Peter Ramus HIS LOGIC In two Books. Not only truly Translated into English, but also digested into Question and Answer, for the more easy understanding of all men. By R. F. Gent. LONDON: Printed for Nicholas Vavasour, and are to be sold at his Shop in the Inner Temple, near the Church-door. 1636. TO THE WORSHIPFUL, MY ASSURED loving Uncle, Bestney Barker Esquire, at Saint Gilses in Essex. Worshipful Sir, being excited, as well by the bond of kindred, as also by your love and courtesy towards me, to show you some thankfulness, withal to testify a reciprocal and mutual love towards you again, not forgetting that duty, which both as a kinsman and friend I own unto you, I adventured (albeit my best strength be but weakness) upon a bold assay, namely, to translate this work, and present it unto you, as a small mite of that tribute, which even nature bindeth me to render. But seeing my first work unluckely suppressed itself, I have added unto my former boldness, a more audacious part, namely, not only to translate it again, but also to illustrate it according to my small ability, by the plain and facile way of a Dialogue. May it crowd itself into your presence and gain the least aspect of a favourable countenance, I shall think my time wa● spent, and not only so, but employ myself about weightier matters. What said (weightier? this Science & Author may stand before Princes, if not spoiled by my own unskilfulness. However it shroudeth itself under your patronage, until the storms of reproach and ignominy be overpassed, soliciting in the mean time a pardon for me, in that I have presumed to offer such a trifle to such a kinsman. So hoping that the work, though small, may be accepted, and benevolentlie entertained, I submit both it and myself unto your favourable cogitations in all dutifulness; and rest. March 26. 1632. Your assured loving Nephew Ro. Fage. To the Courteous Reader. BEnevolent Reader, I do here present thee with this small work, hoping it may produce good effects. Certainly it hath assayed before time to thrust itself into the world, but that it found so kind friends, who considering the unworthiness, were pleased to suppress it and keep it prisoner in the goal of their own houses. Howbeit now it is adventured abroad, and with the spring beginneth to spring afresh. It's winter's imprisonment is likely to better its summer's conditions, for I have laboured so far as I could to prune and lop off the former errors, that so it may be the more plausible. I have also adorned it with a new weed, to wit of a Dialogue, or questions and answers, that so my book may even learn to stoop to the weakest capacities. If it shall be thought to come in a new fashion, may you please to look into the world, you may see abundance in this habit, our common Catechisms wear this gown; yea, Mr. St: Egerton of the Black Friars in London, hath contracted the seven treatises of Mr. Rogers into this form. For my part, I hold it more easy than the former tract, neither greatly prejudicial to the Author. This adorned, I have given this my second son, full liberty to be a freeman, banishing my first and worst labours, from the view (so fare as I can) of all men. For seeing it would not, when I would, I hold it not fit, that now it should be published. Touching that work, it slowed so inconsiderately from my pen, and slipped so rashly out of my hand, that it escaped not without many defaults, imperfections, obscurities & blemishes: that with the Egyptian Grasshopper, it will not only consume some part, but utterly eat up and waste the golden season and happy hours of the courteous reader. Let this last work then kind reader find favour in thine eyes; if that winter bird should be seen, it would appear like a Cuckoo at Christmas, or like the Owl which is the admiration of other birds. I will only now show thee the causes producing this last work, and the use thereof, and so leave it to thy discreet judgement. The causes are manifold, first to stop the springing of that Abortive forespoken off, that so it might not thrive to the discredit of its parent. Secondly that the gratuity and thankfulness to my Uncle aforesaid might not be buried in oblivion, for tritum est perire quod facis ingrato. Thirdly, for the benefit as I said of the simplest capacity. And finally for the zeal I bear to mine own country, being willing and desirous, that not only men, but even women, should exercise themselves in the study of the sacred arts. If any shall demand what benefit shall redound hereby, or what may be the use hereof? I answer, it will avail greatly, not only for civil and moral discourse, but also for the overthrowing of all errors, either in manners or doctrine, for saith Ovid, Add quod ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores nec sinet esse feros. But may some say, I live privately, converse not in the world, what need have I of this science? It seemeth to consist chief in disputing, but I employ myself most in silence and meditation. Well friend, thou mayest have great benefit by this science, even in that likewise, an example of which, word for word, I have here produced out of Mr. egerton's treaty aforesaid, that so thou mightest know how to benefit thyself by this science even in thy meditation. What thing is this O my soul, that doth so besot thee? or what manner of thing may it be, wherewith thou art so delighted, or rather bewitched, and how doth the Holy Ghost in the scriptures define it, and set it forth? who are sinners, but they that rebel against God, and against his holy will, revealed in his word? Definition. and what other thing is sin, but a breach & transgression of the law of God, 1 john. 3.4. a turning out of the way of life, as the phrase of the old Testament doth import, and a swerving from the right mark and end, as the word useth in the new testament to signify: viz. the glory of God and thine own salvation. This cursed thing called sin, is not of one sort or kind; it is is a monster of many heads, and (as it were) a beast of many horns. It is both original, bred and borne with us, and actual springing out of us from that venomous root of our original corruption. Again, it is either inward lurking and boiling in the heart; or outward showing itself in the life and conversation: sometimes it only inhabiteth and dwelleth in us, and oft times it doth reign and overrule us; sometimes it is but an error and infirmity, and sometimes it is a wilful and presumptuous evil, Psal. 19.11, 12. sometimes it is pardonable, by the free grace and mercy of God to them that truly believe and repent; and sometimes it is utterly unpardonable and never to be forgiven, being such that it is impossible that the committers thereof should be renewed by repentance, Matth. 12. Heb. 6. Sometimes it rusheth mediately and directly against God, and sometimes it reacheth more properly to the hurt of our neighbour. But who is able to reckon up all the branches of this most bitter and venomous tree, wherefore (to look more nearly unto it) whence proceedeth this deadly poison, 'Cause Eficient. what may be the cause whereof it cometh, and the fountain from whence it springeth? Surely my soul, it is even thyself: thou art the root that bringeth forth all this bitterness, thou art the fountain from whence all this deadly venom doth arise. For every man is tempted to sin, and he is drawn away of his own concupiscence, and enticed. Beware therefore O rebellius soul, that thou lay not the blame upon the Lord, neither make him the author of thy sin: for thou O God as thou canst not be tempted to evil thyself, so thou temptest no man to commit sin, being a thing which thou so straight forbiddest to all, and so severely threatnest in whomsoever it is found, and for which thou so grieveously plaguest the wicked, and so sharply correctest thine own children, jam. 1.13, 14. Heb 12.7, 8. Thou O Lord art holiness itself and the fountain thereof, and there is none eternally, and unchangably good but thee alone, Mat. 19 Thou madest man good at the beginning, but he sought many inventions Eccles. 12. so all the imaginations & thoughts f his heart be came only evil continually, or every day, sabbath and all, Gen. 6.5. True it is indeed, that the Devil that old Dragon using the subtle serpent for his instrument, did offer the first occasion of sinning, whereby he became an external cause of sin, and is called a murderer from the beginning, and the author and father of all deceit, john 8.44. yet man had power to have resisted him if he would, which he not doing, became the true & proper efficient cause of corrupting himself, & all his posterity, who likewise by means of the poison derived from his loins, became also the proper and immediate causes of their own sins. Mark well then (O my soul) the root of this evil, and further consider, what unsavoury & cursed fruit it bringeth forth; surely even such as itself is, The final Cause, or the end or fruit of sin. for such as the tree is, such are the fruits: as is the root, so are the branches; a poisoned fountain casteth forth no wholesome streams, jam. 3. and who can bring (as the wiseman saith) a clean thing out of filthiness? surely there is not one, but only he who is holiness itself, john 14.4. And without all controversy, the reward and wages of sin is death, and that not only temporal and bodily, which is a separation of the body from the soul for a season, but also spiritual and eternal both of soul and body for ever and ever. Is any good thing withheld from us? let us thank our sin for it: is any plague or punishment laid upon us? be sure that sin is the cause, or at the least (even in the dearest children of God) the occasion of it. Is any good blessing of God made of no force, or even turned to a curse to us? we may be sure that it is by reason of our sin: for (as the Prophet saith) the Lord's hand is not shortened that it cannot save, nor his ear heavy that it cannot hear, but our iniquities separate betwixt us and our God, and our sins do hide his face from us that he will not hear, Esay 59.1, 2. Finally (as job saith) misery springeth not forth out of the dust, neither doth affliction spring out of the earth, but man is borne to labour as the sparkles fly upward, job 5.6, 7. As if he should say, man is as prone by nature to sin against God, & consequently to pull God's judgements upon himself, as the fire (which is a light element) is naturally prone to ascend and mount aloft. And to the end that thou (my soul) mayst see upon what an ugly monster thou hast set thy delight, dost dote upon, The opposites & contraries and art bewitched withal, consider how fair and amiable piety and virtue are, for as they make a man lovely and honourable, so sin maketh him loathe some and contemptible: The fear of God (saith Solomon) makes the face of a man to shine and be beautiful, but impiety and profaneness do deface and disfigure the image of God in him, and cause both God and all good men to loath and detest him as a polluted and filthy thing, Favour (saith the same Wiseman) is deceitful, and beauty is vanity, but the woman that feareth the Lord, she shall be praised, Prov. 31.39. A vile person is contemned (that is, a profane man and basely esteemed how great soever he be in the world) in the eyes of him that feareth God, Psal. 15.4. And piety is the only beauty that the Lord himself is delighted with, 1 Pet. 3.4. Therefore it is clear in the contrary part, that he loatheth and abhorreth impiety and sin, Comparisons. and yet my soul to bring thee further out of love with this most ugly monster, consider whereunto it is like and to what it may be compared. It is like (saith Esay) to filthy rags, that are cast aside upon the dunghill, and detested of all the passers by. It biteth as a serpent and stingeth as a Cockatrice, creepeth as a gangrene or deadly canker, that eateth to the heart and cannot be cured; and though it seem sweet in the beginning, yet it is most bitter in the end, and that which relisheth like honey in the mouth, will prove rank poison in the bowels. Testimonies Finally O my soul if thou peruse the holy Scriptures, thou shalt find no book, no leaf, no chapter, no scarce any verse, wherein there is not some precept, some prohibition, some promise, some threatening, or some example which seemeth not very fitly & profitably to show forth the amiableness of virtue, and the ugliness of sin, & with what care, zeal, watchfulness, &c, the one is to be shunned, and the other to be embraced. Thus fare Mr. Egerton, Lib. ●. Cap. 6. Now that thou mayst attain kind reader unto this sweet delight of meditation, or to the top of whatsoever felicity thou aymest at by this art, use my book in this manner following. It consisting only of rules and examples, will be no great burden for thee to commit it all to memory, and so whether thou meditatest or discoursest, of sin or piety in the general, or any vice or virtue in the particular, thou shalt find from the head of this art after the example foreshowed, abundance of matter to furnish thy meditation. So cum pacis sapientibus I commit my labour to thy discreet and favourable construction, and with equal respect to all indifferently rest. R. F. Junior. PETER RAMUS to the reader wisheth health. ARchymedes (O Reader) would have the reason of the spheres and climates (in which invention he had more vehemently laboured) engraven upon his sepulchre. And truly shouldest thou ask me of my vigils, and studies, I desire a pillar to be raised upon my grave from the instructions, of the art of Logic. Touching the cause of the wish, they answer first to the accuratnes of the art, the books of invention of arguments, and their disposition to be judged, not only from Aristotle Organical, Rhetorical, Physical, but from Cicero and Quintilian, and so many Orators. In all which we have strived with all study & diligence, by all reasonable ways, to contract them briefly into these two books, that no particle, or the least shadow of Logic might be there confused, whose truth might not be expressly delivered. And this shall be first made known touching Archymedes his problem. They answer secondly to the use of Logic, the elegance and dignity of all the parts to be explicated, to stir up logical meditations, as well the popular phrases of Poets, Orators, Historiographers, as also the liberal and ingenuous ar●es of a new body delivered in a new form to the studious, adorned with excellent endowments: and lest any should fear lest they should happen to be strangers, they are given and committed to the liberal custodies of their Schools. This shall be secondly made known touching Archymedes his problem. These therefore shall be witness of so many days & night watches, touching the truth & utility of Logic, and shall answer for the cause of our wish, shall also admonish thee (reader) as I hope of I know not what madness is in most academies of Europe, disputing of their sophistical precepts, how that they are fare unlike both to the verity and utility of Logic, and shall also inflame thee to the study of the more true & profitable faculties. But beside this there is objected a great company, extructed with theatrical reproaches, threatening pains of tribunal judgement, condemnation at the least of filthy ignorance and calumny, will thrust us from the whole kingdom of Philosophy as strange & unheard of prescription, both with hands and tongue, whether will they forbidden the small cause of our wish? what freedom was obtained by King Henry from the envy of so mad a judge; to the more judgement of a milder censurer? what afterward, (when this Logical ardour had set foot into the cause of religion) was a more great offence, the life and health of us being aimed at by those three civil wars? will these show no cause of our wish? yea rather they do admonish, That we give great thankes to the almighty, who hath aided and protected the course of our studies hitherto, neither would suffer them by any means to be interrupted. Therefore I witness that this light of Logic will avail greatly to the studious in setting forth the truth, as also to adorn the ingenuous arts, as chiefly theillustrating the heavenly mysteries of the sacred Doctrine: I pray that it may grow up more and more to these things, and and that this book may be happily concluded to the glory of GOD. A TABLE OF THE Chapters in the two books of Peter Ramus his Dialectica. In the first book. 1. The definition of Dialectica. 2. The parts and kinds of arguments. 3. The Efficient procreant & conservant Cause. 4. The Efficient alone and with others. 5. The Efficient by himself or an Accident. 6. The Matter. 7. The Form. 8. The End. 9 The Effects. 10. The Subject. 11. The Adjunct. 12. Diverses. 13. Desperates. 14. Relates. 15. Adverses. 16. Contradicents'. 17. Privants. 18. Equals. 19 Greater's. 20. Lessers. 21. Likes. 22. Dislikes. 23. Conjugates. 24. Notation. 25. Distribution. 26. Distribution of the Causes. 27. Distribution of the Effects whether of Kind or Spece. 28. The Distribution from the Subjects. 29. The Distribution from the Adjunct. 30. Definition. 31. Description. 32. Testimony Divine. 33. Testimonies humane of Laws & Sentences In the second book. 1. Of judgement. 2. Axiomas affirming or denying. 3. True and False. 4. The simple Axioma. 5. The copulate Axioma. 6. The connexed Axioma. 7. The Discreet Axioma. 8. The Disiunct Axioma. 9 The syllogism and his parts. 10. The simple and contracted syllogism. 11. The first kind of the simple explicates syllogism. 12. The simple explicate syllogism. 13. The first connexed syllogism. 14. The second connexed syllogism. 15. The first disiunct syllogism. 16. The second disiunct syllogism. 17. The only method according to Aristotle. 18. The first illustration of Method by examples of arts. 19 The second example of Poets, Orators, and Historiographers. 20. The secrets of Method. FINIS. THE FIRST BOOK OF PETER RAMUS HIS DIALECTICA of Invention. CAP. 1. What Dialectica is. Q. What is Dialectica? A. Dialectica is the art of disputing well, and in that sense is called Logic. CAP. 2. The parts of Dialectica and kinds of Arguments. Q. How many ports hath Dialectica? A. Dialectica hath two parts, Invention and judgement. Q. What is Invention? A. Invention is a part of Dialectica of inventing Arguments. Q. What is an Argument? A. An Argument is that which is affected to argue any thing: such as are all reasons considered a part and by themselves. Q. What be the Kinds? A. Artificial and inartificial. Q. What is an Artificial Argument? A. That which argueth of itself. Q. What be the Kinds? A First, or derived from the First. Q. What is First? A. First is that which is of its own original. Q. What be the Kinds? A. Simple or Comparative. Q. What is Simple? A. Simple is that which is considered simply and absolutely. Q. What be the Kinds? A. Agreeing or disagreeing. Q. What is Agreeing? A. That which agreeth with the thing which it argueth. Q. What be the Kinds? A. Agreeing absolutely or after a certain manner. Q. What is agreeing absolutely? A. The Cause and Effect. CAP. 3. The Efficient, Procreant, and Conservant Cause. Q. What is the Cause? A. The cause is that by whose force the thing is. Q. What is the Profit of it? A. This first place of invention is the fountain of all knowledge: and he is believed to know, of whom the cause is held. As the Poet saith worthily: The man sure happy is who cause of things doth know. Q. How is the Cause divided? A. Into two kinds, Efficient and Matter, or form and end. Q. What is the Efficient Cause? A. The Efficient Cause is that from which the thing is. Q. How many Kinds hath it? A. There appeareth to us no true Kinds, yet the great plenty of it is distinguished by certain means. Q. What is that which effecteth by the first means? A. That which procreateth or defendeth. Q. Give me an example out of some Poet? A. Ovid first, remedio amoris. Therefore when thou shalt look in this our medsonal Art My admonition do, set Idleness apart. This causeth thee to love, this doth defend it still, This is the cause of joy, as meat sometimes breeds ill Take lastly sloth away, God Cupid's bow is lost, His torches lose their light, contemned away they're tossed. Q. Give me a more familiar example? A. The Father and Mother procreate, the Nurse defendeth. Q. Give an example of this out of some Poet? A. 4. Aeneid. thou'rt no God's Child, ne Dardanus his son, Thou rather from the steep hard rocks didst come. Of Caucasus: it seemeth of that breed, Hyrcanian Tigers thee with breasts did feed. Aeglog. 8. Now what this whoreson love is I well wots, It is a little busy boy begot. Not of man's seed ne sibb to one of us, But farthest Garamants and Ismarus. Or rocky Rhodope as it should seem, In their rough ragged hills engendered him. Q. Do not builders and governor's of Cities come under this head? A. Yes Romulus the builder of the City of Rome, also all other Kings, Consuls, and Emperors are defenders and keepers. CAP. 4. The Efficient done and with others. Q. What is that which effecteth by the second means? A. That which effecteth alone or with others. Q. What are those others? A. Some oftentimes are Principal, others are helping and Ministers. Q. Give an example of the Cause that effecteth by itself? A. Aneid. 6. Nisus calleth back both the blame & the punishment of the Slaughter from Enryalus upon himself: because he was the only author. Lo here I am who only did this deed, Latians, against me turn your swords with speed; 'tTwas my deceit: He could it never do, Ne would his courage serve him thereunto. Q. Give an example of the solitary Cause with Principals and Fellows out of some Orator? A. The Solitary cause with many both Principals and Fellows, is diversely set forth pro Marcello. For the warlike praises (saith the Orator) they are wont to extenuate truly by words, and to detract them from their leaders, to communicate them with many; lest they should be proper to their Commanders: and certainly in war, the strength of the Soldiers, opportunity of places, help of fellows, ranks, provision do much avail. But Fortune (as it were) by her own right, challengeth the chiefest part to herself, and whasoever is prosperously carried, that altogether she leadeth. But yet of this glory (o Caesar) which a little before thou didst obtain, thou hast no companion: all that, how much soever it is, (which truly is the chiefest) all (I say) is thine. The centurion, precedent, Ranks and companies have taken from thee none of this praise: Yea even the Lady of humane affairs, Fortune offereth not herself into the society of this glory, to thee she giveth place, and confesseth it all and wholly to be thine. Q. Are not Instruments numbered among helping Causes? A. Yes. Q. Give an example of it? A. By this Argument the impious Epicure disputeth that the world was never made. Primo de Nat. For by what eyes of the mind (saith he) could your Plato behold the frame of so great a work, whereby he maketh it constructed and builded of God? what labour? what iron Ingens? what Lever? what devises? what Ministers were there of so great a work? CAP. 5. The Efficient by itself or an Accident Q. What is that which effecteth by the third means? A. That which effecteth by itself or an Accident. Q. How effecteth it by itself? A. When it effecteth by its own faculty. Q. How effecteth it by its own faculty? A. When it effecteth by nature or counsel. Q. Give an example of that which effecteth by Nature? A. The Efficient of the winds is Natural. Aeneid. 1. The East and South winds on the Sea do blow, They rush through deep, till on the top they show. The africa oft with these his blasts conjoines, And so the floods are cast up by the winds. Q. Give some example of that which effecteth by Council? A. That confession of Cicero, touching himself, is an example of Council. The war taken in hand (o Caesar) waged also for the most part, not constrained by any of my judgement and will, I came forth to those wars which were undertaken against thee. Q. How doth the Efficient Cause effect by an Accident? A. When it effecteth by an external faculty. Q. How doth it effect by an external faculty? A. When it is done by Necessity or Fortune. Q. How by Necessity? A. When as the Efficient is constrained to to the Effect. Q. Give an example of this? A. There is one in the excuse of the Pompeians. But to me truly (saith the Orator) if there may be sought out a proper and true name of our evil, it doth seem that we are fall'n into a certain fatal calamity, that hath occupied the unprovident minds of men; that none should wonder how humane Council is overcome by Divine Necessity. Q. How by Fortune? A. When somewhat happened beyond the scope of the Efficient. Q. Give an example? A. So the case chanced (saith Tullius tertio de Nat: deo:) That Pherius the enemy was profitable to jason, who opened his imposthume with his sword; which the Physicians could by no means heal. Q May not imprudence be numbered amongst these kind of Causes? A. Yes. Q. Give an example? A. Ovid. de Trist. 2. Why hurtful light or aught else did I see? The fault way mine and not unknown to me. Wise Actaeon Diana Naked saw, And food became to's Dogs devouring maw. Blind fortune 'mongst the Gods is surely blamed, Ne pardon gets, the Gods she hath so harmed. Q. Do not Deprecations than proceed from hence? A. Yes. Q. Give an example? A. Pro P. L. Pardon o Father: he hath erred: he is slipped: he thought not: if ever hereafter. And a little after I have erred: I have done rashly: it repenteth me: I fly to thy clemency: I ask pardon for mine offence: I entreat thee that thou wilt pardon me. Q. What first caused the name of Fortune. A. The ignorance of the Causes hath feigned this name: for when as something happened beyond Council and Hope, it was called by the common people Fortune. Q. What is juvenal's opinion of it? A. Wise if we were no God should want but Fortune: We place thee high and often thee importune. CAP. 6. The Matter. Q. What is the Matter? A. The Matter is the cause of which the thing is. Q. Give an example out of some Poet? A. By this feigned Argument, the house of the Sun is compounded of gold, carbunkles, Ivory and Silver. Ovid 2. Mettamorf. The Sun's high place was built with pillars tall, The gold did shine Carbunkles flames let fall, The top thereof was laid with Ivory neat, And silver doors in portal shined feat. Aeglog. 3. A merry Musor framed of beech in tree, Carved work, by hand of divine Alcimeden, 'Tis round impaled with a scattering trail, Of tender Vine, and over all between, A pale green Ivy, wherewith as a vale, The thick diffussed clusters shaded been. Q. Give an example out of some Orator? A. Caesar 1. Bel. Civil: Caesar commanded his soldiers to make ships of that kind, which in former years the use of the Britons had taught him: first they made the keyle and pinns of light matter, the rest of the body of the ship being knit together with Osiers, was covered over with Leather. CAP. 7. The Form. Q. The first kind of the cause, in the Efficient and Matter being expounded; the second followeth, in the form and the end; what therefore is the form? A. The form is the Cause by which the thing is that which it is. Q. What is the benefit of it? A. From hence the thing is distinguished from all other things, and the Form is ingenerated together with the thing itself. Q. Give some example of it? A. A reasonable soul is the form of a man, because by it a man is a man, and is distinguished from all other creatures thereby. The form of the geometrical figures is in triangles and quadrangles. Heaven, Earth, Trees, Fishes are the form of Physical things. From whence the chief explication of things, as it is by nature, so (if it may be found out) it shall be as in artificial things it is more easily met withal. Q. Give example out of some Orator? A. Caesar lib. 7. But all the French walls are almost of this Form, the beams long and plain, with equal distance between them about two foot, are placed upon the foundation. These are bound within and fastened very strongly: for those spaces (of which we spoke) are filled up to the top with great stones. These placed and knit together, an other row is also added▪ that the same might keep the spaces: neither do the beams touch one another, but being distant by equal spaces, all of them are strongly fastened great stones being placed between them. And even so is the whole work knit together until the just height of the wall he fulfilled. This work therefore is not deformed, as well for the comeliness and variety, beams and stones being by courses which keep their rows in right loins, as, because it hath the chief strength for profit and defence of Cities, because it doth defend both from the mischief of stones, and the material ram, which with its forty feet, being oft bound to the long beams inward, can neither be broken or drawn back again. Q. Give an example out of some Poet? A. Aeneid. 1. Virgil describeth the form of his port. Between two seas two Islands there doth lie; Sidewayes they're made, the water runs fast by. Huge double Rocks that do reach up to heaven, Under the which the seas lie still and calm: And by the that place green woods there are growing Forth from the same comes great black darkness flowing Under which rock a dens made very fleet, Wherein's rich living stones and waters sweet. Houses for Nymphs & chains for ships there laid Which would not by the Anchor or the chains be stayed CAP. 8. The End. Q. What is the end? A. The End is the Cause for whose sake the thing is. Q. Give example? A. To Physical things the proposed end is man to man, God. There is some chief good and last end of all arts: as to speak well, of Grammar: to plead well, of Rhetoric: to dispute well, of Logic. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. Aeneid. 1. juno assumeth the end of Marriage when as she promiseth Deiopeia to Aeolus to wit for solace and children's sake. Nymph's full fourteen I have of bodies rare But who so is most beautiful and fair, Even Deiopeia I to thee do give Her year in Marriage state with thee to live, Thee to reward for thy love unto me, And cause thine of spring beautiful to be. Q. Give an example out of some Orator? A. Cicero pro Lig. Urgeth Tubero his accuser, when as he presseth the end of the wars taken up against Caesar. And truly (saith he) he is come forth armed against Caesar himself. But what did this Tubero his sword do in the Pharsalian Army? whose sides did the sharp point aim at? who was to feel the force of thy weapon? where was thy mind, eyes, hands, courage? what didst thou desire? what didst thou wish? CAP. 9 The Effects. Q. What is the Effect? A. The Effect is that which ariseth from the causes, whether begotten or corrupted, or whether any thing be moved by any means. Here the motion, & the thing done by motion, is called the Effect. Of this place are praises & dispraises, of which sacred & Profane books are full. Q. Give example of this out of some Poet? A. Aeneid. 6. The facts of divers people are compared to the praises of the Romans. Some finely carve upon the boiling brass, They'll on the marble grave a living face, They wish the causes better, they'll descry Heavens shining parts, and tell the stars i'th' sky, Remember thou Rome's people brave to rule, These things shall be thine art, peace to impose, To spare thy subjects, and subdue proud foes. Q. What else cometh under this head? A. Hitherto are speeches and writings referred Q. Give an example? A. Pericles and Hortentius did celebrate the praise of pleading well: and by the same argument also Demosthenes & Cicero writing well. Q. What further? A. To this place are referred counsels and deliberations, although not brought to their end. Q. Give an example? A. Per●menio and Phylotus were beaten to death, because they were suspected to be of the conspiracy against Alexander, as Curtius and Arianus have remembered touching Lentulus, Cethegus and others, the complices of Catiline, they suffered punishment by judgement of the Senate. Q. Have not virtues and vices their Effects also? A. Yes. Q. Give an example. A. Horace after this manner describeth the Effects of drunkenness. Secrets it shows, and hope it doth command, Unto the wars it drives, although unarmed, It takes the burden from the careful man, It teacheth art to all that will or can, Who ere was drunk that wanted Eloquence? Was any poor that used this defence? CAP. 10. The Subject. Q. The argument agreeing after a certain manner succeedeth, what is that then? A. The Subject and Adjunct. Q. What is the Subject? A. The Subject is that to which any thing is adjoined. Q. Make this plainer by examples? A. The mind is the Subject of science, ignorance, virtue, vice, because these happen beside the being. The body, of health, sickness, strength, weakness, beauty, deformity. Man is the Subject of riches, poverty, honour, infamy, apparel, company. The place is the Subject of the thing placed. Q. how prove you this last by testimony and example? The Philosophers attribute a place to divine beings, although wanting part and greatness. So the place of Geometry and the difference of places is in Geometrical things: so of physic, it is more diligently considered in physical things: In the world, in simple elements, in compound things. Q. Give example out of sonte Poet. A. So Virgil in his Georgics admonisheth that the place be diligently sought out for things proposed: as come, trees, plants, pastures. Before we pass into a sea unknown, Know we the wind and various manner of heaven, Our native soil and every habitation, What will refuse or grow in any nation: Some beareth corn, th'other with grapes doth pass Some with tall trees, the rest with unsowne grass. Q. Proceed further in explicating the subject? A. The subjects of senses are called sensibles; of virtues or vices things proposed to virtues or vices. Q. Give an example of the former? A. Colour is the subject of the sight, sound of the hearing; because these senses are occupied and exercised in the sensibles. Q. Give an example of the latter? A. Virtues and vices are set forth in moral philosophy by this argument, temperance and intemperance by pleasure: magnanimity and sloth, by danger: liberality, and covetousness, by riches. Q. Explicate the subject further? A. So things numerable of arithmetic: measurable (as I may say) are the subjects of geometry. Q. Give example of the subject out of some Orator? A. By the same subject (Cicero (second Agra) disputeth that there was no contention amongst the people of Campania, because there was no honour. They are not carried (saith he) with the desire of glory: because where there is no public honour, there the desire of glory cannot be. There is no discord, neither by contention nor ambition: for there is nothing for which they should strive, nothing for which they should war, nothing for which they should contend. Q. Give example out of some Poet? Propertius useth this argument. Of winds the Sailor's talk, the Husbandmen of Bulls The Soldiers of their wounds, and shepherds of their wools CAP. 11. The Adjunct. Q. What is the Adjunct? A. The Adjunct is that to which any thing is subjected: which argument though it be lighter than the subject, yet more copious and frequent: therefore of its signs Ovid speaketh Second: Rem: Anno. Some man (for such there be) may count this small Yet that helps some which doth not profit all. Q. Make this plainer? A. Those things which are called good and evil of the mind, body, and the whole man, are the adjuncts of the mind, body, man: also whatsoever happeneth without the subject is the Adjunct. Q. May not time also be reduced unto this head? A. Yes, as place was in the subject, so is time in the Adjunct, viz. the enduring of things past, present, to come. Q. What further is comprised under this head? A. All those qualities beside the causes, adjoined to the subject, whether they be propet or common. Q. What it Proper? A. That which agreeth only and wholly with the subject, as laughing with a man, neighing with a horse, barking with a dog. Q. What is common? A. That which is not proper after this manner. Q. Give example of the Adjunct out of some Orator. A. By this kind of argument, Cicero in the defence of Roscius the Comedian, cavilleth with Fanius Chereus. Doth not his head and eyebrewes, altogether bald, seem to favour of malice, and cry out of deceit, doth he not seem to be compounded from the foot to the head, (if a man may conjecture by his shape) of fraud's fallacies, lies? Who therefore is altogether bald on the head and eyebrewes, lest he should be said to have one hair of a good man. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. So Martial lib. 2. mocketh Zoylus. Red hair, black mouth, short feet and ilke squint eyes 'Tis marvel Zoylus if goodness in thee lies. Q. What further may be reduced under this head? A. Garments and company are Adjuncts. Q. Give example? A. By this kind of circumstance, Dido going a hunting is magnificently set forth, Aeneid: 4. The morn appeared, Dido forsook the sea, The day stir up, tooth heaven youth guides the way Both nets & gins with pick stanes all were ready Messalian horse with hunting dogs so greedy Princes did wait, the slow queen did expect. With fair clad horse, her way for to direct, Forth cometh she at length with mighty train In her long robe with many a long seam, Her horse down trapped, with gold her hair was trest Her robes with golden books, together did she wrest. Q. What is the benefit of Adjuncts? A. There is great use of Adjuncts to the subjects by which they are occupied. Q. Give example? A. By this argument Plato foretold those cities to be miserable, where the multitude of Physicians and judges were wanting: because, of necessity, there was conversant in those cities, both intemperance, and injustice. And thus much for the place of agreings, from whence every agreeing argument may be said to be one or the same: and all manner of unity and (as I may say) identity are referred hither as the first and simple fountains. CAP. 12. Diverses. Q. You have expounded the first agreeing argument: the disagreeing followeth, what then is disagreeing? A. That which disagreeth from the thing. Q. How are disagreings manifested? A. disagreings are equally manifested amongst themselves, and equally argued one of another, although they do more clearly shine in their disagreings. Q. What are the kinds of disagreings? A. Two, Divers and Opposite. Q. What are Diverses? A. Diverses are disagreings which disagree only in reason. Q. What are the most frequent notes of speech for this Argument? A. These. Not this, but that; although, yet. Q. Give example from some Orator? A. Pro Pempeio. He carried not the victory, but the ensigns of the victory. Q. Give some other examples? A. Ovid secund: Art: Amand: Ulysses was nos fair but Eloquent. Aeneid: 2. This Triamus though held in dust of death Yetseased not. Also this of the like matter, Pro Ligones: callest thou that wicked (o Tub●ro) why, he hath not hitherto deserved this name. For some called error, some fear, that which more hardly, hope, desire, hatred, pertinacy▪ the most grave temerity, none wicked besides thyself. CAP. 13. Desperates Q. What are Opposites? A. Opposites are disagreings, which disagree in reason and thing; therefore cannot be attributed to the same, according to the same, to the same, and at the same time. Q. Make this plain by example. A. So Socrates cannot be black and white of one and the same part. Father and son of the same man; whole and sick at the same time; but he may be white on the one part, black on another; Father of this, son of that man; sound to day, sick to morrow. Q. It should seem by this, that the one being affirmed the other is denied? A. So it is. Q. What are the kinds of Opposites? A. Disparates or contraries. Q. What are Disparates? A. Disparates are opposites whereof one is opposed equally to many. Q. Give example? A. Greene, Ashcolor, Red, are means between white and black, which are Disparates, both with the extremes & among themselves. So liberality and covetousness are disparates among themselves. So a man a tree, a stone and infinite of this kind are Disparates; neither can one thing be, a man, a tree, a stone. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. Virgil: Aeneid: 1. disputeth by this Argument. O virgin how shall I remember thee Whose countenance not mortal seems to be: Thy voice is sure above the humane reach Both which thee Gods proves and so do teach. Cap. 14. Relates. Q. What are contraries? A. Contraries are Opposites whereof one is opposed to one only. Q What are the kinds of it? A. They are either affirming or denying. Q. What is affirming? A. Affirming is that of which both of them affirm. Q. How many kinds hath it? A. Two, Relates and Adverses. Q. What are Relates? A. Relates are Contraries, affirming of which one consisteth of the mutual affection of the other: and from hence they are named Relates. Q. Make this plain by example? A. The Father, who hath a son, and the son who hath a Father, are relates. Q. They may seem by this to be together by nature? A. So they are, so that he which perfectly knoweth the one, knoweth also the rest. Q. Give some examples of Relates? A. Pro Marc. By which thou truly understandest how much praise there is for the benefit given, when as for the receiving, is so much glory, Marc: against Sosib. Sosibian, thou yield'st thou wast borne thrall When flattering thou thy Father Lord dost call. So Quint. lib. 5. cap. 10. If it be honest to place himself at Rhodes, and to lodge at Hirmaereon. After which manner Tullius, in the perfect oration. It is therefore dangerous (saith he) lest any should think it dishonesty, to teach that in the great and glorious Art to others, which it was honesty for him to learn. Q. Doth not earnest affection sometimes flow from these Relates? A. Yes. Q. Give example out of some Orator? A. Cicero in his oration hath brought forth a certain earnest affection from these Relates. Now these are grave (saith he) wife of the Son in law, stepmother of the Son, and bawd of the daughter. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. All this Ovid hath affected manifestly in his description of the Iron age, Met. 1. Ne doth the guest safe in his Inn remain His host him troubles who doth him retain, Sisters even from their brethren are not free The husband longs the death of's wife to see She hateth him and 'gainst him doth conspire The Cursed stepdam's always in an ire. The Son before his time doth's fathers years in choir Q. But the argument of such relations hath nothing contrary: yea it rather argueth mutual causes: as, thou art my Father, I therefore am thy son, how then appeareth the Contraries? A. When I say I am thy father, I am not therefore thy Son, then are the contraries true. CAP. 15. Adverses. Q. What are adverses? A. Adverses are Contraries affirming, which are perpetually adverse among themselves. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. Aneid: 11. No health in war, we all desire peace? Q. Give further example. A. White and black, hot and cold, virtue and vice, are opposed. Q. Give example out of some Orator? A. Parad. 1. Cont. Epe. Yet they do hold strongly and defend accurately, that pleasure is the chief good: which to me truly doth seem to be the voice of beasts, not of men; whenas whether God, or nature (as I may say) the mother of all things hath given thee a soul, than which nothing is more excellent, nothing more divine; dost thou so cast, and throw down thyself, as that thou thinkest there is no difference betwixt thee and the four footed beasts. Q. Wherein consists the force of this example? A. Cicero hath opposed beasts and men, Adverses: pleasure is the good of beasts, and therefore of men. Q. Give another example out of some Poet? A. So liberty and servitude in Tib. lib. 2. So servitude I see prepared for me, Yet parents freedom would fare better be. Q. Give example out of an Orator? A. Pro Marcell. For temerity is never joined with wisdom, neither is chance admitted to council. CAP. 16. Contradicents' Q. Having spoken of contraries affirming, we are come to contraries denying, what are they then? A. Contraries denying are such, of which one saith, the other denieth the same. Q. What are the kinds? A. They are Contradicents' or Privants. Q. What are Contradicents'? A. Contradicents' are Contraries denying, of which one denyeth every where. Q. Give example? A. Just; not just, a creature, not acreature; it is, it is not: These are Contradicents'. Q. Give example out of some Orator? A. Pro Murena. The sentences of Cato & Cicero are Contraries; this of the Stoics, that man of the Academics. The Dialogue is in these words. Thou hast known nothing, yea something, but not all things. Thou hast done nothing merely for thanks, yet refuse not thanks when as thine office and trust requireth it. Be not moved with mercy in condemning. But yet there is some praise of humanity. Stand in thine own opinion: except a better should overcome. Q. Give example from some Poet? A. Mart. lib. 2. thou'rt fair Fabulla, rich, and all's a maid, Can you deny, 'tis truth that I have said? But if thou boastest of thyself too much, thou'rt neither fair, a virgin, nor yet rich. Q. give another example out of some Orator? A. Cicero primo Tusc. Forceth Atticus the Epicure by this argument to confess, that the dead were not miserable, if they were not at all; as the Epicures believe, I had rather (saith he) thou shouldest fear Cerberus, then speak so inconsiderately. Atticus, why? Marcus, that that which thou deniest that thou sayest. Where is thy wit? For when as thou sayest he is miserable, thou than sayest, he is, which is not. Then after long disputation Atticus said, go to, now I grant that those which are dead are not miserable: because thou hast forced me to confess, that they be not all, lest they should be miserable. Q. Give another example? A. Terrence in Eu. Phedria frameth his speech to Dorus, when as he had affirmed that which he denied afterwards. After a manner (saith he) he saith, after a manner he denyeth. CAP. 17. Privants. Q. What are Privants? A. Privants are contraries denying, of which one denieth in the same subject only, in which the affirmative (of its own nature) is. Q. What is the affirmative called? A. The Habit. Q. And what the negative? A. Privation. Q. Make this plainer? A. Motion and rest, drunkenness and sobriety, are comprised under this head. Q. Give example? A. Mart. lib. 3. thou'rt drunken sure, sober thou wouldst not do't, Q. What may further be under this head? A. To be blind, and to see. Q. Give example. A. Pro Celio. There is therefore one of this family, and he truly is greatly blind: for he shall take no grief who shall not see her. Q. What may further be under this head? A. Poverty and riches are thus opposed. Q. Give example? A. Mart. lib. 5. Poor shalt thou be Emilian if poor: Wealths never given but to the rich before. Q. What further? A. Death and life. Q. Give example? A. Cont. Mil. Sat ye still O revengers of this man's death; whose life if you thought you could restore, would you? Q. What further? A. Silence and Speech. Q. Give example? A. Primo Cat. What expectest thou the authority of the speaker, whose silence thou beholdest to be their pleasures? Q. What more? A. Mortality and Immortality. Q. Give example? A. Pro Maro. I grieve when as the common wealth ought to be immortal, that it consisteth of one mortal life. And this sufficeth to be spoken of Disagreeing, from whence every thing may differ from another by certain means. CAP. 18. Equals. Q. Simple arguments were agreings & disagreings; we are now come unto Comparatives; what are Comparatives therefore? A. Comparatives are those which are compared amongst themselves. Q. How are they manifested? A. Although they be equally known by the nature of comparison, yet one to another is more known and illustrated then another: and oftentimes are judged by shorter notes, sometimes distinguished by fuller patts. Q. What may these parts be called? A. They are named the Proposition & Redition. Q. May not comparatives also argue fictions? A. Yes, Comparatives do argue feigned things, and go cause trust. Q. What be the kinds of Comparisons? A. Comparison, is in Quantity, or Quality. Q. What is Quantity? A. Quantity is that whereby is showed how much the thing compared is. Q. What be the kinds of Quantity? A. Equals or unequals. Q. What are Equals. A. Equals are those of which there is one quantity. Q. What is an Equal argument then? A. An equal argument is, when an Equal is explicated by an Equal. Q. What are the notes of it? A. Even, equal, like, the same, that, so much the more, how much the more, by so much, by how much, so much, how much, not more not less. Q. Give example? A. Aeneid. 2. Equal with light winds. Aeneid. 3. And mowed should grow in equal age with thee. Aeneid 6. Behold this thing Great Rome with earth is even The spirit of man shall also equal heaven. Q. What further is necessary to these equals? A. A proposition or Reddition doth distinguish them. Q. Give example out of some Orator? A. Quart: Cat: Whose things done, and the virtues to the same, by which things only the course is contained in its regions and bounds. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. Aeneid. 4. As well a bruiter of things false that be, As messenger of truth and verity. Cat. By how much I am worst of poets all, By so much thee men best of patrons call. Ovid de Trist. 4. As many shells on shore, as roses sweet. As many sleeps as men, by popy seeds do get. As many beasts in woods, fish in the sea do lie, As many birds as in the airy heavens do fly, So many griefs me pass, their number should I tell Icarian waters I must surely number well. Q. Proceed to further examples? A. Phil. 9 Neither had he more skill of the law then of justice: therefore those things which the laws had brought forth, chiefly the civil, he always referred to ease and equity: neither had he rather approve actions of strife, then take away controversies. Ovid de Art. Amand: 'Tis no less virtue for to keep then get. Pro Mur. I acknowledge this to be equal for Lucius Murena: and so equal, that neither he shall be overcome by dignity, neither by dignity shall overcome thee. Phil. 2. Whose burden being common, why not a common pray of them? Ter in Adelph. When as I care not for thine, care not thou for mine. Q. What may further be comprised under this head? A. Of this place are those that follow derived truly from contraries, but treated of in the place of equals; as this of Mart. Sosibian thou yield'st, thou wast borne thrall, When flattering thou thy father lord dost call. Ovid 1. Fast. there's price in price, the Censors honours give; He giveth friendship, poor alone do live. Q. But are they not more frequent from adverses? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Cicero Syl. Neither do I understand myself to have been angry. But if I defend him whom thou accusest, why should I not be angry with thee, who accusest him whom I defend? he saith I accuse mine own enemy; and I said, I defend my friend. So primo Tusc: But when as they confess that there is force enough in vices to cause a miserable life, why should it not be granted that there is force enough in virtues to effect a blessed life. Q. It should seem by this, that contraries are sequences of contraries? A. So they are. Q. What may further be comprised under this head? A. Sometimes there is put forth like for like. Q. Give example? A. Such is the contention of the shepherds in Virg: Aeglog: 3. Damaetas first of all putting forth this riddle. Tell in what place and I will herry thee, For great Apollo's self, the welkin large Just three else broad and no more seems to be: And Menalcas answering in this other riddle. Tell in what place the flowers have their marge, With king's names in their leaves inscribed plain; And to thyself take Phillis for thy pain. Q. Give example of feigned equals? A Feigned equals are such as is in Aeschinus Sacraticus wherein Socrates showeth Aspasia speaking to Zenophons' wife, & Zenophon himself. Tell me I pray thee thou wife of Zenophon, if thy neighbour should have better gold than thou, whether hadst thou rather have hers or thine? hers, said she. And if she have a gown, and other women's garments of a greater price than thou, whether hadst thou rather have hers or thine? hers, said she. Go to then if she have a better husband than thou, hadst thou rather have hers? here the woman blushed. But Aspasia spoke to Zenophon himself, I pray thee (said she) if thy neighbour have a better horse than thou, hadst thou not rather have his or thine? His, said he: but if he have better ground than thou, whether hadst thou rather have his? His, said he: viz. the best. But if he have a better wife than thou hast, whether hadst thou rather have his or thine? And here Zenophon also himself held his peace. CAP. 18. Greater's Q. What are unequals? A. Vnequals are those of which the quantity is not one. Q. What be the kinds of unequals? A. Unequal is greater or lesser. Q. What is greater? A. Greater is that which quantity exceedeth. Q. What be the proper notes of it? A. Not only, but also, I had rather this, then that, more also by grammatical comparison. Q. Give example. A. Cicero pro Mur. There is taken from amongst us not only that verbal counterfeit of prudence, but also that Lady of things Wisdom itself: The thing is carried by force, not only the hateful Orator in pleading, or the prattler, but also the truly good is despised. A horrid soldier is loved. Q. Is not a certain logical gradation, sometime joined with a rhetorical climax taken from hence? A. Yes. Q. Show example? A. Pro. Mil. Neither did he so handle himself to the people only, but also to the Senate, neither to the Senate only, but also to the public precedent and soldiers: neither to these alone, but also to the power of those, to whom the care of Senate soldiers, & the whole common wealth of Italy was committed. Q. Give a poetical example? A. Iu. Sat. 8. Against a proud noble man, Rather had I Thirses thy Sire should be, Whilst that Aeacides is like to thee: And that thou shouldst with Vulcan armour make, Then for Achilles' son men should thee take. Or that thy feature should like Thirses be. Q. Proceed to further example? A. Pro. Marc. Having more admiration than glory, Aeneid. 1. O fellows we these evils knew before, God will them end, we greater far have boar. Cic. pro Mur. Be not so unjust, that when as thy fountains are opened by thine enemies, our rivers should be stopped up even by our friends. Q. Give an example of a gradation, without a rhetorical climax? A. Ter. Thr. But doth Thais give me many thankes for it? Gn. Many. Thr. sayest thou so? is she glad? Gn. Not so much for the gift itself, as that it was given by thee; for that she triumpheth in good earnest. Q. Are not also greater's feigned? A. Yes, and of great force. Q. Give example? A. Ter. Hert. A noble man if he be made a lover can never undergo the charges, much less thou then. Aeneid. 5. O great Aeneas although love should not Promise to help or aid me now one jot, I hope that Italy shall reach to heaven, The winds once changed their forces cross have driven. Ariseing from black night i'th' city cast, Our power is weak, our greatest strength but waist. CAP. 20. Lessers. Q. What is Lesser? A. Lesser is that whose quantity is exceeded. Q. How is a Lesser judged? A. Oftentimes by proper notes. Q. What be these notes? A. Not only, but not at all: rather this than that, when as, as also. Q. How else? A. By grammatical, comparison. Q. How lastly? A. By the denying of parts. Q. Give example of the notes out of some Orator? A. Cic. secund. Cat. No man not only of Rome, but in no corner of all Italy was ever oppressed with so great a tax, as that he once knew of so incredible a Cesar. Cat. 1. Thou canst rather as an Exul tempt, then as a Consul vex the common wealth. Ag. 2. Which when to all it is very hard and an evil reason, then truly to me above the rest. Q. Give poetical examples. A. Ovid Trist. 1. More fierce than Busiros, more fierce than he, Who in flow fire his Ox burned furiously. Ovid. pri. de rem. amor. Thy body to redeem bear sword and fire, Ne drink to cool thy thirsly hot desire: To save thy soul wilt thou not all forbear, This part exceeds the other price by fare. Q. Give example of those which are done by the denying of parts. A. Phil. 9 All in all ages who have had the understanding of the law in this city, if they might be brought together into one place are not to be equalled with Servius Sulpitius: Cat. 2. Although those which say that Catilina is gone to Messilia, do not so much complain of it, as fear it. Q. Is it not sometimes without notes? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Pro Mur: Thou art so much wanting from the perfection of great works, as the foundation, which thou thinkest thou hast not yet laid. Pro Arch: The stones and deserts often times answer to the voice; wild beasts are tamed and subdued by singing: shall not then the instructions of the Poets in the best thing move us? Q. Is there not also a gradation from lessers? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Ver: 7. Is it a great act to overthrow the city Rome, to beat a knave, to kill a Parriside, what shall I say? to hang him upon the gallows. Q. Are not lessers also sometimes feigned? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Virg: Aeglog: 1. The light held hinds in th'air shall feed therefore, And in the Ocean all the fishes die: For want of water on the naked shore, The wand'ring Parthian first shall drinken dry tide, Huge Araxis, and gusling Germany: Suck down their thirsty throats, swift Tigris E'er his dear lovely face shall from my bosom slide. Q. Give another example. A. Phil. 2. O filthy thing? not only in the sight but also to hear of? if it had happened to thee amongst thine inhuman pots, who would not have accounted it filthy? but in the assembly of the Romans about public affairs▪ the master of the horse to whom it is not comely to belch, he vomiting a crust of bread and wine, filled his lap and all the tribunal with stink. CAP. 21. Likes. Q. You have expounded comparison in quantity, comparison in quality followeth, what therefore is quality? A. Quality is that whereby the things compared are said to be such. Q. What are the kinds of quality? A. Like or dislike? Q. What are likes? A. Likes are those of which there is the same quality. Q. What are likes called? A. Like is called proportion, as the likes are proportionable. Q. What are the notes of likeness, whereby it is concluded in one word? A. Like, effigies, in that manner as also denials of dislikenes. Q. What be they? A. Such as this not otherwise. Q. Give example of the first sort? A. Aeneid: 1. His mouth and shoulders being like to God. Phil: 9 Although Servius Suspicius could leave no clearer monument than his son, the effigies of his manners, virtues, constancy, piety, wit. Q. Give example out of some Poet? A. Ovid. Trist. 1. For he or none, even he that made the wound, Only Achilles 'tis can make me sound. Q. Proceed to farther examples? A. In Phis. There was one day which was to me the likeness of immortality, wherein I returned to my country. Ver: 1. But presently from the same likeness of a man as it were by some Circean pot, he is made a Bear. Pro Pomp. Therefore all in this place do behold Cons. Pompeius not as one sent from the city, but fallen from heaven. Aeneid. 3. They do not that which I have commanded. Ter: I am not, neither have been otherwise then he. Q. What is the partition of likeness? A. Disjoined or continued. Q. What is a disjoined similitude? A. A disjoined similitude is when as four terms are distinguished to the thing. Q. Give example? A. Eglog: 5. So me thy song as sleep on grass doth queme The traveller, his weary limbs to drench. Q. What is the force of this example? A. The songs to the hearers, as sleep to the weary, are four distinct terms. Q. Give another example? A. Ad fratrem: As the best governor's can not overcome the force of the tempest, so the wisest men often times cannot overcome the violence of fortune. Q. Show the force of this example? A. Here are four terms, as the governor to the ship, so wise men to fortune. Q. Proceed to farther examples? A. Trist. 1. Even as the yellow gold in flaming fire is seen, So men may trust, behold, in time that's sharp and keen Cic. Phil. 2. But even as those who in a great sickness do not taste the sweetness of meat, so the lustful, covetous, wicked have not the taste of true praise. Virg. made these verses. All night it reigned, next day the signs are seen, Th' Empires parted Cesar and love between. Battillus arrogated them to himself and obtained a great reward: therefore Virgil in these verses mocketh Battillus. I made these rhymes, another had the land, So birds you nests not for yourselves have made, So you o Bees make honey not for you: So you o Sheep bear wool but not for you, So you o Oxen plough but not for you. Q. Are not the notes sometimes omitted? A. Yes, sometimes there is no note at all. Q. Give an example? A. Virg: Eglog: 2. Ah my fair boy trust not thy hue too much, Hurtless though black, by every handsome hand Are plucked, while dayses none vouchsafe to touch, All be they white, yet shed they as they stand. Q. What is continual likeness? A. A continual likeness is when as the first term is to the second, so the second to the third. Q. Give an example? A. De Leg: 3. See you not that this is the Magistrates power that he should rule and prescribe right, profitable, and agreeing things with the laws: for as the laws do govern the Magistrates, so the Magistrates do rule the people. Q. What is the force of this example? A. Here are three terms, Laws, Magistrates, People. Q. Have not feigned likenesses equal force with these above? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. It appeareth chief in this explicated similitude of Esope his Apology taken out of Horace Epist. 1. But if Rome's people ask me happily. Why not 'mongst judges on the bench sit I: And do that which they love, fly that they hate? I answer as the crafty Fox of late. When tooth-sick lion he this message sent, Feign would I come to that thing was I bend: But that I saw the steps of many feet, That way to go, none back again to get. CAP. 22. Dislikes. Q. What are dislikes. A. Dislikes are comparatives, whose quality is divers. Q. What are the proper notes of dislikes? A. Dislike, different, another. Q. Give example? A. Pro Plan. Although the paying of money and thankes be unlike. Aeneid. 1. O ancient house? O how unlike for that Lord to govern Caes. Pri. Bel. Gal. All these differed in their tongues, instructions, laws. Agra. 2. One is known by his countenance, another by his voice, another by his gate. De Nat. Deo. 2. Because I have begun to do otherwise then I had said in the beginning. Q. Are not dislikes also known by denying she likes? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. De Orat: 2. Philosophy is not like the other arts: Aeneid: 2. But he was not of that seed wherein thou remember'st Achilles, such was Priamus his enemy. Lor. Epist. 2. There is not the same age, the same mind, ad frat. 1. So thy ring is not as a certain vessel, but as thyself: Phil: 3. This certain day he is wont to expect not so much of sacrifice as counsel. Q. Give some poetical examples? A. By this argument the shepherd confesseth his error. Aeglog: 1. Ah fond friend Melibe I whilom dempt, That famous city which I now and then, In common chat amongst our country men: Have heard yea cliped by the name of Rome, Certes for all the world cib to our homely home: and by and by, — so did I dare. Kids liken to their Goats, whelps to their dams, And mole hills wont to mountains to compare. Q. Show the force of this example? A. As neither the whelps to the dogs, nor kids to their dams, so neither is Mantua like to Rome. Q. Be not notes of dislikes sometimes wanting? A. Yes, often times, and the dislikenesse is more clearly explicated. Q. Give an example out of some Orator? A. Quint. l. 1. c. 11. Brutus slew the children of the traitors: Muntius did punish by death the virtue of his son. Q. Give another example? A. Cat: the sun sets and riseth again: but when our little light setteth, there is a perpetual night. CAP. 23. Conjugates. Q. Hitherto you have expounded the first arguments, those derived from the first follow, what are they then? A. Those derived from the first are these, which are even to that which they argue, as the first from whence they are derived. Q. What be the kinds of these arguments? A. A conjugate, a notation, a distribution, and a definition. Q. What are conjugates? A. Conjugates are names drawn diversely from the same principle. Q. Give example? A. justice, just, justly. Q. Is there not a symbol in conjugates of agreeing arguments? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Propert: lib: 2. Because in love there is no liberty, Who ever loves that man can ne'er be free. Q. Show the force of this example? A. Here liberty is the cause why we should be free. Q. Give another example? A. Cic: Nat: Deo: 2. Where he speaketh of Dionysius the Tyrant. He commanded that the tables of silver in which were the images of the gods, should be taken away, in which after the manner of the Grecians should be engraven. The goods of the gods, saying, that he was willing to use of their goodness. Q. Show the force of this example? A. The Gods are good, therefore their goodness is to be used: here from the effects it is directed to the causes. Q. Give another example? A. Ter: I am a man, no humane thing is strange to me. Q. Is it not sometimes from the subject to the adjunct? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Phil: 2. I will not handle thee as a Consul, lest thou handle me as one standing for the consulship. In Pis: When as all the cause was of the Consuls and Senate, both the Consuls & Senate had need of my help. CAP. 24. Notations. Q. What is notation? A. Notation is the interpretation of a name. Q. What are names? A. Names truly are notes of things. Q. May there not be rendered a reason of the names? A. Yes, either from the derivation or composition, if they be made by true notation, from some first argument. Q. Give example? A. Homo ab humo. Ovid: Fast: 6. Stat vi terra sua, vi stando vesta vocatur. Q. Show the force of this example? A. This is a notation from the cause. Q. Give another example? A. At focus a flammis, & quod fovit omnia dictus: Q. Show the force of this example? A. This is a notation from the effects. Q. Give another example? A. Virro: 4. O Verrea praeclara! quid enim accessisti, quo non attuleris tecum istum diem? & enim quam tu domum, quam urbem adijsti, quod fanum denique, quod non eversum atque extersum reliqueris? quare appellentur sanè ista Verrea quae non ex nomine, sed ex moribus, naturaque tua constituta esse videantur. Q. Show the force of this example? A. This is also a notation from the effects. Q. Give another example? A. Ovid: Fast: 1. Prima dies tibi carua datur, dea cardinis haec est. Nomine clausa aperit, claudit aperta suo. Q. Wherein is the force of this example? A. This is a notation from the subjects in the inward, about which the deity of this goddess is exercised. Q. Give another example? A. From the adjuncts, there is a notation from Bambalion. Phil. 2. Quia balbus & stupidus: hinc igitur cavilatio in Antonium generum. Tuae conjugis, bonae faeminae, locupletat is quidem certè, Bambalio quidem pater, homo nullo numero, nihil illo contemptius, qui propter haesitantiam linquae stuporemque cordis cognomen ex contumelia traxerit. Q. Show the force of this example? A. This is a notation from adjuncts. Q. Are there not notations also from disagreings? A. Yes. Q. Give example. A. Quint. lib. 1. cap. 6. Lucus, quia umbra apacus, parum luceat: & ludus quia sit longissimè a lusu, & does quia minimè dives. Q. May not notation be also from comparatives? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Pyropus, quod ignis flammam imitotur. Q. But is there not, as to the notation to his name, so an affection of the name to the notation? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Animi plenus, ergo animosus. Q. Show the contrary? A. Animosus, ergo animi plenus. CAP. 25. Distribution. Q. What are the other derived arguments? A. Distribution and definition. Q. Is there not a reciprocal affection in both these? A. Yes. Q. What is the affection in the distribution? A. Of all parts with the whole. Q. What is the affection in the definition? A. Of the definition with the things designed. Q. What is a distribution? A. A distribution is, when the whole is distributed into parts. Q. What is the whole? A. The whole is that which containeth parts. Q. What are parts? A. Parts are those which are contained of the whole. Q. It should seem then that the distinction of the whole into parts is distribution? A. So I said. Q. What is then the collection of the parts to the making up of the whole? A. It is called induction. Q. Whence is distribution taken? A. Distribution is taken from arguments altogether agreeing, but disagreeing amongst themselves: therefore it shall be by so much more accurate, by how much the agreings of the parts shall be with the whole, and the disagreeing among themselves. CAP. 26. The distribution from the cause. Q. Whence is the first distribution? A. The first distribution is from absolute agreings. Q. What are these absolute agreings? A. The causes and effects. Q. What is distribution from the causes? A. Distribution from the causes, is when the parts are causes of the whole. Here the distribution of perfect into its members is greatly praised. Q. What is perfect? A. Perfect is the whole, to which the parts are essential. Q. What is a member? A. A member is a part of the whole. Q. Give example? A. Grammar is divided into Etymology, and Syntaxis; Rhetoric, into Elocution and action; Dialectica, into invention and judgement: for those arts are constituted of those parts. Q. What is the principal distribution? A. When the explication of a longer thing is received. Q. Give examples? A. Georg: 1. What makes glad corn, & how to till the ground, How to plant elms that be so strong and sound: How to guide oxen, cattles how to tend, And how the little pretty be defend, I will declare.— Q. Give another example? A. Cic: pro Mur: I understand O you judges, that the whole accusation hath thre● parts, one of which is in reprehension of life, another in contention of dignity, the third touching the fault. Q. How is the second kind of handling this kind of argument? A. Either from the parts to the whole; or from the whole to the parts. Q. Give example? A. Cat: Quintia is fair to many, so to me, I will not therefore this same thing deny; But wholly fair I will not say she's not: True beauty in her there is not a jot, Lesbius fair in every part most fine, Venus adorned her, clear did make her shine. CAP. 27. The distribution from the effects, also the genus and species. Q. What is the distribution from the effects? A. The distribution from the effects, is when the parts are effects. Q. Give example? A. In a ship the seamen, some scale the masts, some run in at the doors, some draw water, the governor holdeth the rudder in the ship. Q. May not distribution of genus into species be comprised under this head? A. Yes, distribution of genus into species doth here excel. Q. What is genus? A. Genus is the whole essential in parts. Q. What is species? A. Species is the parts of genus. Q. Give example? A. We say a living creature is the genus of a man, and a beast: for a living creature is the whole of that effect, viz. a corporal living substance, which commonly pertaineth to the beasts and men: we say the species of a man and a beast is living because they are parts of a living subject, which living essence they have common: we say a man the genus of every man, and a lion the genus of every lion, but contrary, every man the species of a man, every lion of a lion. Q. What is the kinds of the genus? A. The genus is most general or subalternat. Q. What are the kinds of the species? A. The species is subalternate or most special. Q. What is the most general genus? A. The most general genus is that of which there is no kinds. Q. Give example? A. In logical invention an argument is the most general genus of artificials and inartificialls. Q. What is the subalternate genus, and the subalternate species? A. The subalternate genus, as also the subalternate species, is that which is the species of this, but the genus of that. Q. Give example? A. The cause is the species of an absolute arguing argument, but the genus of the matter and form. Q. But what is the most special species? A. The most special species is that which is individable into other species. Q. Give example? A. The matter and form singly. Q. What are the genus and species notes of? A. Of the causes and effects. Q. Give example? A. In a living thing there is a corporeal essence which in the matter is belonging commonly to the species, as also the faculty of life and sense, which in the form pertaineth commonly to the species. Q. It should seem that the genus containeth the causes, which do attain to the species of it; and therefore contrarily, the species contains the effects of their genus? A. So it is. Q. From whence then is that universal famousness and excellency? A. From hence, because it declareth the causes. Q. Show some example now of the distributions of the genus into species? A. Distribution of genus into species is very excellent truly, but hard and seldom found, yet we will bring what illustrations and examples we can. Ovid: Met: 1. Divideth living creatures into five species; stars, birds, beasts, fish, men: he giveth life to the stars as the Philosophers do. No region is without some living thing, Stars in the skies the forms of gods being: Birds in the air in abundance be, Beasts on the earth, and fishes in the sea. But yet 'mongst these a creature more divine, Who may them rule and govern all in fine; There wanted much until that man was borne. So Cic: office: 1. divideth virtue into four species, prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance; but all that is honest springeth out of one of these four parts, for either it is conversant in the knowledge and skill of the truth, or in the defending the society of men, and giving every one his own; also in trust of things bargained, or in a high mind and admirable greatness and courage, or lastly in all things which are made and called order and means in which is modesty and temperance, Q. What is distribution of the genus into the forms of the species? A. Distribution of the genus into the forms of the species is the same; because the form with the genus, constitute their species. Q. Give example? A. Of living creatures, one is speaking, another dumb. Q. May not genus and species be handled apart and severally? A. Yes, genus & species are not only handled after this simple form of division, but also apart one from another. Q. Give example? A. Pro Arc: But least any should wonder that we say so, that there is a certain faculty of wit, and this reason or discipline of speaking, neither that we have truly given ourselves altogether to this study; for all arts which pertain to humanity, have a certain common band, and are contained (as it were) in a certain knowledge amongst themselves. Q. Show the force of this example? A. Art is the genus, poesy and eloquence the species. Q. Is not the genus handled also by the species? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Ovid: de Trist: 4. Fill thy sad matter with thy virtue's grave, Hot glory doth decay, it none can save: Who had known Hector if Troy well had been? Through public vices way to virtue's seen. Thine art o Typhis lies, if in the sea There be no floods, if men be well truly, Then Phoebus' art decayeth instantly. That which they hide, and is not known for good, Appears at last, and shows where evil stood. Q. But are there no special examples fitted to this kind? A. Yes, such as this. Attic. 7. Wilt thou leave the city? what if the French men come? The common wealth he saith is not in walls but altars and religion. Theomistocles did the same, and a whole host of Barbarians were not able to take one city. But? Pericles did not so, who in the year almost before fifty, when he kept nothing but a wall; our city before being taken they kept the tower notwithstanding. CAP. 28. Distribution from the subject. Q. What is the other distribution? A. The other distribution is of agreings after a certain manner. Q. What are agreings after a certain manner? A The subjects and adjuncts. Q. What is the distribution from subjects? A. The distribution from subjects is, when the parts are subjects. Q. Give example? A. Cat: Thy maiden head's not wholly thine I ween, One part thy father gave, the part between Thou of thy mother hadst, so that to thee None but the third remaineth for to be. Therefore resist not two, cast not away The thing thy parents gave to thee I say. Q. Give example out of some Orator? A. Cic: Tusc: 1. There are therefore three kinds of good, as I understand from the Stoics, to whose use oftener than I am wont we give place. There are therefore those kinds of good, whilst that the external things of the body are cast upon the ground, & because they are to be undertaken they are called good. There are other divine things which do more nearly concern us, and are heavenly, so that those who have attained them, why may I not call them after a manner blessed, yea most happy. CAP. 29. Distribution from adjuncts. Q. What is distribution from adjuncts? A. Distribution from adjuncts is, when the parts are adjuncts. Q. Give example? A. Of men, some are sound, some sick, some rich, some poor. Q. Give a poetical example? A. Virg: Georg: 1. Divideth the world into five parts, the middle scorching hot, the other two extreme cold, the two last temperate. Five zones the heavens do hold, the middle hot: The Sun there burns, cold in it there is not, But on the right and left hand there is seen. Rain, frost and cold, that's bitter, sharp & keen. The two last temperate, yet in them is Mortality, and many sicknesses. Q. Give an Orator's example? A. Caes: Bel: Gal: 1. All France is divided into three parts; of which, one the Belgians inhabit, the other the Aequitans, the third those who in their tongue are called Cetts, in our language the Gauls. CAP. 30. Definition. Q. What is definition? A. Definition is when it is explicated what the thing is, and that interchangeably may be argued with the thing defined. Q. What are the kinds of definition? A. A definition is perfect or imperfect. Q. What is the perfect definition called? A. This is properly called a definition. Q. What is the imperfect called? A. A description. Q. What is a perfect definition? A. A perfect definition is a definition consisting of the only causes which constitute the essence: such as the causes comprehended by the genus and form. Q. Give example? A. After this manner is a man defined, viz. by the genus, (a living creature) we understand (as it is said) a corporeal essence full of life and sense, which is the matter and a part of the form of a man, to which (if thou addest reasonable) thou comprehendest the whole form of a man, by the whole faculty of his life, sense, reason. Q. It should seem then that the perfect definition is nothing else then an universal symbol of the causes, constituting the essence and nature of things? A. So it is. Q. Give an example? A. The arts have such definitions, Grammar of well speaking; Rhetoric of pleading well; Dialectica of disputing well; Arithmetic of numbering well; Geometry of measuring well. CAP. 31. Description. Q. What is description? A. Description is a definition defining the thing from other arguments also. Q. Give example? A. This is the description of a man, a man is a living creature, mortal, capable of discipline. Q. Are not proper circumstances also mingled with common causes sometimes? A. Yes. Q. Then it seemeth that succint brevity is not always in this kind? A. No, oftentimes it desireth a clearer and greater explication. Q. Give an example out of some Orator? A. In Mil: Glory is described. But yet of all rewards of virtue (if there be a reason of rerewardes) the greatest is glory; this one comforteth us touching the shortness of our life, causeth that we are present with the absent dead, maketh us to live to conclude, by these steps we do seem to ascend into heaven. Q. Give a poetical example? A Aeneid: 4. Fame is described. From Libeans temple cometh forth great fame, Nought swifter than ill news which bears this name, Moving she goes, by going strength she gets, She fears at first, at last with winds she fleets. Walks on the earth, her head she lifts toth' sky, Earth brought her forth, the Gods were angry; In Caeus and Encelladus his land, She was at last as I do understand; Her feet were swift, her wings most hurful were A horrid monster, wicked, full of fear, As many feathers as upon her are: So many eyes attend her every where. So many tongues, so many mouths do sound, So many years do lessen her around. In night she flies through heaven, & in the shade About the earth she goes, no noise is made: She sitteth by the light on houses high, And causeth towns to quiver fearfully; As well a bruiter of things false that be, As messengers of truth and verity. Q. Proceed to further example? A. Such are the descriptions of plant? an living creatures, in physic: also of rivers mountains, cities, in geography and history. CAP. 32. Divine testimony. Q. You have expounded the artificial arguments, the inartificial followeth; tell me then what an inartificial argument is? A. An inartificial argument is, that which argueth not by its own nature, but taketh force from some artificial argument. Q. It seemeth by this when a hidden truth of things is more subtly searched for, that this argument hath small force of proof? A. So it is, but in civil and humane things oftentimes this argument effecteth the greatest trust, from the moving arguments, if wisdom, virtue, and good will be present. Q. What is it called? A. In one name it is called testimony. Q. What are the kinds of testimony? A. Divine or humane. A. What may be comprised under the head of divine testimony? A. Not only the miracles of the gods, but also the answers of prophets and fortune-tellers, are counted amongst divine testimonies. Q. Give example? A. All these are brought forth. Cat: 3. For that I may omit (saith the Orator) the fires seen in the night from the West, and the burning of heaven, as also lightning, as earthquakes, with other many things done to us Consuls, as those which are now done, do seem to proclaim the god's immortality. And a little after, at which time when the Araspatians' were come together out of all Herturia, they said that slaughter, burning, perishing of the laws, civil and domestical war, and the fall of the whole city and empire approached, unless the immortal gods pleased by all reason, by their power should change those destinies. At length when he had said that they mocked at the answer of the Arispatians', and that they did more regard the sign of jove, turning to the East, he then said; but is not he so present that it should seem to be done at the beck of the mighty jove, that when this morning before my door by my command and conjuration, the judges being then in the house of Concordia, at the same time there appeared a sign: which being turned towards you and the Senate, both you and the Senate saw manifestly laid open, who they were that were against the health of all men. Q. Give another example? A. That of Tibullus is more short. But if that oracles true things do tell, Then this in our name see thou do declare: That he doth promise Delius to give, To be thy spouse with whom thou'lt happy live. CAP. 33. Testimony from humane law and sentences. Q. What be the kinds of humane testimony? A. Humane testimony is common or proper. Q. What is common? A. Law; and a famous sentence. Q. What is legal testimony? A. Legal testimony is both unwritten and written. Q. Bring forth authority for this? A. Pro Mil: For there is (O ye judges) a law not written, but borne with us; which we have not received, learned, read; but taken, drawn, expressed from nature: as if our life should be in some hazard, force danger, either of thiefs or enemies, all honest reason were to be sought of safety; but if the twelve tables will have the night thief, yea the day thief to, if he defend himself after any manner killed without punishment; who is there that will think him that is slain to be punished, when as there is a sword reached to us, to kill that man by the laws themselves. Q. What are famous sentences? A. Proverbes. Q. Give example? A. They be such as these. Pares cum paribus facilimè congregantur. Spartam nactus es, hanc ex orna. Q. What may farther be under this head? A. Sayings of wisdom also. Q. Give example? A. Nosce teipsum. Nequid nimis. Sponde praesto ad detrimentum. Q. What is proper testimony? A. Such as this of Plato. 1. ad Quinti: frat: And then truly Plato the Prince of wisdom and learning thought those common wealths blessed, if either learned and wise men governed them, or those that did govern, placed all their study in wisdom and learning. Q. Proceed to further example? A. Such were in the Poets Aeneid: 4. Learn justice and admonitions, and contemn not the rich. So in Homer. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉. Ajax led out of Salaminus twelve ships. The Magatenses were overcome by the Athonians. Q. What are testimonies of the living? A. Testimonies of the living, are not only when it is inquired of ground, felling of wood and such like business, but also there are testimonies of obligation, confessing oath. Q. Give an example of obligation? A. Phil: 5. For I dare bind my faith, (P. C.) to you and the people of Rome, that truly when no force constrained me I durst not do; and I feared an opinion of timerity, in a thing greatly hurtful; I promise and swear (P. C.) to become always such a citizen to Cesar as he himself is, and as we ought chief to wish or desire. Q. Have we not an obligation set forth sometimes with a pledge? A. Yes. Virg Eglog: 3. Wilt then by turns, we hand to hand do try, What either can, and prove each by our deed; I'll pawn this heifer, (which lest thou deny) She twice hath come already to the pail, And two twins suckles at this time now say, What pawn thou'lt gauge with her to countervail. Q. What are the kinds of confession? A. Confession is free or extorted by torments. Q. What is this latters properly called? A. A question. Q. Give example? A. Such an argument there is against Milon whom Cicero derided. Go to then, what or how is the question? How? where was Roscius? where was Casca? Doth Clodius lay snares for Milon? he hath done; surely the gallows. He hath done nothing. Q. What further may be reduced hitherto? A. Hitherto may be referred the argument which we used when we bring forth our approbation, and experience of our affirmative. Q. Give example. A. Ver: 4. Even Volcatio if he had come freely, would he have given a little book? he shall come, he shall be tried; no man truly receiveth it. Ter: spend thy time in letters, in the woods, in music: it is meet for youth to know these liberal things, I will give diligence. Q. Give a poetical example? A. Ovid. Trist: 3. The which that thou mayst better credit me, Try thou my pains, believe it then to be. Q. Give an example also of the testimony of an oath. A. Aeneid: 6. I swear byth' gods, and all in earth unseen; I have departed from thy shore o queen. Q. This reciprocation seemeth to be more obscure, as because the testimony is true, the witness is also true? A. So it is: and thus much sufficeth to have spoken of invention, the first part of the science Dialectica. THE SECOND BOOK OF PETER RAMUS HIS Dialectica of judgement. Cap. 1. What judgement is. Q. Hitherto the first part of Dialectica in Invention hath been expounded, the other part followeth, in judgement, what then is judgement? A. judgement is the second part of Logic of disposing arguments to be judged well. Q. How are they judged? A. Every thing is judged by a certain rule of disposition. Q. It may be thought then that this part of Logic is called both judgement and disposition from hence? A. So it is. CAP. 2. An affirmative or negative Axioma. Q. What are the kinds of judgement? A. judgement is axiomatical, or Dianocticall. Q. What is an Axioma? A. An Axioma is the disposition of an argument, with an argument, wherein somewhat is judged to be, or not to be. Q. What is it called, and whence receiveth it the name? A. In the Latin of Enuntiatum, it is called Enuntiation; of Pronuntiatum, Pronunciation. Q. What are the affections of an Axioma? A. An Axioma is affirmative or negative. Q. What is affirmative? A. Affirmative is when the force of it is affirmed. Q. And what negative. A. When it is denied. From hence springeth the contradiction of Axiomas, when the same argument is affirmed or denied. Cap. 3. True and False. Q. What may be a second kind of the affections of an Axioma? A. An Axioma secondly is true or false. Q. How true? A. When it pronounceth as the thing is. Q. How false? A. Contrary. Q. What are the affections of a true Axioma? A. A true Axioma is contingent or necessary. Q. How contingent? A. When it is so true that it may sometimes be false. Q. Give example? A. Fortune helpeth the bold; for it may be that which is true to day, to morrow may be false: and therefore the judgement of this contingent verity, is called opinion: those things of the time past or present, may be certain to a man, but of time to come they cannot by nature, although with God all things are present. Therefore Marshal doth worthily mock Priscus Priscus thou often asksts what I shall be, If now most rich, hereafter what truly? Things for to come canst thou not tell them me, If thou a Lion art, what wilt thou thou be? Q. How necessary? A. When it is always true, neither can be false. Q. What is this affirmative called? A. This affirmative is called Katapantòs of every thing. Q. How impossible? A. Contrarily where it can be true of nothing. Q. What belongeth to an Axioma of the arts? A. An axioma of the arts ought to be Kantapantòs as also Homogene & Catholic Q. What is an homogene axioma? A. An homogene axioma is when the parts are essential among themselves: as the form to the thing form, the subject to its proper adjunct. Q. what is this called? A This Genus of the Species is called Katherine ' autò by itself. Q. What it a Catholic axioma. A. A Catholic axioma is when the consequent is always true of the anticedent; not only in every thing and by itself, but also reciprocally. Q. Give example? A. A man is a living creature, reasonable, number is equal or unequal. Q. What is this called? A. This is called Katholon prôton universally first. Q. What then are the laws of the proper documents of the arts. A. These three: the first, Catàpantòs the law of verity: the second Katherine ' autò the law of justice: the third Kathòlou prôton called the law of wisdom, and such is the judgement of Catholic axiomas, the most true & chief knowledge. CAP. 4. The simple Axioma. Q. You have expounded the common affections of axiomas, the kinds follow, what are then the kinds of an axioma? A. An axioma is simple or compound. Q. What is simple? A. Simple is that which is contained in the force of one word; and therefore by an affirmative or negative word it affirmeth or denieth. Q. Give example? A. Fire burneth, fire is hot, fire is not water. Q. Show the force of these examples? A. Here fire is the anticedent, burneth, the consequent: and this is the first disposition of invented things; of i cause with the effect, as in the first example; the subject with the adjunct as in the second; the disagreeing with the disagreeing, in the third: after a certain manner, any argument may be enuntiated (except those full of comparison and distribution) agreings truly by affirming, disagreings by denying. Q. What are the kinds of a simple axioma? A. A simple axioma is general or special. Q. What is general? A. General is when the common consequent is attributed generally to the common antecedent. and this contradiction, doth not always divide the true & false, but both parts of the contingent, as also not of contingents may be false. Q. Give example of the first? A. Eaeh place delighted is, with Baijs pleasant No place delighted is with Baijs pleasant rooms. Q. Give example of the second? A Every creature is reasonable, no creature is reasonable. Q. What is a special axioma? A. A special axioma is when the consequent is not attributed to every antecedent, and here the contradiction ever divideth the true from the false. Q. What are the kinds of special? A. Special is particular or proper. Q. What is particular? A. Particular is when the common consequent is attributed particularly to the antecedent: but to this axioma it is generally contradicted. Q. Give examples. A. Somewhat is to be pardoned: Nothing is to be pardoned. Some clemency is not to be praised. All clemency is to be praised. Q. What is a proper axioma? A. A proper axioma is when the consequent is attributed to a proper antecedent. Q. Give example? A. Fabulla is fair, whose negative & contradiction is Fabulla, is not fair. CAP. 5. The copulative axioma. Q. What is the compound axioma? The compound axioma is that which is contained in the force of a conjunction. Therefore from an affirmative or negative conjunction it is affirmed or denied. And a part of the contradiction is true, a part false. Q. What are the kinds? A. A compound Enunciate is for his conjunction congregative, or segregative. Q. What is congregative? A. Congregative is that which enuntiateth all agreings by affirmings and disagreeing by denying. Q. What are the kinds. A. Copulative or connexed. Q. What is copulative? A. Copulative is that whose conjunction is copulative. Q. Give example? A. Eneid: 1. The east and south winds on the seas do blow, They rush through deep till on the top they show, The afric oft with these his blasts conjoines. This therefore shall be the negative and contradiction. The east and south winds not on seas do blow, They rush not through the deep, ne on top show, The afric doth not oft his blasts conjoin. Q. But whereupon dependeth the judgement of the copulative enunciate? A. The judgement of the coplative Enunciate being true dependeth of the truth of all parts: false, at the least of one part false. Q. What may further be comprised under this head? A. The enunciate of a relative quality is of this kind, whose conjunction is the relation itself. Q. Give example? A. Eglog. 3. So me thy song as sleep on grass doth queme The traveller his weary limbs to drench. Q. Show the force of this example? A. Here the coplative judgement is as if he should say, sleep is grateful to the weary, and so thy song is pleasing to me. Q. What is the Negative hereof? A. Not me thy song as sleep on grass doth queme The traveller his weary limbs to drench. CAP. 6. The Connexed Axioma. Q. What is a connexed Axioma. A. A connexed axioma is congregative, whose coniection is connexive. Q. Give example? A. Eneid. 2. If fortune doth feign Simon miserable, it dishonesly feigneth him to be vain and a liar, whose negative is if fortune doth not feign Simon miserable it dishonesly feigneth him to be vain and a liar: Q. Is not this conjunction also denied more manifestly, by denying the consequent? A. Yes. Q. Give example? A. Pro Amer. I am not a murderer though in their company. De fato: Neither if every Enunciation be true or false, doth it follow therefore that the causes are immutable; For affirmation signifieth, if the antecedent be, that the consequent is also. Negation therefore and contradiction determineth if the antecedent be that therefore the consequent is not. Wherefore, when thou shalt judge the connexive to be absolutely true, thou shalt judge it also necessary, and thou shalt understand this necessity to spring from the necessary connexion of parts, the which may also be even in false parts. Q. Give example of this? A. If a man be a Lion, he is also a four footed, this is a necessary connexion. Q. But if the connexion be contingent, and only put for his probability, how shall it be judged then? A. Its judgement than shall be only opinion. Q. Give example? A. Ter: and Phamphilus if thou dost this, this day is the last thou shalt see me. Q. What may be further under this head? A. This relation connexive of consequence is like to the connexed axioma, as when Tullius is said to be an orrator, he hath also skill in pleading well, and thus much of the congregative axioma. CAP. 7. The discreet Axioma. Q. What is a segregative axioma? A. A segregative axioma is that whose conjunction is segregative, and therefore enunciateth disagreeing arguments. Q. What are the kinds? A. A segregative enunciation is discreet or disjunct. Q. What is discreet? A. Discreet is that whose conjunction is discretive, and therefore of disagreings it chiefly enunciateth diverses. Q. Give example? A. Tusc. 5. Although they may be judged by the force of the body, yet they are referred to the mind: whose negative and contradiction is, although they may be judged by the sense of the body, yet they are referred to the mind, or, although they may be judged by the sense of the body, yet they are not referred to the mind. For yet is here a chief conjunction. Q. How is the discreet Enunciat judged to be true? A. The discreet enunciation is judged to be true & lawful, if the parts be not only true but may be also discreet. Q. How is the false or ridiculous judged? A. Contrarily. CAP. 8. The disiunct Axioma. Q. What is a disiunct axioma? A. A disiunct axioma is a segregative axioma whose conjunction is disjunct. Q. Give example? A. Georg. 1. There as they say is either silent night Always most dark and void of any light, Or else the morning from us here doth go And brings the day unto them there also. Q. Show another example? A. Do fato every enunciation is true or false Q. Here it seemeth is signified from the disiunct, that one only is true? A. So it is. Q. What shall the negative and contradiction be. A. Not every enunciation is true or false. Q. And what doth the contradiction signify? A. That one of them is not true by necessity, for if the disjunction be absolutely true, it is also necessary: and the parts of the disiunct are opposite without any means. Q But although the disjunction be absolutely and also necessary may there not be a necessity, that the parts should be separately necessary? A. No. Q. Give example? A. A man is good or not good, here the disjunction is necessary, and yet a man is good is not a necessary enunciation, also a man is not good, is not a necessary enunciation. Q. Whereupon then dependeth the necessity of the disjunction. A. The necessity of the disjunction dependeth on the necessary opposition, and disjunction of the parts, not as their necessary verity. Q. But is not the disjunction of ten-times from condition. A. Yes. Q. Give example. A. As if it be though whether Cleon will come, or Socrates, because it was so agreed that one of them only should come. Q. It seemeth by this that if the disjunction be contingent, it is not absolutely true, but is only opinionable? A. So it is, and that more frequently in the use of man. Q. Give example? A. Ovid: Epist: Lean. Either good hap shall now unto me fall, Or else fierce death the end of loving thrall. CAP. 9 The Syllogism and its parts. Q. You have manifested in its self the axiomatical judgement, by axiomas: the dianoetical followeth, what therefore is dianoia? A. Dianoia is when one axioma is derived from another. Q. What are the kinds of dianoyia? A. Syllogism or method? Q. What is a Syllogism? A. A Syllogism is a dianoia whereby the question is so disposed with the argument, as the antecedent put, it is necessarity concluded. Q. Make this plainer? A. When the axioma is doubtful the question is effected, and there is need of a third argument to be placed with the question, for its trust. Q. How many parts hath the antecedent? A. The antecedent of a Syllogism hath two parts, a proposition, and an assumption. Q. What is a proposition? A. A proposition is the first part of the antecedent, whereby the consequent of the question, is at least disposed with the argument. Q. What is the assumption? A. The assumption is the second part of the antecedent, which is affirmed from the proposition. Q. But what is the consequent part of the syllogism? A. The consequent part of the syllogism, is that which embraceth the part of the question and concludeth it. Q. What is it called? A. It is called from the nature of it complexion and conclusion. Q. If any part of the syllogism want, what is said to be? A. It is called Enthymema. Q. But what if any part happen to be beside its parts? A. Then it is called a Porsyllogisme. Q. Is not the order of the parts oftentimes confounded? A. Yes. Q. What then if any doubt shall arise from it? A. Then that shall be filled up which wanteth, those cut of which abound: and every part digested into his place. CAP. 10. The simple contracted syllogism. Q. What are the kinds of a syllogism? A. A syllogism is simple or compound. Q. What is simple? A. Simple is where the consequent part of the question is placed in the proportion, the antecedent part in the assumption. Q. What are the affections of it? A. It is affirmed, denied, general, special, and proper. Q. How is it affirmed? A. From all the affirmative parts. Q. How is it denied? A. From one negative of the antecedent parts, with complexion. Q. How is it general? A. From the general proposition and assumption. Q. How is it special? A. From one of the generals only. Q. And how is it proper? A. From both propers. Q. What are the kinds of the simple syllogism? A. The simple syllogism is contracted by parts, or explicated. Q. What is contract? A. Contract is when the argument for the example is so subjected to a particular question, that the antecedent may be understood to affirm each part; and in the assumption. Q. Give an example? A. Certain confidence is virtue, as constancy, certain confidence is not virtue, as boldness. Q. Show the force of this example? A. This argument is understood to go before each part of the question, as if it were expressed, constancy is a virtue, and confidence, and therefore certain confidence is a virtue: also boldness is not a virtue, and yet it is confidence; and therefore some confidence is not a virtue. So in the use of disputing the master of the Syllogism draweth the judgement, neither is it set forth otherwise. And this exposition the beginning of the Syllogism is expounded by Aristotle, so that the Syllogism in its full judgement is more clear and manifest. CAP. 11. The first kind of the simple explicated Syllogism. Q. What is the explicated Syllogism? A. The explicated Syllogism whose parts are explicated. Q. What are the proprieties in this explicated Syllogism? A. Two, first the proposition is general or proper, secondly the conclusion is like to the antecedent or the weaker part. Q. What are the kinds of it? A. The kinds are twofold. Q. What is the first? A. The first is where the argument always followeth the negative in the other part. Q. Show some Syllogism of this kind? A. GEN. 1. Cesare. A troubled man useth not his reason well: But a wife man useth his reason well, A wife man is not therefore troubled. Q. Produce, the example of some Orator for this Syllogism? A. This judgement is so brought forth of Cicero Tusc: 3. And when (saith he) the eye is troubled, it is not honestly affected to the fulfilling of its duty: and the rest of the parts, as also the whole body, when it is moved from its state, wanteth its office and function, so a troubled mind is not honestly affected to fulfil his duty. But the duty of the mind is to use reason, and a wise man is always so affected, that he useth reason most excellently; he is therefore never troubled. Q. Give example of another general Syllogism? A. GEN. 2. Camestres. A mortal thing is compound. A soul is not compound. A soul therefore is not mortal. Q. Produce the authority of some ancient, avouching this Syllogism? A. Cicero judgeth the soul to be immortal by this Syllogism. Tusc: 1. For we cannot doubt saith he in our minds, unless we be perchance ignorant in physical things, but that there is nothing knit to souls, nothing connexed, nothing copulate, nothing joined, nothing double; which when it is so, can surely never be parted, nor divided, nor severed, nor drawn asunder, neither perish therefore: for perishing is as it were a departure and separation or breach of those parts, which before the perishing were joined together. Q. Give an example of a special syllogism? A. SPEC. 1. Festino. A pale man is not courageous. Maximus is courageous. Maximus therefore is not pale. Q. Produce authority for this syllogism? A. By this judgement Ovid: concludeth. De Pont: 3. El: 3. Paleness and sloth are not in the high mind, Rather with vipers them on ground we find▪ In highest things thy mind excels we see, No name I find t'express the wit of thee. Some miseries do taste, hurt and out worn, Are made to feel sharp pricking of the thorn: Yet thou art wont to help complaining men, Amongst which number pray let me be then. Q. Show another example of the special syllogism. A. SPEC. 2. Baioco. A dancer is Lecherous. Murena is not Lecherous. Murena therefore is no dancer. Q. Produce some Orator for this syllogism? A. Cic: pro Mur: For no man almost being sober danceth, unless perchance he be mad, neither alone, nor at a moderate and honest banquet; for dancing is the companion of untimely banquets, pleasant places, and many delights, thou snatchest that from me that it is necessary that vices should be: thou leavest that whereby this removed, this vice ought not to be at all: no filthy banquet, no love, no glotteny is showed, and when we find not all these things which have the name of pleasure, and are vices; there thou canst not find lechery, nay thinkest thou to find a shadow of lust in such. Q. Avouch some other authority after the like manner? A. After this manner of judgement Ovid: de Trist: 1. concludeth triply, whilst he sets forth the excuse of his verses. They that make verses should not merry be, Our time is clouded with adversity: They that writ verses should enjoy their ease, The seas, the winds, with winter fierce me press. Good poets should not fear, but I fear death, I dread least swords do take away my breath: Then what is here, a right judge will admire, If reading them they satisfi's desire. Q. Give example of proper syllogisms? A. PRO. 1. Agesilaus is not painted by Apelles. Alexander is painted by Apelles. Alexander therefore is not Ageselaus. Q. Give another example of a proper Syllogism? A. PRO. 2. Cesar oppressed his country. Tullius' oppressed not his country. Tullius therefore is not Cesar. CAP. 12. The second kind of the simple explicate Syllogism. Q. What is the second kind of the explicate Syllogism? A. The second kind of the explicate Syllogism is, when the argument goeth before in the proposition, the affirmative followeth in the assumption. Q. Give an example of an affirmative general after this kind. A. AFF Gen. Barbara. Every just thing is profitable. Every honest thing is just. Every honest thing therefore is profitable Q. Produce some Orator avouching this Syllogism? A. Thus Cicero concludeth, office: 2. The Philosophers truly with great authority, severely, sound and honestly, do distinguish these three confused kinds by cogitation. For whatsoever is just, that also they think to be profitable: also, whatsoever is honest, that is just; from whence ariseth, that whatsoever is honest, that is also profitable. Q. Give an example of a negative general Syllogism? A. NEG. GEN. Celarent. A fearful man is not free. A covetous man is fearful. A covetous man therefore is not free. Q. Prove this by some Poet? A. It is thus concluded and judged by Horace: Epist: 1. Who freer is he that as servant dwelleth, Or he that in his moneys love excelleth: I do not see, he that desires doth fear, And he that fears his freedom doth not bear. Q. Give another example of this kind of Syllogism? A. Ten: in Yew▪ concludeth and judgeth this, That which is void of counsel, cannot be governed by counsel. Love is void of counsel. It cannot therefore be governed by counsel. A. Produce the words of Terrence? A. The former Syllogism followeth in these words: master, that thing which hath in it neither counsel nor means, that thou canst not govern by counsel. In love are all these vices, injuries, suspicions, enmities, flatteries, war, peace again: these uncertain things if thou wouldst guide by certain reason, thou dost no more than if thou shouldest labour to to be mad with reason. Q. Give an example of the affirmative special syllogism? A. AFF. SPE. Darii. Consuls made by virtue ought studiously to defend the common wealth. Cicero is made Consul by virtue. Cicero therefore ought studiously to defend the common wealth. Q. Produce Tully's words avouching this syllogism? A. The Orator doth both conclude and judge his own diligence. Agr: 2. For the great care and diligence aswell of all the Consuls, aught to be placed in defending the common wealth, as of those who not in the cradle; but in the camp were made Consuls: none of our ancients promised to the people of Rome for me that I ought to be trusted: to ask of me that I ought, even when I did ask, none of our ancestors commended me to you, therefore if I neglect any thing, there is none who shall entreat me for you. Yet while my life lasts (I being he who am able to defend it from their wickedness) I promise this to you O Quirites, that you have committed the common wealth to the providence of a good trust: to a watchful man, not a coward; to a diligent man, not a sluggard. Q. Show another syllogism of this kind? A. That which comes wished for is grateful. Lesbian comes wished for to Catullus. She is therefore grateful. Q. Set forth Catullus his words wherein he thus concludeth? A. That which we long for with desires great, Is acceptable to us when we heat: Wherefore this grateful is, more dear than gold, That Lesbian is come our friend of old. Thou dost our wishes grant, our hope restore; O light most clear! who is there that is more Happy than I, who have what I desire; Even what I wish there's nought I can require. Q. Give an example of an negative special? A. NEG. SPE. Ferio. The deceiver of a loving maid is not to be praised. Demophoon is the deceiver of a loving maid, to wit Phyllis. Demophoon therefore is not to be praised. Q. Set forth the words of Phillis in Ovid so judging. A. It is no glory virgins to deceive, Who love a man and wish him for to have; Simplicity should rather faurur gain, But I that love and all's a woman am. Deceived am by thee with flattering style, The gods thy praises make it all the while. Q. Give an example of an affirmative proper? A. AFF. PRO. Octavius is Caesar's heir. I am Octavius. I am therefore Caesar's heir. Q. Give an example of a negative proper? A. NEG. PRO. Anthony is not Caesar's son. Thou art Anthony. Thou art not therefore Caesar's son. CAP. 13. The first connexed Syllogism. Q. You have expounded hitherto the simple Syllogism, what now is the compound Syllogism? A. The compound Syllogism is a Syllogism where the whole question is another part of the affirmed and compound proposition, the argument is another part. Q. But what if any thing were taken away in the compound Syllogism? A. That were to put a special contradiction. Q. What are the kinds of a compound Syllogism? A. A compound Syllogism is connexed or disjunct. Q. What is a connexed syllogism? A. A connexed syllogism, is a compound syllogism, of a connexed proposition. Q. How many are the manners of distinction? A. It is of two manners. Q. What is the first? A. The first manner of the connexed syllogism is that which assumeth the antecedent, and the consequent concludeth. Q. Give an example of this? A. After this manner Cicero concludeth. lib. 2. De Divinatione. If they be gods it is divination. But they are gods. It is divination therefore. Q. Give another example? A. office: 3. And if also nature prescribeth this, that a man to a man, whatsoever he be for that same cause that he is a man, will use consultation it is necessary according to the same nature, that the profit of all should be common. Which if it be so all of us are contained in one, and the same law of nature; and this if it be so indeed we are certainly forbidden by the law of nature to violate one another: but the first is true, the last therefore i● also true. Q. Give another example? A. Aeneid: 4. Dido judgeth Aeneas to amain with her. Dost thou me fly by these tears I thee pray, By thy right hand I thee beseech to stay: Else thou wilt leave me wretched here alone, By our dear marriage, our dear love like none. If I do aught deserve if thou hast been Sweet unto me, have pity on me then: Look on thy slippery house, and now I pray, If any place for prayers be I say: For Libyans sake, for Nomades his kings, Who hated me and for all other things. Which I for thee did bear, my credits lost, I am alone, for thee thus am I crossed: Besides all this, my fame is quite decayed, Rather I had my flesh in dust were laid. Q. Doth it always assume the same? A. Oftentimes not the same but a greater. Q. Give example? A. Cat: 1. If thy parents feared and hated thee, neither couldst thou please them by any reason, in my opinion thou wert to abstain a little from their sight: now the country (which is our common parent) hateth and feareth thee, and of a long time judgeth nothing of thee, except it be touching thy death, canst thou neither avoid its authority, neither follow its judgement, neither fearest thou its force. Q. What may farther be under this head? A. This manner of concluding is the very same when the proposition is a relate of time. Q. Give example? A. After this kind the nymph O Enon in Ovid, concludeth the error of her foolishness. When Paris O Enon hoped to forsake, It would to Xanthus with all speed betake: Xanthus make haste return thou back again, That so this Paris O Enon may sustain. CAP. 14. The second connexive syllogism. Q. What is the second manner of the connexed syllogism? A. The second manner of the connexed syllogism taketh away the consequent that it may take away the antecedent. Q. Give example? A. If a wise man assent to any thing, sometimes also he shall be opinated. Therefore he shall assent to nothing. Q. Give another example? A. By the like syllogism Ovid: Trist: 12. judgeth his foolishness. If I were wise those sisters I should hate, Deities hurtful to whom on them wait: But now so great my foolishness is seen, I build them altars whom my hurt have been. These two kinds of the syllogism are most usual of all. CAP 15. The first disjunct syllogism. Q. What is the disjunct syllogism? A. The disjunct syllogism is the syllogism composed of a disjunct proposition. Q. What are the manners of distinction? A. Two. Q. What is the first? A. The first taketh away one and concludeth the rest, Q. Give example? A. Either it is day, or it is night. But it is not day? It is therefore night. Q. Give another example? A. The judgement of Cicero in defence of Cluventius is such: But when as this condition was proposed to him, that either he should accuse justly and piously, or die sharply or unworthily: 〈◊〉 would rather accuse after that manner than 〈◊〉 after this. Q. Make the disjunction appear clearer? A. Either he must accuse or die. He must not die, He must accuse therefore. Q. Give another example like to this? A. There is the like reasoning Phil. 2. dost thou not understand it is determined, that either, those who have done this thing are homicides or revengers of liberty? But attend a little and take the thoughts of a sober man for a little time, and I who am of them, as myself doth confess, will familiarly argue with thee as a fellow: I deny that there is any mean: I grant that they are, except they be deliverers and conserveres of the Roman common wealth more than villainy, more than homicides, more parricides: if truly it be cruelty, rather to be a father to the country, than a murderer of ones self: Thou art a wise and considerate man what sayest thou: if they be particides, why were they honoured of thee, and called to this order by the Roman people why was Marcus Brutus by thy means freed from the law, if he were absent more than ten days from the city? why did Apolinares receive Marcus Brutus with incredible honour? why was the provinces given to Cassius and Brutus, why were their questors added? why were the number of Legates increased and this done by thee? they are not therefore homicides. It followeth then that by thine own judgement they are deliverers, when as truly there can be no third admitted. Q. If the parts of the disiunct proposition shall be more than two, how shall they be judged then? A. The art of judging them and concluding them shall be the same. Q. Give example? A. So Cicero judgeth Rabitious to be among the consuls: And we see (saith he) these three to be in the nature of things, to wit that either he should be with Saturninus, or with the good, or that he should lie hid. But to lie hid is proper to the dead and rotten: to be with Saturninus of fury & wickedness: virtue and honesty and shamefastness constrained him to be with the consuls. CAP. 16. The second disiunct? Q. What is the second disiunct? A. The second disiunct, from the proposition the affirmative assumeth one, and taketh away, the rest. Q Give example? A. It is day or it is night. But it is day, It is not therefore night. Q. Give another example after this manner? A. Thus juno concludeth with jove touching Turnus, Aeneid. 10. What if thou sayest the thing thou dost not mean? And should to Turnus give life again, Now I remain in misery and woe, And hope for that which will not happen so: But rather than this ill should come to pass, I'll mock myself and hope past hope alas. Q. Show another syllogism of this kind? A. There is the like Syllogism effected from a proposition copulative negative, which is called negative complexion, and which obtaineth the force of an affirmative disjunction. Q. Give example? A. It is not both day and night, But it is day, It is not therefore night. CAP. 17. The only method according to Aristotle. Q. What is method? A. Method is a dianoia of divers homogene axioma, preposed for the clearness of their nature, from whence the agreeing amongst themselves of them are judged and comprehended in memory. Q. What is to be considered in method? A. As verity and falsity is beheld in the axioma consequence and inconsequence in the syllogism, so in method it is to be considered that by it the more clear may precede, the more obscure may follow, and that altogether order and confusion be judged. Q. Make this plainer? A. After this manner is disposed from homogene axiomas in the first place by an absolute notion, the first; in the second place the second, in the the third place the third, and so forward. Q. It seemeth by this that method doth continually pass from universalls to singulars? A. So it is, for by this sole and only way it proceedeth from antecedents altogether, and absolute notions, to the declaring of unknown consequences, and this is the only method that Aristotle taught. CAP. 18. The first illustration of methods by illustration of arts. Q. But do not examples set forth this head more clearly? A. Yes, the examples of doctrines and arts do chiefly demonstrate and set forth the unity of method, in the which although all the rules are general & universal, yet the degrees of them are distinguished: and by how much every thing shall be more general, by so much it shall more precede. Q. Why shall the first be in the most general place and order? A. Because in light and knowledge it is first. Q. Why shall the subalternates follow? A. Because in their clearness they are next. Q It seemeth by this that those things which by nature are more known shall precede, those which are less known are subisttute, and at length the most special follow? A. So it is. Q. What then shall precede and be first? A. The most general definition shall be first. Q. What shall follow? A. The distribution. Q. But how if their be many. A. Then the partition in perfect parts shall precede. Q. What shall follow? A. The division into kinds. Q. What then? A. The parts themselves and the kinds are in the same order to be handled and defined again in which they were distributed. Q. What further is required? A. If there shall be a long explication of them they are to be chained together by the chains of transcition. Q. What benefit redowndeth from hence? A. It refresheth and recreateth the Auditor. Q. But may not example be under this head? A Yes as a more familiar thing is taken, so a more familiar example must be used. Q. Give example of what you have here shown out of the art of grammar? A. All definitions, distributions, are found in the rules of grammar, and every one of them severally judged, and all these documents inscribed in divers tables, are confounded and mingled together as it were in a certain port. Q. What part of dialectica teacheth us to compose these confused rules and digest them into order: first there is no need of the places of invention, when as they are all found: neither in the first judgement of axiomas, when as every axioma is proved and valued: neither of the second judgement of the filogisme, when as all of them are disputed and concluded controversies of several things by these only syllogisms: it seemeth therefore to be only method, is it not? A. Yes it is only method. Q. How is it done? A. The Logician by this light of artificial method selecteth out of this pot the definition of grammar (for that is most general) and placeth it in the first place: grammar is the doctrine of speaking well. Then he taketh out of the same Oven the partition of grammar, and placeth it in the second place: the parts of grammar are two: Etymology and Syntaxis. Then out of the same vessel he separateth the definition of Etymology of word, and joineth it in the third place to those that go before: then he seeketh out the parts of words in letters and syllables, and the kinds in words of number, and without number, and placeth them with their transcitions in their several places. And so the definitions of all the parts of Etymology, together with their distributions, colligations, and most special examples he placeth in their several places, and so likewise in the Syntax. This way all the arts have proposed to themselves. CAP. 19 The second example of method by example of Poets, Orators, Historiographers. Q. But is method only set forth in matter of the arts and doctrines? A. No, it is also declared in all things which we would teach easily and plainly: therefore Poets, Orators, and all manner of writers as often as they propose any thing to teach to their auditors, do follow this way, although they do not enter and insist upon it all alike. Q. Give an example out of some Poet? A. Virgil in his Georgics distributeth as I said before the proposed matter into four parts, and in the first book followeth common things, as Astrology, Meteorology, and of corn and tillage; this was the first part of his work: then the transcition is adhibited in the beginning of the second book. Thus far of tillage and of stars were we, Now of the Bacchus we'll sing presently. Then he writeth generally of trees, as also specially of plants; the second transcition is adhibited to the third part, but more imperfect and without an Epilogue. In the beginning of the third book of Oxen, Horses, Sheep, Goats, Dogs. We'll sing of god's Pales, all's of him, Who by Amphryso kept his sheep most trim. At length in the beginning of the fourth book there is the third transcition of the fourth part, but also imperfect from the only preposition of their Bees. Now of the eyre honey Bee I'll speak. So therefore the Poet studdieth to place the most general first, the subalternate middle, the most special in the last place. Q. Give another poetical example? A. Ovid: in Fast: useth this kind of disposition, proposing in the beginning the sum of his work. I'll sing of times that pass throughout the year, Fall of the stars and rising I'll declare. By and by having made imploration he determineth the partition of the year made first by Tumulus into ten months, which he reprehendeth. When as Rome's builder did the year divide, In it he made five months and five beside. And a little after he adjoineth Numa his more full devisor. But Numa neither janus did omit, Nor yet the ancient shadows out did put: But to th'old months too more appointed he. Here the Poet having interpreted the common differences of holy-days, working-days, banquet-dayes, kalends, nonce, ideses, at the last he followeth every month in his place, and with a preface after this order he passeth from generals to the study of specials. I'th' what I have you shown what these things be, It now remains, we part them presently. At length after the exposition of every part the transcition is joined as in the end of the first and beginning of the second book. The first part of my task is ended now, The month is done, my little book also: janus is done, another month beginneth, Another book now with that month reneweth. And in every one of his books afterward the transcitions are adhibited, but less accurately Q. How do the Orators follow this method? A. The Orators in poems, narrations, confirmations, perorations do follow this order as the nature both of the art and the order of the thing do require, and sometimes more studiously too. Q. Give example? A. Cicero in an accusation first by propounding, then by parting, followeth this order. Questor Cn: Paxeris saith he, thou hast been conful unto this time fourteen years, and from that day unto this day in which thou hast made me, I call thee into judgement; there was no void hour found in robbery, wickedness, cruelty, iniquity. This is the proposition & definition of the chief matter, as in this judgement most general. The partition followeth: these are the years consume in the questorship, end a Sciatican embassage, and the urban praetorship, and in the Sicilian praetorship: wherefore this shall be the fourfold disposition of my accusation, which four parts with their particular partitions he hath also handled in th●ir several order and place, and coupled them with transcitions; the three first in the third book. Wherefore (saith he) his questorship being showed, & his first magistracy, together with his theft and wickedness looked unto, let us attend to the rest. Then having expounded the faults of his embassadorship, the transcition to his praetorship followeth. But let us now come to that famous praetorship, and those faults which were more known to those which were present, then to us who come meditated and prepared to pleading. This transcition is more imperfect without an epilogue: at length in the beginning of the fourth oration there is the like transcition to the fourth part of the Sicilian praetorship. Many necessary things O judges I must pretermit, that I may in some manner speak of thos● things which are committed to my trust, for I have received the cause of Sicilia, that province hath drawn me unto this business. Q. Give an example out of some Historiographer? A. Livy doth so embrace the sum of seventy years in the beginning, then divideth them by ten. CAP. 20. The secrets of method. Q. It seemeth that in the divers axiomatical homogens, as also in the judgement of the syllogism, the notes of method shall be as often as any thing is taught clearly: but is there no other kind of method? A. Yes, when as the auditor shall be deceived in a certain part with, delectation and a greater motion, then certain homogens are rejected, as the lights of definition, partition and transcition: and certain heterogens are assumed, as digressions from the matter, and commorations upon the thing; but chief the order of things in the beginning is turned over, and certain antecedents are put after consequents. Therefore to that rule of perfect method this may seem somewhat more imperfect; the form is not only lame, things being detracted; or abounding, things being added; but also the order of it being inverted by certain degrees is preposterous. Q. Give an example of it? A. The like the Poet maketh with a certain greater kind of artificialnes, while he propoundeth to himself to lead the people. viz. the beast like heads of the multitude, and therefore he deceiveth divers ways, he beginneth in the middle, and there oftentimes he comprehendeth the first, to conclude the last, he placeth in an uncerca ne and an unthought of chance. So as (Horace saith) Homer disposeth his Iliads. Ne doth this man Troy's wars divide so well, He always maketh haste the vent to tell: Even in the midst reader he doth catch, Leaves off his tract, with haste from it doth snatch, And thus he lies, thus mingles false with true, So that ne first nor midst in it I view. Q. Proceed to further examples. A. So Virgil taketh Aeneas from Sicilia, and makes a narration of him in the banquet of Carthage; and at last bringeth in his divers troubles. So the commedian Poets, although with great judgement they have distinguished their Comedies by acts and seenes yet do so effect, that all things seem to be done by chance. The Orators attribute all to victory. Therefore this seemeth to be placed chief by them not so much to teach as to persuade, when as also those things which do equally excel, are kept even unto the last, and the means are conferred into the middle, according to Homer's disposition. FINIS.