A Compendious HISTORY OF THE Goths, Swedes,& Vandals AND Other Northern Nations.  
WRITTEN BY Olaus Magnus, Arch-Bishop of upsal, And Metropolitan of SWEDEN.  
LONDON: Printed by J. Streater, and are to be sold by Humphrey Mosely, George Sawbridge, Henry Twiford, Tho: Dring, John Place, and Henry Haringman, 1658.   

TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE, SIR Bulstrode Whitlock, Knight, &c. Late Lord Ambassador to the Crown of SWEDEN.  
My Lord,  
IT is your honour, to be the great Patron of Learning; and its proselytes, when Kings( saith an Ancient) be Philosophers, then Kingdoms enjoy the fruit of Learned Peace; the same may be said of inferior Princes in their Spheres, the Europian World is sufficient Witness of Your polite Accomplishments, both infused and acquired, whereby You have shined like another Cassiopeian Star in the Swedish Hemisphere: Your own Native country received the reflection of Your Wisdom, in that firm Peace and Alliance we enjoy with that heroic and Warlike Prince, the present sovereign Commander of those famous Countries and Territories, described in this Treatise; whose marshal Progenitors destroyed the puissant Empire of Rome, and were the Hammer of Gods wrath, to break in pieces the Italian Luxury, and frowned the great city into ashes: Wherefore, it belongeth of right to Your Honour, to patronise the Description of those Countries, in your own Language, especially, seeing that so Learned a Prelate, Prince of the Gowne-men in those Territories, hath in this Elaborate Work exposed to public view, the Acts of their famous Heroes, the strange eccentric Customs, Fashions, Attire, Sports, Battels, Feasts, Marriages, Religion, and Trades of these Northern Nations: together with horrid Apparitions of Divels, the antic Prestigations of Conjurers, and Magical enchantments; the Rarities and Observables of all the Four Elements; but especially the ripping up of the Bowels and Interels of Nature, in their various and admirable Minerals, with many other Stupendious Relations, that create excellent delight and wonder in the diligent and curious Inquirer. The Translation whereof, being not able to abide the Censure of Your acute judgement: Yet being the Instrument and occasion of its Publication to the World in our Native Tongue, I have made bold humbly to present it to your Lordships acceptance, being confident, that under the shadow of Your Patronage, who have been, doubtless, an Eye-Witness of many of these Grand Wonders, it will shine with the more Orient Lustre.  
Your Lordships, in all due observance, J. S.   

The Contents.  

BOOK I.  

CHAP. 1. A Description of Biarmia. Fol. 1  
2 A Description of Finmarck. Fol. 2  
3 The Description of Scricfinnia. ibid.  
4 Of the vehemency of the Southern Wind. Fol. 3  
5 Of the violence of North-Winds. ib.  
6 The divers Effects of Thunder and L●ghtning in the Northern parts. Fol. 4  
7 Of the fierceness of could. ibid.  
8 Of Frosts and the falling of Snow. Fol. 5  
9 Of the variety of snow and glasses. ib.  
10 Of the Forts of Snow made by young people. Fol. 6  
11 Of the running of Horses upon Ice for Cloaks. ib.  
12 Of the running of men upon the Ice for a wager. Fol. 7  
13 Of the Inns upon the Ice for Travellers. Fol. 8  
14 Of the Passage upon the Ice between the gulfs. Fol. 9  
15 Of Instruments for the Ice. Fol. 10  
16 Of the Warlike Obelisks of the Goths, and Stone-Monuments raised. Fol. 11  
17 Of Obelisks for sepulchers. ib.  
18 Of Stones with Figures. Fol. 12  
19 Of Dials with shadows. Fol. 13  
20 Of Sticks to design the Times by. ib.  
21 Of the Goths Alphabet. Fol. 14    

BOOK II.  

Chap. 1. Of Veins of Brimstone, and Combustion of the Waters. Fol. 15  
2 Of the admirable nature of some Mountains. Fol. 16  
3 A Description of Iceland, and of the Nation there. ibid.  
4 Of the horrible sound of the hollow Caves by the shores of the Sea. Fol. 17  
5 Of the Rock of the Sea-Monk. Fol. 18  
6 Of the Crowned-Rock, and the multitude of Fish. ib.  
7 Of the flowing and ebbing of the Sea. Fol. 19  
8 Of Charybdis, and the wonderful Nature of Ice. ibid.  
9 Of the Leather-ships made of Hides, used by the pirates of Greenland. Fol. 20  
10 Of the inscrutable depths of the Coasts of Norway. ibid.  
11 Of the Ports of Iron-Rings. Fol. 21  
12 Of the dangerous passage of the Mountains, Scars and Sula, between Sweden, and Norway. ibid.  
13 Of the Statues on the ways, in the Snowey Mountains. Fol. 22  
14 Of Passage in the Dark. Fol. 23  
15 Of Lights, and Pitch-Torches. ib.  
16 Of the breaking forth of Standing-Waters. Fol. 24  
17 Of the three famous Lakes of the Goths. ib.  
18 Of dangerous Caves. Fol. 25  
19 Of the excellent Antiquity of the Kingly Fort Aaranes of the Vestrogoths. Fol. 26  
20 Of the wonderful Garden of the Mountain Kindaberg, near the said Castle. Fol. 27  
21 Of the beauty and plenty of the iceland Elandia of the Goths. Fol. 28  
22 Of the famous iceland of the Goths called Gothland. Fol. 29  
23 Of the Bucklers of Princes, engraven upon the Mountains of Hanga. Fol. 30  
24 Of the Mountains with Helmets. Fol. 31  
25 Of the straits in the Stoney-Ports. Fol. 32  
26 Of Stoney-Rocks, and the dangerous passage through Idebenckia, ibid.  
27 Of swift Torrents. Fol. 33  
28 Of the divers Forms of Stones upon the Coasts. Fol. 34  
29 Of the Stones of Giants, and Springs of Waters. ibid.    

BOOK III.  

Chap. 1. Of the Superstitious Worship of the Pagans of Lituania Fol. 36  
2 Of the Superstitious Worship of men under the Pole. Fol. 37  
3 Of the three greater gods of the Goths. Fol. 38  
4 Of the three lesser Gods. ibid.  
5 Of the magnificent Temple of the Northern gods. Fol. 39  
6 Of the Religion, and Sacrifices of the Goths. Fol. 40  
7 Of the Goths Superstition about Thunder. Fol. 41  
8 Of their fighting against the Gods. Fol. 42  
9 Of the Fatal Sisters and nymphs. ibid.  
10 Of the Night-dances of the Fairies and Ghosts. Fol. 43  
11 Of the War against the Fauni. ibid.  
12 Of Divination. Fol. 44  
13 Of the Magical Art of Ericus, with his Windy-Cap, and of others. Fol. 45  
14 Of Women-Witches. Fol. 46  
15 Of the Conjurers and Witches in Finland. Fol. 47  
16 Of the Magical Instruments of Bothnia. Fol. 48  
17 Of the Sea-Magicians. ibid.  
18 Of the same Magicians, and the like. Fol. 49  
19 Of a Magician bound. ibid.  
20 Of the punishment for Witches. Fol. 50  
21 Of the hurts done by the Devils. Fol. 51    

BOOK IV.  

Chap. 1. Of the unhappy battle of Regnerus, King of Denmark. Fol. 52  
2 Of the cruelty of the wild Inhabitants. Fol. 53  
3 Again concerning the cruelty of these Wild-men. Fol. 54  
4 Of the fivefold Speech of the Northern Kingdoms. ibid.  
5 Of bartering of Commodities without Moneys. Fol. 55  
6 Of Fairs upon the Ice. Fol. 56  
7 Of the Marriage of the Laplanders by fire and flint. Fol. 57  
8 Of Mourning Dances. Fol. 58  
9 Of their Exercises by Moon-Lights. ibid.  
10 Of their Ships, Bands, and Roots, bound together. Fol. 59  
11 Of the Art of shooting with the bow. Fol. 60  
12 Of the hunting of the Laplanders, ibid.  
13 Of Horses passing over snowy Mountains. Fol. 61  
14 Of the dangerous passage between the Mountains. ibid.  
15 Of the Law of killing Crows. Fol. 62  
16 Of the Baptizing of Children of the Wild Inhabitants. ibid.  
17 Of the Conversion of North and East Finland, and their great Hospitality, Fol. 63    

BOOK V.  

Chap. 1. Of Giants. Fol. 64  
2 Of the difference of Giants and Champions. Fol. 65  
3 Of the sobriety of Giants and Champions. Fol. 66  
4 Of the Virtues of the most valiant Starchaterus. Fol. 67  
5 Of the Patronage he afforded to the afflicted. Fol. 68  
6 Of the Exercises of the said Starchaterus. Fol 69  
7 Of the sum of the Acts of Starchaterus. Fol 70  
8 Of the most great and terrible War between the Swedes and Goths, where Starchaterus was General against the Danes. Fol 71  
9 Of the death of Starchaterus. Fol 73  
10 Of Haldanus, and other Champions whom he conquered. Fol 74  
11 Of another certain Haldanus, and his Actions. Fol 75  
12 Of Olo Vegetus. Fol 76  
13 Again of the same man, fighting valiantly for Chastity. Fol 77  
14 Of the Acts of the Champions Arngrinus, and Arvarodus. Fol 78  
15 Again of the same Arngrimus, and the Charms of the Fins. ibid.  
16 Of the slaying of a Bear, and the drinking of his blood. Fol 79  
17 Of Regnerus, called Hair-Coat. Fol 80  
18 Of Alfo, the Defender of Chastity. ibid.  
19 Of the Stratagems of Fridlevus. Fol 81  
20 Of the same man's Stratagems by Birds. Fol 82  
21 Of the fight of King herald, against a tame Dragon. ibid.  
22 Of the fight of Frotho and Fridlevus against a Serpent. Fol 83  
23 Of the same Fridlevus. ibid.  
24 Of the Piracy of famous Virgins. ibid.    

BOOK VI.  

Chap. 1. Of Minerals and the finding of them. Fol 86  
2 Of the Situation of Mineral Veins. Fol 87  
3 Of the way to dig the Mines. ibid.  
4 Of the distinction of Mineral Veins. ibid.  
5 Of the Wheels, Instruments, and dangers of the Labourers. Fol 88  
6 Of the Art and Ingenuity of Smiths. ibid.  
7 Of the d●stinction of fusible Metals. Fol 91  
8 More of the same Metals. ibid.  
9 Of the Divels in the Mines. ibid.  
10 Of Lightning in those Mountains of Minerals. Fol 92  
11 Of Goldsmiths, or Refiners. ibid.  
12 Of the Silver Ornaments of Maids. Fol 93    

BOOK VII.  

Chap. 1. Of the Artificers of Slings and Darts. Fol 94  
2 Of Arrows, and Warlike Instruments. ibid.  
3 Of the sudden calling the communality to Arms. ib.  
4 Of the keeping of the Ways and Scouts. Fol 96  
5 Of the direction of the multitudes called together. ibid.  
6 Of battles on the Shores. Fol 97  
7 Of Slings for Stones, and red-hot Iron. ibid.  
8 Of the Velts of the Centurians. Fol 93  
9 Of the manners and time bringing these Veltae. Fol 98  
10 Of their Stakes, Darts, and Pits for Snares. ibid.  
11 Of the Stratagems of King Hacho by boughs. Fol 100  
12 Of punishing Hostile fires. Fol 101  
13 Of removing the same danger. ibid.  
14 Of the custody of Banks in time of Hostility, about a place called Meler, in Upper-Swecia. Fol 102    

BOOK VIII.  

Chap. 1 Of the Election of the King. Fol 104  
2 Of the Adoption of Noble-men by Arms. ib.  
3 Of the same form of the Adoption. Fol 105  
4 Of the military Education of Illustrious and Noble men. Fol 106  
5 Of the reason and manner of Riding. ibid.  
6 Of the choice of young souldiers for Arms. Fol 107  
7 Of the same by an outward Ceremony. ibid.  
8 Of the manner of the old Warfare of the Goths. Fol 108  
9 Of other Antiquities of Knights. ib.  
10 Of Military Exercises and Disciplines. ibid.  
11 Of their Arms and Provisions for Knights and Horsemen. Fol 109  
12 Of the tyrannical severity, and exaction of their Governors. ib.  
13 Again of the same most wicked Rulers. Fol 110  
14 Of the Causes of perpetual Discord, that the Swedes or Sweons, and the Goths have against the Danes. Fol 111  
15 Of the same Causes. Fol 112  
16 Of the same Causes out of the 24. book of the History of Gothland, of Johannes magnets, the Author's Brother. Fol 113  
17 Of the severity of King Christiernus the second. Fol 115  
18 More of the cruelty of the same King. ibid.    

BOOK IX.  

Chap. 1. Of turning Swords in Wheels. Fol 117  
2 Of their Chariots with Hooks. Fol 118  
3 Of Brazen Horses that vomited out fire. ibid.  
4 Of the Guns of the Northern People. Fol 119  
5 Of Triangular Guns. ibid.  
6 Of Organ-like Guns. ibid.  
7 Of the burning the Foundations of Castles. Fol 120  
8 Of burning the Foundations of Forts. ibid.  
9 Of the cruelty of Flatterers, Traytors, and Strangers, often committed most fearfully in the Kingly City Stockholm. ibid.  
10 Of the Original and situation of the Kingly City. Fol 121  
11 Of the situation of the Mountain Bruncaberg, beyond the Kingly City Holm, and of the Battels fought in it. Fol 122  
12 Of feeding their Cattle in the houses of the besieged. ibid.  
13 Of supplying their want of water. Fol 123  
14 How to supply want of bread. ibid.    

BOOK X.  

Chap. 1. Of Fights in Lakes, and of Bridges broken down. Fol 125  
2 Of the form and use of the old Northern ships. Fol 126  
3 Of another form of Northern ships. ibid.  
4 Of the mutual slaughter of the Merchants, for the Harbours of Iceland. Fol 127  
5 Of the punishment of the Rebellious mariners. ibid.  
6 Of the swimming of Horsemen. Fol 128  
7 Of the swimming of their Foot souldiers in Arms, especially such as are fat.    

BOOK XI.  

Chap. 1. Of the Bloody Wars in the Northern Countries. Fol 130  
2 Of Fights upon the Ice. Fol 131  
3 Of the breaking forth of the Moscovites, or Russians. ibid.  
4 Of a fearful sounding Cave, the common people call Smellen. Fol 132  
5 Of the same. Fol 133  
6 Of the battle of the Finlanders, against the Moscovites. ibid.  
7 Of the Moscovites way of stealing. Fol. 133  
8 Of the same. Fol. 134  
9 Of the way of receiving ambassadors amongst the Moscovites. ibid.  
10 Of the Italian ambassador cruelly slain. Fol. 136  
11 Of the ingenuity of the Merchants of Moscovia. ib.  
12 Of the divers ways of the Finlanders making War. ib.  
13 More of their Arms and Ammunition. Fol. 137  
14 Of the Northern Gov●rnours, or the King of Sweden. ib.  
15 Of burning the Forts of violent Governours. Fol. 138  
16 Of their Engines for the Ice. ib.  
17 Of Fiery Chariots. Fol. 139  
18 Of their strange Artillery. Fol. 140  
19 Of their manner of shooting, ib.  
20 Of their hindering the waters to freeze. Fol. 141  
21 Of Walls of Ice. ib.  
22 Of Watches kept on the Ice, and in the night. Fol. 142  
23 Of the more fortunate battles in the morning. ib.  
24 Of the besieging of Forts fenced with Ice. Fol. 143  
25 Of assaulting the Enemies ships that are frozen in. ib.  
26 Of the strange punishment of unfaithful servants. Fol. 144  
27 Of their infliction, by could frozen water. Fol. 145  
28 Of their strange Horse-Races. ibid.  
29 Of the wild Asses running on the Ice. ibid.  
30 Of the Ranged dear running in the Snow. Fol. 146  
31 Of the drowning of the Enemies in the snowy Valleys. ib.  
32 Of Snow-balls sticking in the Horses hoofs. ib.    

BOOK XII.  

Chap. 1. Of the Variety and Forms of their Stones. Fol. 148  
2 Of building their houses, and the divers forms of them. Fol. 149  
3 Of the same. ib.  
4 Of the great magnitude of Trees in the Northern parts. Fol. 150  
5 Of the excellency thereof. Fol. 151  
6 Of the diversity. ibid.  
7 Of the quality of Fruits. Fol. 152  
8 Of the Fir-Tree Gum, or Rosin, and of the original of Amber. ib.    

BOOK XIII.  

Chap. 1. Of the diversity of gathering in of Harvest. Fol. 154  
2 Of their Bake-houses, and baking of bread. Fol. 155  
3 Of parching their Corn that must last. ibid.  
4 The manner of drinking amongst the Northern people. ibid.  
5 The variety of boiling of Salt. Fol. 156  
6 The difficulty of carrying Salt into the Northern Kingdoms. lib.  
7 The great quantity of Butter. ibid.  
8 The greatness and goodness of their Cheese. Fol. 157  
9 Of Weavers. ib.    

BOOK XIV.  

Chap. 1. Of the diversity of Habits. Fol 160  
2 Of the chased adorning of Virgins, and rigour of Chastity. ib.  
3 Of the Benediction of the catholic Kings. Fol 161  
4 Of Knights and their Oath. Fol 162  
5 Of the Marriages of the Commons. ib.  
6 Of Adulterers, and their punishments. Fol 164    

BOOK XV.  

Chap. 1. Of the Exercises of Children. Fol 165  
2 Of their custom of driving away the Winter and receiving of Summer. Fol 166  
3 Of the same. ibid.  
4 Of the May-Feasts. ibid.  
5 Of their Dice playing, and playing at Tables or Chess. Fol 167  
6 Of their dancing in Arms. ib.  
7 Of their danc●ng in Rings. Fol 168  
8 Of their dancing about the fire. ibid.    

BOOK XVI.  

Chap. 1. Of the custom of praying in Churches. Fol 170  
2 Of the Funerals and Burials of Princes. Fol 171  
3 Of the variety of the Sick, and of their Diseases and Medicaments. ibid.    

BOOK XVII.  

Chap. 1. Of Rams and ewes. Fol 173  
2 Of Oxen and Cows. ibid.  
3 Of the Northern-Horses. Fol 174  
4 Of their War-Horses. ibid.  
5 Of their Cats. ib.  
6 Of He and She Goats. ib.  
7 What gifts are given to the Married.  
8 Of Ranged-Deer. ibid.  
9 Of the profit of this Creature. ib.  
10 Of the Chariots for men, drawn by ranged dear. Fol 176  
11 Of the Winter Chariots for these Rangifers. ib.  
12 Of the Commodity of the Parts of this Creature. Fol 177    

BOOK XVIII.  

Chap. 1. Of the Elks or Wild-Asses, and the manner of taking them. Fol 178  
2 Of the battle of the Elks or Wild-Asses against the wolves. ib.  
3 Of Harts and Does. Fol 179  
4 Of Castors. ibid.  
5 Of the Galos. Fol 180  
6 Of honouring strangers, with the covering of these Skins. ibid.  
7 Of the way of hunting of G●●lo's. Fol 181  
8 Of Hares. ibid.  
9 Of the Lynxes and their skins. Fol 182  
10 Of wolves, and their fierceness. ib.  
11 Of the many sorts of wolves. Fol 183  
12 Of Otters, and their diversity and falseness of their skins. ib.  
13 Of Squerrils. ib.  
14 More of this C●●●●●●e, to foreshew things to come. Fol 184  
15 Of Martin, and Sabels, and their Skins. ibid.  
16 Of the E●●●●s, or Bontick Mice. Fol 185  
17 Of the h●nting of Er●●ins. Fol 186  
18 Of the Nature of Badgers. ibid.  
19 More of the same. ibid.  
20 Of the Fishing Bears. Fol 187  
21 Of the cunning in killing Bears. ibid  
22 Of the crafty hunting of Bears. Fol 188  
23 Of the Ratta●l between the hedge hog, and the Bear. ibid.  
24 Of killing Bears with an Iron Club. Fol 189  
25 Of the ravishing of a Maid and the beget ng of U●to, a most cunning and valiant man. ibid  
26 Of the Swineherds that are taken away with their Pipes. Fol 190  
27 Of the dancing of the Bears in Lithuania. ibid.  
28 Of the Agility of Bears. Fol 191  
29 Of Bears turning Wheels. ibid.  
30 Of Foxes and their sle ghts. Fol 192  
31 Of the crafty Wit of Foxes. ibid.  
32 Of the fierceness of men, who by Charms are turned into wolves. Fol. 193  
33 Examples of those men that were turned into wolves, and contrarily. Fol. 194    

BOOK XIX.  

Chap. 1. Of the Hawks; and the divers kinds thereof. Fol. 195  
2 More of the Nature of Hawks. ibid.  
3 Of the Nature of Eagles and their differences. Fol. 106  
4 Of the property of Eagles, and their fitting. Fol. 197  
5 Of the Duck, and its kind. ibid.  
6 Of the admirable Generation of the Ducks of Scotland. Fol. 198  
7 Of goose. Fol. 199  
8 Of Sea-Crows, or Cormorants. ibid.  
9 Of that bide which is an Enemy to these Crows. Fol. 200  
10 Of fashions, and their distinction. ibid.  
11 Of Swallows drawn forth of the Waters. Fol. 201  
12 Of Birds shut up under the Snow. ib.  
13 Of hunting them out of the Snow. Fol. 202  
14 Of Snow-Birds. ibid.  
15 Of the weighty Snows, and Winter-Gnats. Fol. 203  
16 Of the Eggs of divers Birds in islands. ibid.  
17 More of the Eggs of certain Birds. Fol. 204  
18 Of Peacocks. ibid.  
19 Of Birds whose name is not known in the white Lake. ibid.  
20 Of Birds called Alle, Alle. Fol. 205  
21 Of the Whoups, or Lapwings. ibid.  
22 Of the cuckoo, and divers sorts of Wood-Peckers. Fol. 206    

BOOK XX.  

Chap. 1. Of the three-fold Bothnia in the North, and the abundance of fishing there. Fol. 207  
2 Of the Multitude of Fish at this Mart. Fol. 208  
3 Of fishing for Salmons. ibid.  
4 Of fishing for Sea Calves. Fol. 209  
5 Of the way to fish for them, and their Physical use. Fol. 210  
6 More of the virtue of this Creature. ibid.  
7 Of the perplexity of those that eat the flesh of Sea-Calves in Lent. Fol. 211  
8 Of Jacks, or Pikes. ibid.  
9 Of catching the Pike. Fol. 212  
10 Of fishing by Flames. ibid.  
11 Of Fishing in Summer, and Hawking. Fol. 213  
12 More of ingenious Fishing. Fol. 214  
13 Of their fishing on the Ice, ibid.  
14 Of fishing with Horses. Fol. 215  
15 Of running on the Ice for Fish; and why they fish so often. ibid.  
16 Of the admirable event of the Icy Lake Vether. Fol. 216  
17 Of Fishes of the Black-River, at the New Fort in Finland. Fol. 217  
18 Of the strange Harper of this River. ibid.  
19 Of Fish of divers kinds. ibid.  
20 Of Salt-fish dried and smoked. Fol. 218  
21 Of Salt-fish. Fol. 219  
22 Of the Herring. ibid.  
23 Of the Nature of the Herring. Fol. 23  
24 Of Fish-Ponds, and the Spawn of Fishes. ibid.    

BOOK XXI.  

Chap. 1. Of the dangerous Fishing in the Norway Ocean. Fol. 223  
2 Of the Danger of the Fisher-men, and the quality of the Fishes. Fol. 224  
3 Of the Fishes of Iceland. ibid.  
4 Of the wonderful abundance of Iceland Butter. Fol. 225  
5 Of the horrible Monsters of the cost of Norway. ibid.  
6 Of the Whirl-pool, and his cruelty against the mariners. Fol. 226  
7 Of the Fight of the Whale against the Orca. ibid.  
8 Of the many kind of Whales. ibid.  
9 Of a monstrous Fish found on the North shore of England, Anno 1532. Fol. 227  
10 Of the Sword-fish, Unicorn, and Saw-fish. Fol. 228  
11 Of the manner of fishing for Whales. ibid.  
12 Of the wonderful affection of Whales towards their Young. Fol. 229  
13 Of Sperma-Ceti, which is called ambergris, and the Medicaments thereof. ibid.  
14 Of the use of the parts of Whales. ibid.  
15 Of Buildings of Whale-bones. Fol. 230  
16 Of their houses, by raising up whole Ribs. ibid.  
17 Of Anchors fastened upon the Whales back. Fol. 231  
18 Of the monstrous Hog of the German Ocean. ibid.  
19 Of the Rosmarus, or Norway Morsus. ibid.  
20 Of Winged-fish. Fol. 232  
21 Of the Polypus. ibid.  
22 Of the cruelty of some Fish, and unkindness of others. Fol. 233  
23 Of Sponges. ibid.  
24 Of very long Worms. Fol. 234  
25 Of the Fish which the Norway people call Swamfisck; and of some other Sea-Monsters. ibid.  
26 Of the Cow, Calf, Hare, and Sea-Mouse. Fol. 235  
27 Of the greatness of the Norway Serpent. ib.  
28 Of the several colour of Serpents. Fol. 236  
29 Of the habitation of Serpent. ib.  
30 Of the fighting of the Shepherds against Serpents. Fol. 237  
32 Of the strange Fish found in Prussia. Fol. 338    

BOOK XXII.  

Chap. 1. Of the Northern Gnats. Fol. 239  
2 A Remedy to prevent them. ib.  
3 Of Bees. Fol. 340  
4 Of Honey. ibid.  
5 Of Ants. Fol. 341  
6 Of Pearls, and the Generation of them Fol. 342.     

OLAUS MAGNUS THE GOTH, Arch-Bishop of VPSAL: CONCERNING The Rites of Nations, and Nature of Things, and custom of making War; used by the Northern People.  
An Epitome of the First Book.  

CHAP. I. A Description of Biarmia.  
BIarmia is a Northern country, the Zenith whereof is the Artick Pole, and the Horizon is the same with the Equinoctial circled; which cutting the zodiac into two equal parts, makes the half year one artificial day, and the other half one night: so that the whole year is there but one natural day. Now Biarmia is divided, according to saxon Sialandicus, into the furthermost, and hithermost: In the hithermost, there are Mountains that are covered with snow perpetually, but they do no hurt, for they are never melted by the Sun: between these there are Woods and Groves in abundance, and it is most fertile with Pasture Grounds, and there are Beasts very frequent, that are not usual elsewhere. There are many Rivers in it, because there are so many Rocks in the Channels, and these run with a noise and foaming, as they are carried on. But in the further Biarmia, there are some monstrous strange people, to whom the passage is difficult, and full of danger, that men can hardly come unto them. For the greatest part of the way is constantly blocked up by Mountains of snow, and if any man would pass over them, he must ride in a Chariot, drawn with Stags,( as there is a great number of them in that place, as there is in Italy of Asses) and by the incredible swiftness of them, he may pass over the cliffs that are exceedingly frozen. saxon mentions one Meningus, a satire of the Woods, who was very rich, and inhabited there; unto whom one Hotherus, King of the Swedes, was brought by tame Stags, and be●ame very rich and happy with great spoils: yet both these Countries are distinguished with Valleys and Fields, and would afford good Corn, if it were sowed there: But there is such plenty of Fish there in all places, and so much hunting after wild Beasts, which is the cause that men do not much desire Bread for use. When those of Biarmia go to fight, they commonly change their Arms into Art, and are wont by Charms to the Clouds, to open the Air, and to turn a fair day into rainy weather. The men of Biarmia are Idolaters, and Wain-drivers, as the Scythians are, and very cunning to bewitch men. For they will so bind men by the Witchery of their eyes, or words, or some other way, that they cannot be at liberty, or in their right mind but oft-times pine aw●y, and die of a Consumption.   

CHAP. II. The Description of Finmarck.  
FInmarck is a Northern country, of the part of Norway; of old, by reason of the largeness of it, it was honoured with the Title of a kingdom. This place is seated in the coldest part of the World: yet the men there are of strong bodies, and stout minds, and they are wont manfully to defend themselves against the assaults of their Enemies. The air of that and the Neighbour Countries is always could, clear, yet agreeing with the bodies of men; and in Summer there are very few showers: and the clemency of the air there is so good, that Fishes never salted, but onely dried in the air, will last uncorrupted ten years. There is a continual day from the 8th. of the Calends of April, unto the sixth of the Ides of September, without any darkness coming between, and the Sun is seen from the fourth of the Nones of May, unto the Calends of August, without any night coming between. The distance from this Northern Finmarck unto the more Southern parts of the Goths, is above 350. Gothick miles, where at midnight, about the Summer Solstice in divers places, namely at Lin-Copia, and Scares the smallest Letters may be red without any Candle, and moneys  told. Also in these places, under the Elevation of the North Pole, in 60. degrees, from the beginning of May, until the beginning of August, no Stars are to be seen: Besides the Moon, which at the Full appears like a Burning Bush, something toward the Superficies of the Earth, for that space of time, to the admiration and horror of those who see it.   

CHAP. III. The Description of Scricfinnia.  
SCricfinnia is a country between Biarmia, and Finmarck; yet it hath one ●ong corner that stretcheth Southward, and towards the Bothrick Sea; it is called a Tail principally, because the Inhabitants of it slide very swift, having their feet fastened to crooked pieces of Wood made plain, and bended like a Bow in the former part, with a staff in their hands to guide them; and by these, at their pleasure they can transport themselves upward downward, or obliquely, o●er the tops of ●now; yet ever observing that proportion, that one of these pieces of Wood shal be longer then the other a full foot, according as the men or women are in tallness: so that if a man or woman be eight foot high the one piece of wood shall be just so long, and the other piece of wood shall be nine foot. Moreover, they provide that those pieces o● wood be covered beneath with the tender skin of a young Fawn; the form and colour whereof is like to a dear Skin but it is far longer and larger. But why these pieces of wood are covered with these tender Skins, there are divers causes given; namely that they may transport themselves the swifter over these high Snows, that they may the more nimbly avoid cliffs of Rocks, and steep places with an overthwart motion, that when they ascend to a place, they may not fall backward: because the Hair will rise like Spears, or hedgehogs Bristles, and by an admirable power of Nature hinder them from falling down. Therefore with such Instruments, and the Art they have to run, they are wont, especially in Winter time, to pass over the unaccessible places of Mountains, and Valleys; but not so early in Summer, though the Snow be there, because the Wood soon sinks into them. Not is there any Rock so prominent, but they can cunningly run up to the top of it, by a winding course. For first leaving the deep places or valleys, they pass over the feet of the Mountains, with a crooked motion round about; and they so turn to and fro, until they come to the highest parts of those winding Hills: sometimes they do it in heat of Hunting, sometimes to try their Skill, and to contend for mastery therein, as those who run razes to win the price.   

CHAP. IV. Of the Vehemency of the Southern Wind.  
THere is a Port in iceland,( a Land that is next to the Frozen Sea, under the Dominion of the kingdom of Norway, commonly called Vestrabort) name the West part; near which about the Sea shores and Fields, men riding in armor, by the mighty blast of the Southern Wind, are blown down to the ground like Towe. Likewise, near those that dwell in Rocks and Caves, especially in that time of Winter, that the Sun goes back to the Solstitial signs, when the winds are more temperate amongst the Waves of the Seas. Moreover there are Mountains in Ireand not very high, that stick forth in many places; upon which if any man strive to go when this Southern Wind blows, he must not onely look for danger, but to be suffocated in Bogs and Quick-Sands. But how formidable and hurtful the winds are on the Western Banks of Norway, the Inhabitants, nor such as travail there, can be ignorant: For they shall see no Shrub nor three to grow there, by reason of the violence of this wind: Wherefore, for want of Wood, they are forced to burn great Fish-bones to make Fire, and to boil their Meats. The Inhabitants that dwell on the West Coasts of Bothnia, to the great hurt oft-times, have the trial of it, how cruelly that wind rageth there. For it will carry away the whole tops of houses, and scatter them upon the Land in several pieces, at vast distances.   

CHAP. V. Of the Violence of North-Winds.  
WHirlwinds and Northerly Tempests, to have a most terrible and dangerous force, no man can be ignorant, who hath learned or preached out the secrets of Nature: especially since the cause and matter of its Oiginal, is manifold and indeficient. Therefore oft-times they take away the Waters of the Sea from under the ships, and carry the ships up into the air: Also they let fall stones, and other living Creatures, which they have taken up something high; and not onely those, but the led that covers Churches, and divers houses, and the strongest Beams are carried into the Air, and then another more vehement blast comes, they are carried a great way. Also sometimes whole mills with huge stones being compassed about with a Whirlwind, are transported into places far off, the people being safe; and sometimes such a mighty Whirlwind descends that it involves Cities, Castles, Villages, and scatters houses afar off in the Fields, as I said. In Summer, Winds blow from the West and the North with so great violence, that they will take up whole handfuls of stones from the ground, and will make great heaps of stones, like to heaps of Sand; and sometimes they will draw from men their weapons and clothes, and sometimes take the Rider off of his horse. Also it sometimes fell out in Victria or Norway, that great Fish which were to be dried in the Air and Sun, were taken off from poles like planks, by boisterous winds, in great numbers, and carried from rich Fishers houses, unto poor mens, and are received as a gift given them by God.   

CHAP. VI. The divers Effects of Thunder and Lightning in the Northern Parts.  
THundirng and Lightning have a most formidable effect in the Northern parts, especially in places opposite to the South. There appears o●ten in the North parts, in clear weather, all the night, in September, continual Lightnings, that threaten rather then hurt the Beholders of them. But Thunder rising from the Nature of the Clouds, and the Thunder-bolt falling, do bring grievous mischiefs to men, and other Creatures in those parts. For it kills many men and cattle that are found upon places that are high, and consumes with a flamme, not to be put out, the highest Towers, and houses, that are daubed over with hard Pitch, and this is no wonder; it cleaves down-right the loftiest Trees from the very top; or else beats them down, corroding them obliquely.   

CHAP. VII. Of the fierceness of could.  
IT may be demonstrated by many Reasons, rather then Examples by Sense, what great power Frost and Snow hath in the North, as in its proper place. For the fearful multitude of living Creatures, feels its force and piercing, though they be many Furlongs from it, and the body and parts are perished and benumbed with a little of it falling upon them. What can it not do, where could itself rules in its full force, and according to the Law of Nature; under which, because I was born and bread,( about the Elevation of the North Pole in the Degree 86.) I think I can more clearly demonstrate it in this, and the many following Chapters, than other men that writ by uncertain Opinion, how horrible and vehement the could is there: because from thence by succession, as it were beams from the Center, it spreads itself into the whole World, as all Nations that it pierceth into, moved by the sharpness of it, can testify.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Frosts, and the falling of Snow.  
SO great sometimes is the force of Frosts, and the falling of Snow in the Northern parts; and so sharp are the Tempests, and vehement Darkness, obscuring the Air, that Travellers cannot shun nor know the next man that comes, be he Foe or Friend. That which breeds the greatest difficulty, is that on both sides, there hang over mens heads either high cliffs, or Snow hardened, and so high, that those who carry burdens, can neither get forth to the right hand, not to the lest: But because they can seldom find a desired Remedy against these steep places, for the standing of their cattle, they dig down the Snow with mutual labour, and they turn their wains upside down upon them: that so they may finish their intended Journey. And they do this with that celerity, as if they were urged to do it suddenly, to put away some dangerous Fire, or some most hurtful Danger; least if they should use any delay by the sudden falling of Snow and Frost, the ways should be filled, and the Woods, that they should hardly know which is the way, or the field. There is little or no difficulty in the Ice, because it is ever every where, and pleasing to Passengers, onely they must be careful where the Ice breaks, to look to the Signs that are opposite to the Orifice of the breach; which Signs appear by the crazy pieces of Ice left at the mouth of it lying open or by the green boughs of fir or Juniper congealed in the Ice, and sticking forth; and that in a long order for many miles, is carefully looked to at the cost and by the diligence of the Fisher-men, least Travellers might mistake their ways. But in the Wood sometimes men meet with no small Obstacles, when they fall together by breaking, or moving of Trees: especially the poplar Trees stand by reason of the thickness of Snow, as bent bows loaded with Snow: by the least motion whereof great heaps of Snow, falling on the Travellers, do not a little hinder them: Also the Trees themselves falling across, being broken down by the weight of the Snow, makes the way altogether impassable, that they cannot get forth but by Axes, which they carry with them for that use; as I testify it fell often out with me and others of my company.   

CHAP. IX. Of the variety of Snow and Glasses.  
IN one day and night you shall see fifteen or twenty distinct Forms of Snow; and there is no less variety in Glasses that are set for Windows in their Stoves to keep out the could. For whilst these places are kept hot with fire against the excessive could, those Glasses seem to be so painted with the external could, and Workmanship of Nature, with divers fashions, that any Artist who shall behold them, shall better admire Natures excellence, than imitate it: yet Wit and Industry of Workmen, hath invented and made many kinds thereof for the Ornament and setting forth of houses; the like whereof can hardly be got by other Nations for love or money: and they are made so ingeniously that many of their Cups are thought to be silver: Moreover there are many Woollen and linen precious woven Ornaments, and admirable Pictures, very decent; as I shall speak hereafter something concerning Painters and Weaving Works.   

CHAP. X. Of the Forts of Snow made by Young People.  
IT is the custom of the young Northern People, by a provident sagacity, to make Castles to fight against, and to employ for divers Arts and Exercises of War, they especially who take pleasure to make their first Attempts against these, without any danger of being wounded or killed: and therefore early in Winter, whilst the Snow lasts, the young men meet in Troops provoked thereunto by their Parents, upon some eminent place, bringing with them, by each mans labour, huge heaps of Snow; and of these, especially on holidays, they make Forts like to Castle walls, always sprinkling water on their Building, distinguished with Windows, that the Snow thus incorporated with the Water, when it grows could, may frieze the harder. By which diligence they are so fortified, that they can endure not onely light blows, but brazen bullets, and the battering of Engines, so far as need is. These things thus prepared, the said young men divided into several troops, part of them goes to defend the walls; the other part stand without to fight against them. And in these white Castles they want not black or dark Flags, or green Bushes of Juniper: under which, not for money, but for desire of glory, they enter upon a pleasant Combat, and it is fought on both sides with no other weapons, then with Snow-balls, cast by their hands one against the other. For there is a penalty set, that any one shall have his naked body plunged into could water, who shall in a Snow-ball wrap up a ston, iron, wood, or ice, to cast at one another. There are also amongst the Assailers, some that like pioners, mine under the lower part of the Walls or Snow, and enter, that they may beat off the Defendants at the Fort from their stations. And they are not slow to come to handy-blows, until the Standard being taken away, the conquered part yield, that another time, if it be possible, renewing the Combat, may triumph over the conquering part. And they do not more idly or weakly fight these battles, and endure them, than if they fought for their Lives, their country, their Laws and Religion, in a public spectacle. But such as are Cowards and run away, they thrust Snow-balls between their shirts and their skins of their backs, when they can catch them, and absolve them punished, first with insolent words and hard language, that another time when they come again, they may fight more valiantly, and defend their castles. They punish some with Ice let drop down between their head and neck when it freezeth hard; as I shall underneath explain it more, when I speak of punishments by Ice: And all these are pleasant Spectacles, to appoint milder punishments for Rebels and Cowards.   

CHAP. XI. Of the running of Horses upon Ice for Cloaks.  
OF old time it was a custom among the ancient Goths, in Winter, about the end of the month of December,( whilst the Lakes, Standing-waters, and all the country, were covered with Snow, and bound up with very firm Ice) in every Province to collect all the best horses, that were more comely then Cows with Calves, to adorn their public shows. But for what concerns their shows for delight, on the 26. day of December, infinite Inhabitants of those Countries in every Province( though of distinct Societies) do meet to contend on swiftest Horses for the prise and glory, upon the Frozen Lakes and Rivers, that shine like glass. The Bounds or Ends of this Race, contain about four or six Italian mi●es. The prise is some measures or bushels of Corn to be sowed, and new Garments are deposited also, on this condition, that the Horse that comes not to the Mark, shall be the Conquerour's. But these Spectacles are shewed in no p●ace in all the North more frequently upon the Ice, than amongst the Ostrogothi, and Vestrogothi. For their Land abounds with p●entiful Pasture, to feed Herds o● Horses to many thousands in most c●oi●e grass where they naturally meet, though it be in very spacious and dispersed Fields, and not in one Meadow.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Running of men upon the Ice for a Wager.  
TWo sorts of men are found in these places, that run razes for Wagers most swift●y, in a compencious way of the Art foreshowed. The first is the Wild or Laplander, because upon crooked Stilts, or long Stakes fastened to the soles of his feet, he transports himself upon the Snow in Dales and Mountains, in a dangerous way, by a winding and arbitrary motion; and he doth it with a most perfect Art whether h● be to encounter with ad●erse accidents, or he doth it for ●port in Hunting, whereby he gets his li●ing, and he obtains greater riches, or whether he undertakes this for a prise, or glory. This kind is the chiefest amongst the Sericfinni. Here it shall suffice now to have said, That these men have such nimble agility in running over the tops of the Snowy Mountains, also when they run for a Reward, that others who use more plain and shorter Instruments can hardly attain unto, u●on the even and slippery Ice. Moreover those that run over the Snow, and come to the Mark appointed, will kill a wild Beast in the way with their arrows. But he that holds on his course on the Ice is scarce secure from Pits that are secret underneath; as I shall say hereafter concerning Wars upon the Ice. But the other kind runs swiftly onely upon the slippery Ice, and always continues running upon the even Ice, having a plain polished Iron, or plain deres or Sheeps bones; namely the shank-bones that are naturally slippery, by reason of their imbred fatness, ●nd are a foot in length, fastened to the bottom of their feet. In which kind also there are found men every where striving for pleasure and price: the Goal they set is over the congealed Lakes, as smooth as glass, for eight or twelve Italian miles from both ends, or somewhat less. The prise is Silver Spoons, brass Vessels, Swords, New Garments and young Horses; but the●e more frequently than the other. They that win the prise, must come first to the Mark. They fasten deres shanks polished broad, to the soles of their feet, be●meared with Hogs-grease, because so they cannot be hindered or stopped by the co●d drops of water, that in the most vehement could weather will rise up as it were through the pores of the Ice: so it is with any Iron that is polished or greased o●er. For no greasing is more fit for Iron, than for the shank-bones of dear, or Bulls, that have a natural slipperiness in them. And this way so o●t as the Ice is clear, and uncovered of snow, and is two or three fingers thick, then is the time to exercise these Sports more easily and freely. But otherwise not at all, because it is never more dangerous, nor is a man nearer to his death, than when he runs upon the Ice covered with a very thin snow. For the Ri●ers or small streams, with a si●ent swiftness, entering the Lakes from the shores by their corroding and continual motion prevail so far, that the Ice cannot grow thick and strong, un●esse it be frozen with the greatest Frost: yet it falls out that rash Runners, such as know not, or despise the Nature of the Ice, running mo●e boldly than wari●y, the Ice breaking, are drowned, with their body downward, and their heads above, cut off with the sharp Ice, as with an Axe, and so miserable left behind. But the Inhabitants seldom perish by that or the like danger, only strangers that travail to descry countries: who making more hast to serve them elves with the shortest way to make their discoveries, are suddenly destroyed by the falseness and brittleness o● the Ice.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the Inns upon the Ice for Travellers.  
IT is the custom that the public ways which are obstructed by the fall of Woods, by reason of Tempests, should be mended by the common charge and labour, with Axes and fasting-days: but when they are barred by the thickness of the Snow, they are to be opened by the passage of cattle and wagons going over the Snow, by every man particularly, or else the way must be made near the wares of the Sea, or upon the Sea congealed, marks being set upon the Ice, whereby the way may ly open to mens habitations. But least by the same reason, the lower Germans that inhabit the Cities& Countries of the Vandals should be stopped by the great Snows, filling the Woods and Champion ways, in their great commerce of Merchants; they place Inns upon the Sea shores and plain Rocks, or upon the open Ice, by a wonderful industry. For they ordain long beams, elevated two or three feet, above the Ice for a distinction of the Foundations and Houses; and upon these they build necessary Houses, and those boarded, standing side by side, and they use a could fire in th●ir Stoves plentifully,( as they do all things else that are required for joyful banquets) and fearing no craft of any spies or thieves, or deceivers, they rejoice because they have gained more security upon the Iice, than they could have in a Palace: and th●y stay there more securely and merrily, the sharper the cold-weather is, and the stronger the winds are: which blowing underneath the Foundations of their Inns, make them to be more firm and solid, and preserve them until such time as all this building about the vernal equinoctial is dissolved by the hot blasts of the South-Wind, and is carried into the continent, no Pension being paid for their standing place. But as for the could of that German or Getick Sea, Albertus Crantzius speaks many things, who was a most di●igent describer of these Countries. For he saith, that in the year, 1323 the Sea was extremely Frozen that men passed on foot over the Ice ●rom Lubec to Denmark& to Prussia by Sea, Inns being made upon the Ice in convenient places. In the year of our Lord, 1399, all the Winter the Frost bound up both Sea and Land that went dry-foot from Lubee by Sea into the City Sunden& from thence to Denmark. In the year 1523. the Frost was all the Winter incomparable never the like heard of. So that Horsemen passed from Gedan in Prussia to Lubeck the same way sailors do, and then from Magnopolis by Sea into Denmark, having Inns upon the Ice. In the year 1294. the Cimbric Sea was frozen, that men rid from Jathia to Aslogia. Moreover, though for many ages after, most bitter could followed, and freesing of the Seas, yet because they fell so common, they are scarce found to be observed.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the Passage upon the Ice between the gulfs,  
SInce in the former Chapter concerning Inns on the Ice, too little is spoken, by what marks Travellers are guided in Snowy and Frosty weather, that they may come to the Inns they appoint to stay at; for that the way is so plain and large on all sides, that oftimes men can see nothing but the Heavens, and Ice, and Snow, for that they attempt in the bitter Winter, to pass by the agility of Horses, where in Summer-time the greatest Ships sail, being driven with the Winds: Therefore you must observe that the Ice being a little bored, into it Juniper or Firr-Trees at every furlongs end, standing upright are Frozen in, being set in the Sea, by the way side, especially where the Ice is grown thicker, and proved by the overseers for high ways. And if these marks were not, the fear would be no less, nor the danger of a mans life amongst the gulfs on the Ice, than it would be on the open Sea, when unarmed mariners light amongst cruel pirates, or in a horrid desert, when men fall amongst savage Beasts: wherefore it is ordered by a most severe Law, that no man shall alter or carry off these water marks, unless it be in time of hostility, by reason of Spies and Traytors. And farther how dangerous it is for men to pass amongst those gulfs formerly mentioned, I shall show by the following reasons. But before all I must premise, that generally all lakes and standing-waters begin to be Frozen in October, and the Ice to be so condensed in many places by the increasing of the could, that where no Veins or Spring-water run not into those lakes and standing-pools, the fish are found to be choked when the Ice thaws. But that this suffocation may not be too great a loss, by the diligence of the Fishermen, the Ice is constantly broken, that it may not frieze, as I shall show under this, in my book concerning Winter fishing. Wherefore the Ice at beginning and middle of Winter is so strong and tenacious, that at the thickness of two fingers a man may walk upon it, and when it is three fingers thick, a Horseman in armor: when it is a hands breadth and half, whole Troops and Companies of Souldiers; when it is three or four hands breadth, a whole legion of thousands of people, as I shall show underneath, concerning Winter wars. This strength of the Ice, though it seem to be so strong, yet natural Veins and exhalations, springing forth underneath in many places, do so make it clear and open, that for a long way it will leave an empty place like a passage or path upon the Land: yet the prudent Traveller penetrateth that fissure by compassing about, that he may not lose his time and appointed journey. But when such fissures happen, especially at night, they are heard afar off, like cruel Thunder or Land Earth-quakes. But for all this the careful Traveller leaves nothing unattempted, but that he will go forward on his journey amongst the Whirl-pools. But when the Ice melts about the beginning of April, no man will trust to the thickness of it, and less to the strength thereof, unless it be to walk upon it in the morning: because by the Sun-shine in the day it is made so brittle, that what had a little before born armed Horsemen, can hardly bear a man without Arms. But the Winter ways, by reason of the hardness of the could, whereby they are made thicker, and more solid, will remain longer like bridges in the Lakes. But when Travellers would descend from the Ice upon the Land or contrarily, he must needs have a bridge of Planks, for the Sun heating the shore, melts all the congelation of the Ice there. I think not fit to let it pass● here, that there is a Lake called Veter, which is 60 Italian miles long, and 20 broad, in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths: which is of such a Nature, that when it is frozen by a tempestuous wind, and the time comes for it to thaw, it begins to boil at the bottom with a most vehement noise, and to be moved, and with great violence to break into small chaps, or scissures, that are made in the Ice, and make these in a small time very great, though the Ice then be more than an arm or two in thickness; and then the upper force co-operating with it, all the Ice is divided into many small pieces, upon which Travellers being left can scarce come to shore, otherwise than by the providence of God, because the force of Nature works more secretly there, and more wonderfully, than in other Lakes. Also there is a Lake near the Metropolis of the kingdom of Norway, called Nidrosia, that is never frozen.   

CHAP. XV. Of Instruments for the Ice.  
AS the people of a hot or temperate Climate seem to be free from could, Ice, Snow, Frost and Winter noises, so they can scarce find by what diversity of acts remedies and instruments those that live under this Northern could, do defend and help themselves against all these sharp weathers, since it is impossible to run over the slippery Ice, or by it to transport the most weighty burdens, at so great a distance to the places appointed, unless it were done by art, to ease our strength. We spake before of wooden shoes, that were covered under with points of Iron, because they are agreeable to the seasonable use of Travellers, Fishermen and Souldiers. Moreover three points of triangles with iron points are made with three corners for going the more sure: and lastly flexible Circles with points every way, sharpened like to teeth: to all which that they may stick fast to their feet, strong bands are tied, that by that firmness every man may be the more secure in running or going, and any burden may be carried the better by the strength of one or two men; which otherwise in the Sand or Snow would not be drawn by the strength of horses. They have Axes also that are the chiefest and fittest Instruments to cut all Ice: for by such instruments they open frozen Rivers for many furlongs, when they set out a Navy against Robbers: or when the Common-wealth thinks fit to manage the business so, to sand messengers beyond the Seas. And in this case small ships by the labour of cattle are carried to the broad Sea in Carts from cities and castles suddenly upon the Ice, that by the agility of the Winds and sails, they may swiftly dispatch their Voyage by Sea, which they could hardly perform in many days by Beasts. They have also iron Spades made for a certain purpose, because by these, the thick and hardened Ice that will not yield to other iron tools is more easily broken, whilst other Axes mingled with steel in a vehement could with a blow onely upon the Ice or a green three, will break like glass, whereas the foresaid Spades of iron spears, endure strongly; moreover they have harping irons made with a crooked point, whereby the pieces of Ice broken with other instruments are more easily drawn which way they please, or thrust out also in the open Sea, at the time of the Winter Solstice, when they must not only foresee to keep off such a huge weight of Ice, that it break not their Ships, but also against the Rocks that are not seen, and lastly when they are to fight with their cruel enemies. They have also Socks, with which they can walk the more securely upon the slippery Ice, at their pleasure, in a fight on the Ice, to resist strongly, or fly away cunningly.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Warlike Obelisks of the Goths, and Stone-Monuments raised.  
IT was the most ancient custom of the old Goths and Sueons, that when they had had the sharpest battels in the fields or Mountains, they were wont there to raise stones, as it were Piramids of the egyptians: and upon these engraving, the famous fasts with some short inscription, they supposed that the memory of their deeds should be perpetual, as the usual Songs composed in verses compendiously, and by succession derived to these daies, have propagated this matter to the memory of posterity. For in the Northern parts, there are seen most hard Mountains of an Ash colour, that are far harder than Marble: these sometimes by an Earth-quake or Thunder, or other motion of Nature use sometimes to be so shaken, that the stones cut forth, and falling downward, receive the form partly of a pyramid, and partly of square Pillars, partly of four Corners and Obelisks, as if they were made by the excellent work of Nature, and it is useless, and vain to add any more to them. But these Pyramids or Pillars are found amongst the Heslengi in greater quantity than elsewhere in the North. But Obelisks of high stones, raised by the forces of giants, and Champions are seen no where more frequently than in the public high ways amongst the Ostrogothi, and Vestrogothi, and Sueons: and also in vast deserts, which long since have been made desolate of Inhabitants, by Famine, war, Plague, and are not yet reduced to their former condition, by reason of the sluggishness and negligence of the Indwellers, the Land not yet, or very rarely, becoming fallow ground. And these stones, raised in very many places, are 10. or 15. or 30. foot long, and 4, or 6. foot broad, notably situated, but in a more wonderful order, and, with some notable Character, for many reasons were placed there: and they signify by a learned, right long order, the battels of Champions; by a square order, Troops of warriors: and by a round order the burials of families: and by a wedge fashion, they show that there, or near that place, the Armies of Foot or Horse had there fortunately prevailed. But the writings are begun on the right hand at the foot of the stones, end in the top, and then turning about they end in the left foot; or else the letters are in the same order elevated or pressed down within. And every letter hath the thickness and length of the greatest finger of a man. And though many of them by the injury of weather and dirt, and many at the bottom of the stones, by length of time out of memory are eaten away, yet the like effects of them are clearly red in the same manner. I Uffo fighting for my Country, killed 32. Champions, and at last slain by the Champion Rolvo, rest here. Moreover; I Jugolvas that conquered all violent men, and defended the oppressed, being full of Scars, and grown old, gird about with my sword, am placed here, when as other men sought for glory by wars, I Halsten striving for peace, deserved immortal praise.   

CHAP. XVII. Of Obelisks for sepulchers.  
BUt neither the old Goths, nor other Northern Nations, wanted a Remembrance of their Ancestors, but for those they were pleased to lay up in the ground, they set up Honourable Statues of high stones, as we see at this day mighty stones wonderfully joined together, like to a most high and broad gate, raised upwards and overthwart by the strength of Giants, especially two large miles from the City scar as one goes to the Church of Kelby upon a Rock. For there are seen in the High-way three most huge Stones( as I said before) most curiously engraven with Gothick Characters: And if any man who is a curious searcher for such like stones, would go over deserts, as well as open Fields, to search for them, he shall find infinite Spectacles, that I need not now be more tedious to mention. But there may be one cause more ready, by reason that not far from that most ancient City scar there was a Kingly Castle called Aaranes,( whereof I shall speak particularly elsewhere) about which in former Ages and Generations most cruel Wars were fought: Con erning which my most dear Brother and predecessor John, Arch-Bishop of Upsal, writ wonderful things.  
There are also amongst the Ostrogothi, and the Upper Sueons, Castles of great and Noble-men, built every where in the Countries, in places fortified by Nature: near whose Walls and Fields, you shall goody huge ston of the ancients, stuck fast into the ground, in a wedge fashion, round, ong, and upright situation: the upper parts whereof being adorned with some Writings of the Goths, do teach, as it were by the command of some governor then li●ing, what their successors ought to fly from or follow; namely, to embrace virtue, and to detest 'vice, &c. Nor may we doubt but in that Age the like Edict was observed in the Northern Countries against the embalming of the bodies of wicked Princes and Tyrants, that they should not have a seemly burial. The Obelisks of good Princes, and ston Monuments, are yet plainly seen; many years before the catholic Faith was planted in the Northern kingdoms, Signed with the Sign of the across, having such like Inscription: After that I, seduced by the fraud of Devils, had erred, I Germundus dy converted to the God of the Christians, and here lye butted expecting his judgement: Moreo●er elsewhere upon a ston these words are found; I Holmstam being dead, who had relinquished worshipping of Idols, am living in the Faith of Christ.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of Stones with Figures, &c.  
ALso in other places there are found very broad ston Tables, and very high set into the Earth, by the strength of giants, having the Images of Dragons, Serpents, and Bears, engraven upon them: against which they observed no esse triumph, than against armed Enemies; as I shall show underneath in the Book of giants and Champions. Moreover there are huge Stones set upon the Shores of Waters, which show in old Character; That in those places some Noblemen, by divers accidents of Rivers, Tempests, Lightnings, Whirlwinds or Robbers, were killed. And from thence the Name imposed, endureth to perpetual Generations.  
There are also high Stones, by the aspect and signature whereof, the ancient Possessions of Provinces, Governments, Forts, Communities of Noble and countrymen, are suffered to continue to every man in peace, without Laws, Suits, or Arbitration, giving an Example to other Nations, that amongst these Nations there is more Right to be found in these Stones, that are Boundmarks, than elsewhere in the large Volumes of Laws, where men think themselves to be more learned and civil. There are also Stones on the Shores that are very high, without Writings, by the industry of the ancients, turned towards unfaithful Ports, without any notable Sign, informing the mariners, that they may avoid shipwreck.  
There is also a huge round ston, having about 12. lesser Stones lying near it, with Wedg fashioned stones, raised a little from the Earth, not far from the Metropolis of Upstal, called Morasten: Upon which a new King to be chosen, is received by an infinite company of people that are present, and afterwards is confirmed with more Solemn Ceremonies by the catholic Bishops, taking an Oath before-hand to defend the Faith.   

CHAP. XIX. Of Dials with Shadows.  
YOu must know that the Inhabitants of the farthest North, that dwell beyond the 86. Degree of the Elevation of the North Pole, have no u●e of a Sun-Dial, such a one as Anaximenes Milesius, the Lacedemonian, is first said( as Pliny writes) to have found out; nor of any other dial that is made with Weights, Wheels, Waters, Measures, by Lines and Distances: but they use onely the high Stones of Rocks, that are placed partly by Nature, partly by Cunning, that by an infallible Conjecture, do over-shadow the Sun-Beams, and distinguish the parts of the Day: as also in Winter both by Night and Day( the Moon not shining) they clearly measure the Account of Times by Experience, by the cries and Actions of Birds and Beasts; whereof there are infinite companies there, and they are content with such obelisks or Rural Marks.   

CHAP. XX. Of Sticks to design the Times by.  
AS both the latin and Greek Authors testify, that the Goths have a perfect Experience in Arms and Military Disciplines; so also the Gothick Writers say that they have both at home and abroad, the knowledge of many profitable things, and experiments thereof, especially the knowledge of the Stars, whereby they can for the most part divine future things. For the Goths, both old and young, have a Staff, marked with the Characters of the Goths, so engraven, that it may be seen, by what Instruments in old time, when there was no use of Books, they knew by infallible Events the influences of the Moon, Sun, and the other Stars, as at this day almost all the Inhabitants aclowledge: Wherefore a ston made so long as a man on both sides, with the number of the Weeks of the Year; for every week having 7. Gothick Letters, whereby the Golden Numbers, and Dominical Letters( after Christianity was embraced) are distinguished in their country Language and Figures: Nor did they use other Books in the manifold Revolution of Times, for the interpretation of the Stars. Moreover, Fathers instruct their Lay-Sons, and Mothers their Daughters, at home on holidays, or at their coming to Church, that they are daily made more perfect, as well by Learning as by Experience. For by an old custom of the Nation, the laics lean upon these Stakes, in long Journeys they take to visit Countrey-Churches; and so meeting together, by alleging certain Reasons, they show the qualities of the following year, by more true conjectures, than perchance others can by their speculative sciences, or that rely on their juggling Prognostications.  
Moreover they wonderfully observe the Artick Pole, as the Gnomon of the whole Heavenly Dial; also the Bears, or Wains, Venus's Distaff and Spindle, as familiar Signs of their ancient deity; and by looking into the Nature of them, they wonderfully provide for Accidents that shall happen.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Goths Alphabet.  
OF most ancient time, when there were giants in the Northern parts, that is, long before that latin Letters were found out, and before that Carmenta came out of Greece, to the Ports of tiber, and came to the roman Land with Evander, and expelling the Aborigines, taught that rude people, and almost wild, both Manners and Letters, the Northern Countries had their own Letters: A Token whereof is shewed by Stones of a huge bigness, fastened on the tombs and Monuments of the ancients. And if any man doubt of what was done by the force of giants in old time, let him come thither, and he shall see greater Wonders that will amaze him, more then any Writing can promise or perform. Wherefore they carving these Actions upon Stones, left them to perpetual memory, as I red in the first Book, and 7. Chapter, of the History of my most dear Brother John Magnus, my predecessor, Arch-Bishop of Upsal. Also others for private accounts, like the Egyptians, used many Figures of Living Creatures, instead of Letters and do yet use them by a domestic Ingenuity; as I shal show underneath by& by: Some like to these are to be seen now at Rome amongst the old Obelisks, wherein several Letters signified a several name; as a wolf, a covetous man; A Fox, a deceitful person; A Bee; the King; because it behoves the governor of the people, to have the Honey of Clemency, mingled with the Sting of Justice. Moreover, as Epistles written in Paper are now sent amongst men, so formerly the Northern people appointed Letters engraven upon Wood, for a famous kind of Paper to be sent from one to the other; and now adays when they want Paper in the Camp of Souldiers, or in the besieging of Cities, they fitly use the Bark of Birch, cut into leaves, or thin plates, to writ their Lettets upon; and it is so much the safer, for that thi● Rind is spoiled by no accident of Rain or Snow. Moreover there are found some Northern people of so quick wit, who having never learned latin Letters, not yet the Alphabet of the Goths, they make an Alphabet for themselves, from the Figures and Instruments of Things, and they use these to help their Memories, writing them single on a Skin, Paper, or Rind. And they communicate this Secret to none but such as are of their own Families, causing Ink to be made of a coal powdered, and Milk, or Common Water.    

OLAUS MAGNUS THE GOTH, Arch-Bishop of VPSAL: CONCERNING The Wonderful Nature of Northern Things.  
An Epitome of the Second Book.  

CHAP. I. Of Veins of Brimstone, and Combustion of the Waters.  
THere are some Veins of Brimstone, near to the Rivers of Waters, which being often kindled very wide, like to flames, they spread ready to destroy all round about: which sight, the Inhabitants in iceland, and Scotland, very could Countries, behold by a continual increase of heat: Moreover in the South Goths Land, not far from the City Vexian, there is a champion and muddy Lake; which by its fiery virtue, doth as it were in a moment, or in a very short time, boil or burn whatsoever is let down into it to be boiled, and drawn up again with a Cord. And it is found out, that the like Lake near to the Metropolis of Nidr●sium, in the kingdom of Norway, hath the same Nature, especially from this Argument, That in the greatest could it never freezes.   

CHAP. II. Of the Admirable Nature of some Mountains.  
I Believe that the whole World have had the Experience, of what Nature the Mountains of Iceland are; because beyond the Relation of the ancients, in our Gothick Maps, that may serve to supply the Description of Ptolomey we show the situation and Nature of these Mountains to be singular; namely that there is on the top of them almost a perpetual Snow, and at the bottom a fire of Brimstone, always burning forth without any consuming of it s●lf. Those that come too near are easily choked by the force of the dust and sparks, and especially because many burning gulfs, in many places, appear with the Ashes of burnt Mountains and Valleys: which ●gain growing anew by a silent increase of Brimstone, as it were in a circular measure of time, are disposed again for combustion. For there are within the Bounds of Norway, most vast and most high Mountains, that men are ascending four days, and as many dayes are they coming down.   

CHAP. III. A Description of Iceland, and of the Nation there.  
ICeland is a Land lying under the North Pole, opposite to the Winds, especially to the southwest, and near to the Frozen Sea, and therefore it is deservedly called The Frozen country, or The utmost Thule; which was celebrated by all the ancients; whose Inhabitants are said by saxon Sialandicus, to be most continent; and very good Christians in Religion, having their own Writings, and a History of things acted valiantly: And they now writ the Acts of their own Time, which they honour with Songs and rhymes, and they engrave them on Promontories, or Rocks, that they can never fail Posterity, unless it fall out by some injury of Nature. The situation of the iceland is extended between the South and North, a hundred German miles in length: For the greatest part, it is mountainous, and not manured, especially toward the North country, by reason of the sharp blasts of the aforesaid southwest Wind, which will not let any Shrubs to grow: It is an iceland to be praised, for the extraordinary Miracles in it; for there is a Rock or Promontory in it, that boils like to Mount Aetna, with perpetual fires; and there it is supposed that the place of Hell is, and of Purgatory, to purge foul souls. For there are found Spirits or Ghosts, showing themselves open for mens ministry, or by reason of some violent chance where men are killed, some Apparitions do offer themselves so manifestly to lie with those they know, that they are received by ignorant people, as though they were alive, and they shake hands with them; and the error is not perceived, until these Visions be vanished. The Inhabitants very often presage the fates of Princes; and by the Revelation of Ghosts appearing, they are not ignorant what is done at a great distance from them in the World.   

CHAP. IV. Of the Horrible sound of the hollow Caves by the shores of the Sea.  
MOreover there is in the Northern parts, a notable Province called Anger Mannia, the Inhabitants whereof are most cunning hunters: for by that gain, namely by selling of precious hides, they obtain great wealth. There are also excellent husbandmen, so that they know how by the benefit of the Snow and fire, not only to make plain fields, but also the high sides of Mountains to become fruitful grounds. For they put fire about the Autumnal equinoctial into the thick shrubs and herbs, and they so carefully dispose of the ashes and dust that ariseth thence against the fall of the Snow that will come upon it, that by the viscosity thereof they grow as fat as with ox dung? Hence it is that they carry off from thence a greater crop of Corn, and have a more plentiful harvest. But I shall speak of these things underneath concerning husbandry. For this Province hath many most high Mountains, the tops whereof make a high appearance to those that sail in the Bothrick Sea, all the year by reason of the constant whiteness of the Snow, so that seeing this eminent Sea-mark, they can avoid many hideous dangers, and more securely come to safe Havens. Moreover when they come to the bottoms of them which stand in the deepest Seas, either by some accident or purpose of Nature, they are so frighted by the high roaring waves, that unless they can escape with fast rowing down, or by a strong wind, they are almost killed with fear alone; and in many days they can scarce recover their former health of mind and body, by reason of the trouble of their heads. The bottoms of those Mountains have winding creeks at the entering and going out of the waters, or cliffs made by the wonderful work of Nature, wherein by reason of the long cavities, that formidable noise is made like to Thunder under the ground, the cause whereof when rash youth hath gone in to seek more curiously than securely, their ships have been presently filled with waters from the cliffs above, and by the force of the winds, that they have lost their lives with admiration. But to avoid this danger, the wonderful height of the Mountaines, by the Snow that lies always on the tops of them, do clearly warn Sea-men a far off to take heed, and to prevent the danger, least nature which is the Mother of this inscrutable noise, might seem to have provided no remedy against this secret and subtle danger. Also for many miles that terrible sound flying through the air, being sent from the same Mountains, is heard by the mariners, warning them to escape and fly far from the ruin of that sad noise, for if they be near, they cannot away with it. But what Vincentius in spec. hist. lib. 31. cap. 24. thought of the like matter, I shall show in his own words. Amongst the Tartars there is a certain small Mountain, wherein there is reported that there is a hole, whence in Winter such great tempests of winds come forth, that m●n can hardly, and that with great danger pass by it. In Summer time there is always heard a noise of the winds, but little comes forth at the hole. But in the Northern Lakes that are Frozen, under the Ice, by reason of the wind enclosed, no lesser noise is heard than of a most cruel Thunder, shut in on all sides by the thickness of the Clouds. Of this I shall show something in the Chapter concerning fishing in the Ice.   

CHAP. V. Of the Rock of the Sea-Monk.  
THere is a high mountain in the Sea, it was formerly under the dominion of the rich Kingdom of Norway, near to the iceland Tarens, which the mariners by a conformable appellation call, the Monk. For it hath by its natural situation and incision of parts, especially of the Crown, a wrought hood, and also the propriety of it, so that in cruel tempests all that fly to it are consolated and received securely. Moreover wo to all those that being driven by the violence of wind, cannot come to the skirt of it, or to ride near it: because the southwest winds are so fierce there, and the North winds, that mariners who would avoid the sharpness thereof, are constraind every moment with all their skill and force, and labour, and experience to look unto it, and to watch, how they may escape to that Monk as the most secure port. Moreover in the Northern Seas, there are many high Mountains that are signs as it wer● of secure Ports, that are to be made against what tempest whatsoever, or calmness of weather. But before the entrance of them there lie hide many blind Rocks, which as they drowned many Ships when the wind is but small, so when there is a tempest, they save them more wonderfully, by reason of the waves of the Sea rising high. There are also Mountaines of Faulkons, Eagles, Crows, that show security to mariners that retire, or a caution to those that shun them, that they may not come near to them. Moreover there are Mountains of strife, and most strong Castles, especially in East-Finland, raised upon the mouths of the Rocks by reason of the wars with the Muscovite, and they are so fortified by Nature and Art, that the besiegers which way soever they make their approach, may more easily intercept the Mountaines than they can the forts.   

CHAP. VI. Of the crwoned Rock, and the multitude of Fish.  
THat no work of Nature may be concealed, it is here shewed that in the the Western Bothnia toward the utmost parts of the North, in the Parish of Lula, and diocese of upsal, there is a Rock in the Sea, men call it commonly Bivra Klubben, which with its high top is seen by those that sail far from it, to have three tops, or else to be round. And if the Inhabitants want the Aspect, shadow or harbour of it, who are most skilful fishermen at Sea, their way would not be safe, nor could they find food convenient. For by the wonderful height of it, when a most thick darkness of the clouds rose, being seen in the middle of the waters( as I had trial of it in the year, 1519) those that are out of their way are saved. For so great useth to be the obscurity of the darkness and air condensed, that one that in a small Ship holds the fore-Castle, can scarce be discerned to the hinder Castle. But by applying to the shore, there is such an infinite multitude of fish to be seen at the foot of the mountain, here and there, that one is much amazed to behold it, and is satiated in his stomach by it. For part of this fish being sprinkled with Sea water in the plain at the foot of the mountain, and to be torrefied by the wind, is wont to be dispersed upon the earth for 2, or 3, Acres of ground: and part of them are put upon spears, and stretched upon the hatches of the Ship, especially the fishes of the greater kind, that they may be dried in the Sun and air. But they are all kept either to spend in their Houses, or for to make profit of by Merchandise, and also for their necessities and pleasures beyond Seas, but chiefly that by bartering with them, they may provide themselves with plenty of Corn,( which doth slenderly grow ripe there, by reason of the could round about) and that they may be able to afford them to Country people in place of dainties, and again they may receive costly skins which are the Country wealth, in lieu of them. At the foot therefore of this crowned mountain, there ariseth a smell of fish hanged up, that such who at a long distance sail that way; can smell it coming to them. And when they perceive that smell, though they be tossed in a tempestuous dark night, they know how to preserve themselves and their goods from eminent shipwreck.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Flowing and Ebbing of the Sea.  
THere are certain Bosoms of the Sea, in my Gothick Map, or Description of the Northern Countries, that are engraved on the shore of Norway; namely Roest, and Lo Hoeth; betwixt which, so great is the Gulf, that the Mariners that come thither unawares, are in a moment sucked in by its sudden circumvolution, all force and industry of the Pilot being taken away, especially those who know not the Nature of the place, or are otherwise driven on by the force of Tempests: or that, by contempt, little regard this imminent danger: Wherefore those that would fail thither from the Coasts of Germany, hire the most experienced mariners and Pilots, who have learned by long Experience, how by steering obliquely, and directing their course, they may avoid the danger better: and these are wont to bend their course over a great part of the Sea by direction of a compass, that they may not fall into the gulf; and chiefly about the most populous Cities Andanes, and Trondanes, and three other Islands, where part of the Sea is called Mosta Stroom; in which place the Flood is greater then in other waters about it. Also the Sea there, within the hollow Cave, is blown in when the Flood comes, and when it ebbs, it is blown out, with as great force as any Torrents or swift Floods are carried. This Sea, as it is said, is failed in with great danger, because such who sail in an ill time, are suddenly sucked into the Whirl-pools that run round. The Remainders of shipwrecks, are seldom restored again; and if they be restored again, they are so broken against the Rocks, that they seem all in shivers, and covered with hoariness.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Charybdis, and the Wonderful Nature of Ice.  
IN the Chapter immediately before, was said, how dangerous it is to sail in the Seas of Norway especially where the mariners are put in hazard by a vast gulf; the reason whereof is inscrutable, unless they be very provident to prevent it. For here the Nights are very long most bitter could, and hidden Rocks are in many places, like to Towers, and there are most hideous Sea-Monsters, and terrible; as I shall show underneath concerning Monsters. Moreover, the Ice is very hard, like to the walls of huge houses, cast down with Tempests, which are ready to cause inevitable shipwrecks: yet all these are more tolerable, in undertaking any dangerous Voyage, than to try the mercy of the Irish Nation; which( as I can prove by many Examples here omitted) are wont to invite men in mi●ery with tears, that when they have spoiled them of their Goods, they may sand them half dead to their torn ships. But what belongs to admiring the Nature of the Ice, this is a certain Rule; That the Ice( as saxon testifies) is brought in great shoals upon the iceland shore; and if a piece of it be kept in a vessel though with great diligence it will presently melt, but the rest of the Ice of that kind goes back from the Promontory into the Deep: yet it is preserved in vast deserts, especially under Juniper Bushes, and also under the Chaff of huge Barns, and under the shingles of Pitch-trees when the Sun is yet in lo; and Drunkards that take their pleasure, take it out from thence, in the heat of Summer and melt it in Wine or Beer. But none put in Snow to drink any liquor with, because it is clammy, and not purged from it; for there are in it secret reed-worms, like as woollen cloth hath.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Leather-ships made of Hides, used by the pirates of Greenland.  
HEre I shall show the passage from the Port Vestrabord of the same iceland, to the high Rock in the Sea called Hutisark, which is half the way to Greenland; wherein there is found a kind of pirates, that use Leather-ships, and by an arbitrary Navigation, not so much above as beneath, they lie in wait, boring holes in the ships of Merchants about the Pump. I saw two of these Leatherships in the year 1505. above the West-part, within the Cathedral Church also, dedicated to St. Halvard, and they were hanged up against the Wall, as to be seen; which Haquinus, King of the same country, passing near the shores of Greenland, with a Warlike Navy, was reported to have taken, when they thought to have drowned his ships. For the Inhabitants of that country are wont to get no small profits by the spoils of others, by these and the like treacherous arts, who by their thieving wit, and by boring a hole privately in the sides of the ships beneath( as I said) let in the water, and presently cause them to sink.   

CHAP. X. Of the inscrutable Depths of the Coasts of Norway.  
SO unmeasurable is the Depth in many Mountainous Coasts of Norway, that men can find no bottom with Cords, as many as a ship can hold, the Plummet of led being let down; and such is the force of Nature, that the higher the Mountains are, the more inscrutable is the depth of the water at the foot of them; though their height, in respect of Heaven, is held to be very small above the Earth: Also the feet of these Mountains are so hollow and deep, and crooked, that letting down plumb Lines, it can hardly be known which way their hollowness bends. Moreover in the iceland Bornholm, which is under the King of Denmark, there are some Lakes found not very large, whose depth cannot be sounded. Lastly, by the Dalacarly, by the Mountains, that is, men of the Valleys, there is the Lake Rundon, therefore called Round, because the ground of it cannot be measured. Moreover, not far from the Kings Palace Holm in Swethland, there is a place amongst the Rocks of the Seas, commonly called Rundisvalia that is, the Round gulf,, that there one cannot find how deep it is to the bottom of it. Further, many more Pits and small Lakes are found, whose depth hath been often sought for, but could never be found. There are seen also very long, but very narrow Caves of Rocks and Mountains, as if they were cut out, and made hollow with Iron Instruments, running into dark places of Retreat, wherein the waters making a noise, that come thither by Tempest, or by calm Weather, a terrible sound is raised: from which, unless such as come near, quickly with-draw themselves, their Ears are so overcome with a mighty noise in them, that for many hours they remain deaf, and hear nothing, by reason of the violence of the Object.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Ports of Iron Rings.  
I Shewed in the former Chapter, how inscrutable the depth of the Sea is upon the Coasts of Norway, between the most high Mountains: now I shall show how between the Winding gulfs and Rocks, those that sail thither, may more securely, without Anchors, find and fashion their stations. Wherefore here are seen Iron Rings, larger then a Souldiers Buckler, fastened in melted led, at the sides of many Mountains, as the Sea runs on, by the munificence of good Princes and at their cost, especially toward the rich City Berge, that when the Flood or Tempest urgeth, Cords being suddenly put in, the greatest ships ride safe, as in secret places. But it behoves them not to be ignorant of the ways, who commit themselves to so dangerous a Labyrinth: For the cost is so full of Rocks, that such who know not the way, can scarce go forward or backward from thence. Also by reason of the difficulty, and roughness of that and the like places( as I shall show underneath more particularly, concerning ships of enemies) they will suffer shipwreck; and if ships of War, or of pirates, come thither with force of Enemies, or are driven in by Tempests, being destitute of counsel and help, they are oft-times consumed by Famine, could, or by the Inhabitants that set upon them, and are made a miserable spectacle, as though they fought against the Elements. And if any man red the Chronicles of Norway and Denmark, especially about Christian the second King thereof, he shall find a most horrible infelicity in all, concerning the lamentable event in such like cases. Wherefore the Enemies are often frighted from entering within these Rocks, least they should be more severely broken in pieces, and more secretly, by the open of secret Rocks between the Mountains, and in the gulfs, than by any open Enemies.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Dangerous Passage of the Mountains, Scars and Sula, between Sweden, and Norway.  
THere is a Province in the Northern Kingdoms called Jemphthia, that is subject to the Arch-bishop of Upsal, with the Mannor or Court of Vesterhusia, time out of mind. From which Jemphthia, over those very high Mountains spoken of in the Title, the Inhabitants of the Land, and strangers in Summer time, make no less terrible, than dangerous Voyage: who yet in Winter over the Frozen Lakes, Pools, and Rivers, can make a shorter cut, and go which way they please. For these huge Mountains, the like whereof are scarce found in Europe, on the Eastern part, at the entrance at the foot, have Gates or Passages of most hard Flint, partly cut by Nature, and partly at the charge of bountiful Princes of Old, either hewed out, or bored through for the public good. Behind which, between the sides of the Mountains, so great could is felt even in the middle of Summer, that unless Travellers, as they do in Winter, fortify themselves well with Cloths, they almost run an irremediable danger by a sudden change of the air, until such time as they can pass out of the hollow places of these Mountains, and could Valleys. Then such as must come down from the mountains, by many dayes Journey, are oft-times in greater danger, where there are Hanging-Bridges fastened on the sides with wooden props from the mountains, which seem to be half broken, by reason of the falling of the Snow and Tempests, that pull up Trees by the Roots, or great stones that tumble down. And men in this distress have no other hope to rely on, but because they expect a repair of these Bridges by a common industry of the Inhabitants; for there is no way about through the most high Valleys to be found. When Travellers find before-hand, that these and such like Accidents are like to befall them, they bring sufficient expenses along with them, as if they were there to lay siege to some castle, and were to continue there to defend it: they otherwise take no great care for their Cattle, because they have the commodity of grass and water enough: For in all the passage from the strux of mountains, there run forth most abundant Fountains, that are commended by all for their pleasant taste. But it is no wonder that Travellers should suffer so great difficulties there; because by reason of the high precipices of Rocks, that can hardly be avoided, or mended, all things seem that they ought to be weighed by a most sagacious Wit, especially when in one the situation is unpassible, and the other is full of ruinous heaps and stones. Moreover the Bounds are so narrow, that they will make both men and beasts giddy-headed, especially such as are not used to them, and their eyes will dazzle at it, and they will fall down irreparably.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the Statues on the ways, in the Snowey Mountains.  
THE Mountains also are called by another vulgar name Dosfrasiel, or if you please Doffrini, that divide Sweden from Norway, of so great bulk and height, that for many dayes journeys, they always appear white, by reason of the Snow not melted, to them that travail East or West, as if they were white Clouds, condensed in the most High Air: Whence it comes to pass, that such who travail that way, by reason of the sudden fall of Snows, seem to be shut up in the ways, and they are forced to use as much labour to come forth of them, as if they were fast bound in the Ice, and laboured to get out. Wherefore it is provided by the magnificency of ancient Kings,( who were formerly most godly in Norway) that high Statues cut out of the Quarries of ston, may be seen raised upon the tops of the mountains, and they are firmly bound fast with led or Iron, that they be not cast down by the violence of the Winds. Also it is found in Swethland that little Birds in flying, have made great Snow-Balls, by the augmentation, and fall whereof, when the South Wind blows, Forts and Villages have been beaten down: yet there is an Inn in these Mountains Doffrini, wherein Travellers in this desperate Voyage, may recreate themselves; but they have no Wine.   

CHAP. XIV. Of Passage in the Dark.  
SOmetimes also, when either profit or necessity urgeth them, the people of the North have a very ingenious manner, to pass through Woods in the night time; and also in the day time, when in the most remote parts Northward, before and after the Winter Solstice, there is a continual Night. And they that want these Remedies, search out for corrupted Bark or oak; and these they place at a certain distance in the way they purpose to go, that by the Light thereof they may travail which way they please. And it is not the Bark onely that will do this, but the body rotten; and that unhandsome called agaric, that grows on the top of a three bearing Acorns, whose virtue and Nature it is to shine in the Night; as also those Winged-Worms, that fly to the Autumual Equinoctial: but these, because they presently fall, being killed with could, are used for no use. Wherefore more frequently they gather the putrid oak, and agaric, that discover themselves by their own light, for the foresaid use in Woods, and at home also; that by the light of it, as by a lighted candle, they may more securely go into places full of combustible matter, as are Barns for Winter, that are full of ripe Corn and Hay. Also there are some men there so sharp sighted, who will boast, that without any material Light, they can almost see and handle all things.   

CHAP. XV. Of Lights, and Pitch-Torches.  
THE North people being subject to most long nights, use divers kind of Lights, that they may do their necessary Offices for their household benefit. Wherefore we aclowledge, that men who live under the Pole, live by using the fat of Sea-monsters in Winter time, in doing all their occasions. They call this fat by a vulgar name Traan, or lice, from Lighting; for put into Lamps, it shines most clearly and largely, especially in the houses of great Families, and in Churches, where there is required a perpetual Light in reverence to the Lords Body.  
But least it should be drank up by Night-Ravens, or Owls, or Bats, they keep the mouth of the Lamps always shut with Iron Bars.  
Moreover they use in all the North, Pine-Tree Torches, that have natural Pitch upon them, by reason of an universal scarcity; as also other common Candles: namely this way, that employing both their hands, they put the shingles of Pine-Tree, finely divided to a certain number, under their Girdles; which burning at the other end, they hold in their mouths, or under their Hats: and thus they walk which way they please, being hindered by no blasts of wind, and do what other things they are minded to do. Some of them use to light common candles, as long as ones arm, according to the length of the night. But in the time of Wars, which are more frequently fought in the dark long Winter, than in Summer, they go through their Troops of Horses and Foot, with Torches of the best pitch, and better made with the Rosin of the Firr-tree.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Breaking forth of Standing-waters.  
AMongst the wonders of the Northern parts, the sight of waters is one, which is not so frequent as hurtful to the Inhabitants of the Province of Middlepas toward the upper places of sweden, where commonly is the greater part of men, they are called Huns, as being people which formerly did more famously make war against, and Triumph over the Huns. In that Province there is a vast River, the falling of the water whereof, is carried down with so steep a descent, that it oftimes beats down Creatures that cannot swim strongly; For flowing from the tops of high Mountaines whilst it is broken by the cliffs of Rocks, and runs into them, it falls into the deep Valleys with a manifold noise of waters. But being always beaten back by stones in the way, it runs always at the same place and swift force. Therefore in all the Channel, the water being every where troubled alike, there is always a white froth upon it. Yet the terrible nature of it is to be considered in this, that every year a little before the Summer solstice, in three places it is filled and bound up with so great a heap of Ice and Trees, fast together, that those who dwell beneath the lower banks of its Channel, when it is ready to break forth, are forced to fly to higher grounds. But in the mean-time they sand forth Scouts to find in what part that terrible breach is like to be made, least the swift course of it, should do great mischief, wherefore the River itself, though in every breach it makes, it lies upon all the neighbours to it, yet by the abundance of choice fish, as Salmons and others, it brings great wealth to them all: which do not only serve to supply the Inhabitants there, but they transport them into foreign parts beyond the Seas in great Ships: and it perpetually retains this virtue, that the nearer it flows to the Channels of the Sea, the more it abounds with better fish. Nor are they wanting in a liberal and free offering and giving of fish, if any stranger come that please to accept of them by way of gift.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the three famous Lakes of the Goths.  
THere are many famous Lakes in Northern Climates, that are wonderful for their magnitude and situation; the chief whereof is in the Country of the Vestrogoths, called Vener, which is 130 Italian miles in length, and almost as many in breadth, which is divided into many and various Islands, and being charged with many vast Rivers that run into it, and those very large, about 24. it hath but one place to run out, whereof I shall speak underneath by and by. In this Lake and about it there are many magnificent houses of noble men, the chief whereof is the Castle Leckio, built upon a high Rock, by the work of the Bishops of Scars, having a well in it cut out of the hard ston, above 200. feet deep. This cutting was not done with iron instruments alone, but by flamme which was daily fed with 300. fattest flitches of Bacon successively day by day, fire being put in and taken out. For it is found by experience that nothing will sooner penetrate the hard Rock there, than lard and hogs grease. There are also adjoining to this Lake many ancient Towns, as Lindecopia and Triguallia, which out of mines of the most choice iron and steel make a plentiful gain. There is also another Lake called Vether, that hath waters so clear and bright, though they are of a perfect green colour, that a man may see a halfpenny at the bottom of it, which is very deep. Above this Lake, there is a famous Monastery of St. Brigit, otherwise Brigid, and another daughter St. Catharine, which was founded and endowed by the wealth and devotion of them both. Moreover there is another Town called Jonacopia, in the Southern parts, memorable to all following ages, by reason of the magnificent Parliaments of the Kings. There are also Mines in this Lake that cannot be exhausted, toward the cost that is opposite to the North. Lastly there is the Monastery Alvastra, that was sumptuously built, and endowed in the times of St. Bernard. near this place in the Village Talstada, King Suercherus was killed on Christs Birth night by his own groom, who used a b●id●e for weapons. The third Lake is called Melet: on the banks whereof are bui t Cities, Castles, and Magnificent Houses of Noble men. Moreover not far from thence on the firm land, there are unexhausted Mines of Silver, Copper, and iron, that are rich beyond mans estimation. And hence it comes that the King of Sweeds and Goths is no way inferior in all manner of treasure and riches to the rest of the P inces of Europe. Also there are Lakes of fresh water in the Mountaines of Lapponia called Lalatresch, that are in length 300 Italian miles, and 120 in breadth. Moreover there are many more collateral standing waters besides, and Lakes not altogether so long and broad, so full of fish that the like are not found in all Europe, I may say in the whole would. Then there is the most famous Lake Albus under the Pole: last of all Pieuthen in Finland, with such like infinite Lakes, standing waters, Rivers and deep minerals.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of dangerous Caves.  
I said in the Chapter before, that 24. great Rivers ran into that one Lake Vener, from the most high Mountains of sweden& Norway. And although at their entrance they make a great noi●e, and are full of whirl-pits, all the way it descends; yet the Mountains for so large a circuit making resistance, they never find any more but one place to run forth, and this is so swift and loud, that it may be heard above 20 Italian miles, T●e common name is Trolhetta that is the Devills coul, it may be by reason of the noise and sound it makes when it falls into a Laky plain, or because under the head long descent of it, there is found a most notable den of Thieves: to which there was a narrow passage, that none frequented but Thieves and Robbers, because that River is swift, and full of Whirl-pits, and so it was not su●pected, that Malefactors did meet there especially in Summer. But in the Winter they were taken by reason of the exhalation of smoke, and so were suddenly drawn to punishment, and all their spoils of most precious stuff, of Silver, Gold, and costly skins, were confiscate to the King. But no lawful accuser coming against them in half a year, to whom there might and made resitution of the goods stolen from him, as it is according to law and custom, by the Kings command, to maintain the public peace, with them ships were built, and these were ●ent into Rivers that run into the Sea, or were deputed by the wisdom of provincial Governours to defend the ditches and walls.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Excellent antiquity of the Kingly Fort Aaranes of the Vestrogoths.  
THhough formerly the Princes of the Goths were more enflamed to wars, than they took pleasure in any other delights, for they held war to be the chiefest comfort both to their bodys and minds, to handle the hard weapons, and in most cruel battles to win divers Triumphs. Yet many of them standing how to add to this delight something more magnificent, they left to their postertties sumptuous and profitable buildings: even as one Scarinus the third Monarch of the Goths, a most mighty Prince is found to have done by a singular example, especially in the Country of the Vestrogoths, which he did illustrate with his more frequent presence; and that by reason of a neighbour King of Norway Sidagerus; to whom as he was allied by blood, so also he desired to be more near to him in the situation of his Country, and in friendship. He built so wisely the City Scata called so, from his own name in a place amongst the Vestrogoths that was sensed about with Lakes and standingwaters, as his successors have been unwise to let it fall down and come to desolation. This was the ancient seat of the kingdom of the Goths. But not far from it, there are some prints remaining of another Kingly Castle, called Aaranes, the situation whereof walls and structure do so 'allure the beholders to admire it, that they firmly judge that no more stately building at that time was to be found in all Europe: But what will not length of time change? Yet the signs of those ruins put posterity in mind of the magnificence of their ancestors. This Castle had about it all commodities, which never any seat of mortal men could ask& obtain from Heaven. For on the one side it had toward the West and North the vast Lake Vener so full of fish, as we said before, to furnish the Kings Table with delights: on the otherside toward the South for a long space, for a perpetual security, there was a muddy dirty Lake, the superficies whereof was all covered with green grass, and shrubs, upon which a man cannot go, and if he do but tread upon it, it sucks him in. For the mud sinking down, it turns to clayey Bogs, and filthy moisture that attracts those that come unto it. There are also many small and deep Rivers like veins running through these Lakes, that will not let a man come to the Castle, that it were impossible but by the multitude of bridges,( which were formerly 40.) by long turnings like labyrinths to come thither. And the same difficulty continues in the most sharp Winter: For those Lakes seldom frieze, by reason of the hot exhalations of the Mines of Brimstone. But in the East side, which is opposite to the first part of the Castle, which had but one approach by land, there were such pleasant Meadows and fruitful fields, that nothing more could be desired for the benefit of Nature, there were also pasture grounds, and excellent places for Hunting, in the Fields and Woods, which you may see at the first sight of that Land: which though it look horridly by the thickness of Woods, and hath not been tilled for many ages past, by reason of Warres, Famine, Pestilence, and domestic discords: Yet any man that views it, may see the prints of furrows and plows, and frequent heaps of stones( whereof the fields use to be cleansed and freed to make them the more fruitful) which are there to be seen among the highest Trees; A certain argument being thus left to posterity, that the people of former ages were far more in number, and contented with narrower fields, than men are seen to be now adays, wherefore this Castle seems to have been more flourishing about the the year of our Lord 955, when the most magnificent King Olaus, whose surname was Scot-kanung, was baptized by St. Sigfrid, Arch-Bishop of York, who went out of England to preach the Faith of Christ, to the same King Olaus, by the Exhortation or entreaty of Eldred, or Mildred, King of England, who also stayed a while in this Castle, until another Seat of the Kings called Husaby, could be provided,& consecrated for the use of the same St. Sigfrid, and his Clergy. This being done, he baptized Pagans and Idolaters, first instructed in the catholic Faith; which also three Nephews of the said Bishop did; namely, Unamannus, Sunamannus, and Vinamannus,( one of which was a Priest; the second, a Deacon; the third, a Sub-Deacon) whom the Bishop left behind him: Yet all three of them, like to blessed St. John Baptist, by the indignation of an adulterous woman, were slain with the sword: whose bodies are worshipped by all men with great great honour, in the Cathedral Church of Veven. But of this matter, more at large, as is shewed in the History of my dear Brother, and predecessor, Johannes Magnus, the Goth, in the proper places.   

CHAP. XX. Of the wonderful Garden of the Mountain Kindaberg, near the said Castle.  
THere is a most high Mountain amongst the Vestrogoths, not far from the said Kingly Castle, and the Lake Vener, and it is commonly called Kindakulle, it is so high, that it appears to mariners that are 40. Italian miles from it in the same Lake, like to a black Cloud in the air. Wherefore many that are driven by Tempests, and force of the Winds, endeavour by all-means to come to the foot of it, where they know that there is a most safe Harbour, on the top of this Mountain there are such pleasant Boughs, Herbs, and Fruits, of divers kinds( excepting the Vine) that come up of themselves, not more rare than sweet, as if they were sowed or planted, that there scarce can be found a more delightsome place in all the Northern climates. There is a sweetness that cannot be related, and that is multiplied by the concent of divers Birds, except the Papingay. That most pleasant place is known to very few, and they onely old men. Nor is it easily to be discovered to young people, least being released from more severe Discipline, they should cast themselves down to all pleasures, or rather beastliness, and would hardly or never be reclaimed to good manners. For pleasure itself brings on Use and custom, and constrains men, custom, Necessity; and Necessity, Despair, without this mountainous place, and elsewhere. Also, farther toward the North, there are found very good and sweet Fruits, as Pears, apple, Cherries, Prunes, but none before Mid-June, and then hardly any full ripe. And some kinds of these Fruits, as well at home, as in the Woods, grow ripe onely by the could approaching, and they last hanging the greatest part of Winter, upon the naked boughs, without leaves. But these Fruits are better than any vinegar, for pleasant sauce; yet they are but small, by reason of the constant could round about. But foreign Fruits soon brought from the Coasts of Germany by Sea, as are apple, are most greedily eaten by the Inhabitants, by reason of the sweet juice that is in them; that very seldom or never do they escape the danger of divers Diseases( especially French Diseases) or such as are mortal.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Beauty and Plenty of the iceland Elandia of the Goths.  
ELanda, or Oelandia, is one of the Islands of the Gothick Sea, divided from the Southern Gothland by a short cut of the Sea, the fairest of all Islands. For it is so replenished with many Goods, whereby it makes recompense for the short cut( that can be passed over in two dayes) and by the fruitfulness of the ground. The Meadows and Fields are admirable, for the unspeakable sweet smell of Herbs.  
There are many herds of small Horses, but they are very strong; for by their strength and agility they exceed many greater bodied Horses; and foreign and domestic Chapmen buy them for their pleasures, and transport them into remote Lands, to be sold as Wonders of Nature. For they are most ingenious, that they can be taught by them to dance and jump, at the sound of the Drum, or Trumpet; and it is their Exercise by such shows to get gain. Moreover, they are taught to leap through Hoops of Iron or led, not very large, as Dogs do, and they will turn themselves about with wonderful swiftness. Also being called by their proper names, they do it more or less, as they are commanded.  
These Horses feed, when there is necessity, with nothing but broiled Fish, and Fir-tree Wood; and they will drink Ale and Wine till they be drunk, as I shall show underneath concerning Elks. Wherefore this iceland abounds so much with Fruits, Pasture grounds, cattle, herds, and Fish, that it is sufficient to serve itself, and other places; and the Oxen, Sheep, And Butter thereof are so much approved beyond Seas, as if they were Physical. This iceland of Old had many Castles, built in fit places, fenced both by Nature and Art, and well fortified; whereof some are changed into Christian Churches, serving at this day no less to defend Religion, than the country: some of them are wholly made desolate by Wars. But there is one yet left unto this day, which is the highest and strongest of them, called Borcholm; and the height of it serves such as sail far off in the Gothick Sea, as a Watch-Tower, to direct them for their Winds and Ports, especially the English, Scotch, Zealanders, Hollanders, who stand in need of noted places in that Sea.  
This iceland is almost all compassed in with Marble stones, upward and downward, near the shore, 20. or 30. Foot high, as if they were purposely placed there by Art. Also in the Eastern Coasts thereof that stand open to the wide side, there are many fair Harbours; to which Strangers coming by Sea, no less for curiosity, than necessity, are wont to view it, as a spectacle of Nature. In this iceland in the time of peace, the Kings of Goths and Sweons, were wont to pass their times, because of the great pleasure of it, and their Exercise of Hunting. Also foreign Princes at a nearer cut over Sea, could more commodiously meet them there, in the expedition of weighty Affairs. Again, near the North Sea thereof, there ariseth a very high Mountain, which the mariners to avoid an ill Omen, and Tempests at Sea, call the Virgin; for such as stay in the Harbour of it, use to please the Maids with small friendly gifts that are wont to be given to them, as with Gloves, Silk Girdles, and the like. And they seem to think that the deity of that Mountain doth not take it ill, or will be ungrateful, as we red that it was done of Old, when a voice was heard, that bad him who gave his Gift to change his port, least he should be in danger, and in so doing he escaped; whereas all the rest were in hazard of all.  
In that Mountain men say at set times of the year, there is a meeting of all the Northern Hags, that they may try their witchery: he that comes late to the Devills ministry, is cruelly tormented. But these are but opinions, and no assertions to be granted.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the famous iceland of the Goths called Gothland.  
THe Eastern part of Gothland is called so, as you would say a Good Land, or Land of the Goths. For Goth in their Mother tongue, signifies good, or God, and Landia signifies Land. For it is good for many reasons: there are good people in it, there are good and secure Harbours round about it; there is good choice fields; it is good for herds, Horses, Oxen; Fishing, Hunting, Water, Woods, Pastures, most fair Marble, and in all things necessary for mans use. There is also in the North part of it, the famous Town Visby, in which there is a most firm Castle. This City was once the principal Mart-Town of the Goths, and of many other Lands, so frequented by Merchants-Wares, and plentiful with Riches, that the like to it was not found in Europe. The Goths, Sweeds, Russians, Danes, Prussians, English, Scots, flemish, French, Fins, Vandals, Saxons, Spaniards, singular nations, had their several streets and Houses to dwell in, and all might be free Men. And coming in by Sea and Land they found all peaceable, until by discord which is the most pernicious destroyer of all Kingdoms and men, it was overthrown: as also infinite other nations which flourished in former times. There are this day extant Marble Mines, that testify what the ancient glory amplitude and comeliness thereof were. There are yet Houses covered with scolop shell, doors of iron, windows of brass or copper: they were formerly guilded and silvered over, being an argument of mighty Treasures. Thence afterwards when hatred grew up and fraud, by the superfluous use of them, the Inhabitants divided, went into the Cities of the Vandals, who where no little enriched by the wealth of such guests, as Rome of old when Carthage was destroyed. The first armed Camp of the Goths descended into this Country, after they came forth of their own land, seeking in Europe and Asia new Lands, by reason of the insupportable multitudes of their Nations. Also many ages past, the Longobardi departing from the iceland Scandia, for the like, or some more grievous cause, passed through this iceland in Rugia, and went with infinite companies into other nations, and at last making a kingdom, they sat down in Italy: which also Paulus Diaconus, their Historian, testifies in his first book. Moreover the great King of Sweedland in the year of our Lord, 1288, appeased a dangerous war, that was between the Citizens of the City of Visby, and the common people of the said iceland, and he suffered the Citizens to repair the Walls of the City that were fallen down, and to fortify them with bulwarks and Forts. Albertus King of sweden being asked by the Princes of lower Germany, that our of their Sea he would eject the Vitalians that were most potent pirates, he pawned this iceland of Gothland to the Mr. of Prussia for 20000 Crowns, the sum whereof Queen Magaret that succeeded him, collected in Swethland, and restored that iceland of the kingdom of sweden, to its right and properties, to be possessed by a perpetual right, And saxon Grammaticus, a most famous Danish Historian, in many of his writings, asserts without doubt that this iceland belongs to sweden. By this one of many arguments, because they always use the same language, Laws, Customs, conformity of manners and neighbourhood: also because they are subject to the Bishop of the Goths of Lincopia, as to the first planter of the faith: from whom they ask, and fetch episcopal rights. Also from this iceland in all Mariners controversies, especially from the consulship of Visby, there is fetched and given Law, and a definitive sentence, what every man shall have or lose. This Law of Merchants and mariners is very wisely made; and sooner ends controversies concerning unconstant waters, than other Courts do for firm Land.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the Bucklers of Princes, engraven upon the Mountaines of Hanga.  
HOw great care formerly the Kings and Princes of the Goths had to perpetuate their noble famed, and Martiall prows, their arms, ensigns and Bucklers engraven in famous places, and left to their posterity do evidently show, especially in Ostrogothia, Vestrogothia, and South Finland, in the Magnificent Port called Hangae: which is so pleasant and safe, that in the whole Northern Sea, and perhaps the large Ocean, it hath not one to equal it, or to be compared with it. For it freely receives all that come sailing thither from all partts, and it securely defends them within it, by its natural strength, from all enemies ships, and from tempests, so they be careful themselves. For that harbour, like to a very large fort is pleasantly situated in the midst of Mountaines and Valleys: and on the Rocks it hath the most ancient Arms of the Goths& Sweons, in a larned order, engraven according to the ancient simplicity, especially to let posterity know that there rid continually, a Navy for the defence of the Kingdoms, against all assaults of enemies, and from thence as oft as need was, they proceeded to open war. And at this day for the like reason both the Prince and Nobi●ity have a Navy in the same port, especially because the neighbouring places can afford all things that may be suddenly required for to furnish a Navy of confederates: and all things will turn contrary to Enemies, if they intending mischief should come into this Harbour, Formerly Divus Ericus King of the Goths and Sweons, offering peace, when it was despised, he by a Warlike Fleet at Sea, and an Army of Horse conquered the Tavesti Careli, and Bothnii; and forced them to embrace quickly the Christian religion. For Babarous people are indocile, and cannot be drawn or invited to take upon them the Yoke of Christ, unless they be compelled by force of Arms. For( as Albertus Crantzius, Lib. 9. c. 37. reports of Vandalia) Great is the love men bear totheir Ancestors Traditions. In this Harbour the King of sweden, when they are provoked by great injury are wont to proclaim war, with a Navy furnished, or to be furnished, especially against the Ruffians or Muscovites: and again in the same Port, upon equal terms, are they wont to prescribe, and receive conditions of peace from the ambassadors of the said Princes. But that this is observed more frequently in this place than any other is by reason of the old custom of their Ancestors which they follow, who engraved their arms there in the Mountains, that the perpetual firmness of these, things being seen, which they judged good for the Common-wealth, they might establish them to posterity to hold them with one consent, and an Oath given, by the Arms and liberty of their Ancestors. But what arms and Buc●lers, the old Goths and Sweeds used hath at home and abroad, may be observed by those present ensigns, and be shewed by reasons also. For the Goths of old had a lion rampant regardant with a Crown on his head, leaping fiercely upon three Silver streams in a field of a sky colour, and they now have the same, onely that dwell at Origan, that in conquering they may spare, and looking back they may take heed, how suddenly those that leap, cease from their force: yet Methodius is pleased to affirm, that the Princes of the Goths when they made Wars in foreign Lands, and conquered, had a Bear on their Standards. But those that descend from the same Goths, as from their Parents, were distinguished by variety of Arms, according to the diversity of their Families; as the Cimbri by a Bull; the Sclavonians, by a Dragon; the Gepides, by a small ship; the Alavi, Burgundians, and Swedes, by a Cat, in their Warlike Standards, as Plutarch thinks. But the Swedes, or Sweans, had Arms of Old; namely two Virgins crwoned with Golden Cloths, mutually embracing one the other in a Green Field, as showing the excellency of the Nymphs Goddesses in that country.  
But now the Kings of Sweden use three Golden Crowns in a Blew Field, by reason of the inscrutable largeness of their Dominions, and their magnificent Warlike Deeds, and the unexhausted plenty of Minerals. There are also the Arms of many private Noble-men, that are distinguished with a wonderful variety: also of Cities and Provinces, that in Warlike Expeditions, undertaken for their Laws and country, such multitudes of men might be more orderly directed to one end; as I shall show more at large underneath, concerning the direction of armed multitudes.   

CHAP. XXIV. Of the Mountains with Helmets.  
AS you sail from the German Ocean toward the North, three dayes before the entrance into the Kingly City Holm, of the Kingdom of Sweden appears, you meet with an admirable Port, called in the Vulgar Tongue, Hielmsnabben, or Elgxnabben, because that Wild Asses, which are name Elgs, are wont to come thither, because of the attraction of the sweet Blasts: or also because the Mountains, in whose sides the Heavens are, seem so to be framed by Nature, that you would think that Souldiers Helmets were engraven upon them; as if Art were not sufficient to forge arms, unless Nature should direct her, and show what belongs to the Warlike Northern People, for handling of their Arms. But indeed as that Port is famous, for keeping away all Winds and Tempests, that there is hardly the like in all Europe; so also is it sprinkled with the Enemies blood, that there almost you may find the Original, Middle, and End of all the Northern Wars. For oft-times the Enemies shipping, which by the violence of Tempests was driven in here, and could not in the vast Sea fight in doubtful battle, was either compelled to ask Conditions of Peace from the Adversary; or else did willingly, or fraudulently, offer the same, or was constrained to run the inevitable hazard of Death or Captivity. For there was no way to escape by force of Arms. For if they go from the cost or Port, blind Rocks threaten ruin, and with a light motion cast the Enemy into a gulf, that he may make peace. But if he would go forth into the open Sea, there is a horrible Tempest against him, that one cannot endure to look upon for the twinkling of an eye, because the North and East Wind is always tempestuous upon those places. Moreover in times of Hostility, the Inhabitants by those Coasts take away all Sea-marks by the shores, that the Enemy may have no place to escape punishment; otherwise with an inaccessible cruelty, the ships of pirates, and Sea-Rovers would assault this Port: yet the beginning of battles at Sea, are frequently begun here.   

CHAP. XXV. Of the Straits in the Stoney-Ports.  
THere are moreover in the North Sea strait entrances, and places to go forth, that cause no small fear, chiefly as you sail from the open Sea, toward the City Holm: which is the Kings, and is notably fortified both by Nature and Art, that those that shall come against it may well be afraid; which is either the assurance or peril of mariners, in more happily overcoming imminent dangers. But the chief and most dangerous place is Steendore, that is, the Stone-door, because it is made obliquely with narrow mouths, and crooked Horns like the Moon, on every side, that is, sometimes mariners are forced to avoid it, after the fashion of a Scythian bow, and sometimes by regarding the point where it falls out that men wander with greater danger by far, because of thick Clouds, and Darkness that rise there, than in the large Ocean, when the greatest Tempest ariseth. And not far from that Bay there are Rocks of Stones that stick up, lying hide under water; and whosoever falls upon them, are swallowed up alive. And the Chronicles of the Goths relate, that formerly amongst those Rocks, many thousands of the Danes and Germans were suddenly destroyed and drowned.  
For they entred these Rocky Straights, by a more presumptuous than skilful Art of sailing; as also into other Northern Bays, which appear no otherwise to men sailing at Sea, than mighty Beams standing forth of the Waters, that fright those that look upon them; and have their names from the Event, Cause, Deeds, and Nature,( as I shewed before in the same Book, concerning the irruption of Waters) and these seem more terrible to pirates that are their Enemies, than any Armies that are appointed with Weapons for War.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of Stoney-Rocks, and the dangerous Passage through Idebenckia.  
THere are also on the Coasts of the Ostrogoths and Sweons, mighty Stones, partly apparent, and partly lying hide, placed in a long rank, like to Benches, by Art or Industry, they are vulgarly called Idebenckia: Upon which unhappily, mariners are wont to sit fast, and suffer shipwreck, and it was my chance to be in danger there, in a great Tempest, Anno Dom. 1517. unless God had delivered me: For by the violence of the Winds, the ship was driven upon those secret Rocks, which for a long way, appear like shelving walls of Towns or Castles. They that fall either by negligence, or inevitable Tempests upon these Stones, especially the ships of Enemies, who come with a purpose to rob the people of those Coasts, who are very rich, are to be held most unhappy, because both by Sea and Land, they are more horribly encompassed with Enemies, than if they were shut up in a Prison. For by Land they will soon be consumed by Famine, which is the greatest Enemy; and by could, which is a most grievous Torment; the Inhabitants when an Enemy comes, flying away, with all their Heads of cattle and Goods. And by Sea, because in that place, as I said, there is wont to be a horrible Tempest; from which, if they would escape by Art and Industry, yet they cannot resist the severity of Nature. For in all parts, besides the Distemper of the air( as I said) there are Stones or Rocks, sharp pointed, like steeples, that threaten danger, which must be cunningly sailed about, the Froth discovering the Bent and Compass that must be taken. The Admirals of the Warlike Fleet, using stratagems of War in these places, are wont to place some ships of War, or some like them, of purpose in time of War, that have the Enemies Flags, that when the Enemies see them, they may the more securely run into danger; concerning which, namely when the Enemies ships were thus intercepted, the Annals of the country testify; though I should say nothing of it, and the bones of the Enemies cast upon the Rocks, do apparently demonstrate what is to be avoided with great care.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of swift Torrents.  
THere are almost infinite swift Torrents, chiefly at the time when the Snow and Ice melt; which after the end of April, in the Northern parts, are found to bring great ruin to the Inhabitants: For by the force of them, which is vehement and terrible, they not onely take away and carry with them, Farms, Houses, and Stone-Bridges, but Trees also that are dug up by Art, or else are yet growing on the grounds; as I said of the irruption of Lakes, and in another case before.  
These Torrents give the Name, according to their impetuous Nature, to those Cities and places they run by, as the most ancient Towers of the Ostrogoths, called Scheningia, from the River, or rather the Torrent, which by reason of its most swift course is commonly called Schena, as it were a horse, that having cast off his bridle, is inflamed to run headlong every way. Moreover, there is a Name given to a River, not far from thence, from a continual cracking noise of the Teeth. So also, to the swift Torrent in the Province of Middelpadia( as I said before) is the name Nodus given; because like to knobs, it takes and carrieth away with it, when it melts, Trees bound up in heaps of Ice, like hard crusts,& most huge stones also: and this is the more formidable, by how much sooner it is wont to fright and over-run Provinces and People. And hitherto there hath been no other remedy found for this horrid depopulation, than by every mans labour, and by casting up Banks, to turn the course another way: which, though the Northern people in many places turn from them; yet they suffer this Torrent, that they may involve a rash Enemy, by opening the sluices, and the Falls or Waters being let loose. And though before, Names were given to Torrents, from the unhappy event,( as I shall also show elsewhere, concerning the Bishops that preached the Gospel, which were drowned, and the Marriage sports, and ravishing of Virgins) yet the wiser men thought fit to give the Names from Triumphs and Victories, and not from Calamities.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the divers Forms of Stones upon the Coasts.  
ON the Coasts of the Ostrogoths, that is, the Eastern Goths, of the Narrow Sea, called Broniken, where also a most vehement Torrent runs through the Town of Norcop, there are found divers Figures of the Stones upon the Coasts, as if they were engraven by mans Art, or polished: which doubtless is conjectured to be done by the secret influence of the Heavens and Elements. Some also of these Stones are like to mens heads, hands, feet, or fingers; not joined together in a whole body, but so wrought by a Distinction of Nature: But that Nation accustomend to such Spectacles, takes no care for these or such like things, any further than as they serve to make their Walls and houses strong. There are also found in the Mountains, which are far from the Seas, Rocks that are naturally made round and concave, that you would take them to be some Brass Cauldron, or Bowl of hot Baths: as you may see it amongst the Ostrogoths, in a Mountain called vulgarly Ketilberg,( that is, the Mountain of a Ketil) near the City Lincop, where I was born. Moreover, in many Valleys of the Mountains, there are infinite store of stones to be seen, fashioned round, as big as Calves heads, or Goose eggs, bigger or lesser, which without any Art are fit for great Guns. Also there are Whet-stones that are plain and long, and are applied to good use: likewise, there are Rocks of marble amongst the Vestrogothi, so great and of so various colours, that without any Iron Instruments, as if they were made by Art, they are fit for Grave-stones; as I shall say in the 12. Book, concerning the natural variety of stones, to be applied for all Buildings. Also there are Crystal stones, not far from the Town of the Ostrogoths, called Sudercop that have six corners, that hang as big as ones fist, or finger: with whose splendour, for the greater Ornament houses may be made, if the Inhabitants regarded Ornament more than they do Strength. But considering, that the rage of Enemies, both could and would more cruelly waste all, by reason of the fair Buildings, they more fortify than beautify their houses; though commonly the insides are most curiously adorned: but chiefly, as I shall show underneath, with glittering Arms, Breast-Plates, Head-pieces, and Bucklers; wherein that Nation conceives all comeliness to consist, because great part of defending themselves, depends on these: yet some of them are pitched, and of a black colour, for some Reasons I shall assign hereafter concerning Wars.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of the Stones of Giants, and Springs of Waters.  
AS I said before in my first Book concerning the Obelisks of the Gentiles, of Kings, Champions, and Giants, whereby they thought to make their magnificent Deeds most known to Posterity, as saxon Sialandicus speaks of his Regnerus, King of the Danes, who having fought five years in the North against the Ruscians, and Moscovites, left his Actions engraven upon the high Rocks, that he might not be forgot, because he had fought them for his honour, when he was pressed with so many streights and difficulties: so also it is concerning many of the Kings of the Goths and Sweons, and heroical persons, the greatness of whose Actions, is yet discerned in the most eminent places of the Northern Countries.  
Amongst which those are reckoned and esteemed to be the most famous and memorable, who so moderated their care of Warlike Glory, that they seem most to have brought profit to the Common-wealth: such a one was that most excellent King Ubbo, the Builder of the most ancient City Upsal, and Scarinus, and Ericus, with many more, whose indelible memory, seems not onely to be written on Stones in the Fields and Mountains, but is continued in their country Verses, and with Musical Instruments, in the most famous places, and eminent dayes, with perpetual Dancings. For the more faithful care of these men was( when there was a general peace) to command the Governours or Provinces, for the public good, besides arms, to bring the Springs of Waters that fell down tumbling, to drive Mills, for the good of the Inhabitants, or to make necessary Fountains for the general profit. Moreover, there run out of the Rocks such abundance of Springs, in many places, that being brought along by the agility of Nature and Art, for a long way, but very pleasant to behold, they drive about 15. or 30. Water-mills. Falonia of the Vestrogoths, a most noble Province, and populous Helsingia, as I shall show underneath concerning the Artifices of Iron, do represent such, and so commodious Spectacles.   
The End of the Second Book.   

OLAUS MAGNUS THE GOTH, Arch-Bishop of VPSAL: CONCERNING The Superstitious Worship of Devils, used by the People of the North.  
An Epitome of the Third Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Superstitious Worship of the Pagans of Lituania.  
ALbertus Crantzius, as saith German Historians, who was famous, Anno 1500.& after him Mechavita, a Poland, do affirm, the Lituanians, in the time of Paganism, whilst they were detained by the errors of Gentilism, to have adored three Gods especially; namely, The Fire, Woods, and Serpents: Fire, because it is better then all Sacrifice; either seduced by the custom of the Persians, who thought the Fire to be a God; as Herodotus saith, or lead by the Opinion of the Egyptians, who were persuaded, that the Fire was a living Wild-Beast, and devoured all things that were made, and so soon as it was full with devouring, it died with that it had devoured. They held the Woods to be sacred; and after the manner of the Egyptians, they thought that all the Beasts that lived in them were Gods, as the Poet saith; The Gods also dwelled within the Woods.  
And many Nations also lead by this confidence, burnt their Kings and Princes, when they were dead, that they might be made Gods, or go to the Gods; or else they hanged them up solemnly in Groves and Woods by a chain of Gold, as if by such sacrifices they should deserve praise for their wickedness, and by counterfeiting a false God. Moreover they adored Serpents as sacred, whilst they seemed to hurt no man, holding them to be the keepers of their houses, and household gods, yet this superstitious worship, though it seem wholly to be taken away, the relics of it, by the instinct of the Devills, continue in some secret houses in deserts, as also in the Northern Kingdoms of Norway and Vermelandia. But in the year 1386, the foresaid Lituanians, as we red, were purged from that error. For then their most potent Prince Iagello with his eight Brothers,( as Mechovita testifies) accepted the faith of Christ: in which even to this day they persevere and increase in Religion. Besides, the foresaid Historian mentions that there is a Statue placed on the high way, on the confines of Lituania and Muscovia, that in their language is called Zlataboba, that is the golden old Wife, which all passengers pacify with some gift, though not Worth a straw, or else their journey will not prosper.   

CHAP. II. Of the Superstitious worship of men under the Pole.  
NOr is the utmost part of the North( which many think to be Inhabitable by reason of extreme could) free from Sacrilegious customs, and worshipping of Devills, that must be performed at their times appointed. For those savage Nations( as other Nations of the world that seem to be more civill) have no small causes, whereby they may debate and defend their public error, and feigned Divinity in frivolous matters. Therefore they adore the Sun that shines to them all the Summer, giving thanks unto him, because he brings them light instead of darkness they endured, and heat against extreme could: which things however they seem to be intolerable, yet they never upbradingly curse, as some Indians do, but they onely say: These are foolish and sottish colds, and darkness beyond measure, &c: and so likewise they adore the Moon because in Winter, when the Sun is absent, they always enjoy the light of the Moon: but when that fails by reason of the conjunction, they dispatch their business in the day, by help of most clear stars, which shine the brighter by reason of the white Snow. Moreover those people that live under the Pole are deluded by a more stupid error by the Devills. For they hang a read Cloth upon a Pole or spear, and with attentive prayers and customs of worship, they adore it, thinking that there is some divine virtue in it, by reason of the read colour which is like to beasts blood. And also because they suppose that by looking upon it, they shall be more fortunate in killing of beasts, drinking their blood, as I shall show underneath, concerning the manners of the Laplanders. Also some people of the North have a custom, that whatsoever they see first at break of day, in the air, Earth, or Waters that is alive, the same thing they faithfully adore for a God, until the evening of the same day, as Birds Beasts, Fish, and even Serpents, and Worms, and chiefly the horned Beetle: which they honour amongst the more noble creeping things, by reason of its horns that young men use to adorn their heads with. And least the said Northern people should appear empty in the sight of their Gods, they make certain oblations to them of the Bones of Wild Beasts, and of great Whales and Fish, that they have hunted for: yet in Summer-time they burn not the bones( least they should seem to mock at the Suns light or heat) but when the could Winter ariseth, they burn them at public meetings for the honour of the day, thinking that by that sacrifice they offer due reverence to their Gods, so great is the Religion of the Gentiles in frivolous matters.   

CHAP. III. Of the three greater Gods of the Goths.  
THere are amongst the old heathenish Goths,( as my famous Brother and predecesour John Magnus, Arch Bishop of Upsall, clearly asserts in the beginning of his Histories) three Gods that they worshipped above the rest. The first whereof was the most mighty Thor; who was worshipped in the middle of their dining rooms, with a cushion put under him; on both sides of him, were two other deities, namely Odhen, and Frigga. Thor, say they, was chief in the air, where he Thunders and Lightens, governing the Winds and clouds, and fare weather, giving Corn and all fruit, and removing Pestilences. The other Odhen, that is the stronger, is president of the wars, affording men help against their Enemies, and his place is next to Thor himself on his right hand: and he so famous in mens opinions, that all Nations should worship him as much as they do the light, that is given to the world, nor should there be any place in the world,( as saxon testifies) which should not obey the power of this God. The third was Friga, which governed peace, and pleasure: and she carried before her the image of it, which was the foulness of the Sex, and for that she was as much adored by the Goths, as Venus was by the Romans: and Friday is consecrated to her, and so continues even to our times, She was painted with a sword and bow, with weapons, because in those lands, both sexes were most ready at their arms. But Thor was set forth with a Crown and sceptre, and 12 stars: and they thought that nothing could be offered to him that could equal his greatness. And he had appointed for him one day every week, and the first Month in the year, which we call Jannuary. But Odhen is set forth Armed, like to Man, by the same superstition the Gentiles used amost the Romans: and he had a day perpetually consecrated to his name. And because he whilst he lived obtained the Title of a God in all Europe, for that he yielded to none in military art, hence it is supposed that the Goths,( as Dio the Greek, Ablabius and Iornardes testify) said that Mars( whom Antiquity thought to be the God of war) was born amongst them, as also saith the Poet.  And Mars amongst the Goths, who is the chief in war. 
The Goths always highly honoured him to pacify him, namely with the death of their Captives, for they supposed that the Ruler of wars would be pleased most with mans blood. From whom also they perfectly learned all Martiall arts, so that they conquered the most mighty Empires of Europe and Asia, and arrived to the highest degree of valour.   

CHAP. IV. Of the three lesser Gods.  
BEsides these three Gods above said, they worshipped many more, who( as saxon reports) being wonderful cunning in witch-craft, deluded the Minds of simplo men, and arrogated to themselves the names of Gods. For they not only tainted the Goths, with the principal contagion of their delusions, but also all the Northern Provinces circumvented with the snares of vain credulity, they stirred up to a desire of worshipping them. For the effect of their fallacies grew so famous, that in them other men adoring some power of the Gods, and supposing them to be Gods, or the Gods companions, they paid their solemn vows to these authors of witchcrafts, and they gave the adoration due to Gods worship, to Sacrilegious error, amongst whom was one Methorin, a notable Magician, who wan to himself a great opinion of feigned dignity, and he drew the minds of simplo men, that were seduced by the famed of his false impostures to offer unto him juggling sacrifices. This man being the chief Priest of the Gods, did so distinguish their sacrifices and ceremonies, and so order them, that a distinct honour and offering should be observed to every God: maintaining that the displeasure of the Gods cannot be pacified by common sacrifices, or mixed ceremonies, at last his wickedness being discovered, he was killed in a concourse of the people, and being slain, he killed many with the pestiferous contagion of his carcase, he was pulled out of his grave, and fastened to a stake; as the juggling vanities he used well deserved. Also Froe the Lieutenant of the Gods had his seat not far from upsal; where he changed the old way of offerings, used by so many Nations, so many yeares, for a sad and unspeakable abomination. For he attempted to sacrifice men, and offered intolerable offerings to the Gods. He being ranked amongst the Gods, and because he was held to be the God of blood, dark sacrifices were offered unto him, and in their yearly solemn days, night sports and Lectisternia were consecrated to him, as formerly they were at Rome to Pluto and Proserpina, Vagnosthus and Hadingus were adored with equal reverence, because they were supposed to afford principal assistance readily in time of great wars. They believed that Rosthicphus Finnonicus, after he was dead, was translated into the number of the Gods, because when he lived he was excellent to foresee future things. To these is added Rostatus: whose stupendious humanity would be so pacified with the sacrifice of mans blood, that they would dedicate to him the Souls of those, that such as adored him could subdue. Lastly there were many more most potent, thought to be the Sons of Thor, or Odhen, who were honoured by the people, and thought worthy of public sacrifices to be offered unto them. But how or by what arts these men and such like, obtained so great an opinion of Divinity and to be adored, I shall inquire underneath, L. V. of giants and Champions. chap. 1. toward the end.   

CHAP. V. Of the Magnificent Temple of the Northern Gods.  
SEeing that of old, the whole world almost in every place, was deluded by innumerable superstitions, and instinct of the Devills, I thought it not incongruous, yet further to show evidently in what places the Goths or Sweeds, and Northern Nations seduced by heathenish superstition, gave obedience to dumb Idols: that it may be known, that there were many places,( as there are kinds of Devills) wherein unlawful worship was offered. There was therefore a Temple( concerning which my dear Brother and predecessor, D. John Arch-Bishop of upsal speaks, L. 1. Histor.) that was most famous from the time of Ninus, near to the River Sala; where at this day is Upsalia the principal and archiepiscopal seat of the Sweans and Goths, which they so adored, being built so magnificently, that there was nothing to be seen on the walls, roof or Pillars, but shined with Gold.  
Also the whole upper part was made with glittering Gold; from which a Golden Chain hung down, and is recorded to have gone round about the Temple to the Walls, and tops of the House. Hence it was, that the Temple situated on a large Plain, by the admirable lustre of it, begot in those that came near to it, a Venerable Awe of Religion. There grew before the doors of it, a huge three of an unknown kind, that spread with large Boughs, and was green both in Summer and Winter; yet not of those kinds, which of their own Nature seem to grow green, as the Bay-tree, Olive, Palm-tree, or Myrtle. For in the North never was any Olive, or Bay-tree seen to grow up, but in a small shrub, as we may see at Vastens. There was also a Fountain near this Temple, which ran into the place of their Sacrifices: of which I shall speak by and by underneath. And let this suffice for other Nations, to understand some of the vain Customs of the Goths. Now it is fit for me to show unto the Northern people, that it was not they onely that were seduced with this vanity. And now we must confess, that by Gods mercy, in that very place; namely, at Upsal, at all times, especially on the 19. day of May, there are catholic Sermons preached of Divine Religion, to almost innumerable people. The King and Princes, and Nobles of both Sexes being present, where formerly so many wicked and abominable filthy acts were committed, and so many men, both Friends, and dear Parents, were offered in Sacrifice.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Religion, and Sacrifices of the Goths.  
THere was formerly in the Sacrifices of the Goths( as it is set down in the History of the Sweons, and Goths, L. 1. C. 12. a great respect had to the number of 9. It may be, because the Pythagorean Philosophy( which they learned of Salmox, and Diceneus, admonished them, that the odd number must be preferred in all things. And although they did weekly and daily give the supreme honour to their Gods: yet every nine moneths they used a more solemn adoration to them, for nine days together, sacrificing and performing their Rites and Religious Worship; and they offered every day nine kind of living Creatures, and they joined unto them the Sacrifices of men. But after nine dayes, by the supreme solemnity of all the kingdom, the Temple of Upsal, that I mentioned before, was visited by the most frequent coming thither of the Inhabitants, and there for nine dayes they kept holiday; and by the foresaid number of sacrifices, they offered their Offerings to their god upon an Altar. But that man, who by Lot was to be offered, was plunged alive into that Fountain, which ran into the place of the Sacrifice; and if he died early, the Priests pronounced the Vow to be fortunate; and they presently took him from thence, and hung him up in a Wood hard by, which they reputed sacred, and they affirmed that he was translated amongst the Gods. And from hence that man thought himself happy who was to die, by being sacrificed. It fell out sometimes, that the Kings themselves were chosen by the same Lot, and sacrificed: which because it was esteemed to be a most lucky offering for the kingdom, all the people with high gratulation and thanksgiving, did adore so noble a sacrifice. For they thought that those who departed thus did not die at all, but that they and themselves also were immortal; especially from Salmox, Zenta, Diceneus, as Dion, Ablabius, Jornandes, Strabo, and others writ: who also assert by many Reasons, that the Goths studied wisdom excellently, and therefore held an opinion of the Souls immortality: for that( as Herodotus saith, L. 4.) thinking they should not die, they would say; That those who were departed this life, went to some place more pleasant: Wherein they said, that a certain God Bleyxen was chief, to whom they daily sent, besides the manner already mentioned, a Messenger in a Galley, with five oars, which was some man chosen amongst themselves, commanding him to desire from the bounty of the God, such things as they stood in need of. The manner of dispatching the Messenger was thus: Some of them held some sharp Spears upright; and upon these they threw him who was designed to be sent, catching him by his hands and feet; and if falling, he died presently, they supposed that the God was pleased with them, accepting their Messenger at first. But if it happened otherwise, they accused the Messenger for being a wicked man, and that he was unworthy to be sent to the Gods. Wherefore casting him away, they sent another, giving him his Arrant whilst he was yet living, what he must solicit, when he came to the god. Then casting him down, when he was dead, they delivered him into the gulf of the Sea, by the help of those five Oars.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Goths Superstitions about Thunder.  
MOreover, they were so obstinate in observing the Worship of their Gods( as we find it also in the same History of the Goths and Sweons, l. 1. c. 12.) that when it thundered in the air, they would shoot up Arrows, to show their readiness to assist their Gods, which they thought were then fighting with others that opposed them. Nor were they content with that rash Superstition, but they had for that purpose great Hammers bigger then ordinary( which they called Ovials) that were bound about with huge brass, and which were observed most religiously, that by them, as by the Claudian Thunder, and by the usual similitude of things, they might imitate the noises in the Element of the Air, which they believed were made with Hammers,& they thought most devoutly, that the force of such a noise, by imitating the same with the Smiths Hammers, would give assistance to the Wars of their Gods. That custom of Jupiters Hammers lasted until the 1130. year after the Birth of Christ, when as Magnus, King of the Goths, hating Heathenish Superstition, for the love of Christian Religion, held it Piety to spoil the Temple of its Worship, and Jupiter of his Robes; who therefore for many years was held by the Goths as a Sacrilegious Robber of the spoils of Heaven. Also, the Goths were wont when they were going to battle, to sacrifiee their horses upon Altars, and cutting off their heads, and setting them upon long Poles, they carried them with their mouths wide open, upon these Staves, before their Armies. And they not onely offered Beasts in sacrifice before the War, but men also when they had conquered their Enemies; and they made magnificent plays for the honour of their Gods: wherein were observed effeminate motions of their Bodies, and mimical gestures of Stage-Players, and pleasant ringing of little Bells, and noises of Timbrels. These, and other notable kinds of Sacrifices were the chief cause, that by the assistance of the Gods, they could never be conquered in battle. For they so loved, and practised Wars continually, that they supposed all other Studies nothing worth, being compared with Military Arts. There were Priests that had the charge of these Sacrifices, who were of different degrees, as the Pontifex, the Archflamen, the Dancing-Priests, the soothsayers: the first of these; namely, the High-Priests, had equal power allowed them as the Kings had; and so great was their authority, that whatsoever they either persuaded, or commanded, as if it had been spoken from Heaven, was cheerfully executed by the King and all the people. They instructed the Nation in much wisdom; they choose Priests, they founded Religion; Dion the graecian testifies, that this Nation never wanted High-Priests, which might teach them wisdom. There was al●o amon●st them a kind of High-Priests that were more illustrious, which they called Pileati, and Pii, out of which they fitted themselves with Kings and Priests, as Jornandes shows more largely, who saith they were wont to be called Pij, and that they were wont to go forth of the City-gates with Harps, and white Garments, to meet the Goths in triumph, that they might pacify their Gods.   

CHAP. VIII. Of their fighting against the Gods.  
AGain they fell into another Folly and Superstition, that when the Gods did not favour them in their Warlike Expeditions, or did not help them, they by lifting up divers kinds of Weapons against Heaven, supposed they could conquer them, or compel them by fear and threatening words to do what they required. And in this idle action, they believed that they had no less power upon the Earth, and were to be feared and adored as much, as others that were gone to the Gods above or beneath. But they observed not the old Proverb of the Goths, That we must not dart our Spear against Heaven, for a thicker Club will be thrown back from thence.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Fatal Sisters and nymphs.  
THere are also in the Northern Countries some Temples consecrated to Diana and Ceres, and houses of the Fatal Sisters, that were built by Witch-craft, without mans help, which the ancients were wont to come unto praying, making solemn Vows, when they went to consult the Oracles of the Fates, concerning their Childrens future De●●inies, where looking into the chapel, they knew that sometimes three, and sometimes more of these Nymphs sate: Whereof some granted to children a comely face, and favour abundantly amongst men: Others gave them Liberality, or other excellent virtues: Again, others of a more froward Nature desiring to hurt the Gifts of the rest, would make Children in their future condition to be Parsimonious, or guilty of some other fault. And they did not onely delude Children by these juggling Arts, but sometimes Kings also and men of years, as is evidently found out. For Hotherus King of Sweden, and Denmark, as he Hunted, by error of a Cloud, being drawn far away from his Huntsmen, fell into the Conclave of some Virgins living in Woods; and being called by his own name by them, he asked what they were; They testify, that by their leading and good success, the Fortune of the War was chiefly governed. And that oft-times they are present in battles, when no man sees them, and by their secret assistance, they give to their Friends such success as they shall desire; for they said, it was in their power to make the Event prosperous, or adverse as they pleased; desiring him that he should not make War against Balderus, who was born of the secret seed of the Gods: when he had heard this Message, Hotherus sees himself to be left suddenly in the open air, and without any house or shady place to cover him, exposed in the middle of the Fields; but he most of all wondered at the sudden flight of the Virgins, and the false situation of the place, and counterfeit house, he had imagined to be there.  
For he was ignorant of those things which were done about him, and thought it was onely a delusion, and fraud, by Witch-craft. After this, some years being passed, the same Hotherus being worn out with most cruel Wars, going into the farthest deserts and Woods to wan●er in, where men use not to frequent, by chance he found a Cave where Virgins dwelled. It proved, that these were the same which had formerly given him a Garment that was armor of Proof. And being demanded by them, wherefore he came into that place, he relates unto them the unhappy Events of the War; so that condemning their Faith, he began to lament his ill success, and hard fortune, complaining that it fell out otherwise with him, than they had promised it should.  
The Nymphs answered, that though he seldom wan the Victory, yet he had done as much mischief to the Enemies, as they had done to him, and that he had been the Author of as great ruin as his Partner had: and farther, that he should win the Victory, if he could but first catch away the meat that was provided to increase the Enemies Forces; for by this means he should see all things succeed according to his wishes. He was thus sent away, and he recruits his army, and levies new Forces against the Enemy. And when he came to view their Tents, he saw three Maids go forth, carrying secretly away the daintiest meat: these he ran after,( for he might see the way they went by their footsteps on the due) then he comes to the houses where they dwelled, and by the sweet music of his Lute,( on which he had excellent skill) he obtained from them a most accurate shining Girdle, and most powerful to prevail with in battle: so going the way he came, he met the Enemy, and slay him with a great slaughter: so that the next day after he was sent to Proserpina, which he seemed to see standing by him in his sleep.   

CHAP. X. Of the Night-Dances of the Fairies, and Ghosts.  
ALso Travellers in the Night, and such as watch their Flocks and herds, are wont to be compassed about with many strange Apparitions: As King Hotherus,( so saxon reports) following three Nymphs to their Caves, obtained a Girdle of Victory from them: yet sometimes they make so great and deep impression into the Earth, that the place they are used to, being onely burnt round with extreme heat, no grass will grow up there. The Inhabitants call this Night-sport of these Monsters, the Dance of fairies: of which they hold this opinion, that the Souls of those men, that give themselves to Corporal Pleasures, and make themselves as it were slaves unto them, and obey the force of their Lusts, violating the Laws of God and men, when they are out of their bodies, and wander about the Earth. In the number whereof they think those men to be, who even in these our days, are wont to come to help men, to labour in the Night, and to dress Horses and cattle; as I shall show hereafter in this very Book, concerning the ministry of the Devils.   

CHAP XI. Of the War against the Fauni.  
SInce Antiquity testifies that there have been various monstrous things, and almost innumerable Delusions, which have passed almost through the whole World, as Ghosts, Rural Gods, Satyrs, Hags, Hob-goblins, Witches, Fairies, household Gods, and Shepherds Gods in abundance, by which men were extremely terrified, or torn to pieces and slain: I did not think fit to conceal what Policies and Weapons the Northern people used to resist these Visions and Apparitions. It is a Tradition, that the noble Champions of the Goths did often fight single with Monsters, and huge Beasts, either to free some weak men, or to try their valour, and they took care not to set upon any wild Beast with more company, than the custom of valiant men would permit.  
Regnerus of Sweden was a Champion, and a King, who fought all night against most obscene Troops of Nocturnal Monsters, which were sent forth by Thorilda his cruel Mother-in-law; and when it grew light, he perceived that he met oft-times in the Fields divers forms of Ghosts, and unusual representations of Shapes; amongst which he saw the likeness of Throilda, wounded in many places. By this means he acquired the same of a Champion, and took by force his Fathers kingdom from his Enemies.  
Moreover, one Broderus and Buchi, with King Gorman, being more bold than ordinary men are, increasing the Warlike spirit of the Goths, in searching out the foot-steps of natural things, undertook a Voyage full of danger, and scarce to be undergone by mortal men. For sailing round the Earth, leaving the Sun behind them, and passing by the stars that were under the Deep, and lastly coming beyond the Land of Biarmia, into places where was no light( as I shewed c. 1. l. 1.) but in continual darkness, they fought with incredible Troops of Monsters. For they invaded Fairies that came upon them, and took away their Weapons from them; and they conquered whole Armies of strange Apparitions, with their Bows and Slings, as saxon the Danish Historian, and most diligent searcher of Antiquities, writes in his Preface concerning King Gorman. We find it also related amongst the ancient Histories, how Hotherus, Son to the King of Sweden, being waking in the night, and his mind full of care that troubled him, threw his Spear at the satire Memmingus, that appeared in his Lodging, and having stricken him down with the blow& made him unable to fly away presently he held him in chains; and then threatening him with most bitter words, he requires of him his Sword and Bracelets, which he knew he had, and the satire soon delivered up what he demanded, to save his life. For the life is before all things, and Mortals esteem nothing more than it.   

CHAP. XII. Of Divination.  
TO satisfy this Title, I must premise the saying of the catholic Dr. Chrysostome, who saith in his Homily, There shall be Signs in the Sun and Moon, &c. That there is no Creature which so much desires to know future things, as man doth &c. This being considered, we must farther confess, that there never was any Nation so civil and learned, nor yet so ignorant and barbarous, which hath not used to signify future things, and by some means to understand, and to fore-tell them; but chiefly the Northern people, which I find to have employed themselves in the study of knowing things to come: for by the flyings of Birds, leaping and noise of Fish, and by their singing; also by exhalations of Mountains, &c. they thought that future Accidents might be declared, as by certain Signs.  
No War nor public business either at home or in Military Affairs, was done without South-sayings; and not onely the Discipline of Wizards was accepted by the chief Governours, but of Fortune-tellers, Divination also by the air, by the Earth, by the Fire, by the Dead, and all Dreams of importance, if any seemed to concern the Common-Wealth.  
Othinus foretold to King Hadringus, who went to wage War against Jocherus Curetus the Tyrant, that he should be taken captive, and it fell out, as he said.  
Govarus, King of Norway, was so skilful in the Art of Divination, and so well learned, to tell future things, that he being in Norway, could see whatever was attempted against him in Saxony, above a hundred German miles from him.  
Gormo surnamed the Wicked, being of a drowsy condition, dreamed that his Wife bare two Birds, but one was greater than the other; and that they flew upwards toward Heaven, and in a small time betwixt, they returned again, and sat upon both his hands, one by one; and so the second time, and third: when they had restend a while, they took Wing, and flew into the air; and at last, that the least of the two came back to him without the other, having the Wings all bloody. This Dream was thus truly interpnted: His two Sons subduing the English, Sclavonians, and the Irish, had very good fortune, until such time as the Elder was slain in battle, but the Younger, when his brother was lost, seemed to have his Wings smeered with blood.  
Magnus, King of Norway and Denmark, that night wherein there followed a War with Sclavonia, when he slept, he saw an Apparition of one in his sleep, that  told him before that he should conquer his Enemy, and in killing of an Eagle, he should be assured of the Victory. The King awaked, and  told his Dream in order, with great admiration, and proceeding with his Army, he saw an Eagle near him, that he had seen in his Dream; and riding swiftly to her, he killed her with a Dart, and fled faster than the bide could with a swift shaft.  
Wherefore his Army took the sign of good luck; and laying hold of the first occasion to fight, overcame the Enemy, having the same event in battle, as the Omen foreshowed.  
When King Valdamar his Army went forh to War, such Troops of crows flew suddenly between them, that many were knocked down with the Enemies Spears. King Sweno and all his Army were conquered by him, and made crows meat, which declared the event of the soothsaying.  
Biorno, a noted Champion, compassed in a certain iceland, with a choice Band of able Souldiers, which was fenced round with a most swift River: he saw in his sleep a great Beast coming forth of the Waters, that cast forth flames of fire at his mouth, and burnt all presently. The next morning King Fridlevus, coming over this violent River, destroyed all these Champions( except Biorno) with the sword, and so fulfilled his Dream.   

CHAP. XIII. Of the Magical Art of Ericus with his Windy Cap, and of others.  
THis Ericus, King of Sweden, in his time, was held second to none in the Magical Art; and he was so familiar with the Evil Spirits, whom he exceedingly adored, that which way soever he turned his Cap, the Wind would presently blow that way. From this occasion he was called Windy Cap; and many men believed that Regnerus, King of Denmark, by the Conduct of this Ericus, who was his Nephew, did happily extend his Piracy into the most remote parts of the Earth, and conquered many Countries, and fenced Cities, by his Cunning; and at last was his Coadjutor, that by the consent of the Nobles, he should be chosen King of Sweden; which continued a long time with him very happily, until he died of old age.  
Moreover, another Ericus, whose surname was Emundus, when he purposed to sail, and one of the sailors saw in a Dream himself carried on horseback over the cragged tops of Mountains; and the horse running swiftly, that he was thrown headlong into the shady Valleys, and much torn with Owls Tallants; he related this in the morning to his Companions in jest: the King that was no less skilled in Divination, than in magic, being as it were forewarned by that Vision of the danger, that he should not have that man to sail with him, he commanded to set him on board another Bottom: and so when the company perished, the Kings ship was safe. But Frotho, King of Denmark, when his own brother Harauld was treacherously slain by him, that he might not cruelly destroy two innocent Children, his Nephews, Haraldus, and Haldanus, their Tutors hide them in Caves, under ground, like young Puppies,( as saxon testifies) and fed them there, affirming with divers fictions, that they were devoured in the Night by Wolves.  
But Frotho, not believing they were dead, purposed to search the Cave, by a Woman that was cunning in soothsaying, which had such power in her charms that any thing, how difficult soever it was, if she could but see it afar off she would call it to her. She related that one Regno did secretly educate these Children; and to cover the matter, called them by the names of Dogs; who when they found that by the unusual violence of her Charms, they were seen by her, and carried out of their Kennels, that they might not be discovered by such powerful compulsive command, cast abundance of Gold into her Lap, which their Tutors had given them: when she had received this Bribe, she counterfeited her self to be sick, and lay as one in a trance. When the Kings Ministers sought to know the cause of so sudden downfall, she said it was impossible to find what was become of the Children: whose mighty force did alloy the most fierce Effects of Incantations. So being content with a small Reward, she ceased from expecting a greater reward from the King.  
Therefore by these, and the like Arguments, it is known how much the power of Divination and Magistical Art was adored among the ancients; which now by certain negligence is let go, and come to nothing; for it was performed by Prognostications, South-sayings, looking into entrails, Fire, by Water-works, by Lots and Signs, and thousand more Sacrilegious Rites, found out by the Delusions of the Devils: yet men use now adays certain Divinations( approved by causes of natural things) and Lots, by casting two or three, or more pieces of Wood into a Pot, that by the White, read, or brown colour of them, they may divide mens Inheritances.   

CHAP. XIV. Of Women-Witches.  
I Shall show you by a few Examples, how cunning some Women were formerly amongst the Northern people in the Magical Art. Hugbert, Daughter to Vagnostus the Giant, was wont to change her posture at pleasure; sometimes she was very great; sometimes less; sometimes exceeding small; sometimes withered faced; sometimes beautiful: sometimes she was as tall as the Sky; sometimes so short as a Pygmy; and she was supposed to be able, to pull down the Heavens, to lift up the Earth; to hearden Fountains, to melt Mountains; to lift ships into the air; to pull down the Gods; to extinguish the Stars, and to make Hell a light place.  
When Hadingus the King was at Supper, another Woman of the same Art, that carried Pipes, was seen to lift up her head above the ground before the fire; and stretching out her bosom, she seemed to ask in what part of the World so new green Reeds grew; the King that desired to know the matter was carried by her under ground, wrapped in his own Cloak; and having shewed unto him the Monsters of the Infernal Regions, she restored him back to the Earth again.  
Craca, a Woman of Norway, that desired to know the future fortune of her son Rollerus, provided Water-grewel, and into this she dropped the venomous moisture of three Land-Snakes, that were hung up above by a small Twig. But Ericus, Son in law to Craca, took to himself the Dish that was provided for her Son Rollerus; and he being refreshed with this happy meat, by the internal operation of it, arrived to the highest pitch of mans wisdom. For the force of this meat bread in him the knowledge of all Sciences beyond belief; so that he could understand the meaning of the cries of Birds and wild Beasts. Besides he was so eloquent and curious in his speech, that whatsoever he pleased to discourse of, he would constantly illustrate it with pleasant Proverbs. By his counse● King Frotho overcame the Army of the mighty Huns, that was assisted by 170. Kings. And at length, Gestblindus King of the Goths, made this Ericus Heir to himself, and to the kingdom of Sweden; and that about the time of Christs Nativity  
But King Frotho being hunged at by a Witch that turned into an ox, was slain by her upon a certain Sea-coast. Guthruna suddenly blinded the forces o● King Larmericus, and made them fight one against the other. An Earthen Pot useth to be the common Instrument of all Witches, wherein they boil their juices, Herbs, Worms, and entrails, and by that Witchery meat they 'allure idle persons to them, and make ships, horses, and horsemen, to be as swift as a boiling pot.   

CHAP. XV. Of the Conjurers and Witches in Finland.  
ALso, I shall show very briefly what force Conjurers and Witches have in constraining the Elements, enchanted by them or others, that they may exceed or fall short of their Natural Order: premising this that the extreme Land of the North Finland and Lapland, was so taught Witchcraft formerly in Heathenish times, as if they had learned this cursed Art from Zoroastres the Persian; though other Inhabitants by the Sea-coasts are reported to be bewitched with the same madness; for they exercise thi● devilish Art, of all the Arts of the World, to admiration; and in this, and other such like mischief, they commonly agree. The Finlanders were wont formerly amongst their other Errors of gentilism, to sell Wines to Merchants, that were stopped on their Coasts by contrary weather; and when they had their price, they knit three Magical knots, not like to the Laws of Cassius, bound up with a Thong, and they gave them unto the Merchants; observing that rule, that when they unloosed the first, they should have a good Gale of Wind: when the second, a stronger wind: but when they untied the third, they should have such cruel Tempests, that they should not be able to look out of the Forecastle to avoid the Rocks, nor move a foot to pull down the Sails, nor stand at the Helm to govern the ship; and they made an unhappy trial of the truth of it, who denied that there was any such power in those knots. But this Northern country since the time of Christianity received, never durst be seen to use this Art openly, being kept down by the penalty of laws. Moreover, Sivaldus the Swede, who was corrival with King Holdanus, had 7. sons, who were such cunning Witches, that they would suddenly in a force of fury roar horridly, bite Bucklers, eat down burning coals, go through any fires that were made: nor could this motion of madness be allayed, but either by Bonds, or by shedding of mans blood.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Magical Instruments of Bothnia.  
WItches and Conjurers were commonly found amongst the Northenn people of Bothnia, as in their proper place; who by a perfect Art of casting Mists before mens eyes, could represent themselves and others in divers shapes,& with false Apparitions hid their true faces; and not onely Champions, but Women and young Maids were wont from the thin air to borrow wan Vizards, and counterfeit pale faces: and again laying these airy Vapours aside that shadowed them, they would discuss these dark Clouds before their faces with bright day. And it is certain, that their Charms had such force, that they would make any thing clearly to be seen present, how far soever it was off, and however it were bound up fast in never so many knots: and by such juggling Arts, they demonstrate the same thus:  
They that desire to know the state of their Friends or Foes, at a very great distance from them, five hundred be it, or a thousand miles off, they inquire of a Laplander, or Finlander, who is skilled in this matter, giving him a gift;( namely, some linen Garment, or Girdle,) where their Friends or Foes are, and what they do: Whereupon he goes into his Conclave, content with one companion, and his Wife, and he beats upon a Frog of Brass, or Serpent, with a Hammer, upon an Anvil, so many stroke as are prescribed; and by mumbling of Charms, he turns it up and down; and presently falling he is ravished into an ecstasy, and he lies a short time as if he were dead: In the mean while, he is safely guarded by his foresaid companion, lest any Living Creature, Gnat, or Fly, or other Animal might touch him; for by the power of his Charms, his Spirit, by the misleading of Devils, brings from far some token,( namely a Rings or a knife) for a testimony of his embassy or Commission fulfilled: And presently rising up, he declares the same signs to him that hired him, with the rest of the circumstances: And they are reported to be no less powerful in striking men sick of divers Diseases; for they make of led Magical Slugs, as short as ones finger: they sand these into men never so far off, which they desire to be revenged on. They by a Cancer rising on their Legs or Arms die in three days. There are also the Witcheries or Conjurations of the men of Helsing, the chief whereof Vitolphus, did so strike all men blind when he pleased, that they could neither see the next houses, no● find the way thither: he knew so how to darken the use of Lights, by Cloudy error.  
Moreover, one Visinus, a Fencer of great account, would blunt the edge of all Weapons, by onely looking upon them, yet was he killed with the sword of the Swedish Giant Storchaterus, of whom I shall speak underneath. For he always kept his Sword covered in a thin skin,( which is said to be the onely Remedy against the blunting of it. But Stones that are to be cast forth, can be charmed by no Charms; nor their force taken off from doing hurt, when they are thrown strongly.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the Sea Magicians.  
ALso, amongst other Northern deities, one Hollerus by name, a Magician, was worshipped, who gained to himself the Opinion and Honour of a God amongst a curious people, by no less Fraud then Superstition. For he having got equal power with Othinus, amongst the Gods grew so famous by Arms, and Delusions, that he used onely a bone for a ship to pass over the Seas; which bone he had enchanted with his cursed Charms; and he would as soon pass all Obstacles in his way with that, as if he had hoist up sails with a prosperous Gale of Wind. But at last, that men might see that his deity was mortal, he was cruelly slain by those that envied him. Besides him, one Oddo, a Dane, a mighty Pirat, was so well learned in magic, that he would wander at Sea without a ship, and oft-times drawned his Enemies ships, by raising Tempests with his Charms: Wherefore, that he might not fight at Sea with pirates, he was wont by Witchcraft, to raise and exasperate the Winds and Waves to destroy them.  
This man, as he was cruel to Merchants, so was he courteous to countrymen; for he esteemed better of Countrey-neatness, than he did of the sordid gains of men. Also, he had great skill to blunt a sword with his Charms: but at last being circumvented by an Enemy more cunning than himself; he was drowned at Sea, who was wont formerly to walk on the gulfs of the Sea by his enchanted ways.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the same Magicians, and the like.  
THen Othinus, who was the greater and elder amongst the Magicians, brought back upon a horse, many leagues at Sea, one Hadingus, King o● Denmark, who was foully deluded by Magical Incantations, and drawn away from his acquaintance: But as Hadingus was brought a long, he observed the prints of the horses feet in the Waters, as he peeped through the chinks of that covering, he lay trembling under, and exceedingly admired at it: and when he was prohibited to look after that he was not allowed to do he turned away his eyes that were full of amazement, from the terrible contemplation of his Voyage. Again, Haquinus King of Norway, when he was to fight against the Danes, he raised a storm by Witchcraft, and so beat upon the Enemies heads, with Hail-stones of an unusual greatness, that their eyes were hurt as with arrows from the Clouds, and they could not see, the Elements fighting more against them, than the Enemy.  
Moreover, the men of Biarmia that are nearest to the Artick Pole, being to fight in the North against the most mighty King Regnerus, they set upon the Heavens with Charms, and raised the greatest Tempests in the Clouds that could possibly be. Then the Danes, when the Tempest was abated, were scorched with most tempestuous heat: so this double mischief and distemper on both sides, afflicted their bodies, that they lost their Victory, and their lives together.   

CHAP. XIX. Of a Magician bound.  
AMongst the Ostrogoths, there is a huge Lake of fresh waters, called Veter,( of which I spake sufficiently before) but there is in the middle of it a large iceland, wherein there are two Parish-Churches: in one of them there is found a Vault that hath a hollow long entrance, and going forth of it, and it is wonderful deep; which Vault, none but vain-glorious and curious people, provided with lights, and clews of thread, to find the way back again, descend into: chiefly for that end, that they may see a certain Magician called Gilbert, who by magic Art( for thence arose his misery) from old time by his own Master Catillus, whom he presumed to insult over, was overcome and bound there. It was done thus, with a certain small Club, that was carved with the characters of the Goths or Russians, and was held forth, and taken in his Masters hands; for by this was Gilbert bound, and became unmovable, that neither by using his teeth to unlose himself,( for they clung together, as if they had been fastened with pitch) nor yet using his feet could he yet loose, being made fast by the crafty counsel of his Master. And though many rash-headed people run continually to see this Spirit with vehement admiration, yet they dare not presume to come very near to him, by reason of the stench of the Cave, and hurtful Vapours, for fear their breath should be stopped, and they should be suffocated, Also, they are kept from him by Mounds cast up, and by Bars, set by the Inhabitants, lest such as despise their own danger, should go in like mad-men, and should never come forth again.  
Moreover, it is provided by a most severe Law, as it is for them that kill themselves, that such as know these dangers shall not 'allure others that are ignorant of them, to seek after this sight; or led them in, whom they have persuaded to it. This foresaid iceland Visrigxae, is very famous for the pleasant and secure Mansion of the Kings there, who are there dead and butted.   

CHAP. XX. Of the punishment for Witches.  
LEast the Northern Witches should seem alone here to be lead to sad spectacles, Vincentius in Spec. Hist. l. 25. c. 6. comes and tells us, that an English woman deluded by Magical Art, after cruel torments, was carried by the Devils into the air with horrid cries. His words are these:  
There was a certain Woman in Bethelia, a Village of England, that was a soothsayer and a Witch who one day when she was eating, heard her chough, that she took great pleasure in, to spe●k something more loud than it was wont to do: When the mistress heard this, her knife fell out of her hand, and she grew pale in her face; and lamenting, she said very often; This day is my Plough come to the last Furrow; this day shall I hear and receive great hurt.  
As she yet spake, a Messenger came to her, saying; This day is thy Son dead, and all thy Family di●d suddenly. This heard, she sank down, wounded with continual grief, and she commanded all her children that were alive to be brought to her, which were a friar and a Nun; to whom she sighing, said thus: I by my miserable destiny, ever was a servant to the devil in my actions, I am the Sink of all 'vice, and the mistress of enticements: I onely confided in your Religion, and I despaired of myself: But now, because I know the devil shall have me to torment me, who persuaded me to offend, I beseech you, by the bowels of your Mother, that you will attempt to ease my torments; for you cannot revoke the Sentence of Damnation passed upon my soul: Wherefore sow up my body in a Stags skin, and put it into a Chest of ston, and fasten the cover with Iron and led, and bind about the ston with three great chains. I● I ly three nights thus in safety, you shall bury me the fourth day: though I fear the Earth will not receive me, by reason of my Witchchrafts; let there be Psalms sung for me fifty nights, and Mass said for me as many dayes. They did as she bad them, but it nothing availed; for the two first nights, when the Clerks and Queristers sang Psalms about her body, all the Devils easily breaking the Church door that was fastened with a mighty bar, tore in pieces two of the chains; but the middle chain which was made stronger, held fast. The third night, about Cock-crowing, all the Monastery seemed to be lifted from the Foundation, with a noise of Enemies coming; one of them was more terrible to look on, and taller then the rest; and he striking the Church-door with greater force, broke them into fritters, and came proudly to the Coffin, and in arrogant gesture, and calling her by her name, commanded her to rise. When she answered, that she could not for her bands.  
Thou shalt, saith he, be unbound, but to thy greater mischief: And he forthwith broke the Chain, the rest of the Devils could not do, as if it had been Flax, and he kicked off the cover of the Grave with his foot; and taking her by the hand before them all, he drew her forth at the Church-doors, where there was prepared a black horse, which proudly neighed, that had Hooks of Iron all over him, that stuck forth: Upon this Horse was this miserable woman set, and she presently disappeared from the beholders eyes, with all her company. But there were cries heard almo●t four miles, of this miserab●e wretch calling for help. Also saxon. lib. 14. relates what sport of the devil happened to the Rugiani, in the City Karentina, for their worshipping of the devil; where by the i●lusion of the devil, men were first provoked to commit Adultery, and then presently in the time of this most beastly act, they were punished most detestably. For men in that City being alured to ly with women, stick to them, as Dogs do to Bitches; nor can they be pulled from them in a long time. Sometimes both of them being hung one against the other upon long poles, being fastened together by an unusual way, became a laughing stock to the people. From the foulness of that miracle, solemn worship was given to base Images; and it was supposed to be effected by their forces, which was shadowed under the delusions of Devils: Therefore, as St. Augustine testifies, lib. 8. De civit. Dei, such things are tolerated by a just judgement of God for their sins; for it is most just, that they should be afflicted, or made subject and deceived by them. But he that desires not a happy life hereafter, nor to led a godly life now, by such horrible acts, may seek death in Hell: but he that will hold no society with wicked Spirits, let him not fear the damnable Superstition they are worshipped by; but let him embrace the true Religion, whereby they are discovered and conquered.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the hurts done by the Devils.  
IN the Northern parts( where the Devil hath his Seat really) they mock the people that live there with unspeakable delusions, under various forms, and do them hurt also, throwing down their houses, killing their Cattle, spoiling their fields, making a Desolation of Castles and Waters.   
The End of the Third Book.   

Olaus Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: CONCERNING The Wars and Manners of the Wild Pagans, and their Neighbours.  
The Epitome of the Fourth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the unhappy battle of Regnerus, King of Denmark.  
saxon Grammaticus, the most famous Author of the Danish History, relates, that Regnerus King of Denmark, for five years, when he had ended his Piracy on the Coasts of Russia, to have resolved to invade by arms his Neighbours of Biarmia; namely, Northern People, living in Mountains, and Champion Land, and to bring them down by his incomparable power. They, when they knew of his coming, presently used Charms to Heaven, and so prevailed with the Clouds, that they filled them full of Rain, to do violence; which so long held Regnerus, before he could put off to Sea, that his provision was spent; and so soon as the Tempest was allayed, a violent heat scorched him: Nor was that plague greater, than the great could was raised also. Wherefore this double mischief of untemperate weather, did by turns mightily disturb and corrupt his souldiers bodies, by their immoderate coming upon them. But as the King observed himself, to be stopped rather by the false, than true force of the air, to revenge this insolency of the Biarmians, he comes again upon them unexpected. But their King relying on his most skilful Archers of the Duke of Finmarck, his Neighbour, tore in pieces the Army of Ragnerus, who then held his Winter-Quarters in Biarmia; yet suffered no loss himself. For the Finlanders,( as I touched upon it at the beginning of my first Book) being able to run swiftly with slippery stakes, fly away at pleasure, and have power to come near, and remove far back presently. For so soon as they have wounded their Enemy, they run from him, as fast as they came upon him, and they will return, being nothing wearied by their running forward: Wherefore by reason of their wagons, and nimbleness of their bodies, they have a most ready way, to fall on, or to retreat.  
It is to be believed, as the same saxon reports, that this mighty King sustained his ill fortune courageously, and wondered at it, when he saw himself who had triumphed over the Roman pride, to be brought to the very last point of difficulty, by an unarmed and disorderly Company: wherefore he that had so gallantly beaten down the most illustrious Renown of the Roman Souldiers, and the mighty force of the great Commander, was forced to yield to the most sordid and slender provision of a savage and base people: and he whose famed in War the forces of the most potent Nation could not quell, could not stand against a small handful of contemptible men. Hence it fell out, that by that hand wherewith he most valiantly worsted the most famous glory of the World, and the greatest Instrument of Military strength, wherewith he openly adventured against the terrible noise of so many Horse and Foot, he was fain privately to fall upon this ignoble and obscure people, and to steal upon them unawares; and he was not ashamed to slain his great glory, got openly in the day, by fraud in the night, making choice of clancular Snares in the place of open Fortitude. This thing, as it was ill favoured in the dead, so was it base in the End, and he might sing the common Verse, Oh by what small things, great things are dectroyed!  
I pass over how Arngrinus conquered Tengildus, King of Finmarck, and Egbert King of Biarmia, who resisted Frotho, King of Denmark, with so obstinate a mind and forces. The said Frotho married his Daughter, which he onely loved, to the said Arngrinus, a Swedish Champion, who vanquished Egbert, whom he challenged to fight a Duel with him; thinking it not unfit to become his Father in Law, who had made himself so famous, by so many Titles of his Actions, and had conquered a most sharp Enemy.   

CHAP. II. Of the cruelty of the Wild Inhabitants.  
AS the Eastern people that dwell in the Caspian Mountains, by reason of the mighty noise of the Sun-rising, and the horrid sound by secret exhalations coming from the bowels of the Earth, fly to Caves to save their lives, and stop both their ears, that they may be safer in the troublesone time: so the Nations that live in the utmost Coasts of the Seas of Norway, by reason of the violent southwest Wind, and thick Snows lying on the tops of the most high Mountains, have their Caves under ground, and live upon Fish, and Wild Beasts. And these hate any men that shall sail to them for traffic, as if they were Rovers, fearing to be brought into captivity by them: But such as are Runaways, and oppressed by the cruelty of Tyrants, they admit for their companions, and they instruct them for their defence, how they may catch pirates in snares, and kill them, when they come upon their Coasts. They may indeed, whilst they counterfeit themselves to be Fugitives, or show their Harbours to strangers to ride in, that they may be in no hazard, shut them up in what dangers they will. But when strangers come not, that they cannot do these and the like practices, by reason of the Sea frozen, they are forced to stay in Dungeons and Caves, made up with the bones and ribs of Sea-Monsters, because of the Winds and Snows.  
For these Caves seem to be made very cunningly, being thatched outwardly with Sea-weeds, like to a ship turned bottom upwards; and that by reason of the Winds vehemency, which are no less formidable in that place, than cruel Tempests raised out of the Sea. There are some certain men amongst them, that are as it were shepherds, that live on the Coasts of the Caspian Sea, that stop the passages to their Cottages, with turf and Sea-Weeds or Mountain Moss, with Twigs fastened together, lest any man coming from Sea, might come to view, and search out them, and their secret places. And it may be they willingly endure this hardness of the air and Earth, and to live in Dens, that they may be free from the intolerable and infatiable Tributes of Tyrants, to whom the boundless Ocean seems to be but a small Earthen pot. Also Pliny, lib. 16. c. 2. relates very strange things concerning Nations living in Caves toward the North, and toward the boiling Sea; namely, that there is a miserable people which have high Hillocks, and green Banks made with their hands, that are higher then the highest flood of the Sea; their Cottages being so made like to men sailing in them, as when ships are drowned by shipwreck; but when the waters go out, they hunt after Fish about their Cottages, which go back with the Sea; and those they thus take, they dry more by the Wind, than the Sun.   

CHAP. III. Again concerning the cruelty of these Wild Men, &c.  
TOward the white Lake of the farthest North parts, where the Dominion of the King and kingdom of Sweden is largest in extent: there dwell most fierce people on all sides, who use no other Breast-plates, than Wild Asses, or Elks Skins: Likewise they use bows and launces that are fortified with a most Spear before and behind. For by an admirable agility( as I said before, lib. 1. of the Scricfinni) they can turn and wheel about at pleasure on every side, and can avoid or put off any violence; and that chiefly on the tops of Valleys, that are in all places filled continually with thick snows. And we may almost say of these Nations, what the chief Philosopher of the Scythians Anacharsis writ of their Diseases; that is, that neither any one that comes unto them can fly away, nor can they be taken, nor yet be found, unless they please, and laid hands of. For they have no Cities nor Walls built: they all carry their houses with them: the Foot-Archers living without any bread, but onely with Fish and dear they kill, their Houses are Wagons and Tents, made either of the dried Skins of Beasts, or of the Barks of Trees: yet in Winter they quarter by the Banks of Waters, and in Summer, amongst Shrubs, and Trees, and shady places, varying their station. Their Caps frequently are Wild-Geese, or Duck-skins, or Cocks; which, as other Fowl, are there found in abundance. There are a World of precious Skins, rather to be barterd for, than to be bought with money.   

CHAP. IV. Of the fivefold Speech of the Northern Kingdoms.  
BY this diversity of their Habits and Arms, is declared what difference there is of their Countries, Languages, Ages, and Exercises. For there are many great and mighty Lands, as Lapland, Moscovia, Swethland Gothland, the Land of the Vermori, Dalenses, of the Mountainers, and Norwegians; whose largeness is extended far and broad, and is greater then all Italy, Spain, and France, joined together: That Pliny did not falsely call them for their undiscovered greatness another World. Therefore it is no wonder, that therein is found the use of five Langu●ges; namely, of the Northern people, of the Laplanders, or men of Bothnia, Moscoviters, Russians, Finlanders, Swethlanders, Goths, and Germans. But in these could Countries, some men live to be above 160. years old, as they do also in England and Scotland, wherein the Venerable Bishop David lived to be 170. years of age: also the Exercises of those that dwell in the Northern deserts, are Hunting and Fishing, and they live by bartering with the Moscovites. The Finlanders live by Husbandry, Fishing, and hewing of Wood: The Goths and Swedes busy themselves in the same Exercises: The German strangers are given to merchandising, and live by gain; they observe the Law of the Terrigenae, and they import all things that seem to respect a civil kind of life, as silk clothes, weaved Garments with Gold, and divers Wines.  
What kind of Weapons they use, I shall show both here partly, and partly underneath; but more at large concerning their battles in the Fields. But here it is granted, that amongst all the Northern people, the Goths are the most experienced in Archery, and more nimble at their Slings, as the Finlanders are approved for their bows.  
The Swedes use to fight with Axes, and Hatchets, and Speers: their Habit after the ancient manner is wont to be short and close about them, except their Hose that are more wide. The Swedes use more large Garments almost after the German fashion: The Moscovites wear long Garments, as the Greeks did: of them all, these are the most Northerly: But the wild Laplanders are clothed in costly Skins, not for any Ornament, but for Necessity sake.   

CHAP. V. Of bartering of Commodities without Moneys.  
SInce all Fraud is nought and detestable in any thing whatsoever, yet it is worse and more detestable and bitter, the more it is attempted amongst simplo people, when any false or adulterate money is paid to them; as I shall show underneath in my 6th. Book, concerning diversity of moneys. Therefore this Nation of Laplanders, or men of Bothnia, and wild places, is quiet at home and is held not to be known to the rest of the World. They are not troubled with false money, for they looking rather to the account of things, than of moneys, obtain with pleasure and content what they wish for. And being thus ignorant of the noise of Wars, they live without Seditions, and dwell together without Envy, and communicate all things one to another without Fraud: all the Contention they have is to avoid Poverty, and not to be enamoured of Riches.  
These people know not how to be covetous, nor will they vex themselves with any Fraud in Bargaining: Wherefore living without Tumults, they seek onely for moderate Fortunes, that they may not be deprived of a good Conscience, as many rich men are; for it is a heinous offence with them to take any thing by violence, who know not how to deceive any man of his Right: Yet since they are not happy in all things, but that they want other mens helps and commodities to make them so, therefore they stick to traffic in Goods, without money, depending on honest and faithful change one with another, by a mutual consent; and without uttering any words, they deal justly: not for that they want wit, and have barbarous manners, but because they use a peculiar Language which other Nations can hardly understand. Also, there are places appointed yearly, to perform these businesses, either upon the Plains, or Frozen Lakes, and these are kept as Marts, that they may vent in general all such Commodities that they have gained by their private wits at home or abroad. Nor do they abstain from the like Merchandise, when other men bring to them what they desire.  
They have Governours, and they highly respect them chosen by the common consent of the people, called Bergchara; that is, Mountain-men, to whom they pay many precious Skins, and divers kind of Fish, as well for Tribute due to the King of Sweden, as given by them of their own liberality. And these are clothed in read, whereby they are known before others. They pay also the like Tributes to the King of Norway, and Emperour of Moscovia, and are subject to them. They never make Wars against their Neighbours, or any that live far from them, unless they be provoked by great injury; and then also they use not onely Arms that Fury can afford, but they fall upon their implacable Enemies with cruel Incantations, stupefying the Limbs of their Enemies; so that they can neither lift up their hands, nor strike with their swords, and can hardly fly from them.   

CHAP. VI. Of Fairs upon the Ice.  
IN this Scheme is demonstrated the most ancient custom of Marts upon the plain and wide Ice, in many Provinces, and places, that are observed by most rich confluence of Merchants. Their most eminent place is the Archiepiscopal City of Upsal, of the kinged. of Sweden: through the middle whereof a most vast River passing, is so mightily frozen with thick Ice, most commonly about the beginning of February, that it will bear the weight of infinite multitudes of men, Beasts, and all sorts of Commodities. And such Fairs, even until this day Antiquity called, and yet calleth Dysting, that is, the judiciary place of the most prudent Quueen Dysa, because this most high-spirited, and most wise woman, seeing the infinite multitude of people, by reason of the most could influence of the Heavens, their Corn and Fruits being exhausted, to be in danger to bestarved, she declaring the Necessity, persuaded them rather to go forth of their Native country, and to seek a seat in other Lands beyond Seas, living peaceab●y, and when they had found it, to be diligent about it, than to lose their lives by the most horrid censure of some improvident men: yet this going forth of the people, is not from the Peninsula Scanziana, whereof Paulus Diaconus speaks concerning the Lumbards. There might be the like cause, but at a very great distance asunder: for by the Command, Order, and Direction, of this Queen Dysa, it was varied with an infinite multitude of people, and with power. But since my most dear Brother and predecessor Johannes Magnus, Arch-Bishop of Upsal, makes mention of this in his History, I sand the curious Reader to his Book, and return to my Icy Marts; and say, that by an unvaried sign, time out of mind, all the Northern people, and the Nations near to them, are wont to observe these Marts most strictly, after this manner, That the first Full-Moon shall prescribe an infallible sign and time( which is after the day and midnight of the three Kings in January) at which time all men may come to those Fairs, kept at a place very well known to them all: yet observing that point of time, both before, and at, and after that in their Commerce, that the Moon decreasing, may show every man the way to return to the place from whence he came. The business that Merchants there traffic about, are things of all sorts: Namely, precious Skins of divers Creatures: also Silver Vessels for the Table, and for the Ornament of insatiable Women: also Corn, metals, Iron, Copper, Cloth, and things to be eaten; which are more frequently bought by just estimation, than by weight, in a mutual and pleasant agreement; except such things which Providence, which is a wise Defence, perceives, that the Inhabitants may want for their present or future necessities: such as are Corn, and War-Horses, and moist meats, as Butter, Cheese, Lard: the kinds whereof, if War be suspected, are forbidden to be brought forth by foreign Merchants, or their Factors, by a public Edict, with a penalty to confirm it. Moreover, in another place upon a Lake congealed, called Melet, about the end of February, by the Walls of the City Screngen, there are Marts held upon the Ice. Again in the middle of March, at a place called Oviken in the Territories of Jempthia, in the Mountainous places of Sweden and Norway, there are Fairs kept upon the Ice; and in very many places about the middle, or end of May, Troops of Horses pass over the Frozen Waters, which are very wide, whether they be for War or Peace, when at Rome they are wont to feed on delicate Fruits.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Marriages of the Laplanders by Fire and Flint.  
THe Friends and Kindred being present, the Parents confirm their Childrens Marriages by Fire; and by this Steel and Flint, that Fire is strike out by. For in Fire and Flint, as by a Conjugal Society, the most fit and lucky Marriages are made fast than by any other sign whatsoever. And without Fire the more civil Christian People elsewhere in the North, do not solemnize their Marriage Rites. For every one, both Bridegroom and Bride, according as they are for Eminency and Kind●ed, command long Torches that are made by wonderful Art, of divers colours out of soft Wax, with many coloured silk pieces hanging about them, to be carried before them to the Church as they go, for the Priests Benediction: which also they leave there behind them, with great Oblations, when they have ended their Solemnities: But in the mean while, they that carry the Wax-lights, rend off the silk ribbons, as in great fury, for a rich booty.  
Moreover, Women when they have been delivered of a Child, they come with Wax-candles lighted to give thanks to God; and all faithful Christians also are carried to their sepulchers with Lights burning; as they came into the World before by Baptism, and a lighted Lamp. But to what belongs to the foresaid Laplanders, and their custom, I must farther add, that these Marriages being celebrated the way spoken of by Fire, the Kindred bring home the Bride adorned with Ermine and Zabel Skins, upon a ranged or tame dear, accompanied with a notable company of her Friends, according to the account of her Birth.  
And so they bring her into the Bed-Chamber, or Tents, wishing unto her health and fruitfulness, and they use Dancing in the mean time. But the Bridegroom is adorned with Skins of a spotted Beast, or Mardurins, walking like to some Noble-man of Venice, to be esteemed as much for his rich Furs, as others that are loaded with Jewels, or Gold Chains. But the Bridegroom is so much more to be commended, together with his Bride, and that whole Nation, that they will be joined tegether with so great state, not by wandring Lust, but solemn Matrimony.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Mourning-Dances.  
NOr doth this Nation, dwelling under the most could Northern Climate, where Day and Night divide the Year, seem to remain without joy mingled with sorrow, as if they lived in a desert. They make merry banquets, having Minstrels with them, that the guests being more merry,( though they feed on hard meats) may be provoked to dance; which they led on, when the music plays lustily, singing in their country rhyme, the famous acts of their ancient Worthies and Giants; namely, that glory and praise they wan by their valour. Then falling to deep sighs,& groans, they fall down upon the ground in humble manner, and the like is done by many standards by, that they may seem to be conformable to the rest.  
At length the music raising them, they fall to more delicate meats, playing no more doleful Tunes; which were played chiefly for that reason, because they are unable to imitate the famous Deeds of their Ancestors, in any, or but very few things, or be like to them in their Titles; that is, for defending the chastity of Maids, nd repelling the violence of oppressors, where, by a deceitful dissimulation of Governours, these wicked Enormities are committed or suffered to be done, without any punishment for them. Therefore the foresaid people think it far better to dy than to live; for the most part they mourn, when Children are born, and sing at Funerals, as if they were Festival times.   

CHAP. IX. Of their Exercises by Moon-Lights.  
IT is a frequent Question, what the Northern people do, when the nights are long and continual, before and after the Winter Solstice, when by the light of the Sun, men especially under the Pole, should do any work; and again, when they have nothing but Day in Summer, and scarce any Night appears for six moneths; wherefore we must here observe, that ptolemy testifies in the Second of his Almagest, c. 6. that in the 39. parallel, the greatest day is six moneths long; and under this parallel there are men, or countries, farthest toward the Pole; namely, the Laplanders, and Bothnians, and Isdalenses, that are Islanders. In the 38. Parallel, the greatest day is five months, under which is Sweden, Helsinge, Angermannia, and the more Northerly parts of Norway. In the 36. Parallel, the greatest day is reckoned to be three moneths: under this is Gothia, Muscovia, Russia, and Livonia. Therefore, they that live in that long Summer light, or opposite darkness, know excellent well, and they are wont profitably to vary their constant actions, when it is night. For instead of day-light, they burn the fat of Sea-Monsters, and with a Wick put to it, they use that in their Houses, Fields, or Woods: they make thin, and prepare the Nerves of Living-Creatures, especially of ranged dear( whereof I shall speak underneath concerning Living-creatures) for Thread and Webs, and Cloths, to be sowed together, especially of Skins with wool; because Flax in those far Countries, is neither sowed, nor doth it grow.  
Moreover, those that labour in Champion-places, use in the snow, either the said fat of Beasts, or Fish-Oyl( and the Wind can have no power over these) or else they have the clear Moon-light, or reflection of the Stars; and they can do greater works in the Woods and Fields, when there is Snow and Ice in the Moon-light, and make longer journeys, than they can do in Summer by light of the Sun.  
For in Summer, the crooked Valleys, and obliqne Hills, and steep Rocks, and high Mountains, cannot be passed over with their Wagons, to make Journeys; but in Winter all are plain and fit, to take any kind of Journeys, and they are so agile, and opportunely ordered, that two Oxen will draw more weight( as I said before, and as I shal say hereafter, concerning wars upon the slippery Ice, or beaten snow, than ten horses can do in wagons on land.) But as concerning the great Light, that it may not hurt them whilst they sleep, they keep Remedies sufficient against it, both at home, and in their Tents; nor yet the glittering brightness nor heat of it, do so much hurt to the Inhabitants, as the most cruel Gnats do, which, may be, are a greater plague to the Egyptians, as I shall show underneath, and speak of the Remedies against them.   

CHAP. X. Of their Ships, Bands, and Roots, bound together.  
BEcause that in the Lands farthest North, no Mines of Iron, Copper, or Silver, are yet found out, and they have great necessity for shipping, by reason of the multitudes of Waters, which must be fastened with Iron; therefore when they make little ships, most for the use of Fishermen, they most ingeniously put together the cleft boards of Pine and Fir-trees, made into thin Planks, whereof they have plenty in their Woods; and these they fasten without any Iron Nails with the pliable green Roots of Trees, as with Ropes, as Spiders do their Webs. Others bind their Vessels with Withs, or Twigs of Poplar Trees, and other Trees, except oak, which grows not near them within two hundred Gothick or German miles. But Fir and Pine-Trees there, are so strait and high, that they are most fit for every necessary use, and for gain, for those who desire it, when they can be sold to foreign Merchants. Others, for making ships, fasten the Planks, together with the Nerves of Beasts, converted and bruised, especially of ranged dear, which they dry by the Wind and Sun; but these Nerves are like Hairs, drawn off from the thinner Nerves, which are made clean for to make Thread, and are as it were the Excrescence of them; as I shall show elsewhere, lib. de Animal, concerning the use of Ranged dear. But all their ships, however they are made or joined, are most diligently smeered with Pine-tree pitch( whereof there is plenty in abundance) and they are fastened with Wooden pins, within and Without, where ever need is. Their ships are very short, not deep, but very broad, in a due proportion, and they are kept to sail with, in Tempests, because the Waves rise not high, but are frothy; which froth is raised, by reason of the stones that lye hide under the Waters; and they commonly yield to the Waves, like to a Sack of Leather, and to the reflection of the Waters, because they are not fastened with hard and unconquerd Iron, but with soft tough Twigs and Nerves. And these will last long against the injury of the Elements, because of the imbred Pitch.  
They use for Anchors crooked Roots of strong Wood, bound with Poplar, or Birch-Withs, that are as long as Ropes, and their Sails are Woollen Cloth, and Barks of Trees, especially on standing waters, but very seldom on the salt-sea. They call these ships Scutes; as there is a long kind in the Bothnick Sea, and fresh waters, called Haapar, that is most carefully fastened without any Iron. And this, as it is wonderful long, so it is monstrous swift, that it seems almost to fly with any light touch. It serves onely on swift descending Rivers for Summer-fishing.  
In which kind of ship I was carried most dangerously Anno 1518. between the Mountainous Rivers descending: so was I constrained to perform my public occasions, to trust my life and safety to a brittle piece of Wood: the more dangerous was the passage, as there were Marks set on the shore, where people of great note had been drowned before by the force, of the Rivers.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Art of shooting with the Bow.  
THE Art of Shooting with the Bow, as a Natural Profession all the Northern people follow, especially with Bows fitted for e●ery Age, Time, P●ace, and Occasion; and this in their first Age, wherein their careful Parents teach all their Children of both Sexes, but chiefly their Boys, how to hold, rai●e, or depress, or turn obliquely their Hand-bows to shoot their Arrows with( for other kind of Arrows they use not) and if a Dart or Arrow, missing the Mark, is lost between the snow or grass, or fall down into shrubs or trees, that it cannot be found; to recover it, they shoot one or more Arrows after it, at length or upright, to find it: for that which was first shot, is to be found not far from it. And this way is observed by all Northern Archers to find out their sh●fts. That Children may hit the mark, they lay down for them a white Girdle( which they take great delight in) or new Bows; and likewise for Maids a linen Garment. And they grow so skilful, that at a great distance they will hit a halfpenny or a Needle, so far as they can see it, infallibly; as I saw it, Anno 1518. when I was in their country.  
These People are commonly small of stature, and of small courage, because they live without Cities or Castles, either in Villages or Tents, or in Caves or deserts: some of them make their Houses in Trees, growing square, that they may not be suffocated in the field by the thick fall of snow, or devoured by hungry Beasts, that come in an invincible number; upon which oc●asion, there is great care taken for childing Women, and young Children, which they will pursue more greedily, as the most dainty meat; as I shall show underneath concerning the Nature of Wolves,  
The Women and Maids of these Countries are very fruitful and fair, chiefly for that cause, that they are accounted fairer for White and read( which is Natures chief Workmanship:) they neither know, nor will know P●inting, if they were not comely by Nature: There are also Young men and Boys which the Parents cloth with dried Skins of Beasts, chiefly of young Bears. And it is not blamed in the Nation, that is so bread in simplo manners, and innocent behaviour.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Hunting of the Laplanders.  
HAving spoken in my first Book, c. 2. of the Scricfinni, Biarmienses, and Finmarck men, and of the life and manners of them; I shall here add how they run swiftly after Beasts, with Bows and Arrows, over Valleys and snowy Mountain tops, up and down, upon bending downward broad slippery boards, bo●nd to their feet.  
The Women shoot their Arrows with their Hairs hanging about their Ears; And no wonder, because those that dwell under the Pole, when the Woods are so green, there are found such abundance of Wild-Beasts amongst them, that men alone, unless women help, are not sufficient to hunt them.  
Therefore the Women hunt them as nimbly, and may be, more nimbly than the men do. But the man divides the prey, and puts it on the Spit to roast, and disposeth of what must be given to those of the House, or to Neighbours in liberality.  
Not is this cunning to hunt Wild-Beasts, either by Snares or openly, used; as also upon, Birds of divers kinds, that are found in vast Defarts, whose softer Feathers serve for their Beds, and their harder quills for the weaving of strings. B●t they more frequently feed on roast, than boiled Meats. The Skins of Beasts they make fit for their Childrens bodies, and Birds skins for to cover their heads: wherefore some have foolishly believed, that their bodies are hairy like to Wild Beasts: which may be proceeds from ignorance, or plea●ure that many take to speak things incredible of remote Lands, as Paulus Jovius thinks fit to do.   

CHAP. XIII. Of Horses passing over Snowy Mountains.  
HOrses and men pass, as upon Bucklers of War; for there are other Mountains that are Limits between the Northern Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, called Doffrini, and some others, that in Winter are so co●ered with deep thick Snows, that Travellers cannot pass over them the usual way: But that homebred Factors may by their Wit overcome all difficulties, and lighten the Burdens by Art: they bind to their own feet, and to their Horses feet, hu●dles or bows made with light broad Cork, or Bark of three, and so without fear of sinking, they can with a great Burden go over the Mountains of Snow, and they will go but a days Journey that is, two Mountain mi●es,( which is 12. Italian miles) in a day, because the days are short. But in the night, the Moon shining most bright, they will go twice or thri●e as far. Nor is that unfitly done, sin●e by the reflex of the Snow, the Light of the Moon en●ightens the high and low fields, and steep Mountains, that they can descry Wild-Beasts afar off, and avoid them: amongst which Mountains, Wolves( when the could is very great) come in troops, especially in January and these are the most dangerous, as I shal show underneath, concerning the danger of Wolves. But the things that are carried by such ingenious labour, are Salt, hard Iron, linen and Woollen Cloth, and some where Mineral Stones of Silver, Copper, and precious Skins: But that Horses may be better provided for their passage over the Snow, they daily ead them over Snowy Valleys, from their first years, with Baskets tied to their feet, with a light burden, that they may learn to carry greater burdens. Also, those that led them, support themselves with Baskets, bound under their feet, and a Staff, broad at the end, that by the●e Preambles, for that time, they may escape imminent death, and great necessity. For it falls out with t●em that travail, that when the South Wind blows, the Snow grows so soft that horse or man setting their feet upon it, unless they provide, as I said before, against it, they will fall into an open Pit, and no Man and Beast can help, unless there be more company that are faithful.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the dangerous passage between the Mountains.  
THere is yet greater danger that attends such who travail over hollow Mountains, because the Winds blow so strong there, which seem to be raised by the concourse of small Snow, that unless men carry Spades to dig, and open the way, they can scarce get out of the high Mountains, or deep Valleys.  
The principal of these Mountains are Doffra, Schars, Sula, Harvilla, and many such like: from the bottom, or Roots whereof, vast Rivers run forth, some to the East, some to the West: For the Mountains are continued from South to North, as a line drawn in form of a crooked bunched back; and they have their Names from the Provinces, Rivers, or form of Places, or Beasts that use to dwell in them; as from Bears, Wolves, Stags, or Beavers, and other kinds of living creatures that are all hairy, which according to the quality of the place, are most exceeding well covered against the could. Therefore Lions, Camels, Apes, Asses, or Mules, if they be carried thither, can scarce live there: yet the Inhabitants will go into these Mountains in Winter, carrying no small Burdens with ranged dear, like yoked Oxen, almost two hundred Italian miles. One man keeps 40. ranged dear, and each of these will carry two hundred pound weight and more.   

CHAP. XV. Of the Law of killing Crows.  
THere is a Law made in Iceland, that is, the Land of Ice, that was of old, and is now subject to the kingdom of Norway, that whosoever shall kill a hurtful Beast, should have a set reward from the Kings Treasury, or Officer there, according to the quality of the body of the Beast slain, and cruel Nature of it. Since therefore white Crows there are more cruel than in other Countries, to kill young Lambs and Pigs, flying fiercely upon them, and scratching them with their claws. Young men that dwell there, use themselves to that labour, that they may revenge this Depopulation, to kill many Crows with their Arrows, and they onely tie their backs upon strings, and show them to the Governours, for to demand their reward: and they largely reward them, giving them as many Arrows as they shot, and killed withall. And this is observed also concerning all hurtful Creatures in the Northern Climate, saving that the Skins of great Bears, especially wild ones, are laid for the Priests to tread on, at the feet of their sacred Altars, that the could may not hurt them.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Baptizing of Children of the Wild Inhabitants.  
THough I have said much of the Idolatry and Superstitious Worship of the people, that live farthest North, and how there is hope, that when they shall hear the true Gospel preached, they will make hast to join themselves to the Congregation of faithful Christians: yet the pious persuasion of the catholic Priests, hath already induced many of these wild people to come in; and there is greater possibility, that henceforth all errors being laid aside elsewhere, they will come with one consent. But the reason why they seem to delay is very evident, they living above two hundred Italian miles from the Churches of the Christians: to which, because of that vast distance, they can seldom come: yet such as have yielded to the Christian form, are found to be most obedient; for though the distance be so great, yet once or twice a year they visit their Churches where they were baptized, and they bring their sucking Children in Baskets, bound on their backs, and other Burdens, and Gifts of Skins, especially costly Skins, to pay to the Priests for their Tithes.  
But this discommodity of distance is lamentable, not onely of the Bothnii, that dwell toward the North, but also of the Vermii Westward, for it hinders their conversion to the Faith.  
And by reason of this, the Presbyters very seldom, and the Prelates never pass into those deserts, because of the difficult Passages, and so full of danger.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the Conversion of North and East Finland, and their great Hospitality.  
THis, the farthest Country Northward, was formerly seduced by Pagan Superstition, as many Lands near unto it were also; and so erring from the way of truth, was contumelious against God, and injurious to Neighbors: But after that, two most famous Lights, Ericus King of Sweden, and blessed Henry Arch-Bishop of Upsal, had subdued them by a powerful hand to the Christian Faith, and kingdom of Sweden, in the Year of Grace, 1155, first offering them peace, which they despised; and when they had built Temples, and preferred Priests to instruct that people, they became the chief Lovers of all virtues, but chiefly of Liberality and Hospitality, that the Inhabitants used towards Strangers and foreigners, with exceeding good-will. They are amongst themselves gentle and modest, and slow to anger; and if they be long urged, they make good their slowness by their great revenge. They dwell in Parishes and Villages distinctly. They have built magnificent Churches, and they exceedingly endeavour to build more new ones. They yield chief veneration to their Priests,& pay their tithes of all things;& they are again instructed by them in the law of God, the Preacher standing upon some high place, as the manner is, that rooting out their former errors, they may cheerfully, and with a good will follow what is good. The Inhabitants of the West-Bothnia are held to be like these; who wanting scholastic Discipline, are taught by the Law of Nature to detest Vices, and to embrace virtues. For they find that such who live uprightly, and hurt none, abound with all goods; and on the contrary, for those detestable Crimes, Fornications, Adulteries, Thefts, Murders committed, Birds and Beasts, have oft-times forsaken the Woods; Fishes, the Waters, and would not come again, until such time as the Divine Majesty offended, was pacified by Prayers and Benedictions of the sacred Clergy.   
The End of the Fourth Book.   

Olaus Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: CONCERNING The Northern Giants.  
The Epitome of the Fifth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of Giants.  
THough sacred and profane Histories, do plainly mention the great Deeds of Champions and Giants, and clearly show what, and in what time and place of the World they did them, and how they lived: yet will it not be unprofitable to add something more to these, which were dug forth of Rocks, and stones in the North Countries; and to make those things manifest to the World, that are related in Books by the most ancient, and very rare Writers; wherefore those farthest Countries, which are elsewhere marked in my Map of Gothland; as Finmark, Biarmia, Scricfinnia, Helsingia, &c. do every where give such evident Monuments of Giants, to the curious Searchers and inquirers after them, that they are forced to admire and believe those so high Piles of Stones, and vast heaps of Mountains to have been cast up; not by any Work of Nature, but by the monstrous forces of men, even in the Fields, Woods, and Mountains of Swethland, Gothland, Norway, where the like stones are to be seen. But what Saxe Grammaticus, the most diligent Writer, speaks concerning his country of Denmark, in this point, the curious Reader may find, if he( at his leisure) look at the end of the Preface of his History, and he shall understand that Denmark had formerly Giants that wrought in it; as is testified by the exceeding great stones placed on the Tombs and Vaults of the ancients.  
If any man doubt whether this was done by a monstrous Force, let him behold the tops of some Mountains, and let him say, if he can, who carried such huge stones up to the tops of them. For every man will observe, that takes notice of this Miracle, that it is not to be thought that a Weight that could not be stirred, or very hardly, upon plain ground, could by the one●y labour of ordinary men be carried up to the top of such high Mountains, or that the usual force of men could bring it thither: But whether the Giants after the Flood, were the Authors of such things, or some mighty strong men above other men, he saith he can collect little from the Danish Antiquities. Perhaps, if he had preached the Rocks and Stones of the Upper Sweden and Gothland, he by his admirable Wit might have conveyed to Posterity, the most famous deeds of the ancients: since Swethland and Gothland have had Kings and Princes 1370. years, before that Dan their first King began to rule in Denmark; whose magnificent Deeds are carved in Stones, and the curiosity of our Times sees it: yet saxon distinguisheth, that formerly there were three sorts of Mathematicians, which went under the name of Giants and Champions, and these wrought strange Miracles, by their several Enchantments.  
The first were men of a monstrous kind, called Giants, who were greater bodies then men are:  
The second were Naturalists, who had a Divining Art; who the lesser they were in body, in respect of the former, the greater they were above them in the Quickness of their Wit. Between these, and the Giants, there was a continual War, till these conquered the Giants by force of Arms, and got to themselves a Right to Rule, with an Opinion of Divinity.  
The third sort sprung up from the copulation between the former two; and these were neither equal to them in greatness of bodies, nor for skill in Arts: yet these were conceited to be Divine, by those whose Minds were deluded by Deceits.   

CHAP. II. Of the difference of Giants and Champions.  
THere was formerly in the kingdom of Helsingia( which is toward the North, and now under the obedience of the King of Sweden) a Giant, called Harthenus, who was nine Cubits long, and he had twelve Champions that were his Comrades that were very tall, yet not half so tall as he. There was another called Starchaterus, who was most famous in Europe for his frequent Victories, as I shall show underneath. There was also Arngrinus and Arverodus, of whose excellent Deeds I shall speak underneath: yet, lest I should seem to borrow Examples of Greatness and Fortitude from the ancients onely, I shall produce some modern men, both from the Mines, and other Provinces of Sweden and Gothia, who were so strong, that each of them could lift up a great ox or Horse upon his shoulders, and could carry an Iron Vessel of six hundred, eight hundred, or a thousand pound weight, some Furlongs: and there were some Maids could lift the same, and there was one seen, who met an an armed man on horseback, and by nimbleness and force he cast him to the ground.   

CHAP. III. Of the Sobriety of Giants and Champions.  
THat most famous Writer of the Danish affairs, saxon, alleged before, and who shall be often alleged hereafter, saith, that amongst other mighty strong men in the North, who were great as Giants, there was one Starchaterus Thavestus; whose admirable and heroic virtues are so worthily extolled by him, that there were scarce any like him in those dayes in all Europe, or in the whole World, or hardly are now, or ever shall be. And amongst other virtues he ascribes to that high spirited man, he mentions his sobriety, which is principally necessary for valiant men; and I thought fit to annex that peculiarly to this relation, that we may, as in a glass, see more clearly the luxury of this lustful age. For, as the same saxon testifies, that valiant Starchaterus loved frugality, and loved not immoderate dainties. always neglecting pleasure, he respected virtue, imitating the ancient manners of Continency; and he desired a homely provision of his Diet; he hated costly Suppers: wherefore hating profusion in Diet, and feeding on smoked and rank meat, he driven away Hunger with the greater appetite, as his meat was but of one kind, lest he should remit and abate the force of his true virtue, by the contagion of outward Delights, as by some adulterate sweetness, or should abrogate the Rule of ancient Frugality, by unusual Superstitions for Gluttony. Moreover he could not endure to spend roast and boiled meat all at one Meal; holding that to be a monstrous Food, that Cookery had tempered with divers things together: Wherefore, that he might turn away the Luxury of the Danes, that they borrowed from the Germans, that made them so effeminate, amongst the rest he made Verses in his country Language; Omitting many of them, he sang thus:  

Starchaterus his Verses of Frugality.  
STrong men do love raw meat; nor do they need  
Or love, on dainty Cates and Feasts to feed,  
War is the thing they most delight to breed,  
You may sooner bite off their Beards that are  
Full hard, and stiff with bristled rugged hair,  
Than their wide months leave Milk their daily fare:  
We fly from dainty kitchens and do fill  
Our Bellies with rank Meats, and country Swills  
Of old men fed on boiled Meats 'gainst their will,  
A Dish of Grass that had no smack did hold,  
Hogs and Sheeps Flesh together, hot or could;  
Nor to pollute their meats with mingling were they bold:  
He that eats Cream we bid him for to be  
Strong, and to have a mind that's bold and free.  
Think on Froto, revenge his Fathers death, as he.  
Each Coward and faint-hearted Fool shall dy:  
Nor shall he ever scape though he do fly,  
Or hide in Valleys or close Dens, he ly.  
Eleven Lords, of elder time we were,  
That waited on King Hachon, and at fare  
Helgo Begachus sat first in order there.  
First Dish he eat was a dried Gammon, and  
A Crust as hard as Flint he took in hand;  
This made his hungry yawning Stomach stand.  
No man at Table fed on stinking meat,  
But what was good and common each man eat,  
Content with simplo fare, though ne're so great.  
The People foreign Food did all decline,  
The greatest were not Gluttons, nor yet fine,  
The King himself full sparing would dine.  
No Drinks were used that of Honey boast,  
Beer was their common liquor, Ceres owest,  
They fed on Meats were little boiled, no roast.  
Each Table was with Meats but meanly dressed,  
Few Dishes on t', Antiquity thought best;  
And in plain Fare each held himself most blessed.  
There were no Flagons, nor broad Bowls in use,  
Nor painted Dishes grown to great abuse,  
Each, at the Tap did fill his wooden cruse.  
No man admirer of the former days,  
Did use Tankards, or Oxeys; for their ways  
Were sparing, almost empty Dishes this bewrays.  
No Silver basins, or guilt Cups were thought  
Fit by the Host, and to the Table brought,  
To garnish, or by guests were vainly sought.   
Wherefore, by such Arguments, he induced many to Temperance and Sobriety, and other Virtues, that many were observed never to have been drunk, lest the chief stay of Fortitude, ꝯtinence, should be overcome by Luxury. And their mind was so far from Lasciviousness, that they scorned to behold Players& Jesters, or to provide any dainty Fare, or to desire what was largely prepared in anothers kitchen, or to taste of it, if it were offered: nor would they make themselves effeminate by any pernicious pleasure, that they might not soil the nerves of true Virtue, or their gallantry in War with any blemish of Vices.   

CHAP. IV. Of the Virtues of the most valiant Starchaterus.  
HAving Sobriety( as I said but now) he could enlarge the other Virtues by it, as being a fit Band to unite them together; and as all men confess, who look clearly into the Actions of the Heathens: and he had been more famous for his deserts, had he been as near allied to the Christian Doctrine, as he was born near his Nativity: Yet he lived three mens ages a valiant and unconquered Champion, being endowed with a wonderful and incredible Virtue; and he was far taller, than common men; in bigness like as a Giant, so that he had a body answerable for bulk, to the greatness of his forces, and abilities of his mind. He was thought to yield to no mortal man for his Virtue; whose famed spread so wide, that the most famous opinion of his Deeds and Name yet remains. For in all the North Countries, he got most specious Monuments for himself. First, in Vichari in Norway he dedicated the beginnings of his glorious Actions to the favour of the Gods, with the slaughter of a King: Then playing the Pirat, having subdued the Provinces very far, he invaded Russia, and conquered Floccus the King of it, and spoiled him of a vast Treasure. By reason of these so not able first Military Actions, being called for by the Champions of Biarmia, who were then held to be the most excellent, when he had done many memorable Deeds amongst 'em, he entred into the Borders of the Sweons; and so after seven years Warfare ended, he went for Denmark, then for Ireland, that the first dwellings of men might not be left untouched by him: there he fought with two most excellent Champions, and conquered both. Then he hastened to fight with Visinnus, a sword-plaier of great note in the Eastern parts of Russia. For that Visinnus vexed all the Provinces, far and near, with all sorts of Injuries; and he ravished the Wives of noble men, by violence when their Husbands looked on. But Starchaterus( like another Hercules) being provoked with the rumour of this wickedness, to take away the author of it, he went for Russia; and he challanged the Ravisher to a single Combat, and overcame him. Then traveling farther Eastward, he came to Constantinople, where he encountered and worsted a mighty famous giant, whose name was Tanna, who relied much on the strength of his body, and he forced him to wander into unknown parts of the Earth under the name of an exiled man, when therefore no contrary fortune could deprive him of the victory, he went into the parts of Poland, and conquered a notable Champion called Vasche, or Vasza, in a single Duel. And not long after he fought with Hama a Master of defence, who was most famous amongst the Saxons for his skill at all sorts of exercises: and it is said, he was knocked down at first with the fist of the foresaid Hama, that kneeling on his knees, his chin kissed the ground: but he requited this fall with a notable revenge; for so soon as he rose from his knees and had the liberty of his hands to draw out his sword, he cut Hama's body in two: and by that victory he made the Saxons subject to the Danes; who so cruelly abused their Government, that they forced them to pay yearly the fore-finger of each arm, as a Tribute of their servitude. But this violent Government endured not long.   

CHAP. V. Of the Patronage he afforded to the afflicted.  
BEing humbly entreated by Helgon King of Norway,( who was to fight with 9, most noted Champions for their strength, on the very day he was married, being challenged by them to fight a Duell, who were resolved to take his Wife from him) to lend his assistance in this distress, he so easily yielded to his requests, that Helgon, going before him to the place appointed for the fight; some dayes after he began his journey, he is reported to have gone as many miles in one day on foot, as the others road in 12 days before. Being demanded by the Champions, Whether he were able to fight; He answered, that not onely one of them, but all might come and try his strength. The next day he came into the field of his Adversaries with scorn, and sate under the Cliff of a Rock, opposing his body to the Winds and Snow; then, as if it were Spring-time to walk abroad, he laid aside his cloths, and sought for pleas in them. He cast also his Purple rob that Helga gave unto him,( for that was the name of the Kings Wife) into the Briars, lest he should seem to be sheltered by his Garments, against the violence of hail. Then the Champions going to the Mountain over against him, sate down, having found a place where the wind did not blow against them; and they kindled a fire to keep away the could. Then when they saw not Starchaterus, they sand one to the top of the Hill, to stand and watch for his coming: He in the declining part of the Mountain spied an old man all covered over with snow up to the shoulders: and he asked him, Whether he be the man that must fight the Duels promised. And when Starchaterus said he was the same, the rest came, and demand, whether he would fight with them single or all at once. But he replied, How often do these sad Dogs bark at me, I use to drive them away, not single, but altogether: signifying thereby that he had rather fight with them all at once, than one by one. For he thought first to despise his Adversaries with words, before they came to fight. When the fight began, he slay six of them, and received no wound himself: but the three that were left, though they wounded him with many wounds, he destroyed like their fellows: But these wounds he committed onely to a Countrey-mans son to cure, for the Veneration of his Office: For he restored parts of his stomach that were torn off, to their former places, and he bound up his Guts that were fallen out, with Twigs: Yet that he might not leave the civility of the young man unrewarded, he gave his Coat he had cast into the Briars, as a Reward of his pains.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Exercises of the said Starchaterus.  
subtilest Starchaterus was in War with the King of Sweden, and that he understood how Ingellus the most petulant King of Denmark, who was a slave to his pleasures,& embraced Vices for Virtues& intermitting the Duties of Kingly Majesty, was become a fordid Bond-slave of Luxury: he was sorry that so hopeful a young man had laid aside to be the son of so famous a Father: whereupon, when he was to go to Denmark, he took on his back a huge Load of Coals, as a rich burden,& being asked of those that met him, why he carried such an unusual burden, He said, he would make the dulness of Ingellus become more acute with his coals. And he said no more than he performed. For so much did the admonition of this most strong and eloquent man prevail, that Ingellus from an effeminate and lascivious slave of pleasures, became to be magnanimous and virtuous, and he slay those that slay his Father, whom he had exalted to be his greatest Friends. This being ended, Starchaterus rejoicing that he hearkned to his advice, and returning him thanks, it is reported that he writ many Verses in the manner following, in commendation of the old Military Discipline.  

WHen I was young, and first did follow thee,  
Warlike King Hacho, pleasures were to me  
Unpleasant; and nought else but wars agree:  
Both Mind and Body I did exercise,  
Profane things, pleasing Stomach, I despise.  
marshal Affairs I loved and Wars adore,  
My clothes were harsh, and Garments used before;  
I seldom restend, short sleeps, labour great;  
Nor let me idle be, 'twas little I did eat;  
Nor as some use that Gluttons are, to feed:  
Who against Reason cram when there's no need.  
One of these clothed in soft and rich Array,  
Turns his swift horse about, and doth display  
His long Locks and so lets his hair to be  
Loose hanging down; and in Games delights he:  
Oft playing Bankrupt leads a large life:  
His Tongue is verbal, breaks the Laws by strife.  
By force of Arms invades them; th'Innocent  
He doth oppress, and feeds with false intent  
On others moneys, Wheres and Gluttons are  
His company, he loves still dainty fare;  
He follows Whores as doth the Snake the grass,  
whilst Wars are hide in Peace, he dies an Ass:  
Should he within a Valley disappear,  
No armor can fence him who Death doth fear;  
Each man must die, Death cannot we eschew;  
But I who war'd with all the World, I knew  
Shall die an easy death, and to the Stars  
Exalted be by sickness, not by scars.   
Moreover, his mind was so far from lasciviousness, that he would not endure to be a spectator of it. He never preferred idleness before business, and he would never yield to the least Luxury, despising effeminate and fearful men: Wheresoever in War he caught any Stage-Players, Jesters, or Parasites, he took care to have them slain: holding it better to punish these light persons by Troops, and make them ridiculous by losing their Skins, than to condemn a man to lose his head for a criminal matter. And thus he was content to punish whole Companies of these Jesters, and base conditioned people, with reviling and scoffing words; and he would not lend his famous hands to destroy such beastly men. Starchaterus himself was present in that most famous Swedes War, that Ringo King of Sweden fought against herald King of Denmark, and he was the chief Pillar there. For there is no mention made of any greater battle in the North Countries than that. The King of Sweden conquered, and ruled the Danes: There were killed of the Swedes twelve thousand tall gallant men, and of the Danes thirty thousand of the Nobility, and the number of the Commons that were slain on both sides was numberless.   

CHAP. VII. Of the sum of the Acts of Starchaterus.  
LAstly, after his brave Acts, growing old, he briefly related all his gallant practices, and Warlike Feats, in these Verses following; as saxon sets them down.  

BUt if( I recollect) when I was born,  
The Fates to warlike Facts did me adorn  
To live and die in war, a bloody life  
To led always to live in Camps and deadly strife,  
Peace I abhorred, and Mars his Banner I  
Was sheltered under, dangers passing by.  
Where I grew old, to fight I thought it good,  
And honourable Life to  shed mens blood.  
To use myself to slaughter; I have seen  
Kings frequent in war, and the fields was green  
watered with blood, Helmets and Targets broken,  
And Coats of Mail shivered with Spears stroke.  
Breasts yield unto the Sword, and the wild Beasts  
Fed high with Souldiers, as at dainty Feasts,  
That lay unburied; here a strong man  
A Helmet cuts in sunder, and one ran  
His Spear through th' Helmet, just into the Crown,  
When I through dangers brought Olon's son down.  
For every sword was broken in that fight,  
Or made all yield that stood against its might,  
So strongly did men strike. What when I sheo'd,  
With wooden feet, o'er shores and paths bestrew'd  
With Spears innumerable for to run;  
And when o'er fields to pass I first begun,  
Where Calthrops cast, did wound my tender feet,  
With wooden meddles I armed them, as 'twas meet.  
So slay I Hama, who was strong and so  
The Curii conquered were, and brought below.  
When Rinus Flebax son commanded, then  
I wan the Conquest o'er th'Esthian men,  
And such as Gemgalla breeds: next I came  
To Thole marchi, where my wounded head  
Bruised with Battel-Axes soundly bled.  
And here I learned, what good there is in Arms,  
To keep men out of danger, and from harms,  
Which Peasants much invites: the Germans I  
Brought to their condign punishment; and why?  
Because I slay thy sons, Swertingus, that  
Were guilty of Frothos death, which begot  
Revenge in me to help my Masters wrongs,  
When they were drunk, which unto me belongs.  
Nor was that less, when seven Brothers were  
Slain by my hand in tender Virgins care,& c..   
Without doubt, this man was worthy of all Warlike commendation, who excelled not onely in vigour of mind, but strength of his body, and exceeding swiftness of foot, that in one day making hast, he came on foot from upper Sweden into Denmark, which others can scarce perform in twelve days, going continually.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the most great and terrible War between the Swedes and Goths, where Starchaterus was General against the Danes.  
SInce saxon Sialandicus the most excellent Writer of the Danish History, hath written in his 8. Book, the Cause, Beginning, and Progress, and end of the most fierce War between Haquinus Ringo, King of the Swedes and Goths, and herald Hildetan King of Denmark, and made it most known to all succeeding Ages; and after him, five hundred years being over, Albertus Crantzius hath fallen casually upon the same battle: And last of all, my most dear Brother& predecessor, John Magnus, Arch-Bishop of Upsal, hath lately written of this vast and incomparable War in his Histories of the Swedes and Goths, of set-purpose, and most truly,( as a faithful Historian should writ) I suppose it belongs to me onely, to make mention in this place, of that formidable Conflict that was between the Champions and the Giants, especially because in no battle of the Northern Kingdoms, and scarce ever in all Europe so many valiant men on both sides, Captains at Sea and Land, were ever red of, to have fought with so much vehemency and heat of War for 7. years together, as we red in Histories that agree well concerning those Nations above written, and their Kings and Potentates. First, the famous warriors are reckoned up; from whence, and of what Race they came that were the chief on the Danes part. Amongst which, there were also two Women, to whom Nature had given a manlike Courage, and Art, and Experience had bestowed Skill upon them in Wars; these were Hetha and Visna, two Noble-women of Sclavonian Race: of which the one was a chief Captain, and the other was exceeding well skilled in Warlike Affairs, that she was chief Standard-bearer, and she used that and her right hand in battle, when Starchaterus came on with the Army of the Swedes and Goths( as I shall speak underneath) and she fought as a private soldier. Also, on the contrary side, the most noted Captains are mentioned, especially because Starchaterus was the principal Leader of the Swedish King Ringon's Army; and in his Army marched Vegtbiorga, a Maid, that was a cruel fighter( as I shall show by and by) The number of the ships for King Ringon, on the Swedes and Goths part, were 2500. But the Danes were not inferior to them: Wherefore, both Armies being provided sometimes Wedge-fashion, and sometimes like a Half-Moon, and all other things requisite for the War; and when the Trumpets sounded, there was a most sharp battle fought by these two most valiant Nations, with so great heat striving to invade and defend their kingdoms; that you would think, as saxon saith, that the Heavens fell upon the Earth suddenly, and that the Woods and Fields sank down, that all things were mingled, and the old confusion of things was returned again; and that divine and human things were confounded in this tumultuous Tempest; and that all things together were drawn to their ruin. For when they came within shot one of another, the intolerable rattling of their armor filled all places with an incredible noise. The very vapour of their wounds made a sudden Cloud to darken the air, and the day was covered as with hail by their Weapons. And the Slingers did no small service in the business. But when a bullet was shot out of Engines, or thrown by the hand, they fought hard by with Swords and Clubs, full of Nails, and then was there no little blood  shed: When therefore they were weary, they began to sweat, and their Spears were heard to rattle afar off. There Starchaterus, who first writ the manner of this War in his country Language, fighting first in the Army, mentions the Lords of King herald, Hun, and Elli, and Hort, and Burgha, whom he slay, and how he cut off Visna's right hand. Also a Maid that fought in the Swedes Army, called Vegtbiorg slay the Champion Soth: and she also was killed by another Enemy standing by. For the Guthones, who were cunning Bow-men, bent their Bows so forcibly, that they would shoot through their armor: and there was no other cause of the slaughter more effectual. Their Arrows pierced their Coats of Male, and Helmets, as naked Bodies. One Ubbo was killed, shot through with 144 shafts, when he fought valiantly; For by the exceeding force of the Archers, the Dalacarli coming on, the battle still grew fresh again against the Danes. At length the Danish King herald was thrown out of his Coach, he was killed with a Club by his own Coachman, and thirty thousand Lords in his Army were slain, and twelve thousand such Lords of the Goths and Swedes part; and of the common people a number numberless. And by the command of Ringon, King of Sweden, was Hetha made chief of Denmark, there being forty six set to govern it: to her Olo succeeded, who was slain by Starchaterus, who was brought in by the Spies, and had corrupted them with money.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Death of Starchaterus.  
LAst of all, being weary with so long life and labour, lest he should by default in his old age, lose his former Honours and Renown, he thought it would be honourable for him, if he should willingly destroy himself, and hasten his own death by his own Free-will. For of old time, it was held dishonourable for warriors to die in their beds: Wherefore he wore hanging about his neck 120. pound weight of Gold, that he had long before won for killing King Olo, for with this he thought to hire one to kill himself; supposing nothing to be more fit, than to spend that Gold that he got for anothers death, to have himself killed. Whereupon meeting Hatherus, a Noble-man, whose Father he had killed, he exhorted him, not to fear to kill him, that had killed his Father, and he promised to him, if he would do so, that he should have the Gold he wore about his neck; and the more to stir up his mind against himself, he is reported to have used this Exhortation: 
Hather, Besides I slay Levius thy Father,  
Do thou kill me, that will die, the rather.  
Slay an old man, let thy Sword revenge it,  
My mind desires a brave hand thats fit  
To be my Executioner: For  
To die by Cowards hand, I do abhor,  
'tis just with free mind to prevent my Fate:  
What! fly you cannot, you anticipate,  
Young Trees are fostered, old must be down hewed,  
He's Natures servant, who doth this conclude,  
To cut up what cannot stand: that Death's best  
thats sought, when life's a burden he is blessed  
That loves his End and seeks a Funeral,  
Long life brings grief. Death puts an end to all.   
Having said thus, he pulls money out of his purse: But Hatherus being moved as well to get the money, as to revenge his Fathers Death, promiseth that he will do as he entreated him, and will expect no reward from him; Starchaterus presently offers him a sword, and laid his neck down; and that his Executioner might not be fearful and faint-hearted, in performing that Office, he exhorts him to be bold; saying more, That if before his body fell, he could leap between his head and his body, he should be innocent. Whereupon Hatherus, with a sharp Sword, beheaded the old man: the head cut off, and lying on the Earth, is reported to have bit the ground, showing the fierceness of his mind, by the fierceness of his mouth then dying. But the Executioner fearing some fraud in the promises, abstained from leaping; for if he had done so rashly, it may be he might have been beaten down with the fall of his body, and been killed himself, as a reward for his killing the old man: But that he might not suffer so great a Champion to want a Burial, he caused his body to be butted in a field, commonly called Reling.   

CHAP. X. Of Haldanus, and other Champions whom he conquered.  
NOw comes another famous Champion of the Goths, called Haldanus: a Goth was his Father, and he was born when Charles was King, and was famous in those days; whose admirable Acts and Exploits, are the more diligently to be set down amongst the rest, as they are known to proceed from notable valour. He, when he first used Military Affairs, played the Pirat, and put himself into a battle with the Swedes; wherein when he understood that one Haiquinus a Champion was at hand, who could with Charms dull a sword, he prepared a huge Club, knocked full of nails and knots of Iron, to lay about him with, that so he might conquer the force of his Charms with an Oaken Club. Then when he appeared more eminent for his virtue than the rest, amongst the midst of his enemies, with his Helmet on, without a Buckler, he threw his Club with both hands against their Bucklers, that stood against him, and there was nothing so firm in the way to resist, but was broken in pieces by his Club cast so violently. Hence it was, that he overcame a Champion that met him in the Army, with a very sharp blow of his Club: yet conquered and wounded, he fell into the Swedes hand, and escaped into foreign Lands, and by the help of an old soldier, who by curing his own wounds, had long since learned the Art of Chirurgery, he was restored; and taking a notable Champion, called Thoro, to be of his company, he fights again at Sea, with the Swedes in a Naval battle; and becoming conqueror, he likewise slay one Siwaldus, with his 7. Sons, that were by nature and custom most cruel, who began a new assault, being thus provoked, and he used his ugly Club for it. Then he valiantly beat down one Hartbene a Giant, at Helsing, who was 9. Cubits tall,( as I said before) who counted it his glory to ravish Kings Daughters, and to prefer the best married women before the base, and and he thought himself to be so much the braver fellow, the more honourable women he could deflowr by force: him he slay with a huge Club, together with his six Champions, that used the like violence, and raged with the same wickedness. Moreover, he conquered Egtherus, a Finlander, that challenged him to fight a Duel, who by Piracy molested many here and there, and could not be worsted at Sea in battle. Then when he found that Thorilda, Daughter to Itather, King of Norway, was desired by Grimmon, a Champion of mighty force, and to fight a Duel for her and that her Father had promised that he should win her, Who could conquer this Champion: though he were now an old bachelor, he was moved no less by the peremptoriness of the Champion, than by the Kings promise, to accept the Combat. Fighting with Grimmon, he cut asunder the utmost knots of his Coat of Male, with the lowest part of his Breast-plate. Grimmon admired at it, and said, That he never found an old Lad that fought more stoutly. And presently drawing forth his Whinnier, he ran it through his Buckler; but Haldanus ran through his right hand that gave the blow, and wounding him in the Thigh, he made him ever lame, and to continue his life that was left, he put a Fine upon him. Lastly, he did with so great boldness tame Ebb●, a Plebeian, and notable Pirat, who asked, upon confidence of his valour, the Daughter to the King of the Goths, and half the kingdom, for her Dowry, that he durst never presume to mingle his despicable base condition with Nobility, and far less to affect to be partaker of the kingdom. And that Challenge being sent, because they wanted day, he killed him by Moon-light, as if he would have the Monster conquered in the night.   

CHAP. XI. Of another certain Haldanus, and his Actions.  
OF no less famed is there mention made of another Haldanus, amongst the valiant Champions, the Son of Borchar of Norway, and o● Drotha, of the Kingly Race, whose young dayes were foolishly employed; but his ripe years made him famous for his gallantry in Action, and he grew honourable by his great Ornaments of Life. When he was young, he killed a noted Champion with a Club he had in his hand, because he gave him a box on the Ear in jest; and all men took this for an Omen, how great triumph he should win over his Enemies by the force of his mind and body. At that time Retho, a Pirat of Russia, plundered many Provinces, using Rapine and cruelty exceedingly; whose fierceness was such, that when others spared to take from men what was next to cover their naked bodies, he would take off all coverings from the most secret parts about them. Hence great and inhuman Rapines were called Rethonians. He had another Beastly cruelty of torturing men, which for modesty sake I will not mention. Barcharus, the Father of Haldanus, moved with this indignity, set himself against Retho; and as it was a War between them, so was it the ruin of them both. Haldanus was sore wounded in that battle, and left it: one wound he had so palpable in his mouth, and so apparent by the cicatrix of it, that when the rest were cured, that excrement of flesh could not be healed; which thing gained to him the name of a contumelious mouth, yet he better deserved everlasting praise, fighting for honesty, and for his Country. But what did ever the calumnious detraction of wicked men ever afford unto virtue? However there was so much Military Glory apparent in him, that he was formidable every where for his great valour. From whence, and upon that confidence, he began to desire to mary a noble Maid called Giaritha, of the Kingly Blood, which was in those days the last Heir of Denmark: But she to defend her self from injury, kept her Chamber guarded with a choice Company of Champions. To whom, when Haldanus came once by chance, when her Champions were absent, of whom when he was young he had killed a Brother; he said unto her, that she ought to change the rigour of Chastity, by honourable Wedlock, that she might by her Off-spring repair the Government of the kingdom that was like to be lost. Wherefore he exhorts her to reflect upon him, who was an eminent Noble man, and to take him for her Husband, and he thought for that cause she would admit of it. When he understood her answer, that she thought him not unequal for his Nobility, but because he was reproached for the deformity of his mouth. He entreats her that she would mary no man, until she knew the certainty of his death, or return. But the Champions of Giaritha being angry that he had spoken with her, when he was gone, sought to follow him. When he saw that, he presently cut up an oak, and made a Club of it, and fought single with twelve of them, and killed them all. Then to make himself more famous, he entred into Russia, and was exceeding nobly received by them all, and shortly( a fierce War falling out between the Swedes and Russians) he slay many of the Sweeds Champions in single Duels: and last of all, he killed his own Brother Hildigerus, who had killed 70. Champions( whilst he did not prefer Piety to Valour) having his Sword covered with Cloths, that it might not be blunted by Charms. Then he slay Sivarus, a Saxon, at a Banquet coming suddenly into Denmark, because he sought to mary his Wife Giaritha, and so enjoying his Wife with joyful applause, he begot of her Haraldus Hildeta, of whom I spake in the 8. Chapter. And at length he was slain by Veserus, a notable Champion in Sialandia, whilst he fought for to repair his torn country.   

CHAP. XII. Of Olo Vegetus.  
OLo Vegetus, when he was twelve years old, began his youthful days with virtue: For when he perceived that Gunno, by cruel robbing, kept the Woods were next to his Habitation, and destroyed innocent men, he was moved with indignation at this wickedness; and that he might not suffer the time due to virtue, to pass away by idleness, he desired Arms of his Father, who was Prince of Norway; and taking with him a cruel dog, and a horse, he entred into the thick Wood, and he finds the foot-steps of men in the Snow. By this sign, passing over many dangers, at last he found out the Thieves Caves covered with heaps of Earth; and first he killed their House-keeper, and cast him across the house: then he killed both the Father and Son, that came running to revenge this disgrace; one with his Sword, the other with his Dog: yet he got not the Victory without blood, for he received a Wound on his body, which the Dog continually licked, and so it grew whole suddenly. Then he commanded the head of these Rovers, and their Carcases to be fastened upon Poles, for a token of Liberty restored. And with the same valour he slay twelve Champions, that sought to violate the Chastity of the Daughter of the King of the Tr●ndi in a small iceland, as I shall show in the next Chapter. He had also a sharp Wit joined with his Valour, that he would easily either destroy or put to flight his Enemies: for being content with one Guard, adorned in Womens cloths, he kept this order, that his, and his companions sword, should be sheathed in wooden Scabbards till coming near to fight, he could unsheathe it, and fall upon whom he pleased. And using this Stratagem, he often overcame mighty Adversaries. Then using Piracy far and near with his Forces Military, he destroyed seven hundred ships near the Sea, by his strength at Sea. Hence the most noble Champions fought to be of his Confederacy; and many unruly young men were of his Guard. Being provided with these Forces, he subdued Neighbour Kings by opinion onely, and so he took from them all thought of waging War, or to dare to lift up their hands against him. Lastly, he came to Ringo, King of Sweden, and was therefore the more dear to him, the liker he was to the other Princes of his Court for his singular Fortitude. Then was he made Admiral of the Kings Navy,( that consisted of five and twenty hundred ships, as I said before) he so governed it, with the assistance and advice of seven Kings, and of others that stuck fast to him, that he conquered the Danish Fleet in a notable Victory: so that King Ringo became the conquering Commander of all Sweden. At last, as I said being made King of Denmark, for his mere cruelty, he was slain by Starchaterus, a Champion of Sweden.   

CHAP. XIII. Again of the same man, fighting Valiantly for Chastity.  
THere were formerly in the mountainous parts of Norway, toward the bounds of the Western Goths, two Champions, and they were brothers, called Schatus and Hiallus, presuming so far and being so insolent, that with an unbridled petulancy, they would deflowr the most beautiful Maides, and take them from their parents: whence it fell out, that they determining to ravish Esa, the Daughter of Olavus King of the Vermari, they commanded her Father that if he would not have her ravished, he should fight with them by himself, or his second, to defend his Daughter, which thing, though it were very opprobrious to her Fathers Clemency; who was now decrepit with old age, yet he endeavoured to raise up his laws that were exhausted with the wit and force of his friends, in his Daughters just defence. In the interim, Olo a young man of Norway, born of a Noble house and family, being moved by this horrid wickedness, and rejoicing that he had this occasion to fight, comes to Olavus his house clothed like a Country man, who sitting down at the lower end of the Table, and seeing the Kings family lament, of purpose calling the Kings son nere to him he inquired why the rest were so sad, and he saying that his Sisters Chastity would be presently profaned by most fierce Champions, if no man came presently to relieve her, he inquires farther what reward should be given him that should venture his life in her defence. The King being asked of this by his Son, answered that, He should have his Daughter, that defended her. This answer made Olo bold to adventure himself in this danger. Now the Maid was wont( as it is the custom of the Northern people at this day) to come near and look on the faces of the Guests very wishly with a Candle, that at times she might the better know their manners and behaviour, that having noted all the Marks and Habit of their bodies, she might tell her parents of it. She viewing Olo after that manner, she was taken with the unusual horror of his eyes, and almost fainted away, amazement did so abate her vigour, and she presently  told her father what was the cause of her trembling, whereupon the young man winked that his eyes might not fright her, and laying off his cap his face was covered with, he bad all that stood by, to be jocant, and to cast away all fear. It was no sooner said than done. For it presently fell out that one gentle promise from a stranger made them all merry. In the mean while came Hiallus and Schatus with their ten servants ready to take away the Kings Daughter;& they tumultuously cried out to the King, that if he would not deliver his Daughter to them, he should come forth and fight. Olo immediately entertains their railing challenge, on this condition that they should not cowardly come behind him, but should fight all before him. Then taking his sword which he had from his ancestors, he single, slay 12. of them, performing more than could be expected from so young a man. The fight was in an iceland, and from thence there is a village not far off, that at this day hath a record of the names of the Brothers that were slain. Of this Maid which he wan for a reward of his victory he begot his son Osmondus. Then growing every day more famous in victories, and dangerous fights, at last he was treacherously slain in a bath, as it was formerly  told him by an old man, when he killed the petty King Thoro, who violated the laws of strangers.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the Acts of the Champions Arngrimus and Arvarodus.  
I Think it not fit in this place to pass it over, how by the counsel of Ericus Disertus, King of Sweden, whom I shall speak of hereafter, one Arngrimus a notable Champion of sweden, fighting and triumphing against the Northern Kings of Scricfinnia and Biarmia, became the Father in Law of Frotho King of Denmark, because he had joined to his Empire the utmost bounds of human affairs, and had augmented his great famed largely through the world by his Notable actions, He had, as saxon writes, 12. Sons by Osura. They from their youth also were given to Piracy, and by chance they all brought in one small ship into the iceland Sampse, and they found two ships on the Sea-coasts of the two Norway pirates Hialmerus and Arvarodus; those they set upon, and with oars they soon cleared them in the absence of their Pilots, but they were very sorry that they had not killed their principal Steermen: therefore they despised this victory as nothing worth, as it was without danger. Resolving that in the following battles they would run more danger, and perhaps with worse fortune. For the foresaid pirates, whose ships a tempest had lately torn breaking their rudder off, being gone into the wood to cut another, they hewed the ruff Timber smooth so long cutting it about with their hatches till it was fit for the helm: which when laid upon their shoulders, being ignorant of their Companions mishap, they carried on: they were set upon by the sons of Arngrimus, who were newly fleshed with the blood of those they had killed, so that two of them were forced to fight with their swords against many. Nor was this an equal fight where twelve hands fought against two; but the victory is not always according to number. For all the foresaid Twelve being slain, and they having slain Hielmeru●, the victory fell to Arvarodus: for he alone escaped by chance of so great a number of Companions; for he threw the helm, not yet well framed, with such incredible force, against his enemies bodies, that at one throw he hit the whole 12. and killed them all.   

CHAP. XV. Again, of the same Arngrimus and the Charms of the Fins.  
ALso this Swedish Champion Arngrimus fought against the mighty Northern Kings of the utmost parts of the world, against Egbert King of the Biarmians,& Tengelda King of Scricfinnians,( of whom we spake in the entrance of the 4th. Book,) that having obtained the victory over them, for his deserts and the triumphs he might mary Osura the Daughter of the King of Denmark, as indeed it fell out, yet in the mean time being to fight with wild a people, he was slain in his Army, with which he marched against them: and first he perceived, that he should not fight onely against cruel men, but against the more cruel Elements; as I shall show after this in my 12. Book, concerning wars against Barbarous people, yet these men are cunning to fight with sharp weapons, for their use; and they use broad and huge Shafts in battle, also they know as well by charms and incantations in coming on or flying off, as crooked beams in the middle of the snow, to receive or give blows. Arngrimus, as saxon speaks, to get himself honour, set upon these& conquered them: these when they fled, having but ill success in their fight; they threw 3. stones behind them,& made them appear to the enemies to be as so many Mountains. Therefore Arngrimus being deceived by this mist cast before his eyes, called his Army off from following the enemy, supposing he had been stopped by great Rocks in the way.  
The same the next day encountering, and being conquered, cas●ing snow on the ground, made it show like to a great River. Therefore the Swedes being deluded by a huge Error in their sight, supposed that mighty Waters had ran with a noise before them: So whilst the Conqueror feared the vain Imagination of Waters, the Fins escaped by flight. The third day likewise they rallied again, and then they could find no way to escape: For when they saw their Armies begin to decline, they yielded to the power of the conqueror. Then he conquered Egtherus, Captain of the Biarmians, whom he challenged to sight a Duel. After this, being grown great in Conquests and Spoils, by the mediation of the King of Sweons, he married Osura, the Daughter of the foresaid King of Denmark: by whom, as the same saxon testifies, he begot twelve Sons, whose names were these: Brander, Barbi, Brodder, Hiarrandi, Tander, Tivingar, two Hadringi, two Hiorthuar, Hiartuvar, Rani, Hugantir; all which, as I said before, using Piracy, were killed at last.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the slaying of a Bear, and the drinking of his blood.  
AMongst the Northern Champions there was one called Biarcho, who always used a Sword longer than ordinary, which he took pleasure to carry with him, that he might draw it against any Roaring Boys of an insolent life, in a Duel; lest he should suffer men of most base manners, to disgrace the glory of Champions by their ill examples: Whereupon he forced most of them, either totally to forego their insolence, or else to put their lives in danger. whilst therefore he triumphed thus by his meritorious actions, a strange wild Beast afforded him a new Victory. For he slay with his Sword a huge Bear that met him in the Thickets, and he commanded his companion Hialtho, that he might grow stronger to drink up the Bears blood. But Biarcho, whilst he received a vehement blow on his head, by a certain Champion that railed at him very basely, and threw hard bones at him when they sat together, he accounting it base to draw his sword to revenge this wrong, threw a bone again at him, that first threw at him, and he strook his fore-head to the hinder-part of his head, and turned the hinder-part into the place of the fore-head, repaying the mans overthwart mind by the crookedness of his countenance, perhaps that he might ever after take heed how he threw bones again. Moreover, one Regnerus of Norway, whilst he exercised his younger years in Military Affairs, he espied a Maid in the Tents of his Companions, that with mighty Valour driven back the Enemy: he was so taken with the love of her, that he could not be satisfied, until he had slain a huge Bear, and a most cruel Dog that kept the Maids Chamber; which( though she had promised to admit him, when he before sued for her love) he therefore opposed, that she might see him kill the most fierce Beasts, to whom she had a long time committed the preservation of her Chastity. This Maids name was Largertha, of whose Valour, a little after I shall speak amongst the fighting Females.   

CHAP. XVII. Of Regnerus, called Hair-coat.  
THere was a King of the Sweons, called Herothus, whose troubled mind was not a little urged how to preserve his Daughters Chastity; whether he should guard her with Wild Beasts,( as the manner of most Princes was then) or else should commit the custody of her to mans fidelity. But he preferring cruelty of Beasts to man● fidelity, he soonest choose what would do most hurt. For hunting in the Woods, he brought some Snakes that his company had found, for his Daughter to feed up. She quickly obeying her Fathers commands, bread up a Generation of Vipers by her Virgin hands. And that they might want no meat, her curious Father caused the whole body of an Ox to be brought, being ignorant that by this private food he maintained a public destruction. These being grown up, by their venomous breath poisoned the neighbouring parts; but the King repenting his folly, proclaimed, That he who could remove this plague should have his Daughter. When Regnerus of Norway, descended of the Kings Race, who was the chief suitor this Virgin had, heard this Report, he obtained from the Nurse a Woollen Cassock; and hairy Breeches, whereby he might hinder the biting of the Adders. And when he came to Sweden in a ship, he purposely suffered his Clothes to grow stiff with could, casting water upon them: and thus clothed, having onely his Sword and Dart to defend him, he went to the King. As he went forward, two huge Adders met him on the way, that would kill the young man, with the twisting about of their tails, and by their venom they cast forth. But Regnerus confiding in the hardness of his frozen Garments, both endured and repulsed their venom by his clothes, and their biting by his Harness, being infatigable in pressing hard upon these Wild Beasts. Last of all he strongly casts out of his hand his Javelin, that was fastened with a Loop, and struck it into their bodies. Then, with his two-edged Sword rending both their hearts, he obtained a happy end of an ingenious and dangerous fight. The King looking curiously on his clothes, when he saw them so hairy on the backside, and unpolished like ragged freeze he spake merrily, and called him Lodbrock; that is, Hair-coat; and to recreate him after his pains, he sent for him to a Banquet with his friends. He answered, That he must first go see those Companions he had left: and he brought them to the Kings Table very brave in clothes, as he was then: and lastly, when that was done, he received the pledge of his Victory, by whom he begot many hopeful children; and he had her true love to him the more, and the rather enjoyed his company, by how much she knew the great dangers he underwent to win her by, and the ingenious practices he used. When this most noble Wife, called Phora, was dead, he fell into various wil●ss of Fortune, being famous in the whole World for his Chivalry, he grieved( as I said before) to be conquered by the unarmed Fins and Biarmians. He was afterwards cast by Hella, Prince of the Irish, to Adders, and was killed by them.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of Also the Defender of Chastity.  
SIvardus, King of the Goths, had Sons, Vermundus and Othenus, and one Daughter Alvilda; which was so chased from her Cradle to all appearance, that she had her Face always veiled with a veil, that she might not make her beauty a bait to stir up others Lusts.  
Her Father shutting her up in close custody, gave her a Viper and a Snake to breed up, thereby at length to guard her Chastity, by these creeping Creatures when they were grown great: that he might intimate that he left no passage open to this Virgin for any but for Valiant men, and noted for their virtue, who should Conquer those Beasts in a dangerous conflict, adding this, that if any one should try in vain to come at her, his head should presently be cut off, and fastened on a stake; that every one that was put on by his aspiring wit should not dare to attempt such a disgrace to the Kingly blood. This being known, the son of Alfsigarus King of Denmark, nor trusting so much to his valour as to his wit, and supposing the conflict would be the more Noble the greater danger he must undergo, he comes as a suitor to the Virgin, to conquer these beasts that guarded the Maid's Chamber, chiefly because by the proclamation the Virgin was promised in marriage, as due to him that could conquer them. Now that he might the better endure this rage against him, he covered his body with a raw and bloody hid, gird about with it: so soon as he entred the doors of the Castle, he took a read hot Iron with a pair of pinsers and thrust it into the vipers yawning Mouth, and so killed him. Then he slay the snake that came to twist about him, between the middle of his chaps with his dart; or, as the more ancient Histories of the Goths set it down, with a burning spear, pointed as it were like a knife. And when according to the Edict, he desired the Pledge that belonged to the victor, King Sivardus answered that such a Son in Law should please him, which his Daughter freely consented to have. And when only the Maids Mother would hardly admit of his svit, he tries the Maids good will by a private discourse, and when her Mother perceived that she unwarily commended this suitor for his virtue, her Mother chid her for it, that breaking the nerves of Chastity, she would be taken with the allurement of beauty, and omitting the censure of virtue, she should regard with a Lascivious mind, the fawning shows of comeliness, therefore she silently approving the just sentence of her Mother, found out a way, whereby she might show that her Chastity was yet untouched though the Beasts that guarded her were slain, and she would make this more apprear by some bold adventure, and confirm it by some Noble design. Then presently scorning this Danish young man, she changed her Feminine mind and garment into a masculine, and of a very chased Maid, she became a fierce Pirat. For she so preferred virtue before idleness, that when she might enjoy Kingly dainties she presently applied her self to the wars, drawn on by her feminine fury: and she began to be so averse to all men by a resolute purpose of Chastity, that she firmly resolved with her self never to mary any man; but ever after as a Pirate to equal, if nor exceed mens valour.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the Stratagems of Fridlevus.  
THe notable deeds of one Fridlevus are remarkable; who besides his imbred valour was confident by reason of his coat of Male, and armor of proof he wore. He used this in public and private fights as his armor of defence, and he slay many mighty enemies tired out in the sharp battles, and amongst the rest one Gunholmus, who was wont to blunt the enemies sword with charms, him he slay with many stroke of the handle. But whilst he too hastily chopped his hand on the point of it, he cut the Nerves of his fingers, and so his fingers fell all ways crooked, close to his hand. The same man, whilst he besieged Dublin a Town of Ireland, and found there was no entrance, the walls were so strong, imitating the witty art of Haingius, he commanded fire shut up in sponges should be fastened to swallows wings, which when they came to their own nests set the houses on fire, and whilst the Towns men run to put it out, and took more care to suppress the fire, than to repel the enemy, he wan Dublin. After this in Britanny, having lost his Soldiers in battle, when he saw he was like to have hard returning to the shore, he set the bodies of the slain upright, and in battle array, who so represented his former multitude, that by so great a conflict he seemed to have lost none. Whereby he not onely took off from the enemy all confidence of joining battle, but he made them desirous to fly from him.   

CHAP. XX. Of the same man's Stratagems by Birds.  
AS for Hadingus his policy, spoken of before, the meaning is that Hadingus King of Denmark spending his youthful years most successfully, omitting desire of pleasure, always desired to live in wars, considering with his Valiant mind that he must spend all his dayes in Noble warlike designs. He sets upon Handuanus King of Hellespont at the City Duna that was fenced with invincible walls, and he strives to enter it when the forts were now repaired: but the height of them not admitting any violence that fought against them, he commanded men skilled in catching birds, to take divers sorts of birds that were used to that place,& to put under their wings sponges set on fire, these flying to their own Nests set the City on fire: the Towns men running to quench this, left the gates unguarded against the enemy, wherefore coming on, he took Handuanus; and he gave him leave to redeem himself with Gold. And when he might have slain the enemy, he had rather humble him; he did thus temper cruelty with clemency. But afterwards when ever any siege was like to be, by the Kings command all the birds about houses were killed.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the fight of King herald, against a tame Dragon.  
HAraldus the most illustrious King of Norway, residing in his youth with the King of Constantinople, and being condemned for man-slaughter, he was commanded to be cast to a tame Dragon that should rend him in pieces. As he went into the prison, one very faithful servant he had, offered himself freely to die with his Master. The keeper of the Castle, curiously observing them both, let them down at the mouth of the Den, being unarmed, and well preached, wherefore when the servant was naked he admitted herald to be covered with his shirt for modesty sake, who gave him a braslet privily, and he scattered little fish on the pavement, that the Dragon might first stay his hunger on them, and that the guilty persons that are shut up in the dark prison, might have a little light by the shining of the fins and Scales. Then Haraldus picking up the bones of the Carkaseis, stopped them into the Linen he had and bound them fast together like a club. And when the Dragon was let forth, and rushed greedily on his prey cast to him, he lept quickly on his back, and he thrust a Barbers razor in at his navel, that only would be pierced by iron, which, as luck was, he brought with him, and kept it concealed by him: this could Serpent that had most hard scales all over, disdained to be entred in any other part of his body. But Haraldus sitting so high above him, could neither be bitten by his mouth, or hurt by his sharp teeth; or broken with the turnings of his tail. And his servant using the weapons or bones put together, beat the Dragons head till he bled, and died thereof by his many weighty stroke: when the King knew this he freely changed his revenge, into his service, and pardonned these va●iant persons, and furnishing them with a Ship and moneys he gave them leave to depart.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the fight of Frotho and Fridlevus against a Serpent.  
FRotho a Danish Champion and a King, scarce being past his child-hood, in a single combat killed a huge fierce great Serpent; thrusting his sword into his belly, for his hard skin would not be wounded, and all darts threw at him, flew back again, and it was bat labour lost. Fridlevus was no less valiant, who both to try his valour, and to find out some hidden treasure, set upon a most formidable Serpent for his huge body and venomous teeth, and for a long time he cast his darts against his scaly sides and could not hurt him, for his hard body made nothing of the weapons cast with violence against him. But this Serpent twisting his tail in many twines, by turning his tail round, he would pull up trees by the roots, and by his crawling on the ground he had made a great hollow place, that in some places hills seemed to be partend as if a valley were between them, wherefore Fridlevus considering that the upper parts of this beast could not be penetrated, he runs him in with his sword underneath; and piercing into his groin, he drew forth his virulent matter as he lay panting: when he had killed the Serpent, he dug up the money and carried it away. Also he Conquered a Giant called Hithis that was of a Monstrous habit, who had taken away the son of King Tollemarcha, as he was Childishly playing, and he made him his Roer, cutting off his hand and foot, setting the young youth at liberty.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the same Fridlevus.  
HE also slay 12. Champions of Norway that were famous for their Victories over Giants, and noted for their trophies amongst the Nations, and rich in their spoils, when they by often breaking in, had long vexed their neighbours, and this he did not so much for covetousness as for love of virtue. He also slay Hiarnon, in a duel with many great wounds, in a bath, one that was competitor of the Kingdom, because under a pretence of great familiarity, and huge obsequies he was a most fierce layer of Snares for his life.   

CHAP. XXIV. Of the Piracy of famous Virgins.  
ALvilda a most famous Virgin began to play the Pirat fiercely, and taking many Maides that were bent upon the same design to be her comrades, she came by chance to that place where a Company of pirates lamented for their captain that was slain in war, and by them by reason of her beauty and piracy, she was made chiefest of the pirates, and she did greater things than could be expected from the feminine sex: whom Alff seeking to pursue with many navigations fell in winter time into the Navy of the Blackmanni, at which time the waters were hugely frozen, and the pieces of Ice so fastened the ships, that it was unpossible by any oars or art to row away. And after the Ice lasting long seemed to promise more safe entrance to those that were shut in, Alff commands his men to lay aside their slippery shoes, and to walk over the plain Ice with their stockings only on their feet, and so might easily subdue the enemy that slid upon oily slippery Shoes. These being thus subdued, and the Ice melted, he takes his voyage by sea, against the Fins and Finlanders: where entering in the narrow crook of Hanga, he found by his spies that the haven was already taken up by the Ships of other men; for Alvilda at the same Straits, had first entred with her fleet: and when she spied strong Ships afar off coming thither, she quickly rowed on to meet them, thinking better to break through the enemy, than to be overwhelmed by him. As therefore they began to fight at Sea, and on both sides they continued having an eye to the great glory in respect of their valour, a young man, having more and fresh Souldiers to help him, when Alvilda with a desired omen lept into the forecastle, he retires as far as the Stern, there being a great slaughter made of those that resisted. But his Campanion Barcharus, striking off Alvilda her helmet, and discovering her small face, he perceived she was to be dealt withall by kisses not by weapons, and that laying aside his hard ammunition, the Enemy was to be encountered with more pleasing duties. Wherefore Alff rejoicing that besides his expectation he sit upon her, whom he had indefatigably sought through so many dangers both by Land and Sea, he presently when he had taken her; adorned her in a most gallant Womens habit, and married her. Observing the most commendable ceremonies of the Ancients, and by her he afterwards begot his daughter Gyrithae, which had Haldanus to her Husband, and bare Haraldus Hildera who repaired the kingdom of Denmark strangely rent by domestic injuries, to its former lustre, and had peace 50. years, and he slay two warlike Maides conquered by his notable craft, Sticla and Rufila, fighting against the King of the Trondi for the dominion of the kingdom; in a fight at Sea; But the like glory fell not out to his nephew Odmundus, son to Olo, whilst he set upon by force of arms another Maid called Rusia, who striven with her brother concerning the kingdom of Norway in a way of Piracy. For he was put to flight by her, but when she was molested by the people by Clandestine Rebellion, she was made a runagate by him, and when she fled, he driven her upon her brother who wickedly caused her to be slain. Nor will I omit that the most mighty Prince of Halland, Huirvillus, by notable force of Arms slay Rufila a Virgin of Norway, who applied her self to warlike actions.   
Here ends the Fifth Book.   

Olaus Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: CONCERNING Minerals and Metals.  
The Epitome of the Sixth Book.  

The Preface.  
BEcause the hard and invincible kind of warriors of the North Swedeland and Gothland, dwelling in the Mineral Mountains, by reason of the huge fierceness and courage of their Bodies and Minds, and also by reason of the most hard Exercises they are used to, may well be compared to Giants and Champions: and therefore in the orderly describing Northern Occasions, it deserves to be joined to the same Giants and Champions, and to be preferred before these that follow, by reason of the different kind of Weapons they both use. And for this reason, not keeping the form and order of other Writers, I shall insert something concerning Minerals; from whence may be taken comparisons, to set forth the following battles more distinctly. The Mountains therefore are high, but most commonly barren and dry, in which commonly nothing else grows, for the commodity and prefervation of the Inhabitants, than an unexhausted fruitfulness of precious Metals; which are rich and fertile enough for all mens necessities for life, and it may be for superfluous things to be fetched from other places if we will, and to defend them with unanimous force, where violence is offered against this gift of Nature. For they are a fierce kind of men, that will yield to no sharpness of Wars, upon whatsoever sharpness of Weather, or Hostile threats, as I shall show underneath, concerning Wars in Fields. Also, how fiercely a People called Dalacarly, that are fierce and impetuous, marching on foot in Companies, falling upon their Enemies. A foreign witness, Albertus Crantzius, doth set down plain enough, with many great strange things in the Wars made against the Kings of Denmark, chiefly Christiernus the first, and King John. Also how Christiernus the second, himself, with force and fury, are driven out by Gustavus, Anno 1521. being the Leader: he doth aclowledge by unhappy experience, that he was circumvented by Counsel. But I shall show most truly, as I was an Eye-witness, what horrible and barbarous Cruelty was committed against his Government in the North Parts. For I seem to have been preserved, that I might behold such horrible Spectacles of my Nation.   

CHAP. I. Of Minerals, and the finding of them.  
THe Mines in the North Countries are very many, great, divers, and very rich. Many, because being situated in Valleys and Mountains, sticking together they are frequently taken forth. They are great, because they are large, and cannot be exhausted, both in the upper Swede, and in Gothland, and the country of the Varmi, toward the Bounds of Norway, where they are found. They are divers; some Silver, others Copper, or Brass, Steel, and principal Iron. Also rich, as I shall show beneath, because great store of the Kings Treasure, or Tribute, is drawn from those Mines. And though there be an infinite multitude of such Mountains and Minerals, in the foresaid kingdoms, yet by many signs, Nature directing, new ones are always found by them that seek them, especially where the Mountains are round on the top; and in the Navel or roundness, not cleft nor broken; but the Snow in Winter melts, by reason of the Brimstone fuming. But those Mountains that are Thunder-stricken on the top or side or touched about the foot, do show forth in their Fissures, Veins, or Silver that shine, and they do more 'allure the Inhabitants, to burn with an unsatiable covetousness, that regarding no danger, they will Mine into Stones, and come to the inward parts, where you shall see the Veins in the Mountains, like the parts of mans body, divided, standing upwards, downward, on the right or left hand; and the Minerals annexed, are the clearer, the more purer Rock or Marble, they are bread with. For those that naturally run Westward, and bend with a greater bunch to South and North, are the best, and most inestimable; for those Veins appear no otherwise, than men shining in armor, standing in their Ranks. And this pleasure joined with profit, brought great content to the Labourers and possessors.   

CHAP. II. Of the Situation of Mineral Veins.  
MOreover, the Veins that run from the sides of the East and South toward the West and North, are said to be the best; and those that run to other parts are not so good: For the Mines are better ripe that run East and South: There are also Veins called Pendent, and Lying: The Pendent Veins lie covered upwards. Those that lie on plain ground, take growth and goodness from their very coming forth. There are Veins also obliquely lying up and down, that depend on all the foresaid.   

CHAP. III. Of the way to dig the Mines.  
THe Miners, for their own security, make several Arches to hold up the Mountains, and lay many pieces of Wood between the sides of the Mountains, and underneath; and being doubtful to trust thereto, they have yet another invention; they let themselves down with cords, when they are to cut out the Metals in Rocks they cannot come at, or to make choice of Veins of Silver; and afterward they purify them by Art, using Water and Fire for it. But since the Gain seems small and lost labour, there being no fruit, or very seldom, to be expected in the Bark and outside of the most rich Mine, they use a more solid way, and set up Pillars within the sides of the Mountains that are far stronger than their former way of Arching, being fully persuaded, that Treasure is not to be found but in the deeper Caves of the Mountains; and that by more certain Signs, even as low as Hell, almost; where by Natures digestion, more frequently and plentifully are found Mines, especially of Silver, and of Brass.   

CHAP. IV. Of the distinction of Mineral Veins.  
THe distinction and division of Mineral Veins, or Pits of possession, is wont to be made in special by the Inventors, by certain signs from the Mountains that lie upon them, or from the Events, or from their natural situation and propriety: which also are found out in an admirable way, and they are daily found out: yet it is not known, whether God be angry, or well pleased with it: First, by the violence of Thunders and Tempests burning down of Trees, whereby the shining Clots of Silver are discovered: Then the tops of high Mountains, being onely pared with Spades, there appear bright Veins of Silver; which presently the wise Husband-man covers with Dung, being rather content to enjoy a peaceable Field, than a Silver Mine that offers itself, whereby he knows he can maintain himself and his Family. For the wary countryman fears that some Noble-man of the Treasury, to whom the Field belongs, finding a Mine of Silver, in hopes of more profit, will put him out of possession, that there shall be no more Tilling there, where there is a fruitful Mine of Silver. Therefore, as I said, he makes choice of the Fields fruitfulness, of old; for this cause, both Fields and Mines of Silver that so appeared, were made desolate; and at this day, they are hide as much as may be; and the unsatiable covetousness of Governours hath done so much harm, that where there were six hundred Pits or Mines of Iron, Brass, Silver, there are scarce three hundred left for the public profit. The names thereof, it is superfluous to reckon up, whilst the Inhabitants, are much troubled at the remembrance of them, that they are come to that pass that they dare do nothing against the violence of Power.   

CHAP. V. Of the Wheels, Instruments, and dangers of the Labourers.  
I Must now show how a very high Wheel, or drawing Engine is turned about by men or beasts going in it: Moreover, men sit upon rolls, and are let down to the bottom; and again Buckets or Pitchers, full of Water, or Mineral Earth, are drawn up, as every one knows, that the Labourers in Mines, are forced to keep this congruous order: Also, that Cattle, namely, Horses and great Bears, are appointed by course and collaterally, to turn Wheels about, to raise, or let sink great Weights, because the Mines dug forth can be brought up no easier way, by any conveyance of balances from the lower parts. But the Miners that undergo continually such hard Labours going up and down, are a most hardy sort of men, most commonly condemned thither for their villainy, living there onely for the Prince his security, being exiled in their own country, that they may never privily come back again to their own houses: yet those Labourers follow the Laws and Rights of the Mountains; whereby, though they be continually inclined to raise Tumults, Seditions, Homicides, and a thousand mischiefs: yet they are tied most severely, that they shall do wrong to no man. In other things they fear not to venture upon any danger or ruin, that may happen amongst the pieces of Rocks ready to fall, or in setting Beams within the sides of the Mountains, or from the deadly exhalations and stinks arising from the Mines, or from the unwholesome air included: Wherefore they are often subject to horrible Destinies. For whilst they labour violently, more quick than circumspectly, the Supporters breaking, or Stones falling, they are fearfully crushed suddenly, or for some days( as I said before) they are suffocated, crying out fearfully, being to die for hunger; and there being no remedy to draw them out alive, they are all shew'd to be shut up in one burial, having set over them, how, and how many, namely 30, 60, a 100, or more perished all at once: yet the other Miners continue undaunted, that they are no ways frighted by these, or the like horrid Spectacles. Also with a little stroke of a Hammer upon them, huge Mountains fall down by their vast weight.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Art and Ingenuity of Smiths.  
THough in many Northern Kingdoms and Provinces, there useth to be great esteem made of Smiths, that have skill to draw, melt, or turn any ductile matter, especially amongst the Mountains Dolacarly, an unconquered people for War: yet in the Country of Helsing,( which formerly was honoured with the Kings Title for some famous Actions) toward the North, there are found such skilful and diligent Artificers that are Smiths, that there are scarce the like in all the North. For they know how to draw forth a great way, by reason of the richness of those Mines and Metals, to a lump, by the ingenious direction of Waters and Wheels; so that by the nimbleness and force of such Engines, in a very short time the greatest Work may be finished, even the usual Vessels of Brass and Iron extended: whence no small profit accrues to these Nations: so likewise in Iron Ports, and Casements for Windows, and Grates for Nets, that are to be indissolubly tied together; the like work whereof for justing, is scarce found in all Europe.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Distinction of fusible Metals.  
THere is also amongst other Northern Artificers another way, in the most rich Mountains of Silver, Copper, or Brass, and Iron, how to melt them, or hammer them; which is so fitly and orderly distinguished, that every matter may easily be brought in●o a Mass, according to its own nature. Silver, in melting, requires ho●●ow Furnaces, and clear fire to melt it, as being the most precious Metal, that being well melted that it runs, it may be cast by the Work-men into several Forms, putting under it long or round Gutters. The Forms of Silver are commonly made when it runs, like to usual Tables, or square Seats, or Souldiers Bucklers:& that is chiefly done for this reason, that the magnificence and wealth of the King and Kingdoms may be shew'd both to the people; as also to the Ambassadors of great Princes, to whom these massy pieces of Silver are given. But Copper or Brass Metals are melted in long high Furnaces, made of day, Straw and Iron, wire and Cords, with many Bellows hung up here and there to blow withall, to cause a greater heat, in divers forms also, without Gutters, into huge Lumps, onely in the Earth dug up: but it is far the shorter way, by Winds blowing forth underneath, where, by the continued mighty heat, the Metal, in the midst of the flames, is brought into divers Forms, that weigh 100. 200, 600, or 1000. pound and more; also Naval Weights and balances in greater number.   

CHAP. VIII. More of the same Metals.  
BUt Iron Mines cannot be divided into pieces or Clots, with Spades, without the he●p of Water-Wheels that move the bellows, that they may be brought into a Lump that cannot be cut asunder; always keeping this proportion, that yearly they may make pieces of Iron like to a mans Fist, or four times greater, to many hundred thousands: which pieces of Iron, to five hundred pound weight and more, are put into long Vessels, like Roman Barrels, and are carried to foreign Countries, or Provinces at home, to very great profit. Also there is such plenty of the most choice Steel, that it serves, and to spare, all Inhabitants and Strangers, for all Building-Tools, for all sorts of Arms, Breast-plates, Helmets, Swords. But the grain of it is made the purer, and stronger for work and the more tractable to mingle with Iron; the hotter Furnace the Steel is taken out of, it is by leisure, not suddenly quenched in the water, for if it be all plunged in at once, it becomes so short and brittle, that it cannot endure any force in bending it: Amongst the Mountaineus Northern People it is made like two fingers, in a rough shape, and is quickly sold by tale, as it were in a Market, by hundreds, or by thousands, &c.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Divels in the Mines.  
THis is collected in brief, that in the Northern kingdoms there are great Armies of Devils that have their services, which they perform with the Inhabitants of these Countries: but they are most frequent in Rocks, and Mines where they break, cleave, and make them hollow: which also thrust into Pitchers and Buckets, and they carefully fit Wheels and Screws, whereby the attracting Engines are drawn upwards, and they show themselves to the Labourers when they list, like to Phantasms& Ghosts, in what form they will, and they counterfeit laughter, and vain loud derisions, and strange sports& delusions, and an infinite company of Hobgoblin tricks, whereby they deceive the unhappy people by a vocal noise. But they change these seeming services at last into nothing but destruction and ruin, by breaking down the pillars: or by the fall of Rocks, br●aking of Ladders, provocation of stinking smells, suppression of Winds, breaking of Ropes, they oppress and disturb men; That they either fall and break their necks, or blaspheme God in the greatness of the danger, and are ready to go into a deeper prison, to be enchained with the Devils. And this they do chiefly in the richer Mines of Silver, where there is greatest hopes of finding infinite Treasure. And for this cause many of the richest Mines seems wholly desolate, and utterly of no value; chiefly, because in those places of Metal, there are found six sorts of Divels, more malignant than the rest; for fear of whom, and dangerous Assaults, many Labourers in Mines are in great danger.   

CHAP. X. Of Lightning in those Mountains of Minerals.  
THey that dwell in the Mineral Mountains have experience oft-times, from Thunder and Lightning, Flashes and Fire, breaking forth of Clouds, of wonderful Effects in the Exhalations of Minerals; namely, that there is a gross Vapour coming forth of the Caves, that over-shadows all, and a great noise in the Superficies of the Mountains, about the entering in, and coming forth, that drives off such as come to it; and above all, that there is an intolerable stink, mingled with a sulphureous smell of Thunder: and if any man, not used to it, coming thither, shall suck it in, he will fall sick, hardly to be cured, having the passages of his throat stopped; which is suddenly dissolved, by drinking hot Beer, mingled with Butter, that it may afterwards be cleansed by application of greater Remedies: yet men are in this case cured rather by the co-operation of Nature that is strong, than by virtue of Medicaments. It happens also there, that by the blows of Thunder, new veins of Silver are laid open, shining clearly on the sides of the Mountains; and hereby they get a perpetual name for their use, and enrich the Fortunes of him that possesseth them. Moreover, Thunder and Lightning does so rage there, though it be in several years between, that many Herds of cattle are killed by Tempests all the fields over, very wide about.   

CHAP. XI. Of Goldsmiths, or Refiners.  
HAving now shewed that there is a vast and unexhausted quantity of Silver in the Mountains of Sweden, and how it is found and taken out there; it follows, that I show the use or abuse of the same, lest this noble Metal should be concealed from such as have it not, and would use it well, if they had it. Repeating therefore the customs of former Ages, it may be sufficiently shewed what huge Riches of Gold and Silver, and of other precious Brass there was; when,( as I premised in my first Book) the Temples of Idols, Kings and Princes dining Rooms, even to Childrens Cradles, and Horses Bridles and Trappings, were made the richest Ornaments they could be made. But as the Mine of Gold was then great; so afterwards, by reason of a cruel Mortality, that was raised by the Plague, Sword, and Famine, the care of that was laid aside, and it was lost. There is nothing delivered to their unsatiable Posterity, but the memory of some places from whence it was taken, as I said before in the utmost Bounds of the North: yet I think it cannot be denied, but that there is great quantity of Gold in Swedish Copper; which being bought and exported, and oft-times recovered after shipwreck, and refined by art and fire, brings great gain to the possessors of it: And I believe that the Hungarian Artificers do diligently attend upon this Art, and such as sell to foreign Factors Copper very read, and perfectly tried and made into thin plates: and lastly, those that carry it through the Dominions of the King of Poland in long ships, in the large River Weysil, as far as the Mart town of Dantzick, of the dukedom of Prussia, to divide it there. The rest is left as gain to the Workmen at home, if they can by any secret Art draw any Gold from the Brass or Copper. As for the use of Silver, there is none more common or good in all the World, than what is sold in Sweden and Gothland; where there is scarce a House or Family, that doth not yearly add something by their Industry to the Estate they have got. Also, there is a most huge gain in the great Images of the Saints, that are the titular Patrons of the kingdom, to whom are reverently deputed, Ciboria, or places made up with Gold and Silver Likewise, in the Ornaments of Maids, in the huge Crowns made for their Heads, Neck-laces, Pety-coats, Bracelets for the Arms, Chains, small Gifts, and Rings given them by their Parents, Lovers, and Friends. Nor is this idle: For they providently give unto them silver, that may last them and their children after them, rather than silken clothes that will soon wear out and be eaten with Worms. Also, of old, the most illustrious men wore Girdles of Silver, commonly called Silffschena, and they had round silver buttons to make fast their cloths every where. Also they had little silver bells tied at their horses tails, that those that were near them, hearing them jingle, might take heed they kicked not backward. Moreover, their Straps, Bridles, and Poitrils, and other parts of Silver, were made to adorn them for Luxury, rather than for any solid Furniture.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Silver Ornaments of Maids.  
THere is a very old Town amongst the Ostrogoths, called Scheningiae, because that a Torrent, at a certain time, runs fiercely upon the sides of it, which is called Schena. But when it is dry weather, there is so little water left, that it will scarce serve turn to water the cattle. But this defect is every where supplied by the plenty of excellent Fountains, that run out of the Rocks continually. This Town, though, growing old, it seems next to desolation; yet by its situation, fruitfulness, and wealth, it hath not its equal in all the North Climate. For it hath a most wholesome situation amongst the most fruitful fields and meadows, and oaken Woods, that are very profitable and thick. The streets of this Town were so ingeniously made by the first Builders of it, that every where round about, turn which way they will, they all meet at the common Market, and Court of Justice, as in the Center. Upon this Market stood a Statue of a Giant, called Long Turo, as that at Breme is called Rowland; at whose knees, Malefactors were questioned and punished, especially Adulterers, which yet were seldom found: who between the Arms of the Image, held stones bound fast with Iron bands about their necks, to their certain confusion, and endured many other scoffs, especially for terror, that they might not dare to corrupt the weaker Sex. There were of old in this Town abundance of Countrey-maids, that went covered with Silver, and guilded Crowns, four fingers deep, on the more solemn feast-days; who also were otherwise tricked up and adorned: as also other Women were, who were all richly clad with silver, of which all, even Husband-men, had plenty, as it is supposed they have at this day, that the Prince may be honoured, who rather rules over rich and gallant people, than as a King over poor indigent Fellows, that are but Scabs, and pilfering Knaves.    

Olaus Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Warlike Instruments, Manners, Causes, and Cautions in Fight.  
An Epitome of his Seventh Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Artificers of Slings and Darts.  
AMongst the Northern Nations, there is great use made of Bows, Slings, and Arrows; and there is scarce any Inhabitant upon the Earth that is unprovided with such Arms, and that drive off Assaults of Enemies, and hurtful Beasts, wheresoever they may meet them, as there are cruel Bears and Wolves: against which, Arrows are made like broad Knives, by reason of the thickness of their hair. Also, they have Arrows of Wood, with broad heads to kill Marduri, Zibels, and Pyroli. Also, some with two Forks, to take Wild Fowl, and others to cut for Water-Fowl, to pierce their hard quills: Others, for Elks, or Wild-Asses, Gules, Foxes, and the like Beasts. But of these, and the like, I shall speak more hereafter, concerning hunting of divers Creatures that are hunted not with Slings, but with Arrows of Trees, made strait.   

CHAP. II. Of Arrows, and warlike Instruments.  
WHat concerns their fighting in battle, it is a certain truth, that the Coths excel all the rest for their Valour in Slings, Arrows, lances, and Swords, that ●carce in the whole World there are made greater and stronger Cross-bows, than amongst them, nor greater Swords, that are left as a possession to their posterity, by right of Inheritance, and by way of gift, as a more rich Furniture than silver. And they have no less affection to strong Steel-bows, and their attractive Wheels, whereby with wonderful agility the Bows are bent with a crooked back; and there is such force in an Arrow shot from it, that they will shoot through a man in armor, with a Coat of Male, and double-breast, as if it were soft Wax: wherefore they use these more frequently amongst Warlike people, than any other Arms; and for many other reasons, as I shall underneath annex it, concerning Iron Walls. And few Generals of Armies want such Iron Arrows in the fields, but have many thousands of them that follow them diligently; because they are portable, and seldom are cast in vain: Also they have three-pointed Arrows dipped in venom, that are cast when the Enemy is fierce and mad, yet they make no great wound. Nor do they lightly use venomed Arrows but when they understand the fierceness and cruelty of the Enemy, who will spare none.   

CHAP. III. Of the sudden calling the communality to Arms.  
WHen the Enemy is upon the Sea-coast, or within the limits of the Northern kingdoms, then presently by the Command of the Provincial Governours, with the counsel and consent of the old Souldiers, who are notably skilled in such like business, a Staff of three hands length, in the common sight of them all, is carried by the speedy running of some active young man unto that Village or City, with this Command, that on the 3. 4. or 8. day, one two or three, or else every man in particular, from 15. years old, shall come with his Arms, and expenses for ten or twenty days, upon pain that his or their houses shal be burnt( which is intimated by the burning of the Staff) or else the Master to be hanged,( which is signified by the Cord tied to it) to appear speedily on such a Bank or Field or Valley, to hear the cause he is called, and to receive Orders from the said P●o●incial governor, what he should do. Wherefore that Messenger, swister than any Post or wagon, having done his Commission, comes slowly back again, bringing a token with him, that he hath done all legally, and every moment one or another runs to every Village, and tells those places what they mus● do. And thus they that are fit for War, either by their strength of body, or vigour of age, in one, or eight days time at farthest, come in innumerable multitudes, with their Arms and expenses; and the old Husbandmen also, to give counsel; and by reason of the experience they got in former battles, come also into the Fields, and the Women get upon the City Walls, and Forts, to cast down Stones, or Lime, sudden in Water.   

CHAP. IV. Of the keeping of the ways and Scouts.  
ANd that the Enemies Forces may not know the minds of the Inhabitants, there are Sentinels set in convenient places, who will suffer none of that multitude met together to go down, nor yet the messengers of the Enemy, when they are discovered, nor to come for peace, but to spy them out. For the Inhabitants will be ignorant of knowing the Enemies number, and what Spears and Arms, or long Poles and Arrows they use: for as much as their Spears( called in vulgar Italian Pichae) are two or three foot longer than the Spears or launces of their Enemies; as it fell out in the Ejecting of King Christiernus the Second, Anno 1521. under the Command of the most noble Gustavus Erickson, who was afterwards King; who with twenty thousand of the Dalacarli, that dwell in the Mountains, and use Spears, came down into the Champion fields of Aresium, in the end of May, to fight violently with his Enemies, and he became conqueror in a moment. For the horror of Christiernus his cruelty, made not onely private Families, or one Province, but all the Inhabitants mad, that they came every man forth to seek revenge. In what order, and for what cause it was done, that the same Gustavus every where with the concurrency of an infinite multitude, and by the consent of the most famous Nobility, was first proclaimed Prince, and afterwards crwoned King by three Bishops of the Church of Rome; I shall speak elsewhere, when I speak of his actions. The messengers therefore of the Footmen, that are to give warning to the people to meet for the battle, run fiercely and swiftly; for no Snow, nor Rain, nor Heat, can stop them, nor Night hold them; but they will soon run the Race they undertake: The first Messenger tells it to the next Village, and that to the next; and so the Hubbub runs all over, till they all know it in that Stift or Territory, where, when, and wherefore they must meet; nor will the governor be very safe, if he waver or stumble about what he should command the multitude that is provoked. For they fight freely for their country, and they will presently know what it is fit for them to do.   

CHAP. V. Of the Direction of the Multitudes called together.  
WHen the multitude of Inhabitants are met, presently come the most prudent Generals, who at once show them what they must do, and divide them into Troops, Companies, and Regiments, and foretell them what manner of battle they must keep, they give them their Colours, and expound unto them the cause of the War, they open to them the insolence of the Enemy, and show to one and all their damages, and how necessary it is to defend their Countries Liberty: and these things, with a quick expedition, make them all to be most bold Revengers of their wrongs, especially for this reason, because they learned before by training at home, how to fight in War, and that with Javelins, Arrows, Slings, Swords, wherewith they often kill the Enemy, or put him to flight: and they knew what they should do in War, and can as well teach themselves, as learn from others: whence they fall upon the Enemy, like a grievous and sad Tempest all at once, and run fiercely on; either they find an opportunity to kill, slay, or take the Enemy prisoner, or to rout him utterly, as the Nature of the place will give them way. And it is the custom of the people to fight in a tumultuous and running battle. But those that excel the rest in Spears, or standing fight, are deputed to their Ranks apart, that they may be Auxiliaries to their Fellows, if by the opposition of the Enemy, they should be beaten back, or put to flight.  
Others again heaped together in Troops, either keep passages, that they may compel the Enemy to fall into snares, and places not convenient; or may take from him his provision, or hinder him, that by continual skirmishing they may tyre him out; or else they drive him into extreme danger of Bogs, or steep places, that they may easily destroy, or captivated the Enemy shut up in Caves in Rocks, and they chiefly provide, that they may continually have fresh Forces to oppose against the Adversaries strength, and may receive such as are wearied into safe places of defence.   

CHAP. VI. Of battles on the Shores.  
WHen a Sea-fight is at hand, the North people use wonderful diligence, especially the Goths, Swedes, and Finlanders, either to drive away the Fleet of the Enemy, or to give them battle. For they either from the Rocks, which are their Natural Forts, drive the Enemy from the shore a far off with shooting their Arrows; or if he come near, they cast stones upon him from above; or in the entrance of their Havens, they fasten blind pillars, and thick stakes under water, that they may stop their Enemy from entering, though no man defend them. Sometimes also they make the Enemy think that they are afraid of him, that lying close in the utmost skirts of Woods, whither the Enemy comes to pillage, by blowing their Horns, they may call together all the multitude that lies in Ambush. For in many places by the shore they had made passages of Woods to go in and out, by cutting up young Trees, and sticking many of the Boughs all over, and laying Bushes and briars in the Ways between them, that like a Wall, these Hedges might stand for their Defence, which cannot be entred, nor yet hardly be looked into: within those Woods that are set in the way, almost in all the Ports or Provinces, lye a great multitude of the Inhabitants, who run the swifter upon the Enemy, as the Scouts are careful to give them notice, especially when the Enemies begin to rage, and burn houses, and destroy their fields. For the Natives hold no wickedness to be more cruel than that, nor do they revenge any wrong more severely.   

CHAP. VII. Of Slings for Stones, and read hot Iron.  
FLexible Chains, and jointed Irons, tied to Clubs of Wood, are used more frequently by the Northern people to besiege Castles with, than any other Weapons, especially where the fields round about are strong. But where there are no stones, which is seldom seen, they cast into the Forts, as forcible as they may, a piece of Iron that is glowing read hot, which they put with a pair of Tongs into the purse of the Sling. For they have always ready Vessels like to roman barrels, full of pieces of Iron; and putting that into the fire, and fitting it to their Sling, and casting it against the Besieged, they will make such a violent wound and torture, that it can hardly or never be cured by the help of Physitians. For in the Fall, by reason of its great weight, and burning where it lights, it hurts without remedy; and so they destroy the Enemy, either with the terror of these pieces of Iron which they keep close, or else by the wounds they make. The memory of which thing is very fresh in the King of Denmark, Christiernus the Second, who Anno 1521. by such Weapons in the City, and Castle of Aros, lost a very potent Army. Also by Fiery Arrows, which being snatched but of the flamme, and with a pair of Tongs put into their Crosse-bows, suddenly shot, made the more cruel wounds, the hotter they were, that men could not by reason of their burning, draw them out again.  
But the most miserable things was, that the Iron Arrows, and pieces of Iron, falling amongst the Gun-powder, raising the flamme in a moment, slay far round about very many Souldiers; especially, became these Mountainous men are a fierce kind of people, bread up in Mineral Exercises; and they with their Arrows, Stones, and pieces of Iron cast from their Slings, as thick as Hail, did vehemently pursue, and beat upon them. I saw in the same year, for the space of two hundred and fifty Italian miles, many that were so miserable wounded brought from thence in a ship into Holm, the place where the Kings Palace is in Sweden, a most lamentable spectacle they were; some wanted their Noses, eyes, Arms, ●nd Feet, that were torn off: and these at last in cruel torment, and with wounds incurable died there, a miserable death; especially German, Danes and Scots. The same Lot and destruction that befell those German souldiers, and Danes, happened ch●●●ly to those of Jutland, and Holsatia, because they supposed those Mountain dwellers( I mean the Dalacarly) to be a despised people, and unarmed Countrey-Clowns, not disciplined for War, and they called them stupid and weak people, using such like Imprecations, that millions of Clowns might fall from Heaven like Rain, and that they would and could destroy them all like to Locusts in one moment; and with idle words they thus insulted over them. But it was presently found that words and threats are but in vain, when they drew n●ar that were able to give blows that were mortal: For when they perceived the force of these Mountainous Dalacarly, at Noon-day, on Whitsunday, who were provoked to wrath with a thousand injurious speeches, as well as the rest of the kingdom were, they were not onely unable with their most strong Forces of Foot and Horse to stand against them, but in a confused fright they forthwith ran into their Forts, to defend themselves; wherein, as I said, they were killed with fiery Darts, and read hot pieces of Iron.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Velts of the Centurians.  
ALthough tumultuous people, and the unarmed countrymen all the world over, are supposed to have no skill in Wars: yet there is a far different reason found in the Northern people, who bringing their Arms with them, and expenses for a set time, come as merrily to the War, as they would to dance. For they are most strong, especially the Swedes, and the Goths, in besieging of Castles, Forts, Towns, and Cities, and winning them by force, and that many ways, as I shall show underneath in this Book in many Chapters. But this way described above, may be thought to be more dangerous than the rest. For the Inhabitants when they are provoked with most grievous injury and tyranny, to free themselves from it, come all together, and fear not to meet suddenly, to remove quickly cruel Governours; and when they have worsted them, and compelled them to fly into Forts and Towns, they came by Troops and besiege them, as they are shut up in those Forts; and joining their heads and forces together, they gather shrubs, or branches of Trees, and these they bind together ingeniously with Withs, green Juniper Trees growing in all places, with Pitch, and the Barks of the Birth-Tree; and that in so great height and magnitude, made like to long Towers, that moving forward every heap,( which they call Velta) about a hundred men roll them, or more, as the Velts are great or less, and this Velta by its vast greatness, doth so secure those that drive it before them, that whilst they roll it, they cannot be hurt by any Arrows, Guns, or other Instruments of War.   

CHAP. IX. Of the manners and time of bringing these Veltae.  
BUt that they may the sooner satisfy their revengeful mind, by the more ready and effectual help of Nature, they wait purposely for the winds, and they choose them oft tempestuous and sharp winds that may carry in the smoke and flamme of their Veltae into the houses of the Forts;& on the other side the best archers fall on by troops, who do so plague the besieged in their windows or pe●t their bucklers they ho●d in their hand● or their heads with multitudes of arrows and darts that they make them like to hedgehogs. And at length that force proceeds so far, that the besieged being tired, or conquered with smoke and flamme, are horribly killed, no conditions or agreements being allowed them. For t●e unbridled Country mens simplicity knows not how to make any other agreement than the most bitter death prescribes to the besieged; because they remember how often they have been deluded and vexed by the false Covenants of wicked Governours and enemies that they rather choose to die once fighting valiantly, than to live any longer to be so mocked and tormented by Tyrants. And hence grew up that most cruel custom, that the ordinary Souldiers fighting a battle with the Country Clowns and Inhabitants of Gothland and Swethland, give no quarter, being in despair of life, so it is on the contrary side also, but they presently kill one the other in a savage fury, as every where all the fields over their scattered bones fastened to rocks show instead of Epitaphs. But this miserable Calamity consumes more foreign Souldiers with cruel death of divers Nations, that were come thither to sell their lives for a small matter, than it doth natives who growing daily stronger,& augmenting their forces, rise more cruelly against all that oppose them. For strangers that are Souldiers testify so much, who by the mercy of God have sometimes escaped these miseries, giving a document to all others, that the spoil of the Swedish Silver must be bought by foreigners with their lives and bloods, upon very unequal terms.   

CHAP. X. Of their Stakes, Darts, and Pits for Snares.  
THe Souldiers of Northern people, to oppose fenced places against their enemies coming on, use much art and force, as other Nations do, considering time and place whereby they may certainly with a small hand circumvent the enemy; for the time, whether it be winter spring Summer or Autumn. For be they to fight in winter, by the help of snow and Ice a hundred are sufficient to oppose a thousand( as I shall show underneath). If it be spring time, then they provoke the Enemy to come where he may fall amongst the Rocks, and there are infinite numbers of them, the snow being then melted, that they may fall, that the Rider can find no firm ground to stand upon, to be free from falling down headlong, how valiant soever he be in battle. If it be Summer, then they encounter their rash enemies with ditches, sharp poles and points stuck up, covered with the shadows of pine three boughs, or in some boggy places. If it be Autumn, they are provoked by the enemy ●nto the valleys and declining places, they infatuate and weaken him with rain, that he is brought into narrow Straights, until that many of them gathered together, do not help but hurt one the other which is most lamentable and desperate to behold. For nothing so much hurts horsemen, as a narrow and boggy place, which can scarce be avoided whilst the Valiant horsemen enraged follow after the enemy forcibly whether soever they see him fly. Nor can they save themselves by flight, by reason of the horse that is ready at the backs of them, nor yet on the right or left hand, by reason of the steep places, muddy lakes, deep bogs, dangerous caves, and waters and woods, that they cannot escape these dangers. And then they find that it is not enough to fight with swords onely, or launces, arrows, sharp poles, and daggers, but with hard and dangerous places, into which they are fallen by too much presumption and improvidence. And if they once conquer it will be hard to suppress their fierceness, as to recall the perfidiousness and cowardliness of those that run away; and perhaps because on all sides they cry to arms to arms, and many speedy ways of death.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Stratagems of King Hacho by boughs.  
I Have shewed a little in the present Chapter with what vehement desire the Goths are wont to revenge cruel injuries. There was once in Gothland a most potent King called Hacho, who was addicted to such famous and magnificent actions, that other Lords could better admire than imitate them. For he satisfied all parts of the Common-wealth with such circumspection, that as in war he was most valiant against the Enemy, so he neglected no office of a bountiful Prince toward his friends and subjects. He divided his power and military forces into two warlike fleets, the one whereof his brothers did Govern valiantly to defend the bounds and people of his land, whilst he in the interim provided with other fleet, and part of the Souldiers, made war against the Western iceland of the Ocean. When he was there, and understood certainly by messengers that his two brothers were oppressed by the Danes in a fight at Sea, and that the third was killed basely to the disgrace of Swethlands King and his Family, supposing it was not to be delai'd any longer, he hasted to bring his whole forces from Ireland against the Danes; which thing though Starchaterus a Champion of Sweden& some others by alleging their reasons, did desert; yet with his fleet that was left, and with a prosperous Gale he came to the shores of Zealand: and in a strait and quick passage through Woods and Forrests, hasted to come to the very Court where he understood that Sigarus the King then was. Nor did he want good success to his hast: for passing the first and second watch silently and softly as he could, when he came to the outward lurking places of the woods, he commanded all of his men to cut down boughs from Trees, and to carry them in every mans hand, when they that kept the third watch observed, they presently declared to Sigarus that they beholded an unusual and wonderful thing with their eyes. For they saw a wood pulled up by the roots coming up to the Court. Then Sigarus suspecting danger, answered that by that coming on of the woods extreme misfortune was foreshowed to befall him and hastily calling together what Souldiers he lit upon by chance, he marcheth against the enemy that advanced. And there was a cruel& violent fight, the Swedes as their custom is seeking fiercely after revenge. Sigarus King of Denmark was slain in that fight. But Hacho changing this victory into cruelty spared no Age nor Sex, and so cruelly oppressed the kingdom of Denmark, that he brought it not to tribute and subjection but to extreme desolation, nor would he have been quiet, until he had made desolate a great part of it, unless by the death of his Father he had been suddenly called away into Gothland from that attempt; yet he left another Hacho of the same name to be his vicegerent, whose surname was Fastuosus, whom, when the Danes after the Sweeds were gone, perceived to want force, they presently fell to their arms again, and resolved to shake off the Sweedish yoke, and to redeem their former liberty; and making Siwaldus, the son to Sigarus, their King, they renew the fight more fierce than ever it was before. That battle was so violent and bloody, that many souldiers being first slain, at last both Generalls of the armies Hacho and Siwaldus met; and there were very few that after so miserable a ruin could save themselves by flight. And this was the end of that most unfortunate battle: in which all of the Kings blood were slain, but only one woman called Gyritha, who was born from Gothland, and to her the Government descended.   

CHAP. XII. Of punishing Hostile fires.  
saxon, the most worthy Danish writer mentions that Sueno King of Denmark, was resolved to set upon the Inhabitants of Sweed and Gothland with so forcible arms and hatred, that admitting no conditions of peace, none should be suffered to escape with his life and liberty, though their King should yield to all articles. Wherefore taking the benefit of the Winter, he took the shortest way, and sets upon Finland now called Finvidia a South province of Gothland, with plundering and firing all. The Inhabitants came humbly begging, yielding themselves and their Country, and not content to cast themselves down thus, they bring him provision, and sought to win him by hospitable entertainment. But when they saw that all their officiousness would not keep them safe, they thought it lawful by treachery to punish his implacable cruelty: whereupon the foresaid Finlanders with one consent slay their most noble men, and their friends, and Companions of their plunders and murders, that were feasting most part of the night and were full of drink, who were got into a barn that was empty of Corn, when they were drunk, these they killed with flamme and fire, which they wanted before in their houses, being deprived of them in extreme could weather. For when these were dead asleep, the Finlanders barring the doors cast fire upon the house, and now the greater part of them con pired, and the house was almost burnt to ashes, before the heat had awakened these drunkards. Lastly, when the flames came nearer to them, whilst they thought to run naked out of the doors, they find that they were shut on the outside. The fire burnt them on the inside, and the enemy without kept them from coming forth, but the present pain took off the fear of that which should follow, and the danger present was held worse than that which was to come, so that the Danes desiring rather to be killed by the sword than burnt, striven with all their might to break the doors open, and to avoid one danger run into another.   

CHAP. XIII. Of removing the same danger.  
CHildren of hopeful parts, whom the foresaid Captains and famous Men had taken to their tuition, in respect of propinquity of blood; without any pity of their age, were drowned under the Ice of the River Nica, and their bodies stripped naked, by the Mockery of the Finlanders, and in the same Channel they had both their end and their grave. Thus by the hand of a few Country men, that is by just revenge, the labour of this great expedition came to nothing. Not is it only observed to have fallen out in that ancient time, but wheresoever the Danes set upon the Goths and Sweeds to spoil them by force of times, so often shut up in houses for the most part they are destroyed partly by fire, partly by waters, partly by sword, either openly or by snares laid for them: which is supposed to be done the more easily; when they sleep in houses built of wood, that are all compassed about with combustible matter, and are fast asleep, being drunk and weary, foolishly thinking themselves to be secure amongst those men, whom they afflict with all violence and cruelty: and the more quickly and severely are they punished, by how much they were more insolent by cruel tyranny to plunder and spoil the houses of the Inhabitants.  
For those that are deprived of their houses in the coldest Winter, hid their wives and children in Caves, in Woods; and being lead on with fury, force, and despair, armed with Darts and Cross-bows, they slay these plunderers, and firers of their houses, as they can meet them in dangerous ways; that with loss of life, they may recover, that are the just owners, their goods that are taken from them: whence it is, that they will either perish in most cruel danger, or by sudden( or more foul) flight, escape the force of the countrymen; for leaving the spoil amongst their Enemies, they oft-times hardly get home naked and spoiled, and frequently wounded, and make themselves a spectacle and laughing stock, not onely to strangers, but to their own friends: wherefore it is but so ly to make War against the Clowns in Winter, when by the command of their Lords, they are not afraid, if they find the like accident of shutting up their Enemies, to bar the houses, and set them on fire, because by the abundance of Woods near them, by mutual help, they can soon build more houses. Their houses have never any Windows on the sides, but on the top of the house: therefore when the doors are barred, they are easily burnt when they are fast asleep.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the custody of Banks in time of Hostility, about a place called Meler, in Upper Swetia.  
THere is moreover in Upper Swetia, a notable Lake called Meler, of which before in my third Book, I spake many strange things; chiefly, because amongst the Northern Waters, it is most full of Fish; and there are many Forts and Palaces of Noble and great men, that are very well adorned, according to the manner of that Nation: besides that there are some notable Cathedral Churches at Aros, and Strengens, where of old time there was Superstitious Worship given to Idols, and there was a great fight between the Nobles, Champions, and Giants; as one may see in the huge Stones, brought out of the Fields and Mountains, and placed in the Walls of the Churches: wherein, in Gothick Letters, long ways, and obliquely set down, the Deeds of these Giants are to be red. Also in the bosom of this Lake, there are inaccessible Rocks, which the Inhabitants call the Hens Chicken. The Rock in the middle is called the Hen, as in Norway there are Rocks of Eggs; that is, they are called Eggiafiord. Moreover, those that sail by Sea into Gothland and Sweden, meet with certain Bosoms and Promontories of the Sea, that are called by the names of Tables, Forms, Crows, Hogs, fashions, and battles: wherein, when Enemies come on, they hid themselves amongst the Rocks, with ship-boats that will run in. The Inhabitants keep these openly, that they may intercept their Enemies that sail presumptuously to them; for if the Enemies enter upon the firm shore, they find an armed multitude every where met to fight courageously in defence of their country, as I shall show in particular in the following Books.   
The End of the Seventh Book.   

Olaus Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF The state of Governours and Officers, and Military Exercise.  
The Epitome of the Eighth Book.  

The Preface.  
THe most mighty Kings of the Goths and Swedes, being spoken of by my most dear Brother and predecessor Johannes Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of Upsal, in his Histories lately Printed at Rome, there seems a shorter way left, whereby we may show, how, and what Kings were wont to be made in the Northern kingdoms; namely, after that Noe and his Sons came forth of the Ark, before that in other parts of the whole World, those Sons of his, as it is thought, had obtained by their Fathers Appointment, the Title and Government; and so at last from thence had increased the whole World, as it is found by the testimony of many grave Authors, that above thirty four Kings proceeded from that Northern Climate, and had set up mighty kingdoms over the World very largely, as it is more clearly declared in my Gothick Map, Printed at Venice, Anno 1539. whose Acts how great and Magnificent they were, he my said Brother faithfully testifies in his Histories, These things being thus proved, I must farther show the way, how they choose their King, or have him by succession; and how Military Exercises were observed, from the most ancient time, by the Governours: Likewise of their Offices.   

CHAP. I. Of the Election of the King.  
THe glorious constitution of our Ancestors, delivered in the name of free-men by succession from ages to ages, commands in the beginning of it, that when the Inhabitants are to choose a King in sweden, all the senators and Lords, and Messengers of all provinces, Communities and Cities of the aforesaid kingdom shall be bound to meet in the archiepiscopal City of upsal: from whence not far off, there is a large ston of the field, which the Inhabitants call Morasten, that hath in the circumference 12. stones little less than it, fast set in the ground; In this place, the said senators or Counsellors of the kingdom, and messengers use to meet: there the chief of the Senate makes a solid occasion to show how necessary it is for the liberty of the kingdom and all the people, to agree upon one King to Rule over them, as it was most providently observed by their ancestors to do it upon such a ston which signifies steedfastnesse; exhorting all that with free votes they should presently name, whom they would have. Nor do they stay long. But he that seemed always to defend the public good and glory of the kingdoms peace and concord. He that hath won the love of all the people by living justly, he that in private Government hath hurt none; he that hath won many Victories in War, he that is most the lover of laws and Religion; he by the universal consent of all the free provincials, is lifted up to be called their King; yet with this consideration, that if the Kings son, brother, or kinsman, hath the foresaid virtues, he shall be preferred before all the rest, not as by Inheritance but by free Election. And it seems not to be denied, but that such by all diligence, care, authority, grace, prayers, promises, may procure to themselves the favour of the people. Some hasten to get the kingdom by recommendation from foreign Kings, and Princes, and by violence and force of Arms, but there are none more unhappy than they: because their violent government, the free vote of the people being against it, will not last long, though such a one settle his throne amongst the strongest Forts, or in the midst of the Stars. How ever it falls out, he always enters more safely, endures, and ends, who is called by the voice of the people, that are provident enough, to be their King, as being accounted for his courage and virtue the most famous and valiant amongst enemies or his own people: because there seems that nothing is first or chiefest to be done by him, than to see to his Nobles, and People, that they may have a just Government, firm defence and perpetual peace. And when he doth this, the people will endure no other man to challenge to himself the Kingly office.   

CHAP. II. Of the Adoption of Noble men by Arms.  
BEcause the most Potent King of the Goths, Theodoricus, did not omit to observe the custom of the most ancient Princes of Gothland, in his own time, in adopting his son, therefore I would here, insert his Epistle, in his Fourth Book, sent to the King of Heruli. He saith, that his son to be made by arms is held to be a great honour amongst all Nations, because he is not fit to be adopted, unless he deserve to be accounted the most valiant. We are often deceived in our offspring. But they can be no cowards who are first proved to be valiant; and these have it not by favour but by desert, when strangers are tied to them by the bonds of love. And there is so much force in this that they will soon●r dy, than suffer such men to be injured. And therefore by the right of Nations: and manlike condition, I adopt thee my son by this present gi●t, that thou mayest be conveniently born by arms, who are known to be a soldier. I give to thee, horses, swords, bucklers, and the other Instruments of war; but those that are the strongest of all, I bequeath to th●e, Our Laws. For thou art held to be the Chiefest amongst the Nation. Who art approved by the sentence of Theodoricus; Take to thee these arms that may be useful for thee and me. Such a man adopts thee, by whose people thou art most to be feared, we have given thee arms, but of old time the people waited for pledges of virtue. Therefore saluting you with competent Grace, we give all the rest in charge by him and him, our ambassadors, who shall plainly expound unto you our letters, and shall add what is more to be said to confirm this grace unto you.   

CHAP. III. Of the same form of the Adoption.  
MOreover so Strict observation was had amongst the old Gothish King for the experience of Arms, that their lawful sons were not permitted to eat at table either in private or public with their father, until such time foreign princes did certify of their sufficiency in Arms; which also Paul. Diaconus testifies l. i. c. 23. For when the Lumbards having got the victory, returned to their own places, they suggested to their King Odwin, that feasts should be made for his son Albuin, by whose valour in battle,( the son of the King of the Gepidae being slain) they wan the victory, that as he was his Fathers Companion in danger, so he might sit at the Table with him. To whom Odwin answered: That he could not grant this, lest he should infringe the custom of the Country, You know, saith he; that it is no custom with us, that the Kings son should dine with his Father, unless he first receive arms from the said foreign King: when Albuin heard his Father speak this, he took 400 young men with him; and came to Turismundus the King of the G●pidae, whose son he had once killed in war, and demanded a coat of arms from him, the King entertaining him courteously made a banquet, and set him at his right hand, where his own son was wont to sit, whom he had slain, yet the Father remembering it, fetched deep sighs, thinking this a sad change for his son, which when the other son of the King, and the Courtiers, drawing their weapons thought to revenge, the King kept them from it under a sharp prohibition, affirming that victory to be wicked, when a man shall kill a stranger in his own house, whereupon he decreed that all should be merry at the feast, and taking the Arms of his son that was killed, he delivered them to Albuin, and sent him to his Fathers kingdom with peace and safety. Then sitting at Table with his Father, he related all things in order, and he deserved great praise for his so great boldness: but Turismundus deserved a great deal more, for his so constant faith held toward so cruel an enemy. For it is a received opinion of men, as a decree of military persons, that the King can create a soldier to be a Knight, who was not in that order before his coronation, because it is included in the Authority of the King, as a garland of roses upon a Golden Crown.   

CHAP. IV. Of the Military education of Illustrious and Noble men.  
IT was not the least care amongst the ancient Goths to bring up their Children very hardly, and by a common law they took heed to employ them in military affairs and wars, that they might be upon all chances defenders of their Country, as in former dayes it was instituted by the followers of their ancestors. And that manner was chiefly kept, which lasts to this day. Of old, Children newly out of their Cradles had experience of being whipped with rods when they sucked. First they were lashed in most hot baths griveously, till the blood came, then were they thrust into the most could water, almost in danger of death, that their limbs might be the more composed: hereby they hardened their children, to endure heat and could, also children were so whipped wtith stripes at the Altar, that much blood run forth of their bowels, sometimes that it was supposed they would dy. And yet none of them ever so much as cried out, or made any moan, that they drank-in severity of life, from their Infancy and Cradle, even with their Mothers Milk. Also when their Children were new born they first brought them to the fire, and hardened them in cruel frosts, and waters: then growing young men they received great blows upon their face and bodies, and bare them with that silence, that they would not so much as move their eyes, or by fear show their impatience. They will not use soft feathers. Their cloths are made of hard skin: Their meat and drink is strong. They lie more on planks, than feather-beds, and upon such hard things that they may harden their limbs, and make them more fit against all ill chances. But because Ludovicus King of Hungaria was daintily feed, he much complained of his caterers, lest he should be put to flight in war, and be forced to live on any hard Country fare to save his life, as it fell out afterwards.   

CHAP. V. Of the reason and manner of Riding.  
MOreover youths are carefully instructed in the art of riding, darting, shooting, and that it ought to be very much respected by Princes. And amongst the rest, there is set upon their heads a weighty helmet, and a long spear is held in their hands, that they may learn as well for strength as decency to ride upright, with their neck, and to hold that posture. Again a buckler is hanged at their back, that they may know by looking back more carefully to beware of snares: also because it is the most ancient custom of the Gothick Nobility, with such ornaments, namely a helmet, lance and buckler, to come to public meetings of Princes, and with other such arms to defend their Countries Liberty, and Iustice. And that they may not be ignorant of the military discipline of other Nations, these youths are sent to foreign Princes Courts far off, that they may Learn the fashion, Language, difference of persons, and the Inventions of Countries, their order of Fighting and disposing of their Armies, that they may not come rude to the Government, yet some come no sooner home but they are made Kings. Also it was the manner of the ancient Princes, to change their sons hair one with another that by cutting their locks, they might be made their fathers, and such they sent home again adorned with royal gifts. But the Goths do not pole their hair, but bind on close helmets, and coats of mail, commanding them to mount upon the stronger horses, and in cruel could winter to follow hunting and by course to stand in their armor when it freezes extreme hard, as if they stood sentinel, and were to avoid danger of those that lye in some hostile siege; which is more frequently practised in Winter than in Summer.   

CHAP. VI. Of the choice of Young Souldiers for Arms.  
I Shall here show after what manner the Kings of the Goths, Swedes, and Norwegians and other Princes of the North did institute formerly their Kingly and provincial offices, and do in these dayes, dispose of them. Therefore they thought those young Souldiers the most famous of all, in wars, who, from their childhood, bridled their unconstant years with early manners, for there is nothing worse than that, if it be let loose to ill customs. For that age is thought neither faithful to the Prince, nor profitable to the Country, nor tolerable to their Companions, nor yet pleasing to any unless by military rigour it be bread up into valour; that in such case the most valiant defenders of their Country may be instructed, to whom provinces may be safest committed to govern them: But that these young men might not always be under the rigour of these military disciplines, the Kings liberality, doth always advance and exalt them, and give them special gifts that they may be bound thereby to continue faithful to their King, and that they may undauntedly undergo any danger of life in battle. The gifts therefore they bestow on them, are swords, cross-bowes, quivers, helmets, breasts, coats of mail, bucklers, Javelins, war-horses, and when they grow elder, they are tied by some service. To all these, after the old custom there are special forms in words and reasons in particular annexed to show why they are given and received.   

CHAP. VII. Of the same by an outward Ceremony.  
THe Goths count their age by valour, as when they can wound an enemy, they are then tied to abstain from all 'vice, which also Paulus Diaconus testifies l. 1. concerning the Lombards, who that they may multiply their Souldiers, they take many servants from their Masters, and make them free; and that their liberty may be ratified, they confirm it after their usual manner by an arrow: yet mumbling some of their Country Language to fortify the thing the more; which are as much as if they said, Let the Gods enable thee by this arrow, and let them destroy thee when ever thou shalt prove false to thy Prince or Country. And I must not pass over the testimony of saxon in his 2. Book, that the Lords of old, about to enter into the Court, began their first service, by obliging themselves to their Prince by vowing some great thing, beginning their first employment with valour, yet no strangers ever deserved to be counted faithful indeed in the Courts of Gothland and Sweldand, unless they took a drawn sword, or dagger by the point, from the Princes hand as a gift, taking an oath of fidelity, lest taking it by the hilt they might thrust it into the bowels of him that gave it; as it hath been formerly done, whilst he suffered him to revenge, who gave to an ungrateful person the hilt for the point, contrary to the custom of the ancients. But they make standard-bearers, and Vandragers that are famous for their valour: and very gallant men, by only tendering them the standard, which by the law of Arms they promise to defend as their honour, and their life: To these they join a most bold guard, men that have sharp pole-axes, and iron-balls hanging at their girdles: with which when need is they can knock down a man that is near when they cannot conquer them with their two edged swords.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the manner of the old Warfare of the Goths.  
THey had of old heavy Helmets, not very neatly made, but according as they could in those rude dayes; also they had thick Breast-plates, partly of Iron, part of Leather, part of Filletting, made of linen and Woollen: Likewise they had Iron Sleives and gauntlets: And they carried great long Spears. Procopius speaks of them l. 2. in these words: But the Persians not enduring the Goths that marched first with thick long Spears, ran away: Also the Curasiers use long Spears. Their Horses Breasts are covered with Breasts of Brass: about the Bridles and Trappings they wear Gold, not using Iron or Silver: In whose country since there is so vast a quantity of Gold and Copper yet there is no Iron nor Silver. But in their Native country, namely Gothland, they of old, with unspeakable magnificence, used Gold as the most worthy Metal, to the honour of their gods, in adorning the chief Churches,( as I said in my first Book.) But now a days, there is a Law made, that brass or Silver Bells shall be tied to their restive Horse-tails that are cut short, that weak men, hearing the sound, may avoid the danger. But those that use more Silver for Ornament, have large Belts,( called Silffschena) as well for to adorn them, as to defend the middle of their backs, and they wear other Ornaments also that are brave Courtiers.   

CHAP. IX. Of other Antiquities of Knights.  
ALso former Ages used great long Spurs, and broad Rowels. Moreover, they had Boots that turned down, vainly enough, with great Tops, that were made for no profit at all; as I saw when I was a Boy, above 60. years since; and these are now kept in some Noble-mens houses to be seen. Also the Garments of Souldiers Coats were so short, and folded together, that they could scarce cover their Buttocks beneath; and they were so chequered and slashed above, that they would neither cover their shoulders, nor could their hair, falling down, keep off the could, especially in private souldiers, who were not allowed to wear long hair, but onely for Princes, chiefly Kings Sons, who were never poled from their Child-hood, that their Locks might fall down upon their Backs, which were divided, and hung down on both sides before, but not after the Turkish fashion, plaited, foul and ugly, or otherwise crisped, but sprinkled with sweet Unguents.   

CHAP. X. Of Military Exercises and Disciplines.  
IT was of old a constant custom, and is observed to this day, amongst the Northern people, that the Knights armed Cap-a-pee, should from the plain ground, and from any hard place, by nature, mount upon high horses, with their Trappings on, especially upon the slippery Ice, and Snow-Fields, where more frequent and more sharp Wars use to be made, as I shall show underneath, concerning their fights in Winter; especially by reason of their heavy armor, and thick Spears, which they commonly use against their Enemies; and this is held to be no absurd thing amongst them. Moreover, there is another Military Discipline of the Goths, whereby they are wont, in all their armor, to vault from one horse to another, and so to the third horse, when the horses run swiftly; and they will do it, and never touch ground, when they are in a hot battle. Also they will lie upon their horse backward, or lift themselves up, or incline themselves, and rise up again, changing their Javelin, or Spear.   

CHAP. XI. Of their Arms and provisions for Knights and Horsemen.  
WHen the Northern people are to enter upon a horse-fight with thick heavy spears, they adorn the points of them with fox or wolvs tails, in contempt of all their enemies. Also they never use spears with banners, as the Persians do. But they use cross and steel and horn bows for the great force and strength they have, for they are made most true, as are all arrows that are joined to them. Lastly, they use long strait as well as crooked swords, and when their launces are broken, they cut or push with them. Also they use broad swords that are to be wielded with both hands, also Iron mallets that are crooked, at the end, with which they can the more sharply penetrate their helmets,& break them, than with any other warlike Instrument: and with these kind of malls they will either force the rider from his horse, or else they break the horses brains out, that he will cast his rider. Also fighting near hand they use many divers kinds of punniards, and weapons, as strait, and broad, two edged, crooked, and hooked. The coverings of the horses are steel or Iron corselets, or leather, steeped in quick-lime, and fenced with iron wiar to keep off the cut of a sword. And being so provided they do more providently raise many Armies if need be not far distant one from the other, that one may relieve the other when the enemy falls on: and they do their best to enclose the enemy, as in an whirlwind, that they may not be hemmed about with his subtlety, or long Stratagems. And to do this the better they are directed by some signs from their Scouts and Trumpeters.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Tyrannicall severity and exaction of their Governours.  
IN the Northern kingdoms as there are many mighty provinces; so to govern them, there are set by their Kings, Governours that are of divers Nations and Languages; as beams sent from the Sun, that, in all the Country; Equity and Justice may be preserved, and all the people may live in security, yet that thi● felicity of government proceeding from equity may not last long, by the Counsels of malignant men elsewhere in the kingdom, such presidents are set, that being blind with covetousness and malice, do torture the innocent, exalt the wicked, perverting all laws, and in a short time bring the whole kingdom into ruin, themselves into calamity, the King into scorn and infamy, misery and exile. But that we may have an example, amongst the rest of those bloody and covetous Rulers that Ericus King of Sweden who came from the Dukes of Pomerania, &c. preferred, to rend out the bowels of Sweden; There was one Dane Jusse Erickson: he being constituted over the Country of the Dalacarli, was so cruel to them all, that it was thought that all the souls of all malignant Tyrants that ever were before him, were met in this one desperate villain. Cicero reports that cruel Verres, by causing smoke to rise out of rotten wood, destroyed one innocent man; but he killed of the Inhabitants of Dalacarlia a vast number of innocent men hanging them in the smoke, though they could have freed themselves from him by force if they would have rebelled, therefore least he should seem a hang-man not ingenious enough to find out new kinds of torments, he was not ashamed to put the wives of the men so cruelly murdered to draw ploughs instead of Oxen: and it was his chief delight to see and hear them in so great straights to cast their dead Children away, and then to put into the plough again, until they fell down dead or half-dead. Here might be laid down more horrible acts of that Danish Tyranny, that then were not committed by him alone, but by all the King's Governors: let it suffice to say that they brought upon themselves by these practices their utmost ruin, and banishment upon their most wicked King. For by the Fury of the Peasants they were most cruelly slain; when they were more ready to plunder than to fight. But King Ericus of Pomerane, being forsaken by the Danes, whose counsel he used to the ruin of himself and many more, by the urgency of a Potent man called Engilbert, who was guarded with a 100000 of the Inhabitants, that were provoked to the war, betook himself to a little iceland in Gothland as a runagate in his miserable old age.   

CHAP. XIII. Again of the same most wicked Rulers.  
THough in the former Chapter the whole Country seems to be purged of cruel Governours, yet the damnable remainder of them have persevered by the same fraud and art, by their Complices and Schollers as it were venom, who the more in the obsequiousness of their minds, they could brag of their loyalty to their Prince; by so much they supposed they should be preferred before others in the Kings secrets and offices; nor were they deceived in their opinions. For whereas first they did profess themselves susplicants and humble, as experienced in what belongs to free-men, chiefly in the exacting of Tributes and Fines, they were presently made president, without any further deserts, over the simplo people: and by the Cooperation of the Tyranny of such Governours, the most mighty King of the Goths, Swedes, and Norway men, Charles, who succeeded the foresaid Ericus, was forced to endure a Rebellion, of his most faithful people, and at last to be exiled. For when the King himself, for the vast wickedness of his Rulers and their sacrileges, was besieged by a most wicked siedg blocking him up in his own Court by the people, and stayed for help in vain from his Rulers, who freely wandered up& down his Kingdom, he was doubtful what to do in so great perplexity for a more safe Remedy; and he sent again secret messengers to the foresaid Rulers, commanding them upon their honour and fidelity, and oath they had taken, to come and help him in his calamity, but it was in vain, for they had learned nothing else, than to domineer proudly over humble men, to wrack the Inhabitants for moneys, to wrong the miserable; and punish the guiltless. Then the King being in strait necessity, foreseing that his safest way was to fly, he commanded some Ships to be presently made ready in the most horrid could in January, and he put infinite Wealth into them. And when now the Anchors onely were to be weighed, one of the Governours asked the King whether he had forgotten any thing on Land: when the King heard this, he sighed and said, Truly, saith he, I neglected many years since to hang thee and such like on a Gallows, for had I done that, I might now be at quiet in a peaceable common-wealth; and so hoisting sail he came to Dartzick in Prussia by a more welcome than pleasant voyage and was most courteously received by King Cassimer, King of Poland, until, seven years being past, he was received into his former dignity, and power, being most dear to all, who was so lately hated by all. For he set Governours over them, who preferred virtue before 'vice, justice before wrongs, honesty before profit. But what Christiernus King of Denmark, the second of that name, suffered in the Northern kingdoms for the cruelty of the cruel Rulers, no man can be ignorant that Reads his History.  
But amongst the rest, he had one bloody governor called Nicolas Halste, whose only delight it was by going before this cruel King, to raise high Gallows, that he might hang the unhappy subjects upon them, unless they redeemed their lives with a certain sum of Gold and Silver: saying that long believes must have high Gibbits. Nor did this crier miss a just end; for being condemned by the King for the much money he had extorted from the people, he was hanged on the same Gallows he had made for others, yet the King got ner'e the most security from the furious people, but he was forced to fly every moment. But of this King Christiernus and his Actions, I shall writ something underneath, that I know to be true, because I saw those horrid things and was present at them.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the causes of perpetual discord, that the Swedes or Sweens, and the Goths, have against the Danes.  
WHy the Goths and Swedes are so violent both in minds and Arms against the Danes, the most diligent Danish Historian in 16. Books here and there, unto extreme horror, affords us a most plain reason. For he every where speaks of the violent and cruel government of his Nation over the subjects, and their false friendship toward their neighbours, and both of these against all their confederates; that every prudent understanding man hath just cause to beware, how safe he can be in their security, or natural bond, or any other sworn confederacy. For he affirms in the first book, that King Lotherus said that it was honesty to spoil every Noble man of his life and goods, and to empty the Country of good Citizens. In his 2. Book, that King Helgo was so prove to Venery, that it was a question whether he were the greater Tyrant or Adulterer, who ravished the Virgin Thora, which afterwards invented such a detestable wickedness, that saxon exclaims much against her. In his 3d. Book he saith, that Tergo laid snares for his brother and slay him, and lying with his wife added incest to parricide: and saxon himself testifies how he covered that wickedness with so great simulation of good will, and coloured his fratricide with the name of piety. That the woman he ravished was full of all mildness, hurting no man, and indeed he induced the woman to this, that she affirmed that her husband was a Traitor to the King, and killed himself. Nor was this persuasion lost, whilst Princes will believe lies, where oft-times Scoffers are in grace and backbiters are honoured. In the 4th. Book, the last leaf, saxon testifies, that his Country men the Danes, hold it no fault or ill way to ly and to deceive, as the fashion is amongst the Parthians. In the 5th. Book 2. leaf is shewed what filthy manners and foul wicked violences and adulteries the courtiers are addicted to. Indeed all the world and all barbarians abhor it. In the 6th. Book, the cruelty of the Danes so grew, upon the Saxons after that their Champion was slain, that they forced them to pay for a tax yearly the fore finger of every mans hand, in token of their slavery, until such time as one Swertingus moved with the affection of the Citizens, burnt up both himself and the King, under the pretence of a banquet. At the beginning of the 7th. Book, Frotho commands his own brother to be slain by one of his servants, secretly; and that the wickedness might not be discovered by him that was guilty of it, he caused the same murderer to be slain privately; but at last he was burnt up, and suffered for his parricide by the sons of his slain brother, who were kept close and bread up as whelps.   

CAAP. XV. Of the same causes.  
AMongst the rest, saxon very largely prosecutes the monstrous cruelty of King Jarmericus, which was fiercely continued from his Childhood, unto his old age; which as it exceeds all rage of Beasts, so cannot it be red or heard of by any sensible man, but with great horror. For by unheard of Tyranny, he often killed with exquisite torments afflicted men. For, by high ingratitude, he slay their King and Queen with fire privately, by whom he was taken captive in war, and set at liberty, and taken into the number of their familiar friends, and made the chief of them, and exalted. Then, when he took forty Germans, he joined so many Wolves to them, and strangled them; yet this would not satisfy his bloody mind. For he destroyed their Nobility, thrusting Thongs through their Legs, and then he bound them to the hoofs of huge Bulls,& set Dogs to tear them, and drew them into the Mud and Bogs, a most miserable spectacle. Lastly, the Earls, Dukes, Princes of Germany that he took Capti●es, thrusting cords through their legs, he tied to horses to pull them in sunder; yet he could not stay in this highest cruelty. For he gave his own Queen, the Daughter of the King of the Huns, though she were most innocent and chased, fast bound to the Earth, to be trod down by horses, and a whole Troop of cattle trod her to death, and tore her in pieces. Also he took his Nephews, his own Sisters Sons, by hand, and strangled them. And the Nobility that were their tutors, he used in the same manner, inviting them to a Banquet. Moreover, in the same Book there is to be seen the unspeakable cruelty of one Haquo, a Dane, that it may well fright all men, to think themselves to be safe, either with any Victories or accords made with that Nation. In the ninth book at the beginning, the same Author observes, that the public piety was torn with the private fury of the King; and after many things, that King herald from a glorious Saint became a foul Apostate, and fell from it. And in the Tenth Book, that the Danes winning Sembia, killing the men, compelled the women to mary them, and divorcing them from their Wives, being more desirous of strangers, divided the Victory with the Enemy, by marrying the women. Lastly, that King herald bound men's necks in the yokes of Oxen, and at length that they D. Olaus, King of Norway, by murderers corrupted with money; and last of all, by the hand of Blaccho, a traitor, they slay S. Canutus. In the XI. that King Sweno was found to have forsaken the true Religion, rather then an incestuous Bride. In the XII. that the Danes might destroy the captive Germans, with a more violent death, they bound their hands behind them, and fastened them upon stakes: then they opened their Bellies with their Knives, taking out the first part of their naked guts, they opened the rest with stakes: nor did they leave off torturing them, till they had drawn all the guts out of their bellies, and made them give up the Ghost: which spectacle, as it was sad to behold, so was it very profitable for us: for it not onely brought the guilty to punishment, but it forewarned others, that they should avoid the like cause of torment. Wherefore it was no less an admonition to those that saw it than it was a punishment to those that endured it. But in the rest of his Books, because very many horrible things are spoken of amongst a few that are good, I rather leave them to the free choice of the Reader, if need be, to find them there, than for me to be tedious in setting them down; thinking it a sufficient and lawful cause why the Swedes and Goths, and other Nations, cannot be secure in the society of that people; To whom, for the Reasons aforesaid,( to use saxon his words) whoever shall show humanity and courtesy, doth a good turn to ungrateful people.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the same causes, out of the 24. Book of the History of Gothland, of Johannes Magnus, the Author's Brother.  
IN the year of Christ, 1512. there fell out a most pernicious discord betwixt Steno, and Gustavus, the Son of Ericus Trolle, Arch-Bishop of Upsal, whereby not onely they two, but the whole country came to utter ruin. They were both young, and both born of most noble blood, both high spirits. But Steno seemed more just and modest in his cause, who said he would obey the Ecclesiastical law, and stand to the arbitration of good men; and he caused Gustavus to be sufficiently admonished, as well by lo the Tenth, as by the Bishops of the Kingdom of Sweden, that he should not trouble or take away the quiet of his country. But the Arch-Bishop was of a stouter mind, than to be persuaded any ways to agree with Steno, who had secluded his Father Ericus, from so large a principality, and shewed that he put his greatest hopes in Christiernus, the Danish King. Then Steno understanding that the Arch-bishop would by no means be called off, not persuaded to forsake his implacable hatred, he raised an Army of Souldiers, and besieged him, shut up in the Castle Almerstech, and he put to flight the Army of the King of Denmark that came to raise the siege. Then blocking him up again, and when he waited to no purpose for relief from the King of Denmark, he forced him to yield; and pulling down the Castle to the ground, he shut him up in a Monastery at Aros,( called Insulense) that being done, he had his cause opened before the Popes Legate, Johannes Arcimboldas, in the Parliament at Arbogum, and he was by the intercession of the Legate, and the Senate of the kingdom, received into grace with Steno, upon this condition, that henceforth he should not intrude into the archbishopric of Upsal, but should live on his Patrimony, studying to be quiet, and maintain peace. For he shut up his Father Ericus, and some other Lords of the Danish Faction in prison: Then going progress about the kingdom, he was received with the general love of all the Inhabitants, and he bound himself to them, and them to him, by an Oath. For he was gracious in the sight of all his subjects, and exceeding popular, because another time he fell down on his knees to his Father Suanton, who oppressed the people with Tributes, and he obtained a relaxation of them. Wherefore, being now chosen Prince, he found that not onely Tributes were ready to be paid by his loving Subjects; but that they were willing also to hazard their lives for him in a thousand dangers of death; wherefore being assisted with so many people, he grew so potent, that he could oppose the Forces of many Kings and Princes; especially if he had had as much prudence in his daily counsellors, joined with his power. But there were in his Cabinet-Councel men, that spake for flattery, and nothing for the public good, because they were not prudent enough, nor would they admit men that were more prudent into the Kings council, but they slandered them by Detractions, Whisperings, and false Accusations, to the young Prince: whence it came shortly to pass, that by their malignant impudence, and impudent Malignity, many of the best and most powerful men left him, and expected a change: Which when Christiernus the Danish King understood, he thought a fit time was come to enlarge the narrow Straights of Denmark; and that he might by force subdue the spacious Kingdoms of Gothland, and Swedland: Wherefore drawing out a great and potent Army of Saxons, Frises, Westphalians, Scots, Danes, French, he besieged Stockholm the court of Sweden, with a powerful hand. But Steno being fortified before with the love and service of so many people, he could not be conquered by the Dane, whose name was hateful amongst the Swedes.  
Also Christiernus in that siege wherein he seemed to beleaguer Steno, was so hardly besieged himself with hunger and want of provision, that the greatest part of his Army was like to perish for hunger, whereupon calling off his forces from the siege, he provides to return with his Navy into Denmark. But when he was ●eady to sail, and to begun, a vehement contrary wind stopped him: which standing in that point for four whole months forcibly, it driven Christiernus to intolerable inconveninces. For to return to land, Steno opposing him, he could not; nor yet sail into Denmark, for the wind that was against him. Then Steno a Prince of a generous and lofty mind, finding his enemy's necessity, used a most rare office of humanity toward him, and most freely gave him as much provision as might serve his whole Army. Christiernus resenting this benefit, sent messengers to Steno, saying that he desired a private conference with him concerning the public peace. It lacked but little, but that Steno persuaded by the Danish fraud had come to his fleet; but he was called back by the counsel of some that were faithful to him, and he sent Hermingus Gaddus, and the most Noble youth Gustavus Erickson, to treat with him for a peace or a truce to be made on both sides: these, he presently hoisting sail, carried into Denmark with him. And this was the end of that war that was waged by Christiernus in the year 1518. against Steno and the City Stochholm. But he, the year following, levied a greater Army than ever he did before and marched over the Ice into Sweden, whom Steno, more valiantly than prudently, fought with, on the Ice in the Country of the Vestrogothi, and playing his first part in the Army most courageously, was wounded with a shot of a Gun in his thigh, and presently put into a Chariot he was carried to Stochholme, and when he was almost come thither, he died on the frozen Lake Meler; he was worthy indeed to have lived longer, and he had done so, had he but removed imprudent and ill counsellors from him. In the interim the relict of Steno, Christina, persuaded by a few Lords that took her part, by special messenger, and a promise of a free Stipend, to revenge her husbands death, did in vain desire auxiliary forces from sigismond the first, King of Poland. When therefore Steno was dead, the numerous Army of the Swedes, being ruled by no body was dispersed; and there was an occasion offered to those Lords that favoured the Danish King, to call him presently into Sweden, and to Crown him at Stochholme. But when he considered that he was called in to be King by the least part of the Lords, and that thereupon his Coronation might be made voided, when the rest were referred to their Liberty, he caught many senators and Lords of the kingdom, the same day he was crwoned, that is on the Sunday after the Octaves of all Saints, Anno 1520. whom he invited to a feast, and who supposed they were secure upon the Kings word, and caused them to be slain too severely, which cruelty since it seems now to be scattered into all history, I will no longer stay in relating this Tragedy which brought no less mischief to the Danes and their King, than it did to the Common-wealth of Sweden. For the King amongst so many Lords caused the greatest part to be slain, by whom he might have been long preserved in a most ample principality from which he was, presently and the same month he came, excluded, and returned into his own Country of Denmark: being made a singular example to all Kings and Princes, who desire to rule with more severity than clemency.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the severity of King Christiernus the second.  
CHristiernus the second, King of Denmark, at sundry times, and divers ways, obtaining passage into the foresaid kingdoms, by some Lords of the Danish faction, in the kingdoms of Swethland and Gothland, that were kindred and of the Danish blood( amongst whom was that most unhappy man Gustavus Trolle, Arch-Bishop of Upsal) he became so cruel and severe, that taking no respect to his oath, or Letters sealed, or of the sacrament of the Lords body, that was to be trembled at, or of any pity to commiserate any man, he one day commanded, namely November the 8. 1520. the Princes of divers orders, the Lords and Consults and Citizens, to the number of 94. to be beheaded, most wickedly, to which he was egged on by the ill counsel of wicked men: this I saw and trembled at it; and he commanded that their dead bodies should remain unburied 3. dayes, before the City house of the City Stochholme, until they were carried forth of the City to be burnt. Truly it was a miserable sight, that questionless would afterwards trouble Christiernus himself who was vexed with a thousand miseries; that at the instigation of his cruel council, he should barbarously murder those, and after an unusual cruelty, whom he had passed his word to, and friendly invited to a feast as guests of the Kings Table: For he fastened to the Gallows one Magnus who was one of Johannes his Peers, and a most valiant defendant of his Country; who was fastened to a plank on the ground, and first his privities, then his heart was cut out, and they were cast into his fathers face, with many insulting opprobrious words given to him, that he might show the greater rage and perpetual horror in doing it. After that, in the night of the same day, the most unhappy widdows, whose husbands were slain with the sword, and lay for the dogs to eat in the public Market place, being spoiled of their moneys and all their goods by the unsatiable Captains of the Danes, did lament without remedy. Indeed those officers were most filthy and most cruel, who plundered chiefly the innocent, laying aside all modesty and honesty, onely with the terror of the Kings name, or cruelty that they would put them to. Nor was the condition of Orphans and Pupils better, who were tormented in their parents and spoiled of all their fortunes. A long and terrible History should be writ by me, who saw all this lamentable practise, if I would relate every part of this calamity, namely how all things both divine and human were in a confusion. There was no regard to promise, no respect of Religion, all things were done with a sacrilegious rashness. Death was every where, and there was no place to escape it: and to live amongst drawn swords and cruel men was impossible. The City was kept by a most vigilant Guard, that none might break forth of that common prison for all the Citizens, to relate to the Inhabitants of the kingdom, the order of this cruel dealing; for had the multitude of the people that was at liberty perceived it, they had left none of this wickedness unrevenged.   

CHAP. XVIII. More of the cruelty of the same King.  
WHich when the King observed, reposing all his safety in flight, after a few dayes he was forced to return from thence to his own Country of Denmark: in which journey he caused many to be broken upon wheels, and hanged, and put to other cruel deaths, quartering them. Especially amongst the Ostrogothi in Vasten, the Land of Brigit. Lastly in the Monastery at Nydalum, called so from the new dale: where though he were most humanly entertained, yet on the day of the blessed Virgin's purification, he commanded the Abbot with 7. Monks, when they had ended the sacrifice of the Altar, to have their hands bound behind them, and to be cast into a swift River and drowned: and when the Abbot who was of a strong nature, broken the cords and swom to Land, the Kings guard beatt out his brains. So, little children of a noble family of the Ribbingi of Vestrogothia, whom a barbarous enemy is wont to pardon, were killed with the sword in his sight: whereupon 30000 armed men being collected under him, he being guilty in himself, he returned into Denmark through deserts and unpassable places almost, rather by night than by day, where he not long stayed secure, but was in the same fear. For famed was so swift that it was every where reported what he had done before he came; especially amongst the Emperors subjects in holland& Braban, and ●ther Nations: where he was lately in glory and high honour, before he had committed such an unhuman slaughter upon so many innocent Children.  
Let saxon the Danish Historian speak in his 12. Book, in all his circumspection, as we alleged before in the 37. Chapter, whether this sad spectacle, was any profit to the Danes, whether by inflicting cruel torments and tortures; or by clemency, modesty, equity, and other virtues, Kingdoms are to be won, and preferred: Truly he will confess by experience that the Danish severity spoken of in his former books, and here again upon this fact of Christiernus, gained more Infamy, horror, cruelty, and despite to the Kingdom and the Kings thereof, than if they had been just, and human: unless perhaps they would glory in malice, when using fraud they think themselves to be potent in wickedness, that they may use deceit, as cutpurses do, but God forbid. For who can securely hold commerce and friendship with such men? who( as saxon affirms, in his, l. 4. c. ult.) hold it no fault nor foul matter to ly and to deceive. Let therefore their words be, It is, it is; Not, not; and all will believe them. Nor let good men think that I have said what I have said, for hate or malice against the Danish Nation, and their former actions, or against the severity of King Christiernus, but I have purposely left out far more terrible things, which cannot be red without groans and horrors, much less be set down in Books. But the Danish nobility, after they had driven out the said King Christiernus, sent out 44 Articles into the City and all the world, to be red publicly to excuse themselves, wherefore they revolted from that King. So also the senators of Swethland and Gothland and Norway, both before and after at sundry times excused themselves, in Books and Letters. But why I do writ more bitterly than others, yet more truly and sparing, he is bold to testify, because with my great danger and sorrow, I was present and beholded all these Tragedies grieving to see the miseries of my Nation, which now seem to be increased a thousand times, and without remedy, made worse by the wicked constitutions of Laws, and oppressions of the Subjects.   
The End of the Eighth Book.   

Olaus Magnus the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Field-Fights.  
An Epitome of the Ninth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of turning-Swords in Wheels.  
THe old Goths are known to have opposed in the way Engines like to Wheels, and turning-Swords, to break the Orders of Horse and Foot, when they were to make a sudden Onset or Retreat; and at this day, though not so usually as they were wont, where place requires it, they diligently oppose them: Now the maner of this Engine may be taken thus. There seems at first three Wheels, two higher, that turn about an Axeltree, and there is a third in the middle of these, which is united to one of them by way of commissure; and this necessary causeth a two-edged Sword, fastened to the former Pole, to move swiftly; which so turning-Sword, being raised up on the side, by those that are cunning movers of it, and being brought near, doth not a little rend and break the Enemies Ranks: yet this is wont to be well looked to, that the Spokes of the Wheels may be covered with Shingles of plain Boards, lest Spears being cast in between them by the Enemy, they should be stopped from moving. Also the higher and nimbler the Wheels are, the more wide doth the Sword cut. And there are poles or pieces of wood to guide the sword, that are above three or four foot long, longer then any Souldiers Lance, that the Drivers of it may be the more safe from the assaults of Horsemen; and these are fenced behind with Troops of Bow-men. But the Axeltrees of these Wheels, that they may run the swifter, are greased with Sea-Calves grease, that is well purified at the fire, and there is plenty of this amongst the Northern Merchants: whence being provided by the diligence of Factors, it is carried in huge Vessels in a vast quantity, both to the Upper and Lower Germany, to make profit by. With this Engine the force of the Enemy is broken oft-times or troubled, as a huge piece of Wood is cleft with a strong and sharp Wedge.   

CHAP. II. Of their Chariots with Hooks.  
AFter this fashion, of old time, the chief Souldiers of Sweden and Gothland used Chariots with Hooks and Gramp-Irons, amongst their chief Warlike Engines; especially in their more fierce fights, against the most strong Armies of the Germans, Danes, Russes, namely so, that having preached by what way the Enemy would enter, they bound their empty Chariots, with their Wheels well smeared, to firm Beams, in the shelving sides of the Mountains, and filling them with stones, they would with cords make them little hanging bridges, covering them all over with green leaves or boughs, until they had drawn the Enemies by this dangerous passage, into these snares, by seeming to run away from them; and so they would let loose their Chariots, which with swift running, would either break their Ranks, by rending them, or would disperse their bodies. This being done, they that before seemed to fly, and the other Troops they had, Horse or Foot, were wont to run in a body upon the dispersed, or resisting Enemy: also they ever used those Chariots, as movable Forts, when need was in all other fights, always observing that moderation inviolably, that these Chariot-drivers had twice as much of the spoil given them, and their stipend double to the horse-men; and likewise to them, who running amongst the Enemy, put him into straights, and unpassable places, with these Chariots that had long Poles on the sides with Iron Crooks before, and those sharp pointed.   

CHAP. III. Of Brazen Horses that vomited out Fire.  
NOr must I omit in this place what saxon mentions, L. 9. concerning the craft of King Regnerus, and his stratagems; For he saith, that in Hellesspont, the King Dian being slain, after many casualties of War, that Regnerus fought many cruel fights, and was slain by his two Sons, namely Dian and Daxon: For these Sons who formerly married the Daughters of King Ruthenus, obtaining forces from their Father in Law, went boldly to revenge themselves on their Father. And when Regnerus saw their huge Army, he despaired of Forces, and therefore he commanded that they should with all their might drive Brazen Horses that would spit fire, laid upon turning wheels, and carried about with versatil Chariots, into the thickest body of the Enemies: And this prevailed so far to dissolve the Enemies forces, that there seemed more hopes of Victory in the Engine, than in the soldier; for the huge weight of it over-whelmed what ever it went against.   

CHAP. IV. Of the Guns of the Northern People.  
THere are Guns in most Cities of Sweden and Gothland so great, that a wooden Vessel, greater than a Roman Barrel for breadth and length, with an Iron Bullet, and pieces of Iron like a mans fist, of six hundred pound weight and more, filled with Powder, and lighted with fire, with a most vehement force, as a Tempestuous Whirlwind, or Rain, is shot out; and nothing can stand against the violence of it: and also this is used in all fights on Land, or upon the Ice, so often as there is need of it. Also there are mean and very long great Guns, that will shoot forth balls of Earth. Also there are Petars that will shoot very high to fall amongst the Enemy: And the more formidable is this fight, when by such Guns( that are greater and larger than others) nor at one short or great noise, but with many crackers one after another, they are shot unto the places to be battered, and with the violent blow of them, the dust flies out of the walls, or places battered, as Clouds of Smoke.   

CHAP. V. Of Triangular Guns.  
OF these Triangular Guns, there was formerly amongst the Swedes and Goths more use then there is now adays: For by this three-fold Engine, a mighty Army, by renewing the forces, and other employing them, might be dispersed, where the Wheels running swiftly against them, any force of horses that came close together, might be stopped with a small handful. But by the fraud and deceit of the Masters of the Ordinance, it sometimes falls out, that for Iron bullets they charge their guns onely with Towe or Paper, or else the Enemies coming on boldly, hinder the moving of the Wheels, by thrusting onely their Spears between the spokes.   

CHAP. VI. Of Organ-like Guns.  
ALso the Northern people had amongst other Engines of War, especially when they were to fight with Horsemen, collateral Guns, bound together like Organs, or Organ-pipes, that they might discharge them all at once, or successively against their Enemies, and they could soon charge them with ball and powder upon every turn against the Enemy; which though they seemed in fair weather to make heavy Wars, and bravely to defend their own Camps: yet because the more frequent and bitter Wars,( as I shall say hereafter) are fought by the Northern people, in the terrible could Winter, when the Snow is very thick, and then they cannot use their Canon; therefore are they seldom used in the fields, but more frequently in Castles, to defend the besieged.   

CHAP. VII. Of the burning the Foundations of Castles.  
IN plain and Champion-Grounds, where, by accord or choice of the Enemy, or by event of time and occasion, there is an opportunity to fight, the Inhabitants of the Countries, that they may assault the enemy the stronger, or for a time decline him with greater caution, use great Guns, with wheels, which are also called the Camps for the Cannon, whose wagoners, no less than the standard bearers, or rather Commanders, are armed, and the very horses have tanned Ox-leather on their Necks and Backs: wherefore four skilful Cannoneers or more, are deputed for these Guns on both sides; and these use what art they have, the wagoner helping with his skill and valour, against the enemy, that being cut on the front or wing, he may not easily resist armed horse-men.   

CHAP. VIII. Of burning the Foundations of Forts.  
THe prints of the Old ruins in the Northern kingdoms do show clearly enough, how many most strong places, built upon Rocks, and unaccessible places were blown up by artificial flames raised underground by mines, as if they had been rent and torn with thunder. For when many such forts were found made to pillage and rob with, especially on the frontiers of provinces, by common arms, and the unanimous consent of the Nation, and by the decree of the Judge, the Inhabitants were called together, and they fell upon them, and did by wonderful arts demolish them, by this means: for they entered into the most ruinous places of the mountains, and they broken them, with hammers, axes, wedges, and other Instruments that are to hue stones and break down walls, with a strong hand, or were it a natural hollow cave, by means of such Tools they would by degrees cut the tops of it on that side, where the foundation was naked of defence, setting up posts in order, upon which the weight of the walls might be born up, that the whole frame might not presently fall down and be dissolved. But, that the noise of the stones falling might not be heard, on the other side of the fort armed men made as great noise and shooting either feignedly or seriously leaping upon it to assau●t it. But when the wall where it was stretched over the cave, was made all hanging, that it restend only on the props of wood, they gathered dry fuel every where, and cast it into the fire, and presently the posts yielded to the weight that lay upon them; and all that part of the fort that was underpropt with wood, sunk into the hollow cave, and the turrets over against it, and forts, were soon broken off from the places where they joined, and fell down; all the doors and gates were fast united, being shaken down with the like ruin.   

CHAP. IX. Of the cruelty of flatterers, Traitors, and strangers, often committed most fearfully in the Kingly City Stockholm.  
STockholm is the most famous City for merchandise of all the kingdom of Sweden, and of all the North, where Citizens were wont to be made free of all Countries and Nations, but chiefly out of the Netherlands: and amongst those oft-times they are mingled, who either for debt, or some foul crimes dare not stay in their own Country: these as they grow rich use oft-times to discover their Natures, which poverty kept close, and to work the utmost mischief to a Country where they were received in a very hospitable way; especially when they have such a King to rule them that lets them do what they list. Such were the Germans found to be in the City Stockholm in the dayes of King Albertus; who conspiring secretly being 170. in number, called themselves the hooded bretheren: and afterwards their number increased to above 1500. Their chief aim was by casting scorns and reproaches upon the native Swedes to provoke them to quarrels and dissensions, that at length being brought before the King they might deprive them of life or fortunes, or both; as afterwards it fell out. For, that they might rend them in pieces most cruelly with most exquisite torments, they made saws of wood, wherewith they tormented the chiefest of them so unto death, that a man would rather lament the horriblenesse of so cruel a dead, than writ of it. At last, the rest of the Citizens of Sweden, at midnight being carried forth alive from the King's Castle, where they were kept Captives, in Ships to the next iceland that was a bow-shoot from thence called Keplinge, were shut up in a certain house, with their fingers riveted fast in holes in the wall, by knocking in of wedges, and were burnt with fire cast upon them, they were more than we can affirm them to have been: for as sheep tied together many were thrown in to be burnt. Of this City, Albertus Crantzius speaks thus. Stockholme the noted Mart Town of Sweden, suffered a great mischief; for, being thunder strike from heaven, it was almost all burnt down. There died 1600. men, but that is more miserable which follows; women and maids numberless carried their goods and children into the ships, but the press was so great of those that sought to run from the fire, that in a moment they were all drowned.   

CHAP. X. Of the original and situation of this Kingly City.  
THis chief City of the Swedes and Kingly place Stockholm, was built from the foundation, by a most illustrious and famous man who was the King's tutor, whose name was Roger Ierl, and he fortified it with walls and other buildings in so fit necessary and invincible a place, that it is supposed that he could never have done any thing more commodiously. For it is a place that is on all sides fortified with Torrents(& was formerly only for Fishermen's use) and is so placed between fresh and salt water, that it may be called the Port of all Sweden. For formerly the Estones, Muscovites, Russians, Tavesthi, did constantly pass through the mouth thereof, and plundered the Swedes privately, who suspected no hostility: and destroying great multitudes of men, they freely, and unpunished, loaded with great booties, returned to their own Countries. In which incursion they slay John the second Arch-Bishop of Upsal, in his own mansion house Alme-steck, and some other Noble men. But when this Stockholm was built, all and every man enjoyed a long peace, and the enemies were in continual fear, who finding such a strong garrison raised for the time to come against all enemies, forbore to plunder Sweden any farther. If any man shall presume to beleaguer this Stockholm and think to take it, he can never win it; though he should continue resolute in the siege thereof every way. For it is situate in the most deep waters, and most swift Rivers having only two Gates on the south and North parts with long bridges between them, which Gates and Bridges cost the Kings of Denmark more money in a siege that came to nothing, than ten the greatest Cities of his kingdom. Nor can it be besieged, but by 3 most potent Armies, divided into Islands that are partend by firm land and water, yet those Armies can never be secure from bow-men that will put them into fear. Let him try that will, and he shall find it worse.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Situation of the Mountain Bruncaberg, beyond the Kingly City Holm, and of the battels fought in it.  
WIthout this Kingly City toward the North, there is a high mountain or hill of Sand; upon the top whereof, and the obliqne sides, there have been fought many cruel battles of Princes, Nobles, Citizens, Country people, both in former and latter ages, as well by imbred as foreign enemies, concerning which because my most dear brother D. Johannes Arch-Bishop of Upsal hath written many things most true; and namely in his Gothick and Swedish Histories, I need not tyre the Reader to repeat them; yet with this exception, that Christiernus King of Denmark the first of that name, flying from this mountain the Dalacarli following him in a most sharp battle, unto the forts of his warlike fleet, lost his four upper teeth by the blow of a Musket, as the age next following, boasted of it in songs and compotations. Besides, Christiernus the 2d. had much a do to carry off his army that was sick and hungry, from this Mountain by water to his Navy that road behind the Mountaines on the South side of this Holm. Yet not there could he refresh his hungry army but by false covenants, that he offered to the Prince of the City and kingdom, and Inhabitants, and so had received necessary food and provision, by the foolishly persuaded Citizens, for his Army, and from the King's own Table, by a most liberal donation. But how he gave satisfaction for his Kingly honour, which must defend his reputation to posterity, I leave it as it was in part written by others, long before this relation. Namely that breaking his faith he carried six of the most noble pledges of the kingdom against their wills into Denmark with him. Also this mountain hath got its name from one Bruncho in respect of the event, who was a traitor to the kingdom; and a most filthy adulterer. There was also formerly in this Mountain a Cave under ground, where sometimes there lived Hermits, who gave warning for the safety of those that should depart out of that City, until such time as wars came( wherewith that City is often afflicted) then they departed to some other place, and that place was turned to a den of thieves, and it being again freed of them, it lies filled up with earth, that it may serve for no murderer, nor any that meditate on wicked devices.   

CHAP. XII. Of feeding their cattle in the houses of the besieged.  
MOreover it falls out, that Cities besieged are so close straitned by Land and Sea, with such obstinate Souldiers, that they will suffer nothing to be brought in to solace or preserve the besieged, but all things are taken away by the armed men, in the greatest danger, from the enemies themselves, and are carried forth; and oftimes upon that occasion the fight is made so fiercely, that for taking away a few cattle, many thousand Souldiers lose their lives: and whilst they strive deadly for the Cattle, the fields are filled with the dead bodies of the slain men. Nor are the besieged repressed with that blood and fury. For the first years they strive by force, as when the besieged are weakened with continual slaughters, they contend by cunning, sleights, and Snares, to take from the besiegers their provision, especially cattle, and what they can catch they hid in the grassy paths of their houses to be fed. But there is great observation to be made, concerning the customs of the Goths, how they do very handsomely feed their cattle within doors.  
For they build high and large ston houses, and of Wood also, which they cover with Rafters of Fir-Trees, and Bark of Birch-Trees, by exquisite industry, laying upon them square Turfs of grass, cut out of the fields; and this they fasten the better, by sowing it with Barley or Oats; and so these houses show like green fields, and serve for the same use. But that the grass of their houses may not whither before it be gathered; they use to water their houses diligently: so necessity instructs these valiant men, that they will resist against the besiegers beyond the force of men, and will avoid them, and overcome all want, despising all adversity.   

CHAP. XIII. Of supplying their want of water.  
FRom this occasion, for want of fresh meat, and it may be a greater want of Water, here I shall show how the Northern people being besieged, amongst other remedies for necessity, take care to provide themselves with Water. For sometimes the besieged are in such want of Spring or Pit-waters,( by reason of the Besiegers) that they must either yield, or fall desperately sick, or die inevitably: Wherefore the wise Governours of Forts or Cities, hang Sails or Webs of Cloth, concavely bended, and stretched out very far in length from the tops of their houses, and they fasten them beneath Wedge-fashion, and so fit them to catch the Rain or Diew that fall from above. And it is to the purpose, because the Water they receive by the frequent meeting of the Snows, are so great that fall from the Mountains, when the Sun melts them, that they are sufficient for all men and beasts, for th●ir use and necessity. Lastly, they that have Veins of the Salt Sea, or Springs, that come up under the Foundations of their Forts, they purify them, by often distilling them through Vessels full of Sand, and so they make fresh Water, and fit for all uses, and as good; onely by this simplo art. As the Senators of Venice not many years since, bought such an Art of distilling Water from a certain alchemist, because they dwell in Salt-Waters, and amongst Sea-Weeds.   

CHAP. XIV. How to supply want of Bread.  
WHen the Goths and Swedes are to enter the Hostile Lands of the Moscovites, they often find them, by reason of the coming of a formidable Army, not onely to fly suddenly away to the Caves or Woods, and Rocks, but setting their houses on fire, to carry into these deserts with them, all things necessary for mans use, leaving nothing that can be eaten by the Enemy that come. Upon which occasion, the provident Generals of Armies, after the manner of the old Goths, lest their great Army should fall with hunger, sooner then with the Sword, ate wont to bind a good quantity of Wheat-Meal behind the saddles of the Horse-men, in sacks appointed for this use, with an Iron-plate; and presently, as need requires, they kindle a fire, and make Cakes upon these Plates, as if they were baked in an Oven: yet they all use these Plates for Bucklers,( as they are made after that fashion) to defend their bodies, and so they most prudently seem to borrow two necessary conveniences from one thing, to serve them in the Wars. For they bake bread under the Ashes, made of this lump of doughty, and they wrap it in the thin bark and leaves of Poplar Trees, and cover it with hot Embers; and though this seems to be base bread, yet it sooner takes off their greedy appetite, and is fitter for strong stomachs, than any other White or Brown-Bread.  
They have also a third way easier than the former, whereby they make bread in plain Mountains that they often meet with: For they make huge fires in one or two or three places of the Mountain( for they have wood enough there for nothing) until that part be all over hot enough, and well purged, that they may soon bake a round or square Cake upon this Hearth. In the interim, they burn wood constantly upon other parts of that Mountain which are near, to bake more bread upon, and when they have purged this place, as they did the former, they make it most fit for this use; and thus they will in a short time make many thousands of loaves: by the plenty whereof, a whole Army is kept from deadly Famine many days, and enters into the Enemies Country, and wastes and destroys the same every where with fire and sword, unless there be a Covenant made to hinder it; and jaded with huge spoils, they retreat, and can think it to be none or very small calamity they have suffered, which they see recompensed with so great enjoyments and abundance of wealth.   
The end of the Ninth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Sea-Fights.  
The Epitome of the Tenth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of Fights in Lakes, and of Bridges broken down.  
ALL the North country almost is Mountainous and Woody, and there are many places that are naturally fortified both by Waters and Rocks against the Incursions of Enemies; so that against an Army of Horse or Foot, they will with a small Company keep themselves secure almost every where; and many Lakes are so muddy and unpassable, and deep, that they will scarce frieze in the coldest Winter, that a Footman can safely pass lightly over them. Rotabro is such a place, amongst the rest, that are also deep enough: it is called so, as much as to say, the broken Bridge, it is two hours journey from Stockholm, the Kings City aforesaid; from which City, when as an Army in hostile manner presumes to march forth very far into these rich Countries to plunder, coming from the Dacians or Germans, presently they are forced to retreat to the place they came from, repulsed, by the Forts and Arrows of the Inhabitants gathered together in the middle of the Woods; or else by force they compel the Inhabitants to retire themselves into some other place that they can find: and so( which seldom falls out) they fly to this bridge in the Marshes, and stand unmoved in the greatest Conflict. For breaking of a most long wooden bridge, there being a great Bog on both sides, the Enemy can find no occasion to offer violence to Nature that is so strangely fortified. There have been many most terrible Wars sought there often, in the times of divers Princes, as the Songs sung every where in Verse and Mother-tongue at Feasts, with mirth and joy do testify; namely that by Art, Nature, Force and Experience of the old Soldiers, and industry and fidelity of the Commanders, they wan the Victory, which was very great.   

CHAP. II. Of the form and use of the old Northern Ships.  
THe progress and end of wars in the Marshes in the Northern Kingdoms, hold this chance and change with a foreign Enemy, that when it falls out amiss,( as it oft happeneth, by reason of the ignorance of the places) the Commanders have a certain refuge through places unpassable, and deserts, and Woods, a shorter way to their ships that are left in some sure Harbour, and as at first they marched continually, as often as one challenged the other, or they both alike challenged one the other, perhaps for some small matter to fight a battle, as for ravishing of Maids or to be ravished( as saxon, the Danish Historiographer, mentions, that it hath been frequently done in the Northern Kingdoms between the most potent Princes, a most bloody War being fought by them), so they returned with disgrace, and great loss: therefore they made their ships formerly, long or broad, as the Rivers were narrow or wide: as in the Ocean toward Norway, they are spacious; also in the Spanish Seas their ships are long and broad: but in the Gothick Seas, and of Sweden, that run by their shores, their ships are short and broad, especially such as are for burden; and they must be so, by reason of the narrow Waters that have so many Turnings and Windings. Of old time every Province, even that was far from the Sea, kept their shipping in some safe Port, or near the shore, under some covering, and all their Tackling belonging to them, such as I have seen on the shore of Norway: And lastly, of Swedland; which ships, when necessity came, were suddenly sent forth, well rigged and provided with Tackling, Arms, Provision, and Souldiers, as well as that Age would afford it, to make an Expedition by Water, in a great or small number by the Princes Command; yet they were all so distinguished by their Flags, Colours, and Names, that whatsoever Conflict they had with the Enemy, they were always governed by the Order of their Officers without any confusion: unless they were carried violently, and partend in the Sea unhappily by some impetuous Whirlwind, especially a Southern Wind; for that Wind is as deadly here, as an Easterly Wind is in Hellespont.   

CHAP. III. Of another form of Northern Ships.  
OMitting many kinds of ships, that agree almost in their fashion with the ships of any other Nation onely differing by the names of the country, I shall speak here alone of those, that by a more common name are demonstrated for a general knowledge: as are Galleys, Hulks, Barks, Wherries, Ferry-Boats for Horses, which are huge great, by reason of the multitudes of Horses that are to be transported from the North beyond Seas into Germany. Moreover there are ships of War, whereof there was one so great that was built for Gustavus, King of Sweden, that it could carry forth a thousand armed Souldiers, and three hundred Mariners, that are excellent souldiers, and there were huge great ships, besides very many appointed for Sea-fights. Moreover the same King first brought in the use of two Oars, three and four Oars, about the year of Christ, 1540. in the Gothick and Swedish Seas, by means of skilful Venetians, that he hired with his liberal bounty, especially that he might the sooner conquer and subdue the Muscovian and Esthonian pirates, that invaded his country, and had often broken their Leagues, and now his Finlanders, that are very skilful Carpenters, know how to make Galleys as strong and good, or better then they were, as I have seen some made with excellent skill amongst the Venetians, but they cannot make them so sudden●y to be ready to sail for the War, as they can, who in the space of one month can make of the wood not yet framed 60 ships, or more, for to go to Sea, provided with Arms, Guns, and Victuals. Moreover they had Barks, Boats, Pinnaces▪ Galleys, frigates, Ship-Boats, and the like. Moreover, Wherries are much used by the Northern people, because they are easily made hollow of great Fir-Trees and oaks, that they will hold 20 or 30 men; those that are less, are used by Fisher-men.   

CHAP. IV. Of the mutual slaughter of the Merchants, for the Harbours of Iceland.  
IT is a miserable spectacle of Factors, that fall foul one upon the other, either at home or abroad, and kill one the other for gain, or put all their merchandise in danger to be lost, or to revenge their Kindred. They cannot look upon this with eyes open, and at Noon day, to consider what Robbings and pillaging they are subject unto every where, unless they knew how to manage their weapons, and to fight to defend themselves. Amongst these are the chief, as it is supposed the Bremers, or the Cities of the Vandals, the Rostochians, Vismarians, and Lubekers. And lastly the Merchants of England and Scotland who so stiffly contend for the primacy and privilege of the Iceland Ports to ride in, as if they fought a fight at Sea, and so wound one the other for gain, that whether the one or the other gets the Victory, yet there is always ready one of the Officers of the Treasury, who knows how to correct them both sufficiently, both in their moneys and bodies, either by ordinary or extraordinary Exaction.   

CHAP. V. Of the punishment of the Rebellious mariners.  
AS there are Laws and Orders appointed for all sorts and conditions of men, whereby men may live more honestly, justly, and warily: so in Sea matters, and rational businesses, customs are made and observed strictly: of which kinds( though they be innumerable, I think fit, at least, to let you understand some of them that are the most general. He therefore that moves a Sedition, and sets upon the Captain or Master of the ship, or shall presume to assault him, or shall perniciously falsify the mariners Compass, especially the Needle which they all steer by or shall commit any such like horrid wickedness in the ship, for the most part, if his life be spared, he must pu l away his hand he useth most commonly, which they fasten to the Mast of the ship, or some chief piece of wood in the ship, with a sword or knife and cut it in the middle: But he that is tumultuous, and injurious is tied with Ropes on one side of the ship, where he is plunged in, and he is drawn up under the back on the other side: and if there be need by reason of the water he took in, that he may not be suffocated, he is laid on his back or belly. But some being well known by the foulness of their Crime, or for their Rebellion or Treason, especially in a fight at Sea, are cast into the Sea alive, least they should destroy the whole Fleet by their wicked devices. The rest for small faults easily obtain pardon, asking it at the Fore-Castle: or before they come into it, they are taken by their fellows, and wrested thrice at the Sail-yard, or Mast, and endure that punishment, turned as though they beholded the Stars at Noon-day. These, and the like, and greater punishments, as need requires, are used often more strictly by the constitutions of the most ancient City Visbic, in the iceland of Gothland, that is by a perpetual right subject to the Dominion of the King of the Swedes and Goths. And though that City was formerly most potent and exceeding rich, and was humbled for a very small occasion, namely for breaking of one pane of glass of a window, nor worth a half penny: yet the Laws for Sea Affairs, and the diecisions of all Controversies severally, far and wide, as far as Hercules his Pillars, and the utmost Scythian Sea, are fetched from thence, and are observed, being given, that all things may be done in a due tranquillity, that may be fit and agreeing to peaceable Commerce.   

CHAP. VI. Of the swimming of Horsemen.  
THough it be no less unhappy than it is rash, for an armed Horseman or Footman, to venture himself to swim in his armor: yet because the Goths would use all means to adorn Military business, they have left nothing unattempted that is fit for Military Exercise: Wherefore they were so cunning in the art and use of swimming, that oft-times in their armor, riding on Horses, they would swim over great parts of Rivers, between their Enemies Armies, either to fight or fly. Nor was their Industry the less to use their Horses to the custom of swimming, as Cornelius Tacitus affirms of the Germans, whose most noble practise it was, to teach their Horses to swim, and to take the Waters boldly on Horseback, when the Horses had skill to swim. Nor is saxon his Testimony in this Case to be omitted; for he saith, that one Biorno of Norway, a noted Champion, had a very well made horse, which was exceeding swift, and so courageous that he would never faint in swimming over a roaring Whirl-pool; the Water whereof runs so swift and downward, that all other Creatures almost were tired out and drowned in it: yet he lost that Horse, Fridlevus, a most valiant Champion, putting him to his shifts,( of whom I spake before in the fifth Book) and in respect of the stony and unfortunate place he was in; and at lest by a stratagem of his Enemies, and the error of his horse, he was taken prisoner, so that Sejanus horse seems no where for fashion or nature to be wanting. But that the Horses of the Goths are said to be so well skilled in swimming, there is a necessary cause for it, by reason of their great and broad Rivers every where. For there can hardly be any battles fought amongst the East or West Goths, the Finlanders, Russians, or Muscovites, but they must swim over huge swift Rivers.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the swimming of their Foot Souldiers in Arms especially such as are fat.  
I Shall here allege a singular Example out of saxon, of one Sivardus of Norway, who after that he had shewed many famous Actions in the Wars, was intercepted by the Enemies, and was carried in a ship to be drowned in the deep Sea. As if he would precede his funeral by funeral-Solemnities, he made the mariners drunk, buying drink for that purpose; and when they were merry, he desired of them, as the last thing he should ask, that he might steer the ship; and desiring the mariners to sail faster, when he saw the ship run very swiftly, he cast away the Helm, and threw himself headlong into the Sea, and came to shore before the ship could, and so killed King herald unawares of him. Afterwards fighting a Sea-fight with them, by a most incredible and gallant courage, he alone, for a good space, defended his ship from the Enemies, when his Company was killed.  
But at last he was forced to yield to their multitudes, trusting to his excellent skill in swimming, though Winter were at hand, and his armor on him was heavy, he cast himself into the Deep, and swimming under the Waters, he made it a question, whether he shewed more gallantry in the ships poop, or agility in swimming when he was in the Waters.  
For he took off his Coat of Mail that was about his body, and the rest of his armor, as he swam under water, that they might not hinder his swimming, and then when he rose above water to take breath, and was pointed at by one of his acquaintance to show him to the Enemy, by his cloths he wore, he dived under water again, and took off his Coat that he suspected he was known by. And when he could not so pass, but he must be known by him that betrayed him; at last he put off his clothes: And when he could not so remain undiscovered, when he alone was left of all his Companions, and he found that he had tried all these things gallantly and cunningly in vain: at last he counterfeited himself to be dead, staying very long at bottom of the water, that the Enemy doubted whether he were drowned or not. But last of all, when he must rise up to take fresh air, he laid hold of a strong Helm of a Ship with both his Arms, and stuck fast to it secretly a long time, until at last he was discovered by one that curiously looked after him, and was put to death.   
The End of the Tenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Wars upon the Ice.  
An Epitome of the Eleventh Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Bloody Wars in the Northern Countries.  
we find in the Chronicles of the North Countries, both of old, as of later time, that oft-times most cruel Fights have been fought between the Russians or Muscovites, and the Swedes or Finlanders, for divers very weighty causes, both by Sea and Land, and the plain Ice, and thick deep snows; and sometimes as it happened, now one, then another got a notable Victory, as Fortune changed; and this again was a lamentable affliction to the Conquered. The cause of this difference is from the Circumstances of Time, Places, and Commanders, that in such cases hasten a speedy occasion: Wherefore there are two most strange Castles, the one whereof, a deep gulf being between, belongs to the Dominion of the great Mr. of Livonia,( for so is the Prince of that great Province called) the other belongs to the great Duke of Moscovie. But one called Narven is subject to the Government of the Christian Livonians, and another to the Schismatical Moscovites. The Fort that is subject to the Moscovites, is so fortified by Nature, by the Waters that run round it, and the Forces there, and thinks itself so safe, that it fears the Assaults of no Enemies, be they never so mighty.  
But this madness as it proved false, so it felt an inevitable calamity. For the most illustrious Princes of the Swedes and Goths, Steno that was before stir, and Suanto, being provoked by many great injuries and frauds of the Moscovites, after most high wars and damages by the Moscovites, brought upon potent provinces, and people, setting upon an army of 50000. armed men, and the foresaid Fort of the Muscovites, with fire and sword( whilst their friends in the Castles of the Livonians looked on) they won with incredib●e fury, that the Moscovites being cruelly wounded, and many slain and burnt, could scarce save themselves by running away. And this Fort being taken, the Princes of the Swedes and Goths aforesaid and their Souldiers got an inestimable spoil of Silver, and costly Sabel skins, that from thence they ever gloried, that for the great troubles they had sustained in fights, as well in hot as could weather, they now triumphed, loaded with great plunder. But these rich booties, as they were to the conquered enemies an inrecoverable loss and grief, so they caused such discords amongst the foresaid Princes, and their friends and people, and such a pernicious and implacable hatred, that from thence afterwards arose the ruin of the kingdoms. Wherefore this fort, taken from the enemies by force of Arms, when as the great Mr. having it freely given to him for a gift, by the conquering Swedes, feared to annex it to his dominions, the conquering army left it, putting fire to it, first having taken out all the rich spoil that was in it, and returned by Finland, Sweden and Gothland: yet there was such abundance of Wax left in the said Castle( whereof the Eastern factors make a vast gain, and it is a rich tribute for the Governours) because they could not carry it away with them, it being so heavy, that it melted in the flames and made such a steem that one might have sailed a great way with it.   

CHAP. II. Of Fights upon the Ice.  
NOr do the Swedes and Goths fight against the Moscovites or Russians that break their leagues with a hot desire of rapine on the borders of the Finland Sea, with less eagerness on the brittle Ice, than they do on the most firm Land: and as I said before, where they fought in Summer most fierce naval battles, in the very same places, when the Ice is frozen, they set their armies in battle array, and place their Canons, and fight horribly. So firm is the Ice to bear troops of horsemen at a distance or drawn up close in a body. Nor let it seem strange or incredible to any, especially to any Italian, how the horses hoofs can stand fast upon the slippetry Ice, nor onely to run with the greatest violence, but also to wheel about, and run round to fight with an armed enemy. For the horses are made fit for it by having their feet should with crooked Irons, and sharp nails, that the rider need never fear falling, be the Ice never so smooth, also such pieces of Ice are cut up with the horses shoes, when they run away, and are cast into the face of him that follows, that he is knocked down dead with them, or wounded not easy to be cured.   

CHAP. III. Of the breaking forth of the Moscovites or Russians.  
The Moscovites for the most part go forth not so much to war as to plunder, keeping either very little or no military order at all; especially those that enter the borders of the kingdom of Sweden, and of the great Dukedone of Finland to fight or pillage; as it is recorded in the Annals of the same kingdom, especially in the year of our Lord 1495. when they came with 60000 men. The cause of their inroad they made to be, their demand again of 3. parishes adjoining namely Egrebpe, Lasche, and Savalox, as if they did rather belong to them than to the kingdom of Sweden. But the truth is ●o great a flood came in by the provocation of John King of Denmark, that a mighty Province of Sweden being subdued, he might bring part of it under the Dominion of the Moscovites, and part of it should be joined to the territories of the said King of Denmark; as afterwards, a few years being past, Anno 1500. in the Kingly City Holm, the Moscovites ambassadors propounded it to the same King John in the Lent, affirming that this Leauge was confirmed between both Princes by kissing the holy cross solemnly to humble and subdue the Crown of Sweden. But both parts became vain suddenly in their Imaginations, that King John was forced to sly in hast into his Denmark( leaving Queen Christina a Gallant woman descending of the Dukes of Misnia) and the great tumultuous forces of the Moscovites were humbled by force and were driven away like Thiefs; and compelled to get them gone to their habitations at home, receiving such a notable defeat, that he never durst any more, by the Danes persuasion, or of his own presumption attempt to come upon the Dominions of the kingdom of Sweden. How ever it is, since the kingdom of Denmark, as saxon saith, is contained in a very narrow Land, he useth importunely, and craftily to provide that he may Usurp the vast Dominions of Sweden, Gothland, Finland, that are near him, by the confederacy, and assistances he obtains from many Princes, especially of Russia, or Moscovia, from the East; and from the West of the Scots or French, and Germans from the South: all these Nations joining together and coming into Sweden to subdue it, sooner find a grave than a victory.   

CHAP. IV. Of a fearful sounding Cave, the Common people call Smellen.  
WE have shewed in the former Chapter that the Ice is so strong that it can easily bear troops of armed horse and foot. And now I shall show that there is a cave under the Earth near Viburgus a City near the shore, which is a close neighbour to the same Lands of the Moscovites, that hath such a secret force, that if a living Creature be cast into it, it will make such a horrible noise, that such as are near to it, according to the greatness of it, can neither hear nor speak nor stand; by which vehemency it kills more in a moment than the greatest Cannon, or else it debilitates them. Nor doth this workmanship of Nature seem to be idle. For when any enemy comes on, the governor of the Land bids all men to stop their ears with wax, and to hid themselves in caves and dens that they may live, and then fortifying himself, he casts in some living creature headlong into the mouth of the cave, or bound with a cord, whence there ariseth such a horrid noise, that the enemies that are besieging round about, fall down like sheep to the slaughter; and when they are fallen, if the Inhabitants will, they stay so, for a long space to be spoiled by them. But the conquerors find no pleasure to revenge themselves on them, when the enemies seem to be so strongly oppressed by the power of nature, who as soon as they come to themselves, have no mind to fight but to run away, least if this noise should be heard again, and they should dy of it, or having got some mortal disease thereby, they should live but in a short time though they did fly. In which case it happeneth that they who cannot be subdued and repressed by arms from their warlike fury, are daunted by the only noise of nature, roaring; and seldom or never recover their former strength.   

CHAP. V. Of the same.  
A More miserable and unhappy example of this calamity was once left to posterity by the Moscovites or Russians, above all other enemies, losing many thousands of their men, that they may learn not to proceed to oppress their neighbour Nations by proud multitudes especially the Finlanders, giving them no cause so to do. For these Finlanders are wont to keep firmly themselves and their Country, by mutual help, and by the Arms of Goths and Swedes, by magical Arts and the secret force of the Elements. But whatsoever is the reason of this cave it must be always held and governed by a provident Man, and that with many walls built round about it, because there is great power in the secret nature of it, as there is in other things.   

CHAP. VI. Of the battle of the Finlanders against the Moscovites.  
AS the principality of the great Duke of Moscovia, and of Russia is most la●ge and most potent; so also he enlargeth and extendeth the Title of his Government, as his last Letters testify that were sent by one Demetrius to Pope Clement the 7th. after this Style. The great Lord Basilius, by the grace of God Emperour and governor of all Russia, and great Duke of Volodemaria, Moscovia, Norvogrodia, Permia, Vetcha, Bolgaria, &c. the Lord and great Prince of Novogrodia the lower, Cernigovia, Razania, Valotchia, Rozeria, Belchia, Roschovia, Jaroslavia, Belozeria, Vdoria, Obdoria, and Cordinia, &c. Given in our City of Moscovia in the year from the beginning of the world 1307. April the 3d. But this so great and large Title is more admired by neighbour Nations, than feared by reason of his forces, especially the Finlanders, who often being provoked, do not leave off to beleaguer his mighty forces and to conspire against his Potent Titles. Yet not so frequently in the field( unless the winter be extreme sharp,) as in waters that are divided into many Rivers and Lakes. But for the most part they are Robbers on both sides, who fight, as I said in heat of plunder. And for this small occasion the Princes of the North will not fall to open war.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Moscovites way of Stealing.  
THe Russians or Moscovites have a most pernicious craft and subtlety in piracy, and robbing; as we shall show briefly. For when they purpose to invade, like thieves the Careli or other neighbour Nations, they gather their men together, and instruct them by certain laws and agreements, and they make long light fir three barks that will carry 20. or 25. men, and these are made in the deserts with plain and thin cloven boards, namely in this order, that some of them hue them hollow with axes, others boil pitch in holes underground( that they may not be discovered by the smoke) from pine three boughs, or pieces of them: some burn the points of their darts that they may be hard; others make ready their bows and strings and arrows. For they have most fit matter for all such Instruments in their deserts. These Barks being made ready, they Theevishly launch them into the waters like a Navy of Ships, and furnish them with arms; and then they set upon Villages, Farms, Castles, and Marchants Ships, in the white lake or Venedick gulf, or the Livonian Sea, as they ly at anchor, to rob them. Nor are they content to pillage them and spoil them of their goods, but also by an imbred cruelty, without any difference or discretion, all they can thus master, they cast into the sea, and drown them.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the same.  
ANd relying upon such prosperity, they grow so insolent, that they will not fear to set upon and molest men of war, that are wind bound, and bore holes in their planks next the waters; for with their arrows they fight fiercely to hinder them that are above that they may not defend their Ships, yet they seldom get the victory by their great presumption and boldness, because they are frequently repulsed with Guns, Crosse-bows and throwing of stones at them. Then when they consider that they cannot stay long in security among men distressed by them, when they have used violence and Rapine, or, by any further mischief to all, exercise their public piracy any longer, they take their barks on their shoulders, and carry them back into some secret places of the woods, for they know the most secret places of them: that they may another time make use of them to prey abroad as they did, upon more fit occasions; setting guards in the woods that there they may live as in the most private places of the wilderness by the abundance of their spoils, and defend themselves by arms. But as their wickedness is horrid and pernicious, so it suddenly finds some men to revenge it. For by the diligence and skill of hunters they first search out these thieves that hold guards in the woods, then the people go forth in troops putting on black armor, and utterly destroy these enemies, yet they cannot do it but by a bloody victory, for these thieves being conscious of their wickedness, will strive and fight stoutly for their lives. But at last being overpowered, some run into caves in the mountains, others to hollow places in the earth, and some climb up into thick trees to hid themselves thinking themselves the more safe, as they had in the vast desert made choice of those most private places to conceal themselves in before they did their robberies. But God's revenge following them, they deserve not to enjoy their lives or liberties, by that means or in that place, who are wont with so cruel torments to oppress the Innocent. For they put them all into their barks and houses of defence, and so without any mercy burn them alive. But those that lye hide in Caves and Dens, are kept in with great stones and planks and Stakes of wood, that they may dy with hunger a more lamentable death. They that think themselves safe amongst the thick boughs are discovered by the barking of Dogs; and unless they do Compound for their lives, they shoot at them with arrows, and make them fall down dead. And they have no more powerful and effectual course to find out these Rogues and Theifs, than by the scent and cry of hunting Dogs.   

CHAP. IX. Of the way of receiving ambassadors amongst the Moscovites.  
SOme old Histories of the Northern kingdoms relate, that some Princes of Moscovy did receive the ambassadors of Kings and Princes with wonderful delusions& they do the same yet. For they choose then,& so they do now, for that occasion many common people that were very tall men,& very ancient,& grave,& graceful, with grey long beards, in gallant cloths( for the Prince cloths them for it) that being set in the ample company of the Nobles scattered here and there amongst them, and saying nothing, they may with the Splendour of their Ornaments, and great multitudes, ravish the eyes of the ambassadors that come in: who being charmed or terrified with so great state, may propound nothing that is harsh; or if they do propound, they may consent to have it ended by the common votes of them all. But that state as it is but counterfeit magnificence, so it is supposed that it grows contemptible in the end of it. For they are far from that esteem they thought to win. For the more perfect ambassadors, who have gone into the world upon great affairs, despise and are ashamed of all that counterfeit state and false pomp. Moreover it is a custom amongst the Tartars that the ambassadors before they propound their ambassage to their Emperour shall be forced to pass between two fires, especially for this reason, that if they carry any poison to destroy the Prince, it may first kill those that carry it, being dissolved by the heat of the fire. And they will not otherwise hear those ambassadors, unless they bring presents, and deliver their Embasse, on their knees, and give such honour to a mortal man that is due to Saints and Angels in heaven: and they that refuse to do this are scarce absolved without danger of their lives. But that this custom of entertaining ambassadors amongst the Moscovites, may appear by more clear examples, I shall insert the ambassage of the most illustrious King of Poland, Anno Domini 1551. which was directed to the great Duke of moscow in the order that here follows. The ambassador of the King of Poland Matthaeus Barthlomievicza Kneze, Gedroitzhi, a very noble man, coming 200 German miles, from the famous City Vilna, of Lithuania, to moscow, the Metropolis of Moscovia, when he was to have his entrance, after he had gone the foresaid journey, he was entertained by some Knights, that were appointed by the great Duke for this purpose: and afterwards a few dayes being past, he was brought into the Castle in great solemnity( such as the Moscovites thought fit) to deliver the King's Letters,& he passed through two portals, where very tall men that had huge long beards,( which are most commonly of the base sort of people) sat round upon seats, and were clothed in very glorious clothing, that belonged to the great Duke, that so he might boast of the glory of his court to men that came from far Countries, at last he was brought into the Palace, where the great Duke with his Princes all clothed as the other were, stayed for him. But the great Duke sate upon a seat, that was far off from the other Princes, and was clothed with a long rob down to his heels, of piled velvet and the outward skirts of it were Embroidered with perls and Jewels: and he held in his hand a sceptre or staff, guilded on the upper part, but it was silvered over on the lower part, that he learned upon: Lastly he had on his head a mitre, which they in their Language call, Kalpak, which was made of the best black fox skins, which are of a huge price in that Country, and far dearer than Sabels. But when the ambassador entered into the Palace, presently they that brought him in, and presented him to the great Duke, cast themselves down upon the pavement before him, and they knocked their heads against the ground 3 or 4 times, as the custom of the Moscovites is, to show their reverence to their supreme Lord. But when the ambassador was come to the doors 50 foot off from the Duke, together with his 12 servants that came with him, he was commanded by an Advocate with him,( which they call Przistaw,) to stand still, and this was done by order from the great Duke, nor was he suffered to come any nearer to him: and there he stood until he had made his speech to the great Duke, and delivered his Kings Letters to the Dukes Secretary appointed to receive them. The ambassador of the great Duke had on a time when he was in Poland refused to receive the Letters of this King, because he had not styled his Lord Czar Ruzki,( that is Emperour of Russia as he was created by the Metropolitan of that Land, and for this reason the same Duke had sent his own ambassador. After this the said ambassador of the King of Poland was brought back again by the Advocate in great state to his Lodging for Ostentation sake. And let this suffice concerning the manner of entertaining ambassadors amongst the Moscovites.   

CHAP. X. Of the Italian ambassador cruelly slain.  
MOreover Albertus Cranztius, a famous German Historian, affirms in his Vandalia, that an ambassador of italy was most miserable murdered, because he did not uncover his head when he was to deliver his message before the Prince of Moscovia. For when the ambassador alleged the custom of his Country( so that no majesty nor power could be supposed to be offended for the ambassadors head being covered) the cruel Prince scoffing, said, That his hat should be nailed to his head with an iron pin; and that he would not violate such a custom but confirm it the more.   

CHAP. XI. Of the Ingenuity of the Merchants of Moscovia.  
IT is the fashion of the Merchants of Moscovia, to build new Ships, because there are so many Lakes and Rivers, and to carry their goods in them. For in the North Countries they traffic at least 300 or 400 Leagues off: and since in so long a journey many woods and long Rivers and Lakes are found, they use these ships ready made, or else they make new ones to transport their Merchandise. And there is no man that complains of Injury for the cutting down of woods, or for fishing by these Merchants, so they usurp nothing else besides these benefits of Nature, the Patrons being ignorant of it, against their wills, or either to use their cattle to draw their Ships, or to feed on their sheep, but instead of them, they kill wild dear abundantly with their arrows as they travel on the way. Their Merchandise are precious skins, of all sorts, as Sabel skins, Mardure skins, and Varolinae, which are called vulgarly in Italian Dossi, whereof both before and after something is observed, and is to be observed further.   

CHAP. XII. Of the divers ways of the Finlanders making war.  
BEcause amongst the Finlanders, a Northern people, by reason of their too great fierceness, it is published under severe punishments and their Kings Censure, that they shall not use military Arms, at hand to destroy one the other; namely launces, Spears, Darts, Swords or long daggers: yet they are suffered to have hatchets and axes, to use on all occasions for the necessity of their houses: wherewith also they will build admirable buildings. But that they may not seem to want arms to defend themselves from the thieving Moscovites, that live too near them, when they have occasion, they repulse and keep off their first assaults with slings like Spears; then when they come to fight near hand they defend themselves with Stones tied to their girdles that they can throw at them. For they have very strong Arms, and are very cunning in throwing stones, that they will never miss. They have also very long firr-tree Spears, that are dried in the Sun: and they sharpen the points of them with nails, or burn the ends of them sharp, and with these they first repulse the force of the light horsemen. Some use cords that they can cast on high, and draw them in again, as nets for wild beasts. For when they fight with their enemy hand to fist, they cast these cords as snares over their enemies heads, and will draw a horse or a man to them.  
Some also bind a ston as big as a man's fist to a cord, that is a foot long, to a staff,( those that have no iron nor leaden bullets, nor chains,) and with these they involve the rider's arms, or horse's legs, and draw them to make them fall suddenly. And the same Finlanders have no less help from their huge biting mastiffs; which the Muscovian horses are as much afraid of, and run from, as the Persian horses do from Camels. For these dogs, as they are taught, fall on with leaping, and biting upon the horses noses, and therefore they being fearful of it, will suddenly rise upon their hinder feet, and cast the Rider, who is presently taken prisoner, or slain.   

CHAP. XIII. More of their Arms and Ammunition.  
THe same Finlanders use also, for to defend their bodies, partly corselets of Sea Calves skin, tanned with lime; and some use Elks skins with the hair on: and this they suffer to frieze, if they war in Winter, by pouring could water on it; nor will that Ice that sticks to the hairs without, melt by the sweeting of him that carrieth it, when it is once frozen: Some of them use Helmets, like the meddles of Fishes, made of the hoofs of Elks, or ranged dear, or Oxen, ingeniously framed together: some use the skins of certain birds fastened on the inside with iron wire curiously. Some use Helmets of skins, that are moist, thick, and green, boiled in lime, drawn upon wood after the form of the head, and drying this by degrees in the air, it proves a safe-guard for the head. But that these Helmets may not flag, when their heads wax hot, they fortify them within with fish-lime and thin bark of the poplar three, which resist all moisture.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the Northern Governours, or the King of Sweden.  
AS I said before of the Officers of Iceland, that is, of the Land of Ice, how, by the Edict of the King of Norway, dispensing of Laws, they might put an end to controversies that are moved in the harbours of that Country, or amongst the German Merchants falling out, that they might punish justly those that sail there, that the Merchants might not be deprived of their lawful gain, or the Inhabitants of their profit, or the Treasury of the due tribute, and all of the pleasant society of peaceable traffic; so in these Finlanders Countries, that are most populous and rich, the Officers of the King of Sweden are appointed, that are prudent and knowing men, valiant and courteous, that they may remove quarrels as well of the Inhabitants as of strangers by a right rule of Justice, and may settle every one in peace: For the more fierce and sharp the people under that Climate are found to be,( as they are so indeed) the more need have they of the more prudent men, who can better persuade,( saving Justice) than rigidly compel, spoil, or torment them: and in this case they are most ready to make them obey them, if they refuse to pay their tribute as they ought, or do what they command them, though it be joined with mortal dangers. The Northern Kingdoms always flourished with such Officers that were just and prudent, and moderate, with their Kings and Princes, as I can sweetly remember Old Steno stir, who for 24 years Ruled valiantly and peaceably, this rigid people, so wide as 2000 Italian miles: and again, King charles, who was banished 7 years, because of his covetous, reproachful violent Officers set over all his Provinces.   

CHAP. XV. Of burning the Forts of violent Governours.  
THe Commonalty when they feel that they are vexed by implacable violence of wicked Governours, besides all right, being provoked to anger, they come all as one man with their Troops and Companies, and encompass their Forts that are largely surrounded with Ice, and encamp against them to beat them down, in the manner that follows: For as oft as in these Northern Kingdoms intolerable burdens are laid on the people, when there is no necessity, or any other cruel oppressions used, so often they rise together with arms to infringe and break off all such heavy burdens; namely so, that the Inhabitants or Peasants( who are always potent, and united together in that place) striving to demolish those Forts, at a set time many thousands of them meet in the Woods, and upon the Ice of that Territory, near to those Forts, and by a common severity, they suddenly advice what to do, and conclude upon it. Amongst these, men of the sharpest understanding, by first making a short speech to the multitude to stir them up, concerning the burdens they have suffered, and are like to suffer, assign and appoint the duties to every Company under severe Commanders; To some, that they shall forthwith build Engines of wood that are very strong and high, upon the Ice: To others, that they shall cut many thousands of faggots in the woods, and carry them along. To some, that they shall defend the Masters of the work with their cross bows and weapons, by keeping watch against their Tyrannicall Incursions; until they are all ready, and fall on upon the business decreed on together. Hence it is that they first securely thrust before them upon the slippery Ice such engines or fences, that may keep off the Guns and Arrows of their Enemies; and they have by files as they march infinite numbers of faggots carried in Carts and on their shoulders, which they cast about the walls until they are as high, or higher then the walls, and to these they put fire and consume the besieged with flamme and smoke; who are neither able to turn away this danger, nor yet to defend themselves by reason of the vaste heap of combustible matter; nor yet can they make any conditions with the furious people that will not hear them, or be entreated by them: nor can they fly away, because the multitudes are all over, ready to destroy them, and to kill all; and these Forts are burnt as with burning towe: if they can be burnt. For, for the most part they are not built of burnt brick or stones out of the fields; but, of beams fastened together, cut out of the thick woods, they build their houses that are vaulted( to keep off the could) as I shall say underneath concerning the houses of the Northern Countries.   

CHAP. XVI. Of their Engines for the Ice.  
ALso the Goths and Swedes use, when they set upon and spoil the most strong Forts, Castles, and Cities, obliqne Engines, and fences, that are made most strongly of fir-beams, and these Engines they set against the walls, that are easily driven upon the Ice by violence of their hands; and being fenced by these, they avoid all stones or logs that are cast upon them directly, either from above or beneath, that they can do them no hurt. For nothing by force from above, or by the weight of it falling, how violently soever it be let down, can break or dissolve those engines, because they are made overthwart, nor can they be burnt by casting fire upon them from the besieged: because in violent could weather they always cast water on them, which freezeth very thick, and they continually thrust them nearer to the gates and walls, by their armed violence; and they fasten them with Troops of Souldiers, u●●ng almost the same commodity under their engines, and guards in their Camps, that Travellers, use to enjoy in houses of Ice, where they have wood enough to keep off the could, and provision sufficient, and pay enough for their Souldiers, and by this means they put the besieged to greater difficulty. When they see this, the trembling Souldiers that are besieged, are forced to keep themselves with more trouble within the Walls and Forts; until such time as no place is left free for to hurt or repulse the enemy, that hath beleaguered them round. For they cannot burn their engines because of the Ice upon them, nor can they break forth by digging mines underground, because the Earth is frozen as hard as a ston; nor is there the least place for them to kill the Enemy with their Guns or Cannon, or to b●at them off with arrows and slings, nor can they safely resist them in open fight, nor can they leave their Forts and run into the woods to hid themselves, the could being so sharp; yet they that are beleaguered defend themselves with great courage and with their Arms, until such time as the besiegers fearing lest the Ice should melt, do either willingly set the engines on fire; or going farther off carry them to the shores with them back again. Yet the besieged are not so freed from their fierce besieging them. For they presently turn the same Engines into most broad Ships, and easily make them ride on the same waters where they stood on the firm Ice before, or else they make them larger than they were, and let them swim on the Ice that is thawed, and they join barks and kinds of small vessels to them, whereby the most skilful Archers can defend these Ships, and keep night-watches, that none of the besieged can escape. And the same is done by all that have the command of their bulwarks in the fields. For they prosecute the besieged with the same cruelty, by whose wicked cruelty they were provoked to so great a fury to revenge themselves. Hence it is, that most commonly they that are thus straightly beleaguered begin to bethink themselves, Whether they shall hang or drowned, or burn, or cast themselves down headlong, or poison themselves, or one kill the other.   

CHAP. XVII. Of Fiery Chariots.  
WHen a fight upon the Ice is threatened either with Horse or Foot by the Danes, Moscovites, or Germans, or other internal enemies, against the Goths and Swedes; and those Enemies to offer violence, hid their engines in the hollow places of the Mountains or Valleys, whereby they may break forth upon the Inhabitants, who are gathered in Arms for the same purpose to defend themselves; that they may afford them no time or place of robbing, they use all the skill and force they have, and they fill long Chariots with dry boughs and other combustible matter, that they may oppose against their Enemies a most black smoke and intolerable stink, when fire is put to them by those bold guides, and is drawn on by wild and furious horses: and this is done the sooner, when the mad Horses standing side by side are forced to run, perceiving the fire in the Carts behind them; and they never leave running, till they have disordered the Enemies Army, that in that place, or elsewhere, they are forced to yield to the furious enemies that came on collaterally with all their forces, or else they pursue them, who counterfeit as though they ran away from them, and so being drawn forth or dispersed, they may be destroyed in the secret gulfs in the Ice, rather than by the snares of armed men. And if need be, more company breaks forth of the Woods and joins with them, with their crosse-bows and weapons to join in battle, and to oppose the Enemy, and they never leave following till they have driven the Enemy away, and most ●everely re●enged themselves. But where these battles on the Ice use to be fought, or on what Lakes and other places, I shall show more at large in the following Chapters.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of Canons and Bullets to be carried forth, and of the manner of shooting.  
HEre I shall show clearly, what crafts and Arts the Northern people use in making battle either in the fields, or upon the Ice, and undauntedly fight against their Enemies when they are injured by them. They have also Chariots( for so they call their winter or Ice ploughs) that are long before, and for their better agility in turning, they are made wedge fashion, or bended in; the commodity and firmness of them is so great, that against the risings o● ways, or hills of Ice and Snow that swell up, with one or more horses to draw them, they will carry more burden than 5. or 6. Carts with wheels can upon plain and firm grounds. Yet they choose rather to go with one horse upon the glib Ice, or beaten Snow, than with two; that when wagons meet them in narrow ways, they may the better pass, by declining a little; also by reason of the depth of the Snow, they are enjoined, by a penal Law, not to drive a crooked Chariot, or more heavy wagons. But on the Ice, because there is breadth enough, they find no rubs, unless it be in some certain places, where the Ice is broken, that is caused by the violence of Exhalations coming from beneath, as by force of Thunder, by reason of the fatness of the ground. I say as it were by force of Thunder, because there is heard such a horrible noise and roaring under the Ice for a long way, as on the sides of thick clouds here and there that of necessity this crack must come, as by the violence of Thunder, that is, 2. 3. or 6. foot broad according as the Exhalation is, and the spirit that riseth from the bottom.   

CHAP. XIX. Again, of the same, and of the manner how to pass over these ruptures in the Ice.  
THat Travellers may pass over these broken places, they presently take pieces of Ice they find lying by, and hue them with their axes, and hewing tools, and square them fit, as if they made bridges with ston. But if an ox not seeing the breach were drowned there in a dark night, then presently is he drawn forth with cords and small pieces of wood they ever carry about with them, by their usual nimbleness. But if men, as it oft happens, fall in, they are strait pulled forth again, and those that help to pull them out, are a pleasure to them to think on. And they are not any ways frighted thereby, though their clothes are frozen about them; for by running and stirring they soon grow hot again. Wherefore in these Chariots, when a battle is to be fought on the Ice, provision, bullet, powder, and other things necessary for Wars, at a certain price are easily carried by the Inhabitants, as in Summer by use of Ships, in the same windings of the Sea or waters, or in Carts with wheels, by Carters or mariners they are wont to do: also these Chariots growing to great numbers are set as Forts and bulwarks against the enemy,( as Carts are in the Wars of the Cimbrians) and arrows for Bows or Guns are easily shot from them against the Foe, until they make an agreement and depart, or are forced to hasten away for fear the Ice should melt; or continuing obstinate, they sink to the bottom like led.   

CHAP. XX. Of their hindering the Waters to frieze.  
THe most fenced Cities and Forts in Winter time, when all places, passable and unpassable, are bound up with Ice, are oft closely besieged, which otherwise in Summer seem to be invincible, and cannot be approached unto: Wherefore I shall here show how they that are subject to dangers and streights defend themselves. When therefore any public or private Hostility is near hand, if the places stand in the middle of Rivers or Pools, they that are shut up are exceeding careful to keep the Ice open with their Hatchets and Spades, and make it like Ditches round about, at the least 24. or 30. Foot broad, drawing the pieces of Ice unto them, that being left upon the Ice, as the could increaseth they may frieze in heaps; and having made such an open place, they presently pour in the fat of Whales, or Sea-Calves, and with their Spears they dilate and spread about what they poured in in great quantity. Thus the Waters that were frozen deprive the Enemy of his hopes, because he cannot come near to enjoy the Victory he so long looked for; and it is more frequent for them to slip in and be drowned, that boldly venture to come on, than they can come to the sight of the Besieged; not because the Ice itself is weak in a deep Lake or River, but perhaps the bold Enemy enters there, where the Rivers run in from the Banks of the Lakes, and where the Ice is suddenly weakened and cut away.   

CHAP. XXI. Of Walls of Ice.  
THere is also another way observed, or to be observed in fortifying when there is a siege upon the Ice: Namely this, that when a stubborn Enemy, sending his horses away, or that they are drowned in the gulf of Waters, will pass over that open place, that is filled as I said with the fat of the Sea-Calf, that it may not frieze, using very long Beams, and laying Boards or Shingles upon them joined together, like to a broad Ladder especially in the night, and thrusts in with what violence he can, to pass over the Waters, toward those that are or shall be besieged, that he may pass over the Frontier of Ice. Against this violence, where the Enemy being exceeding fierce, and making extreme hast regards not the resistance made with Guns and Bows: Then the Besieged pour Water upon the Walls, and on every side; which being suddenly increased more and more, the bitter could co-operating with them, all along the streets they appear as Looking-Glasses, and these Walls are bound up with the Winter could and Ice, weak Women Boys, and young men coming together, and bringing Pitchers of Water: so whilst the could lasts, they fear not to endure the shooting of any Cano●-B●llets with undaunted valour. Also Women tucking their Coats above their knees, take up full Pitchers of Water between the frozen Waters, and deliver them up. So in this strait they are in, necessity of invention makes them to dare and attempt any thing. But whilst men fight by such stratagems one against another, one side or other at last shall win the Victory as God pleaseth, a new difficulty arising, but it is not a Victory without blood which is usually won with as many Funerals as Trophies, that Army being not wearied that is hembed in with Warlike men: Wherefore hanging their Engines upon the Ice, those that are without, and those that are within, do for many days, weeks, or moneths, fight one against the other, until such time as the Ice, ready to melt, forceth the Besiegers( if they mean to save their own lives) to be gone suddenly as they came before.  
It is worth laughing at to see it,( if any man can laugh upon such an occasion) and should take pleasure to behold the danger and shane of others) especially when they must hold a fight more against the Waters, than Weapons, which also is percei●ed to be more terrible and near hand, when a sudden Tempest ariseth, and the Ice breaks, and they seem all to sink as low as Hell, where but a few days before they went on, and made their approaches continually like Triumphant conquerors.   

CHAP. XXII. Of Watches kept on the Ice, and in the Night.  
THe Northern Souldiers bring in Arms, both the Horse and Foot, when Forts, Cities, or Castles are besieged, keep diligent Watch, either in the Fields, or upon the hard frozen Waters, all the long nights that are 20. hours long almost, and they divide the Night into two; and they change their sentinels, not with Horns, or ringing of Bells, as though they were asleep, but by secret Signs, that in the Night, if any man come from any other place, they can understand by the Word who and whence they are: If any man should forget the Word, which is the Sign, he deserves to be condemned for his life or goods by the Prince, as a traitor, if Military Law be taken upon him: and this falls out so seldom, that it is held monstrous if any man be found guilty of that fault. But the greater force is in the impatience of the horses, by reason of the could, for they make a continual noise by trampling upon the Ice, when they carry their armed Riders wrapped up in Skins, in this extreme could: yet the●e Sentinels keep themselves awake,& stay they where they are appointed to stand; and that with more care and diligence as the morning comes on: about which time the most violent wiles are practised, when mens Forces are bound up with astonishment and sleep: and then are all that lay snares above other times, as if they were tied to do it, more intentive about their business.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the more fortunate battles in the Morning.  
WHerefore it is the fashion of the most valiant souldiers to ride about early in the morning, or to fight with their ships, and not to fear Hail, Clouds, due, Snow, could, or Enemies, that may hurt them. And this is done not onely for love of the Prince, but in imitation of valiant men, to endure all hardness, and to confirm it by an Oath, that they will not for any fear forsake their station; and there is also a penalty annexed. If a Horseman forsake his standing, he is disarmed and his horse is taken from him, nor is that all, for he is deprived of his famed, Honour, and faithful Estimation, and the circumstances being weighed, he is also punished severely. If he be a Foot soldier, he receives so many stripes, all the rest looking on; yet the punishment of perpetual Infamy lies on them both, as a scar that cannot be taken away. But if he be not weary with fighting bravely, or constant keeping of his station, in the bitter could Weather, then is there a liberal stipend appointed him out of the Exchequer, according to his quality and honour, whereby he may live handsomely for the time to come, which was the custom of the Wars in old time: and this is favourably augmented by the Kings magnificence. But for a special remedy of their body scorched with could, they use the Ashes of a Hare skin burnt, and this is an excellent remedy to assuage the infirmity of their feet. Of which also I shall say something underneath, when I speak of the more simplo Medicaments used by the Northern people.   

CHAP. XXIV. Of the besieging of Forts fenced with Ice.  
THere is also another very common and usual way of fighting upon the Ice. When in Summer the Enemy cannot come near because of deep waters: so soon as mighty Frosts come, and the Ice grows hard, and the people desire to be revenged on their cruel governor, they can upon the slippery Ice set up their Engines, and easily make their approaches. And thus they shoot as fast into the Fort and against the enemy, as if they had their bulwarks made in the most firm field. But where the Fort is in an iceland, they place their Engines to it, they fight continually against on all sides; and the besiegers proceed the more violently as they are united and agree together, being people of one Religion, and one manner of Ceremonies. Because an Army levied of divers kinds of men, that cannot understand one the others language or manner of living, they one distrust the other, and are not fit to effect their business; and from thence discord arising, they go on faintly, or fly openly, or prove treacherous: and chiefly, because such foreign Souldiers not used to the could, cannot endure it, to draw off or on, to sight far off or near hand. For it is far another thing to fight upon the Ice or Snow,( as I shall show elsewhere) than upon Mountains, in Woods, Fields, or Valleys. A battle upon the Ice is fought with woollen socks on their feet, not with skins, or hides greased. For the force of the could turns what ever is oily into an Icy slipperiness. But the custom of the Souldiers is to use cuttrops or triangle irons, or 3. points, that they may run and stand the faster. But some purposing to make an assault at midnight, strew ashes upon the Ice, and so they can run and stand securely.   

CHAP. XXV. Of assaulting the Enemies Ships that are frozen in.  
IT often happens on the shores of the Gothick Sea, that the Enemies Ships, as well those that have hooks on their stems, as those that have grapples and other terrible ammunition and weapons to do hurt, being long vexed with a contrary wind, a sudden Frost coming on, they are shut up as within walls by the Ice that freezeth so strongly; nor can they get out, or get help from beyond Sea, or stay for it, or obtain it, nor can they receive provision by their company, whose Ships are shut in as well as theirs by the Frost. Wherefore in the most sharp Winter, they being held with these and such like difficulties, chiefly by the dearth of wood, deadly necessity forcing them, they either yield themselves, or run the hazard of present death. Moreover, by reason of their horrid wickedness,( whereby they had raged in murders and slaughters, and cruelly spoiled the Nations round about, beyond all humanity) they often run to extremity, and work indefatigably in the dark nights, trying to break the Ice, that if they can cut the Ice for ten or more German miles; they may come to the wide Sea. Yet in the mean while, the Inhabitants coming to subdue or spoil them, shoot arrows at them as thick as hail, which falling upon their ships, puts them all in danger of their lives. And oft-times killed with could, they are put in a Coffin by their fellows, and butted in the Ice, because they cannot well be carried to Land. But if they be Nobles, or men of great quality and repute, they are kept without any great stink, as green wood that is frozen as hard as a ston, by their fellows that escape the danger, for a more honourable burial, that they may not be left in an Enemies Country. But entreating and obtain●ng a truce, if they desire to bury their dead on the Land, it is never denied them: and the most noble and best men of the Inhabitants will honour them with their presence at their Funerals: which is also observed with great Ceremony when they fight on land in an Enemies Country. As we had an example lately of a most potent Knight, D. Acho Hanson a Western Goth, Anno 1510, who was slain at Schoningia, and was run through with a Lance of his old acquaintance that was a Dane: and all the Nobility of the Land came to his burial, where he was honourably interred.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the punishment of unfaithful Servants, that is inflicted on them by could frozen water.  
PAulus Jovius Bishop of Nucerum, and a curious searcher and writer of the actions of other Nations, supposed that it was a most bitter punishment of thieves and Robbers, and such like villainy, to have could water dropped upon their necks, to make them confess their wicked actions. For so he testifies in his Sarmatia. The Muscovites examine thieves, Cutters, Murderers, asking them questions, after this manner; letting could water fall by degrees from a high place upon their heads; and this they hold to be an intolerable Torment. These are his words. But the truth is, that good Prelate was thus informed by mockery, by the crafty ambassador of the Emperour of Moscovia, called Demetrius, in the time of Pope Clement the 7th, at Rome; or else being intent upon some other curious matters, he did not fully understand him, who related the Customs of his Country, that this should be held for a most intolerable torture in that hard Country, where fire and the Rack being put to them, they will hardly confess any thing. Yet the Swedes and Goths are stronger than the Moscovites, who onely in January inflict these punishments upon Rebels disobedient, and insolent people, especially for that cause, that they did not follow and wait upon their Princes and Lords coming to the solemnities of Christs Nativity, first by Night, next by Day: and whoever in a private house or family doth not do the same, or speak ill words, or commit scandalous actions, those their fellows, witnesses, accusers, and Judges, with the sound of Trumpet and Bells, bring forth with a long train, to the waters that are frozen, and make them kneel down, and make their neck bare, holding their faces toward their knees, and they drop could water on their necks, all shouting when they do it. But those that they intend to punish in a compendious way,( who promise to mend their errors) to them they grant this favour, that all at once, their whole heads being naked, a whole pitcher of water is poured upon them. Onely the Egyptians because of their extreme bald crowns tremble at this punishment, who though they seldom come to the Northern Countries, yet they come sometimes amongst the auxiliary Souldiers that were sent from the French King to the King of Denmark, to fight against Sweden and Gothland. Oft-times therefore when these Ethiopians, as well as the Danes fight with ill success, they are not punished with could water, but with hard bondage, and inevitable death.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the same Punishments.  
THere is also another way of punishing obstinate and stubborn people, appointed by the ancients for all other times in Winter, namely, that boring holes in the Ice 20 or 30 foot asunder, they should have a cord tied under their Arms, and put into one hole under the Ice, and be drawn forth by the cord at the other hole of the Ice. If this be done quickly, they thank their friends for doing it so suddenly: but if they be long about it, as may be the stubborn offender deserves it, when he is drawn out, he finds that he had severe Censurers and Judges, because he was in great danger of being drowned. It is not to be admired, that these things can be done upon the Ice that is as slippery as glass; because by 3. points of Iron onely, or else made fast to their shoes, they can use themselves not onely to do this, but any other action upon the Ice, as I shall say underneath concerning their fishing upon the Ice. But this ducking them in the waters is appointed for the schismatical Moscovites upon point of Religion, because they dipping their young Children under the Ice that is perforated, they baptize them after their manner, and if they be carried away with the swift stream, they think that they are gone to the gods presently.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of a Horse-race for a cloak, or a prise.  
WHen their Chariots are filled with many men,( for so the Nation calls the Winter wagons or Coaches) with one horse alone before them, they will run five or six Italian miles so swiftly, that you would think they did not run but fly; especially because the horses are frost-nail'd, and have iron points in their shoes. The prise( as I said, lib. 1. upon the like race) is a garment, or the horse beaten, at a certain measure of Salt, or Corn to be sowed, and this is tax't to be paid at a set time; and if he that is bound pay it not, he is never dismissed.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of the wild Asses or Elks running on the Snowy Ice.  
THe wild Asses or Elks will run most swiftly on the snowy Ice amongst the Northern Swedes, especially beyond the Kingly City Holm, toward the upper Ports Northerly, but lower toward the South: which though there be great multitudes of them in the vast Woods, yet by the Kings Decree they are not to be used, lest by their swift running, which is far beyond horses, Traytors might have an opportunity to reveal suddenly to the Enemy, the secrets of the Nation. For this beast can exceedingly endure hunger, thirst, and labour, that night and day running 200 Italian miles, which is a great way, he will do it, and eat nothing. The other virtues of this Creature shall be shewed in the book that follows concerning living Creatures.   

CHAP. XXX. Of the Ranged dear running in the Snow.  
ALso there is a great multitude of another kind of ranged dear in the Northern Countries, who are used not onely to draw their Chariots,( as I shall show underneath, speaking of living Creatures) but to draw loaded Carts over the tops of snowy Mountains. And these ranged dear( so called from the Instruments they draw with) are forbid by the Kings Decree to be made use of by the South part of the Country, for they are wonderful swift as the Elks are, that they will soon run a long and hard journey. But their Chariots differ from the forms in other Countries, because before they are made wedge-fashion like shoes to penetrate into the Snow, or like Ships at Sea to divide the floods and waters.   

CHAP. XXXI. Of the drowning of the Enemies in the Snowy Valleys.  
WHen the Swedes and Goths greatly provoked by injuries are forced to prepare for a Winter-battail against the Germans, Danes, or Moscovites, they use all means to find out how great Forces the Enemy marcheth with, be they horse or Foot. And finding that they came with great horse for War, and armed men from top to to, for the most part, with an invincible number almost, and strength, and that they will cast down by their force all that resist them, the Inhabitants go forth to meet them, man by man, not so much armed with weapons, as with courage, especially that they may ki●● and spoil su●h cruel enemies, who are beaten and wasted with the difficulty of the ways, and his own Forces: For they know by certain experience, that it is no hard matter to conquer such an Enemy who is entangled and shut in between the deep snows, dark Woods, secret precipices, and gulfs of Snow and Ice, and loaded with his armor of proof; for were there no man to defend the Country and stop him, he must needs fail by the nature of the place: and the sooner do these Enemies come to ruin, as they have been finely bread, and are ignorant of the places and dangers, whilst the Northern people who are used to the hardness of the Climate, are not afraid to march through Mountains and deserts, that in the coldest Winter are deep with Snow, and to fight with their Enemies in the way. And when the battle is near to begin, they seem to run away, and draw the proud Enemy after them, either into places full of Snow, where they are drowned by the weight of their Arms, as if they were in a gulf of mud, and like beasts taken in nets, they are killed by the Country people that are unarmed, or else they draw them forth into Lakes, Pools, and Rivers, because the water lies under the Snow, and so they fall continually and are drowned. The Snow indeed seems firm on the top, but underneath where the waters run and eat it, it is so weak that it will hardly bear a Wolf, much less a Man, and he in his armor.   

CHAP. XXXII. Of Snow-balls sticking in the Horses hoofs.  
MOreover, there is another danger for Enemies on horseback, and it is to be feared as being inevitable; that under the hoofs of the horses being shod with iron, by reason of the could Snow, water being under it, or due above it, Snow-balls will stick like to Tennis balls, as big as Childrens heads; and these stick so round, and hard frozen, that it is impossible but the Rider must fall off from the horse, or with the horse, and so be killed or taken prisoner; for he cannot bound above four or six times either right forward or obliquely, by reason of the Snow-balls sticking to his feet, but he will presently fall: and the more he spurs his horse to make him run or bound, the sooner he falls, and falling suddenly he is bruised and dies of it, or else falls into other misery, may be, worse than death. But they that fight to defend their Country, so soon as they are entering battle pull off their horses shoes, that those Snow-balls not sticking, they may the better assault the enemy. The Enemy dares not use this convenience and safe way, because they have no place to retreat unto as the Inhabitants have, and friends to help them. Nor is there any less danger for the Foe, when he is constrained to ride up or come down the sides of Valleys and Mountains, that are as glib as glass; and this danger is the more when this Ice is covered with thin Snow, that is blown thither by the wind, and fills up all the concaves and hollow places and deep pits, making them to appear like to plain champion ground. These places the Germans, and Danes, and Muscovites fall into, because they know them not, and in their rash passage they are miserable destroyed; and many most warlike Souldiers who with sword and fire made the World to tremble, were here easily drowned in the Snows.   
The End of the Eleventh Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF The Buildings in the North.  
The Epitome of his Twelfth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Variety and Forms of their Stones.  
BEsides the Works wrought with hands, there are found in many Mountains of the Northern Provinces, heaps of Stones, that are so framed with divers Figures by Nature, as chiefly square and long fashions that there can hardly be any thing more added to their perfection, than the polishing of them to make them shine. As it appears in a certain vast Mountain called Amaberg, which is not far from the famous Monastery at Vastum, which was built by that most illustrious Woman St. bridget, whose body is there kept in most famous memory, and the body of her Daughter Katharine, which was the first Abbess and now rests there: Also in another Monas●ery of St. Bennet, called Alvastra, out of which are taken stones of divers colours, e●pecially black, and that freely, for any Buildings of the Inhabitants; and these are carried away with Barks or Caravels, and are made to serve for most beauti●ul and commodious use from the Foundation to the tops of houses, onely Windows being placed between them. Leaving here a Dispute, whether Art may seem to exceed Nature, or Nature Art. I said, freely, because they are not bought from the possessors of the ground, either for money, or begging, there being such an infinite number of these stones, that they are allowed for the public and private good. And that Mountain ●o ●ull of delight, that is broad and high, is seen by those that sail a●ar off as a City with a Spire, and compassed about with Walls. There are at this day many Buildings of the aforesaid Monastery of Alvastra, and of the City Lincop, that was built with the same kind of stones in former time, square and very comely. There are also other Mountains of the Ostrogoths, toward the more Easterly places of the Gothick Sea, that produce shining stones like to Diamonds, with six Corners like Crystal, in long Rows, to be found here and there: of which, if a man would be prodigal, he might frame shining Walls, that men would admire at. Moreover, amongst the Vestrogoths, there is a Mountain called Kindaberg, that hath round about Marble stones, so finely differing in colours by Nature, that, set in any Building, they are very handsome and commodious. Lastly, in the Islands under the Poles, there are found Mountains of Load-stones, to pieces whereof, Beech-Wood being joined for a set-time, will grow hard as a ston, and attract as the Load-stone doth. Besides, there are found very many Natural Stones in the Fields of divers Forms, as well as others that are made, that will serve for Houses, Walls, and any other Buildings.   

CHAP. II. Of building their Houses, and of the divers forms of them.  
THere are in the Northern Kingdoms many strange Buildings, some Pyramidal; others Wedge-fashion; some arched, others round; some square: Pyramidals are made with Spears, onely bound together at the top, and set wide below, for the Summer time alone, that Mannual Artificers may not be troubled with smoke and flamme, as they are with the heat of the Sun. All the Wedge-fashioned Buildings are built very high, that the thick burdensome snow may sooner be blown off with the Wind, that this may not weigh down their houses, which are covered with the Bark or Birch, or with Tiles, or Planks cut thin from the Pine-Tree, by reason of the imbred Pitch, or Fir-Tree, or oak, or Beech, but rich mens houses are covered with Plates of Copper, or Brass, or led: as also the Churches are. Their Arched-houses are built very artificially against the force of the Winds, and falling of the Snow, for divers and very necessary uses, as well with Stones, as with Wood. And such are found in great mens houses to keep their domestic or country household-stuff in Round Buildings; and these are very rare, that divers Workmen may enjoy the same light at their labour, by reflection from the top of the house. Square houses are the most frequent; but these are fastened together with huge pieces of Timber, in a wonderful combination at the joints in the Corners: and these have also Windows that stand very high in the houses, whereby the Light may descend inwardly upon every one. But these Walled Houses have doors proportionable, but narrow Win●ows, by reason of the bitter could, and Dews and Snow; for were they great and large after the Italian manner, the houses would presently be filled up with small snow driven in by the strong Winds,( as it were with small dust, driven in by a Whirl-wind) and would be ready to fall down with a weight they cannot bear.   

CHAP. III. Of the same.  
THe most common Windows in the Northern houses, especially in their Stoves, are made in the obliqne Roots, whereby a clearer light comes down from Heaven, but they are framed of Glass or oil Cloth to keep out the Rain. But they are made on the sides in the Cities, because the streets are narrow, and they have Iron Frames to shut with all. The doors of the Inhabitants who dwell in the utmost parts of the kingdom, are narrow and lwo, that they may not lie open to Thieves and Enemies. And that they may resist open Enemies and Robbers▪ they have holes in their Walls to shoot out at. Also they have secret Ditches of Earth cast up, that are covered with Reed or dry Sticks, or Boughs, lest they should not be able to destroy the Enemy the other way. But their houses are joined together with Beams, and Planks of fir, with Poplar-bark▪ and green Tur●s of Earth, in a double order, casting a little Oats or Barley betwixt them: and this is done, that they may not be burned with Lightning, and rather, that wh●n they are besieged by the Enemy, by casting on Water, they may have Pasture for their Sheep and Lambs, as I shewed before. Some also in Cities, so bui●d their how es, that by a mutual charge and agreement, five or six houses being joined together, may make one Castle, and before every house they make a most strong Iron door, that if the Enemies should gain the Walls, he may be forced to fall back again, as in the Metropolitan City Holm, he is every where beaten off from the tops of the houses. Now the skilful Artificers know how to find materials in all places that shall be strong, and long lasting, and graceful to build their Houses with, and to abstain from Trees, that being laid upon their Works, may do hurt to the Walls, and kill men most miserable.   

CHAP. IV. Of the great multitude of huge Trees in the Northern Parts.  
IN the Northern Woods there is a very great plenty of Fir-Trees, Pine-Trees, Juniper, and Larch-Trees, and they are as high as high Steeples: and therefore those that grow nearest the Sea, are made use of for Masts and Fore-yards, for great Ships, and chiefly the Pine-Trees; which by reason of the Rosin and Pitch in them, are wont to last long against rain, and they will not soon corrupt. But the Fruits of fir or Pine-Trees are for no use as they are in Italy, where they make pleasant Medicaments with them. The Pine-Trees being sawed, are made fit for Boards to cover the ships. Also the Inhabitants feed on the sweet Pith in the top of them( which they call the Marrow) especially the Laplanders, gathering them in Summer, eat them for bread, as the Parthians do Dates. The Bou hs of Firr-Tres serve for Hoops about Vessels, and to make fences for fields, and for Cross-Bows; so do the Larch Boughs that are more flexible. But Firr-Tree Rafters are highly esteemed, because the Tops of Churches are covered with them being strong to last, and leight, and they grow the taller, the more gravelly the ground is they grow upon: but they have slender bodies, because they are nourished but little by Sandy Nutriment; from whence that most fat juice which ●ends forth Rosin or Pitch seems to proceed. Besides there is great plenty of Birch-Trees in all the North parts; the virtue whereof is this, that being cut between the Bark and the three, they will sand forth Water that is potable, as the Fruit of them in time of Famine serves for Bread, and the Bark for Clothing. As also Juniper-Berries, and the Roots of it are eaten for Bread, though men can hardly come at them for their Prickles: In these Prickles or Thorns, live-Coles of Fire will last a whole year: And if the Inhabitants do not quench them, when some great Tempest or Whirlwind ariseth, the Woods take fire that spreads all over, and burns the Fields that are round about.   

CHAP. V. More of the Trees in the North.  
THE oak will remain uncorrupted under Waters, and therefore is most fit for the Ribs of Ships. Hides are tanned with the Bark of it, as I shall show underneath, concerning Buildings upon the Ice. There are other Trees also that are harder, of which they turn Rings for the use o● the Sailyards, and Bottles and Vessels that must be smeered within with Rosin, that they putrifie not. Besides there are others that grow up of themselves that have no names, which yet for their effects in weight, colour, hardness, roundness, tallness, and Fruits, are held to be most profitable. There are also found there Quinces, and Elders, and most sweet Jujubes. Also there are observed to be two sorts of Willows, which Hares feed on to stay their hunger. And those be barren; yet the thick Boughs being cut off and planted, they will grow again, as other Springs of Trees cut up from the Roots use to grow from their Roots. Also many Trees are found▪ which because they have many deep Roots that cannot be pulled up, unless they be blasted with Lightning, or Thunder-stricken, they will last always; but it is not an easy matter to give the reason of them, since others there are, that grow else-where. Moreover, the flattering ivy is so common and burdensome, that being fostered by Snow; unless it be rooted up, it will by degrees overthrow the Walls.   

CHAP. VI. Of the diversity of Trees.  
THere are also many sorts of Trees in those could places, as Poplars, Ashes, and other Juniper Trees, which by reason of their fit Tallness, and their sweet smell, like Cyprus Trees, are used for choice Houses, and for Fuel, both in the Plague time, and for daily use at other times. For these Trees growing of their own accord, grow perpetually, new Plants rising up, and cannot be rooted out; so that when they come to their full growth,( as I said) they are employed for strong Beams in high how es and Buildings. But oaks and Beech are not found beyond the seventy Degree of altitude of the North Pole toward the Frigid Zone: and but few of the other kinds, except the Birch-Tree, and crooked Shrubs, in the utmost shores of the Scythian Ocean, because of the frequent Tempests. But in the Lands toward the South, there is a very great increase of Fruit-Trees, the Fruit whereof the Inhabitants eat in time of Famine for Bread, as other Creatures do eat them; as Acorns, small Nuts, and Beech mast: yet these Creatures, as Mice, Dormice, Birds, to prevent a Famine to come, are more fore-seeing than men; for they will carry their Fruits to their Dens and Holes, whereby the provident In●abitants perceiving a Famine like to come, take more diligent care to their business, than they used to do. Beech Nuts are triangular, shut within a reddish shell, and within they have a hairy covering: Hogs are wonderfully fatted with these, as they are with Acorns, onely with this difference, that these make harder Fat; those, softer and more fluxible.   

CHAP. VII. Of the quality of Fruits.  
SMall Nuts grow in such abundance there, that there are sufficient for the Inhabitants, and for strangers, for all uses they can desire: Whence it comes, that for gain and profit of Merchants, some thousand Vessels of them are transported out of the North into Germany, and Hazel-Wands, whereby all Vessels are hooped almost, being they are so flexible to be wound every way. apple and Pears of divers sorts being sowed there, o● transplanted, will grow in abundance: of which there is some one kind most nob●e, that like an Olive-Tree( which grows no where in the North) grows ripe in the greatest could: Also there are Wild apple that will last so long as Nature hath ordained they shall; for they first grow ripe in December, and these taste like Wine, and therefore they make cider of them, by pressing out their juice; and this is called new Wine.  
Some also are found so sour, that they will dull a Swords-Edge with their juice, and they are used instead of Vinegar: some of these are round as apple; some coppid as Pears, some are oval to whom Nature gives peculiar Honour. But such as are foreign Fruit, and come from beyond Seas, because they are more fleshy and sweet in mens opinions, they are more esteemed. Likewise Pears and plums dried; for there are but two kinds of Bread in the North, namely White and Black. Cherries are of two sorts, Garden-Cherries, and Wild. But such as are too sour, and set mens Teeth an edge, are used for Vinegar: and this comes, because they grow in shady places, and dark, where they w●●●t the heat of the Sun; but such as the Sun shines on, are pleasant enough. There are moreover some Trees of an unknown virtue, that produce Fruit as white as Snow without Flowers: yet Fruit-Trees desire to be transp●anted, and they will grow sweet; but the Wild-Trees yield a wild taste, it may be by reason of the hoary Moss of the Trees, that keeps off the Suns heat: otherwise some might be of a pleasant taste.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the Firr-Tree Gum, or Rosin, and of the Original of Amber, or Succinum.  
BEcause there is found great variety in Authors, concerning the Original, and Nature and Quality of Amber, especially as Perottus relates it, who by great diligence endeavoured to reconcile the several Opinions of many men; from whence and how this admirable and lovely liquor proceeds: Therefore I shall here show what is most probable, according to the Opinions of the Northern people. The fir or Pine-Trees, that are by Nature resinous, and shoot forth exceeding tall, be it, that they grow near the Sea-shores, or Banks of Rivers, or other steep places of Woods, do sweat forth Amber, especially when the Corn is ripe, and the Sun shines hottest and scorcheth it,( as I shall underneath show) in June and July, and toucheth the Bounds of Cancer and lo. Then those Trees, the strong heat chopping their Bark, sends forth a liquour, which is Amber, into the Waters and Rivers that are near, to be hardened there; and so and so dropping forth, what ever body it meets in the way, it is so clammy, that it holds it fast as glue: Hence it is, that Frogs, Mice, Gnats, Spiders, flies, Ears of Corn, Pulse, and the like are found wrapped up in this Rosiny Bird-lime, and there they grow hard: also if these continued Drops fall into the Sand, because when the Rain comes upon them, they are carried away to the Rivers, and so to the greater Waters, and at last to the Sea: where like to other Trees, they are at a certain time made so hard, that being boiled as a ston, by a cruel Tempest it is cast forth through the Gothick or Finland Sea, and Livonian Sea, upon the Prutenick shore; namely the South shore, directly opposite to the North: and at all times this is done when the waters are driven by the winds to the Prussian Land: where, by reason of the Kings Command, none may gather it unless they be deputed and sworn Officers.   
The end of the Twelfth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Husbandry and Mans Food.  
The Epitome of his Thirteenth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the diversity of gathering in of Harvest.  
ADmirable is the Dispensation of Nature, that after another manner, and at another time, and by other means and Industry, the North Climate is dressed( as I said); and the Aethiopick or African Land is otherwise tilled; and again, the new Islands are ordered otherwise than these. As for the Northern Countries, this is certain, That in many fields of the Vestrogoths, on that part which is against the South, barley is ripe and mowed in 36 dayes from the time it was sowed, that is, from the end of June, until the middle of August, and sometimes sooner. For that maturity proceeds from the nature of the soil, and the mildness of the air, and the moisture of the stones that foster the roots, and the Sun scorching, that it must needs grow so and come to be ripe: and such ears of Corn have six ranks in number, but they are smaller than the common ears, and they are very fit to make Beer with. But other grain cast into the ground in the beginning of May, are gathered in the middle of August, by the mutual help of the Country-men, not with any great pains, but with alacrity and willing minds, lest could wind should blow upon it, and blast the Corn. And they desire no other reward for their daily labour, than a merry Feast at night, where the young people of both sexes, by reason of their faithful labours in the fields, by the judgement and consent, and permission of their provident Parents, are made choice of ●or to be married: but not for marriages for delight, though they be Noble people, but to live privately, in an honest and commodious way, to govern their Families wisely and contentedly.   

CHAP. II. Of their Bake-houses, and baking of Bread.  
BEcause it is a received opinion amongst the ancients, that Ceres found out Corn, and Pan is reported to have made Bread of it,( and from thence he had his name Pan); she is praised for finding it, and he for applying it to man's use. Wherefore I shall here inquire what kinds of Corn are good for this use; and to whom this office belongs amongst the Northern people; which, as many Countries, distinguished as well in Situation as Manners, are divided and partend one from the other: so those things that grow on the Earth, according to the variety of Climates, vary also. Wherefore the more North you go, the less plenty of Wheat there is, and there is more plenty of it found every where toward the South. Yet the Swedes or Sweons, have a world of Wheat, and more rye. But the Goths both East and West, who feed on Barley and Oats, have an infinite abundance given them by the mercy of God. Yet there is use made of all these sorts of Corn in both places. But the Sweons provide most for rye; where their women know so well▪ how to winnow rye, that for colour, taste and for health, it surpasses the goodness of Wheat.   

CHAP. III. Of parching their Corn that must last.  
ON the hottest daies, when the Sun shines strong, they spread clothes like ship-sails, or else the sails themselves, upon the superficies of the Earth, or plain tops of Mountains where there is no grass, and they lay the Corn upon these to dry, for 6. or more, or fewer daies, as the Sun shines hot: then when it is cleansed, they lay it up in vessels of oak, or else they grinned it, and so lay it up safe; and when it is so torrefied, it will last good many years. But if it be not ground meal, but corn, it is convenient once a year to set it in the Sun to be tr●efied again, and thus new corn torrefied may be mingled with it prudently, that there be no want when we need. But the meal thrust into the oaken Vessels or tons, by strong ramming it in with wooden mallets, and laid up in a dry place, will last many years, and never be worm-eaten.   

CHAP. IV. Of the manner of drinking amongst the Northern People.  
IT will not displease curious Readers, to hear how the custom is of drinking amongst the Northern People. First, that they hold it Religion to drink the healths of Kings and Princes, standing, in reverence of them; and here they will as it were sweat in the contention, who shall at one or two, or more draughts drink off a huge bowl. Wherefore they seem to sit at Table as if they had Crowns on their heads, and to drink in a certain kind of a vessel: which, may be, may cause men that know it not, to admire it. But that were more admirable to see the servants to go in a long train in troops, as Pastours of Harts with horns, that they may drink up those Cups full of beer to the guests. And not content with these Ceremonies, they will strive to show their Sobriety, by setting such a high Cup full of Beer upon their naked heads, and dance and turn round with it: In like manner they deliver other Cups which they bring in both hands to the guests to drink off, at equal draughts, which are full of Wine, Ale, meed, Metheglin, or new Wine.   

CHAP. V. Of their divers manners to boil Salt.  
AMongst the Sweons or Swedes and Goths, there is no boiling of Salt: not because they cannot draw salt-water out of the depth of the Sea, but because the Nation abounding with other things, can more easily bring in foreign salt, than with greater charge to boil it on their own shore. For by the coming of great ships from Holland, Germany, from the Ports of Spain, France, or Britanny, especially from the Port of Lisbon, and Brovas, Salt comes that is sold at a reasonable price: But in Poland there are deep Mountains of Salt, chiefly in Vielisca and Bochna. Where I was to see it, Anno 1528. on the 5th of January, and went down 50 steps, where I saw Labourers in the deepest places, stand naked by reason of the heat, and with Iron Instruments they dug forth a most rich treasure of Salt, as it were gold and silver out of Mines that cannot be exhausted.   

CHAP. VI. Of the difficulty of carrying Salt into the Northern Kingdoms.  
BUt when there happen Wars by Sea in the baltic Sea, that for want of Salt they may seem to be in danger to be oppressed by their Enemies, then they find an art to make Salt at home, lest for want of it they should yield up their liberty to their Enemies. But that the Inhabitants of Northland might do that more readily, and for a perpetual and continual gain, R. D. John Magnus the Goth, Arch-bishop of Upsal, my most dear brother and predecessor once, Anno 1523. being the legate for Pope Adrian the 6th, and after that about two years being elected, and visiting the diocese of Upsal, at his own cost, and bestowing every where sufficient Instruments, he communicated to the most convenient places and fittest for the Inhabitants, the manner and the Art of making Salt, which he had received from experienced men: and these they may easily and freely make use of ever since, and for perpetuity when they want Salt, in time of any hostility.   

CHAP. VII. Of the great quantity of Butter.  
PAssing over all the Provinces of the North Country from 52 to 84 degrees, of the elevation of the North Pole, every where by reason of their rich Pasture-grounds, and huge herds of cattle, you shall find a vast quantity of Butter; but it is not all alike good, by reason of the variety of Salt, as also because of the more tender and rich grass, that they feed on in Provinces, far distant one from another: For where the fields are more gross, and the Salt is more gross the Butter is seasoned with, it is not of the same efficacy, as the other butter is that is well salted, and where the Pasture-grounds are finer. Yet they all alike in every County have a custom to sell it away, whether it be salted with Bay-Salt, or White Salt, and they sell or barter away many thousand barrels of it to foreign Merchants,( unless it be forbidden by the Kings Proclamation when there is Wars coming, or already begun) as also for Corn, Bacon, and other food necessary, there is care taken that it may not be transported to the Enemy. Moreover, there is an iceland of South Gothland, called Oeland, where the air is wholesome, and the ground fat, which produceth most pleasant grass; and with this grass is there abundance of Cows fed, and they give such wholesome milk, that when many Physitians cannot help sick people, their Butter-milk alone will cure them: and this Butter as aromatical is preferred before all other butter.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the greatness and goodness of their Cheese.  
IF Parma or Placentium, or other Countries and Cities of Lombardy may be commended for their many great excellent Cheeses, truly they must thank the original of it, which is the Peninsula Scandiana, and especially the Country of the West Goths in the Northern Kingdoms; For these Vestrogoths, above all Northern people, obtain this greatest commendation, That no Nation is like to them in making Cheese: which seems to proceed from their most plentiful pastures: wherein also there are many strong tall Warlike Horses, and many tall Oxen bread almost infinite for number. Wherefore oft-times they make such huge Cheeses, that two strong men can scarce carry one of them a little way; Yet men never have any hand in making them, but only women; which from all the Villages near bringing great quantity of milk, coming in Summer to the hou●e of one that will make a Cheese, heat the milk in great Cauldrons, and putting rennet to it, they press it in a frame of Wood, that is commonly square, and they break all little cheeses dried in the Sun, into small crumbles, and put them into the same milk when it is almost scalding hot; as it is used in great Walls, where by piling one ston upon another with mortar, they are made the more compact. Nor is any man thought fit to be present at this work of the women, though he should beg of them never so much. For those most strong women have several offices in their houses, that their husbands never meddle with; as Spinning, Weaving, baking of Bread, boiling Beer, to deck themselves, to make Beds, and lay on the blankets, to provide for Lambs, Calves, and other small creatures; but men have greater Labours to take care for; as to till the ground, thrash the Corn, to break horses,( which also women oft-times do) to sharpen weapons, and to make fences, and to order Ploughs, and dress fields. But the cheese of the Ostrogoths made of sheeps milk in great quantity, is highly commended; so also is the cheese of the upper Sweden, especially among the Helsingi and Norwegians, who having their cheeses all as it were rotten, and full of Worms, are much delighted with them. Also when the cheese is eaten out within-side, they use the out-side, like a dried hid instead of a buckler in the War. Also the cheeses in Finland taste most pleasantly, and they make them very rare of Goats-milk, many thousand pound weight: and they make them the more commendable and savoury by putting under them the smoke of Myrtills; for so they will keep many years without Worms, chiefly for to hold out Sieges in Forts. For amongst the Northern people, namely the Vestrogoths they are so tempered by Nature, that when they grow old they will smell of Spices, and taste most pleasantly. mariners feed on these also, when tempests hinder them from boiling other meats at the fire.   

CHAP. IX. Of Weavers.  
THe Northern Women do busy themselves in Weaving Linn●n and Woollen, and they are very ingenious in it; except the Women of Lapland, who( as I said elsewhere) make their webs of the nerves of living Creatures, and fit garments of the skins of divers beasts; because in that outmost Country there grows no Flax; nor do sheep breed there, but where Flax is in the hotter Northern parts, they wove such Webs of it, and colour them, that you would think they were woven in Italy, they are so well made. I saw formerly amongst that people, a Piece of linen woven, that was of Sky-colour, most curiously wrought with divers threads: and just such a one I found when I came to Rome, as if one hand had made and ordered them both: only with this difference, that as the Roman Women, or rather men, are more ingenious Weavers, so they work more neatly with their hands: it may be, because they follow the Examples of the most noted Painters, whereas the Northern Women take their patterns from flowers, as the Flower-de-luce, or shadows of leaves, cast upon the waters, when the Sun shines. But in making embroidered net-works, such as are seen in the houses of Princes at Rome, the Northern Women seem far to exceed all other Artificers of the World, since Noble Persons to avoid idleness, do much use themselves to this exercise for the hereditary ornament of their houses; and they make them very fine: For they always, as it is their custom, adorn their dwelling-houses from the very top with that white Net-work, which they call Spraagning, except the Lords that hang their Palaces with silk cloths: and this for Bride-Chambers and ornament of Illustrious Women, and for nuptial Feasts.   
The End of the Thirteenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF The various Conditions of the Northern People.  
The Epitome of the Fourteenth Book.  

The Preface.  
MEn may not wonder, that in the large Northern Countries, especially in the Peninsula Scandiana,( which Pliny because the largeness of it was not found out, calls another World; and Jorrandes and Paulus Diaconus call the sheathe or shop of the Nations) men wear diversity of habits and clothing, and are of divers manners and customs, in their diet and living, brought in from foreign parts, I shall pass censure on them both, and show how sincerely and quietly they lived formerly, without discord, sticking to their old laws; whereas now discord increasing, very few seem to be content with their own condition, wherein again it is not to be admired, since the subtle wickedness of man hath proceeded so far, that every man is grown ingenious to destroy himself, with his cloths stasht in pieces outwardly, and his mind corrupted inwardly: outwardly they seem to obey Laws, and in all places they sow deceit, but the end of it is, that a man grows infamous by it, and dies hated of all men.   

CHAP. I. Of the diversity of Habits.  
THe clothing of the Northern people was formerly far otherwise made than it is now a days, especially for the outward and inward clothing of Women. I say the outward, because of old time the famous women used Coats bound very strait to their Breasts and Arms, but they were mon●●rous wide in the Skirt, that one Maid was scarce sufficient to carry these Trains; and she also in this abuse was something like to her mistress; but on their Heads they wore fine linen Kerchifs, brought in from far Countries, by Sea, by Merchants for their profit; but under these Coverings they wear Golden Crowns, interwoven with precious Stones, according as they were in quality and Riches: but as far as their Navel, they used Gold ribbon for a Girdle, a Plate of Gold or Silver being woven, cast or beaten forth long, and two fingers broad. The other Women had very large sleeves, but these were Wedge-fashion in the middle, and they were shut together with Silver or Guilt Buttons. Moreover the Ornament for their Heads was made of read Cloth that was narrow and Wedge-fashion on the top, and it had Silver Buttons to shut or open it; and these also had guilded rolls under linen Coifs that were very fine. And as their Gowns, especially of the Noble and Peasant Women, were very streight and short,( except onely the price of the Cloth) so the Citizens wore very long Gowns, having square gilded Plates on the fore-part, from their necks to their feet, hanging down on both sides above the Skirt. But the Maids used a Garment over their shoulders, which signified the preservation of their Chastity.   

CHAP. II. Of the chased adorning of Virgins, and rigour of Chastity.  
THe Ornament of Maids consisted in precious large Gold or guilt Crowns, worn upon their Heads; and to preserve their Chastity, there hung down from their Necks both before and behind, a white silk or linen Mantle: which the Religious now call a Scapular, or Patience; with this Habit or Cloak they guided all the parts of their body as with a bridle, as they walked or conversed with any one, with an admirable modesty and grace,( never seeing or talking with men, unless their Parents gave them licence) and they were so modest, that they would scarce be entreated to look upon a man in public, until they were married, and but seldom then: so modestly did they carry their Eyes in all places, with-holding them from things lawful. Also the Northern women have a wonderful and constant desire to preserve their Chastity, that when they are honestly married, at certain times they will refrain their Husbands Embracements, and with that constancy, that they will lay a drawn sword between them in the bed to keep them asunder; as saxon speaks of one Thira, Daughter to a King of England; and moreover concerning the singular Chastity of many Virgins of that Age.   

CHAP. III. Of the Benediction of the catholic Kings.  
HE that must reign over a faithful people, after a catholic manner, is wont to be blessed with many and great Benedictions, that he may be more accepted by God, more profitable for the people, and more secure for himself. But first he swears freely by the sacred Evangel of God: and in the presence of God and his Angel, he promiseth that he will keep the Laws, Justice, and Peace of the Church of God, and for the People subject to him, with the Observation of all the Rights and privileges, and all things for their good: and hereupon he requires the Benediction of the Church, and it is given him, that he may multiply in the Gifts of Graces, and may every where be compassed about, and protected by the right hand of God: that being adorned with Abraham's Faith, Moyses's Meekness, David's Humility, Solomon's wisdom, he may please God in all things, walk uprightly, fight faithfully and victoriously over the Enemies of the across of Christ, and keep Peace, which is to be desired in all things. Then he is anointed with visible oil, which is consecrated in most sacred words, that he may receive invisible Gifts, and when he hath justly discharged his temporal kingdom, he may eternally reign with God the King of Kings. Moreover the Church preys, that by the efficacy of that holy Unction the Government may sit upon his shoulders, and that he may be a just, valiant, faithful, provident, unwearied governor of the kingdom and People, a conqueror of Infidels, a Preserver of Justice, a Defender of the Holy Church and Christian Faith, to the honour and praise of the glorious Name of God. Lastly, that he may use the Sword given him by virtue from God, to take Vengeance on wicked men, for the praise of good men, that he may do Justice with it, destroy Iniquity, defend and protect the Holy Church of God, and the faithful people belonging to it, that he may destroy false Christians, and in mercy help and defend Widows and Orphans, restore what is made desolate, and so preserve them, that in this triumph of Virtues, he may deserve to reign without end, with the Saviour of the World, whose person he represents. Moreover there is a Crown set upon his head: thereby is meant Glory and Honour, and valorous Actions: that he shall in all Adversities take part and defend the Ministers of the Church of Christ; and that he may always appear a faithful Executor, and good King, in the kingdom given to him from God, and by the Papal Benediction, in place of the Apostles, who through Faith subdued Kingdoms, and of all the Saints, to the people under his Government. That being adorned with the Jewels of Virtues, amongst the glorious Champions, and crowned with the reward of Eternal Felicity, he may triumph with Christ for ever. Then taking the sceptre in his hand, he understands that he is bound to cherish the good, to fright the bad, to reduce those that wander out of the way, to lend his hand to them that slip, to beat down the proud, and to relieve the humble. After this, when the King is enthroned, and sits on his Throne, the Arch-Bishop saith to him,( who brought him in with the help of the rest of the Bishops) Stand, and hold from henceforth the place, God hath made thee, his Vicegerent, by the Authority of the Almighty God, and our delivery of it, namely of all the Bishops, and other servants of God: and the nearer you see the Clergy attend at the sacred Altar, remember to give them the greater honour in convenient places, that the Mediator of God and Men, may confirm thee a Mediator between the Clergy, and the people in this Throne of the kingdom, and that Jesus Christ may cause thee to reign with him. Last of all the Metropolitan, amongst other Ceremonies, makes a Prayer to God for the King: Be thou a Coat of Mail for him, against the Armies of his Enemies, a Helmet in Adversity, wisdom in Prosperity, and an everlasting Buckler to defend him; and cause the people to be faithful to him, the Nobles may live peaceably, and love Charity, may fly from Covetousness, and speak Justice, may keep Truth, that they may always triumph and continue conquerors in peace. Also changing what must be changed, he preys for the Queen, in what concerns the female Sex, and wisheth many such wishes to her, in a reverend manner from God, &c.   

CHAP. IV. Of Knights, and their Oath.  
HAving now dispatched the Coronation, according to the premised Ceremonies towards God and Men, which are to be commended in all Ages; the King himself, according to the ancient Laws of his Kingdoms, freely grants new pri●iledges to divers conditions of men, so far as it is fit, and to whom it concerns, or else he confirms some that were formerly granted by his ancestors, and augments them. Lastly, he creates Knights abundantly, bestowing on them Fee-Farms, giving them a Girdle, a Sword, and a Buckler: yet such an Oath is first taken, which is administered by some Bishop, who assists at the Coronation; I, N. pray God so to help me, and the blessed Vir●in Mary, and St Ericus, as I will to the utmost of my power with my life and estate, defend the catholic Faith, and the Holy Evangel, and defend the Church, and the Ministers of it, in their Liberties, and will stand against all Injustice, and will maintain Peace and Justice, defend young Children, Orphans, Virgins, Widows, and poor people, and will be true to my King, and to the kingdom, and my country; and justly use and exercise my Military condition, to the honour of God, to the utmost of my power: So God assist me, and all his Saints, Amen. And they were wont so faithfully and strictly to observe this Oath, that when they heard War proclaimed against the Enemies of the Faith, especially the schismatical Moscovites, in the Eastern part, or the kingdom of Sweden, and Finland; and when the Pope proclaimed a Cruciat against the Turks, they presently at their own cost would come well armed, cheerfully to fight the Lords battles, or travail to the Holy Land, receiving at the Sepulchre of Christ a warlike Girdle, and they would of their own accord join with the Armies of the Christians, to fight for their Religion against the Turks: and by this means it oft fell out, that they returned glorious Conquerors into their own country, and at last into their Heavenly▪ and everlasting country, to receive a Crown there.   

CHAP. V. Of the Marriages of the Commons.  
IT is a custom of the common people amongst the Goths, and Swedes, and such as desire to be married, to use many Ceremonies, repeated at divers times, in divers manners and orders, and before divers Witnesses, especially for this reason, that they may with more constancy live together, that there may be no need of a Divorce, though the Law allow it. For the Parents of the Maid that is to be desired in Marriage, do diligently inquire of what Stock, Honour, famed, or Infamy, Honesty, or Dishonesty, Manners, and Industry; the suitor is: also whether he be no Bastard, and understanding the man to be virtuous, two Witnesses being present of the Father and Mothers Kindred, the Father presents his Daughter in these words unto her suitor that stands by; I Give thee this my Daughter, for an honourable Wife, to have half the Bed, and to possess the doors and keys, and every third penny in thy Goods movable and unmovable, and to all Rights that Upper Swede hath from St. Ericus, and St. Ericus gave to them. In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Amen.  
And thus the Marriage Agreement takes force, and making hast when things are ripe, other better Ceremonies being added, they make an end of it, especially with such, that the Kindred, Acquaintance, and Friends, with some prudent Man to led on the Men, and some grave Matron to led on the Women, at a day appointed they may ride in pomp ●o their Parish Church in greater honour: where burning Torches, made after a wonderful manner, are lighted, and the Bride with a Crown on her head, is brought forth to receive the Benediction of the Priest: and she standing before the High Altar by her Bridegrooms side, both of their Consents being solemnly asked, for their living together in prosperity and adversity, by putting on of a Ring, and by a Nuptial Benediction, all the premised Ceremonies are ratified. Nor shall I pass over it, that when the Ring is put on, those that stand by, hold their Fists one against the other behind her back, that by this means they may confirm this Act, as it is wont to be observed in creating of a Knight, that he may remember. They that are present at such Marriages, as Friends, Kindred, Acquaintance, freely give them many gifts, as Horses, Oxen, Sheep, Beds, Woollen-Cloth, and Corn; that by those happy beginnings, they may live the more cheerfully together. But a Horse, an ox, and an Axe are delivered to them with special Ceremonies, that they may know they come to the same labour, and to partake of the same danger, that they must, will, and nill the same things, until they be divorced by the Law, or by Death. There are also many Ceremonies used when they go to bed, that the Priest of the Parish, or the Clerk, must sing a Carol, or Psalm.  Come Holy Ghost, with an Invocation of Divine Assistance, that he would from above bestow all happiness on this married Couple. 
Also it is the custom, that some of the choicest Dishes shall be presented to the married Pair, sitting on the bed, that they may eat with the standards by for a short time; and then their Friends taking their leaves of them, they are left in peace: but the next day the new Bride, with her hair wrapped close in, comes very affably, and brings Silver Cups filled with some choice liquor; and for a sign that she is now Mother of the Family, she drinks freely to them.   

CHAP. VII. Of Adulterers, and their punishments.  
A Woman committing Adultery, if she be proved so by the Testimony of six men, loseth her Dowry, and whatsoever she brought along with her, when she came to her husband, who is to have all. For he▪ hath power of both her lives, and is Heir to her in them, by virtue of the municipal Laws of the country of the Goths and Sweds: But if he will be content with the forfeit, he hath that determined by the Laws of the Land: yet I pass that over willingly, though there is a set part due, severally to the King, the Bishop, and to the Chamber of that City. If an Adulterer cannot pay a pecuniary mulct, then must two stones be laid upon the Womans shoulders; and she binding a Cord about his privities, must draw him through the City in the sight of all the people. And lastly, he must forswear the City, that he will never come there again. If one of the two commit the like fault, the party offending onely is punished, and the other is declared innocent. But there is a special gift or reward set for the City-Officer, who serves upon such occasions.   
The end of the Fourteenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF The divers Exercises of Men.  
An Epitome of the Fifteenth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Exercise of Children.  
THat the Children of the Goths and the young men might not be suffered to wax dull in idleness, or employ the first years of their youth in wicked Arts, it hath been always a custom, that their tender age should be exercised in divers recreations; but chiefly in military actions, in shooting, and according to every ones capacity to employ themselves with diligence: after this manner, that they will not give their Children any bread unless they first hit the mark with an arrow, that is placed of purpose for them by their Governours. Wherefore there are some boyes scarce above 12 years old, that are so cunning in shooting, that being commanded to hit the head, breast, or feet of the smallest birds that are very far from them, they will do it infallibly with a shaft: and so will old men that have their sight. saxon the Danish Historian brings a monstrous example of this, concerning a certain old man, whose crosse-bow had such a huge nut, that he could set ten arrows to the string: and these being shot vigorously against the Enemy, made so many wounds in his body.   

CHAP. II. Of their custom of driving away the Winter, and receiving of Summer.  
THe Southern Swedes and Goths that are very far from the Pole, have another cu●tome, that on the first day of May, when the Sun is in Taurus, there should be two horse Troops appointed of young and lusty men; as if they were to fight some hard conflict. The one of these is lead on by the Captain who is chosen by Lot, who hath the name and habit of Winter, and is clothed with divers skins, and armed with fire-forks, casting about Snow-balls and pieces of Ice, that he may prolong the could; and thus he rides up and down in triumph, and he shows and makes himself the harder, the more the ice-sicles seem to hang from their stoves: On the other side, the Captain of the other Troop is for Summer, and is called Captain Florio, and is clothed with green boughs and leaves,( for there are scarce any flowers then) and Summer garments that are not very strong; and both these ●ide forth of the field into the City, Winter and Summer, but from divers places, and one after another, and with their fire-Spears they fight, and make a public show, that Summer hath conquered Winter.   

CHAP. III. Of the same.  
THerefore both sides striving forcibly to get the Victory, that side more forcibly assaults the other, which on that day seems to borrow more force from the air, temperate or sharp. If the sharpness of the Winter yet breaths frost, they lay aside their Spears, and riding up and down; and cast ashes ming●ed with live-sparks of fire taken forth from the graves, or from the altar, upon the spectators. Also they who in the same dressing and habit are auxiliary Troops, cast fire-balls from their horses upon those that come to see them. But that the Person of Summer with his band of Horse may not be deprived of his desired honour, for want of green boughs and flowers, he shows openly his boughs of Birch or Tiel-Tree, that are made green long before by art, as by the heat of their Stoves, and watering them, and these are privately brought in as if they newly came from the Wood. But upon this occasion, because Nature is defrauded, those that fight for Winter, press on the more, that the victory may not be got by fraud, or may consist in a pleasing Triumph; yet the sentence is given for Summer by the favourable judgement of the people, who are unwilling to endure the sharp rigour of Winter any longer; and so Summer gets the victory with the general applause of them all, and he makes a gallant Feast for his Company, and confirms it by drinking cups, that he could scarce win with Spears.   

CHAP. IV. Of the May-Feasts.  
AT last when all Meadows, Fields, and Woods grow green and flourish, the Sun being in Cancer, that is, in the vigil of St. John the Baptist,( which day our ancestors held solemn with great festivity, and taught and commanded their posterity to observe it with great solemnity) all the people of both Sexes and all Ages, meet by Troops in the public streets of their Cities, or in the plain fields, making every where huge fires to dance and skip up and down with, and there they sing as they dance the noble actions of famous Men of old times both at home and abroad performed over the World; and what the most illustrious Women did to win to themselves eternal praise in preserving their chastity, which they loved. Also they sing in their Country rhymes, Harps, and Pipes, sounding by turns what the degenerous and ignoble Nobility, cruel Tyrants, and base women, not regarding honesty, have committed. Moreover, the Maids, as their Mothers have first taught them, disclose in singing how many and great faults their husbands are guilty of, in playing at Dice, brawling in Taverns, luxury in Cloths, keeping of base company, and continually drinking and glutting themselves. Again, the more ingenious Youth know how to sing together, how most irksome, deceitful, unruly, brawling, prating, thievish, flattering and unfaithful Women are, that the men alone may not be complained of. Then they sing what the perfidious Citizens, crafty Artificers, unconstant Merchants, snoring Sea-men, false Peasants, and the most cruel and covetous Governours of the Earth do; and this is set forth with variety of singing and musical Instruments: especially moved for that reason, that young men may learn how magnificent and glorious virtue is, and worthy of eternal commendation, to follow the steps of good men, and to take heed and fly from the Examples of the wicked.   

CHAP. V. Of their Dice-playing, and playing at Tables or Chess.  
IT is a custom amongst the most illustrious Goths and Swedes, when they would honestly mary their daughters, to prove the disposition of the Suitors that come to them, and to know their passions especially, by playing with them at Tables or Chess. For at these Games, their anger, love, peevishness, covetousness, dullness, idleness, and many more mad pranks, passions, and motions of their minds, and the forces and properties of their fortunes are used to be seen: as whether the Wooer be rudely disposed, that he will indiscreetly rejoice, and suddenly triumph when he wins; or, whether when he is wronged, he can patiently endure it, and wisely put it off.   

CHAP. VI. Of their dancing in Arms.  
MOreover, the Northern Goths and Swedes have another Sport to exercise Youth withall, that they will dance and skip amongst naked swords and dangerous weapons: and this they do after the manner of Masters of defence, as they are taught from their Youth by skilful Teachers that dance before them, and sing to it. And this play is shew'd especially about Shrovetide, called in Italian Masthararum. For before Carnivals all the youth dance for 8. dayes together, holding their swords up: but within the scabbards for 3. times turning about, and then they do it with their naked swords lifted up: after this, turning more moderately, taking the points and pummels one of the other, they change ranks, and place themselves in an hexagonal figure; and this they call Rosam: and presently they dissolve it, by drawing back their swords and lifting them up, that upon every ones head there may be made a square Rosa, and then by a most nimble whisking their swords about collaterally, they quickly leap back and end the sport; which they guide with pipes or songs, or both together, first by a more heavy, then by a more vehement, and lastly, by a most vehement dancing. But this speculation is scarce to be understood but by those that look on, how comely and decent it is; when at one word, or one commanding the whole armed multitude is directed to fall to fight; and Clergy-men may exercise themselves, and mingle themselves amongst others at this sport; because it is all guided by most wise reason.   

CHAP. VII. Of their Dancing in Rings.  
THere is also another Exercise for young men, that they may by a certain rule led on and back again a Dance round about with other Instruments; but by the same art that was used by the Dancers with swords. For first, being included in circles, or rings, they sing modestly the Deeds of famous men, and with Pipes or Drums playing they go round, and turn back again, by the word onely of him that is the Leader, whom they call the King. Then losing their round rings, they make a little more speed, and by a mutual inclination( as they did before with their swords) they make a Rosa, that they may appear in a sexangular figure. And that this may be done more solemnly, and with greater noise, they bind little brass bells to tinckle at their knees, like Morris-dancers. There is also another kind of Dance or Play, where, upon a wooden Engine men are carried in the air by the motion of Wheels: or else they sport otherwise, being very nimble of body: as with Spears, about which they will turn themselves; also with Ropes that they will walk on by turns; and with hoops, and they will slide through these like fish; also with Planks, whereby they will hang by one hand in the air, and this is called tumbling, because the youth dance more lightly. Also they cast the Sledge, the bar, and use many more recreations, according to the season of the year; as Running, Leaping, Wrestling, and walking on their hands with their heels upward. They use also to dance in their harness that rattles as in the Wars, and these are governed by the Minstrel that plays slower or softer, that they may leap so with their Swords and Bucklers.   

CHAP. VIII. Of their Dancing about the Fire.  
IT is the custom to make great fires in could weather before the palaces of Northern Kings and Princes, with Firr-Trees chiefly, whereof there is great plenty there: for by the burning of them there is made such a noise, that those that see it not, but hear it afar off, suppose that the beams and Houses fall down. And that that natural noise may not appear to be in vain, by the sound of the Drum the most valiant men are called, and they dance round these fires; and they dance so violently, and hold so fast, that the last man must needs fall in the fire, as if he should break a strong chain; and then leaping forth again by the applause of the rest that dance, he is set in the highest Seat, that he may presently for spoiling the Kings fire, drink up one or two great Cups of the strongest Ale. For by that most sound drink, yet drank off very soberly, he may regain his forces, and so he quickly returns to his fellow-dancers that ran round the fire; who likewise topled by motion, fire and thirst, are willingly drawn presently to the punishment appointed; except those who by custom were so roused by the fire when they dance, and are so strong and nimble, that they can scarce ever be thrust into the fire any more. For holding very fast, they learn by experience, to be more cautious at this sport. And therefore these are honoured to drink greater cups, though they are no delinquents against the Kings fire. But the rest also continuing their dancing by course merrily till midnight, they fall almost by turns into the flamme; and by this means, fresh-water Souldiers, and by many exercises, gain such strength of body commonly, that they will endure firmly in fire, dancing and hard rubs, that when Wars come indeed, they can the better sustain all violences of it. Also they cast Dice who shall leap through the fire in his clothes. But if any man by malicious presumption shall in jest commit an offence at the Kings Gate, he will scarce escape from being burnt in the fire.   
The End of the Fifteenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF ecclesiastical Fashions.  
The Epitome of the Sixteenth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the custom of praying in Churches.  
THe Northern people being to come from most remote Villages to their parochial Churches for baptism, bring no other weapons with them besides a crosse-bow, a Sword, and an Ax. Crosse-bows, I say, by reason of cruel beasts, namely, huge Bears, and devouring Wolves, who in three moneths, January, February, and March, are more fierce than at any other time of the year, which are then killed, with a vow first made to God, and they keep it faithfully, That the skins of the wild beasts slain by them, shall be offered as a sacrifice for the Priests to tread on when they say mass at the Altar: and hence is the original of it, that when the weather is extreme could, the Priests stand upon Bears skins; but if a Wolf, or Lynx, or Fox, or any other kind of beast were catched in their nets, they sell that faithfully to buy wax Candles for the Churches. I speak also of Swords, that if need be, they may keep off villains from them. Then they carry Axes, by reason of Trees cast down in the ways by cruel Tempests, that they may pass freely, and remove them, or may quickly make up Bridges that are beaten down by sudden inundations. Also they carry long Spears for staves to leap over great ditches: yet they have also staves with calendars upon them to carry in their hands, as I said in the first Book: wherewith they teach, dispute, and demand questions, and agree upon the conjunctions and oppositions of the Moon, and her course; and upon their fixed and movable Feasts, also the signs of the daies by infallible experience, as if they red it out of a book, are expounded and interpnted thereby.   

CHAP. II. Of the Funerals and Burials of Princes.  
IT was a custom amongst the ancients to hang up the bodies of Princes in green Trees, especially oaks, as in sacred places consecrated to the gods, or to burn them with flames of Juniper-wood, or to bury them in the ground with a sword and a club, in certain Mountains, and to set a fence about them of great stones in a round or square fashion; as saxon speaks of herald;( lib. 8.) King of the Danes, who was conquered and slain; for the King of Sweden, Ringo, that conquered him, made him a stately Funeral. For this is their piety, That the conqueror will follow the conquered with Funeral solemnities; and he that performs these Rites for his enemy that his dead,( as the same saxon saith, lib. 3.) gains the good will of him that succeeded: and he conquers him that is alive with his good turn, who shows humanity to the dead.   

CHAP. III. Of the variety of the sick, and of their Diseases and Medicaments.  
THe peculiar diseases of the Northern people are these: The Cough, ston. toothache, pains in their Eyes, Collicks, Agues, phlegm, Scabs, the French Pox, and small Pox; the Plague also, but that comes but seldom: and therefore when it comes, it more cruelly destroys those that are over-given to gluttony and excess. There is also another disease in the Camp, that vexes the besiegers and the besieged, and it is such a one, that their fleshy parts grow stupid, and melt like wax, with corruption under the skin, and will pit with your fingers touching them; and the teeth are ready to fall out; their skins grow white and wan, and they grow sluggish, and nauseat meats, desiring to have help. In the vulgar tongue of the Nation it is called Schoerburh; in Greek, {αβγδ}, it may be, by reason of that soft corruption under their skins; and it seems to breed from eating salt meats, that are not digested, and to be fostered by a could exhalation from the walls. But it is not so forcible where the walls are covered with boards on the in-side. But if this mischief grow spreading overmuch, they strive to cure it by drinking Wormwood Beer, as they use to cure the ston perfectly by drinking old Ale and Butter boiled: and thus they totally help, or much ease the pain of the ston in the Kidneys.   
The End of the Sixteenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Tame and domestic Creatures.  
The Epitome of the Seventeenth Book.  

The Preface.  
AS there are many and divers sorts of Creatures, all the World over, disposed of as proper to their places and natures, as Elephants, Camels, Leopards, Lions, Ostridges, Tigers, Apes, and such like, that multiply innumerably in hot Countries, and are without any thick hair; so also in could Countries very many beasts are found, but they are very hairy because of the sharp Winters; as are white Bears, black Bulls, high Elks, tall ranged dear, fierce Wolves, devouring Gules, quick sighted Lynxes, false Otters, medicinal beavers, fearful Does, crafty Foxes, both white and black, and other beasts that are of unknown names and natures elsewhere, which I shall writ of severally underneath in their particular Chapters, in order; especially for that cause, that the Pious Reader may see how admirable is the love and affection of the most high creator toward all his Creatures, in preserving them all the World over, subject to his disposing, especially in the most could Northern Climate, having given them a natural sagacity; namely, that when they are shut in on all sides with Snow and Ice, and no food to be found on the ground, they will not onely live, but bring forth young ones and feed them, and amid the sharpest Elements take no harm.   

CHAP. I. Of Rams and Lams.  
THere is an iceland in the Gothick Sea, which is subject to the kingdom of the Goths, or Sweden, called Gothland, that is, good Land,, by all that frequent it; because amongst the Northern Islands, it ought deservedly to be reputed and magnified for a happy and plentiful Land, by reason of the many Natural Gifts bestowed upon it. This Land produceth larger and stronger Rams or Weathers, than any other place doth, and they have 4. or 8. Horns; and they are so fierce, by reason of their Horns, that at Rutting time, unless their Horns be first filled or sawed off, they will hurt other Creatures, and run at the shepherd himself. They have soft long wool, which formerly at Rome, being wrought into a small Garment, the Artificers that make Birreat highly commended. Also all the North country hath great multitudes of great Rams and Sheep, and the Females of them have crooked Horns. There are also many places toward the North Pole, where neither Rams not sheep, Bulls not Cows have any Horns.   

CHAP. II. Of Oxen and Cows.  
THE Northern Kingdoms, especially Vermelandia, and Dalia, by reason of their gallant Pastures, breed most stately Oxen: Also the Provinces of the Vestrogoths do the same: And these Oxen yearly are multiplied, not so much in the growth of their Bodies, as in Multitudes. Norway, Swedland, and Finland, hath the like, that are fit for their Summer or Winter Carts, or else to be used in the fields; and they use there as they do Horses to draw the Plough: but Cows are never set to draw wagons, or to go to Plough: nor do they do any work, because of the hope of their Calves: yet these when they are very young, being partend from their Dams, when could weather doth rage, are kept in Stoves prepared for it, and fed there: and when the Winter is sharp and long, their cattle feed on oaken Bark, instead of Hay or Straw. But in Summer, and clear Nights, they are kept in Pastures by shepherds, for fear of hurtful Worms, and Grasse-Worms; which their Keepers in all places, with making a smoke with Pitch, and burning Pine-Trees, either burn or drive away. But not all, for when Autumn comes, the Grass-Worms will go into the skins of the Lean Oxen, and there keep winter; and in the Springs they will eat their skins, and vex their Host, as Caterpillars that feed on leaves of Trees; and these sticking in the small leaves where they breed, pass over the Winter more freely: but Oxen who are troubled with these Worms, are partend from the rest, as much as they can, to be fatted and slain, and then their skin on their backs appears like a sieve with many holes, and loseth the price for anothers fault. But in those places they are kept more healthful, and sooner grow fat, where they are neither tortured and wearied with the stingings of flies, nor bitings of these Ox-Flyes, and do not want their fill of green grass.   

CHAP. III. Of the Northern Horses.  
THe Norway Horses are small of stature, but wonderful strong and swift to pass over Mountains, and stony ways; but those of Sweden and Gothland will travail incessantly, and very swiftly with more meat, over Lakes and high Hills, and deep Thickets. But those of Oeland, because they are small, are more for sight than service, though amongst them there are found of a different kind that are notable for labour. Also the Finland Horses are of good qualities.   

CHAP. IV. Of their War-Horses.  
BUt the greatest Horses that the North produces, especially in the kingdom of the Vesirogoths, are not onely by a public Edict forbidden to be used by Carriers, but there is a very strict command to breed them up,& teach them for service in the Wars, and defence of the country. For such Horses used to Wars in Winter that are fought in the Northern Kingdoms, being accustomend to the could from their Birth, can well endure the Winter, and will carry the Armed Rider with much courage and strength whither soever they are directed by him, and never stumble when they go or run; and for this cause they may be compared with all the best Horses, that Spain, or Naples, or France, or Germany breeds, if not preferred before them. Yet they are not so swift as the African, Numidian, or Turkish Horses; but they satisfy for their want of swiftness by their great boldness and strength, that they are found to be fit for the greatest wars, considering the nature of the people, the place and quality of the Season.   

CHAP. V. Of their Cats.  
CAts, which the Greeks call {αβγδ}, are very great and common, especially they are white, that are found in the Northern Climates; and these will not onely clear the houses, and mens Habitations, Barns, and Granaries: but also Fields near to Houses, of Rats and Mice, and Dormice, by a wonderful sagacity: But Wild Cats lie in wait for Birds, and small Creatures, to feed on; and these Cats skins, if Garments be lined with them, are wonderful profitable against the Winter could.   

CHAP. VI. Of He and She-Goats.  
THere is greater store of He and She Goats in the Northern parts, than in any other parts of Europe, because of the Mountain feeding, and the Goat-Keepers most diligent care: wherefore She-Goats there have great bodies, thick legs, short full necks, long Ears hanging down, little Heads, long naked thick necks below the Cervix, with tall broad Horns, they are stout, warlike, and strong, so that they fear not to fight with small Wolves, when the Dogs help them. They are almost all white, and so are the She-Goats: In the Winter they feed on the Rinds of Pine-Trees, and Moss, and Poplar Boughs. Their skins are carried forth in great ships for to make gain of in Germany, and they are made up by Tens: and from thence they are dispersed again into the World: so are their cheeses, because they nourish much, and are medicinal, where the Flesh is gross, or swells. The Inhabitants feed more greedily on their Flesh dried in the Sun, Wind and with Salt, than when they are new killed; and that in Summer, and time of Husbandry.   

CHAP. VII. What Gifts are given to the new Married.  
THe Northern people have a custom, that when the Maid new married is in a mean condition, to begin and to increase their stock, and household stuff, they will freely give them a Hog, a Sheep, a Cow; and to the man young Colts, a Dog, a Car, ●nd a Goose.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Ranged dear.  
IN the North parts of both the Bothnians,( for so are the utmost parts of the North country called, as if it were from the bottom of a Vessel) and great Lapland, there is a Beast with three Horns, that is of the kind of Stags, but is far taller, stronger, and swifter; and it is called Rangifer, for two reasons; one is, because it carrieth high horns on the head, like the Boughs of an Oke-Tree: The other is, because the Instruments that are put upon the horns and brea●● to draw their wagons withall in Winter, are called in that Language Rancha, and Lochai, of these horns it hath two bigger than the rest, growing as the Stags horns do: but they are with more branches, and farther out, for they augment to fifteen branches. Another stands in the middle of their head, with little small branches shorter than the other, standing round about it. These arm the head on all sides against the beasts that are Enemies unto it, especially Wolves; and it shows comely, and to be admired amongst other strange things. The meat this beast eateth is Mountain Moss, that is white, chiefly in Winter, that lies on the Superficies of the ground covered with Snow. And though these Snows be thick, yet by an Instinct of Nature, will it dig in them like a wild horse to seek for its meat. In Summer it feeds on Leaves and Boughs of Trees, better standing and going, than stooping down the head,( because the horns are too crooked forwar●) and that inclining the head obliquely, and on one side. It hath a Mane like a Horse, and the Hoofs are divided in two, being almost round by Nature, because it runs or goes over the high snow, carrying a man on its back, where the snow is hardened in Valleys, Mountains, or Fields.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Profit of this Creature.  
THese Creatures made tame as Sheep, afford great profit to their Masters; in their Milk, Skins, Sinews, Bones, Hoofs, Horns, Hair, and dainty Flesh to seed on: some of the Inhabitants them fifteen, thirty, seventy, one hundred, or five hundred; and their Keepers drive them to Pasture, and home again, and they shut them up in Stalls, by reason of whole Troops of Mountain Wolves, that are most fierce, that prey up and down.  
If they be carried into other Countries, especially beyond Seas, they will not live long, either by reason of the Climate changed, or unusual food they fe d on, unless their ordinary Keeper feeds them: as I remember that formerly the most illustrious Prince of Sweden, Steno stir, the younger, sent six of these Rangi●ers to Fred●rick Duke of Holsatia, and he sent two Keepers with them, the Man and Wife that were Laplanders; these being carried out of their Native country, and being under the Government of others, because they wanted their rest, and manner of living, neither they nor the Beasts wanting a particular care for them, did live long. Likewise in the year of our Lord, 1533. Gustavus King of Sweden sent ten pair of these Beasts to some Noble men in Prussia, both for sight, and for propagation, and they were all let free into the Woods. But there came nothing of it, and changing the place did not profit for their increase.   

CHAP X. Of the Chariots for men, drawn by ranged dear.  
we must know that there are two sorts of these Rangifers, wild and Tame; that being brought under, will faithfully serve mens use. But the rest that are wild and live in the deserts, are given onely to increase, and serve to be hunted. The tame ones are fitted for mens Chariots, and these will excellently well draw the most loaded wagons through Countries and Fields, and they are la●ed usually with precious Skins, Cloths, Fish of divers kinds; because for the most part the Laplanders feed on Fish, living upon catching of Fish in Waters that cannot be emptied of them; as I shall make it appear underneath, when I speak of their divers Exercises. Their Journey therefore is through plain Valleys, and tends most to Norway, whither they commonly go, as a place nearest for their traffic, and a people most faithful to hold Friendship with. Those that are the Waggon-Masters, are commonly called Quenar, and if they please, or if need require, they will travail every day one hundred and fifty miles, that is thirty Gothick miles, or German miles; and these Creatures will run as fast as Horses,   

CHAP. XI. Of the Winter Chariots for these Rangifers.  
THe foresaid Laplanders get great commodity by their Winter-Chariots, especially because by the glibbinesse of these Carts made conformable to the Snow, they will make long journeys to places appointed for merchandise, as I said before in the 11th. Book, speaking of the fashion of them; and of the proclamation, that they shall not be lent to strangers, because of the great swiftness of them. But here I shall show, that that swiftness is caused by the skins of the ranged dear outwardly made fast under their Winter-Chariots, and the art chiefly is this; That the former part of the skin shall be sowed fast before under the Chariot: whence it comes that the hair being turned outward, not onely makes it glib to go on, but strong to resist, that the Carter cannot fall back: otherwise in high Mountains they could never proceed or end their voyage they desire. And by this short way will the Travellers kill wild ranged dear as they go, with their Bows and Arrows.   

CHAP. XII. Of the Commodity of the Parts of this Creature.  
THeir Milk serves for daily Food, and the Whey of it for convenient Drink. Their Skins serve for Mans Covering, both of his Body, and of his Beds. Also they serve for Saddles for Horsemen, for Sacks, and Bellows for divers Artificers: for it is very tenacious, strong, and durable. The Sinews serve instead of Flax, that grows not in that could Country, and they make thread of them for clothing, as I said before, Lib. 4. concerning binding ships together, where they want Iron. Their Bones and Horns are used by Artificers to make Bows, and Cross-Bows, and they seek after them much to make profit by them. Their Hoofs are good against the Cramp. Their Hair serves to soften and stuff Horsemens Saddles, and Cushions, for to honour guests with, and to keep off the could. The Flesh of this Creature is excellent and very wholesome, dried with Salt in the Wind, it will last many years; yet the custom of the people is, when they catch new to put it to the old.   
The end of the Seventeenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Wild Creatures.  
The Epitome of the eighteen Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Elks or wild Asses, and the manner of taking them.  
THe Elks go in herds in the vast deserts, as dear do; and by the Industry of the Hunters they are often shot with bows, or else by great dogs they are forced into caves in Rocks, and they seldom come forth alive; also when the greatest Elks lye on the ground, or stand up, a little Weazel sometimes will leap and catch them by the throats, that they will bleed to death; this small beast is so unsatiable in sucking of bloods, that there is scarce the like for its bigness amongst all the Creatures. And some put this creature in a hollow Cave, and direct it with a string, and so they rob Swallows, Pigeons and Hens nests, and pull forth their young, and he will prey after them exceedingly, onely for this end, to suck their blood, as if he had a belly bigger than an Elephant.   

CHAP. II. Of the battle of the Elks or wild Asses, against the Wolves.  
BUt it doth not suffice, that this commodious creature is hunted by men with sharp and broad arrows, and a thousand traps that are laid for them in the vaste wilderness, and by the foresaid Weazels that are contemptible in comparison of its height; but there are most fierce Mountain Wolves also, due lye in wait to destroy them: and the way is this; When the Winters be sharp, and the Snows deep, the Wolves being hunger starved, run in huge Troops all the deserts over to seek for their prey; and when the Lakes are frozen, they search for Elks, but they will run at them with their horns and hoofs, and kill them or drive them away. For a blow with the hoof is so forcible, that it will kill or wound the Wolf: and the Hunters find this to be very often true in their strongest dogs; and when a dog falls upon a three it will break like a unhandsome. The Elks by instinct of Nature know the most fit places for to fight in, namely, upon the slippery Ice, for there they are stronger with their sharp-pointed hoofs, and the Wolves keep their claws, as it were, wrapped up, and have no force with them: and whilst they fight, the Hunters commonly are not far off, who follow the conquered party that leaves off first, until they have killed him; and they get the greatest spoils by others dangers. The fight is very fierce; for many Wolves, and some Elks, will lye dead on the ground: and these the Hunters take for the worth of their skins; and the rest of the Elks retire to safe places. doubtless the Wolves would get the victory, being nimble on the tops of the frozen Mountains of Snow, when the Elks being heavy-loaden with their burdens, must needs sink in and become a prey to the Wolves. So provident Nature seems to have appointed to every creature a fit place to defend itself in.   

CHAP. III. Of Harts and Does.  
THough the most severe could seems more to predominate in the Northern parts than in any other place, yet there is found an innumerable number of strange Creatures, as I have said in part, and shall say more: amongst these for man's food, these Elks spoken of, and Harts and Does, and Goats are most esteemed; and therefore none were allowed by the ancient Law to hunt them but Noble-men and their Officers, and privileged persons, and men of hospitality, and chief rulers of Churches. And that by the covetousness of hunters,( whereof there is great number there) the deserts may not be emptied of them, but that they may propagate: yet such as find their horns in the woods, have a pledge of their future prey; and it is as hard to find there, as to see the Hinds calve, or to see an Elk that is at liberty lowing, near the Sea-side.   

CHAP. IV. Of Castors.  
IN the Northern waters there is great abundance of these Creatures, because they are more still than the Rhine or Danow: where there is a perpetual noise and roaring of mariners. In the North the Rivers are infinite, and the Trees are most fit to build their houses with, and they build them with wonderful Art, Nature teaching them. They go in troops to cut wood, and they hue them down with their teeth, and when they have eaten them off, they carry them to their caves by a wonderful way. For they cast one upon his back upon the earth, that is of their company, and not fit for labour, or one that is idle, or old, but chiefly one that is a run-away from some other company, and he serves for their Cart, they lay the wood between his hips and thighs, and they draw him home to their houses and unload him; and then they go forth again and return till their houses be made, that have two or three Chambers one above another, that their body may be above the water, and their tail hang down, which, as his hinder feet, are a bait for the fish. For the tail is scaly like a fish, hard and thick as leather, and is distinguished strangely with many secret knots, and it is most delicate meat and medicine for those that are hurt in their guts. And skilful Cooks know how to dress it for meat or physic. The Cast or hath such sharp teeth, that he will mow down Trees by the Rivers as with a Scythe of Iron; and when he catcheth hold of a man's limbs, he never lets go his hold until he break the bones.   

CHAP. V. Of the Gulos.  
AMongst all Creatures that are thought to be insatiable in the Northern parts of Sweden, the Gulo hath his name to be the principal; and in the vulgar tongue they call him Jerff, but in the German Language Vielfras, in the Sclavonish speech Rossamaka, from his much eating; and the made Latin name is Gulo; for he is so called from his gluttony. He is as great as a great dog and his ears and face are like a Cats: his feet and nails are very sharp: his body is hairy with long brown hair, his tail is like the Foxes, but somewhat shorter, but his hair is thicker, and of this they make brave Winter Caps. Wherefore this Creature is the most voracious: For when he finds a carcase, he devours so much, that his body by over-much meat is stretched like a Drum, and finding a streight passage between Trees, he presseth between them, that he may discharge his body by violence; and being thus emptied, he returns to the carcase, and fills himself top full: and then he presseth again through the same narrow passage, and goes back to the carcase, till he hath devoured it all; and then he hunts eagerly for another. It is supposed that he was created by nature to make men blushy, who eat and drink till they spew, and then feed again eating night and day, as Mechovita thinks in his Sarmatia, The flesh of this Creature is altogether useless for man's food: but his skin is very commodious and precious. For it is of a white brown black colour, like a damask cloth wrought with many figures; and it shows the more beautiful, as by the Industry of the Artists it is joined with other garments in the likeness or colour. Princes and great men use this habit in Winter made like Coats; because it quickly breeds heat, and holds it long; and that not onely in Swethland, and Gothland, but in Germany, where the rarity of these skins makes them to be more esteemed, when it is prized in Ships among other Merchandise.   

CHAP. VI. Of honouring strangers with the coverings of these Skins.  
THe Inhabitants are not content to let these skins be transported into other Countries, because in Winter they use to entertain their more noble guests in these skins; which is a sufficient Argument, that they think nothing more comely and glorious, than to magnify at all times, and in all orders their good guests, and that in the most vehement could, when amongst other good turns they cover their beds with these skins.  
And I do not think fit to overpass, That when men sleep under these skins, they have dreams that agree with the nature of that Creature, and have an insatiable stomach, and lay snares for other Creatures and prevent them themselves. It may be it is as they that eat hot Spices, Ginger or Pepper seems to be inflamed; and they that eat Sugar seem to be choked in water. There seems to be another secret of Nature in it, that those who are clothed in those Skins, seem never to be satisfied.  
The guts of this Creature are made into strings for Musicians, and give a harsh sound, which the Natives take pleasure in: but these tempered with sweet sounding strings, will make very good music. Their hoofs made like Circles and set upon heads subject to the Vertigo, and ringing ears, soon cure them. The Hunters drink the blood of this beast mingled with hot water: also seasoned with the best Honey it is drunk at Marriages. The fat or tallow of it, smeered on putrid Ulcers for an ointment, is a sudden cure. Charmers use the teeth of it. The hoofs newly taken off will drive away Cats and dogs, if they do but see it, as birds fly away if they spy but the vulture or the Bustard.   

CHAP. VII. Of the way of hunting of Gulo's.  
BY the Hunter's various Art this Creature is taken onely in regard of his precious skin: and the way is this, They carry into the wood a fresh carcase; where these beasts are wont to be most commonly; especially in the deep snows( for in Summer their skins are nothing worth) when he smells this he falls upon it, and eats till he is forced to crush his belly close between narrow Trees, which is not without pain; the Hunter in the mean time shoots and kills him with an arrow.  
There is another way to catch this beast, for they set Trees bound asunder with small cords, and these fly up when they eat the carcase, and strangle them; or else he is taken, falling into pits dug upon one side, if the carcase be cast in, and he is compelled by hunger to feed upon it. And there is hardly any other way to catch him with dogs, since his claws are so sharp, that dogs dare not encounter with him, that fear not to set upon the most fierce Wolves.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Hares.  
BEcause in could Northern Countries there is a great multitude of Hares, I was desirous to set forth the Nature of them, chiefly in the strange changing of their Colours: For it is most certain, that all Northern Hares, after the Autumnal Equinoctial, especially so soon as the Snow first falls, become white, and are no longer grey. I have seen Mice also, who by always eating white Sugar, grew white, and lost the same again, when the Sugar was taken from them. Wherefore what concerns the Food of the Northern Hare, it is most certain, that when the Earth is bound up with Snow and could, they feed on the Pine-Tree Bark and of the oak, and Asp, and Poplar, and such like, that they naturally find out, and not upon Snow, as Pliny thought, lib. 7. in the Winter-time. And they sleep under the thick boughs of Firr-Tree, that the Snow lies thick about, but there is a Form left for them. For this three hath less could, because of the thick boughs, and hath more secret places to hid Creatures in, than any other three. In Summer the Hare chooseth a safe Harbour in Rocks, and cliffs, because she is naturally fearful, and knows that she is made a prey to all Creatures; and where she can escape, she hopes to do it by swift running: Yet not when she plays with a Weesil: for this, though it seem to play, yet fasteneth so close about the neck of it, that she will presently fetch blood at the Hares throat, run she never so fast, and will feed upon her; and thus is she overcome by craft, not by strength: also by the Hawk flying swiftly, against which she can hardly ever save her self, as she can by turning from a Dog. Hares are very common meat in the North, especially sod with black broth, as the manner of the country is, it is very wholesome; also they roast the flesh of them: yet some great bellied Women find one inconvenience by it, that when they feed on Hares, or a Hare is trod upon by them, they bring forth Children with Hare Lips, their Lips being always partend between their Nostrils and Mouth: unless they presently sew on a piece of the breast of a very young Chicken, newly killed and bloody. They that have the Gout bathe their feet in boiled Hare broth, when it is warm. Also the loins of an old Hare, bound to the feet, ease the Gout: Against Kibes in could Weather, they apply the burnt hair of a Hare. The Factors of Moscovia make great account of Hares Skins, especially such as are white, who sell many thousand Garments to the Tartars, or exchange with them, that they may live peaceably.   

CHAP. IX. Of the Lynxes, and their Skins.  
IN the Northern Woods the Lynxes are not so commonly bread, as Wolves, though they are as greedy as these. The Nature of the Lynx is never to look back, but he always runs and leaps forward. The meat he commonly or chiefly eats is Wild Cats; and as he most willingly feeds on them, so he always lies in wait about their holes to catch them. The Skin of them, as they are framed with light Down, and rare Spots, are sold very dear, especially such as are taken in the most sharp Winter, for then their colour and virtue is best, but in Summer they are far worse.   

CHAP. X. Of Wolves, and their fierceness.  
AS Africa and Egypt produce weak small Wolves, so the could North brings them up that are fierce and cruel; and that they are so indeed is seen by their fierceness, especially when they lime the Bitches, and when it is extreme could; for then Travellers must go in Arms, to keep themselves and their cattle safe, especially great bellied Women, whom the Wolves most hunt after, when they scent them. Therefore no Woman is suffered to travail alone, but she must have a soldier to guard her. For it falls often out, especially in January, that men traveling in Winter Chariots, if they will save their lives from Wolves, that flock abundantly about them, they must drive them off with Bows and Guns; Wherefore Travellers when they go upon their private occasions, or come to their Parish Churches, are always provided with such Instruments, as if they were to go to battle; and sometimes they fall on so fiercely, when Hunger, and Rage, and could, drive them on, or Natural Copulation, that they will come into mens houses, and eat up their cattle, or carry them into the Woods with them when they have torn them: yet they do not do this unpunished, for the countrymen have Remedies in these distresses, that they, lay Iron 'gins with a carcase tied to them in the Snow, and when the Wolves come to eat the prey, these Iron Sickles cut off their feet, or else they kill them suddenly with their arrows, or else they fall into holes under the Earth, being greedy of the prey, and so die of Hunger.   

CHAP. XI. Of the many sorts of Wolves.  
THere are in the Mountains called Dosfrinae, that part the Dominions of Swethland and Norway, white Wolves that go in flocks, like sheep, wandring in the Valleys and Mountains. They feed on weak Creatures, as Mice and Moles, &c. The wild common Wolves are those that lie watching extremely after the herds of the Inhabitants, as after their Cows, Calves, Sheep, and Goats, &c. against these that make the people poor, they have a general hunting day at the places and hour appointed, that they may kill them with Nets, Dogs, and other Devices. But they take not so much care to destroy the old Wolves, as to destroy their Whelps, that they may not increase. Also some of these Cubs taken home, though they seem to be tame, yet will they never forget their fierce Nature, though they be kept in chains, for they will prey on any other Creatures, even small Birds. But a Mongrel bread of a Wolf, and a House-Dog, grows a great Enemy to all Wolves that prey on the flock. There is also a kind of Wolf called Thoes, that is taller than all the rest, but his legs are shorter, he will leap nimbly, and lives by Hunting; he will not hurt a man, and he changes his Coat nor his Colour; for in Winter he is hairy, and naked in Summer.   

CHAP. XII. Of Otters, and their diversity and falseness of their Skins.  
THE Otters have a square mouth, and bite as Beavers, they are like them in their Skins; but they are a third part longer: and they are found in the Northern Waters, especially of the Upper Sweden, Helsingia, Medelpadia, Angermannia, Jempthia, and both Bothnia's: whose skins, as of Beavers and other Creatures, are carried forth in great abundance toward the Moscovites, and thence to the Tartars, because in those colder places they are procured for mens clothing very greedily, and that by bartering rather than for money. But in Sweden with some great men they are made so tame, that when the cock gives them the sign, they will leap into the fish-pond, and bring forth a Fish of that bigness he commands them; and then another, and a third, until he hath done enough as he was bid. The flesh of them is good onely to bait and catch beasts in hunting. And their skins are greatly used by the Northern people, to enlarge the borders of their garments, because their skin will hold fast. They are sold by tens, as Beavers and Foxes, and Martins skins are: and they are falsified with smoke of a stone-tree upon coals, that they may appear to be of a shining black; but if you rub them presently with a white cloth, the colour is gone, and the sophistication is discovered. So Wolves skins powdered with Coal and Chalk, rubbed with a linen cloth, are proved to be falsified. So Squirrels skins, called in Italian Dossae, strewed over with chalk, are discovered to be false by a black cloth. We must search out which colour is natural, and which artificial, and so prise them.   

CHAP. XIII. Of Squerrils.  
THere is an infinite of these small creatures in the Northern Woods, and they differ in the thickness and colour of their hair; by one infallible rule, that the farther North these creatures are taken, the more costly are their skins, the could being the cause of their colour. For under the elevation of the pole at 77 degrees, beginning at the very height of the pole: in all this space the Hunters are more tired than satiated, there is such an infinite number of these creatures in the Trees; as there be fish in the waters, and they have this commodity, that the Trees are not tall where these Creatures sport themselves. But turning about to the South parts, the more we return South, the worse, and darker their skins are. The flesh of them roasted is sweet meat for the Hunters. Their teeth are used by Wizards to discover future things.   

CHAP. XIV. More of this Creature to foreshow things to come.  
THis little Creature will swim over the Rivers upon a piece of Wood, and hold up his tail for a sail: for Nature hath granted him no other way to swim, because of his small body, thick fur, and huge tail covered with hair. Nor are his feet fit for this use. Otherwise he is most cunning in time of heat, that he will lay up his provision for great part of the Winter, where he makes his nest to sleep and rest in; and these he opens and shuts as they find the weather could. Their meat is Hazel Nuts, and Beech Nuts, or Pine-Tree leaves. There is another sort of them which feed on sleep for meat. They are wonderful nimble to leap from one three to another: and with their Tails they balance their motion, and by the nimbleness of their sharp claws, they will skip upon the boughs; and they will play on the frozen Ice very finely, that men are much pleased to see it. Their Skins are carried by Tens, many Thousands of them into all Europe in Factors ships, and they increase the price by the length of the way, and the love men do bear them. It is good for old men, but it is not fit for souldiers, and lusty men: for them a Fox or Gulo's Skin is better.   

CHAP. XV. Of Martin, and Sabels, and their Skins.  
MArtins, and Sabels, are Creatures of could Countries; all know them by their names, but few by their virtues, unless by the quality of their Skins a man may know what Creatures they are. This is known of them, that they run and leap strongly and very swiftly; for like the Squirrels almost they use their Tails for their Helm, and leap from three to three, catching hold of the boughs with their claws. They will bite terribly for their bigness: For they have Teeth naturally, as sharp as Razours, and exceeding small and sharp Nails. But as their flesh is said to be nothing worth, so their Skins are of huge prices, especially amongst foreigners, that use them more for their pleasure, than commodity. The difference between them is this, that the Martins are of a grosser Fur from the crown of their head to their tail, but not if you rub them the contrary way: but the Sabels are not so; for if you stroke them with your hand from their tail to their crown, they are equally smooth; because they are furry, and their hair is thicker: and therefore they are sooner eaten by the Worms, than other skins are, unless they are constantly used or Wormwood leaves are put between them to preserve them. And if Sabel Skins are laid in the Sun to dry, they will consume more in one day, than if they Were worn a whole year, when the Beast is alive, he always lies in some shady Grove, and gets his living by lying in wait for small Birds. It is a most lascivious Creature, and very foul in his Natural Copulation, as I shall show underneath, concerning the pontic Mice or ermines: yet both these kinds of Skins are of softer hair, and serve for vain Luxury; because they are soon eaten with Worms, and that pleasure that was bought at so dear a rate from others, doth decay continually. The Sabel is round in the utmost Woods of Moscov●a, and is carried far by Sea and Land unto other Countries.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the ermines, which( according to Pliny) I take to be Pontick-Mice.  
PLiny, l. 8. ch. 37. saith, that Pontick-Mice lie hide in Winter, and they are onely white; how may this be understood, ●or let every man judge of it, as he please: so he do no injury to Natural Philosophy. I● they be shut up all the Winter, and in most bitter could, the Skin of this Creature would never appear whiter, which appears reddish in Summer; in the end of May he is not white, when he minds propagation, at what time green grass is come up, as I confess I have seen them by accident, as I road along in Helsingia, a Northern country, Anno Dom. 1518. so that in their coupling, by reason of their overclose sticking together, they would stick fast, when they ran along most swiftly, and they would crush th●ir teeth together, leaving such a stink behind them, in great part of the wood, upon divers Trees( for there were many that coupled at once) that I never remember that I smelled a worse. The same Pliny l. 10. c. 65. affirms, that Mice are generated by licking; but this seems not in these Creatures to have any resemblance with Truth; for these couple as other Beasts do: yet I voluntarily conceal the manner of their copulation. But these small Beasts, for the most part, every three years for the Merchants exceeding great gain, grow to have their Skins very long, because they eat so much: which after the same manner happens out not onely in Norway, but in the foresaid Helsingia, and Provinces that are near to it in the diocese of Upsal, namely that small Beasts with four feet, that they call Lemmar, or Lemmus, as big as a Rat, with a Skin divers coloured, fall out of the air in Tempests, and sudden showers; but no man knows from whence they come, whether from the remoter Islands, and are brought hither by the Wind, or else they breed of feculent matter in the Clouds: yet this is proved, that so soon as they fall down, there is found green grass in their bellies not yet digested. These, like Locusts, falling in great swarms, destroy all green things, and all dyes they bite on, by the venom of them. This Swarm lives so long as they feed on no new grass: Also they come together in Troops like Swallows that are ready to fly away; but at the set-time they either die in heaps, with a Contagion of the Earth,( by the corruption of them, the Air grows pestilential,) and the people are troubled with vertigo's of the Jaundice, or they are devoured by Beasts, called commonly Lekat, or Hermelin, and these ermines grow fat thereby, and their Skins grow longer. And these Skins also are sold by Tens, especially forty in a bundle, as Sabel, or Martins, Fox, Beaver, Squirrel, or Hares Skins are, and are carried forth by Shipping into far distant Countries.   

CHAP. XVII. Of the hunting of ermines.  
BUt how the ermines,( to use the Italian, and Gothick word also) are taken by the Hunters, and for what use they serve, it i● shew'd in brief: and chiefly by setting sticks a across, and tying them with a stringl and when three or four, or eight ermines go in together, this being moved, presently shuts them in: and such Engines of Wood, by reason of the exceeding multitude of these Creatures, are set every where. Also there are long Pits or Ditches made, and there are thin boards placed over them, and snow laid upon them: these Creatures falling in great numbers into these Trenches, are taken by him the ground belongs unto, or by his servant, and kinld. There are also Dogs so swift and cunning, that they will catch and kill them, and bring them to their Master, laying heaps of them at his feet: so there are young men such cunning Archers, that they will never fail to hit them with an Arrow. The flesh of this Creature is nothing worth to eat, onely their Skins are good, which by reason of their pure white colour, are highly esteemed in the Courts of Kings and Queens. Though the Beast itself is most luxurious, as I said be●ore; yet in one thing it is to be admired, that about the end of May it propagates for certain days, and so is content with the Laws of Nature. Nob●e persons of both Sexes use these Skins that are all white, with black Tails set between, which are very rare, especially for the large borders of their garment kept from their Ancestors.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Nature of Badgers.  
BAdgers, because they dwell in holes and Caves under ground they frame their houses after a wonderful manner, so that they appoint one Badger to carry forth the earth they dig up with their feet: he lieth on his back with his feet upright, and all the Earth dug forth, is laid upon his belly; others taking him by the feet carry him out, and they do this so oft, till the house be large enough for them to dwell in. But this hou●e they have made with so much labour they can hardly keep afterwards. For the Fox he lies in wait for them who never makes his house, but trusting to his shifts that are usual and bad enough, he enters the Cave of the Badgers, and so defiles it with his stinking dung, that they are forced to leave their safe Habitation, by reason of the stink. But that this crafty Fox may not scape unpunished, the Hunters with good Dogs catch him, and pull off his Skin.   

CHAP. XIX. More of the same.  
A Badger therefore is a wild Creature, as great as a Fox, though he be lower of stature, because he hath crooked legs, and more white hairs than he hath black, especially on his back& sides. His hairs are s●iff, and his Skin is thick and strong; his Teeth are sharp, and he will bite fiercely: Wherefore when Dogs or other Beasts molest him, he lays himself on his back, and fights with his mouth and feet, especially against the Foxes, by whom they are not driven out of their Caves with any other Weapons, than by their stinking dung.  
There are two sorts of them; one that is tame, and very wanton; another wild, that hath stiffer bristles. It is also called the Dog-Badger, because his foot is divided like to the Dogs: another is called the Hog-Badger, because his hoof is divided into two. There are some also greater than Foxes, that have a hairy bristly Skin, and the bristles are stiff, and the Skin tough; and with these they cover all their Quivers for War or Hunting, to keep their Arrows from the Wet and Snow. Also mens clothes are made of them, as they are of Wolves Skins, or this Skin, to endure the could and all Snow that falls. He bites strongly, deadly, and venomous; because he eats such abundance of Worms, creeping things, Beetles and Mice.   

CHAP. XX. Of the Fishing Bears.  
THE Bears are huge, white, and strong, and they will break the Ice with their Paws: they make many Dens, and they are found in iceland, often mentioned before: and through these Caves of Ice, they plunge themselves into the Sea; and catching Fish under the Ice, they draw them out, bring them on shore, and live upon them: and do this as oft as they have need, to feed themselves, and their Whelps; and by a natural instinct, they teach them also how to fish. These white Bears Skins are wont to be offered by the Hunters, for the high Altars, or Cathedrals of Parochial Churches, that the Priest celebrating Mass standing, may not take could of his feet when the Weather is extreme could. In the Church at Nidrosum, which is the Metropolis of the Kingdom of Norway, every year such white Skins are found, that are faithfully offered by the Hunters Devotion, whensoever they take them, and Wolves-Skins to buy Wax-Light, and to burn them in honour of the Saints.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the cunning in killing Bears.  
IN killing black and cruel Bears in the Northern Kingdoms, they use this way, namely that when in Autumn the Bear feeds on certain read ripe Fruit, or Trees, that grow in Clusters like Grapes, either going up into the Trees, or standing on the ground, and pulling down the Trees, the cunning Hunter, with broad Arrows from a Crosse-bow shoots at him, and these pierce deep; and he is suddenly so moved with this fright and wound received, that he presently voids backward all the Fruit he ate, as Hail-stones; and presently runs upon an Image of a man made of wood, that is set purposely before him& rents and tears, that till another Arrow hit him, that gives him his deaths wound, shot by the Hunter that hides himself behind some ston or three. For when he hath a wound, he runs furiously at the sight of his blood against all things in his way and especially the Shee-Bear, when she suckleth her Whelps.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the crafty hunting of Bears.  
THE Bears watch diligently for the passing of dear; and chiefly, the Shee-Bear, when she hath brought forth her Whelps; who not so much for Hunger, as for fearnig of losing her Whelps, is wont to fall cruelly upon all she meets. For she being provoked by any violence, far exceeds the force of the He-Bear, and Craft, that she may revenge the loss of her Young. For she lies hide amongst the thick boughs of Trees, and young Shoots; and if a dear trusting to the glory of his horns, or quick smell, or swift running, come too near that place unawares, she suddenly falls out upon him to kill him; and if he first defend himself with his horns; yet he is so tired with the knots and weight of them, being driven by the rage of the Bear, that he is beaten to the ground, that losing force and life, he falls down as a prey to be devoured. Then she will set upon the Bull with his horns, using the same subtlety, and casts her self upon his back; and when the Bull strives with his horns, to cast off the Bear, and to defend himself, she fas●neth on his horns and shoulders with her paws, till weary of the weight, he falls down dead. Then laying the Bull on his back, like a Waller, she goes on two feet into the secret places of the Woods, to feed upon him. But when in Winter she is hunted she is betrayed by Dogs, or by the prints of her feet in the Snow, and can hardly escape from the Hunters that run about her from all sides. After 30 days that she hath conceived, for the most part she useth to bring forth five Whelps, not much greater than Mice, without any shape: their flesh is white, but they have not eyes, nor hair; yer the Nails appear: the Dams, by degrees, lick these Whelps into form. A man can see no stranger thing, than to see a Bear bring forth: Wherefore, the Males hid themselves forty days, and the Females four moneths. If they want dens they build them of boughs and shrubs heaped together, they lay soft leaves and moss upon them, and make them impenetrable for the Rain. They sleep deeply for seven days, and can scarce be raised with Wounds, and then they grow wonderful fat; chiefly by sucking their right foot. When their young ones are could, they foster them in their breasts, lying upon them, as Birds do hatch their Eggs.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the battle between the Hedge-Hog, and the Bear.  
THough the Urchin have sharp pointed prickles, whereby he gathers apple to feed on, and these he hides in hollow Trees, molesting the Bear in his Den: yet is he oppressed by the cunning and weight of the Bear: namely when the Urchin rolls himself up round as a ball, that there is nothing but his prickles to come at: yet with this means, he cannot prevail against the Bear, that pisseth on him to open him, to revenge the wrong he did her in violating her Lodging. Nor can the Bear eat the Hedge-Hog, it is such miserable poor and prickly meat. Wherefore returning again into his Cave, he sleeps and grows fat, living by sucking his Paw.  
In case the Hedge-Hog should be taken, and his flesh roasted, contrary to the manner of all other flesh, it will grow black; though there be no sign of any moisture to be found in his belly, nor yet about his hear●, but some few drops, and no blood else in any part of his body. In Spring-time the Males come forth very fat, but the reason of it is not easy, for they are not fatted with sleep above 13 days. The Bears also fight against the Bores, but seldom get the Victory, because they can better defend themselves with their Tusks, than the dear or Bull can by their horns, or running swiftly. The strong Horses keep off the Bears with their biting and kicking, from the Mares, that are great with Foals. Young Colts save themselves by running, but they will always hold this fear, and so become unprofitable for the Wars. Wherefore they use this stratagem, some soldier pu●s on a Bears Skin, and meet them, by reason that they are horses that the Bears have hunted.   

CHAP. XXIV. Of killing Bears with an Iron Club.  
SInce that in the Northern Countries, especially Podolia, Russia, and places adjacent, because of the great multitudes of Bees, the Hives at home will not contain them, the Inhabitants willing●y let them fly unto hollow Trees, made so by Nature or by Art, that they may increase there. Wherefore mortal stratagems are thus prepared for Bears, that use to steal honey,( for they having a most weak head, as a Lion hath the strongest, for sometimes they will be killed with a blow under their ear): namely a wooden Club set round with Iron points, is hung over the hole the Bees come forth of, from some high bough, or otherwise; and this being cast upon the head of the greedy Bear that is going to steal the honey, kills him striving against it, so he loseth his life, flesh, and skin to the Master, for a little honey. Their flesh is salted up like Hogs flesh, Stags flesh, Elks; or Ranged deres flesh, to eat in Camps, and the Tallow of them is good to cure any wounds.   

CHAP. XXV. Of the ravishing of a Maid, and the begetting of Ulfo, a most cunning and valiant man.  
IF saxon, the Danish Writer, and others after him, had not related this ravishing of a Maid with ●o many circumstances, I should have little occasion to make mention of this History. But because something, very like it, is found in other Writers, it will be better to wonder at such a Work of Nature, than rashly to upbraid her the least in things that are secret. What therefore concerns the ravivishing of the Maid, I shall show it more at large, as it follows taken forth of the new History of my most dear Brother and predecessor, Joannes Magnus, Arch-Bishop of Upsal, Lib. 18. from the Relation of saxon. For he saith, that a certain Countrey-mans Daughter in Sweden that was very fair, going forth with her, Maids to play a huge Bear driven away her Companions, and ravished her; and taking her in his paws, carried her gently into his known Cave in the Wood and he went about her tender Limbs, not with a desire to eat them, but to embrace them, and the prey he got to devour, he useth for his Lust.  
For he still courted her, and satisfied his Hunger by lying with her; and to feed her the better, he would ro●e abroad, and set upon a Heard of cattle that was not far from thence, and he used her to feed on raw flesh, who was wont to feed on more dainty meat. For the Captive Maid did so bridle his fierceness, that whom she feared as one that would devour her, he was onely in love with her, and she had meat from him, who feared that he would devour her. At last, the Bear was hunted with Dogs and Nets, and was killed with Javelins: That therefore Nature, that is a bountiful Artificer of a double matter, might colour the deformity of the Marriage, with the fitness of the Off-spring, she was brought a bed of the Monster after an ordinary fashion; and he was like to a Wild-man, and had his Fathers name given him of necessity, who when he came to know the truth how he was begotten, revenged himself cruelly of those who slay his Father. His Son Trugillus, Sprachaleg, nothing inferior to his Father for virtue, begot Ulfo: from whom descended King Sweno, and others of the Line of the Kings of Denmark,& they derive themselves from this Original, by a long order of succession, as saxon testifies. But how such like Births should be judged of, August. de Civ. Dei, speaks much; and, to which Sex there ought to be most ascribed.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Swineheards that are taken away with their Pipes.  
IT is well enough known, that Bears, Dolphins, Stags, Sheep, Calves, and Lambs, are much delighted with music: and again they are so driven from their herds by some harsh sounding Pipes of Horns, that when they hear the sound they will be gone into the Woods a great way off. Now the shepherds of the cattle know this well enough, they will play upon their two-horned Pipes continually, which sometimes are taken away by Bears, until such time as the Bear is forced by Hunger to go away to get his food. Wherefore they take a Goats Horn, and sometimes a Cows Horn, and make such a horrid noise, that they scar the Wild Beast, and so return safe to their dispersed Flocks. This two-horned Pipe, which in their Tongue they call Seec-pipe they carry to the fields with them, for they have learned by use, that their Flocks and herds will feed the better, and closer together.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the dancing of the Bears in Lithuania.  
THE Russians, and Lithuanians, are more near to the Swedes and Goths, on the Eastern parts: and these hold it a singular delight, to have always the most cruel Beasts bread up tame with them, and made obedient to their commands in all things. Wherefore to do this the sooner, they keep them in Caves, or tied with Chains, chiefly Bears newly taken in the Woods, and half starve them: and they appoint one or two Masters, clothed one like the other, to carry Victuals to them, that they may be accustomend to play with them, and handle them when they are loose. Also, they play on Pipes sweetly, and with this they are much taken: and thus they use them to sport and dance, and then when the Pipes sound differently, they are taught to lift up their legs, as by a more sharp sign, to end the Dance with, that they may go on their hinder feet, with a Cap in their forefeet, held out to the Women and Maids, and others that saw them dance, and ask a reward for their dancing; and if they give not freely, they will murmur, as they are directed by their Master, and will nod their heads, as desiring them to give more money: So the Master of these Bears, that cannot speak the Language of other Countries, will get a good gain by his dumb Beast. Nor doth this seem to be done onely, because that these should live by this small gain: for the Bearherds that led these Bears, are at least ten or twelve lusty men; and in their company, sometimes, there go Noble-mens Sons, that they may learn the fashions, manners, and distances of places, the Military Arts, and Concord of Princes, by these merry Pastimes. But since they were found in Germany, to spoil Travellers, and to cast them to their Bears to eat, most strict Laws are made against them, that they may never come there again.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the Agility of Bears.  
THere is another Sport, when Bears taken are put into a ship, and show merry pastimes going up and down the Ropes, and sometimes are profitable for some unexpected accident. For Histories of the Provincials, mention, that it happened, that one was thus freed from a Pirate that was like to set upon him; for the Pirat coming on, was frighted at it, when he saw afar off, men as he supposed going up and down the Ropes, from the Top-Mast, as the manner is to defend the ship. Whereas they were but young Bears, playing on the Ropes. But the most pleasant sight of all is, that when the Bears look out of the ship into the Waters, a great multitude of Sea-Calves will come and gaze upon them, that you would think an innumerable Company of Hogs swam about the ship, and they are caught by the Sea-men with long Spears, with Hooks, and a Cord tied to them; and so are also the other Beasts, that come to help the Sea-Calves taken, and crying like to Hogs. Also the Bears are let down to swim, that they may catch these wandring Sea-Calves, or else when it thunders, and the weather is tempestnous, they be taken above Water.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of Bears turning Wheels.  
BUt that tame Bears may not onely be kept unprofitably to feed and make sport, they are set to the Wheels in the Courts of great men, that with one or two, or more company to help them, they may draw up Water out of deep Wells; and that in huge Vessels made for this purpose, and they do not help alone this way, but they are set to draw great wagons, for they are very strong in their Legs, Claws, and Loins; nor is it unfit to make them go upright, and carry burdens of Wood, and such like, to the place appointed, or they stand at great mens doors, to keep out other hurtful Creatures. When they are young, they will play wonderfully with Boys, and do them no hurt.   

CHAP. XXX. Of Foxes and their sleights.  
THere are in the Northern-Woods, Foxes, white, black, read, cross bearers on the back, and others of a blew colour, spotted, but they all partake of the same malice and fraud; the black skins are dearest, because the Emperours of Moscovie use these often; next are the crosse-bearing skins, that is, such as are marked on the back with a black cross by nature, because they are more adorned, and the skins are greatest: for the Foxes have not this cross till they grow of a full age. And these skins as well as the black are sold by a great Commerce held between the Muscovites, Russians, and Tartars: yet the black skins are suspected that they are made black with the smoke of links. The white skins are less esteemed, and such as are blew or sky-colour, because of the abundance, and falling of the hair; for they last not long, that will not stick to their skins: yet such as are curious, or love their profit, will mingle divers skins together, and make them clothes to keep off the could when they sleep; because they will soon grow very hot and hold it, and are light and fit for old people. The read Fox skins are the most frequent of all, and are found everywhere, and they are easily taken by swift dogs and cunning Hunters, by the prints of their feet left in the Snow, as are Hares, Bears, Stags, Wolves, Lynxes, for their own feet betray them to the Hunters; but in Summer by the scent of the dogs.   

CHAP. XXXI. Of the crafty wit of Foxes.  
WHen the Fox is pressed with hunger, could and Snow, and he comes near mens houses, he will bark like a dog, that house-creatures may come nearer to him with more confidence. Also she will feign her self dead, and lye on her back, drawing in her breath, and lolling out her tongue. Then birds coming down unawares to feed on the carcase, are snapped up by him, with open mouth. Moreover, when he is hungry and finds nothing to eat, he rolls himself in read earth, that he may appear bloody: and casting himself on the earth, he holds his breath, and when the birds see that he breaths not, and that his tongue hangs forth of his mouth, they think he is dead; but so soon as they descend he draws them to him and devours them. Again, when he sees that he cannot conquer the Urchin for his prickles, he lays him on his back, and so rents the soft part of his body. Sometimes fearing the multitude of wasps, he counterfeits and hides himself, his tail hanging out: and when he sees that they are all busy and entangled in his thick tail, he comes forth and rubs them against a ston or three, and kills them and eats them. The same trick almost he useth, when he lies in wait for crabs and small fish, running about the bank, and he lets down his tail into the water, they admire at it, and run to it, and are taken in his fur and pulled out. Moreover, when he hath pleas, he makes a little bundle of soft hay wrapped in hair, and holds it in his mouth, then he goes by degrees into the water, beginning with his tail, that the pleas fearing the water, will run up all his body till they come at his head: then he dips in his head that they may leap into the hay; when this is done, he leaves the hay in the water and swims forth. But when he is hungry, he will counterfeit to play with the Hare, which he presently catcheth and devoureth, unless the Hate escape by flight as he often doth. Sometimes also he escapes from the dogs by barking, feigning himself to be a dog, but more surely when he hangs by a bough, and makes the dogs hunt in vain to find his footing. He is also wont to deceive the Hunter and his dogs, when he runs amongst a herd of goats, and goes for one of them, leaping upon the Goats back, that he may sooner escape by the running of the Goat, by reason of the hateful Rider on his back. The other Goats follow, which the Hunter fearing to molest, calls off his dogs that many be not killed: If he be taken in a string, he will sometime bite off his own foo●, and ●o get away. But if there be no way open, he will feign himself dead, that being taken our of the snare, he may run away. Moreover, when a dog runs after him, and overtakes him, and would bite him, he draws his bristly tall through the dogs mouth, and so he defudes the dog till he can get into the lurking places of the Woods. I saw also in the Rocks of Norway a Fox with a huge tail, who brought many crabs out of the water, and then he ate them. And that is no rare sight, when as no fish like crabs will stick to a bri●tly thing let down into the water, and to dry fish laid in the waters to dry. They that are troubled with the gout, are cured by laying the warm skin of this beast about the part, and binding it on. The fat also of the same creature, laid smeered upon the ears or lims of a gouty person, heals him: his fat is good for all torments of the guts, and for all pains, his brain often given to a child will preserve it ever from the falling-sickness. These and such like simplo medicaments the North Country people observe.   

CHAP. XXXII. Of the fierceness of men who by Charms are turned into Wolves.  
IN the Feast of Christs Nativity, in the night, at a certain place, that they are resolved upon amongst themselves, there is gathered together such a huge multitude of Wolves changed from men that dwell in divers places, which afterwards the same night doth so rage with wonderful fierceness, both against mankind and other creatures, that are not fierce by nature, that the Inhabitants of that Country suffer more hurt from them, than ever they do from true natural Wolves. For as it is proved, they set upon the houses of men that are in the Woods with wonderful fierceness, and labour to break down the doors, whereby they may destroy both men and other creatures that remain there. They go into Beer-Cellars, and there they drink out some tons of Beer or meed, and they heap all the empty vessels one upon another in the midst of the Cellar, and so leave them: wherein they differ from natural and true Wolves. But the place where by chance they stayed that night, the Inhabitants of those Countries think to be prophetical: Because if any ill success befall a Man in that place; as if his Cart overturn, and he be thrown down in the Snow, they are fully persuaded that man must die that year, as they have for many years proved it by experience. Between Lituania, Samogetia, and Curonia, there is a certain wall left, of a Castle that was thrown down; to this at a set time some thousands of them come together, that each of them may try his nimbleness in leaping; he that cannot leap over this wall, as commonly the fat ones cannot, are beaten with whips by their Captains. And it is constantly affirmed, that amongst that multitude there are the great men& chiefest Nobility of the Land. The reason of this metamorphosis, that is ●xceeding contrary to nature, is given by one skilled in this witchcraft, by drinking to one in a cup of Ale, and by mumbling certain words at the same time, so that he who is to be admitted into that unlawful Society, do accept it. Then when he pleaseth he may change his human form, into the form of a Wolf entirely, going into some private Cellar, or secret Wood. Again, he can after some time put off the same shape he took upon him, and resume the form he had before at his pleasure.   

CHAP. XXXIII. Examples of those men that were turned into Wolves, and contrarily.  
BUt for to come to examples: When a ceatain Noble man took a long journey through the Woods, and had many se●●ile Country-fellows in his company, that were acquainted with this Witchcraft,( as there are many such found in those parts) the day was almost spent: wherefore he must lye in the Woods, for there was no inn near that place: and withall they were sore pinched with hunger and want. Last of all, one of the company propounded a seasonable proposal, that the rest must be quiet, and if they saw any thing they must make no tumult; that he saw afar off a flock of sheep feeding; he would take care that without much labour they should have one of them to roast for Supper. Presently he goes into a thick Wood that no man might see him, and there he changed his human shape like to a Wolf. After this he fell upon the flock of sheep with all his might, and he took one of them that was running back to the Wood, and then he came to the Chariot in the form of a Wolf, and brought the sheep to them. His Companions being conscious how he stolen it, receive it with grateful mind, and hid it close in the Chariot: but he that had changed himself into a Wolf went into the Wood again, and became a man. Also in Livonia not many years since it fell out, that there was a dispute between a Noblemans Wife and his servant,( of which they have more plenty in that Country, than in any Christian Land) that men could not be turned into Wolves: whereupon he broke forth into this speech, that he would presently show her an example of that business, so he might do it with her permission: he goes alone into the Cellar, and presently after he came forth in the form of a Wolf; the dogs ran after him through the fields to the wood& they bit out one of his eyes, though he defended himself stoutly enough. The next day he came with one eye to his Lady. Lastly, it is yet fresh in memory, how the Duke of Prussia giving small credit to such a Witchcraft, compelled one who was cunning in this Sorcery, whom he held in chains, to change himself into a Wolf; and he did so. Yet that he might not go unpunished for this Idolatry, he afterwards caused him to be burnt. For such heinous offences are severely punished both by Divine and human Laws.   
The End of the eighteen Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Birds.  
The Epitome of the Nineteenth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the Hawk; and the divers kinds thereof.  
IN the Northern parts the nature of this bide is more generous and stronger, than it is thought to be in other parts of the World; especially because of the coldness of the Climate, and the abundance of birds to feed on, that agree with the nature of it for solid nutriment. For she feeds more eagerly on their blood, heart, and breasts, and grows very bold and greedy after the prey: and by her natural pride and Tyranny oft-times rather than for necessity she is provoked to fall upon the prey, and delights in it. Some there are that eat nothing but the heart which they pull forth at a hole they make in the side. Sometimes also they desire the brain not touching any other part of the Body. They that love Hawking, give their Hawks Crabs to eat, and they feed on them exceedingly, and will fly more greedily after Birds, that they may bring a reward for their dainty meat: and this they easily do, flying so swift above other Birds; and having sharp feathers which they moult every year, and they grow up new again. And the nature of him is this; That the bide he catcheth last at night, he holds in his Talons under his breast to keep him warm, and in the morning he freely lets him go, and will not catch him again.   

CHAP. II. More of the Nature of Hawks.  
THe tame Hawk will bring his prey to the falconer, and he hath the Heart and Entrails for his pains. And these are most delighted with the warmer places, and are sooner fatted with ox or Hogs-flesh; as they grow lean, by eating young Pullets, but temperate of body by feeding on old Hens. Before Hawking time, they are best kept in places not over dark, and to be brought forth every other day. But above all, heed must be had, that they kill not young Children. For no Creature, of all tame Creatures, so much prey's upon Infants, as Apes and great Hawks, who fly to the Cradles, and fasten so strongly with their Talons, on the Eyes and Noses of them, that they will pull them out, and can scarce fly away. These have great bodies, various shining Eyes, a pleasant countenance, gross Feet, long Talons, they feed daintily, and seize upon all Birds: for they fear no Birds but the Peacock. Also they fly at Hares, Coneys, Foxes, Hogs, goose, Cranes, Ducks, Woodcocks; especially when they are forced by Hunger and could, then they fly to mens houses; where, striking small threads, with their Pinions, they are shut in and taken. Lastly, by long fasting, they are made tame as Falcons are. There is also another kind of Hawk in the Northern Countreys, that preys on tame Fowl, as goose, Ducks, and Poultry; and in Winter, knowing its time, lies close in Nests, being bold in small matters, and fearful in great. A Musket, and a Cock will drive him away: and last of all, he dies for hunger. The greedy Musket that preys on its own kind, besides the nature of all other fierce Creatures, even as man doth, is found there in great plenty. He flies commonly alone that he may have no partner in the prey. Sparrows, and other small Birds, to avoid his snare, fly presently to prickly bushes.   

CHAP. III. Of the Nature of Eagles, and their differences.  
I Take it for granted, that the noble and rapacious bide the Eagle, called so from his sharp sight, is known to all men: yet because in the North, there is huge multitudes of them, by reason of the abundance of Wild-Beasts, I shall interpose something concerning their Nature, with premising a distinction. There are six kinds of Eagles: The first is Herodius, called also a Gir-Faulcon, the most noble bide of all, of a blew colour, tending to white, except the Breast and Wings, where it more evidently represents a celestial colour: she is so strong, that she will carry away an Eagle, and so full of animosity, that if she be let fly in the air after four or five Cranes, she will never forsake the prey, till she strike them all down to the ground one after another, and a Dog bread for the sport, takes them away. Nor will this Gir-Faulcon come down for indignation, till he takes away what is fallen. She never breeds more than one young one.  
The second noble kind after this, is that, which when she hath young ones, flies at goose, Swans, Coneys, and Hares chiefly. This is less then the Gir-Falcon, of divers colours, her Feathers are white, and ash-colour, mingled, and she hath white Feathers in her short Tail.  
The third, which sits on the bodies of Trees, whole tops are cut off, whence it hath its name; and it is of an ash-colour: she flies at goose and Ducks, and is less in body and courage, than the former two.  
The fourth, which catcheth Fishes, is of divers colours under the belly, white and black on the back, and upon the bunch it hath black spots: it hath one foot like a Duck, to swim with; another like the Hawk, to catch the prey: she sits on Trees over Rivers, lying in wait for Fish; and there are great multitudes of them in the Northern Waters.  
The fifth kind is small, and various in colour, but notable cunning; for she will carry bones into the air, and let them fall down upon a ston, that she may break them, and so come at the Marrow.  
The sixth kind is white, and lives by flying at Hares, Coneys, Hogs, Whelps, Foxes, and such like: yet the Eagle loves her Young, that she will put her self like a Buckler, between her young ones, and the Arrow shot.   

CHAP. IV. Of the property of Eagles, and their sitting.  
BUt all the kinds of them have this property, that they wrap their eggs in Fox or Hare Skins to be hatched, which they find by chance, or else flay them themselves, and these they leave in their Nests to come to maturity by heat of the Sun. For they cannot always sit, and stay in their Nests, because their Talons would grow so crooked, that they would not be fit to catch their prey: yet they have a huge care to bring up their young ones, bringing to them Fish, Birds, and Hares, to feed on. Cunning Fawkners, who know this, climb up into their Nests, and bind the young ones Fundament with a string, that they may be hindered to eat. The careful old Eagles, that strive to free their Young from this misery, catch all kind of wild Creatures that are to be found in the air, Earth, and Sea, and bring to their Nests, that by such diversity, they may find one or other that may cure them. They heap up great plenty of Food for this purpose, which the Fawkners take away, and either eat it, or sell it. Nor is it a small profit, when as sometimes they find Hares, Woodcocks, goose, Ducks, Pikes, and great Fish, that are sold for many Franks; and these they eat, or else sell at good rates. It is supposed, that a falconer will gain more by two young Eagles, than a Husband-man can get by two Farms: yet that these young ones may not die for hunger, they untie the Arse-gut, and let them feed again, and then tie them up again, so long as Nature can suffer it. For the Eagle is so noble minded, that she will never leave her young Ones, till they know how to feed themselves. Nor will she bring them rotten meat, but fresh killed. The Eagle, by the nobleness of her nature, will suffer no bide to feed with her; and when she wants food, will cease upon them all: whence it is, that Eagles Feathers, joined with other Feathers in Quivers, Arrows, and other things, will devour them, especially Geese-Feathers. Also when other birds see an Eagle, they are so frighted that day, that they will scarce fly abroad to stay their hunger.   

CHAP. V. Of the Duck, and its kinds.  
THE Duck is so called from its continual swimming, all men know her, both the wild and tame Duck; and as she is divided by any other way or kind: Here it is to be observed, that in the Northern Waters there are such plenty of them, that they seem almost to cover all the Waters. Fowlers seldom trouble them, because Ducks flesh is could and gross nourishment; but rather, because they catch far more wholesome flesh in the Woods, than in the Waters. And though Ducks be of divers kinds, yet they all agree in the fashion of their broad bill, and their fashion of their skinny feet to swim withall, onely they differ in colour, according to the Climate. All the tame ones are almost white; but the wild ones remain no where, but in warm waters, whose Veins under the Earth do continually sand up a hot sulphureous Vapour. But that these Waters may never freeze by the Ice, they swim by the instinct of Nature round and overthwart, and so keep the Waters open; and they quack so loud, that you shall hear them cry afar off.  
But when the vehement could compels them, they rise high, and fly to the main Sea, being their onely safeguard to maintain themselves.   

CHAP. VI. Of the admirable Generation of the Ducks of Scotland.  
MOreover near Glegorn, as a later Scottish Writer testifies, two leagues off is the Rock Bassensis, wherein there is an impregnable Fort, about which there is a strange multitude of great Ducks, which they call Sollendae, which live on Fish: and these are not the same with wild or tame Ducks, in the Species Specialissima; but because they are like them in colour and form, they are also called Ducks: but for difference sake Sollend Ducks: These Ducks come yearly by flocks in the Spring, from the South, to the Rock Bassense, and they fly about this Rock two or three days: they that live in the Rock, make no noise all that time. Then they begin to build, and stay all the Summer, living on fish; and the Inhabitants of the Rock are fed with fish, which they catch. For they go up to their Nests( as I said before of the Eagles young ones) and take what fish they please. This bide is wond●rful in her industry to take fish. She sees with sharp Eyes the fish at the bottom of the Sea; and she casts her self head-long upon it, as the Hawk doth upon the Hern: and with her mouth and claws, she brings it forth; and if it be far from some other Rock, and she chance to spy some better fish, she will let the first fall, that she may catch the latter, and so the Inhabitants have fresh fish all the Summer. The young Ducks, or small goose, they sell in the Land near adjoining. If a man eat of them twice or thrice, they will taste most sweetly: for these Birds are extreme fat. They use art to draw out their fat, because it is good in many Medicaments, and they sell the lean parts. At the end of Autumn, they fly three days about the Rock, and then they fly by Troops to the South parts, to live all the winter, that they may return in summer: because when it is Winter with us, it is Summer time to those that live in the South. These Birds live very long, which the Inhabitants have found out by some tokens. The profit of these Birds maintains 30 or 40 souldiers on the Rock, and some Tribute is paid to the Lord of the place. Moreover, another Scotch Historian, who diligently sets down the secret of things, saith that in the Orcades, Ducks breed of a certain Fruit falling into the Sea; and these shortly after get Wings, and fly to the tame or wild Ducks.   

CHAP. VII. Of goose.  
THere is a wonderful multitude of wild and tame goose in the Northern Countries; and chiefly at sitting-time, when the wild goose return from the Southern parts; that is, about the beginning of April. And these are black and ash-coloured, with read feet and bills; as all the tame ones, almost, are white and large. The wild ones are of divers sorts in their magnitude, colour, flight, and production: some are greater than othets, and ash-coloured: some are black and ash-coloured, and fly high: some are white, having very black Feathers at the ends of their Wings, and these fly highest: some breed from Trees, as I said of Scotland Ducks in the former Chapter. The Northern people use the fat of tame goose to dress their meat with, instead of butter: also in Medicaments to smeer on parts, against Convulsions, and sudden and secret pains. This Fat, with Butter mingled with it, stops blood; and with it, St. Anthonie's fire, Carbuncles, Ulcers of the Tongue and Lips, and Skin of the Face, and hard Hearing, are cured. The Northern people use Goose-grease for chaps of the Lips and Face, that arise from could; and that Fat joined with Honey, and applied to the biting of a Mad-Dog, will soon cure it. The Northern Inhabitants eat Goose-flesh seasoned with Salt, and dried in the Wind, both boiled and raw, after the Summer Solstice, as they do of all other Creatures. But before the Winter Solstice, they collect the greatest sign from the Breast-bone of the Goose, how long the Winter shall last; and they do it thus: If the bone be clear from flesh, they judge of a could Winter: If it be thick and dark, there will be much snow, and a mildred Winter that follows. The Goose, when the Night is long, cries before day in could Weather, more than ordinary▪ as being weary of it, because she is wasted with could and Hunger; so that her very bill and feet grow white: the onely remedy she hath, is to sit upon straw: she will cry as much when any Enemies lay siege, or any fire happens in a place.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Sea-Crows, or Cormorants.  
THere is a kind of Water-Crows, or called Eel-Rooks. These Birds are extreme black, except their breasts and bellies: for they are all ash-coloured, and they will eat exceedingly. They hunt for fishes, they fly slowly, and they stay long under Water when they dive, their bills are made tooth-ways, as Mowers sickles, and with those they hold fast slippery fish, chiefly Eels; which they so greedily hunt after and devour, that they will scour them out again through their guts alive, as through a Channel. These Birds are also most ingrateful; because with their dung, they spoil the Trees and Boughs where they live, that they will whither presently. So doth the Hern also, which builds upon high Trees, as well as they near Fish-Ponds, as almost all kind of Water-Fowl do. They lay Eggs in the Spring. There is also another kind of Crows, that at beginning of Winter makes her Nest in seven days, and in seven days hatcheth her young ones. The beginning of Winter is, when the fourth part of the Heaven makes Winter, namely when the Sun enters into the tropic of Capricorn in Winter, till he come to Aries.  
There is another Water-Fowl to be joined with this Crow,( an ungrateful bide) called Morfex, and is coal-black, and preys upon him, having a Bill like a Saw, and strong Talons: and she diving into the Water, catcheth great Fish, and feeds on them. They build by Troops, in Trees, near the Waters, feeding their young with Fish. She leaves her Nest, if she perceives her self over-charged, and vomits up her meat she last eat, or else she dies. When she is full, she stretcheth out her Wings, and drieth them in the sun, and she flaps her Tail a long time in the Water, before she will rise up to fly: Wherefore she hath another name, which is Humusculus, or Humidusculus. Both Winter and Summer, this bide is found on all the Northern Coasts.   

CHAP. IX. Of that bide which is an Enemy to these Crows.  
THere is a bide called a Shevelar that is in the Northern Waters, that is a cruel Enemy to Birds, that dive in the Sea to catch Fish: Wherefore she lies in wait for them thus: She flies upon them, and bites their heads, and rents them till she hath got the prey for her self; and they, thus tormented, soon let it go. She sometimes filling her self with Shell-fish, when she finds her stomach charged with the shells, she having half concocted them with the heat of her stomach, casts them up again, and so eats largely the Oyster and Fish that is within. Moreover, amongst broad prickly Sea-Fish, there is one called a Ray; that defends a man from Sea-Dogs, that take him, when he swims, to devour him; and he will never leave him, till he see him safe from danger. This Fish often sets upon the Corporant, when he dives under water, and eats him, that he may meet one in the Water who shall revenge his gluttony.   

CHAP. X. Of fashions, and their distinction.  
THE Northern Mountains breed fashions very fierce, but generous, and white ones; that are never shot at with Bows by the Inhabitants; but are held as sacred, unless they do roo much hurt and rapine: but if they do mischief, how white and noble soever they be, they shall not escape their Arrows. They live in almost unaccessible Rocks, and feed on fish; which are so many, that innumerable men cannot diminish, unless ravenous Beasts should help them. So Nature sports in her wisely-tempring things with superfluity and defect. Hawks and Kites are there in abundance, also Crows; because Water-Fowls are slow, and fly heavily: and because they are over-fatted with the fruitfulness of the ground.   

CHAP. XI. Of Swallows drawn forth of the waters.  
THough many Writers of Natural Histories have written, that Swallows change their stations; that is, when could Winter begins to come, they fly to hotter climates; yet oft-times, in the Northern Countries, Swallows are drawn forth, by chance, by Fishermen, like a lump cleaving together, where they went amongst the Reeds, after the beginning of Autumn, and there fasten themselves bill to bill, wing to wing, feet to feet. For it is observed, that they, about that time, ending their most sweet note, do so descend, and they fly out peaceably after the beginning of the Spring, and come to their old Nests, or else they build new ones by their natural care. Now that lump being drawn forth by ignorant young men( for the old Fisher-men that are acquainted with it, put it in again) is carried and laid in the Sea-shore, and by the heat of the Sun, the Lump is dissolved, and the Swallows begin to fly, but they last but a short time; because they were not set at liberty, by being taken so soon, but they were made captive by it. It happeneth also in the Spring when they return freely, and come to their old Nests, or make new ones, if a very could Winter come upon them, and much snow fall, they will all die; that all that Summer you shall see none of them upon the Houses, or Banks, or Rivers; but a very few that came later out of the Waters, or from other Parts, which by Nature come flying thither, to repair their Issue. Winter being fully ended in May; For Husband-men, from their Nests, built higher or lower, take their Prognostication, whether they shall sow in Valleys, or Mountains, or Hills, according as the Rain shall increase, or diminish. Also the Inhabitants hold it an ill sign, if the Swallows refuse to build upon their houses: for they fear those House-tops are ready to fall.   

CHAP. XII. Of Birds shut up under the Snow.  
THere are in the Northern Countries Wood-Cocks, like to Pheasants for bigness, but their Tails are much shorter, and they are coal-black all over their bodies, with some white Feathers at the ends of their Tails and Wings. The Males have a read Comb standing upright; the Females have one that is low and large, and the colour is grey. These Birds are of an admirable Nature to endure huge could in the Woods, as the Ducks in the Waters. But when the Snow covers the Superficies of the Earth, like to Hills, all over, and for a long time press down the boughs of the Trees with their weight, they eat certain Fruits of the Birch-Tree, called, in Italian,( Gatulo) like to a long Pear, and they swallow them whole, and that in so great quantity, and so greedily, that their throat is stuffed, and seems greater than all their body. Then they part their Companies, and thrust themselves all over into the snow, especially in January, February, and March, when Snow and Whirlwinds, Storms, and grievous Tempests, descend from the Clouds. And when they are covered all over, that not one of them can be seen, lying all in heaps, for certain weeks they live, with meat collected in their throats, and cast forth, and resumed. The Hunters Dogs cannot find them; yet by the Cunning of the crafty Hunters, it oft falls out, that when the Dogs err in their scent, they, by signs, will catch a number of living Birds, and will draw them forth to their great profit. But they must do that quickly: because when they hear the Dogs bark, they presently rise like Bees, and take upon the Wing, and fly aloft. But if they perceive, that the Snow will be greater, they devour the foresaid Fruit again, and take a new dwelling, and there they stay till the end of March: or, if the snow melt sooner, when the Sun goes out of Aries: for then the snow melting, by an instinct of Nature( as many other Birds) they rise out of their holes to lay Eggs, and produce young ones; and this in Mountains where briars are, and thick Trees. Males and Females sit on the Eggs by turns and both of them keep the Young, and chiefly the Male, that the Eagle nor Fox may catch them.   

CHAP. XIII. Of hunting them out of the Snow.  
THese Birds fly in great shoals together, and they remain in high Trees, chiefly Birch-Trees; and they come not down, but for propagation, because they have food enough on the top of their Trees. And when Hunters or countrymen to whom those fields belong, see them fly all abroad, over the fields full of snow, they pitch up staves obliquely from the Earth above the snow, eight or ten foot high; and at the top of them, there hangs a snare, that moves with the least touch, and so they catch these Birds; because they, when they couple, leap strangely, as Partridges do, and so they fall into these snares, and hang there. And when one seems to be caught in the Gin, the others fly to free her, and are caught in the like snare. There is also another way to catch them, namely with arrows and stalking-horses, that they may not suspect it. At the time of propagation, they sing continually, one striving to exceed the other, especially the Males, that men may hear them far and near all the Woods over, and they oft betray themselves. There is also another kind of Birds called Bonosa, whose flesh is outwardly black, inwardly white; they are as delicate good meat as Partridge, yet as great as Pheasants. At the time of propagation, the Male runs with open mouth till he foam: then the Female runs, and receives this foam; and from thence she seems to conceive, and bring forth eggs, and to produce her Young. The flesh of the foresaid Birds; namely Wild-Cocks, are very delicate and sweet temperate meat, as Capons are; and therefore they are caught with Art; in Winter, with Snares; in Summer, with Arrows.   

CHAP. XIV. Of Snow-Birds.  
ALso some Northern Birds are of a strange Nature; for they will so remain in Woods and deserts, and breed there, that they will never, or very seldom, come near to mens habitations. In Summer they are as great, and of the colour of stars; but in Winter, when the snow is multiplied, they are as white as Swans. Their feet are read, as of black Storks: but they have a comely yellow bill, very short and sharp. Their meat is, as of other Birds, the little Worms that lie hide under barks of Trees, that are chapped, or the dry Fruit of the Pine, fir, or Hazel-Nut three; which in the most could Winter, lose not their nutrimental force. But they are hardly taken with Snares, Nets, Bows, or Slings, because of the deepness of the Snows, for they have a fairer colour than they have a taste. But when these Birds can find any secret holes in the Snow, they will creep in, and bask themselves in it, as a Cock doth in the Dust, or a Stare in the Sand. Then they fly to the tops of Trees full of Snow, as a place that is more natural and pleasant to them; and it is necessary for them so to do, that they may the better prevent the importunate Snares of the Hawks: for when they see the Hawk, they thrust themselves into the snow, as a Sparrow hides himself in a bush, against a Kite; and in Spring-time, when the snows are gone, they hid themselves amongst thick Trees: when they pass from white to an ash-colour, as they naturally vary, they live pleasantly, having no bide almost to prey upon them, but the small Hawk, which is their greatest Enemy.   

CHAP. XV. Of the weighty Snows, and Winter-Gnats.  
ANd this great weight of Snow lasts constantly, until the Sun mounts, and the South-wind blowing consumes it. Then after so long and great Contest of Nature the Sap ascending, makes the Trees straight again that were bowed down with snow, and sets them at liberty; and they rise the higher, as the Earth is made fruitful, when the Snow is melted, that makes it so: and this is great profit to the Husbandmen. For the melting of the Snows makes the fields the more fat, and they sooner yield grass, than any other grounds prepared by any art of man: also the Pasture-grounds grow so plentiful with all manner of Herbs, that we are forced to drive away the cattle, lest they burst themselves, or be hurt by it; and also we use to mow the Meadows, and cut away the grass. There is also another strange thing in Nature toward the North, as in many places where there are hot hollow passages, Gnats breed; and when the South-Wind blows, they rise a little from the ground, and they fly in huge heaps over the Snow; and as they trouble no man, so are they all killed with one Northern blast, as Creatures that live but one day. But when the South-wind blows again, it raiseth new ones out of the same holes, or the like, that for the most part of the Winter, you shall see Gnats singing in the air. And though the Trees flag with the thick Snow, and the tender Boughs bend like Bows by the huge weight, and many Trees lie all along on the ground: yet under them, as under shadowy places, where the could wind cannot come, many Beasts dwell in great security. Also I shall tell you, that Travellers pass under these crooked Trees, as under Arches; yet sometimes they have some light knocks by the fall of the Snow.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the Eggs of divers Birds in Islands.  
BEcause it is not safe for Water-Fowl to lay their Eggs on firm Land, or to produce their young ones far trom the Waters, for fear of hurtful Beasts, as Foxes and Weesils: therefore by the Instinct of Nature, many thousands of them, of divers kinds, live in Islands,( as there are infinite of them in the North) and upon naked tops of Rocks: and some of them make their Nests upon the bare flint, some upon dry s●raw, or grass, and lay innumerable Eggs there: and all that sail thither take them freely, that they will gather great Vessels full of them, and bring them to Market to sell, or th●y will take off their shells, and with Salt, they will keep them for to eat at home for a long time, as they are very good meat; though the Fowls be wild: Yet the Duck brings forth her young ones on Land, near the Waters or Islands. Amongst those Birds, there is the Fen-Duck, or More Hen of a black colour, of the kind of Dy-pappers, and is less than a Duck: she dwells in the Sea, and about Lakes, wandring not, but remaining where she was bread. She lives on the carcases of Fish, that devouring Birds let fall: and besides, she hunts craftily for others amongst the Rocks; and she again freely parts with what she catcheth, to other Birds: She rejoiceth in Tempests, for then she dives and plays in the Waters. When she cries in the morning, she fore-shews a Tempest.   

CHAP. XVII. More of the Eggs of certain Birds.  
ON the shores of Norway also, there are multitudes of Islands, till you come under the Pole: in which as there are many Birds found, that are to be found no where else; so they produce abundance of Eggs, that any man may take: yet there is one more strange than the rest; that a Hen is bread of a Ducks Egg, and she produceth her own young ones, and sits upon her own Eggs: the other is, that dives to find its meat, and doth not know the Dam, when she calls.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of Peacocks.  
IN Ostrogothia, and Vestrogothia, and Sweden, many Peacocks breed, and they are bread up very carefully: so that at first they are fed with pellets, made of Barley meal: After that with New-Milk-Cheese pressed from the milk( for the Whey hurts them:) then when 35 days are past they are fed with whole Barley; and next in the open fields, where, by instinct of Nature, they can feed themselves more freely, especially where Foxes cannot come at them. The reason why they are fostered more than other Birds is, the profit they make, and their fine Feathers, which Painters and Weavers imitate in the North, to make dis●inction of colours, because the Pictures of great Artists are seldom brought hither from far Countries, because the way is so long.   

CHAP. XIX. Of Birds, whose name is not known in the white Lake.  
THe white Lake is between the Scricfinni, Biarmians, and Muscovites, toward the North-Pole; and these are the Bounds of it: It is long and broad, and so full of Fish, that all Fisher-men may freely fish there, and never do any hu●t, especially in Summer: Wherefore many Nations come thither to make their household provision for the whole year. In that Lake, and near to it, dwell infinite sorts of Birds, that make a continual noise for almost six months, night and day in a most clear Light, that men are almost tired with them. Some of them have no known names, but very soft feathers, that the Inhabitants that catch them, gain huge profit by them. For in these could Countries, we have need of very soft beds of feathers to drive away the could, especially for strangers that are not used to hard Lodgings, and such sharp Weather. You shall see here diversity of mens fashions. In ships of the Moscovites, Finlanders, and Scrick Finlanders they are called Strudzar and Haapar, and so long as peace is in these Countries, they all fish peaceably, that there is nothing taken from any man,( which is very strange) for his gain he makes by taking of Fish: unless he steal from others, or exchange which is seldom done, because there is continual day. The Muscovites are very crafty, like the Greeks and falsify their words. There are also Birds called Bittours, that have a sack under their throats, that an unsatiable bide may be known▪ whereof I spake something in its proper place, as of the Crow and others. Also in this Lake are found innumerable Swans, goose, and Ducks.   

CHAP. XX. Of Birds called Alle, Alle.  
THere is also in this Lake a kind of bide very frequent; and in other Coasts of the Bothnick and Swedish Sea, that cries incessantly all the Summer, Alle Alle, therefore they are called all over by the Inhabitants, Alle Alle. For in that Lake such a multitude of great birds is found( as I said before) by reason of the fresh Waters that spring from hot Springs, that they seem to cover all the shores and Rivers, especially Sea-Crows, or Cormorants, coats, More-Hens, two sorts of Ducks, Swans, and infinite smaller Water-Birds. These Crows, and other devouring Birds, the Hunters can easily take, because they fly slowly, and not above two or four Cubits above the Water: thus they do it on the narrow Rocks, as in the Gates of Islands, on the Banks of them, they hang black Nets, or dyed of a watery colour upon Spears: and these, with Pulleys, will quickly slip up and down, that in great Sho●es they catch the Birds that fly thither, by letting the Nets fall upon them: and this is necessary because those Birds fly so slowly, and right forward: so that few escape. Also, sometimes Ducks, and other Birds are taken in these Nets. Wherefore these black or slow Birds, whether they swim or fly, are always crying Alle Alle, which in latin signifies All, All, and they do so when they are caught in the Nets: and this voice the cunning Fowler interprets thus, that he hath not as yet all of them in his Nets; nor ever shall have, though he had six hundred Nets. These Birds are also in great numbers on the Rocks of Swedeland and upper Gothland though not so many, as in the foresaid Lake, and the Rivers near to that. Also Water-Fowl are taken in Vessels, made of Trees, that grow by the shore, and the boughs are made like to nests: and into these Ducks chiefly creep, to lay their Eggs, and to hatch their young ones, because of the Foxes that trouble them on the Land; and small ones, especially, are taken with Bird-lime.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Whonps, or Lapwings.  
LApwings, when at a set-time they come to the Northern Countries from other parts, they fore show the nearness of the Spring coming on. It is a bide that is full of crying and lamenting, to preserve her Eggs, or young. By importunate crying, she shows that Foxes lie hide in the grass; and o she cries out in all places, to drive away Dogs, and other Beasts. They fight with Swallows, Pies, and Jackdaws. On Hillocks, in Lakes, she lays her Eggs, and hatcheth her young ones. Made tame, she will cleanse a house of flies, and catch Mice. She fore-shews Rain when she cries: which also Field-Scorpions do, called Mares, cuckoos; who by flying overthwart, and crying loudly, foreshew Rain at hand: also the greater Scorpions, with huge long snouts, foresignify Rain: so do Wood-peckers. There is also a bide called rain, as big as a Partridge, that hath Feathers of divers colours, of a yellow white, and black colour: This is supposed to live upon nothing but air though she be fat, nothing is found in her belly. The Fowlers hunt her with long poles, which they cast high into the air, to fright her, that so they may catch the bide flying down.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the cuckoo, and divers sorts of Wood-Peckers.  
THere is also in the Northern Woods a bide that brings good luck, which all men know, called a cuckoo, who about the beginning of May, falls to crying aloud, and so continues till the end almost of July: But this is done in vast Woods, by reason of all the other Birds that hate her naturally, and hinder her, because she( called, in Greek, Coccyx) lays snares for others. For she makes no nest of her own, but lays her eggs in the Turtle, Lark, or Wood-Sparrows Nests, to be sate upon, and hatcheth her young ones by anothers labour: when they come forth of the shell, they are so comely, that the Nurse is provoked to feed them; and she is so delighted with this fat bide, that she suffers her own Young to starve, that she may foster this; and when this Bastard-brood is able to fly, it kills the Nurse; and at last, the cuckoo is killed by the Hawk that is of the same kind. Moreover, there are many kinds of Wood-Peckers in the North, as great as Jackdaws, that in the most sharp Winter, seek their food in the barks of Trees: some are coal-black, with a read Crest; some grey, some green; others of divers colours; and these, by crying, foreshew the sharper Winter coming.   
The End of the Nineteenth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF FISH.  
The Epitome of the Twentieth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the three-fold Bothnia in the North, and the abundance of Fishing there.  
BOthnia, that terminates the Gothick or Swedish cost toward the North, is a ●ery large country, divided into three great Provinces, West, North, and East. They that live in the North Province, live most by Fishing: because they have such abundance of excellent Fish, that it s●●●i●eth abundantly to barter for all necessary Commodities. They are very rich in all things: for they get from Spain and Portugal the best Wine, and Salt; from England, and Flanders, precious Cloth; from Germany much household-stuff of divers sorts; besides their Ornaments they have at home: from Swedland and Gothland, Wheat, Rye, Barley, and all kinds of Pulse necessary, brought to them in ships. Every Shore, iceland, Creek, River, Stream, there, yields an overflowing plenty of Fish all the year, especially in Summer, when all things there are most pleasant. There are many Islands near the Sea-shores, and they are very delightsome, by reason of their grass. In the Trees, Birds of divers kinds sing harmoniously: there is great variety of Fish, that sport themselves above Water: there is great profit for Fishers every where: there is no hurtful beast ni the Sea there, nor any pernicious formidable creeping Creature near the Land: All the Summer there is no darkness, no great heat of the Sun; the air is wholesome and temperate; all things are there pleasant, quiet, and peaceable. But which is most wonderful, in so great pleasantness of divers places and times, and liberty, yet is no lascivious act committed amongst them: they live, both Sexes, chastened and modestly; they neither commit Incest, Fornication, nor Adultery; nor so much as name them. For the pure Law of God is so much observed by those simplo people, that many most learned in the Divine Law, may seem to yield to them for Chastity. There runs out of the Mountains of this Northern Bothnia,( that is of the bottom of the Sea) a huge deep River; which runs into the Sea at two mouths, with a short space between them; whereon is built the Town called Thorna, that is the towering iceland, the Elevation whereof for Latitude is 82 degrees, the Longitude 42. This Town is situate in a most pleasant and commodious place: and there is no more frequent Mart in all the country near the Pole than is this Thorna. For the white Russes come to it; so do the Laplanders, Biarmians, Bothnians, Finlanders, Swedes, the Tavasti, Helsingers, and many more, from the parts of Norway, over the most high Mountains, and vast deserts, and the country of Jempthia: and all these use partly long ships, fitted for the swift courses of Rivers, or else Chariots drawn by Ranged dear, and partly crooked poles, wherewith they can soon pass over the cliffs of Mountains covered with snow, and slide down suddenly, as I explained it at the beginning of this Book.   

CHAP. II. Of the Multitude of Fish at this Mart.  
FIshes of divers sorts that are caught in sundry places, are brought together to this Mart, and are sold to Merchants of foreign Pro●inces by ●xchange, and that in bundles bound together, that weigh five hundred heavy pounds; which weight is most usual there. Moreover in great Vessels there are Salt-fish or dried Fish, what way soever, to make them taste the better. The Holmenses, Aboenses, Raugmenses, Eregrundenses, sail most frequently every year to this iceland, to win great gain; and they make their profit, not by taking money,( for that people regards not money) but by bartering for necessary Commodities, as I shewed in my fourth book. And this is done, because they are a simplo and credulous people; and oft-times cheating Merchants will bring false money to this Mart, especially the cunning-witted Moscovite, that comes there in great numbers about the Summer Solstice( as I ●aw it in the year 1519.) and they will sometimes carry their ships on their shoulders, over the spaces, between the Waters. But when they are caught in their Roguery, they presently take revenge of them.   

CHAP. III. Of fishing for Salmons.  
THere is scarce any place in all Europe, where there is more plentiful fishing for Salmons, than in the Bothnick Sea, toward the Laplanders; from whole Mountains and Lands, there run forth huge fresh Water-Rivers: against which it is a most gallant sight to see the Salmons swim in the heat of the day, like souldiers in bright armor; and in such plenty, that the upper Waters of the Mountains are unfished. He is called a Salmon from his leaping; for he takes his tail in his mouth, and holds it fast, and bends it double, till he can leap over a place that is broken off: and he swims to this against the stream, and he will never leave off ●eaping, till he cast himself into fresh Waters, which he eagerly hunts for; and afterwards leaping down again, he returns to his old habitation amongst the hollow Rocks; For he delights, by turns, to live in salt and fresh Waters. This Fish will grow to be six or seven foot long, very strong and heavy: his flesh is read; which though it be sweet and pleasant, yet they soon fill those that eat fast: and it is true, if one eat it greedily, when it is fresh: But when it is salted, it is held to be more pleasant, that they are bought at great rates and abundance, and carried into Upper-Germany, first in ships, then by Carts. Nor is there found any want of this Fish, catch as many as they will, in the place where they breed. For I saw about the Summer Solstice, on the utmost shores of Bothnia, about Thorna, such a great multitude of them taken, and drawn forth in such abundance, that they broke the strongest Nets. For this Fish, when he finds himself entangled, strives with all his force to free himself, putting his Tail in his mouth, to leap forth in a hoop: and though he be slow and sluggish, he will suddenly show that, by reason of his Fat. His heart taken out, moves longer than the heart of any other Creature: Salmons are procured at a great rate in the Rh●ne, and Weasil, and Danow, or Dzuma, near the Kings Court in Livonia; and these are dried in the smoke with oaken Wood, to make them taste the better, as they generally do by all the Northern Waters. Many of them are taken in the Countries of the Ostrogoths, and Vestrogoths: For there are Rivers in many places 20 or 30 foot deep; especially amongst the Vestrogoths, in the Province called Wermelandia, which was formerly a kingdom: where there is a Lake of fresh Water which is one hundred miles long, and forty miles broad, called Vener; into which there run 24 great Rivers from the Mountains of Norway, and they have but onely one out-let toward the South, which is called Trolhetta, that is, the Divels Hood: In those fresh Rivers, Salmons are taken in great abundance: and they lay huge eggs in their kind, bigger than Chiches or Peason; and being all spotted on the outside very handsomely with black spots. Also great is the profit of these Fish where ever they be taken, and where men have Art to take them, it increaseth daily.   

CHAP. IV. Of Fishing for Sea-Calves.  
BEcause in the Bothnick and Finland Sea, there is a vast company of Sea-Calves: therefore I will set down briefly the nature of them, and the way to catch them, which I have seen. The Sea-Calf, which also in latin is called Helcus, hath its name from the likeness of a Land-Calf, and it hath a hard fleshy body; and therefore is hard to be killed, but by breaking the Temples of the head. It hath a voice like a Bull, four feet, but not his ears; because the manner and mansion of its life is in the Waters. Had it such ears, they would take in much Water, and hinder the swimming of it. It produceth a perfect Creature, and brin●s forth at all times, as Women do, but chiefly with the first Goats. The Sea-Calf is hai●y, and sticks backward in copulation as a Dog doth, whether he will, or no. She bringeth forth her Young on the Land, as cattle do, but never more then two at once, though the Author of the Nature of things say three. She doth not bring her Young from the Land into the Sea before it be 12 days old, and by degrees useth it to it. They will low in their sleep, thence are they called Calves. They will learn, and with their voice and countenance salute the company, with a confused murmuring: called by their names, they will answer: no Creature sleeps more profoundly; The Fins that serve them for to swim in the Sea, serve for legs on Land, and they go hobbling up and down as lame people do. Their Skins, though taken from their bodies, have always a sense of the Seas, and when the Sea go forth, they will stand up like bristles. The right Fin hath a soporiferous quality, to make one sleep, if it be put under ones head. They that fear Thunder, think those Tabernacles best to live in, that are made of Sea-Calves Skins, because onely this Creature in the Sea, as an Eagle in the air, is safe and secure from the stroke of Thunder. This Animal suckleth her Whelps at her dugs.   

CHAP. V. Of the way to fish for them, and their Physical use.  
THe Fisher lies crooked upon the Ice with a counterfeit black Skin, and with a long Spear, and a crooked Iron at the end, and he lows, and calls the Sea-Calf; who comes presently thinking to find a new Female, his own being slain: for he is of all beasts the most cruel murderer of his own Female, that he will take one Female after another, until he be killed by one of them in their own defence. But here he finds not a Consort, but a Dart; not Luxury, but a snare to destroy him: For the Dart shot through the Spear, sticks in his body, till the beast being weakened by the wound, is drawn forth by the Rope. He is also taken napping, with a Spear, because he sleeps most profoundly, as some other fishes do, of whom I shall speak underneath concerning the Rosmarus.  
As a man and a horse, so doth the Sea-Calf grow grey: and the Young ones always reverence the Elder. For where 30 or 40 lie in the Rocks asleep, as flocks of sheep, it hath been faithfully observed, that the young ones and the old ones sleep asunder: and when one of the elder goes down into the Waters, not one of them will stay behind on the Mountain, Rock, nor Plain, or any part of the Ice, unless it be to bring forth. If the S●a be boisterous and rise, so doth the Sea-Calfs hair: if the Sea be calm, the hair is smooth; and thus may you know the state of the Sea in a dead Skin. The Bothnick mariners conjecture by their own clothes, that are made of these Skins, whether the Sea shall be calm, and their Voyage prosperous, or they shall be in danger of shipwreck.   

CHAP. VI. More of the virtue of this Creature.  
THese Creatures are so bold, that when they hear it thunder, and they see it clash and lighten, they are glad, and ascend upon the plain Mountains, as Frogs rejoice against Rain. When they of Bothnia, or Northern Sea, are to sail forth toward Germany in bitter Winter, they smeer the planks of their ships with the fat of this Creature, that they may not frieze and drown the ship Also this fat is commonly called Seeltram, it is good to smeer divers sorts of Skins, and Hides, which they call soft Leather: of which they make soft stockens, as one may see in Prussia how this soft Leather is prepared by Water-Wheels, and to vent it, it is carried into Flanders, Italy, France, and Germany. Also Ox-Hides, unless they be smeered with this Fat, or Whales Fat, are nothing worth to make boots for Travellers in Rain; because it drives away all moisture and preserves them very long; nor will Mice eat boots or shoes smeered with this Fat or Horse-head stalls tied to the Mangers, as they will those that are smeered with Ox, or Sheeps Suet. Also this natural good is in this Leather, that it will never be Thunder-stricken, where ever it be tied.   

CHAP. VII. Of the perplexity of those that eat the flesh of Sea-Calves in the Lent.  
SInce this Creature hath flesh and lard like to Hogs about the House, many trouble themselves with a great scruple, whether a man may securely feed on the inward flesh of these Creatures in Lent; because they are fat as Bacon outwardly, and when that is taken away, the flesh is next to it. Wherefore this cause is wont to be remitted to the Ecclesiastical men to decide; and whilst, on both sides, many Arguments from Natural Reason use to be given, to prove this or that, and it cannot be defined and agreed upon; the men of a more clear judgement, rejecting many Reasons, brought on both sides, do say and prove, that the demonstration must be fetched from the Sea-Calf itself, namely thus; that when the Sea-Calf brings forth on the shore, if the Beast driven by the Hunter run into the Woods, men must forbear to eat of it in Lent, when flesh is forbidden: but if he run to the Waters, one may safely eat thereof. And so it is, that infinite multitudes of people use this Fat instead of oil. And therefore their flesh is powdered up in abundance, as Pork is, and Flitches of Bacon; but the more solid Fat of this Creature is carried to Upper Germany.   

CHAP. VIII. Of Jacks, or Pikes.  
THere are Lakes of fresh Waters in the Mountainous parts of Lapland, that are four hundred Italian miles in length, and one hundred in breadth, and more, wherein there is such a multitude of Water-Woolves, or Pikes,( and other Fish besides) that they not onely suffice to feed men in four most ample Kingdoms of the North, but much farther, being dried with Salt in the Sun, and carried in ships, as great heaps of Wood, into large Germany, to be sold there. In like manner must we think of the Lakes of Finland. The Pike is a River-Fish, with a large mouth, and very sharp teeth, and devours smaller fish: yet the Perch, with her Scales, and most prickly Fins, stands against him, that he cannot devour her. Yet he will cunningly come upon her overthwart, and bite her in small pieces, and swallow her down; so that no fish, be he never so well armed, can be safe from his devouring cruelty. The Pike or Jack feeds on venomous Beasts, as Toads, Frogs, and such like: yet when men are sick, Physitians counsel them to eat the Pike, as being wholesome meat. Caught in a Net, he will easily escape, if the Fisher-men draw the Net softly: but if you draw the Net very fast, he cannot avoid you. This is called the Water-Woolf, and if he have River-Water, and meat enough to keep him, in time he will grow eight foot long; and will devour a fish almost as big as himself. For when he conquers his prey, he first eats the head: when that is done, he eats the rest by degrees, till he eats up all. Also he will not spare his own kind, either by reason of his natural cruelty, or because he is greedy and rapacious. Moreover, he pursues his own seed, so soon as they have the form of fishes, nor will he abstain from such as have sharp prickles: for his throat and stomach so join together, that sometimes he casts it forth, being greedy to swallow a fish.   

CHAP. IX. Of catching the Pike.  
THE Female of this Fish, when she scatters her Eggs, she goes far from the place where she is wont to stay, and there she lays her Eggs, that her Young may not hinder her in taking the prey: and she doth this, either by natural cruelty, or envious Rapine. He is taken many ways, either by a broad Hook, or alchemy, or shining Brass, made for the purpose; and there is a fish hanged at it, that is white. Also with an Iron-toothed Fork, when they make a fire in the pitchy dark night; for while he gazeth greedily on the fire, he is strike with the Iron Fork. Moreover, when she plays under the Ice in the end of March: for then she lays her Eggs, and makes such a noise in the Water, by strong motion of her head, that she discovers her self to the Fisher how to take her. Also she is taken in Weels made of thin boards, and placed in Reeds: and when she gets in, she falls upon all fishes there to devour them. Fine-mouth'd Gluttons, that keep these fish in Fish-ponds, to entertain strangers, chiefly in Germany, spend more on this in one month, than they do on horses for the War. For sixty great Pikes in one month, will consume more fish, which they call Carps, fetched from other places, longer than a mans foot, put into the Fish-ponds, than ten horses would do at grass. Some also have not onely for their pleasure, but for their household maintenance, Fish-ponds made hard by the Banks of Waters, where fish play in shoals under a free captivity, delighting the eyes of the beholders, and procuring an appetite to the Guests. They run greedily at mens hands, and they covet meat before they are to be eaten themselves. Man feeds his own delights, and when he hath somewhat in his power that he may take, it often falls out, that when he is full, he is taken himself, and leaves all behind. Pikes pickled, will keep a long time in Camps for food. But dried with the Sun, Wind and Salt they are far more commodious: for when they are raw, bruised with a Club or Mallet, they will be very good meat. But seasoned with Salt, they still hold their Native clammy substance. The Teeth of Pikes burned a little, and powdered▪ strewed on the ruptures of horses, under the Harness, and a Skin laid upon the place, is a certain Remedy.   

CHAP. X. Of fishing by Flames.  
BEcause I mentioned before the Iron-toothed Fork, wherewith River-Pikes are easily catched; therefore I shall here show the chief property of it, because wise Fishermen commonly use that instead of many hooks, to catch Pikes and Eels with, and they make great profit by the use of such easy Instruments: yet they use them the same way that they do in Boats made of one entire piece of Wood, or two pieces joined together; on the fore-part they set Torches of Pitch, because it is dark, and make a great flamme, and the Pikes and Eels are seen to come gazing at the light, and then they strike them with this armed Iron, and draw them to them for their use. Sometimes also they lay heaps of great Wood upon pieces of Ice swimming up and down, and make a fire with them; and with the like Iron, as if they stood in a ship, they catch fishes, who are so astonished, that they think of no danger near. Also they are taken with boughs set upright in the ship, and the Fishes come under their shadow to rest.  
Also, oft-times it falls out, that when it thunders fiercely, the Eels, as if they were not safe in the Water, desirous to go out of the Waters, are taken either with Nets or Hooks, or Hoys, and Wooden-square Buildings, bored through with many holes, and so they are catched in great numbers. And the Inhabitants get more profit when Thunder troubles the Waters, and rowzeth up the Eels from their Dens, that else will hardly come forth. Likewise, hanging a huge ston at it, they keep a Wedg fashioned Vessel of Wood, bored full of holes, and filled with Pease-straw, and let it down to the bottom of the Water for fish to creep into. Nor is this in vain; for with Ropes bound to them, they are drawn forth, filled up to the very top. This is a new-●ound way, and wonderful profitable. In Winter they lie hide in the deep Mud, where the Lakes ●reez not: but if they be all frozen over, they all die, having no breathing from the air, as I have seen it, and as I shall say underneath concerning fishing. Also, Eels use to live long, sometimes for six days in the fields sowed with Peason especially when the North Wind blows; but they are so smeered with Gravel or Ashes, that they cannot get forth again. They much delight to be under Corn-Mills, by reason of the sweet Meal that descends by little and little. There is found a huge multitude of Eels in the Northern parts, salted or dried with smoke; and these they eat raw.   

CHAP. XI. Of Fishing in Summer, and Hawking.  
PRovident Fisher-men observe two things chiefly, that in the morning before the Sun rise, and when the fight of Fishes is most deceived, and they come in shoals to feed, they may fish silently. To do this, they choose dry Birch-Wood Sponges, as that country brings forth very great ones; and these they cast upon the fords, that the Birds that wander may be the more secure. The Fowler puts a great Sponge upon his head, to cover it like a Helmet, and goes into the Lake up to the chin, that he may ensnare them, he goes forward toward the birds that swim, they seeing this Spongy Wood upon the Fowlers head, thinking that it is one of the other Sponges that swims, come near, and are catched by the Fowlers hand; and so one after another, many come, and are caught and killed. For the Fowler puts out his hand privately, and catcheth the silly bide by the legs, and draws him down, and puts him in his bag prepared for it. The other birds supposing that their fellow dived under water of himself, to seek for food, as they do, thinking nothing, they all go the same way, and fall into the Fowlers hand. And as he fisheth with the other hand with a large Net, it is not lost labour; for the Water troubled with his feet, blinds the fish that otherwise have but weak eyes, and makes them not to beware, but that they run of themselves into the Nets. Moreover, he fishes to the purpose with a Hook that hangs behind his back, over his arm, with a Line. For so many fish are to be found every where, that with all fishing Instruments, upon every joint, almost, they are easily catched, especially in Creeks of the Sea, and Rivers, where fish come in great multitudes, that they may be the more quiet, and secure from Tempests. But they are safe no where, if mans Wit can catch them.   

CHAP. XII. More of ingenious Fishing.  
THere is also another way of Fishing found out, with Snares, by making a noise, since it is apparent, that most Fish can hear, and are taken with sweet music. The Nets are pitched long-ways in the Water, or else overthwart; and before the Nets, upon the Water, an Instrument like a bow, that it may ●●ote above the Waters: at the upper end of this bow, is hanged a little Ringing-Bell; and the Fishes come in shoals to the noise of it, wondering at the same, and so they are caught with apparent snares: I shall relate one accident which I saw; a Lutenist playing on his Lute, and singing to it called many Dolphins together; and after that for an hours space they had heard this found on the very calm Sea( for not one blast of Wind stirred) they puffed, and with their Tails troubled the Waters, as it were in token of thankfulness when they departed: and presently there followed such hideous Tempests, that we could scarce save our lives from great danger. Some Fisher-men also eye living small Fish to their Lines, and draw their Lines long-ways, and broad-ways, that they may circumvent the great ones that seek after their prey, with their Nets. Others make Ditches near the Sea-shores, that the Water may come in, and they cover them with boards, that the fish may lie and rest there; and then they catch them in snares: and this falls out more frequently in Autumn, than in Summer, by reason of the more cruel Tempests. Others set long Wedg-fashion'd Hedges made with stones and wood like a pyramid, as far as to the middle of the River: yet not to stop from their Neighbours the public way for the fish to pass, that runs in the middle of the River, and is called by the people there, The Kings Vein; and so in this Pyramidal Orifice, where the Weel is set open, they are taken.   

CHAP. XIII. Of their Fishing on the Ice.  
HEre is shewed a different way how Fishes are taken under the Ice, called Borbochae, or Lake, in their Vulgar Tongue: which when the Fishers perceive under the thin Ice, they astonish them with the stroke of a great Hammer, and endeavour to make them stop underneath, and to lie upon their backs, and to turn up their bellies, that breaking a hole in the Ice, they may take them out half alive. And this custom is most used about the Winter Solstice. There is another way to fish under the Ice, that is the most common, and it is with Hooks: to which small fishes being tied, 'allure the great ones to prey upon them, especially Pikes, which are held to be more infatiable, than other fishes. A small cord is let run out 60. or 100. paces, between two holes that stand far off and right one against the other, all the night, and lies under the Ice, baited with many Hooks; the Fisher-men draw this forth the next day, and find multitudes of fishes caught upon it: and these fish are of divers sorts, and frequently very fat, by reason of their good feeding, and safe rest, that they have in could places, especially such as remain in Lakes: The Males are fatter than the Females, except the Herring, as I shall show at the end.   

CHAP. XIV. Of fishing with Horses.  
THis way of fishing upon the Ice, is observed in great Lakes, and fresh Waters, and Creeks of the Salt-Seas, every year from the month of November, to the end of March, and longer, as often as there is need, and as the fishes are in multitude. For whether the Ice be thick, or covered with Snow, or clear, or slippery, or however it appears, as it is bound up with could, or however Nature makes it, there never wants Wit nor Will to serve the public faithfully in necessary things. So the Northern people endure Heat and could alike, with a contented mind. To walk upon the Ice, they have Wooden shoes fit for their feet, and these are tied on; and they have three points of Iron fastened to them, that with their points downward tread e●ven upon the slippery Ice: and thus they tread sure upon the Ice, as upon firm ground. If they want these Irons, the Fisher-men will go firmly with naked soles, and never fear falling. But with shoes of oiled Leather they cannot stand fast by reason of the Frost, for this Leather will presently grow hard and slippery as Ice; especially if thin Snow for one night, or but half a night, be scattered upon the Ice: for this makes them fall unawares suddenly. When it is deep or thick, the Foot-steps take more hold of it: Wherefore when they will fish under the Ice, they open two great holes, some 8 or 10 foot broad, and a 150 or 200 paces asunder one from the other in a right Line: and between these, they make 30 or 40 lesser holes, about one foot and half broad, and on both sides distant between them 30 foot: Then they put their Cords into the Water, under the Ice, through them, and guide them with long Spears; and directing them to the other great hole, they give those that ride on horseback both ends of these Ropes to draw by; and they charge to drive their horses on the faster, to make them draw, as the Nets seem to be almost drawn forth, lest the fish, when they perceive that they are entangled, as great Pikes, may strive forcibly, and break the Nets, and escape. And so they are drawn forth oft-times, and it is a very handsome sight, in such great multitudes, and divers kinds, that they do not divide them there with balance, of which they have no use, but by whole Waggon-Loads of great Vessels that they measure them by.   

CHAP. XV. Of running on the Ice for Fish, and why they fish so often.  
IT falls out oft-times, that when they take such multitudes of fish, the young-men that want money, find favour amongst the Fisher-men, that they may run a long course upon the slippery Ice, and win some fish by running: and they will not deny to pay them what they deserve honestly for their pains, or else they freely give them some. Commonly 20 or 30 fishes are set out for them to win, which at Rome were worth so many Franks. There are many Reasons why they must take such pains, and fish under the Ice, namely the time of the fishes breeding, whereof many kinds give eggs in the most bitter could Weather: and these have many fishes in their company, not that are by Nature friendly with them, but as such who come to devour their eggs. Also the public profit and necessity urgeth them, that there must be provision made for the people, of the abundance of fishes: and the nature of fish requires it; who if they had no breathing places by holes made in the Ice, all that are in the River, or Lake, would soon die. Long fishes are wonderfully made fat by a North-Wind, as broad ones are by a South-Wind. And not onely in one Lake, but almost over all, is this Winter-fishing held upon the Ice, especially in the larger Lakes, as Meler, and Vener, and Vether, that are fresh Lakes; and these show the time, by their natural property, wherein a man cannot fish in them safely. But Vether, more than the rest, shows its nature to men that they may run no hazard. For at the time when the Ice begins to thaw, it begins to boil with a mighty noise, and to come up from the bottom; and it breaks with mighty violence into small Cliffs or Chaps, that commonly are made into the Ice; and in a little time it will widen them very much. And though the Ice be then more than six or seven hands breadth thick; yet the wind above working with it, it all divides into many small pieces, that many both foot and horse, that are upon it, are usually drowned if they know not, or neglect the nature of it, and fly not suddenly to the shore to save their lives; or when they hear and see the horrible clashing of the Ice, to stand fast on some great piece of Ice, that is soon driven to Land by the Wind.   

CHAP. XVI. Of the admirable event of the Icy Lake Vether.  
A Certain countryman who was on one side this Lake, was to drive over a Wayn-Load of Hay to the other side of this Lake, which is sixteen Italian miles broad, and sixty miles long. He heard the Crack, and the Ice breaking by degrees into small Chinks: Wherefore, understanding the nature of it, he suddenly in great fear that it would all break, to provide for his life, felt to running 10 the other side of the Lake, as fast as his horses could drive, leaving his Wagon-Load of Hay behind him; there were four armed Horsemen that were behind him, and they ran after him as fast as they could, supposing he was some Thief, and had spied them, and therefore ran away for fear of being taken, and they caught him on the shore, and when they understood that he fled not for any fault, but because the Ice cracked, and would speedily be dissolved, as he had learned by Experience, they rejoiced much that they had escaped drowning, besides their intention, and besides their industry. And then the countryman shewed them his wagon swimming, not upon the Ice, but in the most open Waters; and had not they hasted away, they had fallen into the same danger. Over this Lake, however it be frozen, men use to travail from the Ostrogothi to the Vestrogothi, and back again; but it is never successful for Troops of Horsemen, who intend to come in a hostile manner. Nor did they find it successful in the Neighbouring broad Wood, which is called Holveden by the people, namely when the r●sh Danes oft-times tried to show their strength there, and there they found their first graves, that they might have no need to proceed to farther Torments. Lastly, the Army of the Ostrogoths useth here to give the first Onset upon the Danish soldiery, and pay them their first Wages with their Swords.   

CHAP. XVII. Of Fishes of the black River at the new Fort in Finland.  
THere is a Fort in the utmost parts of Finland that is under the Pole, and it belongs to the Kingdom of Sweden, and it is called the New-Fort, because it was wonderful cunningly built, and fortified by Nature and Art: for it is placed on a round Mountain, having but one entrance and out-let toward the West; and that by a ship that is tied with great Iron Chains, which by strong labour and benefit of Wheels, by reason of the force of the Waters, is drawn to one part of the River by Night, by Keepers appointed by the King of Sweden, or such as farm it. A very vast River runs by this Castle, whose depth cannot be found; it ariseth from the White Lake, and falls down by degrees: at the bottom it is black, especially round about this Castle; where it breeds and holds none but black Fish, but of no ill taste, as are Salmons, Trouts, Perch, Pikes, and other soft Fish. It produceth also the Fish Trebius that is black in Summer, and white in Winter, who, as Albertus saith, lib. 24. grows lean in the Sea; but when he is a foot long, he is five fingers fat: This, seasoned with Salt, will draw out Gold out of the deepest Waters that is fallen in, and make it float from the bottom. At last, it makes the black Lake passing by Viburgum, as Nilus makes a black River where he dischargeth himself.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the strange Harper of this River.  
WHen the Image of a Harper, playing as it were on his Harp in the middle of the Waters above them appears, it signifies some ill Omen, that the governor of the Fort, or Captain, shall suddenly be slain, or that the negligent and sleepy Watch-man, shall be thrown headlong from the high Walls, and die by marshal Law. Also this Water is never free from Ghosts and Visions that appear at all times; And a man may hear Pipes sound, and Cymbals tinkle, to the shore.   

CHAP. XIX. Of Fish of divers kinds.  
THE various and unlike Figures of them, show that a wonderful multitude of Fish is found every where on the North Coasts; the use whereof, names, natures, and proprieties, are neither to be resolved by Philosophers, nor by other Nations. As the form of a small Fish, that is not above a hand-breadth long, having a face like a Hate, and prickles on the back, that will terrify and put to flight any great Fish, by but looking upon it. Then there is Fish with sharp backs like Saws, which with those sharp prickles, and pointed Fins, will hurt all the rest, by bringing their fins forward, as they do when they mean to do hurt. And these two, like Thieves of the Waters, and of Fishes, when they are taken, are good for nothing, by reason of their prickles, and unsavoury flesh, and therefore they throw them away. There are fish also that wear a horn on their heads before, like the Stem of some great ship, and their mouths are upon their bellies; they are lean and unsavoury, by reason of their starved bodies, which they make themselves by pursuing after other fishes.  
There are also round Fishes, with heads like to Oxen, and they are like a horse-shoe: These are very frequent meat, when they are catched amongst the choicest fish to be eaten. But the most choice, as men esteem them, commonly are these. The Quavier, that hath Spears on his fore-legs, wherewith he strikes such as come near to him, hath also on his back tall prickles, that will do hurt likewise. The Aniger hath good white flesh, and is long and round, and of a sweet pleasant taste. The fishes called Prasmi, are fat and broad, and are one or two foot long. The Borbochae are River-fishes, that live in Lakes, shorter then Eels, but they have huge bellies: they go to the bottom, unless it be in Winter, when they are catched above the Ice( as I said before) and stunnied with a Mallet. Their flesh is sweet, their skin clammy, not thick; they have a great liver round and sweet. In 12 years it grows very great, and changeth the name, and is called Solaris.   

CHAP. XX. Of Salt-fish dried and smoked.  
I Shall now speak of the many sorts of Fish that are salted, dried, and hardened in the smoke, especially for that reason, because the most hard Northern bodies feed on dry Fish, as Pikes, Mullets, Prasmi, Borbochi; and those they call Sijck in Gothland; all which, like piles of Wood, are commonly sold by Reed-measure, or Cubits, or greater weight, as by hundreds, thousands, and those which in Vulgar Gothick Language are called Schippnut, rather than by weighing in a balance. These fishes therefore to be prepared for mans eating, are steeped two days in strong lye, and one day in fair water, to make them soft as they should be: then they are sod, and salt butter is poured on them, and are set even upon Princes Tables, as a Food to be desired, and very pleasant. After this, Fish of divers sorts, both fresh and dry, are set one with another in order, and are fed on at meals with great Feastivity, especially at the Houses and merry Drinkings of such who place much felicity in eating, and are luxurious. The rest of the Commons are always urged by the could Climate to take care not so much to eat dainty meat, as strong meat. Some knock the fish with Mallets, made of strong Wood, before they boil them: some also dried in Salt and the Sun, are knocked and eaten raw: which in their common speech they call Siick; and they are of two sorts, especially in the Bothnick Sea, into which run very great Rivers from the most high Mountains of Norway. Dried smoked Fish are not least esteemed as Salmons, Prasmi, Sijck, Herrings, Mullets, Lampreys, Boctes: yet Salmons exceed all the rest, because it supplies the place of all Food with its goodness, also because eaten before we drink, it gets an appetite, and it is a pleasant and welcome Food to Travellers: for, raw, they taste excellent well: the same must be thought of broiled Herring, which the Germans call Bucking: which are bought dear enough by the Romans, and are eaten very greedily by them; and cause no loathing, which is far from the nature of other fish. These are yearly carried, if Wars hinder not, in Flanders Bottoms, into the Spanish Ports. There are also Boctes, and Orches, dried Fish in the smoke, that are eaten by the Northern people.   

CHAP. XXI. Of Salt Fish.  
INfinite multitudes of people feed on Salt-fish: Almost all those fish that are dried in the wind, or wasted in the smoke, are also seasoned with Salt, that their internal savour may endure the longer: and these are sold by just estimation, not by the balance( as I said) but by Tale of Tens, and great quantities. The greatest and most necessary use of these, is, in the besieging of Castles, and fights at Sea, such are Herrings, Eels, Brasmi, and those we call in our Language Torsck, If any man falsify these, and sell rotten fish, or salts them up in stinking Vessels, he is highly amerced by the Fiscal, and compelled to restore the money he sold them for: and such fish are cast into the Water, or else they are burned in the public Market. They are but seldom thrown into the Water, lest other good sound fish feeding on them for Hunger, might die. But sound fish, in huge multitudes, are sold with the Magistrates Seal upon them, that they may be carried into other parts in Vessels, made for the purpose. And that all things may be done justly, and rightly, there are sworn Officers appointed; and as there are some set over the Corn, so there are over Fish, and Skins, to search them, and to set a just value upon them.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the Herring.  
THE Herring is taken oft-times in such multitudes, in the beginning of Autumn, near the Coasts of the Southern Gothland, about Schoningia, that of ancient right belongs to the kingdom, and is salted in infinite Vessels and transported; that it will suffice amongst Salt-fish to feed the greatest part of Europe. For there comes together upon long and large Banks, in their Houses, and Tents, for two moneths time, from all Countries, Merchants of divers sorts, to buy these Herrings for money, or by exchange, and to carry them away in their ships. Sometimes it falls out that they may be had for a very small price, because there is such plenty, and they come in such huge shoals to the shores, that not onely the Fisher-mens Nets are broken, but in that great Troop, an Ax, or Spear, thrown into the Thrung of Fishes, will stay fast there, and this is a huge gain for the Kings Fiscal. For there is a strict Law, confirmed with great penalties laid upon the Merchants, that before all, they must pay the Kings Tribute; and returning home, they must have a safe Conduct or Testimonial from the Kings Governor: namely for two causes, both that they may have free leave to pass; and that returning to their places, they may plainly demonstrate, that they have done no man wrong in that place, nor used any violence or injury, where they traffiqued or fished. Herrings are also taken two or three miles from thence; but it is one that is far worse in taste and estimation, and is held nothing worth. There is also at the same time most plentiful fishing for Herrings on the Coasts of England and Scotland, which is used by the Flemings Fishers; and from thence afterwards it borrows the name, that that Fish carried to Rome, is called the Flanders Herring: yet it is not so fat a kind of fish, though it be long and thick, because it is a barren ground, and the food is not much, and the concourse of waters, as the Northern Herring is; which, for its pleasant taste, is esteemed more every where.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of the Nature of the Herring.  
SInce almost all kinds of Sea-fish have their Season, wherein it is good and pleasant, this affords plenty from August, to the end of October: and it is known to all that eat it, that it then tastes very pleasant. Now taken, it seems the more delicate; but being salted, it will last longer for mans use, than other fish do except the Salmon. Of all Fish, almost, this onely lives by Water. But taken forth of the Water, he presently dies, and there is no delay between his coming to the air, and dying, as can be perceived, so soon as he is drawn forth of the water. His eyes shine like light in the Sea by night: and which is more, you shall perceive as it were Lightnings and Glitterings over the Sea, with the great motion of this fish, and turning of the vast shoals of them, causing a reflection; and this is commonly called Herring-Lightnings. Wheresoever above the Waters he sees a Light at Sea, thither he swims by heaps; and by this Wi●e is he at set-times drawn into the Net, as being fit to be taken, that by Gods command( who gives meat to all, in time fit,) he may be taken for the sustenance of infinite numbers of men. In Winter, he hides himself in the depth of the Seas, until the seasonable time that he is to be taken. He comes also near the shore, to gaze on the many fires that are kindled before the Merchants Tents, as in Souldiers Camps. There is also a Herring a hands-breadth long in the Bothnick Sea, toward Thorna, that is as savoury, and pleasant as the former; and this is taken almost at all times, especially in Summer and Autumn, and in Winter, under the Ice. Also it is taken in such multitudes, after the Autumnal Equinoctial, that they are forced to cut the Ropes of their Nets. This Fish hath no Gut but the Jejunum; and therefore nothing is found in his belly: yet because of this, he lives not onely by Water, as I said before. Amongst these kinds of Fishes, the Females are commonly most esteemed, because their eyes satisfy the stomach: when for a certain time we must abstain from Fish: as also do the eyes of other Fishes, as of Salmons, and such as the Goths call Sijck. Lastly, the Male and Female afford the same profit, being dried with Salt, Sun and Wine, as being more ready to be eaten presently. Of the Herring of Schoningia Celtes speaks:  
Seeing Codanus and the Sea where o'er  
The World rich Scandia Herrings sends—   

CHAP. XXIV. Of Fish-Ponds and the Spawn of Fishes.  
ALso in the North parts there are some that have Fish-ponds, made for some singular gain they make by some Fish; and these sometimes they draw dry, by letting out the Waters, and take out the fish, leaving none, and they keep them so empty, for to put some other kind of fish into them: when the Waters are brought again, and new Fishes are put into them, there will arise others also of the Spawn of the former Fishes lying hide in the mud; and these are found to grow up more than the rest newly put in; not unlike the Egyptian Fishes in Nilus, who after one year that they have spawned, and left the Spawn in the mud, when the Water goes away, these will revive again in infinite multitudes by the returning of the Water to them.  
Some also keep the Fish-spawn they get, by taking out the Fishes Guts, and they keep it all Winter in a moist place, as at the time of propagation after the Vernal Equinoctial, they will not cast it into the Waters, because the hungry fishes, that cannot soon find provision, would presently devour it, as most of them are of such a malignant nature, that either for the reason alleged, or hatred of increasing their own stock, or for their Luxury( as I said of Land-Creatures) they will devour their own Seed. But this kind that is so fruitful, unless it should afford infinite numbers of young ones from one fish, that are no bigger than Poppy, or Millet-seed, could never increase in the Waters to maintain the life of man. Nature supplies men excellently with these, but yet temperately; but where men are greater devourers, as in could Countries( where the could soon scorches and consumes) she provides them with greater fish, and Sea-Monsters: but where slender people live, she ordains smaller fishes.   
The End of the Twentieth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF Monstrous Fishes.  
An Epitome of the Twenty one Book.  

The Preface.  
THE vast Ocean in its gulf offers to all Nations an admirable spectacle, and shows d●ve s sorts of Fish; and these not onely wonderful for magn tude, as the Stars are compa●es● one with the other, as they are terrible in shape; so that there is nothing in the air nor Earth, nor Bowels of it, or in domestic Instruments that may seem to lie hide, that is not found in the depth of the Sea. For in the Ocean that is so ●●●ad and by an easy and fruitful increase, re●●●ves the Seeds of Gene●ation there are found many monstrous things in sublime Nature, that is always produc ng something; which being perplexed and rolled up and down one upon another by the ebbing and fl●wing of the Waters, they seem to generate Forms from themselves and from other principles; that whatsoever is bread in any part of nature, we are persuaded is in the Sea and many things are to be found there, that are to be found no where else. And not onely may we understand by sight that there are Images of Animals in the Sea but a Pitcher, a Sword; Saws, and Horses heads apparent in small Shell fish. Moreover you shall find Sponges, Nettles, Stars, Fairies, Kites, monkeys Cows. wolves, Rotchets Whe●ves, Mice, Sparrows, Black-Birds, Crows Frogs Hogs, Oxen, Rams, Horses, Asses, Dogs, Locusts Calves, Trees, Wheels, Beetles Lions, Eagles, Dragons, Swallows, and such like: Amongst which, some huge Monsters go on Land and eat the roots of Trees, and Plants: Some grow fat with a South wind; some with a North wind blowing. There are also Monsters in the Sea almost like to men, that fing mournfully as the Sea-Nymphs: Also Sea-men, that have a full likeness of body, and these in the night will seem to go up into the ships; and it is proved, that where they approach there is some danger coming; and if they stay long the ships are drowned. Also I shall add from the assertion of the faithful Fishers of Norway, that if they take such, and do not presently let them go such a cruel Tempest will arise, and such a horrid lamen ation of that sort of men comes with it, and of some other Monsters joining with them, that you would think the sky would fall; and the Fisher-men, with all their labour, can scarce save their own lives, much less can they catch fish. Wherefore in such a case, it is provided and observed by the Law of Fishing, that when such monstrous fish are drawn up as their form is various, so they must be presently let go, cutting away the Hooks and Lines.   

CHAP. I. Of the dangerous Fishing in the Norway Ocean.  
THE Fishing is said to be dangerous in the Norway Ocean for many Reasons, because men fish in the open Sea very far from Land: When great Tempests arise, the Fisher-men are soon drowned by the Waves: Where great shoals of Ice float, they are dispersed: by the fighting of Whales, and other Monsters, they are distracted. Moreover, sometimes they are debilitated in in their hands by the horrible form, and attraction of some monstrous Fish out of the Sea; and i● they do not presently let them go, a Tempest riseth and drowns them. It therefore some rash Fisher-men, fighting with some Sea-Monster, pull him into the ship, that is like a friar with his Cowl, they are presently overwhelmed with howling and crying of these Monsters, that they can neither cast forth their Hooks to catch fish nor row with their Oars, and they can scarce hoist up Sail to be gone, unless they let go the Monster. These Monsters, though they often be taken in Nets as well as choice Fish,( commonly called Stock-fish) yet are they cast out as unprofitable, but the choice are kept in the ship, and are sold for great gain both in the place where they are taken, and in Neighbouring Kingdoms, and utmost Coasts of Germany. Many Thousands of Fisher-men dwell in the Villages in the utmost Borders of Norway, called Andones, Trondanes, Duvanes Gamblavick, Nyavick, and in other Lands that lie round about at Wardahus that is the Castle, or House of Guard, for the whole kingdom. In February and March, and also in January, the Inhabitants of this Country go in strong ships to fish ●rom the shore into the Deep: as far as they can sail in two days, carrying with them necessaries for their Food for 20 or 30 days. But the place where they most frequently exercise their Fishing, is between Norway and iceland. Nor do the Fisher-men, when it is Tempestuous Weather, ride at Anchor, but they fish floating up and down till their ships be full. All their safety consists in coming again to the shore, as they are directed by the mariners compass; for by this, when the Winds rise, they know how to steer their course. And it i● ob●erved▪ that when ever monstrous fish are drawn forth of the Sea, with men or Lions faces, and the like, that this always fore-shews Discords and War in the Land.   

CHAP. II. Of the Danger of the Fisher-men, and the quality of the Fishes.  
NOr is the danger small that hangs over the Fisher-men themselves, when they draw with hooks huge strong fishes, that are about twelve foot long, as Turbets, Scates, and other finned Fishes; who when they are ready to be drawn forth of the waters, do oft pull the Fisher-men into the waters, unless they fence themselves well with Cords before-hand in the ship, or else help one the other as they labour. But such as with a prosperous Gale, having passed such great dangers at Sea, come safe home with their Fisher-boats to Land, they pull forth their fish, and make them clean, and cut them in pieces, or else salt them whole with pickle, and lay them in the Sun, and most sharp Winds, to dry by the could piercing air; then they pile them up like great Piles of Wood, and put them again into ships, and they carry them forth to the most famous Mart-Town of all Norway, called Bergen, to be bartred away by exchange, or sold for money. And hence it is, that this kind of fish is more properly called in their Language Berger-fisck, and not Stock-fisck, from a stick or staff, that being often beaten, it may be made the softer to boil. Yet this Bergen-fisck is not all of one kind, but is esteemed of by the quantity or goodness. For there is another kind which is longer, called the Cod-fish, whose bellies cut into lengths like cords, and dried in the air, are sold, and chosen by the Northern people, as being far the more delicate meat; they call this Roedscher. Also they keep the ends of the Tails of those Fishes, in great Vessels, for profit, or for dainty meat, which the Germans call Spore. Moreover, of the bellies of Byrts, they make Laps, a Cubit in length, or two Cubits; but broader than the others, very fat, which the Inhabitants call Raff; and these the people use for bread and meat. This Food agrees with strong men, not with those that are delicate. It tastes as the Spawn of Fish dried, almost; that, in Italian, is called Bottargi: but they are much fatter. The Inhabitants of Norway use the heads of these Fishes instead of wood to boil their meat with. Also there is taken on the Coasts of Norway, especially on the Rocks called Asloenses, a certain Fish in great quantity, called a Makreel; well seasoned with Salt, it is the best fish; and, without Salt, the worst.   

CHAP. III. Of the Fishes of iceland.  
THere is also another distinction and quality of Fish, which are taken in infinite multitudes in some places of iceland, by the Inhabitants, and they differ from those I spake of before, by reason of their soft flesh, and length. Moreover, there are Cod, Turbet, Sea-Calfs, Merlusia, called, by the Goths, Torsck: amongst which are Whales, Sawers, and other Sea-Monsters: by whose untamable cruelty strange troubles arise in the Waters. Also some dainty Fishes are there taken, called by the Italians, and Spaniards, Marlucz, and are carried as far as Rome by the Spaniards, or Portingals. The time to take them, is in February, March, or April, and the Fishes taken, are dried in could Winds. And lastly, in open fields are they piled up like Piles of Wood, and are sold by Measures, or long Cubits, or by Reed-meet, Italian measure, to many thousands, to German Merchants, or they are vented for Corn, Beer, Cloth, and the like, by way of exchange. If they must be sold by weight, that is wont to be done by estimation, by counting Hundreds and Thousands. This weight, in their Language, is called Waagh: as also in Gothland, Swedland, and Germany, it is commonly called Schippunt: it weighs 300 great pounds, and is observed for weight. The greater and better profit almost of this Nation consists in Fish; and for these there are fought very great battles at Sea amongst the Merchants of divers Nations; because Merchants sailing to this iceland onely to win profit, do provide themselves, as if they were to fight some cruel battle: And, as if men were not sufficient Enemies, huge Beasts, like Monsters, come in great multitudes, and endanger the Sea-men, if they look not well to themselves. But amongst other Remedies, the sounding of the Trumpet gives some help; for these Beasts hearing the sound of it, and not being able to bear it, they fly all away to the bottom of the Sea, as I shall show underneath of the Whirl-pool.   

CHAP. IV. Of the wonderful abundance of iceland Butter.  
MOreover, in the same iceland, or Iceland, there is found such plenty of Salt-Butter, by reason of the multitudes of cattle, and fat Pasture, that their Vessels or tons will not suffice to hold it, but they make Chests or Coffers of most sweet Wood, 30 or 40 foot long, and 4 or 5 foot high, which they fill yearly with Butter in many places, and keep to ●pend at home, or to exchange abroad. For they frequently feed on broiled Fishes smeered with this Butter, in place of Bread; whence also they are called Fish-eaters. But Coffers of this Butter so abounding, are found in the Abbot-ship of Helgafiel, as they call it in their Language, which is founded on Butter, and dried Fish, as being the best Treasure; as are also two Cathedral Churches Schalholdensis, and Hollensis, with many Mansion-houses of many Noble-men, that have the like increase. That Nation, for Beer useth Ale from other places, that is brought from the cities of Germany near the Sea, in ships. Moreover, there are in those Nations, Fountains, that yield as sweet Waters, as Beer, that suffice all their Necessities for Drink, and taste well and pleasant. These Islanders are sound, merry, and free-people, they live long without any physic above one hundred years. They are easily provoked to War, and they fight cruelly enough. Also they have all things ready for an Expedition with foot or horse, upon all occasions.   

CHAP. V. Of the horrible Monsters of the cost of Norway.  
THere are monstrous fish on the Coasts or Sea of Norway, of unusual Names, though they are reputed a kind of Whales, who show their cruelty at first sight, and make men afraid to see them; and if men look long on them, they will fright and amaze them. Their Forms are horrible, their Heads square, all set with prickles, and they have sharp and long Horns round about, like a three rooted up by the Roots: They are ten or twelve Cubits long, very black, and with huge eyes: the compass whereof is above eight or ten cubits: the Apple of the Eye is of one Cubit, and is read and fiery coloured, which in the dark night appears to Fisher-men afar off under Waters, as a burning fire, having hairs like Goose-Feathers, thick and long, like a Beard hanging down; the rest of the body, for the greatness of the head, which is square, is very small, not being above 14 or 15 Cubits long; one of these Sea-Monsters will drown easily many great ships provided with many strong mariners. The long and famous Epistle of Ericus Falchendorf, Arch-Bishop of the Church of Nidrosus, which is the Metropolis of the whole Kingdom of Norway, and it was sent to lo the Tenth, about the Year of Grace, 1520. and this confirms this strange Novelty: and, to this Epistle, was faned the head of another Monster, seasoned with Salt.   

CHAP. VI. Of the Whirl-Pool, and his cruelty against the mariners.  
THE Whirlpool, or Prister, is of the kind of Whales, two hundred Cubits long, and is very cruel. For to the danger of Sea-men, he will sometimes raise himself beyond the Sail-yards, and casts such floods of Waters above his head, which he had sucked in, that with a Cloud of them, he will often sink the strongest ships, or expose the mariners to extreme danger. This Beast hath also a long and large round mouth, like a Lamprey, whereby he sucks in his meat or water, and by his weight cast upon the Fore or Hinder-Deck, he sinks and drowns a ship. Sometimes, not content to do hurt by water onely, as I said, he will cruelly overthrow the ship like any small Vessel, striking it with his back, or tail. He hath a thick black Skin all his body over, long Fins like to broad feet, and a forked Tail, 15 or 20 foot broad, wherewith he forcibly binds any parts of the ship, he twists it about, a Trumpet of War is the fit remedy against him, by reason of the sharp noise, which he cannot endure: and by casting out huge great Vessels, that hinders this Monsters passage, or for him to play with all: or with strong Canon and Guns, with the sound whereof he is more frighted, than with a ston or Iron Bullet; because this Ball loseth its force, being hindered by his Fat, or by the Water, or wounds but a little his most vast body, that hath a Rampart of mighty fat to defend it. Also, I must add, that on the Coasts of Norway, most frequently both old and new Monsters are seen, chiefly by reason of the inscrutable depth of the Waters. Moreover, in the deep Sea, there are many kinds of fishes, that seldom or never are seen by men.   

CHAP. VII. Of the Fight of the Whale against the Orca.  
A Whale is a very great fish about one hundred or three hundred foot long, and the body is of a vast magnitude; yet the Orca, which is smaller in quantity, but more nimble to assault, and cruel to come on, is his deadly Enemy. An Orca is like, a Hull turned inside outward; a Beast with fierce Teeth, with which, as with the Stern of a Ship, he rents the Whales Guts, and tears his Calves body, or he quickly runs and drives him up and down with his prickly back, that he makes him run to Fords, and Shores. But the Whale that cannot turn its huge body, not knowing how to resist the wily Orca, puts all its hopes in flight; yet that flight is weak, because this sluggish Beast, burdened with its own weight, wants one to guide her, to fly to the fords to escape the dangers.   

CHAP. VIII. Of the many kinds of Whales.  
THere are many kinds of Whales, some are hairy, and of four Acres in bigness: The Acre is 240 foot long, and 120 broad: some are smooth-skinned, and those are smaller, and are taken in the West and Northern Sea; some have their Jaws long and full of Teeth, namely 12 or 14 foot long, and the Teeth are 6 or 8, or 12 foot long But their two Dog-Teeth, or tusks, are longer than the rest, underneath like a Horn, like the Teeth of Bores, or Elephants. This kind of Whale hath a fit mouth to eat: and his eyes are so large, that 15 men may sit in the room of each of them, and sometimes 20. or more, as the Beast is in quantity. His Horns are 6 or 7 foot long, and he hath 250 upon each eye, as hard a● Horn, that he can stir stiff or gentle, either before, or behind. These grow together, to defend his eyes in tempestuous Weather, or when any other Beast that is his Enemy sets upon him; nor is it a wonder, that he hath so many Horn●, though they be very troublesone to him; when as, between his eyes, the space of his Fore-head is 15 or 20 foot. But how great and long his Ribs are, or Bones, and for what use his Skin kept might serve, also his flesh and fat, I shall show underneath.   

CHAP. IX. Of a monstrous Fish found on the North shore of England, Anno 1532.  
THough this strange Beast was held for a Wonder by the people of that country, and looked on with astonishment, by reason of its unusual magnitude; yet the Norway Coasts, between the mouths of Berg and Nidrosum, have such a Beast as a constant Guest. Wherefore this is placed amongst the greater fishes of the Sea, by that Relation, as it is described by a certain Noble-Englishman in this form. In the month of August, 1532. our Seas cast upon the shore at Tinmouth a dead Beast, of a vast magnitude, which is now the greatest part wasted; yet there remains still as much of it, as about one hundred great wagons can draw. They that first saw this Beast, say it was about thirty Ells long, that is 90 foot, from the belly to the back-bone, as it lay in the Sands, it was about 8 or 9 Ells; but the certain measure is not set down. I came thither the 27 of August, when this Beast stank, that we could scarce endure it: Some conjecture that his back was three Ells under the Sand, because it is continually wasted and covered with floods of Sand. His wide Chaps were six Ells long and a half; his Mandible contained seven Ells and half, in some places they were an Ell and half about, in some places less, and were as great as an oak. He had 30 Ribs on his sides; for the most of them 21 foot long a piece, a foot and half about; it had three bellies like vast Caves, and 30 throats, whereof five were very great. It had two Fins, and each was 15 foot long, ten Oxen could scarce draw one of them away. There grew to his Palate, Plates of Horn; on one side hairy, whereof here you see one above a thousand. It is none of Polydorus's Tales, but a certain truth, though they be not all of one magnitude. The length of the Head, from the Crown to the Chaps, was seven Ells: Concerning the Tongue, they differ; the most say it was 7 Ells long. They say his Genital-members was of a prodigious magnitude. When a certain man rended off his share, he was like to be drowned, falling into the belly of the Beast, unless he had catched hold of one of his Ribs to support himself. The space between were 6 Ells. His Eyes and Nostrils were like to an Oxes, and were far too small for so great a body. His tail was forked and Saw-like, 7 Ells broad. In his head he had two great holes, whereby it is supposed this Monster cast up Water, as by Spouts. Lastly, he had no Teeth, whence we collect, it was no Whale. For they say, that Whales have huge Teeth, excepting some plates of horny-substance, that were in the mouth of this Creature.   

CHAP. X. Of the Sword-fish, Unicorn, and Saw-fish.  
BEcause this Beast is conversant in the Northern Waters, it is deservedly to be joined with other monstrous Creatures. The Sword-fish is like no other but in something it is like a Whale. He hath as ugly a head as an Owl: His mouth is wondrous deep, as a vast pit, whereby he terrifies and dri●es away those that look into it. His Eyes are horrible, his Back Wedge-fashion, or elevated like a sword; his Snout is pointed. These often enter upon the Northern Coasts, as Thieves, and hurtful Guests, that are always doing mischief to ships they meet, by boring holes in them, and sinking them. The Unicorn is a Sea-Beast, having in his Fore-head a very great Horn, wherewith he can penetrate and destroy the ships in his way, and drown multitudes of men. But divine goodness hath provided for the safety of mariners herein; for though he be a very fierce Creature, yet is he very slow, that such as fear his coming may fly from him. The Saw-fish is also a beast of the Sea; the body is huge great; the head hath a crest, and is hard, and dented like to a Saw: It will swim under ships, and cut them, that the Water may come in, and he may feed on the men when the ship is drowned. There is also another sort of Saw-fishes that riseth against mariners, that presently after 30 or 40 Furlongs is weary, and goes down into the Sea. The Sea-men are often wounded with the sword of the Orca, which sticks upon his back, that they die of it: So by touching the Torpedo, their hand is drawn back stupefied.   

CHAP. XI. Of the manner of fishing for Whales.  
BEcause the Whale falls greedily to eat the Herring, and Sea-Calves, as Fish fatter than all others; therefore is he often in danger on the Sandy Rocks, that by the ebbing and flowing back of the Waters, are often left naked without Waters;& this Beast sunk into them, can find no way out▪ that he might return to the next deep Water: and therefore he works so forcibly with his strong Tail, that he makes a large Ditch, and is bound up as in a Nest, the sand stoping him on all sides, that he cannot swim away. When Fisher-men know this, they run in Troops, and bind this Creature with strong Cords and Anchors, between his chaps and Gills, that he may not get off when the Sea comes in; and with a strong hand, and many together, they draw him to the Land, or bind him so, that by no force he can be able to return to the Waters. And upon such a chance, they all joyfully divide the prey▪ and every one returns presently to his household occasions, until the like, or more fortunate prise come again. And in Tempests it happens, that some huge Beast, either wounded, or tired by his Foe, or having lost all his might, is cast on the shore by force, or the Winds, as a prey for those that can lay hold of him. But when they doubt that he may revive again, they thrust in swords▪ or huge great and sharp pikes into his sides, as he lies still; that much blood running forth by the swords motion, he may die. Also it may fall out, and that more easily, that they may bind this Beast with Cords and Anchors, whilst he lies in the Sand very fast asleep, the Sun shining upon him, and so he may be made a prey.   

CHAP. XII. Of the wonderful affection of the Whales towards their Young.  
WHales, that have no Gills, breath by Pipes, which is found but in few Creatures. They carry their young ones, when they are weak and feeble; and if they be small, they take them in at their mouths. This they do also when a Tempest is coming; and after the Tempest, they vomit them up. When for want of water, the young are hindered, that they cannot follow their Dams, the Dams take water in their mouths, and cast it to them like a River, that she may so free them from the Land they are fast upon. Also she accompanies them long, when they are grown up: But they quickly grow up, and increase ten years.   

CHAP. XIII. Of Sperma-Ceti, which is called ambergris, and the Medicaments thereof.  
THE Whale copulating after the manner of men with the Female, by reason of the velocity of coition, he ejects much Sperm, and dissolves it; and when it is so dissolved, the Matrix doth not receive it all. It is scattered wide on the Sea, in divers figures, of a blew colour, but more tending to white; and these are glued together: and this is carefully collected by mariners, as I observed, when in my Navigation I saw it scattered here and there: This they sell to Physitians, to purge it; and when it is purged, they call it ambergris, and they use it against the dropsy and palsy, as a principal and most precious unguent: It is white; and if it be found, that is of the colour of Gyp, it is the better. It is sophistiated with the powder of Lignum-Aloes, Styrax-Musk, and some other things. But this is discovered▪ because that which is sophisticated, will easily become soft as Wax, but pure ambergris will never melt so. It hath a corroborating force, and is good against swoundings, and the epilepsy.   

CHAP. XIV. Of the use of the parts of Whales.  
WHales, Hees or Shees, drawn out of the Sea by the Fisher-mans Art, or brought in by the force of Tempests, or driven on the shore by the fury of some other Creatures, are divided by the Inhabitants, with Axes and Hewing-Tools for a prey, so that of the flesh of one Whale, Fat& Bones, 250 or 300 wagons may be loaded. They salt up the Flesh and Fat, in many great Vessels, amongst the rest of the huge Sea-fish; and they use these for their commodity, and Houshold-food, and they sell it to others for the same use, to be carried into remote parts of the World. The Fat of the Whale is very much in all the body, but chiefly in the head, about the marrow of the brain: so that sometimes 12 Flagons are ta●en out thence, whereof a man can hardly carry one, and sometimes 30 or 40 Flagons full of this Fat,( and each of these is greater than a Roman Barile) that can hardly be carried by so many strong men. The profit of this Fat is, that powred into Lamps, and always augmented, it will burn continually before the Altar, and other sacred places, both night and day: also it much serves for domestic use in private, since in the Winter there is no day at all. Moreover, the lesser bones of the Whale are burnt instead of wood in their houses; as are the heads of other fish. Lastly, of the Whales Skin, they make Belts, Bags, Ropes, to draw Bells, that will last long: Also when the Skin of one Whale is partend, 40 men may be clothed with ●t. The Sea-men chiefly use the Fat of it to smeer the plan●s of their ships without side, that in the most rigid and sharp Winter, the Ice may not stick to the ship to drown it, or frieze about it, for this hinders the freezing of the Waters. Also Carters find great need of it to smeer their Wheels; and Skinners or Tanners, as I said before concerning the Fat of Sea-Calves.   

CHAP. XV. Of Buildings of Whale-Bones.  
HAving spoken, that the bodies of Whales are very large, for their head, teeth, eyes, mouth, skin, the bones require a place to be described; and it is thus: Because the vehemency of could in the farther parts of the North, and horrid Tempests there, will hardly suffer Trees to grow up tall, whereof necessary houses may be builded: Therefore provident Nature hath provided for the Inhabitants, that they may build their houses of the most vast Ribs of Sea-Creatures, and other things belonging thereunto. For these Monsters of the Sea, being driven to Land either by some others that are their Enemies, or drawn forth by the frequent fishing for them by men, that the Inhabitants there may make their prey of them, or whether they die and consume. It is certain, that they leave such vast bones behind them, that whole Mansion-houses may be made of them, for Walls, Gates, Windows, Coverings, Seats, and for Tables also. For these Ribs are 20. or 30. or more feet in length. Moreover, the Back-bones, and Whirl-bones, and the Forked-bones of the vast head, are of no small bigness: and all these by the Industry of Artists, are so fitted with Saws and Files, that the Carpenter in Wood, joined together with Iron, can make nothing more complete.   

CHAP. XVI. Of their houses, by raising up whole Ribs.  
WHen therefore the flesh of this most huge Beast is eat and dissolved, onely his bones remain like a great Keel; and when these are purged by Rain, and the air, they raise them up like a house, by the force of men that are called unto it: Then by the industry of the Master-Builder, Windows being placed on the top of the house, or sides of the Whale, it is divided into many convenient Habitations: and gates are made of the same Beasts Skin, that is taken off long before for that and some other use, and is hardened by the sharpness of the Winds. Also a part within this Keel raised up like a house, they make several Hog-sties, and places for other Creatures, as the fashion is in other houses of Wood: leaving always under the top of this Structure, a place for Cocks, that serve instead of Clocks, that men may be raised to their labour in the night, which is there continual in the Winter-time. They that sleep between these Ribs, see no other Dreams, than as if they were always toiling in the Sea-waves, or were in danger of Tempests to suffer shipwreck.   

CHAP. XVII. Of Anchors fastened upon the Whales back.  
THE Whale hath upon his Skin a Superficies, like the gravel that is by the Sea-side: so that oft-times, when he raiseth his back above the waters, sailors take it to be nothing else but an iceland and sail unto it, and go down upon it, and they strike in piles unto it, and fasten them to their ships: they kindle fires to boil their meat; until at length the Whale feeling the fire, dives down to the bottom; and such as are upon his back, unless they can save themselves by ropes thrown forth of the ship, are drowned. This Whale, as I said before of the Whirpool and Pristes, sometimes so belcheth out the waves he hath taken in, that with a Cloud of Waters, oft-times, he will drown the ship: and when a Tempest ariseth at Sea, he will rise above water, that he will sink the ships, during these Commotions and Tempests. Sometimes he brings up Sand on his back, upon which, when a Tempest comes, the mariners are glad that they have found Land, cast anchor, and are secure on a false ground; and when as they kindle their fires, the Whale, so soon as he perceives it, he sinks down suddenly into the depth, and draws both men and ships after him, unless the Anchors breaks.   

CHAP. XVIII. Of the monstrous Hog of the German Ocean.  
I Spake before of a monstrous Fish found on the shores of England, with a clear description of his whole body, and every member thereof, which was seen there in the year 1532. and the Inhabitants made a prey of it. Now I shall revive the memory of that monstrous Hog that was found afterwards, Anno 1537. in the same German Ocean, and it was a Monster in every part of it. For it had a Hogs head, and a quarter of a circled, like the Moon, in the hinder part of its head, four feet like a Dragons, two eyes on both sides in his loins, and a third in his belly, inclining towards his Navel; behind he had a Forked-Tail, like to other Fish commonly.   

CHAP. XIX. Of the Rosmarus or Norway Morsus.  
THE Norway cost, toward the more Northern parts, hath huge great Fish as big as Elephants, which are called Morsi, or Rosmari, may be they are so from their sharp biting; for if they see any man on the Sea-shore, and can catch him, they come suddenly upon him, and rend him with their Teeth, that they will kill him in a trice. Therefore, these Fish called Rosmari, or Morsi, have heads fashioned like to an Oxes, and a hairy Skin, and hair growing as thick as straw or corn-reeds, that lie loose very largely. They will raise themselves with their Teeth as by Ladders to the very tops of Rocks, that they may feed on the dewy grass, or fresh Water, and role themselves in it, and then go to the Sea again, unless in the mean while they fast very fast asleep, and rest upon the Rocks, for then Fisher-men make all the hast they can, and begin at the Tail, and part the Skin from the Fat; and into this that is partend, they put most strong Cords, and fasten them on the rugged Rocks, or Trees, that are near; then they throw stones at his head, out of a Sling, to raise him, and they compel him to descend, spoiled, or the greatest part of his Skin which is fastened to the Ropes: he being thereby debilitated, fearful, and half dead, he is made a rich prey, especially for his Teeth, that are very precious amongst the Scythians, the Moscovites, Russians, and Tartars,( as Ivory amongst the Indians) by reason of its hardness, whiteness, and ponderousnesse. For which cause, by excellent industry of Artificers, they are made fit for handles for Javelins: And this is also testified by Mechovita, an Historian of Poland, in his double Sarmatia, and Paulus Jovius after him, relates it by the Relation of one Demetrius, that was sent from the great Duke of Moscovy, to Pope Clement the 7th.   

CHAP. XX. Of Winged-Fish.  
THere is found a Fish in the German Sea, between England and Norway, which hath two feet, and four wings, and these move flopping to his breast and lower part of his belly, as the wings of other Birds do. They are two before about his Gills, and two behind before his Tail, and these are Parchment Wings, very thick near the body, in that part which stands instead of an arm, and more thin, in the upper part of the Wing; and so it is with the hinder Wings. The gils of this fish have not a cleft that goes toward the belly or breast, but these fish have gils that terminate above the shoulders of the former wings, with four square holes, two of them are nearer to the head, and two to the right wing; and in like manner are the gils on the left side disposed of. But the head of this fish, colour, Skin, figure of his body, and taste of his flesh, is like that fish we call a Ray. His legs are gristles without joints, and under his feet he hath holes, that he may take the better hold. But his Tail is not like the Ray, but like to the Tail of other fishes, onely that it is something longer. Lastly, before the Tail, on that part of his back, where the solid part of his body is fastened, which is after the hollow of his belly, he hath a fin also as other fish have, yet very large, in respect of his body. This fish is taken between the Rays and the Skates, and most commonly is little worth, because of his lean flesh, and no fat almost at all: yet he is hardly pulled from the bottom with Hook and Line, because of the resistance he makes with his wings, &c. Moreover some fish have very long bodies, which have four wings, two on the belly, and two on the back: and these fins they use are called wings; and such have those fish called the Sea-Hares like to them in all; for these have two fins on their bellies, and two right above them on their side toward their back. There is also of the sorts aforesaid one called a Ludo-Lutra, that is a Sea-beast, which hath four wings, two on the face, two on the back, and with these he is carried exceeding swiftly to what place he will.   

CHAP. XXI. Of the Polypus.  
ON the Coasts of Norway there is a Polypus, or Creature with many feet, which hath a pipe on his back, whereby he puts to Sea, and he moves that sometimes to the right side, sometimes to the left. Moreover, with his Legs as it were by hollow places, dispersed here and there, and by his Toothed Nippers, he fasteneth on every living Creature that comes near to him, that wants blood. Whatever he eats, he heaps up in the holes where he resides: Then he casts out the Skins, having eaten the flesh, and hunts after fishes that swim to them: Also he casts out the shells, and hard out-sides of Crabs that remain. He changeth his colour by the colour of the ston he sticks unto, especially when he is frighted at the sight of his Enemy, the Conger. He hath 4 great middle feet, and in all 8; a little body, which the great feet make amends for. He hath also some small feet that are shadowed, and can scarce be perceived. By these he sustains, moves, and defends himself, and takes hold of what is from ●im: and he lies on his back upon the stones, that he can scarce be gotten off, unless you put some stinking smell to him.   

CHAP. XXII. Of the cruelty of some Fish and the kindness of others.  
THere is a fish of the kind of Sea-Dog-fish, called Boloma, in Italian, and in Norway, Haafisck, that will set upon a man swimming in the Salt-Waters, so gree●ily, in Troops, unawares, ●hat he will sink a man to the bottom, not onely by his biting, but also by his weight; and he will eat his more tender parts, as his Nostrils, Fingers, Privities, unti● such time as the Ray come to revenge these injuries, which runs thorough the Waters armed with her natural fins& with some violen●e drives a●ay these fish that set upon the drowned man, and doth what he can to urge him to swim out. And he also keeps the man, until such time as his spirit being quiter gone; and after some d●ys, as the Sea naturally purgeth itself, he is cast up. This miserable spectacle is seen on the Coasts of Norway, when men to wash themselves, namely strangers and mariners, that are ignorant of the dangers, leap out of their ships into the Sea. For these Dog-fish, or Boloma, lye hide under the ships riding at Anchor, as Water-Rams, that they may catch men, their malicious Natures stirring them to it. But the Urinators avoid this danger with sharp stiles tied by lines; for with these, they kill these Sea-Rams, and Dog-fish: and unless they be strike through with these, they will scarce retreat. So cruel a fight is fought with them under water. For these Creatures covet for a mans privities, and his heel, and all parts that look white. The Skin of this Dog-fish, for the roughness of it to polish wood and bones, is of the same nature with a Rays Skin.   

CHAP. XXIII. Of Sponges.  
SPonges are much multiplied near the Coasts of Norway; the nature of it is, that it agrees with other living Creatures in the way of contracting, and dilating itself: Yet some of them are immovable from rocks, and if they be broken off at the Roots, they grow again: some are movable from place to place; and these are found in huge plenty on the foresaid shores. They are fed with mud, small fish, and Oysters. When they are alive, they are black, as they are when they are wet. They stick neither by parts, nor altogether; for there are some empty hollow places, between four or five, whereby they are thought to feed. There are others, but they are grown together above, and it is known, that there are some membranes under their bottoms. It is apparent, that they live along time.   

CHAP. XXIV. Of very long Worms.  
ALso there is, on the Coasts of Norway, a Worm of a blew and gray colour, that is above 40 Cubits long, yet is hardly so thick as the arm of a child. He goes forward in the Sea like a Line, that he can hardly be perceived how he goes; he hurts no man, unless he be crushed in a mans hand: for by the touch of his most tender Skin, the fingers of one that toucheth him will swell. When he is vexed and tormented by Crabs, be twines himself about hoping to get away, but cannot. For the Crab with his Claws, as with Toothed Pincers, takes so fast ho●d at him, that he is held as fast, as a ship is by an Anchor. I oft saw this Worm, but touched it not, being fore-warned by the mariners.   

CHAP. XXV. Of the Fish which the Norway people call Swamfisck; and of some other Sea-Monsters.  
THE variety of these Fish, or rather Monsters, is here set down, because of their admirable form, and many properties of Nature, as they often come to the Norway shores amongst other Creatures, and they are catched for their Fat, which they have in great plenty and abundance. For the Fisher-men purge it, by boiling it like fl●sh on the fire, and they sell it to anoint Leather, or for oil to burn in Lamps, to continue light, when it is perpetual darkness: Wherefore the first Monster that comes, is of a round form, in Norway, alled Swamfisck, the greatest glutton of all other Sea-Monsters. For he is scarce satisfied, though he eat continually. He is said to have no distinct stomach: and so what he eats, turns into the thickness of his body, that he appears nothing else than one Lump of conjoined Fat. He dilates and extends himself beyond measure, and when he can be extended no more, he easily casts out fishes by his mouth▪ because he wants a neck, as other fishes do. His mouth and belly are continued one to the other. But this Creature is so thick, that when there is danger, he can,( ●ike the hedgehog) re-double his flesh, fat, and skin, and contract and cover himself: nor doth he that but to his own loss, because fearing Beasts that are his Enemies, he will not open himself, when he is oppressed with hunger, but lives by feeding on his own flesh, choosing rather to be consumed in part by himself, than to be totally devoured by Wild-Beasts. If the danger be past, he will strive to save himself. There is also another Sea-Monster, called Sahab which hath small feet in respect of its great body, but he hath one long one, which he useth in place of a hand to defend all his parts; and with that he puts meat into his mouth, and digs up grass. His feet are almost grisily, and made like the feet of a Cow or Calf. This Creature swimming in the Water breaths, and when he sends forth his breath, it returns into the air, and he casts Water aloft, as Dolphins and Whales do. There is also another Monster like to that called Circhos, which hath a crusty and soft Skin, partly black, partly read, and hath two cloven places in his foot, that serve for to make three Toes. The right foot of this Animal is very small, but the left is great and long; and therefore when he walks, all his body leans on the left side, and he draws his right foot after him: When the air is calm he walketh, but when the Wind is high, and the Sky cloudy, he applies himself to the Rocks, and rests unmoved and sticks fast, that he can scarce be pulled off. The Nature of this is wonderful enough, which in calm Weather is sound; but in stormy Weather is sick.   

CHAP. XXVI. Of the Cow, Calf, &c.  
THE Sea-Cow is a huge Monster, strong, angry, and injurious; she brings forth a young one like to her self; yet not above two, but one often, which she loves very much, and leads it about carefully with her, whither soever she swims to Sea, or goes on Land. She is great ten moneths. Lastly, this Creature is known to have lived 130 years, by cutting off her Tail. The Sea-Calf, in the former Chapters, was described in part; but I shall add this one thing to its story, that amongst all Sea-Monsters, none devours Herrings more; for he will come to the Net where the Herring is caught by the Gills, or other parts of her body, and will eat one after another, that he will leave but a few hanging there. The Sea-horse, between Britany and Norway, is oft seen to have a head like a horse, and to neigh; but his feet and hoof are cloven like to a Cows; and he feeds both in the Sea, and on Land. He is seldom taken, though he grow to be as big as an Ox. He hath a forked Tail like a Fish. The Sea-Mouse makes a hole in the Earth, and lays her eggs there, and then covers them with Earth, on the 30 day she digs it open again, and brings her young to the Sea, first blind, and afterwards he comes to see. The Sea-Hare is found to be of divers kinds in the Ocean, but so soon as he is caught onely, because he is suspected to be venomous, how like soever he is to a Hare, he is let loose again. He hath four Fins behind his head: two whose motion is all the length of the fish, and they are long, like to a Hares ears; and two again, whose motion is from the back, to the depth of the fishes belly, wherewith he raiseth up the weight of his head. This Hare is formidable in the Sea; on Land he is found to be as timorous and fearful as a Hare.   

CHAP. XXVII. Of the greatness of the Norway, Serpent and of others.  
THey who in Works of Navigation, on the Coasts of Norway, employ themselves in fishing or Merchandise, do all agree in this strange story, that there is a Serpent there which is of a vast magnitude, namely 200 foot long, and moreover 20 foot thick; and is wont to live in Rocks and Caves toward the Sea-coast about Berge: which will go alone from his holes in a clear night, in Summer, and devour Calves, Lambs, and Hogs, or else he goes into the Sea to feed on Polypus, Locusts, and all sorts of Sea-Crabs. He hath commonly hair hanging from his neck a Cubit long, and sharp Scales, and is black, and he hath f●aming shining eyes. This Snake disquiets the Shippers, and he puts up his head on high like a pillar, and catcheth away men, and he devours them; and this happeneth not, but it signifies some wonderful change of the Kingdom near at hand; namely that the Princes shall die, or be banished; or some Tumultuous Wars shall presently follow. There is also another Serpent of an incredible magnitude in a Town, called Moos, or the diocese of Hammer; which, as a Comet portends a change in all the World, so, that portends a change in the Kingdom of Norway, as it was seen, Anno 1522. that lifts himself high above the Waters, and rolls himself round like a sphere. This Serpent was thought to be fifty Cubits long by conjecture, by sight afar off: there followed this the banishment of King Christiernus, and a great persecution of the Bishops; and it shew'd also the destruction of the country.   

CHAP. XXVIII. Of the diversity, and divers colours of Serpents.  
MAny think that Serpents inhabit onely in hot Countries, because of the imbred could that is bread in those Creatures, because in heat they multiply more, and sooner come to their growth: Yet the truth is, that could Climate in the North hath in it, and breeds, many of the filthiest Serpents, though their venom be weaker naturally, than they are in Africa; However this Contest may be, it is certain, that there are many and most dangerous Serpents in the could Northern Climate; namely Land-Serpents, which fierce●y follow the Water-Serpents, and these live upon Land; and feed greedily on di●ers Nutriments of small Herbs, wherein they know there is a greater venomed force contained, especially such as grow in Mountainy places: and these are worse to hurt men, than those that live on Banks, and shores of the Sea. Hungry Serpents are more cruel than such as are full; so also are such as are angry and provoked. They are distinguished by divers colours, as black, ash-colour, sandy, white, read, various, changeable: And lastly, with spots. The Remedies that the Northern people ●●e against stinging of Serpents, are Venice-Treacle, which is wont to be reputed for the best before the other kinds; and it is brought into those Countreys by foreign Merchants, in great quantity, for to win profit. Black-coloured Serpents, partly live on Land, partly under Toad-stools, that are in the Lakes,( in Gothland they call them Tuvar) and partly in hard Rocks, hard by the Waters. These Serpents are a kind of Water-Snakes, and are dangerous: amongst which also, a Water-Serpent, called Berus▪ is concluded, which is subtle, dangerous, and deadly. Serpents that live in Rocks are commonly black; and these they call in the Vulgar Tongue they use, Snock, though there be many found there that are divers, and in great multitudes. These are not a little trouble to men that live in Rocks, especially in Summer: for they will kill men with their venom frequently. There are also many sorts of Lizards living in Caves and Holes, they are not so hurtful as Serpents; yet we must take heed of them. The Shrew-Serpent is two-fold in shape: The one detains the beholders by its admirable beauty, it is slow and small, and of a fiery venom: so that he whom he hurts, shall presently die of it: in Gothland they call it Slaa; This casts his Skin in the most could Winter, as the stupefying Asp doth, that changeth her Skin. This also, like other Serpents that lie hide in Winter, gets into the bowels of the Earth, namely from the time the Sun enters Libra, till he be gone past Aries; In which time, if, alured by the Sun, he come forth of his Hold, and stay too long, delighting himself in this unseasonable heat, he is left, and dies, by reason of the could and Frost that freezeth up his Hole, as I said before of Swallows. Another Serpent is called Amphisbaena because it hath two heads, one in its proper place; another in the Tail, running from both heads with a circular drawing of his body. This Serpent onely commits himself to the could, and comes forth before all the rest.   

CHAP. XXIX. Of the Habitation and Mansion for Serpents.  
IT is seen, though but seldom in the Northern parts, a strange spectacle, how Serpents will rest deep under the Roots of Birch-trees, and the multitudes of them cause heat in the Roots with their breath; that the leaves of this three will continue always green so long as Winter lasts. Wherefore the people not knowing Natures secrets, think this an holy three, as consecrated to some great deity. Yet Serpents lie in hollow Rocks or Trees all the Winter, and sleep instead of eating, but in Summer they eat flesh, herbs, and birds; and afterwards they spew up their feathers and wings again. Lastly, if they can get it, they drink milk and wine, or else a little water.   

CHAP. XXX. Of the fighting of the shepherds against Serpents.  
THere are also Vipers in the Northern parts, with a rough Skin▪ hard and dry, and ash-coloured, with sparkling eyes, and 3 or 4 Cubits long, that will kill men with the sharpness of their venom in 4 hours time, unless it be stopped in time with fit Remedies, as with Venice-Treacle or garlic drank with Ale, or the juice of the Ash crushed forth and drank, or with Bran laid on for a cataplasm. Shepherds u●e these Remedies to keep themselves safe; but they use their Treacle for their sheep, to anoint round about the Tumour. For these Serpents will ●●ise themselves on their breasts, and go half a Cubit high, and will spit forth their ●enom in great quantity, and of divers colours, that they collect in their throats, against a man that resists and comes against them: and then they will quickly run away into their holes, and under stones. I can prove this to be true by my own example, because above 50 years since, that accident be●el me in the fields at Arros, whilst, as other scholars did, in the middle of August, I was gathering Juniper-berries, which are then the first that are ripe in th● North. There are also some Serpents, who with a secret or wheeling motion move wiftly, and will leap ten foot, and fight, besides making a most vehement noise amongst the dry grass, which the Sun hath withered. But by the bounty of Nature it is that they are discovered by their sound when they run to do hurt. The venom that they spit forth on the garments of him they meet, is of divers colours, as it runs down, and when the Snake hath been so bold, as to spit her venom at a man, she will appear no more. There are also House-Serpents, that are accounted in the farthest Northern parts to be as household-gods, and are fed with sheep or Cows milk, and play with the children in the houses, and are oft-times found to sleep with them in their Cradles, like faithful Keepers; and to hurt them, they count it a deadly sin. But these Customs are but the relics of the old Superstition, and are forbidden since the time of the reception of the catholic Faith. But if by Lightning or Fire at home, these houses chance to be burnt down, or when the plague spreads, are emptied of the Inhabitants, the Serpents will remain in the Dens of the house burnt, and lie close together in such great heaps, that the next Inhabitant is in a great distress how he may live safely amongst them. Also innumerable Serpents are seen under oaks at the beginning of Summer, following their Captain, who wears a white Crest, like to a Crown, as Bees do their King. As the ancients say, they are supposed by their breath to produce a ston, that comes from some venomous part found between the leaves where they lie, or brought forth there by them.   

CHAP. XXXI. Of the Fish called Thrissa, that was lately also found in Prussia.  
SInce the Italians are persuaded, even to this day, that they onely enjoy the delights of that fish, which men commonly call Thrissa; and the Grecians of our time call it corruptly Phrissam: the Romans call it Laccia: some think it to be the Clupea, because the Venetians call that kind of fish Chiepa: Also such fish is reported to have been taken in great multitudes this year in Prussia, about the new Sea, as they call it, in that place where it exonerates itself into the baltic sea, or Codanus, according to the Celtes, namely about the Castles of Balge& Lock stede, that belong to the Duke of Prussia: For of those fish which the Prussians call Porpel,( a name never known before) a certain Fisher-man catched 600 and 12000 or which is the same, 60 times( as they say) 1800 in the month of May, in 14 days, besides other fish, of which also there was no small number. Wherefore Italy must not longer boast of this, as given onely to them by God, when as by he goodness of God, the very same kind is to be found in other parts also.   
The End of the one and Twentieth Book.   

Olaus Magnus, the Goth, Arch-Bishop of UPSAL: OF infects, Living-Creatures.  
An Epitome of the Two and Twentieth Book.  

CHAP. I. Of the most troublesone Gnats of the farthest Northern parts.  
THere is a great trouble with very great Gnats, toward the utmost North-lands and Waters, especially for their biting, and most tedious noise, when men must sleep in the Light that shines night and day. But to avoid the trouble of these, the Northern people use Wormwood, steeped in Vinegar, and burnt and smoakt, that when they perceive that strong smell, they may fly away. Also they will likewise depart, when a mans head is sprinkled, and all his body, with the decoction of Wormwood, or of Rue, or Nigella, when they can be procured. Or with Vitriol mingled with Juniper, burnt and made a smoke of. But when men sleep, it is necessary to make themselves a Covering of some saith, or some Bark of a three; under which, as under a safe guard, one may rest quiet against the injury of the Gnats; and that there may be no place left for those loud infects to creep in at, lest those that sleep should be troubled with a double mischief, namely their stinging and tedious noise.   

CHAP. II. Of the Remedy to drive away Gnats and Wig-lice.  
MOreover, that the Cattle at Pasture may be free from being troubled with Gnats and Flies, the shepherds are wont every where to set Juniper bushes on fire by the Roots, which are abundant, both in fields and woods, or else Pine-trees, where their Cattle feed: likewise sweet Bull-rushes, and dry Roots of the Herb Serpentaria, because by the smoke of all these, they are strangely driven away. Then to drive away Gnats and Woodlice out of their houses, they make a fume with very small Saw-dust of the Pine-tree, which are collected in great multitudes whilst it is sawed: or with Nigella; also with the dry Myrtle, and Brimstone, and Bdellium, or with the stinking Thorn, and with Cow-dung. Also, to drive away the same mischief, sprinkle the house with the decoction of the Root of Lupius, or of Nigella, or Wormwood or Rue. The strong smell of Red-Skins, which the Germans call Reusch-Leder, doth wonderfully drive away Wig-Lice, and these are carried from Muscov●a, through Bulgaria, to Italy and Rome, to be sold: so Quick-Lime, with Brimstone, kills them. Moreover, Wig-Lice are killed with a mixture made of oil, Quick-silver, Salt, Vinegar, and a bitter Apple; and these are pounded together, and boiled, and are pu● twice or thrice into the chinks of the beds: but the most plain and frequent way, is to destroy them with scalding water▪ which penetrates more inwardly, and destroys the very seed of these hurtful Worms. But that Gnats play up and down so frequently in those Countries under the Pole, this is the chief Reason▪ Because there are no Flitter-Mice that use to prey upon these and such like infects in the night, because of the continual light night and day, that can remain there: nor any other birds of the night that fly from the light of the Sun; yet there are some deputed by Nature to gather up Flies and Gnats for food. But as they appear to receive increase suddenly from corruption; so one sharp blast makes them commonly vanish presently; for when they want food, they fly to their Native putrefaction to feed, and there they consume.   

CHAP. III. Of Bees, and their Food.  
THE Northern Countries abound with very many things, as well necessary, as superfluous, to communicate to other Nations for their use: so by a singular providence of Nature, they have great plenty of honey, and they take great care always, and in all places, about their Bees, that they may be kept clean and prosper. But when they take the honey out of the Hi●es, the custom of the Nation is to leave so much behind for the young Bees, as may be thought sufficient to keep them all the Winter; namely two parts, because in Winter, and beginning of the Spring, before flowers appear, they chiefly live of honey, bruised Figs and Raysins. But because those things are foreign commodities, and are but seldom found, honey is left them for their principal food; and because it costs less than the former, yet when Necessity compels, in place of honey, they use bruised Beans, Pease, Cakes made of Poppy, and Wheat-meal, moistened with Metheglin, and with flesh also of Pullets new slain, broken into very small parts, to feed them.   

CHAP. IV. Of Honey, and the proof of it.  
THere is great abundance of Honey in the North Countries, as Pliny testifies, that the Northern Combs are greater than others are; and he gives for an example a Comb that was seen eight foot long. But there are far longer found in Podolia, a Land subject to the King of Poland: where Bees, by reason o●●he rich Pasture, sweet Smell, pleasant Taste, fill great Caves, in the dry ground, ●u● of Honey-Combs loaded with Honey; so that huge Bears falling into such Caves are choked with eating too much honey: and hence it is, that so many great ships of the Eastern Countries, full of Wax, are dispersed into all Europe: The Wax indeed they sand to the Coasts near them: But they keep the honey for themselves in great abundance for all manner of uses, especially for all kind of drinks, because they want Wine, as I shewed before, Lib. 13. After the Summer Solstice therefore, as the best honey is gathered,( excellent above the rest) so in those Countries they keep it in its purity, without fraud or deceit; though when it is once transported beyond Seas, it is adulterated by the unsatiable covetousness of the Merchants. Honey that is gathered after the Solstices, is so wholesome, that it is not onely used for some Meats, Bread, and Drink, but for sauce for Meats also, and is kept for the most choice physics. Because in the Northern Countries, there are very few Physitians▪ but there is wholesome air, wholesome Food and Honey-drink; and these are their best physic. This the older it is after it is boiled, namely six or twelve years old, the more strong it is found to be used as a Remedy for many Diseases.   

CHAP. V. Of Ants.  
THE Northern Countries have Ants of many kinds, some with Wings, and some without. The great ones, and such as have Wings, dwell in Houses in deserts, which they make of the Capillary leaves of Pine-trees, and sometimes of Firr-trees, and Sticks, heaped up into great heaps. The Bears when they itch in their Noses do mightily trouble these Ants, but they soon get away from them, lest they should carry some of them home to their own Dens, which sometimes breeding there in great multitudes, may drive them out of their own houses. Moreover, they make their Nests on high Towers of Churches, and in fair Orchards of Kings; where sometimes they are observed to denotate the shortness of the Reign of Kings, by a wonderful Omen, namely that Kings shall be killed by the common people, or driven forth of their Kingdoms. But when any such monstrous thing is near at hand, then the smaller Pismires, moved by the Injuries of the greater, ascend up into some old three, commonly a Pear-tree, where the great ones reside, and that in great multitudes to revenge their wrongs, and there they fight a fierce battle with them; and they are resolved never to give over, though on both sides multitudes of them fall dead from the leaves of the trees, until they have conquered the great ones, and got their houses from them. This kind of Wonder was observed to have happened in two places, Anno 1521. namely at Upsal, and Holm, when the King of Denmark, Christiernus the 2d. was driven forth of the Kingdoms of the G●●hs and Sweons, by the Inhabitants of Sweden, and spoiled of all his Fortunes. For such creatures being of no esteem, if they be provoked by injuries▪ are invincible, and will cruelly revenge themselves, and are thought to be no other than prodigious Messengers of the angry God, and signify no good by their battles. There are also read Pismires, small; that with their piss will raise a most hurtful tingling; and these are called venomous by the Northern people, and they dwell in hills in the fields. But this kind of Pismire, for his continual labour, seems nothing behind the others I spake of before; for he will also leave the print of his way upon the hard flint.   

CHAP. VI. Of Pearls, and the Generation of them.  
THat I may not leave untouched, the delicate matter of Pearls, after that I have spoken of fish, I must first say, that in the Northern Countries there are some Rivers that bring forth Jewels; because they produce Shell-fish, out of whose shells are taken white Pearls, though they be pale by reason of the could air. For that air mingled with due, about the middle of August, descends into the shellfish, and gives the cause that Pearls suddenly come to perfection. These, when they are taken forth, serve in the North parts for an Ornament, and are held to be dear; and when they are set in due order, they shine very finely, and with the illustration of Bawds, for beauty, this brightness is increased. And these also bring the more splendid oriental pearls, in great number to the Northern coasts, especially for the use, or rather abuse of the Noble-women; and of women sometimes of the common sort, who delight in such ornaments as ●rarities, and they use them in Coronets, Bracelets, Ornaments for their shoulders, and coverings for their heads. Yet no Woman there, how noble soever she he, was ever seen to wear Pearls or Jewels in her ears, to avoid a greater disgrace▪ as if God the Author of Nature, had not given to every part its comeliness and grace; but that they must borrow some lustre and handsomeness from contemptible Worms.   
FINIS.