Research purpose: This study focused on comparing employers’ expectations of employee skills in the tourism industry and the skills acquired by learners in the Culture, Art, Tourism, Hospitality and Sport Skills Education Training Authorities’ (CATHSSETA) programmes with regard to self-reliance, people and certain specialist skills, and general employability.

Motivation for the study: Education, training and the creation of employment are amongst the key priorities of the South African government for improving the current labour situation in the tourism industry. However, the industry has complained that learners are not prepared for the workplace. Thus, it is important to determine the skills that are supposedly lacking.

Research design, approach and method: Descriptive research, following a quantitative approach, was chosen, whereby questionnaires were distributed amongst tourism and hospitality employers listed with CATHSSETA (N = 217). A total of 141 (n = 141) completed questionnaires were received (a response rate of 65%). Between 2008 and 2012, 5633 learners participated in the CATHSSETA programmes. Descriptive statistics and t-tests were used to analyse the data.

Main findings: Employers expect higher levels of competence than those which learners in the CATHSSETA programme can deliver. More specifically, employers indicate that learners lack skills in handling customers professionally and being proactive in solving problems. This creates difficulties in operating in the tourism business environment where service delivery is important in satisfying tourists’ needs and improving loyalty levels to the establishment. Nor are employers satisfied with the ability of learners to be self-reliant. A lack of cooperation between the various role players in developing appropriate training programmes is evident.

Practical/managerial implications: It is necessary to review the current CATHSSETA programme and training providers to ensure that quality training is provided. Human resource practitioners should be involved in the development of a more appropriate programme that will adhere to the needs of the tourism industry. Training programmes should focus on the development of self-reliance and, more specifically, the ability to deal with customers in an efficient and professional manner. These are basic skills that the learners currently lack. Prospective learners should take an aptitude test to ensure that they will be able to meet the requirements of this industry and to manage the challenges facing them.

Contribution: The most important skills needed for working in the tourism environment were identified thus giving direction to the development of tourism training programmes. The importance of cooperation in developing training programmes was emphasised.

In addition, the tourism industry is dominated by small businesses (Lucas, 2004; Baum, 1999; Peacock & Ladkin, 2002) with some of the owner-manager positions in these small businesses being filled by expatriates, the majority of whom lack tourism knowledge and management skills and have never undergone formal tourism training (D’Annunzio-Green et al., 2004; Haven-Tang & Jones, 2006; Baum et al., 1997; Baum, 1995). Globally, the industry faces skills shortages in key operational, technical and managerial areas, the extent varying between developed and developing countries.

Nevertheless, tourism remains a large contributor to South Africa’s gross domestic product (GDP). Furthermore, its wider economic impacts are forecast to rise by 4.8% per annum from R328.2 billion (11.4% of GDP) in 2011 to R522.4 billion (11.5% of GDP) by 2021. The total contribution to employment, including jobs indirectly supported by the industry, is forecast to rise by 2.5% per annum from 1 334 000 jobs (10.1% of total employment) in 2011 to 1 709 000 (10.7% of total employment) by 2021 (World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 2011). The International Labour Organisation (ILO) (2010) states that it is said that career opportunities are more accessible in tourism than in many other sectors of the economy owing to the diverse and fragmented nature of this industry. This is evident in the support the industry provides to improve the skills and knowledge of interested learners, which has led to the development of various training institutions and programmes such as CATHSSETA learnerships and internships. Accessibility to the latter has also become a priority of the South African government and other role players across the industry, and involves both urban and rural communities (Akoojee, 2009; Pawson, 1999). Saayman (2005) argued in 2005 that the future of a successful South African tourism industry is closely linked to the development of its human resource capacity.

The following studies identified skills necessary to function optimally in the tourism industry. Bennett, Dunne and Carre (2000) noted that employers want employees who are flexible, adaptive, proactive and transformable with an ability to learn quickly in this changing world of work. Fuller, Munro and Rainbird (2004) noted that tacit skills such as time management, organising and multitasking are often facilitated by certain forms of learning such as group work. Leadership and management positions in the industry demand skills that can only be provided through wider experience and training that focuses on cognitive and problem-solving skills, in addition to sector specific skills (Earle-Malleson, 2009). A study conducted by Groenewald and Schurink (2003) revealed that learners are able to identify their potential and talents through exposure to the core aspects of the industry that include team work, workplace environment, time management, communication skills, responsibility and a drive to work hard. Busby and Gibson (2010) further added that it is imperative for the development and inclusion of a range of transferable skills which includes teamwork, presentations and information technology (IT) skills. Diplari and Dimou (2010) found that overall experiential learning assists learners to improve their management skills and abilities, which include time management, group work skills, leadership and motivation abilities. Latagan, Dinu and Stoica (2010) caution that it must be understood that organisations do not ask for the educational systems to produce educated and skilled learners, but rather individuals with basic knowledge, commitment, innovative and entrepreneurial minds, the ability to be flexible in training and to establish and maintain social relationships.

Beech and Chadwick (2006) point out that the presence of HR acknowledges the importance of employees as an asset of any organisation. Noe et al. (2009), Valachis, Christou, Sigala and Maroudas (2009), and Swanson and Holton (2009) maintain that most businesses seek to provide a quality service and remain competitive in their industry through their employees. This primarily depends on the professionalism and relevant skills achieved through training and development. In addition, Noe et al. (2009), Smith and Smith (2007) and Swanson and Holton (2009) note that there are strong links between training and development, and business strategy. Therefore, organisations have prioritised linking training programmes to business goals which, in turn, connect with the aims of both functions in an attempt to provide employees with information, skills and an understanding of the organisation and its goals.

This is even more so in the tourism industry, which is all about people and how to handle and manage them. However, according to Zagonari (2009) and Lee-Ross and Pryce (2010), training in the tourism industry has historically not been a priority because of the high staff and cost turnover, especially in small businesses and organisations that feared that trained employees would be poached by competitors. Ladkin (2005) and D’Annunzio-Green et al. (2004) note that, in this industry, labour characteristics such as occupational diversity, relatively low pay rates, high levels of mobility, small organisations, low specificity of skills as well as the inability to assess the benefit of training and the expertise required to provide training have been identified as hindering and discouraging the provision of continuous employee training in tourism. Janes (2003) avers that the key to providing effective training lies firstly in reducing and eliminating barriers to training for organisations, and then in promoting an organisational culture that is committed to training as well as providing expertise in training design and delivery. This commitment should also be applied to the tourism industry.

D’annunzio-Green et al. (2004) and Airey (2005) state that, in developing countries such as South Africa, vocational education that offers sector-specific skills for operational or supervisory positions in sectors such as tourism is very limited. Thus, employers are confronted with employees who are fundamentally unskilled and require considerable investment in training and development. Therefore, as indicated by Holden and Jameson (1999), this situation has called for higher education to play an increasing role in providing knowledge and skills for new entrants to the labour market through various interventions such as learnerships and internships. A learnership is primarily a workplace learning programme supported by a structured learning phase which results in a qualification and is facilitated by employers. It comprises study units categorised as fundamental, core, and elective unit standards. Fundamental unit standards include literacy, communications and basic mathematical skills. Core unit standards are central to the qualification (e.g. care for customers), whilst elective unit standards are selected from a range of units (e.g. manage and organise groups) (Committee for Tutorial Matters (CTM) Standing Committee, 2000; Breytenbach, 2010; CATHSSETA, 2010; Department of Education, 1998). An internship is entered into when a student has completed certain studies and takes up in-service training in an organisation which seeks to provide the appropriate work experience required for obtaining employment (CATHSSETA, 2010). These programmes are mainly facilitated by CATHSSETA in South Africa and aim at bridging the gap between the training programmes and the tourism industry.

The activities of CATHSSETA include overseeing qualification quality assurance, accrediting training providers, monitoring training provision and registering assessors. CATHSSETA therefore offers support through the two experiential activities mentioned above, namely learnerships and internships. These learning programmes are targeted at both the employed and the unemployed who wish to develop their careers in the tourism industry.

However, the tourism industry requires specific skills. Bennett et al. (2000) and Hjalager (2003) note that employers require employees to be flexible, adaptable and transformable, and able to learn quickly. Oliver, Russel, Gilli, Hughes , Schuder, Brown and Towers (1997), and Bennett et al. (2000) state that employees need to demonstrate initiative, possess the ability to work well with others, solve problems routinely, and apply technology effectively. Bailey (1997) and Sinclair (1997) maintain that employees also need to be able to work independently with minimum supervision and to be creative. According to Bailey (1997) and Bennett et al. (2000), it is essential for employees to have acquired a broader knowledge and conceptual understanding of what their jobs entail for them to fit easily into the workplace culture. They further need to be able to acquire, organise and interpret information.

Saayman and Geldenhuys (2003) conducted a study amongst travel agents, tour operators and tour guides and identified the following as important in this field of study: computer skills, arithmetic skills, telephone skills, business writing, listening skills, language skills, negotiation skills, presentation skills, leadership and social skills, organisational skills, interpersonal skills, research skills, ethical and social responsibility skills, and cultural sensitivity skills. Some employers in tourism view communication skills as the top priority, followed by IT skills. Work experience with language skills was considered to be the least important. Employers rated generally transferable people skills above tourism knowledge when these were compared, and tourism knowledge was viewed as merely adding value. Certain companies considered experience to be more important than a degree-level qualification (Peacock & Ladkin, 2002; Earle-Malleson, 2009).

Besides the above, Holden and Jameson (1999) argue that graduates are regarded by many small and medium enterprise (SME) employers as being impractical, reluctant to get their hands dirty, slow to become productive and inclined to hold a poor view of what employment in an SME should be like. Employers express the view that the knowledge, skills, competencies and values of new graduates may not be synchronised with the needs and expectations of employers in this industry (Griesel & Parker, 2009; Earle-Malleson, 2009; Diplari & Dimou, 2010). Swanson and Holton (2009) add that organisations struggle to find the quality and relevance of learners’ prior training useful, regarding it as either ‘too generic’ or ‘far removed’ from the workplace realities. To meet the changing requirements of companies, tertiary institutions must design programmes that venture beyond content, thereby encouraging independent learning strategies whilst focusing on the ability to think systematically and redefine problems (CTM Standing Committee, 2000).

Schuurman (2004) perceives part of the problem to be that employers are not offered an opportunity to express their real needs. He advocates that they should be engaged in all the processes, since they could provide the most relevant information on training needs for tourism labour market and ultimately also be the ones to address the major shortcomings of current training programmes in the industry. Organisations also lack experienced or suitably trained mentors with ample time on their hands. Sometimes induction is poor or even absent (National Biodiversity Institute, 2010; Groenewald & Schurink, 2003).

Smith and Smith (2007) also indicate that employers are becoming increasingly conscious of the value gained from their investments in training and are demanding that training be much more deliberately aligned with the strategic needs of their organisations. With regard to issues contributing to the training problems, Saayman (2005) points out that approximately 75% of the teachers have formal qualifications in the more structured sectors of tourism. Drouhin and Sweet (2000) comment that the placement of those teachers with mainly formal qualifications and little practical experience as opposed to those who are employed in the industry and have a more practical approach will remain a challenge.

It is evident from this discussion that human resources plays an important role in the functioning of the tourism industry and that certain skills are expected from the learners who are enrolled in the education and training programmes. However, many employers in tourism have voiced their concern over the quality, performance and deliverables that learners bring with them when they enter the experiential learning employment programmes in their workplaces (National Biodiversity Institute, 2010). Various studies have also indicated that the skills expected in the industry and those that are displayed by the learners do not concur – a situation which creates many challenges and impacts on the sustainability of the industry and the provision of job opportunities. With the implementation of learnerships and internships in the South African tourism industry it appeared that these challenges were being addressed. The question therefore remains: how do the skills expected by employers in the tourism industry compare with those displayed by the learners who have participated in the CATHSSETA programmes?

The research method used in this study will be explained under the headings that follow.

Table 2 illustrates significant statistical differences (p < 0.05) between the employers’ skills expectations and the skills employees presented as evaluated by the employers.

The least significant difference occurs for numeracy. However, employers still expect better proficiency (M = 3.38, SD = ± 1.02) than is displayed by the learners (M = 2.93, SD = ± 0.79). The employers’ highest expectations relate to the ability of learners to work with customers (M = 4.54), the willingness of learners to learn (M = 4.53), and the ability of learners to work in a team (M = 4.38) and to be professional (M = 4.28).

In the analysis of the skills categories, significant differences exist in all four groups (see Table 3). In all cases, the skills expectations of employers are much higher than the skills presented by the learners. For instance, it is evident that employers expect higher levels of self-reliance (M = 3.96, SD = ± 0.62) than the learners display (M = 2.91, SD = ± 0.75). Significant differences occur with regard to the learners’ ability to network, be resourceful and act as initiators in the category of self-reliance.

The results show that hospitality sector employers are the majority implementers of these programmes. The participating businesses have been in operation for between seven and ten years, therefore are able to give a trustworthy opinion on the skills expected from and presented by learners.

Secondly, the largest significant differences were found between the skills expected by employers and those displayed by learners with reference to customer orientation and the ability of learners to be proactive. Regarding customer orientation, employers expected learners to be better oriented towards their customers than the learners currently appear to display. According to them, learners are not adequately prepared to work with customers and satisfy their needs. Thorough attention must be paid to improving customer orientation skills as learners were unable to meet the high demands set by the employers. Tajeddini (2010) indicated that the tourism industry demands a more customer-oriented approach where value to the customer is provided efficiently and continuously (Choi & Chu, 2001). With reference to being proactive, it was found that employers expected higher levels of proactiveness than learners presented. This is supported by Bennett et al. (2000) and Hjalager (2003), who indicate that employers in the tourism industry demand flexible, proactive and adaptive employees. Thus it appears that employers believe that the current CATHSSETA training programmes do not adequately equip learners with customer orientation skills or improve their ability to be proactive.

Thirdly, the ability to speak a foreign language was not considered important. This was also found in studies conducted by Peacock and Ladkin (2002), and Earle-Malleson (2009). Most South Africans speak English and can therefore accommodate foreign and local visitors without being able to speak a foreign language.

Fourthly, the least significant difference was found relating to numeracy. Employers’ expectations and the skills presented by the learners were almost on the same level. However Amoah and Baum (1997) found a gap between what is offered by education institutions and what the industry seeks in the United Kingdom. Littlejohn and Watson (2004) also identified the importance of numeracy as part of a tourism curriculum. The CATHSSETA programme should therefore continue to improve the numeracy skills of participating learners.

Finally, it is evident from the findings of the skills categories that the most significant difference was found to relate to self-reliance. Employers were not satisfied with the learners’ level of being proactive, their willingness to learn, and their ability to network, plan and organise effectively. Oliver et al. (1997) indicate that these factors are very important as they form a bridge between the individual, society and the environment. Eraqi (2006) found that the development of employees’ empowerment and autonomy are important in providing quality tourism services. More attention should therefore be given to these skills in the training programme.

Secondly, training programmes for the tourism industry should emphasise the skills and knowledge pertaining to the handling of and orientation towards customers. This is the lifeblood of any tourism business and if learners fail in this important task it might impact on the success and sustainability of the business. It is recommended that human resource practitioners also expose learners to role plays and videos showcasing ways to handle customers. Although a lack of proper customer orientation has been found in various previous studies, it remains a challenge that needs to be addressed.

Thirdly, the gap regarding self-reliance, considered to be an important element for entering the industry, requires attention. CATHSSETA should ensure that learners are adequately prepared to deal with networking opportunities, planning, organising and prioritising certain tasks, and that they show a willingness to learn. Employers should make sure there is a good fit between a person and the job. This will lead to better outcomes, since some self-reliance skills are personality traits.

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