understands by the foregoing Method and Praxis to sect any angle into 3. 5. 6. as is above showed, will by the like Method and Praxis be able to sect any angle into 7. 8. 9 10. etc. equal parts, and also to demonstrate the same.  
Wherefore in the next place I shall proceed to show how a Semicircle may be sected into any number of equal parts, even as 4. 6. 8. 10, etc. or uneven, as 5. 7. 9 11.   

The Praxis of a Section of a Semicircle into 9 equal parts.  
LEt the Semicircle given be BRSC, whose diameter is BC. and whose centre is A.  
1. Divide the diameter BC into 9 equal parts.  
2. From the centre A set off AO and AN, making NO no 1/9 of the diameter: and draw the perpendiculars NR. OS.  
3. With the extent NO measure from C to I, from 1 to 2, from 2 to three, from 3 to 4, marking the points 1. 2. 3. 4. and do the like from B to 1. 2. 3. 4.  
4. With less radius as AP describe the Semicircle PP, and from P to 1 with the same extent on that 2d. arch measure form P, P1 = 1. 2 = 2. 3 = 3. 4. and do the like from P on the other side. This lesser Radius must be so long, that the extent = NO four times repeated do not reach the Perpendiculars.  
5. From 4 to 4 draw a strait line, and produce it until it cut OS at 4. and NR at 9  
6. Draw the 3d arch QQ with radius A 4, and draw the strait lines 4 A 4, which shall make an angle = a 9th part of the semicircle. The demonstration whereof is apparent from these precedent.  
From the above delivered Praxis of the various Sections of angles, into any equal given parts, I shall draw these few plain corollaries.  
1. Corol. Having in any right lined triangles, any one angle given, and the ratio of the other 2 angles to find these 2 angles, in degrees and minutes. e. g. let the given angle of a triangle be 110 deg. and the ratio of the other two angles be as 3 to 2. Q. What are the other 2 angles. Ans. Take the compliment of 110 to 180, which is 70, and sect it into 5 equal parts by the method above delivered, ⅕ = 14, this multiplied by 3 gives 42, and by 2 gives 28, wherefore the greater angle shall be 42, and the less 28. demonstrate 110+42+28 = 180 and 3 ∶ 2 ∶ 42 ∶ 28.  
2. Cor. From a Point given on a Line given, to erect an Isosceles triangle, one of whose sides produced shall come to a point given. (See the figure) let the point given be A, the line given OF, the limited point given below the line OF let the point be point D. the Praxis.  
1. With radius AD describe the semicircle GFDE, so that GA' shall cut OF at a right angle, and A the like.  
2. Draw the line AD, and cut the angle EAD into 3 = parts.  
3. Make the angle GAB = ⅓ of EAD, and from B to D draw the line BD, cutting the line OF at C, the triangle ABC is an Isosceles, whose side BC is produced to D. The demonstration is evident from the trisection, and it hath singular uses in Architecture, and affording new Problems in Geography and Navigation, which I shall not at present enlarge upon, but leave to the ingenious Student to devise.  
3. Corol. To measure any given angle in degrees and odd minutes, (if it have any) by a line of equal parts without a line of cords. Let the given angle be KAL (see the figure) with radius ALL describe the quadrant LKL, and on that arch take the extent of the cord KL, and set it on the other side from L to a point on that arch.  
Again, take the cord of that middle arch betwixt the point and K, an all these 3 cords join them together in a strait line, which make the cord of the quadrant (by a longer radius) as BC, which is easily done Geometrically.  
Then because in each Quadrant there are 5400 minutes, divide the line BC by the Diagonal Scale into 5400 equal parts, and by the same Diagonal Scale measure on the line BC the length of the cord of KL, and whatever number of parts it giveth, that is the just quantity of that angle in minutes, which divided by 60 giveth the degrees, and if there be any Remainder, they are the odd minutes.  
4. Corol. To project any angle without a line of cords, by a Diagonal Line of equal parts, whose quantity is given in degrees and minutes. Let the given angle to be projected, contain 36 deg. and 1 min. reduce the degrees into minutes, multiplying 36 by 60, the product is 2160, to which adding the odd minute, the sum is 2161.   

Praxis.  
Take off from the cord of the quadrant BC 2161 from C to D. on the point D erect the perpendicular ED, which extend to G, with the extent CD measure on the arch of the quadrant, from C to H.  
Again, draw another arch with a less radius as AM (so that the radius be so long that the extent of DC reach not to EDG) and with that extent measure from M to I on that 2d arch.  
4. From H to I draw a strait line, and produce it until it cut the perpendicular at K.  
5. Draw the line AK, which shall give the angle required KAL = FAC. the demonstration whereof is apparent from the foregoing Problems.  
If any discreet Persons desire further satisfaction or Information about these New Problems, if they please to call at my House, I shall be ready to endeavour to satisfy them; and whereas, to me the Method and Demonstration of these Matters, seem sufficiently evident, yet I have called the whole Praxis and Method here delivered, but an Essay, until it be found approved by able Artists, and have proposed it rather Problematically than Thetically, as is usual in such cases.  
G. Keith.    

ADVERTISEMENT.  
Geometry, Surveying, Navigation, Astronomy, Dyaling, and other Mathematical Arts are taught by G. Keith at his House in Pudding Lane, near the Monument-London.