Case Study

A case study of South Africa: Strengthening pathways from education to the world of work

Christopher J. Beukes, Rènette du Toit, Gino Garach, Shirley Lloyd, Wiseman Magasela, Cynthia Moeng, Andreas H. Schott, Dennis J. Stead, Paul G. West

Received: 04 Aug. 2025; Accepted: 11 Nov. 2025; Published: 19 Dec. 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

The European Union (EU)-supported Education for Employability (E4E) Technical Assistance project in South Africa aimed to enhance youth employability by aligning education, training and employment systems. In partnership with the Department of Basic Education (DBE), Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and Department of Employment and Labour (DEL), it focused on cross-sector collaboration to strengthen pathways from learning to work, looking at the Three Streams Model in basic education, career guidance and development frameworks and systems, as well as bilateral labour agreements and a quota system.

Contribution: The project promoted both strategic and operational alignment, with an emphasis on coordinated implementation to improve outcomes for young people transitioning through education and training into the labour market. Career development provided a unifying thread across the three sectors’ efforts.

Keywords: career development; career management; pathways; employability; career; education; employment.

Introduction

South Africa has faced ongoing challenges in ensuring that education and training systems effectively prepare individuals for meaningful participation in the labour market. In response, the country received support to strengthen the alignment between education, training and the world of work.

The Education for Employability (E4E) Technical Assistance project implemented by DAI Global Austria was part of the South African-European Union (SA-EU) E4E Sector Budget Support Programme, which focused on strengthening the education-to-workforce value chain. It supported the National Treasury and three implementing departments – Department of Basic Education (DBE), Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and Department of Employment and Labour (DEL) – by providing technical support and capacity-building for projects and institutional development.

The programme’s overall goal was to enhance the employability of South African youth by promoting inclusive, equitable and quality pathways to employment. Key objectives included strengthening collaboration across education, training and employment services, improving early childhood and primary education and promoting inclusive learning pathways, especially for disadvantaged youth.

The three departments undertook targeted research projects aimed at strengthening pathways from education to industry, working to improve alignment of efforts across the three sectors.

The resulting work is presented as a descriptive case study, using a methodological approach that provides a contextualised account of these projects. The primary purpose is to describe and document the defining characteristics, processes and relationships of the case, rather than to test specific hypotheses.

The research methodologies applied within the individual projects – including desktop reviews, surveys, in-depth interviews and policy dialogues with national and international experts and key stakeholders – are detailed in the respective project sections. Situational analyses were applied across the projects to integrate the discourse and context of multiple stakeholders and complex systems. The unpublished reports referencing the projects in this case study are available in a dedicated repository.

The South African context

The research projects discussed in the next section were conceptualised and implemented with careful consideration of South Africa’s complex socio-economic landscape. Efforts to strengthen the transition from education to the world of work must be firmly rooted in an understanding of the systemic barriers and contextual factors that influence individuals’ access to learning and earning opportunities.

Despite its rich natural resources, South Africa faces deep-rooted socio-economic challenges, including poverty, inequality, high youth unemployment, a rural-urban divide and a limited small business sector. These issues are compounded by a misalignment between available skills and labour market needs. By 2024-2025, around 19 million individuals were receiving social grants. When the 9 million beneficiaries of the Social Relief of Distress (SRD) grant are added, it amounts to nearly half of South Africa’s population depending on some form of social support (National Treasury, 2024). Among these are millions of children in the basic education system who are at risk. As of 2024, South Africa had 21 million children under the age of 18 (34% of the population), with about 13.5 million learners enrolled in schools and early learning programmes (DBE, 2025a). Many face vulnerabilities: 14% are orphaned, 20% live apart from both parents and 62% live below the upper poverty line (Hall, 2023).

Close to a third of the population (18.9 million people) live in rural areas, where poor infrastructure, limited access to social services and few educational and employment opportunities persist (GlobalData, 2025). Small business ownership remains low – only 6% of the working-age population is self-employed, compared with over 20% in other upper-middle-income countries (Arnoldi, 2023). This is due to structural barriers such as restrictive regulations, limited access to start-up finance and low economic growth. Youth unemployment is particularly alarming. As of the first quarter (Q1) in 2025, the official unemployment rate was 32.9%, with youth unemployment for the 15–24 age group at 62.4% and for the 25–34 age group at 40.4% (Stats SA, 2025a, 2025b).

Given the persistently high unemployment rate, a unique and challenging dynamic has emerged in how individuals engage with work, livelihoods and careers. For many, the traditional notion of a career – a structured, long-term professional journey with opportunities for growth and progression – remains out of reach. Instead, the realities of economic hardship and limited job opportunities have shifted the focus towards shorter-term work or self-created livelihoods. In the absence of career opportunities, many South Africans turn to work – short-term, task-oriented economic activity that provides immediate income but lacks stability or long-term prospects. Examples include temporary jobs in retail, construction or domestic work and freelance gigs or piecework, such as seasonal farm work or delivery services. While this kind of work helps meet immediate needs, it seldom offers the security, benefits or upward social strata mobility associated with a career.

For a significant portion of the population, creating a livelihood becomes a necessity. Livelihoods refer to the means of sustaining oneself, often through self-employment, resource-based activities or small-scale entrepreneurship. In South Africa, these might include informal trading, such as selling goods at markets or on the streets, small businesses, such as spaza shops and home-based enterprises, and agricultural activities, such as subsistence farming or selling produce locally. Livelihoods are often born out of necessity rather than choice. In this context, mobility – both in terms of acquiring transferable skills and the ability to relocate or commute in search of better opportunities – has become increasingly important. Individuals often need to adapt their skills and be willing to move to access meaningful work or sustain their livelihoods.

These pressing realities that shape the South African societal landscape are dire and require appropriate attention. Nonetheless, it is noteworthy how resilient the informal economy is in South Africa. The informal sector closely mirrors the formal economy in many regards, with major activities revolving around food, beverage, beauty, hospitality, mechanics and herbal medicine sectors. Despite its informality, the market exhibits significant structure and complexity. Although the Labour Force Survey reported that only 3.1 million people were active in the informal economy in the first quarter of 2024 (Stats SA, 2024), other sources present much higher estimates. According to Asmal et al. (2024), approximately 7.5 million people are engaged in South Africa’s informal economy, compared with 9.8 million in the formal sector. Over the reviewed period between 2013 and 2023, the trend has generally been one of increased employment outside formal institutions (Statista, 2024).

As part of the E4E project, the DBE, DHET and DEL considered the scale and importance of the informal economy in providing livelihoods for millions of South Africans in their strategies, frameworks and initiatives aimed at strengthening pathways and improving employability. Examples include the integration of sustainable livelihoods, the informal economy and entrepreneurship – reflecting a growth mindset – into the DBE’s competency framework and the DHET’s career management skills framework.

Strengthening pathways: Insights from the research projects and policy dialogues

As part of the broader effort to address South Africa’s education-to-employment challenges, the three key sectors – basic education, higher education and training and employment and labour – each undertook targeted research projects under the E4E programme umbrella. These studies aimed to explore how pathways from education into the world of work could be strengthened, particularly for young people facing systemic barriers to employment. By examining existing gaps, identifying opportunities for alignment and considering both local and international best practices, the research sought to inform more coordinated, inclusive and effective transitions from learning to earning. In addition, policy dialogues were held within each sector, bringing together key stakeholders across the three sectors to discuss the issues and collaboratively explore strategies to enhance education-to-work pathways. The projects focused on a Three-Stream Model (TSM) in basic education (DBE), career development (DBE and DHET) and issues related to labour migration and mobility (DEL).

Basic education: The three-stream model

The research on the TSM focused on conceptual clarity, the development of multiple and inclusive learning pathways, articulation between different education and training streams and the role of national qualifications frameworks in supporting the development of coherent, efficient and accessible learning and articulation pathways. It drew on both literature and stakeholder interviews to examine how these issues are addressed in policy and practice, in South Africa and globally. Special attention was given to the needs of neurodivergent learners and learners with disabilities and the role of national qualifications frameworks in enabling accessible and coherent pathways (DBE, 2025b).

The research highlighted a persistent lack of conceptual and systemic clarity in the implementation of the TSM. While the model aims to recognise and legitimise academic, vocational and occupational learning pathways, there is still confusion regarding the definitions, purpose and interrelationships of these streams. Policy fragmentation and misalignment between curriculum and institutional practices further weaken the model’s impact. These challenges are compounded by centralised approaches to curriculum design and assessment, which risk excluding learners who do not conform to the dominant academic trajectory. Teachers emerged as critical agents in the successful implementation of the TSM. However, their meaningful involvement requires continuous professional development, sufficient resources and attention to their well-being. Without clear policy guidance and collaborative engagement across the system, the transformative potential of the model remains constrained. The study affirmed the need for diverse and inclusive learning pathways that reflect the wide range of learner profiles in South Africa. It underscored the importance of shifting from a narrow academic focus to a system that values vocational and occupational learning equally (DBE, 2025b).

The research underscored that weak articulation between academic, vocational and occupational streams poses a major barrier to learner progression. Transitions between different levels and types of education and training remain limited, with vertical and horizontal mobility constrained – particularly within occupational tracks (DBE, 2025b). The research called for stronger interdepartmental coordination and better alignment of qualifications and curriculum across the system. Although tools such as Recognition of Prior Learning and Credit Accumulation and Transfer exist, they are underutilised, leading to missed opportunities for flexible access and progression. Furthermore, many pathways are poorly connected to actual labour market demands, diminishing their relevance and impact. National qualifications frameworks were recognised as having a key role in enabling coherent, accessible articulation routes that support both individual aspirations and broader economic needs (DBE, 2025b).

In response to these challenges, a draft articulation policy (DBE, 2025c) has been developed to guide more integrated and flexible transitions across the education and training system. The policy aims to improve access and progression through general and further education into higher education or the world of work. Through the TSM, it introduces curriculum and qualification reforms for Grades 10–12, offering three distinct, equally valued pathways to support diverse learning needs, strengthen career guidance and promote articulation with post-school education and employment (DBE, 2025c).

Basic education: Institutionalisation of careers education and guidance

In addition to the DBE’s focus on the articulation of learning pathways, the role of careers at the school level emerged as equally critical in ensuring that learners are supported to make informed choices, enabling smoother transitions into industry. A situational analysis identified five objectives to strengthen careers through curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular avenues. These include: (1) integrating careers into the curriculum, (2) implementing a whole-school approach, (3) providing culturally fair career assessments, (4) strengthening the capacity of officials in careers and (5) introducing career portfolios to structure careers in the curriculum.

This informed a Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA)-aligned business case for a careers unit within the DBE. The business case was approved up to the Deputy Director-General (DDG) level, but due to fiscal constraints, attention shifted to embedding these priorities within existing structures, for now (DBE, 2024). For example, the National Careers Week (NCW) was selected as a mechanism for integrating careers into the curriculum. The NCW, an interdepartmental civil programme, received full support for adoption into the National Curriculum Policy Statements (CAPS) curriculum in term 3 week 8, for all grades.

This agreement was provided under the principle of ‘in school only’, where previous learners, local students, local institutions and local industry will be encouraged to visit schools in that week to provide talks, demonstrations, interviews and other activities. A virtual career exhibition will be availed to support the growing number of schools with access to technology and data. The date of term 3 week 8 was selected through a consultative process throughout the DBE as part of the E4E programme.

Progress also included a review of 34 vocational and occupational subjects and enhancement of content to include market research, budgeting, business planning, product development, occupations in demand and career talks from post-school students, entrepreneurs and professionals during term 3 week 8. The DBE next intends to shift entrepreneurship and careers content from academic subjects and place it in term 3 week 8 to galvanise careers education in that week. This agreement represents a further 77 h of career exposure during school time, on school premises by Grade 12 (DBE, 2024).

The research also highlighted the important role of Career Development Practitioners (CDPs).

Although Life Skills and Life Orientation teachers may meet the criteria for entry-level careers, workload and available resources make the need for support by suitably trained and resourced CDPs increasingly clear. To ensure consistent and effective learner support, the presence of a dedicated CDP – either in every school or shared across a cluster of schools – should therefore be regarded as essential (DBE, 2024).

Higher education and training: The development of a career management skills framework for South Africa

The career management skills framework for South Africa was developed by DHET as part of the broader EU-funded E4E initiative to meet the growing need for a cohesive, inclusive and contextually appropriate approach to lifelong and lifewide career development and career management. Anchored in the National Policy for an Integrated Career Development System (DHET, 2017), informed by global best practices (DHET, 2024a) and responsive to South Africa’s unique context, the framework is designed to empower individuals with the skills and capabilities needed to successfully manage learning, careers, work, livelihoods and life transitions in a constantly evolving socio-economic landscape. Considering ongoing challenges such as high unemployment, inequality and changing labour market demands, the framework tries to serve as a structured solution that fosters lifelong and lifewide learning, employability and individual agency.

The framework was developed through a comprehensive desktop review and extensive consultations with national and international experts. The 2024 study analysed South Africa’s socio-economic context, policies, curricula and youth employability programmes, while parallel consultations were held with stakeholders across basic and post-school education, public employment services, NGOs and private practitioners (DHET, 2024b). The review and consultations also included youth employability programmes. In recent years, a growing focus on youth employability has led to the development of numerous programmes, primarily driven by the public sector, though often in partnership with the private sector. These programmes are increasingly significant within the broader landscape of career development and career management (National Treasury, 2021).

The next stage involved analysing international career management skills frameworks to inform the development of a locally appropriate model (DHET, 2024a). These global benchmarks, along with insights shared by experts on international career management skills frameworks during topical policy dialogues, offered valuable perspectives on how different countries structure and implement such frameworks. The reviews showed that while shaped by each country’s education system, labour market and culture, these frameworks consistently serve the same purpose: they link career theory, policy and practice and underpin national education and employment agendas (DHET, 2024a). Effective across sectors and usable at both system and individual levels, they share four cornerstones – lifelong learning, skills development, employability and career construction – and continually evolve with labour-market trends. Recent practice favours simpler, user-friendly models that empower people to direct their own careers (DHET, 2024a).

Full-scale content development of South Africa’s framework began in October 2024, drawing on earlier research, consultations and policy dialogues (DHET, 2025d). Ongoing engagement with representatives from sectors provided essential direction throughout the content creation process. A key takeaway from this journey was the importance of crafting a context-specific model – one that adapts global insights to local realities rather than replicating them. DHET soon realised that developing a career management skills framework is going to be an ongoing process and decided to call the process ‘Towards a Career Management Skills Framework for South Africa’, in recognition that career development is a dynamic field, and the framework itself will evolve over time as the DHET enters the implementation phase (DHET, 2025d). This phase will include the development of tailored toolkits for specific priority groups, which will further shape and refine the framework (DHET, 2025b). As such, the framework should be viewed as a living model – one that will be adapted and strengthened over time based on further feedback from stakeholders, practical application and the changing needs of individuals and the broader socio-economic context.

The framework is structured to provide a comprehensive, integrated approach that differs from traditional models by combining three key dimensions: psycho-social, employability and sustainable development. These dimensions are embedded across seven main areas of development – ranging from personal effectiveness, transitions and career construction to digital fluency and financial literacy – each further divided into specific sub-areas (30 in total). For every sub-area, the framework defines a related capability, capturing the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours needed to navigate lifelong learning, career transitions and sustainable livelihoods (DHET, 2025d).

Higher education and training: Positioning and future-proofing of the National Career Advice Portal

Access to accurate, timely and user-friendly learning and career information is a critical enabler ensuring that individuals can make informed decisions and navigate transitions more effectively; therefore, the positioning and future-proofing of the NCAP are essential to support this system-wide objective and endeavour. Launched in 2013, the NCAP remains South Africa’s only government-endorsed digital platform providing access to information on careers, qualifications and study opportunities. It serves a critical function in supporting both youth and adults in planning their career pathways.

Yet, the way people seek and interact with information has evolved significantly. Mobile-first users – particularly the youth – now expect fast, interactive and increasingly AI-driven services. Since its launch, NCAP has undergone one upgrade, and after 12 years, it now faces several challenges, including outdated content, limited functionality and weak integration with other government systems.

Considering these shortcomings, the DHET tasked the E4E Programme with reimagining and redesigning the NCAP. As part of the review process, DHET examined career platforms from countries such as the USA, UK, Kenya, New Zealand and Singapore. These platforms share several key features: they are mobile friendly, offer AI-powered career suggestions, use labour market and skills data to match users to real opportunities and keep complex classification systems – such as occupational codes – hidden in the background for a smoother user experience (DHET, 2025a). While systems like South Africa’s Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) remain valuable for structuring information, linking training to occupations and informing funding decisions, they should function behind the scenes. Other countries also rely on such frameworks but ensure that they do not complicate the user journey.

To better understand how NCAP performs locally, it was tested with a group of students, interns and jobseekers. Their feedback was clear: the platform is slow, difficult to use on mobile devices and cluttered with outdated content. They emphasised the need for more accessible career profiles and the removal of expired information (DHET, 2025a). Beyond updating content, the review found that modernising NCAP’s underlying technology is essential. The current system is outdated and requires redevelopment – including a modernised backend and frontend and migration to a secure cloud environment. This upgrade would also allow for the creation of secure APIs, enabling real-time data integration from other departments (DHET, 2025a).

Nevertheless, the NCAP remains an asset in South Africa’s career development ecosystem, but it must evolve to stay relevant. This review provided a practical roadmap: begin with immediate fixes and then move towards a more intelligent, integrated and responsive platform – one that aligns with how today’s youth access education, training and career information. If implemented effectively, NCAP could become the most trusted and future-ready portal for supporting South Africans in planning their transitions from education to the world of work.

Higher education and training: Development of national guidelines for career development tools

Also, under the leadership of the DHET and in collaboration with the then South Africa–EU Dialogue Facility, guidelines for the development of career development tools (CDTs) were developed in 2022 and provided a governance and quality assurance framework for classifying CDTs (DHET, 2022). They are to be implemented through a CDT Coordinating Committee, which will oversee quality assurance and maintain a national list of approved CDTs for public access.

Career development tools are defined as evidence-based resources that help individuals make informed career and study decisions. These include publications, websites, self-assessment tools, quizzes, games and both psychological and non-psychological instruments – grouped under career self-exploration, preparedness and information tools. On the basis of the 2022 guidelines, research carried out under the E4E technical assistance investigated key career development constructs, which included constructs such as career attitudes, values, interests, decision-making, adaptability, entrepreneurial mindset and employability – providing the foundation for valid and targeted tool development (DHET, 2025c). The research also examined limitations in the use of psychometric CDTs in South Africa, including restrictive classification structures governed by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). A more flexible categorisation is recommended to balance accessibility with ethical and professional integrity (DHET, 2025c).

Since a 1995 moratorium on school-based psychometric testing, concerns about bias and misuse have shaped cautious approaches to psychological assessments. However, the HPCSA’s own guidance suggests that classification can create space for broader use, particularly for career-focused tools not aimed at diagnosing deficits but rather supporting exploration, education and informed choices. Ultimately, quality CDTs should be easily accessible – where and when individuals need them – while upholding ethical standards. Career-focused psychometric tools should not be conflated with diagnostic assessments, as their purpose is to empower individuals in their career journeys, not to pathologise them (DHET, 2025c).

Employment and labour: International labour migration and skills mobility

The DEL project focused on three key research areas: skills transfer, bilateral labour agreements (BLAs) and a quota system (QS). Department of Employment and Labour explored the possibility of requiring mandatory skills transfer when multinational corporations bring skilled personnel into South Africa on Intra-Company Work Visas (ICTWVs). This component of the study examined global practices in intra-company transfers (ICTs), including select case studies from developed economies and the World Trade Organisation’s (WTO) Mode 4 provisions. The research found that, in the countries studied, skills transfer to local employees is not a mandatory condition of ICT arrangements. Therefore, introducing such a requirement in South Africa would fall outside existing WTO provisions, of which South Africa is a member (DEL, 2025). The study also examined Botswana as a regional example. There, a policy shift is evident – from restrictive employment practices for foreign nationals to more strategic efforts aimed at attracting skilled workers to support national development and economic diversification (DEL, 2025).

The DEL is leveraging BLAs as a policy tool to respond to South Africa’s persistent unemployment challenges. This direction is informed by a review of historical policy efforts documented in the report Towards a Framework on Employment in SA – Key Documents on Employment and Job Creation in South Africa, 1994 to Present. The review highlights that, despite multiple strategies and frameworks, unemployment continues to rise – both in South Africa and across many Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. To address this, the DEL has developed a Draft Framework on Guidelines and Principles to Inform Bilateral Labour Agreements for South Africa as a Labour Sending and Receiving Country, which aims to incorporate training and skills development for migrant workers, thereby strengthening pathways to the world of work. The framework supports South Africa’s dual role as both a sender and a receiver of labour, with a focus on protecting South African nationals working abroad as well as migrant workers entering from the SADC region (DEL, 2025).

The framework is grounded in the South African Constitution and labour legislation while also drawing on international conventions and instruments such as those of the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), African Union (AU) and SADC treaties. It aims to promote managed labour migration that benefits all parties – particularly through enhanced skilling of migrant workers and strengthened regional cooperation.

Department of Employment and Labour is also developing a Framework for a Quota System on Labour Market Sectors Employing High Numbers of Foreign Nationals (in progress). This research identifies sectors with high concentrations of foreign workers and analyses the underlying factors driving this trend. The framework considers legal and policy-based interventions – including constitutional provisions, labour laws and international human rights and workers’ rights conventions. Through the quota system, DEL seeks to increase employment opportunities for South Africans, improve labour market information systems, promote social cohesion and build stronger partnerships with employer organisations and neighbouring countries that send workers to South Africa.

Coordination and collaboration within the ecosystem

A clear thread of career development and career management connects the efforts of South Africa’s basic education, higher education and training and employment and labour sectors as they work to strengthen pathways from education and training to the world of work. Each sector has undertaken targeted research and policy dialogues to explore how transitions – especially for youth – can be better supported. Although their mandates vary, they share a common goal: to strengthen pathways that provide individuals with opportunities to gain relevant knowledge, skills and capabilities; enhance mobility and support informed decision-making to navigate learning, careers, work and livelihoods.

In terms of career development, at the centre of this system-wide effort is the DHET, which holds the coordination mandate through the National Policy for an Integrated Career Development System (DHET, 2017). Department of Higher Education and Training’s work spans across sectors and prioritises lifelong and lifewide learning, employability and individual agency.

In basic education, research on the TSM emphasises the need for diverse, inclusive learning pathways and the institutionalisation of career guidance to help learners transition effectively. Efforts to integrate career development across the curriculum, establish school-wide approaches and introduce dedicated CDPs align closely with DHET’s work on career management skills, reinforcing the importance of early and continuous career development support.

Department of Employment and Labour complements this through work on skills transfer, bilateral labour agreements and a labour market quota system – all focused on creating a more enabling environment or pathways – for employability and regional skills mobility.

Together, these efforts signal a shift towards a more integrated and responsive career development system. With DHET at the nexus, South Africa is moving towards greater alignment and collaboration – seeking to better equip individuals to transition from learning into meaningful and sustainable work.

Conclusion: The way forward – from strategies and frameworks to implementation and value

Building on the work and progress achieved by the basic education, post-school education and employment sectors, the main recommendation is for these departments to continue to identify mechanisms for integrated collaboration and shared partnership, while driving the implementation of the different frameworks and policies, to ensure the mutual objective of youth employability can be achieved.

The DHET, as the mandated coordinator of the integrated career development system, is preparing to operationalise the career management skills framework. An implementation plan has been developed, outlining a phased roll-out that begins with unemployed youth – a highly vulnerable group.

In basic education, policies are in place to strengthen articulation within the TSM and into post-school education and training or the world of work. Pragmatic steps are being taken, such as linking education and industry in the CAPS curriculum in term 3 week 8 for all grades, and shifting relevant entrepreneurship and careers content to galvanise careers education in that week.

Meanwhile, in the employment and labour sector, initiatives focusing on skills mobility and labour agreements are tested to improve employability and regional integration.

The challenge ahead lies in sustaining momentum, ensuring continued collaboration across sectors and embedding career development into mainstream structures. The success of implementation will depend on refining approaches based on feedback through monitoring and evaluation, building capacity and maintaining a focus on equity, relevance and long-term impact.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge all stakeholders from the public basic education, post-school education and training and employment and labour sectors, as well as those from the private sector, for their valuable contributions to the research projects.

The authors reported that they received funding from the European Union, which may be affected by the research reported in the enclosed publication. The author has disclosed those interests fully and has implemented an approved plan for managing any potential conflicts arising from their involvement. The terms of these funding arrangements have been reviewed and approved by the affiliated university in accordance with its policy on objectivity in research.

Christopher J. Beukes: Conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. Rènette du Toit: Conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. Gino Garach: Conceptualisation, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, visualisation, writing – review & editing. Shirley Lloyd: Conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. Wiseman Magasela: Conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, writing – review & editing. Cynthia Moeng: Conceptualisation, writing – review & editing. Andreas H. Schott: conceptualisation, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing – review & editing. Dennis J. Stead: Conceptualisation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing – review & editing. Paul G. West: Conceptualisation, project administration, supervision, visualisation, writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.

The European Union provided funding for the various research projects and supported the preparation of this article.

Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Renette du Toit, on reasonable request, as the departments’ unpublished reports can be accessed through a dedicated repository.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References