Content
analysis, a method which can be used qualitatively or quantitatively for
systematically analyzing written, verbal, or visual documentation, goes back to
the 1950s and the study of mass communication (White & Marsh, 2006, p. 22).
Key themes emerge from the documents after they are classified and coded. The
content can come from a wide variety of sources: books, manuscripts, drawings,
photographs, recorded conversations, videotaped events, messages on electronic
mailings lists and online forums, blog posts, etc. Content is analyzed by
breaking it up into conceptual chunks that are then coded or named. Qualitative
analysis develops the categories as the analysis takes place. The results are
used to make inferences about the messages in the text. Quantitative analysis
starts with a hypothesis and a predetermined coding scheme that is designed to
test the hypothesis. The results are described using statistics. Kimberly
Neuendorf and Klaus Krippendorff are two of many contemporary scholars in the
area of content analysis. Neuendorf sees the method as primarily quantitative,
while Krippendorf believes that counting is not a prerequisite of content
analysis. Verbal categories and the listing of quotes are considered as valid
as numbers and counting.
There
are two types of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis.
Conceptual analysis is largely what was described above: the content is coded
for certain words, concepts, or themes, and the analyst makes inferences based
on the patterns that emerge. Relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis
by delving into the relationships between the concepts and themes that surface
from the analyzed text. Relational analysis is popular because of its
flexibility, but this flexibility can also be a drawback when reliability and
trustworthiness are necessary in the research. When the analysis is too
flexible, the research becomes impossible to replicate. Therefore, a codebook,
a coding form, rules, and often more than one coder are necessary to give
stability to the content analysis process.
Content
analysis is a method commonly used in the social sciences and is therefore a
viable choice for LIS research. In fact, there are many published LIS research
studies that have used the content analysis methodology. I have selected a few
as an illustration:
Dahl, C. (2001). Electronic pathfinders in academic
libraries: An analysis of their content
and form. College& Research Libraries,
62(3), 227-237.
Du, Y., Stein, B., & Martin, R.S. (2007) Content analysis of an LIS
job database: A regional prototype for a collaborative model. Libri, 57,
17-26. Retrieved from http://www.librijournal.org/pdf/2007-1pp17-26.pdf
Julien, H.,
McKechnie, L. & Hart, S. (2004). A content analysis of affective issues in
library and information science systems work [Summary of a research note
delivered at the ISIC 2004 conference, Dublin, 1-3 September, 2004], Information
Research, 10(1). Retrieved from http://InformationR.net/ir/10-1/abs6
Koufogiannakis,
D., Slater, L., & Crumley, E. (2004). A content analysis of librarian
research. Journal of Information Science, 30(3), 227-239. doi: 10.1177/0165551504044668
Morais, Y.,
& Sampson, S. (2010). A content
analysis of chat transcripts in the Georgetown Law Library. Legal Reference Services,
29(3), 165-178.
Yontar, A., & Yalvac, M. (2000). Problems of library and information science research in Turkey: A content
analysis of journal articles 1952-1994. IFLA Journal26(1), 39-51.
The
basic steps a researcher takes in approaching a content analysis is as follows:
- Develop
a research question (if using qualitative analysis) or a hypothesis (if
using quantitative analysis).
- Define
the population. This step can take place at several places during the
course of the study: at the research question development state or later
in the process depending on what is returned from choosing a particular
population. Then there are different methods of choosing a sample: random
sampling methods (simple random sampling, systematic random sampling,
cluster sampling, stratified sampling) and non-random sampling (purposive
sampling, convenience sampling).
- Select
a research design. There are several tasks to be accomplished in this
step: choose units of analysis to study; create a coding scheme; and, in
the case of quantitative analysis, develop a numbering system.
- Gather
data: Quality control is a major concern when coding. Agreement tests must
be conducted between coders to insure acceptable levels of inter-coder
reliability. The researcher must try to avoid subjectivity and the
appearance of subjectivity.
- Interpreting
the evidence: Findings must directly address the research question or
hypothesis. Tables, bar graphs, numbers, etc., all must be explained and
interpreted in light of the question asked. (Adapted from Beck & Manuel, 2004,
Chapter 3)
In
practice, content analysis can be “time-consuming and labour-intensive” (Beck
& Manuel, 2004, p. 37). Using this research method can help to reveal
trends and themes, but it cannot attribute cause. However, it is one of the top
research methods used in LIS research, and can be just the thing when an
analysis of multiple texts is required. Coming up in the next issue, a look at
using focus groups.
Works
Consulted
Course content
page from the University of Texas School of Information. Retrieved from
http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html
Hsieh, H-F.,
& Shannon, S.E. (2005). Three approaches
to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15, 1277-1288, doi:
10.1177/1049732305276687
Recommended Reading
Krippendorff, K.
(2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Neuendorf,
K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
White, M.D.,
& Marsh, E.E. (2006). Content analysis: A flexible methodology. Library Trends, 55(1), 22-45, doi: 10.1353/lib.2006.0053
References
Beck, S.E.,
& Manuel, K. (2004). Practical
research methods for librarians and information professionals. New York:
Neal-Schuman.
White, M.D.,
& Marsh, E.E. (2006). Content analysis: A flexible methodology. Library Trends 55(1), 22-45 doi: 10.1353/lib.2006.0053
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