Frederic Augustus the Present King of POLAND    

The History of POLAND; IN Several LETTERS to Persons of Quality.  
Giving an Account of the Present State of that Kingdom,  

VIZ.  
Historical,  
Political,  
Physical and  
Ecclesiastical;   
The Form of Government; The King's Power, Court and Revenues; The Senate, Senators, and other Officers; The Religion, Diet, and little Diets, with other Assemblies and Courts of Justice; The Inter-regnum; Election and Coronation of a King and Queen, with all the Ceremonies; The present Condition of the Gentry and Commonalty; as likewise, The Genius, Characters, Languages, Customs, Manners, Military Affairs, Trade and Riches of the Poles. Together with an Account of the City of Dantzic: The Origin, Progress, and Present State of the Teutonic Order; and the Successions of all its Great Masters: Likewise, The Present State of Learning, Natural Knowledge, Practice of Physic, and Diseales in Poland: And lastly, A Succinct Description of the Duchy of Curland, and the Livonian Order; with a Series of the several Dukes, and Provincial Masters.  
To this is also added, A Table for each Volume; And a Sculpture of the Diet in Session: With some Memoirs from Baron Blomberg.  
VOL. II.  
By BERNARD CONNOR, M. D.  
Fellow of the Royal Society, and Member of the College of Physicians; who, in his Travels in that Country▪ Collected these Memoirs from the best Authors, and his own Observations.  
Composed and Published by ●ir. SAVAGE  
LONDON, Printed for Da●. Brown, without Templ-Bar' and A. Roper and T. Leigh, both in Il et-street, 1698.   

DR. CONNOR ' S PREFACE.  
IN my PREFACE to the First Volume of this Historical Relation of POLAND, I have mentioned my Incapacity for Matters of this Nature; both because I was only Twelve Months in that Kingdom, and because I have no Talon, or Genius, for History. I thought, Writing it by way of LETTERS, in Imitation of some of our Neighbours, would be more easy to myself, and more acceptable to the Public. I am proud to have this happy Occasion of giving the Honourable Persons I write to so public a Testimony of my Respects. I am sorry in the same time, I cannot have Leisure to honour myself in writing to the Noble Persons mentioned in the Second Volume, as I have had in the First. I follow a Profession so remote from HISTORY, particularly a Polish one, that it neither allows me Time, nor leaves me any Inclination to attend any other Business. I hope notwithstanding, the Persons I promised to write to, will be pleased to excuse me for not being able to keep my Word to them, as I flattered myself I could, since the ingenious Gentleman I desired to undertake this Work will give them the same Satisfaction, he having already assisted me in my First Volume, and having had all my Memoirs for this Second.   

THE Ancient and Present STATE OF POLAND.  
PART II.  
The Present State.  

LETTER I.  
To His Grace, THOMAS, Lord Archbishop of Canterbury.  
Of the Form of the Government in Poland, and of the King's Power, Court, and Revenues.  
My LORD,  
THAT high Station wherewith the King has Recompensed Your Merits, and the great Trust His Majesty has reposed in Your GRACE during his Absence, shows his Confidence in Your Ability, as well to Govern the State as the Church. Since therefore being lately Invested with a share of the Regal Authority, you had occasion to know more intimately Our King's Power and Prerogatives, I thought myself obliged to give Your GRACE an Account of those of the King of Poland; to the end, that comparing both together, you might more sensibly perceive the Excellency of our Own Constitution, which makes the Greatness of the King inseparable from the Interest of the People: For when the Executive Power is as vigilant to see our Laws obeyed, as the Legislative has been provident in making them, England can justly boast of a much greater Happiness, than either Poland or any other Kingdom of Europe.  

From the Year 550, to the Year 1698.  Having, My LORD, not been a full Twelve Month at the late King of Poland's Court, I cannot pretend to be throughly acquainted with that Kingdom; yet I find that, like most other Countries, it has undergone several Changes in its Constitution since the middle of the VIth Century (at which time it began to be a distinct Nation) during the Reigns of the two great Houses of Piastus and Jagello.  

Former Power of the Kings of Poland.  Ever since the time of Lechus its Founder, the Kings thereof have been Elected to the Crown after an Hereditary manner, tho' not by an Hereditary Title: They have really been Absolute, and their Will went for a Law; for than they made Peace and War when they pleased, Levied as many Troops as they thought fit, Punished or Pardoned at Pleasure, and Rewarded where they saw Convenient: And all the Administration, either of Public or Private Affairs was so wholly lodged in the King's Hands, that I have heard the Poles themselves say, That Sigismond II. 
A. D. 1574.  the last King of the Jagellonic Family, was to the full as Absolute as either the King of France or Denmark is now.  
Whilst the Kings of Poland thus maintained 
Advantage thereby.  a Supreme Power over their Subjects, they exceedingly enlarged their Dominions, were both feared Abroad, and beloved at Home, Commanded Potent and Numerous Armies into the Field, Executed most Erterprises speedily, and were almost always sure of Success; and this because they did not then, as now, depend upon the linger Determination, and tedious Conclusions of a Turbulent Diet. But the Family of Jagello being once Extinct, by the Death of Sigismond II. who had resigned his Kingdom to the Senate and Polish Gentry, and given them full Power and Authority to dispose thereof as they thought fit, the Crown of Poland was anew declared Elective, to the end that all the Princes of Christendom, who had due Merits and Qualifications, might have a Right to Aspire thereunto.  

Why European Princes Court the Polish Gentry.  This gave occasion to most of the Princes of Europe ever since, to Court the Polish Nobility after their King's Death: And that either to get the succeeding Election determined in their own Favour, or else to have some of their Friends Advanced to that great Dignity; but this most commonly rather with regard to their own private Interests, than out of any Respect to the Person they desired to Promote; as the Houses of Austria and Bourbon have always practised.  

Nobilities Resolves thereupon,  The Gentry of Poland therefore observing that several Princes at a time always Aspired to their Crown, and considering that not one of them had more Right than the rest; as likewise that it lay altogether in their Power to choose whom they pleased, resolved Unanimously to Elect none but such as should Condescend, nay Swear, to observe the Terms and Conditions they proposed.  

Abridge the Ancient Power of their Princes,  Hereby the Poles by degrees have clipped and limited the Ancient Power of their Kings, and have reduced them to the Bounds we now find them to have, that is, barely to a third Part of the Grand Diet: For the Poles knew very well, that no Prince would be so Imprudent as to scruple Submitting to any Conditions, to become Master of so considerable a Kingdom, to which he had no Right either by Birth or other Claim; and more especially since these Conditions are neither Rigorous nor Dishonourable, but such as are decently consistent with the Regal Character he is to be Invested with.  

And Constitute a Republic.  Thus the Polish Gentry, of a kind of Monarchical Government, have in time made a perfect Republic, consisting of three Orders; The King, Senate, and Gentry; which they call the Nobility.  

Division of the People of Poland.  Here, My Lord, I must take notice to Your GRACE, that the Polish Nation is divided into two sorts of People, the Gentry or Freeborn Subjects, who are hardly a Tenth Part of the Kingdom, and the Vassals, who are no better than Slaves to the Gentry, for they have no Benefit of the Laws, can Buy no Estates, nor Enjoy any Property no more than our Negroes in the West-Indies can and this because some Ages since the Common People Revolting against their Lords, and having driven them out of the Nation, the Gentry came with a Foreign Power, and reduced them to a greater Subjection than before, in which they have been kept ever since. So that the Government of Poland at present comprehends only the King and Gentry. By a Gentleman or Nobleman of Poland, is understood a Person who either himself, or his Family, has a Possession in Land: For they never Intermarry with the Common People. All the Gentry from the King's Sons to those that are but only Masters of an Acre of Land, are equally Noble, both by their Birth and the Constitution of the Kingdom; for no Body is Born either a Palatine, Senator, or Lord, but those Titles are always annexed to certain Employments, which the King only gives to Persons advanced in Age, and recommended by their Merits.  

The Diet.  The Diet of Poland (in some respects) resembles our Parliament, being made up of two Houses; the House of Senators, answerable to our House of Lords; and the House of Nuncio's, not unlike our House of Commons. The Senators are the Bishops, Palatines, Castellans, and the Ten Great Officers of the Crown, in all about 142. In the Upper-House the Senators sit not by any Writ of Summons or Letters Patents as in England, but only by Virtue of the Great Preferments in the King's Gift, which they Enjoy for Life. So that the King wholly Constitutes the Upper House; but the Lower are the Representatives of the Gentry, Elected by them alone in their respective Provinces, without the Concurrence of the Common People, who have no Privilege to Vote in their Election. Insomuch, that at least Nine Parts in Ten of the People of Poland are excluded from having any Share in the Government.  

It's Power.  The Grand Diet of Poland is nothing else but the King, Senators, and Deputies assembled together in any Part of the Kingdom that his Majesty Commands. Without this great Assembly of the States, the King can neither Make nor Repeal Laws, Declare War nor Conclude a Peace, make no Alliance with any Foreign Princes, raise neither Troops nor Taxes, Coin no Money; and, in a word, can Determine no Matter of State of any Importance, without the Universal Consent and Concurrence of this Parliament, which they term the Free States of Poland.  

Motives for a mixed Government.  Several powerful Motives have inclined the Poles to Establish this kind of mixed Government, which they take to be a just Temperament of whatever is to be found most Excellent in the several Monarchies, Aristocracies, and Democracies, that have been in the World. The most considerable of which Motives, as I have met with them in their Histories, or learned them from the most knowing among their Natives, are as follows.  

A Motive.  First, They think by this Judicious Choice of a Government, to preserve their Kingdom from those Disorders which most commonly attend Absolute Monarchies: Agreeing herein with that Prince of Philosophers, Aristotle, who though he preferred this kind of Government to all Others, yet was he nevertheless obliged to own, that when ever it degenerated, it was the most pernicious of all.  
Thus the Poles have tempered the Exorbitant Power of their Kings, with the mixture of two other Governments, whereby they thought to secure their Liberty, a Thing always most Dear to them, from the Arbitrary Will of a Prince, who by Imagining himself above the Laws, might Fancy whatever his Passions prompted him to, allowable, and his truest Interest to be the Entire Subjection of his People. The miserable Examples of their Neighbours, the Turks and Moscovites, have sufficiently convinced them of this Truth; wherefore the Polish Nation thought it but convenient to limit the excessive Power of their Kings, and confine them to Rule with more Moderation and Justice.  

II. Motive.  Secondly, The Poles have observed as well from their own Government, as from that of their Neighbours, that no small disadvantage has flowed from an Aristocracy. They could not be persuaded but that the Authority of one Person was infinitely more easy to be Tolerated than that of many; for that either the Ambition or Jealousy of such would often disturb the Repose and Tranquillity of the Public. Poland also began to Reflect upon its former Miseries under its Woievods, when it was deplorably rend and torn by the Factions among those Palatines: Insomuch that even while it became a Conqueror from without, it was vanquished within, and that by its own Force. This gave the Poles no small dislike to an Aristocracy, which they have resolved never more to admit among them.  

III. Motive.  The Third Reason of State, which has obliged the Poles to reject a Democracy, is, that they look upon that sort of Government to be the most dangerous of all, being the easiest inflamed, and the greatest Enemy to true Nobility. Its first Maxim is, To procure a Universal Levelling, or making all alike; whereby, under the Notion of a common Liberty, they weaken and enervate those great Genius's which were designed to Govern and Protect them. How then could it be expected that the Descendants of those mighty Warriors who Founded the Polish Nation, and have so long maintained the Honour of it by their Valour, should submit to have their Blood debased, by mixing it with the Ignoble Vulgar?  
The Tyranny of Laws, which the Nobles are subjected to in an Absolute Commonwealth, would be too rude a Check to this Ambition which the Poles have always had to Command over their Vassals, and therefore they have always entertained a secret Odium for those Grecian Republics, that Banished their greatest Statesmen, merely because they would not have them gain too fast upon the Affections of the People.  
If any should perhaps doubt of the pernicious Consequences of a popular Government, where Reason does not so much reign as an Unruly violence of a People, who know no other Laws than those of their Passions; let them cast their Eyes on the Heats of the Roman Empire, who were often ready to Overturn the State, had not the Senate speedily applied a prudent Remedy. But there are other Examples more Modern, as the Revolt of the Cosacks, and the last Troubles in Bohemia. To these also may be added the Revolutions of our own Nation in the Time of Charles I. when the Fury of the People extended their Rage, even to the dipping their Hands in this Prince's Blood.  
Politicians do generally own, that the People are a wild Beast, which ought rather to be led than left at Liberty, and by consequence have pronounced it most Perilous to acquiesce under their Subjection. An Anarchy would undoubtedly do more harm in a day, than a Tyrant could in all his Reign. If he Punishes, 'tis with some pretence of Justice, when nothing can abate the People's Rage, but an utter Extinction of whatever is placed over their He●ds.  
A mixed Government therefore made out of all these Three, is that which has proved most 
Advantage of a mixed Government.  Agreeable to the Polish Nation, being a just Medium between the dangerous Extremities of an Absolute Monarchy, and those of Aristocracy and Democracy. It is this the Poles have pitched upon as most proper to preserve the public Liberty, and to perpetuate the Happiness of their State; being, it seems, persuaded that a Body Politic resembles a Humane in this, that as the one borrows all its Vigour and Health from a Just Temperament of the different Humours that compose it; so the other depends absolutely on that of the Three beforementioned Forms of Government. And moreover, as the former subsists by the mutual Opposition of contrary Qualities, so the King, Senate and Gentry of Poland having in some measure different Interests and Inclinations, are not only hindered from deviating into vicious Extremities, but also through a Noble Emulation are excited to labour carefully for the Good of the Public.  

Division of the Republic.  The Republic is divided into Two States, the Kingdom of Poland, and the Great Duchy of Lithuania; yet both which are but as one Body, having the same King, the same Parliament, the same Laws, the same Privileges, the same Religion, and, as the natural result of all these, the same Interest. These Two States are so very well United, that a King cannot be Elected, a Law made, nor any State-Business done, without the mutual Consent of both. But, My Lord, as the King is the Prime and Chief Member of this Republic, I will give Your GRACE an Account of his present Power and Prerogatives.  

King's present Power and Prerogatives.  The Poles are too proud a Nation to agree with those Politicians that measure the Grandeur of a Prince, and Happiness of a State, by the Despotic Power of him that Governs it; and therefore those pernicious Maxims of Tyrants, Si Lubet, Licet; Oderint dum Metuant, and the like, would be but ill received among a People that have all along secured their Liberties by their Prudence and Valour. This Vassalage would suit well enough with the Slaves of Asia and afric, or with the Moscovites and Turks, who all suffer themselves to be governed like Beasts, and led by the Nose according to the different Caprice or Pleasure of their Prince.  

His Happiness.  As for the Kings of Poland, they may rest in security in the Bosom of their Country, even amidst the Noise of Arms, either without or within their Dominions, since they have always their Subjects to crowd about them for their Guards, through indispensable Inclinations. For what contributes chiefly to the Happiness of these Princes, is, the Loyal Observance and voluntary Obedience paid them even by those that are at Liberty to do the contrary. I have often heard Monsieur de Polignac, the French Ambassador, say at Warsaw, That he thought a King of Poland more Happy in his Person and Condition, than a King of France. Nevertheless this Authority of the King of Poland is so alloyed by the Laws of the Land, that it does not exact more Veneration from the Nobles or Gentry, than they think he deserves: For tho' their Behaviour be generally extraordinary Observant, yet do they tacitly seem to call in question the Power they have limited, and often refuse that Duty which they have deemed him worthy of by his Election.  

Unhappiness.  The Polish Nobility make no Difference between their King's Right, and those of the Senate and Deputies, affirming, That since these three Members compose but one Body, they ought equally to share in the same Benefits and Injuries, and consequently ought all either to Reward the one, or Revenge the other.  

A great Inconvenience to the State.  The small Authority therefore of their Kings, and the Impossibility of their Acting by themselves, has at all times exposed Poland to the Insults of their Neighbours, and the Rage of their own People, as may be seen in the Civil Wars of the Cosacks, and the Treachery and Sedition of the Confederates which could never have arrived at so great height, if the King had had but sufficient Power to have suppressed them. Also the Great Marshal of the Crown Lubomirski, would never have had the Boldness to have opposed King Casimir's Designs openly, and to have formed so many Factions against the Court, had he not had some Assurances of remaining Unpunished. This makes the King of Poland to be styled a King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, since he has no better than Companions and Equals for his Subjects.  

Instances of Poles Affections to their Kings.  We have divers Instances of the Poles love for their Kings, and particularly by their once enforcing the Right of Sigismond III. to the Kingdom of Sweden, in an obstinate War which they began several times, as likewise in supporting afterwards the Pretences of Vladislaus VII. to Moscovy: To omit divers others of a more ancient Date. This Respect of their obliges them frequently to come and spend their Estates at Court, thinking to augment their Prince's Grandeur by their Prodigality and Magnificence. This appears by the mistake made by Gregory King of Bohemia, at the Interview between him and Casimir the Great, at Glogan, (which Place the former had demanded to bond the Limits of Silesia) when he saluted a Private Gentleman, splendidly Clothed, for the King of Poland.  

Modern King's Power.  The Custom and Inclination of the Poles runs so strong towards Honouring their Prince, that all they have, or are able to do, even to the Destruction of their Lives and Fortunes, they are willing to lavish in his Service, without expecting any greater Recompense than the Glory of Waiting on His Majesty's Person. Insomuch, that a King of Poland who is Courageous and Prudent, Just and Sober, Liberal and Religious; one that observes the Laws and Constitutions of his Kingdom, and in a word, who has no other Interest but the Common Good and Safety of his Subjects, is as much Respected and Honoured, and as faithfully Obeyed both in time of Peace and War; nay, as formidable to all his Enemies as most Princes in Europe.  
As to what relates to War, no Monarch has greater Advantages than himself; for he is neither at the trouble of raising Forces nor Expense in Maintaining them; his Business being only to convene the Diet, and they do all these things to his Hand. After War is once declared, he can continue the same, either by himself or his Generals, can Regulate his Troops, and see his Army duly paid out of the Treasury of the Republic. He has a great deal of reason to hope for Success in his Expeditions, because that not having undertaken them on his own account, those that engaged him to them will infallibly support him in them, and the rather, by reason that what was done was altogether with their Consent. This has proved the Cause of almost neverfailing Success to the Polish Arms till of late Days, the King and his Subjects not having been in so good Intelligence with each other as formerly.  

Abroad and at Home.  When the King is in the Army in Person, he has the Supreme Authority there, giveth Battle when he pleases, and Besieges Towns as often as he thinks fit: And likewise Commands absolutely all the Gentry to follow him into the Field on Horseback at ever so little warning. At Home he has the free Nomination of all Ecclesiastical Benefices, and of all Secular Employments, as well Military as Civil throughout the whole Extent of his Dominions; without speaking of a great number of Royal Demesnes, which together with the State-Dignities he confers on those that have deserved them. He can bestow as considerable Preferments as any Prince in Europe, and oblige and raise the Fortune of whom he pleases. He has his Vote in Naming Cardinals, as well as other Roman Catholic Kings have. He can send and receive Ambassadors privately in Matters relating only to himself, but as to what concerns the Republic the Senate must have their Share in it. He can Call, Prorogue, and Dissolve the Diet at Pleasure. In a word, the Poles term him, The Protector of their Laws and Privileges; The Distributor of Honours; The Supreme Head of their Republic; and Supreme General of their Forces.  

The great Respect paid him.  The Poles attend his Person Uncovered: The Chief Senators generally Serve him at Table, first tasting of the Cup before they present him with it. His Subjects never sit before him, nor cover their Heads any where but in the Diet, and there too the Senators are only allowed that Liberty, for the Deputies stand behind with their Furred Caps in their Hands. The late King John Sobieski dined always in Public, and I never saw any sit down with him at Table when he eat at Court, except the Queen, his Children and foreign Ministers: Yet when he either Hunted or Travelled, I have known some private Gentlemen to have had that Honour: Nay even his own Servants that waited on him were then admitted to eat with him. This his Majesty knew was absolutely necessary for him to allow of, since by refusing any this Favour, he might incur the Displeasure and Hatred of the whole Noblesse. This was verified in the Case of Sigismond of Luxembourg, who for having refused the Polish Gentry to eat with him, was utterly excluded from the Crown that had been designed him by Lewis King of Hungary and Poland, his Father in Law.  

His Titles and other Prerogatives.  The Poles when they speak to their King, call him, Mosci Krullo, or Milociwy Krullo, which is as much as to say, Great or Merciful King. The Titles Ambassadors give him, or which are commonly made use of in Acts of Parliament, or other Instruments signed by him and made in his Name, are these; Frederic Augustus II. King of Poland, Great Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Russia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Kiovia, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlachia, Livonia, Smolensko, Severia, and Czernikovia. All sorts of Gold, Silver, or Brass Coins are Stamped with his Image and Name. All Justice is Administered in his Name, and at Church they always Pray for the King and Royal Family.  

His Pension, Houshold-Officers and Guards.  When he is Crowned the Diet allows him a Pension of about 140000 l. per Annum; which together with his Patrimonial Estate, maintains him a very splendid Court. He has his Polish, German, and Hungarian Guards, and has the same Officers of his Household as other 
Queen Consorts Court, how maintained.  Kings have. While the Queen-Dowager lives, the Queen-Consort maintains her Court at the King's Charge, but after either the Queen-Dowagers Death or Marriage, or the King's Death, she has a Revenue Assigned for that purpose, as will appear hereafter.  

King's Patrimonial Estate and Perquisites.  Over and above the Pension which the Diet settles upon the King and Queen, which in that cheap Country serves to maintain them as high as our Kings live here; The King of Poland has great Incomes of his own, for the Poles never care to Elect a Poor Prince, for fear his Children may come to be a Charge to them after his Death. He gets besides vast Sums of Money for Nominations Employments, of which the late King did not scruple to sell, though 'twas directly contrary to the Constitutions of the Kingdom. Nay, the Ecclesiastical Benefices which are so very considerable, have been put under Contribution by some cunning Artifice or other, as happened some Years since about the Naming of a Bishop of Cracow, whose Bishopric is worth Eight Thousand Pounds Sterling per Annum, which will go further than Twenty Thousand Pounds in England. There were several that Aspired a long while to this Vacant Dignity, and every one solicited what Friends he had at Court for the obtaining of it, but most applied themselves to the Queen, and begged of her (though she has no Authority of her own) to Intercede to the King in their Behalf. After a long Debate the Queen called the Abbot Malakowski aside (who was one of the Competitors, and a rich Man) and told him, That tho' there were several that aimed at that Bishopric, yet she would Wager Fifty Thousand Crowns that he was preferred to them all. Whereupon the good Abbot thinking to venture nothing, being sure that either he should be Bishop, or should gain a considerable Sum, readily lays down the Money, and by way of an accidental Bargain, bought very dear his Bishopric.  

Late King's great Riches.  It has been Calculated, that the late King, what by his Own Incomes, Pensions allowed him from the Crown, and other Casualties, was worth about Three hundred thousand Pounds Sterling a Year, of which he did not spend much above one Hundred thousand, having had no Soldiers nor Army to Pay, or Maintain, but only his Guards and his Court. He hoarded up the greatest part of the Money in the Kingdom, and was reputed to have had as much ready Cash by him, as any Prince in Europe; all which nevertheless the Poles Vowed they would have back again, when his Sons bought their Votes to be King.  

The Crown Revenues.  The King's Crown-Revenues are Imposts upon Merchandizes, and upon the Jews, part of the Customs of Dantzick, and the Revenues of the Salt Mines of Cracow and other Places.  

Queen's Revenues.  The Queen's Revenue consists either in a Gift from the King her Husband, out of the Royal Revenues, with Consent of the States; or in an Annual Pension allowed her by the Republic. The Gift from her Husband serves also for her Dower, and is called by the Poles what amounts to the Sense of the word Reformation, being the Reversion only of a certain number of Starostaships after the Death of those that Enjoy them. If the King chance to die before the Queen has this Reformation assigned her, than the Republic gives her a Yearly Pension out of the Crown-Revenues, but this no longer than she continues unmarried, or stays in the Realm, for otherwise in both those Cases the Queen Regent gets it, or else it reverts to the State. It may be observed, that the Queen Regent never comes by it without the Consent of the Diet, and that is no ordinary Expense to her to procure, by Purchasing almost all the Votes of that Mercenary Assembly. This may be seen in the Case of the present Queen-Dowager; for when the Queen her Predecessor Married the Duke of Lorraine, she, observing that the Settlement of her Pension was like to be put off to the succeeding Diet, which is convened only once in three Years, thought it better to be at the Charge of gaining their Votes at that Session, than to lose three Years Income. This Revenue is generally computed at half a Million Polish, which amounts to about Thirty Thousand English Pounds. As long as the Queen-Dowager enjoys this Pension, the Queen-Regent can have none; for the Poles say, that it would be too much to Pension two Queens at once.  

The King's Power limited in several respects.  Tho' the King of Poland has many important Employments to distribute, yet his Power is always limited in the Distribution of them; for he cannot Name any of his Children, no nor so much as the Queen, to any Charge either Ecclesiastical or Temporal. Sigismond III having a mind to give his Queen Constantia two Starostaships, vacant by the Death of Queen Anne, who died in the Year 1625. all the Gentry opposed it by a great Uproar in the Diet, and maintained vigorously, That a King of Poland ought not to part with any Office without their Consent. Neither can he Purchase any Lands for them in any part of the Kingdom, without Consent of the Diet; Although the late King bought several vast Territories in other People's Names, both in Russia, Prussia, and almost all over the Kingdom; and besides purchased a Principality of the Emperor in Silesia, for Prince James his Eldest Son. But the Poles having long since discovered the Secret, pretended, when I was at Warsaw, that all those Lands must come to the Crown after the King's Death. Some of the Kings of Poland also have been so kind as to part with their Prerogatives in Ecclesiastical Matters, so that now they retain only the Collation of Benefices. As for the Foundation of Monasteries whatever Power the King may have left to Erect them, they must always be confirmed by the Three Orders of the States. The King of Poland is likewise limited in divers other respects, for he can neither increase nor diminish the Number of Officers either of his Court or the Kingdom, nor Name any Stranger, that is not Naturalised, to any Charge or Government; only in the Foot Army, and there too such a Person can pretend to no more than to be a Captain, or at most a Colonel. This may appear by the Example of Stephen Batori, who having had considerable Services done him by the Hungarians in the War against the Moscovites, he thought it but reasonable to Prefer some of them for Recompense, which extremely incensed the Poles, and particularly the Grand General so much, that he immediately thereupon resigned his Staff. 'Tis also out of the King's Power to advance some Natives; for all Citizens, Merchants, Tradesmen and their Sons, Countrymen, Labourers, and generally all Artificers, are not only by the Constitutions of the Kingdom excluded from Preferments, which the King has the Nomination of, but also have not Liberty either of Buying or Enjoying Lands or Estates.  

Nobility only capable of Preferment.  'Tis then the Nobility alone, or Freeborn of the Kingdom of Poland, the Great Duchy of Lithuania, or of the other Provinces Incorporated into that Monarchy, that can pretend to any Preferment in the Republic: Wherefore the aforesaid King Batori thinking to Advance his Nephews, by reason he had no Children, designed to get them Naturalised in the Diet held the Thirteenth of December 1586▪ but was prevented by Death. It must withal be understood, that 'tis not every one of these that can Aspire or lay Claim to every Preferment, but only such as have Lands or Estates in the Kingdom, the Great Duchy, or any other Incorporated Province where the Preferment lies. For a Freeborn Native of the Kingdom, though he has an Estate in it, yet cannot be a Governor of a City in Lithuania, nor have any kind of Employment there, without a settled Estate in that Country. But the Advantage that all Freeborn Natives have, is, that they can Buy an Estate throughout the whole Extent of the Dominions of Poland.  

Other Limitations of the King's Power.  There is another Inconvenience which very much Prejudices and Limits the King's Power, and the public Interest of the whole Commonwealth; for wherever a Noble Pole is once named to a Preferment, and is in actual possession of it, let him commit never so many Crimes against the Crown or State, he can never be deprived of his Employ, or turned out of it without the Unanimous Consent of the Diet, but shall continue in▪ the same for Life, even against a the Will of the Diet, if he has but one Member on his Side, who will protest against the Proceedings. For the Negative Voice of a Member of the Diet of Poland, has the same Force with a Negative of a King of England in Parliament.  

Inconveniences thereby.  This pernicious Constitution occasions many Troubles and Animosities, for it encourages Unruly and Mutinous People to disturb the Commonwealth. Officers never serve the Republic faithfully; Treasurers arè thereby emboldened to give no Account of the Public Revenues; the Generals of the Army, and Governors of Provinces and Towns, do as they think fit, and most commonly mind their own private Affairs more than the Interest of the Republic. In a word, though the Poles term this Constitution the greatest Mark of their Liberty, it inevitably Ruins the Foundation of the whole State, and every one sees what bad Consequences must and do necessarily follow from this excessive Liberty, or rather Libertinism of every Private Officer of the Kingdom.  

Why he is paid so great Respect.  My Lord, This great Privilege of the Ofcers, makes them pay more than ordinary Respect to the King, before they are Dignifyed, and court him to give them a Charge which he can never afterwards take away. Moreover, this Power of the King's to Name such of the qualified Nobility, as best pleases him, to these important Employments, keeps all the Gentry in a great Dependence on him; for the design of the Republic in lodging the Nomination of Officers in the King's Hands, was, that he should take care to confer them on those that had best deserved them by their Services, either in Peace or War, and exclude such from them as had been Stubborn, Mutinous, and Unserviceable to the State. Another Reason that makes the King respected, is the natural Ambition the Poles have to Aspire to the Honours of the Kingdom; for by their Constitutions all the Nobles (as they call them) or Freeborn of the Land, are equal as to their Birth, and none, though never so Poor, owes precedence, unless through a Compliment, to any ever so Rich: Insomuch, that Preferments and Honours are the only Means by which they attain to Precedence, which is annexed thereto, and ascertained by the Statutes and Laws.  
Now one would think that this mighty Power which the King of Poland has to dispose of so many Places of Profit and Trust, so many Lands by Royal Tenure, and so many Benefices, must needs gain him the Love and Affection of those on whom they are conferred. But on the contrary, the Poles being none of the most grateful, and knowing too well that the King cannot dispose of those Preferments but to themselves; they believe that when he Grants them, he only gives back what of Right belongs to them; and that it is not so much an Act of Grace in him, as a piece of Justice.  

Cities present their Keys upon his Approach.  When a King of Poland comes to any City, the Inhabitants are obliged immediately to present him with the Keys, and he can send his Regiment of Guards to take possession of the Gates. The Citizens of Dantzick only have a Privilege to keep their own Keys, and to hinder all but a few Troops from following the King into the City. It is certain, that Dantzick has more Immunities and Privileges than any other City of Poland, insomuch that it may be rather looked upon to be a small Republic of itself under Protection of that Kingdom, than a City subject to it. Nay, it has in a manner all the Marks of a Sovereign Power, for it can Condemn to Death without Appeal even the Polish Gentry, if they commit any Crime within its Territories and Jurisdiction.  

Why he can raise no Forces without Consent of the Diet.  The King can raise no Troops at his own Charges without Consent of the Diet, and this for fear that he should strengthen himself, and Entrench upon their Liberties. Nevertheless Vladislaus VII. Levied some with the Portion of his Queen Mary Ludovica, but the Senate so Murmured, that he was soon obliged to Disband them. The King cannot on any Account whatever go out of the Kingdom, without Consent of the Diet; for, Your GRACE may observe that King Henry of Valois was fain to steal out of the Kingdom when he went into France; Sigismond III after the Death of his Father John King of Sueden, was forced to call a Diet at Warsaw in the Month of May 1592. to obtain Consent to return into Sueden to take Possession of his Hereditary Kingdom; and that Lewis King of Hungary, who was chosen King of Poland in the Year 1370, having a mind to return to his Native Kingdom, desired leave of the Senate, and was obliged to Augment their Privileges to obtain it.  

His Legitimate Issue greatly Respected.  The King's Children are more than ordinarily respected, though at the same time every private Gentleman thinks himself as great as they by the Law, and to have as lawful a Right to the Crown, yet are they nevertheless always treated as Princes of the Blood Royal. His Eldest Son has the Title of Prince of Poland, and the others barely that of Princes, adding withal their Christian Names, as Prince Alexander, and Prince Constantin of Poland. The King's Eldest Daughter is called the Princess of Poland, and the others only Princesses, adding thereto their Names, as Princess Mary of Poland. But it must be understood, that when the King their Father dies, and a new King of another or the same Family succeeds, and has Children, then do they lose the Titles of Princes and Princesses of Poland, and take only the Names of their Families or Estates, such as Prince Sobieski, Princess Czartoriski; yet however the Senate always look upon themselves obliged to provide for them, to give them Pensions, and to Match them equal to their Dignity and Birth, which has ever hitherto been duly observed▪ Nay, the Poles have all along showed such Esteem and Affection to the Royal Family, that although they have not allowed them any Hereditary Right to the Crown by Law, yet have they always Elected one of them King, where there was any surviving: For I find from the time of their Prince Piastus, even down to that of the Election of the late King John Sobieski, which is from the Year 830. to the Year 1674, the Crown has always continued in the same Family in a direct Line, as your GRACE may observe in the First Volume of my Account of Poland. They have also not confined this Affection of theirs to the King's Sons only, but have likewise extended it towards their Daughters, and even their Widows, as may be seen at large in their Histories, where Your GRACE will find what strict Regard the Poles had to the Royal Race, in the Election of the Princess Hedwigis, whom they waited for with great Patience, though all the while they suffered extremely by the Insults of the Duke of Masovia, who pretended a Right to the Crown, as being a Relation to Casimir the Great.  

His Illegitimate as much slighted.  The King's Natural Sons are extremely undervalued, and are hardly looked upon to be Common Gentlemen; for none of the Gentry care to keep Company with them: Nay, one of the Late King's is a Clerk in the Salt Customhouse at Thorn, a City in Prussia, where his Place is not worth him above Thirty Pounds per Annum. All over the Kingdom they usually have a very mean Opinion of Illegitimate Children, though Nature endows them generally with as many Perfections, and with as good Qualities, as she does the Lawfully Begotten.  

Means to continue the Crown in one Family.  The only way for a King of Poland to continue the Crown in his Family, is to be Warlike; to enlarge his Dominions; to gain the Love and Affections of his People by his own Merits, and by the Favour of the Clergy; to send his Children early to the Wars to get Credit and Reputation in the Army; to spend Liberally all his Revenues, and to die in Debt, to the end that the Poles may be inclined to Elect his Son, to enable him to pay what his Father owed. But all this while he must never think to encroach on the Privileges of the Nation, nor endeavour by any means to render the Crown Hereditary; for whenever the Poles begin to smell out any such private Design, they are presently apt to stir up Seditious Tumults, which would prove very Pernicious to all the Posterity of that King, as the ill Success the Late King's Sons have had sufficiently demonstrates.  

Why the K. of Poland can't imitate him of Denmark.  It is altogether impossible for a King of Poland, in Imitation of the King of Denmark, to reduce his Subjects under an Arbitrary Power; for the State of Denmark was quite different then from what that of Poland is now. In Denmark the King, Clergy, and Commonalty were under the Rule and Government of the Gentry, so that it was the Interest of the Clergy and Commonalty to side with the King, to abate and depress the excessive Power and Privileges of the Nobility; which they soon effected, by being Resolute and more in Number. But in Poland it is quite otherwise; for there the Clergy and Gentry have a common Interest, to keep the King and People in Subjection. The Clergy have great Privileges, and are very Rich. The Bishops for the most part are Princes or Dukes; they are all Senators, and sit in the Diet before all the Temporal Lords; so that by the great Authority and Veneration which they have procured to themselves from the slavish People, they can hinder them from making any Insurrection; and by the Arbitrary and Free Power which they and the Gentry have hitherto maintained, to Elect whom they pleased for King, they will always keep him in such a Dependence for the sake of his Children, that he shall hardly ever be able to effect any Design upon their Prerogatives. Nay, providing he had found any Opportunity to compass such a dangerous Enterprise, yet would it not consist with Prudence either to declare or Attempt it, for fear of Incurring the Hatred and Displeasure of the People, which would not only tend to his own Ruin; but likewise Obstruct the Election of any of his Family to the Throne after his Death; so that the surest way for a King of Poland to continue the Crown in his Family, is never to attempt any Innovation.  

Not Unhappy because he cannot secure the Succession to his Family.  I would not however think the Kings of Poland Unfortunate, in not being able to assure the Succession of the Throne to their Children, since they are thereby compelled, as it were, by a lucky Necessity, to breed them up to all Royal Virtues, and this to the end that it may render them more Accomplished, and Worthy to be Elected: For where they are satisfied that the Crown is not due to their Blood, but to their Merits, what will either the Father or Sons omit, to obtain it by the most Glorious Means?  
My LORD,  

Crown and Court. Officers.  I have hitherto presented Your GRACE with what relates to the Form of Government in Poland, and to the King's Power and Revenues, I would now give a particular Account of the King's Court, were it not like to that of other Princes, as to Splendour and Number of Officers: For, besides the Great Crown-Officers, as the two Great and Little Marshals; as many Chancellors, and Vicechancellors; two Generals, and two Great and Little Treasurers: The King has his Lord-Chamberlain; his Court-Marshal, or Lord Steward; his Master of the Horse; his Secretaries of State; his Standard-Bearer; Chief Huntsman; his Gentlemen of the Body, answerable to our Lords of the Bedchamber; his Physicians, Chaplains, Pensioners, Cupbearers, Sewers, Carvers, Musicians, and Guards.  

Gentlemen. Pensioners.  The Gentlemen Pensioners always attend the King on Horseback; this Body of Gentry consists of the Noblest Youth of the Kingdom, whereof many have Court and State-Employments, and are all subject to the Jurisdiction of the Court-Marshal. There are some of these that attend his Majesty on Foot, but in long Journeys they are always carried in Wagons. A set number of these keep Guard Day and Night about the King. Whenever the King goes in Public, these last March every way about him with long Battleaxes on their Shoulders, and Sabres by their Sides, but still admitting the Senators and Chief Courtiers to March next him; yet when the Queen goes with the King, the Senators and other Persons of Quality are to walk before.  

Horse-Guards.  The King's Horse-Guards ought by the Constitutions to be either Poles, Lithuanians, or Natives of some of the Incorporated Provinces; but however this Law has been dispensed with, for the late King admitted both Germans and Hungarians amongst them. Their Number by the Law is not to exceed 1200, and their Chief Commander is to be subject to all the Four Marshals.  

Court▪ Officers in Lithuania,  The King has the same Number of Court Officers in Lithuania as he has in Poland, the Lithuanians being as Ambitious to keep up the ancient Grandeur of their Great Duke, as the Poles are for that of their King.  

And in several Provinces.  The King has likewise the Nomination of some Court-Officers in several Provinces, as in Prussia, Masovia, and Russia, which had formerly distinct Princes of their own, and were afterwards United to the Kingdom of Poland, so that the King has the Nomination of as many Court-Officers as any Prince in Europe, but most of them are rather Honorary than Beneficial; yet the Gentry always make great Interest to get into them; Precedence, of which they are Ambitious, being Regulated according to the Nature and Dignity of the Employment.  

Chief Officers of Queen's Court.  As for the Queen's Court, it consists of about Thirty Officers, the Chief whereof are her Marshal and Chancellor. Their Business is to Preside over Domestic Affairs in the Queen's Court. Her Marshal or Steward, is to carry the Staff before her; and her Chancellor or Secretary, to Write, Sign, Receive, and Answer all her Letters. There is her Treasurer, who Manages her Revenue; her Master of the Horse, Cupbearers, Carvers, Sewers, Clerk of the Kitchen, etc. For Women Servants, she has her Ladies, Maids of Honour, Dressers, etc. When she goes in Public, she is always attended by a great number of her own Sex.  

Principal Officers of Primate's Court.  It may not be here amiss to add something of the Court of the Inter-Rex, or Primate, and so I will conclude. While the Archbishop of Gnesna has the Administration of the Government, he has much the same Officers with the King; but when he has laid down that Authority, his Officers are his Marshal, spoken of before; his Chancellor, who Presides in his Courts of Justice; his Almoner, Master of Requests, Cross-Bearer, Steward, Treasurer, Chaplains, Library-Keeper, Clerk of the Kitchen, etc.  

What peculiar to him.  This Archbishop alone, as he is the Chief Senator of Poland, has Drums beating, and Trumpets sounding, both within and without Doors, before he sits down to Table. He also, by his Prerogative, is not to wait for the King's Commands when he should Visit him, but may go when and as often as he pleases.  
Before, My Lord, I put an end to this Letter, permit me to take notice to Your GRACE, that the King of Poland does not Name his Privy-Counsellors, but all Senators are Counsellors of Course; for all of that Dignity that are about the Place where the King Resides, have a Right to sit at the Council-Board. For fear notwithstanding that there should not be always Senators sufficient for that purpose at Court, the Senate always depute four of their Members to attend the King's Person by turns, and that not only to give him Advice, but likewise to Inspect into his Conduct, and to prevent him from Acting contrary to the Laws: For the King and Council are accountable to the Diet for any Mismanagement in the Government. In short, the Genius of the Polish Nation, and the whole Frame of their Constitution, is entirely bend to Curb the King's Power, and to secure their Laws, and Prerogatives, against the Encroaching Factions of Foreign Princes, or of their own Court-Party.  
I might here, My Lord, add a great many more Particulars relating to the King of Poland; but this is what I thought most material to be mentioned; and what I could only learn in so small a Time as I have lived in that Country.  
I beg your GRACE's Pardon for tiring your Patience with so long and imperfect an Account, and desire, my Lord, you would receive this, at least, as a Testimony of my good Will of satisfying your Curiosity, and of owning your many Favours to,  
My LORD, Your GRACE's Most Obedient Servant, BERNARD CONNOR.  
The following Letters, intended at first to be Written by Dr. Connor, were Compiled by Mr. Savage; the Doctor not having Leisure to attend them from his Practice.   

LETTER II.  
To His Grace, HENRY, Duke of Norfolk, Earl- Marshal of England.  
Of the Senate and Senators of Poland, both Ecclesiastical and Temporal; With an Account of the Present Religion in Poland and Lithuania: As also of the State-Officers and Officers of Districts belonging as well to the Kingdom, as the Great Duchy.  
My LORD,  
YOUR Grace's High Birth and Station in our Government, together with Your Primary Right of Suffrage in our House of Lords, entitle you in a Superlative manner to the Patronage of this Letter. Wherefore I was glad, to meet with an occasion so favourable to pay my Duty to Your GRACE; and I could heartily wish it had been on a Subject that I were more Master of, than in an Account of a Country which I never saw; yet that you may give some Credit to the Truth of my Relation, I dare humbly assure you that I have mentioned nothing therein but what I either had out of Dr. Connor's Memoirs, learned from his own Mouth, or drew from such Books as both the Doctor and Other Persons of Credit have owned to be Authentic, and most Correct.  
My LORD,  

The Senate and its Office.  The Senate of Poland is an Order of Nobles between the King and common Gentry, established to rule and govern according to Law, and to observe the Conduct of the King: And moreover, they are to apply themselves to study the public Good, and the Preservation of the Privileges of the People. It consists at present of a far greater Number of Persons than formerly.  

Senators, by whom made; and their Oath.  It is the King that makes every Senator; but who being once so made, is to continue his Office for Life. At the Time of his Creation, he is obliged to take a solemn Oath, to conserve inviolable, the Rights and Liberties of the Republic; so that if the King himself had a mind to extend his Power and Authority, beyond the Limits prescribed him by the Laws, every Senator's Oath alone would oblige him to acquaint his Majesty with due Respect of his Duty and Obligation. Nay, every Nuncio in the grand Diet, assumes this Liberty: For, in that Place, dicunt quae sentiunt, & sentiunt quae velint; as may appear by an insolent Affront put upon the late King John Sobieski, who having been called Tyrant, Nero, and many other opprobrious Names, by some of the Deputies, and not being able to bear it, he started up and threatened them, laying his Hand on his Sword, That had he been the great General still, he would have done something; whereat one of them rising likewise, and clapping his Hand to his Sword, replied, and that Sword would have done something too. Another Passage I have read, of Lewis King of Hungary and Poland; who having been basely abused in the Diet, stood up and cried, Si non essem Rex— whereto the Orator briskly replied, Si non fuisses Rex.—  

Four to attend the King, and wherefore.  These Senators are likewise bound to see that nothing be done against their Privileges; and therefore four of them are always deputed to attend the King with their Advice: Besides these four, who are ever actually the King's Counsel; any of the others in like manner, have a Right to assist at the Council-Board if they think fit.  

Senators not suffered to travel,  The Presence of these Senators is looked upon to be so absolutely necessary for the Good of the Kingdom, that not one of 'em can travel upon whatsoever Account, without Leave of the Republic. 
* Vide Sueton. Cap. 42. in vita▪ Jul. Caesar. & Tacit▪ lib 12. Annal. cap. 23.  This Custom is taken from the Romans who not only forbid the Senators, but also their Sons to go beyond the Verge of Italy.  

This Title not bestowed by its self.  This Title of Senator the King cannot bestow by itself, but it is always annexed to one of the four Dignitys of 

Bishops,  
Castellans, or  
Palatins,  
The Ten Crown-Officers;   all which the King names; whereof Palatins are Lord-Lieutenants of Provinces; Castellans are Governors, who have not their Names from Castles, as the Word might reasonably import, but from commanding a Portion of a Province in Time of War.  
The ten Crown-Officers are the Marshals, Chancellors, and Treasurers of the Kingdom; and Bishop's preside over their several Dioceses with an Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.  
When any one is named a Bishop, Palatin, Castellan, or any of the ten Officers of the Crown, he is immediately a Senator without more ado.  

Senator's Office.  Their Business is to serve faithfully the King and Republic in the Senate; at home to administer Justice by Commission or otherwise, and abroad, with Consent of the Diet, to exercise foreign Ministries, etc.  

Extremely prise their Dignities.  These Senators of Poland value their Dignities so highly, that they despise almost all other Titles of Honour whatever, and therefore when Sigismond I. went to Vienna, and the Emperor offered the Title of Princes of the Empire to the several Senators that came along with him, they absolutely refused 'em; giving for Reason, That being born Gentlemen of Poland, and thereby having a Right to treat either of Peace or War with their King; they believed it an Injury to their Dignity to have a Prince of the Empire thought superior.  

Their Division and Subdivision.  This Senate consists either of Ecclesiastical or Secular Members. The Ecclesiastical are either Archbishops or Bishops; and are the chief Members of the Senate. Their Number at present is but sixteen. Three of these Bishoprics are now in the Enemy's Hands, though they nevertheless have titular Bishops, viz. Smolensko and Kiovia possessed by the Moscovites, and Caminiec enjoyed by the Turks: So that there remain but thirteen Bishoprics actually in the King's Dominions, of which but two are Archbishoprics, viz. those of Gnesna and Leopol. When any of the aforesaid three Bishoprics are vacant, there are always those ready that will beg their Titles merely to have the Honour to sit as Senators.  
The several Dioceses belonging to all 
Dioceses of Poland.  these Bishoprics, are, 

Archiepiscopal of  
Gnesna and  
Leopol.   

Episcopal of  
Cracow,  
Cujavia and Pomerania,  
Vilna,  
Posnan,  
Plocksko or Plosko,  
Varmia  
Luceoria or Lucko,  
Premislia or Premislaw,  
Samegitia,  
Culm,  
Chelm,  
Kiovia,  
Caminiec, and  
Smolensko.   

Subject to the two Archbishops are the other Bishops, and first to the Archbishop of Gnesna, are the several Bishops of  
Cracow,  
Vladislaw, 
Peculiar Jurisdictions of the two Archbishops.   
Posnan,  
Plosko,  
Vilna,  
Varmia,  
Samogitia, and  
Culm.   

And next to the Archbishop of Leopol, are the Bishops of  
Chelm,  
Caminiec,  
Luceoria,  
Premislia, and  
Kiovia.    
The Archbishop of Gnesna is not only 
Ecclesiastical Senator, his Power and State.  Chief of the Bishops, but also of all the other Senators of Poland. He is Primate of the Kingdom; a Title given him by the Council of Constance; and moreover, styles himself the Pope's Legate Born, by a Grant of the Council of Lateran. All Ecclesiastical Affairs that have been determined in the Archbishop of Leopol's, or any of the other Bishop's Courts, may be reversed, or confirmed in an Appeal to him. His Power and Authority is exceeding great, and even next to the King's: It is Death to draw a Sword in his Presence, or to quarrel in any manner whatsoever before him: When he goes to the King, or the Diet, there is always a golden Cross carried before him; and when he sits, his Chaplain holds it behind his Chair. He has his Marshal, who is a Castellan and Senator of the Kingdom. This Person on Horseback, carries a Staff before his Coach, but salutes none with it except the King, when the Archbishop and he happen to meet. This Marshal has likewise the Honour to carry the like Staff before the King, where the other Marshals are absent. When the Archbishop comes to wait on the King, the great Chamberlain, or some other great Officer, always receives him at the Stair-Foot, and the King afterwards comes out of his Chamber to meet him in the Antichamber. He never pays any Visits out of Duty, but to the Pope's Nuncio, and to him only but once. He visits no King's Ambassadors, tho' they visit him first.  

His Power as Inter. Rex.  After the King's Death he is the supreme Regent of the Kingdom till a new one be chosen; during which Time, he may coin Money in his own Name, a Privilege granted him by Boleslaus the Chaste; but which nevertheless has not been practised, no Money having ever been seen of his coining. The Revenues also of the Crown belong to him in the Inter-Regnum; he convokes the Diet, and dissolves it at Pleasure; and in case there happens any thing extraordinary, the Government assigns him several Senators for his Assistants. In short, he is Tantum non Rex. He only can proclaim the King when elected, and crown him afterwards (except where he dies, as in the following Case) which is so very considerable, that he is looked upon, by the Ambassadors and Envoys of the Candidates, as the only Person upon whom the Success of their Negotiation depends▪ and therefore all of them do their utmost to make him their Friend.  
Hereupon I must acquaint your Grace with a Passage in the Election of the late King of Poland, John III. in the Year 1674. when one Czartoreski was Archbishop of Gnesna; who being entirely in the Austrian Interest, and a great Friend to the Chancellor Patz, and by consequence, both an Enemy to the French and John Sobieski's Party, could by no means be brought to proclaim him; but as it happened, he died three Days before the Election, and that Power devolved to Trzebicki, Bishop of Cracow, who being altogether for the Grand Marshal, forthwith proclaimed him with Joy.  

Why entrusted so much.  The Reason why the Republic entrusts this great Authority to a Clergyman, is for Fear, that if it were bestowed on a secular Senator, he might make use of it to advance himself to the Throne.  

His See.  This Archbishop's See is at Lowitz, a City in the Palatinate of Rava, in Lower Poland. He is born a Canon of the Church of Plosko.  
The second Ecclesiastical senator is the Archbishop of Leopol, the capital City of Red-Russia, so named from a sovereign Duke of that Province, called Leo, who was subdued by a Castellan of Cracow, in the Year 1279, and under the Reign of Lescus VI.  

Two other Bishops in Leopol.  This City is the Seat of three Bishops, viz. the Roman-Catholick Archbishop, the Armenian-Catholick Archbishop, and a Russian Greek Schismatic Bishop. These two Archbishops have the same Belief and Religion, only the Armenian have some particular Ceremonies wherein they differ, and the Women are separated from the Men in the Church.  

Those of the Greek Persuasion.  The Russian or Greek-Schismatic Bishops cannot Marry, because they must of necessity be chosen out of the Order of Friars of St. Basil, who all make a Vow of Chastity. Nevertheless the Parish Priests are not obliged to live in Coelibacy, that is, if they were admitted into Orders after their Marriage, for they cannot be constrained to leave their Wives; but however, when their Wives die, they cannot Marry again, unless they have a mind to relinquish their Priesthood.  

Their Tenets, Ceremonies, and Ornoments.  Their Liturgy is in the Russian Language, being as the Polish, a Dialect of the Sclavovian. Their Tenets are, that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father by the Son, and that the Pope is not Head of all the Church, but only the first of the two Patriarches, whereof theirs of Constantinople is the second, and independent of the first. In other Articles of Belief they agree with the Roman Church: Their Ceremonies and Ornaments differ from the Roman and Armenian. They pray standing, tho' they make frequent Genuflexions: They receive the Communion in both Kind's after this manner: The Priest consecrates several little Pieces of Bread made with Leaven; after which he receives himself, and then breaks the Bread in divers little Pieces; which done, he puts 'em into the Chalice with the consecrated Wine, and then with a little Silver Spoon, made for that purpose, he communicates to the People, who all stand, with their Arms across upon their Breasts, when they receive. This done, the Communicants follow the Priest thrice about the Altar with folded Arms, who all the while advises and charges them to make good Cheer for seven Days together, and to fast the next seven Days after that. The Russians likewise make their Children communicate, tho' never so young. When they have all taken the Sacramen●●, the Priest consumes the rest at his Pleasure.  
This Digression being curious, I thought it not amiss to insert it, but now I must proceed to  
The Third Ecclesiastical Senator, who is the Bishop of Cracow, the capital City of the Kingdom, lying in High or Little Poland.  

His Bishopric and Power.  This was first an Archbishopric, established by Miecislaus I. in the Year 964. immediately after he had embraced the Christian Faith, but was afterwards lost by means of one Lampert, who being made Archbishop, and valuing himself too much on his Birth, neglected to send to Rome for Consecration, whereupon the Pope ordered it for the future to remain only a Bishopric. What is remarkable in this Bishopric is, that the Archbishopric and that have frequently been held by the same Person. This Bishop styles himself Duke of Severia, in which all the People are subject both to his Ecclesiastical and Temporal Jurisdiction.  

His Residence,  His usual Residence is either at Bozentium, a small Town at the Bottom of the Bald Mountain, or else at Kielsk in the same Palatinate of Sendomir. He has in his Diocese 1018. Churches, of which thirteen are Collegiate.  

and Precedence.  His Seat in the Senate is on the left Hand of the King, and next to the Archbishop of Leopol, though it ought to be on the right, he being the first Bishop in the Kingdom.  
This Bishopric was formerly joined to Gnesna. An Address to this Bishop is commonly Admodum Reverendo, when others have only Reverendo.  
The fourth Ecclesiastical Senator is the 
His See.  Bishop of Cujavia and Pomerania; the See of whose Bishopric is at Vladislaw, upon the Vistula, four Leagues below Thorn in Low Poland.  

Precedence and Authority.  His Seat in the Senate is on the right hand of the Archbishop of Gnesna, whose Place he officiates in an Inter-regnum, as your GRACE may have observed before. His Bishopric was formerly called the Bishopric of Cruswick, because he had a Cathedral Church there; but that being translated to Vladislaw, at this Day it has sometimes the Name of the Bishopric of Vladislaw.  

Several Places of Residence.  His usual Residence, when in Poland, is either at Wolboria, in the Palatinate of Lanschet, or Lagovia, in the Palatinate of Sendomir; and when in Prussia, is chiefly at Sobkovia.  
The fifth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Vilna, the capital City of the great Duchy of Lithuania, on the River Vilia, which discharges itself into the River Niemen, below Cowno.  

His Diocese.  His Diocese extends itself through Lithuania, and White-Russia, even to the Borders of Moscovy.  
The sixth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Posnan, a City in Low or Great- Poland, situate on the River Varta: There are the Tombs of several Kings of Poland in the Cathedral Church of this City, all which are very Magnificent.  

His Diocese.  His Diocese not only extends through the Province of Posnania, but also through some part of the Palatinate of Masovia, as Warsaw, etc.  
The seventh Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Plosko, a small City in Masovia, on the River Vistula, five Leagues above Vladislaw.  

His Jurisdiction,  He has the same Jurisdiction over the Territory of Pultausk, as the Bishop of Cracow has over the Duchy of Severia, and wherein there lies no Appeal to the King.  

and See.  His Episcopal See is at Pultausk in Masovia, upon the River Narew, which runs into the Bug, two Leagues below.  
The eighth Eclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Varmia, in Royal Prussia, which Bishopric is so divided, that the Bishop has two Parts, and the Chapter the third, and in which they have 
His Jurisdiction,  a free Jurisdiction over the Gentry, exempt from the Regal Power.  

and See.  His Episcopal See is at Frawenberg, a little Town near Frischaff.  
The ninth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Luceoria or Lucko, which is the capital City of High- Volhynia.  

His Diocese.  His Diocese contains part of the Palatinate of Masovia, Podlachia, and Briescia or Polesia, in the great Duchy of Lithuania.  
The tenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Premislia or Premislaw, a City of Red-Russia, on the River San, six Leagues above Jeroslaw, and twelve from Leopol.  

Here is a Greek Bishop.  In this City there is a Greek-schismatic Bishop▪ It was here that a Canon of the Cathedral Church, named Orikowski, in the Beginning of Lutheranism, maintained the first, that Priests might Marry, and who Married afterwards himself, in the Year 1549. under the Reign of Sigismond II.  
The eleventh Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Samogitia, who obtained from Pope 
Likewise Bishop of Curland.  Vrban VIII. that he might likewise be Bishop of Curland.  

yet has no See.  This Bishop has no particular See appointed, but sometimes resides at Midnich, one of the chief Towns in that Province.  
The twelfth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Culm, a City of Royal Prussia, on the River Vistula, six Leagues above the City of Thorn.  

His Precedence,  This Bishop formerly preceded the Bishop of Varmia.  

and See.  His Episcopal See is at Lubavia, as likewise at Stargardie, which the Germans call Althousen.  
The thirteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Chelm in Red-Russia: There is besides in this City, a Greek-Schismatick Bishop.  

His See translated, and wherefore.  The Bishop of Chelm has for some time translated his See to Kranostaw, a Town in the same Palatinate of Chelm, built upon a great Lake, thro' which runs the River Nieper: This Translation was occasioned by the frequent Eruptions of the Tartars and Cosaks, and who have altogether destroyed the City of Chelm.  
The fourteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the Bishop of Kiovia, capital City of Low- Volhynia, 
Honorary.  and of all Vkraina.  

A Greek Bishop formerly Primate of Moscovy.  Here is moreover, a Greek-Schismatick Bishop, formerly Primate of all Russia or Moscovy: The Inhabitants of this City are all of the Greek Persuasion, and at present are subject to the Great Czar.  
The fifteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the 
Honorary.  Bishop of Caminiec, Capital of Podolia, which is now under the Turk.  
The sixteenth Ecclesiastical Senator is the 
Honorary.  Bishop of Smolensko, upon the River Vistula, Capital of the Duchy of the same Name. This Duchy was formerly subject to Lithuania, but now is also subdued by the Moscovite.  

Each Bishop has a Kind of little Court.  Every one of these Bishops has a great Retinue, and a kind of little Court, having several Ecclesiastical and Secular Officers about him. The greatest Part of them also have Suffragans, because they believe themselves chiefly made Bishops to have a Right to sit in the Senate, and not to be troubled with the Duties of their Office, and therefore allow these a small Pension to perform all Episcopal Functions for them.  
Guagnini says, that in the Year 1506. there was a great Contest in the Diet held at Lublin, between the Ecclesiastical and Lay- Senators; for the latter pretended to have a Right to sit next the King on his left Hand; but which at length the Bishop's overpowered them in, and thereby retained their ancient Privilege.  

Their Precedence in the Diet, and large Revenues.  Krzistanowic, in his State of Poland says, that such was the Piety of the Poles, that immediately after they became Christians, they preferred their Clergy to their Laity, and allowed them many Noble Immunities and Privileges which they enjoy to this Day.  
Most of the Bishops have very large Revenues, wherewith they may not only live splendidly and comfortably themselves, but also be assistant to the inferior Clergy, and charitable to the Poor.  

Religion in Poland and Lithuania.  Here I must beg leave to give Your GRACE, by way of Digression, some Account of the present State of Religion, both in Poland and Lithnania; together with a few historical Circumstances relating as well to modern, as more remote Times, and wherein I shall all along endeavour to be as concise and comprehensive as the several Particulars I have to go through will admit.  

Conversion and several Persuasions of the Poles.  Your GRACE may first be informed, that the Poles became Christians under the Reign of Miecislaus I. in the Year 964. as may be observed in the Life of that King. The first Tenets they embraced, were those of the Church of Rome: But however, the Russians entertained the Greek Persuasion, which they continue in many Places of that Province to this Day: They are utterly averse to the Roman Catholic Religion, and term its Professors, by way of Contempt, Latins, their Service being in that Language.  
There are two Sorts of Greek Churches in this Kingdom; the Schismatics and the Vniats; whereof the latter differ only from the Roman Catholics, in that their Devotion is all in the Greek Language. The Priests of both these Churches are called Popi, the Word Pop in Polish signifying a Priest.  
Formerly Poland was overrun with Hussites, Picards, Anabaptists, Arrians, Tritheists, Photians, Ebionites, Nestorians, and Socinians: But the former of these have been 
Socinians expelled, 1658.  some time since extirpated, and the Socinians were first ejected by John Casimir, obliging them, by his Edict, to quit the Kingdom immediately, and allowing them three Years to dispose of their Effects. These three Years were afterwards reduced to two by a following Edict: But notwithstanding these positive Laws, several of this Sect lurking about in the Kingdom, from time to time, and some being protected by the Favour of the Gentry, the late King John Sobieski published a new 
1673.  Edict more severe than either of the former, whereby the Socinians were forthwith driven out of the Kingdom.  

Lutherans, and Calvinists.  I must not omit to acquaint Your GRACE, that there are abundance of Lutherans and Calvinists in this Kingdom, and that chiefly in the Province of Regal- Prussia, who have all Liberty of Conscience allowed them, and whom the King is obliged to tolerate and protect by his Coronation-Oath. The Lutherans are called by the Poles, Sassowiez (Saxons) because Luther lived and taught in Saxony▪ and the Calvinists, Zborocoi (Conventiclers) from the Polish Word Zbor, signifying an Unlawful Meeting. I should have observed, that the Prussians became Christians after the Poles. The reason of the Prussians so readily embracing the Lutheran Doctrine, Cromerus attributes to their being chiefly Germane, or to their reading the Books of that Nation. The first Polish Nobleman converted to Calvinism, was Nicholas Radzivil, under the Reign of Sigismundus Augustus, who received all that Sect into his Protection at his House at Viena, where they had their Service in the Polish Language; but this Family is at present extinct, the last Person of it being a Daughter, and Married to the Elector of Brandenburgh's Son; yet nevertheless, many of this Sect still remain in Poland.  

and other Religions in Poland.  There are Besides, Armenians, Jews, and Tartars in this Kingdom, who all enjoy their different Persuasions and Ceremonies. As for the Armenians, they inhabit chiefly in certain Towns of Russia and Podolia, and have their peculiar Prelates, Abbots, and Priests: Their Service is always exercised in their own Language: These, as in other Countries, acknowledge the Supremacy of the See of Rome. The Jews are every where to be found in Poland, and enjoy their Religion, and other Privileges, without Interruption; only they are restrained from trading within twelve Leagues of Warsaw, by the Constitutions. Their Number is so great, that Mr. Patric Ogleby, who has travelled all over these Countries, affirms, that there are above two Millions of them in this Kingdom, and that they are so privileged, that all this vast Body pays not above a hundred and twenty thousand Tinfes or florence a Year to the States; which amounts to no more than twenty thousand Dollars. In the great Duchy of Listhuania, there are moreover about thirty thousand Tartars, with Liberty of the Turkish Religion. They have been there near six hundred Years, and for the continuance of their Privileges, they are obliged to send twelve hundred Men Yearly to the Wars against the Turks and Tartars. There are likewise a great many Idolaters on the Frontiers of this Kingdom, who still retain their ancient Superstitions, whereof one is, that whenever any one dies, and though it be a Year or more afterwards, that another dies likewise; they presently go and dig up the first Body, and cut off its Head, thereby to prevent, as they say, the Death of any more of their Family.  

The Roman Catholic prevails,  Notwithstanding Poland admits of all these Religions, yet that which prevails most, is the Roman Catholic, which the Poles have continued steadfast in for above 700. Years. They are so zealous in the maintaining of this Faith, that they have a Custom to draw their Swords at the reading of the Gospel at Mass, and this to testify their Readiness to defend it: Also they are so bigoted to their Persuasion, that they formerly would not intermarry with Heretics, as they call them; contract any Alliance with them, accept of their Assistance in War, nor receive any of their Sceptres offered them: An Example of which last, we have in the Person of Jugello or Vladislaus V. who rejected the Crown of Bohemia, merely because the Hussites had then overrun that Kingdom. Also in John Casimir's Reign, the Swedes were altogether ejected Poland, on Account of their being Lutherans.  

and always preferred.  The Poles being thus Zealous for the Roman Catholic Religion, they will admit none into their Senate, Diet, or Courts of Judicature (except in those of Prussia) but of that Persuasion. Also Bishops always preside in the Assembly of the States, to the end that nothing may be transacted there in Prejudice of that Faith. The lesser Clergy likewise, selected out of the several Colleges and Chapters of the Kingdom, are appointed to have Seats in the Tribunals and other Courts of Justice for the same Reason. In like manner, the great Officers of the Crown are oftentimes Bishops, and the great Secretary of the whole Kingdom has always been an Ecclesiastic.  

Privileges of Regular Clergy.  The Regular Clergy in Poland, are generally more esteemed than the Secular; for they can perform all the Offices of Parish Priests, without having Permission from the Bishops: And Friar- Mendicants are allowed to enter the most private Part of any House without so much as knocking at the Door. There are all Sorts of Religious Orders in Poland, except those of Carthusians and Minims.  

Their dissolute Lives.  These Regular Clergy are generally very rich, but not less dissolute and immodest; for they frequently go into the Cellars to drink, being the Tippling Places of this Country, and sometimes you shall see many of them so drunk in the Streets, that they are scarce able to go upon their Legs, and this without either their Superiors or the People's taking any Notice of them.  

Fasts, how observed in Poland.  On Fast-Days these Religious Persons, and all others of the Poles, abstain from Milk-Meats, Eggs, Flesh, and Boiled Fish, a-nights' only: For providing they keep to these Rules at that time, they may Eat and Drink what they please all the rest of the Day, only Frydays and Saturdays they forbear Butter, Cheese, Milk, and Eggs, all the Day long. They cannot be inclined to eat Butter or Cheese on Fast-Days, though they have Permission from the Church; for when Cardinal Radziouski once obtained them that Liberty, from the See of Rome; they absolutely refused it, saying, that his Holiness was a Heretic. This rigid Custom they have observed ever since the Pope made them once fast for a hundred Years together for some enormous Crime; and which it may be, they do not think yet sufficiently expiated. They also are so obstinate in their abstaining from Flesh, that they will not eat any, though they be sick and advised thereto by their Doctors, and permitted by their Priests.  

Manners of the Secular Clergy.  As for the Secular Inferior Clergy, they are either Collegiate or Parochial, and both are much after the same Nature as with us. The Canons are never almost present at the Office, for they give the poor Scholars two Pence a Day to say their Hours for them in the Quoir. The Parsons generally neglect their Cures, by leaving most of their Duty to the Monks or Vicars and Curates. They always sing Part of the Service in the Polish Language, and that especially in the Parish-Churches at High- Mass.  
The Rosary is also daily repeated in the Dominicans Chapels, in which the Men are seated, and join in the Repetition, on one Side, and the Women on the other; the former alone singing the Ave Maria, and the latter the Sancta Maria.  
Plurality of Benefices is here tolerated; for there are some of these secular Clergy who have not only two Canonships, but also two Parsonages: But there are none that take any Care to perform the Duties of their Function. The Bishops themselves are so careless of their Episcopal Functions, that they care not to correct the inferior Clergy when they do amiss.  

The Poles Behaviour at Church.  At Divine Service the Poles always seem very devout, and bestow considerable Gifts upon their Churches; but they are neither liberal to the Poor, nor careful of their sick Servants. They pray always aloud in the Church, and at the Elevation of the Host at Mass, they cuff themselves, and knock their Heads against the Pavement, or the Bench whereon they sit, with so great Violence, that it commonly makes a great deal of Noise, and may be heard at a considerable Distance. The Women commonly have their Prayer-Books, with a Chaplet of Beads in the Middle of them. In Winter the Ladies of Quality, and even some Men, have furred Bags brought to Church for them, to preserve their Feet from the excessive Cold: They also wear little furred Mantles on their Shoulders for the same purpose.  

Their Churches.  I shall now only further observe to Your GRACE, as to this Subject of Religion, that the Churches in Poland are extremely fine, and well adorned; as also that the Jesuits of Leopol have a Chasuble or Cope, which the Priests wear at Mass, covered so thick with Pearls, that, by reason of its Heaviness, it is of little or no Use.  
To return to the Senate, from whence I have made this long, but I hope, pardonable Digression, I must acquaint Your GRACE, that excepting those already mentioned, and some of the ten Crown-Officers, who are often Ecclesiastic; the other Members thereof are all temporal, and  

Division and Subdivision of Lay▪ Senators.  Amount to the Number of 128. when they are all Lay-Men, and may be subdivided into, 32 Palatins 85 Castellans', 10 Crown Officers 1 Starosta.  
They are again to be divided into 

Senators:  
Great and  
Little    
The Great are only,  
32 Palatins,  

3 Castellans of  
Cracow,  
Vilna and  
Troki,   
1 Starosta.  
The Little or Inferior are in all 92. viz.  
10 Crown-Officers, and  
82 Castellans.  
These remaining Castellans may be divided into,  

The  
Greater and  
Lesser.   
The Greater are in Number 33.  
The Lesser lying only in High- Poland, Masovia, and Russia; amount to 49. But of all these in their Order. And  

Palatins, etc. with their Precedence.  First, Of the Palatins, whose Precedence, together with the intermixed Castellans, and one Starosta, is as follows.  

1. Lay-Senator.  The first of all the Lay- Senators is,  
The Castellan of Cracovia in High- Poland.  

Preferred, and wherefore.  He takes Place of the Palatin▪ for having formerly withstood the Fury of the Enemy, where the Palatin run away, in a Battle 
1130.  fought by Boleslaus III. Or as 
* Duglossus lib. 4. Annal. Polon. p. 369.  others say, because the then Palatin Scar bimir us rebelled against Boleslaus; in Detestation of which Action, he was ordered for ever after to give Place to the Castellan.  
The second Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Cracovia.  
The third Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Posnania in Low- Poland.  
The fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Vilna in Lithuania.  
The fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Pabatin of Sendomir in High- Poland.  
The sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Vilna.  

Preferred, for what Reasons.  He is preferred before several Palatins, because of some considerable Services he had done the Commonwealth; or rather, as 
† Lib. 2 Cap. 3. p. 504.  Hartknoch says, from the Antiquity of his Creation; for when Jagello united Lithuania to Poland, he instituted the Palatins and Castellans of Vilna and Troki, and ordered them to sit in Council, whereupon they have ever since taken Place of those that were created afterwards.  
The seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Kalisch in Low- Poland.  
The eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Troki in Lithuania.  
The ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Siradia in Low- Poland.  
The tenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Troki in Lithuania.  

Preferred, and why.  He is preferred to several Palatins for the same Reason with the Castellan of Vilna.  
The eleventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Lencici or Lanschet in Low- Poland.  
The twelfth Lay- Senator is,  
The Starosta or Governor of Samogitia.  

Wherefore preferred, and how chosen.  He has Preference also over some Palatins: This Senator is chosen by the Nobility of his Province, and confirmed by the King, and holds his Command for Life, unless he commit any very great Offence, in which Case he may be deprived of it, and degraded by the Diet.  
The thirteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Bresty, in the Territory of Cujavia in Low- Poland.  
The fourteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Kiovia in Low- Volhynia.  

Honorary Palatinate.  This Palatinate is only Honorary, the Moscovites having had Possession of it ever since the Cosacks surrendered it to them.  
The fifteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Inowlocz in Low- Poland▪  
The sixteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Russia.  

Why he has the Title of the Province.  He has the Title of all the Country, though there be several other Palatins in this great Province, his Jurisdiction being wholly confinded to that Palatinate, which formerly had the Name of Leopol.  
The seventeenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of High Volhynia, or Luceoria.  
The eighteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of High- Podolia (formerly of Caminiec.)  

Honorary Palatinate.  This Palatinate at present is only honorary, being wholly in Possession of the Turks.  
The nineteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Smolensko.  

Honorary Palatinate.  This Palatinate is also Honorary, and in the Hands of the Moscovites, since the Year 1654.  
The twentieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Lublin in High- Poland.  
The twenty first Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Losk or Polockz in Lithuania.  
The twenty second Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Belez or Belsko in Red- Russia.  
The twenty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Novogrodeck in Lithuania.  
The twenty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Plosko or Plockzko in Low- Poland.  
The twenty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Witebsko or Vitepsko in Lithuania.  
The twenty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Masovia (formerly of Czirna, a Town in the same Province.)  
The twenty seventh Lay▪ Senator is,  
The Palatin of Podlachia or Bielsko, a District of that Province.  
The twenty eighth Lay▪ Senator is,  
The Palatin of Rava in Low- Poland.  
The twenty ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Briescia or Polesia in Lithuania.  
The thirtieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Culm in Regal- Prussia.  
The thirty first Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Mscislaw or Msceislaw in Lithuania.  
The thirty second Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Marienbourg in Regal- Prussia.  

Formerly Seat of Teutonic Knights.  The City of Marienbourg was formerly the Seat of the Teutonic Order, as appears by the Stalls or Seats yet to be seen in great Numbers in the Chapel of the Castle.  
The thirty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Braclaw in Low- Podolia.  

Honorary Palatinate.  This Palatinate at present is only Honorary, being altogether ravaged and dispeopled by the frequent Incursions of the Turks and Tartars.  
The thirty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Pomerania in Regal- Prussia.  

Greatest Part Honorary.  This Palatinate lies altogether in Royal Prussia, the greatest Part of it now being a Province belonging to Sueden and Brandenbourg, tho' a small Portion of it yet remains to Poland.  
The thirty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Minski or Minsch in Lithuania.  
The thirty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Palatin of Czernichovia or Czernikow, a Duchy which formerly belonged to Lithuania.  

Honorary Palatinate.  This Palatinate at present is only Honorary, having been for some time under the Czar of Moscovy.  

Duty and Office of Palatins.  Having thus described the Order and Precedence of the chief Senators, it would not be amiss to give Your GRACE some Account of the Duty of a Palatin, which is to lead the Troops of his Palatinate into the Field in a general Expedition, called by the Poles, Pospolite Ruszenie: 
* Hartknoch lib. 2. cap. 3. p. 506. etc.  But in time of Peace, the Power of all is not the same, for there are some Palatins in the great Duchy of Lithuania, who even then govern by Martial Law. In Prussia also they proceed by the same Law, which they call Judicia Palatinalia; their general Office is to preside in the little Diet or Assembly of the Gentry of their Province; to regulate the Prizes of Merchandizes, and to take Care of Weights and Measures; as also to punish or protect the Jews, who cannot be judged in the common Courts: But this is otherwise in Prussia and Volhinia, as may hereafter appear more at large. These Palatins are all Princes by their Office.  

Vice- Palatins, and how qualified.  The Palatins have every one a Vice- Palatin under them, and in some Places more than one, whom they name themselves, and take their Oaths to be true and faithful to them only: These Vice- Palatins must have a Competency in Land to qualify'em for that Employment.  

Duty of Castellans.  Immediately after the Palatins and the other four privileged Persons, come the several Castellans, who are all Senators, and Lieutenants to the Palatins in time of War, leading the Gentry of their Jurisdiction into the Field, under the Command of the Palatins.  

Their Division.  Of these Castellans there are several in every Palatinate which are distinguished by the greater and lesser; the greater are so called, because, excepting very few, they derive the Names of their Castellanies from Palatinates; whereas the lesser do take theirs only from Districts, which makes them sometimes called Castellani Districtuum. Also another Reason why they are so divided is, because the lesser Castellans sit only on Benches behind the other Senators: Also they may be termed the lesser, in regard that it is not long since they were first admitted of the Senate, and that they are sometimes excluded. But however, in all other Respects they are equal.  

Qualifications.  The necessary Qualifications of a Castellan are to be a Nobleman of Poland, and to have Lands and Tenements in the Territory whereof he is Castellan.  

Office and Titles.  In times of Peace, except their Office in the Senate, the Castellans have no Jurisdiction, except in criminal Cases; the Titles of Magnifici or Wielmozni are given by the Chancery to the greater Sort of them, and of Generosi or Vrodzeni to the lesser, but commonly all the Castellans are saluted by the Titles of Illustrissimi or Jasnie Wielmozni.  

Greater Castellans and their Precedence.  The Names and Precedence in the Senate, of all these Castellans, and first of the greater Sort.  
The thirty seventh Lay- Senator is,  

Lay-Senator.  The Castellan of Posnania.  
The thirty eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Sendomir.  
The thirty ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Kalisch.  
The fortieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Wounitz, a Town in the Palatinate of Cracovia.  
The forty first Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Gnesna, a City in the Palatinate of Posnania.  
The forty second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Siradia.  
The forty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Lanschet or Lencici.  
The forty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Samogitia.  
The forty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Bresty or Bressici.  
The forty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Kiovia.  
The forty seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Inowlocz.  
The forty eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Leopol, a City in the Palatinate of Russia.  
The forty ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Volhynia.  
The fiftieth Lay- Senator is,  

Honorary.  The Castellan of Caminiec, a strong City in the Palatinate of Podolia.  
The fifty first Lay- Senator is,  

Honorary.  The Castellan of Smolensko.  
The fifty second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Lublin.  
The fifty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Losk or Polocz.  
The fifty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Belez or Belsko.  
The fifty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Novogrodec.  
The fifty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Plocksko.  
The fifty seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Witebsko.  
The fifty eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Czirna, a District in the Province of Masovia.  
The fifty ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Podlachia.  
The sixtieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Rava.  
The sixty first Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Briescia or Polesia.  
The sixty second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Culm.  
The sixty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Mscislaw or Msceislaw.  
The sixty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Elbing, a considerable City in the Palatinate of Pomerania.  
The sixty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Braclaw.  
The sixty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Dantzic, a famous City in the Palatinate of Marienburg.  
The sixty seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Minsch or Minski.  
The sixty eighth Lay- Senator is,  

Honorary.  The Castellan of Livonia.  
The sixty ninth Lay- Senator is,  

Honorary.  The Castellan of Czernicovia.  

Lesser Castellans.  The lesser Sort of Castellans are as follows.  
The seventieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Sandecz, a Town and District in the Palatinate of Cracovia.  
The seventy first Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Mezaritz, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.  
The seventy second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Visticz, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.  
The seventy third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Biecz, a City and District in the Palatinate of Cracovia.  
The seventy fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Ragosno, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.  
The seventy fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Radomsko, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.  
The seventy sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Zawichost, a City in the same Palatinate.  
The seventy seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Land or Landaw, a  
Town in the Palatinate of Kalisch.  
The seventy eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Srzdo or Sremsk, a  
Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.  
The seventy ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Zarnow, a Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.  
The eightieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Malagost or Malogsch, a Town in the same.  
The eighty first Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Vielunia, a Territory in the Palatinate of Siradia.  
The eighty second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Praemislaw, a District in the Palatinate of Russia.  
The eighty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Halicz, a District in the same Palatinate.  
The eighty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Sanoch, a District in the same Palatinate.  
The eighty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Chelm.  
The eighty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Drohiczin, a District of the Province of Podlachia.  
The eighty seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Poloviec, a Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.  
The eighty eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Premecz or Primen, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.  
The eighty ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Kriven, a Town in the same Palatinate.  
The ninetieth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Czekow, a Town in the Palatinate of Sendomir.  
The ninety first Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Nakel or Naklo, a  
Town in the Palatinate of Kalisch.  
The ninety second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Rosprza, a Town in the Palatinate of Siradia.  
The ninety third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Biechovia, a Town in the Palatinate of Lanschet.  
The ninety fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Bidgotz, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Inowlocz.  
The ninety fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Brezini, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Lanschet.  
The ninety sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Kruswick, a District and City in the Palatinate of Bresty.  
The ninety seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Oswieczin, a Duchy and City in the Palatinate of Cracovia.  
The ninety eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Kamin, a Town in the Palatinate of Kalisch.  
The ninety ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Spicimiria or Rizepice, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Siradia.  
The hundredth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Inowlocz.  
The hundred and first Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Kowalow, a Town in the Palatinate of Bresty.  
The hundred and second Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Zandoc, a Town in the Palatinate of Posnania.  
The hundred and third Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Sochazovia, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Rava.  
The hundred and fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Warsaw, a District and famous City in the Province of Masovia.  
The hundred and fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Gostinin, a District and capital City in the Palatinate of Rava.  
The hundred and sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Wisna, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Masovia.  
The hundred and seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Radzanow, a Town in the Palatinate of Plosko.  
The hundred and eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Sieprcz or Siepez, a Town in the same Palatinate.  
The hundred and ninth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Wissegrod, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Masovia.  
The hundred and tenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Ripin, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Dobrina.  
The hundred and eleventh Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Zacrol, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Masovia.  
The hundred and twelfth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Cickanow, a District and Town in the same Palatinate.  
The hundred and thirteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Liw or Liwo, a District and Town in the same Palatinate.  
The hundred and fourteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Slonsk, a District and Town in the Palatinate of Dobrina.  
The hundred and fifteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Lubazow, a Town in Royal- Prussia.  
The hundred and sixteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Konarzew, a Town in the Palatinate of Siradia.  
The hundred and seventeenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Konarzew, in the Palatinate of Lanschet.  
The hundred and eighteenth Lay- Senator is,  
The Castellan of Konarzew, in the Territory of Cujavia.  

No enjoying Plurality of Offices.  Having thus gone through the several Precedencies of the Bishops, Palatins, and Castellans in the Senate; Your GRACE may please to observe, that a Palatin cannot be a Castellan of the same Place whereof he is Palatin: Nor can either of them two be a Starosta, or any other Officer in the same Palatinate or Castellany; except some few, and all those of Lithuania and Prussia, where the Palatins govern wholly by Martial Law. Neither can a Palatin, Castellan, or Starosta have two Commands, either of the same Kind, or any other at the same time.  
It is likewise to be observed, that no Castellan can be Burgrave of the Castle of Cracow, or any other Castle, whilst he is Castellan.  

Castellans, how called in Polish.  In the Polish Tongue the Castellans are called Lords of a Place, by adding only the Termination of Ki or Ski to it; as Pan Poznanski, Lord of Posnan, etc.  

The ten Crown-Officers.  Last of all the Lay- Senators, come the ten Crown-Officers, who stand about the Throne on each Side of the King. Their Degrees are as follow, viz.  


The great Marshal or great Steward of Poland.  
The great Marshal or great Steward of Lithuania.  
The great Chancellor of the Kingdom.  
The great Chancellor of the Duchy.  
The Vicechancellor of the Kingdom.  
The Vicechancellor of the Duchy.  
The great Treasurer of the Crown.  
The great Treasurer of the Duchy.  
The little Marshal or Court-Marshal of the Kingdom.  
The little Marshal or Court-Marshal of the Duchy.    

Those of the Kingdom precede.  Here it is to be observed, that the five Senator-Officers of Lithuania have the same Dignity and Power with those of the Kingdom, except that they give place to the Former: But first for,  

Lay-Senator.  The hundred and nineteenth Lay-Senator who is,  
The great Marshal, or great Steward of Poland.  

His Office.  His Office is to prepare every thing for the general Diet, either by Command of the King, or the Primate; to assign Stations for the several Members, to exclude such as are none, and to provide Lodgings for foreign Ministers; and moreover, to take care that all be safe, where that general Assembly of the States is to convene. Likewise to set Prizes upon all Vendibles, and to moderate public Shows.  

Power and Authority.  He may punish Offenders and seditious Persons, even with Death, without being subject to an Appeal, unless it be in a Matter of very great Consequence. He has the Authority to impose Silence, and to give Liberty to speak. He has a Power to admonish a Senator or Deputy, if he exceeds the Bounds of Modesty in his Harangue. His Business is to promulgate the Acts of the Senate., and to put in Execution the King's Decrees, either in Cases of Infamy or Death. His Duty is 
Duty and Privilege.  also to carry a Staff erected before the King wherever he goes, and to take care that all the Court-Officers perform their Duty in their several Stations, over whom he has the sole Jurisdiction in criminal Cases. If any Person so much as wounds one of his Officers, he loses his Head for it, by a Law made in the Year 1573. He is moreover the Introducer of all Ambassadors.  

His Perquisites.  He has an exceeding great Benefit, by imposing Prizes on Merchant's Wares, for they generally make him great Presents and Bribes, to augment their Profit. Nevertheless his Power is very much lessened in the Time of the Election of a King▪ for than he must act in Conjunction with the Grand Marshal of Lithuania.  

Deputy, and who officiates in Cases of Absence.  He always acts by Assistance of the Court- Marshal, who is his Deputy in his Absence. And when the Court- Marshal absents likewise, the Duty of that Office is required from the Grand Marshal of Lithuania, and in his Absence from his Little Marshal: And when all these are absent, that Duty is incumbent on the Chancellors and Treasurers in their respective Turns.  
The hundred and twentieth Lay- Senator is,  
The grand Marshal or grand Steward of Lithuania.  
His Office is much the same with that of the grand Marshal of Poland.  
The hundred and twenty first Lay- Senator is,  
The great Chancellor of the Kingdom.  
The hundred and twenty second Lay- Senator is,  
The great Chancellor of the Duchy.  
The hundred and twenty third Lay- Senator is,  
The Vicechancellor of the Crown.  
The hundred and twenty fourth Lay- Senator is,  
The Vicechancellor of the Duchy.  

Qualifications of these of the Kingdom.  The Chancellor and Vicechancellor of the Kingdom must be the one Ecclesiastical, and the other Secular; by a Law made at Cracow, in the Time of Sigismond I. But those of the Great Duchy are both obliged to be Secular; though 
* Lib. 2. Cap. 3. p. 528.  Hartknoch says there is no Law against a Bishop's being Chancellor there.  

Both have Seals and equal Authority.  They have each of them two Seals, the Chancellor the greater Seal, and the Vicechancellor the lesser: Their Authority is equal, except that the former always takes Place of the latter, tho' he happens to be a Bishop, and that the Vicechancellor does not act but in Absence of the Chancellor, or at least under him.  

Their Office and Power.  The Chancellor's Office is to take Cognizance of all civil Affairs; to see Justice done, the Laws observed, and to render ineffectual the Cabals and Intrigues of foreign Princes, in Prejudice of the Liberties and Authority of the Republic. They are to seal all the King's Mandates and Grants, and to receive and answer all his Letters. Their Power also is so great, that they can seal several things without the King's Consent, and refuse as many, where he commands, if they are contrary to the Constitution of the State. The Chancellor, or in his Absence, the Vicechancellor, answer to all Speeches made the King, and propose all Matters to be debated in the Senate. He of the two that is Ecclesiastical, hath a Power over the King's Secretaries, Chaplains and Preachers; as likewise over all the Ceremonies of the Church, which in any wise relate to the King. They are the general Chroniclers and Publishers of the Laws, and take Cognisance of all Appeals made to the King.  

Succeed each other.  The Vicechancellor generally succeeds the Chancellor, though sometimes in Lithuania it has happened otherwise: The Ecclesiastical Chancellor or Vicechancellor of Poland is, for the most part, chosen out of the meaner Bishoprics, as Culm, Premislia, Chelm, etc.  

How ought to be Qualified.  They ought to be Persons of great Prudence, Learning, and Probity; their Business being to admonish, advise, and direct the King in his Administration of the Government.  
The hundred and twenty fifth Lay- Senator is,  
The great Treasurer of the Crown.  
The hundred and twenty sixth Lay- Senator is,  
The great Treasurer of the Duchy.  

Their Office and Authority.  These Treasurers are Masters and Guardians of the Treasure and Revenue of the Republic, which is brought them in by four general Collectors, who all keep a true Register of it, giving a Copy thereof to the King, and another to the Treasurer. They also have the keeping of the Regalia, as the Crown, Sceptre, Globe, Sword of State, Robes, etc. They moreover have in their Custody all the King's Furniture and Records, and are to preside in the Office of the Mint: They likewise pay all Salaries, either of the Military or civil List. The Treasurer's Privilege is so great, that they are not obliged to give any Account, either to the King, or any of his Officers, how they perform their Trust; but in due Time the Diet appointing Commissioners for that Purpose, they are obliged faithfully to charge and discharge themselves before them; otherwise the Republic may sue them for it, and confiscate their Lands: Nevertheless the Treasurers (who most commonly misemploy the public Stock) by treating the Commissioners well, and making them considerable Presents withal, often obtain their Discharge without much Difficulty.  

A remarkable Breach of Trust.  I may here give your Grace an Account of a Passage that happened when Count Morstyn was great Treasurer of Poland, who having more Regard to his own private Interest, than public Benefit, sent all the Riches of the Treasury into France, when fearing that the Diet would soon think fit to call him to Account, he retired privately with all his Effects out of the Kingdom, and went to settle in France, where he purchased the whole County of Chateau-Villain, which is worth above an hundred thousand Livres a Year.  
The hundred and twenty seventh Lay- Senator is,  
The little or Court- Marshal of the Kingdom.  
The hundred and twenty eighth Lay- Senator is,  
The little or Court- Marshal of the Duchy.  

Contend for Precedence, but refused it.  These Court- Marshals, in the Time of Vladislaus VII. had a Contest with the Chancellors for Precedence; but at length they were ordered to be contented with the last Place in the Senate; therefore Starovolscius, who in his Colen Edition of the State of Poland, places them next to the great Marshals in that of Dantzic puts them last of all.  

Extra-Senatorial Officers  It will not be here amiss to acquaint Your Grace, that besides these ten Crown-Officers there are three other Sorts of Officers which are not Senators, and they are either of the Kingdom and Great Duchy, the King's Court, or belonging peculiarly to Palatinates and Districts. The Principal of the first Kind are these:  

Great Generals  The two Grand Generals, of the Crown and Great Duchy, who are the King's immediate Substitutes, and have a full Power to do whatever his Majesty could, were he present. Tho this Dignity of Great General be the most considerable and honourable of any in the Republic, yet does it not make the Person that enjoys it to be a Senator, nor qualifies him to have the least Seat in the Diet, unless he be therewithal a Palatin or Castellan, as most commonly he is.  

Have equal Authority.  The two great Generals of Poland and Lithuania have equal Power in their respective States, and have no Dependence upon each other, unless that the Great General of Lithuania always gives Place to him of Poland; yet has he the sole Command of the great Dutchy's Army, and receives no manner of Orders from the Crown-General, except where both are jointly engaged in a Battle.  

Their Power,  These great Generals in the King's Absence, have the greatest Power in the Kingdom, for they have then a supreme Command in the Army: They give Battle, and besiege Towns without the King's Participation, and settle Winter-Quarters where, and upon what Lands they think fit: This Power of theirs is so extraordinary considerable, that a great General is formidable to all the Nobility.  

and Duty.  Their Duty is to keep good Order and Discipline in the Army; to punish mutinous and seditious Officers and Soldiers; to settle the Prizes of all Commodities and Provisions brought into the Camp; to give Command or necessary Orders for a Charge or Retreat: and in fine, to do any thing that his Majesty could were he present.  

King's Interest to head his Army.  It is therefore the Interest of a King of Poland always to head his Army himself, to have his Sons with him in the Field, and to give them Opportunity to gain Reputation and Credit by their Valour and Conduct; for the more the King increases his own Fame, or that of his Sons, the more he diminishes the Credit and Power of his Generals, who are the only Persons in the Kingdom that are most to be feared, and who have the greatest Power and Influence over the Gentry in the Election of a King.  

Present great Generals.  The present great General of Poland, is the Count Jablonowski, of the French Faction; and of Lithuania, Prince Sapieha, supposed to be of the Austrian Faction.  

Dignity successive.  When the Office of great General is vacant, the little or Lieutenant-General has a Right to succeed him.  

Lieutenant-Generals, and their Office.  The two Lieutenant-Generals of Poland and Lithuania are to preside in all Court-Marshals, and to take care that Guard be strictly kept throughout the Camp. Also they are to observe, that all Spies and Scouts be sent out as often as Occasion requires; and lastly, to see that foreign Soldiers be duly paid.  

Chief Commander of the Guards.  The Business of the chief Commander of the King's Guards in the Camp, is to command solely those Soldiers who are assigned to guard his Majesty's Person in the Camp; but upon the King's Departure, this Officer's Power ceases.  

Other great Officers in the Army.  There are several other Officers of Note in the Army, the most considerable of which are, the great Ensign or Standard-Bearer, the great Master of the Artillery, the Camp Notaries, and Commander of the Guards against Incursions; of which two last I shall only speak here.  

Camp-Notaries.  Camp-Notaries are Paymasters General for the Army both of the Kingdom and great Duchy.  

Captain of Guards against Incursions.  The chief Commander of the Guards against the Incursions of the Tartars, etc.  
This Officer is posted on the Confines of the Kingdom towards Crim-Tartary, etc. and is to give Notice of all the Motions of the Enemy.  

Great Secretaries and their Authority.  For the civil State-Officers, there are the two great Secretaries of the Kingdom and Duchy. They have a Power to enter into the Privy-Council, and to take Cognizance of what the Chancellors and Vice▪ Chancellors do. They must both be ecclesiastics, and their Office is a great Step to the Chancellor's Dignity. They have the keeping of the King's Signet, and are qualified for the highest Episcopal Honours, and have Precedence before most Officers of the Court or Kingdom.  

Referendaries and their Office.  The Masters of Requests, or Referendaries of the Kingdom and the great Duchy: Their Business is to receive Petitions made to the King, and to give his Majesty's Answer. They have a Place in any of the King's Courts of Justice. These are in all four; one Ecclesiastical and one Civil for the Kingdom, and the like for the great 
Cupbearers, Carvers, Sword-Bearers. Court-Treasurers and their Office.  Duchy.  

Two Cupbearers for each Nation.  
for the same 

Two Carvers and  
Two Sword-Bearers     
The Treasurers of the Court in the Kingdom and the great Duchy: These supply either the Absence or Vacancy of the Office of the great Treasurers.  

Treasurer of Prussia.  The Treasurer of Prussia, whose Business is to take all Accounts of the Collectors of Revenue in that Province, and to transmit them to the great Treasurers.  

Associates to Judges.  Associates to Judges, which are generally such as reside in the King's Court, viz. the Masters of Requests, Vicechancellors, etc.  

Chief Notaries.  Two chief Notaries of the Courts of Justice for civil Causes, either of the Kingdom or the great Duchy.  

Registers inChancery.  Two Registers in the Chancery of both Nations.  

Escheator.  An Officer that looks after the Escheats, called by us Escheator. He can either sue for or seize any such Lands or Goods as fall to the Crown.  

Commissioners of Custom House.  The Commissioners of the Custom-Houses, who give in their Accounts as often as the great Treasurers require them.  

Governors of Mines.  The Governors of the Silver, Led, and Salt Mines: They exercise Jurisdiction over the Workmen there, but must nevertheless admit of Appeals to Court.  

Governors of the Mint.  The Governors or Wardens of the Mint, which are for the most part the Treasurers of the Kingdom: Their Business is to take care that the Money there coined be of Weight and Value.  

Court-Officers.  The chief Officers of the King's Court are treated of before in the Letter to his Grace, the Archbishop of Canterbury.  

Civil Officers of Districts.  The Officers of Districts may be divided into two Sorts; Civil and Military. The civil are,  

Vice-Chamberlain and his Office,  The Vice-Chamberlain, whose Office is to decide all Differences within his District about the Bounds of Land, etc. to which he is sworn. He has several Deputies under 
Chamberlains.  him, called Chamberlains, whom he chooses out of the Gentry of his Jurisdiction, and to whom he gives an Oath to be true and faithful in the Execution of their Office. It is at his Pleasure to displace these as often as he thinks fit.  

Judge and Assistant.  The Judge; who together with his Assistant, determines all civil Causes and Controversies.  

Prothonotary.  The Prothonotary, who in those Courts has likewise a Power of giving his Opinion.  

Head Collector.  The head Collector of the public Revenue, who is accountable above.  

Other Officers, and why so called.  The other Officers are less considerable, being Sewers, Carvers, Cupbearers, Sword-Bearers, etc. The Reason of there being such Officers in every Palatinate, is because formerly each Province of Poland was a Sovereignty, and had its peculiar Princes, who had all their Court-Officers. But now though these Offices remain, yet it is only with Honorary Titles, and some few Privileges, the chiefest of which are, that when the King comes into their Palatinate, his Court-Officers must leave to them the Honour of serving him at Table, bearing the Sword before him, etc.  

Military Officers of Districts.  The Military Officers of a District are,  
Starostas with and without Jurisdiction.  

Starostas' with Jurisdiction.  Starostas' with Jurisdiction are Governors of Castles and Royal Cities, who sit and hear private Causes of small Moment once a Fortnight, and those of greater concern every six Weeks, if nothing intervene to prevent them.  

Vice-Starostas, etc.  These have Vice- Starostas, Judges, Clerks, and Servants in the Nature of Sheriffs Officers, to enforce Justice, in Cases of Resistance.  

Jurisdiction of Starostas.  The Jurisdiction of these Starostas extends not only over the Commonalty, but likewise over the Gentry. They have also a Care of the King's Revenue arising within their District, and may discount a fourth Part for their Trouble.  

Starostas' without Jurisdiction.  The Starostas without Jurisdiction are those who are properly Tenants in Capite. They have no Power to exercise Justice, unless in very slight Cases.  

Burgraves and their Office.  Burgraves and Tribunes have the Custody of Castles, Forts, etc. and are to keep constant Guard there, either by themselves or their Deputies. These are subject to the Starostas.  

Revenue of Starostaships.  The Revenue of Starostaships partly arises from Agriculture, and partly from Manufacture and Handicrafts. They have been sometimes known to have been Mortgaged to raise the King's Revenue more speedily, especially those without Jurisdiction.  

Zuppars', what.  Here likewise the Officers of the Mines (called Zuppars in Polish) may be taken notice of, who have divers Officers and Substitutes under them.  
The Minor Ecclesiastical and Temporal Officers and Persons of this Kingdom being, in all Respects, like to those of other Nations, I have purposely omitted them.  
Thus, My LORD, I have gone through the several Particulars which I proposed to entertain Your GRACE and the Public with, yet at the same time cannot but be highly sensible of my Presumption in prefixing Your Great Name to so imperfect an Account; therefore hoping Your GRACE'S Pardon upon an humble Acknowledgement, I beg Leave▪ to subscribe myself,  
My LORD, Your GRACE'S Most Obedient and Most Humble Servant, J. S.   

LETTER III.  
To the Right Honourable JAMES VERNON Esq Principal Secretary of State.  
Of the Grand Diet, Little Diets, and other general Assemblies in Poland; with an Account of all the several Courts of Justice, from the highest to the lowest: As likewise of the Judges, Laws, and Punishments in that Kingdom.  
SIR,  
A. The Present King in his Throne.  
BB. The ten Crown Officers.  
C. The A Bp. of Gnesna with the Cross born behind him.  
DDDD. The other Ecclesiastical Senators.  
EEEEE. Foreign Ambassadors admitted only to the Diet of Election.  
FFFFFF. The Palatins & Castellans in the three Rows on each side.  
GGGGGG. The Deputy s in the two back Rows on each side.  
H. The Nuncio Martial or Speaker of Deputy s.  
FOUR Vacant seats for such others as are sometimes admitted.  
1. The Arms of Poland. 2. The Arms of Lithuania.  
SIR,  

What the Diet is.  The Grand Diet or Parliament of Poland, by the Natives called Seym Walny, is an Assembly of the King, Senators, and Nuncio's, or Deputies of every Province met together in any City or Town of Poland or Lithuania, in order to deliberate upon State Affairs, and the Means to secure and preserve the Kingdom, both in Times of Peace and War.  

By whom called, and where and how often meet.  It is the King, or during an Inter regnum, the Primate who has the sole Power of convoking this great Assembly, as likewise to determine the Place where, and the Time when it shall sit. By the Constitutions of the Kingdom, the King is obliged to call a Diet every third Year, and of every three successively called, two must be held in Poland, most commonly at Warsaw, and the third in Lithuania, in the City of Grodno, in the Palatinate of Troki, twenty Leagues from Vilna, Capital of this great Duchy: So that every ninth Year the King, with all the Senators and Deputies of the Kingdom, goes into Lithuania; and every third the Senators and Deputies of Lithuania come into Poland. The Reason of the Diet's being held in Lithuania was, because the Lithuanians complained that it was not a little inconvenient for them to come so far as Poland.  

Manner of calling it, and Proceedings thereupon.  When the King has a mind to convoke this general Meeting, he is to send out circular Letters six Weeks before the time he appoints for its Session, by the Constitution in the Year 1613. to all the Palatins of the Provinces, acquainting them with his Design, together with the Time he intends it shall meet. He sends them likewise a List of all the Affairs and Articles which are to be treated of in that Diet. Whereupon every Palatin or his Deputy, in his own respective Government, forthwith dispatches Notice to all the Castellans, Starostas, and other Gentry, requiring them at a certain Time to meet together, in order to deliberate on the Articles and Affairs proposed by the King's Letters, as likewise to choose a Nuncio or Deputy to represent their Intentions and Decisions in the Great Diet. These Letters are proclaimed by a Herald (called by the Poles Wozny) and afterwards pasted up upon all the Town-Gates and Church-Doors. These Assemblies in the Provinces are termed by them Comitiola (in the Polish Language Seymiki) or little Diets. In Cases of Extremity, six Weeks Notice need not be given, as appears by the Constitutions of the Year, 1638.  

Where the little Diets meet.  The several Places these little Diets meet at are as follow.  

I. In Great Poland.  In Lower or Great Poland.  


In the Palatinates of  
Posuan and Kalisch, Siradia. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Sroda,  
Schadkow,       

In the Castellany of  
Vielunia 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Vielun,       

In the Palatinates of  
Lanschet, Bresty, and Inowlocz. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Lanschet,  
Radzieiow.        
Appointed by the 
* Vide Herburt. Voce Comitia, p. 92. and in Edit. Polon, p. 257.  Constitutions in the Year 1510.  
In the Palatinate of Dobrina, the little Diet meets in the Town of Ripin.  
Appointed by the Constitutions in the Year 1567.  


In the Palatinates of  
Plosko, Rava in three Places. 

In the Cities & Towns of 

Radzanow,  
Rava,  
Sochaczow  
Gombin.        



Podlachia,  
and Masovia.  In the Provinces of  
Podlachia in three Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Droghiczin,  
Mielnik,  
Bransko.      
Masovia in ten Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Cirna,  
Warsaw,  
Wisna,  
Wissegrod,  
Zakrol,  
Ciekanow,  
Lombze,  
Rozan,  
Liw, and Nur.        

II. In Little-Poland.  In the Province of Upper or Little- Poland.  


In the Palatinate of  
Cracovia in two Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Zator for the Duchy of Oswieczin, and Prossovia for the Palatinate.        
By the Constitutions of the Year 1667.  


In the Palatinates of  
Sendomir and Lublin. 

In the Cities & Towns of 

Opatow and Lublin.        

III. In Lithuania.  In the Great Duchy of Lithuania.  


In the Palatinates of  
Vilna in four Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Vilna,  
Osmian,  
Wilcomitz,  
Braclaw.      
Troki in five Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Troki,  
Grodno.  
Cowno,  
Lida,  
Ponienwiez.      
Polocz 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Polocz.      
Novogrodec in two Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Slonim,  
Wolkowizko.      
Witebsko in two Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Witebsko,  
Orska.      
Briescia or Polesia in two Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Briescia,  
Pinsko.      
Mscislaw, 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Msceislaw.      
Minsk in three Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Minsk,  
Modzir,  
Reczycza.        

IV. In Prussia.  In the Province of Prussia.  


In the Palatinates of  
Pomerania, Marienburg, Culm, Elbing.  
In the Cities and Towns of 

Imprimis, in all the Districts, then in Stargar-Stuma, (die. Michalovia, and Graudentz▪ Elbing.      

V. In Russia.  In the Province of Russia.  


In the Palatinates of  
Russia in five Places. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Leopol,  
Praemislaw,  
Sanoch,  
Halitz,  
Chelm.      
Belsko, Podolia. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Belsko,  
Caminiec.        
Since Caminiec's being taken by the Turks, its Little Diet meets at Leopol.  


In the Palatinates of  
Kiovia, Braclaw. 

In the Cities and Towns of 

Zytomierz afterwards at Woldzimiers in Volhynia.        

VI In Volhynia.  In the Province of Volhynia.  

In the Town of  
Vinnicza, afterwards at Woldzimierz.   

VII. In Samogitia.  In the Duchy of Samogitia.  
In the Town of Rosienia.  

Qualifications for, and  All Sorts of Gentlemen, both rich and poor, providing they have but three Acres of Land in their Possession, which must be worth at least eight Crowns Sterling a Year, have a Right to come to these little Diets, where they all have equal Authority and Votes, but however no body under a Polish Gentleman, has a Suffrage there. One of these Gentry once hindered a Person from being chosen Chairman of a little Diet till the Candidate had given him a Pair of Polish Boots, for he was before almost barefooted, after which he consented and came in and approved of the Election.  

Manner of voting in little Diets.  All the Decisions here, as in the great Diet, did not formerly go by Plurality of Voices, but by unanimous Consent, which frequently bred abundance of Disorder, and oftentimes the Diets broke up without having concluded any thing, and that by reason of the Contests and Obstinacy of some private Members who had the Power to oppose all the rest, and who most commonly were bribed by one Side or other. At these little Diets the poorer Sort of Gentry always side with their Seigneur, and ever approve of what he says, without knowing sometimes what the Matter in Hand is: An Example whereof, Dr. Connor says, happened in his Time at one of these Assemblies, in the Province of Masovia, where some Affairs of the Province being in Debate, and one of the Gentry declaring against them, his Party or Mob, not knowing what the Business was, cried like Madmen, that such an Affair should not pass, whereupon a witty Fellow, observing their senseless Rage, started up and cried, Brethren, you are Fools to oppose this Affair, for the Question is only to abate the Price of Wheat and Aquavitae; whereat they immediately consented to, and approved of the Matter proposed, and cried, that their Seigneur was a Rogue that had betrayed them, and moreover threatened him with their Sabres.  

Who, and how many chosen Deputies: With their Instructions.  Notwithstanding every little Gentleman can vote for whom he pleases, yet the Election always falls upon some rich Nobleman, who can treat high, and make a Figure suitable to this honourable Charge. Most commonly they choose two or three Deputies for every Palatinate; one of which is always an understanding Man, and the rest are young Noblemen, chosen only for Honour's sake, or that they may be trained up betimes in the Service of their Country. When the Deputies are chosen, they receive full Instructions from the Gentry of their Province, of what they are to consent or descent to in the general Diet, and when once they are entrusted with these Instructions, they dare not for their Lives transgress them; so that if but one Deputy has Orders contrary to the rest, it lies in his single Power to break all their Measures.  

Proceedings in little Diets.  In these little Diets, their first Care is to choose a Marshal or Chairman, whose Office is much the same with the Marshal or Speaker of the general Diet.  

* Hartknoch lib. 2. cap. 6. p. 682. etc.  This Chairman in Lithuania, when once chosen, continues the same for Life. This Officer being elected, they next proceed to the receiving of the King's Nuncio, which is done by the chief Deputy, and by him placed at the upper End of the Table. This Person proposes in the King's Name, what they are to debate upon, having first satisfied them of his Commission. But here it must be observed, that to some of these Conventions, the King transmits' his Instructions by a Starosta.  

Deputies, how chosen.  The Nuncio's or Deputies are now elected by Plurality of Voices, to avoid Confusion and Disorder.  

† Hartknoch lib. 2. Cap. 6. p. 689.  The Number of all these Nuncios amounts commonly to 174. besides those of Prussia, which are uncertain, and which in the Year 1685. were 70. of themselves.  

Cannot be Senators.  These Deputies cannot be chosen Senators, and are for the most part elected out of the common Magistrates, excepting the Judges of the high Tribunals, Assessors, Collectors of the Revenue, etc.  

Their Salaries.  It is to be observed, that these Deputies have certain Salaries assigned 'em by the Constitutions in the Year 1540  

When first sent.  These Nuncios were first sent to the Diet under the Reign of Casimir III. who having had thirteen Years War with the Knights of the Teutonic Order, and being at a Loss to pay his Army, order the Provinces to send Deputies to lay Impositions; which, they being Representatives of their Country, might 
Vide Constitut. An. 1581. p. 375.  be the easier complied with. These Deputies have continued ever since.  

Their general Meetings.  Besides the Convention at the little Diets, the Senators and Deputies, when elected, have general Meetings before they come to the grand Diet at these several Places.  
For Great Poland at Kolo in Kalisch.  


To which belong the Palatinates of  
Posnania,  
Kalisch,  
Siradia,  
Lanschet,  
Bresty,  
Inowlocz,  
Ploczkow,  
Dobrina,  
Rava,   

With the Territory of  
Vielunia.    
For Lesser Poland at Corzin in Sendomir.  

To which belong the Palatinates of  
Cracovia,  
Sendomir,  
Russia,  
Podolia,  
Belsko, and  
Lublin.   
By the Constitution in the Year 1613.  
For Prussia at Graudents or Marienbourg.  


To which belongs all Royal- Russia, or the Palatinates of  
Culm,  
Marienbourg,  
Pomerania,  
as also the Bishopric of Varmia.    
For the Great Duchy of Lithuania at Slonim in Novogrodec.  

To which belong the Palatinates of  
Vilna,  
Troki,  
Briescia,  
Novogrodec,  
Minski,  
Polocz,  
Witebsko,  
Mscislaw,  
Zlucz,  
Braclaw.   
By the Constitution in the Year 1631.  
The other Palatinates which are not mentioned in this Division, have all general Meetings, tho' I do not find where.  

Diet divides into three Nations.  When all the Deputies of the Provinces are assembled at the Place appointed for the grand Diet, they divide themselves into three Nations, viz.  


Into the Deputies of  
High and Low  
Lithuania. 

Poland and      

Speaker, how chosen, and Heats thereupon.  Out of these three they next proceed to choose their Marshal or Speaker.  
The first time they choose him out of the Deputies of High- Poland, the second out of the Deputies of Low- Poland, and at the third Diet out of the Deputies of Lithuania. Oftentimes they spend several Days in bloody Contests before they can agree about an Election: Nay, it happens sometimes, that they never agree at all, as in the Diet convened in the Year 1695. when all the Senators and Deputies which had made great Preparations to appear in their Grandeur (whereof some came above three hundred Miles) were forced to return home again without effecting any thing for want of agreeing about a Marshal.  
He that designs to get to be elected Marshal, must treat the Gentry all the while, otherwise he would have no Vote for him, and commonly they prolong the Election that they may live the longer at the Candidates Charges.  

How occasioned.  The Reason of this great stickling is, because the Dignity of this Marshal is not only very honourable, but also exceeding beneficial, which occasions several Noblemen among the Deputies, to raise Cabals and Intrigues to secure it for themselves. He has likewise great Authority, and can, by his eloquent and subtle Speeches, turn Affairs on what Side he pleases, which is the Reason that he is often bribed either by the King, Foreign Princes, or some great Men of the Kingdom.  

Next Proceeding.  On the Day prefixed for the Meeting of the Diet, the King, with all the Senators and Nuncios, goes to hear a Sermon, which being ended, he retires into the Senate, where he is severally saluted by the Members thereof: And the Nuncios retiring likewise into their House (called by the Poles, Izba Poselska) confer together about electing a Speaker, during which, the last Speaker or Marshal officiates till a new one be chosen, and then is obliged to resign his Staff to the Marshal elect, who is to take an Oath to be true and faithful before he enters upon his Office.  

Further Proceedings.  When the Marshal or Speaker is elected, he with all the Deputies of the Province, goes to kiss the King's Hand in the Diet-Chamber, where his Majesty sits on a Throne erected for that Purpose. Then the Chancellor in the King's Name proposes all the Points to be debated in the Diet, and desires the Senators and Nobility to take them into Consideration, whereupon the King immediately leaves them, lest his Presence might be an Awe upon them; and then the Senators retiring into their Room by themselves, and the Nuncios into theirs, by them called Izba Poselska, they forthwith set about deliberating on the Articles proposed.  

Reflection of Hauteville.  Here SIR, I may remark a pleasant Reflection of Hauteville, in his Account of Poland, where he says, That the Poles employ more Time in drinking and feasting, than in debating Matters of State, for that they never think on that Work till they begin to want Money to buy Hungarian Wine.  

Speakers Request for the Deputies.  After the Chancellor has thus proposed to the Diet in the King's Name, all the Articles they are to go upon, the Marshal of the Nuncios likewise on the Part of the Deputies, presents to the King what they desire of his Majesty, which is,  
1. To make void all Intrenchments, either upon the State or the People. And,  
2. To bestow all vacant Offices upon Persons of Worth and Merit.  

His Authority.  This Marshal of the Deputies has a great Authority over them in the Diet, for he it is that commands Silence among'em, and who transmits' all their Requests to the King or Senate; and seeing that by his Power he can either animate or moderate them, it is not to be wondered at if he be a Person of no ordinary Esteem, and that the Court always endeavours, by various Favours, to secure him for their Friend.  

Proceedings in the lower House.  The Manner of Proceedings in the Nuncios House is much the same as in the Little Diets: No body offers his Opinion there till having first asked Leave of the Marshal, who alone introduces all Messengers from the King, Senators, Army, or Foreign Princes, and answers them all in the Name of the House. If any Disserences arise among the Nuncios or other Tumults are raised by the Spectators, he causes Silence immediately, by striking his Staff against the Ground.  

Conferences with the Upper, and Nuncios Power.  The two Orders being thus separated, there are nevertheless frequent Intercourses between them, as are between our two most Honourable Houses. The Nuncios have a Power of impeaching all Magistrates and Officers for Male Administration, and to put the King in mind, as often as they think fit, of his Coronation-Oath: Moreover, the Nuncios Power and Authority appears the greater, in that no Constitution or Law is of any Validity or Force that was not first begun in their House. Nay, their Marshal is to be the first Starter of all Laws, and when concluded upon, it is his Office only to read them before the Senate. For this Reason, in the Year 1668. the Marshal protested against a certain Law, because it was first concerted in the Senate. But what is more to be admired than all this is, that the Dissent of one single Nuncio is sufficient to annul the whole Proceedings, and to occasion the Diet to be dissolved.  

Confirmed and encouraged.  To confirm this Authority, and for the further Security of the Nuncios, Sigismond I. in the Year 1510. ordained that it should be High Treason to Injure any Member of the Diet, though he afterwards in the Year 1539. restrained this Law to the Royal Person, but which notwithstanding John Casimir in some measure renewed in the Year 1649.  

Their Privilege.  
* Constitut. An. 1649.  If one of these Nuncios commits any Crime, he is to be tried only by his Fellow-Members. This Privilege of the Nuncios begins a Month before, and lasts as long after the Diet.  

Committees.  Upon some Occasions the Marshal assigns Committees of these Nuncios, who are to transact apart such Matters as are entrusted to them.  

How long sit.  The Nuncios remain in their House till the fifth Day before the Conclusion of the Diet, when they are all to go to the Senate. Et sic Comitia ad Patres transferre dicuntur. But if within the Time assigned by the Laws, they find they are not able to finish their Business, they humbly petition the King that the Diet may be prorogued.  

Upper House how employed.  Whilst the Nuncios are thus providing for the public Good in their House, the King and Senate do not pass their Time idly in theirs; for after the Chancellor has given the Charge to the lower House, and they are retired; he, together with the Senators, tries criminal Causes for a whole Week, which being ended, there are several other Matters assigned for certain Days, until the lower House bring up Bills to be debated.  

Manner of breaking up Session in the lower.  Near the Conclusion of the Diet, and before the Senators and Nuncios are joined, the Marshal of the lower House, in a set Speech, gives Thanks to the Deputies for the Honour and Favour they have conferred upon him, and is answered by one of the Nuncios in the Name of the rest, who returns him their Acknowledgements for his faithful Execution of his Office.  

Two Houses joined.  When the Nuncios are come to the upper House, their Marshal or Speaker sits on a Form below the Senator- Marshals, and the rest of the Deputies stand behind the other Senators, who are seated all in their Order. Being thus joined, they proceed to confirm, create, or abrogate Laws. No body speaks here without having first obtained leave of the great Marshal.  

Speakers Power devolves to great Marshal.  In this Meeting the Nuncio-Marshal's Power is at an End, his Office being then officiated by the great Marshal, either of Poland or Lithuania, or in their Absence, by some other of the Senator. Officers. The great Marshal has Authority, not only to check a Nuncio, but also a Senator in speaking, if he exceeds his Bounds: He also, in case of great Disorders, imposes Silence, by striking his Staff on the Ground.  

Where the King suspends his Opinion.  In Cases of Controversy, the King always suspends his Opinion till the Differences are reconciled. This the Kings, Henry and Stephen promised faithfully to observe, as may appear by the Book of their Laws, Page 254.  

What required to establish a Law.  To establish a Law or Constitution in the Diet, the Deputies must first propose it by their Marshal, and then the King and Senate are to approve of it; but however, before it can have any Force, it must be reviewed by the great Marshal and two Deputies, or by three Senators and six Deputies. Having been thus reviewed, it is read out in the Diet by the Nuncio- Marshal, after which the Chancellor's demand with a low Voice, If the King, Senate, and Deputies consent to apply the Seal; which being answered in the affirmative, it is presently sealed and enroled among the Acts in the Register of Warsaw, and this by the Care of the Deputy's Marshal, who is to see it done soon after the Conclusion of the Session. After this, one of the King's Secretaries is to get it printed and dispersed among the several little Diets and Tribunals all over the Kingdom.  

Where it cannot be printed:  It must be observed that where the Diet has been dissolved through the Obstinacy of any particular Member, no Laws or Constitutions can be committed to the Press: Whereupon in the Year 1665. the Nuncios severely reproved their Marshal for but suffering them to be transcribed where the Session had been adjourned.  
The same Law is to be observed in all Decrees of the Diet, for immediately after the publishing of them by the Referendary, they are to be transcribed, signed, sealed, and printed▪ Those Decrees that concern the Treasury, are to be signed only by a Prothonotary appointed for that Purpose.  

Session of the Diet limited.  By the Constitution of the Kingdom, the Diet ought never to sit above six Weeks, and the Gentry are so very exact in observing this Privilege, that as soon as ever that Time is expired, they send their Marshal to take Leave of the King in their Name, and moreover to acquaint him that they intent to wait on him to kiss his Hand, which they are admitted to do soon after. They are so obstinately bend upon defending this Custom, that tho' the Urgencies of State require never so short a Continuance of the Diet after the Time prescribed, yet they always vigorously oppose it, as they did in the Year 1649. when the Tartars and Cosacks had almost overrun the Kingdom.  

Wherefore.  The Reason, I suppose, why the Members of the Diet are so punctual in observing this Constitution above any other is, because by that Time their Money generally is spent, and other Provisions, which they bring in Wagons from home, as Beer, Wine, Meat, Fowl, etc. Consumed by the great Train of Guards and other Domestics which they have with them.  

Affairs treated of in the Grand Diet.  The Affairs generally treated of in the grand Diet, are either a King's Election or his Marriage; sending Ambassadors to Foreign Princes; declaring War or making Peace; imposing Taxes to carry on a War; making Alliances with other Princes; and all other State Affairs: Likewise all Suits of Law between private Persons, have their last Appeal from the Tribunals to the Diet: As may appear by the Difference adjusted by them between the Order of Malta and Prince Demetrius Wiesnowiski, who withheld Possession of what was given by his Brother-in-Law, the Duke of Ostrog, to this Order. Also in criminal Cases they judge and condemn as they did those who assassinated Gonczeski, Lieutenant General of Lithuania, who had all their Heads cut off by Proceedings in this Court.  

Who not to be present at Trials for Treason.  In Cases of High-Treason, the Poles say their King ought not to be present at the Trial of any Traitor, and therefore the Marshal Lubomirski complained of John Casimir's condemning him in the Diet for Contumacy. Also they do not generally admit the Nuncios at that Time, though Stephen Batori, at a Diet held at Warsaw in the Year 1582. caused them to be present at the Trial of Shorowski for Treason, to the End that they might all be Witnesses of the Injustice done him.  

Naturalisation and Manner of making Noble in Poland.  'Tis likewise in the Diet that Strangers are naturalised, and Natives of the Country, who are not freeborn, are made Gentlemen. Formerly no Person was capable of this Honour, but such only as had served in the Wars for a considerable Time, or else who had done some other good Service to the State; but now there needs no other Merit or good Qualities than to be rich enough to purchase the Favour of the Court, or the Protection of some great Man. They that pretend to the Indigenat, that is, to be made Noble, have no more to do than to apply themselves to the Nuncio-Marshal, who has the Power to put their Names into the Roll of those that desire to be made Polish Gentlemen. After which they are to give in a Note of their Genealogy, Names, Surnames, Family, and Services; and to put their Arms in the Middle. When they have been received and accepted by the Diet, and have got their Patent signed, they are to take an Oath before the same Marshal to be true and faithful to their King and Country, and whereof the Marshal afterwards gives them a Certificate.  

Restrained in some Respects notwith standing.  Nevertheless, though the Candidate be declared Noble by the unanimous Consent of the three Orders, yet is he capable only of mean Employments, and to have a Vote among the Gentry, it not being in the Power of the King to bestow either on him or his Children any important Preferment till the third Generation be past, and the Republic is thereby satisfied of their Fidelity, Loyalty, and Affection for their Country.  

Great Concourse at the Diet.  Tho' no other Person but the King, Senate, and Nuncios can have any Business or Vote in the Diet, yet vast Numbers of other People still flock thither. Also most commonly Foreign Princes choose then to send their Ambassadors according to the Interest they have to maintain in the Diet. At this time likewise the greatest Part of the Nobility, that have wherewithal to appear in any Sort of Grandeur, meet here together with their Wives and Children, tho' they have no other Business than to see and be seen. It is then their Sons get acquainted with others of the young Gentry, and often are married to some of the young Ladies that come in like manner to be observed, and to get Husbands. In short, the Diet is a kind of general Rendezvouz of all the People of Quality in the Kingdom, as well Men and Women as Children, so that what City soever the Diet sits in, there are always Thirty Thousand, and sometimes Forty thousand Persons more than there used to be.  

Provisions indifferent Planty notwithstanding.  Nevertheless Provisions are not very scarce, by reason that every Gentleman almost brings his Necessaries along with him: Nay, the greatest Part send their Fuel and Provender for their Horses by the River Vistula to Warsaw, when they come from that Side of the Country. There are likewise several Gentlemen that always come from Germany, Sweden, and other adjacent Countries, to see this general Meeting, which is a fine Sight, and the only thing that is worth observing in Poland.  

Dangerous to walk a Nights.  At this Time there is always such a Crowd of Soldiers, Heydukes, and Footmen in the Streets, that it is not safe to be abroad after Day shut in, for Fear of being robbed or stripped naked, as happens almost every Night, for the Polish Gentry give so very short Allowance to their Guards and Servants, a Dragoon having but fifteen Pence of our Money a Week, to maintain his Horse and himself, that they must be forced to rob, or be otherwise very industrious to live.  

Visits at this Time unacceptable.  This is the Reason that Visits from these Gentry are seldom acceptable to any Body. The great Senators, and more especially the Generals of the Army, come always so numerously attended, that the King himself, for greater Security, is always wont to increase his Guards at the Time of the Diet, otherwise he might be exposed to the Insults of the Gentry, who often take a Liberty in the Diet to threaten and abuse him to his Face.  

Great Guards of some Gentry.  Some of these Gentry have a Row, and sometimes two Rows of Guards that reach from their Houses to the King's Palace, where the Diet is kept.  

Order of Session in the Diet.  The Order of Session in the Diet is as follows. First the King sits on a Throne under a Canopy, upon which are placed on each side the Arms of Poland and Lithuania: On the two Sides of the Throne stand the Ten Senator-Officers, whereof five for Poland are on the right Hand, and as many for Lithuania on the left. Then the Bishops sit in two Rows, whereof the first part are on the Right Hand with the Archbishop of Gnesna, and the other on the Left, with the Archbishop of Leopol: Below and behind the Bishops sit the Senators according to their respective Precedence; and next behind them stand the Deputies of the Provinces, all with their Caps off. All the Senators sit covered before the King in the Senate, tho' in all other Places they stand bare before him.  

Members wear no distinguishing Habits.  The Members of this Diet wear no particular Habit of Ceremony or formal Distinction, but sit in the same clothes they usually wear at home, with their Swords or Sabres girt by their Sides. The same Custom is observed by all the Judges and Magistrates of the Kingdom. 
* Hartnoch lib. 2. cap. 3. p. 512.  Sigismundus Augustus is said to have endeavoured to distinguish the Palatins from the Castellans, and those from the Nuncios, by different Habits, but this without Effect.  

What proves Equality among Polish Gentry.  Nothing proves the Equality of the Polish Gentry more than the Order of their Great and little Diets, for tho' all the Freeborn are by them divided into the greater and Lesser, or rather Richer and Poorer Nobility, yet have they all the same Power in the Diets, and in making or breaking Constitutions, the Minor Gentry of every Province being superior in Number, keep, by their Votes, and sometimes by their Scymitars, the greater Sort in Awe. Their Power is so extraordinary, by reason of their Number, that the great Gentry do in a manner depend upon the little, and that in so great a measure, that they are as it were afraid of them, and consequently are rather apt to oblige and court, than anger and displease them. They always do what lies in their Power to procure their Affections, saluting them by the familiar Titles of Mosci Panowie Bracia; that is, Gratioss Domini Fratres; which is the greatest Demonstration of real (or at least pretended) Friendship and Equality imaginable. These Titles being omitted in the Year 1667. there arose great Disturbances for want of them.  

Intended Limitation of Votes like to produce a bad Effect.  King Casimir observing the great Abuses that spring from every little Gentleman's pretended Privilege to fit in the little Diets, ordered that none should have a Vote there, in electing a Deputy or Nuncio, but such only as had at least two Hundred Crowns a Year. whereupon the Palatin of Posnania offering to put this Law in Execution in his Province, was not only affronted, but also narrowly escaped with his Life.  

Deputies awe the King and Senate.  These Deputies which depend on the free Nomination of the minor Gentry, in their respective Provinces, by their superior Number, keep likewise the King and Senate in a great Dependence on them in the great Diet, since they can do nothing, nor conclude the least Matter without the free Consent and Approbation of these Deputies.  

Causes of Disunion in the Diet.  This great Dependence of all the three Orders of the Republic on one another should, one would think, cause the greatest Union between them, and make them to have but one common Interest to agree in their Assemblies to all the Articles that tend to the public Good; but on the contrary, Self-Interest, and the excessive Liberty and Privilege, not only of every Order of the Republic, but also of every individual Member of the Diet, produces another-guess Kind of Effect, for certainly there is no Assembly in Europe more subject to Disorders, more distracted by Cabals and Factions, and in fine, more corrupted by Bribery and base Practices, which is the Reason that the Diet of Poland seldom concludes upon what they sit and deliberate about, tho' it should be of the greatest Importance imaginable.  

Fomented by the Empire and France.  All these Intrigues and Mismanagements are generally fomented by the two powerful Factions of the Houses of Austria and Bourbon. Every one knows the great Advantages the Emperors have had when they have maintained a good Correspondence or Confederacy with the Poles against their common Enemy the Turks and Tartars. And on the other Side, it is the French Interest to prevent and oppose such Correspondence, and endeavour to render all Means ineffectual which might otherwise favour the Emperor to enlarge his Dominions. Hereupon the Poles are so weaksighted, that they never reflect that neither the Emperor, nor the French King have any Kindness for them, but only make Use of them as Instruments, the better to accomplish their Designs.  

What promotes foreign Factions.  There is nothing that can promote or favour Foreign Factions more than the unlimited Prerogatives of each Member of the Diet, for the King, Senators, and Deputies have all equal Voices and equal Power in their Affirmative or Negative Votes; and Affairs are not concluded or agreed upon by Plurality of Voices, but universal Consent of all the three Orders, and the free Approbation of every Member of the Diet in particular; so that if but one Person only, who has a lawful Vote, thinks fit to refuse his Consent to what all the rest have agreed to, he alone can interrupt their Proceedings, and annihilate their Suffrages: Nay, what is yet more extravagant, if, for Example, there were Thirty Articles or Bills to pass, and they all unanimously agreed to Nine and Twenty, yet if but one Deputy disapproved of the Thirtieth, not only that, but also the other Nine and Twenty are void and of no Force; and this because all the Articles at first proposed have not passed.  

Members not to give Reason for Dissent to any Bill.  Hence say they, the Diet can make no Law without its having been concluded by their Concludere Comitia, or Breaking up of the Diet. They understand likewise, that all the Points proposed are to be unanimously agreed upon, which nevertheless happens but very seldom; for most commonly some Factious Person or other, having perhaps been bribed or otherwise biased, will protest against their Proceedings, and who consequently oftentimes prefers his own private Interest to the public Good of his Country. Moreover their Liberty extends so far, that this corrupted Member is not obliged by Law, to give any Reason for his said Refusal, but is only to say after their usual Manner, Nie pos Volam; It is not my Pleasure that it shall be so. Whereupon he immediately withdraws from out of the Diet, and most commonly retires into the Country for Fear of being either killed or abused (as it often happens such People are) by some desperate Member of the Diet.  

Easy Matter to annul the Projects of the Diet.  Thns' SIR, you may plainly perceive how easy a Matter it is for any Foreign Prince to interrupt all the Projects of this Diet, if they seem in any wise to move against his Interest. If Poland be in Peace, and has a mind to declare War against any Nation contrary to the French Interest, the French Pistoles can easily find some Senator or Deputy to oppose this Design. Or if by the Heat and Resolution of some great Men, War be denounced, the French King can never fail of somebody to break their Ways and Means of raising Money to carry it on, as he effectually did in the War the late King had against the Turks and Tartars. Then on the other side, if the Poles are actually in War with the Turks and Tartars, which is for the Emperor's Interest, the Court of Vienna will never want some Christianly disposed Bishop, or some other Member to persuade or oblige the Diet to continue the War as long as it agrees with the Affairs of the House of Austria, and this under Pretence of serving God and the Apostolic See. This appears sufficiently in this present War, for the Poles having been extremely fatigued and impoverished by the continued and fatal Interruptions of the Tartars for near these fifteen Years, do all no doubt wish for a Peace, and have proposed it in every Diet for several Years, ever since the Siege of Vienna: But notwithstanding either thro' their own Disorders, or the Austrian Faction, they could never yet accomplish their Design. Thus the Austrian Party keeps them in a tedious War, and the French prevents them from carrying it on with Vigour, insomuch that between these two, that Nation is almost ruined, since on one Side they are hindered from making Peace to remedy the prodigious Desolations made upon them; and on the other, prevented from raising Money sufficient to carry the War into the Country of their Invaders.  

Great Freedom of Speech there.  Every Member of the Diet, after having obtained Leave of their Marshal, who can only stop their Mouths, has a Right to speak and harangue there as long as he pleases: Nay, can say what he will, for they often abuse one another, and affront their King to his Face, branding him with the infamous Titles of Perjured, unjust, and the like. They often likewise threaten both him and his Children, when perhaps they have the least Reason. The Occasion of this is generally in that they come drunk into the Diet▪ and consequently talk only as the Spirit moves, either good or bad. Nay, you shall have some of these Fuddle-caps talk Nonsense for two or three Hours together, trespassing on the Patience of the soberer Sort with a railing, carping, injurious, and ill digested Discourse, without any bodies ever daring to interrupt them, tho' they spin it out never so long, for if the Marshal himself should then presume to bid 'em hold their Tongues, they would infallibly dissolve the Diet, by protesting against the Proceedings thereof; so that the prudenter Way is always to hear them out, and moreover, to show no Dislike to the impertinent Speeches they have made.  

Unhappy State of the Polish Government.  No body but sees the unhappy State of the Government of Poland; that their Constitutions and Privileges are most pernicious; that the unlimited and absolute Liberty of each Member makes all the Republic Slaves, either to the Whimsy or factious Obstinacy of one particular Man; for can there be any thing more unreasonable than that after all the Senators and Deputies have come from most remote Provinces with excessive Expense, to the Diet, and laboured jointly with the King to conclude Matters for the common Benefit of the Nation, it should be in the Power of one disaffected or corrupted Person, without giving any farther Reason than his own Pleasure, to annul the Proceedings of the rest, and to dissolve the Diet at a Juncture especially, when there is the greatest Occasion for their Concurrence?  
Thus SIR, you may perceive that Affairs of the greatest Consequence depend not only on the prudent Deliberations of sober Men, but also on the whimsical Humours of the senseless or depraved. This excessive Liberty of every private Man shows that both the Nation and the Diet have none at all.  

Policy of concluding Matters by unanimous Consent.  This Constitution of concluding Matters in the Diet, rather by universal Consent than Plurality of Voices, was established to deprive their Kings of all Means and Opportunities of ever becoming absolute, for they imagined it was morally impossible (as it really is) that whatever Interest or Authority the King might get in the Country, that he should ever so far prevail as to bring all the Members of the Diet (for he might have the Majority) to consent to any Article or Bill which might any wise be injurious to the Nation. But on the other hand, observing the many bad Consequences that usually attend, and must still necessarily follow, such Constitutions, they once proposed to decide their Affairs by the two Thirds of the Voices, yet which they could never agree in, by reason that the greatest Part of them being overfond of their Liberties, were loath by these means to consent to part with them; and so that Proposal had no Effect.  

Wonderful how the Polish Government can subsist.  SIR, you may have just Reason to admire how the Polish Nation could, for above a Thousand Years, subsist with such bad Constitutions, and still possess, not only a vast Kingdom, but also hitherto enjoy their Freedom and Liberties in their utmost Force and Extent. 'Tis wonderful also that far from losing or limiting any of their Prerogatives, they rather enlarge and increase 'em as often as they elect their Kings. Nay, considering the Power of their King; the absolute Prerogative every Gentleman has in his own Lands, in a manner above the Laws; the Turbulence of their Diets; and the small Obligation the Officers think they lie under to perform their several Duties, the Poles themselves have owned it to be no less than a Miriacle that they should have subsisted so long, and Dr. Connor says, he has often heard them say, that their Preservation was to be attributed to God alone, that protected 'em to be the invincible Bulwark of Europe against the Progress of the common Enemies of Christendom, the Turks and Tartars.  

Must always flourish for several Reasons.  Here we need not have Recourse to any peculiar Providence bestowed by God on the Poles, since by his own ordinary Concourse to all natural Causes, we may easily collect that the Polish Nation could not but subsist hitherto only, but likewise must in all Probability last as long as any Kingdom in Europe, and this for several Reasons.  

I. Reason.  First, Because, tho' the King's Power is limited by the Law, his Credit and Authority nevertheless is so great, that he can dispose the Affairs in the Diet as he pleases, especially where they tend to the public Good of the Kingdom; for very few, if any at all, will venture to protest against any Proceedings there, that are for the Interest of the Nation, unless they be supported by a good Party of Senators and Deputies, and this because it is not only infamous and scandalous to his Person, but also prejudicial to his Posterity that breaks up a Diet; as also not a little dangerous to his Life, to irritate and disobey so powerful a Body; for they are commonly very liberal in their Passion, of bestowing several Slashes of a Scymitar on any ill-natured corrupted Member that opposes the Interest of his Country, tho' in Reality he has the Law on his Side. It is certain therefore that where any Person withstands the rest in the Diet, it is either because the King has not sufficiently employed his Authority to pacify him, or Policy to win him with a small Present; or else by reason that he does not care they should agree; or lastly, because there is a considerable Party of Senators and Deputies that support, or rather employ him to protest against an Act that they do not think for their Interest to let pass. It is a common Practice, where any of the Members of the Senate have any particular Advantage, by opposing the Diets Proceedings, not to expose themselves either to the Hatred or Anger of that numerous Body, but rather to sacrifice some private Deputy to their Fury, who for a small Sum of Money will come into the Diet and declare in plain Terms, without any manner of Reason, that it is not his Pleasure that such a Matter, then in Agitation, should pass. Whereupon he immediately withdraws, if he can, into the Country for Security. But generally these Oppositions are never practised where the public Interest of the Nation is concerned, as appears in the raising the last Siege of Vienna by the Turks; where the Poles finding that the Loss of that City would turn be very much to their Prejudice, marched directly under their then reigning King, John III. to the Relief of it, which they soon effected to their immortal Honour and Glory. 'Tis true, that it is not an easy Matter to bring the Poles into the Field; but when once they are got together into a considerable Body, their Courage and undaunted Resolutions render them invincible.  

II. Reason.  Secondly, The Order of their Government, and their Courage and Resolution does not so much contribute towards their Preservation, as the Envy and Jealousies of their Neighbours among themselves; for when the late King of Sueden, and Elector of Brandenbourg made War with Poland, the Tartars came to assist the Poles, and at the same Time the King of Denmark made a considerable Diversion in Suedeland. When the Tartars likewise declare War against Poland, most commonly either the Emperor or Moscovite come to its Relief; or else make great Diversions on their Sides; for as it is the Interest of the Princes their Neighbours, not to let them grow to that exorbitant Power which they had formerly; so it is not at all for their Benefit to let them perish; for whoever could be able to conquer Poland, and unite it to his own Dominions, would quickly be too powerful for all the rest.  

III. Reason.  Thirdly, The Poles, besides this, can the easier conserve their Dominions by reason that they have no strong Forts or Castles to shelter their Enemies, where they happen to make any Progress in their Country; yet I verily believe that an Army of fifty Thousand welldisciplined Men would at present conquer the whole Kingdom of Poland, tho' at the same Time I am of Opinion that an Hundred Thousand could not be able to keep it. Carolus Custavus, King of Sueden, with about Forty Thousand Men, entirely subdued Poland in less than two Years Time, yet when he began to encroach too much upon their Constitutions and Liberties, the Polish Gentry joined unanimously together, and soon drove the Suedes out of the Kingdom. The Tartars in numerous Bodies make frequent Incursions into this open Country, but still as soon as they have loaded themselves with their Booty, they make all possible Haste away. The Loss of Caminiec makes the Poles admire at their own Policy in having no strong Towns, for they say, had not that been so well fortified, it had not served for Shelter to a strong Garrison of Turks and Tartars at their Doors. Insomuch that it may be observed that Forts and Castles which we count our greatest Security, would inevitably be the Ruin of the Poles; they being not skilled in besieging Towns, and moreover, having no good Artillery, Engineers, Ammunition, or other Necessaries, since they never were, nor ever will be able to retake Caminiec, though it is a Place of no extraordinary Strength, and for my Part I verily believe that if it should be surrendered to them, they would quickly raze and demolish it.  

Assemblies of the Convocation and Synods in Poland.  SIR, Having thus far treated only of the Diet or Parliament of Poland, I will now proceed to present you with a cursory Account of its other Assemblies and Courts of Justice, and therefore must acquaint you, that besides the Grand Diet and Senate, the Clergy there have both a general Convocation and two Provincial Synods; but which are wholly regulated and awed by the Pontifical Chair. I may take notice that the Archbishop of Leopol, though he can call and hold his Synod apart, yet is he altogether subject in Spirituals to the Archbishop of Gnesna, or Primate of Poland. The general Convocation is for the most part convened every third Year at Petricovia, Lanschet, or Lowitz, whereof the minor Clergy, as in England, are admitted by their Deputies or Representatives.  

The Kaptur. Court.  As for Cours of Justice, the Poles have one that is wholly peculiar to the Interregnum, which they call the Kaptur. This is twofold, either general, which sits during the Interregnum, to prevent Disorders, and which has Power over Life and Death: Or particular, in the several Palatinates of the Kingdom. The Judges of the former are chosen out of the Prime Nobility, and those of the latter out of the Nobility in general of every Palatinate, at the several particular Conventions, and in the Beginning of every Interregnum. All these Courts cease three Weeks before the Assembly for Election meets, and after the Election, they sit again to the very Day of the Coronation.  

Ecclesiastical Courts and their Jurisdiction.  The other Courts of Justice in Poland are either Ecclesiastical, Civil or Military. The Ecclesiastical, as in other Nations, are altogether in the hands of the Bishops, who have Each their Chancellor, Register, etc. from whom Appeals may be made to the Archbishops; and even from the Archbishop of Leopol to him of Gnesna, who is the Pope's Legate Born, and Primate and Metropolitan of all Poland: Nevertheless, from him Appeals lie to the See of Rome. These Judge according to the Canons and Customs of the Church; and the Civil Magistrates are obliged to be Assisting to them in the Execution of their Sentences as often as they shall be so required.  

Court of Nunciature.  To the Ecclesiastical Courts belongs the Court of Nunciature held by the Pope's Nuncio, for that purpose always residing in Poland. However, before he can have any Jurisdiction, he must have presented the King and the Principal Ministers of State, with the Apostolic Brief of his Nunciature.  

Gentry's Civil Courts.  The Civil Jurisdiction is divided among divers sorts of Judges, and belongs to the Commonalty as well as Gentry. Some of these determine Causes exempt from Appeals, and others cannot.  

High Tribunals.  Those from whom there lies no Appeal are the three Hightribunals instituted by Stephen Batori, the Judges whereof are all Gentry. Two of these Tribunals are for the Kingdom, and one for the Great Duchy. Those for the Kingdom keep their Session Six Months at Petricovia in Low- Poland; and the other Six at Lublin in High- Poland: That for the Great Duchy is alternatively one year at Vilna, and another either at Novogrodec or Minski. They all consist of so many Judges both Ecclesiastical and Civil, chosen out of every Palatinate, the former once in four years, and the latter once in two. Judgement is pronounced here by Plurality of Voices: but where Matters are purely Ecclesiastical, there ought to be as many of the Clergy as the Laity. The Causes here are heard in Order; for three days are allowed to enter all that come; and whatever are not entered within that time cannot be adjudged that sitting. A Man that has a Trial in these Courts, may be said to have all the Nation for his Judges, Deputies both Ecclesiastical and Temporal being sent thither for that purpose from all Parts of the Kingdom.  

The Senate and Green-Cloth.  The Senate also Judges of Civil or Criminal Matters without Appeal: As do likewise the Great- Marshals in all Cases relating to the King's Officers; And the Great Chancellors in matters of Appeal to the Court which they have only Cognisance of. But the Marshal's Jurisdiction extends over all Merchants, and Strangers; both who find but little Justice done them in Poland when they have occasion for it.  

Exchequer Courts.  Also there are two Exchequer Courts for the Revenue, one held at Radom in High- Poland, and the other at Vilna. These Courts seldom sit above a Fortnight or Three Weeks.  

Gentry-Courts not free from Appeal.  Those that are not exempt from Appeals, are the Courts of the Gentry and Commonalty in every Palatinate; which are by no means to have any of the Clergy for Judges. Those for the Gentry are either the Courts of Land-Judicature, or those of the Starostas, and are more, or fewer in number, according to the Extent of the Palatinate where they are held.  

Of Land-Judicature with its Judges.  The Courts of Land-Judicature have one Judge, an Associate, and a Natory, or Head-Clerk to Try Causes, and Administer all Civil Justice; in some Places four, in others six times a year; and in others once a Month. The Courseof these Courts can only be interrupted by the Death of any of their Judges, by the Diet, or by the general Meeting of the Palatines and Magistrates; which last is every Autumn, to hear Appeals from Inferior Courts. The Towns where the Gentry sit are in great number; and it must be observed, that none who have Lands or Goods within each Jurisdiction, can be made to Appear at a Court where they have none.  

Vice-Chamberlains Court.  The immediate Appeal from these Courts is to the Vice-Chamberlain of the Palatinate, who either by himself or his Deputy, the Chamberlain of that District, restores all that have been Dispossessed, and ascertains all Bounds and Limits of Lands. This is as it were his whole Jurisdiction. But where there is any Contest between the King and any of the Gentry in this Kind, then at their request 
Commissioners to take Appeals.  Commissioners are appointed out of the Senate to inspect the matter disputed, and to do Justice therein. Likewise where the Difference is between the King and a Clergyman, Commissioners are ordered; but there the Bishop of the Diocese Claims the Nomination of one or more of them. When any of the Officers of the Courts of Land-Judicature die, the King cannot Name others, till the District to which they belonged, have chosen Four out of the Housekeepers; but then he may pitch upon One for each Election. This Office being once obtained, it cannot be forfeited but by a Higher Promotion, or Male Administration.  

Gentry's Criminal Courts.  The other Courts for the Gentry are those that take cognizance of Criminal Cases, whereof there is one only in every Starostaship, called Sudy Grodskie: Where either the Starosta himself, or his Lieutenant-Criminal, Administers Justice in his Castle, or some other public Place, at least every Six Weeks. He likewise has Cognisance of Civil Causes between such as have no Lands, and such Foreigners as come to Trade here. Process in Criminal Cases is to be served here a Fortnight, and in Civil, a Week before the Court sits.  

Starostas' Power and Office.  He is also the Executive Minister of all Sentences pronounced, and likewise a sole Conservator of the Peace within his Territories. He is obliged by himself or his Officers, to see all Public Executions performed.  
The Courts of the Commonalty are either in Cities or Villages.  

Courts of Commonalty in Cities.  In City's Justice is Administered by the Scabins, Town-Hall, or Judg-Advocate. The Scabins have cognisance of all Capital Offences, and Criminal Matters, the Town-Hall of all Civil Cases; to which likewise the Gentry are subject; and the Judg-Advocate of Offences committed by Soldiers. Civil Matters of small Moment are determined solely by the Governor of the City, but which are subject to Appeal to the Town-Hall, and thence to the King.  

In Villages.  In Villages the Commonalty are subject to Scabins, being the King's Officers, and to Scultets or Peculiar Lords; from which last lies no Appeal. Here Justice is almost Arbitrary, except in Criminal Cases. The Scultets are Hereditary Judges. The Execution of all Sentences in Cities and Towns, is in the hands of its own Magistrates, though in some cases they are forced to beg Assistance from the Starostas.  

Officers and Magistrates of Plebeian Courts.  The Officers and Magistrates of the Plebeian Courts are some named by their Peculiar Lords, and some Elected by their Fellow Citizens, except in Cracow only, where the Palatine has a Right of Choosing the Magistrates, though he has not the same Power to dis-place them after they are once chosen; for they are to continue their Office for Life, unless they forfeit it by Infamy or Inability.  
Out of the XXIV (composing the Council or Senate of Cracow) the Palatine every year deputes Eight with the Title and Power of Presidents. He also Names the Judge and Scabins by the Magdeburg Laws, though these in other Cities are chosen by the Council. The Scultets or Hereditary Judges, cannot be removed but in extraordinary Cases.  

〈◊〉 Profits.  The Profits of all Offices are but very small and scarce any certain, the Poles esteeming the Honour of enjoying them sufficient Recompense: Nevertheless they have all Salaries and Perquisites, though inconsiderable.  

Military Jurisdiction.  The Military Jurisdiction of Poland is wholly in the hands of the King, or his Generals, although the Palatines and Castellans who generally Accompany his Majesty to the Wars, retain their Authority over their respective Inferiors; but where those are Refractory, a Court-Marshal Adjusts the Debate.  

Origin, Progress, and present State of Laws.  As for the Laws of Poland, it is on all hands agreed, that it had none till the time of Casimir the Great, and then but very few made by him; although it is certain, that the Poles hadlong before been Christians, and were well enough versed in the Human-Learning, yet was there never any Law or Statute of any Prince committed to Writing; but that People were contented to be governed by the Customs and Manners of their Ancestors, handed down to them from Father to Son. Casimir III. therefore (called the Great from his prudent Administration) observing the disadvantages his Kingdom laboured under by the Germans, who then frequently came into Poland on account of Trade, received the Saxon Laws (now called Magdeburg-Laws, from the City of Saxony whence they were taken) by which Poland is at this day principally governed, although the Gentry have many peculiar Customs, and some Statutes which have been since made: And which in the Time of Sigismundus Augustus, being compiled into one Volume by Learned Men, were entitled the Statutes of the Kingdom; and since (some having been Approved and Augmented, and others Changed and Altered in several Diets) have obtained the Name of Constitutions of Poland; to which nevertheless all that Kingdom is not Subject, Lithuania and Volhynia observing its own Laws. Prussia likewise, both Regal and Ducal, has a Municipal Law of its own, commonly styled the Law of Culm; from which notwithstanding Three Cities are Exempt, viz. Elbing, Bransberg, and Fraumberg, all which make use of the Laws of Lansberg.  

Punishments in Poland.  The Punishments in Poland are various, and differ only according to the Quality of the Crimes, and not of the Persons; for a Thief is to be hanged of what degree soever he be, and Capital Offenders of all other Kind's and Qualities are to be Beheaded, except in Notorious Villainies, where the Offender is commonly broke on the Wheel, or else Tortured by cutting off two Thongs, or long Pieces out of the Skin of his Back. A Nobleman is sometimes punished by forfeiting half his Estate to the King, and the rest to an Informer; and sometimes by Imprisonment only.  

Manner of chastising Servants.  Master's also have a Power of Chastising their Servants; which they do after this manner: If the Servant they are about to Punish be a Polish Gentleman, than they make him lie down on his Belly on a Carpet spread on the Ground, or upon a Stool, when another Gentleman-Servant lays him on unmercifully on the Back, with a Rope or Stick, giving him as many Blows and Lashes, as the Master who is then present, orders. After which, he that is beaten embraces the Knees of him that had commanded him to be Beat, and salutes him with the good-natured Title of Benefactor. This Discipline seems a little too severe; but however, the Temper of these People makes it necessary. The Peasant-Servants are punished after the same manner, only with this difference, that they have no Carpet spread under them. Some of the former sort think it an Honour to be so lashed; which Honour they always receive liberally as often as they deserve it.  

No Disgrace to the Genty to be thus beat.  This Custom of the Poles in punishing their Gentlemen-Servants so rigidly, ought not much to be wondered at, if it be considered, that they may serve in the meanest Offices without derogating from the Nobility of their Birth, or incapacitating themselves for the Highest Preferments. For (says Hauteville) I have known some, who from being Footboys to great Lords, and Drummers in a Company of Dragoons, have been advanced to the Dignity of SENATORS. Also in general, Nothing debases Nobility in this Country, but a Handicraft or Mechanic Employment.  
This SIR, is all that I could meet with by various Reading, relating to the Legislative and Executive Justice in Poland; and which, though not capable to pass your Censure with the Name of a Regular Composition, I hope may obtain Effects of your Candour under the Regretted Title of a hasty Compilation.  
I am SIR, with all Humility Your most Obedient Servant, J. S.   

LETTER IU.  
To the Right Honourable JOHN, Earl of Marlborough, Governor to his Highness the Duke of Gloucester.  
Of the Election and Coronation of a King of Poland, with the Proceedings in the Inter-regnum, and all other Ceremonies; as likewise a short Account of the Coronation of the Queen.  
My LORD,  
TO whom can this Letter, which treats of the Election of a King, more properly address itself than to your Lordship, who has lately been pitched upon by the wisest of Monarches, to be Governor to the presumptive Heir of his Crown? No Doubt his Majesty saw those united Qualifications in you, which were but to be singly met with in all others, and which moreover could not but be required to copy a successor from so great an Original as himself. These Considerations, My Lord, have emboldened me to present your Lordship with this imperfect Account, but which, I hope, in regard it has been extracted from so many Volumes, may favourably pass your discerning Censure, though it must not in the least pretend to deserve your Approbation.  
My LORD,  

Crown vacant has many ways.  The Crown of Poland may be vacant four Ways, for either the King abdicates voluntarily, and publicly, like John Casimir; is deposed for his Vices, as Locticus was; runs out of the Kingdom as Henry III. of France did; or dies, which is the ordinary Cause of an Inter-regnum.  

Diet summoned  When the Crown is once become vacant, the Archbishop of Gnesna being the first Senator of the Kingdom, is the Prime Minister, and hath the same Authority as the King had, most of the Crown Revenues being invested likewise in him, during the Interregnum. After the King's Death, he issues out circular Letters to all the Provinces, to acquaint them therewith, and to command their several Officers to make Publication of the Inter-regnum, as likewise to summon a general Convocation of the Gentry to meet at Warsaw at a Time prefixed.  

Proceedings in little Diets before Grand Session.  Before this general Meeting, they meet at the Little Diets, where Care is taken to secure the Roads from Thiefs, and to set strong Guards every where on the Frontiers, to oppose an invading Enemy. Next, Spies are sent into all Neighbouring Kingdoms, to have Intelligence of what they design or do. Then all Persons are prohibited either to go out or come into the Kingdom during the Interregnum, as likewise to carry any Horses out of it. All foreign Letters directed to any Members of the Senate are intercepted; All the Highways are blocked up with Trees felled down, and Ambuscades are placed about them: None of the Senate, nor no Foreigners are permitted to write to the Army: All the Gentry are commanded to have every thing in Readiness for public Defence: The common Use of Guns is forbidden, Taverns are shut up, and Concerts of Music silenced. Then they proceed to institute the Court called Kaptur, treated of before.  

Who officiates where no Interregnum.  This Diet consists of the Archbishop of Gnesna, who represents the King's Person, and the other Senators, together with the Deputies of the Provinces. 
* Lib. 2. cap. 1. p. 275.  In Case there is no Archbishop of Gnesna when the King dies, the Office of Inter-Rex comes to the Bishop of Cujavia, and next to the Bishop of Posnan, and so to the rest of the Bishops of Lower Poland, which in this Respect is preferred to the Higher, tho' in nothing else. Yet however they may grant away their Power, as they did in the Inter-Regnum before the Election of the late King, when the Bishop of Cracow officiated during the whole Interregnum, by a common Consent of those Bishops.  

First Proceedings.  
* Hartnoch lib. 2. cap. 1. p. 291.  Some of the Senators and Deputies are dispatched to the Generals of the Army, to remain with them, and to be assisting to them with their Counsel in the Affairs of the War. Some Senators and Deputies likewise are appointed to inspect the Crown-Treasure deposited in the Castle of Cracow, and to take an Inventory thereof, which they are afterwards to report to the Diet. This Treasure is commonly committed to the Custody of eight Senators, who are the Castellan of Cracow, the Palatins of Cracovia, Posnania, Vilna, Sendomir, Kalisch, and Troki; together with the Treasurer of the Kingdom, each having his particular Seal and Key, and therefore none to act without the unanimous Consent of all. Also Commissioners are sent to inform themselves of the King's Crown-Revenue, which they are likewise to make their Report of, during this Session, and till a new King be proclaimed, the Republic 
† Ibid. lib. & cap. eodem p. 306.  claims the Title of Most Serene from all Sovereign Princes and Crowned Heads, altho' Hautaville says, he has observed, that the King of France, writing to this Diet of Election, has not faluted them with that Title, but only expressed himself in these Terms; To our dearest and well beloved Friends and Allies, the States of the Kingdom of Poland, and Great Duchy of Lithuania.  

Courts of Justice cease except two.  Whilst this Diet sits (which by the Laws is not to be above a Fortnight without Prorogation) and from the Time of the Circular Letters, to the Conclusion of the Diet of Election; all Courts of Justice cease, except only that of the Marshal's, which continues as before, and a Court established to prevent Disorders in the Diet. As for all private Affairs, and Suits of Law, they are delayed till after the new King's Coronation. The Proceedings in this Diet are much of the same Nature with those in other Diets.  

Foreign Ministers on this Occasion.  Most Crowned Heads, and other Christian Princes, send Ambassadors to this Election, and more especially the Emperor and King of France. The Pope also always sends his Nuncio to take care that the Election should fall upon a professed Catholic, and one that is in the Interest of the See of Rome. The Emperor and French King always raise great Factions to promote their several Interests.  

Notify their Arrival and how received.  Before any Ambassadors arrive, they are to send Notice of their coming to the Archbishop of Gnesna, who is to appoint them Lodgings at a Distance from the City, and to assign them a Polish Gentleman, whose Business is rather to observe their Conduct, and to acquaint the Diet therewith, than to do them either any Service or Honour. But however these Rules are but seldom observed, for Prince's Ambassadors now generally live publicly at Warsaw. A Gentleman, 'tis true, is still appointed to be always with them, whose chiefest Business is to prevent their corrupting any with Money; but this Precaution is notwithstanding now become useless, since Avarice bears so great a Sway in Poland, that even the Fidelity which a Polish Gentleman owes his Country, cannot withstand the Charms of a Thousand Crowns.  

Ambassadors from the Republic.  Ambassadors are not only received from Foreign Princes, and their Master's Letters publicly read; but also Polish Ministers are sent at this Time from the Republic to all Neighbouring States, to answer their Embassies, and to request their Amity. Here it may be observed, that all Ambassadors or Envoys, who have had Audience of Leave before the late King's Death, are desired to depart within eight Days.  

Caution to foreign Ministers.  Ambassadors from foreign Courts must take especial Care to secure the Diet in general, since the bare disobliging of one particular Member may render them for ever incapable of bringing their Designs about, as it happened in the Election of Michael Wiesnowiski, where the true Reason of the Duke of Newburg's being excluded, was the Quarrel with the Chancellor Patz: Nevertheless it must be acknowledged that that Election was tumultuary, the Nobility had not their free Votes, and that they were in a manner hurried away by the Violence of the Multitude, which was so great, that Prasmowski, than Primate, was forced to proclaim him, tho' he knew that the Republic at that Juncture had need of both a rich and valiant King, neither of which that Prince could in the least pretend to be. He was no sooner proclaimed, but the Chancellor began to insinuate that he owed his Crown to him, nor was it a difficult Task for him to impose on a Prince who was easily governed, and who had always shown more good Nature than Judgement.  

Deputies Business after this Diet.  After the Diet of Convocation ended, the Nuncios and Deputies retire to their several Countries, where they acquaint the Gentry, being a second Time assembled in their Little Diets, of the Proceedings in this general Convocation, and particularly of the Day assigned for the Election; Whereupon the Gentry immediately begin to consult about what is proper to be proposed in the Diet of Election, and they proceed to choose new Deputies. In Prussia the Bishop of Varmia being sole Lord Lieutenant, summons all these little Diets by his Mandates.  

Diet of Election.]  The general Diet for the Election of a King, was formerly held at Petricovia, but since the joining of the Kingdom with the Great Duchy, is always held in an open Field half a League from Warsaw, and near the Village of Vola, and is not to continue by the Laws above six Weeks. The Crown-Treasurer, at the Charges of the Republic, builds there a large Booth or Hall with Board's, not unlike Booths in our Bartholomew Fair: The Name the Poles give to this Place, is 
* Hartknoch lib. 2. cap. 1. p. 295.  Szopa, signifying a covered Room against the Injuries of Wether. It has but three Doors to go in at, and they fortify it round with a broad and deep Ditch. When this Place is thus finished by the Care of the aforesaid Officer, and the Day fixed for the Diets convening is arrived, the Senators and Nobility go in great Order to St. John's Church at Warsaw, where they pray God to assist them in the Election of a King, who may have all the Qualities necessary to defend the Church, and protect the Republic. Then they go to wait on the Queen Dowager, to condole the Death of the deceased King her Husband, the Primate speaking for the Senate, and the last Nuncio-Marshal for the Deputies, who are then answered in the Queen's Name by her Chancellor. After which they march to the Szopa, where the Nobility elect their Marshal or Speaker by Majority of Votes, who after being chosen, takes the usual Oath, which runs thus, That he will discharge his Office faithfully, receive no Bribes, keep private Correspondence with none of the Competitors, and will not subscribe a Schedule of a free Election without the Knowledge and Approbation of the Republic. After this he goes to wait on the Senators for their Approbation. It must be understood that the Senators only sit in the Szopa, for the Deputies have their Session in the open Field, which they call their 
† Ibid. lib. 2. cap. 1. p. eadem.  Rota Equestris.  

First Proceedings therein.  The first thing that the Senators and Nuncios, or deputed Gentry, do in this Diet, after establishing of the Kaptur, is to take a mutual Oath on their Knees, administered by the Prmate, to a strict Union and Intelligence among themselves for the common Interest of the Nation: Next, not to acknowledge any for their King, but him that is lawfully elected by the unanimous Consent and who must withal swear to preserve inviolable, the Rights and Privileges of the Republic; and they moreover promise mutually, that he who will act otherwise, shall be deemed and declared an Enemy to his Country. Likewise they reciprocally promise not to give their Voices for an Election, nor to enter into any Agreement with any of the Candidates or their Ambassadors, till all the Irregularities or Disorders, either in the Kingdom or the Great Duchy, be first considered and redressed. They annul all the Decrees of the Tribunals, and even the Statutes of Kings that are found to entrench on their Liberties: They declare that all other Judgements pronounced before the Publication of the Interregnum, shall be valid: They set up a new Court of Justice called Kaptur, which is to Defend the Country, Coin Money, Raise Soldiers, and for Maintaining of the Laws. They give Orders that no Body shall come to the Diet with Fire-Arms, nor bring any Strangers along with them: They cause the Generals to take on Oath before Commissioners to discharge the Trust reposed in them, faithfully to employ their Forces against the Enemies of the Republic, and to defend the Frontiers, thereby to secure the Honour and Liberties of the Kingdom. They oblige them also to swear to assert the public Interest in Case of Sedition or Rebellion, to restrain Soldiers from injuring any Person, to receive Money neither from Clergy nor Laity, and to prevent their Soldiers from receiving any. And lastly, they forbid them to advance with their Troops into the Heart of the Kingdom, and more especially to come 
* Piasecius ad An. 1632. p. 530.  near the Diet for Fear of being forced to an Election against their free Will: And providing the Republic should be attacked by such a Force, as the Army were not strong enough to resist, than they declare, that from that very Minute they summon all the Nobility to meet together without Delay, at the Time and Place which the Primate and his Council shall appoint; that the Review of the Soldiers raised in general by the Republic, or in particular by the Palatinaetes, shall be made in the Camp; that each Palatinate shall take care to pay its own Troops, and not disband any but such as the general Diet shall think fit to dismiss. They forbid the Treasurers of the Crown or Great Duchy, to give out any Money without Knowledge and Approbation of the Archbishop and his Council, but only for Payment of the Troops of the Republic: They order that skilful and honest Persons shall be sent to visit the Saltworks, and to regulate all Reparations that shall be found necessary there; and in the last Place, that the Deputies of certain Cities shall not be admitted to the Diet, till they have sufficiently proved their Right to come thither. In short, the Poles in this Diet take all the Measures and Care imaginable to secure their Frontiers, maintain the Kingdom in Peace and Quietness, to settle a good Intelligence among themselves; and lastly, to prevent Bribery or any private Interest in any of the Members of the Diet that might tend to hinder a free and unanimous Election.  

Exorbitancies examined, and Ambassadors received.  Matters being thus disposed, they immediately proceed to the Election, examining first, the Exorbitances, that is to say, the Disorders and Excesses committed during the last Reign, to the end that they may prevent the like for the future. These Exorbitances are not examined by the whole Session, either of the Senators or Deputies, but by a certain Number assigned out of both, who sit a-Mornings in the Castle of Warsaw. Then the Diet gives Audience to the Ambassadors, both of those Princes that pretend to the Crown, and those that recommend others to it, sending first, a great Train of Coaches to wait on them to the Rota Equestris, whither it must be understood that on this Occasion the Senate goes.  
When these Ambassadors are thus sent for, the Pope's Nuncio is always preferred, then comes the Emperor's Ambassador, next the French, and after these the Spanish: But since the Diet of Election convened at Warsaw after the Death of Sigismundus Augustus, when the Spanish Ambassador demanded Audience before the King of France, who notwithstanding was preferred, Spain has sent no Ambassador on this Account into Poland; for as for Don Pedro Ronquillos, who was present at the Diet of Election of John III. he durst never assume either the Title or Quality of Ambassador, for Fear he should be forced to give Place to the Ambassador of France.  

Manner of Receiving them.  The Manner of receiving these Ambassadors is this: The Pope's Legate is introduced by a certain Number of the Ecclesiastical and Lay-Senators, as likewise by the Marshal of the Deputies, and an assigned Number out of their Body. The Inter-Rex arising out of his Chair, moves two or three Steps to meet him, and places him on his Right-Hand. The secular Ambassadors are introduced by some of the Lay-Senators and Deputies only. The Emperor's Minister is placed by them between the Great Marshal and the Nuncio-Marshal.  

What requisite in foreign Ministers.  When the Ambassadors receive Audience, they make their Harangue in Latin, to which the Archbishop that presides, answers for the Senators, and the Nuncio-Marshal for the Nobility. It is absolutely necessary for all Ministers that have any Interests of their Masters to carry on in the Diet, to be not only eloquent, but liberal and generous, that by their Treats, Feasts, and chiefly their Money, they may gain or purchase the Good Will and Suffrages of the Senate and Gentry. It is so essentially requisite for Ambassadors to make a great Figure, keep an open Table, spend a vast deal of Money, and to make considerable Presents, that if the Diet do but in the least suspect any Avarice or Niggardliness in them, they will presently impute it to the Poverty of the Prince that sent them, which would prove no small Obstruction, either to his Election or Interest in Behalf of any body else. Ambassadors must likewise take more than ordinary Care to keep in with the Clergy; first, by obliging the Bishops, because they bear great Sway in the Diet, and next the Priests and Friars, they having no less Influence and Authority over the People. But however Presents are not to be made them in gross, but by little and little, lest they fly off when they expect no farther Recompense; for the Poles generally think themselves obliged to serve you, not for what they have already received, but because they are still in Hopes of receiving more. They are all likewise apt to neglect your Interest, and will sometimes take Money from another Prince or his Ambassador, to vote against you. The late King is accused of taking Money of the Emperor, the Duke of Lorraine, and of the Duke of Newbourg, to employ it in their several Interests in the Election; but however, he did more wisely to make use of it himself to get to be elected, in which we find he had good Success.  

Diet proceeds to Election.  After the Ambassadors have thus had Audience, and that all other Matters are settled in the Republic, they proceed to the Election of a King, but first they implore the Assistance of the Holy Ghost, by singing the Veni Creator: Then they proceed to give their Votes, and communicate them to each other, when if they are unanimous for one Candidate, the Archbishop of Gnesna, or Bishop that presides in his Place, demands thrice if the Grievances and Exorbitancies are redressed; which being answered in the Affirmative, he immediately proclaims the King Elect, which is likewise done at the same Time by the Marshals of the Crown and the Great Duchy, and then they all join in the singing of Te Deum.  

Further Particulars thereof.  Here it may not be amiss to give your Lordship farther Particulars, of the manner of Election, which is this. Assoon as the Anthem is ended, the Senators and Deputies remove from their Places, and divide themselves into their several Palatinates, making so many peculiar Rota's, the Archbishop of Gnesna only still keeping his Seat. The Orders being thus divided, the first Senator of every Palatinate, numbers their Votes; which afterwards are transmitted into a Roll, and delivered under their several Hands to the Nuncio-Marshal. All these Suffrages are then reckoned together by the Senate in the Szopa, where if there be a Majority for any one Candidate, they labour what they can partly by Persuasion, and partly by Promises, to bring the Electors to be unanimous; for till than no King can be lawfully Proclaimed: yet when there is a Division in the Diet, as most commonly it happens, the strongest Party still carries it, as it appeared in Stephen Batori's Case, and that of Sigismond III. which last coming soon into Poland, was Crowned King at Cracow, notwithstanding that Maximilian was proclaimed at Warsaw by Cardinal Radzvil. It may be observed that the House of Austria has been put by the Crown of Poland no less than thrice. First in the Person of Ernest, by the Election of Henry of Valois; and Secondly and Thirdly, by the Exclusion of this Maximilian: And this because the Poles have a Maxim, never to Elect any Powerful Neighbouring Prince for fear of being subdued, and brought under an Arbitrary Power. The Day after the Election all the Senators and Deputies meet either in the Rota Equestris, or the Castle of Warsaw, and draw up the Decree of Election, subscribing it with their several Hands; which is immediately afterwards sent to the Press to be Printed.  

Great Concourse at the Election and Policy to bias them.  To the Election of a King of Poland, not only all the Gentry of the Kingdom and Great Duchy, but likewise a great Number of Strangers from all adjacent Countries come, yet notwithstanding that, People come from all Parts of Poland; the Senators and Deputies only, have a lawful Vote in the Election: Nevertheless, the other Gentry Interest themselves either in favouring the Senators, or the Factions of the Deputies, and sometimes fall out among themselves about it, so that it is the absolute Interest of the Candidate to treat and present, not only the individual Members of the Diet, but also these Nobles, although they have no actual Voices in the Election, for their great Number can easily favour and carry on a Faction, by threatening the Senators and Deputies, in Case they do not elect such a Prince as they propose. This was confirmed in the Election of Michael Wiesnowiski, where none of the Electors thought of choosing a Piasto, and much less such a weak poor unexperienced Prince as this Duke was; yet the turbulent Mob of Polish Gentry soon forced them to elect and proclaim him King, notwithstanding, this being no free Election, they never paid him any great Deference, but undervalued, and were so displeased with him, that some say, after four Years Reign, he was poisoned by the Contrivance of the Great Men. Thus it is palpably more safe and creditable for a Candidate to purchase himself a strong Party in the Diet, and to support and back them by procuring the Affection and good Will of the rest of the Gentry, than to rely barely on the inconstant and tumultuous Suffrage of a senseless turbulent Mob, as the late King sufficiently experienced before his Election.  

Qualifications required in a Candidate.  There are several Conditions required in a Candidate, that aspires to the Crown of Poland, which are now past, as Constitutions of the Kingdom, for he must not be a Native (which 
* Lib. 2. Cap. 1. p. 309. to 312.  Hartknoch says he may, and which he proves by a great many Persons) nor married, nor 
† Ibid. p. 431.  present at the Election, but must be rich, and no absolute or neighbouring Prince: And as for his Religion, he must either actually be, or promise to become a Roman Catholic before he can be crowned. All this after the Death of King Michael the late Elector of Brandenburg, and Duke Ernest of Brunswick promised, being not willing, it seems, to lose a Crown for an exterior Show of a Piece of Religious Ceremony.  

Rules observed by the Poles in Elections.  The Gentry of Poland think themselves so great, and so equal in Respect to each other, that they do not willingly consent to elect a Piasto or Native to a Crown, which their Birth gave them a parallel Right to. They besides think it a great Advantage to their Nation to choose a foreign and rich Prince, that they may make more Alliances abroad, and oblige such Kings to bring all their Effects with them to enrich the Kingdom. They are for an unmarried Prince, that they may have the Opportunity of matching him, and so to strengthen their Alliances that Way. They care not to elect a neighbouring Prince, for fear he should become absolute by his adjoining Force. But however these, like their other Constitutions, have not been always observed; for the only Maxim they have hitherto kept inviolable, is not to elect any Prince but a Roman Catholic, for the late King was both a Piasto and married before he was elected: 'Tis true, they would have had his Queen divorced from him, that they might have married him to King Michael's Queen Dowager Eleonora, at present Duchess Dowager of Lorraine; but the Affection the King always bore to his Queen, in Conjunction with her own Intrigues among the Senators, soon broke this Design. They have also sometimes elected absolute and neighbouring Princes, as the King of Sweden, the King of Hungary, the King of Bohemia, and the Prince of Transilvania; but then this Constitution was not in Force, being only made of latter Days, for they are now resolved to admit of no such Election hereafter: So that at present a Prince must be very rich to purchase the Votes of so many Hundreds that compose the Diet, and to treat the Gentry in general: And besides, must have many Heroic and Warlike Qualities, and a great Reputation in the World, to obtain the Crown of Poland: Insomuch that before he can be elected and crowned, it must necessarily cost him several Hundreds of Thousand Pounds Sterling: And moreover, the vast Sums that all the Competitors spend liberally at this Election, far exceeds what the elected Prince has spent, so that the Members of the Diet must needs get well by their Election, which I take to be one of the chiefest Reasons why they maintain their Kingdom elective.  

Why preserve their Kingdom elective.  The others are, first, That they take that Government to be easiest, which is executed by a Person whom they have unanimously chosen to obey, being not thereby obliged to be subject to a Prince that Nature only has set over their Heads. Secondly, That they esteem an elective Kingdom free from those Hazards which one that is successive most commonly incurs during the Minority of its Princes, for that then either its Neighbour's take an Occasion to invade it, or its Great Men to embroil it, the better to secure the greater Share in the Government to themselves, under so weak a Head. If this be pretended to be remedied by assigning fit Tutors and Counsellors to the young Prince; They say, that the Government will be miserably mistaken, for that we do not want in History several Examples of young Kings, who have been driven out of their Thrones by their assigned Governors: And moreover, that seldom any Kingdom has been known to continue long in Peace, during the Minority of its King. The third Reason they give is, that in an elective State, rarely any Blood is shed about the Succession, as has frequently happened in other Countries, without fetching any Examples from Antiquity. Fourthly, They say, that a King chosen by the free Consent of the People, will be likely, in common Gratitude, to retaliate the Obligation by the Clemency and Justice of his Reign. The fifth Advantage which the Poles pretend by an Election of their Kings is, that in no other State Princes take so great Care to educate their Children, as in theirs. And the sixth is, That by Means of electing their King, the Gentry (who are only considered in Poland) have the greater Power of conserving their Liberties and Privileges, in which their greatest Happiness consists. And the seventh is, by limiting the Actions of their Kings to the unanimous Consent of the Diet. I might here mention many more Reasons, but for Fear of tiring your Lordship by too long a Digression, I return to my Subject.  

Who have Votes, and who not.  As for those that have Suffrages in this Election, it must be observed that the Diet have in general, as likewise the Deputies of some particular Cities, especially the greater ones of Prussia, which formerly had not only Place among the Nuncios, but also in the Senate. As for the lesser, the Bishop of Varmia generally subscribes in their Names. There are others who have pretended to, but have been denied a Vote in the Election; as the Dukes of Prussia and the Dukes of Curland, when they were only tributary to Poland. The King's Sons also are excluded from a Vote, tho' they should be dignifyed with Consent of the Republic. Soldiers likewise are refused a Suffrage, tho' it is no wonder that they laid Claim to such a Privilege (being for the most part chosen out of the Gentry) when the Cosacks once pretended to it, but who were rejected with Contempt, being looked upon to be no better than the Scum or Dregs of the Populace.  

The Pacta Conventa.  At the Time of this Election, the Diet apply themselves to the Conservation of their Rights and Liberties, for this is the best Time to secure their Constitutions and Privileges, and to prevent any Abuse of, or Breach in their Laws▪ for which Purpose they are always then very busy in making new Laws, not only to preserve, but likewise enlarge their Prerogatives. As soon therefore as their King is elected, they propose to him certain Articles or Capitulations to be agreed to before he can be proclaimed. These Articles they call Pacta Conventa, being properly a Contract between the King and People, which he swears afterwards to keep inviolable before the Altar in the Church of St. John at Warsaw.  

When taken by Ambassadors.  Providing the elected King be a foreign Prince, then must his Ambassador who represents him, sign these Articles, and take this Oath for him. Thus at the Election of Henry of Valois, his Ambassador John de Monluc, Bishop of Valence, was obliged to come to the Diet, where, after the Conditions to be observed by the new King his Master were read to him, he signed them in the Name of the said Henry, and of Charles IX. his Brother, King of France. Then was he conducted to St. John's Church, where after taking the abovesaid Oath, his Master Henry of Valois was proclaimed King of Poland by the Great Marshal, the eighteent of May, in the Year 1573. Afterwards, according to Custom in these Cases, Ambassadors were sent by the Republic to take the Oath from that King in Person at Paris, which they did on the tenth of September following. This is the Method prescribed by the Laws for swearing, to observe the Pacta Conventa; yet which is not always punctually observed, for King Michael and John Sobieski took that Oath several Days after their Election.  

By whom drawn and after what manner Administered.  The Form of this Agreement or Capitulation is drawn up and methodised by Order of the Senators and Deputies, at the same time that they make the Decree of Election; after which the three Orders, viz. the King elect or his Ambassador, the Senate and Deputies go to the Church, where the Chancellor or Grand Marshal reads distinctly with an audible Voice, the whole Contract as follows.  

The Form and several Articles.  1. That the King shall not assume to himself the Quality of Heir of Poland, nor will appoint any to be his Successor; but on the contrary, will preserve and maintain inviolable, the Laws and Constitutions made for the free Election of a King.  
2. That he will pretend to no Right of Coining Money, but will entirely leave that Power, and the Profit thereof, in the Hands of the Republic.  
3. That he will ratify and confirm all the former Articles of Peace made with foreign Princes.  
4. That he will make it his principal Care to preserve and maintain the Quiet and Tranquillity of the Public.  
5. That without the Consent of the Diet, he will not declare War against any Prince; bring any foreign Troops into the Kingdom, suffer no Soldiers to go out of it, nor levy any new Troops.  
6. That all the Field-Officers shall be either Poles or Lithuanians, or at least Natives of such Provinces as depend upon the Crown of Poland.  
7. That all the Officers of his Regiment of Guards shall be likewise either Poles or Lithuanians: That their Colonel or chief Commander shall be a Polish Nobleman, and who shall take an Oath of Fidelity to the Republic, and that all the Officers in general shall be subject to the Jurisdiction of the Grand Marshal.  
8. That as to Affairs which concern the Republic, he shall not make use of his Privy-Seal.  
9 That in six Weeks after any Charge or Office vacant, he shall take Care to bestow it on some worthy and well qualified Polish Gentleman, and on no other.  
10. That he will not confer on any one Person, the Offices, Benefices, or Dignities which the Laws of the Kingdom prescribe to be enjoyed by more.  
11. That he will not marry, but according to the Laws, and with the Consent and Approbation of the Senate, who shall assign his Queen that Retinue only which they think fit and convenient.  

An Article Violated.  This Article King Michael broke when he married Eleonora the Emperor's Sister without Approbation of the Senate, but which nevertheless he afterwards repent of, for they murmured heavily against him, and did not scruple to tell him to his Face, that he had violated his Coronation-Oath. Likewise when Prince James the late King's Son, married the Princess of Newbourg, the Senate procured the King to send his own Guards, that no Germane Guards might come into the Kingdom.  
12. That together with his Council, he will regulate the Number of Horse and Foot, which is necessary, to the End that the Republic may have no need of foreign Troops, nor be put to an unusual Expense, and that he will take care to preserve such good Discipline among the Soldiers, that they shall commit no Disorders, either in their Quarters, or their March.  
13. That if it be necessary for the Interest of the State to have a Fleet, that he shall build none without the Consent of the Gentry, and Advice of the Senate.  
14. That he will no ways diminish the Treasure reposited in the Castle of Cracow, but will rather study to increase and augment it.  
15. That he will borrow no Money, nor consent that any shall be borrowed for his Use, without the Knowledge and Approbation of the Diet.  
16. That he will always administer Justice by the Advice of the Senators and Counsellors which attend him.  
17. That for the Expenses of his Table, he shall be contented with those Revenues that have been granted by the Republic to the Kings his Predecessors; and moreover that he shall enjoy them only for Life.  
18. That he shall not introduce any Strangers, of what Rank or Quality soever, into his Council, and that he will bestow no Offices, Dignities or Governments upon them.  
19 That for the Preservation of his Power and Dignity, he will not diminish or abrogate any of the Offices at his Disposal, either in the Republic or Court.  
20. And lastly, That he will inviolably keep, maintain, and defend, and confirm by his Letters Patents, all the Rights, Liberties, Immunites, and Privileges lawfully granted by former Kings, either to the Poles or Lithuanians, or to any of the Provinces which depend upon either of those two Nations.  

Occasional Articles▪  To these Articles they commonly add several others, which vary according to the Circumstances of Time or Quality of the Person elected King. Dr. Connor says, when he was in Poland, he heard the Poles say, that at the next Election they would make a Law, by which the King should be obliged to reside always at Warsaw, which in a manner seems to be the Centre of the Kingdom. The Reason that made them think of this was, because the late King almost always had an ambulatory Court, having no certain or fixed Residence or Abode: For sometimes he lived on his own Estate in Prussia, and sometimes in Russia at Zolkiew, and so rambled about from one Country Palace to another, where oftentimes the Courtiers, Ambassadors, or several Gentlemen of the Kingdom, that were forced to follow him about Business, found but very indifferent Lodgings and Entertainment. It may here be observed, that at new Elections they always make some new Constitution or other, for the Benefit of the Nation, and to abridge the Power of their Kings.  

Ceremony of the Kings swearing.  The Formalities which they use when they make the King swear to the Pacta Conventa are as follow. The Archbishop of Gnesna, and the Nuncio-Marshal carry these Articles before the King, after Mass, and when they are come to the Great Altar, his Majesty repeats after the Chancellor these Words.  

The Oath.  We Frederick Augustus, duly elected King of Poland, and Great Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Russia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Kiovia, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlachia, Livonia, Smolensko, Severia, and Czernicovia, do promise to Almighty God, and swear upon the Holy Evangelists, that we will observe, maintain, and fulfil all the Conditions agreed upon at our Election, between our Ambassadors, and the Senators and Deputies of the Kingdom of Poland, and the Great Duchy of Lithuania, which were confirmed by the Oath of our said Ambassadors, and that we will moreover perform the same in all Rigour, Vigour, Points, Articles, Clauses, and Conditions therein contained. All which we promise to ratify and confirm by Oath on the Day of our Coronation.  

Presented with the Decree of Election.  When the King has thus sworn to observe the Pacta Conventa, the Chancellor presents him with the Decree of his Election written in Parchment, and signed by all the Senators and Deputies.  
The Poles make use of these Precautions in the Election of their Kings, by reason that if they at any Time act contrary to what they had promised they might have a Right to remonstrate to them, and put them in mind of their Duty.  
It is observable, that from the Time of the King's Election, to that of his Coronation, the great or petty Marshal does not carry the Staff erected before him; that when he issues out any Orders or Proclamations, he assumes only the Character of King-elect, and that nothing can then be sealed but by the Signet.  

Concerning the Election of a Successor.  Before I proceed to describe the Coronation of a King of Poland, I may here reasonably insert something concerning the Election of a Successor, which tho' it be contrary to the Laws and Constitutions of the Kingdom, and repugnant to the Privileges of an elective Monarchy, yet a Father will have always that Respect for his Child, that he will endeavour to get him to succeed him, even while he lives: So Sigismond II. was named King in the Life-time of his Father Sigismond I. but still on Condition that he should not meddle with the Government so long as his Father lived. But Sigismond II. being dead, the Diet, after having inspected the Laws of the Realm, Decreed that there should be no Successor named for the future, while the Predecessor survived. This Constitution Stephen Bateri would have invaded, but the Republic opposed him so vigorously, that he was forced to let fall his Design.  

Interest of foreign Princes to oppose it.  All Christian Princes having a feasible Right to the Crown of Poland, it is the Interest of each of them to oppose the Election of a Successor, since they would thereby absolutely be excluded from it: This occasioned the present Emperor Leopold, to send Francis de Lisola, to the Diet held at Warsaw in the Year 1661.▪ where John Casimir had a Mind to propose a Prince to succeed him: Wherefore in Conjunction with John Owerbeck▪ Envoy to the Elector of Brandenbourg, Lisola raised Factions in the Diet, which were seconded by Marshal Lubomirski, insomuch that they quickly overthrew King Casimir's Design, and caused the Diet to confirm the former Constitution against electing of a Successor: Several of the Lithuanian Gentry had the same Intentions with John Casimir, but however with these following Precautions: First, That such a Successor should be elected a▪ new, after the King's Death. Secondly, That he should be a Roman Catholic. Thirdly, That he should not be a Piasto or Native. Fourthly, That he should neither be an Emperor, King, nor Sovereign Prince of another Country. Fifthly, That he should not be any Neighbour of Poland. Sixthly, That he should neither be too young, nor too old. And Seventhly, That he should not be married.  

Reasons for and against such an▪ Election.  No doubt, the Designs of King Casimir, and of all those that were for the Election of a Successor were good, for they had thereby a Mind to secure the Government from those Divisions and Intestine Jars which commonly happen in Interregnums. But those who opposed them affirmed, that the Election of a Successor would undoubtedly soon introduce an Hereditary Monarchy, and be the ruin of their Liberties and Privileges, whatever care they could take to prevent it: That it would be likewise against the Constitutions of the Realm to Elect a Soccessor in the King's Life time; and that if the Republic consented to it, they would be no longer at Liberty to oppose it: That it would moreover, be an Injury done to several Princes, who all had a kind of Right to the Kingdom of Poland, which would therefore infallibly embroil it in new Troubles, when it was the Interest of that Crown to be at Peace with all the World. These were the several reasons offered by the two Parties, the last whereof, as I said before, got the better.  

The King has no Regal Authority till Crowned.  Till a King of Poland be Crowned, he has really no 
* Hartknoch lib. 2. cap. 1. p. 331.  Regal Authority; for he can bestow no Benefice, give no Office, nor Pardon any Offence: Neither can he make use of the Great Seal of the Chancery, nor set the Courts of Justice a going; which are always silenced during an Interregnum, till he has taken his Coronation Oath.  

Appoints the Day of Coronation.  It belongs to the King-Elect to appoint a Day for his Coronation; which formerly was wont to be at 
† Neugebaver. Hist. Polon. lib. 3. p. 185.  Gnesna, till the Coronation of Vladislaus Locticus was solemnised at Cracow in the year 1320. where it was fixed by the Constitutions of the Kingdom; nevertheless Vladislaus VII. would needs Crown his Queen Caecilia Renata at Warsaw; but which was not performed without excessive Murmurings of the Gentry.  

Manner of his entering Cracow, with other Ceremonies.  The Day of Coronation being arrived, the King makes his solemn Entry into Cracow, with great Pomp and Acclamations. The Scabins of the City carry the Days over him, preceded by all the Horse and Foot-Guards, with their Officers. Immediately after the King follow the Bishops, Palatins and foreign Ambassadors on Horseback. Just before the King Rides an Officer, who throws some Coronation Medals among the People; but which seldom amounts to any great Sum. Thus Attended, his Majesty is conducted through the City to the Castle, having first received the Keys of the City from the Magistrates in the first Gate thereof, and passed under several Triumphal Arches, with Mottoes of various Invention. At the Castle-gate he has the Keys of that Important Place also presented him, with a solemn Harangue, by the Starosta of Cracow. The rest of the Day is spent in Banqueting and Feasts.  

Obsequies of Deceased King and order of Procession.  
* Piasetius in Chron. Anno 1632. p. 525.  The Day following, being that which precedes the Coronation, the Obsequies of the deceased King are to be celebrated, when they carry his Body to Schalka to the Church of St. Stanislaus. 
† Hart▪ knoch lib. 2. cap. 1. p. 336.  The Order of Procession is this. First the new King marches on foot, then follow all the Officers of the Crown and Great Duchy, together with the Deputies, the Ensigns, with the Standards of every Palatinate, and lastly, the Crown, Sceptre, Globe, Sword, and other Regalia being carried before the Corpse, pointed towards the Ground. After these come a great Number of other Gentry, and next after them march the several Companies of Trades barefooted, belonging both to the City and Court, each having an empty Coffin and Pall born before them, on the Shoulders of two Men. It is to be observed, that all that assist at this Procession, must be in Mourning.  

Ceremonies at the Interment.  At the Place of Interment, the Marshals break their Staffs against the King's Tomb, and all the other Officers are discharged of their Authorities several Ways. After which the Body is interred in the Cathedral Church, among the rest of the Kings of Poland, who for the most part lie all buried there. I should have remembered that the Mytered Clergy generally march about the Corpse.  

Day of Corenation and by whom performed.  The Day after the Funeral is assigned for the Coronation, the Ceremony whereof is to be performed by the Archbishop of Gnesna, as Primate of the Kingdom, altho' that Office was once 
* Herbert. Tit. Cardinalatus p. 63.  disputed with him by S●igneius Olesnicius, as being both Bishop of Cracow, and Cardinal at the same time; yet nevertheless Casimir IV. decided that Difference in Favour of the Archbishop, and which was afterwards confirmed by Alexander. 
† Heidenstein lib. 2. Rerum Polon. p. 95.  Notwithstanding if the Primate be either dead or refractory, that Right devolves to the Bishop of Cracow, and upon his Obstinacy, Absence, or Death, to the Bishop of Cujavia. The two Bishops that assist at the Coronation are the Bishops of Cracow and Cujavia.  

Procession in order to Coronation.  The Ceremony of the Procession, when the King goes to be crowned, is ordered by the Master of the Ceremonies; but before his Majesty stirs out, he is habited after a very splendid Manner, by the Great Marshal of the Kingdom. The King is conducted from the Castle to the Cathedral, by the Senators, foreign Ambassadors, and a great Number of the Gentry.  

Ceremony at the Coronation.  Before he enters the Church, the Great Master of the Horse brings the Crown, Sceptre, and naked Sword to the Archbishop, who places them all upon the Altar. After which the Bishops of Cracow and Cujavia having received the King, they hold him under each Arm, and present him to the Archbishop, to whom he makes a Bow.  

Further Particulars of the Ceremony of Coronation.  I imagine a more particular Account of this Ceremony may neither be unacceptable to your Lordship, nor the Public, and therefore I shall for the future describe all the most remarkable Circumstances thereof, as it was practised in the last Election, with as much Brevity and Succinctness as possible, and which are as follow.  

King exhorted and sworn.  After the King has thus been conducted into the Church, the Ceremony forthwith begins. First the Archbishop in a short Oration exhorts the King to continue steadfast in the Roman Communion, to exercise all Regal and Princely Virtues, and lastly, to remunerate his Obligations to the Republic, by a just and inviolable Administration of the Government: After which the Archbishop asks him to this Effect in Latin; Will you support and maintain the Holy Catholic Faith, and uphold it by good Works? To which the King answers, I will. Then the Archbishop asks him again, Will you protect and defend the Churches and their Ministers. Answer. I will. Then the Archbishop again, Will you govern and rule the Kingdom committed by God to your Charge, according to Equity and Justice? Answer. I will. Then the King-elect kneeling, and kissing the Archbishop's Hand, and laying his own upon the Evangelists, sworn to perform all that he had before sworn to observe at St. John's Church at Warsaw, with some other Particulars that induce me to repeat the Form, which runs thus.  

His Coronation Oath.  We Frederic Augustus, duly elected King of Poland, Great Duke of Lithuania, and Duke of Russia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Kiovia, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlachia, Livonia, Smolensko, Severia, and Czernicovia; by all the Orders of both States of Poland and Lithuania, and by all the Provinces incorporated and depending thereupon, do sincerely promise and swear before Almighty God, and upon the Evangelists of Jesus Christ, to maintain, observe, keep, and fulfil in every of the Circumstances, Particulars, and Articles; all the Rights, Liberties, Immunities, and Privileges, both public and private (excepting such as are contrary to the common Rights and Liberties of both these Nations, or to any Law, either ecclesiastical or civil) that have been justly and lawfully established by our Predecessors the Kings of Poland, Great Dukes of Lithuania, and Dukes, etc. Or which have been granted by all the Orders during the Interregnum, to the Catholic Churches, Lords, Barons, Gentry, Citizens, and Inhabitans, of what Rank or Condition soever, together with the Pacta Conventa, agreed upon between our Ambassadors and the Orders of the Kingdom of Poland, and Great Duchy of Lithuania. We do moreover promise to maintain and acquiesce in whatever has been enacted or established in the Diet of our Election, as we do likewise to what shall be agreed upon in that of our Coronation: Also that we will restore both to the Kingdom and Great Duchy, whatever has or shall be aliened and dismembered from their Lands or Revenues. Moreover, we promise not to lessen the Bounds of either the Kingdom or Great Duchy, but rather to defend and enlarge them: We swear likewise to establish Courts of Justice throughout the Kingdom and Great Duchy, and to see that Justice be rendered every where without Intermission or Delay, without any Regard to, or Favour of, Persons or Things. And lastly, we consent that if it should happen (which God forbid) that we should in any wise violate this our Oath, or any Part thereof, that the Inhabitants of the Kingdom, and all our Dominions shall be totally discharged and exempt from paying us Obedience and Fidelity.  

Words at kissing the Book.  This Form or Oath having been distinctly repeated by the King after the Chancellor, and before the Archbishop, his Majesty takes the Testament in his Hand, and Kissing it, uses these Words: So may God help me, and the Contents of this Book inspire me, as I perform inviolably this sacred Oath.  

Unction with other Ceremonies.  After the King has been thus sworn, he rises and hears the Pacta Conventa read, and confirms the Oath which he had taken concerning them. Then he Knelt again, and receives the Benediction of the Archbishop and other Bishops; after which he rises and has the upper Part of his clothes taken off, when the Archbishop Anoints his right Hand and Arm, up to his Elbow and Shoulder, with consecrated Oil with these Words: I anoint thee King with consecrated Oil, in the Name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; Amen. And then he has his clothes put on again. Afterwards the two Bishops lead him to a Chapel, on the left Side of the Church, where they Habit him anew, somewhat like a Bishop: After which he has other Ornaments put on by the two Marshals of the Kingdom and Great Duchy, and then he is conveyed by the Senator-Officers, the Standard-bearer of the Kingdom walking before, to the Throne raised for him in the Middle of the Church, whence, after having heard Mass, he is brought back to the Altar, where the Archbishop delivers a drawn Sword into his Right Hand with these Word, Receive this Sword, and cordially protect and defend the Holy Church against all unbelievers. Then the King delivers the Sword to the Great Swordbearer of the Kingdom, who having put it up in its Scabbard, returns it to the Archbishop, who then girds it to the King's Side, whereupon the King immediately rises, and drawing it again, Flourishes it three Times over his Head, to signify that he will defend the Trinity and Church against all Unbelievers.  

Manner of Crowning him.  This being done, the King knelt again, and the Archbishop puts the Crown, after a very solemn Manner, on his Head, which the two Bishops bear up with their Hands till the Archbishop has said certain Prayers: After which the Archbishop puts the Sceptre into the King's Right Hand, and the Globe into his Left, when the King rising, his Sword is given again to the Swordbearer of the Kingdom to bear before him.  

Is Enthroned,  After this his Majesty is brought back between the Archbishop and the two Bishops, to the Throne, wherein he is forthwith placed by the Archbishop with these Words; Sat and maintain the Place given you by God, etc. The King being thus seated, the Archbishop and Bishops return to the Altar, where they sing Te Deum, which being ended, and the Archbishop sit down by the Altar, the King comes and Offers him Gold, Kisses his Hand, and having made his Confession to him, receives the Sacrament and Benediction from him.  

And prenounced King.  Thus the Ceremonies being at an end, the Archbishop riseth and gives his Benediction to all present; when the Court-Marshal, with a loud Voice cries out, Vivat Rex, Vivat Rex: Which Signal being taken from him by the People, all the Church soon rings with the same joyful Notes; after which the Great Treasurer scatters a great Number of Coronation-Medals among the People, and the Guns begin to roar out their Satisfaction in what had been done, when the King forthwith returns to his Court with great Pomp and Magnificence.  

Feasts thereupon▪  The Coronation being thus completed, the rest of the Day is spent in various Kind's of Feasts and rejoicings, among which there is one very particular in the King's Court, where they roast three whole Oxen stuffed and larded with divers Kind's of fattened Wild Beasts, when they also give a great many Hogsheads of Wine and Beer to the People.  

Procession to receive Homage; and Citizens Knighted.  Next Day the King goes on Horseback, richly attired and in great Pomp, to the Town-House, some of the Senators carrying the Regalia before him: The Order of March is, the Bishops behind, and the Lay- Senators before, and then the other Officers, Nuncios, etc. before them. While he is in Procession, the Great Treasurer of the Kingdom scatters among the People a great Number both of Gold and Silver Medals more, from the Castle to the Town-House: Here he is habited anew with his Royal Robes, and seated in a splendid Throne erected on purpose, when the Senate sitting in an inferior Degree on each Hand of him, the Magistrates of the City come to pay him their Homage, and to assure him of their Fidelity and Loyalty, presenting him again with the Keys of every of their Gates gilded and laid in a Silver Plate: Which done, the Chancellor assures them of the King's Favour, and then reads aloud the Oath of Fealty to them, which they then take on their Knees, holding up their Hands all the while. Having thus sworn, the Magistrates Present him with a Purse of Gold, and then receive their Keys back. After which the King having delivered the Sceptre and Globe to some of the Senators standing about him, he receives a naked Sword from the Great Sword-bearer, which rising up and flourishing over his Head towards the four Quarters of the World, he sits down again, and by a light Struck of the Blade on the Shoulders of some of the Burghers, creates them Knights. This done, the Great Treasurer, in the King's Return back to the Castle, scatters some more Medals among the People, whilst the Canons proclaim their Joy, and if it be Night, as generally it is by that Time all these Ceremonies are over, the Fireworks are lighted, and various Proofs of Satisfaction are every where both to be seen and heard.  

Inter-Rex resigns and King Proclaimed.  The King being thus established in the Throne, the Diet of the Coronation sits, where first the Primate lays down his Authority of Inter-Rex, and then every individual Member of the Senate and Diet takes an Oath of Allegiance and Supremacy to the King. after which his Majesty is invested with the Plenary Regal Authority; he gives new Seals to the Chancellors, and the Marshals bear their Staffs erected before him: then he issues out his Royal Proclamation, commanding all Magistrates, and all other Officers of the Kingdom, Great Duchy, and annexed Provinces, to cause his Coronation, and Confirmation of the People's Liberties and Privileges, to be proclaimed on the first public Days in every City and Town, and afterwards to be registered in their Journals. Also by the same Proclamation he gives Liberty to all the Courts of Justice, to proceed after their usual Manner; and then confirms a● the Acts and Constitutions which have passed in the Diet during the Inter-regnum.  

Queen's where Crowned and where not.  As to what relates to a Queen of Poland's Coronation, we must first observe that she cannot be Crowned unless she be a Roman Catholic, an Instance whereof we may see in Helena Wife to King Alexander, who being of the Greek Persuasion, and not caring to reform, was not Crowned. Also we may read in History, that Queens have either been Crowned with their Husbands or without; with their Husbands, when they were either married to them before or at the Time of their Coronation; and without, when they were married afterwards with Consent of the Diet; for it has always been thought so very necessary to have their Consent, that it is inserted among the Articles of the Pacta Conventa. Likewise the King cannot be Divorced from his Queen without the Approbation of the Diet; Neither can he crown her if she be married to him after his Coronation, without their Consent; but if she were married before, he may.  

Place of their Coronation,  The Place of the Queen's Coronation is generally Cracow, although there have been some Examples to the contrary; for Vladislaus VII. caused his Queen, Cecilia Renata, to be Crowned at Warsaw; and King Michael, his Queen Eleonora, in the same City; but however this last was with Leave of the Diet, tho' at the same time they forbade it to go for a Precedent for the future. What has been said about a Queen's not being to be crowned if a Dowager survived, is not so, as may appear by several Examples.  

And what required to confirm it.  As for the Manner of a Queen's Coronation alone, it must be with the King's Consent; he must request it of the Republic; he must be present at the Ceremony; he must lead his Queen into the Church, and he must present her to the Archbishop or other Bishop, who is to Crown her, Anoint her with consecrated Oil, and to put a Sceptre into her Right Hand, and Globe into her Left. The King likewise is to carry his Queen to the Townhouse, but she is to receive no Homage there.  
Having thus, My Lord, amassed the several Particulars intended for Your Lordship's Perusal, I have nothing left to do but humbly to acknowledge my Presumption, and to have Recourse to your Candour and Goodness for Pardon and Protection.  
I am, My LORD, Your Lordship's most humble and most devoted Servant, J. S.   

LETTER V.  
To the most Honourable JOHN, Lord Marquess of Normanby.  
Of the Power of the Gentry, and Slavery of the Commonalty in Poland; with an Account of the Customs and Manners of the People of that Kingdom; as likewise of some peculiarly relating to particular Countries.  
My LORD,  
TO approach so great a Person as your Lordship on so trifling an Account as the Subject of this Letter, I was conscious to myself, was no way suitable. On one Hand your known Abilities might reasonably deter my Presumption, and on the other, your elate Quality check my Ambition: Yet, considering at the same time, that sometimes the greatest Genius's and Persons have stooped to be entertained with the Follies and Transactions of the Crowd, I hoped, among the rest, I might not offend if I addressed this Letter to you; and the rather because it was first designed for the Entertainment of your Lordship's Leisure Hours.  
My LORD,  

Gentry only capable of Preferment.  The Third Order of the Republic of Poland, is that of the Nobility; out of which all the Senators, and all other Officers, as well Civil as Military, are taken; for no Body else that is not a Polish Gentleman, tho' he be never so Noble in his own Country, can be capable of any Preferment here, unless it be some inconsiderable Posts in the Army, the highest whereof is a Colonel, or at most a Major-General, which is much the same with a Brigadeer in our Army. So that there is little or no Encouragement for Persons of foreign Countries, of what Merit or Degree soever, to go to serve this Republic, which proves no small Inconvenience and Prejudice to their State.  

Commonalty Incapable except some few.  As for the Citizens and Peasants, they are excluded from all Preferments, and can have no Possessions unless they be a few Houses in a City, or a small Piece of Land about a League off in the Country. But here the Citizens in Prussia are excepted, for they may possess Lands of what Extent soever, out of their Cities. Also the Inhabitants of Cracow may purchase and enjoy Lands in any Part of the Kingdom. Likewise the Magistrates of Vilna have a Power to possess Lands, and the City of Leopol in like manner has a Privilege for its private Citizens to hold Lands.  

Gentries Power and Privileges.  A Nobleman, Gentleman, or one that is freeborn of the Kingdom of Poland, are the same thing. Every Gentleman has his Coat of Arms granted him by the Republic but then; either he or some of his Family must have Possessions in Lands there. He can pretend to all the greatest Employments and Offices in the Kingdom, and buy Lands where he pleases all over the Dominions of Poland and Lithuania: He has moreover a Right to the Crown, if his Credit and Interest can procure it. Every Gentleman is a Sovereign Lord and Master in his own Lands, for he has the Power of Life and Death over his Tenants, or (as the Poles term them) his Subjects, tho' I may better call them his Slaves, for they have neither Privilege nor Law to protect them, but are to be governed absolutely by the Will and Pleasure of their Lord. They dare not leave his Lands to go to another's, under Pain of Death, unless he sells them to his Neighbour, as he has the Power to do, or has violated or ravished their Wives or Daughters; insomuch that I have heard that some have wished to have had a fine Wife or Daughter, that their Lord might thereby have given them Occasion to get rid of him.  

Cannot be Apprehended till convicted.  If a Gentleman kills another Gentleman's Slave, he is neither to be tried nor punished for it, and is only obliged to give that Gentleman another Slave in the Room of him, or as much Money as will buy one: And besides, to maintain the Family of the Person that he has killed: likewise if he kills one of his own Slaves, he only pays a matter of fifty Livres to be quit. Nay, if one Gentleman kills another, he cannot be apprehended nor clapped into Prison for his Crime Nisi Jure Victus, unless a Court of Justice has first convicted him, which commonly gives him Time enough to escape, for he must first be cited to appear, and upon his Neglect he is declared contumacious, and consequently convicted: But it may very well be supposed, that he who knows himself guilty, will not run the Hazard of Appearing, nor venture the losing of his Head. This Honour the Poles likewise bestow on the common People, Hanging being not the usual Way of Execution in their Country.  

Exception.  However, Hartknoch has these Exceptions from this Privilege; for (says he) if a Nobleman be taken in the very Act of Ravishing, Burning of Houses, Theft, Robbery, or the like, he may be apprehended by the Laws: Likewise if he will not give sufficient Caution, according to the Quality of his Offence; or lastly, if he be found in the Register to have been thrice convicted before.  
Notwithstanding this Privilege of the Nobility (says Hauteville) I have known one Instance to the contrary, for those who assassinated Gonczenski, Petty General of Lithuania, were seized without any Formality, and carried Prisoners to Elbing, and were afterwards condemned to be beheaded at the general Diet at Warsaw, in the Year 1664. but then this Crime of theirs was so notorious, that the Nobility might well have waved their Privilege; for these Villains took that Gentleman out of his Bed at Vilna, and putting him into a Coach with a Confessor, carried him out of the City, where they scarce allowed him Time to say his Prayers before they shot him dead with Pistols.  

Cannot be Executed without the King's Consent.  A Polish Nobleman, tho' he be proscribed and cited, and found guilty, cannot be executed without the King's Knowledge and Consent, as may appear by the Case of Samuel Zborowski, who tho' he had been proscribed and condemned by the Great Chancellor and General of the Army Zamoiski, yet would he not presume to Behead him till he had known King Stephen's Pleasure therein.  

Need not Quarter Soldiers.  The Polish Gentry also have another Privilege which is, that no Soldiers or Officers of the Army can be Quartered upon them, for if any one should presume to attempt such a thing, the Diet would either condemn him to Death, or pronounce him infamous, whereby he would be deprived of the Power of giving his Vote in all Assemblies, and moreover be rendered incapable of enjoying any Office or Employment in the State, and this is as being degraded from his Nobility; whereupon I may take notice of a Passage that happened at the Diet of Election of John III. and which did not a little contribute towards his being chosen. The Palatin of Smolensko's Son went and quartered at the House of Wiesnowiski, without his Leave (as was reported) by Order of the Grand General Patz, which occasioned the Marshals, who are Judges in these Cases, two Days before the breaking up of the Diet, to deprive this Palatin of his Vote in the Election, whereby Sobieski was freed from a declared Enemy, and the Austrian Faction lost a professed Friend.  

Other Privileges of the Gentry.  The King likewise cannot now lodge in any Nobleman's House against his Will, as he could before the Year 1433. Also wherever any Foreigner dies without Heirs, his Estate Escheats to the Lord of those Lands where he died, and not to the King. And where any Polish Gentleman dies without Heirs, the King cannot seize upon his Estate by Right of Escheat, if he have a Relation left of the eighth Degree inclusively. The Gentry also may have Houses in the King's Cities and Towns, but then they must not let such Trades inhabit them, as may prove obnoxious, or a Nuisance to the Citizens; and likewise these Houses ought to be subject to the Jurisdiction of the City, but which however is seldom or never observed. The House of a Nobleman moreover is a Kind of Asylum, for tho' Delinquents may be arrested there with his Consent, yet cannot they be taken thence by Force.  

Need not pay Taxes unless obliged by the Diet.  Not less are a Nobleman's Privileges as to Customs and Taxes, for if he will swear his Goods were not bought, but arising from his Lands, he may send them any where out of the Kingdom to be sold without paying Duties; and where he has once so sworn, his Testimonials alone for the future will suffice to exempt them. Also his Subjects will have the same Privilege wherever they trade. In Prussia the Nobles are not only free from Customs, but likewise all the other Inhabitants by the Magna Charta of Culm. But although the Polish Nobility are thus said to be free from Taxes, yet upon emergent Occasions and Exigencies, the Diet usually obliges them to pay them for a certain Time.  

Privilege of Preemption.  The Nobility also have a Privilege of Preemption of Salt; for in the Staples for that Commodity, there must be at least a Month's Notice before any can be sold to any body else.  

Have one Grievance notwithstanding.  After all these Privileges, the Polish Nobility have one very great Grievance, which is that they are obliged to serve in the Pospolite Ruszanie, or General Muster of the Militia, at their own Charges.  

How they came by these Privileges.  How the Polish Gentry came by all these Privileges, it may not be here improper to inquire, since it is certain that formerly they were not much better than Slaves: For to pass by many other Examples, Cromerus says, they were once obliged to keep the King's Dogs. The first Glimpse of their Liberty may reasonably be ascribed to the Privileges granted the Clergy by Boleslaus the chaste; but afterwards when Poland began to be harassed by Civil Wars, the Gentry obtained many larger Privileges from their Kings, and which they have since always taken Care to get augmented at every new Election.  

All equal and consesequently value no Honour.  All the Gentry of Poland are equal by Birth, notwithstanding some of the meaner Sort send their Children to serve the Great Men as other Servants, and this principally to learn Breeding and to be kept in Awe; yet may that very same Servant have as good a Vote in the Diet as his Master. They neither value nor care for Titles of Honour, for they think the greatest they can have, is to be a Noble Pole, or Gentleman of Poland. Neither the King nor Republic gives any Title of Prince, Duke, Marquess, Count, Viscount, Baron, or Knight, to any of the freeborn of the Nation, thinking (I suppose) that none can be any ways raised above another by a bare exterior Denomination, which argues more the Favour of the Prince, than Merit of the Person preferred, but rather by their Services in the Offices and Employments which they enjoy.  

Title of Prince despised.  There are no Princes of the Kingdom, but those which are of the Royal Family, for although some of the Poles have been made Princes of the Empire by the Emperor, as Prince Lubomirski, etc. Yet it gives them no Precedence in Poland, but rather renders them odious and despised by the rest of the Gentry, who cannot endure that any should pretend to any Superiority among them, especially by a Title which is not annexed to some Employment in the Nation.  

An Order Instituted but undervalued.  King Sigismond III. thought of establishing an Order of Knighthood of the Immaculate Conception in Poland; and had effectually created several Knights thereof, allowing them certain Privileges, and a Superiority above others; but these were so despised and undervalued by the rest of the Gentry, that scarce any one afterwards cared for that upstart Honour; whereupon that Order soon dwindled into nothing. The Poles have a Proverb to prove their Equality which is, That they are measured like a Bushel of Corn, that is, whenever any one pretends to rise but a Grain above the Level, he is immediately struck off and ridiculed.  

What Dutchies in Poland.  There are some Gentlemen in Poland, that have had Dutchies time out of mind annexed to their Estates, as Duke Radzivil in Lithuania, etc. But there are no Dutchies or Counties created by the King.  

Polish Gentry assume Titles when they Travel.  Tho the Poles in their own Country have no Honorary Titles above a Gentleman, yet several have been known to have usurped them when they have travelled into France, Italy, and Germany, for they there frequently assume those of Counts to themselves, in like manner as the Germans in foreign Countries do those of Barons, for nothing is more common than Monsieur le Conte Malakowski, Il Signior Conde Potoski, Mynheer Graff Jablonowski, etc. And this they do to be the more easily admitted into Company, especially in Germany, where 'tis scarce thought that any body can be a Gentleman under a Baron, and consequently not fit for Conversation. Dr. Connor likewise says, he has known some of our English Gentry in these Countries that have not scrupuled to call themselves Lords to procure them the greater Respect, since they saw that the Title of Gentleman alone was not regarded there.  

Farther Power of Polish Gentry.  The Gentry of Poland make and defend their own Laws and Liberties, elect their King with all manner of Freedom, give him the Crown and Sceptre, appoint Ministers to counsel and instruct him, and their Number far exceeding that of the Senate, they easily keep the King and Senators in their Duty, and threaten both very often, especially in the Diet, where each Member has a Liberty to speak what he thinks, and to think what he pleases. 'Tis they that despute the Nuncios, out of themselves, for every Province, to meet and sit in the General Diet, with full Instructions, and absolute Power not to consent to any Proceedings which should in the least entrench on their Privileges, or if such Deputies should happen to be bribed to act contrary to their Instructions, then have the Gentry of the Province whence they were sent, a free Authority to punish them for so doing.  

What makes them so Great.  Not only these excessive Privileges make the Polish Gentry Powerful and Great, but likewise the vast Territories which a great Number of them enjoy with a Despotic Power over their Subjects, for some possess Five, some Ten, some Fifteen, some Twenty, nay some Thirty Leagues of Land out right, whereon they have always their several Pod-Starostas or Gentlemen-Stewards residing, who are to take Account of their Revenues, to sell some things, and to send the rest to their Master's Houses, to defray the Exigencies of the Family. Some also are Hereditary Sovereigns of Cities which the King has nothing to do with, and one of the Princes, Lubomirski, possesses above Four Thousand Cities, Towns, and Villages. Moreover, some can raise an Army of Five, Six, Eight, and Ten Thousand Men, and maintain them at their own Charges when they have done. Dr. Connor says, Prince Lubomirski had actually Seven Thousand Horse, Foot, and Dragoons in Pay when he was in Poland.  

Their Excessive Grandeur and Magnificence.  All the Gentry of Note live most splendidly: They have all their Horse and Foot Guards, which keep Sentry Night and Day at the Gates of their Houses (they call them Courts) and in their Antichambers. These Guards go before and after their Master's Coaches in the Streets: But above all, these Noblemen make an extraordinary Figure at the General Diets, where some have Three Hundred, some Five, and some a Thousand Guards always attending them. Nay, Hauteville says, that formerly some Great Persons have been known to come to the Diet with above Ten Thousand Men. They esteem themselves not only equal, but also above the Princes of Germany, especially such among them as are Senators. 'Tis certain, they want nothing to be as so many Sovereign Princes, except the Liberty of coining Money, which the Republic has reserved wholly to itself. The Doctor says, he has no where seen Subjects live with such excessive Grandeur and Splendour; for these Great Men, when they go to Dinner or Supper, have always their Trumpets sounding, and a great Number of Gentry to wait on them at Table, some whereof carve, some give to drink, others reach Plates, and all serve with extraordinary Respect and Submission; for though all the Gentry in Poland are equal, and have all their free Votes in the Diet, yet the Little and Poorer Sort think it no Disgrace to serve them that can maintain them. 'Tis true, the Gentleman they serve is commonly very civil to them, for the eldest of them generally eats with him at Table with his Cap off, and every one of them has a Peasant-Boy to wait on him, which the Master maintains; yet if any one of these Gentlemen-Servants neglects his Duty, his Master punishes him severely, tho' he has no Power to take away his Life because he is a Gentleman, but he may get him whipped naked with a certain Formality which I have mentioned before.  

Means to support for ever the Polish Republic.  It may not be here amiss to observe to your Lordship some few Maxims whereby the Republic of Poland might always subsist, and the Gentry retain their ancient Privileges. First, By reducing all the Gentry of the Kingdom to an equal Authority in the Election of a King, and other public Deliberations, by which the King or Senate would be deprived of a Power of raising any considerable Factions; and the Grandees be discouraged from affecting and hunting after Foreign Titles which commonly ensnare them to the Prejudice of their Country. Secondly, By keeping up the free Choice of their Nuncios, which would disable the Court and Senate from getting their Creatures elected, to the utter abrogating of the Privileges of the Gentry, wherein the Poles now follows the prudent Example of the Roman Commonwealth. Thirdly, By preserving the Custom of the Gentry's appearing in great Numbers at the Diet, which animates both the Senate and Deputies in the Prosecution of Affairs for the Good of the Kingdom, and deters them from being biased by any sinister Means. Fourthly, By obliging both Senators and Deputies to give an Account of their Proceedings, which must needs incline them to act with a great deal of Precaution. Fifthly, By prohibiting the Army to come near the great Assembly of the States, for Rome never enjoyed so great Happiness as when the Gown had Preference of the Sword. Sixthly, To maintain the Law of Equality in Matters of Descent, whereby the Gentry would be kept at an even Lay, and hindered from disturbing the Government by too great a Power. Seventhly, Never to prefer any Native to the Crown, because of the great Disorders it might in all Likelihood occasion. Eighthly, To maintaim the Authority of their Democracy established for so many Ages, by the Prudence of their Ancestors, and all along continued with no small Hazards and Trouble. And Ninthly, Never to permit any Foreign Princes to intermeddle with their Affairs.  

What foreign Ambassadors are obliged to.  There is no Country where Ambassadors are obliged to make so great a Figure as in Poland, especially if they have any Interest of the Prince their Master to maintain or carry on in the Diet or among the Gentry; for the Great Men there generally despise all such as either do not or cannot make the same Figure with themselves, which is so excessive, that an Ambassador must have three remarkable Qualities to keep up with it. For first, he must have a great Train of Coaches and Servants proportionable; next keep a plentiful and open House continually, to Treat and Fuddle the Gentry, and where he must be very humble and familiar with them, they being generally very civil and easy in their Conversation: And lastly, which is the surest way to gain their Affection and Suffrages, he must give 'em ever now and then a little Money, and he still promising them more, for Reasons I have mentioned before.  

Law Differences decided by the Sword.  When the Great Men of Poland have any Suit at Law, or other Difference to be determined, the Justice of the Kingdom is commonly too weak for them; for tho' the Diet or other Tribunals had decided the Matter in Favour of one of the two Parties, yet the Execution of their Judgement must be left to the Power of the strongest Sword; for these Grandees generally think it beneath them to submit to the Sentence of a Company of Judges without a Field-Battle. Sometimes they will raise five or six Thousand of a Side, plunder and burn one another's Towns and Cities, and besiege each others Castles and Forts, and after a great deal of Bloodshed, Fatigue, and Expense, the unjuster 'Cause shall commonly get the upper Hand.  

An Example.  Dr. Connor says, When he was in Poland, there was a Quarrel between Duke Raazivil and Prince Sapieha, about whether of the two should be Guardian to the young Princess of Newbourg, Niece to the present Empress, for her Mother was Duchess Radzivil of Lithuania, and Heiress of the greatest Estate in the Kingdom. Both Parties had their Troops in the Field, and had some Skirmishes, but it was thought that Prince Sapieha, being Great General of the Forces of Lithuania, would get the better, tho' it seems Duke Radzivil, as being her Mother's Relation, had more Right to the Guardianship of her. All this while the King never concerned himself in the Quarrel, nor declared for either Party.  

Nature of Descents in Poland.  As to Matters of Descent, The Father's Estate is always equally divided among his Children, in like manner as in Italy, Germany, and most Foreign Countries, but when the Father is dead, the Mother can enjoy all his Estate for Life, and it is absolutely in her Breast to allot every one of the Children their Quota, or to keep all the Estate to her own Use during her Life. Some Mothers Mary after the Husband's Deaths, and so spend their first children's Fortunes with their second Husbands. This makes the Children more than ordinary obedient to their Mothers, especially during their Widowhood.  

Children however support their Families.  Although Estates in Poland are equally divided among the Children, which one would think should absolutely weaken or ruin their Families, yet do they generally find Means to support and keep them up; for most commonly some of the Brothers turn Monks, and so get to be made Abbots or Bishops, whose Revenues are here sufficient to enrich any Family; and the rest look after State-Employments, which are likewise considerable. Some of the Daughters also many times become Nuns, so that being in the Church Service, they are obliged to live in Celibacy, and consequently leaving no Heirs, all their Goods or Estates fall to their Married Brothers or Sisters, or to their Children. In this Country the Daughters always walk before their Mothers, as in Italy, and the unmarried Sisters before the married.  

Good Temper of the Poles and its Effect.  I cannot but admire at the honest and good Temper of the Polish Gentry; for tho' their Liberty is extraordinary; tho' they have Power of Life and Death over their Subjects; tho' they are in a manner above their own Laws, and tho' Justice is administered in Poland more slightly than in any other Country, yet Dr. Connor says, that all the while that he was in that Kingdom, he neither saw nor heard of any Murder or Slaughter, or of any Barbarity or Cruelty committed by the Gentry on their Subjects; nor, what is a greater Wonder, of any Highway Robbers, but always observed the Poles in general to be good humoured, harmless, and generous: When it is certain, had we in England but the third Part of their Liberty, we could not live together without cutting one another's Throats, since Experience daily shows, that notwithstanding the great Vigilancy of our Officers, the Severity of our Laws, the just Rigour of our Judges and Magistrates, and the punctual Execution of their Sentences and Judgements, the Gallows and Gibbets are more frequently visited here, than even the Prisons are in Poland.  

How Occasioned.  I fancy the Reason that the Poles are so quiet and good natured is, because being born free, and living in an excessive Liberty, under no Laws nor Arbitrary Power, there is nothing before them that can constrain their Minds, bridle their Passions, or curb their Thoughts; but as there is nothing that can entice them to do ill, so nothing likewise can hinder them from doing it.  

Polish Peasants how first Enslaved.  Dr. Connor says, He has asked some Polish Noblemen, why they so inhumanely treated and undervalued their Boors: They answered, That formerly all the Boors of the Kingdom revolted from their Landlords, rebelled against them, (as the Swissers did against their Gentry) and conspired together to extirpate and destroy them all; that they Murdered and killed a vast number of Gentlemen; and that the rest were obliged either to hide themselves, or to leave the Kingdom. But that at length the Gentry getting together from all Parts; and being moreover Assisted by their Neighbours, they so frighted and defeated the poor Peasants, who had made a general Insurrection against them, to set up a Commonwealth of their own, that they brought them to such Extremities, that ever since they have been contented to be kept Slaves. Yet the Poles say, that though they have an Absolute Power over them, they seldom make use of it any more than other Christians do over their Dogs or Horses. Strange Comparison! As if they spared the poor People's Lives rather out of Self-interest, than Charity; and by reason that they thought they would be more serviceable to them Living than Dead; not unlike some Kings, who give Malefactors their Lives, only to prefer them to their Galleys.  

Live satisfied notwithstanding.  Notwithstanding the Peasants in Poland being born Slaves, and having no manner of Notion of Liberty, live very well satisfied and contented. In Curland they are as subject to their Landlords as in Poland; and in both Countries, Masters are almost paid Adoration. Their Slaves love them, and Fight willingly for them; and all they have is absolutely at their Devotion. Nay, though they Debauch their Wives and Daughters, yet they only care to obtain their Liberty by it; and this is so common a thing among these poor Wretches, that they never value their Women the less for it, nor think themselves a whit either injured or dishonoured by it.  

Their present Condition.  The Condition of the Kmetons (as the Poles call them) or Boors, or Rustics, at this Day in Poland is such, that they lead miserable and wretched Lives, haviug no Laws, no Judges, and scarce any Religion among them; but like Brutes, they are forced to Work on Sundays, and dare not so much as Appeal to the King or Diet for Redress. However, in Royal Prussia their Condition is something better; for there they enjoy almost the same Laws and Liberties with the Gentry. Formerly Casimir the Great made several Laws in their behalf; but which at this day are seldom or never practised. All Bishops, Abbots, Palatins, Castellans, etc. are obliged to be of the Nobless, except a certain Number assigned by King John Albert out of the Plebeians, to be capable of being inferior Divines, Lawyers or Physicians only. An Exception from this Law may be seen in the Person of Peter Gamratus, who from a Plebeian was preferred by Sigismond, to several both Ecclesiastical and Temporal Dignities: But in Prussia, as I have remarked before, the Customs are much more indulgent to the Common People.  

every their Lords.  As I have hinted before to your Lordship, a Gentleman's Revenue in Poland partly consists in his Slaves; for he cannot well be esteemed Rich, unless he has a great Number of these poor Creatures under his Power; whereof there is scarce any but earn their Lords a 100 Franks a year. It may not be improper therefore, to observe here the Manners and Customs of these poor Wretches; And it may first be remarked, That these Slaves can enjoy nothing of their own, nor ever become Free, unless they can get into some Convent, or get to be Ordained Priests, or else incline their Masters to Debauch their Wives or Daughters, whereby the Law sets them Free: But most commonly their Lords have a watchful Eye over them, and obviate all their Policies.  

How established in a Farm.  These Lords never Let their Lands to Farm; but to establish a Peasant on them, they forthwith order the other Peasants of the Village at their own Charges, to Build him a House, Furnish him with a Cow, Hens, Geese, and a quantity of Rye sufficient to keep him a Year: so that a Lord of a Village is at no other Charge to set up a Slave on his Lands, than he first Cost him.  

Their Service annexed thereto.  These poor Slaves, or Subjects as they call them, most commonly work three Days in a Week for their Lords, to one for themselves, and sometimes four. Dr. Connor says, in his time a Countryman had a mind to forward his Son in Learning, and would have sent him to the University; but which the Signior would by no means condescend to, and put the Son in Prison for refusing to be his Secretary, till at last the Father was forced to purchase his Liberty at the Expense of 400 Crowns which he had Borrowed. When a Lord sells his Land, the Slaves commonly go along with it, though he can dispose of either separately, if he pleases.  

Meet to reap their Lords Corn.  At the time of Harvest all the Peasants of the Village meet together to Reap their Lord's Corn, who are supervised, and forced to Work by very rigid Taskmasters. Their Punishments are sometimes several Blows of a Cudgel, and sometimes a kind of Pillory, wherein those Wretches shall be sometimes set for a whole Day together. I should think now, these poor Wretches the most miserable Creatures Breathing; but they on the contrary, never having known any better Condition; and having seen their Father's Slaves before them, are well satisfied and contented with their Servitude. But however, they have this Happiness, that they seldom want for Victuals and Drink; for their Wife's chiefest Employment is to provide them with that.  

Their Manners at Bed and Board.  They have generally three or four sorts at a Meal, viz. One of Pease, with a little Bacon sliced among it. Another of Course Wheat, Barley, or Millet, whereof they make their Cachat; and two others of several sorts of strengthening Roots; whereof they have great Plenty, and very good. The Movables of these Peasant's Cottages are only a few Earthen or Wooden Dishes, and a hard Bed, which they make themselves, with a very wretched Coverlet. Their Children are not suffered to have a Bed till they are Married; but are forced to lie upon Board's by the Hearth side. These sort of Hearths have no Chimneys; and the Smoke has only a little Hole to get out at the Top of the House. In Poland it is impossible to subsist a Nights without these Hearths; and therefore not only the Peasants, but Gentry likewise, are obliged to have them; though the last are of different Make and Materials from the former.  

Children how taught to go.  The Peasant's Children, especially in Russia, go Naked till they are four or five years Old. They are not taught to go till they are indifferent Strong, and then their Mother sets them against the Threshold of the Door, where they first begin to Essay their Strength. After they have rolled about till they are sufficiently Dirty, she takes them and washes them in Cold Water, as I observed before; so that this being first considered, it need not be wondered that they afterwards become so exceeding hardy. I have seen some of these Children (says Hauterille) that would slide along upon the Ice for a good way together stark Naked.  

Habits of both the Men and Women.  For the Habits which these Peasants use in Winter, they are a Sheep Skin with the Wool on; and in Summer, a Close-bodyed Coat of Course Stuff, of a Colour much like our Chimneysweepers. They also wear ordinary Caps on their Heads. Sometimes they have Boots for their Legs, but most commonly the Rind of Trees only wrapped round them, with the thicker part to guard the Soles of their Feet against Stones: The same Custom is used in Lithuania, as may be seen hereafter. The Women-Peasants are habited in like manner as in other Countries, except that their Smocks and Petticoats are exceeding Short. Those in Russia go generally in Summer in their Smocks, with an Apron before them that reaches lower than ordinary.  

Nobility how acquired in Poland.  Now I shall proceed to inform your Lordship how Nobility is acquired in Poland, which is first by Birth, where both the Parents were Noble: Nevertheless now a-days, by a long Tract of Custom, not only such are reputed Noble, but likewise those whose Mothers were Plebeians▪ for nothing is at present more practised in Poland than for the Gentry to match with the Commonalty, especially with those that are rich. Secondly, Nobility is acquired by Creation, which formerly was wholly at the King's. Pleasure, but of latter Days is only at the Disposal of the Senate or Diet.  

Creation of a Gentleman.  The Manner of making a Gentleman is this. The King not being sole sufficient for that Purpose, he is obliged to send to all the little Diets of the Kingdom for their Consent, which afterwards also must be approved by the Great Diet, and then a Gentleman may have his Diploma, and be enroled. All this Ceremony, and a great deal more goes to the making of a Gentleman in Poland. A Jew is made a Gentleman, first by becoming a Christian, and then by signalizing himself in the Wars, when he is proposed by the King to the little Diets, and afterwards confirmed by the great one. It may be here observed that 'tis better to be born than created Noble, for these last (called by the Poles Scartabelli) are subject to several Impositions and Inconveniencies which the others are exempt from.  

A third way of becoming Noble.  There is a third way of becoming Noble, which is by serving as Magistrate in some privileged City, particularly in Cracow and Vilna, where the Consuls or Senators are qualified to transmit their Privileges to their Posterity.  

Three ways of forfeiting it.  Also as Nobility is to be gained, so likewise it may be forfeited three Ways: First, by some heinous Crime: For Example, where a Nobleman permits one that is Ignoble to usurp his Coat of Arms. Secondly, by exercising any Trade or Merchandizing, or any sordid Calling in any City or Town; whereby he immediately forfeits his Privileges and Quality. And thirdly, by being a Magistrate in any City not Privileged.  

In what Case restored.  However, tho' Nobility may by these Means be lost and forfeited, yet many have been known to be restored where their Parents had quitted their Quality through Poverty, the Poles justly considering the Force of that Condition, which is able to drive Men to the most Ignoble Actions.  

Character of the Poles.  To give your Lordship a Character of the Poles, I may affirm that they exceed all the Nations of Europe in Vivacity of Spirit, Strength of Body, and living long, which cannot be occasioned by their Climate, because the Swedes, Moscovites, and Germans live all under the same Parallel, and yet enjoy not the like Vigour and Health, and therefore must proceed,  
First, From their Diet, which as to Meat is generally fresh roasted Flesh (for they scarce ever eat any boiled or salt) and Fowl, which increases the volatile and fixed Salts, and thence comes their Vigour and Vivacity.  
Secondly, From their Drink, which is spirituous and strong, being chief Hungarian Wine burnt, or Aniseed Water, both which they guzzle down in great Quantities almost all the Day long. The poorer Sort have a Liquor distilled from Wheat, Oats, or Barley, which the Gentry rectify with Anniseeds or Aromaticks.  
Thirdly, From their living hardily, for they hate Effeminacy, and a poor Country Cottage pleases them as well as a Palace, and they frequently wove Tapestry and Arras, as they travel along upon the Roads.  
Nay, many of them will sleep in Time of Frost and Snow without any Bed or other Conveniency, and the little Children, two Months after they are born, have been seen carried about stark naked.  
Fourthly, from hunting, which is very much in Use among them, and particularly of a wild Beast which they call Zubra, having no cloven Feet. They eat these Animals, which they find only in Lithuania. The Poles are extremely addicted to, and expert in Horsemanship, which might probably occasion the Arms of Lithuania.  
Fifthly, From other Exercises, for the Poles are very much inclined to Dancing, Leaping, Vaulting, Jumping, etc. as likewise exceedingly given to Talking and Conversation, wherein they agree with the French.  
Sixthly, Their Beds, Fasting, and Temperance in Eating, very much contribute towards their living long; for hard Beds knit their Bones, and Temperance refines their Spirits. The Slaves among them have no Beds, and the Masters seldom use any but Quilts, and the like.  
And seventhly, Their Health, Vigour, and Vivacity may reasonably be augmented by their great Freedom and Privileges; for where Slavery hebetates and blunts the Mind, and consequently enervates the Body, Liberty exhilarates the one, and by that means strengthens the other.  

Their Complexion, Constitution, etc.  The Complexion of the Poles is generally inclining to fair, as likewise their Hair to a pale Yellowish Colour. Their Stature is commonly of the middle Sort, tho' a little tending to the tallest. Their Constitutions are generally good, and their Bodies gross, yet the Women of Quality make it their chief Study to make themselves lean and slim: But Painting and Washes to meliorate their Complexions they abhor, neither have they any Occasion for them.  

Manners of the Polish Men.  The Polish Men cut their Hair about their Ears like Monks, as I observed in the first Volume of this History. They raze away all the Hair from their Faces, leaving only one large Whisker. They walk gravely with a Pole-axe in their Hands, and a Sabre by their Sides, which they never put off but when they go to Bed. This Sabre hangs by a Strap of Leather, to which is also fastened a Hankercheif, a Knife and Sheath, and a small Stone set in Silver to whet their Knife upon. They wash their Faces and Necks every Morning in cold-Water, and the Fathers are accustomed to make their Children to wash themselves as soon as they are stirring, even in the sharpest Wether.  

Their further Character.  The Poles are generally open-hearted and honest (as Boterus observes in his Relations) more apt to be deceived than to deceive, and not so easily provoked as appeased. They are likewise for the most part very dutiful to their Magistrates, and courteous and hospitable to Strangers, which last they will not only invite to their Houses and freely converse with, but also endeavour to imitate. I have known some (says Hauteville) that have entertained French Men, Italians, and Germans whom they did not know, merely because they were out of Employment.  

Education and Learning.  From their greenest Years they apply themselves to Letters, yet which generally speaking, seldom extends much beyond a perfect Knowledge of the Latin and their own Language, although they have not however all along wanted for famous Mathematicians, Historians, Orators, Philosophers, and Poets; as likewise for learned Physicians, Lawyers, and Divines; some of which have illustrated both the Church and their Native Country with their Writings. And doubtless the Learned would have been obliged to more of their Nation had not their Works perished for Want of Printing, which Art has been but lately received among them. Your Lordship will find no People with whom you may more generally converse in Latin, and where all Records are written in that Language: The Women also learn Latin in the Nunneries.  

To what generally apply themselves.  The Adult among the Plebeians generally addict themselves, the Men to Trade or Agriculture, and the Women to good Housewifry. The Gentry also apply themselves to serve the Church or State. Yet both Gentry and Commonalty are often given to Travel, and easily imbibe the Idioms of foreign Nations. Their Parts are sprightly and active, yet nevertheless more apt for Imitation than Invention. Formerly the Poles were not much given to Traffic, but now, by the Example of their Neighbours who came to trade among them, they strive to outvie each other in Riches and Covetousness; yet for the most part they love to make a Show, and will appear very splendid upon the least Occasions.  

Worst part of their Character.  For the worst Part of their Character we must observe with Barclay, that they run mad after Liberty, and rather drive than invite their Kings to observe their Laws. They not only hate the Name of Slavery, but likewise abhor a just and hereditary Monarchy. The Gentry claim prerogatives that will scarce give them Leave to be guilty of any Crime, and whenever they happen to acknowledge any such, the Prince has seldom a Power to punish it. They are not only licentious in their Morals and a civil Life, but likewise in Religion and sacred Observances, for without Fear of Ecclesiastical Censures, they will both talk and act as they please against that Function, affirming themselves self-sufficient to be their own Guides in those Matters.  

Genius how inclined.  Their Genius inclines them generally to Arms, tho' they fall far short of their ancient Glory, by reason there are now so few public spirited Persons among them, each having greater Regard to his own private Interest and Gain, than either the Honour or Safety of his Country. Nevertheless not all have been of this Character, for several of latter Days have approved themselves worthy Patriots, and courageous Defenders of the Republic, and for the most part they are still good Soldiers, providing there appears any Money or other Reward to push them on.  

Enured to Hardship.  It is probable they would be almost invincible were they but well Disciplined, for they are so inur'd to Hardship, that they look upon even the Germans to be an Effeminate Sort of People, not fitting to support the Fatigues of War, and the Rigour of Wether. The Polish Army has been known to lie encamped in the Snow, which it did in the Year 1663. for King Casimir set forth from Leopol in the Beginning of September, and did not return from the Frontiers of Moscovy till the Spring of the Year following.  

Greedy of Money.  The Poles are so very greedy of Money, that there is scarce any thing they will refuse to obtain it; but when they have once got it, though they borrow it, they never think of Payment or Restitution; nay, they will laugh at such as demand it of them, bidding them go use the same Means as they did to get it: This one would think should altogether interrupt Commerce and Trade; therefore it would not be here amiss to inform your Lordship how they Lend and Borrow in Poland.  

Manner of Lending and Borrowing.  It must first be observed that Bonds and Obligations are of no Use there, for when the Gentlemen borrow of one another, they mortgage their Lands or Villages, and when they borrow of the Tradesmen or Merchants, they always leave Pledges, and besides pay 14 per Cent. which is allowed by the Laws of the Land. But providing the Sum so borrowed be not paid within a Time prescribed, then is the Creditor at Liberty to dispose of the Pledge without any Account to be given.  

Love to make a Figure.  As I observed before, the Poles love to make a Show, keeping a Multitude of Servants, and great Store of Horses and Arms for that Purpose: But more especially, they affect to go splendidly clothed, yet still rather according to their several Conditions than Qualities. They have formerly delighted much in foreign Modes, and their Soldiers, have been the first Introducers of their Fashions, for Example; when they had Wars with the Moscovites, according to the Mode of that Country, they wore large long Gowns, lined throughout with rich Furs, as likewise very broad-brimed and high-crowned Hats. Afterwards when they were engaged against the Turks in Valachia, they changed their Fashions to the Turkish and Tartarian Habits: And after that to the Suedish and Germane Modes, when they were in War with the Suedes in Prussia.  

Their present Fashions.  Their present Fashion is, A Vest that reaches down to the middle of their Legs, with a long Robe, not unlike our Morning Gowns, lined with Furr, and tied about their Wastes with a Sash; Little Boots with Iron Heels, on their Legs, and Furred Caps upon their Heads with a Sabre or Cutlace girt about their Loins. When they appear on Horseback, which is one of their chief Delights, they wear besides all that has been mentioned, a short Cloak that hangs over their Shoulders, much like an Irish Mantle; which is most commonly Furred within and without.  

What Furs used.  The better (that is the Richer) sort make use of the Furs of Sables, which are brought from Moscovy, when the others content themselves with the Skins of Tigers, Leopards, Panthers, and a kind of Grey Furs. Some of the finest of these Furs cost above a Thousand Crowns; but they are worn only at Diets, and descend from Father to Son. The Fashion the Women use, comes nearer to that of the Men than in most Countries.  

Rustics Habit in Lithuania.  In Lithuania, the meaner sort make Shoes of Bark of Trees, which they wrap about, and put under the Soles of their Feet. These Shoes they call Chodakys. Of the tenderest Bark also they make Stockings, turning and winding it about the Calves of their Legs. Before they come into any Town, they always take care to put on fresh Chodakies. These every Countryman almost makes; so that it is commonly used as a Jest in Poland, That there are more Shoemakers in Lithuania, than in all Europe besides. The same People likewise wear a sort of Habit, with Sleeves woven all of a Piece. This they call Samodzialka. It is commonly Grey and very thick, and worn equally by Men and Women among the Rustics.  

A few follow the French Mode.  Some few of the Poles imitate the French Fashion, and wear Linen, Lace, Point, Perukes, and Swords; for those who retain the Polish Habit, have no other Linen but Shirts and Drawers, and some of them Socks. The ordinary sort of Gentry, and even some of the Great Men, put sifted Chaff into their Boots, which serves them instead of Socks. When I speak of the Poles wearing Linen, I mean only the Gentry and Citizens; for the Peasants wear none at all, unless some by chance happen to have Shirts of Course Cloth.  

The women's former and late Fashions.  The Women formerly had only Garlands on their Heads, composed of Gold, Gems, Flowers, Silk, and the like; but now they wear Silk Caps lined with Furr, like the Men. They also formerly imitated the Women of Foreign Countries; and in the late Reign all the Women of Quality, particularly those that resided at Court, followed the French Mode, King John iii Queen being of that Nation. Never does the Price hinder their having fine things; for they suffer themselves to be Bubbled by Foreign Merchants (especially French) at a ridiculous rate.  

Poles great Extravagance.  Both Women and Men are Extravagant to an infinite Degree; insomuch that some among them will have fifty Suits of clothes at once, all as Rich as possible; but what shows their Prodigality yet more is, that they will almost have their Servants go as well dressed as themselves; whereby they generally soon spend their Estates, and are reduced in a short time, to the extremest Want. But this Prodigality of theirs does not only extend to their Habits, but likewise to their Buildings, Equipage, and other Customs. In their modern Buildings, many of them imitate the Italians, tho' generally speaking indeed, their Houses are Small and Low, especially in the Country.  

Description of their Houses.  They never live above Stairs, and their Houses are not united: The Kitchen is on one side, the Stable on another, the House on another, and the Gate in the Front: All which make a Court either Square or Round. These Houses are for the most part of Wood, though the other sort are both of Brick and Stone.  

Furniture.  The Inside of their Houses is generally hung with Tapestry or Arras, and all the rest of their Householdstuff and Utensils, proportionably suitable: Yet towards Tartary, they do not much care to have any Furniture extraordinary for fear of the Incursions of that Barbarous People. Therefore in that part of Poland, the Gentry content themselves with a few small Beds with Taffata Curtains, just enough to serve their Family; for if any go to Lodge at their Houses, they generally carry their Beds along with them.  

No Gardens nor Orchards.  The Polish Gentry have seldom any Gardens or Orchards to their Houses, though their Country be very proper for Fruit-Trees, whereby they might save the Expense of a great deal of Corn, which they consume in Beer, by making of Cider and Perry.  

Private and public Baths with their Effects.  Although it be extreme Cold in Poland, yet will the Polish Gentry have almost every one a Bagnio in his House, in which the Women have their Apartments separate from the Men. There are likewise public Baths in every City and Town for the use of the Common People; which they frequent not only in Summer, but also in Winter. From their frequent use of Baths, probably comes the reason that the Polish Children are seldom Scabby, either in Head or Face. It may be here also observed, that the Children in Poland are seldom distorted, crooked, or ill-shaped, as it often happens in other Countries, because here they do not Swath their Children, but only wrap them lose in Linen Clouts.  

Poles great admirers of Shows.  The Poles are generally so great Admirers of Splendour and Show, that their Women seldom stir out of Doors without a Coach and Six, though it be only cross the way, either to Church, or to Visit a Neighbour; but the Men for the most part go on Horseback, and rarely on Foot, which they look upon to be very Ignoble.  

Their Atendants.  Both Men and Women are always attended with a great Number of Servants of both Sexes: The Women to wait on the Women, and the Men on the Men. The Principal Senators always Ride or Walk, in the middle of their Retinue, putting the best Clothed of their Servants before them. When the Gentry of either Sex go abroad a Nights, they have twenty four or more Whitewax Flambeaux carried before their Coach. Women of Quality generally have their Trains born up by He or She-dwarves. These Ladies have also with them an Old Woman, which they call their Governante; and an Old Gentleman for their Gentleman-Usher, whose Office is to follow their Coach on Foot, and to help them out of it when they Alight. It may be remarked, that their Coaches go always very slow and gravely.  

Women very Modest.  The reason of these two Old People's waiting on the Ladies, is not because their Husbands are Jealous, as in most of the Eastern Countries; for the Polish Ladies are generally very Modest; and do not at all abuse the great Liberty allowed them.  

Exception.  But this Rule does not hold among the Common People; for Maids with them, never think themselves awhit the worse for being unmarried Mothers: Nor is their Frailty any hindrance to their Fortune; for they soon Mary again, and thereby repair the Scandal. These sort of Grass-Widdows, most commonly serve for Nurses; for a Virtuous Married Woman, though she be never so Poor, will hardly ever Nurse any Child but her own.  

Woman's Liberty restrained.  It may be observed, notwithstanding all these Honours done the Women in Poland, that they do neither keep the Purse, nor wear the Breeches; for when they have a mind to have any thing, they are obliged to ask their Husbands for it by Kneeling, Embracing his Knees, and calling him their Benefactor, except some few Trifles, of course allowed them; As Butter and Eggs after the House is served; and Flax ready hitchelled by the Peasants; all which indeed they may dispose of without their Husband's Privity; but as to other Things they cannot: For the Man is the sole Manager of all Things in Poland; and the Women have little more to do than to Eat, Drink, and Divert themselves.  

Indifferences in the Polish Temper.  As the Poles bear their own Losses, and suffer all Disasters with a great deal of Temper, so likewise they regard the Miseries and Misfortunes of others with the same Indifference, for they will often stand and see a House burn without offering in the least to lend a helping Hand to quench it. Neither are they more indulgent to their Children, or on the contrary, the Children to their Parents, both whom are reciprocally suffered to continue Slaves to the Tartars, when but a small Sum of Money would purchase their Redemption.  

What Exercises Practised.  In Poland there are neither Academies nor Schools, for the manage (Riding the Great Horse) Fencing nor Dancing, and yet the Gentry being naturally bend to those Exercises, will either Practise them at home after their own rude Fashion, or Travel to inform themselves of Strangers abroad. Of all these Pastimes, Music and Dancing are their Darling Pleasures; for even the very Nurses are ordered to teach their Children this last as soon as they can go. So that you shall often see two Children tripping it about a Room to the dull Notes of their Nurses, or a Servants Pipes. The Poles are so addicted to Music, that Bargemen may be frequently seen Playing on Fiddles as they Sail along the River Vistula with Corn.  
The other Customs and Manners of the Poles I shall inform your Lordship of as methodically and succinctly as the Variety of Matter will admit. But first a word or two of the Polish Families and Names.  

Polish Families and,  The Gentry are divided into many Tribes, all distinguished, not by Places or Countries, but by several peculiar Appellatives and Coats of Arms: Out of every one of these, springs several Families of different Names and Affinity. For example, to the Tribe of Lelivicz, whose Standard is a Field Azure, charged with a New Moon in chief, and a Star of the first Magnitude between its Horns, belong the Families of Zarnowiski, Pileczki, Melstin, etc.  

Names formerly and now.  Formerly the Poles had their Names from several occasions; but of latter days they have been accustomed to take them only from Castles, Cities, Towns and Villages, most commonly by adding the Termination skis or ki, which signifies Son, though some say Dominion, because they are generally so called from the Place which they Govern. In Lithuania the Termination for the most part is in witz, which rather implies Son than Ski. Sometimes also they take their Names from these Places by omitting Ski and Witz, and putting before the Place, à, ab, in, or de: As à Gorka, in Tenstin, de Fulstin, and the like. Some of the Poles usual Names are (which I mention for the difficulty of Pronunciation.) Chrzonstowski, Krzikritzki, Grzmialtowski, etc. Lastly, Several Names in Poland begin with an O, as Opalinski, Osolmski, Vzaorwski, Orzakowski, and such like.  

Marriages and their duration.  Now as to Marriages among the Poles, it must first be observed, that the Feasts of those of the Gentry always last three days, be they that make them either Poor or Rich; wherefore they must necessarily be exceeding Expensive. If a Lady Marry any of her waiting Maids, she generally Expends as much as for one of her Daughters. But as the Court-Marriages will show the greatest Magnificence of this kind, I shall entertain your Lordship out of Hauteville with one of that sort.  

Court-Marriages.  When the Queen Marries any of her Maids of Honour, or when any Senator or great Lord is to be Married, the first and second day the King gives a great Feast. For this purpose a large Hall is pitched upon, where there are three Tables set out. At the first Table sit the King and Queen, in a Manner that they both Face the Hall. Next the Queen sit the Two that are to be Married; and next to the King the Pope's Nuncio, and Archbishop of Gnesna. At the same Table likewise sit the Foreign Ambassadors over against the King and Queen. At the two other Tables, extending the whole length of the Hall, all the Ladies, Senators and Officers, except only such as wait on the King and Queen, are placed by an Officer, according to their respective Precedence.  

Customs thereat.  Most commonly this Feast begins about four or five of the Clock in the Afternoon, and lasts to two or three in the Morning. Here it may be observed that the Senators are accustomed to rise often, and go up to the King's Table to drink his Majesty's Health on their Knees. At these Feasts they eat little, but drink Hungarian Wine to an immoderate Degree. The Ladies, out of Modesty, only touch the Tops of the Glasses with their Lips, and so set them down before them, or pour them into their Plates, in a manner tha● more Wine is thought to be spills and lost here than drank. When they have sat about five or six Hours at Table, the Violins, and a little Sort of portable Organs begin to strike up, and then they spend the rest of the Time in Dancing. In this Exercise every body joins, and not so much as the old People of either Sex are excused. Those that begin the Dance are generally the ancient Senators and old Ladies who move slowly about, like so many Friars or Nuns in Procession; but although the Dancing begins with so much Gravity and Formality, yet it usually ends with a great deal of Hurry and Confusion.  

Presents made the Bride.  On the second Day all the Guests present the Bride with something new, and none give less than a small Piece of Plate. All these Presents are made before the Queen. This Ceremony is performed before they sit down to Table. These Presents most commonly make a good Part of the Bride's Portion. The late Princess of Poland, when she was married to the Elector of Bavaria, had above the Value of 100000 Crowns presented her.  

Espousals and Ceremonies.  On the third Day are solemnised the Espousals: All the Wedding Guests accompany the Bridegroom and Bride on Horseback to Church, as likewise in their Return Home, when they are always to pass by the King's Palace. During all the Time of their coming and going, the Trumpets sound from the Balconies on both Sides the way. When the Bride has been conducted to her Husband's House, and a magnificent Feast there prepared is ended, and the Company gone, the Bride begins to fall a crying, it being the Custom it seems in Poland for Maids to weep at that time, and to seem concerned for fear they should be thought impudent and immodest. The other Marriages of the Gentry in Poland, are performed much after the same Manner, only with less Magnificence.  

Who not Married without Dispensation.  The Men and the Women that are Godfathers and Godmothers to Children, are always Cousins and Relations, though they were not so before, and consequently cannot be married without a Dispensation from the Bishop of the Diocese.  

Burials and order of Procession.  The Ceremonies of Burial in Poland are usually celebrated with so great Pomp and Magnificence, that one would rather take them for Triumphs than Enterments. The Corpse having been put into the Coffin, it is placed in a Hearse or Chariot with six Horses, all covered with black Housing, The Coffin has a large black Velvet Palls thrown over it, with a Cross of red Satin in the Middle, and six long black Silk Tassels hanging down from it, which are born up by as many of the deceased Person's Domestics, all in close Mourning. Before the Chariot march several Priests, Monks, and a great Number of People, each of which carries a white Wax Torch lighted in his Hand, next to whom, and immediately before the Hearse come three Men on Horseback who carry the Arms of the deceased, one his Sword, another his Lance, and the third his Dart.  

Other Proceedings.  The Procession thus set out, marches very slowly, in a manner that they usually come late to the Church. After the Burial-Service is over, those that carried the Armour enter the Church on Horseback, and furiously riding up to the Coffin, break the Arms of the deceased thereupon; after which the Body is Interred. Then they return to the House, where there is always a great Feast prepared, when the Lay-Guests will not only drink to Excess, but likewise force the Clergy to follow their Example.  

Particulars relating to the King and Queen's Innterment.  Here it may not be amiss to observe something relating to the Interment of the King and Queen of Poland. As soon as the King dies he is laid upon a Bed of State, and a certain Number of the Senators, both Ecclesiastical and Temporal, are appointed to attend about his Corpse. The Republic also order all necessary Expenses relating hereunto, to be levied out of the Crown Revenues. A deceased Queen likewise has the same Ceremonies and Honours as a King; for Queen Mary Ludovica Wife to John Casimir, was carried from the Suburbs of Warsaw, where she died, to the Castle where she lay in State, till she was carried to Cracow to be buried.  

'Cause of J. Casimir's Queens Death.  It may not be improper to entertain your Lordship with the Manner of her Death, there being something observable in it. She died of a Defluxion upon her Lungs, or of a Consumption, occasioned by Excess of Passion, on Account of a Contest she had had with the Chancellor Patz about something she had proposed to him which he would not consent to. This Princess loved so dearly to intermeddle with, and to govern the State solely according to her Fancy, that she was not a little jealous when the King her Husband spoke to any other Women, and that chiefly for fear he might incline to be governed by another more than herself. This your Lordship may imagine gave him no great Cause to be concerned at her Death, for at the very Instant of her expiring, he posted away to a Mistress he had formerly loved, but whom he durst not have spoke to during his Queen's Life.  

Manner of Mourning in Poland.  As Mourning is not only a necessary Circumstance, but also the Sequel of a Funeral, so I think myself obliged here to give some short Account of it. The Mourning of the Men is much like ours, only differing according to the Habits of the Country; but the Women of Quality are generally apparelled in a Sort of corpse black Stuff, and their Linen is not much finer than Canvas, and the greater the Quality, always the coarser the Linen and Stuff. This Habit does not misbecome Widows that are both young and handsome. It may here be observed, that the Senators, Deputies, and all others that have a Mind to appear at the Diet of Election, must be in Black, tho' the Fashions of the several Countries of Foreigners are not required in like manner to be altered.  

Edibles among the Poles.  For the other Customs of eating and drinking among the Poles, both at Feasts and elsewhere, they are various, but first I must give some Account of the Edibles and Potables. Their ordinary Meat is Beef and Veal, for Mutton they do not value, and generally give it to their Servants. They have great Store of grey, but no red Partridges; a great many Hares, but no Rabits, for they would sooner eat a Cat than these last. They have 'tis true, some white Rabbits which they breed tame for the Sake of their Furs. In Poland there are a great many Roe-bucks, but few Stags: Abundance of wild Boars, Hogs, Poultry, Pigeons, and the like: But as for wild-Foul, they have great Store indeed in Summer, but none in Winter, as in other Countries, when they are best. They have a great many wild Oxen, which, when moderately salted, are great Dainties with them.  

Way of Hunting wild Oxen.  The Manner of hunting these wild Oxen it may not be improper here to give some short Account of; when they have surrounded the Beast with a great Number of Horsemen, each of them rides up to him and darts him with an Arrow, when the Beast feeling himselfwounded, eagerly pursues its Enemy, while another Person darting him from behind, he turns in great Rage after that Person, and then another darting him, as likewise many others successively; at length the poor Beast is so tired with pursuing so many Assailants, that he falls down and is easily taken or killed. They have another way of taking them in the Woods, which is by causing the Rustics to enclose a great Number of them with Trees feiled down, who also immediately raise up a Stage for Spectators; when the Hunters, assigning themselves, every one a Post, and the Beasts being frighted into the Middle by Dogs and the great Vociferation of the Assailants, as they move towards each Person, they are wounded with Darts, which making them to run with great Force against their Enemy, and finding an Opposition by the Trees, they endeavour to force their Way, whilst the Hunter from behind, most commonly gives them their Death's Wound; but if they happen to break through then the next Hunter holds out a Piece of red Cloth, which it seems, this Beast having an Antipathy against, forthwith leaves that Person and runs at the other, who being provided for him, most commonly kills him, or in Case of Danger, his Neighbour has Recourse to the aforesaid Stratagem which never fails of diverting the Fury of this wild Beast. It may be also observed that this Beast has a Power of drawing a Man to him with his Tongue, it being rough, if he can but reach any Part of his Coat, or the like.  

Odd Dainties.  Near the Mountains of Hungary, there are also wild Goats which they admire mightily for Meat. They likewise make a fine Dish, as they think it, of Beavers Tails, but throw away the Body. They likewise eat Bears Paws when pickled, for Dainties. When they take or kill Elks; they do not gut them for fourteen or fifteen Days afterwards, and sometimes in Winter, not in a whole Month. When the Great Men come to the Diet, they commonly bring these with their Skins and Guts, and hang them at their Windows some five or six at a Time, until they turn rank like Venison; then they roast some, and dress others like Beef a la mode. This is esteemed delicious Meat, and none but Great men's Tables have it. The Manner of taking Bears also I presume may not be unacceptable to your Lordship.  

Manner of taking Bears.  They are generally taken with Nets, even tho' they be of the largest Size: When they have hampered one, all the Hunters ride in great Numbers about him, and having pinned down his Head and Feet with great wooden Forks, they bind him every way about with strong hempen Cords that he is not able to stir, than they roll him into a great wooden Cage, but it must be understood that the Knots of the Cords are so contrived, that with one artful Pull they may be unloosed, after which the Bear is kept so shut up till they have a mind to let him forth, by lifting up a Trap Door, to be hunted.  

Other sorts of Fowl.  In Poland likewise they have a great many Heath-Cocks, most of which are of the Bigness of a Capon: There are also abundance of Pheasants in Lithuania, and of Bustards in Prussia. They have moreover about Lowitz, a little Bird not unlike a large Sparrow, which comes and disappears with the Snow, and thence is called a Snow-Bird. These are very agreeable to the Taste. As for tame-Fowl, the Poles never eat any but such as is brought alive into their Kitchens in the Morning and killed for Dinner.  

What Fish they have.  For Fish, the Baltic being the only Sea that borders upon Poland, has scarce any, but that Defect is abundantly supplied by the great Plenty of fresh Water Fish, both in their Lakes and Rivers; some Sorts whereof are not to be found in other Countries. It may be observed, that those which are taken out of Rivers, are more palatable than those bred in Lakes and the Sea.  

Way of ordering Cabbage.  The Poles have a peculiar way of ordering Cabbage. They chop it small, and put it into a Tub between Lays of Salt, than they press it very hard, and after pour warm Water upon it, which makes it ferment▪ and serves for Pickle: Thus they preserve it all Winter, and sometimes for a whole Twelvemonth. Tho' this Dainty of theirs smells very strong at a Distance, yet do they nevertheless think it good Meat.  

Their Potables.  Their Potables are of different Kind's, but their usual Drink is Beer, which in Prussia is made only of Malt, but in the rest of Poland, with Wheat ground small, and boiled with Hops; sometimes they mixed Spelt (a Kind of Wheat in Italy and Flanders) and Oats along with it▪  

Beer of what Quality.  Their Beer is generally of an Amber Colour, and of a brisk and poignant Sweetness, especially that of Varka, or that which the Gentry make for their private Use, which is stronger and better than the Brewers fell.  

Sorts of Mead.  In Lithuania, Russia, and Vkrania, they have two Sorts of Liquor made with Honey which are red and white, both which they call Mead, tho'we give that Name only to the latter, the former with us being Metheglin: Prussia and Masovia also has some Honey, tho' at Warsaw it is made after a peculiar Manner, by mixing Juice of Cherries and Blackberries, as likewise Aromaticks along with it, and thence has the several differing Names of Kerstrang, Malinicz, and Troinicz.  

And of Wine.  Besides Beer and Mead, both the Poles and Lithuanians have several Sorts of Wine brought from Hungary, Italy, France, and Germany: That of Hungary excels the Spanish in Strength, and is brought to Cracow over the Carpathian Mountains in large Casks drawn by Oxen. The best is sold at twenty Shillings a Polish Pot, which amounts to no more than three of our Quarts, so that we may reasonably believe that the poorer Sort are obliged to obstain from so costly a Liquor. The Italian Wine is brought likewise over-Land, but not drank so much as the other, by reason of its Lushiousness and Price, being brought much farther. The French and Rhenish Wines come by way of the Baltic to Dantzic. These, as they are naturally weaker than the former, so they lose much of their Strength by coming by Sea. As to the Rhenish Wine, that seldom goes much beyond Dantzic, altho' some be sold in other Parts of Prussia, yet which they always drink with Sugar, by Reason of its Sharpness.  

What strong Waters.  Strong Waters in Poland are generally Spirits drawn from Wheat, Barley, Oats, Cider, etc. and mixed with Water, but these are only drank by the common People, unless in Winter, when the Gentry likewise drink them, but they then are rectified with Aniseeds and other Aromaticks.  

Customs in Eating and Drinking.  For their Customs in eating and drinking, it must be observed, that they seldom or never eat any Breakfasts, and do not care for cold Meat. In the Mornings both Men and Women generally drink Ginger, Yolks of Eggs and Sugar boiled in Beer. They are immoderate Lovers of Pig roasted, tho' their Sauces have commonly an odd Taste. The Great Men seldom dine without a Dish of Peas and yellow rusty Bacon sliced, which it seems they prefer. They eat all manner of Mushrooms, not excepting those that cleave to the Trees, which they gather and dry, to preserve them. Those of above a Night's Growth, we commonly esteem Poison, and which perhaps may be so here and not there, no more than Poppy Seeds, which they likewise eat in great Quantities, for they drink the Milk of them, as also make it into several Sauces or Dishes by itself. They also make abundance of Oil of this Seed, as likewise of Hemp and Flax Seeds, etc. which they eat on fasting Days.  

Pottage and Sauces.  They seldom eat any Pottage, unless what the French Cooks make, which they will feast on with a great deal of Pleasure. They do not boil their Meat over much, and that gives it the better Relish. Their Sauces also differ extremely from ours; some whereof are yellow and made with Saffron; others white, consisting chiefly of Cream; a third Sort grey, being of Onions; and a fourth black, being made with the Juice of Plums. Into these Sauces they put a great Quantity of Sugar, or sometimes Pepper, Cinnamon, and sometimes Ginger, Cloves, Nutmeg, Olives, Capers, Kernels of Pine Apples, and Prunes. Their Fish Sauces excel both ours and the French. The Poles use Spices to that Degree, that some Great Men have been found to spend above fifty thousand Livres ayear in that single Commodity: They do not want for all Sorts of choice Potherbs, and some that are not to be found elsewhere. They have also Sweetmeats of various Kind's, and all Manner of Deserts, especially Pistacho Nuts.  

Poles eat little Bread.  The Poles generally eat a great deal of Meat to a very little Bread, although they have such Plenty of Corn in Poland, especially Rye, which is much better than in other Countries. They are great Admirers of Roots, which they dress different Ways, and very palatably.  

Crachat how made.  They have a Sort of Dish which they call Crachat, and which is made of the corpse Meal of Wheat, Barley, Millet, or Oats, or sometimes of a small Grain called by them Manna. This Crachat is very good when well dressed. On Flesh Days they eat it with Milk and Butter, and on Fasting Days only with Oil: But notwithstanding there are some who dispense with this Rule, especially on Saturdays. The common People, for want of Wheat or the like, are accustomed to make Bread of Acorns dried and ground.  

Customs at Feasts.  When the Poles make a Feast, they never serve at Table either Spoons, Knives, or Forks, but the Guests are to bring those along with them, or their Servants for them. They also have a broad Piece of starched Linen to serve for Napkins, sowed round the Table Cloth for fear it should be stolen away. The Guests being set down at Table, immediately the Gates of the House are shut, and are not opened till all the Company are risen, and the Plate taken Account of and locked up; for should it be otherwise, the Footmen are generally so light-fingered, that they would infallibly Nim some of it, and this is the Reason also why they do not lay Spoons, Knives and Forks on the Table.  

Banqueting Hall.  Every Person of any Fashion, has his Banqueting Hall in his House, peculiarly set a part for Feasts and Entertainments. Here there is a Place made up with Ballasters for the Side-board Table, from which the Cloth is never taken till it is very dirty, being always loaded with a great Quantity of Plate. Over this Place there is a Gallery for Music, usually consisting of Violins and Organs.  

Particulars of Servants.  Those that are invited, always bring their Footmen along with them, to whom, as soon as they are seated, they cut half their Bread, and as much Meat, and give it over their Shoulders. This Servant being thus provided, stands and eats what is given him behind his Master. If the Master asks twice for Wine, the Servant brings him as much again, and, after his Master, drinks out of the same Glass without rincing. Although there are great Quantities of Victuals brought from the Kitchen, yet do they rarely carry any back, for the Servants immediately seize on what is left, and their Ladies make them carry each of them a Napkin to prog for dried Sweetmeats or Fruit.  

Manners at Table.  After the Cloth is taken away, the Poles are accustomed to sit a good while drinking. The Genteelest Part of them, at least, have a very decent way of eating. They never once touch the Meat with their Hands, but carve with so great Address, that they dexterously cut a Partridge into six Parts in a Trice, holding it on the End of a Fork. While they are eating they mind nothing else, and tho' any body sends in for them, they never stir from Table till they have done. After their Meals they generally take a Pipe of Tobacco, as the Custom is with us and other Countries, the Manner whereof may not be unpleasant to be related.  

Poles way of taking Tobacco.  They generally smoke Tobacco without injuring either their Heads or Stomaches, and that by these Means: They have a Pipe stuck through a little round Box, into which they have before put Sponge that had been soaked in distilled Vinegar; this Sponge, by means of a few little Holes through the Pipe, communicates its Mildness to the Smoke, and besides sucks away all the Oil of the Tobacco, whereby the Heat is exceedingly lenifyed, and the Pleasure of smoking consequently improved. When they would render smoking Tobacco yet more agreeable over and above this lenifying the Heat, they have a way of persuming the Smoke, by placing another Box of a lesser Size than the former, nearer to the Bowl of the Pipe, wherein they are wont to put Cotton dipped into some Sort of Essence, which by means of the like Holes made as before within that Box, and through the Pipe transmits' its odoriferous Quality to the Smoke. They generally place this Box five Inches from the Bowl of the Pipe, and the other as many more.  

Feasts made by turns.  These Feasts are made alternatively by every Friend and Relation that are Neighbours, whether Men or Women; for it must▪ be understood that the Poles converse freely with the Female Sex, without occasioning them any Scandal, and especially where the Women are young, if they have but their Parents or nearest Relations along with them. By these Means Matches are frequently promoted and Friendships propagated or continued. Nevertheless sometimes, by immoderate tippling, intestine Jars arise, and bloody Broils ensue; yet that Master of a Feast will always be esteemed an unreasonable Niggard that does not allow his Guests wherewithal to work them up to such a Pitch.  

Brimmers much practised.  Those we call Brimmers are very much in Request among the Poles, for they will scarce ever excuse a Man unless he pledges them Super-naculum. This Vice reigns equally in Feasts and Taverns, and Saints Days, are not excepted out of their Drunkards-Calendar, which is notwithstanding winked at and tolerated on Account of the great Revenues and Excise it brings to the State. However, now a-days this Custom is not so much in Practice among the better Sort of Gentry as formerly, yet they all still retain their ancient Luxuries of other Kind's.  

Customs in Travelling.  The Customs and Manners of travelling in Poland, with other Circumstances, come next to be inspected. It must first be understood, that there are scarce any Inns in this Country, except those the Natives call Karczma's, where Travellers are obliged to lodge with the Cattle.  

Description of Inns.  Those Inns, or rather long Stables, are all built up with Board's, and covered with Straw. Within there is no Furniture, neither are there any Windows, but all the Light comes in either at Holes made by the Wether, or the Crevices of ill joined Board's. 'Tis true, at the further End they have a little Chamber with a Firehearth, but then there is no lodging in it, because of the Flies, Fleas, Bugs, and especially the noisome Smells that incommode it; for if they happen to have a little Window there, yet do they never open it tho' the Wether be never so hot; so that Strangers choose rather to lie in the aforesaid Stable, where the Gospodarz or Innkeeper lodges himself with his whole Family, than to be suffocated by the Stink and Smell of so close and small a Room. In the long Room likewise there is an intolerable Smell, occasioned by a Parcel of rotten Cabbages, which those People always keep by them: And this, tho' it may be agreeable enough to the Natives who are used to it, yet to Strangers it must needs be very offensive.  

Have few Conveniencies.  In these Inns or Stables, there are no Tables or Beds, except one of the last in the little Room before mentioned, but however scarce any body cares to lie in it, because they can have no Sheets but what are very coarse, and have been often lain in before; neither is the Straw in the Stable much better, because, even of that, every Company can't have fresh, for the Gospodar, after his Guests are gone, generally gathers it up and preserves it for Newcomers, yet it is still preferable to the Bed, by Reason that he most commonly Airs it after it has been used. All along this Karczma or Inn, there are great Numbers of wooden Pins fixed for Travellers to hang up their clothes, Portmanteaus, etc. This Sort of bad Accommodation many avoid by lying in Barns, where they get fresh Straw.  

Travellers obliged to carry Provisions, etc.  By Reason of this ill Entertainment on the Roads, all Travellers in this Country are obliged to have a Calash with two Horses, wherein they must carry all their Necessaries and Provisions. Their Beds, Quilts, Bolsters, Sheets, and the like, are generally put into a large Serge Bag, which afterward serves them instead of a Seat in the Calash. Also they must provide a Case for Bottles of what Drink they please, and a Basket with a Lid for their Meat, Bread, etc. They must moreover furnish themselves with every individual thing that they may have occasion for, and take care to renew what they have exhausted whenever they have the first Opportunity, for there is scarce any thing to be had in these Karczmas but that indifferent Lodging I mentioned.  

Travelling cheap in other respects.  Thus your Lordship may perceive that one that travels in Poland, must as it were carry his whole House along with him, and besides undergo not a few Incommodities to boot. However, when a Man is thus provided, he may travel at a very inconsiderable Expense; for Lodging (as indeed it ought not) costs but very little, and there is nothing to pay for any thing else, because it can't be got, the Reason I suppose being that the Gentry of the Country never offer to pay for what they call for, and there is no way to force them to it; so that where they ask for any thing, the Gospodar always puts them off with a Nie Masz, that is, I have nothing: Yet nevertheless when they have any thing to spare, they will freely give Part of it to Strangers, tho' generally, there being but few Travellers in that Country, they provide only for their own Families: When Foreigners happen to want for Provisions, they usually apply themselves to the Dvour, or Lord of the Village, who forthwith supplies them gratis.  

Poles manner of Travelling.  Poland being for the most part a Champagne Country, a Galash and two Horses will rid a great deal of Ground there in a Day. Some of the Poles are so provident as to drive their own Calashes themselves, but of these there are but few. When they come to the Inn, they commonly put their Horses to Grass, because the Gospodarz will not be easily induced to trust them for Hay. There are some likewise that travel on Horseback with a Quilt for their Bed about a Foot and half broad, laid under their Saddle. They commonly employ the Gospodarz to fetch them in Beer, Bread, and whatever else they have Occasion for, and which Service they must not refuse to do for them at their Peril. Travelling is here so easy to the Gentry, that it costs them little or nothing.  

Incommodities in Travel how remedied.  A Traveller would do well to take more than ordinary Care in passing over Bridges in this Country, because they are generally very bad and seldom repaired. In Winter there is no travelling without a Case for ones Feet, the Air being excessive sharp and keen. This Case is generally a furred Sack, tho' Horsemen content themselves with thick Boots, having some Straw in them to keep their Feet warm. They also take a good large Sip of Strong Waters before they mount. In passing over the Ice, especially when there is Snow upon it, one must take care to procure a Sledge to put the Calash or Coach in, which is always drawn by Horses.  

Disturbed a Winter Nights by Boors.  In Winter likewise one shall find it a hard Matter to rest a-nights, especially on holidays, because then all the Peasants of the Village are gathered together to Carouse and make merry in that Room where you are obliged to lodge for want of a Fire elsewhere, for at that Time there is no sleeping without; Nay, as I said before, scarce with it, tho' a Man be commonly very weary when he comes off a Journey, these Drunkards making such a contained Din in your Ears with their excessive singing and dancing about the Room.  

Danger of losing Noses.  I should have observed to your Lordship, that sometimes in Winter Travellers Noses are frozen with the extreme Cold, when they must take immediate Care to apply Snow to them, for should they suddenly enter into a warm Room without so doing, they might, for aught I know, endanger losing them.  

Manners of peculiar Countries.  Before I conclude this Account of the Customs and Manners of the Poles, I might reasonably inform your Lordship of the Manners both ancient and modern, of the Lithuanians, Samogitians, Prussians, etc. especially where they differ from those of the other Parts of Poland.  

Concerning Lithuania.  That we are descended from the ancient Romans (says Michalon a Lithuanian Author) is past Doubt, since our Language is almost half Latin, and we not long since had the same Customs and Ceremonies, as burning the Dead, divining by Augurs, and such like Superstitions: Nay, which we still retain (continues he) in many Parts of this Country, especially by worshipping the God Esculapius under the Form of a Serpent. This Author reckons up a great many Words which have the same Signification at present in Lithuania, as they had formerly in Rome. He thinks likewise the Romans Expedition into this Country was under Julius Caesar, and vouches Florus for a Proof. He also is of Opinion, that the Cause of this Country's being called The Great Duchy, proceeds from the great Number of Duke's inhabiting therein.  

What relates to Courts of Justice there.  As to what relates to the Courts of Justice in Lithuania, the tenth Part of the thing adjudged in all real Actions, goes always to the Judge's Box, thence called Peressud (a close Chest) which is immediately to be paid down in Court: But in personal Actions, he claims half the Damages given to the Plaintiff. Murder, etc. is punished by Mulct only, in like manner as in Poland: If the Murderer fly, 'tis usual to preserve the dead Carcase, for that he cannot be condemned till he has been shown the Body of the Person he has slain. Also a Judge here has all stolen Goods wherever found.  

Former Judges.  These Judges are now appointed to be the same as they are in Poland, tho' there were formerly but two in all Lithuania, both Palatins, and who had no peculiar Place of Residence assigned, so that all that had Business with them, were obliged to follow them, tho' never so far distant; but these Palatins had their Deputies, who were accustomed to sit and adjudge Differences at public Feas 〈…〉 but who nevertheless had always greater Regard to the filling of their Peressud, than either to the Justice or Innocence of the Person offended or offending. Other Particulars relating to these Matters I have omitted for Brevity's sake (altho' for the most part they differ from the Laws of other Countries) presuming they might not probably be acceptable to your Lordship and the Public. But I must take notice of the Gentry and Citizens of Lithuania, etc. and so shall proceed to the Rustics.  

Of the Gentry and Citizens.  First than it must be understood, that the Lithuanian Gentry were chiefly owing for their Privileges to Jagello King of Poland, and to Alexander his Successor in Lithuania; both which Princes, that they might the better bring the Natives to embrace the Christian Faith, bestowed on their Nobility the same Liberty and Privileges as the Polish Gentry enjoyed. Russia also and Podolia had the same Privileges granted them at the same time, and Prussia likewise had great Immunities added to its ancient Privileges by Castmir IV. whose Assistance it had implored against the Teutonic Knights. As for the Citizens of Lithuania, Samogitia, and Russia, they are much on the same Foot with the other Parts of Poland, only those of Prussia are preferred in many Cases, as has been obsreved before.  

Rustics and their Condition.  The Country People in Lithuania, etc. are rather more miserable than in Poland, for a Gentleman there, attended by a Troop of Servants, will commonly go into a Country-Man's House, and take all he has from him, misusing and beating him shamefully into the Bargain; in which, or any other Case, if the Rustic applies himself to his Lord for redress, he must not come empty handed; and tho' he does not, yet all the Favour he shall obtain, will be to have his Case recommended to the Starostas and other Officers, where he must fee again, so that he is generally unable to go through with the great Charge of getting himself revenged.  

Work on Sundays.  Whereas these poor Wretches work but three or four Days in a Week for their Lords in Poland; in Lithuania, etc. they commonly work five or six, Mondays only being allowed to themselves, and in case they have Occasion for them that Day, than they work on Sundays for themselves, for these Boors observe no manner of holidays: Yet this Custom is more peculiar to Russia; for if one should ask a Slave there Why he works on Sundays, he would answer by a Question, If he must not eat on Sundays.  

Pay rigid Duties, etc.  These poor Wretches, out of their scanty Gettings, generally pay rigid Duties three or four Times a Year, to the State, besides being obliged to satisfy the frequent and arbitrary Impositions of their Lords. If a Slave happens to be condemned to Death by his Lord for any Crime, he must be his own Executioner, or will be forced to it by Threats of a worse Punishment than hanging.  

Their Edibles and Custom at grinding Corn.  The Bread they usually live upon, is a corpse black Sort, made of Rye, sooty Wheat, and Barley Ears, all ground together. Their Meat is both Flesh, Fish, and Fowl, and what Cattle or Poultry they foresee they shall not be able to keep in Winter, they usually kill in Autumn, and preserve with Salt. They are for the most part good Marks-men, and maintain their Families in a great measure that way. To grind their Corn they have in every House in the Country, four or five Hand-Mills. While they are at work, they sing continually, and often repeat the Word Melior, which in their Language signifies the same as in Latin, thereby implying, as I suppose, that their Condition is still better than a worse. They have also a Sort of very long wooden Pipes, which when they found, they always make the Standards by deaf, and usually so grate their Ears, that they do not recover their Hearing in a good while.  

Their Habits.  The Rustics of Lithuania, Samogitia, etc. wear generally a corpse ash-coloured Habit, insomuch that scarce one in a Hundred is to be seen otherwise clothed. For their Legs, they have a kind of Bark-Buskins, as I have observed before.  

Carriages, and how made.  These Peasants have a Sort of Chariots or Wagons, all of Wood, and very light, which they make by raddling or interweaving Boughs with one another. They have commonly a Covering of the same Fashion, but the Wheels of this Machine are of one flat and entire Piece of Wood turned round. In a Word, they are not much unlike our Colliers or Limeburners Carts, that may be frequently seen in the Country. When any Number of these Chariots are going together, they make an intolerable squeaking Noise, by reason that their Axel Trees are never greased. These Sort of Chariots are much in Use also among the Russians, as may be learned from the Poet.  

Neque linunt Ruteni querulos pinguedine Currus;  
Haud picis Auxilium Stridulus Axis habet.  
Auditur veniens longe crepitare Colassa:  
Sic fragiles Currus, Russee, vocare soles.  
Num faciunt habiles, Vno Vectore, Quadrigas  
Invectas Ruteni; quas Equus unus agit.  
Nec facile invenies ferrato haerentia Clavus  
Plaustra; facit ligni cuncta Ministerium.  
Et sine ferri usu pangunt sua plaustra terebris,  
Et lignum ligno consolidare solent.   

Houses.  The Houses these Peasants inhabit in, are built round, and thence called by them, Towers. They are narrow and open at Top that the Smoke and Stink might go out, and they are generally covered with Board's, Straw, or Bark of Trees. Here Men, with their Families and Cattle, live together; by which means it often happens that both are alternatively mischieved.  

Employments within and without Doors.  The Employments these People busy themselves in are various, whereof one belonging to the Men in Winter, is to help to stuff Feather beds made of chopped Feathers, and Stalks that grow in the Marshes. These Beds must needs make the most drowsy not a little vigilant. Part of the Woman's Business within Doors, is to wove Coarse Cloth. Both their Employments without, belongs either to Husbandry or Houswifry, as in other Countries.  

Why little Horses, here.  The Reason why they have generally little Horses, Guagnini thinks is because of the excessive Cold that reigns there, yet, says he, they are not a little strong, for one of them carried me above a hundred and twenty Polish Miles in four Days.  

Qualifications for Marriage.  Among these People, a Maid never marries till she is twenty four or thirty Years of Age, when she must also have wrought with her own Hands several Baskets full of clothes of different Kind's, which at the Time of her Espousals, she is to distribute among the Guests that her Husband brings along with him: She likewise must have served her Mother in all Domestic Affairs for a certain Time. The same Rule holds in Respect of a Son. Another Observation may not be omitted, that those who are employed to make the Match, always inquire more strictly into the Manners and Behaviour of the Persons, than after the cattle and Corn that they enjoy.  

Character of these Rustics.  The Character of these People is, that they are good natured, honest, and exceeding chaste, for rarely any Quarrels, Robberies, Rapes, or Incests are to be met with among them. The young Wenches are so extremely reserved, that they will draw a Knife at a Man that but offers to kiss them: And besides, their Mothers have a very watchful Eye over them, for they make them wear little Bells before and behind, to give them Notice where they are, and what they are doing.  

Samogitia differs from Lithuania.  The Samogitian Peasants differ but little from the Lithuanian, however some Peculiars there are to be observed.  
First, The Rustics of Samogitia are not so laborious as those of Lithuania, and consequently have not that Plenty of Provisions, etc. therefore instead of Bread, they are accustomed to eat a Sort of great Turnips as big as one's Head, which grow of themselves without sowing.  
Next, They have a peculiar way of making Mead, Metheglin, and Beer; for they are want to quench several red-hot Stones in it successively, after it has been boiled a whole Night, to make their Bellies soluble. This Drink they put into Vessels made of Bark of Trees.  

Sturdy Drinkers rewarded.  Thirdly, They have a Custom of rewarding a sturdy Drinker, by presenting him with a Shirt, Frock, Handkerchief, and the like.  
Fourthly, They live to a greater Age than ordinary in Samogitia, for it is no wonder to see a Person of a hundred, or a hundred and twenty Years old there, which may be partly manifested by a Passage which happened while a Monk was preaching about the Creation of the World, at the Time of Jagello's Expedition to convert hsi Countrymen.  

Proof of great Age.  This Man is a notorious Liar (said one of the Pagans, addressing himself to the King, and interrupting the Monk) I, and many more among us, have lived for above these hundred Years, and yet never remember any such thing as he speaks of, for even from the Time that we were Boys, the same Seasons and Vicissitudes have continued: To which the King mildly replied. Father, you say true, neither has the Priest affirmed an Untruth, for these things he speaks of, happened many Hundred Years ago, long before your Time, when the World was assuredly made out of nothing by a divine Ordination and Power. I conceive, My Lord, this may as well serve for an Argument of their Ignorance as of their Longevity.  

People more robust here.  Fifthly, Their Character differs something from the Lithuanians, for they are, generally speaking, more robust, bold, and nimble, and the Defence and Arms they use, are for the most part a Coat of Mail and a Hunter's Javelin.  
Sixthly, No Part of Poland produces so much Honey, for here almost every Tree contains a Swarm of Bees. It is observable also, that the Honey of this Country is more free from Wax than elsewhere.  
I shall now entertain your Lordship with a few remarkable Customs in Husbandry peculiar to these two Countries, and wherein I will be as brief as I am sensible that Art is not much either known or esteemed, being appropriated chiefly to vulgar Conditions.  

Manners in Husbandry.  It may be observed, that these People plough, sow, and harrow, all at the same Time, and that their Ground having been but once fecundated with burning, will bear great Crops seven or eight Years together without dunging. When they burn the Woods on the Lands, if they meet with high Trees, they do not cut them down, but only prune off their side Branches, so that the Sun may not be kept from the Ground, the manner of doing which is uncommon, for one Peasant will prune above a thousand Trees together without so much as once coming down.  

Strange way of Pruning Trees.  To effect this, he provides himself of a Seat of Rope, much like a Stirrup, the which he fastens to a long Cord, and having cast it over an Arm of the Tree, a Boy that is on the Ground draws him up and down, and when he has so done, by Help of another Cord, easily transfers him to the next Tree. This Peasant has always a Hook by his Side, with which he uses to lop off the Branches.  

Peculiar manner of Sowing.  They have moreover another odd and peculiar Way of sowing in these Countries, which is by mixing two Parts of Barley with one of Wheat, and putting them into the Ground together in the Spring, whereby it happens, that the Barley may be mowed on one Harvest, and the Wheat reaped the next. This Wheat being trod down by those that mow the Barley, the next Harvest commonly comes up so thick and high, that there is scarce any passing through it for Fear of being stifled.  

Ways of ordering Corn.  In Time of War these Boors have a Way of securing their Corn, etc. by burying it in a Place made up under Ground with Posts and Bark of Trees for that Purpose. Their Way of ordering their Corn is also extraordinary, for they first dry it with Smoke before they lay it up in their Graneries, by which means it will keep good for several Years together.  

Peculiar Customs in Prusia.  As for the Prussians, both Gentry and Commonalty, they may likewise be considered by themselves in some Respects, for the former are not altogether so gaudy in their Habits, as the more Southern Parts of Poland, and the latter differ something from the Polish Peasants in their Habits, wearing sometimes long straight Coats of Leather.  

Habitations and Furniture.  Formerly the Prussians dwelled in Wagons or in Huts made of Boughs twisted together, and at this Day the Commonalty are not much improved in Architecture, for they generally live in hovel built with Stakes, and raddled with Rods, having either Earth or Fern for their Covering: Neither is there any great Improvement in their Furniture, for the old Prussian slept on the Ground, or on Skins of Beasts, and these lie upon the Straw.  

Meat and Drink.  They are naturally content with spare Diet, and addicted more to Sloth than Gluttony: Yet, like the Poles and Lithuanians, no ordinary Dose of Drink suffices them, especially at Feasts, where they will frequently get very Drunk. Heretofore their Drink was Water or Mare's Milk, mixed sometimes with Blood, and now for the most part it is Mead or Beer. Their Ordinary Food is Fish, and they never knew the Use of Roots before the Teutonick Order came amongst them, tho' now among the Peasants it is the Chief of their Dainties. I speak most of this of the Peasants of Prussia, for the Gentry generally agree in their Customs and Manners with the Poles.  
These, My LORD, are all the Particulars I could possibly meet with, relating to the several Subjects proposed to be addressed to your Lordship, and which I must humbly acknowledge I have hastily put together, without that due Order and Method which I ought to have done: Yet, in Regard, my Helps were not a little confused, I hope your Lordship will be pleased to pardon the ill Performance, as well as the Presumption of Inscribing them to You; Granting me the Honour to subscribe myself,  
My LORD, Your Lordship's most humble and most obedient Servant, J. S.   

LETTER VI.  
To his Grace, JAMES Duke of Ormond, One of his Majesty's Lieutenant-Generals.  
Of the Army, Castles, Forts, and other Military Affairs in Poland.  
MY LORD,  
YOUR constant Fatigues and vast Expenses during the late bloody War, discover both an undoubted Zeal to serve your Country, and a Natural Inclination, like that of your Noble Ancestors to Warlike Atchivements. Wherefore, being to treat of the Military Affairs in Poland, I thought no Person more proper to address my Account to than your GRACE, tho' I were well assured at the same time, that it is most impossible to give you any tolerable satisfaction therein, unless I myself had more Experience in those Matters, or the Poles had a better Discipline in their Army. But since they must own their Defect in the one, as I do ingenuously confess my Ignorance in the other, I hope your Grace will be pleased to accept this Letter, rather as a Proof of my endeavours to entertain your Leisure, than of any Presumption I had to lay down any thing which might in the least contribute or add to the Knowledge of a General Officer of your Experience.  
MY LORD,  

The Pospolite or Polish Militia.  In the Infancy of the Polish Empire, the Poles were rather forced by an Arbitrary Power, than commanded by indulgent Laws, to defend their Country and extend its Limits; but since Christianity has been received among them Bolestaus Chrobry, their first King, ordained a certain number of Horse out of every Palatinate and District, and a set company of Foot out of every City and Town, to be ready at a short warning, and to bring their Provisions and Ammunition along with them. This is what they call their Pospolite Ruszenie, or the whole Body of Militia of the Kingdom gathered together under one Head or General, at a place and time appointed by the King, and those of the Senate that are always to attend him as his Privy-Council.  

Who obliged to serve in the Horse.  To this General Expedition, first, all Landed Gentry, as well Public as Private, a few only excepted, which I shall name hereafter, are obliged to come. 2. All Gentry that live in Cities or Towns upon Usury, or otherwise. 3. All Citizens that enjoy Lands or Tenements. These, besides all in Prussia, are those of Cracow, Vilna, and Leopol. 4. All Tenants that have hired Lands are to go themselves or to send out others. 5. The King's Tenants. 6. Ecclesiastical Scultets, or Advocates. 7. In cases of imminent danger, all Citizens in general are ordered either to send or go themselves. 8. Even those Gentry that are clapped up in Jails for heinous Crimes, are to be let out to assist at the Pospolite, yet when that is once over, they are to return to Prison again, to expiate the whole extent of their Sentence.  

Who in the Foot, and Penalty for neglect in both.  All these are to be Horse, well accoutred, but as an Army cannot be complete without some Foot, this Pospolite also did consist formerly of the 20th Boor out of every Village, or rather Farm, who was to be armed with a Scymitar, long Gun, and Pole-Ax, but which is often now changed to a Mulct to hire Foreigners: Yet there are still some Polish Foot, tho' of small Esteem. Every Citizen that is now worth 8000 florence, is to find a Horse, and he that has only 4000 is to set out a Foot-Soldier well provided. The Boors also are to fit out one among 28 Families, and to furnish him with Provisions sufficient for half a Year. The Poles term both these Wybrancy's, that is, Picked or Selected Men, so that Wybraniecka Piechota is a Picked Soldier. If any of all these refuse to appear upon the third Summons, their Lands or Goods are immediately confiscated to the King's Use.  

Who are excused from serving.  Those Gentry that are excused from appearing at the Pospolite, are, 1. Such as may depute others in their Room, viz. Superannuated or Sick Persons, Widows, Orphans, Minors, and lastly the Clergy for their Temporalities. When any Public or Private Nobleman is Sick, he must notisie and attest it by the Oaths of several sufficient Witnesses. Also it must be observed, that in Lithuania a Clergy man must send out both for his Spiritual and Temporal Estate, as likewise in Poland, where there are any Temporal Lands annexed to his Benefice. 2. Those that have Estates in several Palatinates or Districts, are obliged but to appear for one. 3. The poorer sort of Gentry are eased in some measure, for several of them may join in the fitting out of one Horse, which is practised especially in Masovia. Also Brothers that are Joint-Tenants may Depute one to appear for all. 4. The King's Court and Retinue▪ are not obliged to Muster under the Palatins, and where the King does not go into the Field in Person, they are to be totally excused. 5. About 30 of the Gentry of the Queen's Court are exempt. 6. About 12 of the Archbishop of Gnesna's Court, and oftentimes some Officers of the Bishop of Cracow, and other Bishop's Courts, especially where their Attendance is otherwise required by the Republic. 7. All Ministers to Foreign Courts, together with their Domestics, are absolutely to be dispensed with. 8. All Starosta's that are left in Garrisons, and their Tribunes; And lastly, the great Constable or Governor of Cracow Castle, with his Deputy, the Burgraves, and two Captains of Foot are to be excused.  
Several Provinces and Palatinates likewise, have peculiar Privileges relating to this general Meeting, for in the Palatinates of Masovia and Plockzko, six Brothers, altho' they have distinct Estates, send but one Horseman. In Podlachia, out of ten Farms they send but one Light-Horse, and out of twenty but one Cuirassier. The Palatinates of Kiovia and Braclaw, have likewise peculiar Privileges. In a general Expedition, the Gentry of Podolia were to continue in Garrison at Caminiec, while the Poles had that City in possession. The Prussians also need not march beyond the River Vistula, Ossa, and Drebnicz. And lastly, Lithuanians are not to go beyond the bounds of their Great Duchy.  

The great numbers of the Pospolife formerly, and now.  As to the great number assembled at this Pospolite, Basko, a Polish Writer says, that only in the Palatinate of Lenschet, in the time of Boleslaus Chrobry, 2000 Cuirassiers, and 4000 Light-Horse were raised at one time. Starovolscius says, that Uladislaus had 100000 Horse against the Prussian Knights, over and above what he had left to defend the Provinces. I might observe several other prodigious Lustrations out of the aforesaid Author, but for brevity sake I omit them; only I may affirm with Boterus, in his Description of Poland, that in case of necessity the Poles can raise upwards of 100000 Horse, and the Lithuanians 70000: But Starovolscius is of Opinion, they can both raise above 200000 Horse without Expense. Also Fredro thinks, that the Poles can raise above 200000 Horse.  
The number of Polish Foot is uncertain, they being at Liberty to appear, or to be excused for Money. Starovolscius says, that in his time they did not amount to many hundreds, being discouraged by the rigour of their Starosta's, and wholly confined to their rustic Drudgery, tho' (continues he) they are more able to sustain the hardships of War, then either the Germans or Hungarians, who can scarce live in the Polish Air. He also is of Opinion, that the Polish Infantry, if encouraged, might amount to a considerable number, and be not a little serviceable. The Foreign hired Foot have sometimes exceeded 30000, when the Cosacks served the Poles, but they fought also on Horseback, and King Stephen in his Expedition against the Suedes in Livonia, had above 16000 German and Hungarian Foot in his Pay.  

The manner of their being Raised and Mustered.  Now I shall proceed to present your Grace with an account of the manner of raising and Mustering this vast Body of Men. When a Pospolite is once agreed by the General Diet to be summoned, the King, after the Ancient manner, sends out his Writs, or Letters into all the Palatinates or Districts of his Kingdom, which being received by the inferior Officers, they are fastened by a small Cord to a long Pole (whence they are called Literae Restium by some, and by others Wici, signifying in Polish, a Staff) and carried aloft to every one of the Chief Noblemen of the District thrice in a Month, and Proclaimed as often in all Cities and Towns. All Courts of Justice cease at the third reading of these Letters, unless it be those of the Vice- Starosta's, who exercise their Jurisdiction as before. After the last reading of these Letters, a Place is appointed by several private Assemblies of the Nobility in every District, for particular Musters, and afterwards for the General Muster of every Palatinate. Here the Palatins and Castellans take an exact Account of the Men, Horses, Arms, etc. neither of which can be changed after that Muster. At the same time also, the Palatin divides the Districts among the several Castellans, and orders them their several Posts. In those Palatinates where there is but one Castellan, there part of his Duty is performed by a Vice-Chamberlain, etc. and in Lithuania by a Marshal of every District. This particular Muster being over, the Castellan of every District leads the Gentry under▪ his Command to the place of general Muster for the Palatinate, where the Palatin Musters them again, and takes an account of the Defaulters. Before the Castellans come to the Palatins, Justice is absolutely in their Hands, but afterwards they must resign it to the Palatin, tho' Capital Crimes are always reserved for the determination of the General, or rather of the King, who of late days has had a Council of War Assigned him for that purpose.  
I may here observe, that the Gentry are always Mustered and Registered annually by their respective Officers. Starovolscius reasonably 
Things required in vain of the Polish Cavalry.  requires two necessary Qualities in the Polish Horse, which they seldom or never have, and those are Expedition and Obedience. As to the former, he says, they are always unwilling to leave their Wives and Children, and therefore never care for appearing, before they are forced by the third Summons: And as for the latter, when they are got together, he says, thinking themselves Powerful, they are always Plotting, and ready to Rebel against their Superiors; and the reason is, that altho' the Kingdom of Poland abounds with all manner of Plenty, yet in every Expedition almost, the Soldiers are ready to starve, which is occasioned by a shameful neglect of the Chief Officers to furnish the Army with requisite Provisions, whence it often comes to pass, that tho' matters are brought to the nearest issue, yet they are generally forsaken before they are accomplished, the Soldiers Heads running after nothing but Forage and Plunder, which they take wherever it comes in their way, whereby the Country is generally injured instead of being righted and defended. There are other Causes of this Confusion and Disorder in the Army, which I shall speak of hereafter.  

Meet at the General Rendezvous  When the Gentry have been thus Mustered by the Palatins, they are next to be led by their Officers to the Place of general Rendezvous, where every Palatin delivers up his Charge to the Supremacy of the Great General. In their March they are not to be quartered upon any of the King's or Gentries Estates, but are to encamp in the open Fields, that they may make no disturbance in the Cities. At this day the General's Power is very much limited in respect of what it was formerly, for then a General was altogether Absolute, and his Will alone went for a Law, but now he can do little without the consent of such as the Republic has Assigned him. Besides the Great Generals, and Field-Marshals, the King, by the Laws, is obliged to be in the Army in Person. This appears by the example of King Alexander, who, by reason the Gentry demanded his Presence among them, tho' Sick, was forced to be carried in a Litter into the Camp. This was thought to have been Plotted by the Contrivance of the Duke of Glinski, who hoped thereby that the King would catch his Death.  

A Division of the Army, and first of the Horse.  Before I proceed any farther, I ought to give your GRACE a Division of the Polish Army, and therein observe, that it is composed of different kinds of Soldiers, as first of the Pospolite, or Militia. 2. Of hired Soldiers. 3. Of Auxiliaries. 4. Of Quartarian Hirelings. And 5th of Volunteers. And again, it consists both of Horse and Foot, and those Natives and Foreigners; the Natives are for the greatest part Horse, or Cavalry, and may be divided into four sorts, which may also be considered in two manners, as first heavy-armed, and secondly light-Horse. The former are, 1. The Hussartz, which, with their Horses, are both in close Armour. And 2 the Tovarzysz, which have only a Breastplate, Helmet, and Gorget. These are both choice Men, and the latter are so named from a word in Polish which signifies Companion.  

Heavy Armed.  The first of these are Armed with short Lances, Sabres, and Pistols, and the second, with Carabines, Bows, and Arrows, etc. These short Lances are called by the Poles, Kopye, whence also the Body of Men that uses them is termed Kopiynick. These Kopiie are about 6 Foot long, and tied to the Horsmen's Wrists with strings of Silk. When they come near their Enemy, they dart their Lances with all their Force against them, and if they miss their Bodies, they suddenly snatch back the Lance, by help of the Silken string, but where they have mortally wounded any, than they slip the Silk, and leave the Lance in their Bodies, till such time as they can ride up to them to cut of their Heads with a broad well tempered Sabre, which always hangs by their Saddles.  
Both the Hussartz and Tovarzysz, with their Horses, look frightfully, being stuck all over with Wings of Storks, Cranes, Turkey-cocks, etc. and Clothed over their Armour with skins of Leopards, Tigers, Bears, Lions, etc. all which they do to make themselves the more terrible to their Enemy. These Cavalry for the most part set themselves also off wilh various Partycoloured Mantles, which oftentimes shine with Jewels, Gold and Silver. Of the Hussartz there are but 5 Companies in Poland, every Company consisting of about 300 Men, all Armed Cap-a-pe. They have but one Lieutenant in each Company, which they call Poruczknik, and one Korazy, or Trumpeter, with a particular sort of Trumpet, which they call Koronzy. One of these the present King of France caused to be brought into his Kingdom, with design to have the like made, but being extremely costly, and not like to be of any great use among the Cannon, he laid his Intention aside.  

Light Horse.  The Light Horse are also of two sorts, and are either with Armour, or without. The first sort wear Coats of Mail, and differ in Names as they do in Countries. The Poles call them Pancerznicy Koragwy, and the Lithuanians, Petihorsky Koragwy, which last differ something in their Dress from the former. The number of these far exceeds that either of the Hussartz, or Tovarzysz. They are both separate Companies, and are Incorporated into no Regiments. They are in all about 6 or 7000, and are Armed with Darts and Sabres, and, if they please, they may wear Wings and Feathers. Those out of Armour which are the fourth sort of Horse, wear a Burka, or rough Mantle about their Necks, and have for Arms a Bow and Arrows, with a Sabre. These are the most numerous of all, and compose the main Body of the Army, call d by the Poles, Woysko. The number of these is always determined by the Diet. Neither these nor the others ever wear Liveries, as in most Countries, because they are all Polish Gentlemen. These, were they better Disciplined, and better paid, would, perhaps, be the finest Cavalry in the World.  

A Division of the Foot.  As for the Foot, they are either Poles and Lithuanians, or Foreigners, levied chiefly in Germany and Hungary. The Zaporohensian Cosacks formerly served the Poles as Volunteers, for very small Pay. They sometimes came in 30000 strong, Armed with hooked Lances, Scymitars, and long Guns, and each having his Horse, they fought either Mounted or on Foot. They used their own Discipline, and chose all their Commanders out of their own Body, and would frequently depose even their General without any reason if he were not successful.  
I have observed some of the Manners of these Cosacks in the first Volume of this History, and here it may not be a-miss, by way of Digression, to say something more of them, especially in what relates to War, wherein I shall be as brief as I ought in reason.  

A further account of the Cosacks.  They had their Name of Zaporohensian from the Russians, calling them Porohi, importing that they lived beyond the borders of the Kingdom of Poland. He that Governs them at present is their General, who, instead of a Sceptre, bears only a Commander's Staff made of Cane. As this Person is not Elected by Votes, but by tumultuary Acclamations, and throwing up of Caps, so he is frequently deposed after the same manner, by the inconstant Suffrages of the Populace; but however, while he enjoys his Supremacy, he has an Arbitrary Power over Life and Death. Next to him are the 4 Counsellors of War (called by them Assavuli) and the Lieutenant-General: After these are the several Prefects, and other Sub-Commanders.  

Proceedings in their Counsels of War  In their Counsels of War, the General having caused all the People to be Convened, and standing under a Canopy bore headed, together with the Counsellors, and Lieutenant-General, after making a small Reverence to the Multitude, who are sitting all the while, proposes to them what is fit to be debated at that Session; then is also his time to clear any Accusations made against him, or to request any Favour of the Public, which he always does with a great deal of Submission and Respect. While the General is speaking, the People all hearken with profound silence, but as soon as he has done, they pronounce their Pleasure with no less Noise and Vocifieration.  

Way of fortifying their Camps and Boats.  By Land, like the Ancient Gauls, they fortify their Camps with their Carriages, and at Sea they are wont to defend their little Boats against the Fury of Tempests, by fencing them all round, and over head, with Reeds radled together, not unlike our Arbours. Of these Cosacks, Amurath the Great, Emperor of Turkey used to say, That in spite of the other Potentates of Europe, he could sleep on both Ears (a Turkish Expression) but that these Gadflies would scarce suffer him to sleep on either.  

Their Power.  We may guests at the Power of the Cosacks, by observing, that at one time they had above 200000 Men in the Field, in their Rebellion against Poland, but then indeed they had assistance from the Russians, who Rebelled likewise. At present they have pretty good intelligence with the Poles, being very uneasy under the Turkish and Muscovitish Yoke, and they did the late King John Sobieski no small service in his Wars against the former.  

What the Polish Foot are, and how employed.  To return to the Polish Foot, as I said before, they are either Natives or Foreigners. How the Natives are raised I showed before. They are generally nothing but the vilest Mob, and their business is rather to serve as Pioners than Soldiers, for the Gentry only make use of them to dig and fill up Trenches and Ditches, to undermine Walls, build Bridges, clear the Roads, to load and drive the Carriages, to keep Guard in the Camp, while the other Soldiers are absent, and, in a word, to do all manner of drudgery they shall be commanded to.  

Hired Foot, and their Condition.  These are mixed for the most part with the Germane hired Foot, who do not meet with much better treatment in the Army. When we design to Besiege any Place, (says Starovolscius) we commonly send into Germany or Hungary to hire Foot, they being more Expert and Expeditious at any such work than ours. Among these, the word of Command is generally given in the Germane Tongue. They are all divided into Regiments and Companies as in other Countries, and Commanded as well by Polish as Germane Officers. The Soldiers are generally so ill provided for, that most of them have neither Swords nor Shoes, and when they are in Winter-Quarters, they have not above a Penny a day allowed them, besides what they can steal. Neither are their Officers much more kindly dealt with, for they scarce fare so well in any respect, as our common Sentinels do here.  

Why so much used, and their Arms and Liveries.  Although there is a set number of Polish Foot that are Natives, allowed out of every Village and Town, and which consequently is part of the Pospolite; yet because these General Expeditions are very slow in getting together, and so instead of relieveing their Country, rather oppress and expose it to Danger, the Poles have always almost, made use of Foreign Soldiers upon sudden Occasions, which would the easier be made subject to Discipline, and fit to undergo any Hazard or Exploit. The Arms of all these Foot are chiefly a long hooked Battleax, and which the Poles call in their Language, Bardysz, but sometimes they have a sort of long Guns. When the Cosacks and Heydukes serve the Poles, the latter have Liveries given them of one Colour, and the former have a sort of course Cloth of what Colour they please. They both have Horses to use upon occasion. What other Foreign Horse or Foot there are, I shall give your Grace an Account of in their proper places, but at present, for Method's sake, I must go back to the Pospolite.  

Gentry how far obliged to March; with other particulars.  The Gentry are not obliged to go beyond the Frontiers above five Miles, nor to continue above six Weeks in the Field, and if they are compelled by a unanimous Agreement of the Diet, (which never happens but upon very extraordinary Occasions) then either the King or State is to bear their Charges, and make good their Damages. When the Gentry take any Prisoners they are to present them to the King, and he is to make them some return by Custom, but when they are taken themselves they are to be ransomed out of the Public Treasury. For Foreign Expeditions the Poles make use of Stipendiary Soldiers, provided the Enemy be not extraordinary strong; for in such case, the Nobility, by a decree of the Diet, is to march against them: So the Turk once coming towards Poland with 600000 Men, the King did not care to trust even to 70000 hired Foreigners, but convoked the Gentry together at Leopol, with whom, if he had set forward as speedily as he was advised, he might have totally extirpated the Infidels, for aught I know, out of Europe. The Gentry are obliged to be in Arms as long as the King or State has occasion for them. They all serve on Horseback, not only for Honour's sake, but likewise, that they may the more speedily intercept and oppose the Enemy before they reach their Frontiers. When the Wars are over, the Nobility are not ipso facto Discharged, but must wait till they are methodically dismissed the Roll or Register by the Palatins, the reason of which is, for fear they might otherwise misuse the Citizens and Boors in a tumultuous Return.  

Hungarian Foot when first hired.  Of the hired Soldiers I have spoken something before: All that I think proper to add is, that the Hungarian Foot which the Poles call Wegerska Piechota, were first instituted by Stephen Batori, in his Wars against the Muscovites, to the maintaining of which, almost every Diet contributes something, yet which seldom or never suffices them. Formerly the hired Foot consisted as well of Natives as Strangers.  

Auxiliaries, what?  The Auxiliary differ from the hired Forces, in regard that the former are such as have been agreed to be furnished the Poles by Foreign Princes in a Treaty of Peace; and the latter are such as have been levied in other Countries by permission.  

Example.  Of this first sort were a certain number allowed Boleslaus Crivoustus by the Russians, and to Casimir IV. by the Tartars against the Prussia's, which were to have some Rewards from the Poles: These Rewards the Tartars afterwards required yearly as a Tribute, nay, tho' they did no manner of Service for them; whereupon King Stephen repelled their Importunacies with an absolute Refusal, as I have observed before in that King's Life, which occasioned great heats and disturbances, but at length a Peace was concluded between these two Nations, under the Reign of John Casimir, whereby the Poles were obliged to pay a certain Stipend to the Cham; and on the other hand, the Cham was to be assisting to the Poles whenever they had occasion, but it is certain that the latter broke his promise, which induced a non-performance in the former. There are other Examples of these kinds of Soldiers, and at present some Allies are still obliged by such Contracts. These Soldiers are both Horse and Foot, as the Agreement is made.  

Quartarians what, and whence so called▪  This breach of Alliance by the Tartars, occasioned the Poles a new sort of Soldiers; for Sigismundus Augustus, to prevent their Incursions into his Kingdom, allotted a fourth part of his Crown-Revenues, to maintain a Guard on the Frontiers towards Tartary. This fourth part was sometimes augmented, and that as often as Exigencys required. It was to be supervised by two Senators, and two of the Gentry, in conjunction with the High-Treasurer of Poland. The Starosta of Rava had the Custody of it, and was to give in his yearly Accounts how he had distributed it. From hence these Soldiers had the Name of Quartarians. Before this time the like Institution had been attempted at a Diet held at Vilna, to guard the Frontiers of Lithuania against the Muscovites, but this met with Opposition, and consequently was laid aside: These Forces generally consist of Foot, and are always kept in Garrison.  

Volunteers what in Poland.  Besides all these Soldiers beforementioned, some of the richest Gentry in Poland have all along been accustomed, at their sole costs and charges, to raise several Troops of Horse for the public Service; some few Examples of the Power of which it may not be amiss to insert. 
Examples.  By the help of these, Zamoski, in the Reign of Sigismond III. worsted Carambeius the Scythian, with 3000 Men only, who with 70000 came to Invade Poland, but with the loss of many thousands of his Tartars, was quickly forced to return home: And in the same Reign, Zolkievi, with only 3000 Horse, set upon 80000 Muscovites unawares, and routed them entirely, bringing away three Germane Regiments that served among them. Also in the late Reign, Andrew Trzebicki (who afterwards was made Primate) when but Bishop of Cracow, and Duke of Severia, raised a considerable number of Forces at his own proper Expense, to be sent against the Turks, and which performed Wonders under the then General John Sobieski. I omit many others that have done the same thing.  

Selected out of the Gentry.  These Soldiers have been for the most part selected out of the Nobility, which has been the occasion of their so frequent success in but small numbers, in respect to those of their Enemies. From this voluntary raising of these Soldiers, they have had the Name given them of Volunteers, tho' in other Countries, that Title is appropriated to such as serve of their own Accord, and without Pay.  

Causes that weaken the Polish Force.  Notwithstanding the great number and Warlike Disposition of all these several kinds of Soldiers, yet their Power is very much abated by their want of Discipline, and the neglect of the State, and their Officers, in the due administration of Affairs; for first, as to the State, the Diet consisting of so many Persons of differing Sentiments, is so exceeding tardy in fitting matters for Action, that like a Clock made up of many contrary Motions, its Progress must consequently be very slow; and likewise, before the Senators and Gentry can meet together, there are so many Ceremonies to be past, (which they scarce ever abridge in the greatest Extremities) that a Potent Enemy may overrun the Kingdom, before the Pospolite can well be got ready to oppose them. This was experienced when the Czar of Muscovy took Polocz and Smolensko from Sigismundus Augustus, who by reason of the disagreements at that time in the Diet, was never afterwards able to revenge it. The same Czar likewise invaded Livonia without opposition, through the like Defect, which he could never have effected with so good success, had the Poles been in a readiness to have marched against him; but they are generally so long in fitting out, and so unwilling to part with their beloved Luxury at the Diet, that they cannot easily change to the rougher exercise of War.  

Four things required to defend a State.  Boterus, in his Description of Poland, says, that four things are indispensibly requisite to the Defence of a State; and they are, 1. Native Force. 2. Numerous. 3. Potent. And 4. Expeditious. First, their Force ought to be Native, that they may not be betrayed by trusting it in the Hands of Strangers, who have not so great Interest in the Success as themselves. Secondly, Numerous, that they may always be able to bring on fresh Supplies in cases of Extremity. Thirdly, Potent, because Numbers without Courage would rather contribute towards their Defeat than Victory: And fourthly, Expeditious and Active, that they may be qualified for hasty Marches, and to rally upon the greatest Rout. Now, tho' the Poles have a sort of Claim to the three former of these Qualities, yet they are a little wanting in the latter, especially before they come into the Field, the causes of which may be the want of sufficient Authority in the Prince, or the slow and defective Supplies of Money, which has always been justly esteemed the Sinews of War. The insufficiency of the Prince's Power may appear all along in the reading of this History; and the defect in supplies of Money is apparent, by the bad Paying and Providing for the Army, for the Soldiers that are to receive Pay, are never paid above once in half a Year, and oftentimes not at all, but are forced to subsist upon Plunder, or upon what they can find in the Woods; nay, Hauteville says, they have sometimes been reduced to eat Horseflesh. As for the Officers, they receive no Pay above once a Year, and sometimes but once in two.  

Manner of paying the Army.  The manner of Paying them is particular, and therefore it may not be improper to present your GRACE with an account of it. Commissioners deputed by the Diet for this purpose are ordered to meet at a place that is a good way off from Court, to the end the King may not concern himself in it, tho' every thing there be done in his Name. Then they proceed to allot every Officer his quota, but they commonly retrench part of their due, especially where they are Foreigners, and which may the better be tolerated, because the Officers are generally at no charge to subsist and recruit their Companies, and yet their Commission runs, as if they had taken care of them, so that however the Soldiers suffer, the Officers have no reason to complain.  

The Rokosz, and its manner of proceeding.  By the Armies being so seldom paid, and sometimes not at all for want of Money, the Soldiers frequently Confederate together and Mutiny, the manner whereof is commonly this. The Officers after they have found that their repeated complaints both to Court and the Diet, prove fruitless, are wont to Assemble and make a Rokosz, which in the Polish Language implies, a forsaking their Generals. The Subaltern Officers being thus Assembled, Elect two among them, one for their Marshal, and another for their Lieutenant, which last they term their Substitute; both these they immediately make to Swear, That they will use their utmost endeavours to procure their Pay from the Republic. After this, the said Marshal forthwith takes upon him the Office of General; the sequel of which may be easily conjectured to be nothing but Ruin and Desolation; for then the Army instead of Marching against the Enemy or securing the Frontiers, minds nothing else but Plunder, Rapine and Destruction.  

Example.  An Example of this kind happened under the Reign of John Casimir, when one Swiderski was Marshal, and one Borzecki, his Lieutenant or Substitute. This Confederacy which was not easily quelled by the King, was thought to have been occasioned more by the influence of some Malcontents, who hoped to effect their Designs in such a Confusion, than for any great omission in paying the Army. 
Other inconveniencies which suppress the Pole's Power.   
There are other inconveniencies which introduce Confusion and Disorder into the Polish Army, and consequently Oppression of the people; and these flow chiefly from the Officers, and first from the General's being perpetual, the King being often obliged to give that great Charge to a rich Nobleman, that knows little or nothing of Warlike matters, yet when he has once bestowed it, he cannot recall his Grant, tho' he foresee never so many ill Consequences that attend it; so that it is no wonder if Poland often makes false steps in Martial Affairs, when it has frequently so unexperienced a Guide. On the contrary, if this high Command were only conferred on, and continued to Merit, what wonders might not the Polish Cavalry be able to perform? for being so vast a number of Horse, they might easily him in and Cut off the greatest Body of Foot, of which the Armies of their Enemies chiefly Consist. Another inconvenience proceeds from the ill Conduct and Remissness of the under Officers, the greatest whereof is that, especially those of the Gentry, seldom come to the place of Rendezvouz, till a Month or six Weeks after the time appointed, and this neither the King nor General dares offer to remedy, for fear of disobliging that serviceable Body. In like manner the Gentry are sometimes accustomed to leave the Army a Month before the Campaign is ended, which grievance is also not to be redressed without danger. The cause of their being so tardy in appearing, is in a great measure to be Attributed to the defective Orders given them; for when the Officers are Commanded to March to such or such a place in the Kingdom, neither the time they are to march in, nor the Towns they are to pass through, are comprehended, so that by these means they are at liberty, to delay on account of their own private Business, as much as they please, or else, to wander all over the Kingdom, either for their Profit or Pleasure; whereby the Country they March through is not a little damaged, and the best laid Designs of the Army frustrated by their Absence. Another Inconvenience arising from the Officers, is, That they employ so much Money in fitting themselves out with costly Arms, and splendid Equipage▪ that for want of timely Pay, they have seldom any thing left, in a little time, to support their Necessities: Which Defect they are wont to make up, by oppressing the People after an unreasonable manner. From this Extravagance of theirs, proceeds another Inconvenience to the State; For, after they have thus exhausted their Pockets, they usually lay the Occasion of their Misbehaviour either on the Court, or the Government, which, in the succeeding Diet, oftentimes produces great Heats and Disturbances. When any new Levies are to be made in Poland, the Officers not only excuse, for Money, what Places they think sit; but also, as I observed before, seldom pay the Soldiers the Rates that they are allowed for them; so that these latter are, in a manner, forced to pillage and plunder even their own Country, without their Officers being able to hinder them, by reason that they have first set them Examples for so doing.  

Means proposed to avoid these Inconveniences, but ever-ru●'d:  To avoid most of these Inconveniences, some discerning Politicians have proposed to the Diet, to keep the Soldiers always Encamped, to the end that they might be made more subject to Discipline, by disabling them from pillaging the Country; and by keeping them together, they might be always at hand to oppose the sudden Inroads of an Enemy. By these Means also, the People, being delivered from Oppression, would be the better able to pay their Taxes; which would remove that fatal Inconvenience, of the Army's being ill paid. This Advice some approved of, and argued for: But others vigorously opposed it; alleging, that it might be of very ill Consequence to intrust so great a Power in the Hands of one Person, their General; and to confide it to more than one, would, probably, through Emulation, occasion no less Disorder and Danger to the Commonwealth. After a great many Debates, Pro and Con, these last got the better, and prevailed to have the Army continue in the same Disorder as before.  

●reat Force of Cavalry notwithstanding; with Examples.  Notwithstanding all these Inconveniences that the Polish Government lies under as to Military Affairs, yet, in time of Action, their Cavalry especially, have effected Wonders; a few Examples of which it may not be improper to entertain Your GRACE with, out of Starovolscius. He begins with the Reign of Sigismond I. and says, That the General Lesniovius, with not above 1500 Spear-men, routed above 40000 Moscovites, killing upwards of 9000 on the Spot. In like manner, another General, Boratinius, with 2000 Horse, defeated 30000 Moscovites, killing 7000 of them, and bringing away all their Cannon. In the same Reign likewise, Camenecius, with only 6000 Horse, overthrew above 25000 Tartars. And about the same time, Tarnovius, with 4000, beat 22000 Turks and Null, taking from them above 52 Field-Pieces. In Sigismond II's Reign, Duke Radzivil, with 7000 only, routed 30000 Moscovites, and took from them the Castle of Ula: And Prince Sapieba, with 5000, both defended the Fortress of Venda, and defeated the Besiegers, which were upwards of 24000 Moscovites and Livonians. Under King Stephen, General Zborowski, with scarce 2000 Horse, discomfited the whole Army of Dantzic-Rebels, made up out of several Nations, and left above 8000 dead upon the Spot. Also, in Sigismond iii Time, General Zamoski, with scarce 6000 Horse, beat the Archduke Maximilian, who had with him about 18000 Men: He likewise repulsed the Tartars with only 3000 Men, who were coming to invade Poland with 70000. About the same time also, Chodkievicz, with no more than 3000, routed the Suedes in Livonia, killing 9000, and taking 4000 Prisoners. Starovolscius has some few other Instances of the Polish Valour; but whether what I have already mentioned will be credited by your GRACE, and the Public, I am not able to determine: However, I may affirm, that this Author hath never hitherto been esteemed for Fabulous.  

Two Qualities necessary in War.  What I have remaining to say, as to the Poles Force, is, That however great it has hitherto been, yet is it rather to be attributed to their good Fortune, than Conduct; for two principal Qualities to make a Warlike Enterprise especially, successful, have ever been Strangers to them: These are, The Power to keep a Secret; and an exact Intelligence of their Enemy's Advances, and Condition. As to a Secret, which is the Soul of all great Proceedings; that is so little observed in Poland, that scarce the meanest Officer in the Army, but knows what the General intends to do almost as soon as himself: And, for Intelligence of the Posture and Capacity of the Enemy, by reason they make use of no Spies, they never know any thing of the matter till they happen to meet a Party, and take them Prisoners; from whom they are accustomed to extort Confessions in Cases of Obstinacy.  

Soldiers Pay; from what it arises, and how raised.  As to the Pay of the Polish Army, I have showed before how it is executed; now I must give some short Account, from what it arises, and the manner of Raising it. It arises either from Occasional Impositions, or Perpetual Customs, and Yearly Taxes: Of the former Kind, are, a General Poll, or Capitation; and Voluntary Gifts of the Clergy, for they cannot be Taxed by the State. Of the latter Sort, are, All fixed Duties upon the Jews, Tartars, Land, Merchandise, Art, etc. From Yearly Taxes, all Scholars, and such as busy themselves in Study, are excepted. The Fourth Part of the King's Revenue, set apart for maintaining a Guard on the Frontiers, may likewise be ranked under this Denomination of Fixed Duties. The manner of Raising these Taxes and Duties, is, for the most part, left to the King's Discretion, tho' sometimes the Diet assumes that Authority, as likewise to supervise the Distribution of the Money raised. It may be observed, that a Collector's Office is to last no longer than the Imposition he is to collect.  

Provisions and Ammunition, what.  As to Provisions, there are no Sutler's in the Polish▪ Army, for two Reasons; First▪ Because they would never be paid for what they sold; and then, tho' they durst venture, yet they would run no ordinary risk to be plundered before they reached the Camp; and this especially by the Lithuanians, who are generally more given that way than the Poles. There are likewise no Magazines, as in other Countries; so that the Officers especially are obliged to have great Equipages, and many Carriages, to convey their Necessaries along with them, wherever they march: Among these, their Tents are extraordinary fine, tho' very heavy. Also, neither the King, nor Republic of Poland, has any public Armouries, or Arsenals; tho' it be true that Uladislaus Jagello instituted some few Repositories for Great Cannon, yet, which are now of no great Consequence; and those, which are in far greater Numbers, and much more useful, are chiefly in the Hands of the Gentry, or in the great Cities; whence, as often as the King has Occasion, he either takes them at Pleasure, or at Sufferance.  

Gun-Founders, Foreign.  Poland likewise being not wanting in Metal, several new Cannon are founded, whenever the Old become unserviceable; the which, for the most part, is performed by the Germans, the Poles not being so skilful in that Art. The Arms the Polanders generally use, I have spoken of before; yet it may not be improper to add what Hartknoch says of the Ancient Polish Historians; which is, That they affirm, that formerly the Poles made use of a very heavy sort of Arms; insomuch that when Boleslaus II. in his Expedition against the Prussians, waded with his Army through the River Ossa, many of his Soldiers were drowned merely by the Weight of their Arms.  

For Fortifications.  For Castles, Poland has a great Number, scarce any considerable City or Town being without one; yet which are now of little or no Use, except some few which are still kept up, the rest being suffered to decay by the Nobles that have got Possession of them. The Cause of the first Fortifications in Poland was on Account of the frequent Incursions of its Neighbours; tho' Now (says Starovolscius, speaking of himself, and his Country▪ men) being not desirous of invading others, we find that we are sufficiently capable to defend ourselves with our Bodies; though, were we otherwise inclined, we might raise as strong Fortifications as any in Europe; yet, which we look upon to be not so consistent with true Courage and Valour.  

Pretended Advantages thereby.  It is certain, that Unfortifyed Countries lie most exposed to sudden Eruptions, as this Kingdom of Poland has often experienced: But then this Mischief continues but a little while; for, as soon as the Nobility can be got together, the Invaders are generally forced to retire; as may appear by several Examples in our Modern Histories alone. These Maxims of the Poles, to have few or no Fortified Places, are founded upon several potent Reasons; for they thereby promote the Personal Valour of their own Men, and weaken that of their Enemies, by not leaving either a Place of Retreat. If we reflect on those States that have a great many Fortifications, we shall find, that with the Loss of but one Battle, they have been in a manner ruined; for the Enemies being once got into their Strong-Holds, are not easily forced out of them: When, on the contrary, the Poles always rally in a Field-Battle; and having no Places to retire to, either for themselves, or their Enemies, never give out till they have totally excluded their Invaders. Besides, the Poles look upon Garrisons to be the Promoters of Effeminacy and Softness, by the Examples of several Heroes of Antiquity; for the Courages of Alexander and Hannibal were altogether enervated by their Revels at Persepolis and Capua; and Boleslaus, buried, as it were, in his Debauches at Kiovia.  

Generals; their Power and Duration.  Next, I must proceed to present Your GRACE with an Account of the General Officers of the Army: And first, Of the Generals, whereof there are two; one for the Kingdom, and another for the Great Duchy, as I have observed before. He that is for the Kingdom, is styled Hetman Wielki Koronni; and he for the Duchy, Hetman Wielki W. X. Litheuskiego. These, as I have said before, have almost the same Power with the King, whilst they continue in the Field, over their respective Armies; for their Authority is altogether independent on each other. This Dignity does not entitle them to sit in the Senate; yet, for the most part, they are chosen out of the Senatorian Order, and that to procure them the greater Respect; and sometimes they have, at the same time, been the highest Officers in the Kingdom; as, Great Marshal, Great Chancellor, etc. for John Zamoski was both Great Chancellor and General at once. Yet this was afterwards abrogated; and now the Office of General, or Lieutenant- General, is usually conferred either upon the Palatins, or Castellans; who, altho' they be in a manner superior to the Great Officers of the Kingdom, in respect of their Sitting in the Diet, when the others are to stand about the King; yet they are not presumed to have so great a Power in the Republic. This Office was, not long since, perpetual; but now, by the Constitutions in the Year 1666. it is to expire at the End of three Years.  

Lieutenant Generals, their Power  Each of these Generals has his Lieutenant- General. The Office of these is described in the Letter to his GRACE the Duke of NORFOLK, and therefore need not be repeated here. The Title the Poles give the former is Hetman Polny Koronni; and to the latter, Hetman Polny W. X. Litheuskiego. In the absence of the Generals they have almost the same Power with them, and formerly had equal, tho' the Generals were present, but that was afterwards abrogated. They are chosen out of the Senatorian Order, in like manner as the Generals.  

Other Generals Officers▪  Besides these, there are the Generals of the Frontier-Guards, which are independent on all but the King and Diet: Likewise the General of the Cosacks, whose power is established by the Constitution in the Year 1661. Next may be reckoned the Chief Commander of the King's Guards in the Camp, whose Office has been described already in the Letter beforementioned. Next to these General-Officers come the Great Masters of the Artillery, whereof there are two, one for the Kingdom, and another for the Great Duchy; Their Office is to take charge of, and to provide the Armies with all sorts of Cannon, etc. and to see the Soldiers want for no Ammunition. After these may be ranked the Pissarsz of the Army, that is to say, the Intendant, the Great Ensign, the Camp-Marshal, the Captain of the Guard, or Watch; and lastly, the Major- Generals, which are much the same with our Brigadiers.  

Other Officers of the Army.  Then come the Colonels, Captains, etc. There are two other sorts of Officers belonging to the Army, which are the Camp-Notaries, and the Roto-Magistri. The former are to take an exact account of the number of Soldiers in the Army every three Months, and to transmit a Copy thereof to the Great Treasurer, and another to the Nuncio-Marshal; but in Lithuania this is to be done every Month, and the Nuncio-Marshal's Copy is to be given to the General. The Roto-Magistri are, as it were, Captains, or Centurious of the Frontier-Guards, and who cannot by the Constitutions, enjoy such a Commission, and be Senators at the same time.  

Some few particulars of the Poles Jus Belli.  As to the Laws relating to Arms, Your GRACE may first be pleased to understand, that tho' the King cannot properly be said to declare War without the unanimous consent of the Diet, yet in cases of sudden Incursions▪ he might formerly with the Approbation only of such of the Senators as were then about him; And under Sigismond III. there was a Council of War assigned by the Diet, or elected by the little Diets, amounting to a considerable number, to attend and advise in those matters, which Council continues even at this day; however, with this restraint, That what they do is not altogether valid, till it has been confirmed by the General Diet; but, as to offensive War, that belongs peculiarly to the Great Diet to declare. The King in like manner cannot either give to, or receive Assistance from any Foreign Prince, without the consent of the General Diet; neither can he place any Foreigner in the custody of Castles or Forts, without their Approbation. The Poles have many other Laws concerning Martial Discipline, which I have not Room here to Insert, only I may take notice to Your GRACE, that Deserters are punished not only with the loss of their Reputation, but also whatever else they have in the World is Confiscated to the sole use and benefit of the Army. By the Laws also, no Women are suffered to follow the Camp, tho' too great a number of Servants and useless Rabble are allowed of, insomuch, that in an Army of but 10000 Men, there will at least be 50000 of that Gang.  
Thus, my Lord, I have presumed to present your GRACE with what particulars I could find, as well in the best Polish Historians▪ as in some private Memoirs, relating to the Military Affairs in Poland, and which, I hope, tho' not capable to afford what satisfaction might be expected, may, at least, give no occasion of Offence.  
I am, My LORD, Your Grace's most Humble and most Obedient Servant, J. S.   

LETTER VII.  
To his Excellency Monsieur de CLEVERSKERK, Ambassador in Ordinary to his Majesty WILLIAM III. from the States of Holland.  
Of the Trade, Coin, and Riches of Poland, with an Account of the Famous City of Dantzic, its Manners, Privileges, Strength, and Revenues.  
MY LORD,  
TRADE has ever been justly esteemed so necessary towards the Support and Grandeur of any State, that no Nation in the World has hitherto been found so Stupid, as to be without it. Some Countries indeed, have wholly confined it to the limits of their own Dominions, but how much they have been in the wrong, may appear from the vast advantages which Foreign Commerce has brought to other Nations. England and Holland are sufficient Demonstrations of this Assertion, who, during the late War, have been thereby able to contribute so largely towards the opposing a Potent Monarch, who otherwise might have been so far from affording such wonderful Concessions, as we have obtained by the late happy Peace, that he might rather, in all Probability, have overrun the greatest part of Europe.  

Poles not much inclined to Trade, and why.  As for the Trade of Poland, my Lord, the Poles are but little addicted to industry of that kind, the Gentry being absolutely forbid it on the forfeiture of their Honour, and the Commonalty for the most part wanting Funds sufficient to promote it; therefore, what Trade they have is chiefly followed by Foreign Merchants. Besides, those of the Poles, who have the best Fortunes, generally spend too much of their Revenues in costly Habits and Luxury to be able to undergo any considerable matters in Traffic. Also this Kingdom of Poland is not in the least commodious for such an undertaking, it not having any considerable Port, that of Dantzic only excepted, which would suffice for the exotic Trade of so vast a Country. Hence it follows, that what Commodities are transported into Foreign Countries are so very inconsiderable, that tho' they are of several sorts, and of general use, yet being counterpoised by the incredible quantity, and richer variety of foreign Merchandise, they scarce suffice for Balance to the Cloth, Silk, Jewels, Tapestry, Fruit, Spice, Saltfish, Wine, Tin, Steel, etc. Imported from England, Flanders, Portugal, Spain, etc.  

Commidities Exported and Imported.  Starovolscius enumerates the divers particulars Exported and Imported, wherein it may not be improper to follow him. He says, that over and above those already mentioned, there are likewise rich Furs, Gold and Silver, both wrought and unwrought, and great variety of Kickshaws and Delicacies Imported, and as for what are Exported, they are Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, Millet, and all sorts of Grain and Pulse, Wool, Hemp, Flax, Hops, a sort of Herb for Dying, Hides, Tallow, Tanned Leather, Furs brought out of Musaovy, but dressed here, and transported from hence. Likewise Polish Furs, Honey, Wax, Amber, Pitch, Pot-ashes, Masts, Planks, and several Materials both for Shipwrights and other Builders. Poland also exports, Salt, Beer, Opium, Vitriol, Nitre, Lapis Lazuli, vermilion, Brass, Led, Iron, Copper, Pit-Coal, Glass, and Earthen Ware. Moreover it supplies the Neighbouring Countries with Horses very much coveted for their swiftness, hardiness, and easy pace. It also furnishes other Nations with vast numbers of Oxen, Sheep, Hogs, etc. with which it greatly abounds.  

But little Money, and why.  Notwithstanding all these Exportations, yet as I said before, the Trade of Poland is overbalanced by Foreign Commodities, whence it comes to pass, that there is but little Money to be met with in that Kingdom. What small matters the Merchants receive for their Goods at Dantzic, they generally give to the Hungarians, etc. for Wine; nevertheless, they have some Foreign Coin, and some of their own stirring amongst them.  

Coin most current in Poland.  That which is most current in the Kingdom, is either all of Copper, or Copper mixed with Silver, tho' they have likewise some few Silver and Gold Coins of their own. The two first of these sorts are the most common, and which are always Coined in such small pieces, that it is very troublesome either receiving or paying out any Sum. Of the first kind are their Chelons', being of Copper Silvered over, whereof three make a Polish Gross, (the Grosses of Dantzic being of greater value) and three Grosses, the value of Two Pence of their Money: Tho' Hauteville says, these nine Chelons' are not worth above a French Sous.  

Contributes to Poverty.  This base Polish Coin contributes very much towards the Poverty of this Kingdom. It was introduced on Account of Necessity, when the Poles had no Money to pay their Army, which began to Confederate, and join in a Rokosz, for want of it. It is not likewise of late Days that this Coin has been introduced, for the Officers of Casimir III. are said to have coined it; and which was afterwards grievously exclaimed against at the Diet held at Petrikow, in the Year 1459, under the Reign of Casimir the Great. In those Days, it seems, the Kings had a Power to coin Money; and the first that resigned his Right to the Republic, was Sigismond III. in the Year 1632.  

Other Coins.  The next of their Coins are called Choustacks, being small pieces of Silver of base alloy, whereof three make a Tinfe, which is also a sort of Silver Money of base Alloy. This was first Coined to satisfy the Mutinous Army in the Year 1663., of the value of about 15 d. These Coins are not the same in Prussia and Dantzic, as shall be showed hereafter. The Polish Silver Coins of good Alloy, are the Attine, or four pence halfpenny, and the Trigross, and Segross, the former of which two last is three, and the latter six times the value of a Gross: Yet of these three there are at this day but very few remaining. As for Gold Coins, Casimir the Great was the first that caused any to be stamped in Poland, but of which, either Coined by that King or his Successors, there are few now made use of, the Silver and Gold Coins that have any Currency in the Kingdom, being for the most part Foreign. Those of Gold are Ducats, which are worth two French Crowns, or two Germane Rixdollars. Those of Silver are generally of the Germane Coin.  

Poles not very rich, and why.  Tho' it may hereby appear, that the Polish Wealth is not over considerable, yet says Starovolscius, it has always been sufficient to defray the Expenses of the Kingdom, without the help of any Neighbours, tho' the same Author afterwards gives this Character of his Countrymen; that they are not over rich by reason of their sending the greatest part of their Commodities abroad, and generally receiving nothing in return, but such as serve to support Luxury, and encourage Vice. Hauteville gives another reason why the Poles may not be so rich as formerly, which is, because of the many and frequent Incursions of the Muscovites, Turks, Cosacks, and Tartars into this Kingdom, who were accustomed to carry off great numbers into slavery, and thereby to dis-people the Country; also by reason of the many bloody Wars, and sweeping Pestilencies which this Country has undergone.  

Particulars of Trade.  Having already spoken of the Trade of Poland in general, it may not be here amiss to entertain your Excellency with some particulars relating thereunto. And first I shall observe something of Salt, which was omitted in the first Volume of this Undertaking.  

Concerning Salt.  The Spaces, or Allies, which I there took notice of are formed by rows of large Pillars cut out of the Salt to keep the Earth from falling in, and which, by reflection of the Light make a very agreeable Prospect, seeming so many Rows of sparkling Crystal. The Salt is taken out of these Mines in huge Masses, and laid in heaps all about the entrance, whence it is transported in Carriages throughout the whole Kingdom, except Prussia only, where French Salt is alone made use of. This Salt is ground in Mills like Corn. The Gentry of this Kingdom have a right to any of these Mines, as likewise to those of any Metals found upon their Lands; there being by the Constitutions no Royal Mines in Poland, except those of white Salt only, which belong peculiarly to the King.  

No Fulling or Papermills.  Throughout all Poland and Lithuania there are a great many Corn and Cachat-Mills, but scarce any for Fulling, or Paper, yet which they might very well have, by reason of their great number of rapid Streams. In this, and in other respects, the Poles are very negligent of their own Interest, being content to pay great rates for Cloth and Paper, when they might easily have both of their own Manufacture.  

Concerning Leather and Fish.  As for Leather, tho' no People use it more, (having almost all Boots and Chariots, which they call Ridevans) yet do they not care to take the trouble of dressing it themselves, but suffer Foreigners to do it for them, and which commonly they pay very dear for when done. The Poles Trade very much in fresh Fish amongst themselves, and the manner of their Fishing, I imagine, may not be unacceptable to your Excellency, having something peculiar in it.  

Manner of Fishing.  Their Lakes and Fishponds in Poland and Lithuania being generally so large, that it would be almost impossible ever to drain them, They usually choose to Fish them in Winter when they are all frozen up. They first make a great hole in the Ice to let down their Nets, and afterwards several little ones from place to place, that they may draw them along from hole to hole with a Rope fastened to a long Pole, till they bring them back to the first large opening; When the two ends of the Nets are brought together, they pull them up, and bring out with them all the Fish that happen to be within the space of Water through which the Nets were drawn, for they cannot possibly leap over them, because of the Ice.  

Honey, and its Produce.  Throughout all Poland and Lithuania, there are huge quantities of Honey to be found in the Woods, either in hollow Trees, holes of the Ground, or any where else that the Bees can find to settle in. Of this Honey, as I said before, the People make several sorts of Mead, with which, and the Wax that comes from it, they Trade very much into the Neighbouring Countries. Now is it not a great wonder, that these Bees can produce so great plenty of Honey in so Cold a Climate? But it seems they find something in the Fir-Trees, whereof there are great numbers in every Wood, that supplies the place of Flowers, which they suck their materials from in other Countries.  

Former Trade of Prussia.  Before I proceed to give your Excellency a description of the Famous City of Dantzic, I must take some cursory Notice of the former Trade of Prussia, before its Inhabitants came to have the use of Money. In the XIIIth Century, the Teutonic Knights coming out of Germany into Prussia, brought along with them the Coin of their Country, for before that time the Prussians only bartered Commodities with their Neighbours. Their chiefest Trade than lay in Electrum, or Amber, of the Nature of which, Hartman, a late Germane Author gives this account. He says, that since it can neither be melted down nor is Malleable, it is impossible it should be Metal, and because it is too solid a Body to come under the Species of Sulphur, or Bitumen, it must necessarily be ranked among the precious Stones. This Amber is of divers Colours, and notwithstanding Hartman insinuates it to be always solid, yet is it certain, that sometimes it is as liquid as Oil. There is a black sort of it, which is no other than what we call Jet.  

A Description of the City of DANTZIC.  

●antzic here Si●ate.  TO come to the Description of Dantzic, (in Latin, Dantiscum, or Gedanum) your Excellency may be pleased to understand, that it is the Capital and Largest City in Royal- Prussia, and lies in 41 Degrees and 30 Minutes of Longitude, and in 54 Degrees and 20 Minutes of Latitude. It is Situate in one of the three Islands, (of which Regal Prussia consists) called by the Germane der Dantzicher Werder, the other two having the Names of der Marienbursche Werder, and der Elbings●her Werder. This Name Der Werder implies properly so many pieces of solid Ground encompassed by Fens and Bogs.  

By whom built, and whence so called.  By whom this City was first built remains as yet undetermined. Becanus will have the Danes to have been the Founders of it, and from them to have been called Danes-wick, i. e. Danes-Town; but this derivation seems to have too much Dutch in it, therefore it is more probable, that to the word Dan, Cdan, or Gdan, was added the Sclavonian term Scke, (signifying a Town) which made it Danscke, Cdanscke, or Gdanscke, and which might very reasonably be supposed afterwards, for better Pronunciation's sake, to be changed into Dantzig, or Dantzic. 
How distant from other places.  It is distant about 80 Polish Miles from Cracow, 40 from Posnan, 50 from Warsaw, 30 from Gnesna, 22 from Throne, 24 from Koningsberg, 8 from Elbing, 6 from Marienburg, and near 4 English Miles from the Baltic Sea, and is built on the borders of the Vistula, on the North-West side of the aforesaid Island.  

It's Division and Strength.  The Town itself is watered by the Rivers Rodawn and Motlaw, and divided by the former into two parts, the Old and the New; On the Southern and Western side it is surrounded with high Mountains, and was well fortified with Bulwarks against the Incursions of the Swedes, in the Year 1656. It has a large and high Wall, so broad, that Coaches easily go round the Ramparts, and so large in compass, that it is three hours' Journey round, which I may very well compute at six English Miles. At the Entrance of the Rodawn, on the other side, it has a strong Fort, wherein there is commonly kept a Garrison of 1000 Soldiers. It is impossible this City should be Bombarded from the Sea, by reason of its distance from it, but from the Neighbouring Hills it may, and therefore some Works are raised there, and always a certain number of Soldiers, with store of Cannon and Ammunition placed in them for its greater security.  

One of the Hanse- Towns,  This City is at present a famous Mart, and one of the principal of the Hanse-Towns, being altogether governed by its own Laws tho' under Protection of the Crown of▪ Poland, from which it has a Castellan appointed over it. Half of the Suburbs belong to that Crown, and the other half to the City; for in some Parts, the Crown-Lands reach to the Suburbs; but in others, the City-Lands go several Miles together into the Country.  

Parishes, Buildings, Streets, and Gardens.  There are Twenty Parishes in the City and the Suburbs. The Houses are generally of Brick; and the Streets most commonly very large, and well paved, tho' somewhat dirty in Winter, as most of the Towns in Poland are. The chief Part of the City, called by the Inhabitants Die rechte Stadt, was built by Conrade Wallenrodt, Master of the Teutonick Order, about the Year 1388. There are no Gardens in the City; but, nevertheless, several very fine and large ones in the Suburbs.  

Inhabitants, their Number and Religion.  The Inhabitants of this City and Suburbs are generally Germane, and computed to be upwards of Two Hundred Thousand Souls; whereof, the greater Part have adhered to the Auspurg Confession ever since the Year 1525. and the Lutherans alone are admitted to a Share in the Government: Yet all other Sects are tolerated, and allowed a free Exercise of their Religion.  

Churches,  The Public Buildings of this City are, First, Their Churches; whereof, there are two very famous, viz. St. Mary's, and St. Peter's; the former of which is, by much, the stateliest Fabric in all Prussia, being very highvaulted, and having in it exceeding fine Organs: Besides, it is said to have 48 Altars, 3722 Windows, and a Font, made at Antwerp, which cost 24000 Rixdollars, or 5400 Pounds Sterling.  

Town-House  Next, There is the Town-House, where the Magistrates sit. This is a very magnificent Fabric, with an exceeding high Spire. It has abundance of noble Inscriptions in several Rooms, into which it is divided. The Court of Judicature here is very fine, being all built with Freestone, and named Arlus-House, from its Founder.  

Three Magazines.  In this City are three Magazines; whereof, one is very considerable, and plentifully provided with all kinds of Stores and Ammunition for Land-Forces.  

A College, Exchange, etc.  Here is no University; but, however, a very famous College, with Professors of all Faculties; yet, who do not give the Degree of Doctor. Here is likewise a tolerable Exchange, for Merchants to meet in; The Palace of St. Dominick, a beautiful Edifice; A College for Jesuits, etc.  

Jurisdiction and Government.  The Jurisdiction of Dantzic extends to above 40 English Miles Circumference. It sends two Deputies to the Diet of Poland, as I have observed before, in the First Volume of this Book. The Absolute Government of it is in the Hands of Thirty Senators, Elders, or Magistrates; whereof, the greatest part are Persons of Learning, tho' some few are Merchants, but of no other Trade. None of the Clergy can be of this Magistracy, tho' any Foreigners may; yet, none of any other Religion but the Lutheran, except the Calvinist, whereof there must always be Four in the whole Senate.  

Senators and their Division.  The Senators, when once created, continue the same for Life. The first, and chiefest among them, are the Four Burgomasters, or, as they call them, Proconsul's; out of which a Precedent is chosen every Year, Under these, there are Thirteen Consuls, who choose the aforesaid Burgomasters out of their Body, as often as they die away. They likewise have the Choosing of all other Officers, belonging as well to the Old, as the New City.  

The Twelve Scabins, and Syndic.  There are Twelve Scabins, or Judges, for all manner of Process; from whom there lies Appeal to the Thirteen Consuls, and Four Burgomasters; and from thence, to the Court of Poland. The Thirtieth Senator is their Syndic, or Orator; who is like a Master of the Ceremonies, to receive and compliment any Foreign Ministers or Agents: He takes Place of all the Scabins, as the Consuls and Burgomasters do of him.  

Burgrave, to represent the King.  The King nominates every Year, out of the Consuls or Burgomasters, a Burgrave, to represent his Person in the Senate: And all Sentences of Death must be signed by him, in the King's Name; for no body can be executed here without such Signing. I may take notice to Your Excellency, that there is a Distinction in Executing Criminals of this City; for Natives must always be executed before Arlus-House; and Foreigners, near one of the Gates of the City, where the Prison lies. All that are executed in the City, are beheaded: But all Thiefs and Robbers are to be hanged about two Miles out of Town, at a famous Gallows, supported by four Pillars of Brick.  

Centumviris, their Power.  To represent the Grievances of the People, and to maintain their Privileges, there are an Hundred Burghers chosen, to inspect the Conduct of the Senate. They have likewise a Vote in Electing the Clergy, in Conjunction with the Senate. Within this City, and its Jurisdiction, there are no Bishops, but only a College of the Clergy, who have no Power, except to examine such as are designed to be Elected Priests, by the Senate and Centumviris; the manner of whose Election is this.  

Manner of Electing and Ordaining Priests.  The Candidate first makes his Application to the Clergy, to examine him; which done, they give him a Certificate, that they think him capable, and allow him a Liberty to preach: After which, the People or Congregation of some Parish present him to the Senate and Centumviris, desiring he may be Elected for their Minister; when, by Plurality of Voices, he is Elected accordingly, and thereupon sent back to the College of the Clergy, to be Ordained; which is performed by Imposition of Hands, Reading of Prayers, and some other Ceremonies. This is likewise the Manner of Electing and Ordaining the Clergy in most Lutheran Countries.  

Four Roman Catholic Churches.  In this City there are four Roman-Catholick Churches; whereof, one is the King's Chapel, and the rest are for Monks: There are also two for Calvinists, where the Senate has no Power to nominate the Clergy. I may here observe to Your Excellency, That in Dantzic there is a particular Custom, relating to Marriage; which is, That there is a Roman-Catholick Official, a Priest, who, by his Power, can oblige any Person to marry a Woman, that he has but promised, or given any Present to whatsoever, though the Party never meant any such thing; which occasions a great deal of Confusion and Disorder.  

King's Power and Revenues here.  As for the King's Power in this City, he can save any Body's Life that he pleases, tho' condemned to die by the Magistrates. To him half the Port-Customs come: And one Mill brings him in every Hour of the Day and Night, 24 Gold- Ducats. This Mill is moved by the Rodawn, which runs through the City. It grinds such a great Quantity of Corn all the Year round, that its Revenue amounts to 4320 Pounds Sterling to the State, and the King, beside the Profit made by the Proprietors. The City is obliged to put the King's Effigies on one Side of their Coin, tho' they commonly have their own Arms on the other. When the King comes thither, they are to treat him and his Court for three Days together: But, however, he can bring but a few of his Guards into the City. The Dantzickers are obliged to have always a Secretary at the Court of Poland; who, as Dr. Connor says, in his Time, was one Mr. Alberti, an ingenious Gentleman, now, or lately, Syndic of Dantzic.  

City-Power and Privileges.  As for the City-Privileges; They can coin their own Money without the King's Leave, choose their Magistrates, make their own Laws, and determine absolutely in Matters of Debt, to the value of 500 Guilders; but where the Action exceeds that Sum, an Appeal lies to the Tribunal of Poland: Yet, in such Case, the Appellant is obliged to lay down 100 Guilders in the Townhouse, before he can proceed; and this is, to deter People from making such Appeals for the Dantzickers do not much care that any of their Money should get into Poland, but where they cannot help it.  

Force by Land and Sea.  This City has always above 2000 Soldiers in Service, and they can easily maintain 12000; but in Cases of Necessity, they have been known to have raised 60000. For Ships, they have no Men of War, but abundance of Merchantmen, of 3 or 400 Tuns each, and 30 or 40 Guns apiece. They never Trade so far as the East or West-Indies; but into the straits, and all over Europe, they do.  

First Coin in Prussia.  Here it may not be improper to give Your Excellency some short Account of their present Coin in Dantzick: But first, by way of Digression, I may observe, that the Coin which the Teutonic Order brought into Prussia not proving sufficient to furnish that Country with Money, those Knights soon began to set up Mints, and to coin Money of their own there; which they performed with so much accuracy, that most Nations have allowed, that, wherever invented, the Art of Coining was there first brought to Perfection. This has been confirmed by the great Antiquary, Spelman; who was of Opinion, that our English Word Sterling came from the Easterlings, a People of Prussia; and who coming from thence, into England, first taught us the Art of Refining, and Coining purer Silver than we had before made use of.  

Present Coin in Dantzic.  The Species of Money now Current in Prussia, or rather in Dantzic, are these: Gold- Ducats, Ourts, Choustacks and Chelons'. A Ducat is worth two Rixdollars, or 9 Shillings English: An Ourt is a Silver Coin, equal to the French Piece of 15 Sous, and worth 18 Grosses of Dantzic, and 30 of Poland: A Choustack is of the value of 6 Dantzic-Grosses, or 10 Polish: And as for their Chelons', three of them make one of their Grosses. The farther Difference between the Polish Money and theirs, stands thus: The Tinfe, that is worth 30 Grosses of Polish Chelons', is worth but 18 of those of Dantzic: The Ducat, which is of the value of 12 Franks of Polish Chelons', is worth but 7 of the Current Money here: Five Choustacks, or an Ourt and two Choustacks, make a Livre of Dantzic-Money; because 5 Choustacks make 30 Grosses, and 30 Grosses make 20 Pence.  

How often taken and regained.  This City of Dantzic was taken from the Danes, by Sabislaus, Grandson to Swentorohus, about the Year 1186; and was seized by the Poles some short time after. The Knights of the Teutonic Order made themselves Masters of it in 1305; and Walled it round in 1314. Casimir III. King of Poland, surnamed The Great, regained it in 1454, and granted very great Privileges to the Citizens; who afterwards declaring for the Auspurg-Confession, sided with Maximilian of Austria, against Stephen Batori; insomuch that the latter proscribed, and even besieged them in 1577. but however, by the Mediation of other Princes, they were restored to their Religion and Liberties in 1597.  
In 1656. they vigorously repulsed the Suedes, and adhered to the Interest of John Casimir, King of Poland: And at present they make one of the Members of this State, having been admitted to a Suffrage in the Election of the Polish Monarches, in the Year 1632.  

Admitted to Vote in Election of Polish Kings.  This, my Lord, is what I have been able to gather from Dr. Connor's Memoirs, and the best Authors that have writ any thing of the Trade of Poland, and of the famous City of Dantzic, and wherein, if I may not be so happy as to correspond every where with your Excellency's greater Knowledge of those matters, I hope, at least, I may be excused upon account of my good will to entertain you, and the public, as far as my assistance went, which, if granted, will abundantly recompense the Endeavours of,  
My LORD, Your Excellency's Most Humble Servant, J. S.    

LETTER VIII.  
To the Right Honourable CHARLES Earl of Burlington.  
Of the Origin of the Teutonic Order, and the Succession of all its Great- Masters in the Holy-Land, Prussia, and Germany, together with its present State in the Empire.  
MY LORD,  
DR. Connor having designed this Letter for your Lordship's Entertainment, and not having had leisure to accomplish it himself, by reason of the urgency of his Profession, desired of me to Address it for him; but upon a just Reflection on the meanness of my Abilities, and an awful Regard to your Lordship's Grandeur, I found I had more than ordinary reason to decline it: Yet, however, upon balancing your goodness with your great Quality, and considering my well meaning at the same time with my attempt, I hoped I might not be so unfortunate as to Offend if I undertook it, and the rather, because of the great conformity which the subject I were to write of, had with the hopes which the Nation has in you.  
My LORD,  

Origin of Teutonic Order.  Your Lordship will here find, that this Order was first founded to reward and encourage Great Actions, and that particularly in the Germane Nation, whence it came to have the Title of Teutonic; for when the Emperor Frederic Barberossa had engaged in the Crusade for recovery of the Holy-Land, a great number of Germane Nobility and Gentry joined his Army as Volunteers. Of this Crusade were several other great Princes of Europe, such as Philip King of France; Richard I. King of England; Frederic Duke of Suabia; the Dukes of Austria and Bavaria; Philip Earl of Flanders; Plorant Earl of Holland, etc. After this Emperor's Death, the Germans being before Acon, or Ptolemais which they then besieged, chose for their Leaders Frederick Duke of Suabia, second Son to the aforesaid Emperor; and Henry Duke of Brabant. Under these Generals they behaved themselves so well, both at the taking of Acon, Jerusalem, and other places of the Holy-Land, that Henry King of Jerusalem, the Patriarch, and several other Princes, thought themselves obliged to do something extraordinary in honour of the Germane Nation. Hereupon they immediately resolved to erect an Order of Knights of that Nation, under the protection of St. George, but afterwards they changed that Saint for the Virgin Mary, by reason that she had an Hospital already founded on Mount Zion at Jerusalem for the relief of Germane Pilgrims, of the manner of building which, Ashmole, in his Order of the Garter gives this following account.  

Who built their Hospital of Jerusalem.  He says, that in the time of the Holy-War, a wealthy Gentleman of Germany, who dwelled at Jerusalem, commiserating the condition of his Countrymen coming thither on Devotion, and neither understanding the language of that place, nor knowing where to lodge, received them hospitably into his House, and gave them all manner of suitable Entertainment. Afterwards obtaining leave of the Patriarch, he erected a Chapel for them, and Dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, whence the Knights that were established there afterwards, came to have the Title of Equites Mariani. Other Germane Gentlemen contributed largely to the maintaining and increasing this Charitable Work, insomuch, that in a short time these Knights became very numerous and wealthy, and gave themselves to Military Employments, and to acts of Piety and Charity.  

Their Order confirmed, and by what Title.  In the Year 1190 they elected their first Great Master, Henry Walpot, and in the Year following had their Order confirmed, upon the request of the Emperor Henry VI by the Rull of Pope Celestine III. under the Title of Teutonic, or Dutch Knights, of the Hospital of St. Marry the Virgin, vowing Poverty, Obedience, and Chastity, and obliging themselves to receive none but Germans into their Order.  

Another Hospital; with their removal into Germany and Prussia.  After they had thus received Confirmation from the Papal See, some rich Citizens of Breme and Lubeck joining with them, and making large Contributions, another Hospital was erected for them in the City of Acon, or Ptolemais in Syria. But after that City, together with Jerusalem, and all the Holy-Land had been taken by the Saracens, under the Command of Saladin, having been in the possession of the Christians for more than 87 Years before. One Hermannus, then Great Master, with the remaining Knights, removed into Germany, on whom the Emperor Frederic XI. and Pope Honorius III (or as some will have it, Conrade, Duke of Masovia in 1226) in the Year 1229 bestowed the Province of Prussia, where having Conquered 
Marienburg built.  that Nation, and reduced it from Paganism to Christianity, they built the City of Marienburg, or Mary-Town; and in the Year 1340, fixed the Residence of their Great Masters there.  

For sake Prussia, and wherefore.  This Country they enjoyed till about the Year 1525, when Albert, Marquis of Brandenburg, the last Great Master of this Order, by a Solemn Renunciation became Feudatory to Sigismond King of Poland, who raised Prussia to a Dukedom, and made this Marquis first Duke thereof; but however, some of the Knight's disliking this Action, proceeded to Elect another Great Master, which was Walter de Cronberg, and forthwith leaving Prussia, seated themselves in Germany, where they continue at this day, tho' in no great Reputation, except, that the younger Sons of the Germane Princes are commonly admitted of their Order.  

Their Statutes, Habit, Number, and Manners.  Their Statutes were composed after the Model of those of the Knights Hospitallers, and Knights Templars, at this day the Knights of Malta; but nevertheless, to distinguish them from these Orders, their Habit was ordained to be a white Mantle, with a plain black Cross on the Breast, tho' others will have it to have been a black Cross Voided with a Cross- Potence. This Cross they were also to have upon white Banners, as likewise upon their Shields, and in their Coats of Arms: They were moreover enjoined to live conformable to the Order and Rules of St. Austin. Their first number was 24 Lay-Brothers, and 7 Priests; yet Heysse, in his History of the Empire, Tom I. says, they were at first 40. They both were allowed to wear Armour and Swords, and might Celebrate Mass in that Habit. None of them shaved their Beards, but by their Order were obliged to let them grow, and to sleep upon sacks of Straw: But however, this, with their other primitive Injunctions soon vanished.  

Are much favoured by several Princes.  This order being established after the manner as we have showed before, all Christian Princes endeavoured to give them encouragement; and among the rest, the Pope and Emperor gave them particular proofs of their Favour and Liberality. Philip King of France also being willing to do the like on his part, made them great presents, and moreover, granted their Great Master a liberty to wear the Flower deluccs on the 4 extremities of their Cross.  

Great Masters in Prussia.  Their Power and Force in War will appear in the following succinct account, and Series of their several Great Masters.  

I Great Master, 1190.  Their first Great Master, as I observed before, was Henry Walpot, a Native of Germany, Elected in the Year 1190, who died, and was buried at Acon, or Ptolemais.  

TWO Great Master, 1200.  The Second Great Master of this Order was Otho de Kerpen, a Nobleman of Germany, who after having enjoyed this Office but 6 Years died, and was buried at Acon.  

III Great Master, 1206.  The Third Great Master was Herman Barth of Alsace, who was Elected under Pope Innocent III. and the Emperor Philip II. he presided over these Knights only 4 Years, than died, and was buried at Acon. Under these two Great Masters this Order first began to increase and flourish.  

IV Great Master, 1210.  The fourth Great Master was Herman a Salzen, a Nobleman of Misnia, under the several Pontificates of Pope Innocent III. Honorius, and Gregory IX. and in the Reigns of the Emperor's Otho and Frederic II. This Master obtained great Privileges for his Order, both from the aforesaid Popes and Emperors. And John King of Jerusalem, for their having protected him against Conrade King of Syria, added to the Arms of this Order, a Cross- Potence Or, which were the proper Ensigns of that Kingdom. In his time Conrade, Marquess of Thuringen was admitted of the Order. He had above 2000 Germane Noblemen and Knights in his Order at once, all which he governed for about 30 Years. During his Administration, his Order having been driven out of the Holy-Land by the Saracens, settled in Prussia to the number of 20000, and by help of the Poles, soon expelled the Pagan Prussians out of the Province of Culmigeria, He lies buried at Marienburg, which he built.  

V Great Master, 1240.  The Fifth Great Master was Conrade Marquis of Thuringen, who was Elected under the Pontificat of Celestine IU. and the Reign of the Emperor Frederic II. He very much augmented the Conquests of his Order, and restored many ruinous Fabrics. He built Koningsberg, in Ducal- Prussia, and lies buried at Marienburg.  

VI Great Master, 1252.  The Sixth Great Master was Poppo ab Osternaw, in the time of Pope Innocent IU. and of the Emperor Conrade IU. He had several glorious Conquests over the Prussians, Livonians, and Swentopelus Duke of Pomerania, but at length, before the City of Lignitz, was killed and routed by the Tartars, who had almost overrun all Sarmatia (Poland) and was afterwards buried at Uladislaw. It is said that the aforesaid Swentopelus had been so extremely beaten by these Knights, that he was forced to clap up a Peace with them, and afterwards on his Deathbed, earnestly recommended to his Children, to preserve the Friendship he had Contracted: But however, Mestowin, his eldest Son forgetting his Father's Orders, declared War anew against them, but being likewise beaten, the Knights overrun all Pomerania, and at length forced this Duke to a Peace: And moreover, 3 of his Brothers, whereof the Eldest was named Sambor, became Knights of this Order.  

VII Great Master, 1263.  The Seventh Great Master of the Teutonic Order was Johannes Sangerhusensis, who took upon him that Office under the Pontificat of Alexander IU. He very much allayed the Insolence of the Pagan Prussians, and in great measure, regained the credit of his Order forfeited to the Tartars. He Ruled 12 Years, and lies buried at Treves. In his time the City of Brandenburg was built.  

VIII Great Master, 1275.  The Eighth Great Master was Hartman Count of Heidelberg, who was Elected in the time of Pope Clement IU. and of the Emperor Rodolfe I. He was a very industrious Person, and got great ground of the Prussians. In his time the Castle of Marienburg was built in the Year 1281. He died, and was buried at Venice.  

IX Great Master, 1283.  The Ninth Great Master of this Order was Buchardus à Swenden, Elected in the time of Pope John, and the Emperor Rodolfe I. Under his Administration of Affairs the Prussians were totally reduced. After 7 Years enjoyment of his Office, he Abdicated it, and lived afterwards at Rhodes, where he lies buried.  

X Great Master, 1290.  The Tenth Great Master was Conrade de Feuchtwangen, who was Elected in the time of the Emperor Rodolfe I. and Pope Nicholas IU. Although this Order made considerable progress under his Administration, yet, at length, it received a great check in Syria, where the City of Acon, which had been the chief Seat of this Order for some time, was taken by the Sultan of Egypt. He died at Prague, and was buried at Trebnicz.  

XI Great Master, 1297.  The Eleventh Great Master was Godfrey Count of Hohenloh, who was Elected, Adolphus being Emperor, and Celestine V. Pope. He was a Venetian born, and governed this Order 10 Years; he retook Riga in Livonia from the Russians, and caused its Fortifications to be demolished, but not long after he restored the Inhabitants to their ancient Privileges, having built a Castle there to awe them. He at length resigned his Office, and died in Germany.  

XII Great Master, 1307.  The Twelfth Great Master was Sigfridus de Feuchtwangen, in the time of Albert Duke of Austria's being Emperor, and Clement Pope. He removed his Seat from Marpurg to the Castle of Marienburg; for this Order had resided there ever since their being obliged to leave Syria. This Master ruled only 2 Years, and died and was buried at Marienburg.  

XIII Great Master, 1309.  The Thirteenth Great Master was Charles Beffart, Elected in the Reign of the Emperor Henry, and the Pontificate of Pope Clement V. He was a very Wise and Warlike Person, and in the Year 1312 founded the Castle of Memula in Courland, to hinder the Incursions of the Lithuanians. Upon his return from Rome, whither he had been cited for, and cleared of Maladministration, he died at Vienna, where he lies buried.  

XIV Great Master, 1322.  The Fourteenth Great Master was Vernerus Urselensis, Elected in the time of the Emperor Lewis V. and Pope John. He executed his Trust with a great deal of Fidelity and Bravery, and was afterwards Murdered by a Brother of the Order, one John Bunsdorfius, while he was going out of the Church from Vespers.  

XV Great Master, 1325.  The Fifteenth Great Master was Lewis D. of Brunswick. He was a very Prudent and Pious Man, but ruled only four Years.  

XVI Great Master, 1329.  The Sixteenth Great Master was Districhus Count Algemburg, Elected when he was 80 Years old. He was a Person of Great Eloquence, Authority and Justice. After having built St. Mary's Church at Marienburg, he died at Thorn, and was buried at St. Ann's in Marienburg.  

XVII Great Master, 1339.  The Seventeenth Great Master was Rodolfe Duke of Saxony, Elected in the time of the Emperor Lewis V. and Pope Benedict XI. He gathered great Forces together, and Besieged and took Neumarcovia. In the Interim the Lithuanians invaded Prussia, overrunning all with Fire and Sword, which this good Master took so much to heart, that he first became Mad, then was deposed from his Office, and afterwards died of Grief at Marienwerder, where he was buried.  

XVIII Great Master, 1342.  The Eighteentth Great Master was Henry de Desmer, or Tuchmer, Elected in the Pontificate of Clement VI He had a Famous Battle with the Lithuanians and Russians, wherein he killed above 10000 of the Enemy. He died and was buried at Marienburg.  

XIX Great Master, 1348.  The Nineteenth Great Master was Henry de Kniprodien, Elected in the time of Pope Clement VI, and of the Emperor Charles III. The foregoing War with the Lithuanians and Russians broke out a fresh in his time, wherein the Great Duke of Lithuania, Keystutus, was taken Prisoner and carried to Marienburg, whence he afterwards escaped by means of a Servant. In this Great Master's time, one of the Sons of the aforesaid Great Duke became a Christian at Koningsberg, and afterwards was made a Prince of the Empire, by the Emperor Charles IV. During his Administration, which was about 31 Years, this Order abounded in Learned Men. He died at Marienburg, and was there buried.  

XX Great Master, 1379.  The Twentieth Great Master was Conrade Zolner, Elected in the time of the Emperor Wenceslaus, and of Pope Urban VI He had several contests with the Lithuanians and Samogitians, during the several Reigns of Keystutus, Jagello, Votoldus, and Suidrigielo, Great Dukes of Lithuania. He died and was buried at Marienburg, after 8 Years Administration of the Government of this Order.  

XXI Great Master, 1388.  The Twenty first Great Master was Conrade de Valenroden, Elected during the Papacy of Pope Boniface. He was a Person of a very Warlike Disposition, but withal of an odd Temper: He hated and refused his Ecclesiastical Brother's access to him at the hour of his Death. In his time this Order made a Descent upon Lithuania, by way of the River Niemen, and built three Magazines near the Castle of Cowno, by help of which they made great devastations in that Country for a considerable time.  

XXII Great Master, 1394.  The Twenty second Great Master was Conrade de Jungingen. He was of a very peaceable Temper, and therefore not much beloved by his Order. However, he ruled 12 Years, and afterwards died at Marienburg, and was there buried.  

XXIII Great Master, 1404.  The Twenty third Great Master was Ulric de Jungingen, Brother to the aforesaid Conrade. He was Elected in the time of the Emperor Rupert, and of Pope Gregory XII. He was of a Warlike Temper, and to that degree, that he deviated not a little from his Order: He Persecuted his Brothers, and took several of their Possessions from them. After several Wars had with the Poles and Lithuanians, Jagello, King of Poland, and Vitoldus, Great Duke of Lithuania gave him a total overthrow, wherein this Great Master with about 200 Commendadors, and 5000 other Knights was killed, and his General taken Prisoner, altho' at the first onset the Lithuanians lost about 7000 Men.  

XXIV Great Master, 1406.  The Twenty fourth Great Master was Henry Count of Plaven, Elected in the time of the Emperor Sigismond, and Pope John. This Person was resolved to revenge the late overthrow on the Poles, but before he could effect any thing considerable, he was deposed, thrown into Prison at Engelsburg, and thence removed to Lecksteg, where, after 7 years' confinement he died in Chains, and was buried at Marienburg.  

XXV Great Master, 1414.  The Twenty fifth Great Master was Michael de Sterbergen, Steward of the Household to the Emperor Sigismond. In the very first year of his Government Jagello and Vitoldus took from him and destroyed several Cities, but were at length forced to retire. He governed this Order 9 years, but afterwards desiring his Quietus, he obtained it, died at Dantzic, and was buried at Marienburg.  

XXVI Great Master, 1323.  The Twenty six Great Master was Paul de Rusdorfien, Elected in the time of Pope Martin: During his Administration several of the Provinces and Cities of Prussia shook off the Teutonic Yoke, and revolted to Casimir IV. King of Poland. He enjoyed this Office nine Years also, but dying was buried at Marienburg.  

XXVII Great Master, 1432.  The Twenty seventh Great Master was Conrade ab Herlingshausen, Elected in the time of the Emperor Albert III. This Great Master treated Casimir King of Poland at Thorn, where at that time there was an inviolable Peace struck up between them. This Person had no Wars during his Regency, and at last died of Grief, on account of his Brother's perverseness. He was buried at Marienburg.  

XXVIII Great Master, 1450.  The Twenty eighth Great Master was Lewis ab Herlingshausen, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frederic III. During his Administration a farther part of Prussia revolted to the aforesaid Casimir, to whom also the Garrison of Marienburg sold that City for 476000 Florins, together with several other Cities and Castles. Afterwards the King of Poland enters again into a Peace with this Order, by which means he obtained Pomerania, for which the Poles had contested with these Knights for upwards of 150 Years, This Great Master died and was buried at Koningsberg.  

XXIX. Great Master, 1467.  The Twenty ninth Great Master of this Order was Henry Rhews, Count of Plaven, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frederic III. He only governed eleven Weeks, and then died and was buried at Koningsberg.  

XXX Great Master. 1468.  The Thirtieth Great Master was Henry Count of Richtenberg, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frederic III. and of Pope Sixtus IU. He was a Man of a very turbulent and inexorable temper, for he threw Theodore a Prussian Bishop into Chains, and suffered him to die with Hunger. He governed this Order twelve Years, and then died at Koningsberg, and was buried there.  

XXXI Great Master, 1480.  The Thirty first Great Master was Martin Truchses of Uveczhausen, Elected in the time of the Emperor Frederic III. and of Pope Sixtus IU. He paid Homage and Obedience to Casimir King of Poland, died at Koningsberg, and was buried there.  

XXXII Great Master, 1489.  The Thirty second Great Master was John de Tiefen, a Swiss, Elected when Maximilian I. was Emperor, and Julius Pope. The first Year he swore Allegiance to Albert King of Poland, and in the next assisted that King against the Null, but by whom he was defeated and killed. He was buried at Koningsberg.  

XXXIII Great Master, 1498.  The Thirty third Great Master was Frederic Duke of Saxony, and Marquis of Thuringen: This Person refused to do Homage to the King of Poland, and therefore his Dominions were very much ravaged by the Poles for 12 Years together, and he excluded his Country, at what time he died.  

XXXIV Great Master, 1512.  The Thirty fourth and last Great Master of the Teutonic Order in Prussia was Albert Marquis of Brandenburg, Nephew to Sigismond I. King of Poland. He was Elected in the time of Maximilian the Emperor, and Pope Julius. The Chapter of this Order chose him in hopes that being so near a Kinsman, he might prevail upon the King of Poland, his Uncle to restore to them what had been taken from them by the Poles; but this Great Master was so far from answering their expectation, that he likewise refused to Swear Allegiance to the King of Poland, and fortified all his Cities for his Defence, whence it followed, that he drew a bloody War upon himself, wherein great numbers were frequently slain and taken on both sides; the particulars of the chiefest of his Actions I thought might not be unacceptable to your Lordship, and which are as follows.  

Dantzic B sieged by Albert.  In the Year 1519, the War broke out between him and his Uncle, and some few places were lost and taken on both sides; but in 1529, Wolfang Duke of Schonemburg, General of the Teutonic Army, which consisted of about 10000 Foot, and 4000 Horse, sat down before Dantzick, and from the Bishop's Hill (vulgarly so called) threw away near 4000 Bombs into the Town, to little or no purpose, whilst the Besiegers were not a little incommoded by the Town-Cannon, for scarce a Man durst show his Head, but he had 40 shot at him. This so discouraged the Besiegers, that the major part of them soon discovered their Inclinations to be gone, and for that purpose began to Mutiny against their Officers. Whilst they were thus wavering in their Resolutions, and scarce doing any Duty but by compulsion, the Polish Army appeared, being 12000 Horse, sent by the King to raise the Siege. It was now high time for the Besiegers 
Siege raised by the Poles.  to scamper, which they immediately set about with such Precipitation, that the Poles found it no difficult matter to overtake even their Foot; yet, however, they killed some and took others Prisoners. After this the King's Army took in Dirschow, Stargardie, and the strong Castle of Choinicz, and afterwards proceeded on with so great Vigour and Diligence, that most of the Cities and Castles of the Order Surrender'd themselves. By these means the Teutonic Knights were totally expelled Prussia, which their Great Master Albert perceiving, as likewise that he was no longer able to contend with so powerful a Monarch as him of Poland, tho' his Ancestors had formerly done it for many Years, yet than they were in a better condition than he at present was in, resolved to submit himself and his Order to his Uncle's Mercy, which he not long afterwards did in the public Marketplace of Cracow.  

Albert submits to Sigismond.  For this Purpose a Throne was erected for the King, much after the same nature with that wherein he is wont to take the Homage and Oaths of his Subjects after his Coronation, as your Lordship may observe in the Letter to my Lord Marlborough; then the Marquis delivering up the Ensigns of his Order to the King, and swearing all manner of Allegiance to him, his Majesty returned him the Ensigns of Prussia, quartered with the Polish, and at the same time created him a Duke of part of that Country, which from thence forward has had the Name of Ducal Prussia, and continued all along in his Family to this Day.  

Great Masters in Germany.  The Teutonic Order being thus expelled Prussia, they transferred their Chapter to Mergentheim, or as some say, to Marienthall, in Franconia, where they chose  

XXXV Great Master, 1531.  Walter de Cronberg for their Thirty fifth Great Master and Administrator of Prussia. This Great Master appealed to the Emperor concerning the wrong done to his Order by Albert, as likewise got Albert Excommunicated by the Pope. He afterwards took his Seat in the General Diet of the Empire, equal with the Archbishops, as being Great Master of the Teutonic Order. He died after 18 Years Administration of this Office, and was buried at Mergentheim.  

XXXVI Great Master, 1543.  The Thirty six Great Master was Wolfang Schutzbar, otherwise called Milchling, Elected in the Chapter at Spire the 16th of April. He had been Provincial Commander of the Country of Hesse, and was one of the first that went to the assistance of the Emperor Charles V. in his Wars about Religion. He recovered the Seat of this Order at Marpurg, which had been usurped by the Landtgrave of Hesse. After several more famous Actions he died in the Year 1566.  

XXXVII Great Master, 1566.  The Thirty seventh Great Master was George Hundt de Menckheim Governor of the Circle of Franconia. He died after 6 years' Regency at Mergentheim, and was buried there in the Year 1572.  

XXXVIII Great Master, 1572.  The Thirty eighth Great Master was Henry de Bobenhausen, Elected at the General Assembly of the Knights at Ulm upon the Danube. This Great Master, upon George Frederic Marquests of Brandenburg's possessing himself of the Title and Duchy of Prussia, thought himself obliged in the Name of his Order to enter Protestations against it. He resigned his Office to the Chapter after 8 Years Administration.  

XXXIX Great Master, 1587.  The Thirty Ninth Great Master of this Order, and Administrator of Prussia was Maximilian Archduke of Austria, who had earnestly Solicited the Electors for that Charge, and offered to wear the Habit of the Order: Afterwards being invited to the Crown of Poland, this Order was in great hopes of being restored to their Dominions of Prussia, but upon his being defeated by Sigismond III. they soon lost all those hopes. He nevertheless continued their Great Master, and being a brave Prince was named for their General against the Turks in Hungary, when he had a Company of Guards all Knights of the Order. He held his Administration 34 Years, and ended his days at Inspruck, where he was likewise buried.  

XL Great Master, 1619.  The Fourtieth Great Master was Charles Archduke of Austria, who, after 5 years' Regency died at Madrid whither he had been invited by the King of Spain to go his Viceroy into Portugal.  

XLI Great Master, 1624.  The Forty first Great Master was John Eustache de Westernach, who was Elected at Mergentheim the 19th of March, in the Year 1625, and died 82 years old, in the Year of our Lord 1627.  

XLII Great Master, 1627.  The Forty second Great Master was Gaspard de Stadion Provincial Commander of Alsace and Burgundy, and particular Commander of Altschausen. He after having governed this Order with great Reputation for fourteen years, desired the Chapter to Elect Leopold William Arch Duke of Austria, for his Coadjutor in the Administration of his Office; and which being done, he gave him the Cross of Prussia as a Testimony of his consent.  

XLIII Great Master, 1644.  The Forty third Great Master was this Leopold William who succeeded Stadion by Virtue of his former Election. He governed this Order alone to the Year 1662., when he died at Vienna the 20th of November, and was buried there.  
The same Year the Chapter was Convened, and would have chosen Charles Joseph Archduke of Austria to have succeeded Leopold William his Brother, but he died the same Year, and thereby their designs were frustrated.  

XLIV Great Master, 1664.  Afterwards the Chapter being Assembled at Mergentheim, in the Year 1664, chose for their Forty fourth Great Master one of their own Knights, called John Gaspard of Ambringens, Provincial Commander of the Circle of Austria, and this they did to prevent the Intrigues which several Princes always made to get Elected to this Dignity.  

A Prince of Neubourg Elected of the Order.  This Great Master Convening the Chapter at Mariendal, received Duke Lewis Anthony of Neubourg, Abbot of Fescamp, and third Son to Philip William Duke of Neubourg, into this Order.  

Ceremony of Creation, and present State of Knights.  

Ceremony of Creation.  THe Ceremony was performed in the Great Church, whither he had been conducted by the Great Master, the Commendadors and Knights. The Counts of Ottingen, Hatzensten, and Fugger, who had been named Commissioners to inspect his Titles of Honour, reported upon Oath, that they had examined and found his Honour to be unquestionable. After which he was sworn to Chastity, Poverty, and to go to the Wars against the Infidels whenever occasion should so require. When they gave him the white Mantle with the black Cross, being the Ensigns of this Order, and withal, pronounced these Words according to Custom. We Promise to give you, as long as you live, Water, Bread, and a Habit of our Order.  

Elected likewise Coadjutor  Next day the Great Master proposed to the Chapter to Elect this Prince for his Assistant in the Government of the Order, which the Electors desired time to consider of; and after several Meetings had about it, they answered, they were content to Elect him, providing he would sign a Capitulation offered him, which he agreeing to do, he was accordingly Elected.  

Present State of Teutonic Order in Germany.  The Teutonic Order at present consists of 12 Provinces, which are, Alsace and Burgundy for one, Coblentz, Austria, and Etsch; these four still retain the Name of Provinces of the Jurisdiction of Prussia, as the eight following do that of Germany, being the Provinces of Franconia, Hesse, Bressen, Westphalia, Lorraine, Thuringen, Saxony, and Utrecht, altho' this last is now altogether under the Dominion of the Hollanders. Every one of these Provinces has its peculiar Commanderies of the Commendadors, of which the Provincial is Chief. Of these Provincial Commendadors there are 12, counting one for every Province. It is these Commendadors who compose the Chapter of the Electors. The Great Master's ordinary Residence has been at Mariendal in Franconia, ever since this Order has been driven out of Prussia.  
This, My Lord, is a short account of the Origin, Progress, successive Great Masters, and present State of the Teutonic Order, which I hope, your Lordship will favourably accept, being all that the proposed brevity of this Undertaking would admit of.  
I am, My LORD, Your Lordship's most Obedient Humble Servant, J. S.    

LETTER IX.  
To Sir THOMAS MILLINGTON Precedent of the College of Physicians.  
Of the State of Learning, and present Language; of Natural Knowledge, and particularly of the Practice of Physic in Poland; with an account of some Natural Things, and chiefly of a Disease in the Hair peculiar to the Poles, commonly called Plica Polonica.  
SIR,  
THIS Letter courts your Acceptance on a double score, your Learning and your Profession. As to your Learning, tho' it will doubtless be on all Hands allowed, that it has no need of Superstructure, yet nevertheless, sometimes it may require those Diversions which are here designed, and possibly, in part, unknown to you: And as to your Profession, being highly sensible of my imperfect account of the state of Physic, especially in Poland, I thought no Protection so safe to pass it under as yours. My presumption, I hope, will be justified upon Dr. Connor's first intending these Subjects for your Perusal; and as to my Performance, I entirely submit that to your Candour and Generosity.  
SIR,  

Two Universities.  In the Kingdom of Poland, and Great Duchy of Lithuania, there are two famous Universities, with all sorts of Professors. The former of these was Founded at Cracow by Casimir the Great, and was finished by Jagello, or Uladislaus V. in the Year 1401, conformable to the last Will and Testament of his Queen Hedwigis; And the latter at Vilna, being at first but an Academy Founded by King Stephen, but afterwards was erected into an University by Pope Gregory XIII. at the Request of Valerian Bishop of that City, who had very much augmented the Colleges and Endowments.  

Chief Study there.  In both these Universities the Chief Study is to speak good Latin, for as to all parts of Polite Learning, the Poles are not so curious as in other Countries, yet have they a great many that will write good Verses, for their Genius is mightily bend that way; and besides, they are very apt to quote Classic Authors in their Discourse, and this particularly when they get Drunk, which is very frequently. Their Poet Sarbievius Casimir is no small Ornament to his Country, who, in his Odes, has endeavoured to imitate Horace; and the Purlty of Language is not contemptible.  

Learning formerly.  They have had several Latin Historians among them, such as Cromerus, Starovolscius, etc. who have all Written the Annals and Constitutions of their Country. They have likewise had some Historians, who have written in their own Language. They also have not wanted for Learned Divines, Great Philosophers, Famous Astronomers, Logicians, etc. The great Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was a Native of this Country, having had his Birth in the City of Thorn in Regal- Prussia. The reason why these Learned Men have not transmitted more to Posterity was, because that while they lived there was but little or no Printing in Poland, that Art having been but lately received in this Kingdom.  

Oriental Languages disregarded.  Tho' the Poles are so extremely expert in Speaking and Writing Latin, yet are they not curious in any of the Oriental Languages. They affect speaking Latin to that degree, that Dr. Connor has informed me, that he had a Servant while he was in Poland, that always used to talk to him in that Language; and I have moreover read, that almost all the Common People speak Latin fluently there, a proof of which you may please to observe in the first Volume of this History, in the Life of Stephen Batori, who very much promoted the Study of that Language.  

Present Languages in Poland.  As the Poles have the same Origin with the Muscovites, Bohemians, Croatians, Moravians, Silesians, Cassubians, Bulgarians, Rascians, Servians, Illyrians, etc. so (Cromerus says) they have likewise the same Language with them, altho' they differ in Dialects, and that scarce to be understood by each other. Their terms of Mechanic Arts are chiefly borrowed from the Ancient Germans, who formerly had, as still they have, frequent intercourses with this Country. Nay, there are at present whole Towns and Villages that make use of the Germane Tongue, that Nation having formerly planted several Colonies in this Kingdom. Also there are several of the Noble Families purely German, as may appear both by their Names and Coats of Arms. Likewise Hebrew, Armenian, Russian, Tartarian, and in some places Italian, are frequently spoken in this Country.  

Polish hard to Pronounce.  The Polish Language Cromerus allows, is neither so Copious, nor so easy to Pronounce as those of other Nations, but as the French, Italian, etc. consists chiefly of Vowels, that of Poland is made up in great measure with Consonants, insomuch, that you shall sometimes meet with Polish Words that have seven or eight Consonants together without any Vowel, or at most but one, interposed, an Example of which, Sir, you may have in the word Chrzeszcz (Scarabaeus, a Gadfly,) this, with divers others in the Polish Tongue, scarce the Natives themselves are able to Pronounce, yet they always have a sort of lisping sound of Vowels in their Pronunciation, tho' they do not write them.  

Reason's why the Poles affect Latin.  It must not be understood, however universally Latin is spoken in Poland, that the Poles have it from their Mothers, as the Common People have in some parts of Hungary, for they take pains to learn it from Masters as other Nations do. The chiefest reasons why they generally Affect it is, First from their Natural Dispositions to learn it. Secondly, By reason of the Syntax of their Mother-Tongue the Sclavonian, which has great Affinity with that Language, for they both decline their Nouns, and Conjugate their Verbs as the Romans did. Thirdly, Because in all the Villages throughout the Nation, they have Schoolmasters for that purpose, who are either Rectors of Parishes, or some other qualified Persons appointed by them, or by the Bishop of the Diocese. And fourthly, because in all Towns of Note, the Jesuits have Colleges set apart to instruct Youth in that Language.  

Have no solid Learning.  As for depth in any Learning or Sciences, Dr. Connor informs me, he could never meet with any Persons in Poland so solidly versed in them, as he has done in other Nations, for that the Poles, as soon as they can speak Latin, and discourse of most matters in that Language, never think of any farther Knowledge, but believe they have acquired all the Learning, and all Accomplishments that either Universities or Schools can give them, unless they be Persons that make some particular Science their Profession; As Divines, Physicians, and Lawyers, of all which I shall proceed to give some particular account, as they stand at present in that Nation.  

How far that of Divines extends.  The Divines in Poland make all their Learning consist in adapting Aristotle's Logicks, and Metaphysics to their School- Divinity, so that you may every where hear them talk much of Entities, Modes, Quiddities, Essences of Things, and the like, for they value themselves more in being well versed in the signification of Logical Terms, than in the Nature of Things themselves, which they reason about. In this Country they have a particular Veneration for Albertus Magnus, and quote him to attest the Truth of any Assertion, in like manner as the Spaniards and Italians are accustomed to do Aristotle, tho' they have not less respect for this last Philosopher than other Nations have. Yet, notwithstanding, they seldom take right his meaning, and particularly in matters that are Ambiguous, for they have Published several large Commentaries upon him which do frequently contradict one another.  

Their Divinity.  The Polish Divines are seldom well versed in Practical Divinity. They study but little the Old and New Testament. They make few Inquiries into the Practice of Primitive Christianity, and know little of Church-History. In a word, they trouble their Heads but seldom about convincing their Reason of the Sublimity and Goodness of the Christian Doctrine; implicit Faith, and Passive Obedience to Council and Church-Decisions being entirely their Guides. They will allow of no bodies enquiring into the reasonableness of Things, as if they should imagine, that a Law, or a Doctrine given by God should not be consistent with Reason. They have a more than ordinary respect for Thomas Aquinas, and Scotus, and their principal Erudition consists in being well Read in the School-Points controverted by those two Great Men.  

Lawyers; their number and study.  As for Lawyers there are a great number in Poland, and that chiefly at the two Great Tribunals of Petricovia and Lublin. These study the Civil- Law, tho' they have likewise several Statutes of their own which they term Constitutions.  

Who seldom go to Law.  The Grandees of the Kingdom seldom go to Law, for they generally decide their Quarrels by the Sword, bringing numerous Armies into the Field against each other: But if it happen sometimes that they do condescend, to submit to Justice, even than their Pride will never allow them to refer their Case to any other Court than the Grand Diet. Also the Polish Nation in general is not much inclined to go to Law, by reason of the litigiousness and corruption of the Lawyers, for the Poles have as little Opinion of the honesty of that Profession as any People in Europe.  

A supposed Judgement on a Lawyer.  Dr. Connor was once sent for to a Lawyer that lay sick at Warsaw. His Disease, the Dr. says, was a Cancer on his Tongue, which had swelled it to that prodigious bigness, that it had not only filled all his Mouth, but also hung about an Inch out of it, insomuch, that he could neither speak one word, nor breath through his Lips, but had that benefit only by his Nose. This Disease, the Dr. says, he at first judged to be incurable, and so in effect it proved, for he died soon after. This Person it seems had purchased a plentiful Estate by the Law, wherefore the People could not be persuaded but that the cause of his Death was a Judgement upon him, believing it Just, I suppose, that that Tongue which had been the occasion of wronging so many People, should nevertheless do Justice on its Master.  

Physicians, and their Abilities.  As for Physicians in Poland, there are no great number there, and those few that are, for the most part are either French, Italians, or Germans, scarce any of the Natives caring to addict themselves to that Profession; for having little conveniency to improve themselves in it in their own Country, none but the richer sort of Gentry can bear the expense of going to learn it in Foreign Countries, and then such of the Nobility as do Travel are generally either too Lazy or too Proud to apply themselves to what requires so much fatigue to study, and so much judgement afterwards to put in Practice. This, Sir, is the reason why the Poles have hardly any Person throughly learned in this Profession.  

Not allowed to study till qualified.  Dr. Connor tells me, that he met with a young Physician at Rome, that came thither from Poland to pick up Experience. Some of his Countrymen that were then in that City told the Doctor, that he was Son to a rich Peasant in their Nation, and that his Father was Vassal, as they termed him, or Slave to one Starosta Cowalski; moreover, that his Father, for the consideration of 100 Rixdollars had bought his Freedom, and afterwards sent him to the University, and from thence to Travel, for without having first bought his Liberty he could not have sent him out of the Service of his Lord, his Service being as much the Lord's Inheritance as his Land was.  

Discourges Learning.  By all this, Sir, you may perceive what discouragement Learning meets with in Poland; for the Common People there, who make about nine parts in ten of the whole Nation, are either through Poverty or Slavery rendered incapable of addicting themselves to it, and it is certain, that in all Ages, Persons of the meanest Birth have ever made the greatest progress in Sciences, and this, by reason that their Bodies are apt for fatigue, and that they have no other ways to subsist than by their Merit.  

Natural Observables and Rarities in POLAND.  
SIR,  

Natural Observables and Rarities.  BEfore I proceed to give you an Account of the Diseases and Practice of Physic in Poland, I must here desire leave to entertain you with some Observables and Natural Rarities of this Country, extracted as well from Dr. Connor's Memoirs taken there, as out of the best Modern Authors that have written of this Kingdom.  

Of Wood and Earth.  In Russia, all along the River San, there have been several Trees found buried, having no Roots, and being as black as Ebony. The Country People say, that they have lain there ever since the Deluge, but it is probable they might have been washed down by the course of that River a great while since, and preserved from rotting by the Sand. There are several places both in Poland and Lithuania where petrefied Wood is to be found; likewise several Beds of Earth lying one upon another, whose substance is not unlike that of the Unicorn's Horn. Also Argentum Capillare, or Vegetans, being Silver, hanging from Rocks in the nature of Hair.  

Strange Waters and their Effects  Near Javorisvia, in the District of Leopol, in the Palatinate of Russia, there is a Lake, called by the Poles, Skla, (Glass,) where formerly there was a little Town, but which is now sunk into the Ground. The Water of this Lake has a strong, sulphurous, and stinking Smell, but withal clear, like Crystal, and of an insipid Taste. The Doctors of this Kingdom have recommended it to sick Persons to Drink for recovery of their Healths, and one Sixtus Leo, a famous Physician of those parts, has written a Learned Treatise concerning it. It is much frequented, and does a great deal of good. There are likewise several natural Baths in this Kingdom, which cure all kinds of Scrofulous Diseases and Ulcers, both in Men and Beasts. In the County of Scepuz in Lesser- Poland, there is a sort of Spring that flows from the Rocks, which makes perfect Gutters of Stone as it runs from thence through the Meadows to the Mills. The Lake Biala (in Polish white) so called by Antiphrasis, in the Months of April and May makes the Fish that are in it Brown, tho' they afterwards return to their Natural Colours. I must not omit what Cromerus says of the Lake Crinice in the Palatinate of Belsko in Red-Russia, which is, that every second or third Year, it becomes wonderfully Tempestuous, and in a little time discharges all its Waters through unknown Caverns, insomuch, that tho' before it were very deep, it of a sudden almost grows fordable, but then in a little time afterwards its Water returns with the same roaring noise it went out.  

Monstrous Fish.  Dr. Conner, in his Memoirs says, that it was reported when he was in Poland, that the Year before he came thither a Barbel Fish was found in the River San, at Velasco, an Estate of the late Queens, which was above 4 Polish els long, which is better than 8 Foot of our measure, and near 3 Foot broad, and weighed at least 200 weight. He says that the same Species of Fish, of this largeness, are very common in that River, and one was reported to have had an entire Skeleton of a Man, supposed to have been drowned some time before, found in his Belly, together with a Knife and Sheath. This Fish has no Scales. He says likewise, that there are Fish in Lithuania which are made use of to show the change of Wether: For this purpose they are to be put into a Bottle, where they will make a sort of squeaking noise when the weather is to alter.  

Fowls of odd Qualities.  As to odd kinds of Fowl, there are a sort of Birds near Lowitz in the Palatinate of Rava in Lower- Poland, about the bigness of Sparrows, that appear and disappear with the Snow, and from thence have the Name given them of Snow-Birds. These are scarce to be seen any where else throughout the whole Kingdom. There are also a sort of Quails in the Plains of Russia and Podolia with Green Legs, and which being eaten cause the Cramp. There are moreover a kind of Swallows and Martlets, that gathering up their Legs, and folding close their Wings will dive into the Water at the latter end of Autumn, and live there all the Winter, but as soon as the Spring returns they come out and fly away. If they chance to be taken by Fisher-Nets in the Winter, tho' they will revive upon being laid near the Fire, yet do they seldom survive long the Trespass upon the Ordination of their Nature.  

Beasts of strange kinds.  In Great- Poland there are a sort of Hogs with uncloven-feets, which differ in no other respect from our Hogs. In Poland likewise, but more especially in Lithuania, there are a kind of little Beasts like Weasels, called in Polish, Zassicz, whose Fur is a little courser than Ermine, and in Summer is Brown; but as soon as the Snow appears, in one Night they become all over White, and so continue till the Spring, when they resume their former Colour: This Animal is something less than a Squirrel. I may here, Sir, give you a description of the wild Ox, being a Beast that is very common in Poland. He, when full grown is of an extraordinary size, with large black Horns, and somewhat turned inwards towards the top. With these Horns he will commonly throw a Horse and its Rider into the Air, and moreover root up Trees of no ordinary Magnitude. Between his Horns two or three Men may sit abreast. His hide is exceeding bristly, and under his Chin grow two or three very large Dew-laps. His Horns serve for use to Hunters. I might describe other strange Beasts that are to be found in this Country, but have omitted them by reason their descriptions are to be met with at large in Gesner's History of Quadrupeds; only I may here observe farther, that the Polish Bears will live a great while, especially in the Winter, without Eating.  

Rarities communicated to Dr. Connor.  Sir, Before I conclude this account of natural Knowledge, peculiar to Poland, I must entertain you with some rarities communicated to Dr. Connor while he was in that Kingdom. His Memoirs inform me, that two Friars whose Names were Father Lewis, and Father Fulgentius, showed him a Horse-shoe changed into Brass, and likewise gave him a piece of Iron turned into that Metal by Virtue of a Spring in Hungary; likewise, that they showed him several pieces of natural Crystal with running Water in the middle; And moreover, that the latter of these Fathers presented him with two pieces of Crystal which he had off from the Mountains of Savoye, and which he affirms to have been as white as Milk when he first broke them off the Rock, but that they afterwards became Diaphanous of themselves.  

Argentum Fulminans made by chance.  I am moreover informed by the same means, that this Father Fulgentius made Argentum Fulminans by chance; the manner of which was this: He dissolved Silver in Aqua Fortis, and afterwards put crude Tartre pulverised into the Dissolution, which likewise soon dissolved by the help of a little heat: After that he evaporated the Humidity, almost to a degree of dryness, in an Earthen Platter, and then increased the heat, when all of a sudden, without his expecting any such thing, the Powder flew up into a flash, gave a strange report, and filled and blackened all the Room where he was with Smoak. Of three Ounces of the Powder which he had in the Platter, there was scarce three Drams remained, but the Platter, notwithstanding, continued unbroke. His design in making this Powder was to Silver something over, for it seems the mixing Liquid Silver with Tartre will produce that Effect.  

Other Experiments.  This Person likewise made an exquisite volatile Salt of little Centaury, infused into fair Water with Yeast. Also he distilled Water from Roses which would set Gunpowder on Fire.  

Dr. Bernitz's Chs●t of Rarities.  I have now, Sir, but two things more to entertain you with before I come to the Practice of Physic, etc. in Poland, and one is about Dr. Bernitz, King John Casimir's Physician's Closet of Rarities, which Dr. Connor says, in his Memoirs, was shown him by that Physician's Wife at Warsaw, who spoke good Latin, in which Language he conversed with her. This Collection consisted of a great number of petrefied Bodies of Raisins, Serpents, Wood, Toads, and the like. It likewise contained a vast variety of Shells, Minerals, and Gums. There was also a Thermometre, in form of a Serpentine of many degrees, computed by Elevations upon the Glass, and the least heat of the Hand would cause the Spirit of Wine to mount sensibly. There was moreover a Sea-Pigeon, or Fish like to a Pigeon, which hung up by a String; and Doctor Connor says, Dr. Bernitz's Wife assured him, that it would always turn to that quarter where the Wind sat, as also that in moist Wether many drops of Water were wont to distil from it. In this Closet there were moreover many huge Horns of Elks, and several prodigious Bones of other Creatures. All sorts of Plants also were there well preserved and pasted upon Paper. There were likewise a great many Designs painted and drawn very neatly by Dr. Bernitz's own Hand.  

Manner, of making Glass.  The other Thing I proposed to inform you of is the manner of making Glass in Poland, with some circumstances relating thereunto. The Poles make their Glass of Beech-Ashes and great Pebbles pounded; these they boil together for twelve Hours, till such time as they begin to vitrify. When they have a mind to make their Glass clearer than ordinary, they are accustomed to mix a particular sort of Earth with it of the colour and hardness of Tartre, which renders the Glass of different Colours, according to the greater or lesser quantity of this Earth mixed with it. I may observe that if Salt be mixed in the composition of this Glass it makes it more fluid and easier to be wrought by the Workman.  

Odd Method of Curing Wounds.  Sometimes the Labourers or their Children by treading about barefooted wound themselves with the pieces of Glass that lie about the Furnace, when they are accustomed to have recourse to this odd remedy, which is, to take out a Ladleful of the red hot Metal, and clap it to the part afflicted, which presently, it seems, draws forth the Splinters of the Glass out of the Flesh, and afterwards upon clapping on an Anodine Plaster, it is soon healed.   

Practise of Physic, and Diseases in POLAND.  

Practise of Physic.  AS for the Practice of Physic in Poland it is but very imperfect. The Doctors there know nothing of the Modern Discoveries in Anatomy and Chemistry, nay, the Materia Medica is hardly known to them, much less improved. The Medicines which they use are altogether Galenical, and those always of the worse sort. They are but little acquainted with Modern Authors, and particularly with those of our Nation, tho' they have heard of their Names, and will allow that the English Physicians have improved Physic beyond any other Nation whatever, but this is still more by hear-say than out of any knowledge they have of us or our Authors.  

What Medicines used  They use all the means of curing Diseases that we do here, such as Mercury, Steel, Antimony, Jesuits-Powder, Volatile Salts and Spirits, all which are brought into Poland, chiefly to Warsaw, or else made there by Germane Apothecaries. The late Queen's Apothecary was a Germane, and an expert Chemist. Tho' the Poles use the same Medicines as we do, yet are they ignorant of the Method of applying them. In their Consultations they advance but little reason, tho' they quote Precedents and Authors for their Practice.  

Diseases what?  As to Diseases they have the same in Poland that are in other Countries; Venereal Distempers are very frequent, yet Salivation is not so much practised there as with us, for they pretend to cure the Lues by Sweeting.  

Venereal how Cured by a Quack.  Dr Connor says, that in his time there lived an illiterate Fellow in a Wood, about six Miles from Warsaw, who undertook to Cure all Venereal Distempers in 7 or 8 Days at farthest, and that by a Bagnio, in which he boiled 3 or four sorts of Plants, which he made a Secret of. The Doctor says, the Helleboraster, and the Capillus Veneris, or Maiden Hair, as well as he could discover were the chief. This Quack bathed his Patients in a hot decoction of these Herbs for four days together, and made them drink of the same frequently while they were in the Bath. The other four days he laid them over the Tub to receive the hot Steams of the said Decoction, laying a Blanket over them to intercept any evaporation, and to drive back the Steams upon the naked Body by way of Revarberatory, through which means they sweat extremely. While they sweated he made them Drink of the Decoction as before, so that by thus Sweeting, Bathing and Drinking, Dr. Connor says, it was credibly assured him that he wrought many wonderful Cures in Venereal Cases▪ the Doctor says moreover, that 'tis certain that a great number of People flocked frequently to him, and that for the whole Cure he demanded no more than two Rixdollars.  

Surprising particulars  For other Diseases the Poles seldom or never know any Scurveys, have rarely any Malignant Fevers among them, and those never dangerous; and for Pleurisies and the rest of Distempers, they are not for the most part of such ill consequence in Poland as in other Countries. Wounds and Ulcers in the Legs are most commonly thought incurable there. Dr. Connor informs me that the Princess Radzivil, the late King of Poland's Sister, had her Menses at 64 years of Age. Also, that when he was at Warsaw, a Man having taken Physic, and lying with a Woman before its Operation, she was forth with violently purged, and he never so much as once went to Stool.  

Diseases peculiar to the Poles, and first the Plica.  I must now come to the two Diseases that are peculiar to the Poles, and so I will conclude. One of these is called by the Natives, Colton, and by us, Plica, and the other is termed the Rose. The former is an odd kind of Distemper, and frequently mentioned in Physick-Authors. Dr. Connor says it is one of the most remarkable Maladies that he has 
It's Description.  ever met with, yet is nothing else but the Hair of the Head matted, entangled, and in terwoven like to fulled Cloth. Sometimes all the Hair of the Head will be thus Matted, so large that it covers the Shoulders, and so long that it comes down to the very Wast, which makes them that have it put it into a Purse that it may hang backwards; but generally speaking, it hangs in twisted Ropes, and that most commonly on one side only. Others have only their Hair plaited close to their Heads as little Children that are Scabby have; but however, those that have the Plica never have any Scabs. Hauteville compares this twisted Hair to the Ears of a Water-Spaniel. Dr. Connor says, that in his time a Gentleman at Court had it to that Degree, that his Hair hung like a Mantle about his Shoulders.  

Unaccountableness.  The Hair will be thus entangled in one Night's time, tho' there be never so much care taken to prevent it, for the Poles having their Hair always cut round above their Ears, like to that of Monks, tho' it had never been combed, yet were it impossible it should become thus woven all of a sudden out of slovenlyness and carelessness, as a great many, and Dr. Connor himself says he believed, before he came into that Country.  

Symptoms.  The Symptoms of this Disease are not unlike those of the Lues Venerea, as Rheumatic, and Arthritique pains, etc. but then they never occasion a Caries in the Bones, nor any Ulcers in the Mouth or elsewhere. When the Hair is cut it is commonly said that these Symptoms become more violent, and moreover produce a cloudiness over the Eyes, and sometimes a total Blindness; also that it causes headaches, Pains in the Limbs, Vomitings, the Members all of a sudden to become distorted and stiff, the Nails of the Fingers to have little white spots on them, and Pimples and Pustules to come out all over the Body.  

Neither Bleeds nor is painful.  Dr. Connor says, however, that Authors mistake when they attribute any such Accidents to the cutting of Hair in the Plica, for he informs me that he has cut it himself, and that there neither came Blood, nor was there any Sensation, neither do the Natives affirm, that there is any upon such an occasion. Hauteville likewise says he has known the Plica cut without these effects beforementioned.  

Said to be Contagious and Hereditary.  Some pretend that this Disease is contagious, and that if you lie with a Man that has it, and receive the Sweat from him, you will infallibly have it yourself. Also there are those that are of Opinion that it is Hereditary, but however, it is certain some have had it whose Parents never had; it is thought therefore that it must needs proceed from the Nurse, but I shall not pretend to determine whether it does or not. Some say likewise that it has not always been in this Kingdom.  

Common to Men and Beasts.  This Distemper is common both to Men and Beasts, for Horses, Dogs, etc. have been frequently known to have had it. Strangers also get it when they have resided in Poland for any time, but Hauteville says they never have it tho' they continue there ever so long, and the reason he gives is, because as soon as their Hair begins to entangle they cut it off, which he says the Poles dare not do for fear of making themselves Blind.  

Superstition concerning it, and other cases.  The People are so superstitious concerning this Distemper, that there are some old Women among them that pretend to bring it out upon Children that are troubled with any languishing Disease, by mixing and twisting their Hair, and making their Mothers believe that they are only sick because the Plica cannot break forth. The Poles are likewise very superstitious in other cases, for they dare not kill a Stork for fear of some misfortune happening to them thereupon. Besides, what I have mentioned before of their cutting off dead People's Heads is so common a thing, that even the late Queen, upon information that her Countrymen, the French, died in great numbers in their allotted station in the City of Warsaw, called from thence Petit Paris, (Little Paris) caused the first Person of those that died to be enquired out and dug up, and would have had his Head cut off to prevent a farther Mortality among those People, had not a Capuchin, her Confessor opposed it, and informed her it was against the Cannons of the Church: He also was forced to threaten Excommunication against a Dominican Friar that had Orders to see it done, or it would certainly have been effected notwithstanding her Majesty was admonished to the contrary.  

Where most common.  The Plica is to be met with more commonly in Lithuania than in any other part of Poland. It is so entirely peculiar to this Kingdom, that none of the bordering Countries have it, as Muscovy, Tartary, etc.  

It's Cure by a Jew.  The Cure of this Distemper was often effected by one Dr. Ionas, a Jew, and Physician to the late King of Poland, after this manner. He Salivated his Patients by Friction and Unction, and afterwards cut off the Hair without any dangerous consequences. This Disease is often accompanied with the Alopecia, or Falling off of the Hair.  

Causes Asserted, but Questioned.  Of the cause of the Plica, the Poles give this Account. They say, that the Tartars having made a great irruption into Poland in the Year 1279, and slain great numbers of People there, ripped out their Hearts and poisoned them, and afterwards threw them into the Rivers, by which means the Waters became infected, and those that have since drank of them afflicted with this loathsome Disease. Notwithstanding this assertion, Dr. Connor says, the true cause thereof continues yet a secret to Physicians. Strangers generally attribute the cause of it to slovenliness, and they are confirmed in this opinion, because they are seldom troubled with it for reasons given before.  

Another account of the Plica.  Another Account of this Distemper I have met with in Dr. Connor's Memoirs, asserted to him by the Bishop of Posnania. That Bishop, it seems, informed him, that even while he was young he had the Plica, and that upon cutting it with his own Hands he became dim-sighted for some considerable time, and withal felt several pains and contortions in his Limbs. He told him moreover, that he found divers seeming Incurvations of his Bones. Afterwards the Hair growing again it began to mat as before, but however, he was forbid, both by his Parents, and his Tutor, to make use of the same remedy to get rid of it, during which time his pains totally left him; but at length, being weary of so loathsome a Companion, he secretly cut off his Hair again, when immediately the former symptoms began to return with greater Violence than ever. Hereupon all the Servants of the House were cautioned against letting him have either Knife or Scissors for the future, to do himself so much injury as he had formerly done, notwithstanding which, a Kinsman of his commiserating his deplorable condition, privately conveyed a Knife to him, wherewith he cut off his Locks a third time, when, he assured the Doctor, he felt a thousand racking pains, and had various other symptoms of this Disease renewed upon him. He informed him moreover, that in one Night the Hair will be thus Matted, even in those that take never so much care in Combing of it. He told him likewise, that the Symptoms and Pains were much greater when the Hair was often cut, than when it was let grow to any length. He also said, that the first and second time that he cut his Locks, he could sensibly perceive a vaporous and volatile matter pass in great abundance through the Ducts of his Hair, which he said, in its Passage, very much frizzled and contracted his Locks. He moreover affirmed, that when he put a Cap upon his Head it occasioned him intolerable heats and pain, by reason (said he) that the pressure thereof repelled the eruption, and forced back the Humours of the Disease upon his Head.  

Hairs Canular.  From this Account of the Bishop of Posnania, besides what we know already by Microscopes, it evidently appears that every Hair is a kind of a little Tube, through which the nourishment, as well as those steams he mentioned, may be reasonably supposed to pass to the utmost Extremities.  

The Rose, and its Cure.  The other Disease peculiar to the Poles is the Rose, which Hauteville says is a sort of Erysipelas, chiefly showing its self in the Face. They are accustomed to cure this Distemper by applying Powder of white Chalk to the part affected, without letting Blood, for they look upon that to be dangerous, if not Mortal in this Case.  
SIR,  
What particulars have been here compiled for your Diversion, I hope, may be favourably received, as they are tendered with all imaginable respect by,  
SIR, Your Most Obedient Humble Servant, J. S.    

LETTER X.  
To the Honourable Mr. BRIDGES Eldest Son to my Lord CHANDOIS▪ and Fellow of the Royal-Society.  
Of the Duchy of Curland, its present State and Government; with an Account of the Origin and Progress of the Livonian Order, comprehending the several Successions of its Knights down to Gothotred Ketler, the first Duke of Curland; As also a succinct Relation of the several Administrations of this Duke and his Successors.  
SIR,  
I Hope the Addressing this following Letter to you needs no Apology, since you were at first designed to bear a part in the Patronage of this History. What your great Merits entitle you to I shall not pretend to determine here, reserving that Honour for a more favourable Opportunity, and a better subject, or at least a more correct Performance.  
Sir, The following Account is only the product of a hasty Compilation, gathered out of a confused Account of this Country, which I could only meet with in Books. But however, if there be any Beauties discovered, they are to be ascribed to the ingenious Baron Blomberg, his late Highness the Duke of Curland's Minister, who, by means of Dr. Connor, has furnished me with some short Account of the Present State of Affairs in that Duchy. His Authority, I presume, will not be questioned by reason of his supposed Knowledge of those matters. A much farther Account was promised by and expected from him, but the urgency of time (a consideration too much regarded by Booksellers) required this Abrupt Publication.  

Present bounds and extent of Curland.  Sir, the Duchy of Curland, which comprehends the Provinces of Curland and Semigallia, is bounded on the North and West by the Baltic Sea, on the East by the Great Duchy of Lithuania, and on the South by the Duchy and Province of Samogitia. In length it is about 50 great Germane Leagues, computing from Memel in Prussia to Riga in Livonia, and reckoning at least six Prussian Leagues to a Mile. The breadth is different from the Baltic to Lithuania and Samogitia, being in some places 30, and in others but 24 Leagues broad, and moreover, in some places less.  

It's Soil and former State.  This Duchy is a Plain, Champion, Fruitful Country, and has always been well Inhabited. It is a part of Livonia, and when under the Teutonic Knights was the better half of it, but now its Limits are not a little Abridged. Some have divided Livonia into Regal and Ducal, the former at present being under the King of Sueden, and the latter under the Duke of Curland. Formerly about the IXth. Century, this last was likewise Subject to Sueden, but than it paid only a certain Tribute, for it was never entered upon by the Swedes. Some Authors have affirmed it to be a Peninsula, but those are easily confuted.  

When wholly Conquered.  Curland, as Baron Blomberg says, was not totally subdued till about the Year 1488, when it was conquered by Order of the Teutonic Knights, who for some time before had been invited thither by Volquinus the II. Master of the Livonian Order.  

Converted to Christianity by degrees.  The first Efforts to convert Livonia to the Christian Faith were made by Ansgarius the Danish and Suedish Apostle, as may appear by the Testimony of Adam of Breme, in his Account of the Northern Nations. Afterwards, towards the end of the XIth Century, a certain Merchant, by Order of the King of Denmark built a Church there, but which had little Effect till a succeeding King of Denmark, Waldemar II. founded a Bishopric in this Country. However Christianity gained but little ground in Livonia, till near the XIIth Century, about the Year 1180, when  

I Bishop in Livonia▪ 1180.  Meinhard de Segeberg of the City of Lubec made further advances therein, and was first ordained Bishop of Livonia by the Archbishop of Breme.  

TWO Bp & ABp. of Riga. 1194.  To him succeeded Berthold Abbot of Cisteaux in France, who began to build Riga, and who was first styled Bishop, and afterwards Archbishop thereof. This Archbishop was killed the same Year he was Elected, in a Battle against the Infidels.  

III ABp. of Riga▪ 1194.  Next came one Albert to be chosen, in whose time the Order of Livonian Knights was instituted by the Pope, to make a speedier Progress in planting the Christian Religion here.  

I Absolute Master of Livonian Order, 1205.  The first Master of this Order was Vinno, who built Wenda, Segenwald, and Ascherod▪ In his time likewise Waldemar II. King of Denmark built Reval, Nerva, and Wittenburg in Eastland and Pilten in Curland, where he had before established a Bishopric. There goes a Story of the founding of this City, which is this. When King Waldemar had resolved to build here, he demanded of Ernemodus the Bishop which he had appointed over that Diocese, where he should lay the Foundation? To which the Bishop replied, If your Majesty please, let it be yonder, where that Boy stands. Hence it seems the City came to have the Name of Pilten, that Word in the Idiom of this Country, as Pontanus affirms, signifying a Boy, or Servant. Vinno, after 18 years' Administration of this Government resigned it to  

TWO Absolute Master, 1223.  Volquinus, who, in the same Year built Felin in Eastland. Afterwards this Master in the Year 1234 requested of Herman a Salza, Great Master of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, that his Order might be admitted to have the same Rules and Habit with theirs, but which was at that time refused; nevertheless, after the Death of Volquinus, it was obtained in the Year 1238, and confirmed soon after by Pope Gregory IX. and the Emperor Frederic II.  

III Master, 1238.  Hereupon Herman Bàlke was dispatched from the Prussian Order to the Livonian Knights to be their Provincial Master.  

IV Master, 1240.  Next came Heinric ab Heimburg to be their Master, neither who, nor his Predecessor Herman Balk, molested the Curlanders with Wars, who as yet continued Pagans, as Volquinus and Vinno had done.  

V Master, 1248.  After him Dietericus a Groningen was Elected and sent from Prussia for their Provincial Master. He marched against the Curlanders with all his Force, and took in several places that opposed him, and afterwards built Goldingen in the Province of Curland. Hereupon the Curlanders fearing that they might be obliged to receive the Christian Doctrine against their Wills, submitted themselves to the protection of Mindog then Duke of Lithuania, altho' the Lithuanian Writers say, that Curland had long before that been under their Jurisdiction.  

VI Master, 1250.  The Fourth Provincial Master of the Livonian Order was Andrew a Stuckland, who managed his affairs so vigorously, that the Semigallian Pagans soon submitted to pay Tribute and Obedience to the Teutonic Order, and afterwards by the persuasions of this Master, the aforesaid Mindog, having formally received the Christian Faith, and been Crowned King of Lithuania by Henry Bishop of Culm, and Albert Archbishop of Riga, by an Order from Pope Innocent IU. He, among other Provinces, restored Curland to the Livonian Order, in the Year 1252.  
Notwithstanding this voluntary Concession to these Knights, yet were not the Curlanders to be so easily subjected, for we find in almost all the following Masters Lives, that they had various Wars with these People.  

VII Master.  The Fifth Provincial Master of this Order was Eberth, C. a Seine.  

VIII Master,  The Sixth Provincial Master was Hanno de Sangerhausen.  

IX Master.  The Seventh Provincial Master was Burghardus ab Hornhusen.  

X Master.  The Eighth Provincial Master was Georgius ab Eikstet.  

XI Master.  The Ninth Provincial Master was Vernerus a Breithusen.  

XII Master.  The Tenth Provincial Master was Conrade a Mandern, who in the Year 1269 built Mittaw in Semigallia.  

XIII Master.  The Eleventh Provincial Master was Otho a Rodenstein.  

XIV Master,  The Twelfth Provincial Master was Andrew, whose Surname is forgot.  

XV Mast r,  The Thirteenth Provincial Master was Walter a Nordeck.  

XVI Master.  The Fourteenth Provincial Master was Ernestus a Rasborg.  

XVII Master.  The Fifteenth Provincial Master was Conrade a Feuchtwangen.  

XVIII Master.  The Sixteenth Provincial Master was Willekenus a Schurborcg, slain in Battle.  

XIX. Master. 1488.  The Seventeenth Provincial Master was Conrade Herzogenstein, under whose Administration the sturdy Semigallians were totally subdued, altho' some say they afterwards gave frequent disturbances to this Order.  
The rest of the Provincial Master's Names I do not find till we come to  

III. Absclute Master. 1513.  Walter Plettenberg, who, upon Albert Marquis of Brandenburgh's resigning his Order to Sigismundus Augustus' King of Poland, obtained leave from that Great Master to be freed from his subjection which happened about the Year 1513.  
From that time the Livonian Masters were accustomed by consent of their Chapter to nominate Assistants in their Office, such were  

IV. Abso-Master.  William Fursteberg Assistant, or Coadjutor to Henry a Galen, the fourth Absolute Master of the Livonian Order, and  

V. Absolute Master.  Gothotred Ketler Coadjutor to William Plettenberg, the fifth Absolute Master of this Order. Under this Master, Luther's Doctrine prevailed in several Cities of Livonia, such as Riga, Reval, Dorpat, etc.  

VI Absolute Master. 1560.  The last Absolute Master of this Order was Gothotred Ketler, who was afterwards made Duke of Curland and Semigallia by Sigismundus Augustus' King of Poland.  

Residence of this Order.  The Seat of this Order from the first Institution thereof has been at several places, but however, generally was at Riga on the River Duna, but which they were forced to quit about the Year 1558, when John Basilowitz, Tyrant of Muscovy, came with a dreadful Army and destroyed the adjacent Countries, threatening likewise to conquer Livonia. Hereupon the Livonian Knights immediately Addressed themselves to the Emperor Charles V. for assistance, but he being engaged in a War against Solyman Emperor of the Turks, told them they must provide for their Security by other means, for he was not at leisure to help them. This Answer occasioned them forthwith to divide themselves into two parts, whereof those that were on the other side Duna submitted to the Suedes, and those on this side to the King of Poland, Sigismundus Augustus, which last to return the favour, erected Curland and Semigallia into Dutchies, and gave them to Gothotred Ketler, than Master of the Livonian Order, and to his Heirs for ever.  

I. Duke of Curland, 1561.  This happening not long after Luther's Reformation, influenced Duke Gothotred to become a Protestant, and to Marry, which none of his Order had ever done before him. This Duke had two Sons Ferderic, and William, whereof the eldest,  

II. Duke. 1587.  Frederic succeeded him in the Year 1587., but at length dying without issue these Dukedoms came to his Brother  

III. Duke. 1602.  William, who returning from banishment was received by the Curlanders with a great deal of Applause. This Duke had but one only Son, who was Godson to our King James I. After his Death his Son Duke  

IV. Duke. 1639.  James came to inherit the two Dutchies of Curland and Semigallia.  

Discovers Tobago, and enjoys it.  This Prince was much given to building of Ships, having every thing in his Country proper for that purpose.  
By means of Shipping he discovered the River Semigal in Guinea, and the Island of Tobago one of the Caribbee Islands in America, which then was altogether uninhabited. Here he built a Fort, calling it by his own Name, James-Fort, and moreover was at vast expenses in Cultivating and Fortifying this Island, and which he enjoyed without any interruption for many Years together.  

Is deprived of it.  At length one Lambson a Zealander, and a very rich Man, as likewise one of the States of Holland, getting into a corner of this Island, and after much dispute, being suffered to Plant there upon paying a yearly Tribute to the Duke, he at last took advantage of the War between the Suedes and Poles, and of the Duke's Imprisonment by the former, to dispossess him of the said Island, which he effected after this manner. He appeared with some Forces before the aforesaid James-Fort, and persuading the Garrison that the Duke their Protector, being carried away Prisoner by the Suedes, could not possibly relieve them, and that therefore they must necessarily perish, unless they forthwith delivered up the Fort and Island to him, the Soldiers began immediately to Mutiny, chained their Governor, and forced him to capitulate and comply with the said Lambson, who at the same time engaged himself, as soon as the Duke was set at liberty, to restore the Island, and what was left there, according to an Inventory then taken.  

Proposes means to recover it.  The Dutch being thus got into possession of this Island, the Duke, after many long and fruitless endeavours, with the Lambsons' first, and afterwards with the States, finding that neither of them were enclinable to Restitution, applied himself to our King Charles II. for assistance in recovery of his Right, submitting the Island altogether to the King's Protection, as being willing to hold it Subtitulo Concessionis, or by a Grant from the Crown of England, whereupon the ensuing Treaty was formally concluded, which for a greater eclaircisement of the matter I have thought not improper to insert. The Agreement was in these Words.  

Agreement between the K. of England and D. of Curland.  BE it known unto all and singular Person and Persons to whom these Presents shall come, That on the 17th of the Month of November, in the Year of Our Lord 1664. by a double Writing of the same Tenure and Language, it was Agreed, between the most Serene and most Potent Prince, Charles' II. by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc. of the one part. And the most Illustrious Prince, James Duke in Livonia of Curland and Semigallia on the other part; That the said Lord the King by these Presents doth give and grant to the said Lord, the Duke of Curland, his Heirs and Successors, full liberty of Trade and Commerce, for such Ships as do properly belong to him or them, but not such Ships as belong to any of his Subjects in any Rivers or Havens within the Dominions of His Majesty, on 
Grant of Trade in Africa.  the Coast of Africa, which is called by the Name of Guinea; as also in any Merchandise not exceeding the value of Twelve thousand Pounds Sterling yearly, according to the Prices the said Merchandizes first were bought for, on those Coasts and Places from whence they were exported, together with full liberty to build one or more Warehouses or Storehouses, fit for laying up Merchandizes, under the Castles and Forts, which shall belong to his said Majesty or his Subjects on those Coasts, to hold and enjoy the said Liberties as long as there doth continue Friendship, Amity, and good Understanding between the said King and the said Duke, and upon due consideration of the Concession or Grant thus made by His Majesty, the said Duke of Curland Grants and makes over unto His said Majesty, his Heirs and Successors, the Fort of St. Andrews in Guinea, and all other Forts, Fortifications, and Sconces there, belonging to the said Duke, together with all Guns, Bullets, and Powder, and other Instruments of War belonging to the same, or any of those Forts.  

Upon what Conditions.  And the said Duke of Curland doth Agree and Promise, for himself, his Heirs, and Successors, that they shall respectively pay to the said Lord the King, his Heirs, and Successors, three in the hundred for Customs of all Goods and Merchandises in Specie, as well into the Ports of His said Majesty in Guinea, or thence exported, as aforesaid, and that unto such Officer or Officers, whom or which his Majesty, his Heirs, or Successors shall establish or depute for the recovering or receiving of the said Customs or Duties.  

Grant of the Island Tabago.  And moreover, his said Majesty by these Presents doth give and grant to the said Duke of Curland, his Heirs, and Successors, all and every that Island called Tobago, situate about 12 Degrees North-Latitude, and 316 Degrees of Longitude, being one of those commonly called the Caribbee Islands, together with all the Lands, Havens, Creeks, Rivers, and Profits to the same belonging, to be held and enjoyed under the King's Protection.  

Under what Considerations.  Provided always and under the Condition, that the said Duke of Curland, his Heirs and Successors shall not suffer or permit any others whatsoever besides his own Subjects, and the Subjects of the said Lord the King, his Heirs, and Successors to abide in the said Island, to settle Plantations, or build Houses, but the Subjects of the said Lord the King, his Heirs, and Successors shall be always freely permitted to abide in the said Island, and to have Plantations and Houses and to enjoy all such Privileges, Liberties, Immunities, and Benefits as any of the Subjects of the said Duke, his Heirs, and Successors shall or may have, hold, use, or enjoy, without any Contradiction or Opposition whatsoever; neither shall they be compelled to pay any other Contributions or Impositions whatsoever, saving such as are necessarily required for the defence of the said Island, and equally in the same proportion paid by the Subjects of the said Duke. Moreover, the said Lord Duke Agreeth and Promiseth, that neither himself, his Heirs, and Successors, nor any other for the use of him, them, or his Subjects, shall Export, or Import, or suffer to be Exported or Imported any Merchandises, Goods, or Provisions of the said Island of Tobago otherwise, then out of, or into some Ports belonging to England and Curland, or the Ports of the City of Dantzic.  

Duke obliged to Aid the King in War.  Moreover, for the acknowledgement that the said Duke of Curland doth hold and enjoy the said Island of Tobago, from and under his said Majesty it is further Provided and Agreed, that when, and as often as the said Lord the King, his Heirs, or Successors shall so require it, or when he or they are engaged in a War against another King, Prince or State, except only the King of Poland, the Duke of Curland, his Heirs, and Successors, at their own proper Costs and Charges from time to time, shall bring or cause to be brought one good Man of War, furnished with 40 great Iron Guns, to such Ports, Station, or Place, which his said Majesty, his Heirs, and Successors shall Name, into which Ship, his Majesty, his Heirs, and Successors shall put Commanders and Seamen, and supply them with Food and Wages, under the Conduct, and at the Expenses of the said King, so long as the said Ship shall abide in his or their Service, which at one time shall never exceed the limits of a Year.  
For the Testimony and undoubted Confirmation whereof, the abovesaid Parties, namely, the most Serene and most Potent King of Great Britain, and the most Illustrious Duke of Curland, have set their Hands interchangeably to the mutual Agreement, contained and explained in these Presents, and moreover have applied their Great Seals for the Establishment thereof.  

A Letter sent hereupon, but with little Effect.  Hereupon, at the Instance of the Duke of Curland's Minister, His Majesty King Charles II. scent a Letter to the States-General, to acquaint them with this his Grant, and to recommend to their considerations the just Pretensions of the said Duke to this Island; but notwithstanding, the States inclining to favour the Lambson's Interest, who had the Impudence to call this a sham-Grant, affirming, that his Majesty could not give that which was none of his to dispose of; the said Royal Letter had little or no Effect, till it happened that Count d' Etree the French Admiral took the Island, and made there a miserable slaughter and Extirpation of the Dutch, but who thought fit to quit the Possession of it soon after.  

French beg the Island of their King.  Notwithstanding several of the French Gentry and Merchants having a Prospect of Benefit before their Eyes, afterwards Solicited their King to Grant the said Conquered Island to them, but which he generously refused, declaring that it belonged to a Neutral Prince who did no body any harm.  

A second Letter from K. Charles.  Hereupon, the Duke, without further loss of time, prepared to send Ships to take possession of his Right, and upon his Request King Charles was pleased to favour him with his second Royal Letter to the Government of Barbadoes, directed to the then Governor Sir Jonathan Atkins, and dated the 19th of January 1680, whereby that Governor was ordered not only to permit and suffer the Commanders and Officers of the said Ships to provide and furnish themselves with what they might stand in need of, but likewise to be aiding and assisting to them with his Authority, wherever there should be found occasion.  

A Letter Intercepted.  The like Letter was some time before dispatched from King Charles to the said Government by one of the Duke's Ships, called the Flowerpot, but which, together with the Ship was betrayed to the Pirates of Algiers by one Captain Nagel the Commander.  

The Duke sends Governors.  Upon the Governor of Berbadoes' Receipt of the aforesaid Royal Letter, the Duke was encouraged to send a Governor to Tobago, and soon after several others from time to time to keep possession thereof, till by assistance of the English he might be able to establish a Colony there.  

Makes a Contract with a Captain.  In 1681 the Duke entered into a Contract with Captain Pointz, granting 120000 Acres of the said Island to him and Company upon very advantageous terms.  

Description of Tobago.  This Island lies very commodiously among the Caribbees or Antilles, having many excellent Havens and Rivers, and affording divers good Products, and would be of very dangerous consequence to the English either in French or Dutch Hands, for,  

Why necessary to be English Hands.  First, when in the Years 1664, 1665, and 1666 it was in the possession of the Dutch, they took in the Wars several hundred Sail of Ships belonging to the Subjects of England, either going or coming from the Plantations, and brought them to Tobago; but on the contrary, were it in the English Hands under the Duke of Curland, their Allegiance would prevent for the future the like Damages.  
Secondly, in the said Wars both French and Dutch made up their Fleets at the said Island, and took and plundered St. Christopher's, Mountserat, Antegoa, Berbudas, etc. to the great Damage of the English.  
Thirdly, King Charles was at excessive Charge in fitting out a Fleet to preserve Mevis from being taken by the Dutch in the said Wars.  
And Fourthly, the said Island being accommodated with Harbours and Roads beyond any other of the Caribbees, might probably shelter Enemies to the English Crown, when if it were in their Hands that inconveniency would be prevented.  

Tobacco whence so called.  Much more might be added concerning this Island, but for brevity sake it is omitted, only I may take notice, that a French Geographer supposes, that either Tobacco has taken its Name from this Island, or this Island has been so called from that Weed.  

Duke James' Marriage and Issue.  This Duke James, upon his succeeding his Father in the Duchy of Curland, was Married to chariot the Daughter of George William Elector of Brandenburg, the last Elector Frederic William's Sister, who died in 1676, by whom he had the late Duke Frederic Casimir, Prince Ferdinand, Lieutenant-General in the Elector of Brandenburgh's Army, and Prince Alexander, who was wounded by a Cannon-Ball at the Siege of Buda, and who died in his way to Vienna, and three Princesses, whereof Lovis Elizabeth Married Frederic Landtgrave of Hesse, of the Line of Hambourg. Marry Amalia Married May 21, 1673, Charles, Landtgrave of Hesse, of the Line of Cassel. And the third, Charlotte, lives still unmarried in the King of Sueden's Court.  
Duke James was succeeded by his Eldest Son.  

VI Duke. His Marriage and Issue. 1683.  Frederic Casimir, but now lately deceased, who, while he was Prince, served under our present King in Holland in the first French War, bringing several Regiments of Horse and Dragoons along with him, and there Married Princess Sophia Amalia of Nassau-Siegen, who died in Childbed on the 25th of December 1688, By this Duchess he hath three Princesses alive. He was a second time Married at Berlin, in the Year 1691, to the Princess Elizabeth Sophia, the present Elector of Brandenburgh's Sister, by whom he had two or more Sons. This Duke died at Mittaw about the beginning of February, 1698, and is succeeded by his Eldest Son  

VII Duke, 1698.  Frederic Casimir II. the present Duke, being a Child, not above six years of Age.  

D. of Curland Vassal to Poland.  The Duke of Curland is Vassal to the Crown of Poland, in like manner as the Electors are to the Emperor, for when any new King is Elected there, this Duke is obliged to send his Envoy to receive investiture, by having a Standard delivered with the Arms of Poland on one side, and those of Curland on the other. After this the Envoy is permitted to sit down, to cover his Head, and has great civilities paid him.  

His Privilege and Power.  This Duke has all the Regalia that the Germane Sovereign Princes have. He Coins Money in his own Name, and has high and low Justice over the Noblemen of his Country, only in some extraordinary cases Appeals may be made to the Court of Poland.  

Revenue and Court.  He has great Demesns, of which his Revenue chiefly consists, and keeps a very pretty Court, having all his great Officers as other Princes have. The chiefest of which are,  

Chief Officers.  The Landhoff-Meister, or chief Minister.  
The High Chancellor.  
The Supreme Marshal, and,  
The Supreme Burgrave.  
These are the Four great State Officers. The more inferior are,  
The Councillors of State which are the Supreme Starostas, whereof two are for Curland, viz.  
The Supreme Starostas of Goldingen and Tuczkon;  
And two for Semigallia, viz.  
The Supreme Starostas of Mittaw and Selburg.  

Qualifications of Supreme Stagostas.  These Sta●ostas ought all to be Noble, Natives, and Landed-Men.  
Next follow the Governors of Places, Military-Officers, etc.  

Conditions of Gentry.  The Gentry of this Country are very Ancient and very free, being exceedingly Jealous of suffering any Upstart Nobleman to come among them, esteeming nothing so much as Ancient Families and Creations.  

Addition concerning Livonian Order.  Before I proceed to give a farther account of this Country, I must add a word or two more concerning the Livonian Order, and which I could not have done before, unless I had broke the Chain of the Connection.  

Principal Master how and where chosen.  The Provincial Master of this Order, was wont to be chosen by the Great Chapter of Prussia; whereupon, when in the Year 1439. the Livonian Knights had Elected one Henry a Bukenode for their Master, they were forced to give a reason for their having so done, and notwithstanding were afterwards obliged to submit to a new Election in Prussia.  

Marshal of the Order. Number of Comendadors.  Next the Provincial Master of the Livonian Order, was the Marshal of the Order.  
After whom came the several Commendadors and the Advocates. The Commendadors were in number Eleven, whereof the two first were in Curland, and the third in Semigallia.  

Number of Advocates. Title Habit and Arms of this Order.  The Advocates were Nine, two having been of Curland, and one of Semigallia.  
These Knights had the Title of the Order of Sword-Bearers, and their Habits Arms were a White Mantle, with a Sword on the Breast in Pale, and a Star Gules in Chief; but after their joining with the Teutonick Order, they had likewise their Habit and Cross.  

Geographical Description of Curland.  For a Geographical Description of this Country, I must acquaint you, Sir, that the two Dutchies of Curland and Semigallia, have these several principal Cities and Towns, for I cannot meet with any sub-division into Jalatinates or Districts, as I have performed in Poland.  

In the Duchy of Curland are the several Cities and Towns of  
Goldingen, Cap.  
Vinda, Bish.  
Pilten.  
Liba.  
Erdwalen.  
Angermund.  
Grubin.  
Tuczkon.  
Frawenburg.  
Vschwend.  
Talsen.  
Candaw.  
Durben.  
Hasenpot and  
Oendange.   

Cities and Towns of Goldingen.  Of all which, the chief City, is  
Goldingen, in Latin Goldinga, a City that stands on the Banks of the River Weet, about seven Germane Miles from Vinda or Windaw to the West, and near fifteen from Mittaw in Semigallia to the East, This City has a large Jurisdiction.  

Vinda.  Vinda or Windaw, called by the Poles, Kiescz, is a City and Palatinate: It has a Castle 
Residence of Knights.  built on the Seashore, and which was formerly Residence to the Livonian Knights, as likewise the place where they convened their Parliament or General Assemblies. Now it has usually a Garrison of Poles, but which are nevertheless under command of the Duke of Curland. This City is one of the Seaports of Curland, the other being Liba.  

Pilten.  Pilten, is a Town and Palatinate of this Duchy, whose Gentry being Protestants, and offering themselves to the King of Poland's Protection, he endeavoured to re-establish a Popish Bishop there (this having formerly been a Catholic Bishopric) whose Lands they then possessed; whereupon they altered their Resolutions, and forthwith submitted to the Duke of Curland.  

Richest Gentry in Curland.  These are the richest Gentry in this Prince's Dominions, whereof the principal Families are those of Maydel, Beher, Sacken, Mandevil, etc.  

In the Duchy of Semigallia are the Cities and Towns of 

Mittaw 

Metropolis of these Dominions.    
Bauske.  
Doblin.  
Selburg.  
Radziwiliskis.  
Nithaw.  
Birze.  
Pozwole.  
Lunka.  
Dalen.  
Schudding.  
Pilkall.  
Beher.  
Nersten and  
Salatt.     
Of all which the Capital of this Duchy and Metropolis of the Duke of Curland's Dominions, is,  

Mittaw.  Mittaw, in Latin, Mittavia or Mittovia, the usual place of Residence of the Dukes of Curland. This City is built on the River Musza, and is a pretty large place, containing about Twelve Thousand Inhabitants.  
It has a weak Wall, tho' nevertheless a well 
It's Castle.  Fortified, and stately Castle with two Bastions, which are surrounded by Marshes, and defended by a strong and numerous Garrison.  

Streets and Houses.  The streets of this City are not Paved for want of Stone, and the Citizen's Houses are either of Brick or Timber, as in Poland.  

How distant from other places  This place lies about seven Polish Miles from Riga, in Regal- Livonia, and only four from the Prontiers of Samogitia.  

How often Conquered.  It has been twice taken of late by the Swedes, but has been since regained, and is at present wholly subject to its Duke.  

Bauske.  Bauske, another strong City in this Duchy, which has a well Fortified Castle and a numerous Garrison.  

Religions in Curland.  The Religion of this Country is generally Lutheran, tho' there are some few Roman Catholics and Calvinists there.  

Two Roman Catholic Churches.  In favour of the first, the late Duke at the King of Poland's request, gave leave for the building of two Roman Catholic Churches, one at Mittaw, and the other at Goldingen. The Jesuits pretend to have bought this Cureteship of Mittaw, and upon that account, to have settled there; but nevertheless they are frequently oppressed, and their College was broke down not long since, yet notwithstanding they still subsist.  

Calvin●● Church at Mittaw.  The Duchess' of Curland having been all hitherto Calvinists, have always had one Church at Mittaw, set a part for them and their Religion, where the Calvinists and Protestants of Livonia, as likewise the English Merchants of Riga, come to Exercise their Devotion, there being no liberty of Conscience allowed throughout the King of Sweden's Dominions, except at Stockholm only, where the French Huguenots have been permitted to build a Church.  

Government of Curland.  As to the Government of Curland, there is first,  

The Parliament.  The Parliament, or General Assembly of the States of this Duteby, which is convened after this manner: The Duke, as often as any Urgencies of State so require it, sends out his Letters of Summons to all the Starostas of his Dominions, together with a Schedule of the Points proposed to be debated on, requiring them, and every of them, to cause Deputies, or Representatives of the Gentry, to be forth with Elected in their respective Jurisdictions; whereupon they are soon Elected accordingly, and furnished with Instructions from their Electors, how they shall behave themselves in like manner as in Poland. These afterwards meeting at Mittaw, together with the four Supreme Counsellors, consult about the good of the Public.  

Court of Supreme Councillors.  Next the four Supreme Counsellors, or Ministers of State, meet twice every Year, that is, on the Epipbany and Trinity Monday at Mittaw, and sit at least five Weeks to exercise and do Justice.  
The First Week is usually spent in State-Counsels, where the Prince's Presence and Authority is likewise required.  
The second is taken up in judging Appeals from inferior Courts.  
The Third in determining Criminals Cases.  
The Fourth in settling Ecclesiastical Affairs.  
And the Fifth in hearing Complaints of, and receiving Petitions from the Subjects.  

Degrees of demanding Justice.  The degrees of demanding Justice in Cities in all extraordinary matters, are these:  
First, The Gentry apply themselves to the Supreme Starosta (for it must be observed, that the inferior Starostas have little jurisdiction but in small matters.)  
Secondly, In Case of Appeals, they have recourse to the supreme Councillors Court. In Criminal Cases, where the life of any Nobleman is concerned, immediate Application is made to this Court, and the four Supreme Starostas are obliged to assist there. If any of these Starostas happen to be absent, one that is inferior may be deputed in his room.  
Thirdly, Appeals may be made both in Criminal and Civil Cases, to the Court of Poland, which the Curlanders term Judicia Postcurialia.  

Ecclesiastical Courts.  Ecclesiastical Courts are held by the four Supreme Councillors before mentioned in conjunction with a Sur-intendant, and four Provosts.  

City Courts  The Inferior City Courts belong to the City Magistracy, or to the Neighbouring Starostas, within whose Jurisdiction the Offender lives. Appeals in these trivial Courts can be made no farther than to the Supreme Starostas, whose Sentence is Final.  

Ministerial Officers  The Executors of Justice in Curland are termed die Man-Richters, who in Civil Cases, after a third Summons to satisfy the Plaintiff, and upon Non-performance, or Non-Plea, levy the Debt or Demand by way of Distress.  

Trade of Curland.  The Trade of Curland consists in much the same Commodities, as in Poland.  

Corn in great request and wherefore.  The Corn of Curland and Livonia is fought after by the Dutch more than that of Poland, by reason, that it is better prepared and cured here, than in other Countries; for they are accustomed to dry their Corn in the Straw as we do Malt, and afterwards to thrash both together. But this consumes a great deal of Wood, and therefore the King of Sweden has forbid it to be practised any where within his Dominions.  

Where Curland is to revers to Poland.  I had almost forgot to acquaint you, Sir, that this Duchy of Curland,- in case the Duke thereof wants Heirs-Males, is to revert to the Crown of Poland, in like manner as Ducal-Prussia is to do from the Elector of Branden burg.  
Thus, Sir, I have endeavoured to make what use I could of my short time and imperfect helps to entertain you, but which I have a great deal of reason to despair of accomplishing, unless I could have produced something more Accurate in its kind; nevertheless, I hope you will dispense with my Inabilities, and accept the Good Will of  
SIR, Your very Humble and Obedient Servant, J. S.  
FINIS.    

THE TABLE.  

VOL. I.  

A  ALexander (King) 
When Crowned, and how long Reigned, Page, 67. His Wars and Death, 68 His Character, Ibid.  Alexander (Prince) 
His Character, 189. Affected by the Queen, ibid.   

B  BOleslaus, I. 
His Wars, 26. Institutes XII. Senators, his Assistants, Ibid. His Character and Death, ibid.  II. 
How long Reigned, 29. His Wars, Marriages and Vices, ibid. Flight out of the Kingdom and Death, 30.  III. 
His Surname and Wars, 31. etc. His Marriage, 32. Valour and Success, 33. Death, Issue and Character, ibid.  IV. 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 35. His Wars, ibid. His Death, 36.  V. 
His Surname and Guardians, 43. When Elected, and how long Reigned, ibid. His Marriage, ibid. His Troubles, 44. Retires into Hungary, ibid. Returns, 45. Farther Troubles and Wars, ibid. His Death, ibid.  Batori 
vide Stephen.  Bishop. 
Of Cracow, Lord over 13 Cities, 223. His Chapter, ibid.  Bresty, (City) 
It's Description, 234.  Braclaw, (Pal.) 
Chief Cities and Towns, 277. Descriptions, ibid.  Braclaw, (City) 
It's Description, 277.  Belsko, (Pal.) 
Description, 280. Division into Districts, ibid. Chief Cities and Towns, 281. Their Descriptions, ibid.  Belsko, (City) 
It's Description, 281.  Byelsko, (Cap. of Podlachia) 
It's Description, 297.  Broscia, (Pal.) 
One district, 330. Chief Cities and Towns, ibid. Descriptions, 331. Its Arms, 332.  Brescia, (City) 
It's Description, 331.  Bears 
Nourish Children, 342. Story of one, ibid. Assertion confirmed by the King, 343. Another account from the Dutch Ambassador, ibid., etc. A third Account from Hartknock, 348.   

C.  City. 
The First, 6. The Second, ibid.  Cracus. 
His Death, 13. His Issue, ibid.  Cracow. 
When and by whom built, 12. University by whom Founded, 59 Taken by Stratagem, 132. Where Situate and how distant from other Places, 238. Whence its Name, ibid. Its Division, Castle, and Cathedral, 238, etc. When first made a Metropolitan See, 240. How many Churches, ibid. Its University and Professors, ibid. etc. Its Colleges, 241. Vicechancellor, ibid. Monasteries and Mendicants, 242. Its Houses, ib. Mayor of Cracow, 248. Government of the Castle, 249.  Chrobry 
vi. Boleslaus I.  Casimir I. 
Queen Regent during Minority, ibid. He becomes Monk, ibid. Recalled upon Agreement with the Pope, ibid. His Marriage, Wars, Death, and Issue, 28.  II. 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 37. Surnamed the Just, and an Example, ibid. etc. Eases his Subjects of Taxes, 38. Conspiracy against him, ibid. Disappointed, 39 His Wars, ibid. Death and Issue, ibid.  III. 
Surnamed the Great, 50. When Elected, and how long Reigned, ibid. Makes Peace with Teutonic Knights, ibid. His Conquests, ibid. Good Deeds, ibid. Character, other Wars, and Death, 55.  IU. 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 63. His Marriage, ibid. Assists the Prussians, 64. Routs Teutonic Order, ibid. Obtains advantageous Peace, ibid. His Issue, 65. His Death and Age.  Curland and Semigallia. 
First Duke, 77. Enjoyed by his Posterity ever since, ibid.  Common Wealth (Jocular) 
of Babina, 79.  Candidates for the Crown. 
After the death of Sigismundus Augustus, 85. After the Abdication of Henry of Valois, 87. After the death of Stephen Batori, 104. Two of these come into Poland, 108. After Uladislaus VII. 125. After John Casimir, 140. After Michael Wiesnowiski, 155. After John Sobieski, 235.  Courts of Justice 
none, 90. Batori erects two called Tribunals, ibid. Were to determine Civil Causes without Appeal, ibid.  Cosacks. 
How so termed, 94. Used to make Inroads, ibid. To whom compared, ibid. Reduced to a Discipline, ibid. Whence their Name, ibid. Extent of their first Dominions, 95. A Conjecture about this Country, ibid. It's present Extent, 96. Their Buildings, ibid. Character, ibid. Religion, 97. Fasts, ibid. Language, 98. Customs and Manners, ibid. Abundance of Flies and Locusts, ibid. Their Customs and Manners in Peace and War, 99 Their Rebellion, 146. Are favoured by the Turks, ibid. Produces a bad Peace, ibid.  Conti, (Prince of) 
Pretends to the Crown of Poland, 205. Proclaimed King by the Primate, 206. Sent for into Poland, 207. Favoured by Prince Sapieha, ibid. Comes to Dantzic, ibid. Gives over his Pretensions, 208. etc.  Cujavia, (Territory.) 
Division into Palatinates, 234. Chief Cities and Towns, ibid.  Cracovia, (Palatinate.) 
It's division into Districts, 237. Cities and Towns, ibid. Their several Descriptions, 238, etc. Castellan's Power, 248.  Czentochova, (a Town.) 
Famous for a Convent, 244.  Cruswick, (City.) 
It's Description, 235.  Culm, (Pal.) 
Joined by the Territory of Michalovia, 260. Chief Cities and Towns, ibid. Their several Descriptions, ibid. etc.  Culm, (City.) 
It's Description, 260.  Caminiec, (City.) 
It's description, 275. Built, 320.  Chelm, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 282. Chief Cities and Towns, ibid. Their descriptions, ibid. etc.  Chelm, (City.) 
It's description, 282.  Crasnistaw, (Town.) 
It's description, 282.   

D.  Denmark. 
It's King taken Prisoner, II.  Dantzic. 
Made a City, 39 Dantzickers reduced, 89, etc. First allowed a Vote, 120.  Deputies 
first admitted to the Diet, 65.  Diet. 
Convened, 85, 101, 119, 124, 140, 154, 205.  Dobrina, (Pal.) 
In what abounds, 289. Division into Districts, ibid. Chief Cities and Towns, 290. Their Descriptions, ibid. etc.  Dobrina, (City.). 
It's description, 290.   

E.  Election. 
By Horse-race, 15. Peaceable, 118. Of Sigisimund de Vasa 106. Of Uladislaus VII. 119. Of John Casimir, 124. Of Michael Wiesnowiski, 144. Of John Sobieski, 155.  Ambassadors. 
Admitted to Audience, 105, 120, 141, 159.  Elbing, (Town.) 
It's description, 263.   

F.  Family of 
Lechus, 11, etc. Cracus, from 12 to 14. Leschus II. from 15 to 17. Piastus, from 21 to 57 Jagello, from 58 to 82.  Factions. 
Lutheran and Catholic, 102. Not to be United, 103. The former Mutiny, ibid. Suppressed, ibid. Three Factions, 103. Lutheran's Policy, 105.  Frederic August (King.) 
Elected, 207. Takes possession of Cracow, ibid. Crown▪ d, ibid. Reasons why he is likely to restore Poland, 209. First German Prince that has been King, ibid.   

G.  Great Poland, (Province.) 
It's Division, 220. Palatinates, 221. Their several Cities and Towns, ibid. etc. Their Arms, 226, etc.  Gnesna, (City.) 
It's description, 223.  Great Dukes of Lithuania. 
Their several Lives, from 310 to 324.  Grodno, (City.) 
It's description, 329.   

H.  Henry I. 
Elected and dethroned, 48. Appoints a Successor in vain, ibid.  Hedwigis, (Queen) 
comes into Poland, 58, Is Crowned, and how long Reigned, ibid. Has several Suitors, ibid. Marries Jagello, 59 Dies, ibid.  Henry of Valois, (King) 
Sent for by the Diet, 85. Agrees to Articles and takes an Oath, ibid. etc. Is Crowned, 86. Abdicates Poland, 87. Embassies sent after him in vain, ibid.  House of Austria 
Jealous of Sigismond I's. greatness, 71. Raises Enemies against him, ibid. How came by Hungary, Bohemia, and Silesia, ibid.  Habit 
of the Poles, 177.  Heilsberg, (City.) 
It's description, 263.  Halicz, (Town.) 
It's description, 271.   

I.  Jagello, 
Great Duke of Lithuania Becomes Christian, 59 Crowned King of Poland, and how long Reigned, ibid. Converts the Lithuanians, ibid. Found'st the University of Cracow, ibid. His Wars, ibid. Death and Issue, 60.  John Albert, (King.) 
His Character, 66. Policy and Army defeated, ibid., Makes Peace with the Null and Turks, 67. His Death, ibid.  John Casimir, (King.) 
Led a Religious Life, and made Cardinal, 124. His Character and Travels, 126. Like to be excluded, ibid. etc. Elected, 128. His Marriage, ibid. His Wars, ibid. etc. Suedish King invades Poland, 139. Wherefore, 131. Motives and means of Casimir's Abdication, 134. His Death, 135. His Epitaph, 136.  John Basilowitz, 
Czar of Muscovy, Is a great Tyrant, and his variety of Tortures, 78.  John III (Sobieski.) 
Elected in the Year 1674, 163. His Father and Mother, ibid., His Travels, 164. His Marriage, ibid. His Generosity, 165. Zeal to Arms discouraged, 166. War with the Turks and Tartars, 167, etc. A Battle, 169. His Coronation, 172. He relieves Vienna, 173. Defeats the Turks, 174. His entry through the Breach, 175. Pursues the Enemy, ibid., Takes Zytehin in Hungary, 176. Enters into a League against the Turks, 177. Is immoderately covetous, ibid. His Person and Dress, ibid. His Character, 179. Engages Dr. Connor in a Dispute, ibid. His Buildings, 184. Care of his Children, 185. His great Riches, ibid. Fortune formerly, and gradual Promotion, 150, His Sister, 198, What Issue she left, 200. Account of the King's Distemper from the Bishop of Plosko, 201, etc. The King's Death, 204. Reflections on his Disease, ibid.  Inter Regnum 
before the present King's Election, 205.  Inowlocz, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 235. Chief Cities and Towns, ibid.   

K.  King 
Of Poland; his Policy, 8. The first, 9, 25. Four classes of Kings, 10. Title ceases, 30. Restored, 48.  King of Sueden 
enters into a League with the Elector of Brandenburg, 132.  Koningsberg 
in Regal- Prussia built, 45. It's description, 264.  Kalisch, (City.) 
It's description 226.  Kalisch, (Pal.) 
Its Arms, 227.  Kiovia, (Pal.) 
How bounded, 277. Chief Cities and Towns, 278. Their descriptions, ib. etc.  Kiow, (City.) 
It's Description, 278.   

L.  Laws. 
What formerly in Poland, 5.  Lechus I. 
10. Found'st Poland, 5. Builds Posnan and Gnesna, 6. Occasions Poland the Name of Lechia, ib. His Posterity how long Reigned, 11, 12.  II. 
His Banishment and Death, 13.  Lescus I. 
14. Elected by a Stratagem, ib. Reign and Death uncertain, 15.  II. 
How Elected, 14. His Death, 15.  III. 
His death uncertain, 16.  IV. 
His Character and Death, 23.  V. 
Surnamed the White, 39 Under Guardians, ib. His Wars, 40. Is dethroned, ib. Restored, ib. dethroned again, 41, Put by an Election, ib. etc. re-established, 42. Murdered in a Bath, ib.  VI 
When Elected and how long Reigned, 46. His Wars, ib. Insurrection against him, ib. Retires into Hungary, 47. Returns with success, ib. His death, ib. Leaves his Kingdom in distraction, ib.  Lascon●gus: 
Vide Uladislaus III.  Locticus, 
vide Uladislaus IU.  Lewis King of Hungary, 
When Crowned, and how long Reigned, 56. Obliged to take an Oath, ib: Returns into Hungary, ib. His Wars, Death, and Issue, 57 Commendable Example of his, ib.  Leopol, (City) 
whence so called, 46. It's description, 267.  Luther's Doctrine 
when first known here, 70. Very much propagated, 78. The occasion, ib. First Person of Note that embraced it, ib.  Lutherans▪ 
Contend for share in the Government, 101. Obtain perpetual Liberty of Conscience, ib, etc. Lutheran party Dissents, 107. Elects and Proclaims Maximilian of Austria, 〈◊〉 2▪ Pronounced Traitors by the Diet, 108.  Lithuanid. 
Tends towards a Civil War, 160. How called by the Inhabitants, 302. Present Bounds, ib. Ancient Extent, ib. Soil and Products, ib. &c Union with Poland, and Privileges, 303. Division, ib. Its Arms, ib. Different Opinions about its Name, 304. Its Dukes, from 305 to 310. Division into Palatinates, 324.  Lithuanid Proper, 
(Province.) 325.  Lesser-Poland, (Province.) 
Its Bounds, 236. It's Division into Pal. ib. etc. Their several Arms, 249, 254, 257.  Lowitz, (City) 
It's description, 231.  Lanschet, (Pal.) 
It's division into Districts, 232: Chief Cities and Towns, ib.  Lanschet, (City) 
It's Description, 232.  Lublin, (Pal.) 
Joined by the Territory of Lukovia, 254. Chief Cities and Towns, 255. Their several Descriptions, ib. etc.  Lublin, (City.) 
It's Description, 255.  Lutzk▪ (City.) 
It's Description, 295.   

M.  Mi●ceslaus I. 
24. His Christian Wife, ib. His Wars, 25.  II. 
His Wars, 26. Character and Death, 27.  III. 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 36. Whence surnamed the Old, ibid. Is dethroned, 37. Endeavours to get restored, 38. Is restored, 40. dethroned again, ibid. Reinthroned, 41. His Death, ibid.  Michael Wiesnowiski. 
Refuses the Crown, 144. Accepts it, ibid. Proclaimed, Crowned, and how long Reigned, 145. His Marriage, ibid. His Death, 149. Leaves no Issue, ibid. Buried, 171.  Marienburg, (City) 
built, 51. It's Description, 262.  Maximilian the Emperor (King Elect) 
Acquainted that he was chosen, 87. Prevented invading Poland by Death, 88  Maximilian of Austria. 
Routed by the Polish General, 109. Beaten again, and made Prisoner, 110. Offered Liberty on honourable terms, 111. Dissents, ib. Consents, ib.  Mines, 
245. Of Cracaw, 246. Description of them, ib. etc.  Manna. 
Particular sort, and eaten for Sauce, 248.  Michalevia (Territory) 
It's Description, 262.  Marienburg, (Pal.) 
It's chief Cities and Towns, 262. Their several Descriptions, ib. etc.  Masovia, (Province) 
Its Bounds, 283. Inhabitants, 284. Division into Palatinates, ib. Their several Arms, 288. 289. 290.  Masovia (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 284. Chief Cities and Towns, 285. Their Descriptions, ib. etc.  Mindog Duke of Lithuania 
Acknowledged King, 308. Murdered, 309.  Mscislaw, (Pal.) 
Description, 333, Division into Districts ib. etc. Chief Cities and Towns, 334. Descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 335.  Mscislaw, (City.) 
It's Description, 334.  Minski, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 337. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 338.  Minski, (City.) 
It's description, 337.   

N.  Number of Polish Princes, 
9 Of Towns and Villages in Poland, 217, etc.  Novogrodec, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 332. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Their descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 333.  Novogrodec, (City.) 
It's description, 332.   

O.  Oliva, 
Treaty there, 133.   

P.  Poland, 
Its Origin, 3. Whence so called, 5. What by the Inhabitants, ib. By whom Founded, ib. Its Policy, 7. Made a Figure in the IXth Century, 20. It's Ancient Extent, 213. Increase by Conquests, ib. By Policy, 214. Present Extent, 225. Its Bounds and Soil, 216. Its Products, 217. Cilmate, 218. Rivers, ib. Their several Courses, ib. etc. Its Lakes, 220.  Poles, 
when first Christians, 24. March to recover Podolia, 148. Conquer, but fail in their design, ib. etc.  Popiel I. 
16. His Vices and Death, ib.  II. 
ib. Judgement upon him, 17.  Piastus, 
21. 'Cause of his Election, ib. His Virtues and Death, 22. How long his Family Reigned, ib. Gives the Name of Piasto, 23.  Patron 
of Poland, 30.  Premislus, 
when Crowned, 48. Murdered, ib.  Prophecy (Comical) 
108. Posts when first settled in Poland, 123. Peace concluded with the Turks, 173. How long lasted, ib.  Prince James, 
his Character, 188. Intended Marriage disappointed, ib. Married to another, 189. Weak and Sickly, ib. Officiates as Ambassador, 192. Resigns his Interests to the Elector of Saxony, 206.  Princess, (John III's Daughter) 
Her Character, 190. Her Marriage, ib. Portion, 191. Ceremony of her Marriage, ib. Equipage for her Journey to Brussels, 193. Reception at Berlin, 195. Is met by the Elector, 196. Proceeds on her Journey, 197. Arrival at Brussels, 198.  Physicians, 
A Consultation of them, 199.  Posnan, (City) 
It's Description, 221.  Posnania (Palatinate) 
Its Arms, 226.  Prussia, (Province) 
Its Bounds, 257. Products, ib. Rivers, 258. Lakes, ib. Division, 259. Officers that belong to the Great Council, ib. Its Arms, 265.  Prussia (Royal) 
Division into Palatinates, 259.  Prussia (Dueal) 
It's Chief Cities and Towns, 264.  Pomerania, (Pal.) 
260.  Premislaw, (City) 
It's Description, 269.  Podolia, (Pal) 
Wherefore famous, 274. Division into Districts, ib. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Their several Descriptions, 175, etc.  Plosko, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 288. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Their Descriptions, ib. etc.  Plosko, (City) 
It's Description, 288.  Podlachia, (Province) 
Its Bounds, 296. Division into Districts, ib. Chief Cities and Towns 〈◊〉 Their Descriptions, 297, etc. Arms of the Pro●ovince, 298.  Pinsko, (City) 
It's Description, 331.  Polocz, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 338. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 339.  Polocz, (City) 
It's Description, 338.   

Q.  Queen-Dowager's 
Zeal, 156. King Michael Assigned a Jointure, 166.  Queen's (John III's) 
first Coming into Poland, 186. Her first Marriage, ib. Age, and Qualifications, ib. etc. Her Address in disposing of Employments, 187.   

R.  Rochester (Lord) 
His Embassy into Poland, 172. Had Audience of the Queen at Dantzick, ib. Made a Present to the Princess, ib. Received by the King in his Camp, 173. Had Public Audience at Zolkiew, ib. Manner thereof, ib. His Return home, ib.  Respect, 
Little paid to the King's Children, 189.  Rava, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 230. Its Cities and Towns, ib. etc.  Rava, (City) 
It's Description, 230, etc.  Russia, (Province) 
Division and Description, 266. Division into Palatinates, ib. Arms, 276, 280, 281, 283.  Russia, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 267. Their several Arms, 269, 271. Chief Cities and Towns, ib.  Rosienia, (Capital of Samogitia.) 
It's Description, 293.  Religion, 
Ancient and Present, of Lithuania, 339, etc.   

S  Stratagem, 
Succeeds, 14. Defeated, 15.  Sigismond I. 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 69. Defeats a Conspiracy and Army, ib. Other Wars, ib. etc. His Marriage, 70. War with the Teutonic Order, ib. Grants Liberty of Conscience to Dantzickers, ib. War with Knights, ended by Mediation, 71. Forces other Invaders to retire, ib. His Death and Age, 72. His Character, Marriages and Issue, ib.  II. Surnamed Augustus. 
When Crowned, and how long Reigned, 75. His Marriage displeases the Diet, 76. Unites Livonia to Poland, 77. His Wars with the Moscovites, ib. Forces the Czar to a Peace, 78. Sends an Army to support Bogdan in Valachia, ib. Obliged to return home, ib. Rather favoured than disturbed the Lutherans, 79. Hears several of their Preachers, ib. Inclines most Bishops to that Persuasion, ib. A great Escape he had, ib. His Death and Issue, ib.  Stephen Batori, (King) 
Received, and Crowned, 88 Primate submits, ib. Who greatly Assisting to him in his Election, ib. His Rise, 89. His Marriage, ib. More severe in Punishments than Laws allowed, 90. Encouraged Speaking Latin, 91. A Wonder to the French, ib. His Wars, ib. Is refused to name a Successor, 100 His Character, ib. His Death and Epitaph, ib. etc.  Sigismond de Vasa, (King) 
Ambassadors sent to acquaint him, 107. Is Crowned in Poland, 109. His Marriage, 111. Crowned King of Sweden, 112. Deposed there, ib. Cause of his War with the Moscovites, 113. His War with the Turks, 115. Invasion by Gustavus Adolthus, 116. Sigismund's Death, ib. His Character, ib.  Speech 
of the Bishop of Premislaw, 119. Another Appeases Heats, 143. Another, by the Palatin of Russia, 160. Byasses Poland, and part of Lithuania, 161.  Senators of 
Great Poland, 225, 227, 229, 232, 233, 236. Of Lesser Poland, 248, 254, 256. Of Prussia, 265. Of Russia, 274, 276, 277, 280, 281, 283. Of Masovia, 287, 289, 290. Of Samogitia, 294. Of Volhynia, 296. Of Podlachia, 298. Of Lithuania-Proper, 328, 330, 331. Of Lithuanic-Russia, 333, 335, 336, 338, 339.  Severia, (City) 
Belongs to the Bishop of Cracow, 243.  Siradia, (Pal.) 
Its Arms, 230.  Sendomir, (Pal.) 
It's Division into Districts, 249. Chief Cities and Towns, 251. Their several Descriptions, ib. etc.  Sendomir, (City) 
It's Description▪ 250.  Sanoch, (Town) 
It's Description, 273.  S●●●gi●ta (Province) 
290. Its Bounds, 291. Manners of People, ib. Their Superstition, 292. Manner of Sacrificing, ib. etc. Division into Districts, 293. Principal Towns, ib. Descriptions, ib. etc.   

T  Teutonic Order. 
Called into Poland, 43. Established in Prussia, 51. Proves troublesome to the Poles, ib. Therefore Excommunicated by the Pope, 52. Routs the Prussians, and Casimir IU. 64.  Tartars, 
First Inroad, 44. Second Incursions, 61. Third Incursion, with the Moscovites and Moldavians, 71.  Turks, 
Take Podhais, 170.  Thorn, (City) 
It's Description, 261. Its Arms, ib. Native Town of Copernicus, ib. etc.  Troki, (City) 
Built, 315. It's Description, 329.  Troki, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 328. Chief Cities and Towns, 329. Descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 330.   

U.  Visimirus, 
10. His Conquests, 11. His Death, ibid.  Venda, 
13. Her Death, ib.  Uladislaus I. 
30. His Wars, ib. His Marriage, and Death, 31.  II. 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 33. Persecutes his Brothers, 34. A Severe Revenge, ib. His Flight out of the Kingdom, and Death, 35.  III. 
Uladislaus Lasconogus, 42. Surrenders his Crown, ib.  IV. 
Whence so called, 48. When began his Reign, and how long Reigned, 49. His Wars, and Vices, ib. Is dethroned, ib Restored, 50. Meets with Difficulties, ib. etc. His Speech to his Army, 52. Overthrows the Teutonic Order, 53. Is Crowned with his Queen, ib. His Death, ib.  Uladislaus 
V. Vide Jagello.  VI 
When Elected, and how long Reigned, 60. Regent's during Minority, 61. Crowned King of Hungary, ib. His Wars with the Turks, ib. etc. Is Complimented on a Victory, 62. Killed and Routed by the Turks, 63. Epitaph upon him, ib. His Perfidy awakens the Turks, ib.  VII. 
Elected, Proclaimed and Crowned, 121. His Marriage, and Wars, ib. With the Cosacks, 122. His Death, 123.  Ukraina, (Country of the Cosacks) 
Whence so called, 93. How divided, ib. To whom anciently belonged, ib. Its Inhabitants: Vide Cosacks.  Vielunia, (Territory) 
It's Division, 229. Principal Towns, ibid. Arms, 230.  Uladislaw, (City) 
It's Description, 234.  Varmia, (Bishopric and Pal.) 
Exempt from Regal Jurisdiction, 263. It's Chief Cities and Towns, ib. their several Descriptions, ib. etc.  Vinnicza, (City) 
It's Description, 277.  Volhynia, (Province) 
Division into Districts, 294. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. etc. Its Arms, 296.  Vilna, (City) 
Built, 316. It's Description, 325. Its Arms, 328.  Vilna, (Pal.) 
Division into Districts, 325. It's Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 328.  Vitebsko: 
Vide Witebsko.   

W.  Woievods, 
XII. Their Government, 12, 14. Deposed, ib.  Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia, 
Crowned King of Poland, and how long Reigned, 49. Goes into Bohemia, ib. Loses his Kingdom of Poland, and dies, 50.  Warsaw, (City) 
It's Description, 285, etc.  Witebsko, (Pal.) 
Has but one District, 335. Chief Cities and Towns, ib. Their Descriptions, ib. etc. Its Arms, 336.  Witebsko, (City) 
It's Description, 335.   

Z.  Ziemovitus, 
23. His Wars, Character and Death, ib.  Ziemovistus, ib. 
His Character and Death, ib. etc.  Zulava, (Island) 
It's Division, 263.  Zamoisk, (City) 
It's Description, 283.    

TABLE II.  
☞ Note This Second Volume having been put to two Printing-Houses, a Second Alphabet was necessary to be made use of: Therefore, to avoid Mistakes, the Reader is desired to take notice of this Asterism * after the Folio's, for the Distinction of the Second Part.  

A.  ARmenians, (in Poland) 
Where Inhabit, 49. Have peculiar Prelates, etc. ib. Service, in what Language, ibid. Acknowledge the See of Rome, ib.  Associates 
to Judges, 77.  Army, (Polish) 
It's Division, 9, *. Of the Horse, ib. etc. *. Of the Foot, 11, *. Manner of Paying the Army, 20, *. Inferior Officers of the Army, 31, etc. *.  Auxiliaries, 
What, 16, *. Example, ib. *.   

B.  Bishoprics, (Polish) 
How many, 36, etc. Their several Dioceses, 37. Peculiar Jurisdictions, ib.  Bishops, (Polish) 
Each has a kind of little Court, 46. Have also Suffragans, ib. Contest with Lay-Senators for Precedence, ib. Have, most of them, large Revenues, 47.  Bishop, (Greek) 
In Premislaw, 44. In Kiovia, being formerly Primate of Moscovy, 45.  Burgraves, 
Their Office, 80.  Baths, (in Poland) 
Private and Public, with their Effects, 199. Burials, Order of Procession at them, 206. Other Proceedings, 207. Particulars of the King and Queen's Interments, ib.   

C.  Commonalty, (Polish) 
Their Condition, 5. Wherefore Enslaved, ib. Incapable of Preferment, except some few, 167. How first Enslaved, 182. Live Satisfied notwithstanding, 183. Their present Condition, 184. every their Lords, ibid. etc. How fixed in a Farm, 185.  Cosacks: 
A further Account of them, 11, etc. *. Their Councils of War, 12, *. Way of Fortifying their Camps and Boats, ib. *. Their Power, 13, *.  Crown, (of Poland) 
Means to continue it in one Family, 26. Vacant four Ways, 126.  Customs, (Polish) 
Way of Hunting Wild Oxen, 209. Manner of Taking Bears, 211. Way of Ordering Cabbage, 212. Poles eat but little Bread, 215. Customs at Feasts, Vide Feasts. Manners at Table, 217. Way of Taking Tobacco, 218. Customs in Travelling, Vide Travelling. Manners of peculiar Countries, 224. Customs in Grinding Corn, 227. Rustics Employments within and without Doors, 229. Manners in Husbandry, 233. Way of Pruning Trees, ib. Manner of Sowing, ib. etc. Way of Securing and Ordering Corn, 234. Peculiar Customs in Prussia, ib. Manner of Fishing in Poland, 40, *. Manner of Electing and Ordaining Priests in Dantzic, 47, *.  Counsellors, (Privy) 
Who in Poland, 31. Four Senators particularly Assigned, 31, 35.  Castellans: 
What, and whence so called, 35. Names and Precedence, from 61, to 67. Their Duty, 60. Their Division, Qualifications, Office and Titles, ib. etc. Name in Polish, 68  Cracow, (Bishop of) 
His Residence and Precedence, 42. Bishopric and Power, ib. How Addressed to, 43  Cracow, (Palatin of) 
Wherefore Preferred, 55.  Cujavia, (Bishop of) 
His See, Precedence and Authority, 43. Has several Places of Residence, ib.  Culm, (Bishop of) 
His Precedence, and See, 45.  Chelm, (Bishop of) 
His See Translated; and wherefore, 45.  Caminiec, (Bishop of) 
Honorary; being under the Turk, 46.  Churches, (Greek) 
Two Sorts, 47. Priests, how called, and Wherefore, ib.  Calvinists, 
In what Part of Poland, 48. King obliged to protect them, ib. Name in Polish, ibid. First Nobleman that became Calvinist, ibid. etc.  Clergy, (Regular) 
Their Privileges, 51. Dissolute Lives, ib.  Clergy, (Secular) 
Their Manners, 52. Division, ib.  Churches, (Polish) 
Fine, and well adorned, 53. A rich Cope at Leopel, ib.  Chancellors, (Great and Vice) 
Qualifications of those of the Kingdom, 70. Both have Seals, and equal Authority, 71. Their Office and Power, ib. Succeed each other, 72. How ought to be qualified, ib.  Cavalry, (Polish) 
What required in vain of them, 7, *. Great Force with Examples, 24, etc. *.  Cupbearers, Carvers, etc. 
77.  Custom-house Commissioners, 
78.  Chamberlain, (Vice of District) 
His Office, 78. Chamberlains under him, ib.  Convocation, (General of the Clergy) 
How often, and where Convened, 115. Minor Clergy admitted by Deputies, ib.  Courts (of Justice,) 
The Kaptur, what, and its Power, 115. Ecclesiastical, 116. Of Nunciature, ib. High Tribunals, ib. etc. Senate and Green-Cloth, 117. Exchequer-Courts, ib. Of Land-Judicature, with its Judges, 118. Of the Vice-Chamberlains, ib. Gentry's Criminal Courts, 119. Commonalty-Courts in Cities, ib. In Villages, 120. Where Courts of Justice cease, 129. Exception, ib. Relating to Courts of Justice in Lithuania, 224 Former Judges there, 225.  Candidate (for Election,) 
What Qualifications required in him, 140, etc.  Ceremony 
Of the King's Swearing to the Pacta Conventa, 149, etc. Of his Entering Cracow, 154. The Interment of a deceased King, 155. Obsequies and Procession, 154. Procession at the Coronation, 156. Ceremony thereat, ib. Farther Particulars, ib. etc. Coronation-Oath, 157. Words at Kissing the Book, 159. Unction, etc. ib. etc. How pronounced King, 161. Feasts thereupon, ibid. Ceremony of Creation of Teutonic Knights, 71. *.  Coronation. 
King appoints the Day, 153. Place, fixed, ib. Exceptions, ib. By whom performed, 155. Manner of Crowning, 160. Enthroning, ibid.  Curland (Bishop of,) 
Vide Samogitia, (Bishop of.)  Curland, (Duchy) 
Its Bounds, and Extent, 99, *. Soil, and former State, ib. etc. *. When wholly conquered, 100, *. Converted by degrees, ib. *. Its Dukes, 105, etc. *. Duke Vassal to Poland, 115, *. His Privilege and Power, 116, *. Revenue and Court, ibid. *. Chief Officers, ibid. *. Condition of Gentry, ib. 117, *. Geographical Description, 118, *. Government, 121, *. Degrees of Demanding Justice, 122, *. Ecclesiastical Courts, 123, *. City-Courts, ibid. *. Ministerial Officers, ibid. *. Trade of Curland, ibid. *. Corn in great Request, ibid. *. When Curland is to revert to Poland, ibid. *.   

D.  Diet (Grand of Poland) 
How resembles the English Parliament, 5. What it is, 6, 83. It's Power, ib. By whom called, and where, and how often meets, ib. Manner of calling it, and proceedings thereupon, 84. Divides into three Nations, 91. Proceedings at the opening, 95. After the choice of a Speaker, ib. Proceedings in the Lower House, 96. Conferences between the two Houses, 95. Upper House how employed, 96. Committees, ib. Manner of breaking up Session in the lower House, ib. Both Houses joined, ib. Diets Session limited, and wherefore, 98, etc. Matters generally treated of, 99 Great concourse there, 101. Provisions not scarce, ib. Dangerous to be out a Nights, 102. Visits unacceptable, ib. Order of Session in the Diet, ibid. etc. Causes of disunion here, 105. By whom fomented, ib. Great freedom of Speech, 108. Policy of concluding matters by an unanimous consent, 110.  Diet (of Convocation) 
How summoned, 126. Proceeding in little Diets, ib. First proceedings in this Diet, 128.  Diet (of Election) 
Where held, etc. 131, etc. First proceedings there, 133. Exorbitancies examined, 135. Diet proceeds to Election, 137, etc. Farther particulars thereof, 138, etc. Great concourse there, and Policy to bias them, 139, etc. Rules observed in Elections, 141. Poland why preserved Elective, 142, etc.  Diets, (Little) 
Where meet, 84. Qualifications for, and Manner of Voting there, 89. Proceedings, 90.  Deputies, (Representatives of the Gentry) 
Elected only by the Gentry, 6. Assume great Liberty in the Diet, 34, etc. Who, and how many chosen; with their Instructions, 90. How chosen, 91. Their Number, ib. Cannot be Senators, ib. Their Salaries, ib. When first sent, ib. Their Power, 95. Confirmed and encouraged ib. Their Privileges, 95, etc. How long sit, 96. Have great Guards at the Diet, 102. Awe the King and Senate, 104. Their Business after Diet of Convocation, 131.  Dantzic: 
Privileges, 23, *. Where situate, by whom built, and whence so called, 42, *. How distant from other Places, ib. etc. *. Division and Strength, 43, *. One of the Hanse-Towns, ib. *. Parishes, Buildings, Streets and Gardens, 44, *. Inhabitants, their Number and Religion, ib. *. Churches and Town-House, ib. *. Magazines, College, Exchange, etc. 45. *. Jurisdiction and Government, ib. *. Senators, and their Division, ib. *. Scabins, Syndic and Burgrave, 46, *. Centum-viri, and their Power, ib. etc. *. City's Power and Privileges, 48, *. Force by Land and Sea, 49, *. How often Taken, and Regained, 50, *. Admitted to Vote in Election of Polish Kings, 51, *.  Dutchies: 
What in Poland, 174.  Descents: 
Nature of them in Poland, 180. Children support their Families however, 181.  Divines, (Polish) 
How far their Learning extends, 78. *. Their Divinity, 79. *.   

E.  Escheator: 
His Power, 77.  Ambassadors, 
Sent to the Diet of Election, 129. Notify their Arrival, and how are received, ib. etc. 135, etc. Others sent from the Republic, 130. Caution to Foreign Ministers, ib. etc. What requisite in Foreign Ministers, 136. What Foreign Ambassadors are obliged to, 179.  Election, (Decree of) 
Presented the King, 150.  Exercises: 
What practised in Poland, 202.  Edibles: 
What Sorts used among the Poles, 209. Odd Dainties, 210. Pottage and Sauces, 215. Crachat, what, and how made, 216. Edibles among the Rustics of Lithuania, 227. Meat and Drink of the Peasants in Prussia, 235.   

F.  Fasts (in Poland,) 
How observed, 51. Poles retain a rigid Custom, and wherefore, 52.  Factions, (Foreign) 
What promotes them, 106.  Fashions: 
Present in Poland, 196. What Furs used, ib. Some follow the French Mode, 197. Woman's former and late Fashions, ib. etc.  Families, (Polish) 
What, 202.  Fowl: 
Sorts in Poland, 211, etc.  Fish: 
What Kind's the Poles have, 212.  Feasts: 
Customs thereat, 216. Banquetting-Halls, ib. etc. Particulars of Servants there, 217. Feasts made by Turns, 218.  Foot, (Polish) 
What, and how employed, 13, *. Hired, and their Condition, ib. etc. *. Why so much used, and Arms, and Liveries, 14, *. Hungarians, when first hired, 16, *.  Force, (Polish) 
Causes that weaken it, 18, etc. *. Other Inconveniencies that suppress it, 21, etc. *. Means to avoid these, but overruled, 24, *.   

G.  Gentry, (Polish) 
Courted by European Princes, 3. Resolves thereupon, 4. Equally Noble, 5. Seldom intermarry with Commonalty, ibid. Only capable of Preferment, 20, 167. Have not equal Claim to every Preferment, ib. etc. How kept in Dependence on the King, 22. What proves Equality among them, 103. No Disgrace to be chastised, 123. Their Power and Privileges, 168. Cannot be Apprehended till Convicted, 168, etc. Exception, 169. Cannot be Executed without the King's Consent, 170. Need not Quarter Soldiers, ib. etc. Other Privileges, 171. Need not pay Taxes till obliged by Diet, ib. Have Pre-emption, 172. Have one Grievance, ib. How came by their Privileges, 172. Value no Honour, and why, 173. Despise Title of Prince, ib. Assume Titles when they travel, 174. Further Power, 175. What makes them so great, ib. etc. Their Excessive Grandeur and Magnificence, 176. Gentry and Citizens in Lithuania, 225. Gentry, how far obliged to March, 15, *.  Gentlemen, (Polish) 
Who, 5. Gentlemen-Pensioners, 29. A Gentleman, how made, 188.  Government, (Mixed) 
Established in Poland; by what Motives, 6, etc. Unhappy State of Polish Government, 109. A Wonder how it can subsist, 110. Must always flourish, for several Reasons, 111.  Guards, (Horse) 29. 
Chief Commander of Guards in the Camp, 79. Captain of the Guards against the Incursions, 76.  Gnesna, (Archbishop of) 
Vide Primate.  Genius (of Polish Government,) 
To what bent, 31.  Generals, (Great) 
Power and Authority, 74. Duty, 75. Present Great Generals, ibid. Dignity Successive, ibid. Their Power and Duration, 29, etc. *.  Generals, (Lieutenant) 
Their Office, 75. Titles and Power, 30, etc. *. Other General-Officers, 31, *.  Governors 
of Mines, 78. Of the Mint, ibid.  Gun Founders, 
Foreign, 28, *.  Glass, (Polish) 
Manner of making it, 88, *.  Gardens and Orchards, 
Seldom any in Poland, 199.   

H.  Head-Collector 
of a District, 79.  High-Podolia: 
Vide in P.  Houses (in Poland,) 
Their Description, 198. Furniture, 199. Houses of the Rustics in Lithuania, 197. Habitations and Furniture of the Peasants in Prussia, 234.  Horses: 
Why little in Lithuania, 229, etc.  Hairs: 
Canular, 96, *.   

I.  Jews, (in Poland) 
Enjoy their Religion and Privileges, 49. Restrained from Trading, ib. Their Number, ibid.  Idolaters, 
Where to be found, 50. Retain Superstitions, ib. Example, ib.  Judge and Assistant 
of a District, 78.  Jurisdiction, (Military) 
Wholly in the King's, or his General's Hands, 121. Palatins and Castellans likewise exercise their Authority, ib.  Inns, 
How called in Polish, 219. Have few Conveniencies, 220.  J●● Belli, (Polish) 
Some few Particulars thereof, 32, *.   

K.  King (of Poland,) 
Former Power, 2. Advantages thereby, 3. Abridged by the Gentry, 4. King's Happiness, 11. Unhappiness, ib. etc. Modern Power, 13. Abroad and at home, 14. What his Subjects term him, ib. Great respect paid him, ib. etc. His Titles and Prerogatives, 15, etc. Pension, Household-Officers and Guards, 16. Patrimonial Estate and Perquisites, ib. (late) His Riches, 17. Power limited in divers respects, 19, etc. Other Limitations, 21. Inconveniences thereby, ib. Occasion of Respect, 22. Cities present their Keys, 23. Why he can make no Levies without consent of the Diet, ib. Must not go out of the Kingdom, 24. His Legitimate Issue much respected, ib. Titles of his Eldest, and other Sons and Daughters, ib. How lost, 25. Examples of the Poles Affection to the Royal Family, ib. Illegitimate Issue slighted, 26. Impossible to reduce his Subjects to an Arbitrary Power, ib. etc. King not unhappy because not able to secure Succession to his Family, 28. His Interest to Head his Army, 75. Where the King suspends his Opinion, 97. Ought not to be present at Trials for Treason, 99 Has no Regal Authority till Crowned, 153. Goes to receive Homage, and Knights Citizens, 161, etc. Is Proclaimed, 162, etc. What follows, 163. His Power and Revenues in Dantzic, 48, *.  Kiovia, (Bishopric of) 
Honorary, 45.  Kiovia, (Palatinate of) 
Honorary, 56.   

L.  Leopol, (City) 
Whence so named, 40. Is the Residence of three Bishops, ib.  Luceoria, (Bishop of) 
His Diocese, 44.  Lutherans: 
Abundance in Poland, 48. Tolerated and Protected, ib. Name in Polish, ib. How the Prussians became so, ib.  Lay-Senators, 
Their Division and Sub-division, 54.  Laws. 
What required to Establish them, 97, Where cannot be Printed, 98. Their Origin, Progress, and present State, 121. Lawdifferences decided by the Sword, 179. Example, 180.  Lawyers, 
Their Number, and Study, 79, etc. *. Who seldom go to Law, 80, *. Supposed judgement on a Lawyer, ib. *.  Lending and borrowing in Poland. 
The manner of 195.  Lithuania, 
Particulars relating thereunto, 224.  Learning 
Former, 75, *. What discourages Learning, 81, *.  Languages, 
Oriental disregarded, 76, *. Present in Poland, ib. etc. *. Hard to Pronounce, 77, *.  Latin, 
Reasons why the Poles affect to speak it, 77, *.  Livonia, 
Its first Bishop, 100, *.  Livonian Order, 
It's several Masters, from 101 to 105, *. Residence of the Order, 105, *. Addition concerning this Order, 117, *.   

M.  Marienburg, (Pal. a City of) 
Formerly Seat of Teutonic Knights, 58. Built, 55, *.  Marshal (Great) of Poland: 
His Office, Power and Authority, 69. Duty and Privilege, ibid. His Perquisites, ibid. etc. Who officiate in his Absence, 70.  Marshal (Great) of Lithuania: 
His Office, 70.  Marshals, (Little) 
Contend for Precedence, 73.  Mines: 
Their Officers, called Zuppars, 80.  Meetings 
(General of Senators and Deputies,) 90.  Members (of the Diet,) 
How habited, 103. Not to give Reason for Dissent to any Bill, 106.  Magistrates and Officers 
of Plebeian Courts, 120. Their Profits, 121.  Marriages: 
Description, and Duration, 203. Court-Marriages, 204. Customs thereat, ib. Presents made the Bride, 205. Espousals and Ceremonies, ib. etc. Who can't be Married without Dispensation, 206. Qualification for Marriage among the Peasants, 230.  Mourning: 
The manner in Poland, 208.  Money, 
Little in Poland, and how occasioned, 36, *. What Coin most current there, ibid. etc. *. Contributes to Poverty, 37, *. Other Coins, ib. etc. *. First Coin in Prussia, 49, *. Present in Dantzic, ib. etc. *.  Mittaw, (City of Curland) 
It's Castle, Streets and Houses, 120, *. How often conquered, and regained, 120, *. Calvinist-Church there, 121, *.   

N.  Nuncio's: 
Vide Deputies.  Nobility: 
Vide Gentry.  Notaries, (Chief) 
77.  Notaries, (Camp) 
76.  Nuncio-Marshal: 
Vide Speaker.  Naturalisation, 
and Manner of Making Noble, 100 How far qualified thereby, ibid. etc. Nobility, how acquired, 188. A Third Way of becoming Noble, 189. Ways of Forfeiting Nobility, ib. Where restored, ib.  Names, (Polish) 
What formerly, and now, 203.   

O.  Officers, (Crown and Court) 
28. (Court,) In Lithuania, 29. In several Provinces, ib. etc. Some rather Honorary than Beneficial, 30. Ten Crown-Officers, where placed in the Diet, 68 Who they are, ibid. Those of the Kingdom precede, ib. Extra-Senatorial Officers, 74. Great Officers in the Army, 76. Of Districts, 78. Some, why so called, 79. Military Officers of Districts, ib.  Offices: 
By whom Plurality can be held, 67. Exceptions, ib.  Order of Knighthood, 
Instituted in Poland, but undervalued, 179, etc. Vide Teutonic Order.   

P.  Poland: 
Undergone several Changes, 2. How exposed to Inconveniencies, 12.  Physic: 
Practise in Poland, 89, *. Medicines used, ib. *. What Diseases, 91, *. Venereal, how cured by a Quack, 90, *. Odd Method of curing Wounds, 88, *. Surprising Particulars, 91. *. Plica, (Disease) its Description, ibid. etc. *. Unaccountableness, and Symptoms, 92, *. Said to be Contagious, and Hereditary, 93, *. Common to Men and Beasts, ibid. *. Superstition concerning it, ibid. etc. *. Where most common, and how cured by a Jew, 94, *. Causes asserted, but questioned, ibid., etc. *. Another Account of the Plica, 95, etc. *.  Poles: 
Their Division, 4. Love for their Kings, 12. To Extravagance, 13. Behaviour at Church, 53. Their good Temper, and its Effect, 181. How occasioned, 182. Their Character, 189. Complexion, Constitution, etc. 191. Their Manners, ibid. Further Character, 192. Education and Learning, ibid. To what they generally apply themselves, 193. Worst part of their Character, ibid., etc. Genius, how inclined, 194. Greedy of Money, 195. Love to make a Show, ibid. Their great Extravagance, 198. Great Admirers of Show, 200. How Attended, ib. Not very Rich, and why, 38, *.  Primate: 
His Court-Officers, as Inter-Rex and Archbishop, 30. What peculiar to him, 31. His Power and State, 38. Power as Inter-Rex, 39 Why he is entrusted so much, 40. His See, ibid. Who officiates where no Inter-Rex, 127. Inter-Rex resigns, 162.  Physicians, (Polish) 
Their Abilities, 81, *. Not allowed to study, till qualified, ib. *.  Palatins, 
What, 35. Their Number and Precedence, from 55, to 59 Duty and Office, 59  Palatins, (Vice) 
How they must be qualified, 59, etc.  Posnan, (Bishop of) 
Extent of his Diocese, 43, etc.  Plosko, (Bishop of) 
His Jurisdiction and See, 44.  Premislaw, (Bishop of) 
44.  Premislaw, (City) 
A Greek-Bishop here, 44. Here first Maintained that Priests might marry, ib. etc.  High- Podolia, (Palatinate of) 
Honorary, 57  Protho-Notary 
of a District, 78.  Projects 
in the Diet easily annulled, 107.  Punishments, (in Poland) 
Various, and how differ, 122. Manner of Chastising Servants, ib. etc.  Pacta-Conventa, 
(Articles of Election) 144. When taken by Ambassadors, 145. By whom drawn, and how administered, 146. The Form, ib. Occasional Articles, 149. The Oath taken by the King, 150.  Peasants, (Polish) 
Their Condition, 5, 184. Wherefore enslaved, 5. Incapable of Preferment, except a few, 167. How first enslaved, 182. Live satisfied notwithstanding, 183. every their Lords, 184. How fixed in a Farm, 185. Their Service annexed thereto, ibid. Meet to Reap their Lord's Corn, 186. Their Customs at Bed and Board, 186. Children, how taught to go, 187. Habits of both Men and Women, ibid. Peasants Condition in Lithuania, 226. Work on Sundays, ibid. etc. Pay rigid Duties, 227. Their Habits and Carriages, 228. Description of the last, by a Poet, ib. Character of these Rustics, 230.  Potables: 
Sorts used in Poland, 212. Beer, of what Quality, 213. Mead and Wine, ib. What Strong-Waters, 214 Brimmers much practised, 219. Sturdy Drinkers rewarded, 231. Drink among the Rustics of Prussia, 235.  Prussia: 
Peculiar Customs there. Vide Customs.  Pospolite. 
What, 2, *. Who obliged to serve in the Horse, ib. *. Who in the Foot, 3, *. Penalty for Default, ib. *. Who excused, ib. *. Number (great) formerly, and now, 5, *. Manner of Raising and Mustering them, 6, *. Meet at General-Rendezvouz, 8, *.  Pay, (of Soldiers) 
From what it arises, and how is raised, 26, etc. *.  Provisions and Ammunitions, 
What in the Army, 27, *.   

Q.  Queen, (Consort) 
Her Court, how maintained, 16. Artifice, 17. Revenues, 18. To what Amount, ibid. Her Court-Officers, 30. Where Crowned, and where not, 163, etc. Place of her Coronation, 164. What required to confirm it, ib. Cause of J. Casimir's Queen's Death, 207.  Queen, (Dowager) 
Revenue Conditional, 18. Excludes Queen Consort, while she enjoys it, ib.  Quartarians, 
What, and whence so called, 17, *.   

R.  Republic of Poland, 
Wherefore instituted, 4. It's Division, 10. Means to support it for ever, 177.  Revenues, (Crown) 
What, 17.  Russian (Bishops) 
Why can't Marry, 40, etc. Their Tenets, Ceremonies and Ornaments, 41.  Religion, (in Poland and Lithuania) 
Conversion and Persuasions, 47. Former Religions, ibid., etc. Roman-Catholick, how long continued, 50. Zeal and Bigotry, ib. None but roman-catholics admitted of Senate, etc. except in Prussia, ib. Bishop's preside, wherefore, 51. Other Clergy preferred, ib. Four Roman Catholic Churches in Dantzic, 47, *. Religions in Curland, 126, *.  Russia, (Palatin of) 
Why has the Title of the Province, 57  Referendaries, (Masters of Requests) 
Their Office, Power and Qualifications, 77.  Registers 
in Chancery, 77.  Reflection 
of Hauteville, 95, etc.  Rokosz, 
What, and its Proceedings, 21, *. Example, ibid. *.  Rarities and Observables, (in Poland) 
Of Wood and Earth, 82, *. Strange Waters, and their Effects, 83, *. Monstrous Fish, 84, *. Fowls of odd Qualities, ibid. etc. *. Beasts of strange Kind's, 85, *. Rarities communicated, 86, *. Closet of Rarities, 87, *.  Rose, (Disease) 
What, and its Cure, 96, *.  Riga: 
Bishop and Archbishop thereof, 100 *.   

S.  Senators, (Polish) 
Who, and their Number, 5. Sat, by what Authority, 5, etc. By whom made, and their Oath, 34. To what further bound, 35. Not suffered to travel, ibid. Title annexed to Dignities, ibid. Their Office, 36. Who immediately becomes so, ibid. Despise other Honours, ibid. Their Division, and Sub-division, ibid.  Senate, (Polish) 
What, and its Office, 34.  Samogitia, (Duchy) 
Wherein differs from Lithuania, 231. Proof of great Age here, 232. Inhabitants more robust, ibid.  Samogitia, (Bishop of) 
Likewise Bishop of Curland, 45. Has no See, ibid.  Samogitia, (Starosta of) 
Why preferred, and how chosen, 56.  Smolensko, (Bishop of) 
Formerly subject to Lithuania, and now Honorary, 46.  Smolensko, (Palatin of) 
Honorary, 57  Socinians: 
When, and how often expelled, 48.  Steward (Great:) 
Vide Marshal (Great.)  Secretaries, (Great) 
Their Qualifications and Authority, 76, etc.  Starosta's, 
With Jurisdiction, 79. Without, 80. Vice-Starosta's, 79. Jurisdiction of Starosta's, ib. Power and Office, 119.  Starostaships' 
Revenue, from what arises, 80. Have been sometimes mortgaged, ibid.  Speaker (of the Diet,) 
How chosen, and Heats thereupon, 94. Must treat the Gentry, ibid. Reason of stickling in his Election, ibid. Last Speaker officiates till a new one be chosen, 95. Speaker-Elect goes to kiss the King's Hand, ibid. His Request for the Deputies, 96. His Authority, ibid. His Power devolves to Great-Marshal, 97.  Synods, (Provincial) 
Awed by the Pope, 15. That of Leopol subject to the Archbishop of Gnesna, ib.  Successor, (Election of a) 
Interest of Foreign Princes to oppose it, 151, etc. Reasons for and against it, 152, etc.  State: 
Four Things required to defend it, 19, etc. *.  Salt: 
Farther Particulars thereof, 39, *.   

T.  Titles, (Polish) 
Annexed to Employments, 5.  Tartars (in Lithuania) 
Their Number, and Religion, 49. How long continued there, ib. Upon what Conditions, ibid.  Troki, (Castellan of) 
Wherefore preferred, 56.  Treasurers, (Great) 
Their Office and Authority, 72. Remarkable Breach of Trust in one of them, 73.  Treasurer (of Prussia,) 
His Office, 77.  Travelling: 
Customs in Travelling, 219. Travellers obliged to carry Provisions, etc. 221. Travelling cheap in other respects. ibid. etc. Manner of Travelling, 222. Incommodities in Travel, how remedied, ibid. etc. Disturbed a Winter-nights' by Boors, 223. Danger of losing Noses, ib. etc.  Trade: 
Poles not much inclined thereto, 35 *. Commodities Exported and Imported, 35, etc. *. Particulars of Trade, 39, *. No Fulling nor Papermills, ibid. *. Concerning Leather and Fish, 40, *. Honey, and its Produce, ibid. etc. *. Former Trade of Prussia, 41, *.  Teutonic Order: 
Its Origin, 53, *. Who built their Hospital at Jerusalem, 54, *. Orders confirmed, and by what Title, ibid. *. Their Removal into Germany and Prussia, ibid. etc. *. Forsake Prussia, and wherefore, 55, *. Their Statutes, Habit, Number and Manners, ibid. etc. *. Are much favoured by several Princes, 56, *. Lives of their Great Masters, from 56, to 71, *. It's Present State, 72, *.  Tobago, (Island) 
Discovered by the Duke of Curland, 106, *. Is deprived of it, ibid., *. Proposes to recover it, 107, *. A Grant from King Charles the Second, 108, *. French beg the Island, 112. *. A Second Letter from King Charles, ibid. *. Intercepted, ibid. *. Duke sends Governors, 113, *. Makes a Contract, ib. *. Description of the Island, ibid. *. Necessary to be in English Hands, ibid. *. Whence had its Name, 114, *.   

U.  Vilna, (Bishop of) 
His Diocese, 43.  Vilna, (Castellan of) 
Preferred; wherefore, 55.  Varmia, (Bishop of) 
His Jurisdiction and See, 44.  Votes: 
Intended Limitation like to produce a bad Effect, 104. Who have them in Election of a King, 144.  Volunteers: 
What in Poland, 17, *. Examples, ib. etc. *. Selected out of the Gentry, 18, *.  Universities: 
Two in Poland and Lithuania, 75, *. Chief Studies there, ibid. *. Have no solid Learning, 78, *.   

W.  Women, (Polish) 
Their former and late Fashions, 197. Very modest, 200. Exception, 201. Their Liberty restrained, ibid.  War: 
Two Qualities necessary there, 26, *.   

Z.  Zuppars', 
What, 80. Vide Mines.    
FINIS.