A KEY TO THE ART of LETTERS: OR, English a Learned Language, Full of Art, Elegancy and Variety.  
Being an Essay to enable both Foreiners, and the English Youth of either Sex, to speak and write the English Tongue well and learnedly, according to the exactest Rules of Grammar.  
After which they may attain to Latin, French, or any other Foreign Language in a short time, with very little trouble to themselves or their Teachers.  
With a PREFACE showing the Necessity of a Vernacular Grammar.  
Dedicated to his Highness the Duke of Gloucester.  
By A. LANE, M.A. late Master of the Free-School of Leominster in Herefordshire, now Teacher of a private School at Mile-end-green near Stepney.  
LONDON, Printed for A. and J. Churchil at the Black Swan in Paternoster Row, and J. Wild at the Elephant at Charing-cross. 1700.   

We have read over this Book, entitled, A Key to the Art of Letters, and do think it contains many Excellent Rules and Observations very necessary to be followed by all who desire to learn, pronounce, and write the English Tongue exactly.  


Matthew Shorting D. D. Master of Merchant-Taylors School, London.  
Thomas Walker L. L. D. Master of the Charterhouse School, London.  
Samuel Mountfort M. A. Master of the Grammar-School in Christ's-Hospital, London.  
James Richardson M. A. Master of the Free-School of St. Martin's Westminster.     

TO THE Most Illustrious PRINCE WILLIAM Duke of Gloucester.  
May it please Your Highness;  
THE Design of these few Sheets being to show the excellency and usefulness of the English Tongue, I humbly conceived they could not be more properly addressed to any than to Your Highness, whose Interest and Concern in the Honour and Dignity of Your Native Language, is much greater than of any other whomsoever.  
And I hope I have made it appear, beyond contradiction, in this Essay, that the English Tongue is as capable of all the Art and Elegancies of Grammar and Rhetoric, as Greek or Latin, or any other Language in the World, whether Ancient or Modern: and if so, it seems to be contrary to Sense and Reason, as well as to Antiquity, to put English Youth to toil in any Foreign Tongue whatever for the attainment of good Learning, while their own Excellent Language lies neglected and uncultivated, as barbarous, and unfit for the entertainment of the Liberal Arts and Sciences.  
If we polish and adorn our Native Language with good Literature, as the Ancients always did theirs, than it will cultivate and accomplish us more than all the Foreign Languages in the World can do: Nor will this be any hindrance to the learning of Foreign Tongues, but on the contrary be the most effectual means of acquiring them speedily and easily that can be imagined.  
All Aristotle's Literature was in his Mother-Tongue, and perhaps he knew no other; yet King Philip did so much admire him for his great Learning, that he writ to him in these words: I thank the Gods, not so much on the account that a Son is born to me, as that it is his good hap to be born in thy Life-time; for I hope that after he is perfectly instructed by thee, he may be worthy of us, and of so great a Kingdom. And Alexander himself was so sensible of the inestimable benefit of Aristotle's Vernacular Education, that he loved him no less than he did his Father Philip.  
It is Your Highness' great happiness, that You have an Alexander and an Aristotle to write after: and may the Great Example of the One excite You to the imitation of those Heroic Achievements, that all Languages are little enough to express; and the Learning of the Other fit You, like Caesar, to write Your own Commentaries.  
If these small Beginnings of a Learned English Education, which is so much for the Honour and Advantage of all Englishmen, be favourably entertained by Your Highness, and the Nation, the Author will be encouraged to proceed to some further Improvements of what he has begun for the Public Good. And who knows but the reviving of this piece of the best Antiquity has been reserved for Your Highness' Times, whose great Genius, and early Advances in Learning, together with so Great a Conduct, do all concur to raise the Hopes and Expectations of the Nation, that Your Highness may (by the Favour of Heaven) prove a most Learned and Virtuous Prince, an Ornament to the Royal Family, and a great Blessing to Your native Country? And that Your Highness may every day more and more increase and confirm these Hopes to the Joy of all Good Men, is the most ardent prayer of,  
Most Illustrious Prince, Your Highness' most humble, and most devoted Servant, A. Lane.   

The PREFACE, Humbly submitted to the Learned Reader.  
TO write an English Grammar for English Youth, may seem to many, at first view, a very superfluous and ridiculous thing; but if the Reader have a little patience, I hope to make it appear to all the World, that it is so far from being superfluous, that on the contrary it is the most necessary, and best Expedient to promote all good Learning that ever was thought of since the dissolution of the Roman Empire.  
The indispensible necessity of Grammar makes the consideration of it of far greater importance to Mankind, than of any other Art or Science whatever: for Grammar, or the Art of Letters, is universally necessary, and useful to all Persons of whatsoever Quality, Condition or Sex; because it polishes and perfects those noble Faculties of Reason and Speech, by which Men are distinguished from Brutes.  
And therefore it hath ever been the great care and concern of all civilised Nations, to found and erect Grammar Schools, for the cultivating and improving the Children of both Rich and Poor, that there might be a constant supply and succession of Learned Men to sit at the Helm of Public Affairs, without whose wise Conduct no Kingdom or State can be preserved from Barbarity and Misery: for Men without Learning, are rather rough-draughts of Men, than Men.  
But alas! this noble Art that so much improves and refines humane Understanding, and is the Golden Key to unlock all other Liberal Arts and Sciences, and the Gate that gives an easy entrance into all Foreign Languages, is itself the hardest of all others to be attained to; though not by reason of any intrinsic or inseparable Difficulty that is in it, but because it is every where misunderstood, and consequently misapplyed, ever since the Latin Tongue ceased to be a living Language.  
Both Masters and Scholars in all the European Schools, are so miserably toiled and perplexed in teaching and learning Grammar, that almost all learned and ingenious Persons shun to be Schoolmasters, but whom necessity drives to those Workhouses for the necessary subsistence of Life. And generally all Children are utterly averse to go to the Schools, where they find nothing for several years together, but a constant Series of insuperable Difficulties, like one Wave upon the back of another, ready to overwhelm their weak Understandings: and the reason is, because they are forced to cleave the Block with the blunt end of the Wedg. Is it any wonder then to see so much sweat and pains with so little success, in all Schools without exception?  
Many of the Nobility and Gentry (whose Children need Learning most, and in whom it would be most beneficial to Mankind) are by reason of these hardships often at a loss, whether to indulge those pledges of their Love, and hopes of their Families, in an easy Ignorance, or to purchase their Learning at so dear a rate, as the racking and torturing their tender Wits, enervating their Spirits, and forfeiting, for the most part, the easiness and contentment of their Minds, which ought to be the continual Companions of their younger years.  
The consideration of these Distresses every where, both upon Masters and Scholars, has engaged the Endeavours of many Learned and Excellent Men of several Nations to study, and find out various new Methods, and compose various new Forms of Grammar; but all to little or no purpose: for the old difficulties still continue under all their new Methods, like an Error in the first Concoction, that cannot be mended in the second and third.  
The Author, who has been long chained to these Galleys, and has tugged at the Oar for many years, having a , and being a Fellow-sufferer with his Brethren in this kind of Calamity, is willing, among others, before he go off the Stage of this World, to cast his Mite into the common Treasury; which he hopes will contribute more to the ease and comfort of his Fellow-labourers, and their Scholars, than any thing that has ever yet been attempted, to alleviate their Bondage, and sweeten their Lives while they grind in those Mills.  
But yet he would not be mistaken, as if he thought himself any taller than those who went before him; but being very thoughtful in this great and common Concern of Mankind, and standing upon the Shoulders of others, he thinks he has made some further Discoveries, which he humbly submits to the candour and judgement of the Learned.  
He says then, that the principal End and Use of Grammar is universally mistaken by all the European Nations, who think it to be nothing else but an Instrument to acquire some unknown Tongue: Whereas the true End and Use of Grammar is to teach us how to speak and write well and learnedly in a Language already known, according to the unalterable Rules of right Reason, which are the same in all Languages how different soever they be.  
The Greeks and Romans writ all their Learned Books in their Mother-Tongue, and always had their Grammars in their own Language, and for that only, and for no other; which made their Application to Learning so easy and successful, that it was as rare to find any of their Youth of either Sex, that were put to School, fail of being Learned, as it is rare for the Youth of the present European Nations to attain to some little smattering of it, after several years' drudgery in the Schools.  
It is not any Language as such, that makes a Person Learned: but the Wisdom and Knowledge that is written in that Language, which without the Art of Grammar can never be well understood. The common People in Rome, or Athens (though they could speak Latin and Greek from the Cradle) were not one jot more learned than the Vulgar in England or France. Then if Learning consist not in Sounds, but in Sense, why may not Englishmen be as learned without Greek or Latin, as the Greeks and Latins were without English? A common Seaman or Soldier may (if his Memory be good) attain to the several Languages of those Countries where he travels; and suppose among them Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; yet without the Art of Grammar he is as illiterate and unlearned as before.  
What can we imagine to be the reason that so few among us, who are not bred Scholars, can neither speak nor write well, nor with any competent measure of understanding make use of our own English Books? Sure it is not for want of Greek or Latin, more than of Welch or Irish; for Words are but the Conduit-pipes to convey Sense and Learning, being in themselves neither learned nor unlearned. Here it may be asked, how then it comes to pass that Scholars can speak, and write with more sense and understanding than others? I answer, that it is not for having Greek or Latin, or any other Foreign Language, but because they have learned the Art of Grammar with those Languages, which yet they might have learned far better, and with much less expense of Money, Time, and Pains, in their Mother-Tongue, as the Greeks and Romans did.  
Tho, as I said before, the chief end of Grammar be not to acquire a Foreign Tongue, any more than the Mathematics or any other Art; yet it is of excellent use to attain to all Tongues, and all Liberal Arts and Sciences; for he that is a good Grammarian in his Mother-Tongue, may, without any Miracle (if his Memory be strong enough) attain to as many Languages as Mithridates' King of Pontus, with little or no pains in any Foreign Grammar.  
Can any thing be imagined more absurd and ridiculous, than to put Children to learn Latin and Grammar at once? To learn an unknown Tongue by an unknown Art, must needs be a Barbarous and Gothic Custom; for I am very sure it is neither Greek nor Roman. The great Tully himself would have thought it such a mortification to him in the height of his Strength and Wit, that it is more than probable the World had never been blest with his excellent and learned Works, had he been obliged to learn Latin, after the same manner that our poor Children are forced to before they be ten years old.  
I am persuaded that a Youth who is made a good Grammarian in his Mother-Tongue, may afterwards (if under good Conduct) read and understand all the Roman Authors extant, either in Prose or Poetry, in as little or less time than another of equal Age and Capacity can be Master of lily's Grammar alone. And that this may not seem so very strange and impracticable, let any Schoolmaster take a Boy that has been perfectly taught the Grammar of his Mother Tongue, and put him immediately to a plain Latin Author, without so much as teaching him first to decline or conjugate one word in Latin, he shall learn more in one Month, than another of the same Age and Capacity can possibly do in a whole quarter of a Year in the common Methods. And suppose, for instance, the first Sentence that offers itself be this, Pater amat filium; after the Master has construed it to him in the natural order, he will tell him as readily as if he had been seven years at Latin, that Pater is a Noun Substantive of the Nominative Case, of the Masculine Gender, and of the Singular Number; that amat is a Verb Active Transitive of the third Person Singular of the Present Tense, and of the Indicative Mood; that filium is the Accusative of the Object after the Verb Active amat, and so of any other plain Sentence; and all this in less than a quarter of an hour, which many cannot do in the common Methods, after they have been a whole year at the Latin School. Nor is it unlikely by this time, that every word in the Sentence has insensibly fixed itself in his Memory without his care or concern. Would not some weak People be apt to think that this were Conjuring, or Legerdemain, when it is nothing else but the real effect of a rational Education in the Mother-Tongue, which is the true Standard and Measure of all our Attainments in Foreign Languages?  
But here some will be ready to object, That the many Idioms, and burdensome Exceptions that are in the Latin Tongue, will stop the Youth's career, and be a clog at his heels in spite of this rational Conduct. To which I answer, first, That all Languages have their Idioms, and anomalous words no less than the Latin; and therefore that difficulty is not peculiar to the Latin Tongue only, more than to English or any other Language. Secondly, That the only way they can be a hindrance to him is (by stopping his progress in reading Authors) to put him to get by heart, as a particular Task, unconnected and lose Words, or Terminations, which like Ropes of Sand, are no sooner done but undone; or rather like the Sisyphian Stone, which tumbles down much faster than it was roul'd up. But if no words, whether Analogous or Anomalous, be minded any where but in the contexture of good Sense; they will of course insinuate themselves into the Memory by frequent reading, as they do in the Mother-Tongue by frequent conversation.  
We do not put our Children to toil themselves in the Mother-Tongue with a task of words, whether regular or irregular; and yet they equally understand them all. And if the Child be asked how he came by so many words, he can tell you no more than if you should convey something into his Pocket by stealth, and then ask him how it came there.  
Thus it has pleased God in his Mercy to Mankind, to make the acquiring not only of one, but of several Languages, so easy to Children by Conversation, that they never complain of it as any burden, but are rather apt to think it is natural to them; though that be a mistake: for he that never heard a word spoken, can never speak a word; and therefore those that are born deaf, are perpetually dumb. But if Children were obliged, by stated Lessons, to get their Mother-Tongue alone by heart, they would either pretend to be deaf, or at least wish they were so, to be freed from those Anxieties that must unavoidably attend them. And though the acquiring of Language by reading be more laborious and less expeditious than by conversation, yet it is next to conversation, being a kind of commerce with the dead or absent; but there is neither of the two in getting lose words by heart. By all this it is manifest, that oppressing the Memory with Foreign Grammars, and Foreign Words in set Lessons, is the next great Impediment of attaining to Learning and Languages.  
The third and last Impediment that is any thing considerable, is the putting Children to learn Grammatical Propositions or Rules barely proposed, without giving any reason for what is affirmed: This makes Children seem so stupid and unlearned (when they chance to be asked a Reason why the thing is so, or so) that they cannot endure to be interrogated by any body in their Learning, but usually withdraw themselves, or cry, being grieved and ashamed of their Ignorance; which yet is neither their own fault nor their Teacher's, but of the bad Tools they have to work by. Young ones are of themselves very inquisitive and curious to know the Reasons of things; and therefore most Infants are full of their pretty whies, and wherefores; which when solidly answered, are both delightful and profitable to them. To remove this Block out of children's way, I have given the best Reasons I could for every Proposition I lay down in my Book: for a bare Affirmation without a Reason for it, is rather a parroting Rote than a rational Knowledge; and the more sensible any Child is, he takes the greater pleasure in any thing that has some colourable Reason subjoined to it. And besides, to reason a Child into his Learning, greatly advances the rational Faculty, which is no less improved by frequent Reasoning, than Writing is by frequent Writing, or Singing by frequent Singing: And every body knows that Habits are acquired by repeated Acts; and what habit more necessary than that of Reason and Understanding?  
Let none mistake me, as if I thought the Latin Grammar altogether useless; for I think it very useful, as a Repository, to be often consulted in our reading as we do our Dictionaries, which I think is the surest way to make every thing in it our own; but to oppress the Memory by getting so much by heart, is so far from promoting Learning, that it is a very great hindrance to it: for one Word shuffles out another, but one Sense does not drive out another: and therefore Sense is a more faithful Preserver of all Words, than an overcharged Memory.  
Our young Gentlewomen, who have generally been discouraged from good Learning (their more nice and tender Constitutions not being able to endure those rugged and thorny Difficulties in the Methods hitherto practised) may, if they be not wanting to themselves, attain to a perfect knowledge of the Art of Grammar in the method here proposed, by which they may become as learned as those excellent Greek and Roman Matrons recorded in History; which will contribute much more to the good of their Children and Families afterward, than all those inferior Attainments which take up so much of their best time, and which are generally useless to them in the remaining part of their lives. And if any of them have a generous ambition of understanding the Greek or Latin Tongue, they may now do it at a much easier rate than some excellent English Ladies of our own time, who with a masculine Courage waded through a thousand Difficulties till they attained to a great perfection in all humane Learning, notwithstanding those Labyrinths and Mazes that lay in their way in the ordinary Method. And if the Author has found out the true Secret of an easy and rational Education, that may prove to the advantage of the fair Sex, who have so many Slights and Affronts put upon them for want of Learning, he thinks all his Pains and Labour happily bestowed.  
I hope the Learned will forgive me, if I be forced to make use of some terms not usual in Grammar, as Subject, Predicate, Object, and such like, which I have not used out of vanity, but of necessity, either to prevent Circumlocutions in terms of Art, or to avoid terms which are vagous' or common to several Arts. If I have borrowed these Terms from Logic, I am persuaded that Aristotle borrowed them first from Grammar, which was in being long before his Logic, which I think (with submission to better Judgements) to be nothing else but Grammar, except his superadded invention of Syllogisms, and some other things of less use, which he ingrasted upon the Stock of Grammar. And in my weak opinion the Art of thinking and speaking are not two, but one Art; for Grammar first teaches us how to conceive of things in the order of Nature, and then how to express our Conceptions by speaking or writing: for we can never speak or write well, what we cannot rightly conceive; Speaking being nothing else but vocal Thoughts, and Thoughts but silent Speaking, and Writing the Images or Characters of them both.  
I have chosen the Socratical way of Question and Answer in my Book, as most imstructive; the frequent Interlocutions making Learning less tedious, and more intelligible to Children, who are very sociable Creatures, and love good company in every thing they do.  
I was willing to deliver at the same time what belongs to the same head, that it might not be looked for in two several places; yet any thing the Teacher thinks more nice or remote from the Child's Capacity at first, he may pass over it sicco pede, till afterwards: for whatever is to be first learned, is much easier and plainer than in the common Accidence.  
I have not set down so many Examples as otherwise might be useful, because I would not discourage Children with a bulky Book; but the discreet Teacher may supply that defect when he finds it needful. And as for those that think to become good Grammarians by the Book alone, without a Master, they will find themselves mistaken, and lose their labour: for the Art of Grammar, though in plain English, is no less a Mystery to the unlearned, than a Mechanic Trade in plainer English, which yet requires a Master, and seven years' Apprenticeship.  
This is all I have to say, as to the Method of the Book, submitting it in every thing else to the  Correction of the Learned.  
Now since no Language in the World seems more capable of having all manner of Learning treasured up in it, than our English Tongue; why may we not, after the laudable Example of the Greeks and Romans (besides our Latin Schools) set up Grammar, Rhetoric, and Philosophy Schools in our Mother-Tongue, that Foreiners abroad may covet to learn our Language, as we do Greek and Latin for those Treasures of Learning and Knowledge that are locked up in them? Our Language has (besides its innate easiness) a peculiar felicity, by which we may incorporate into it whatever useful or significant words we find in Greek or Latin, or any other Foreign Language. Thus the cultivating and enriching our Mother-Tongue with all manner of good Literature, would soon make our happy Island famous for all kind of Learning and Virtue, which would then be easily diffused into the Minds and Manners of People, having such an easy and native Vehicle as the Mother-Tongue. This would be a more effectual means to reform the corruption of Manners, so much complained of among us, than all the coercive and penal Laws that can be devised: for, as Learning and Virtue generally go together, so Ignorance and Vice are inseparable Twins; or more properly, Ignorance is the Mother, and Vice the Daughter.  
If those who have Power and Authority in the Nation, were pleased to oil the Wheels of a learned English Education, and put them once in motion, by encouraging Persons qualified to carry on such an excellent Design, I am persuaded we might in a few years have a hundred learned and virtuous Persons for one we have now. Britanniam, quam nacti sumus, hanc ornemus.  
Were we as industrious in improving and cultivating our Language, as the Greeks and Romans were, we might equal, if not exceed them, having many Advantages not known in their time. We might have as learned Leaders and Commanders, both by Sea and Land, as they had, who by their Learning, Civility and Eloquence in their Mother-Tongue, enlarged their Dominions no less than by their Arms: The barbarous Nations being, as it were, ambitious to be conquered by such brave and generous Enemies, who sought rather to subdue their Barbarity, and civilize their Manners, than to enslave their Persons, or ruin their Countries. Must we still grace their dead Languages with the Title of Literae humaniores, and leave our own out, by which we tacitly seem to acknowledge ourselves Gentem barbaram, aut saltem minùs humanam? And since it pleased God to convey Christianity into the Isle of Great Britain on the Wings of these learned Languages which are now dead, ought not the British Christians, in a grateful sense of such Goodness, to polish, refine, and enrich their living Language with all excellent Knowledge, were it for no other end but to carry the Christian Religion to other wretched and barbarous Nations, who for want of Learning and Virtue, are but a kind of more savage Beasts?  
To conclude; If no Children were to learn Latin, or any other Foreign Language, till they had first learned the Art of Grammar in their Mother-Tongue, I doubt not but our Latin Schools would soon become much more successful and useful to the Nation than ever yet they have been.   

ERRATA.  
PAge 10. line 23. r. Diphthong. P. 11. l. 1. r. trouble. P. 12. l. 15, & 24. r. Additional; l. 26. r. the. P. 22. l. 5. r. for more; l. 30. r. Termination. P. 24. l. 25. r. both. P. 27. l. 24. r. which. P. 34. l. 15. r. form. P. 35. l. 25. r. increased. P. 39 l. 16. r. intransitive. P. 41. l. 28. r. requires. P. 42. l. 17. r. after. P. 43. l. 25. r. Tenses; l. 26. r. The. P. 46. l. 6. r. thou. P. 47. l. 25. r. Participle. P. 51. l. 13. r. been. P. 56. l. 8. r. conjugated. P. 110. l. 16. after middle insert, they may be in the middle.   

A KEY TO THE Art of Letters.  
Quest. What is Grammar?  
Answ. GRammar is an Art that Teaches the Right Way of Speaking and Writing, according to the particular Form of every Language.  
Q. How many Parts of Grammar are there?  
A. There are four Parts of Grammar; Letters, Syllables, Words, and Sentences.  

Of the Letters.  
Quest. What is a Letter?  
Answ. A Letter is the Character or Mark of an individual or single sound.  
Q. How are the Letters distinguished in respect of their sound?  
A. The Letters, in respect of their sound, are distinguished into Vowels and Consonants.  
Q. What is a Vowel?  
A. A Vowel is a Letter that can be sounded alone without a Consonant.  
Q. What is a Consonant?  
A. A Consonant is a Letter that cannot be sounded without a Vowel.  
Q. How many Letters are there in English?  
A. There are Twenty Six Letters in English, viz. a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.  
Q. How many of them are Vowels?  
A. Six of them are Vowels, viz. a, e, i, o, u, y, all the rest are Consonants.  
Q. What Consonants are called Mutes?  
A. The Consonants, b, c, d, f, g, k, p, t, are called Mutes.  
Q. Why is a Mute so called?  
A. A Mute is so called, because a Liquid before it cannot be sounded with it in the same Syllable with the Vowel after it; as, rpo.  
Q. What Consonants are called Liquids?  
A. The Consonants l, n, r, are called Liquids.  
Q. Why is a Liquid so called?  
A. A Liquid is so called, because a Mute before it can be sounded with it in the same Syllable with the Vowel after it; as, pro.  
Q. Is not m a Liquid?  
A. M is not a Liquid because a Mute before it cannot, without force, be sounded with it in the same Syllable with the Vowel after it.  
Q. Is h a Letter?  
A. H is a Note of Aspiration or Breathing, rather than a Letter; and therefore the Aspirats, ch, gh, ph, rh, sh, th', are but single Consonants expressed by two Characters.  
Q. How is c sounded?  
A. The genuine or natural sound of c is hard like k, but we always sound it soft like s before e, i and y, as in the words Centre, Citron, cipher.  
Q. How is g sounded?  
A. The genuine sound of g is hard, as in the word good; but for the most part we sound it soft, like j, before e, i, and y; as in the words Gentle, Ginger, Egypt.  
Q. How is ti sounded before a Vowel?  
A. We sound ti before a Vowel, like si, as in the word Relation; but when s or x comes before it, or when it is in the first or last Syllable of a word, than t keeps its natural sound; as in the words, Christian, tied, severity.  
Q. How is ph sounded?  
A. Ph is sounded like f, and is usually written instead of f in words derived from the Greek; as, a Prophet, a Philosopher, etc.  
Q. How is ch sounded?  
A. We sound ch in mere English words, as in the word Check; but in words borrowed from the Greek, we usually sound it like k, as in the words, Christ, Character, etc.  
Q. How is w sounded?  
A. We usually sound w like the Vowel u, and for the most part we writ it instead of u, in the middle and end of words, as in Vowel, Law, Bow, etc.  
Q. How is y sounded?  
A. When y gins a Syllable, we sound it as in the word yea, and then it is a real Consonant; every where else it is a Vowel, and is sounded like i; and is always written at the end of words instead of i, as in my, thy, etc.  
† Since different Sounds should in Reason have different Names leading to those Sounds, it would be much for the ease of young Scholars and their Teachers, to call c heard, kee; c soft, see; g heard; ghee; g soft, jee; ch soft, chee; ch hard, ke; ph, fee; sh, she; th' thee; wh, whee; y Consonant, ye; and cue, quee, since it is but one single Consonant under two Characters. And if the Printers did also distinguish them by some Point, it would make them much more easy; for it is a great Oppression of Children, to force them, contrary to Reason, to give different sounds to the same Characters, without the least mark of distinction.  
Q. What is a Diphthong or double Vowel?  
A. A Diphthong or double Vowel, is two single Vowels sounded together in one continued Breath.  
Q. Which are the most usual Diphthongs in English?  
A. The most usual Diphthongs in English are these thirteen, ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou, ee, oo, ea, eo, oa, ie, ui, as in the words aid, eight, join, fault, feud, found, feed, food, Meat, People, Boat, piece, build.  
Note, y and w are often the subjunctive, or latter Vowels of a Diphthong, instead of i and u, especially in the end of words, as buy, few, etc.  
† When two Vowels that usually make a Diphthong are to be sounded separately in two distinct Syllables, some put two Points, called a Diaeresis, or Mark of division over the subjunctive or latter Vowel, as in the word Creätor.  
Q. How are the Letters distinguished in respect of their Form or Figure?  
A. The Letters, in respect of their Form or Figure, are distinguished into Great and Small.  
Q Where are the Great, or Capital Letters used?  
A. The Great, or Capital Letters are only used in the beginning of Words.  
Q What Words begin with Capitals, or Great Letters?  
A. The first word of every new Period; the first word of every Verse; all proper Names, and Adjectives derived of proper Names; all Names or Titles of Honour and Dignity; all Names of Arts, Offices, and Trades; all Emphatical or Remarkable Words begin with Capitals, or Great Letters; and in English, the first Person singular, I, is always written by a Capital.  
Q. How is the small s written?  
A. The small s is usually written long in the beginning and middle of words, and always short in the end, as Seasons, Sessions.   

Of the Formation of the Letters.  
Q. How are the Letters distinguished, in respect of the Organs or Instruments of Speech?  
A. The Letters, in respect of the Organs, or Instruments of Speech, are distinguished into Gutturals, Palatines, and Labials.  
Q. Which are the Gutturals?  
A. The Gutturals, or Throat-Letters are those which are form by a softer, or harder Expression of the Spirit or Breath out of the Throat, as c. g, h▪ k.  
Q. Which are the Palatines?  
A. The Palatines, or Palate-Letters, are those that are form by a softer or harder Impression of the Tongue against the Palate, whence they are also called Linguals, or Tongue Letters, as d, l, r, s, t.  
Q. Which are the Labials?  
A. The Labials, or Lip Letters, are those that are form by a softer or harder Compression of the Lips together, as b, f, m, p, v.  
Q. How are the Vowels form?  
A. All the Vowels are form with the Mouth open; the Vowel a with a greater opening, all the rest with a lesser opening; a is Guttural, e and i Palatine, o and u Labial.  
Q. Of what use is it to know how the Letters are form?  
A. To know how the Letters are form, is of great use; 

1st. to help Children that have any Impediment in their Speech.  

2dly. to know the true Derivation and Composition of Words; for the Letters of the same Organ being so near in sound, are often put for one another; as v for f, in Knives; t for d, in forced.  
† The Letters are called the Elements of Speech, because they are the first Principles of which all Speech is composed; for Syllables are made of Letters, and Words of Syllables, and Sentences of Words.      

Of Syllables.  
Q. What is a Syllable?  
A. A Syllable is a sound uttered in one Breath, and consists of one single Vowel, or Diphthong, alone; or with one or more Consonants joined with it.  
Q. Can there be any Syllable without a Vowel?  
A. There can be no Syllable without a Vowel, because no Consonant can be sounded alone.  
Q. How many Syllables are there in a Word?  
A. There are as many Syllables in a word, as it has single Vowels or Diphthongs in it; except e mute at the end of some English Words.  
† Since the greatest difficulty in Reading, Writing, and Spelling English is occasioned by the Vowel e in the end of many Words, we shall show the true use of it in the following Questions; and for distinction sake, call it e Servile.   

Of e Servile.  
Q. What is the use of e Servile?  
A. E Servile is of great use in the English Tongue; for by its help we can borrow the most signisicant and useful Words from other Lauguages, to enrich our own; and so far disguise and transform them into good English, that others cannot lay claim to them as theirs; as for Example, these Latin words, Candela, Vinea, Linea, Brutum, Centrum, are made good English, by the help of e Servile, thus; a Candle, a Vine, a Line, a Brute, a Centre.  
Q. What need is there to disguise words borrowed from other Languages?  
A. It is necessary to disguise Words borrowed from other Languages, because no free People should have a Foreign Face on their current Words, more than on their current Goin, both being Badges of Conquest or Slavery.  
† Thus the Romans borrowed a multitude of Words from the Greeks, which they made their own by altering the Accent, curtailing and cutting off their Terminations, with other various Changes.  
Q. How is e Servile distinguished?  
A. E Servile is distinguished into e Subjunctive, e Liquid, and e Mute.  
Q. Where is e Subjunctive written?  
A. E Subjunctive is written at the end of a word, after a single Consonant, to make the single Vowel before it long.  
Q. How can e Subjunctive, after a single Consonant, make the single Vowel before it long?  
A. E Subjunctive is really sounded with the single Vowel before the Consonant, and so makes the Subjunctive or latter Vowel of a Diphthong; otherwise it could not make the Syllable long, as in the words, Fire, more, pale, read, Fire, moer, pael.  
Q. Where is e Liquid written?  
A. E Liquid is written at the end of a word, after a Mute, and a Liquid, but sounded swiftly between them, as in the words, Candle, Troulbe, Apple, Acre, read rapidly, Candle, Troubel, Appel, Acre.  
Q. Has not e Liquid sometimes the force of e Subjunctive also?  
A. E Liquid has also the force of e Subjunctive, when the single Vowel before the Mute and the Liquid must be sounded long, as in the words, Bible, Bridle, Title; but if it must be sounded short, the Mute must be doubled, as in Saddle, Tittle, Juggle, etc.  
Q. Where is e Mute written?  
A. E Mute is written at the end of a word, after c and g, to show they must be sounded soft, as in the words, chance, change, etc.  
Note, When g follows d in the same Syllable, it needs not e Mute after it, to make it soft, because it cannot then be pronounced hard, as in Judge, Judgement.  
Q. Is e Mute written any where else, but after c and g soft?  
A. There is no Necessity of writing e Mute any where but after c and g soft; yet it is often tacked to many other words, without any other Reason, than corrupt Custom.  
Q. Is not e Servile sometimes suppressed?  
A. E Servile is always suppressed before an additional Termination that gins with a Vowel, to avoid the concurrence of two Vowels, which might seem to make a Diphthong; as, Time, timing, not timeing; Trouble, troubled, not troubleed; change, changed, not changeed; but e Mute must not be suppressed before the Vowel a, lest c or g soft should be sounded hard; as in the words, ferviceable, changeable, etc.  
Q. Which are the additional Terminations that begin with a Vowel?  
A. The additional Terminations that begin with a Vowel, are ed, ing, en, er, es, est, eth, ish, able, age, ance.  
Q. What if an-additional Termination that gins with a Vowel, come after a single Consonant, with a short Vowel before it?  
A. If an additional Termination that gins with a Vorel, come after a single Consonant with a short Vowel before it, than the single Consonant must be doubled, lest e Subjunctive should seem to be suppressed; as, run, runneth; tun, tunned; writ, written.  
Note, When c hard is doubled before an-additional Termination, we writ it by ck as bac, backing: When g hard is doubled before an additional Termination, both are sounded hard, as, beg, begging.  
Q. Is not the Vowel e sounded at the end of any English word?  
A. The Vowel e is not both written and sounded at the end of any English word, except the; in all other English words, that end in the sound of e, we writ the Diphthong ea instead of e; as in yea, plea, Sea, etc.  
Q. How is a word rightly divided into Syllables?  
A. A word is rightly divided into Syllables by this one Rule, viz. Stop at every single or double Vowel; and if one or more Consonants follow, join them with the following Vowel, as in the words, Cre-a-tor, Creature, Master; but if any of them cannot be joined together in the same Syllable with the following Vowel, it must of necessity be joined with the foregoing Vowel, as in the words, Mul-ti-tude, Mat-ter, Ser-pent; where you may observe, that lt, tt, rp, are separated because they cannot be sounded together with the following Vowel.  
Q. What Consonants can be joined together in the same Syllable with the following Vowel?  
A. A Mute, and a Liquid after it, can always be joined together in the same Syllable with the following Vowel; as likewise s with several other Consonants, which may be known by sounding them.  
Q. How are compound words divided in Spelling?  
A. In compound words the compounding parts are always separated in Spelling, as in the words, mistake, uneasy.  
Q. To which Vowel must x be joined?  
A. X is not properly one single Letter, but an abbreviature of c s, which cannot, without force, be sounded with the Vowel after it; and therefore must of necessity be sounded with the Vowel before it, as in the word, Com-plex-i-on.  
Q. What if a word must be divided at the end of a Line?  
A. If for want of room, a word must be divided at the end of a Line, a Syllable must not be broken, but a Hyphen or Mark of Union made at the end of the line, thus—  
Q. How are words called in respect of their Syllables?  
A. A word of one Syllable is called a Monosyllable, a word of two a Dissyllable; any word of more than two a Polysyllable.  
Q. How are Syllables distinguished in respect of Quantity?  
A. Syllables in respect of the quantity, or space of time in which they are pronounced, are distinguished into long and short.  
Q. What Syllables are long?  
A. All Diphthongs are naturally long, because two Vowels pronounced together in one continued Breath, take up more time than one single Vowel.  
Q. What Syllables are short?  
A. All single Vowels are naturally short, except they be made long by the Accent.   

Of the Accent.  
Q. What is the Accent?  
A. The Accent or Tone, is the extension of the Voice, in pronouncing one Syllable in a word louder and longer than the rest.  
Q. How are Syllables distinguished in respect of the Accent?  
A. Syllables, in respect of the Accent, are distinguished into Acute and Grave.  
Q. What is an Acute Syllable?  
A. An Acute Syllable is that which must be sounded sharp and long.  
Q. What is a Grave Syllable?  
A. A Grave Syllable is that which must be sounded flat, and short.  
Q. How many Syllables in a word are to be sounded Acute?  
A. In every word of more than one Syllable, whether it be simple or compound, there is but one Syllable sounded acute, all the rest are sounded grave, whether they be single Vowels or Diphthongs.  
Q How shall one know which Syllable in a word is to be sounded acute?  
A. The acute Syllable is known by the Custom of every Language; for though Nature has put one acute sound in every word of more than one Syllable, yet it is the Custom of every Nation that determins it to this or that Syllable.  
Q. How is a single Vowel made long by the accent?  
A. In every acute Syllable there is a Diphthong, or double sound; for if the Vowel be single, it is sounded double in one continued Breath; and sometimes written double.  
Q. Is there no Mark to know the acute Syllable?  
A. The Greeks put this Mark over the acute Vowel or Diphthong; which, if done in other Languages, their Pronounciation would not be so difficult for Foreigners to learn, as usually it is.  
Q. Are there not some words distinguished only by the Accent?  
A. There are many words written alike, and only distinguished by the accent; as for Example, òbject is a Noun, but objèct is a Verb; orátor is Latin, but òrator is English.  
Q. What is the principal thing in learning any Language?  
A. The first and principal thing in learning of any Language, is to get the true Pronounciation of the words; for he that accents a word contrary to the Custom of the Language, speaks barbarously, and makes himself ridiculous to the Hearers; as if one should in English say, Rélation for Relátion; Orátor for órator; facúlty for fáculty; Adversáry for ádversary; Audítor for áuditor, etc.  
Q. Are there not three Accents?  
A. There is no more than one Accent, but the ancient Grammarians, finding three several marks for the Acute Syllable in the Greek Tongue, imagined there were three several Accents; which is not only false, but simply impossible in the Nature of Speech. That which they call the Grave Accent is always a mark of the Acute Syllable, and is nothing else but the Acute mark turned backward, when the Accent is on the last Syllable of a Word, lest it should run forward into the following Word, and cause Confusion in Reading; for Grave Syllables never had any mark because they never needed any, all the Syllabes in a Word except one, being Grave, whether they be Single Vowels or Diphthongs.  
That which they call the Circumslex-Accent, is always a mark of the acute Syllable, and is chief used when two Syllables are Contracted into one.  
Q. How many Syllables can come under one Accent?  
A. There can come eight or nine Syllyables under one accent, and any more is a force upon Nature; but those Words are most Harmonious that do not exceed six or seven Syllables.  
† The English for the most part love to Accent the first Syllable of a Word, which is more Vehement and Masculine. The French for the most part love to Accent the last Syllable of a Word, which is too Soft and Feminine. The Latins do almost always Accent the penult, or antepenult Syllable of a Word, which makes the best and most agreeable Harmony in Speech, and in that regard the Latin Tongue excels all other Languages.  
Note, The penult is the last Syllable of a Word but one, the Antepenult is the Syllable before the Penult, or the third Syllable from the end of the Word.   

Of Words.  
Quest. What is a Word?  
Answ. A Word is an Articulate sound that signifies something by the Custom of any Language.  
Q. What is an Articulate Sound?  
A. An Articulate Sound is that which consists of Letters and Syllables, as it were of Joints.  
Q. How are Words distinguished in respect of Derivation?  
A. Words in respect of Derivation are distinguished into Primitive and Derivative.  
Q. What is a Primitive Word?  
A. A Primitive Word is that which is not derived of another, as good, man, etc.  
Q What is a Derivative Word?  
A. A Derivative Word, is that which is derived of another, as Goodness, Manliness.  
Q. How are Words distinguished in respect of Composition?  
A. Words in respect of Composition are distinguished into Simple and Compound.  
Q. What is a Simple Word?  
A. A Simple Word is that which is not Compounded of two Words, as a Book, a School, a Stone, a House, etc.  
Q. What is a Compound Word?  
A. A Compound Word, is that which is Compounded of two or more Words; as a Bookseller, Compounded of Book and Seller; a Watchman, of Watch and Man.  
Q. Are there not Half Compounds?  
A. When we Compound two or more Words, without putting them under one Accent, we only join them with a Hyphen or mark of Union, and such may be called Half-Compounds, as a Water-Spider. But if the Custom of the Language has put them under one Accent, we must write them in one Word without a Hyphen, as a Shoemaker, not a Shoó-maker; a Highlander, not a High-lander.  
Q. How many Kind's of Words are there?  
A. There are four kinds of Words, a Substantive, an Adjective, a Verb, and a Particle.  
Q. How do you know there are but four kinds of Words?  
A. I know there are but four kinds of Words, because there are but four kinds of things to be signified by Words: for whatever is in the whole Universe, is either a thing, or the manner of a thing; the action of a thing, or the manner of an Action.  
Q. How are these four kinds of Things signified?  
A. The Things themselves are signified by Substantives; the manners of things, by Adjectives; the Actions of things, by Verbs; the manners of Actions, by Particles.  
Q. What is a Substantive.  
A. A Substantive is a Word that signifies a thing whether Corporeal or Incorporeal; as God, Man, Reason, Wisdom, etc.  
Q. What is a Corporeal thing?  
A. A Corporeal or Bodily thing is that which can be perceived by the Senses, and may be seen or felt; as, a Boy, a Book, a Pen, a School, a Table, etc.  
Q. What is an Incorporeal thing?  
A. An Incorporeal thing is that which cannot be perceived by the Senses but only by the Understanding, and cannot be seen nor felt, as Justice, Knowledge, Understanding, Goodness, etc.  
Q. How may a Substantive be known?  
A. Every Word that can be declined alone in good Sense, in any ones Native Language, is a Substantive; as for Example, I I know the Word, Man, is a Substantive, because I can decline it in good Sense, thus, of Man, to Man, with Man: No other kind of Word so Declined can make Sense, for if I say, of against, to against, with against, it is Nonsense, by which I know against is not a Substantive?  
Note, A Substantive is also called a Noun, or a Noun-substantive, or a Name.  
Q. How many sorts of Substantives are there?  
A. There are two sorts of Substantives, Common and Proper.  
Q. What is a Common or Appellative Noun?  
A. A Common or Appellative Noun, is a Word that signifies one kind of thing, and is Common to all of that kind, as the Words, Man, City, Kingdom.  
Q. What is a Proper Name?  
A. A Proper Name is a Word given to any individual thing of a kind, by which it is known and distinguished from others of the same kind, as Peter, London, England. Man is one kind of thing, Peter is one of that kind, John another, James another. A City is one kind of thing, London is one of that kind, Paris another, Rome another. A. Kingdom is one kind of thing, England is one of that kind, France another, Italy another.  
Q. Have not Persons two Proper Names?  
A. At first one Person had but one Proper Name, as Adam, Abraham, Jacob, but afterward when Mankind multiplied, the same Proper Name was given to several Persons, which made it necessary formore particular distinction to add a Second: the former of which is usually called the Name, the latter Surname, as Charles Stuart; some Persons have three or more proper Names, as Julius Caesar Scaliger.  
Q. Are not Common Nouns sometimes made Proper Names?  
A. Common Nouns are sometimes made Proper Names, but then regard is had only to the Sound, not to the Signification; otherwise these Surnames, King, Knight, Thomson, and such like, could not in good Sense be given to the Females of the Families so called.  
Q. Can Proper Names be Translated from one Language to another?  
A. Proper Names as such cannot be Translated from one Language to another, for if the Sound be changed the proper Name is lost. As for Example we must not translate the Latin Proper Name, Piscator, Fisher, nor the English proper Name, Fisher, Piscator: Yet the Latins to Accommodate Foreign proper Names to their own Idiom, do often add to them a Latin Termination, as, us a, 'em, thus they call Jacob, Jacobus, Fisher, Fisherus, and Foreigners for the same Reason cut off the Latin Terminations, thus we call Paulus, Paul; Marcus, Mark.  
Q. Is it necessary to give a proper Name to every Individual thing of a kind?  
A. If there be but one Individual thing of a kind, it is not necessary to give it a proper Name, since there is no other of the kind, from which it needs to be distinguished, as God, the World, the Sun, etc. And where there are more of the same kind, none of them needs a Proper Name, but Men and such things as Men have frequent occasion to mention in particular, as Countries, Islands, Towns, Villages, Rivers, Mountains, Ships, and many other individual things of other kinds.   

Of S Servile.  
Q. Why is s Servile so called?  
A. S Servile is so called, because it serves for several uses, in the Variation of Nouns and Verbs in English.  
Q. How is s Servile distinguished?  
A. S Servile is distinguished into s Plural, s Possessive, and s Personal.  
Q. Where is s Plural written?  
A. S Plural, is written at the end of a Substantive Singular, to make it Plural, as a Boy, Boys.  
Q. Where is s Possessive written?  
A. S Possessive, is written at the end of a Substantive Singular or Plural, to make it the Genitive of the Possessor, as the Lords house, etc.  
Q. Where is s Personal written?  
A. s Personal is added to the Theme of a Verb, to make it the third Person Singular, as, Irun, he runs.  
Q. Is not the Syllable es sometimes used instead of s Servile?  
A. The Syllable es is always used instead of s Servile, when the Word ends in s, or in the Sound of s, because s alone cannot be distinguished in the Sound, as, Case, Cases, Corpse, Corpses.  
Q. What Words end in the Sound of e?  
A. Words that end in sh, z, ch, e, and g soft have the Sound of s, as Fish, Fishes, Prize, Prizes, Church, Churches, Race, Races, Age, Ages.  
Note. When s Servile comes after e Servile, es doth not increase the Number of Syllables in a Word, because e is Sounded before the final Consonant, and s immediately after it; thus Time and Times are bo●h Monosyllables; Table and Tables, are both dissyllables: but when es comes after s or the sound of s it makes a Syllable more in a Word, because s alone cannot be distinguished in the Sound, thus, Page, Grace, Prize, are Monosyllables, but, Page's, Graces, Prizes, are Dissyllables.  
Note. When e Subjunctive or e Mute is suppressed before a Vowel, than the final Consonant is joined in the same Syllable with that Vowel, as Time, Ti-ming, not Tim-ing, Age, Aged, not Ag-ed; when e Liquid is suppressed before a Vowel, the Mute and the Liquid are both joined in the same Syllable with that Vowel, as, Trou-ble, Trou-bler.   

Of Number.  
Q. How are Substantives distinguished in respect of Number?  
A. Substantives in respect of Number are distinguished into Singular and Plural; the Singular Number denotes one, as, a House; the Plural Number denotes more than one, as, Houses.  
Q. How is the Plural Number made in English?  
A. The Plural Number is usually made in English, by adding s to the Substantive Singular, or es when the Pronunciation requires it; as, a Book, Books, a Pen, Pens, a Church, Churches.  
Q. Is not the Plural Number made otherwise than by s or es?  
A. Some Nouns form the Plural Number otherwise than by s or es, as, Ox, Oxen. Child, Children. Man, Men. Woman, Women, Tooth, Teeth, Goose, Geese, Mouse, Mice, Louse, Lice, Foot, Feet, a Cow, Kine, or Cows; the Words Sheep and Swine are both Singular and Plural. In some Nouns f is turned into v a Letter of the same Organ for ease of Pronounciation, as, Knife, Knives, Wife, Wives, Life, Lives.   

Of the Declining of a Noun.  
Q. What is the Declining of a Noun?  
A. The Declining of a Noun is the Variation thereof, according to the various State or Case of the thing signified by it.  
Q. How many Cases are there?  
A. There are six Cases, Viz. Nominative, Vocative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, and Accusative.  
Q. When is a Noun in the Nominative State or Case?  
A. A Noun is in the Nominative State or Case, when 'tis the Subject of a Verb, and then it usually comes in good Sense before the Verb, as the Master teaches, the Scholar Learns.  
Q. When is a Noun in the Vocative Case?  
A. A Noun is in the Vocative Case, when it is the Person to whom we speak or call, as, Master, I can say. Child, Read your Lesson.  
Q When is a Noun in the Genitive Case?  
A. A Noun is in the Genitive Case, when it is the Possessor of some other thing possessed, as, the Book of the Master, or, the Master's Book.  
Q. How is the Genitive form in English?  
A. In English the Genitive is form two ways, either by putting the Preposition of before the Substantive or s after it, (or es when the necessity of Pronounciation requires;) when of is before the Genitive, the possessed Substantive comes before of: but when s or es is added to the Substantive, the possessed Substantive comes after it. As the Master's Care, or, the Care of the Master. An ass' Milk, or, the Milk of an ass.  
Q. Is not es Possessive sometimes omitted?  
Es Possessive is often omitted for easiness of Pronunciation, as Priamus' Son, for Priamuses Son; the Horse's bridles, for the Horsesses bridles.  
Q. When is a Noun in the Dative Case?  
A. A Noun is in the Dative Case, when it is the thing to which any other thing is applied by some Verb or Adjective.  
Q How is the Dative known in English?  
A. In English the Dative is usually known by the Preposition to, and sometimes for befo●● it, and then the applied Word comes before the Preposition, as for Example, Strong Drink is hurtful to Children or for Children. I said my Lesson to the Master.  
Q. When is a Noun in the Ablative Case?  
A. A Noun is in the Ablative Case, when it comes after any of these Prepositions, with, from, in, or by, etc. as with my Master, from my Father, in the School, etc.  
Q. When is a Noun in the Accusative Case?  
A. A Noun is in the Accusative Case, when it is the object of Action, and then it usually comes after a Verb or Participle of an active Signification. As for Example, Worship God, Honour thy Parents, etc.  
Q. What Cases are alike in English?  
A. The Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative are alike in English. As for Example, the Nom. Sing. Man, the Gen. of Man or Man's, the Dat. to Man, the Abl. from Man, the Accus. Man, Nom. Plur. Men, the Gen. or Men or men's, the Dat. to Men, the Abl. from Men, the Accus Men  
Q. How is the Personal Substantive, I, declined?  
A. The Personal Substantive, I, is irregularly declined, thus, Nom. Sing. I, Gen. of me, Dat. to me, Abl. to me, Accus. me, Now. Plur. we, Gen. of us, Dat. to us, Abl. from us. Accus. us.  
Q. How is the Personal Substantive, Thou, declined?  
A. The Personal Substantive, Thou, is irreregularly Declined thus, Nom. Sing. Thou, Voc. thou, Gen. of thee, Dat. to thee, Abl. from thee, Accus. thee, Nom. Plur. Ye, or you, Voc. ye, or you, Gen. of you, Dat. to you, Abl. from you, Accus. you.   

Of the Genders of Nouns.  
Q. How are Substantives distinguished in respect of Gender.  
A. Substantives in respect of Gender are distinguished into Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter; the Masculine Gender is the he kind, the Feminine the she kind, the Neuter Gender any thing that is neither he, nor she.  
Q. How are the Genders signified in English?  
A. In English the Masculine Gender is signified by he, the Feminine by she, the Neuter by it.  
Q. What Nouns are of the Masculine Gender?  
A. All Nouns that are said of the he kind only, are of the Masculine Gender, as a Father, a Brother, a Son, etc.  
Q. What Nouns are of the Feminine Gender?  
A. All Nouns that are said of the she kind only, are of the Feminine Gender, as a Mother, a Daughter, a Sister, etc.  
Q. What Nouns are of the Neuter Gender:  
A. All Nouns that are not said of the he kind only, nor of the she kind only, are of the Neuter Gender, as a Creature, a Thing, a House, a Book, a Table, etc.  
Q. Are not some Nouns said both of the Males and Females of a kind?  
A. There are some Nouns said both of the Males and Females of a kind without distinction, and they are called Epicens or Nouns common to both Sexes, because they signify the Species or common Nature of both without regard to either, and therefore they are properly of the Neuter Gender: as a Child, a Sparrow, a Slave, etc. But when Epicens are particularly applied to one Sex distinct from the other, they also admit the Gender of the Sex, to which they are applied: As for Example, I may say in good Sense, The Nurse took the Child, and gave it suck, or (with regard to the Sex) gave him suck, or gave her suck.  
Note. In Epicens the Sex is often distinguished by the Words, Male, Female, he, she, and such like Sex-distinguishing Words, as a Male-Child, a Female-Child, a He-ass, a She-ass, a Cock-sparrow, a Hen sparrow.   

Of an Adjective.  
Q. What is an Adjective?  
A. An Adjective is a Word, that signifies the Manner or Quality of a thing.  
Q. How shall one know an Adjective?  
A. Every Word that can be declined in good Sense with a Substantive, and without a Substantive does not make Sense, is an Adjective, as the Words, Wise, Foolish, White, Black, etc.  
Q. How do you know the Word Wise is an Adjective?  
A. I know the Word Wise is an Adjective, because I can decline it in good Sense with a Substantive, thus, A Wise Man, of a Wise Man, to a Wise Man, with a Wise Man: And without a Substantive it does not make Sense, as, I Love Wise.  
Q. Are all Adjectives said in the Vocative Case?  
A. The Adjectives a and the and other incomparable Adjectives, are not said in the Voc. Case, because they always denote the Person, or thing spoken of, but the Voc. always denotes the Person or thing spoken to.  
Q. Can a or the be joined with a proper Name in good Sense?  
A. A or the, Or any other Adjective, cannot in good Sense be joined with a Proper Name, as such; because every Adjective qualifies and determines some kind of thing, but a Proper Name is no kind of thing, but a mere sound, by which an individual thing of a kind is distinguished from other individuals of the same kind. But when a Proper Name is put for a common Noun, or when a common Noun is understood with it, than it admits a or the, or any other Adjective in good Sense.  
Thus I can say in good Sense, a Man, the City, but not a John, the London; I can say, a Solomon for a very Wise Man, a Judas for a very treacherous Man, and if I say, Wise Solomon, or treacherous Judas, the common Substantive Man is understood.  
Q. Do Adjectives admit s to make them Plural?  
A. In English the Adjectives are alike in both Numbers; but when they are used as Substantives, than they admit s to make them Plural, as, secrets for secret things, goods, for good things.  
Q. Is the Adjective a said in the Plural Number?  
A. The Adjective a is not said in the Plural Number; because it always denotes one, or some one indefinitely, and therefore cannot be said in the Plural Number. We say a before a Consonant, and an before a Vowel for easiness of Pronounciation, as a a man, not an man; an ass, not a ass.  
Q. Is the Adjective the said in the Plural Number?  
A. The Adjective the denotes one or more things particularly known, or supposed to be known, and therefore can be said in both Numbers, as the boy, or the boys.  
Note, The Adjective this makes these in the Plural Number; that makes those; self makes selves. The Adjective who makes whose or of whom in the Genitive Singular, the Dative to whom, the Ablative from whom, and so Plurally.  
Q. The Adjectives, he, she, it, are thus Declined?  
A. Nom. Sing. He, Gen. his, or of him, Dat. to him, Abl, from him. Nom. Sing. She, Gen. hers, or of her, or her, Dat. to her, Abl. from her, Accus. her. Nom. Sing. It, Gen. It's, or of it, Dat. to it, Abl. from it, Accus. it. He, She, It, have the same Plural Number. Nom. Plur. They, Gen. their, theirs, or of them, Dat. to them, Abl. from them, Accus. them.   

Of Comparison.  
Q. How are Adjectives distinguished in respect of Comparison?  
A. Adjectives in respect of Comparison are distinguished into Compárable and incompárable.  
Q. What is a comparable Adjective?  
A. A Comparable or Positive Adjective is that whose Signification can be increased, as hard, soft, long, short.  
Q. How may one know a comparable or Positive Adjective?  
A▪ Every Adjective that in good Sense admits before it, the Particles more, most, or very, is a Comparable or Positive Adjective; thus I know hard is a Positive Adjective, because I can say in good Sense, more hard, most hard, very hard,  
Q. What Adjectives are form from Positive Adjectives?  
A. From Positive Adjectives are form Comparative and Superlative Adjectives.  
Q. What is a Comparative Adjective?  
A. A Comparative Adjective is that which signifies the same as the Positive with the Particle more before it; as harder, which is the same as more hard.  
Q. How is the comparative form in English?  
A. The Comparative is form in English, by adding the Termination er to the Positive; as harder, softer, longer, shorter, etc.  
Q. What is a Superlative Adjective?  
A. A Superlative Adjective is that which signifies the same as the Positive with the Particle most before it; as hardest, which is the same, as most hard.  
Q. How is the Superlative form in English?  
A. The Superlative is form in English, by adding the Termination est to the Positive, as, hardest, softest, longest, shortest, etc.  
Q. Are there not some Comparative and Superlative Adjctives form irregularly?  
A. The Positive Adjectives, good, bad, little, much, form their Comparatives, and Superlatives irregularly; as Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most.  
Note. To Compare an Adjective in Grammar, is to give the Comparative and Superlative of it, as, hard, harder, hardest. The Grammarians call them the three degrees of Comparison; as for Example, hard, is of the Positive degree; harder, of the Comparative degree; and hardest, of the Superlative degree.  
Q. What is an incomparable Adjective?  
A. An Incomparable Adjective is that, whose Signification cannot be encreafed, and admits not before it in good Sense, the Particles more, most, or very; as all, some, any, etc. I cannot say in good Sense, more all, most all, or very all.   

Observations on some Adjectives.  
Much makes many, in the Plural Number: Much with a Substantive of the Plural Number, denotes a great quantity; as, much wine, for a great quantity of wine. Many with a Substantive of the Plural Number signifies a great Number; as, many men, for a great Number of Men. Many a man, is a barbabarism, first used among the Vulgar for many men.  
More, with a Substantive of the Singular Number, signifies a greater quantity, as, more wine, or a greater quantity of wine. More with a Substantive Plural, signifies a a greater number, as, more men, or a greater number of men.  
Most, with a Substantive Singular denotes the greatest quantity, as, most of the wine, or the greatest part of the wine. Most, with a Substantive Plural, denotes the greatest number, as most men, or the greatest number of men.  
All, with a Substantive Singular, denotes the whole quantity, as, all the wine, or the whole quantity of the wine. All with a a Substantive Plural, denotes the whole number, as, all the Children, for the whole number of the Children, Note. Every is only said with a Substantive Singular, as every man not every men. Enough with a Substantive Singular denotes a sufficient quantity, as, enough of wine, or a sufficient quantity of wine. In the Plural Number, it is enough, and denotes a sufficient number, as, I have Books enough or a sufficient number of Books.  
Who is usually said of Persons, which of things, and sometimes of Persons.  
The Interrogative who, or which, asks the Question, ●n individual things, as, who is there? Ans. Peter. The Interrogative what, asks the Question on the kind, or Quality of things, and also on the order of a thing, as, what is that? Ans. It is a Book. What art thou? (in the order of number) Ans. the first, second, third, etc.  
When the Adjective, no, is without a Substantive expressed after it, we say none, as for Example, Is there no wine? there is none.   

Of Verbs.  
Q. What is a Verb?  
A. A Verb is a Word that signifies the Action, Passion, or Being of a thing.  
Q. How shall one know a Verb?  
A. Every word that can be Conjugated in good Sense, with a Substantive of the Nominative Case before it, and without a Nominative Case before it cannot make Sense, is a Verb. As the Words, teach, read, run, etc.  
Q. How do you know the word Teach is a Verb?  
A. I know the word teach is a Verb, because I can Conjugate it in good Sense, thus, I teach, thou teachest, he teacheth, we teach, ye teach, they teach.  
Q. How are Verbs distinguished as to their Signification?  
A. Verbs as to their Signification are distinguished into Active, Passive, and Neuter.  
Q. What is a Verb Active?  
A. A Verb Active is that which denotes the Action or doing of its subject or Nominative Case; and admits after it in good Sense the Accusative Case of its object, or thing it acts upon.  
As for Example, I call thee, I call him, I call her; But if I say, I call thou, I call he, I call she, it is non sense, because these are Nominatives, not Accusatives.  
Q. How shall one know a Verb Active?  
A. Every Verb that admits the Auxiliaries, do, or did, before it in good Sense, is a Verb Active, as, I stand, or, I do stand; I sit. or, I do sit.  
Q. How is a Verb Active distinguished in respective of its Object or Accusative Case?  
A. A Verb Active, in respect of its Object, or Accusative Case, is distinguished into Transitive, and Intransitive.  
Q. What is a Verb Active Transitive?  
A. A Verb Active Transitive is that which admits Various Objects, or (which is the same) Various Accusatives.  
As for Example, I know the Verb read is Active Transitive, because I can say in good Sense, I read a Book, I read a Letter, I read the Bible, I read my Lesson.  
Q. What is a Verb Active Intransitive?  
A. A Verb Active Intransitive, is that which in good Sense admits but of one Accusative, and that of its own Signification. As, I live a life, I run a race, I go a journey: But I cannot say in good Sense; I live a horse, I run a chamber, I go a house, etc.  
Q. What is a Verb Passive?  
A. A Verb Passive is that which denotes the Passion or suffering of its Subject or Nominative Case.  
Q. How is a Verb Passive form in English?  
A. In English the Verb Passive is always form by the Verb am, and the praeter Participle; and if either of these be wanting it is not Passive: as, I am called, thou art beaten, etc.  
Q. What is a Verb Neuter?  
A. A Verb Neuter is that which is neither Active nor Passive, as the Verbs, am, may, must, can, etc.   

Of the Conjugation of Verbs.  
Q. What is the Conjugation of a Verb?  
A. The Conjugation of a Verb is the Variation thereof, according to its various Nominatives, and various differences of Time or Tense.  
Q. How many sorts of Nominatives are there?  
A. There are three sorts of Nominatives, called in Grammar Three Persons, Singular, and Plural.  
Q. What Nominatives are of the first Person Singular?  
A. Of the first Person Singular, is only one Nominative Singular, I.  
Q. What Nominatives are of the second person Singular?  
A. Of the second person Singular, is only one Nominative Singular, Thou.  
Q. What Nominatives are of the third Person Singular?  
A. He, and every other Nominative Singular, is of the third Person Singular, except I and Thou.  
Q. What Nominatives are of the first Person Plural?  
A. Of the first Person Plural, is only one Nominative Plural, ●e.  
Q. What Nominatives are of the second Person Plural?  
A. Of the second Person Plural, is only one Nominative Plural, ye or you.  
Q. What Nominatives are of the third Person Plural?  
A. They, and every other Nominative Plural, is of the third Person Plural, except we, and ye or you.  
Q. What are the Persons of Verbs?  
A. The Persons of Verbs are their various Terminations, accommodated to the Nominatives of the several Persons.  
Q. How do the Persons of Verbs end in English?  
A. In English Verbs, the first Person Singular, the first, second, and third Plural are alike; the second Person Singular usually ends in est; the third Person Singular usually ends in eth, or s, or in es, when the necessity of Pronounciation requires it: As for Example, I teach, we teach, ye teach, they teach, thou teachest, he teacheth, or teaches.   

Of the Moods.  
Q. How is a Verb distinguished in respect of its Mood or manner of expression?  
A. A Verb in respect of its Mood or manner of expression, is distinguished into the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative Mood.  
Q. When is a Verb of the Indicative Mood?  
A. A Verb is of the Indicative Mood, when it simply affirms or denies, or asks a question. The Verb alone affirms, as, I call, or, I do call; it denies with the Negative Adverb not after it, or after its Auxiliary, as, I call not. or, I do not call: when a Question is asked, the Nominat ye comes after the Verb or af●er its Auxiliary, as, callest thou? or dost thou call?  
Q When is a Verb of the Subjunctive Mood?  
A. A Verb is of the Subjunctive Mood, when it is joined to another Verb, by the final Conjunction, that, as, I read that I may learn.  
Q. When is a Verb of the Imperative Mood?  
A. A Verb is of the Imperative Mood, when it commands or prays, and then the Nominative comes after the Verb, or its Auxiliary, as, call thou, or, do thou call?  
Q. Does not the Imperative want the first Person Singular and Plural?  
A. The Imperative wants the first Person Singular and Plural, because none can command or entreat themselves.   

Of Tense or Time.  
Q. How many Tenses are there?  
A. There are five Tenses, the Present, the Preter imperfect, the Preter perfect, the Preter pluperfect, and the Future.  
Q. What is the Present Tense?  
A. The Present Tense is the time, that now is passing.  
Q. What is the Preter imperfect Tense?  
A. The Preter imperfect Tense is the Time, that was then passing.  
Q. What is the Preter perfect Tense?  
A. The Preter perfect Tense is the Time, perfectly passed.  
Q. What is the Preter pluperfect Tense?  
A. The Preter pluperfect Tense is the Time, more than perfectly passed.  
Q. What is the Future Tense?  
A. The Future Tense is the Time to come.  
Q. How are the Tenses known in English?  
A. The Tenses are known in English by Auxiliary Verbs, commonly called the Signs of the Tenses.  
Q. What are the Auxiliaries of the Present Tense?  
A. The Auxiliaries of the Present Tense, are, do, dost, doth, does; am, art, is, are; as, I do call, thou dost call, he doth call, we do call, ye do call, they do call; I am calling, thou art calling, etc.  
Q. What are the Auxiliaries of the Imperfect Tense?  
A. The Auxiliaries of the Imperfect Tense, are, was, waist, wert, were; as, I was calling, thou wast calling, he was calling, we were calling, ye were calling, they were calling.  
Q. What are the Auxiliaries of the Perfect Tense?  
A. The Auxiliaries of the Perfect Tense, are, have, haste, has, hath; as. I have called, thou hast called, he has called, we have called, ye have called, they have called.  
Q. What are the Auxiliaries of the Pluperfect Te●se?  
A. The Auxiliaries of the Pluperfect Tense, are, had, hadst; as, I had called, thou hadst called, be had called, we had called, ye had called, they had called.  
Q What are the Auxiliaries of the Future Tense?  
A. The Auxiliaries of the Future Tense, are, shall, shalt; will, wilt; as, I shall call, thou shall call, he shall call, we shall call, ye shall call, they shall call; I will call, thou wi●t call, he will call, etc.  
Q. What are the Auxiliaries of the Tenses, when a Verb has the final Conjunction, that, before it?  
A. When a Verb has the final Conjunction, that, before it; the Auxiliaries of the present Tense, are, may, mayst; of the Imperfect, might, mightest; of the Perfect, might have; of the Pluperfect, might had; of the Future, may have; as for Example, that I may call, that I might call, that I might have called, that I might had called, that I may have called.  
Q. What are the Auxiliaries of the Imperative?  
A. The Auxiliaries of the Imperative, are, do, or be; as do thou call, be thou called.  
Q. Are not the Auxiliaries sometimes absolute Verbs?  
A. When the Auxiliaries have not another Verb or Participle after them, they are not then Auxiliaries but absolute Verbs; and all the Auxiliaries are also absolute Verbs, except shall, shalt; when may, or might, has not the final Conjunction, that, before it, it is not an Auxiliary but an absolute Verb.  
Q. What is the difference between the Auxiliaries, shall, and will?  
A. Shall, in the first Persons barely foretells, in the second and third Persons it promises, or threatens.  
Will in the first Persons promises or threatens, in the second and third persons it barely foretells.  
Q. Can any Tense be expressed without an Auxiliary?  
A. The Present Tense, the Preter tense, and the Imperative can be expressed without an Auxiliary, as in the Present Tense, I see, thou seest, he seethe or sees, we see, ye see, they see; in the Preter tense, I saw, thou sawest, be saw, we saw, ye saw, they saw; In the Imperative, see thou, see he, see ye, see they.  
Q. Is not the Imperative sometimes expressed by let?  
A. In English we usually express the third Person Singular and Plural of the Imperative by the Verb Active, let; as, let him call, for call he; let them call, for call they; except in some forms of Public Authority, as, Know all men, Be it enacted, etc.   

Of the Preter tense of a Verb.  
The Preter tense or Time passed of a Verb in English, is sometimes of the Imperfect tense, and sometimes of the Perfect tense, and therefore it may be simply called the Preter tense, or the Preter indefinite, because it is uncertain, whether it denotes the time imperfectly passed, or the time perfectly passed till the Sense of the Sentence determines it. as, went, called, paid, etc. In this Sentence, I went to School, and said my Lesson, the Preter tense went is of the time perfectly passed, and may be resolved thus, after I went to School, etc.  
In this Sentence, as, I went to School, I met my Father, the Preter tense went is of the time imperfectly passed, and may be resolved thus, when I was going to School.  
Note. The Auxiliary did, or didst, is a Preter indefinite, and may be either of the imperfect or Perfect tense. The Particle whilst before the Preter indefinite, always denotes the Imperfect tense, as, whilst I did write, or whilst I was writing.  
The Particle after, or, after that, before the Preter indefinite always denotes the Perfect tense and is the same as the Auxiliary having, as, after I writ, or having written. The Particle when is ambiguous; and sometimes signifies whilst, and sometimes after, or after that.  
Note. The Auxiliary have with the Proter participle immediately after it is always Active; but if been come between, it is always Passive; thus, I have called is Active, but, I have been called is Passive.  the present Participle is, it is always Active, as, I have been calling.  
Q. How is the Preter tense form?  
A. The Preter tense is regularly form by adding the Termination ed to the Theme, or present Tense, as, I call, I called; and sometimes e is omitted for brevity or easiness of Pronounciation, and then the d is often changed into t a Letter of the same Organ, as distinguished, for distinguished; and distinguished▪ for distinguished.  
Q. Is not the Pretertense sometimes irregularly form?  
A. The Preter tense is often irregularly form, as, from see, saw; from run, ran; from break, broke; with many more, which use will teach.   

Of the Participles.  
Q. What is a Participle?  
A. A Participle is a Verbal Substantive, or Adjective, which admits after it such case as the Verb of which it is derived.  
Q. What Substantive Participles are there in English?  
A. In English there are two Substantive Participles, the Present, and Perfect infinitive.  
Q. How is the Present Infinitive form in English?  
A. In English the Present Infinitive is usually form, by putting the Preposition, to, before the Theme or Present Tense of the Verb; as, to call, to read, to teach, etc.  
Q. How is the Perfect Infinitive form?  
A. The Perfect Infinitive is usually form by putting to have, before the Perfect-Tense of the Verb; as, to have called, to have taught; etc.  
Q. What Adjective Participles are there in English?  
A. There are two Adjective Participles in English, the Present and Preter Participle.  
Q How is the Present Participle form?  
A. The Present Participle is form by adding the Termination ing▪ to the Theme or Present Tense of the Verb, as, calling, reading, teaching, etc.  
Q. How ends the Preter Participle in English?  
A. In English the Preter Participle usually ends in d, t, or n, as, called, taught, beaten.  
Q What if the Verb of the Preter Tense end in d or t?  
A, If the Verb of the Preter Tense end in d or t, the Preter Participle is the same with it, and is only distinguished by the Sense. But if the Verb of the Preter Tense, end otherwise than in d or t, than the Preter Participle usually ends in en, as, broken, and oftentimes e is left out, as known, for known.  
Q. How shall one know the Preter Participle?  
A. The Word that follows the Auxiliary have, in good Sense, is always the Preter Participle; as for Example, I know seen is the Preter Participle, because I can say in good Sense, I have seen, but I cannot say in good Sense, I have saw; whence I know that saw is only a Verb of the Preter Tense, and no● also the Preter Participle.   

Of the Substantive or Copulalative Verb am.  
Q Why is the Verb Neuter am, called a Substantive or Copulative Verb?  
A. The Verb Neuter, am, is called a Substantive or Copulative Verb, because it always couples the Substantive of the Predicate after it, to the Substantive of the Subject before it.  
Q. May not all the Tenses of a Verb be expressed by the Verb am, and the Participles of the Present, or Preter Tense?  
A. All the Tenses of a Verb Active, may be expressed by the Verb am, and the present Participle, as, I am calling, I was calling, I have been calling, I had been calling, I shall be calling.  
All the Tenses of a Verb Passive, may be expressed by the Verb am, and the Preter Participle, and in English they are always so expressed; as, I am called, I was called, I have been called, I had been called, I shall be called.  
Q. How is the Verb am Conjugated?  
A. The Verb am is irregularly Conjugated thus,  
Present Indicative, I am, thou art, he is, we are, ye are, they are.  
Imperfect Indicative, I was, thou wast, he was, we were, ye were, they were.  
Perfect Indicative, I have been, thou hast been, he hath been, we have been, ye have been, they have been.  
Pluperfect Indicative, I had been, thou hadst been, he had been, we had been, ye had been, they had been.  
Future Indicative, I shall be, thou shalt be, he shall be, or, I will be, thou wilt be, etc.  
Present Sujunctive, that I may be, that thou mayest be, that he may be, that we may be, that ye may be, that they may be.  
Imperfect Subjunctive, that I might be, that thou mightst be, that he might be, that we might be, th●t ye might be, that they might be.  
Perfect Subjunctive, that I might have been, that thou mightst have been, that he might have been, that we might have been, that ye might have been, that they might have been.  
Pluperfect Subjurctive, that I might had been, that thou mightst had been, that he might bad been, that we might had been, that ye might had been, that they might had been.  
Future Subjunctive, that I may have been, that thou mayest have been, that he may have been, that we may have been, that ye may have been, that they may have been.  
The Imperative, be thou, be he, or let him be; be ye, be they, or let them be.  
The Present Infinitive, to be.  
The Perfect Infinitive, to have been.  
The Present Participle, being.  
The Preter Participle, been.  
Note. Be and be'st are often used in the Present Tense, especially after some Conjunction, as, if thou be'st, though we be.  
Q. Does not the present tense of the Substantive Verb am, with the preter participle, sometimes denote the perfect tense?  
A. In External or Corporeal Actions, the present tense of the Substantive Verb am, with the preter participle, denotes the perfect tense immediately passed; as, the Letter is Written: but when we would be understood of the present tense passive in External Actions, we usually express it by the Substantive Verb, with a, for in, before the present participle, as the Letter is a Writing; which form of speaking is usual in all other tenses, either actively or passively understood according to the sense, as I was a Writing my Letter, is the imperfect active, but the Letter was a Writing, is the imperfect passive.  
Q. Is not the Vowel e, often left out in some terminations?  
A. The Vowel e, is often left out in the terminations, en, ed, est, eth, either for brevity or easiness of Pronounciation, and we always put an Apostroph over the place of the Vowel left out, if the word be commonly used with it; as for Example, we writ proved with an Apostroph, because proved is in common use, but if the word be not commonly used with the Vowel, we do not mark it with an Apòstroph, as in doth, dost slain, done, gone, because doth dost, slaien, done, goen, are not in common use.  
Q. What if the Vowel e, be left out after c, or g, soft?  
A. If the Vowel e, be left out after c, or g, soft, the Apostroph must always be marked, least c, or g, soft, should seem to be hard, as in forced, changed.  
Q. What is an Apostroph?  
A. An Apostroph is a mark put over the place of a Vowel, left out in a word for brevity or easiness of Pronounciation.  
Obs. In all English words that end in en, we pronounce the Vowel e, so swiftly, that it is scarce heard, as in Oxen, Chicken, Writen, etc.  
Q. Are there not some Defective Verbs?  
A. There are some Defective Verbs, that neither admit the Auxiliaries before them, nor have any participles derived of them, as these neuter Verbs can, may, must, aught, and some others: can, canst in the present tense, could in the Imperfect, could have in the perfect, could had in the pluperfect.  
Can, denotes strength or ability, and may in all tenses be resolved by the Verb am, and the Adjective able, as I can, or, I am able; I could, or I was able, etc.  
May, may'st in the present tense; might in the imperfect, might have in the perfect, might had in the pluperfect.  
May, denotes either the Lawfulness, or possibility of a thing, and may be resolved in all tenses by the Substantive Verb, and the Adjective lawful or possible, as I may, or it is lawful for me, or it is possible for me, etc.  
Must in the present tense; in the perfect must have, in the pluperfect, must had.  
Must, may be supplied in all tenses, by the Substantive Verb, and the Adjective necessary; as I must, or it is necessary for me, in the imperfect it was necessary for me, etc.  
Ought to in the present tense, aught to have in the perfect, aught to had in the pluperfect.  
Aught, denotes Duty, and may be supplied in all tenses by the Substantive Verb and the word Duty, as I ought to read, or it is my Duty to read, etc.  
Should in the imperfect tense, should have in the perfect, should had in the pluperfect, shall have in the future.  
Should, does sometimes denote Duty as I should read, and sometimes only the future tense, as if I should neglect to read, my Father would be angry.  
Would in the imperfect tense would have in the perfect, would had in the pluperfect.  
Would denotes futurity, and a propension of the will also.  
The Verb behoveth, or behoves is only said in the third Person singular and signifies requisite, and it has always the Adjective it before it, and an Infinitive after it, as it behooveth me to read, or it is requisite for me to read.  
Note, The Grammarians call those Verbs impersonal, that are only said in the third Person singular, and they have always it before them, and an Infinitive or a sentence after them.   

Of the Particles.  
Q What is a Particle?  
A. A Particle is a word that signifies the manner, Circumstance, or Connexion of Verbs, as swiftly, foolishly with, as, etc.  
Q How may one know a Particle?  
A. Any word that can neither be declined nor congulated in a good sense is a Particle. As for Example, the word wisely; for if I say, wisely, of wisely, to wisely, with wisely or I wisely, thou wiseliest, he wiselieth, it is all nonsense, by which I know it is a Particle.  
Q. How many sorts of Particles are there?  
A. There are three sorts of Particles; Adverbs, Prepositions and Conjunctions.   

Of an Adverb.  
Q. What is an Adverb.  
A. An adverb is a Particle that denotes the manner or quality of an Action, as wisely, slowly, sadly, etc.  
Q. How may one know an Adverb?  
●. Any Particle that makes complete sense with one Verb is an Adverb: As for Example, a fool speaks foolishly, a good Man lives happily.   

Of a Preposition.  
Q. What is a Preposition?  
A. A Preposition is a Particle that denotes some Circumstance of an Action, as to, for, with, from, in, by, etc.  
Q. How may one know a Preposition?  
A. Any Particle that makes complete sense with a Verb or Participle before it, and an obliqne Case after it, is a Preposition: As for Example, I know the Particle to is a Preposition, because I can say in good sense, I speak to him, not, I speak to he, because he is not an obliqne Case; but a Nominative, with which no Preposition can make sense: He came from me, not, from I, he was with thee, not, with thou; I spoke with her, not, with she.  
Q. What Cases are called obliqne?  
A. All the the Cases are called obliqne, except the Nominative and Vocative, which are called direct Cases.   

Of a Conjunction.  
Q. What is a Conjunction?  
A. A Conjunction is a Particle that joins two sentences together: As for Example, and, as, when, that, etc.  
Q. How may one know a Conjunction?  
A. Every Particle that leaves the sense imperfect without two Verbs is a Conjunction.  
Q. How do you know the Particle as is a Conjunction?  
A. I know the Particle as is a Conjunction, because it leaves the sense imperfect with one Verb. As for Example, As I went to School, where the sense is imperfect, and the mind in suspense till another Verb, or (which is the same) another sentence be added, thus, As I went to School I met my Father.  
Q. Is not the same word sometimes of different Parts of Speech?  
A. Sometimes the same word is of different Parts of Speech, which must be distinguished by the sense. As for Example, the word sound in this sentence (I will sound the Trumpet) it is a Verb: In this sentence (I hear the sound of the Trumpet) it is a Substantive: In this sentence (he is a Man of a sound Judgement) it is an Adjective.   

Of Abbreviatures.  
Q. Are there not some words that are Abbreviatures of two or three Parts of Speech?  
A. There are some words that are Abbreviatures of two or three Parts of Speech, which the Grammarians call Adverbs of time and place.  
Those Abbreviatures called Adverbs of time, are chief these; now at this time, then at that time, when at what time or at which time, always at every time, evermore at all times, often at many times, once at one time, twice at two times, thrice at three times, seldom at few times, ever at any time or at all times, never at no time, etc.  
Those Abbreviatures called Adverbs of place, are chief these; here in this place, there in that place, where in what place or in which place, hence from this place, thence from that place, whence from what place or from which place, hither to this place, thither to that place, whither to what place or to which place, etc.  
Note, The Abbreviatures here, there, where, are often Compounded with a Preposition, as hereof of this thing, thereof of that thing, whereof of what thing, or of which thing, wherein in what thing, or in which thing, herein in this thing, therein in that thing, wherewith with what thing, thereto to that thing, etc.  
Q. Of what Case are the Abbreviatures of time and place?  
A. Those Abbreviatures that may be resolved by the Prepositions at, in, or from, are all of the ablative Case.  
Those Abbreviatures that may be resolved by the Preposition to, or unto, are all of the Accusative Case.  
Note, Here doth sometimes signify, in this State or Condition. Whence doth sometimes signify, from that Person, or from which Person.  
Where, here and there are Vulgarly said, for whither, hither and thither, as, where are you going, for whither are you going? I am going there, for I am going thither. I came here, for I came hither.   

Of Interjections.  
Q. What are those Voices called Interjections?  
A. Those Voices called Interjections are not properly words, because they do not signify by the custom of any Language, but are Natural Expressions or Signs of the Passions of the mind, and are the same in all Languages, as ah, o, oh, ha', ha', he, etc.  
Q. Why is an Interjection so called?  
A. An Interjection is so called, because it is thrown in between words in speaking; by the Force or Violence of some Passion, as of Joy or Grief, Pain or Pleasure, Admiration or Indignation, etc.   

Of Derivative Words.  
Q. How many sorts of derived Substantives are there?  
A. There are seven more usual sorts of derived Substantives, viz. Diminutive Nouns, Abstract Nouns, Verbal Substantives of the Actor, Verbal Substantives of the Action; Nouns that signify Office, Nouns that signify Dominion or Rule, and Nouns that signify State or Condition.   

Of Diminutive Nouns.  
Q. What is a Diminutive Noun?  
A. A Diminutive Noun is, that which signifies the same as its Primitive Substantive, with the Adjective little, as Cockrel a little Cock, gosling a little Goose, parcel a little part, etc.  
Q. How are Diminutive Nouns form?  
A. Diminutive Nouns are variously form, but more usually they end in ock, kin, or et; as Hillock a little hill, Bullock a little Bull; Manikin a little Man, Willkin a little William, Pocket a little Poke, Billet a little Bill.   

Of Abstract Nouns.  
Q. Is not the same Quality both a Substantive and an Adjective?  
A. The same Quality is both a Substantive and an Adjective, in different respects and under different forms; in the Abstract, (or as it is conceived without the Subject) it is a Substantive; in the Concrete, (or as it is joined with the Subject or Substantive) it is an Adjective: As for Example, kindness, goodness, meekness, are Substantives, but kind, good, meek, are Adjectives.  
Q. What is an Abstract Noun?  
A. An Abstract Noun is a Substantive derived of an Adjective, and signifies a Quality, as Abstracted or separated from any Subject.  
Q. How are Abstract Substantives formed?  
A. Abstract Substantives are regularly form by adding the termination ness, to the Adjective, as goodness, kindness; and sometimes they end in th', as length from long, strength from strong, wealth from weal. Abstract Nouns borrowed from the Latin end variously, as Justice, Fortitude, Liberty, etc.   

Of the Substantive of the Actor or Doer.  
Q. What is the Substantive of the Actor or Doer?  
A. The Substantive of the Actor or Doer, is derived of a Verb, and Denotes the use or habit of doing, as a reader, he that reads often, or useth to read.  
Q. How is the Substantive of the Actor or Doer form?  
A. The Substantive of the Actor or Doer, is regularly form in English, by adding the termination er, to the theme of the Verb; as teach, teacher; play, player: But in words borrowed from the Latin we usually keep the Latin termination or, as Doctor, not Doctor; yet some writ our for or, to avoid the Latin termination, as Governor for Governor, Orator for Orator.   

Of the Substantive of the Action.  
Q. What is the Substantive of the Action?  
A. The Substantive of the Action, is that which signifies the Action, as separated from the Agent or Doer, as Learning, Reading, Writing, etc.  
Q. How is the Substantive of the Action form?  
A. The Substantive of the Action is regularly form in English, by adding the termination ing, to the theme of the Verb, as Preach, Preaching; Pray, Praying; Sing, Singing, and sometimes it is the theme of the Verb taken Substantively, as a Command, a Dance, Love, Use: Some end in meant, age, ance, as Commandment, Tillage, Appearance; and many derived from the Latin end in ion, as Instruction, Correction; and many otherwise, as Lecture, Reason, Doctrine, etc.  
Q. How is the Verbal Substantive in ing, distinguished from the Verbal Adjective in ing?  
A. The Verbal Substantive in ing, is distinguished from the Verbal Adjective in ing, by the sense.  
The Substantive in ing, admits a, or the, or any other Adjective before it in good sense, without another Substantive: But the Adjective in ing, does not admit a, or the, or any other Adjective in good sense, without some Substantive before it, or after it: As for Example, a Boy Singing Psalms, here Singing is an Adjective: The Singing of Psalms, here Singing is a Substantive.   

Of Substantives that signify Office.  
Q. How are Nouns that signify Office form?  
A. Nouns that signify Office are usually form by adding ship to th● Primitive Substantive, as Kingship, the Office of a King; Stewardship, the Office of a Steward; Guardianship, the Office of a Guardian. Some Nouns in ship signify State or Condition, as Lordship the State of a Lord; Partnership, the State or Condition of Partners.   

Of Substantive that signify Dominion.  
Q How are Nouns that signify Dominion or Rule form?  
A. Nouns that signify Dominion or Rule are usually form by adding dom to the Substantive, as Christendom, the Dominion of Christians; a Kingdom, the Dominion of a King; Popedom, the Dominion of the Pope.   

Of Substantives that signify State or Condition.  
Q. How are Nouns that signify State or Condition form?  
A. Nouns that signify State or Condition are usually form by adding head or hood to the Primitive Substantive, as the Godhead, the State or Majesty of God: Manhood, the state or condition of a Man: Childhood, the state or condition of a Child: Brotherhood, the state or condition of Brothers: Widowhood, the state or condition of a Widow.   

Of Derivative Adjectives.  
Q. How many sorts of derivative Adjectives are there?  
A. The most usual derivative Adjectives are of seven sorts, viz. possessive Adjectives, material Adjectives, Adjectives of fullness, Adjectives of emptiness, Adjectives of likeness, diminutive Adjectives, and ordinal Adjectives.   

Of a Possessive Adjective.  
Q. What is a possessive Adjective?  
A. A possessive Adjective is nothing else but the Genitive of the Possessor under the form of an Adjective, and the Substantive after it is always the possessed Substantive; for there cannot be a Possessor without something possessed, nor any thing possessed without a Possessor.  
Q. How is a possessive Adjective form?  
A. A possessive Adjective is variously form, but for the most part it is made in English by adding s or es possessive to the Substantive, and oftentimes s or es is omitted for the conveniency of pronunciation, as the house Door for the houses Door, the horses Bridles for the horseses Bridles.  
Q. How shall one know a possessive Adjective?  
A. That is always a possessive Adjective that may in good sense be resolved by the Genitive of its Primitive, made by the preposition of; as, my or of me, thy or of thee, our or of us, your or of you, his or of him, her or of her, their or of them; English or of England, French or of France, Italian or of Italy.  
Q. Does not an Adjective admit s or es possessive?  
A. An Adjective taken substantively admits s or es possessive, as another's Debt, or the Debt of another.  
Note. When the possessed Substantive is not expressed after my, thy, our, your, her, their, we say mine, thine ours, yours, hers, theirs; as, this Book is mine, not this Book is my; this Pen is thine, not this Pen is thy.  
Q. What is the use of a possessive Adjective, since it is nothing else but a Substantive of the Genitive Case, under the form of an Adjective?  
A. Tho the possessive Adjective be a real Substantive of the Genitive Case, yet it is of great use to distinguish the Genitive of the Possessor from other Genitives made by the preposition of, which is often very ambiguous and doubtful.   

Of a Material Adjective.  
Q. What is a material Adjective?  
A. A material Adjective is that which denotes the matter of which any thing is made; and in English it is usually made by adding en to the Substantive, and sometimes en is omitted, as a golden Ring, or a gold Ring, or a Ring made of Gold.  
Q. How shall one know a material Adjective?  
A. That is always a material Adjective that may in good sense be resolved by the Primitive Substantive, the participle made, and the preposition of; as brazen or made of Brass, wooden or made of Wood, woollen or made of Wool, flaxen or made of Flax.   

Of an Adjective of Fullness.  
Q. What is an Adjective of fullness?  
A. An Adjective of fullness is that which denotes the plenty, frequency or fullness of a thing or action, and it is usually made in English by adding the termination y or ous to the Substantive, and sometimes the Adjective full, as healthy or healthful, or full of Health.  
Q. How shall one know an Adjective of fullness?  
A. That is always an Adjective of fullness, that may be resolved in good sense by the primitive Substantive, and the Adjective full, as witty or full of Wit, malicious or full of Malice, etc.   

Of Adjectives of Emptiness.  
Q. What is an Adjective of emptiness?  
A. An Adjective of emptiness is that which signifies the want of the thing, and it is form in English by adding less to the Substantive, as healthless or without Health, graceless or void of Grace, senseless or void of Sense.   

Of Adjectives of Likeness.  
Q. What is an Adjective of likeness?  
A. An Adjective of likeness is that which denotes likeness to a thing, and it is usually form in English by adding the termination lie to the Substantive, and sometimes the Adjective like, as godly or like God, manly or like a Man, or manlike.   

Of Diminutive Adjectives.  
Q. What is a diminutive Adjective?  
A. A diminutive Adjective is that which denotes a little or somewhat of the nature or quality of the thing, and it is usually form in English by adding the termination ish to a Substantive or Adjective, as Childish or somewhat of a Child, blackish, a little black, or somewhat black; and sometimes it is made by adding the Adjective some, as troublesome, handsome.   

Of Ordinal Adjectives.  
Q. How are Adjectives of Number distinguished?  
A. Adjectives of number are distinguished into Cardinal and Ordinal.  
Q. What is a Cardinal Adjective?  
A. A Cardinal Adjective, or an Adjective of the cardinal Number, is that which signifies Number, as one, two, three, four, five, six, seven eight, nine, ten, etc.  
Q. What is an Ordinal Adjective?  
A. An Ordinal Adjective is form from the Cardinal, and signifies the order and place of the Cardinal, as, first, second, third fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, etc.  
Thus, first is the foremost of any number, second the latter of two, third the last of three, fourth the last of four, fifth the last of five, etc.   

Of Derivative Verbs.  
Q. How are derivative Verbs form?  
A. Derivative Verbs, are usually form from Substantives and Adjectives, by adding a verbal termination to the Substantive or Adjective, as ship, I ship, thou shippest, he shippeth, etc. to put into a Ship; and sometimes they are form by adding the termination en to the Substantive or Adjective, as lengthen to make long, shorten to make short, widen to make wide, etc.   

Of Derivative Adverbs.  
Q. How many sorts of derivative Adverbs are there?  
A. There are four more usual sorts of derivative Adverbs, viz. Positive, Comparative, Superlative, and Ordinal Adverbs.  
Q. How is a Positive Adverb form?  
A. A Positive Adverb is usually form by adding the termination lie to the Positive Adjective, as wise, wisely; foolish, foolishly; sinful, sinfully, etc.  
Q How may a Positive Adverb be resolved?  
A. A Positive Adverb may be resolved by the Preposition in, with the Ablative manner, and its Positive adjective, as ignorantly, or in an ignorant manner; foolishly, or in a foolish manner.  
Q. Are not some Positive Adverbs the same as their positive Adjectives?  
A. Some positive Adverbs are the same as their positive Adjectives, as ill, little, much; not illy, littlely; so well, not welly.  
Q How are Comparative and Superlative Adverbs form?  
A. Comparative and Superlative Adverbs are nothing else but Comparative and Superlative Adjectives, taken adverbially with Verbs and Participles; and for the most part they may be resolved by a positive Adverb with the Particles more, most, or very; as I writ slower or more slowly: Solomon spoke wisest or most wisely of all Men.  
Q. How are Ordinal Adverbs form?  
A. Ordinal Adverbs are usually form by adding  to the Ordinal Adjective, and they may be resolved by the Preposition in, with the Ablative place, and the Ordinal Adjective; as secondly, or in the second place; thirdly, or in the third place; fourthly, or in the fourth place. First is both an Ordinal Adjective, and an Ordinal Adverb; for we do not say firstly.   

Of the inseparable Particles un, dis, and mis.  
Q. Why are the Particles un, dis, and miss, called inseparable?  
A. The Particles un, did, and miss, are called inseparable, because they are never used but in composition with other words; and they all include the negative Particle not, besides their peculiar signification.  
Q. What does the Particle un signify?  
A. The Particle un always signifies Privation, that is the absence or want of something that either was or ought to be; as, unmerciful unkind, unholy.  
Q. Does not the Particle in sometimes signify un?  
A. In words derived from the Latin, the Particle in (or in when the pronunciation requires it) is the same as the privative Particle un; as ingratitude or unthankfulness, impatience or want of Patience: and sometimes it is an intensive Particle, and then it signifies very or very much; as intent or very earnest; enraged or very much provoked.  
Q. Is not the French Particle en sometimes used for the Latin Particle in?  
A. In many words borrowed from French and Latin, we use the French Particle en for in, when it is not privative: thus we indifferently say enraged or enraged, engrave or engrave, engender or engender, embrace or embrace, employ or employ.  
Note, The Particle un is always privative, en never, in sometimes privative and sometimes not: yet in Verbs it is seldom ever privative, but often in Participles and other words.  
Q. What does the Particle dis signify?  
A. The Particle dis usually signifies some contrariety, as to dishonour, or do something contrary to ones honour.  
Q. What does the Particle mis-signify?  
A. The Particle miss usually signifies wrong or error, as to mistake or take wrong, or otherwise than it is; to misuse, or use ill, or otherwise than we ought.   

Of a SENTENCE.  
Q. What is a Sentence?  
A. A Sentence is a construction of words wherein something is said of another, as man is Mortal; here it is said of Man that he is Mortal.  
Q. What are the essential parts of a Sentence?  
A. The essential parts of a Sentence, without which it cannot be, are a Verb and the Nominative of the Subject; all other words in a Sentence depend upon one of these two mediately or immediately.  
Q. Why cannot a Sentence be without a Verb and a Nominative Case?  
A. A Sentence cannot be without a Verb and a Nominative Case, because nothing can be said of another without a Verb, and no Verb can be without the Nominative of the Subject either expressed or understood.  
Q. How is a Sentence distingnished in respect of Composition?  
A. A Sentence in respect of Composition, is distinguished into Simple and Compound.  
Q. What is a simple Sentence?  
A. A simple Sentence is that wherein there is but one Verb and one Nominative of the Subject, either expressed or understood.  
Q. What is a Compound Sentence?  
A. A Compound Sentence is two simple Sentences joined together by a Conjunctive Particle, or a Conjunctive Adjective, as I read, and thou playest: This is the Boy who broke the Windows.   

Of the Syntax or Construction of words in a Sentence.  
Q. What is Syntax?  
A. Syntax or Construction is the right joining of words in a Sentence.  
Q. What's the construction of the Adjective with its Substantive?  
A. The Adjective is always of the same Gender, Number and Case with its Substantive; as this Man, that Boy, every Book, all things, one day; not those Man, those Boy, every Books, all thing, one days.  
Note, Tho English Adjectives for the most part have no distinction of Gender, Number or Case, yet some have, as in the instances above, and many more: on which Account this Rule cannot well be omitted in English.   

Of Apposition.  
Q. What is Apposition?  
A. Apposition is the adding of one Substantive to another, to declare and explain it: the latter or explaining Substantive is called the Apposite Substantive; the former or explained Substantive is called the antecedent Substantive: as for Example, if I say Paul the Apostle, the Apposite Substantive Apostle explains what Paul I speak of; and if I say the Apostle Paul, the Apposite Substantive Paul declares what Apostle I mean.  
Q. What is the construction of the Apposite with its Antecedent Substantive?  
A. The Apposite Substantive is always of the same Case with its Antecedent Substantive, as my Father loves me his only Child.   

Of the Nominative of the Subject.  
Q. What is the Nominative of the Subject?  
A. The Nominative of the Subject is that of which the Verb is predicated or said; and it usually comes before the Verb.  
Q. Must every Verb have a Nominative of the Subject?  
A. Every Verb must have a Nominative of the Subject either expressed or understood, because there can be no Action without an Agent, nor Passion without a Patient, nor Being without something that is in being.  
Q. What is the construction of the Verb with the Nominative of the Subject?  
A. The Verb is always of the same Number and Person with the Nominative of the Subject, as I writ, thou writest, he writeth; not I writest, thou writeth. I am, thou art, he is, we are; not I art, thou am, he are.  
Q. May not a whole Sentence be the Nominative Case to a Verb?  
A. A whole Sentence is often taken as one aggregate Substantive of the Neuter Gender, and third Person singular; and than it may be the Nominative Case before a Verb, or the Accusative after it, a Substantive to an Adjective, or an Antecedent to a Relative: as for Example, He who is virtuous is content with his Condition, which is the true property of Riches.  
Q. When does the Nominative of the Subject come after the Verb?  
A. The Nominative of the Subject usually comes after the Verb, or after its auxiliary, when the Sentence is imperative or interrogative; as read thou, or do thou read, readest thou, or dost thou read?  
2ly. When a declarative or final Sentence is the Nominative Case, it usually comes after the Verb, and then the Adjective it comes before the Verb; as for example, It grieves me much that thou art idle, or that thou art idle grieves me much.  
3ly. When the Nominative is put indefinitely, it usually comes after the Verb, and then we put the indefinite Particle there before it; as there came a Man to our House.  
Q. Is not the Nominative of the Subject sometimes suppressed?  
A. The Nominative of the Subject is often suppressed after the second Person Singular and Plural of the Imperative; as go, for go thou, or go ye.  
2ly. Before Verbs of Nature, and then we put it before the Verb; as it reins, it grows Night.   

Of the Nominative of the Predicate.  
Q. What is the Nominative of the Predicate?  
A. The Nominative of the Predicate is that which is said of the Nominative of the Subject; as I am he, thou art she, those are they; not I am him, thou art her, those are them.  
Q. May not the Nominative come after other Verbs?  
A. The Nominative may come after any other Verb, by a suppression of the substantive Verb or its Participles.  
Q. After what Verbs does the Nominative most usually come?  
A. The Nom. comes most usually after intransitive Verbs, and Passive Verbs, of calling, esteeming, judging, and others; which therefore may improperly be called copulative Verbs; as I am called Peter: thou art esteemed (to be) an honest Man: My Father returned (being) angry.  
Q. How shall one know when a Substantive or Adjective that comes after a Verb is in the Nom. Case?  
A. When a Substantive or Adjective comes after any Verb, it is in the Nom. Case, if it belong to the Nom. before the Verb; as I went to bed sick, or being sick; the Child died young, or being young.  
Q. How may one know the Nom. of the Predicate from the Nom. of the Subject?  
A. In order of nature, the Nom. of the Predicate comes after the copulative Verb; but oftentimes the natural order of Predication is changed, by which the sense and meaning of Authors is often mistaken and perverted. Yet the Predicate may be easily known from the Subject, whether it be before or after the Verb, because it is always a superior or more common Substantive than the Subject, or at least equal to it, never inferior or less common.  
Q. How shall one know the superior Substantive?  
A. That is always the superior Substantive that can in good sense be affirmed of the inferior and of more things, but not contrary wise. Thus all common Nouns are superior to the personal Substantives I and thou, and all proper Names, and all other individuals; and more common Nouns superior to less commons Nouns; as London is a City; an Oak is a Tree; a Sparrow is a Bird; not contrary wise, a City is London; a Tree is an Oak; a Bird is a Sparrow; because there are more Cities than London, more Trees than Oaks, and more Birds than Sparrows.  
Q. When is the Predicate equal to the Subject?  
A. The Predicate is equal to the Subject, when they can be mutually affirmed of one another, and one cannot be said of more things than the other; as, every extended Substance is a Body, and every Body is an extended Substance; every Man is a rational Creature, every rational Creature is a Man.   

Of the Vocative.  
Q. What is the construction of the Vocative?  
A. The Vocative is no part of the Sentence, but only the Person to whom the Sentence is addressed, and therefore depends upon no other word in the Sentence.  
Q Of what Person is the Vocative?  
A. The Vocative is always of the second Person, Singular or Plural.  
Note, Persons or intelligent Being's properly have the Vocative Case, because they only can be spoken to: yet other things are sometimes spoken to, as if they were Persons, and then we give them the Vocative Case.  
Q. Is not the Voc. governed of the Interjection O?  
A. The Voc. is not governed of the Interjection O, though it be sometimes put before the Voc. in Exclamation, as it may also be before any other word.   

Of the Gentive of the Possessor.  
Q. Of what is the Gen. of the Possessor governed?  
A. The Genitive of the Possessor is governed of some possessed Substantive, either expressed or understood; as the Word of God; the Life of Man.  
Q. Is not a possessive Adjective often substituted for the Gen. of the Possessor?  
A. A Possessive Adjective being nothing else but the Gen. of the Possessor under the form of an Adjective, is elegantly substituted for the Gen. of its Primitive made by of, to avoid ambiguity; as, my hand, or the hand of me; God's Word, or the Word of God.  
Note, The possessive Adjectives, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are almost always used instead of their Primitive Genitives made by of, when Possession is signified; as my House, thy Book, our Town, your Count try; not the House of me, the Book of thee, the Town of us, the Country of you.  
Q. When the Genitive of the Possessor is expressed in several words, where must s or es Possessive be added?  
A. When the Gen. of the Possessor is expressed in several words, they are taken as one aggregate Substantive, and s or es Possessive added to the last word; as, the King of England 's Court; Julius Caesar Scaliger 's Book.   

The Genitive of the Object.  
Q. Of what is the Genitive of the Object governed?  
A. The Gen. of the Object is governed of a verbal Substantive, of an active Signification; as, the reading of the Bible, the Salvation of a Sinner, a lover of his Country. etc.  
Note, The Gen. of the Possessor, and the Gen. of the Object, are sometimes governed of the same verbal Substantive; as, God's care of his Creatures.  
Note, My love is that which I possess, and wherewith I love another; the love of me is that of which I am the Object, and with which another loves me.   

Of the Genitive of the greater Number.  
Q. Of what is the Genitive of the greater number governed?  
A. The Genitive of the greater number is governed of some partitive Adjective; as, one of the Sisters, the best of the Boys.  
Note, The Genitive of the greater number is always Plural, except it be a collective Noun; as, the best of the People, the worst of the City.  
Note, That Partition of the greater number is sometimes made by the Preposition among; as, the wisest among them, or the wisest of them.  
Q. What is a Collective Noun?  
A. A Collective Noun, or a Noun of multitude Singular, is that which in the Singular number contains many Individuals; as, a Nation, a City, etc.  
Q. What Adjectives are Partitive?  
A. Almost all Adjectives may be used partitively, but especially interrogative, numeral, comparative, and superlative Adjectives.   

The Genitive of the greater Quantity.  
Q. Of what is the Genitive of the greater Quantity governed?  
A. The Gen. of the greater Quantity is governed of some Substantive signifying a lesser Quantity; and oftentimes an Adjective of Quantity is elegantly substituted for its abstract Substantive: as, a bushel of Wheat, a yard of Cloth, a foot of Ground, part of the Money, most of the Time, enough of Hail.  
Note, the Preposition of is sometimes suppressed; as much Wine, for a great quantity of Wine; more Wine for a greater quantity of Wine; a little Bread for a small quantity of Bread.  
Note, The Genitive of the greater Quantity is usually Singular, but not always; as, a barrel of Oysters.  
Note, The Genitive of the Possessor, and the Genitive of the greater Quantity, may both be governed of the same Substantive; as, my part of the Wine.   

Of the Genitive of the Part or Property.  
Q. Of what is the Genitive of the Part or Property governed?  
A. When the Substantive of the Part or Property has an Adjective joined with it, it is governed of the Substantive, whose Part or Property it is in the Genitive, and sometimes in the Ablative with the Preposition with before it; as, a Boy of a good Countenance, a Man of a long Head, or with a long Head.  
Note, In English the Adjective is sometimes suppressed, especially when the Genitive is a verbal Substantive; as, a man of Sense, for a man of good Sense.   

Of the Dative.  
Q. Of what is the Dative governed?  
A. The Dative is governed of some applicable Adjective or Verb, or of words derived of them, whether Substantives, Adjectives, or Adverbs.  
Q. What Adjectives and Verbs are applicable?  
A. Almost all Adjectives and Verbs may be applied to a thing, yet some are of their own nature more applicable than others, as Adjectives and Verbs that denote Profit or Loss, Good or Evil, or any other reference to a thing: as, it is agreeable to nature; he is obliged to me; be acted agreeably to his nature; where there is no Crime, there is no obligation to punishment.  
Q. Is not the Preposition to sometimes suppressed before the Dative?  
A. The Preposition to or unto, is often suppressed before the Dative; as, I gave him a Bock, or I gave to him a Bock; like me, or like to me; near thee, or near to thee.  
Note, We usually suppress to before the Substantive home; as I came home, not to home.  
Note, To or into, after Verbs of Motion, is a Preposition of the Accusative Case.  
Q. Is not for sometimes substituted for to in Application?  
A. For is sometimes substituted for to in Application; as, I have a Book for you, or to you; This is for your Profit, or to your Profit.   

Of the Accusative of the Object.  
Q. Of what is the Accusative of the Object governed?  
A. The Accusative of the Object is always governed of some Verb or Participle of an Active signification, either expressed or understood; as, I call thee, I call him, I call them; not I call thou, I call he, I call they.  
Q. Is not the Accusative of the Object sometimes suppressed?  
A. When the Accusative of the Object is a cognate Substantive, or of the same signification with the Verb it is usually suppressed; as, I live, viz. a Life: but if it have an Adjective with it, it is necessarily expressed; as I live a good Life.   

Of the Ablative.  
Q Of what is the Ablative governed?  
A. The Ablative is always governed of some Preposition of the Ablative Case, either expressed or understood; as, from me, from thee; not from I, from thou.   

Of Passive Verbs and Participles.  
Q. What case have Verbs and Participles of a Passive signification after them?  
A. Verbs and Participles of a Passive signification have after them the Ablative of the Agent or Doer, with the Preposition of or by; as, a good Child is loved of or by his Father.  
Note, There is a verbal Adjective that ends in able, and sometimes in ible, which signifies a Passive power, and sometimes an Active power: when it denotes a Passive power, it is a Passive Participle, and admits after it the Ablative of the Doer, with the Preposition of or by; as, attainable by no Man: but when it denotes an Active Power, it is not a Participle; as, a forcible Medicine, or a Medicine that can force.  
Q. What's the difference betwixt Action and Passion?  
A. Action and Passion are the very same in sense, and differ only in the manner of Expression: for whatever is the Object of Action, is always the subject of Passion; and contrary wise, whatever is the Subject of Passion, is the Object of Action.  
Q. May Intransitive Verbs be said in the first and second Persons Passive?  
A. Intransitive Verbs cannot be said in the first and second Persons Passive, because the Object of intransitive Verbs is only the Accusative of their own signification, which is always of the third Person, and therefore cannot be the Nominative to the first and second Persons Passive; for nothing can be the Subject to Passive verbs and Participles that cannot be the Object of their Active Verbs and Participles: as for Example, I cannot say in good sense, I am lived, in the Passive Voice; because the personal Substantive I cannot be the Accusative of the Object in the Active Voice; but I can say, a Life is lived, because I can say in the Active Voice, I live a Life.  
Q. How may a Sentence be changed from Active to Passive, the sense remaining the same?  
A. A Sentence may be changed from Active to Passive, the sense remaining the same, by turning the Accusative of the Object after the Active Verb, into the Nominative of the Subject before the Passive Verb, and the Nom. of the Subject before the Active Verb into the Ablative of the Doer, with the Preposition of or by before it after the Passive Verb; as, I call thee, passively thou art called by me, or of me; my Father loves me, passively, I am loved of my Father, or by my Father.  
Q. What if there be another Accusative after the Accusative of the Object?  
A. If there be another Accusative after the Accusative of the Object, it is either the Apposite Accusative by a suppression of the Participle being, or the Accusative of the Predicate after the copulative Infinitive to be; or it is the Accusative of some Preposition suppressed.  
If it be the Apposite Accusative, it is turned into the Nom. and put after the Nom. of the Subject before the Passive Verb; as, I read Paul the Apostle; passively Paul the Apostle is read by me.  
If it be the Accusative of the Predicate, it is turned into the Nom. after the Passive Verb; as, I will make thee a Scholar; passively, you shall be made a Scholar by me.  
If it be the Accusative of some Preposition suppressed, than it comes after the Passive Verb in the Accusative Case; as, I will teach thee them; passively, thou shalt be taught them by me.   

Of Compound Sentences.  
Q. Which are the principal Compound Sentences?  
A. The principal Compound Sentences are, a Relative, Copulative, Declarative, Final, Continuative, Comparative, and Interrogative Sentence.   

Of a Relative Sentence.  
Q. What is a Relative Sentence?  
A. A Relative Sentence is that which hath in it the Relative Adjective who or which.  
Q. Why is the Relative Adjective so called?  
A. The Relative Adjective is so called, because it relates or rehearses after it some antecedent or foregoing Substantive; as, this is the Book which (Book) I lost.  
Q. Of what Number and Person must the Relative be?  
A. The Relative must be of the same Number and Person with the Antecedent.  
Q. How may a Relative Sentence be contracted?  
A. If the Relative be the Nom. of the Subject to the following Verb, than the Sentence may be contracted by putting away the Relative, and turning the Verb into a Participle, to which the Antecedent is the Substantive: as for Example, A man who wants Learning is little esteemed; contracted, a man wanting Learning is little esteemed.  
Q. What if the Relative be the Accusative of the Object to the following Verb?  
A. If the Relative be the Accusative of the Object to the following Verb, turn it into the Nom. of the Subject before the passive Verb: as, A man whom God hates is wretched; passively, a man who is hated of God is wretched; contracted. a man hated of God is wretched.  
Q Into what Participle must the Verb be turned?  
A. If the Verb be active, it must be turned into the present Participle; but if it be Passive, it must be turned into the Preter Participle.  
Q What if the Relative be the Nom. to the Substantive Verb?  
A If the Relative be the Nom. to the Substantive Verb, it is turned into its Participle being, and the Predicate after the Substantive Verb must be conformed to the Antecedent Substantive in case.  
Note, This Contraction made by the Participle being, is the ground of Apposition, and may be resolved by the Relative and the Substantive Verb: but if the Apposite Substantive be a proper name, it is resolved by the Relative, and a Passive Verb of calling: as, Paul the Apostle, or Paul who is the Apostle; the Apostle Paul, or the Apostle who is called Paul.  
Note, The Participle being is very often suppressed in English, and always in Latin.  
Q. How shall one know the case of the Relative?  
A. The Relative with the Antecedent after it, either expressed or understood, is the Nom. to the following Verb, if there come no other Nom. between it and the following Verb; but if there come another Nom. between it and the following Verb, than it is governed of the Verb, or of some other word in the Sentence with the Verb.  
Q Is not the Antecedent usually suppressed after the Relative?  
A. The Antecedent is usually suppressed after the Relative to avoid a repetition, and sometimes is suppressed before the Relative, but never both before and after.  
Q. Is not the Relative sometimes suppressed?  
A. The Relative is often elegantly suppressed in English; as, this is the Child I love, or whom I love.  
Q. What if the Relative be suppressed after a Preposition?  
A. If the Relative be suppressed after a Preposition, the Preposition is elegantly put after the following Verb; as, this is the Person of whom I spoke, or this is the Person I spoke of.  
Q. Of what Person is a Substantive or Adjective of the first or second Person affirmed?  
A. Every Substantive or Adjective affirmed of the first or second Person, is then of the first or second Person; as, I poor man am singing, not is singing; thou rich man art lamenting, not is lamenting.  
Q. What if the first or second Person be the Antecedent to the Relative?  
A. If the first or second Person, or any other Substantive or Adjective affirmed of the first or second Person mediately or immediately, be the Antecedent to a Relative of the Nom. Case, than the Relative and the Verb are also of the first or second Person: as for Example, I am a man who am full of Grief, not who is full of Grief; Thou art a Boy who lovest to be idle, not who loveth.  
Q. Is not a possessive Adjective sometimes the Antecedent to the Relative?  
A. A possessive Adjective is often the Antecedent to the Relative; as, This is my writing who am a Scribbler.  
Note, If the possessive Adjective has an Apposite Substantive, Adjective, or Participle, it is of the Genitive Case, and comes after the possessed Substantive; as, my Sin alone is incorrigible, for the Sin of me alone: No man regards his Promise, a perfidious Knave, for being a perfidious Knave, or who is a perfidious Knave.  
Q. How is a Relative contraction resolved?  
A. A Relative contraction is resolved by supplying the Relative Adjective after the antecedent Substantive, and turning the Participle into the Verb, and putting the apposite Substantive after the Substantive Verb.   

Of a Copulative Sentence.  
Q. What is a copulative Sentence?  
A. A Copulative Sentence is that which hath in it the copulative Conjunction and.  
Q. How is a Copulative Sentence contracted?  
A. If two coupled Substantives of the same Case have the same Verbs, the same Adjectives, the same apposite Substantives, they may be turned into one Verb Plural, one Adjective Plural, and one Apposite Plural.  
Q. What if the Verbs be of different Persons?  
A. If the Verbs be of different Persons, the Verb Plural is of the more worthy Person. The first Person is more worthy than the second, and the second than the third; as, I and thou art Boys; here the Verb are is of the first Person Plural: thou and Peter are idle, here are is of the second Person Plural.  
Q. What if the two Nominatives be the same?  
A. If the two Nominatives be the same, the latter is usually suppressed; as, Peter stood, and Peter prayed; contracted, Peter stood and prayed.  
Note, If the two Verbs be of the same Tense, one of them may be turned into the Present Participle, and then the sense is the same as in a continuative Sentence; as, Peter stood praying, or, Peter prayed standing, or while he stood.   

Of a Declarative and Final Sentence.  
Q. What is a Declarative Sentence?  
A. A Declarative Sentence is that which hath in it the declarative Conjunction that; as, I know that thou art he.  
Q. What is a final Sentence?  
A. A final Sentence is that which hath in it the final Conjunction that; as, I desire that I may read.  
Q. How is a Declarative or Final Sentence contracted?  
A. A Declarative or Final Sentence is contracted by putting away the Particle that, and turning the Nom. into the Accusative, and the Verb into the Infinitive: as, I know that thou art he; contracted, I know thee to be him: I desire that I may read; contracted, I desire to read.  
Note, The Nom. of the Predicate after a copulative Verb is turned into the Accusative after the Copulative Infinitive; because the Predicate must always be in the same Case with the Subject; as, I know thee to be her, not to be she.  
Q. What if the Accus. before the Infinitive be the same Substantive with the Nom. of the foregoing Verb?  
A. If the Accus. before the Infinitive be the same Substantive with the Nom. of the foregoing Verb, it is elegantly suppressed; as, I desire that I may go; contracted, I desire to go: and if the Infinitive be Copulative, the Predicate after it is then the Nom. Case; as, I desire to be he, not him.  
Q. How shall one know when the Particle that is Declarative, and when it is Final?  
A. The Particle that is Declarative when it may in good sense be suppressed; as, I know that he is come, or I know he is come. It is Final when it admits after it in good sense the Auxiliary may or might; as, I desire that thou read, or that thou may read.  
Q. When is the Adjective that Relative, and when Demonstrative?  
A. The Adjective that is Relative when it may in good sense be turned into who or which, otherwise it is Demonstrative; as, I know that Man.  
Q. How is a declarative or final Contraction resolved?  
A. A declarative or final Contraction is resolved by supplying the Particle that, and turning the Accusative into the Nom. and the Infinitive into the Verb, and the Accusative of the Predicate after a copulative Infinitive into the Nominative of the Predicate after the copulative Verb.  
Note, Every Infinitive with an Accusative before it, either expressed or understood, is the contraction of a declarative or final Members otherwise it is the same as the verbal Substantive in ing; as, to read is profitable, or reading is profitable.  
Q. Is not the Infinitive to be often suppressed between the Subject and the Predicate?  
A. The Infinitive to be is often suppressed between the Subject and the Predicate, especially after active and passive Verbs of calling, making, seeming, esteeming, judging, and some others; as, I will make him (to be) a Man; he is esteemed (to be) honest.  
Q. Is not the Imperative a contraction of a Final Sentence?  
A. The Imperative is a contraction of a Final Sentence, where the Antecedent Verb is a Verb of commanding or entreating; as, go thou, or I command that thou go; give me Bread, or I pray thee give me Bread.   

Of a Continuative Sentence.  
Q. What is a Continuative Sentence?  
A. A Continuative Sentence is that which hath in it some continuative Particle; as, while, whilst, when, after that.  
Note, We often say after by a suppression of that; as, after I came home.  
Q. How is a continuative Sentence contracted?  
A. A Continuative Sentence is contracted by putting away the continuative Particle, and turning the Verb into the present or preter Participle.  
Q. What if the Nom. in the continuative Member be the same with the Nom. in the antecedent Member?  
A. If the Nom. in the continuative Member (or the Accusative of the Object which may be turned into the Nom.) be the same with the Nom. in the Antecedent Member, than it is put away; as, when I was Sick I stayed at home, or being Sick I stayed at home. But if it be not the same with the Nom. in the Antecedent Member, it is not put away; as, when my Father was Sick, or my Father being Sick, I stayed at home.  
Q. When must the Verb be turned into the present Participle?  
A. The Verb must be turned into the present Participle when the Particle is while or when, denoting that both actions were done at the same time; as, I stood while I was writing my Letter, or I stood writing my Letter.  
Q. When must the Verb be turned into the Preter Participle?  
A. The Verb must be turned into the Preter Participle when the continuative Particle is after or after that, denoting that one action was done after another, and then the Participle having or being is put before the Preter Participle in English; as, I went home after I had said my Lesson; having said my Lesson I went home.  
Q. May not a continuative Member be contracted by a verbal Substantive of the Action?  
A. A Continuative Member may be also contracted by the verbal Substantive of the Action with the Preposition in, when both actions are done at the same time, or with the Preposition after, when one action follows the other; as for example, When Augustus reigned Christ was born, or Christ was born in the reign of Augustus; The wise men came to Jerusalem after that Jesus was born, or after the Birth of Jesus.   

Of a Comparative Sentence.  
Q. What is a Comparative Sentence?  
A. A Comparative Sentence is that which hath in it the Comparative Particle than.  
Q. How many sorts of Comparison are there?  
A. There are two sorts of Comparison, viz. a Comparison of thing with thing, or a comparison of action with action.  
Q. How is the Comparison of thing with thing made?  
A. The Comparison of thing with thing is made by a Comparative Adjective before than.  
Q. How is a Comparative Member contracted?  
A. A Comparative Member where thing is compared with thing, is contracted by suppressing the substantive Verb after than, and the Positive after the substantive Verb; as, I am wiser than thou art wise; contracted, I am wiser than thou.  
Q. In what case is the Substantive after than, to which the Comparison is made?  
A. The substantive after than, to which the Comparison is made, is always the Nom. of the Subject before the substantive Verb either expressed or understood; and if another Verb come after it, then 'tis a contraction of a Relative Sentence; as, I have a better Book than thou hast, i. e. I have a better Book than the Book is which thou hast.  
Q. What if the Positive Adjective to which the comparison is made, be not the Positive of the Comparative Adjective?  
A. If the Positive Adjective to which the comparison is made, be not the Positive of the Comparative, it cannot be suppressed nor the Sentence contracted; as, I am stronger than thou art wise.  
Q. How is the Comparison of Action with Action made?  
A. The Comparison of Action with Action, is made by a Comparative Adverb before the Particle than; and if the Verb after than be the same with the Verb in the Antecedent Member, it may be suppressed, otherwise it cannot; as, I writ better than thou writest; contracted, I writ better than thou: but if I say, I writ better than thou readest, it cannot be contracted.  
Q. Does not the Particle than join like Cases?  
A. No Conjunction joins any Case, but always Sentences, though very often by reason of the suppression of other words in the Sentence it falls out that the like Case is before and after the Conjunction, on which the Grammarians falsely grounded a Rule, That Conjunctions couple like Cases.   

Of an Interrogative Sentence.  
Q. What is an Interrogative Sentence?  
A. An Interrogative Sentence is that which has in it some Interrogative Adjective or Particle; as, who, what, whether or no, and such like.  
Q. How is an Interrogative Sentence contracted?  
A. An Interrogative Sentence is contracted by putting away the Interrogative Verb with its Nominative, and putting the Nominative in the Subjunctive Member after the Verb; as, I ask who thou art; contracted, who art thou?  
Obs. In a Question made with a Substantive Verb, the Interrogative Adjective is always the Predicate after it, though it go before it; as, who am I? but when the Substantive Verb is in the Imperative, the Nominative of the Predicate follows the Nominative of the Subject after it; as, be thou good.  
Note. There is no need of a Point of Interrogation after an interrogative Sentence, where the Interrogative Verb is expressed.   

Of a Disjunctive Sentence.  
Q. What is a Disjunctive Sentence?  
A. A Disjunctive Sentence is that which has in it the Disjunctive Particle or, either, neither.  
Q. How is a Disjunctive Sentence contracted?  
A. A Disjunctive Sentence is contracted by suppressing the Nominative and the Verb in the Subjunctive Member; as, I have Money, or (I have) Goods; contracted, I have Money or Goods.   

Of a Period.  
Q. What is a Period?  
A. A Period is a circuit or round of Words wherein the sense is not only perfect, but fully finished without any following words depending on it.  
Q. What are the Members of a Period?  
A. The Members of a Period are two compound Sentences, and sometimes three, rarely four: some lesser Periods consist only of one Member, or of one and a half, that is of one Compound Sentence, and one single Sentence depending upon it.   

Of the Figurative Construction of Words.  
Q. Is not the Sense of a Sentence often obscure and ambiguous?  
A. Besides the ambiguity of a single word, by reason of its various significations, the sense of a whole Sentence is often liable to be mistaken by reason of the various Transpositions, Suppressions and Substitutions used in English, and all learned Languages.   

Of Transposition.  
Q. What is Transposition?  
A. Transposition is the placing of words in a Sentence out of the natural order of Construction, that is, in putting words before which should come after, and words after which should go before.  
Q. Why are words transposed in a Sentence?  
A. Words are transposed in a Sentence to please the Ear, by making the contexture of words more harmonious, elegant, and agreeable; for in the natural order it often happens that the pronunciation is very rough and inelegant, because of the concurrence of rough Consonants, or of hiant or gaping Vowels, or some other harsh conjuncture of words; but where the natural order is smooth and grateful to the ear, the words ought not to be transposed unless in Poetry when the necessity of the Verse requires it.  
Note, Many of the Romans too much affecting this kind of elegancy, have greatly clouded, and obscured their sense, as if they designed not to be understood; or at least to puzzle their Readers with their intricate and perplexed Contextures.   

Of Suppression, called in Greek Ellipsis.  
Q. What is Suppression?  
A. Suppression is the omission or leaving out of words in a Sentence that are necessary to a full Construction; as, I came from my Father's, where House is suppressed.  
Q. Why are words suppressed in a Sentence?  
A. Words are suppressed in a Sentence for brevity and elegancy.  
Q. What words are usually suppressed?  
A. It were almost infinite to tell all the words that are suppressed in English, or any other learned Language, only in general you may observe these three Rules.  

1st. That whatever word comes to be repeated in a Sentence oftener than once, it is seldom expressed but once, to avoid a repetition of the same word which is usually very inelegant and unpleasing to the Ear; as for example, This is my Master's Book, or this Book is my Master's, for this Book is my Master's Book.  
2dly. Words that are necessarily employed need not be expressed; as for Example, I live in London, where Life is necessarily employed after the Verb live, it having no other Object, and therefore needless to be expressed.  

3dly. Whatever words are usually suppressed by the custom of any Language, are not to be expressed without some particular reason; as for example, A good man lives a good Life; where the Adjective good makes it necessary to express the Substantive Life.  
Note, Suppression is the most elegant and useful of all the figures of Construction, to avoid the tedious and nauseous repetition of many words that yet are necessarily understood to make up a full Construction; as for example, I writ a better hand than thou; where the full Construction amounts to more than double the number of these words; thus, I writ a hand, which hand is a better hand, than the hand is good which hand thou writest; which kind of expression is both nauseous and troublesome.     

Of Substitution, called in Greek Enallage.  
Q. What is Substitution?  
A. Substitution is the using of one word for another, or one accident of a word for another, as one Case for another, one Tense for another, one Person for another, one Number for another, one Mood for another, and the Primitive and Derivative for one another, Simple and Compound for one another, etc.  
Q. Is not the Construction often made according to the sense, not the words?  
A. Construction is often made according to the sense, not according to the words; that is, not according to the substituted word, but according to the word for which it is substituted; as for example, the whole Nation were called Venetians, where the whole Nation is put for all the People of the Nation, to which the Verb Plural were is accommodated: part of the men are killed, where part is put for some, several, or many of the men, to which the Verb Plural are is conformed. Thus a concrete Adjective is often substituted for its abstract Substantive, and contrary wise the Abstract for the Concrete; as for example, He has no good in him, i. e. no Goodness; a man of Knowledge, for a knowing man; a man of Learning, for a learned man.   

Of Zeugma.  
Q. What is Zeugma?  
A. Zeugma is when two or more Substantives in a Sentence have some words common to them, especially Verbs or Adjectives, and some words peculiar to each of them; then the Substantives with what is common to them, are first expressed, and then what is peculiar to each is subjoined by a Suppression of what is common; as for example, One Brother was killed in Flanders, and another in France; contracted, The two Brothers were killed, one in Flanders, the other in France.   

Of a Solecism and Pleonasm.  
Q. What is a Solecism?  
A. A Solecism is when words are joined together contrary to the laws of Grammar, as methinks, for I think.  
Q. What is a Pleonasm?  
A. A Pleonasm is the using of unnecessary words in a Sentence, especially Nouns and Particles; as, he spoke with his Mouth; he saw with his Eyes; he heard with his Ears: where the words Mouth, Eyes, Ears, are superfluous in the Sentence, because they are necessarily employed.   

Of the natural Order of words.  
Q. Since the Composition of Sentences are often intricate and obscure, how may the sense and meaning of them be best found?  
A. The best way to find the true sense and meaning of any Sentence, is to reduce transposed words to the Natural Order, to supply suppressed words, and to change substituted words into the words for which they are substituted, and lastly to distinguish ambiguous words.  
Q. What is the Natural Order of words?  
A. The Natural or Grammatical Order is that depending words follow the words on which they depend, except Relatives and Interrogatives, whose Natural Order is to come before the words of which they are governed.  
Q. How may every Sentence be divided?  
A. Every Sentence may be divided into two parts, the Subject and Predicate: the Nom. of the Subject with all that depends upon it, mediately or immediately, is the Subject of the Sentence, and must be taken first: the Verb with all that depends upon it, mediately or immediately, is the Predicate of the Sentence, and must be taken next; as in the following Example, Alexander the Great, Son of Philip King of Macedonia (the subject) conquered the greatest part of the World, in the space of twelve years, (the Predicate).  
Q. How may one reduce words to the Natural Order?  
A. Words may be reduced to the natural Order thus: first read the Sentence deliberately to a full stop. Look next for the Verb, that by the Number and Person of the Verb you may find out the Nom. Case; and if there be two Verbs in the Sentence, the first is to be taken first, unless it be the Infinitive, or have a Relative or a Conjunction before it; for in Compound Sentences the Subjunctive Member follows the Antecedent Member in the natural Order.  
The Relative and its Member must come immediately after the Antecedent Substantive. Adverbs and Prepositions come after their Verbs and Participles. The Adjective in English comes before its Substantive; but if any other word depend upon the Adjective, than it must necessarily come after the Substantive to avoid confusion of the sense; as for example, I saw Peter writing a Letter, not I saw writing Peter a Letter. Resolve s or es Possessive into its Primitive Genitive made by of: dilate all contracted Sentences by which you may find the true Grammar of the words, and consequently the true sense of the Sentence.  
Note, Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adjectives do always belong to the Sentence immediately following them; and if they be not in the middle by putting the Antecedent Member before; as, If thou be rich thou shalt have many Friends, or thou shalt have many Friends if thou be rich. If there be a Voc. Case, it must be taken first, because it is the Person to whom the following Speech is addressed. If there be any Interjections or other exciting Particles, they are next in order of nature, because they excite the attention of the hearers to what follows.   

Of the Points, Pauses or Stops.  
Q. How many Points or Stops are there?  
A. There are four Points or Stops, a Comma (,) a Colon (:) Semi-Colon (;) and a Period or full stop (.)  
Q. What is the use of the Points?  
A. The use of the Points is to give time of Respiration or Breathing, and to avoid the confusion of the sense in joining words together in speaking or reading, which are not joined in Sense or Construction.  
Q. Where is a Comma put?  
A. A Comma is put between the Members of a Compound Sentence, whether full or contracted, and between all words that have not an immediate dependence upon one another in Sense and Construction.  
Q. Where is a Colon put?  
A. A Colon or Member is put between the two Members of a Period, or which is the same, between two compound Sentences.  
Q. Where is a Semi-Colon put?  
A. A Semi-Colon or half Member is put between a whole Member and a half Member, that is between a compound Sentence, and a single Sentence following it.  
Q. Where is a Period put?  
A. A Period or full Stop is put at the end of a Sentence containing full and complete Sense, and where no other words following have any dependence upon it.  
Note, A Comma is the shortest Stop, a Semicolon is longer than a Comma; a Colon is longer than a Semicolon; a Period is longest of all; as in the following Period. Riches are often joined with habitual Vices in the Possessors, and indifferently serve for bad or good Uses: the greedy pursuit of them, blasts all true worth of Spirit, and turns the Soul to Earth and Corruption.   

Of a Note of Interrogation. (?)  
Q. Where is a Note of Interrogation put?  
A. A Note of Interrogation is put after a short and contracted Question, to show that it is a Question; but if the Interrogative Verb be expressed, there's no need of it.   

Of a Note of Admiration. (!)  
Q. Where is a Note of Admiration put?  
A. A Note of Admiration is put after words, to show how wonderful, strange, or deplorable the Thing is.   

Of a Parenthesis. ()  
Q. What is the use of a Parenthesis?  
A. The use of a Parenthesis is to enclose words put within a Sentence, which are no part of it, and without which the sense is perfect.  
Note, The mark of an Apostroph is sometimes put before s servile, not because there is any Vowel omitted, but to show that s there is an additional Termination, and not a part of the Theme or Primitive word: this mark does not seem necessary but when s servile is added to a foreign word used in English without any alteration; as, great Encomium's, two Commas; or when a word is taken materially, that is, for the Letters and Syllables, or (which is the same) for the Sound without the Signification; as, yeas and no's; ifs or and's.  
FINIS.