Original Research

The moderating role of career adaptability on the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental and physical health

Herring Shava, Willie T. Chinyamurindi

Received: 03 July 2020; Accepted: 27 Jan. 2021; Published: 16 Nov. 2021

Copyright: © 2021. The Author(s). Licensee: AOSIS.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Orientation: Aspects of religion and spirituality are now being infused into the experience of work. The key to this is understanding how religion and spirituality affect individual and organisational functioning.

Research purpose: This study investigated the influence of career adaptability on workplace spirituality and employee health. In this study, employee health refers to mental and physical health.

Motivation for the study: This study’s context was the South African public service noted to be undergoing change affecting employees. Strategies that assist employees in promoting mental and physical health are needed.

Research approach/design and method: Quantitative data were gathered through a self-administered questionnaire, and 214 teachers took part in this study. Simple linear regression and hierarchical regression analyses were performed to make meaning of the data. Respondents of the study were teachers in rural high schools of South Africa.

Main findings: The results indicate that workplace spirituality significantly influences mental and physical health. Furthermore, career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee health.

Practical/managerial implications: Given the positive role that workplace spirituality has on employee health, that is, mental and physical health, we advocate for some interventions. This could be in the form of employee-friendly policies. Furthermore, training can assist in developing a heightened sense of individual and organisational workplace spirituality.

Contribution/value-add: Paying attention to how employees develop workplace spirituality and career adaptability can encourage positive behaviours around employee health.

Keywords: Career adaptability; workplace spirituality; mental health; physical health; employee; public service.

Introduction

The world of work is changing. This change is mostly attributed to most economic and social issues (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2017). These positions, especially within the work psychology stream, continued inquiry from a theoretical and practitioner domain to assist individuals (Savickas, 2019). In such a world of change, the individual needs career adaptability as an important responsive competence (Maree, 2017). This can be in the form of re-planning, re-constructing and re-designing career plans, given the changing environmental context (Rossier, Ginevra, Bollmann, & Nauta, 2017). Career adaptability is viewed as a critical factor to the individual and the organisation. Links have been between career adaptability with career success, career satisfaction and well-being (Savickas, 1997; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). There are continued calls to understand the career adaptability construct (Maree, 2018) and health outcomes (Chinyamurindi, 2019).

For those tasked with assisting with aspects of career counselling, there is a need to rethink practice, especially given the challenges faced (Maree, 2018). The key issue is the individual’s response, or the organisation is given an uncertain environment (Doyle, 2017). Possible alternatives are needed to understand contemporary work challenges (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2017). There is a focus on understanding the role of religiosity and spirituality as such alternatives (Garg, 2017; Hill & Smith, 2010).

Within the domain of work psychology, there is noted engagement with aspects related to religion and spirituality (e.g. Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2010; eds. Hill & Dik, 2012; ed. Neal, 2013; Zsolnai & Flanagan, 2019).

Furthermore, there is an acknowledgement that aspects of religion and spirituality are now being infused into how individuals shape and model their behaviour as agents at an individual and collective level (LoRusso, 2017; Neubert, 2018; eds. Pargament, Mahoney, & Shafranske, 2013). Some argue that this allows employees to apply themselves to work through heart and soul (Pfeffer, 2010).

In essence, issues such as spirituality can be linked to work-related outcomes, potentially affecting employees’ general well-being (Dong, Wu, Zhu, Jin, & Zhang, 2017). Ashmos and Duchon (2000) defined workplace spirituality as nourishing the inner life through their work. Subsequently, this can also affect how individuals perceive issues of meaning (Duffy & Dik, 2013; Duffy, Dik, & Steger, 2011; Duffy, Douglass, Autin, & Allan, 2014). Despite these strides, Foster and Foster (2019) noted topics of workplace spirituality as still under-researched. This warrants further empirical attention. Such inquiry angles fit within the need to develop and understand new methods that help individuals cope with the challenges of work (Savickas, 2019). There is a need within the work psychology discipline to focus on aspects of employee health (Follmer & Jones, 2018) with concepts such as spirituality and religiosity. A starting point is to use Cooper and Williams’ (eds. 1994) framing of employee health as consisting of mental and physical health.

The importance of employee health arises from some calls within the literature. A South African study calls for more studies that explore how employees function and flourish within their organisations (Redelinghuys & Rothmann, 2020). This includes at the core prioritising issues of employee health (Joubert & Hay, 2019).

Such health expressions for employees consist of physical health (eds. Cooper & Williams, 1994) and mental health (Chinyamurindi, 2019). Calls exist for more studies that prioritise employee health, especially within organisational contexts (Holland & Collins, 2020).

The South African public service

The South African public service is noted to be in a state of flux (Fihla & Chinyamurindi, 2018) but still acknowledged as an important vehicle in the realisation of service delivery outcomes (Mafini & Dlodlo, 2014).

Public service employees are considered to be those at the forefront of service delivery to the public. These may include (but are not limited to) teachers and social workers (Barling, Dupré, & Kelloway, 2009). Despite all this, the South African public service has to address challenges such as (1) maladministration, (2) corruption and (3) wasteful expenditure (Eastern Cape Province Office of the Premier, 2018). Given the nature of such services to the public, workers in the public service are often the target of abuse and aggression (Dick, 2011; Dubois, 2010).

Conversely, all these challenges seem to also have a toll on the agents of this delivery of service to the public, one of them being public employees (Shibiti, 2019). The challenges faced by public employees in their delivery of work outcomes are noted to lead to high turnover (Shibiti, 2019; Zondo, 2018). Calls exist to pay attention to understanding those factors that influence service delivery outcomes for the benefit of the public (Kanyane, 2010; Thornhill & Van Dijk, 2018). Empirical efforts within the public should be targeted at also ascertaining those factors, favourable or unfavourable, that influence how public employees work (Ijeoma, Nzewi, & Sibanda, 2013). Organisational interventions like the training provided in the public service can be informed by such evidence-based research (Mbandlwa & Mishi, 2020; Munzhedzi, 2017), and this can influence efforts towards talent (Ukanwah & Ndaguba, 2015) and performance management in the public service (Mavhungu & Bussin, 2017).

Empirical work that exists within the South African public service context attributes a range of factors to influence employee well-being. For instance, the usage of technology has recently been attributed to positively influencing work outcomes and was also found to negatively affect employee well-being (Mahlasela & Chinyamurindi, 2020). Others (e.g. Jumat, Bezuidenhout, & Neething, 2014; Mbola, Human, & Melariri, 2019) found the public service’s under-resourced nature to have an impact not only on the outcomes of work but also on the public service employees. Some challenges that affect public service employees have been attributed to have their origin in personal challenges emanating from home and society (Conradie et al., 2017). These subsequently trickle into affecting the work front. These noted challenges can also create psychological distress amongst public service employees (Gumani, 2019). The emphasis as enshrined within the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 is on creating conducive work environments that can promote physical and mental health (Sieberhagen, Rothmann, & Pienaar, 2009). This focuses on understanding employee health, an important individual, societal and organisational construct (Welthagen & Els, 2012).

Literature review

Workplace spirituality, career adaptability and employee health

Quests for religious and spiritual practices have been attributed to individual consciousness, a sense of purpose, health and general well-being (Tackney et al., 2017). The thinking here is that practices related to workplace spirituality help generate awareness and a sense of connectedness by the individual of themselves, their family, community and natural environment (Sheldrake, 2017). This is supported by theorising that when aspects of work are deemed going well, individuals derive a sense of purpose (Blustein, 2015). A challenge affecting modern-day organisations is around issues of employee health.

One such employee health issue noted to be on the rise globally (Hasin et al., 2018) and in South Africa concerns mental illness (Chinyamurindi, 2019). Research generally links employee health aspects to a range of outcomes, such as employee productivity (De Vries, Timmer, & De Vries, 2015). Furthermore, others attribute employee health challenges such as mental illness to be linked to the experience of stigma in the workplace (Elraz, 2018) and a potential source for stereotyping (Follmer & Jones, 2018). The onus is often on the individual to manage their employee health issues such as mental health, given that organisations (Shann, Martin, & Chester, 2014) and managers (Martin, Woods, & Dawkins, 2015) are unaware of strategies of response to assist employees (Martin, 2010).

Concerning the relationship between spirituality, career adaptability and employee health, the extant literature suggests a link amongst these three variables (e.g. Brown, 2003; Hancock, 1997; Mitroff, 2003; Wang, Lesage, Schmitz, & Drapeau, 2008). The mentioned studies point out that workplace spirituality provides opportunities for employees to perform meaningful work willingly. This potentially results in significant employee benefits, for example, the absence of injuries leading to desired success in terms of physical and mental health. Conversely, Wang et al. (2008) provided evidence indicating that when an employee fails to adapt to career demands, the employee’s health deteriorates significantly owing to fatigue and depression. Also, job control is another factor that indicates an individual’s ability to adapt to their career. Furthermore, research also shows that low job control leads to poor employee health (Amstad, Meier, Fasel, Elfering, & Semmer, 2011; Hilton, Sheridan, Cleary, & Whiteford, 2009). Thus, when career adaptability is present, employee health improves significantly, and when there is a presence of spirituality in the individual, employee health benefits also increase (Altaf & Awan, 2011; Ahmad & Omar, 2014; Issa & Pick, 2011; Karakas, 2010; Prior & Quinn, 2012; Van der Walt & De Klerk, 2014).

Research by Rego and Cunha (2007) found that employees who experience workplace spirituality felt more effectively attached to their organisations. Also, Ng and Allen’s (2018) research suggested that there is a significant positive relationship between workplace attachment and employee health. It may be correct to assume that workplace spirituality predicts employee health, given that it also predicts workplace attachment, as evidence shows this as a proven predictor of employee health (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011; Meuwly et al., 2012). Based on the presented literature, it can be expected that:

H1: Workplace spirituality predicts employee mental health.

H2: Workplace spirituality predicts employee physical health.

An assumption can be made about the interaction between workplace spirituality and career adaptability. This interaction can be found in each variable’s role in career development or the work–life experience. Harry and Coetzee (2013) flagged demographic factors such as age, gender and meaningfulness on an individual’s career adaptability. Research has also pointed out that workplace spirituality enables employees to find meaning and fulfilment in life and in their work (Garg, 2017; Göçen, 2017; Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002; Petchsawanga & Duchon, 2012; Smith & Louw, 2007). This also posits the possibility of using career adaptability as a way to navigate through challenges that may result as part of individual career development (Savickas, 2013). The thinking here is that constructs such as career adaptability can help individuals navigate through their career roles and impose a more meaningful work and home life (Chen et al., 2020).

The context in which public service workers operate has been attributed to a range of challenges. Some researchers attribute the challenge of aggression meted out to public service workers by the public to result in burnout, reduced well-being and less organisational commitment (Hershcovis & Barling, 2010). Others find such experiences to reduce motivation and a desire to serve the public (Vandenabeele, 2008) and aspects of trust (Van de Walle, 2010). Strategies that assist in devising interventions to reduce stress and subsequently promote employee health are needed (Chinyamurindi, 2019). Based on the literature, one such outlet can be through workplace spirituality. Despite such experiences being varied, the argument is how the individual can derive a sense of transcendence by viewing their lives, including work experience, as meaningful and fulfilling a purpose of service to others (Millinan, Gatling, & Bradley-Geist, 2017; Saks, 2011). Based on this presented literature, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H3: Career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health such that when career adaptability is high, the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health is stronger.

H4: Career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health such that when career adaptability is high, the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health is stronger.

Goal of the study

This study aimed to investigate the moderating effect of career adaptability on the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee health. The study’s specific research question was, ‘what is the influence of career adaptability on the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental and physical health?’ Figure 1 presents the conceptual model tested in this study.

FIGURE 1: Conceptual model.

As argued by Pawar (2016), workplace spirituality is an area receiving much empirical attention globally. Such studies are necessary, especially in organisations, as individuals carry aspects related to spirituality in such contexts (Van der Walt & De Klerk, 2015). In this study, we sought to contribute to this literature and answer such calls by investigating whether workplace spirituality predicts employee health. We went a step further in our quest to understand this proposed relationship, and we factored in career adaptability as a moderating variable (shown in Figure 1). By so doing, we investigated whether career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental and physical health. To provide answers to proposed relationships, we relied on data collected from a sample of rural public high school educators in South Africa, as explained in the next section.

Method

Participants and setting

The study participants comprised a convenience sample of 214 teachers working in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa who were accessed over a 10-month period in 2018. The sample by gender consisted of 54% women and 46% men; the sample by race consisted of mostly the black population cohort (95%) and mixed race people (5%). About 25% of the participants were below the age of 30 years, 33% were between 30 and 40 years, 36% were between 41 and 50 years, whilst 6% were in the 51 years and above category. Furthermore, 70% of the sample had over 10 years of work experience.

Measures

Given that three main constructs existed in this study, this section reports on the measures used for these constructs. Career adaptability was measured through four subscales on a measure originally designed by Savickas and Porfeli (2012). The career adaptability scale had four subscales: (1) concern, (2) control, (3) curiosity and (4) confidence. The concern subscale was made up of six items. An example of the scale items includes, ‘Thinking about what my future will be like’. The control subscale also had six items, and an example of the scale items is, ‘Taking responsibility for my actions’. The curiosity subscale also had six items where one of the scale items reads, ‘Looking for opportunities to grow’. Finally, the confidence subscale was made up of six scale items, and an example of the scale item is, ‘Learning new skills’. All the 24 career adaptability scale items were rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = not strong and 5 = strongest).

Workplace spirituality was measured by three dimensions: meaningfulness of work, sense of community and alignment with organisational goals. Other scholars used the work spirituality scale adopted in this study (e.g. Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003). The meaningfulness of the work dimension was measured through four scale items, and an example of the scale items includes, ‘I understand what gives my work personal meaning’. The sense of community subscale was made up of four scale items where one of the scale items reads, ‘I think employees are linked with a common purpose’. The alignment with the organisational value subscale was made up of four scale items. An example of the scale is, ‘My organisation has a conscience – a sense of right or wrong’. All 12 workplace spirituality scale items were measured on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 represents ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 being the highest rating represented ‘strongly agree’.

Employee mental health was measured by a scale with six items developed by Wu (1984). An example of the scale item is, ‘During the past 30 days, I have often felt restless or fidgety’.

To measure the employee physical health, a scale developed by Cleeland and Ryan (1994) was adopted. This scale comprises six items, and an example is, ‘In the past 30 days, did health issues interfere with walking ability?’ Both mental and physical health items were measured on a five-point Likert scale, where 0 represents none of the time and 4 represents all the time.

Procedure

Participants consented to participate in the study and were approached over a 10-month period at teaching and learning summits organised within the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. These summits would see the gathering together of teachers, and the researchers used the opportunity to collect data through the filling out of a survey. Participants in the study were informed of their rights, including the right to withdraw from the study without any penalty. No identification was made to any participants in the study.

Data analysis

Given the presented research model in Figure 1, a simple linear regression analysis was utilised to measure direct relationships – the effect of workplace spirituality on employee mental health and physical health. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was undertaken to measure the moderating effect of career adaptability on employee mental and physical health. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 25 was used to perform the statistical analysis.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Fort Hare Research Ethics Committee (reference number CHl151SHAR01).

Results

Outcomes of reliability tests

We performed reliability tests of the career adaptability scale and found associated Cronbach’s alpha coefficients as follows: concern (0.735), control (0.718), curiosity (0.742) and confidence (0.739). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient scores of the workplace spirituality subscales were 0.804 for the meaningfulness of work, 0.821 for alignment with organisational values and 0.762 for the sense of community scale. The mental health taken from a previous study (Wu, 1984) yielded a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient score of 0.751, and the physical health scale had a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient score of 0.80. Based on the analysis we conducted, all scales used yielded a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient above the recommended threshold of 0.7 (Cronbach, 1951; Nunnally, 1978).

Workplace spirituality and employee mental health

This study hypothesised that workplace spirituality predicts employee mental health. Before the simple linear regression was performed, the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) data were checked to determine whether it had adhered to normality assumptions. The normality tests, that is, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and the Shapiro–Wilk tests, were performed and observed, and the results for both tests, the IV and the DV data, have a p-value of less than 0.05, indicating that the data did not conform to the assumptions of normality. As a result, the researchers had to perform the simple linear regression analysis with bootstrapped confidence intervals (CIs) and their significance levels as these do not rely on assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity.

The simple linear regression analysis was performed with workplace spirituality as an IV and employee mental health as a DV. The results revealed a moderate positive correlation between workplace spirituality and employee mental health (r = 0.427). Furthermore, the results revealed that workplace spirituality accounts for 18.3% of the variation in employee mental health (R² = 0.183). The results further informed us that approximately 82% of the variation in employee mental health is explained by factors other than workplace spirituality, which are not accounted for by this model. However, if we are to better understand the concept of employee mental health, this result suggests that it is worth paying special attention to workplace spirituality. Given this result, Cohen’s f² or the regression effect, which measures the IV impact on the DV, is 0.224. In other words, the impact of workplace spirituality on employee mental health ranges from medium to large. The Cohen’s f² was derived using the formula R²/(1 − R²). The F ratio that seeks to explain whether the use of the model in predicting employee mental health was significantly better than relying on the mean value of employee mental health was examined, and the results revealed a significant F = 47.352 at p < 0.05. In other words, making use of this model is significantly better in predicting employee mental health as opposed to making use of the employee mental health mean value. Table 1 summarises the above results.

The estimates of the model were observed as b₀ = 17.323 and b₁ = 0.19. The b₁ value represents a change in the outcome variable because of a unit change in the explanatory variable; and from this result, we learn that a unit change in workplace spirituality results in a corresponding positive change in employee mental health of 0.19 units. More importantly, this change is significant at p < 0.05. In other words, the hypothesis stating that workplace spirituality predicts employee mental health is supported. The discussed results are summarised in Table 2.

Workplace spirituality and employee physical health

To test the hypothesis stating that workplace spirituality predicts employee physical health, the IV and the DV data were examined to determine whether it adhered to normality assumptions. Both the Kolmogorov–Smirnov and the Shapiro–Wilk tests were examined, and the results pointed out that the IV and the DV data violated the assumptions of normality as the p-values were less than 0.05. Given that the data did not adhere to normality assumptions, the simple linear regression analysis was performed, and bootstrapped CIs and their significance levels were requested as these do not rely on assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity.

In the simple linear regression model, workplace spirituality was the explanatory variable, and employee physical health was the outcome variable. The model summary results indicated a weak to moderate positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health (r = 0.382).

Furthermore, it was observed that workplace spirituality accounted for 14.6% of the variance in employee physical health (R² = 0.146). This implies that approximately 85% of the variation in employee physical health is accounted for by factors other than workplace spirituality. Cohen’s f² given as the stated formula gives us the result of 0.171, which informs us that workplace spirituality has a medium impact on employee physical health.

However, if we are to extend our understanding of employee physical health, the stated results suggest that it is worth paying more attention to the concept of workplace spirituality. The F-ratio results explaining whether the model is significantly better in predicting employee physical health than relying on the mean value of employee physical health revealed that F = 36.193 and significant at p < 0.05. This result means that the model is significantly better in predicting employee physical health than relying on the mean value of employee physical health. The discussed results are presented in Table 3.

The estimates of the model were observed as b₀ = 21.055 and b₁ = 0.152. The value of b₁ represents a unit change in the outcome variable because of a unit change in the explanatory variable. From this result, we learn that a unit change in workplace spirituality will result in a corresponding positive charge equal to 0.152 units in employee physical health. This change is significant at p < 0.05. Given this result, we fail to reject the hypothesis stating that workplace spirituality predicts employee physical health as there is enough evidence to back this claim. The results discussed are outlined in Table 4.

Linear predictors of mental health

H3: Career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health such that when career adaptability is high, the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health is stronger.

To examine the stated hypothesis, a hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis was performed with career adaptability as a moderating variable, workplace spirituality as the IV and employee mental health as the DV.

The study results focusing on the conditional effects of the IV on the DV at values of the moderator indicated that (1) when career adaptability is low, to be precise when career adaptability is −4.62, there is a non-significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health (b = 0.046, 95% CI [−0.031, 0.123], t = 1.17, p = 0.241); (2) when career adaptability is −1.62, there is a significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health (b = 0.075, 95% CI [0.0111, 0.138], t = 2.316, p = 0.02); and (3) when career adaptability is high at 4.379, there is a significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health (b = 0.0132, 95% CI [0.06, 0.204], t = 3.618, p = 0.0004). Table 5 presents these results.

The Johnson–Neyman method was further examined, and it revealed that the threshold for significance between workplace spirituality and employee mental health relationship ends when career adaptability is equal to −2.48, and at this value, a weak but positive significant relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health is observed (b = 0.066, 95% CI [0.000, 0.133], t = 1.971, p = 0.05). The results are presented in Table 6.

The Johnson–Neyman method also revealed that with increases in the value of career adaptability, the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health goes from a small significant positive relationship (b = 0.066, p = 0.05) to a fairly stronger significant positive relationship (b = 0.27, p = 0.0048) at career adaptability = 19.38. Given this outcome, we fail to reject the null hypothesis as there is enough evidence to support the study’s claim and conclude that when career adaptability is high, the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee mental health is significant and stronger. Table 7 presents bootstrapped results of the linear predictors of employee mental and physical health. The value of R² = 0.3023 in relation to linear predictors of mental health is observed, and with it, the Cohen’s f² is derived as 0.43. This indicates that the effect of workplace spirituality on employee mental health in the presence of the moderating variable (i.e. career adaptability) is substantial. The results mean that in order for workplace spirituality to have a meaningful impact on employee mental health in the workplace, intervention measures should be designed to enhance employee career adaptability.

Linear predictors of physical health

H4: Career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health such that when career adaptability is high, the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health is stronger.

To investigate the stated hypothesis, a hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis was performed with career adaptability as a moderating variable, workplace spirituality as the IV and employee physical health as the DV. The study results, shown in Table 8, explaining the conditional effects of IV on the DV at values of moderating variable revealed that (1) when career adaptability is low, to be precise career adaptability is −4.622, there is a non-significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health (b = 0.045, 95% CI [−0.028, 0118], t = 1.212, p = 0.227); (2) when career adaptability is −1.622, there is a significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health (b = 0.071, 95% CI [0.01, 0.131], t = 2.31, p = 0.022); and (3) when career adaptability is high, that is, 4.379, there is a significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health (b = 0.122, 95% CI [0.053, 0.190], t = 3.51, p = 0.000).

Furthermore, the output of the Johnson–Neyman method was examined, as shown in Table 9, and it revealed that career adaptability value of −2.49 was the minimum threshold for a significant positive relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health (b = 0.063, 95% CI [0.000, 0.13], t = 1.97, p = 0.05). The results further revealed that as the career adaptability values increased, the strength of the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health grew from a small significant positive effect (i.e. career adaptability is −2.494, b = 0.063, p = 0.05) to a relatively strong significant positive effect (career adaptability is 18.38, b = 0.24, p = 0.007). Given this result, the study fails to reject the hypothesis, stating that career adaptability moderates the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health as there is enough evidence to support this claim. This result means that career adaptability plays a pivotal role in the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee physical health. Also, the Cohen’s f² equal to 0.28 reveals that workplace spirituality in the presence of a moderating variable (career adaptability) has an above-average impact on employee physical health. In other words, in order for workplace spirituality to have a meaningful impact on employee physical health, an intervention mechanism targeted at enhancing employee career adaptability issues should be designed.

Discussion

The study aimed at investigating the influence of career adaptability on the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee health. Based on the findings of this study, career adaptability is framed as an important construct in the career development process (Maree, 2017; Rossier et al., 2017; Savickas et al., 2009). We illustrate this in a threefold manner.

Firstly, we place focus on a context that is noted to be in a state of flux (Fihla & Chinyamurindi, 2018) in the form of the South African public service. Through this study, we proffer solutions to some of the South African public service challenges, especially given the documented employee challenges (Ijeoma et al., 2013; Shibiti, 2019; Zondo, 2018). Secondly, concerning workplace spirituality, we suggest this as a possible intervention that can be encouraged to assist in public service employees’ well-being. The study results provide evidence that workplace spirituality has an impact on employee mental health that is above average (Cohen’s f² = 0.224) and an impact on employee physical health that is slightly above average. These findings are in line with previous researches which concluded that workplace spirituality positively predicts employee mental health (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011; Meuwly et al., 2012; Ng & Allen, 2018).

Finally, our study illustrates the importance of career adaptability away from factors such as a person’s career success, satisfaction and well-being (Dong et al., 2017; Savickas, 1997; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) to focus on employee mental and physical health outcomes. As observed, in the presence of career adaptability, the impact of workplace spirituality on employee mental health is large (Cohen’s f² = 0.43).

Similarly, in the presence of career adaptability, the impact of workplace spirituality on employee physical health is slightly below large (Cohen’s f² = 0.28). This finding concurs with the empirical evidence which pointed out that when career adaptability is present, there is an improvement in employee health, that is, both mental and physical health (Ahmad & Omar, 2014; Altaf & Awan, 2011; Issa & Pick, 2011; Karakas, 2010; Prior & Quinn, 2012; Van der Walt & De Klerk, 2014).

In essence, through this study, we answer calls to more studies exploring workplace spirituality (Foster & Foster, 2019; Garg, 2017; Hill & Smith, 2010). In essence, workplace spirituality and career adaptability can exist as useful contemporary competencies that help employees cope with the challenge of work (Savickas, 2019) and improve their health, albeit in an ever-changing environment.

Implications

Some practical implications can be drawn from this study. Firstly, given the positive role of workplace spirituality on employee health (both mental and physical health), we advocate for some interventions. These could be in the form of encouraging employees regarding issues related to workplace spirituality. This could be in the form of employee-friendly policies.

Furthermore, training can assist in developing a heightened sense of individual and organisational workplace spirituality. Secondly, given the moderating role of career adaptability on the relationship between workplace spirituality and employee health, support intervention that assists employee adaptability to changes can be provided. This can be done through an effective and efficient ongoing programme of career counselling that focuses on developing aspects of workplace spirituality to improve employee health. A point of departure could be to identify and address those inhibitors of career adaptability and workplace spirituality.

Limitations

Out study has some limitations. We acknowledge challenges with obtaining a reliable sampling frame. Therefore, caution should be exercised not only when interpreting the findings of this research but also when concerning generalisability issues. Our study utilised self-report measures, which may potentially result in issues of social desirability bias.

Future research

Future research could also utilise qualitative research methods to capture the ensuing complexity that can arise out of career adaptability as a processual activity, including the role of workplace spirituality in such processes.

Furthermore, it will be interesting for a multi-industry study to ascertain whether any variation potentially exists. Our study heightens focus on the role of workplace spirituality and career adaptability on employee health amongst a sample of public service employees. Our study is a useful basis for providing evidence to improve employee health quests through individual and organisation interventions.

Conclusion

This research provides evidence for the role of workplace spirituality as an organisational variable and its influence on employee health to include mental and physical health. The findings become relevant, especially within a changing workplace that should be cognisant of the role of values such as spirituality. This becomes critical, especially in some workplace contexts laden with challenges putting a physical and mental strain on employees. In addition to workplace spirituality, individual experiences of career adaptability are also important in assisting employees.

Acknowledgements

The researchers acknowledge the role of the respondents in the public service for taking part in the survey.

The authors declare that they have no competing interest that may have influenced the undertaking of this research.

H.S. and W.T.C. conceptualised and designed the study. W.T.C. structured, wrote part of the literature review and discussed the results. H.S. also undertook literature review, oversaw the data collection, carried out the analysis and reported the results.

This study was funded by the South African Medical Research Council under the Self-Initiated Research Grant awarded to Prof Willie Chinyamurindi between 2018 and 2020. Additional funding was sourced internally at the University of Fort Hare, Faculty of Management and Commerce’s Research Niche Area.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [H.S.], upon reasonable request.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are not an official position of the institution or funder.

References