Original Research

Journey to senior leadership: Intersectional narratives from women in the leadership pipeline

Vamisile Mbatha, Michele Ruiters

Received: 24 Feb. 2025; Accepted: 27 May 2025; Published: 17 July 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Orientation: This study explores the factors influencing women’s progression to senior leadership positions, focusing on their experiences within South Africa’s financial services sector.

Research purpose: The aim was to identify key elements that impact women’s advancement through the leadership pipeline.

Motivation for the study: Despite growing gender diversity initiatives, women remain underrepresented in senior leadership roles. Understanding barriers from the perspective of women in middle management offers valuable insights into addressing this gap, particularly in a multicultural context like South Africa.

Research approach/design and method: The study employed a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews with 14 women – 12 from middle management and two from senior executive levels. Thematic analysis was used to extract themes from participants’ shared experiences.

Main findings: Four main themes emerged: organisational culture, leadership, intersectionality and emerging issues such as sponsorship and expectations from senior female leaders. Participants noted that organisational practices and leadership behaviours often impeded their progression. Additionally, socio-demographic factors – especially motherhood and marital status – created further barriers, revealing how intersecting identities influence leadership advancement.

Practical/managerial implications: Organisations must reconsider their leadership development strategies to ensure they are inclusive and supportive of women. Optimising leadership pipeline practices and addressing cultural and gender dynamics are essential for enabling women’s advancement.

Contribution/value-add: The study applies leadership pipeline theory in a South African multicultural setting, uncovering new intersections between organisational culture and gender. It enhances understanding of the complex factors hindering women’s leadership progression and offers guidance for more equitable talent development practices.

Keywords: leadership; pipeline; intersectionality; underrepresentation; career progression; organisational culture.

Introduction

The underrepresentation of women in leadership positions has been widely researched across various industries and contexts (Baker, 2014). Previous studies on women’s leadership have primarily focused on uncovering some of the root causes of gender inequalities and their impact on women leaders (Barkhuizen et al., 2022; Cho et al., 2018; Longman et al., 2017; Miliopoulou & Kapareliotis, 2021). One of the key findings is a phenomenon termed ‘The Pipeline Problem’, which states that the shortage of women in senior leadership positions is a result of the scarcity of qualified women to fill these senior leadership positions (Gipson et al., 2017). While the existing literature has identified the factors contributing to the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions, there is a noticeable gap in understanding the experiences of women in middle management, especially in a developing country such as South Africa, which grapples with its unique gender inequality issues (Espi et al., 2019).

Factors such as organisational culture could enable or hinder the progression of women to positions of leadership in organisations (Barkhuizen et al., 2022). Further exploration of the influence of organisational culture on the processes used by organisations to select, develop and support women in the leadership pipeline is therefore necessary. While some studies have argued that the lack of women in leadership positions is a result of a lack of skills (Gipson et al., 2017), other studies have found that women have excellent leadership skills and better leadership traits and styles compared to men (Baker, 2014). These arguments raise questions about the influence of leadership skills, leadership traits and leadership styles on women being selected for the leadership pipeline and ultimately appointed to senior leadership positions.

Selection, development, leadership styles and performance (SDLP) are some of the key factors that determine the success of women in the leadership pipeline (Gipson et al., 2017). However, these studies primarily present the perspectives of women in senior leadership positions, thereby creating a gap for a study of the perspectives and experiences of women who are currently in the leadership pipeline. In addition, factors such as gender roles, intersectionality and the lack of leadership pipeline success measures add to the complexity of this phenomenon. Gender roles and the associated expected behaviours have also contributed to the discrepancies in how men and women are perceived in their leadership roles, which results in discrimination practices that are based on the perceptions of gender roles, inside and outside of the workplace (Blau & Kahn, 2018). Intersectionality has been suggested as a contributing factor to the success or failure of women in leadership positions, which asserts that the interconnectedness of social classifications such as race, age and gender have a significant influence on the success of women in leadership positions (Miliopoulou & Kapareliotis, 2021).

The absence of a universal measure of success for women in leadership positions has also created another gap for further research (Galsanjigmed & Sekuguchi, 2023). Currently, the view on the success of women leaders is subjective and based on their own experiences in their respective organisations (Miliopoulou & Kapareliotis, 2021). This prompts a further investigation into the purpose of the women’s leadership pipeline, perceptions regarding its effectiveness and whether it is the appropriate means for addressing the issue of the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions.

Structure

The article starts with a review of existing literature in the realm of organisational, leadership and intersectional factors that influence the progression of women in the leadership pipeline.

Thereafter, the research methods employed in conducting this study will be discussed, outlining the selected sample as well as the data collection and analysis processes used. This will be followed by the results and the discussion thereof. The article will conclude with the limitations and recommendations for future research.

Literature review

The leadership pipeline

The leadership pipeline is a structured process for identifying, selecting and developing potential candidates for succession management, and the management of this pipeline significantly impacts the success or failure of these candidates (Baker et al., 2019). Charan et al. (2011) define the leadership pipeline as a model that outlines six critical career passages or transitions that leaders must navigate as they progress through organisational hierarchies. In a study examining the leadership pipeline and the adequacy of leadership development programmes in preparing candidates for leadership roles, senior leaders in the higher education sector revealed they were not confident that pipeline candidates were adequately prepared for leadership positions (Baker et al., 2019). Consequently, the study recommended further research into the development and preparation of senior leaders, which this study aims to achieve.

While insights from senior women leaders are valuable, it is equally essential to explore the perspectives of individual women currently in the leadership pipeline and those aspiring to occupy senior leadership roles in the future. This necessitates an investigation of the selection processes, developmental opportunities and support mechanisms provided to individuals within the leadership pipeline. In addition, concepts such as ‘The Pipeline Problem’ (Gipson et al., 2017) and the ‘Leaking Pipeline’ (Baker et al., 2019) suggest that there are additional obstacles hindering women’s progression into leadership roles that warrant further investigation. While previous studies have shed light on pipeline issues, they have predominantly captured the views of senior and executive leaders, such as chief executive officers (CEOs) and chief financial officers (CFOs) (Charan et al., 2011; Cho et al., 2018). Similarly, Baker et al. (2019) concentrated on senior leadership assessments of pipeline candidate success. These studies have not sufficiently represented the views of women in the pipeline, thus indicating a need for further research. Cho et al. (2018) further recommended the use of findings from women CEOs’ career advancement strategies as practical guidance for women seeking to advance into organisational leadership roles, highlighting the need to understand the views of these women.

Organisational culture

The concept of organisational culture has been extensively examined in organisational and management literature and was selected for this study because of its established role as a foundational determinant of workplace dynamics, particularly regarding gender equality in leadership advancement (Ely & Meyerson, 2010; Schein, 2017). Organisational culture is often defined as a set of shared basic assumptions, behaviours and espoused values within a group (Schein, 1983), playing a vital role in shaping an organisation’s processes and behaviours. This study’s objective is to investigate how organisational culture influences decisions regarding the selection, development and support of women in the leadership pipeline. For women to navigate the leadership pipeline successfully, organisational processes, structures and behaviours must facilitate and support their journey. Previous research in a developing country indicated that organisational culture is a significant hindrance to women’s career advancement in the higher education sector (Barkhuizen et al., 2022). This study aims to expand on Barkhuizen et al.’s (2022) finding by examining firms’ organisational cultures in a different industry to determine whether they enable or impede women’s progression in the leadership pipeline and whether industry dynamics contribute to such.

The impact of organisational culture on women’s leadership experiences was further explored in the higher education sector, and the findings indicated that women in this sector had varying perceptions and experiences of gender-related issues within their organisations, influencing their roles as female leaders (Longman et al., 2017). Furthermore, both national and organisational cultures were identified as critical factors affecting women’s representation and success in CEO positions in Korea (Cho et al., 2018). However, these studies primarily focused on the perspectives of women in senior leadership positions. What remains underrepresented is the viewpoint of women in junior and middle management positions, currently progressing through the leadership pipeline. This perspective aims to verify whether women at different managerial levels encounter organisational culture differently.

Leadership

Leadership, particularly leadership development frameworks such as the pipeline model proposed by Charan et al. (2011), offers a structured approach to understanding career advancement. Leadership plays a significant role in shaping organisational culture through strategies, practices and values, with a more pronounced influence at higher management levels, which subsequently affects the entire organisation (Steers & Shim, 2013). Leadership styles also play a crucial role in a leader’s capacity to instigate change within an organisation (Katsaros et al., 2020). These findings suggest that the behaviour of leaders at the upper echelons of management tends to permeate the rest of the organisation.

In a study conducted in two automotive companies, the findings revealed that the leadership styles and behaviours of top leaders greatly contributed to shaping the organisational culture, which impacted the execution of the organisational strategy (Steers & Shim, 2013). Furthermore, the influence of leadership was found to be crucial during times of organisational change and for financial performance (Katsaros et al., 2020). Despite differing research focuses, both studies confirmed the assertion that the practices and strategies employed by organisational leaders play a pivotal role in shaping organisational culture. This research aims to build upon these findings by investigating whether the practices and behaviours exhibited by organisational leaders contribute to an organisational culture that prioritises and supports the development of women for senior leadership positions.

Intersectionality

Intersectionality, a concept rooted in black feminism and race theories (Crenshaw, 1989), seeks to explain the interconnectedness of socio-demographic characteristics like gender, race and class, in both individual and organisational contexts (Rushing, 2017). This theoretical framework is particularly relevant in the South African context, where historical racial divisions and multicultural dynamics add complexity to gender-based analyses. A study conducted in the Greek advertising industry indicated that these characteristics and the interaction thereof had substantial implications for the success of women in senior leadership roles (Miliopoulou & Kapareliotis, 2021).

Research on intersectionality has also extended to diversity and inclusion in organisations, revealing that characteristics such as race and ethnicity influence how female expatriates are perceived and treated in various cultural settings (Shortland & Perkins, 2021) and how gender intersects with characteristics such as race and classism, resulting in inequalities (Acker, 2012). These studies are particularly relevant to South Africa, given its racially and culturally diverse workforce. Building on these studies, this research explores how the intersections of characteristics arising from multicultural, multi-gendered and multiracial organisations in South Africa impact the progression of women in the leadership pipeline.

While many intersectionality studies have traditionally focused on common social characteristics such as race, age, gender, ethnicity and sexuality (Rushing, 2017), this study extended the investigation to consider novel factors. ‘Place’ was introduced as a factor in understanding the exclusion and marginalisation of women (Rushing, 2017), suggesting that the characteristics for studying intersectionality should not be confined to typical social categorisations but can encompass less visible elements such as upbringing and family structure.

Research question

This study sought to answer the following research question:

RQ1: What influence does organisational culture, leadership and intersectionality have on the progression of women in the career pipeline?

Methods

The study adopted a qualitative method to gain an in-depth understanding of individual perspectives of the phenomenon. To encompass a wide range of perspectives, purposive sampling (Ames et al., 2019) was used to select participants from different sectors and organisations within the financial services industry. The participants were selected based on a common gender but differences in the categories of race, cultural identity, age, level of management and years of experience in the financial services industry (see Table 1). The participants were identified through the researcher’s network and through referrals by other participants.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 women in total, 12 in middle management positions and two in senior positions in the financial services industry. Semi-structured questions with follow-up questions were posted to the participants with an aim to gain an in-depth understanding of each participant’s viewpoints and experience (Namey et al., 2016) and the factors that have impacted their journey (Varpio et al., 2017). Furthermore, participants were requested to share their experiences openly with the assurance that their private data would remain confidential in this publication.

The interviews began in August 2023, with the initial goal of recruiting 12 participants, guided by methodological recommendations indicating that this sample size is typically sufficient to reach data saturation in studies involving relatively homogeneous populations (Alam, 2021). While this methodological rationale was maintained, the researcher made a concerted effort to include as many eligible participants as possible from the financial services sector. This strategy supported a thorough exploration of experiences while upholding the core tenet of qualitative research that emphasises theoretical saturation over statistical representativeness as the primary criterion for sampling. To safeguard confidentiality, participants were invited to share only those aspects of their work experiences that they felt comfortable disclosing publicly. Interview transcripts had all personal identifiers removed, and each participant was assigned a unique identification number. All data were securely stored in a digital folder, accessible only to authorised individuals. The study procedures also received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee at the Gordon Institute of Business Science, University of Pretoria.

Interview questions

The one-hour semi-structured interviews were conducted online via Microsoft Teams and started with an introduction of the research topic and the background for the research problem. The interview questions were created based on examples of interview schedules from previous studies (Brands & Fernandes-Mateo, 2017; Clerkin & Ruderman, 2018). The questions were grouped according to constructs from the research question, namely, organisational culture, leadership and intersectionality. Participants were invited to convey their experiences and viewpoints on matters impacting the advancement of women in the leadership pipeline.

Data analysis

Existing literature on the factors that influence the progression of women in the leadership pipeline was used to develop the interview guide and an inductive thematic analysis approach was adopted to identify themes within the chosen constructs and other emerging themes. The transcripts were automatically generated by Microsoft Teams, downloaded into ATLAS.ti software for line-by-line coding. The sixth interview yielded the least number of new codes, indicating a point of data saturation (Morse, 1995); however, further interviews were conducted to gain further insights to confirm the validity of the data and meet the minimum target of 14 interviews. The codes were then grouped into code groups and then further grouped into the three constructs covered in the research question for this study, namely, organisational culture, leadership and intersectionality. Codes that did not form part of the three main themes, such as sponsorship and expectations from women leaders, were grouped separately as emerging themes.

Sample details

Fourteen participants were interviewed. The group shared a gender identity, namely women, but there were differences in their detailed demographic details such as length of tenure, race, age, and so on. (Table 1). The key selection criteria included racial composition, management level and experience. Racial composition allows for the analysis of experiences primarily from women of mixed race, who are often underrepresented in leadership studies. Twelve participants occupied middle management, and two were senior managers. The study aimed to understand middle managers’ experiences in the pipeline to provide more nuanced data on the pipeline. Finally, ten participants had more than 10 years’ experience in their roles, and four had more than 15 years of experience. This suggests that participants have navigated multiple career transition and can offer nuanced insights into leadership pipeline challenges.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) Research Ethics Committee.

Results

Summary of themes

The themes (Table 2) were derived using codes and were categorised according to the three constructs of the research question, namely organisational culture, leadership and intersectionality. The main themes were then disaggregated into sub-themes. Organisational culture focuses on cultural dynamics, exclusion, competition, growth opportunities and belonging. It distinguishes between broader organisational culture and departmental cultures, noting how these environments can shift over time and create varying experiences for women in leadership pipelines. Leadership examines leadership pipeline challenges and gender dynamics in leadership including progression challenges, qualifications, visibility and leadership styles across various contexts in the organisation. It also incorporates how gender intersects with progression opportunities and the visibility of women in leadership roles. The third theme analyses how multiple identity factors influence women’s leadership experiences through personal and socio-demographic characteristics. Personal characteristics include codes related to insecurities, self-advocacy, personality traits and self-doubt, while socio-demographic characteristics capture intersectional factors including race, religion, physical attributes, upbringing and voice.

A final theme includes sponsorship and expectations from senior female leaders, including the absence of sponsors, gender factors in sponsorship relationships, external sponsors and potential negative aspects of sponsorship dynamics.

The comprehensive coding structure demonstrates a thorough approach to understanding women’s leadership advancement through multiple lenses, with particular attention on how intersectional factors interact with organisational practices and leadership development processes.

Organisational culture and progression through the leadership pipeline

Nine of the fourteen participants provided positive descriptions of their organisational culture and pipeline experience, using words such as diverse, inclusive and high performance, while three participants provided negative descriptions, citing words such as toxic and non-existent. Two participants stated that the organisational culture had evolved with the changes that their organisations went through. Furthermore, six participants described the organisational culture as departmental instead of organisational:

‘The culture actually is driven by the senior management and how they actually carry the department.’ (Participant #11, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘I think it’s more department-centred than the organisation.’ (Participant ID#10, Black African, Middle, 10+)

When asked how organisational culture has influenced their ability to progress through the leadership pipeline, four participants indicated that some organisational practices hindered their ability to progress through the leadership pipeline. Participant #11 noted that departmental leaders influenced women’s progression through the leadership pipeline, with some encouraging progression while others did not. Participant #14, a senior executive, indicated that for the pipeline progression process to be effective, it should be an integral part of the senior leaders’ core responsibilities and deeply ingrained within the organisational culture.

Undefined leadership pipeline

Women in the study admitted to not knowing how talent is identified in their organisations and how the leadership pipeline is managed. Participant ID#12, Participant ID#07 and Participant ID#06 and Participant ID#06 expressed that the leadership pipeline was not visible in their organisation, and they were unaware of being part of the leadership pipeline or earmarked for senior positions. Participant ID#12 further stated that talent management was a tick-box exercise and was not managed effectively. Participant ID#09 indicated that a leadership pipeline existed in her organisation; however, she had been made explicitly aware by her line manager that she was not part of it. The lack of formal progression structures and invisibility were cited as some of the reasons participants were unaware of whether they were identified as part of the leadership pipeline:

‘That’s the whole thing about the pipeline, sometimes people don’t see you because you always just working behind the scenes.’ (Participant ID#02, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘I don’t know if I would be marked for it and there were talks with me, but I knew that the structure was not formal enough for me to become comfortable and say this is my position.’ (Participant ID#06, Black African, Middle, 10+)

When asked if there was a pipeline specifically identified for women, participants’ responses varied. The lack of equal opportunities resulting from past injustices and the lack of promotional opportunities for women were cited as the reasons why a female leadership pipeline is necessary. Opposing views cited that the career progression process should be fair to all, and promotional opportunities should be awarded to deserving individuals regardless of their gender:

‘I think we are then ignoring the fact that there are struggles that women have that men don’t have. We’re not acknowledging that we need to support each other in that community because we definitely don’t have the same struggles.’ (Participant ID#04, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘I do believe women should get some sort of treatment, but I’m not sure to what extent.’ (Participant ID#05, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘But I think that in general, don’t separate male and female, the support that they need, the resources that they need to get to the next level of their career.’ (Participant ID#01, Black African, Middle, 15+)

‘The only way we can correct what the top looks like is to ensure we are actively creating that pipeline. So, I think that the one component is being intentional about ensuring you’ve got enough women within the organisation at the right levels for your pipeline creation because then there’s no point in creating a pipeline if you don’t have the people internally.’ (Participant ID#14, Black African, Senior, 15+)

Influence of leadership styles

Participants were requested to describe their leadership styles and the factors that have influenced these leadership styles. The results exhibited that participants’ leadership styles were influenced by various factors including upbringing, role models and the leadership styles of their previous leaders. A shared theme among all participants was their willingness to embrace leadership qualities they admired in effective leaders while making a conscious effort to avoid adopting the negative traits they had observed in previous leaders:

‘The bad manager shows you what you don’t want to be like, and a great manager shows you what you want to be like.’ (Participant ID#09, White, Middle, 15+)

‘Those are parts that I’ve taken from previous leaders that I like to incorporate into my leadership style and developing others but also treating others as human.’ (Participant ID#12, White, Middle, 15+)

Leadership and gender

In relation to the kind of leaders that they have reported to previously, three participants expressed a preference for male leaders over female leaders:

‘As much as we want to see women in leadership roles, they are always the ones who let us down.’ (Participant ID#10, Black African, Middle, 10+, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘I hate to say this, but I’ve preferred male leaders because of the previous leadership styles I’ve had with women.’ (Participant ID#07, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘And I always feel comfortable reporting into a male, I felt stronger. I would get promoted. I would get increases. I would get bonuses. When it came time for my PD, there weren’t any pieces of information that I wasn’t au fait with. You know, everything would be very clear, but I feel if I’m reporting it to a woman, I wouldn’t have the same succession plan.’ (Participant ID#08, Indian, Middle, 15+)

Intersectionality

Within the intersectionality category, five dominant themes and intersections surfaced as being the most influential factors affecting women’s advancement in the leadership pipeline. Marital status and motherhood played an important role in how women were identified for promotional opportunities, which ultimately impacted their ability to progress in their careers. Four participants stated that, in their experiences, marital status and motherhood had largely influenced how they were identified for promotional opportunities, which impacted their ability to progress in their careers:

‘But I think my greatest struggle to date has been juggling motherhood and making the type of career decisions that I think if I didn’t have those responsibilities, maybe I’d be more willing to be called at 3:00 AM in the morning or work until whatever time so that I can be seen as more capable.’ (Participant ID#12, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘I know my boss chose me because he knows if he says jump, I’ll say how high because I’m not married, and I don’t have kids.’ (Participant ID#09, White, Middle, 15+)

Upbringing

Pertaining to upbringing, five participants indicated that their upbringing influenced how they presented themselves in a professional environment. Participants also cited the influence of cultural norms as a major influence on their ability to challenge certain issues in professional settings. This theme also intersected with gender, indicating how women are raised differently from men and how this influences how they show up in professional settings:

‘There are certain things that get moulded within us as we grow up as girls. Don’t be too loud. Don’t be all of those things and then that means that when we disagree with people, we are polite.’ (Participant ID#06, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘But the funny thing about my family is that most of the single women in my family have male-dominant positions. So, I was always told that you have to achieve and you’re a woman, so you have to work extra hard.’ (Participant ID#05, Black African, Middle, 10+)

Race and gender

Race was the most cited as a hindrance to progressing in the leadership pipeline. All 14 participants who represented various racial groups expressed those certain aspects of their race had adversely influenced their ability to progress in the leadership pipeline:

‘I have actually experienced more rejections because I’m white.’ (Participant ID#09, White, Middle, 15+)

‘Being a black woman has been particularly tough in the sense that you are seen as the person that’s just good for the admin.’ (Participant ID#12, Black African, Middle, 10+)

Age, size and appearance

Participants revealed that their age, size and appearance also contributed significantly to how they were perceived by leaders and considered for leadership roles. Five participants cited that their body size and appearance impacted how their inputs were evaluated during discussions. Participant ID#10 further mentioned altering her dress code to foster assertiveness in engagements with her male counterparts:

‘And being one of the few people who are younger in the management team also has its own challenges and issues because people feel like you don’t have the experience until you show them that actually, I know what I’m talking about.’ (Participant ID#01, Black African, Middle, 15+)

‘It’s difficult when you walk into a boardroom of 50-year-old men, and you look young to be taken seriously.’ (Participant ID#06, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘They see a child and they don’t see my capabilities.’ (Participant ID#03, Black Indian, Middle, 16+)

‘I dress more masculine, whereas my personality and my style are a lot more feminine. I have a wardrobe specifically, and I don’t curl my hair on days that I have big meetings.’ (Participant ID#10, Black African, Middle, 10+)

Expectations from senior female leaders

What emerged as an unexpected theme was the level of expectation associated with female leaders. Participants were requested to reflect on senior female leaders in Executive Committees (ExCo) and whether they believed that these leaders had a responsibility towards the women in the leadership pipeline. The responses indicated that women in the leadership pipeline do not feel represented by women at the ExCo level and find them unrelatable:

‘I haven’t seen any of the women kind of boldly make it known that they are for women and what women’s leadership means, or give some sort of encouragement for us to kind of get into the same positions as them.’ (Participant ID#07, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘I found that women in leadership positions currently do not represent other women because they do not pave the way for other women.’ (Participant ID#03, Black Indian, Middle, 16+)

Another participant, however, expressed that the burden of increasing the representation of women in the leadership pipeline should not be placed on women only:

‘I think that the women who’ve made it have a responsibility of not being a hindrance to others, however, we almost want to put all the burden on these women, they’ve worked really hard, and they probably work more than their male counterparts, and on top of that, you want them to carry the whole generation of women. I don’t think that’s fair. Make the responsibility of raising women, the men’s job because they’re the ones who are stumbling blocks.’ (Participant ID#06, Black African, Middle, 10+)

Sponsorship

Sponsorship and the role of leaders in the advancement of women in the leadership pipeline emerged as a new theme. Participants stated that having sponsors played a significant role in their career progression:

‘And of course, it had a significant impact on my growth within the company of the rooms that I was invited to.’ (Participant ID#03, Black Indian, Middle, 16+)

In addition, one of the senior executive participants expressed that she was deliberate about sponsoring women in the leadership pipeline because of her observation that women are under-sponsored, and sponsorship plays a significant role in the advancement of women in the leadership pipeline:

‘As women, we are over-mentored and under-sponsored which is a problem in comparison to men. Men are big at sponsoring each other. I will speak about women in every room that I’m in to ensure that their names are put out there and to ensure that they can get promotions.’ (Participant ID#14, Black African, Senior, 15+)

Conversely, two participants mentioned that they did not have sponsors and pointed out several significant risks linked to sponsorship relationships. One of the key risks highlighted by Participant ID#10 was the risk of the sponsor’s departure from the organisation, which could impact the sponsorship beneficiary’s advancement in the leadership pipeline. The participant further highlighted the risk of the relationship with the sponsor becoming tarnished, resulting in the loss of opportunities for the sponsorship beneficiary. Participant ID#11 also emphasised the importance of the sponsorship beneficiary maintaining a level of independence in sponsorship relationships:

‘Sponsorships sometimes can come to a dead end. Without loosely referring to me, you find that, maybe the manager who had initially agreed to sponsor you as well, decides that they don’t see value in you anymore.’ (Participant ID#10, Black African, Middle, 10+)

‘With this thing of sponsorship, for me, let the person be your sponsor, groom you and lift you to a level that you can stand on your own. But when that person is not there, you can still be able to stand on your own and you’re not going to rely on this person going forward.’ (Participant ID#11, Black African, Middle, 10+)

Support and development

Based on the pillars of the SDLP framework, participants were requested to share their experiences on the support they received to prepare them for the senior roles they were identified for. While some participants indicated that they received the necessary support from their line managers, Participant ID#07 indicated that she did not receive support, despite being given additional tasks, and as a result, she was contemplating opting out of the pipeline:

‘My senior manager, I think he just took it upon himself to make sure that I’m gonna show this girl as much as I can because I think in his mind he thinks when he retires, I’ll take over, because he’s also five years away from retirement.’ (Participant ID#01, Black African, Middle, 15+)

‘I don’t wanna be a part of this sort of journey that you put me on.’ (Participant ID#07, Black African, Middle, 10+)

Discussion

These results provide evidence that the impact of organisational culture, leadership and intersectionality on the progression of women in the leadership pipelines is significant, and each women experiences them differently, which allowed the researcher to answer the research question at hand. Considering the South African context, marked by a history of racial and gender inequality, it is noteworthy to observe that despite regulations such as the Gender Equality Act and the Employment Equality Act, which legally obligate companies to promote gender and racial equality in their employment decisions (South African Government, 1996, 1998), women are still largely underrepresented in senior leadership positions. The findings of this study highlight some of the reasons for this disparity, which will be discussed in detail next.

Organisational culture

Schein (1983) defines organisational culture as the basic assumptions, values and artefacts that are shared by a group of people. The responses provided by participants #10 and #11 under the organisational culture and leadership pipeline theme introduced a new perspective to this definition, suggesting that instead of a singular organisational culture, most organisations have departmental cultures that are influenced by the leader(s) of that particular department. This fosters the emergence of sub-cultures within the broader organisational culture, reflecting differing assumptions, values and artefacts. This suggests that where the mandate of creating opportunities for women to progress to senior leadership positions does not form part of the organisation’s values, women continue to face challenges while progressing through the leadership pipeline and are therefore underrepresented in senior leadership positions.

In addition, the responses provided by participants to questions regarding the influence leaders have on the organisational culture confirmed the assertion that leaders play a critical role in shaping organisational culture through strategies, practices and values, and that leadership behaviour exhibited at the top management levels is likely to be filtered down and reflected in the rest of the organisation (Steers & Shim, 2013). The significant differences in cultures between different departments in the same organisation were found to be as a result of differences in leadership styles and behaviours. One can therefore infer that where the advancement of women into senior leadership positions is not part of the broader organisation’s values and is not supported by the leaders of the organisation, it will adversely affect the progression of women in the leadership pipeline.

Leadership

Given the role of leaders in shaping the organisational culture, this study sought to understand the role of leadership in influencing the practices relating to the progression of women in the leadership pipeline. Gipson et al. (2017) argue that perceptions of leadership skills and styles play a critical role in informing decisions regarding the selection and development of people for the leadership pipeline. The data provided by the participants under the ‘influence of leadership styles’ theme conferred with this argument (Gipson et al., 2017), demonstrating that women who encountered leaders with autocratic leadership styles (Sousa & Rocha, 2019) experienced delays in their ability to progress through the leadership pipeline, while women who experienced leaders with democratic and transformational leadership styles (Sousa & Rocha, 2019) progressed better. Furthermore, the participant responses revealed that women who had experienced leadership styles that they did not identify with were intentional about not adopting those leadership styles in their leadership roles. Combining the views of Steers and Shim (2012) and Gipson et al. (2017), one can state that leaders do not only influence the practices, values and strategies of the organisation but also influence the leadership experiences and leadership styles of the people they lead.

The responses provided by participants under the leadership and gender theme revealed a surprising preference for reporting to male leaders than female leaders. This preference was largely based on unpleasant experiences with previous female leaders, which contradicts the general perception that women have excellent leadership skills and better leadership traits and styles compared to men (Baker, 2014). In addition, this finding supports the argument that women in senior leadership positions display a lack of solidarity and empathy towards other women (Miliopoulou & Kapareliotis, 2021). Another prominent finding under the leadership theme indicated that there are greater expectations placed on female leaders compared to male leaders, which confirms the assertion that gender stereotypes influence the expected leadership styles and leader behaviours (Gipson et al., 2017). This poses a considerable challenge to the goal of advancing female representation in senior leadership roles.

Intersectionality

The objective of this study was to explore whether additional socio-demographic factors exist beyond those previously examined in research that impact the advancement of women in the leadership pipeline. Given the demographics of the sample selected for this research, it was without surprise that characteristics such as race and gender were dominant in the results given. However, what was of additional interest for this research was how these characteristics intersected with other socio-demographic characteristics found in the results. Marital status was one of the key emerging themes from the results, with most participants stating that it impacted how they were considered or excluded for senior roles. Linked to this was the theme of motherhood, which was cited as a key barrier to being identified for the leadership pipeline. Given that the sample for this research consisted of only females, the findings suggest that the intersection of gender, marital status and motherhood negatively impacts women’s ability to progress through the leadership pipeline.

Despite the existing legislation aimed at addressing racial and gender inequities in South African organisations, a key finding from this research indicated that race and gender still have a significant influence on the progression of women in the leadership pipeline. Findings from Participant ID#14, a senior leader in one of South Africa’s leading banks, indicated that black African women tend to be among the last to be considered for promotions to senior leadership and top management roles. This claim is evidenced by data that reveal that black African females in the financial services industry only occupy 11.2% of senior leadership positions, compared to the 18.6% occupied by white females and 28.6% occupied by white males, (South African Department of Employment and Labour, 2023). The data further indicate that the white population group receives more opportunities for promotions and skills development. However, findings from the research contradicted this claim and indicated that race is also a hindrance for the progression of white women in the leadership pipeline. The sole white female participant in this study disclosed that she had encountered more rejections for promotional opportunities because of her organisation’s stance to give preference to individuals from other racial backgrounds for these advancements. These findings demonstrate that race impacts women in the leadership pipeline regardless of race. The findings also expand on Miliopoulou and Kapareliotis’ (2021) findings based on senior leaders in the Greek advertising industry, by adding the perspective of women in middle management, in a developing, multiracial country, indicating that race impacts the advancement of women regardless of the level of seniority.

Upbringing also emerged as a recurrent theme in the results. A comparison of the responses from participants belonging to different racial groups confirmed that race and culture had a substantial influence on women’s upbringing. Whereas black African women were taught to be more conservative and not challenge authority, white women were encouraged to vocalise their opinions and challenge where necessary. This learned behaviour ultimately impacted how women presented and conducted themselves in the professional environment. Therefore, one can state that the intersection of race, culture and upbringing influences how women present themselves in the professional arena, which impacts how they are identified and selected for senior leadership positions.

Lastly, age, size and appearance also emerged as key themes in the findings. Size, which for the purposes of this research refers to body size, was found to be a major hindrance for some participants and impacted the way they were perceived by male counterparts. Some participants indicated that being aware of this disadvantage prompted them to adopt techniques such as the use of their voice to compensate for their petite size. For the younger participants (< 35 years), age also appeared to have an influence on how they were perceived, treated and considered for senior leadership positions. Appearance, which for the purposes of this research refers to physical appearance, also had strong intersections with both race and gender. Some participants stated that their hair had influenced how they were considered for job opportunities, while others expressed a preference for adopting a more masculine dress code, aiming to enhance their credibility in boardrooms.

While most studies of intersectionality have mainly focused on common socio-demographic characteristics such as race and gender, sexuality and ethnicity (Rushing, 2017), the findings from this study indicate that there are various other characteristics and interactions that can influence the progression of women into senior leadership roles such as marital status and upbringing. Furthermore, the intersection of these characteristics allowed for a deeper understanding of the participants being studied.

Contributions

This research contributed to the body research work by providing a unique combination of these three frameworks, which enables a comprehensive examination of both structural and cultural barriers faced by women in middle management positions within South Africa’s diverse organisational landscapes, addressing a significant gap in existing research that has predominantly focused on Western contexts or treated gender in isolation from other aspects of identity. Furthermore, this research offers a crucial and previously underrepresented perspective by foregrounding the voices of women currently navigating middle management positions. Earlier studies have predominantly captured either the retrospective reflections of women who successfully reached executive roles or the evaluative assessments of senior leaders observing pipeline candidates from above, to increase female representation in senior leadership positions, and for women who are currently in the leadership pipeline to better position themselves for senior leadership roles.

The emerging theme of leadership and gender, and the role of sponsorship in women’s career progression through the pipeline, has potentially opened new areas of study. The women make the distinction between a female leader and a male leader and argue that, at times, the female could present more challenges than the male leader for their own promotion prospects.

Limitations

Qualitative findings are, by their nature, highly context and case-driven, and as such, present several limitations (Patton, 1999). One such limitation that was prevalent in this study is the use of purposive sampling, which limits the findings of the results to the group of people that were selected. The research was also limited to the financial services industry in South Africa, and the findings may be different in other industries and other jurisdictions. Furthermore, the research was completed in a single period, which created the possibility of temporal elements influencing the outcome (Patton, 1999).

Recommendations for future research

A further exploration of ‘The Pipeline Problem’ and ‘Pipeline Leakages’, focusing on the influence of qualifications and technical skills on the representation of women in male-dominated industries, is recommended. In addition, the perspectives of senior male and female leaders on female representation in senior leadership positions are an important yet understudied part of this phenomenon, which would provide a valuable contribution to the existing literature.

Conclusion

The scarcity of women in senior leadership roles remains a persistent challenge confronting organisation today. The findings from this study indicate that even in countries such as South Africa, with regulations aimed at ensuring racial and gender equity in employment decisions, these efforts are still not translating to more female representation in senior leadership positions. The findings further indicate that organisational culture, leadership and intersectionality all contribute significantly to this phenomenon. The study has highlighted more detailed areas of concern for women in the promotion pipeline, which include aspects such as the gender of their leader and the level of sponsorship they receive. Companies are aware that the women’s promotion prospects need to be bolstered but are not careful enough to look at the role that personal identities play in achieving those promotions. In addition to the personal characteristics, the leadership gender could also have a negative impact if the leader and candidate for promotion are of the same gender and not aligned in what needs to be achieved. Finally, sponsorship is important for women in the pipeline because they require support from someone who is more senior and potentially has allies within the leadership structure that could create opportunities for the women. These findings are critical for organisational leaders when making decisions concerning the strategies required to select, develop, lead and measure the performance of women in the leadership pipeline.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr Kerry Chipp for her comments and guidance on the first draft of this article and the reviewers for subsequent drafts.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

V.M. conceived of the presented idea, conducted the interviews and analysed the data. V.M. wrote the first draft, and M.R. supervised the writing of the article. Both authors were involved in preparing the article for publication.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available because of the confidentiality of the research and are available from the corresponding author, M.R., upon reasonable request.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References